, t
ij

ww
BENT
. nee :

af i

i)

REPORT

OF THE

FORTY-NINTH MEETING

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;

HELD AT

SHEFFIELD IN AUGUST 1879.

- LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
| 1879.

Office of the Association: 22 ALBEMARLE STREET, Lonpon, W.

LONDON : PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
AND PARLIAMENT STREET

:
|

}
}

CONTENTS.

niet een
Page
‘Ossects and Rules of the Association ..... CS DR aes se mts ES, Salas xxi
Places and Times of Meeting and Officers from commencement............... XXviii
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
IMEDCEMENL .......cseercecseccscececcsccncsscccscscsssesecseseeeer sussrecaceerecscccscecs XXXV
MMivenine Lectures..........scesscerseencasesessiccsveacesssinasenessnconseasesensenensoees xlvili
Lectures to thé Operative Classes.......5.:..ccocccosscsnccnscrescesseesconscecsecs 1
‘Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Sheffield Meeting ............ li
BfreHenTen FA CCOUM tens) ose dapsinne gals es)-ccsiniensssws bee o¥esdaseeacecuenedes > ecess anys liii
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at Annual Meetings............ liv
Officers and Council, 1879-80.............s.sssscescsceeccesescececeerscesceeees eosaae lyi
Report of the Council to the General Committee. ..........scessseeeseeeecseceeees lvii
Appendix I.—Correspondence with the Treasury about the Natural History
DMERTIONS ene sa tte tees etacasscneseinnss cc cceaccetcaddsncedescctersnsaveasse uns taysedtdtes lx
Appendix II.—Report of the Patent Law Committee..........:cscsssssesseseerees lxiii
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports and
Researches in Science..........ssescsccsccssseccscseccscenseescessassesscesacsessess lxix
Synopsis of Money Grrants..........sceseeceeeeeeessensensnseneseassnenesserseseereree Ixxv
Places of Meeting in 1880 and 1881..............sscesceeeeesceeeeesensneeseaeensees Ixxvi
General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific
PUrPOSES ......-ssssscsrsresssssssssersseseeeeccessonsosseecsecssecssceseseesaesaeeaee aes Ixxvii
Arrangement of the General MeetingS.......ssseesscsreeereeeeeensetenerescnsers Ixxxyi
Address by the President, Professor G. J. ALLMAN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS.
Land E., M.R.LA., Pres, LiS.....ssccsccseesscscerescsenseseeeeseeeeessceeceees 1

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir Wirt1am THomson, Pro-

essor OLERK MaxweELt, Professor Tarr, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. F. J

BRAMWELL, and Mr. J. T. Borromiery, for commencing Secular Experiments

_ upon the Elasticity of Wires. Drawn up by J. T. BoTToMLEY ..........++++-
A 2

lv CONTENTS.

Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Jour, Professor Sir Wiz-
tram THomson, Professor Tart, Professor Batrour SrEwaRt, and Professor
J. CLERK MaxwELL, appointed for the purpose of effecting the Determina-
tion of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

eee w ewe reece eee ee ee es ees eseeeeesseseeee

Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of endeavouring to pro-
cure Reports on the Progress of the Chief Branches of Mathematics and
Physics; the Committee consisting of Professor G@. Cargy Foster (Secre-
tary), Professor W. G. Apams, Professor R. B. Currron, Professor CAYLEY,
Professor J. D. Evrerrrr, Professor Crerx Maxwertt, Lord Rayieicn,
Professor G. G. Stoxxs, Professor Batrour Srewarr, Mr. Sporriswoopz,
and Professor P. G. Tarr

Twelfth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor EvErrrr, Professor
Sir Writ1Am Tomson, Professor J. Clerk Maxwertt, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Professor Ramsay, Professor Grurkrs, Mr. J. Guatsoer, Mr. PENGELLY,
Professor Epwarp Hutt, Professor Anwstep, Dr. Clement Le Neve Foster,
Professor A. 8S. Hrrscurt, Mr. G. A. Lesour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. Gat-
LowAy, Mr. JosspH Dickinson, and Mr. G. F. Deacon, appointed for the
purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature
downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up
by Professor Evrrerr (Secretary)

PO eee mee meee Hee ERO EE HORE EHS EEE EEO E HEHEHE EE EEE HEHE SE EES

OCP e eee eee eer eee eee rere rr error err eee eee

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Caynzy, F.R.S., Professor
G. G. Sroxzs, F.R.S., Professor H. J. S. Surra, F.R.S., Professor Sir
Wittram Tomson, F.R.S., Mr. James GuatsHer, F.R.S., and Mr. J. W.
L. GuarsHER, F'.R.S. (Secretary), on Mathematical Tables. Drawn up by
Mr. J. W. L. GuatsHEer

Sixth Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor A. S. Hmrscuet, M.A.,
F.R.A.S., Professor G. A. Lesour, F.G.S., and Mr. T. J. Dunn, B.Sc.,
on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks,
showing especially the Geological Aspects of the Investigation

Oe e eee eee eee EERE Cee CeCe CV er eee eee errr reer errr errr eerie reer

Cee ee eee eenoee

Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forsxs, Professor Sir
Wu11Am Tomson, and Professor HvERerr, appointed to obtain Observa-
tions on Atmospheric Electricity at Madeira. Drawn up by Dr. GraByam,
Madeira

Pee Hee OO Eee Hee HEHEHE EHH E HEHEHE EEE EEEEEH HEH SESE EEE HEHEHE HEHE EE EOE EES

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sytvrsrrr, F.R.S., and
Professor Caytzy, F.R.S., appointed for the purpose of calculating Tables of
the Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms

Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Samuet Haventon, M.D.,
and Brensamin Writtriamson, M.A., appointed for the Calculation of Sun-
Heat Coefficients. Drawn up by Dr. HaveHron

CPt eee eee eee eee eee eee eeeaseeee

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir Wiii1am THom-
son, Dr. Murrirrecp, Professor OssorNE ReEyNowps, Captain Doveras
Garon, and Mr. J. N. SHoorsrep (Secretary), appointed for the purpose
of obtaining information respecting the Phenomena of the Stationary Tides
in the English Channel and in the North Sea; and of representing to the
Government of Portugal and the Governor of Madeira that, in the opinion
of the British Association, Tidal Observations at Madeira or other islands
in the North Atlantic Ocean would be very valuable, with the view to the
advancement of our knowledge of the Tides in the Atlantic Ocean

Report of Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year 1878-79, by a
Committee consisting of James GruatsuEr, F.R.S., &c., R. P. Grue, F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., C. Brooxs, F.R.S., Professor G. Forszs, F.R.S.E., Water
Fuieut, D.Sc., F.G.S., and Professor A. 8. Hurscuut, M.A., F.R.A.S.
(Reporter)

COOH O HERO OE HEHEHE HEE EEE HEHEHE EEE ESEEEEEHE EEE ES EEO EEE EE HEED E HEHEHE EEE EE SOE EES

Page:

36:

37

46:

58°

63°

66°

66°

ft

|
4

CONTENTS.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Davip Gix1, Professor G. Forszs,
Mr. Howarp Gruss, and Mr. O. H. Gummnenam (with power to add to
their number), appointed to consider the question of Improvements in
Astronomical Clocks

POPPE e ee ee rer rere reer rrr errr rr rer reece)

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forbes (Secretary), Pro-
fessor W. G. Apams, and Mr. W. E. Ayrton, appointed for the purpose of
improving an Instrument for detecting the presence of Fire-damp in Mines .

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. Cuanpier Roserts, F.R.S.
(Secretary), Dr. C. R. AtpER Wrieut, and Mr. A. P. Lurr, appointed for
the purpose of investigating the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known
Alkaloids, especially Veratria and Bebeerine

POR e eee ee cere eserenessesessesesesesssee

Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor PREstwIcu,
Professor Hueues, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Professor L. C. MIALt,
Rey. H. W. Crosskny, Messrs. W. PreneEeLLty, W. Motynevux, D.
MackintosH, R. H. Trppeman, J. E. Lun, and J. Puant, and Dr. Drang,
appointed for the purpose of recording the position, height above the sea,
lithological characters, size and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest connected with the
same, and taking measures for their preservation. Drawn up by the Rev.
ENV OROSSKHY (Secretary) 14 .ceewekdedeils.cdaeelebeees we desceacdencc ccbheotenbes

Fifteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Jonn Evans, F.R.S., Sir
Joun Luszock, Bart., F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Gzorae Buskx,
F.R.S., Witt1am Boyp Dawsxrns, F.R.S., WintIAmM AysHForD SANFORD,
F.G.S., Joun Epwarp Lzz, F.G.S., and Witiram Prencetiy, F.R.S.
peers appointed for the purpose of exploring Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire

TORR R ee ee eee eee eee eee eee EEE EEE ESE H EE EEE OED HEHEHE EE EEE EEE HEE E EEE SESE ESSE EEES EE EEE EES

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Jomn Evans, Sir. Jomn Lussocr,
Major-General Lane Fox, Mr. Gzorer Busx, Professor W. Boyp Daw-
kins, Mr. PeneEity, and Mr. A. W. Franks, appointed for exploring cer-
tain Caves in Borneo

Peer ream eee eee eee eee reser sees eee eseeseessseaesseseessesseseeseess®

Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Hutt, Rev. H. W.
Crosskry, Captain D. Ganron, Mr. Guaisuer, Mr. H. H. Howsxt1, Profes-
sor G. A. Lesour, Mr. W. Motynevx, Mr. Morton, Mr. I. Roserrts, Mr.
PrngEty, Professor Prestwicu, Mr. Jamus Prant, Mr. Metiarp READE,
Mr. W. Wuiraxker, and Mr. DE Rancz (Reporter), appointed for investiga-
ting the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red
Sandstone, and Permian Formations of England, and the Quantity and
Character of the Waters supplied to various Towns and Districts from these
PIPL SI ve ge eek Yds ono aco ish» uemameaeiiveaish beds aciese 2vcn gets cuasusutbsveassls Seis

Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rey. MaxwELt Cross, Professor
W. C. Wiiiiamson, and Mr. W. H. Batty, appointed for the purpose of
' collecting and reporting on the Tertiary (Miocene) Flora, &c., of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland. Drawn up by Wu. Hetiimr Batty, F.L.S., F.G.S.
(Secretary)

eee eee eee eee eer er rer err rrrerrerrerrrr reer err errr rrrrrrrr errr rs)

Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. T. Barnzs-LAWRENCE, Mr.
PENCE Bate, Mr. H. E. Dresser (Secretary), Mr. J. E. Harzine, Dr.
Gwyn Jerrreys, Mr. J. G. Saaw Lerevre, M.P., Professor Newton, and
the Rey. Canon TRistRAM, appointed by the Council for the purpose of
inquiring into the possibility of establishing a Close Time for the Protection
BEB PHA DONOUSMOIMB IG! ce. csacdccssccsevacsecstcecssacscerccsneeces ndgncsterscsscdescees
Report of Committee, consisting of Mr. O. Spence Bars, and Mr. J. Brooxine
OWE, appointed for the purpose of Exploring the Marine Zoology of Devon
SPEER ICEL WAU rier ata cssosevssncossuessanescuss

eeeeesees VORP eee eeeereeeseseeeeereeeeeee

v

Page

131

131

133

135

140

149

155

162

165

165

vi CONTENTS.
Page:
Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occu-
pation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples, consisting of Dr. M.
Foster, Professor Rotteston, Mr. Dew-Smiru (Secretary), Professor Hux-
LEY, Dr. CARPENTER, Dr. Gwyn JEFFREYS, Mr. Scrater, Mr. F. M. Batrour,
Sir C. WryvittE THomson, and Professor RAY LANKESTER............seeeeeeeeee 165

Report of the Committee, consisting of Major-General Lanz Fox, Mr. Wir-
LIAM JAMES Knowtes, Dr. A. Lerra ApAms, and the Rey. Dr. GRAINGER,
for the purpose of conducting Excavations at Portstewart, and elsewhere in
the North of Ireland. Drawn up by Mr. Knows (Secretary)..........000++ 171

Report of the Anthropometric Committee, consisting of Dr. Farr, Dr. Brppog,
Mr. Brasroox (Secretary), Sir Groner Camppett, Mr. F. P. Frttows,
Major-General Lanz Fox, Mr. Francis Gauton, Mr. Park Harrison, Mr.
James Hrywoop, Mr. P. Hatzert, Professor Lronz Levi, Sir Rawson
Rawson, Professor RoLtEston, and Mr. CHARLES ROBERTS..........s0seceeeees 175

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Sctarrr, Dr. G. Harriavs, Sir
JosepH Hooxer, Capt. F. M. Hunter, and Professor FLowr, appointed to
take stefs for the Investigation of the Natural History of Socotra............. 210:

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. F. J. Bramwett, Mr. A. E.
Frercuer, Rev. E. L. Bertoon, Mr. JAwes R. Naprer, Mr. C. W. MzEr-
RIFIELD, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. H. M. Brunet, Mr. J. N. SHoonBRED
(Secretary), Professor Jamzus Tomson, and Professor Sir Wi~LIam THom-
son, on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships.............s.seeseeeeeeenes 210:

Third Report of the Oommittee, consisting of Professor Sir WuttrAm
Tomson, Major-General SrracnEy, Captain Dovetas Gaxron, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Mr. Rogers Frerp, Mr. E. Ropurts, and Mr. J. N. SHooLpREep
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of considering the Datum-level of the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, with a view to its establishment on a
surer foundation than hitherto, and for the tabulation and comparison of
OLE re) AUUMIMATIS vaca sesso core suesbeseeesgsceecetsecssises ses <4 tbsmeteetet eae 219

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. W. Wr1itramson, Pro-
fessor Sir Witt1am Tuomson, Mr. Bramwett (Secretary), Mr. Sr. Jonn
Vincent Day, Dr. C. W. Stmmens, Mr. C. W. Murririenp, Dr. Nemson
Hancock, Professor ABEL, Mr. J. R. Naprer, Captain Doveatas GALton,

Mr. Newmarcn, Mr. E. H. Carzurr, Mr. Macrory, and Mr. H. Trreman
Woop, appointed for the purpose of watching and reporting to the Council
ON PE ALeM te ORISIATION © co0~ .eeesiadasicS spon ont aysiercae Wace adoswe ok Oetadser sear smeeee 223

On Self-acting Intermittent Siphons and the Conditions which Determine the
Commencement of their Action. By Rogrrs Frerp, B.A., M. Inst. C.E..... 223

On some further Evidence as to the Range of the Palseozoic Rocks beneath the
South-East of England. By R. A. C. Gopwry-Avsten, F.R.S., F.G.S....... 227

Hydrography, Past and Present. By Lieutenant G. T. Trmpte, R.N.,
HE ai Sarvecetcectevexeves vacrsneveasisacessedsvéspscess0006ibericase005e0sieaberaneeteneeee 229

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,

Section AA—-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

Page
Address by G. Jonnstonr Sronzy, M.A., F.R.S., MR.LA, .....ccscccscceseeees 243
1. Report of the Committee for commencing Secular Experiments upon the
PMMAENOEDY GE (WVIECSecoces nck Vast chan dsannerabsagWophasendoteueaath oaths Athens snane 248
2. Report of the Committee for making more Accurate Determinations of the
Mrachanical Hiquivalent Of ELC... .....00..00.-sscssansaenpncato¥esabusvs batons cheat 248
8. On Etherspheres as a Vera Causa of Natural Philosophy. By Rev. 8S.
BEINN SITAW (MAU crascesarccscsccccosssccnces ass sbi cots edilcavescchegenscoasecsamesnaanid 248

. On some New Instruments recently constructed for the continuation of

researches on Specific Inductive Capacity. By J. E. H. Gorpon, B.A.,
Assistant Secretary of the British Association...........sccscscsscserseseceeeees 249

. On Secular Changes in the Specific Inductive Capacity of Glass. By

J. E. H. Gorpon, B.A., Assistant Secretary of the British Association.... 250

. On the Oause of Bright Lines in the Spectra of Comets. By G. JoHy-

BLONM STONHY, MeAy, HibuS., M0 Pu lcAtccescesccccdeneteccsasssccestrarcseccecocees 251

. Sur le Maximum d’Intensité du Spectre Photographique Solaire. Par le

Dr. J. Janssen, de l'Institut de France, Directeur de l’Observatoire de
1 GSTS) ie GRR San RBRBR CE BE cee doc inin she SCcnC SEER RDC Eac HE acre POC ea 252

. On the Changes of Volume in Iron when passing from the Liquid to the

Solid State, and on an Instrument for observing the same. By T.

Wriaatson, Memb. Inst. C.H., F.G.S. ......cccccecececsccescscecenccecceceseseees 253
9, On the Isophotal Binocular Microscope. By SamurL HomMas.............+ 258
10. Some Observations on Generic Images. By W. Cave Tuomas, F.S.S...... 258

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.

1. Report of the Committee for Procuring Reports on the Progress of Mathe-

matics and Physics..........sssssssecccceeceesessenssneeeceseeasessenseneessensnenaeees 254
2. Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature ..........cceseeeeeeee 254
8. Report of the Committee on Atmospheric Electricity at Madeira............ 254
4, On the Retardation of Phase of Vibrations transmitted by the Telephone.

By Professor Srrvanus P. THoMPSON, B.A., D.Sc.......ccccesesseeeceeeeeeeeees 254
5. The Pseudophone. By Professor Srryanvus P. THompson, B.A., D.Sc...... 255
6. On the Tension of Vapours near Curved Surfaces of their Liquids. By

G. F. Frvz@pRatp ............ Mra iestawsacssonwaesensosctesistesssee Usama eheee onkaaace 255

Vili

CONTENTS.
Page

. On the Curve of Polarisation Stress, as determined by Mr. Crookes’s Mea-

sures with the Radiometer. By G. Jonnstonz Sronzry, M.A., F.R.S.,
VIBE W AG tewcirccicee rece rncstauavoste sotecs ccacecs savaedcosveccssepauwons cceaceesccosesuse 256

. On Complete Expansions for the Conduction of Heat and the Polarisation

Stress in Gases. By G. Jomystone Sronzy, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA. ... 256

. On the Action of Magnets on Liquid Jets. By Professor Sizvanus P.

PL PLOMPSON Ge byAcsy DANG) \..cwsernenpescessbatessessqccKers astpsen sh rsasepedmegeeetocesss 257

. On a Hypothesis concerning the Ether in connection with Maxwell's

Theory of Electricity. By Dr. O. J. LODGE ..............cseceeeseeseeeeeceeves 258

. On a New Electrometer Key. By Dr. O. J. LODGE ............cceceeereeee ees 258
. On Improvements in Dynamo-Electric Machines. By W. Lapp, F.R.A.S. 258
. On Lightning Protectors for Telegraphic Apparatus. By WuttIAM

Henry Preece, Electrician, General Post-Office ...........sssseeseesseseeuees 259

SATURDAY, AUGUST 23, 1879.

1. Report of the Committee for Calculating Tables of the Fundamental In-
VIS VOL AN GO DTAICHHOLINN ic. sbaceebsttaaided. sitepadcececdedecceeseasessaeoveumens 261
2. Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables ...........:scceeeeeeeeeeeeees 261

8. On some Problems in the Conduction of Electricity. By A. J.C. AriEn,
IB VAS SCHOMMTOL EP OLEYNOLSO...cccss.scscessoreesoosccrecsersoscocs enact 261

4, On the Fundamental Principles of the Algebra of Logic. By ALEXANDER
MA CRAB ANH VISAS MD) Se ubatuascBits.sccsccessesescescoscsacseeeesesessedsepaces 262

5. Note on a Theorem in Linear Differential Equations, By W. H. L.
FUSS EU Ue uecrss seen ca tteee ck Saeenee aren cecre-aneeccsns:siese ss sentgetssvedeeare 2638

6. On the Repulsion of Wires influenced by Electric Currents. By W. H. L.
NUUSSHUM UE ES pssscssovastesesssacspocse-ecassesseccessscivesacsscsisenascianectiossione 263

7. On Plane Class-Cubics with three Single Foci. By Henry M. JErrmry,
Wate tacs tascee tee eceictcansiarscahetascsspacuesieetonesarccess: os sucvene sts eeeanatehons 263

8. On a Modification of the Law of Facility. By Donatp M‘Arisrmr, B.A.,
PS LSC emeaatieae cheese cn pc ccs comeececaslntrs nederormmcctorAtachaesocsces es snwaseaemaeeuae 267

9, Note on the Enumerations of Primes of the Forms 4n+1 and 4n+38. By
DV epee CRUAT SEO eV tAN Hol Csiyecs-cnesntareessercndcetss-c-:cenaseaeseeusnnens 268
10. Formule in Elliptic Functions. By J. W. L. Guaisumr, M.A., F.R.S.... 269

11. Summation of a class of Trigonometrical series. By J. W. L. GuaisueEr,
AVIVA DEM Saiptrcck a cvesessssectakh ccocetesetecdoncrttsslyesseaceds dusbadtcaneatec sarees 269
12, Note on a Method of Checking Calculations. By W. H. Wa=nn.......... 271

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879,

1. Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel... 272
2. Report of the Committee on Calculations of Sun-heat Coefficients ......... 272
3. Report of the Committee on Luminous Meteors ..........ssccseecsceseeeeeseeees 272

4, On the Direct Motion of Periodic Comets of Short Period. By Professor

ETADAG IN WION Mee Henenen ape nantes cael can tussios tea sanitetseases¥esoes suostwegara Fer 272

. On Self-acting Intermittent Siphons and the Conditions which determine

the Commencement of their Action. By Rogrrs Frerp, B.A. ............ 275

. A short Account of some Experiments made to determine the Friction of

Water upon Water at low Velocities. By the Rey. Samurt Haveuron,
BED) TPAD Tas cece cccoagetesessedbatsacasessasacicccaadsdscceccdsucvencacsveceeocreasoatcs 275

11.
12.

CONTENTS. ix

. On an Instrument for Determining the Sensible Warmth of Air. By

PP roren sem erry HOBBES) ES EUS Ei tacchhdcedseetescncstha-tdesvacccedessocecocssseasoes 277

. On Synchronism of Mean: Temperature and Rainfall in the Climate of

London. By H. Courtenay Fox, M.R.C.S,. ....... ccc cceeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeeees 277

. Experiments on the Influence of the Angle of the Lip of Rain Gauges on

the Quantity of Water Collected. By Batpwiy Laruam, C.E., M. Inst.
ECT seis’ NT, Ss, RCs. css. Weetewuseerel abs dale Peas Avceddeaededonseteearccare 278

. An Anemometer for Measuring the speed of Smoke or Corrosive Vapour.

PAL ERED E, PLRTOHER EF Oi8 icccssi le odss. cstee ii ieesteeesacocsescucecteees 279
On an improved Rain Gauge. By N. LowEnrHat LonsDALB............066 280

On a Galvanometer for demonstrating the Internal Current transmitted
make the Liquid within a Voltaic Cell. By Conran W. Cooxs, C.E.,
Sele scents hitter acuan acattee « cdlaialisa(ae oicettaansidls «ges velslauicaicadde daganade st xt 280

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879.

1. Report of the Committee on Astronomical Clocks ..............cscceceeeeeeeees 282
2. Report of the Committee on Rock-conductivities ............s.cseseeeeseeeeeee 282
3. Report of the Committee on Instruments for detecting Fire-damp in

WINGS Mena 52% cn a Nanelslis guise eee S28 du8hd wan dcWeGEe ee Mad oopcasee cuales Saadoneeren eee 282
4, Suite des Recherches sur la Photographie Solaire. Par Dr. J. JanssEn,

SMPPBE TEI GO BIANCO dace o0cis450<000ssaranancnarPasarrsainessnas unel-snppanmetted 282
5, Sur l’Application du Révolver Photographique 4 l’Etude des Eclipses Par-

tielles et & celle des Mouvements des Animaux. Par Dr. J. JanssEn, de

MPMI ARNRSEE DE Sancta ge acc and salsa ds dias avon, vnese voqevaspecvendas diddenane ac ABU cace eee 283
6. Further Results of Experiments on Friction at High Velocities. By

Pe PEHEIR Ny CENNON, Ho ccdciadeig cis an acess ass «auto wculsatagiuadiatne davies sascas vases «aavses 283
7. On the Bursting of Firearms when the Muzzle is closed with Snow, Earth,

&c. By Professor GEORGE ForBES, FLR.S.B. oc... ccc ceceeeeeececeeneeeee oes 283
8. Note on the Constancy of Capacity of certain Accumulators. By Dr

ASEEXANDER MUTRHEAD, EOS. <i.ccctcscueeacddonwsavcccsta ces sancaeescecewcsss aad 283
9. Note on the Capacity of a certain Condenser, and on the value of V. By

PEPE EI MAA 5s batirs dass <n ssdpt ante nasaiciins doh Tu cnsiadsinnxeSe sve deni gdi vas dviiese 285

, On an Electrical Gyrostat. By Professor G, Forsus, F,R.S.E. ............ 290
. On the Condition which must be fulfilled by any number of Forces

directed towards Fixed, or Movable, Centres, in order that any given
curve should be described freely by a particle acted on by these Forces
simultaneously ; and an analogous Problem. By Arraur Hit1 Curtis,

. On a Theorem relating to the Transformation of Series. By the Rey. 8.

PPARWVEITAWs (MiAs...cc,batuassceecesretnscessactesseaecs cesweesesteccscectecsenecdescsss 291

. Improved Photographic Screens. By J. H. Srartine, F.C.S., A.C. ... 291
. On a Binocular Spectroscope. By G. JoHnsronz Stonzy, M.A., F.R.S. . 292

On a Simple two-prism Automatic Motion. By G. Jonnsronr SroneEy,
ea Ee rete etme = Soe eta ila Ga dace ay's- Uatans a elcmace acatet tes aueede eneeas 292

. On Scales of Variable Length for the eye-pieces of Spectroscopes. By G.

JOHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., FLRS. oo... cece ccccecsceccececeseeeeeceeeeseeeoeees 292

. On Flight and its Imitations, By F. W. BREARY.............sscseeseseeees eve 292

CONTENTS.

Szcrion B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

Page
Address by Professor J. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S. L. & Ei ..ccscccccsssssseesnsceeees 293

1, Report of the Committee on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known
PATEL sda Sttes otha ci dna othr ds da Aebhid sxclap uae sce iacak osanes Sop bayeegM Ek aks 293.

2, On some Relations between the Numbers expressing the Atomic Weights
of the Elements. By Watrer WELDON, F.R.S.E. .......cs:ceseeeeeceeeeeees 293
3, On the Synthesis of Diphenyl Propyl. By M. R. D. Srtva .......cescecceees 293
4, Recent Researches in Explosive Agents. By F, A. Azgt, F.R.S. ......... 293
5, On Vapour Densities. By Professor DEWAR, F.R.S.....0.:cccceccecceseseeeee 293

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.
&

- On Large Crystals of Mercury Sulphate. By Parrrp Brawam, F.O.S. ... 293
» On the Manufacture of Crucible Steel. By Hunry S. Butt, F.0.S.,&c. 293.

3. On the Separation of Iron and Phosphorus, specially with reference to the

Manufacture of Steel. By THOMAS BLATR...........ccccceeseesenssesccceececes 296
4. A New Process in Metallurgy. By JoHn HOoLtwaY..........cccccceeeeeeeeees 298
5

. A Lecture Experiment in Illustration of the Hollway Process of Smelting

Sulphide Ores. By Atrrep H. ALLEN, F.O.S.......cccccccccccscsssessssesees 800

» Lead Fume, with a Description of a New Process of Fume Condensing.

Sigs Se MELEE Ns saves srhtocc ce tuelsnsns solneceseusskwsoeeieoueced tastten eae 301

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.

1. On the Constitution of Aluminie Compounds. By Professor Oprre,

A Ra ar yee feces ine torndeo athpavets.. bas» xappeuscapeas Suu. aed dds nesuee ne ee 302'
2. On the Presence of Nitrogen in Steel. By A. H. Atten, F.C.S............5 302
3

10.

. Colour Tests for the Estimation of Sulphur and Phosphorus in Iron or

Steel By A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S., Lee’s Reader in
Chemistry at Christ Church, Oxford

. Some Experiments with the Voltaic Induction Balance. By W. CHANDLER

ROBERTS) (EP AR.S.,(Chemist of the Mint: 2. svsss.0scecsorsessceccescoreeeecosensertee 305

. A Historical Sketch of the various Vapour Density Methods. By JAmus

MES ROWN SEO san ton, cuasteccsecoes seccsssasearanteces tas nevedssd dtc estate eenemnr’ 304

. Note on the Vapour Densities of Ferrous Chloride and Iodide of Potassium,

AS Y Uy A LED VV ANICLY IN fua'ssoncapoabonsvseserss +s ses aadessiass faelsy cee ieaanmenen 308

Note on the Constitution of Isocyanopropionic Acid. By J. ALFRED
AVY ANISTON A re ue etan cane ncn ae caning cen dain okie nmiacilsles vaiisdieu ds con coahaaeactest sea seeemnes 308

b Physical Constants of Liquid Acetylene and Hydrochloric Acid. By G.

FAUNAS DIT eae eeeaccese sca cones decorates ce odenee bec eceavevos stoah vceeade nie neena 309

. The Action of Ammoniacal Salts on Metallic Sulphides. By M. Dz

(CUMRMONT: soderceneece wseestcekasetgcecess vss Metesabelr. duckie estore ceees 2 voNgeNaeeeee 309

On the Chemical Composition of a Nodule of Ozokerite found at King-
orn-ness. By W. Ivison Macapam, F.C.S., &c., Lecturer on Chemistry,
WIA B ORES cree nc apodtecmese dhe ses ae dedavi de deccgccassieceeceeealteceereresteeens oeanees 309

CONTENTS. x1

Page
11. On some curious Concretion Balls derived from a Colliery Mineral Water.
By THOMAS ANDREWS, F.0.S. ........csesseeeeeeseeseeeseeseeeseeeneeeeeeesaeeeeees 312
. TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879. j
1. On some points in connection with Agricultural Chemistry. By Dr. J.
PMEEAENT, HE tidus seercartae ges. 0vviUee skis anit sebdevacduedasronsasevecsapasdens ooveen 315
2. The Rare Metals of the Yttrium Group. By T. 8. Humpres, Ph.D., :
B.Sc. (Lond.) .......ccccscenecscesccceensssseccecesscscssssenavecscosscneassoscsseseers 316
8. On the Synthesis of Hydrocyanic Acid. By Professor Dewar, F.R.S. ... 317
4, On the amount of Nitrous Acid produced. in Electric Ilumination. By
PET OLORSOT, DEWAR. EY HSe, ccvonsccerioswioterwiswienanbrcloontrocirovecelees oe sococeuh reve elves 317
5. On the Kinoline Bases. By Professor DEwaR, F.R.S. .......cccesceeeeeeee eee 317
6. An account of some recent Experiments on Supersaturated Solutions. By

oo

10.

PROUD Vet Lc OMAON GOs cutorcaiccieis ssictalgian «oc casmuaetenectnertags ceastueces ceavescaderauen SLT

. Notes on recent Spectral Observations. By J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. 317
. Notes on Petroleum Spirit or ‘ Benzoline.’ By Anrrep H. ALLEN ...... 318
. On the Iluminative Value of a Mixture of Hydrogen with some Hydro-

carbons. By A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S., Lee’s Reader in

Chemistry at Christ Church, Oxford.............sscccccssescssceecnscnesessssesens 319
The New Condenser. By Guoreu S. HAZLEHURST .....seceeseseecsereneeees 320
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 27, 1879. a

. Notes on a Sample of Fuller’s Earth, found in a Fullonica recently exca-

vated at Pompeii. By Wiit1am THOMSON, F.R.S.E. 2.0.2... .ceeeeeeeeeseee

2. On the Detection of Milk Adulteration. By Wrttram H. Warson, F.C.S, 322
. Chemical Researches on Palmella Cruenta. By Dr. T. L. Pureson,

F.C.S. London, formerly of the University of Brussels, Cor. Memb. of the
Chemical Society of Paris, and of the Royal Society of Med. and Nat.
Sciences of Britssels ...............ssscscccsscovssccvcescscecescrcscesecencsseecss cee 322)

. Description of a Glass Burette for Collecting, Measuring, and Discharging

Gas over Mercury. By Purrrp BRAHAM, F.O\S, ......scssseeeeeesceeeeeeee ees 325

Section C.—GHOLOGY.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

Address by Professor P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S., Vice-President of the

1,

2.

Geolopical Society .....<.5.-2ccsavssdeneuscpesce-sneuscegdeccecsascutenvcncessenscoses 326

Seventh Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of recording
the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin
of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other
matters of interest connected with the same, and taking measures for their
PRCSCEVUUOW asewosdvsscasseredecacsaacicessssqubssaar sasessbadbavsesdeccsaustoedscen| vases 332

Notice of the occurrence of a Fish allied to the Coccosteus in a bed of
es Limestone near Chudleigh. By Joun Epwarp Lez, F.GS., he
BRAN MRRP e Each ds veen ai, Wee Caan ROCD o vurwsaleuseawndiee de sdde Teg avai ala daes tues deogsaep ous 3

xii CONTENTS.

Page
8. Notice of Fossils found in a bed of Devonian Rocks at Saltern Cove, in
Torbay, and ina quarry of the Old Red see: near Caerleon, in

Monmouthshire. By JoHn Epwarp Les, F.G.S., F.S.A. wo... eeeee seco ee 332
4, On the Nomenclature of the Plates of the Crinoidal Calyx. By P. HEr-

EUR TO ARPHN ITM: IMAG scttus sottairs Onccvecns teste rrersiseetccdsss vedsaessoatessseoess 333
5. On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India. By V. Batt, M.A.,

F.G.8., of the Geological Survey of India .......0.......-.ssesscssessceeee seeeee OO4
6, On Geological Episodes. By J. F. Braxn, M.A., F.G.S. .....cccceceeeeeeeees 335
7. On the ee Beds between Retford and recttstionaas By F. M.

SUB TONG EGS: hae Seaucas varsece udeesscSehautscecee aiscs tied ids tdsscnecepnapnemseeencad 336
8. On a Northerly Extension of the Rhetic Beds at Gainsborough. By F.

IMCS UR TON, phe Gosstctacpaswncciecsnasetabessies ive snscualseabaltesecsdeemconer tener es 337

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.

1. Fifteenth Report on the Exploration of Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ......... 337
2, Report on the Bone Caves of Bormed...........c.csoscosconsconscoscsecosncesuossee 337
8, On the Bone Caves of Derbyshire. By Professor W. Born Dawxrys,

WIR PAEP aD es oeaes co cee cc es Learn antec ectarecte ns oandeustovtuacecusssseccqusedpyaneetont 337
4. ne of a Bone Cave near Cappagh, Co. Waterford. By R. J. Ussumr,

Bnd ErolessOn Ay Wi TD: cA AMER, IMAL, IH IEUISs voxccrecssss0sseesssn bese sumbunds 338

5, On some remarkable Pebbles in the Bogie clay of Cheshire and Lanca-
shire.) by OHARIES RIOKETTS MODE IE. Gis... .c2c.c0ssssecescesesesesscoureses

6, On the Volcanic Products of the Deep Sea of the Central Pacific with
reference to the ‘Challenger’ Expedition. By the Abbé A. Renarp and

POV EY RETA ogee acts tite --eleeetebs sees eaanna savietsianw ceed .seaes oon sssastscseuuneureeede 340
7. On Ammonites and Aptychi. By Cuartus Moor®, F\G.S. .............20ee 341
8. Notes on a Fossil Tree from the Upper Silurian of Ohio. By E. W. Cray-

TECUIFTS, 3: cacbposoquugdodboc1oa9 06 1008 eg SB 0I00 10219 000 COS EO ERE CO aS ILI I 343

9. On Ostracocanthus dilatatus, gen. et spec. nov. A fossil fish from the
Coal-measures 8.E. of Halifax, i in Yorkshire. By James W. Davis, F.G.S. 343

SATURDAY, AUGUST 23, 1879.

1, The Age of the Penine Chain. By HBL WVEEESONG NGS.» 2.0220 nensees dememeees 343

2. On the Foundation of the Town Hall, Paisley, with Notes on the Rocks
~ of Renfrewshire. By Marraew Brarr

8, On the Deposit of Carbonate of Lime at Hierapolis, in Anatolia, and the
Efflorescence of the Limestone at Les Baux, in Provence. By Dr. Puen,
TAKE RSLS LAGS ifs icSnponscccoas cosconnicos aoc toad ac0n0ed MOCHESCEECEHBE RESO: icc urrendd 344

4, Rencrt, on the Miocene Plants of the North of Ireland ...........ccceeeseseees 345
MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.
1. Sixth Report on the Conductivities of certain Rocks ............:secceseeeeeeee 345
2. On some Broad Features of Underground Temperature. By Professor
AMD EIVEREDD WE EUS onlin scacabics sets sissctcosssoscheccoessscescceveceseecssavaadene 345
8. On the Botanical Affinities of the Carboniferous Sigillarie. By W. C.
Wiutr1amson, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in Owens College ............... 346

4, Evidence of the Teaihenks of Paleolithic Man during the Glacial Period
in East Anglia. By 8. B. J. SKERTCHLY, F.G.S. ........cccccescceccesesensces 347

5,
6.

%

a
.

CONTENTS. xiii
Page
The Geological Age of the Rocks of West Cornwall. By J. H. Cotxmus,
BE Ge ae ee cin dafs tne doles ollcccsecencescecessacttts ses cusaccdcecosdcssesleersrcsscese 347
The Surface Rocks of Syria (suggested by the Quarries at Baalbek). By
James PERRY, B.E., County Surveyor, Roscommon .........cssecseceeceeeeees

On certain Geological Facts observed in Natal and the Border Countries,
during Nineteen Years’ Residence. By the Rev. Groner BrEencowe...... 349

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879.

Fifth Report on the Underground Waters in the Permian, New Red Sand-
stone, and Jurassic Formations...... ...s.scessssseessecesscneseseeensensseessceeees 350

. Report on the Progress of the ‘ Geological Record ’...........ssssessseeeeeseeees 350

On the Replacement of Siliceous Skeletons by Carbonate of Lime. By
DV iietl er SOMTAS, NUWAR UNG Os) ccc .cacd condos qncieusioccecteedeacvacaccareseudecsasccsors 350

. On Carboniferous Polyzoa and Paleocoryne. By G. R. VINE.............+5 350
. On the Classification of the British Pre-Cambrian Rocks. By Hunry

BieManiarist UT) ga) Ee Cates 0 0 we piae zines cdeds docaudenuenenvnecenseracratedussacnoansdansen 361

. On some further Evidence relating to the Range of the Paleozoic Rocks

beneath the South-East of England. By R. A. C. Gopwiy-AvstEn,
BU aay Aine za ttaaes ic satsassaosaests venatenenssitagesvactecenesedsnshens snsedhaces«s 352

On ‘Culm’ and ‘Kulm. By G. A. Lesovr, M.A., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology in the University of Durham College of Physical Science, New-
CASEIB-OD-T NG! ....0ccccvascsscecssveccssecedssecesseasavcausecdceudecdsseuaverssssveaeven 352

Section D.—BIOLOGY.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY AND Botany.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

Address by Professor St. Groree Mrvart, F.R.S., F.LS., F.Z.S., President

GIRLA CE SOC LIONS: eee te cca c tease dena vedeectinusaeiteapuinenesencnasccnecnesnacensnmnnemeass 354
1. On the Occurrence of Leptodora hyalina in England. By Sir Jon Lus-
BOOK, Bart, V.P.B.S., M.P. ...cccccscccsseseneseseeccesssceneeeeesenegacsesecennnees 369
2. Report of the ‘Close Time ’ Committee ..........sseseceeeseeeeseseeeeseneeenennees 369
3. Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of exploring the Marine
Zoology of South Devon........cceccccssesesssseeeceeeeeeeeccesseseeseveeeeeeeeeeerees 369
4, Report on the Progress of the Zoological Record ..........::ssesesseesseeeesees 369
5. Report of the Committee on the Zoological Station at Naples ...........+.+4 370
6. Report of the Committee for investigating the Natural History of Socotra. 370
FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.
1. On Fruits and Seeds. By Sir Jomn Lusszocx, Bart., V.P.R.S., M.P.,
D.O.L., LL.Dio....ccccceeencesceccecccesnesscescceaessssseecceccceecsesceccenecssuseaeeos 370
2. On the Insects which injure Books. By Professor Wxrstwoop, M.A....... 371
8. A Case of Disputed Identity, Haliphysema. By Professor Ray Lan-

KESTER, F.RS........cscssceceeesseeecenscsceecensescsunseccsesescccseecseanecegenennacs 372

. On Budding in the Syllidian Annelids, chiefly with reference to a branched

form procured by H.M.S, ‘Challenger.’ By W. O. McInrosx

xiv CONTENTS.

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879. ;
Page

1. Recent Additions to the Moss-Flora of the West Riding. By Carzzs P.
IEUGDKERK GOH US iyestcasccscactcccesceratsce ser estucecsrassassetennseesbaaverssuestaesees 375
2. On the Embryology of Gymnadina conopsea. By H. MarsHatt Warp... 375
8. On the Homologies of the Cephalopoda. By J. F. BLAKE............2:0000045 376
4, On Cyclops. By Marcus M. Hartoe, M.A., B.Sc.........esecceessseeeeeeceeees 376
5. On Mimusopee, a Section of the Order Sapotacee. By Marcus M.
FTARTOG, M.A., BiS@ss....cssccssscsneccnsccosscccssonnsscscscescosesecesesaeseoseccsses 376
6. On Solid-mounted Preparations, By L. C. MIALh.........cccsceeeseeeeeeeeeroes 376

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879.

1. On a Spore-producing Glaocapsa, from the great Conservatory at Chats-
ayortius By rotessor My A. LAWSON. <.1510--0074--55- ane saren suengheneuaneeeee 377

2. On the Capreolus (of Lister) or the Spermatophore of some of the Indian
species of the Helicide. By Col. H. H. Gopwry-Avsten, F.Z.S. ......... 377

3. On a Sponge from the Norwegian Coast, simulating a Hydroid Polyp. By

Boe TAS NN Nona sc satan can caenceneu cvsnsnsvenpssneas+s= 4d ee ns 377
4, Comparison of the Effects of the Frosts of 1860-1 and of 1878-9. By
FE ioe aD NVA nt Ss euees conc eis scenedceneaseuaes Gigmaabinasonces’ «0s.0dcs cata 377

. The rarer Birds occurring in South and West Yorkshire, By T. LisrEr... 378

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

7, On the Oapots, By D. Hack Tuxn, M.D) EF UROP. .:........00cssnsrocseanees 379

9, Evidence of the Existence of Paleolithic Man during the Glacial Period
in East Anglia. By Sypney B. J. Sxerrcuty, F.G.S., H.M. Geological

SURO Ye shi cles seins hessthn wanes tnhies vabiven'suebyninwslvessech woes ssnsbussb yee dasunenne 379
8. On a New Estimate of the Date of the Neolithic Age. By Sypyzy B. J.

Sxurrcazy, F.G.S., H.M. Geological Survey.........cccssecccssseeseneessauees 380
4, A Classification of the Physical Conditions of Life. By C. Rozzrrs,

Ree hens coc de nabs pas pmisins Us seeds stisea agisiga advice ae pdeh sedaeee sen eneeee 381
5. On the Yarra and the Languages of Australia in connection with those of

the Mozambique and Portuguese Africa. By Hypr Onarxz, V.P.ALL.... 381

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.

Address by E, B. Tyzor, D.C.L., F.R.S., Chairman of the Department......... 381
1. Report of the Committee for conducting Excavations at Portstewart and

elsewhere in the North of Ireland...............sscececcseseesscsececccsccencreecece 3889

2. On Flint Implements from the Valley of the Bann. By W. J. Knowxzs... 389

8. Notes on the Polynesian Race. By C. STANTLAND WAKE..............c008eee 390
4, On the Relations of the Indo-Chinese and Inter-Oceanic Races and Lan-

guages, By A. H. WRG ANNTE IMI. AL, Ticsscciswsansoncniabesansessemeeeveededs tecen treme 391

5, On a Classification of Languages on the Basis of Ethnology, By Dr.
GUATAVSOPPMRT Fi GitevcussctcctethsscscsvasessUaevdecsbeevcssccancessinec saetne Mines 392

1.

2,

3

4,

CONTENTS. XV

SATURDAY, AUGUST 23, 1879.

Page
On the Manners and Customs of the People of Urua, Central Africa. By
Mi RPeMParTE OE OC) AMTICRON HEUIN, Uscsuccostseecocussecdavesnadevacecasteccacaceseassacesceas 392
On the Native Races of the Head-Waters of the Zambesi. By Major
SERPA PINTO ..............c00000s faetiennls sartecstaaenia sats setiemericndcewencceraceasas an 393
On the Native Races of Gaboon and Ogowé. By the Comte SAvorenan
8 EIA quatacebupsodsltons deccdueeaesngos odbc inch aanoLnSOpEBEpCOn ep houricr ere ena ae 394
Report of the Anthropometric Committec.............:csesseseesceeseeeeeeeeeenees 394

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.

. On the Forms and Geographical Distribution of Ancient Stone Imple-

ments in India. By V. Batt, M.A., of the Geological Survey of India 394

. On the Discovery of certain Pockets of Chipped Flints beneath the Peat

on the Yorkshire Moors, near Halifax. By Jamus W. Davis, F.S.A.,
EMAL hus gaeebotscds tne astiee sun. covconseumeaneemenasisuccawesteuatNoaartaues 395

. On an elaborately finished Celt found on the Moors near Marsden. By

inane! WW) Divia) HS )A.S BGIG.2.0.. LD Oe or Be Oe 395

. On some curious Leathern and Wooden Objects from Tullyreagh Bog,

Secmnby: intrest Ey Wa SS SENOWEES wis. 2ioiicasccecseuscoGacensccedheusecees 395

. On Savage and Civilised Warfare. By J. A. FARRER o........eeesseeeeeee 396
. On the Origin of Fetishism. By ANDREW LANG .............cccseceeceeceeees 396
. On certain Inventions illustrating the Working of the Human Mind, and

on the Importance of the Selection of Types. By A. Tytor, F.G.S....... 396

. On the Discovery of Animal Mounds in the Pyrenees. By Dr. PHEnf,

STE SIR CEA Sats © CAA 5 396

. Evidence of Early Historic Events and Pre-Historic Customs by per-

petuation of design in art and manufactures in later, and even in present,
Pamper emmy BOS, Ac, Baoan ccccsncpecascasescaclaptanewacepnegilens a 397

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879.

1. The Profile of the Ancient Greeks. By J. Park Harrison, M.A.......... 399
2. On the Geological Evidence as to the Antiquity of Man. By Professor

Ree Boxe TA Woxtwa,. MeA., WOR S cicscs.ctacdadsennssesdst ovvadgesnd cabnesaendda ond 399
8. On the Survival of the Neolithic Period at Brandon, Suffolk. By Sypnry

B. J. SkerrcHty, F.G.S., H.M. Geological Survey ............s.ceeceeeeeeees 400
4, On the Stone Age in Japan. By Professor Jomn Mixnq, F.G.S............. 401
5, On a collection of Organic Remains from the Kitchen-middens of Hissarlik,

By Staff-Surgeon EpwARD L. Moss, R.N. .....ssssessceseesseesseesseeeeesanee 401

. On High Africa as the Centre of a White Race. By Hypr Oxarxn,

BeBe AG lint ce priesracsehiacr esau tadaciiistnecd are cocarnlenedaslursisssitncaanisasetaisdesacctsas ccs 402

. On the Turcomans between the Caspian and Merv. By Professor

ARMINIUS VAMBERY .....ccccccccccsscsccsvcnens Me eee seh aanont wiangseuse ita vetenstesene 402

xvi CONTENTS.

DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.

Page

1. Observations on the Automatic Mechanism of the Batrachian Heart. By
Professor J. BuRDON SANDERSON, M.D., F.R.S..........cccecececececeeececeeess 404.

2, The Influence of Domestication on Brain-growth. By W. F. Cricuton
SROWINIG Pise. cneen sth <ccecenssecsescencressoecres st conareeecensecnectaast etme emmnenE CS ir 404

8. On a Law of Retinal Activity. By Professor Strvanus P. THompson,
Has F090; 5 (0G. 12sec eseeocacarenesecneccescancsesasvesesencomee Lesvapccts ee SeR Perens es 404
4, On the Comparative Osteology of the Arm. By Dr. T, P. Duranp ...... 405

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.

Address by P. H, Prn-Smirn, B.A., M.D., Chairman of the Department ...... 406

1, Experiments on Septic Organisms in living Tissues, By Staff-Surgeon
(BinwAwn Ls, Moss, MRIN. i0sc5ic tactics csnoneuee ceoton cork obec nee ee oan aes 416

2. On the Stroma of Mammalian Red Blood Corpuscles. By L. 0. Woor-
(DREDGE, SSCs LONG.), (....5.00scsscoceseasoncesscmacanemestnoes saree scree seeeeeEeeaneeee 418

3 Note on Crystallisation of Urea in presence of a Colloid. By Dr. W. M.
ORD ioces cn siien can seein osssescepecnceas sancemedeese cat sntarnce soecns cakes poeeeee metre te 418
4, The Nervous System of Comatula, By P. Hurprrt Carpenter, M.A.... 418

5, On a Visual Phenomenon and its Explanation. By Wi11am AckRoyn,
F.LC.

wesbsedteonnscoas¥uewveetas cop ens @aayaeeeseemeOeans sees ie. pees. o: eee een 419
Section E,—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.
Address by Crements R. Marxuam, C.B., F.R.S., F.L.S., Sec. R.GS.,
HAS; President of the Section |. 20l.(asessascecesecss+o«s «saree spnraceaseeeeeenen 420
1. The Trade Routes from Bengal to Tibet. By Lieut.-Col. T. H. Lewzy,
late Deputy Commissioner of Darjiling ..............csscsseccoscscsscsonccoseses 432
2. The Upper Course of the Brahmaputra River. By CO. E. D. Buaox ...... 433

3. The Dutch Expedition to Central Sumatra. By Professor P. J. Vern,
President of the Dutch Geographical Society .............sseceeesseseeeeeeces

4, Discovery of the Sources of the Chico in Southern Patagonia. By Don
Ramon Lista 436

Pee eee eee eee ere ere rr errr rr rrr errr rr eT yy rr rrr

5. On Present Italian Geographical Explorations, By G. Datna Vepova,

Professor of Geography at the University of Rome, Secretary of the
Italian Geographical Society. ........:00ccsscsectheessnsdecencn onde seesenpeneeeneeeee 436

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.
1. Journey across Africa from Benguela to Natal, By Major Szrpa Pinto 437
2. The Basin of the Ogowé, By M. Savoranan DE BRAZZA .......-.- Passage ou!
8. The Southern Galla Country. By Rey. J. Waxzrretp
4, German Explorations in Africa, By Professor Erman

OS i

CONTENTS. XVil

) Page
5. The Euphrates Valley Railway. By Commander V, L. Camzron, R.N, 440

6. On proposed Indo-Mediterranean Railways, with an Account of a Journey
by Land from Bagdad to Bushire. By Witrrip ScaweEn Brvnt.......... 440

7. The Physical Aspects of Zululand and Natal. By Bravcnamp Tower.... 442

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.
1, Afghan War.—The Jellalabad Region. By Wrtt1am Smvpson (Special

Artist of ‘ The Illustrated London News’).....ce...sssccscssececesccccseccscteces 443
2. Afehan War.—The Kuram Valley. By Captain Geratp Marrtin.......... 445
8. Afghan War.—Country between Kandahar and Girishk. By Captain R.

PESHIMAVIASN PH Et; Grae cdteascdesscccccseececcncroasacs Mecsecor oh tarescrsmmtnases aceon 445

PRR eee eee eee Hee H HEHEHE ESET EEE EEE EE HED EEE HEHEHE HEE EEE SES EEE HEE EEE HOSES EEee

eee eee Oe eee eee eee eee eee HEH HEHEHE EEE E EEE HESS EEE HEE EE EEE O OEE EE EEE HEHE EEE SHEED

6. New Routes to Candahar. By Captain T. H. Hotpicu, R.E. ............... 447
7. Afghan War.—Surveys round Kandahar. By Major Roaurs, R.E. ...... 448
8. On the Orography of the North-Western Frontier of India. By Tre-

EMU VA SATIN ORG) cies ace's sa cidacgstnvedsiaceaacese (sdacdsacscvecedscoamecsstec te monaeee 449
9. Imperial Survey of India. By J. O. N. James, Deputy-Superintendent
Pee R SULVEYS Of ENGI pe e.dec slew scados «> so rerle cadackencasde-- saan cereaseccesitattes 449

10. Three Months in Cyprus. By Samvrn Brown, M.LC.E. ........ccceeee ecco ee 450

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879,

1. Hydrography, Past and Present. By Lieutenant G. Temprs, R.N.......... 451
2. Arctic Research. By Commander L, A. BEaumont, R.N, .........c.cceeeee 451

8. On the Interior of Greenland: the principal points of Geographical Interest
connected with it, and the recent Expeditions for its Exploration. By

BRE Lee EUENGKY pc actus hese las « aiiel we v 20 docadsate seme naebiesenuns steSeaeuee to eacaa wane r vie 452
4, Indian Marine Surveys. By Cremenrs R. S. Marxuam, C.B., F.R.S.,
PTET OO OF LNG) SOCOM ss <b. acess. ccsnsaecedeelecrebeess soe cdddecsdeatenschessctecece 4538
5. The Exploration of the American Isthmus and the Interoceanic Canal of
Panama. By Lucien N. B. Wyss, Lieut.-Commr., French Navy......... 454
6. On Geographical Studies and Works in Italy. By Professor G. Data
LEHI AGERE: Se ote ne 2), «vc andes nanaesionesocameqachpscagtecosseasdseteensesceoes 456
7. Italian Explorers in New Guinea. By Professor G1I@LIO@r ................4. 457

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

1. The Scientific Societies in relation to the Advancement of Science in the
United Kingdom. By Professor Leone Levi, F.S.A., F.S.S., F.R.G.S.,

Doctor of Economic Science, and of Lincoln’s Inn, Barrister-at-Law....... 458
2. Report of the Anthropometric Committee .........sceeeeeseeeceeeeeeeeeeesenees 469
3. Apprenticeship Schools in France. By Professor Srnvanus P, THompson,

EME E S ACs setae actislenecnnen dancoades oye duaddaqeKa aidan ands squqedvaoNabnnss 5 469

4, On Credit as an Asset of a State. By Hypr Crarxg, V.P.S.S. ............ 469
1879. a

XVill CONTENTS.

2.

3.

* FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.
Page
udeamnanniagen germbesphon sesh <bedde conwep dessa tvalae sinh irepbicannaee qextadpncameint 470
Agricultural Statistics, Tenure, and Depression. By Wiittam Borty ... 472

The ‘German’ Speech and Lip Reading System of Teaching the Deaf. By
DAVID BUXTON, PHIDD © .....2b-ccesce-c-coovcesncerernsaecencessesteccesessenssssoss 474

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.

. Elementary Natural Science in the Board Schools of London. By Dr. J.

H. Guapsrone, F.R.S., Member of the London School Board.............+++ 475

. On Science Teaching in connection with Elementary Schools. By J. F.

Moss, Clerk of the Sheffield School Board ...........sccsecesecseeceneceeereceees 476

. Some Account of the System of Instruction in Elementary Science intro-

duced by the Liverpool School Board into their Schools. By Epwarp
M. Hance, LL.B., Clerk to the Liverpool School Board ........:..+.ssee008 477

. Reformatory Punishment. By F. T. Mort, F.R.GiS. .........eeeceeeeeeeee - 478
. On the Feasibility and Importance of extending to Scotland the proposed

Criminal Code for England and Ireland. By W. Nemson Hancock,
EY, MUIR AGA, Casecvecscceseacvcvocdav caissewevsaddasaasdacdsesesusth ver an teammate 479

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879.

Address by G. SHAaw Lerrvrn, M.P., Pres, Statistical Society, President of

1.

2.

hie WECHON. cs }iss oc vee s'eck co ae obec seas vadesw ne necade een ieehecanc os seeee rater eee 479

On the Vital Statistics of Sheffield. By THomas Wurresipr Hom, B.A.,
M.B., &c., Medical Officer of Health, Sheffield ...............secsesseeseeenens 488

On the Savings of the People as evidenced by the Returns of the Trustees
and Post Office Savings Banks. By Professor LEONE LEVI ..........-..:+0+- 492

. On the Assimilation of the Law in England, Scotland, and Ireland as to

the care of Lunatics and their Property. By W. Nemson Hancock,
Ag WV FD eA 2 bases cuticles oia=sisaes dub suscetuan seadabueeeeveseaes ess staan 493

Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

Address by J. Rosryson, Pres. Inst. Mech. Eng., President of the Section.... 495

ie

2.

3

Temperature of Town Water Supplies. By Batpwin Laruam, C.E.,
ML Waist, BGS EMS.» 8&6... aceeuseos cass ceopscedssenteeceekee eae 499

On the Quantitative Elements of Hydrogeology. By JosrrH Livcas,
F.G.S., Hydrogeologist, late of H.M. Geological Survey .......:.:e+eeeeeeeee 499

nee Francq’s Fireless Locomotive. By Mons. CHARLES BERGERON,

Reem meme eee rere eeeeeereeeenees
PRE R ee meee HE EEE T TEESE EHH D EERE EE HEE EEE OOH OEE SEES EEEHSE ESSE SDE SE EEE E EES ES EEE OEE ES

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.

. On Self-acting Intermittent Siphons and the Conditions which determine

the commencement of their Action. By Roerrs Frexp ....... Stescesvessees 505

CONTENTS. xix

Page

. On recent Advances in Electric Lighting. By Jawms N. SHoorsren,

Me heed hk ceSkcxecenes teescecMeoscsasapsceeeoncsevsesvesnene, 508

. On the Changes of Volume in Iron when passing from the Liquid to the

Solid State, and an Instrument for observing the same. By T.
Winmenirson, Memb. Inst. C.1., F.G.S, ..s.ceccnscessossescccsncss sesvevecsececes 506

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.

1. Report of Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships ... 508
2. Report of Committee on the Ordnance Datum ...............sseecesseceeeneeees 508
3. Report of Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel, &c....-508
4, Report of Committee on the Patent Laws .......cc.csssscsnscesseassceneccacsees 508
5. General Results of Experiments on Friction at High Velocities made in
order to ascertain the Effect of Brakes on Railway Trains. By Dovetas
RPE NG Oboes EC Ue, HES t lad tioveates cop deect eetameptceeue saan aracacctiedc tases 508
6. Cowper’s Writing Telegraph. By E. A. COWPER .........ccssccssscescceecsecs 520
TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879.
1. On the proposed Canal across the Isthmus of Panama. By Captain
PemrmnrreTPPETEME, ENG f NEEDS eas ics essc «a sudn'sciancbnnase@aravaessssiewacneueoea derma 621
2. Cowper’s Hot Blast Stoves. By E. A. COWPER..........ccseccsseceecsees are 522

On the Details of an Experiment made to ascertain the Causes of the Dif-
ference between the Quantity of Heat in Fuel, and the Quantity which
is utilised in the Work done by a Steam Engine. By Emerson Bary-
ESTE He AR OC AVE. ODEN) soho dccsteteveecdssvesduactouneue aces ad one ck wenledateaeonnctoos 523

. On the Law of the Power required for different speeds of the same steam

vessel, illustrated, within the limits of experience, by a linear scale of
their relation. By ROBERT MANSEL .........csccssccssseesasccsccescescseceess vee 526

a2

hot SOR PLAT aS:

PLATE I.
Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables.

PLATES II.—VIII.
Illustrative of the Second Report of the Committee on the Phenomena of Stationary
Tides in the English Channel.
PLATES IX.—XII.
Illustrative of the Report of the Anthropometric Committee.

PLATE XIII.

Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on the Datum-level of the Ordnance
Survey of Great Britain.

PLATE XIV,

Illustrative of Mr. Roprrt A. C. Gopwin-A UsTEN’s Paper on some further Evidence
as to the Range of the Paleozoic Rocks beneath the South-East of England.

A PLATE XV.
Illustrative of Lieutenant G. T, Tempxe’s Paper on Hydrography, Past and Present.

ERRATA IN REPORT FOR 1878.

Page 477, line 25 from foot of page: for ‘ equally high-waters’ »ead ‘equally high

high-waters.’

np. ety Oo) eee i » for equally low-waters’ ead ‘ equally low low-
waters.’

PEA SOMO! | 55° 455 » after ‘1853’ insert ‘ previously analysed.’

481, line 1 from top of page: after ‘ degrees’ insert ‘ through.’

1 es ae oe ee » for «run through’ ead ‘turn,

” ” 12 ” ” ” Sor £270’ read 69702, a
a 497, 3 LS a » for ‘on the north and’ vead ‘on the north or,’
In Table of pp. 478-479, ‘col. 1, Constituent L: for ‘29°-528’ read ‘ 29°-533.’
3 Q: for <13°°399’ read <13°-394.’

small type headings of cols. 4-11: Sor ‘1l=*read* is.’

col. 7, line 16 from top: for 165°3’ sead ¢185%3.’

small ripe heading of col. 10: for §1=21%7; v= +124’
read ‘T=20°1; y= 102 oye

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF

THE ASSOCIATION.

OBJECTS.

Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
@ more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.

RULES.

Admission of Members and Associates.

All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to
become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to
conform to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Commitiees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Associa-
tion, Annual Subscribers, or Assocates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.

Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.

Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratwitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.

AnnvaL Susscrisers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and

xxii RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis: but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at
any subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion
the sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Asso-
ciation.

Assocratss for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership
after intermission of Annual Payment. |

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a com-
position for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a fur-
ther sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since
1845, a further sum of Five Pounds,

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a compo-
sition.

Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publi-
cation Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds
as a composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum
as a Book Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume
for that year only. ]

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets)
any of the first seventeen volumes of Transactions of the
Association, and of which more than 100 copies remain, at
one third of the Publication Price. Application to be made
at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street, Lon-
don, W.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xxili

Meetings.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
years in advance; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.

General Committee.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

Crass A. PrrMaNeNt MEMBERS.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims wnder this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must
be sent to the Assistant Secretary at least one month before the Meeting
of the Association. The decision of the Cowneil on the claims of any
Member of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee
to be final.

Crass B. Temporary MEMBERS.

1. The President for the time being of any Scientific Society publish-
ing Transactions or, in his absence, a delegate representing him ; and the
Secretary of such Society.1 Claims wnder this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.

4, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

Organizing Sectional Committees.”

The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election. |

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,* and of preparing Reports
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be

1 Revised by the General Committee, Sheffield, 1879.

2 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871. |

3 Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore becomc
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir,
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,

Xxiv RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The! Sectional Presidents of former years are ew officio members
of the Organizing Sectional Committees.

An Organizing Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to settle the terms of their Report, after which their functions as
an Organizing Committee shall cease.

Constitution of the Sectional Committees.”

On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 p.M., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.

The List thus,formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day, in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.

Business of the Sectional Committees.

Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.M., on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
11 a.m., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
and specified below.

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—

1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.

2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.

3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organiz-
ing Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.’

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and

and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
efor ersgeices acdc .cenesstteves , addressed thus—“ General Secretaries, British Associa-
tion, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For Section ....... ” Tf it should be incon-
venient to the Author that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is
requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors
who send in their MSS. a full three weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers
are accepted, will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their
Reports and Abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual
Volume unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant
Secretary, before the conclusion of the Meeting.

1 Added by the General Committee, Sheffield, 1879.

2 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.

3 These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.

Ee ss SS

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xXxXvV

printed in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organizing Committee.' The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in
the Journal.

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers,
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Sec-
tional Meetings, to the Assistant Secretary.

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ew officio tem-
porary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxiii), and will receive,
on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling
them to attend its Meetings.

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for.the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state
and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or Com-
mittees for the execution of such Reports or researches; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and
one of them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to business.

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant Secretary for pre-
sentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the
Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sec-
tions must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they

1 This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871.

XXvi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.

can be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by
the General Committee.

The! Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report
has been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been
received.

Notices regarding Grants of Money.

Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches
in science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the progress which has been made; and the
Individual or the Member first named of a Committee to whom a money
grant has been made must (previously to the next Meeting of the Associa-
tion) forward to the General Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the
sums which have been expended, and the balance which remains dispos-
able on each grant. ei.

Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
expire a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the
Treasurer authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants, unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by
the General Committee.

No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General Com-
mittee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.

In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Williamson, University College,
London, W.C., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to
time be required.

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.

Tn all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
unpaid on the former grant for the same object.

All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scien-
tific inquiries for the Association.

Business of the Sections. —

The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from
10 to 11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for
no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association.

At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken, and the reading of communi-
cations, in the order previously made public, commenced. At 3 p.m. the
Sections will close. :

Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.

' Passed by the General Committee at Sheffield, 1879.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXvil

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.

Duties of the Doorkeepers.

1.—To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.

2.—To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant Secretary.

3.—Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.

No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. 1.

Duties of the Messengers.

To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed, dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.

Committee of Recommendations.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.

Local. Commnittees.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

Officers.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

Cowneil.

Tn the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.

Papers and Communications.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to

reserve his right of property therein.

Accounts.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.

“bs ‘poomAay souer ODDS ODE OCC E IC a IT CIOS OO ICT MSO fap ‘poomAay urummelueg arg 7 . 2
STC bse SUrUto| “af egret “CTE be ATUL OM SEN WWD STOUABDOS "ATH Docs. es cees anne ogy Stet ce ee SONY ont auLL
SV Wal “bso orvyy toqog (om “STH “WaltoH "A\ AoW PUB UOH “say TO'a “bsg “uoyreq uyor NOLUADE SIONVEL
eee ei evten Drempre, “bent “xor orem oeedony {o Se eee eh dogs unde eee aaa a} “TPR ‘6g Aue HEAONRTE
‘3 Gur: seen enee Secvar* 7 & .
on bei cf “Ds ‘SIIB Moug aN ee bs W “qOulT ploy, * SOO jo [ee ou.L ony 5 a of TIAMAH AM WOSsasoud ADL end
“bsq “Buus wyor {; “T* aqUIMOSpA-IUNOTT Jo VoL ‘SW “qavg ‘omvaqsitg “WW VL al “OPST “LT Toqtmegday “MopsvT)
‘C'TT ‘ION “a “ANY “SY ‘TOPPYT Morpuy ('S"w wT “roysMorg pPIAvd Ag ‘A'S'W' ‘yoousery proy [etouep-soleyy ) ss" “SUT “ANVATVAVENE AO SINOUVN eUL
“Dsl “ISO WONT “Sw “DS ‘aosspoH ydesor aicielaicinios/a\e\plo/usaisiale)zio seceichs/ejsi#\¢'8*§) SUB PUTORIP BOIOUL cAQT Atal om ) : ‘ ‘
reierces peeealr ees 6E8I ‘93 ysusNY ‘WVHONIVUIG
"CW “bso “uogstyerg woykog Saad “bsg ‘ar109 uyor C'C SWOSUIQOY "WL ACW OWL Fg crcegge gy Soper ; Spine
“Sw “bsg ‘eyweg astoay (*'********qqnomyareg Jo [AeA aL “aojdmVyyAON JO smubavyl ou, } oR SUM “WW “LUQOOUVH NONUBA “A "AGU ONL
“SE SVL, UO WSUOL AeeRasOrA Te etenneseroreercrgeerseseesess sid “bsg “Aqieg wyor xnvepiid sn
"on Gri nar eeeene aca ey WwShia Rirciaereiatan ewan See
*[OOd.OATT Be atin ar UE ca oa Oe a Le EE eC "LEST ‘TT tequiaydag ‘1o0dumAr'T
‘uorqyngysuy Tekoy 'sergq ‘bs “TOTEM "N Wdosopy sett tastes sss sce Sour “qivg ‘mowesg Aory op dy Hg "ttt ttt tse s ss * uopuoTy Jo AYISIOAIUQ VY} JO LOT[eO
“Dag OLLI dOBTBA "UIA “CW ‘TBAT aosseyorg saa “T''a “bsg “Woe Uyor *s*)' “S"I'd ‘YouMoN Jodoysig ogi) -uvyo “Spa “SUA “NOLONITHYOG JO TUVA UL
*bsq “uepueaoyy “wf “A 18 ‘Sud “CW “bsg ‘prweypud ‘Of "Sd “s"a ad “eteaqAuop *q “A eer : é “96ST “22 JsNSNY “TOIsIUg
‘om “Sad “aw ‘Aueqned sossojorg ("tests terse eset eee sees ‘sour “UojdureygaoN Jo smbavyy oy, ) ‘op “Sad “T'O'd “ANMOGSNVT JO SINOUVW UL
"SW “p£orrT Lossayorg aE hag sane Gesteage ont ea fon “Sad TOAST AL. all “Oss ‘OT ysnany ‘Nriaaq .
‘ory “puvjaty JO [eAOY, "WOLSY “WOPTUIB "AL "AL AIG [ttt tsetse see ss sess esecuwearey Soar UMOTUBUIXO FUMOOSTA J “*** ttt tee teee 8 OTT ‘GROTT LSOAOUd “AMY UL
: *9 zaqmojdeg ‘HNUNANIG
_ WS’ (00g “Mosutqoy WTOP tg Ee SSB AEIS SSS EA Sie eatery oe CL: Cm OBUTCL ORT Abe Ey aoe { vim vhge dog ane ot aaetaaee pene tia actors oreet
OR ER "TSW Sedo TOSs9yorg oT SW SMT PBA TS (oqo “qo ‘ENVESIUE TIVOQOGOVN “L UIs
‘SW ‘TIOANOTL A. “M* ADYT, LE ie SORE PRE BURA awn i Pos Sen Te peed ee et eae - “BEBT “98 eunp ‘“aparuaNvo :
‘SHU “SL “VW “Ao[suey tossajorg ‘Aoyy [ttt tt ttt settee orp Tesoy JamoUNysy “SW “bsg “Atty aD) ‘S')'d'A “S'U'd'A “VW “HOIMDCGES WYCV “AMY OL
“Op “Sard “V" W ‘TToMOg LOssojorg vou { OI LORETO SAS ICO A IEC CIOL 9 191 “joan ‘sold “sud “TOANOULAA, “M ey laa aval [BES ‘61 oun “quorxO ;
‘ORR “SW “C'W ‘Amoqned tossojorg [sr tttt ttt st sts ets sees eeeses om ST op TT SU “TeysMog PIAB Mg) ‘op “SY “SU “a'd “GNVITMONE “A “AMY UL
"SOW “SI POW SANTI OMPAIONT NS erases s.ecstismnmeses ce ‘ : ; "LEST “1 tequiaqdeg ‘M10
suo; “bsg “unt ‘ery a SD “SW “VW “yauoorwsy UOUTOA "AL sou { ‘op “SY SWE “T''d ‘WVITTIAZLIA THVE UL

‘“SSIYVLAYOSS 1V907 *SLNAGISSYd-3951A *SLN3CISAdd

‘JUOTMAOUIMMOD) H}I ULOIZ ‘SalTVJeLOEG [voor] pu
‘gqUopIsorg-oot A ‘sJUOpIseIg YIM ‘MOCIOOSSH YSYLIg oyy Jo Suyooyy, Jo souty, pur soovlg oy} Surmoys o[quy,

iaieidpelet Ce tae OC nH) 090 Gown & soqroy "ff TOssojorg
feeeemonrag A “CW “nOstTy “EM LOssojorg “Tamquipy Jo
bag “poy, soup | “ISIATHD oMR JO TedounE “a'S'e'd'A “C'C “oT WHOL “Aout AXA OULL ‘ossT ‘12 Amp “HpunaNtag,
sain ae PW monte 2059I0K ery sad “Sd LOE “weg OUVGSIG “Ty SVUIOUL Lig [eIoUaD | vette te steeet sett esses sess ses BMaIpUTY “9g ‘pILTOTT
LN LSU “VN “PURTASL LOSSoJOTEL “ALT tresses orgy ‘(Tetouoy)-oo1snp PLOT) orkog pred, “UOH JUST OME [9S PUB TOPVATBS “4S JO adaTIOD paqtUN ou} JO Tedrourtg
SUD OOOO OOOO OOUOUD UO GOnOumn <Uin i: aia leo a‘ “Ly ‘Aaoqosoy jo preg ou | “ae TSW CATT “HM “UMLSMANE GIAVC UIS
we ewes teen eee cms “GO ‘qawnolgepD JO [leq OL
treeeeeeeeeseecereeees TBIMQUIpH JO OAT POT og “LOH FSP OL
. “ & SMOG PIAB ATS
“bag ‘souwyy soumep { ‘SW SVC 'SHEM Jol “AOU, “SUE “CTT A Jos
"cmt bey SaqOeL TCE I os. cv sess eeoeme eereeaneeeey mie te OO eee Le __(GPST ‘BT roqmogdog ‘KVHONTNUTE,
“Dsi “STIEAN werd | te eeee eee scare rpg 5 CPW “qaeg ‘ood {Odo Ay WOH SNL OUT SVU “VIUN “Ad “NOSNIGOU “YL “AY OL
“NU ‘TRPULL Ureqdeg |... eee eee “S'ar W SAopsoqgOTA\ PLOT oT, “AQMOLIBV] JO [AVY OUT,
: 8 pve “49 Jo doysig poy eu, ‘ord “a “bse ‘WBTATA “H ‘¢
GES eesscourir “Dsop AOL “WAL apa “bsg SUMMTIC “AA SEMOT “SPST ‘6 ysusny ‘VASNVAG
Fag aap As No vom Pee eee eeconr ‘gepuey'T rT Jo weg oy} ‘Aoy AIO A OL Ceaevcceersrovsreccsecssevesooesss som (faaI00g [RAO
A MOUPPOW | cess ee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee cere secu agony © S*W id ‘Oo PL OC NL "HL ag | a9 Jo quopisatg ‘NOLUNVHLYUON JO SINOUVIN LL
tree ereeeeeceercuare T QIBPW JUNOOSTA “LM ‘oyng Jo smmbavyy oy,
(° SU VW TeMog Jorg “Ao OL “SU a W ‘Auaqued, Tossejorg 1781 “eg oun ‘a04Kx0
; "SW “CC “Toysuytagsa\\ JO weal oy} “Aor ATOA *plOyxO i :
Ce Ta Guanes jo AQISTOATAQ) amy Oy" WTO’ “bsy “qamoojsq Teuyong “H svmoyy pst 88" " "8" ** * * PIOFXO JO AYISIOATU) OT OF “TV
( eee teeceeceeresecereseseseses AAISIOAII() OY} JO LO[TOOUBY-OOLA Ll ‘SW TO “Wed ‘SITONI AUNVH LUAGOU AIS
tresses scunrer ‘p10jxO jo doysig ploy oy "SUA ‘ossoy Jo Mey ONL
Sank A ‘TEM TOSSOJOLT “AY OL, ‘Sw “CW ‘WaMO Lossayorg
eee eee ABR Ieee OU SS CE HT “pIOFXO jo doystg poy oT, f ‘
“bey ‘Apoon ‘OH | i sre oro Ca “ug ‘uoymMN AS “L as1005 Ig “9PST “OT ToqtMaqdag “NOLANVHLAOS
"CT “PSE Sal ANU Ep |) its sate ele eiree els oorreteeteietan rer ‘QLADJO'T MBI[G SoPIBYD “UO quai { ‘sd “S"9S'0'D ‘NOSIHOUNNW AGAWI MOLYTAOU AIS
se eeereerceees «err TOPSIOU[VT JUNOOSTA "TO'E ‘WopMAYSV PLOT
teers ‘YsnotoqIVA JO [LV OUT “ToqsoyourA JO subrvyY OL -
siats/«)e/a'e'a/s/s)¥/e)uiv! Ye)\e\oie)eis-s elses eMAT CT: OW TT ‘SOLA Spag TOSsojOIg *AdY OL é
sr “wr § Poyswry TOssayor<y Prscbvirest uses vacns ene asenr eer CieeVanly, OoL aan emer) . “OFS ‘gr oun apanianvy
Sra “Vi “bsg ‘surydoy wera | ga “onsUury “ “Ao ‘aa ‘weqeay pao (ttt OR “Sd “Me “IMHOSUAH “MA NHOL UIS
te eseeeeereneees HOrMTON JO COUSTE OTL, ‘OsOLM pV, JO [AV OL
; “bey & 450.\\ URI, ee aaahanar eda ol ean Los pT: Nfs ‘ymooreH "A “AL “ADT
"Sra “CUTIT ‘Aqsoroag "Ay “Aa | tree eet resect ee eters ee ene ercunrer Oro “sgl upereyl [OVO ; “FIST ‘9g roquieydas MUO
‘ST “bey Toudoyy sem, | ‘Sad “HM oysMorg pravqd Us “a ‘KOM JNA Ugor ‘uO om ( ** SU “(ATH JO Weed) “a'a “MOONVAd *D “AMY OUL
‘SO “bsg “ppeyqeyy urea, Wt totter Sqygedzoyy qunoosT A. “SW “Wea Ca
“bay “reat “UL AY *Dsgy “LoyoTO yy VUVTTTL AN, Shee eeereereneeresasessseeerersreressssees sre MOSUIGOY WY IL ‘Au he ‘
; : snsny “10
aan “ONL “os.eD ‘sor “ru { RIAA aR Ha Oia Madcon 6 be RR APRA SE a) Baeanenie meats a TVA UL
‘VN ATTPAVIS UYOL AOssoyorg UI SOE EOI OOUCICOUUGIE yeni teyitey 1% TSE E 70 a

bpeaeeey Sw kal reich Sfvil “as wil “Vv raw stabatat “bsg “WILD preyorny
edtesiy euesaeeat gst aaa aad TT aE WooLeT] TOUOTOD="qnarT
puvjory Jo [ehory soMOU0ASY “SV TT “WOTruae Ey “AL URI IIS

&

‘ ast ‘ ‘
"A'TT “bsg ‘yooouBHY WOSTION “M | eee eee tees pros caltoraise eretars hts Saari *2O8T ‘9g ysuadny ‘NIIaaq
‘CoOL Pere L sce “AOU cecrevacerecceec cesses seseeeeseneene oe Ane trop BU ee Bet en VIVA “I
bsg ‘0900,7 “gt APUNT | ..,......e eee + aptrereyy Op JOQTAL PIO] ‘auep[ry JO SMbIVYL OUT, Sud “TO'd “ad ‘CAOTT AGUHAIWOH “ATU UL
PPaP RPP ee uryqua ‘aBoT[op AquLLy, jo qsSOAOL on
ee ulyqud jo LOLVTY pao'y aq} “u0oRL qs euL
“DSi Test qs0A\ TOL sans IW ‘08019 SOO “A0u OUD te ea Tord BESTT Roeeas sea a “9GgT ‘9 JsuSNY ‘WVHNELTAHO
‘SW “bsa “Usyureg. PICGOTY | cecceseeseeesvenee Se a hae 0 on 5 ae OF ony pea adalat tresses sn I0IxXO JO AjIstAATUG 949 UT AWLIOg JO 1OSSoy
“Wry ‘uosurqoy “dv, ) TOIsH Paw reyseonory 3p Cousta POT) -oa “swa “ATT “a'wW ‘ANTEOVE ‘A “) SHTAVHO

soso es eeenneccoenesessesee teeter es cued Govarey Qrong JO Wey ou,

eee eee eee eee eee ‘Sad Ma WOSMOT,.L WHRITTEAN IOSsejolg
Se rae “qu [eAory aug jo OISVAL “Sa VW “bsg § MByBily SvULOY TL,
“bsg “ormoy went, | ** 7" soeeeess sear “sy ‘unay 18972

“CW ‘aosrepuy semoy,T, za

"GGST ‘ZT toquieqdeg ‘MoDSWI})

5) ee ee aed . . u . ‘
EL ap TT sie “Bay AE ee eE SDU “SWd "VIADUV JO AMONG UL

iiereseee ieee sgt ee) WN ‘TjeArT sapreyD IIs
Cee e eee cece censcceevesesesesesessrncmye Tr & “que. Suiprve WeTILM IS
Hoenn eeeseeeeesceseeeeseussecrecy SOUBpIBOUY [udroumg ‘ay AtoA ONL

‘a’'1T “bsg ‘suvyg uyor

ee ee ee gy wa Sweeny “Ds ‘3098 syoorg, ydaso (*
ee ee “SV Wid on RH "T "Sw “DSi ‘ossu'] UWUBIT[LAL
ee ee asprqumyy “eso[op AqruLnL

Jo KIS “Sd “VIIWW WOH “SW “CC “TEMA LOssaJorg “AOL
Miaeeeehaneee tees (aur Caria RYE “CTE MECH, USMG TORO

seen

‘a' WwW “bsgq “ueuay svmoyL
‘SU “CW “bse ‘uosuyorq ydosor

“PORT ‘0% wequiajdeg ‘1oOdNaATT
sereeceeeeecceeeess curd ‘XEMOUUVH JO THVE UL

“SO Se wa “CIT “qed ‘uojtosg Aan) sudey op dityd Us
eee ee ee eee Vw Soar aaa Ng ‘KaTSOIO.L AY pao'y ouL

fame erences eresee siviela's(P/ scams wave blelelnis casisieersiarain ‘Qu04SyVeTT AA TOSSOJOLg
Seeeineeee equate yr ‘ROM kg *ToO-"qnervy Sr iT “bsg ‘aoueds TWIVITTE A,

* Ayoro0s “Td PUB “4IT TMH 049 Jo ‘sorg “y'sty “bsg “Gsoayy sopteyO,
Sw WW SOUspag ‘Jorg *aoy “Sw “"1'0" a ‘uperwy Lossajorg
SEE RT FT ‘ysnorLoqsepuo'Ty poy "Sw Sopsmavy Jo [eg ou

es Ss Gray *AT[9A0YS LOSSOJOTd "SUT ‘sax099 “4 “OD e.

‘4qsuy SOLUBYDOPY [[NH ‘setg “bsg ‘sqoovr Tato
*Aqoo0g

“Wd FW IM aA CO “bse Stedoog A1uoH

"SOT ‘2 taqueydoeg “rn H
eee eee eee er ee ee 2 od Ayatoog “hd “quiuy ‘Sold
Spu “su'd'aA “VN “bsg ‘SNINGOH WVITTIM

seen e vee eeeeee ecuqmarer SuTar sor “ql MOSTIQOY "YW “DL “AO.
tresereesesees aspiog ‘ase[0M susan) "seg “C'd ‘Ara "S “qd “ANU.
eee eens eeeaesreeeereecereesees svreperio GCC ‘SHOUL PABAPH ‘AIT

"SG8I ‘T Jaquueydag ‘ISVa TU,
emer cern er eeereeee senses * Aqatoog [Boy oy JO "TA

my ‘svat, ‘Aroyyty [wAoY “ANIGVS CUVMGA TIANOTIOO

“UOSITM “d “AX LOSSOJOTT
"a'W “bsg ‘029,10 We
“bsg ‘UPITY “OD “fA

se eeeeececcoersecsesscnre ry ‘onoag Bl od ‘\L 4ueH Ug
pier SuaSapy omnes Tees cer eve a Las ede SaeOny, Jo [vq OWL
DOCOOCOAA OOOO CO OCICID EO OUODOLIC TS iN Tog ‘UMeT[TDSsaUg Jo [ACY ONL
‘ST “bsg ‘gmmosue yy 981004 bieialsoiela;e aieisie/aisia(s/e\¢:sian ahr |e UIdqS0M “AT WL ‘IW “bem & ploqqop ‘oO i

. ‘ ‘
“bsg ‘TpPla AMyy.cy 83.1005 Test ‘ Aine “HOIMSaT

ge ee ee eee era ace eee Are
-oasV “SU “T'O'd “bsa ‘AUTY TIGAdIa AHULORY

“queg “WOJ9TPPHN “WT “w UHI OS Sa! i “qavg “neoptog *q wyoLr 11g

A sae seseatrgrey ye W, ‘MOTSUDF AOsseJOIg “AT
Ds ‘SUNG UATE | veesececevereeeeevenersseseees scare (py SHIM Spag TOSSOFOI “AOL

‘Syd “bsg ‘Aen sopteyo | .....06 “youMIoyy Jo dousig p10T oULL EW ‘weysoppuery pAO'T OUT
‘SBIMVLEYOSS 1VOO7 *"SLNAGISSYd-J30IA “SLN3AGISSad

wehbe wn eene “—3"T'D ‘sald SiS tt § ee W ‘suepy we) “te TOSSOJOIg
"W ‘soyoqs *H “4 rOssoyorg
ia

“9:
S cw “bsg “Mary “€ “) "Z98T ‘1 1090900 ‘ADAIUANVD

1
Tee nee e renee se se reen sercunT HO gK MrT
W

iL g
tow
“yn ‘aroma “ye Nao ou, | 11222, Tedou temouonsy “seed “TO.

yt “SUIQATT ‘(1"4)-AOSSOIOL ; ; Su “WI ‘SITTBUO “f ‘ACW SUL sloieleisraie{s'e]sjarsie\o) e aieiaie)sisiei*\s)<ziel als oS Res HTT) jo Aqis

ST “Sar eae TL Asie “3 a sons angie oe iy tere eeeescunre iT Srp “iy SOIMSpog LOssajorg "AeY eu { -AVATU 99 ut AYydosopiyg [eqUeWIIedxy pus [BrnzeN Jo

‘ aspraquiey ‘oFoT[op Aqvuray, Jo Aa\sey “Sy A" “TOMOT AA "AA “AOU OUT, | ossojorg uBruosyoer “Sy “VIN ‘SITTIIA “YU ‘ADU PUL
teeeeeeeeersss fr yo uvog “q'ad ‘UIMpooy AoAreyy *Aoy AOA OU

ospraquiep jo AqIsqOATUL) o[} JO AO[[OOUVYN-ooTA O44 *ASY OU

eee eee eee eee eee eee ‘TOTTI “Sr “DSi “TQIOAQTT_A\ Ydaso fr)
TOTH VIN “SU “Wosurpspoy "gy 1osseyorg
seeeeeeeeeeeeeeceuesegetseaseenstntesatagersesnseseenee® JOqSaTD
“UR "009 "Td AT ‘sald “ST “ATT “bsg ‘omor yooserg somes
TW “bsy ‘ou y, [[euldsy sewer

*y'g ‘ooosoyy ‘WT “A 1ossosorg
‘V'W “bsg ‘omosuey myyty "LOST ‘F toquiaqdag ‘uaISHHONVIN
| teeeeeeeeeeeeeseoes square Gqaue ‘poomsap urmultteg Ig serees secur oa'O “CIT “bsa ‘NUIVEULVA WVITIIM
soreeess gen “Sad “a'W “qv “uoj1edq Aor) sudieyy ep dimd TS
010,610) 0/8. sieinisisieieie sis sence Secrny sor anal ‘JoISoTOUB]L jo doyster pao'y ond,
Pee eee ee eee eee eee eee ‘syYU ols i tak “TW ‘KoTUeyS pa0T, EAR
OO ICL FOE OCR STEIN ey CEA OS ais ‘OLOUISOTLT jo weg oy)

“bsg ‘PION Poly
‘SDia “V'a “bsg ‘omysiqueg "a “W

ee ee ed ‘oyu Sorry “SW “Ot “CW ‘Auaqnecy IOSSaJOIg
"s+ pAOIXO “YONI SLA JO WC. “C°C TEVPYT “DH “Ae AIA OU,
eee oy "Sw ‘a'q ‘pazojxO jo doystg p1o'Ty oy, f ‘ ‘
88) 0 Te Runeraly ce ants ort Keocrbreert OV inne Cancer O98L 16 sun “auorxO

vadecces duUN ase iaudadectatctotea tan tan Meetesm ty cess Ss Metre alee, BW CL elrel ai WeslW el tial h Dennis Met nee
=pIOJXO Jo JuUUOINOYT PIOT “S"D'A “T'O'C “YSNosoqirey Jo oN NT,

palofxXQ Jo Aqisto Ata) oyg JO LOT[POUVY/)-doLA chia Gala e ‘ommor “7 ‘AO? OL

pIOFXO JO “ATUD O47 Jo AoTIeoUID “T'O'A “O'd “HM ‘qt Jo wT OM

"SO “WIT “bso “U9 WBTLD 05.1004
‘S'O'd “WW “bsg ‘qgtatg ‘Ss "fH
"TT “aw “bey ‘Uoyse[[0y 95.1004)

SV WS “OVW UU Aossajorg ‘Sd “CW ‘puUBpy Tossejorg
Hs)

f
Ce “s' “ OW WN *qano001B aA *M ‘AOU OTL
4S'0') ‘WoOsTqoIN]L "I JOMepoy ITS
Crt)

‘ad “AM ‘toysMorg par ag

“bsg “OWLAA “a Uo
: "WW ‘ION LOssayorg
‘SM “G'S'W ‘IOOIN “£ Tossojorg

er ee ‘sw “TO

ec ir rir ri

9/0, Aisisibie et otexBiMip R Bisim stefars: + sip) CURRIN A y® “ad ‘MOSUIqOY "If ‘T ‘AOU OU
ul

"6S8T ‘PI toquioqdog ‘xaaaunay
Midd GoroSioTT “Med Uyoprg( CHYOSNOO HONIUd GHL SSINHDIH 'IVAOU SIH

We
AV so AID ayy JO JsoAorT PILOT OUL
5 eos sereessserl SL OH MET “Woopreqy JO [By oUL

Pee ee eoreegarig “O's ‘puoulqony yo aud ouL

teeter ee eeerereeeres soumr gr Gan “Tod “bs ‘Seu WOROUOT “2
He eeeeesereereeeeceessteeres scuba Swe “beg ‘TBySIVy WAVy soumur € ‘
yep eect yA ecco, a fetes eee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeerss oapTIqUIED ‘AsoT[ON AWUIAT, JO Tose “898T 6% toquiezdeg ‘saaaT
SO'd “DI PIO soNdG ed CSV CA CSP CVI WOH “Se O'C “TOMOT AA “AA “AOMT om | tttetetset eset ss 79.72; “CMOS USALEL ou
*V'd ‘SYOULH, semoyy, “acy PESTS SASH SU CD el EET LE) aq Aorp sedyeny op did ais [ Jo eyueurtudog. Ax0981H ankle) Poat Pacd declan
Trees a se teesees gcepy Oya ‘Saupe “LW “WOH WUSIY OUL | “SY “ST “S'U'd'A “'T'0'G “AW ‘NEMO GUVHOIU
‘SPU “AW “Yortepop yunoostA PAO'T ONL
CIOS DEHN gy o[Svo}LUOTL PACT OU

i)
fee
Henne eeeeeeeencee ecunrer Gerpenece fr
see eenececeeeseserosereces TQQDIOd

teep1oqy jo Ayun0pH oy} jo woudANOD “SI “a'TT “bsg “uosmoyy, "y
a‘
"a1"

‘Sl “SVU “bsg ‘omorT * pavaps~

osoTION pez oy} Jo [edu “SW “AIT “bs ‘seqro,7 d somur
“bsg ‘Mostopiry Wore | -Urpy Jo Aqist9atay oy Jo yedioug “syd “TO'a ‘rOISMoNg PIAUCL ns

"beg ‘Svopy (Fg mie yas] “anon (ype one OI DUOC CL. CIS OE ats iis vt sie heesine 38s Same rose or par ag
‘bsg “unt ‘uostepuoH, *f | "OR “SOW “SU “aT “a0 “9tVq “UosTpOMyY *T Yormapoy ag
eee eee ee ee ee ee ee ey ‘TN “Meg ‘AaTS0 ugor ug

eee eee eee eee eee ee eee ey ‘L' ‘paeuury p1o'y oy9 ‘uoy 4st OUT,

E it anes Se Ot niy JO Taman Opn AT ae Ty

ener eal core

“LOST ‘F toqtmaydag ‘ataNxag
Veet ee ee ee ee ee ee ecettenseetenseenteeascuareg Grint

: tresses ** SMOIDUY "99 JO AqIsToATUN “pxrvmos'T “4g puw ToyeATeg “Ig Jo
ks ‘AONgINNNG JO AMO AHL AOVUN SIA

sees swe “sad “bsg “spur Tessny uyor
ee ee eeee "oT ais Ot “CW “Da ‘1900 ydasor
Co “QUT Eli jo 1o4seyl oar iT “Day ‘TAByeIy) SvULOY,L,
| Se ee eee eet weenie OATYSULBTSU199.0 NT jo Yueyg-ysry “Dea “qqaA\ O'L

ow ¢ . ene
VW Creo. “Af "AoW OL "99ST ‘Zz QSuSNY ‘WVHDNTLLON

“mospIaqoy AG | trier tt tsetse st eeeeeeeete soon frosted “Gp MOH aySny oT, seeeeeee coord “WW “O'O “bsa ‘TAOUD “WY WVITTIM
“'** OIMNSMIBISUIION JO JUBUOyNELyT-p10'T “tadjag pxory ‘aoH 4qsny ons,
“*** oITSioqseole'T JO FUBUAINALT-plOT “puvyny Jo eynq ayy sBIH SIFT

+" aumyskqtoq JO uBUAyNaLy-pxo0Ty ‘orpYsMOAe Jo oxNG oY} eowry) SIT
| eee eee eee a ‘SURAT sou "AO ou “bs ‘souvyy Ti; “fc

——

weet we eee SW “Ds ‘Ia[SO “WT ‘ah “psy ‘preyetoyoy UULVTTTLAL
a "aw ‘Aeptoppy “ag ‘9 ‘NOR WWSny on
ee eee tee e ee ee Sits seu oe 19489010 jo doystg pio'y aut “AOU JUSIY OTL
see csswerl “std “TOE “Wit “Aoqsoqq01M pzory ‘woH FySHY ONL,
** 9IIS1oqsa010 \\ JO FUBTIOJNOL'T-pAo'T “WO9J99QAT PLOT “MOF, SY ors,
sores * OTIGCSYOIMIBA JO JUBUAINOLT-plo'T ‘SIT ploy ‘uo 4ysty on,
LEE IDODOUOSOSO SUD OUC IODA OLA AO C2 OAK) 4 sa JO [AVY 94 “MOR yYSny oq,
SATYSPLOYIS JO WVU WOVT-pLOT “PLOBYOYT Jo [Leg O49 “UOH FUSTT oT,

PO COOUSHCN ERC IO Senay Seca r “Dery ‘stapueg |

*y'd ‘olfog *q “9 *AoY oT,
*bsq ‘urepraqmeyp Aruoy, uyor
‘Syd “bsg “unt ‘smoyqeyy WerTA\

"eget ‘9 azaqmiajdeg ‘WVHDNIWUIG
**** NIOJXO Jo APISIOATUA 949 UT ASoTOIH Jo TOSsojorT
SOU “SU “AIT “WW “bse ‘SdITIIHd NHOL

ee

treseereeeeeneese shor OSUTMOIG "TH SIOUBAT
iia i "TW “bsg ‘Ae Ay “TW

San cain Speci ieee a Ae et Ce
1 aes aietelatelateievaleia ete tozsie elefeipralele lain oteteinte a ;
“bsg ‘stavd “a ‘od AN ODOC ONGC OMOOD ON OnaG +o 4s5" projoroH Jo Weaq 049 ren ex gee pr dca eee TORE ‘FT roquiaydos HIVE
“sor “bsg ‘ar00qy “0 | ste eeeeeeeeereveeeeeeeecceeee trBMMIOg PLOT ‘UOH SN OWL Swa “TO'd “VW “Meg “ITAAT SHTUVHO UIS

ee eee n eee

tteseeeeececcooeeeess TOSTON [IU ‘MOH ISI on,
COR MOCRIEBODO COCO site Jo SMbrVy_ O49 OTGON SOP on,

eee eee eee eee ee re er i res

** aarqsqes
-IdM0g JO JUBMAMT'T-p10'T “ATOLIO pUB YAH Jo [AVY oy} "MoH WYySNy oy)

Ce SW “Ont “Dag “aIeqITe,7 TBI AA
eee ewe eee eee SW UW "aa JoTTeAoyH SmE "AW
ete saggy | UUETETDT TESTES ESS teens ee erent eee eateaeeeeeeee SIQQTISUDT
qe ee Oe SULUTPL JO O4NGSUT WioyIALON oY} JO yUOpIserg “bsy ‘pooA, selOyoIN "E981 ‘9g 4snSNY ‘ANAT-NO-ATISVOMAN
*bsqq ‘oqqo | citterteteessestssssss onsvomony Jo Joke “bsg Teg UBTPMOT BEST PA SHE MOTT “GO “ONOWLSNUY ‘A UIS
THON "V | ee ** opely [vop oyy Jo uvuLreyH “bsg ‘t0;Avy, ySny
eee "SOUT StS A B ake lta “OTT T2947 soTTeyO mg
SECO EERE HH HEH eee ee ee eeeeee ‘VI “neg ‘aeAoaory, ve) TOUVM us
*"SBINVLAYOSS 1vO071 *SLNAGISSYd-39IA *SLNAGISSYd

“Sd TO’ ‘sdiyd t0sseyorg “proyperg Jo 1okvTy OUT,

*bsqy ‘uosdu0y,f, oTted
ude dW “TOqSIOT "HM “WOH WSK OUT

“bsg ‘prsppoy pasyony
‘a'd ‘Teadure,) "y *f¢ aoe att,

"CIOL SLL qaquuaydag * auodavud
i iy oe ‘SOT Scour iT

“Q'Ud ‘NOSWVITTIA ‘M UMAONVXATV WOSsadoud

‘S'O'd “S'H'd ‘Aegsymvy Ugor Aig ‘SW “T'O'a “bsy “qorssvy ‘a “¢
Sete eeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeerseeessecunred GTO MOTSNOH PLOT

Misiele/aiaisisie\ols.<isia s(s sai Zeer ea cy “Our ‘asso JO [Avy og ‘Uo, qUsNT ouL

: ee a ee ‘s'T a * ‘SH “009 “TT ‘Aodveys Aas
“bs ‘999011EM Atma frets sttts sgug gs grt nu) “Sard “a W “yreq “yooqqny uyor us
“TIWLLD “UT “AOU OUT
“bsg ‘topued 1H sopreyD

tevevens te ‘ZIST ‘FL ysnsny ‘NoLHoIig
SOU Ta“) EA MOEN TOT OIE EME OER TUS LE OUIT: > ataleelnn anteetierate Hee een intr rt a:
Ble’eioteivetsjs) "'TO'E “O'd “OM ‘PuotNy Jo aynq ayy ‘uoH IWAN OU, STa “SW “ATT “UaLNaddy) “A “M Ud
so: aie oie ula) 1's u Wis iam erateinyul Vinca ata Serseeeeete esse se © sT10340N JO ONCE OTL

“Te ssxossng Jo AWuNOD 919 Jo yuvUOINoLyT-pxO'T ‘“TogsoyoIy Jo [req oy,

—— "919 ‘sarg ‘ ‘SW “bsg as
nr ceteh ceaceaae Uae pase See Doers SoS Ve “SIT “Moye” lossoyorg
GRROMU COORG OGUIOORSEI n Gat ept( jee AL Tord “Ane “Wostystaty) 10ss9}0%e

“'S'pid “Sud * ‘TOE “3eg ‘TAT soprey) Is

“CSW “bsg Spray “a *e

eee Sad SW “ao “ephetg WoAT “aq
tose eeacyare a ero “s" as") tat ‘0° YE “qxeg, MostyoIMpL *[ orLapory aS "TLST ‘2 qsnusny ‘HpunaNiagy
‘US Wa “GW ‘uMorg wndD "Vy cosseyorg Ve ave caves ®

“*PURAOS Jo [BLoMI9H-90N}sUL PLOT “LTT ‘S'SUT UYor “WOR ISNT ONL
ttreeeeseeeccesecouse UAMAMIPH JO ISOAOLT PLOT 049 ‘WOH qUsny ou
ey “SAT a i @ 14 | “Oy ‘qonepoong jo oud a9 0B. STH’

iter gpg STO TOC “CTT “bee Fomor "a sc |
Syd TO MOTT “ate “TATOMATT AL UdoBO PAIS ‘OLRT Spi: xoaeddaden "sOamIT

eoeces Come we reer eset ecsceeee oe Db ‘ . ra
eee ne ies i gc Sapa! i ‘SOU “SW “C11 ‘ATTXOH ‘Il \L Wossamoud

‘V's ‘emmy “V “Id “AoYy,
VIN ‘sulsary * HW Aquepy *Aoyy
“bsg ‘Wostaey, preursery

*1O|SIURE "MA “ADIT

LW TOE OU spely “HAL “UO FSI OUT,
aa ELEN SE TE CLS ary pels ha pa uopesgy Aory svdyeyy ep dim as
AD OPAC GV sp Ch TL ‘Kqaay jo req any “uo qqsanNy en

fe aahc cata sec nares ‘Sw Son “wit “bso “oqrez, XOq *H |

‘UBMIE "Wy “AOL OUT, Peewee ewes te eeeee Saelsesneitle ceare TOcsO SET ‘xo, ATO A\ W.10COY

‘bsg ‘suramog "9 uyor
SVUWaA “bsg ‘stig ‘gs Aue

“6981 ‘8 gsngny “ua.caxn

a ST “Sd “CW “bse Sraquadaep "g WUITILAL : :
“e's “TO'd ‘SHMOLS “9 T)uoTN wossauoud

f ateatit adyens site Rk CML 2: pian a seaie & eR EINES ‘a'TT ‘SuLIMog uygor ag
eh rom Sa “ao “eg ‘eq00U}ON “A pAOprig Us “UOH ISN OU
WiseeeeersStiessSebesseetseteses GOAQC JO [LUI O19 MOR JUST OL

eee eee ee ee ee ee od SiN eroe. 9 Skaue0) Sree shee shea sees ise OB DET:
-WBD Jo ApISIOATI ay9 Uy ArgoUI0ey puv AMOUOISy JO TOssoyoIg
TPAOH SpurA MouUD ‘aoy | weaspuMoT “Sy Uy “Sa “TOC “VW “bse ‘suepy yonop uyor
"VI ‘uoydu041, ydasor *hayy See te eee ee es cueiens syns Song “sa “qaeg ‘yooqqny uyor as
‘eqdursajeq prwuog ‘aq |**** o8praquiuy jo Aqrst9aTt ‘1. Ol} UT ASoTOe! JO AOSsojorg Werpazvar
“poom “oR “SOW “SW “AIT “WW SPIaspeg wepy “Aor ou
eee ee eee ee ee eT weer ‘SW “qreg ‘nuaflog lojag uyor 11g
*“*** H[OHON JO FUBUOQNe!T-pAoT ‘1oyseole'T Jo [req yy “MOH WANT OUT

"S981 “6L IsusNY “HOLMUON

oie ais Fiei9 sis) s/6-e/0\e,v aiSlare'e(e.aza:8/a)sinipie\e sis einiel scales Scie eR tT yay

“Sud “TO'd “GN ‘UaXOOH NOLIVa Hdasor

{i adrca ne tr eeeeeeeeseseseeborr ToMay SIE i

1879.

‘Sod “os'a “Va “bsg ‘toytiadaey yuey “A

(SS sera ra ear ‘S'O'd “sna ‘ “S'W ‘SUNPO *A\ TOssojor.y
eater =i 982) ‘ST “SH 008 “ATT “ad ‘AeTxnH “A “L 1ossojorg

viseegeneteseeteaesrors suerte (Jonny Jeqsepy) “bs ‘WleIE "HMA “6L8T “02 ysusnY ‘ata

QD AC SOCIO CE OCT ISTE CORO COON DIO’ Tetra ca df WTI

“*bsq ‘Ssoqy “WZ |
Rig eames ae eee aaa ‘oMOULET MA JO [eq oyy “WOH 9UsIy a | om RT'S SOIT CN INVIVTTV ‘¢°) WOSSTTOUd

"SO “Sa “bsg ‘Aqaog sine
seeeeeeeesee egy gral “P'S UMMAH LE OU) "UOH AUB ULL,
‘SDUU “SU COIT “VW “YH ‘“ertysuoaeq jo ey ey} aoBIH SIH

eee eee eee ‘Su “00g “CTT ‘TO’ “WW ‘se4099 "5 *4) LOSSOJOLT

Terre ee eee eee ee eee ee . “VT W ‘weseH 0 Ploy “WOH WS! OU.L
Raareii ec iaisteloeata vtereyecelaisieicie’s(sisiveins: vis Pe teeeeetteeneew en opera py F ; .
mn By ‘ Sr SLOT ‘PL ysusny ‘xiang
SVU sw * TOG * sats OSSOY JO [TV OF “MOH FST OWL | secesravevesesessecveceees SOT OSV OS

sete eeeee ts ‘ueT[Lystuug JO [Tey 2 uo Sry ou HY RiGea Cysstatyae Unies ‘ C
Cesena Dect ores ks qe ee eee Sang STSCI ey | CCL" IMD Clea ean Ae re TTA

‘aw “WOSTOSIS *x) IOSsejoIg
"CTT “bsg ‘pooazon uyor
“bsg ‘you sour

‘SW CV ‘Ned ‘8 “Hl Tossojorg
Tere eee ee eee ee ee ey ulyquad ‘aZ9T109 Aqtowy, JO 9SOAOLG ou,

eee eee eee eee eee) uyquq jo 10Aeyy palo'y oy "MOR ISIY OUT,

"LIST “GT qsnsny ‘HLAOWATG
‘a1IlT “GW ‘NOSKOHL NAITY WOSsaToOud

ee eee eee ee ewer eee et eeeeene "Sua * "TO f “Wn ‘ “bsg £ apnory WRITE,

"Ds ‘przoyjoqIy A WO4TTULe Ay
Se SOW SVU “Sw “OTT “VN “bsg “epoomsiqqods wmer(tA\ -

“‘bsy ‘orenbg We

“Dsq ‘step y WITT

eet ee ee eer er eres eee eeee eres ‘S'T'd “S'wad “bs bea fopnoag mes |
tee ee eee ee eeeeseeees enemies “PIOSHOVIEL POT “WOH IUSNT OL |

Pe rr +s oq mmMospiy-qunoyy jo [leq ony ‘MOR YSN OL

PUPS Secs MORE cise SSeS ye) iris pe een Cee ‘XBSULVyL, Fe) ny 1088930. |
“beg Nommuepy "ae | eT Ss ed SOT OCW ‘wosMOYyL, WalTY 1OssaJorg | “9181 ‘9 Toqmoydag ‘MODsV'TD

“bsg ‘ouveyeay a ‘aR TSW‘ "To'd | ‘art * Wit ‘MostIOyT, WRITEM Us - fee e eee eee ene nn ee eee eee eeeeee sees seerrecunre T OTT
‘SYA “OMI “A iad beets tereeees ony Ow Sqivg TPMXeY SUIPIIS WUTIM US) “Swe AIT’ Ah SMATANV SVNOHL UOSsadoud

Tee eee ee ee ee ee ee MOSSPLS) Jo ySOAOIg ploy oy} ‘UO oT,
seg SRT Sad CO'TT “L's ‘WASty Jo oxnd ey eoRrH STH

Poe eee UUEU EU COSC eee eee eee ee ‘SD “S'a'ad “bso ‘stepusg “A
apsusmaseccnes cts tsa Owl Seles eeu ‘a'TT ‘raquedrep ‘g "M “AC
‘bsq ‘oyIrIO “A UNL | ‘SOW a “SM “CCITT “aoe ‘SosuTTMey “OD Aue tg Teteue4- zoleyy "GIQT ‘ez ysnsny “1o1slug
CORREO Oe HEHE HEHEHE EE OHHH HEHEHE EH EEE [OUSLIEL jo 10AVP OULL see ewww ‘yOu oS “a0 ‘MVHSHMVH Noe UIs
SU CaAW “a “4g ‘OJOOTION “H PIOPVIS WS “WOH FSTY ONL
eee eee ee SOU “SW ‘orond jo [Avy og ‘NOH YOQSIY ONL,

tregerd “Tr SoHOIS IOsseOLd ‘SU “Tosmiqow “Ad *4°u)
tense veces cess secunre ay (SMQIPUY “AC *“fuay “A “ACY. FIAT ‘eI qenany FERVECAE

*bsq ‘avepoutg “7,
see e tee eeee cree seeteteeeseeenenetes eqey Gq rpey ‘nog ago | seerrogarar “CTT Tod “IVANELL ‘£ WOSsaowd

"MO ‘OTN “HY Iossejorg

“bs ‘QIeMq sngareny “A Siaiefelele!aieisinie\0)0)€,0\0,0\aa\0:4.0 e.e.0ieisiexecyenys or ‘assoy Jo [1e5, ayg ‘uo qUSKy OU

treseeeeesenes sured Grog UOTPISIMG JO [GL ot} “UOH JUST OUT
‘saluVL3YOaS 1V907 *SLNAGISAYd-JONA ‘SLN3GISaud

1858. Leeds

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

XXXV

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS,

COMMITTEE

1832.
1833.
1834.

Cambridge
Edinburgh

1835. Dublin......
1836. Bristol......
1837.

1838.

Liverpool...
Newcastle

1839. Birmingham
1840, Glasgow ...

1841, Plymouth
1842. Manchester

1843.
1844.
1845. Cambridge

1846.
ton.
1847. Oxford......

Southamp-

1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham

1850.
1851.

Edinburgh

Ipswich ...
1852.
1853.
1854, Liverpool...
1855.
1856.

Belfast......

Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

1857. Dublin......

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.

Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof, Forbes.
Prof, Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Rev. Dr. Robinson
Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....

Profs, HOrbes, HRS. ...scccccece

Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. ......

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.1.A.

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.

The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.

Sir John F. W. Herschel,

Bart., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Powell, M.A.,
F.RB.S.
Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......
William Hopkins, F.R.S.......

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.

Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
E.BRS., &e.

Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
F.RS. L. & E.
The Very Rev. the Dean of

Ely, F.R.S.

Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
B.S.

Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.RB.S. L. & E.

Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.

Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA,

Rev. W. Whewell,
V.P.R.S.

D.D,,

b 2

Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof,
Wheatstone.

Prof. Forbes, W. 8. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.

W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.

Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith,

Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby. :

...|J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
...|Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly, G.
G. Stokes.

John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes,

Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof. Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,

Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,

Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof,
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.

C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.

Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof,
Tyndall.

XXXV1 REPORT—1879.

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1859. Aberdeen...|The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,|J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
F.R.S. J. S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
1860. Oxford...... Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....}Rev. G@ C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
1861. Manchester}]G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,|Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
F.R.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
1862. Cambridge |Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,]Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
F.R.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
1863. Newcastle |Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine| Rev.N.Ferrers,Prof.Fuller,F.Jenkin,
C.E., F.R.S. Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley.
1864, Bath......... Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,|Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
F.R.A.S. Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

1865. Birmingham | W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.| Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.

1866.
1867.
1868.
1869,
1870.

1871.

1872.
1873.
1874.

1875.

1876

1877
1878
1879

1832.

1833
1834

F.R.A.S. S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Nottingham|Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,|Fleeming Jenkin, Prof.H.J.S.Smith,

F.R.S. Rev. 8. N. Swann.

Dundee ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,| Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
F.R.S. Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.

Norwich ...|Prof.. J. Tyndall, LUL.D.,|Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
E.R.S. R. B. Hayward.

Exeter ...... Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,|Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
E.R.S. W. K. Clifford.

Liverpool...|J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,|Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
LL.D., F.R.S. Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen

Whitworth.

Edinburgh |Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...|Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Brighton ...|W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Prof. W.K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
Bradford ...| Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S. | Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.
Belfast...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,|J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,

M.R.LA. Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.
Bristol ...... Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,|Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
LL.D., F.R.S. C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.
Glasgow ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,| Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
DCG, aH ea Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.
Plymouth,..| Prof.G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,|Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Pres. Physical Soc. J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Dublin...... Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,|Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
D.C.L., F.R.S. W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
Sheffield ...|George Johnstone Stoney,}A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.
M.A., F.R.S. O. J. Lodge, D. McAlister.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IJ.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.

Oxford Sese ee John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. |James F. W. Johnston.
Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Prof. Miller.
Edinburgh |Dr. Hope ..........+s00+s eeeene se Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

XXXV1i

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

Date and Place

1835.

1836.

1837.
1838.
1839. Birmingham |

1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.

1848.

1849. Birmingham

1850.
1851.
1852.

1853.
1854.

1855.
1856.

1857.

1858.

— :1859.

1861.

1860,

1862.

1864.
1865, Birmingham

~

1863,

1866.
—->
1867.

Dublin......
Bristol ......

Liverpool...

Newcastle
|

Glasgow ...)
Plymouth...

Manchester

Cambridge
Southamp-
ton
Oxford...... |
Swansea ...
Edinburgh

Ipswich ...
Belfast......

Liverpool
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Aberdeen... |
Oxford

Manchester
Cambridge

Newcastle

BAUD ss eopy-0°

Nottingham

| Dr.

Dundee

|

Presidents

Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.5. ......
Rev. Prof. Cumming

eee eeeeee

Michael Faraday, F.R.S.......
Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S.

Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.8.

Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S.

eeeeeecee

John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Apjohn, M.R.1.A
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......
Rey. Prof. Cumming

Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
E.R.S.

Richard Phillips, F.R.8. ......

John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......

Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E.

Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.8.

Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

..|Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,

F.RB.S,
Prof. W. A.Miller,M.D.,F.R.S.

| Dr, Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...

Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.

Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B.,F.R.S.

Prof, B. C. Brodie, F.R.S......

Prof. W.A. Miller, M.D.,F.R.8.
Prof, W.A. Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.

Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.

W.Odling, M.B.,F.R.S.,F.C.S.

Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,
V.P.R.S.

H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. T. Anderson, M.D.,

F.R.S.E.

1868. Norwich ... Prof. E, Frankland, F.B.S.,

1869.

Exeter

F.C.S.
Dr. H. Debus, F.B.S., F.C.S.

Secretaries

Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston,

Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.

Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.

Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.

Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B., Melson,

Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.

J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.

Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham,

R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.

Dr. L.Playfair, E.Solly,T. H. Barker.

R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
E. Solly.

Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.

B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.

T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T, Williams.

R. Hunt, G. Shaw.

Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr, Wilson,

T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.

Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.

H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T, J,
Pearsall.

Dr.Edwards,Dr.Gladstone, Dr.Price,

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.

J: Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul«
livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R, Rey-
nolds.

J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D,
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.

Prof. Liveing, H. L, Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson. |

A.V.Harcourt,Prof.Liveing,R.Biggs,

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J,
Russell, J. White.

A. Crum Brown, Prof, G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell,

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.

Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

XXXVili

REPORT—1879.

a
Date and Place |

Presidents

1870, Liverpool...|Prof. H. HE. Roscoe, B.A.,
E.R.S., F.C.S.

1871. Edinburgh | Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.

1872. Brighton ...| Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....

1873. Bradford ...| Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....

1874. Belfast...... Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S.

1875. Bristol...... A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.

1876. Glasgow ...|W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. ......

1877. Plymouth...|F. A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...

1878, Dublin...... Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
F.B.S., F.C.S.

1879. Sheffield ...|Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.

Secretaries

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. EH. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.

J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.

Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.

Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.

Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

..|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,

J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden,

Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.

W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.

H. S. Beli, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.

GEOLOGICAL (ann, untin 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

.|John Taylor.
..| W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.

Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rev. J. Yates.

Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.

1832. Oxford ...... R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ...
1833. Cambridge .|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S.....
1834. Edinburgh .| Prof, Jameson .............000.-
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1835. Dublin...... Rade TUNG. ..0c;cecseonseeeee
1836. Bristol ...... Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—|

eure aphy, R. I. Murchison,
F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—

Geography, G.B.Greenough,
E.RB.S.

1837. Liverpool...

1838. Newcastle...|C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
Geography, Lord Prudhope.

Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
ange aphy, G.B. Greenough, |

Charles tells F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
E.R.S.

1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...

1841. Plymouth...|H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S.

1842, Manchester | R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......

1843. Cork......... Richard EH. Griffith, F.R.S.,

; M.R.I.A.

1844. York......... Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soc.

1845. Cambridge.|Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
F.R.S.

1846. Southamp-
ton

Leonard Horner, F'.R.S.—-Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.K.S.

William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury, T.
J. Torrie.

Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo-
graphy, Captain H. M. Denham,
RN

W.C. “Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H. EH. Strick-

land, Charles Darwin.

W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.

..| W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,

R. Hutton.

E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.

Francis M. Jennings, H. H. Strick-
| and.

Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

| Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rey. W. Thorp.

Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norten,
Prof. Oldham.— Geography, Dr. C.
T. Beke.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

OF THE SECTIONS. XXX1X

Date and Place Presidents

Secretaries

1847. Oxford......

1848. Swansea ...|Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
E.R.S. |

1849.Birmingham|Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

1850. Edinburgh'|Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
F.R.S.

Very Rey.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S. |

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.

Starling Benson, Prof.
Prof. Ramsay.

J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof,
A. C. Ramsay.

A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.

Oldham,

SECTION C (continued).—GEOLOGY.

1851. Ipswich ...} WilliamHopkins,M.A.,F.R.S.
1852. Belfast...... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,
F.R.S.

1853. Hull......... Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........
1854. Liverpool..| Prof. Edward Forbes, F,R.S.
1855. Glasgow ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
1856. Cheltenham| Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....
1857. Dublin...... The Lord Talbot de Malahide
1858. Leeds ...... William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.B.S.

1859. Aberdeen...|Sir Charles Lyell, LL. D.,

D.C.L., F.R.S.
1860. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.B.S., F.G.5.
1861. Manchester | Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
1862. Cambridge |J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.
1863. Newcastle |Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
1864. Bath......... Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
1865. Birmingham|Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.
1866, Nottingham] Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
E.B.S.
1867, Dundee ... Satea Geikie, F.R.S.,
E,G.S.
1868. Norwich ...|R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
_ 1869, Exeter ...... Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G,S.

1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh

Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Prof, A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.

C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.

James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.

Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.

Nicol.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.

Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw. ‘

Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
D. C. L. Woodall.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert

Jones, H. C. Sorby.

E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Themas Sopwith.

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

Rey. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.

R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.

Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.

Rey. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,

Rey. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.

R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, J. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.

1 Ata meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved “ That

the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the ‘Geographical and Ethno~
logical Section,’” for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xliii.

xl

REPORT—1879.

el

Date and Place

1872.
1873.

1874.

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.

1837.
1838.

1839. Birmingham

1840.

1841.
1842.

1843.
1844.

1845.

1846.

1847.

» Bristol......
. Glasgow ...

. Plymouth...

. Sheffield ...

Brighton...
Bradford ...

Belfast

Cambridge?
Edinburgh . |

seeeee

Liverpool...

Newcastle

Glasgow ...

Plymouth...
Manchester

eee eeeee

Cambridge
Southamp-

ton
Oxford

Presidents

Secretaries

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. Hull. M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.,
F.G.8.
Prof. John Young, M.D. ......

W. Pengelly, F.R.S. ......0cc00e

John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.

Prof. P. Martin Duncar, M.B.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.

L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.

F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.

L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Top-
ley.

J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W.
Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.

W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.

Rey. P. B. Duncan, F.G.5. ...
Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.
Prof. Graham

Rey. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
C. C. Babington, D. Don.
|W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

Dr.vAllman... tasesc<ecs sane beekoe
Rev. Prof. Henslow

W.S8; MacLeay.c.--...-.s pert
Sir W; Jardine, Bart. .........

Profs Owersihe BS. os. oceeesee
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......
John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.
Hon. and Very Rey. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.
William Thompson, F.L.S....

Very Rey. the Dean of Man-
chester.

Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....

Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S.

ies E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.

J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.

J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8.
Rootsey.

C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.

J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson,

E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.

Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.

J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson,

Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner. f

G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson,

Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridg’e.

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.

SECTION D (continued).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

_ [For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsec-
tions and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. xlii.]

1848.

Swansea ...

1849. Birmingham

oa Wiebuliwyn, HOR.S. 1.5...

William Spence, F.R.S.

|Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen- °
frey, Dr. Lankester.
|Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.

* At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. xlii.

i tee eee

PRESIDENTS

AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

xli

Date and Place

Presidents

1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.

1862.
1863.

1864.

Edinburgh
Ipswich
Belfast......
Po). 22... ee
Liverpool...

Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Manchester

Cambridge
Newcastle

Bath.........

1865. Birmingham

1866.

1867.

1868.

1869.

1870.

1871.

} At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved:
of Section D be changed to Biology ;

Nottingham

Dundee

Norwich ...

Exeter ......

Liverpool...

.|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. B.S

Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.

.../Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,

F.R.S.
|W. SANDY tec ocelncsaatscucamneee ee
|C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.
| Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.

Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
F.R.S.
|C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.

..| Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.

Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....

Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S.

T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.

SECTION D (continued)

|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
—Physiological Dep., Prof.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—
Anthropological Dep., Alf.
R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.

—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.
—Dep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.

George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.8.
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.

Prof.G. Rolleston, M. A., M.D.,
Hee Si yh uss. — De -D»
Anat. and Ph ysiol., Prof. M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.8.—Dep.
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S.

.|H. B. Brady, C.

Secretaries

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F'. W. Johnston, Dr. E,

Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.

$.| Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.

Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.

William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.

|Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.

Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.

Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.

W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H,
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

E. Broom, H. T.

Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

.| Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.

H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

.—BIOLoey.!

Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.

.|C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr.

M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T,
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.

Dr. T. S$. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
EK. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,

of

H. T Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.

Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.

Edinburgh |Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,| Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,

F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and
Zo0l,,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof; W. Turner, M.D.

E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.

—«That the title

* and “That for the word ‘Subsection,’ in the

rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘ Department’ besubstituted.”

xlii

REPORT—1 879.

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

1872. Brighton ...

1873. Bradford ...

1874.

1875.

1876. Glasgow

1877. Plymouth...

1878. Dublin

1879. Sheffield ...

Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.— |
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson, |
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.

Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of |
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.— Dep. of An-
thropol., Dy. Beddoe, F.R.S.

Prof. Redfern, M.D.— Dep. of'
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.

P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Cle-
land, M.D., F.R.S.—Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston, |
M.D., F.R.S.

A. Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,
F.L.8.— Dep. of Zool. and
Bot., Prof. A: Newton, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen-
drick, F.R.S.E.

J.GwynJeftreys, LL. D.,F.R.S.,
F.L.8.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. Macalister,
M.D.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Francis Galton, M.A.,F.R.S8.

Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Amnthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol. R.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-

Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, HE. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey.

W.T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler,

E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.

E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.

Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.

Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-

son.

KE. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.

Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.

Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schiifer.

|

siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCTENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1833
1834

. Cambridge
. Edinburgh

See

eee e cena ee eeee

Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.

SECTION B. (UNTIL 1847.)—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

1835
1836
1837

. Dublin
EESTISLON, Se dace
. Liverpool...

aeeeee

1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...

Dr Pritchard ee-ssitsescescecces
DriqRosetephl Has. pceeesececcn ats
Proft-“WeiG@larks, MeDin se csse.ce

T. HE. Headlam, M.D. .........
John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....
James Watson, M.D.

seeeeeeee

Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.

Dr. Symonds.

Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

T. M. Greénhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.

I SS

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

xliii

Date and Place

1841.

1842.
1843.
1844

1845.
1846.

1847.

1850.
1855.
1857.
1858.

1859.
1860.

1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.

1865.

Presidents

Secretaries

Plymouth... P. M. Roget, M.D., See. B.S.

Manchester |Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.
Pecktese Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ..
VG SSeS J.C. Pritchard, M.Dpes. 22%

Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S.
Sargent.
Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

.|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.

Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ......

Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
ton
Oxford! ...| Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......

Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.

.|C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-

gent.
Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W, P.
Ormerod.

PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.

Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.H.

Glasgow ... Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.8.

Dublin......|Prof. R. Harrison, M.D, ......

Leeds ...... 'Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,
E.R.S.

Aberdeen... | Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.5.

Oxford......,Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D.,
F.L.S.

Manchester Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L.& E.

Cambridge C. E. Paget, M.D................

Neweastle |Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.

IBablieesse.. \Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,
| K.RS.

Birminghm.? Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,
| ERS.

Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
C. G. Wheelhouse.

Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.

Dr. R. M*Donnell, Dr. Edward
Smith.

Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.

G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.

Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.

J. S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.

Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

{For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,

Pp. XXXVili.]

ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1846.Southampton| Dr. Pritchard.................666 Dr. King.
1847. Oxford...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...|Prof. Buckley.
W848. Swansea ...|..cccccscccssecsscscecnseseeeesesenenss G. Grant Francis.
RAO ITMIN CHAM), 2. ccs ss2-.0ccececssnsoccenarersssnses. Dr. R. G. Latham.

1850. Edinburgh |Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.

1851.

1852.
1853.

1854.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Ipswich .../Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,
Pres. R.G.S.

Belfast...... Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

PEN pao eras sites 5 R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.

Liverpool...|Sir R. I, Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.

|R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.

| Norton Shaw.

R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton

| Shaw.

R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.

Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.

Thne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated under the name of “Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-

siology”’ (see p. xl).

Geography.

2

Vide note on page xli.

The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to

xliv REPORT—1879.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1855. Glasgow ...,Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,|Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
F.R.S. Norton Shaw.
1856. Cheltenham!Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,!R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
K.C.B. Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1857. Dublin...... Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,|R. Cull, 8S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Pres. R.I.A. Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S., R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Calla-
¥.B.S. | ghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.
1859. Aberdeen...|Rear - Admiral Sir James Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. ton Shaw.
1860. Oxford...... Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,'Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
F.R.S. | Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1861. Manchester|John Crawfurd, F.R.S.......... Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
1862. Cambridge |Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... J. W. Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr.
' Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T.
Wright.
1863. Newcastle |Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
F.R.S. , C. R. Markham, R. S. Watson.
1864. Bath......... Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B., H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee

1868. Norwich ...

1869. Exeter

seeeee

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh

1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford ...
» 1874,

1875.

1876. Glasgow ...
1877.

1878.

Plymouth...
Dublin

weeeee

1879. Sheffield ...

F.R.S. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.
Major-General Sir H. Raw- H. W. Bates, 8. Evans, G. Jabet, C.
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S., BR. Markham, Thomas Wright.

Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
LL.D.

.|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.

Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
F.R.S.

|H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
| D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

‘H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.
Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R. Stur-
rock.

T. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark-
ham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (continued).—GEOGRAPHY.

Sir Bartle Frere, K.GB.,

LL.D., F.R.G.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,
KC Bibs. DiGi
F.R.S., F.G.8.

Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.

Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.

Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E.,C.8.1.,F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S.

Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......

Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E.
Clements R. Markham, C.B.,

F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.

=

H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.

H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.

Clements R. Markham, A. Buchan,
J. H. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston,

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.

E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.

H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
Tuckett.

H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.

H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, HE. C. Rye.

John Coles, E. C. Rye.

H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C.
Rye.

~~

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. xlv

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.

1833. Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........{J. E. Drinkwater.
1834. Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.......| Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.

SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
1835. Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......|W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.

1836. Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.|Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.

1837. Liverpool...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon......... W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
1838. Newcastle |Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........|W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.
1839. Birmingham| Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........|F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
1840. Glasgow ...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,|C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
E.R.S. Rawson.
1841. Plymouth...|Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... Rey. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
1842. Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...|Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
1843. Cork......... Sir C, Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...|Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1844. York......... Lieut.- Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,/J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
FE.L.S. cock.
1845. Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam |J. Fletcher, Dr. W, Cooke Tayler.
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............ J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
ton C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
1847. Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L.. F.R.S.|Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
' 1848. Swansea ...|/J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
1849. Birmingham | Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton...... Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.
1850. Edinburgh |Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,}Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
V.P.R.S.E. | Stark.

1851. Ipswich ...|Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...|J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
1852. Belfast...... His Grace the Archbishop of} Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
Dublin. MacAdam, jun.

i350. Hull......... James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.|Edward Cheshire, Wm. Newmarch.
1854, Liverpool.,../Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........|E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.

1855. Glasgow ...|R. Monckton Milnes, MP. ...|J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-

: march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.

SECTION F (continued).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

1856. Cheltenham| Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. |Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.

M. Tartt.
1857. Dublin...... His Grace the Archbishop of] Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Dublin, M.R.LA. Newmarch.
1858. Leeds ....... Edward Baines......... eae T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown,

Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
1859. Aberdeen...| Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S, ......| Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M.
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
1860. Oxford...... Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......]Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarcl,
Rey. Prof. J. E, T. Rogers.

xlvi

REPORT— 1879.

Date and Place

Presidents Secretaries

1861. Manchester | William Newmarch, F.R.8....| David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. E. T.
Rogers.
1862. Cambridge | Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........|H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
1863. Newcastle .| William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....]T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
1864. Bath......... William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,|E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.
E.R.S.
1865. Birmingham | Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,|G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
M.P. E. Macrory.
1866. Nottingham | Prof. J. E. T. Rogers............ R. Birkin, jun., Prof, Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.
1867. Dundee .....| M. E. Grant Duff, M.P. ....... Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden,
1868. Norwich....|Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit.;Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
| Actuaries.
1869. Exeter ...... Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-| Edmund Macyrory, Frederick Purdy,
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P. Charles T. D. Acland.
1870. Liverpool...| Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.|Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
1871. Edinburgh | Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves. ......... J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
1872. Brighton ...| Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....|J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
1873. Bradford ...| Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.|J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
1874. Belfast...... ord. O?Hagan .:-...+--useeere ee Prof. Donnell, Frank P. Fellows,
Hans MacMordie.
1875. Bristol...... James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,|/F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Pres.8.58. Macrory.
1876. Glasgow ...|Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L,|A. M‘Neel Caird, T. G. P. Hallett,
M.P. Dr. W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W.
Jack.
1877. Plymouth...|Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue |W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.
1878. Dublin...... Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,|W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.
M.R.LA.
1879. Sheffield ...|G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.|Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
8.8. Molloy.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G,—MECHANICAL SCIENCE,
1836. Bristol...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.| T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
1837. Liverpool...| Rev. Dr. Robinsor ............ Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
1838. Newcastle |Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......|R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.
Webster. ;
1839. Birmingham | Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.|W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Stephenson. Webster.
1840. Glasgow ....}Sir John Robinson ........... ,.|J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.
1841. Plymouth |John Taylor, F.R.S. ............ Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
1842, Manchester | Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S.......|J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
1843. Cork......... Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.LA ...|James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
1844. York......... Jonni Waylors RS. cssseossence Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
1845. Cambridge |George Rennie, F.R.S. Rev. W. T. Kingsley.
1846,.Southampton| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.| William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.
1847. Oxford...... Rev. Professor Walker, M.A.,|J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.

F.R.S.

PRESIDENTS AND

Date and Place

1848.
1849.

1850.
1851.

1852.

1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.

1858.
1859.

1860.
1861.

1862.
1863.

1864.

Swansea ...
Birmingham
Edinburgh

Ipswich .....
Belfast

Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Dublin

Leeds ......
Aberdeen...

Oxford ......

Manchester

Cambridge
Newcastle

Bath

Presidents

SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

xvii

Secretaries

Rev. Professor Walker, M.A.,

Robert Stephenson, M.P.,
F.R.S.
Rev. R. Robinson .............5-

William Cubitt, F.R.S..........

John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, C.E.,
F.R.S.

John Scott Russell, F.R.S.

W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
George Rennie, F.R.S. .........

Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...

.|Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A, F.R.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....

Wm. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. — M.A., F.R.S.

J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S.

1865. Birmingham |Sir W. G. Armstrong, Lise

1866.
1867.
1868.

1869.
1870.

1871.
1872.
1873.

1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.

F.R.S.

R, A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.

Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.

John Head, Charles Manby.

John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.

James Oldham, J. Thomson, W.
Sykes Ward.

John Grantham,
Thomson.

L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, J.
Thomson.

C. Atherton, B. Jones, jun., H. M.
Jeffery.

Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.

R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.

W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.

P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.

.|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.

P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W.
P. Marshall, Walter May.

J. Oldham, J,

Nottingham|Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst.|P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.

Dundee......
Norwich ...

Exeter ......
Liverpool...

Edinburgh
Brighton ...

Bradford ...

Belfast

Bristol ......
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin

Sheffield ...

C.E., F.G.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.B.S.

G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G-S.

C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F. R. Ss.

Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, C.E. ...
W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ...
Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.
C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ...
Edward Woods, C.E.

teens

Edward Easton, C.E.

J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.

A. Tarbottom.

P. Le PS pe Foster, John P. Smith,

Urquhart.

Ps fe Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.

.|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.

H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J.
P. Smith.

.|H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,

J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

..|Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman, E.

H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw, J.
N. Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.

W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

.|W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar, J.

N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.

A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.

A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.

xlviii

REPORT—1879.

List of Evening Lectures.

Date and Place

Lecturer

1842. Manchester

1843. Cork

ee eeeaeee

1844. York

1845. Cambridge

1846. Southamp-
ton.

1847. Oxford

1848. Swansea ...
1849, Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast......

1853. Hull.........

1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...

1856. Cheltenham

1857. Dublin......

Charles Vignoles, F.R.S.......

Sir M. I. Brunel
Rd NiMNCHISOM fcc ceenss sees e
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S..........

Dr. Robinson
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ........:
Dr, Falconer, F'.R-S......0ccsss

ee ee eee

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ........
Win RaNGTOVE; LE Sulenesten sincere

Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.......

Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.5....
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......

W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S..
Dr. Faraday, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M. A. F. R. 8.

Prof. J. H. Bennett,
F.R.S.E.

M.D.,

Dr. Mantell, F.R.S.

.| Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,
E.G.S.

Robert Hunt, F.R.S.............
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......

Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson

Col. Sir H. Rawlinson

WHiRaGrove;y EVR-S...ccccccces
Prof. W. Thomson, F’.R.S.

Subject of Discourse

The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.

The Thames Tunnel.

The Geology of Russia.

The Dinornis of New Zealand.

The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.

The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.

Geology of North America.

The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.

Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Geology of Russia.

.--| Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.
.| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.

Properties of the Explosivesubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.

Shooting Stars.

Magnetic and Diamagnetie Pheno-
mena.

The Dodo (Didus ineptus).

Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.

-| Recent Microscopical Discoveries.

.|Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Transit of different Weights with
varying velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-

nexion with Nutrition.

Extinct Birds of New Zealand.

Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.

Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.

Recent discoveries in the properties
of Light.

Recent discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.

The present state of Photography.

Anthropomorphous Apes.

Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.

Characters of Species.

.| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities

and Ethnology.

Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform research up to the pre-
sent time.

Correlation of Physical Forces.

.|The Atlantic Telegraph.

Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L. | Recent Discoveries in Africa,

Date and Place

1858. Leeds

1859. Aberdeen...

1860. Oxford

1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864, Bath.........
1865, Birmingham
1866, Nottingham

1867. Dundee......

1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter ......

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ..

1873. Bradford Ae
1874. Belfast ......

1875. Bristol
1876. Glasgow ...
i
_ 1877. Plymouth...

1879.

LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.

Lecturer

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....
Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...

Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. Odlings HORS. ,..<.c.csses
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.......

James Glaisher, F.R.S.

Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S. ..........6.
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ......
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S..........

William Huggins, F.R.S.

Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......

Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
J. Fergusson, F'.R.S...........-.
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S. ........

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.B.S.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.RB.S....

Prof, J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.B.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Ry AlAs IH) His .scasecsecsonee

E. B. Tylor, F.R.S. ..c..csees0s

.| Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.D.,

E.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford............
Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,
F.R.S.
Prof, Huxley, F.R.S. .........
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S..........
Profs Vat, Hy RiSsHs <cscccence es
Sir Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,,
F.R.S.

Prof, Odling, F.R.S.........56
c

xlix

Subject of Discourse

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

Geology of the Northern Highlands,

Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.

Physical Constitution of the Sun.

Arctic Discovery.

Spectrum Analysis.

The late Eclipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water.

Organic Chemistry.

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to Dy-
namics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

The Chemical Action of Light.

Recent Travels in Africa.

Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.

...|The results of Spectrum Analysis

applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Insular Floras.
The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.

The present state of knowledge re- _
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archeology of the early Buddhist

Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebulez.
The Scientific Use of the Imagination,
Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.
Some recent investigations and ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilization,
Insect Metamorphosis.

The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.

Coal and Coal Plants.

Molecules.

Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.

The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.

The Colours of Polarized Light,

Railway Safety Appliances.

Force.

The Challenger Expedition.

The Physical Phenomena connected
with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon,

The new Element, Gallium,

]

REPORT—1879.

a eeaeTEEEREEEREEEEIETREREIREEEETEE

Date and Place

1878, Dublin

1879.

1867.
1868.
1869.

1870.

1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.

1877.
1879.

Lecturer Subject of Discourse

G. J. Romanes, F.L.S..........| Animal Intelligence.
Prof. Dewar, F.R.S. ....seeeeeee Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.

.|W. Crookes, F.R.S. ......s0000 Radiant Matter.

Prof. E. Ray Lankester,| Degeneration. .
F.R.S,

Lectures to the Operative Classes.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,F.R.S. | Matter and Force.

.|Prof, Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. |A Piece of Chalk.

Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...|Experimental illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum.

...| Sit John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P., |Savages.
F.R.S

_. | W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.|Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
.|C. W. Siemens, D.C.L.,F.R.S.| Fuel.

Prof. Odling, F.R.S..........06 The Discovery of Oxygen.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. |A Piece of Limestone,

.|Commander Cameron, C.B.,|A Journey through Africa.

soll We Elie PEGE COs suverssnassspitncme Telegraphy and the Telephone.

Wiss His AWD LONE wes cseasuee sere Electricity as a Motive Power.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
SHEFFIELD MEETING.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
President.—George Johnstone Stoney, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Secretary
to the Queen’s University, Ireland.

Vice-Presidents.—Rev. Samuel Earnshaw, M.A.; W. Spottiswoode, D.C.L.,
LL.D., Pres. R.S.; C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S.,; Dr. J. Janssen; the
Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.; Professor H. A. Newton.

Secretaries—A.H. Allen, F.C.S.; J. W. L. Glaisher, M.A., F.R.S., Sec.
‘R.A.S.; Oliver J. Lodge, D.Sc.; Donald McAlister, B.A., B.Sc.
(Recorder).

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.
President.—Professor Dewar, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor Abel, F.R.S., Dr. Longstaff; J. Lowthian

- Bell, M.P., F.R.S.; W. Crookes, F.R.S. ; Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. ;
Dr. Gilbert, F.R.S.; A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,F.R.S.; Professor .
Odling, M.B., F.R.S.; Dr. Ronalds, F.R.S.E.; H. Clifton Sorby,
LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor A. W. Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries—W. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S.; J. Millar Thomson, F.C.S.,
(Recorder) ; H. S. Bell, F.C.S.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—Professor P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., F.G.S.

_ Vice-Presidents.—Professor A. H. Green, M.A., F.G.S.; W. Pengelly,

———

F.R.S.; Professor A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor W. C.
Williamson, F.R.S.

Secretaries—W. Topley, F.G.S. (Recorder) ; G. Blake Walker, F.G.S.

SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.
President.—Professor St. George Mivart, F.R.S., F.L.8., F.Z.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Professor Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.; Professor Lawson,
M.A., F.L.S.; Dr. Pye-Smith; HE. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.; Pro-
fessor J. O. Westwood; Professor A. Newton, F.R.S.; Dr. De Bar-
tolomé.

Secretaries—Arthur Jackson, F.R.C.S.; Professor W. R. M‘Nab, M.D.
(Recorder); J. Brooking Rowe, F.L.S.; F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.
(Recorder) ; Professor Schifer, F.R.S. (Recorder).

c 2

lii REPORT—1879.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.
President.—Clements R. Markham, C.B., F.R.S., F.L.8., Sec. R.G.S.,.
F.S.A.

Vice-Presidents—Rev. Canon Rawlinson, M.A.; Sir Rawson W. Rawson,
K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. ; Lieut.-General Sir Heary Thuillier, C.S.1.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S.; Captain Verney, R.N., F.R.G.S.

Secretaries —H. W. Bates, F.L.S., Assist. Sec. R.G.S.; C. E. D. Black ;
E. C. Rye, F.Z.8., Librarian R.G.S. (Recorder).

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,
President—G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres. Statistical Soc.

Vice-Presidents—Frederick Brittain; A. J. Mundella, M.P., F.S.S.; Pro-
fessor Leone Levi; J. Heywood, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Professor Adamson, M.A.; R. E. Leader, B.A. ; Constantine
Molloy (Recorder).

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech. Eng.
Vice-Presidents.—W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ; Sir John Brown; EH. A. Cowper ;

Alderman Mark Firth ; R. B. Grantham, C.E., F.G.S.; Professor Os-
borne Reynolds, M.A., F.R.S.; Sir Joseph Whitworth, Bart., F.R.S.

Seeretaries—A. T. Atchison, M.A. (Recorder) ; Emerson Bainbridge ;
H, Trueman Wood, B.A.

“6L8I 0% asnbny

—S es
OL 9 O8FtF “NOSWVITTLM “A “V OL & OSttF
O II 6€
O 6I FIF °'* AoINSvory, rerouey) 0} JUBISISSW Jo spuey uy
O SI t6F YOuvrg u10zso ‘pur[suq jo yueg ye sourpeg
IT IT O80T
0 0 OL ********TerUVYO YSISUG oyy UT suOTyeATAsqO [epry,
8 T LE ‘***sdiyg jo paadg on SULMsvayy 10z SyueuIMI4ysuyt
0 0 8 ‘**** SOUT Ur duwep-arry Sutjoaqacq 0g queunzysut
0 0 ST "*Brepeyy Ut sMoIyeAresqO AqOLQoeTY o1eydsouy
6 FL 9g SULIOg orerqes[y jo syuvtteAUt Teuetmepun,y Jo serqeg,
0 0 OL ‘“*"********* KeAMg sdUeTpPIO 94} Jo Teao'T tanqeg
0 0 Of sirtttsteesese+ses pariaroMsao quay-ung 30 soTaBE
0 0 OF ‘**tMmnNdvA JesueIdg Jo AqIOedED eATIONPUT OBToedy
9 ST GI *"4¥aH Jo quopeamby Teorueqooyy Jo uoTyeureIE}0q
0 0 0% See ee ew em ee wees toaeq qynog Jo AZo0[007 ourrepy
0 0 og vett'* sx00[0 [oyMouo.4sy ur syusuTeAordurp
0 0 OL vr eeeereeeseceee sR TAUIBAIG MOTOS Jo dur1.849
O 0 OT f*rrrsseerss**S1098M PUNOISIepuy JO UOTyeMoMD
0 0 OST STOTT 199 PWR 49g 10J soIqRT, 1OJOB Jo UOTeNoTeD
0 0 Ue reresssssss** g1q0008 Jo A109StH yeTNye NT
00 “9099 TUIUOD oLyjemodorqyuy
0 0 De Cee meen ee at Le ENTER PUTOLUTOT)
JO SUOTINJOS pue suoryN[OY oN[eJeP_ Jo SsIsA[O.aQ00 1,
Mh she ven thea oe RBS ae an eeECaTag so bies Pore eae gee ees
om ceecesseceses tie Poneto g eae ae GPStree ae ne Reece oS Lo
! , OTNOY OTTTVIPT JO stsAjo1309 Io
0 te000 sees s04s¥4+* oamzoE my Bade JO TOPOS Be aes pue sa eee Pues Hee : at ee oe
% 00 qon.4g pues uoKIsodmop Urol UILqnd 7e epeul yueIy F Ted pep’ sal
0 0 IVT TB0150[007 Jo prooayy T ¢ 96 UV TosUTUTSeM PUB UOpuOT ye q1sodeq UO yser10; UT
0 ul WomULByT oy} uo ydvisouo B 10; suOTBAYsNITT 0 O19 Ocreenecvcceecassevevesesessevses Sureayy urrquq surmp si1aq
0 € Ol} JO BIO], oMOD0TTL : x :
0 0 GL ttttese+* pardany “woruyg Teotdo[00z ou ye arqen -Woy 0} siodeg Jo wolsstusuery, IoF stuns TTeuIs Arpung
"D "S ¥ — sUTo97 ulqnq qe epeur SJUBLD “ 0 FI OIL ee moe ee RUOTMOR TAN jo aTBg =
0 cL 6 speeds egame ea dea ecee RY OSULOG) O0OT# jo aseqomg ‘ 6 eT GFZ ee eeeneenes shee ee eenesees "19019 uo spusepratq s
0 ¢ FOL (seek T—,0011g o]reMMEQTy) sosuodxy domjQ puequoy “ 0 0 619 “"""""*" 0791p 0941p SJOOTL SOIpe'T a
O OD GOP irri tteeeecteeeeeeeseceestecnesseseesserses (aeak T) sormepeg =“ 0 O O8ZE ‘"'""""'! 0791p 0941p S}JOYOLT, .SoPVIOossy ‘
Baa eae ca os" * (amqud) “ILA'TX “Toa ‘SUTIOOT 0 @ 8Lg ‘"""*** 079Ip 0391p suoNdrosqng enuUy
18F jo qxodoyy Surpurg pue ‘SUIARISUy ‘Surqulig “cc 0 0 Ogg POOR OTR eee eee eee eee ene n ee ee eee eureeteeune® aouts pue
8 91 I€éI ******sesuedxg [eyueptouy pue ‘suIstyaapy ‘Surpurg Suro ulpqng ye suorytsodmog ojry 107 peareoary
‘suryurrg Arpung ose ‘surjooy] Ul[qnq jo sesuedxa preg O T LTET “ SuTpeaTW UlTqnd “UNODOY 4sel Wory souKpeg oj,

a Oe “‘SINGWAVGd *6-8181 ae ‘Sd IGOR “6-8L81

‘SUIQCOTT Plewoyg ye sydreoea Surpupout yoN’ *GZ8T ‘Og ysusuy 04
‘GameeW NITANOC Jo yuouoousmm0s) g/gt ‘FL ysnSny wos INOOOOV S.UHYOSVAUL TVYANAD FHL

liv REPORT— 1879.

Table showing the Attendance and Recevpts

Date of Meeting Where held Presidents Old Life | New Life
Members | Members
1831, Sept. 27 ...] York .....cscsecseeeees The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L. a3
1832; dune’ 19)...| Oxford ..<..<.s02-.000. The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S8. =
1833, June 25 ...| Cambridge ......... The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.
1834, Sept. 8 ...| Edinburgh ......... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L....... :
1835, Aug. 10 ...| Dublin .........+0+..- The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D. ag
1836, Aug. 22 ...| Bristol ...........+06 The Marquis of Lansdowne ... vee
1837, Sept. 11 ...| Liverpool .. ...-| The Earl of Burlington, F.R.8. os
1838, Aug. 10 ...} Newcastle- on-Tyne The Duke of Northumberland :
1839, Aug. 26 ...| Birmingham......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt +.
1840, Sept. 17 ...| Glasgow ......e0e00e The Marquis of Breadalbane... sae cas
1841; July 20...) Plymouth ............ The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. 169 65
1842, June 23 ...| Manchester ......... The Lord Francis ae Boo 303 169
1843, Aug. 17 ...| Cork ....cccccsssceees The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.. 109 - 28
1844, Sept. 26 ...] York ........scoseseece The Rev. G. Peacock, D. dD. aoe 226 150
1845, June 19...) Cambridge ......... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. 313 36
1846, Sept. 10 ...| Southampton ...... Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. 241 10
iea7, sune 23 +..| Oxford <2. .....cesccee Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart....... 314 18
1848, Aug. 9 ...] Swamsea ........+00. The Marquis of Northampton 149- 3
1849, Sept. 12 ...| Birmingham......... The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. 227 12
1850, July 21...) Edinburgh ......... Sir David Brewster, K.H....... 235 9
1851, July 2 ...| Ipswich.............-. G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal 172 8
1852, Sept. 1 ...| Belfast ............00 Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. 164 10
1853, Sept. 3S ...| Hull ..........s.ccccee William Hopkins, F.R.S. ...... 141 13
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. 238 23
1855, Sept. 12 ...| Glasgow ............ The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. .. 194 33
1856, Aug. 6 ...| Cheltenham ......... Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D. 182 14
1857, Aug. 26...) Dublin ............... The Rev.Humphrey Lloyd, D.D. 236 15
1858, Sept. 22 ...| Leeds.............0000. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L.... 222 42
1859, Sept. 14 ...) Aberdeen ............ H.R.H. the Prince Consort ... 184 27
1860, June 27 ...| Oxford ............... The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ... 286 21
1861, Sept. 4 ...| Manchester ......... WilliamFairbairn,LL.D.,F.R.S. 321 113
1862, Oct. 1 ...| Cambridge ......... The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A. 239 15
1863, Aug. 26 ...| Newcastle-on-Tyne| Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B. 203 36
1864, Sept. 13 ...| Bath .......... eceeene Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A. 287 40
1865, Sept. 6 ...| Birmingham......... Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. 292 44
1866, Aug. 22...) Nottingham......... William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. 207 31
1867, Sept.4 ...| Dundee ............... The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. 167 25
1868, Aug. 19...) Norwich ............ Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. 196 18
1869, Aug. 18 ...| Exeter ............... Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L....... 204 21
1870, Sept. 14 ...| Liverpool ...... arose Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D....... 314 39
1871, Aug. 2 ...| Edinburgh ......... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D. 246 28
1872, Aug. 14...) Brighton ............ Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.. 245 36
1873, Sept. 17 ...| Bradford ............ Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R. 's 212 27
1874, Aug. 19 ...} Belfast ............... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S 162 13
1875, Aug. 25 ...| Bristol ............... SirJohnHawkshaw,C.E. F. B.S 239 36
1876, Sept. 6 ...| Glasgow Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S 221 35
1877, Aug. 15 ...| Plymouth Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S 173 19
1878, Aug. 14...) Dublin ...... mene | We Spottiswoode, M.A., F.RB.S 201 18
1879, Aug. 20 ...| Sheffield Prof.G. J. Allman, M.D., F.B.S. 184 16

ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. lv

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

Old

Att

* New

ended by

Annual | Annual Asso- Ladies

; Members | Members

197

128

‘121

104
156
111

125...

177
184
150
154
182
215
218
193
226
229
303
311
280
237
232
307
331
238

290 |

239

ciates

1100*
8 60*
33t 331*
bas 160
ot 260
407 172
270 196
495 203
376 197
447 237
510 273
244 141
510 292
367 236
765 524
1094 543
412 346
900 569
710 509
1206 821
636 463
1589 791
433 249
1704 1004
1119 1058
766 508
960 771
1163 771
720 682
678 600
1103 910
976 754
937 912
796 601
817 630
884 672
1265 712
446 283
1285 674
529 349

For-
eigners

¢ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

Total

353

900
1298
1350
1840
2400
1438
1353

891
1315

1079

857
1320

819
1071
1241

710
1108

876
1802
2133
1115
2022
1698
2564
1689
3138
1161
3335
2802
1997
2303
2444
2004
1856
2878
2463
2533
1983
1951
2248
2774
1229
2578
1404

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.

yen Sums paid on

received. Account ‘of
during the rises Year

Meeting cientific |

Purposes

£ 38.a £ 834
ache aeneil ew wedsnecsmie.s 1831
A accocbhe: +l teececc ence 1832
te coteiahewsa heal Min A aprettiiptabat a 1833
20 0 O| 1834
saawen ees 167 O O| 1835
aeaaennn 435 0 0O| 1836
Hadannted 922 12 6| 1837
sweets’ 932 2 2) 1838
Seucwecen 1595 11 O| 1839
sdeacens 1546 16 4/ 1840
Sacttouws 1235 10 11 | 1841
1449 17 8} 1842
ee ae 1565 10 2) 1843
ab aleaislatte 981 12 8 | 1844
Beatin 831 9 9] 1845
Jeeves 685 16 0} 1846
one 208 5 41] 1847
707 00] 275 1 8} 1848
963 0 0 159 19 6] 1849
1085 00} 345 18 0| 1850
62000} 391 9 7] 1851
1085 00} 304 6 7| 1852
903 00} 205 O 0} 1853
1882 00} 38019 7| 1854
231100); 48016 4) 1855
1098 00} 73413 9) 1856
2015 00} 50715 4) 1857
1931 00} 61818 2) 1858
278200] 68411 1) 1859
1604 00] 76619 61 1860
3944 00] 1111 5 10) 1861
1089 0 0 | 1293 16 6] 1862
3640 0 0] 1608 3 10) 1863
2965 0 0| 1289 15 8} 1864
2227 00] 1591 710) 1865
2469 0 0| 1750 13 4) 1866
2613 0 0| 1739 4 O| 1867
2042 0 0| 1940 O O} 1868
1931 0 0] 1622 0 0} 1869
3096 0 0| 1572 O O| 1870
2575 0 0| 1472 2 6} 1871
2649 0 0| 1285 O O| 1872
21200 0} 1685 0 O| 1873
1979 0 0} 1151 16 0O| 1874
2397 00] 960 O 0O| 1875
3023 0 0| 1092 4 21] 1876
1268 00} 1128 9 7| 1877
2615 0 0 725 16 6) 1878
1425 0 0} 1080 11 11 | 1879

t Including Ladies.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1879-80.

PRESIDENT,
PROFESSOR G. J. ALLMAN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., M.B.IVA., Pres. LS,
VICE-PRESIDENTS,
His Grace the DUKE oF DEVONSHIRE, K.G., M.A.,)| W. H. BRITTAIN, Esq. (MASTER CUTLER).

LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Professor T. H. HuxiEy, Ph.D., LL.D., Sec. B.S.,
The Right Hon. the Earn FITzwituiAM, K.G., F.L.S., F.G.S.
F.R.G.S. Professor W. ODLING, M.B,, F,R.S., F.C.S,

The Right Hon. the EARL OF WHARNCLIFFE,F.R.G.S,

PRESIDENT ELECT.

ANDREW CROMBIE RAMSAY, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., Director-General of the Geological
Survey of the United Kingd om.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

C. R. M. Tatzor, Esq., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S., Lord- | H. Hussey VIVIAN, Esq., M.P., F.G.S. .
Lieutenant of Glamorganshire. L. Ll. DILLWyn, Esq., M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S.
The Mayor OF SWANSEA. J. Gwyn JEFFREYS, Esq., LL.D., F.B.S. F.1S.,
The Hon. Sir W. R. GROVE, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. Treas. G.S., F.R.G.S,
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT SWANSEA,
W. Morey, Esq., Ph.D., F.C.S. JAMES STRICK, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT SWANSEA,
R. J. LETCHER, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
ABEL, F. A., Esq., C.B., F.R.S. LEFEVRE, GEORGE SHAW, Esq., M.P,
ADAMS, Professor W. G., F.R.S. MASKELYNE, Professor N. §8., F\R.S,
Bartow, W. H., Esq., F.R.S. NEWMAECH, W., Esq., F.R.S.
CayLey, Professor, F'.R.S. NEWTON, Professor A., F.B.S.
HastTon, E., Esq., C.E. OMMANNEY, Admiral Sir E., C. B., F.R.S.
Evans, Captain, C.B., F.R.S. RAYLEIGH, Lord, F.R.S.
Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S. ROLLESTON, Professor G., F.R.S.
Foster, Professor G. C., F.R.S. Roscok, Professor H, E., F.R.S.
GLAISHER, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S. RUSSELL, Dr. W. J., F-RB.S.
Hrywoop, J., Esq., F.R.S. SanDERSON, Prof. J. S. BuRDON, F.R.S.
Hueams, W., Esq., F.R.S. SMYTH, WARINGTON W., Esq., F.R.S.
Hucues, Professor T. McK., M.A. Sorby, Dr. H. C., F.R.S,

JEFFREYS, J, GWYN, Esq., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Capt. DoueLas GALTON, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, S.W,
Puiu Luriey SciaTer, Esq., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., F.G.S., 11 Hanover Square, London, W.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A,

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S,, University College, London, W.C.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

'The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the
ensuing Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

General Sir EpwarD SaBrne, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir PHiuie DE M. Grey EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir JOHN LuBpock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L. s.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

The Duke of Devonshire. ; Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. ; Dr. Carpenter, C.B,, F.R.S.
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S. Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S,
Sir G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, | The Duke of Buccleuch, K.G. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S.
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B, Sir Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S,
The Earl of Harrowby. Prof. Stokes, M.A., D.C.L. Prof. T, Andrews, M.D., F,R.S,
The Duke of Argyll. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., Sec. R.S. Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S8.
The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, D,C.L. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.S,
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F, Galton, Esq., F.R.S. Gen. Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Dr. Michael Foster, F.R.8.

Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.S. George Griffith, Esq., M.A,

AUDITORS.
Warren De La Rue, Esq., F.R.S, | Professor W. H. Flower, F.R.S. | Arthur Grote, Esq., F.L.S,

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lvii

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Report of the Council for the year 1878-9, presented to the General
Committee at Sheffield, on Wednesday, August 20, 1879.

The Council have received Reports during the past year from the
General Treasurer, and his account for the year will be laid before the
General Committee this day.

The Council have been compelled, in consequence of the limited space
at their disposal at the office in London, to consider how far it would be
possible to reduce the number of the old Annual Volumes of the Reports
of the Association in stock, and have resolved :—

1.—‘ To reduce the stock of volumes in each year to 200 in number,
by throwing into waste or otherwise disposing of (as the General
Officers may think best) all those exceeding 200 up to the year
1848 inclusive, and by throwing into waste all those exceeding
200 in subsequent years, except the Index 1831-61.’

2.—‘ To offer to one or more publishers single volumes 1831-48, at
one-third publication price ; those 1849-71 at one-half publication
price, for which purpose, if necessary, to reprint the volume for
1850; and those 1872-77 at two-thirds publication price; also
sets 1871-77 at one-third publication price.’

3.—‘ To offer the Reports to members at the same rates as before,
with the additional offer of sets 1849-71 at one-half publication
price.’

The Council have also had under consideration the question of their
‘Library, for which there is no adequate space in their present London
office. They have therefore decided to recommend that in future a
library shall not be maintained at the office of the Association, and in
order to afford facilities to the members of the Association for consulting
works of reference as fully as they have hitherto enjoyed, they have made
an arrangement with the University of London, whereby the books
belonging to the Association will be deposited in the Library of the
University at Burlington House, upon the following conditions :—

1. One copy of every book transferred by the Association to be kept
in the Library of the University.

2. Members of the Association, on presenting an introduction from
one of the General Officers or the Assistant Secretary, to be permitted to
consult the Library of the University.

The Council recommend to the General Committee :—

‘That in each Section, and in each Department of a Section, one of
the Secretaries be appointed “‘ Recorder.” ’

*That such Recorder shall be requested to furnish the Assistant
Secretary, before the conclusion of the Meeting, with a copy or
abstract of every Paper read in his Section or Department.’

lvili REPORT—1879.

In order to increase the facilities for issuing the Annual Reports at
an early date the Council propose, in case the General Committee should
concur in this recommendation, that in future it shall be an imstruction
to the General Officers to issue a notice to the Reporters of all Com-
mittees, and to all other persons who are likely to read Papers at any
Meeting of the Association, requesting that all Reports, and Abstracts
of all Papers intended to be read in the Sections, may be sent to the
Assistant Secretary not later than four weeks before the Meeting, in order
that, if approved of by the Organising Committees, they may be put in
type before the Meeting, and that authors who comply with this request,
and whose Papers are accepted, shall be furnished, before the Meeting,
with printed copies of their Reports or Abstracts; also that no Report,
Paper, or Abstract be inserted in the volume unless it is in the hands of
the Assistant Secretary or Recorder, before the conclusion of the Meeting.

The invitation from York for 1881, received last year, will be re-
newed on the present occasion, and the Council have also to announce
that an invitation from Leicester for 1882 or 1883 will be likewise pre-
sented.

The following Resolutions were referred by the General Committee at
Dublin to the Council for consideration and action if it should seem
desirable :—

i,—‘That the question of the reappointment of the Committee, con-
sisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnes-Lawrence, Mr. Spence Bate, Mr.
H. H. Dresser (Secretary), Mr. J. E. Harting, Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys,
Professor Newton, the Rev. Canon Tristram, and Mr. G. Shaw
Lefevre, for the purpose of inquiring into the possibility of estab-
lishing a “ close time,” for the protection of indigenous animals, be
referred to the Council for consideration ; and that the Council be
empowered to take such steps in the matter as they shall think
most desirable in the interests of science.’

The Council decided that the Committee should be reappointed, and
that in case of any action being required before the next meeting of the
Association, the Committee should be instructed to report to the Council
thereon.

2.—‘ That the attention of the Council of the Association be called
to the fact that the recommendations of the Royal Commission on
Science have been altogether disregarded in the Act lately passed
to enable the Trustees of the British Museum to remove the
Natural History Collection to South Kensington, and that the
Council be requested to take such steps in the matter as they shall
think most desirable in the interests of science.’

The Council drew up a memorial to the First Lord of the Treasury,
calling the attention of H.M. Government to this question, and requesting
Lord Beaconsfield to receive a deputation from the Council to present
the Memorial. Lord Beaconsfield having been obliged to decline to re-
ceive the deputation on account of the press of public business, the
memorial was forwarded to him at his request, and a reply has been
received, which, together with the memorial, is given in the Appendix (1.)
to this Report.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lix

3.—'That the question of the appointment of a Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. James Dillon, Mr. Edward Easton, Mr. P. Le Neve
Foster, Captain Douglas Galton,-Mr. T. Hawksley, Sir John
Hawkshaw, Professor Hull, Mr. Robert Manning, Professor Prest-
wich, Professor Ramsay, Mr. C. E. De Rance, the Harl of Rosse,
Mr. W. Shelford, Mr. J. N. Shoolbred, Mr. John Smyth, jun.,
Mr. G. J. Symons, and Mr. A, T. Atchison (Secretary), for the
purpose of conferring with the Council as to the advisability of
urging Government to take immediate action to procure unity of
control of each of our principal river basins, be referred to the
Council for consideration and action if it seem desirable.’

The Council resolved that it did not seem to them desirable to take
any action in this matter at present.

The Committee which was appointed last year for the purpose of
watching and reporting to the Council on Patent Legislation made a
report to the Council, which is given in Appendix II.

A deputation of the Council and certain other members of the Asso-
ciation waited on the Attorney-General on May 27 with the Report, and
urged the passing of the Patent Law Amendment Bill, with certain
modifications. The Bill was subsequently withdrawn.

The Council announce with great regret the loss that they have sus-
tained during the past year by the death of Mr. William Froude, F.R.S.
One vacancy having been thus caused in their body, there remain only
four names which it is necessary to remove from the list.

The Council propose that, in accordance with the regulations, the
four retiring members shall be the following :—

F. J. Bramwell, Esq., C.H., F.R.S. W. Pengelly, Hsq., F.R.S.
Dr. W. Farr, F.R.S. Professor J. Prestwich, F.R.8.

The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary mem-
bers of Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are
distinguished by an asterisk in the following list.

Ordinary Members of the Council.

Abel, F. A., Esq., C.B., F.R.S.
Adams, Professor W. G., F.R.S.
Barlow, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Cayley, Professor, F.R.S.

* Haston, E., Esq., C.E.

Evans, Captain, C.B., F.R.S.
Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S.

Foster, Professor G. C., F.R.S.
Glaisher, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S.
Heywood, J., Esq., F.R.S.
Huggins, W., Esq., F.R.S.

* Hughes, Professor T. McK., M.A.

* Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, HEsq., F.R.S.
Lefevre, George Shaw, Hsq., M.P.

Maskelyne, Professor N. S., F.R.S.
* Newmarch, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Newton, Professor A., F.R.S.
Ommanney, Admiral Sir E., C.B.,
F.R.S.
Rayleigh, Lord, F.R.S.
Rolleston, Professor G., F.R.S.
Roscoe, Professor H. E., F.R.S.
Russell, Dr. W. J., F.R.S.
Sanderson, Professor J. 8.
F.R.S.
Smyth, WarringtonW., Esq., F.R.S.
* Sorby, Dr. H. C., F.R.S.

lx

APPENDIX I.

CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE TREASURY ABOUT THE NATURAL
HISTORY COLLECTIONS.

(No. 1.)

British AssocIaTION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
March 25, 1879.

To the Right Hon. the First Lord of the Treasury.

My Lord,—In accordance with a resolution adopted by the General Committee
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at their last meeting,
the Council of the Association beg leave to call your attention to the following
circumstances,

1. In their fourth Report, presented to Parliament in 1874, the Royal Commis-
sion on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science, having fully con-
sidered the present state of the Natural History Departments in the British
Museum, and taken evidence thereon from the principal scientifie authorities of the
country, state that they have come to the conclusion ‘that the objections to the
present system of government of the British Museum by a Board of Trustees as
at present constituted, so far as relates to the Natural History Collections, are well
founded, and that they have been unable to discover that the system is attended by
any compensating advantages.’ ‘I'hey, therefore, recommend:—‘(1) That the
occasion of the removal of these collections to the new buildings now being
erected at South Kensington for their reception be taken advantage of to effect a
change in the governing authority and official administration of that division of the
Museum, (2) That a Director of the National Collections should be appointed by
the Crown, and should have the entire administration of the establishment, under
the control of a Minister of State, to whom he should be immediately responsible,
and that the keepers of collections should be responsible to the Director. That the
appointments of keepers and other scientific officers should be made by the
Minister, after communication with the Director and with the Board of Visitors
(hereinafter referred to). And that the Director should prepare the estimates, to be
submitted, after consultation with the Board of Visitors, for the approval of the
Minister. (3) That the present Superintendent be the first Director. (4) That a
Board of Visitors be constituted. That the Board be nominated in part by the
Crown, in part by the Royal and certain other scientific Societies of the metropolis,
and, in the first instance, in part also by the Board of Trustees; the members to be
appointed for a limited period, but to be re-eligible ; and that the Board of Visitors
should make annual reports to the Minister, to be laid before Parliament, on the
condition, management, and requirements of the Museum, and should be empowered
to give him advice on any points affecting its administration.’

2. Exactly the same view as to the desirability of effecting a change in the
government of the Natural History Collections was taken in a memorial presented
to the then Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1866, and signed by the Presidents
and other well-known members of the Royal, Linnean, and Zoological Societies, a
copy of which is appended hereto,

3. Notwithstanding these expressions of opinion, in which nearly all the leading
naturalists of the day fully concur, an Act was passed at the close of the last
session of Parliament by which the Trustees of the British Museum have been
authorised to transfer the Natural History Collections into the new building at
South Kensington without making any change whatever in the present mode of
their administration,

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.—APPENDIX I. lxi

4, The Council of the British Association feel that it is not necessary for them
to press upon the Government the arguments for the changes in the administration
of the Natural History Collections which have been so amply stated by the Com-
missioners in the Report above mentioned. The Council think it sufficient to call
the attention of the Government to the fact that the provisions of the Act are
directly at variance with the recommendations of the Royal Commissioners.

5. As, however, a fresh application to Parliament will be necessary in order to
defray the expense of the removal of the Natural History Collections from their
present situation to South Kensington, the Council of the British Association beg
leave to point out to H.M. Government that the question of the administration of
the Natural History Collections is one of the utmost importance as regards the
future progress of Natural History in this country, and to urge upon them to take
the opportunity which will thus present itself of effecting the alterations in the
mode of administration of the Collections recommended by the Royal Com-
mission.

We have the honour to be,
Your Lordship’s most obedient servants,
Tae Councit oF THE British AssocIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
oF ScrENCE.

Signed, for the Council,
W. SPOTTISWOODE, President.
DOUGLAS GALTON, 1 gyanotars
P. L. SCLATER, } fess Bice

COPY OF A MEMORIAL PRESENTED TO THE RIGHT HON. THE
CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER.

London, May 14, 1866.
To the Right Hon. the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

Sir,—It having been stated that the scientific men of the metropolis are, as a
body, entirely opposed to the removal of the Natural History Collections from their
resent situation in the British Museum, we, the undersigned Fellows of the Royal,
Rscncon, Geological, and Zoological Societies of London, beg leave to offer to you
the following expression of our opinion upon the subject.

We are of opinion that it is of fundamental importance to the progress of the
Natural Sciences in this country that the administration of the National Natural
History Collections should be separated from that of the Library and Art Collec-
tions, and placed under one Officer, who should be immediately responsible to one of
the Queen’s Ministers.

We regard the exact locality of the National Museum of Natural History as a
question of comparatively minor importance, provided that it be conveniently
accessible and within the metropolitan district.

Wuttam B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., | AnpREw Ramsay, F.R.S., P Gs
F

F.LS., F.G.S. ArtHuR Rosset, M.P., R.G.S.,
W.S. Dattas, F.L.S. E.Z.8.
Cares Darwin, F.R.S.,F.L.S., F.Z.S. | Ospzrt Sarvin, M.A., F.LS., F.Z.S.
F., Ducanz Gopmay, F.L.S., F.Z.S. P. L. Sotatsr, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

Z
J. H. Gurvey, F.Z.S. G. Sctarer-Boorn, M.P., F.Z.S.
Epwarp Hamirton,M.D., F.L.S.,F.Z.S.| S. James A. Satrer, M.B., F.RS.,
Joseph D. Hooxer, M.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.Z.S.

8.,

E.LS., F.G.8. W. H. Smrpson, M.A., F.Z.S.
Tuomas H. Huxtey, F.R.S., V.P.Z. J. Emerson Trnnent, F.R.S., F.Z.S.
F.LS., F.G.S. Tomas THomson, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Joun Kirk, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. H. B. Tristram, M.A., F.L 8.
Lirorp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. WaALtpEN, F.Z.S., F.L.S.

Atrrep Newron, M.A., F.LS., F.Z.S, | Anrrep R. Wattacs, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.

Ixii REPORT—1879.

(No. 2.)

TREASURY CHAMBERS,
July 22, 1879.

To the President and General Secretaries of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, 22 Albemarle Street, W.

Gentlemen,—1 am directed by the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s
Treasury to inform you that the First Lord of the Treasury has submitted to this
Board the letter of 25th March last, wherein, on behalf of the Council of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, you call his Lordship’s atten-
tion to certain recommendations made in the Fourth Report of the Royal Com-
mission on Scientific Instruction, which was presented to Parliament in 1874,
relative to the Natural History Department of the British Museum; and wherein,
further, you refer to the British Museum Act, 1878, as ignoring the said
recommendations, and go on to urge that the occasion of proposing to Parliament
a vote towards the expense of the removal of the same collections from their

resent situation to South Kensington should be taken for effecting the alterations
in the mode of administering them recommended by the Royal Commission.

My Lords have, in the first place, to point out that the British Museum Act,
1878, nowise prejudges the question which you raise as to changes in the adminis-
tration of the collections, but is confined to authorising the removal of them to the
new Museum.

In the next place, it is to be remembered that the recommendations to which
you advert require further legislation, and that the vote in supply, of which a part
only is necessary to be taken this session, for completing the new Museum is
equally required whether the collections are to remain under the management of
the Trustees of the British Museum or are to be assigned to some other authority,
and therefore that this vote, like the Act of 1878, in no degree pledged either
Parliament or Her Majesty’s Government upon the question of the best way to
administer these collections in the future.

A third point of some importance is that both the Royal Commission and the
Council which you represent propose to continue in office the present Superintendent
of the collections.

Under these circumstances, my Lords, while fully agreeing with you that the
question of the administration of these collections is one of the utmost importance
as regards the future progress of Natural History. in this country, are also of
opinion that there is nothing which, on a point requiring so much consideration,
calls for instant decision.

They think that the reasons which led them in 1877 to constitute the present
Meteorological Council, rather than to create a new Government department, are
not without weight in regard to displacing the Trustees of the British Museum.

The Chairman of the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction is himself a
member of the sub-committee of the Trustees of the British Museum for the
management of these collections. The same sub-committee contains other names
of high rank and of scientific eminence ; nor have my Lords any reason to think
that the standing committee of the Trustees, nor the Trustees generally, of the
British Museum are insensible to the importance of having modern science strongly
represented on the sub-committee of Natural History.

The general question whether public aid to science should, in a case like the
present, not be allowed to be administered by a body with a certain real indepen-
dence of its own is a very wide and a very important one; nor is the present the
only case which raises it.

My Lords do not intend to propose to Parliament any immediate change in the
management of these collections, and they would be glad to find that the reasons

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.—APPENDIX II. lxili

which had led to the recommendations of the Royal Commission had been found to
be capable of being met without any serious departure from the principles of a
more or less independent trust.
I am, Gentlemen,
Your obedient servant,

R. R. W. LINGEN.

APPENDIX II.

REPORT OF THE PATENT-LAW COMMITTEE.

N.B.—AlIl the Scottish Members of the Committee, and several others who were
not able to attend the meetings which took place in London, wish it to be
noted that while concurring in all the other resolutions of the Committee, they
do not agree in the propriety of suggesting the reduction of the term of twenty-
one years, proposed in the Bill, to seventeen years, as the duration of a patent.

March 25, 1879,

The Committee* of the British Association, appointed for watching and re-
porting to the Council on Patent Legislation, beg leave to report that there are
now two Bills before Parliament in ile to Patent-law. The first Bill, brought
in by private members (Mr. Anderson, Mr. Mundella. and others), and the second,
a Government Bill, prepared and brought in by the Attorney-General, Mr. Secretary
Oross, and the Solicitor-General.

The first Bill is very short, consisting of only five clauses. It has for its objects
the extension of the term of Patent-right, both for new patents and for those
existing at the time the Bill might become law, from fourteen years to twenty-one
years, on payment of certain sums, and avery considerable reduction in the amount
of the stamp duties payable in respect of the patent.

As regards this Bill, the Committee have to report their opinion, that it should
not be proceeded with, looking at the comprehensive Government measure now
before the House of Commons.

With respect to the second Bill, the Government measure, the Committee have
to report that it proposes to repeal the various Acts (seven in number) relating to
Patent Legislation, and to substitute for them this one Act of fifty-nine clauses,

The principal novel provisions of this Bill may be summarised as follows :—

(1.) Clause 5.—In addition to the eight legal officials now acting as the Com-
missioners of Patents, all of whom, with the exception of the Master of the Rolls,
change with the Ministry, two persons recommended by the Lord Chancellor, and
three recommended by the Board of Trade, are to be appointed by her Majesty.

_ (2.) Clauses 7 and 8.—The provisional protection is extended for twelve months,

but a complete specification must be filed, and rendered public, along with the
provisional specification, at least three months before the expiration of the provi-
sional protection.

(8.) Clause 13.—The applicant for a patent is to have an appeal to the Lord

* The Committee appointed by the British Association consisted of Dr. A. W.
Williamson, Professor Sir W. Thomson, Mr. Bramwell, Mr. St. John Vincent Day,
Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Dr. Neilson Hancock, Professor Abel, Mr.
J. R. Napier, Captain Douglas Galton, Mr. Newmarch, Mr. EH. H. Carbutt, Mr.
Macrory, and Mr. H. Trueman Wood, who, at their first meeting, passed a resolution
to add to theirnumbers Mr. W. H. Barlow and Mr. A. T. Atchison.

lxiv REPORT—1879.

Chancellor from an adverse decision by the Law Officer. At present, the appeal is:
only by an opponent in case of a favourable opinion by the Law Officer.

(4.) Clause 16.—On payment of certain fees from time to time, the patents to:
be hereafter granted are to before a term of twenty-one years, without power of
prolongation.

Nors.—This extended time is not to apply to patents existing at the date of the
Bill becoming law.

(5.) Clause 17.—A patentee is to have liberty to amend his specification, not
only by way of correcting error, as at present, but also by way of explanation, sup-
plement, or otherwise, provided that the supplemental matter could properly have-
been included within the patent had it been in the mind of the inventor at the time:
the patent was taken out.

(6.) Clause 18.—The Crown is to pay royalties in the same way as a subject
pays them, with this qualification, however—that the patentee shall be compelled
to allow the Crown to use the invention, upon terms to be agreed, or, failing
agreement, to be settled by the Treasury, with the advice and assistance of the
Commissioners of Patents.

(7.) Clause 19.—The patent shall be revocable after three years, if the patentee

cannot show that he has put the invention into practice by himself or his licensees, or
made reasonable efforts to do so, or if he fail to grant licenses to proper persons
requesting the same on terms which the Lord Chancellor may deem reasonable.
_ (8.) Clause 47.—The stamp duties on obtaining a patent are to be 127. 10s.
instead of 25/. as at present; the three years’ stamp of 50/., and the seven years’
stamp of 100/., remaining as at present, with a further payment of 100/., to be
made in the twelfth year, for the purpose of preventing the patent lapsing at the
end of the fourteenth year, and of continuing it until the twenty-one years.

The Committee will now give the resolutions they passed upon certain details
in the Bill, and they will state the reasons which have led them to pass the
resolutions. They believed that the Bill if altered as they suggest would be a
better Bill than it is now, but they look upon the general scope of this Bill with
so much favour that they desire to refrain from any insistance of their views in
respect of detail, if such insistance would be at all likely to impede the passing
of the Bill this session, and they therefore beg leave to give here at the commence-
ment of this record of their proceedings the resolution in which they affirmed
their approval of the principle of the Government Bill.

It was moved by Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., &c., the Chairman of the
Committee, and seconded by Mr. F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S., the Secretary of the
Committee, that—

“The Government Bill, subject to certain modifications, meets with the entire
approval of this Committee.”

The following paragraphs give not only the views of the Committee in respect
of the modifications of those clauses which, in the judgment of the Committee,
can be beneficially altered, but also the expression of the approval of the Com-
mittee of certain new clauses in the Bill, which appear to be entirely satisfactory
as they now stand :—

Clause 5.—The Committee observe with regret that, while providing for
extra Commissioners, no suggestion is made that these should be paid; and,
indeed, in the “ Memorandum” printed with the Bill, the new Commissioners are
described as “unpaid.” If the additional Commissioners are to be of real use,
they must devote themselves continuously to the conduct of the business of the
Patent Office, and this cannot be expected without adequate payment, On this
point the Committee came to the following resolution :—

Resolved unanimously,—“ That this Committee is of opinion that the five
Commissioners to be appointed should be paid Commissioners.”

Clauses 7, 8, and 9.—The Committee consider the extension of the provisional
protection to twelve months to be desirable, but they observe that, as the patent
may be opposed at any time within the “ prescribed time,” and as “ ‘prescribed’

{
\

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.—APPENDIX II. lxy

means prescribed by general orders or general rules under this Act,” there is
nothing to render it certain that the “ prescribed time ” may not be so extended
as to enable opposition to be made after the complete specification is published, as
it must be at the end of nine months, at the latest, from the date of the patent.
If the “ prescribed time ” were thus extended, all opponents would wait until the
complete specifications were public, and then would have an opportunity of con-
ducting their opposition with the same elaboration and expense that would be
bestowed in impugning novelty by a defendant in a Patent action. The applicant
also would be put to similar cost, and thus the benefit conferred upon a poor
inventor by the reduction in the fees to be paid on obtaining a patent would be
much more than neutralised, and in lieu of the average of nine patent causes per
annum, which prevails under the present law, there would in affect be as many
causes as there were oppositions to the sealing of patents. And while considering
this subject, the very serious demand upon the time of the law officers which
would ensue upon oppositions thus conducted must not be lost sight of. On these
considerations, notwithstanding the apparent logic of the argument that at present
an opponent is opposing he knows not exactly what, while under the suggested
prescribed time he will be left in no doubt, the Committee are of opinion that, as
a matter of practical working, opposition on open documents is not expedient.

The Committee have embodied their views on this subject in the following
resolution :—

Resolyed unanimously,—“ That this Committee, fearing that if oppositions
are conducted on open documents, the expenses of these oppositions, and
the time occupied, will be equal to that of an action upon a patent, deem it
desirable that the prescribed time should not extend beyond nine months
from the date of application, and that these oppositions should be conducted
as at present without open documents.”

Clause 13.—The Committee entirely approve of giving the applicant for a
patent the same power of appeal as is possessed by his opponent.

Olause 15.—Clause 15 has not been referred to among the principal novel
features, because it is a repetition of the Clauses 18, 19, and 23 of the Act of
1852, but the Committee believe an alteration might be beneficially made. Under
the existing law, and under this Bill if it becomes law, an applicant for a patent
whose provisional protection bears a later date than the provisional protection of
another applicant may make earlier application for the seal, and if he does so it is
within the power of the Lord Chancellor (and the Committee know that that
power has been exercised) to date the patent of the first applicant later than that
of the second, and thus the first applicant is put to a great disadvantage. Under
these circumstances there is a temptation for applicants to obtain the seal as early
as possible, whereas it appears to the Committee that an inventor should be
encouraged, if he is in the least doubt, to use the whole of the time allowed
him before he need apply for the seal to ascertain whether his supposed invention
is new, and also whether it can be practically carried into operation, and that a
person thus prudently acting should be, as the Committee have said, encouraged,
whereas the operation of the clause would be to urge the inventor to obtain the
seal as early as possible, lest, by delaying to do so, he should lose his priority as a
patentee.
5 The Committee embodied their opinion on this point in the following reso-
ution :—

Resolved unanimously,—“ That the Committee are of opinion that it is un-
desirable there should be any doubt as to priority of patent protection,
arising from the rapidity with which certain formal acts may be carried out
by the applicant, and they, therefore, recommend that for all purposes, and
under all circumstances, the priority of patents should be reckoned as from
the day of the application for provisional protection.”

a 16.—With respect to the proposed doing away with the power of the
1879. d

lxvi REPORT—1879.

Privy Council to prolong a patent after fourteen years, and to the substitution for
this of an extension of twenty-one years, as of right to all patentees, who, at the
end of twelve years, pay a further stamp duty of 100/., the Committee think it
robable that so long a term as a matter of right may be objected to, and may
imperil the Bill. It is true that the Privy Council now recommend prolongation
to the extent, in some cases, of as much as seven years (indeed longer extensions
haye been recommended), but they only do so on strict proof (however useful the
invention may be) that the patentee has not been sufficiently remunerated, while
the twenty-one years as of right, proposed by the Bill, would obviously be accepted
by every prosperous patentee, and thus a more than sufficient payment might be
made by the public for the disclosure and bringing into operation of the invention.
Influenced by these considerations, the Committee are inclined to suggest that the
seventeen years’ duration of patents in the United States might well he adopted
here. If the Bill were thus modified, it would become necessary to alter the times
of payment of the various stamp duties, and as the Committee are of opinion that
three years from the date of the patent (which is but two years from the cessa-
tion of the provisional protection) is so short a time as in many instances not to
suffice for such development of the patent as to enable the patentee to come to a
right decision on the question whether he will allow his patent to lapse or to pay
the stamp duty of 50/., they recommend that the time for this first payment should
be four years from the date of the patent.
The following is the resolution in which the Committee have embodied their
opinion on this subject :—

Resolved unanimously,—“ That this Committee would have thought an ex-
tension from fourteen to seventeen years sufficient compensation for the loss
of the power to apply for a prolongation, but whether the seventeen or
twenty-one years be adopted as the term of the patent, the Committee are
of opinion that the times of cesser and the dates of payment to carry on
the patent for a certain term should be at the end of four, eight, and
fourteen years from the date of the patent.”

Clause 17.—The liberty to amend, by way of supplement, is, in the judgment
of the Committee, a most important improvement.

Clause 18.—The Committee hold the same opinion with respect to the pro-
vision that the Crown shall pay royalties for the use of a patent. They would be
glad if some better machinery could be devised for settling (failing agreement)
what the royalty should be, but they have no suggestion to make on the subject.

Clause 19.—This clause, it will be seen, makes a patent voidable after three
years on either of two grounds, failure to use or to properly endeavour to do so,
proof of which shall be on the patentee ; and refusing to grant licenses to proper
persons, on terms to be imposed by the Chancellor. :

It appears to the Committee that if the second of these conditions be enacted, the
first is unnecessary, as it is clear that a patent cannot be regarded as an obstruction
to manufacture, when any responsible manufacturer wishing to use it can do so by
paying a reasonable royalty, and the Committee believe that the first condition
might readily be abused, for instance, in those cases where an invention relates to
subjects which from their nature cannot be, with certain classes of inventors, put
into operation by the patentees themselves, such as where a scientific man uncon-
nected with trade or commerce has made an improvement in blast furnaces or in
steam navigation. In these cases the inventor is at the mercy of those who own
blast furnaces, or who own ocean steamers, and it is quite conceivable that such
persons might band themselves together to prevent the use of the | during
the first three years of its existence. Bearing this danger in mind of the abuse of
the first condition, and looking at the fact that the existence of a patent subject to
compulsory licenses would not be an impediment to the manufacture, the Com-
mittee desire to see the first condition expunged, and, as regards the second
condition, they trust that the words which were in the Government Bill of 1877,
may be inserted, and that thereby the proof of the need of licenses may be imposed,
as in their judgment it should be upon the person seeking them.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.—APPENDIX Il. lxvii

The following is the resolution in which the Committee have embodied their
‘opinion upon this point :—

Resolved unanimously,—* That Sub-Section @ should be struck out, and
that Clause 19 should be altered accordingly, so as to read thus:—‘ The
atent shall be liable at any time at the end of three years from its date to
e revoked on the following ground...... ?:;—And that the words
which appear in Clause 22, Sub-Section 2, of the Bill of 1877 should be
inserted on this Bill, viz., ‘that it is made to appear to the Lord Chancellor

CS Se 7G

Clause 24.—The Committee now desire to call attention to Section 24 of the
Bill headed “Imported Inventions.” ‘With one exception, namely, Clause b of
Sub-Section 5, which restricts the time within which an imported invention can
be patented in England to six months after the date of the earliest foreign patent,
a restriction which appears to the Committee to be very undesirable, this section
is practically the same as that of Section 25 of the Patent Law Amendment Act,
1852, and thus it is that the Committee have omitted all mention of it in the sum-
mary of principal changes given at the outset of this report. The Committee,
however, feel so strongly that the Section 25 of the Act of 1852 was based upon
the old erroneous notion of the object of a Patent-law, and is a relic of an anti-

uated state of things—now entirely uncalled for and mischievous—that they trust
Piano 24, which practically re-enacts Clause 25 of the Act of 1852, may be ex-
punged altogether from the Bill. The Committee desire to be allowed to explain
their views on this subject. The old notion of a Patent-law was that the inventor
was a person seeking to obtain a protection for himself at the expense of the public,
who, it was assumed, should regard the inventor as an antagonist, and should do
all they could to procure a disclosure of the invention upon the shortest possible
term of payment by patent right; or, better still, by no such payment at all. It
is to be feared that these erroneous notions still prevail amongst those who have
not studied the subject, but those who have studied it know that a Patent-law can
only be desirable so long as it is for the benefit of the community as a whole. »
Those also who are acquainted with the introducing of inventions know that
nothing short of a person having a strong interest in developing the invention will
cause it to be taken up, the more important the invention is the greater being the
indisposition to adopt it, since its introduction may involve the disuse of existing
plant and machinery, the expenditure of fresh capital upon plant, and the teaching
-of workmen to follow new processes. One who knows the subject from its very
foundation has truly said, that if an invention ‘ were found lying in the street it
would be for the benefit of the community that a father should be assigned to it,
so that there might be some one having a substantial interest in urging its
development.’ :

Clause 24 of the present Bill (25 of the Act of 1852) is based altogether on
the assumption that it is to the interest of the community to be in possession
of what the Committee may perhaps be pardoned for styling ‘orphan inven-
tions.’

Further, with respect to section 24 (25 of 1852) being a relic of an antiquated
_state of things—when the means of communication between countries were limited,
and international travellers were rare, when the technical liferature of one country
-did not circulate in other lands where a different language was spoken, it might be
that if an inventor did not patent his invention in a foreign country the foreigners
would remain ignorant of it, while if he did so patent it, he would afford the
information to the foreigners, and that so, if after a time his foreign patent came to
an end, the foreigners would be in a better position than any British subject if a
patent for the invention continued to prevail here. But under the existing condi-
tion of extended travelling, and of the interchange of technical literature, the idea
that the foreigner will only know of an invention from its having been patented
in his country is manifestly untenable, and thus there is no reason why a man who
has taken out patents in foreign countries for an invention should be on a different
footing, as regards the English patent, from that on which he would have been had

d 2

Ixviil REPORT—1879.

he refrained from taking out those patents. Many cases of great hardship have
been inflicted by virtue of this Section 25 of the Act of 1852, and harm to the
public has resulted therefrom, The Committee trust that the framers of the-

resent Bill, who are obviously desirous of introducing a measure conceived in the.
interest of the community at large, will not hesitate to get rid of this Section 24.
ae Committee have embodied their views on this subject in the following re-
solution :—

Resolved unanimously,— That the Committee advise that Clause 24 should
be struck out, as they are of opinion that it would be desirable to deal with:
foreign inventions upon the same terms as English inventions ; and they are
further of opinion that the duration of an English patent should not be
affected by the determination of any foreign patent.”

Another detail in the Bill to which the Committee desire to call attention, is.
@ provision in Clause 46 by which one Commissioner may be empowered. to act for-
the whole body. This appears to the Committee to be very inexpedient, and they
would be glad to see this clause altered to the form which it has as Clause 55 in
ere Government Bill of 1877, The resolution of the Committee on this point was.
as follows :—

Resolved unanimously—“ That the Committee are of opinion that paragraph
46 ought to be left the same as 55 of the Bill of 1877.”

Clause 47.—With regard to the proposed reduction of the first cost of the
patent from 257. to 127. 10s., the Committee entirely concur with it, and they be-
lieve that the payment of 50/. at the expiration, not of three years, but as has
already been mentioned, of four years, is a useful provision for getting rid of value-.
less patents. The other payments they also concur in, but with the modification in
point of date which has been already mentioned.

Finally, the Committee respectfully suggest to the Council of the British Asso-
ciation that they should appoint a deputation from the Council, with such other
members of the Association as the Oouncil may select, to wait upon the Govern-
ment to urge the passing of the Bill this session, with such amendments in detail
as, on consideration of the report of your Committee, the ‘ preparers’ may see fit
to adopt.

For the Committee—
WILLIAM SIEMENS, Chairman.

F, J, BRAMWELL, Secretary.

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lxix

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
SHEFFIELD Mrrtine 1n August 1879.

[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the
Secretary, except there is a specific nomination, ]

Involving Grants of Money.

That a Committee, consisting of Dr. O. J. Lodge (Secretary), Mr. W.
H. Ayrton, and Professor J. Perry, be appointed for the purpose of de-
vising and constructing an improved form of High Insulation Key for
Electrometer Work, and that the sum of 10/. be placed at their disposal.

That the Committee, consisting of Captain Abney (Secretary), Pro-
fessor W. G. Adams, and Professor G. C. Foster, be reappointed to carry
out an investigation for the purpose of fixing a Standard of White Light ;
and that the sum of 201. be placed at their disposal.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Everett (Secretary),
Professor Sir William Thomson, Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Professor Ramsay, Professor Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. Pen-
gelly, Professor Edward Hull, Professor Ansted, Dr. Clement Le Neve
Foster, Professor A. S. Herschel, Mr. G. A. Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne,
Mr. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, and Mr. G. F. Deacon, on Under-
ground Temperature, be reappointed; and that the sum of 10/. be placed ©
at their disposal.

That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule (Secretary), Professor
Sir William Thomson, Professor Tait, Professor Balfour Stewart, and
Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, for effecting the Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent of Heat be reappointed; and that the sum of 521. 4s. 6d.,
being the amount remaining unexpended of a sum of 65/., granted last
year, be regranted.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir William Thomson
(Secretary), Professor Clerk Maxwell, Professor Tait, Dr. C. W. Siemens,
Mr. F. J. Bramwell, and Mr. J. T. Bottomley, for continuing secular ex-
periments upon the Elasticity of Wires be reappointed ; and that the sum
of 501. be placed at their disposal.

That the Committee on Luminous Meteors, consisting of Mr. James
Glaisher (Secretary), Dr. Flight, Professor R. S. Ball, Mr. E. J. Lowe,
and Professor A. 8. Herschel, be reappointed ; and that the sum of 301.
be placed at their disposal.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir William Thomson,
Professor Tait, Professor Grant, Dr. Siemens, Professor Purser, Professor
G. Forbes, Mr. Horace Darwin, and Mr. G. H. Darwin (Secretary), for
the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity, be reappointed ;
and that the grant of 301., which has lapsed, be renewed.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Sylvester (Secretary),
Professor Cayley, and Professor Salmon, for the purpose of calculating
Tables of the Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms, be reappointed ;
and that the sum of 50/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

lxx REPORT—1879.

That Mr. John Perry (Secretary), Professor Unwin, Professor James:
Thomson, and Mr. W. EH. Ayrton be a Committee for the purpose of"
investigating the Laws of Water Friction; and that the sum of 201. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. E. Ayrton (Secretary), Dr.
O. J. Lodge, Mr. J. E. H. Gordon, and Mr. J. Perry, for the purpose of
accurately measuring the specific inductive capacity of a good Sprengel
Vacuum, and the specific resistance of gases at different pressures, be re-
appointed ; and that the sum of 20I. be placed at their disposal for the:
purpose.

That the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Haughton and Mr. B.
Williamson, for the calculation of Tables of Sun-heat Coefficients, be
reappointed ; that Mr. B. Williamson be the Secretary, and that the sum
of 501. be placed at their disposal for the completion of the work.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forbes (Secretary),
Professor W. G. Adams, and Mr. W. H. Ayrton, be reappointed for the
purpose of improving an instrument for detecting the presence of Fire-damp
in Mines; and that the sum of 101. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Mr. J. M. Thomson (Secretary), and Mr. J. E. H. Gordon be
appointed a Committee to continue Researches on the Specific Inductive.
Capacity of certain Crystals and Paraffines ; and that the sum of 25/. be
placed at their disposal for the purchase and preparation of materials.

That Professor Dewar, Dr. Williamson, Dr. Marshall Watts, Captain
Abney, Mr. G. J. Stoney, Mr. W. N. Hartley, Professor McLeod, Pro-
fessor Carey Foster, Mr. A. K. Huntington, Professor Hmerson Reynolds,.
Professor Reinold, Professor Liveing, and Mr. W. Chandler Roberts be a
Committee for the purpose of reporting upon the present state of our
knowledge of Spectrum Analysis; that Mr. W. Chandler Roberts be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 101. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Dr. Wallace, Professor Dittmar, and Mr. Pattinson be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of reporting on the best means for the development
of Light from Coal-gas of different qualities; that Dr. Wallace be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 10]. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Professor P. M. Duncan and Mr. G. R. Vine be a Committee for
the purpose of reporting on the Carboniferous Polyzoa; that Mr. Vine be
the Secretary, and that the sum of 10/. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Professor A. Leith Adams, the Rev. Professor Haughton, Professor
W. Boyd Dawkins, and Dr. J. Evans, be a Committee for the purpose of
exploring the Caves of the South of Ireland; that Professor A. Leith
Adams be the Secretary, and that the sum of 101. be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.

That Professor H. G. Seeley, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. C.
Moore be a Committee for the purpose of reporting upon the viviparous
nature of the Ichthyosauria; that Professor Seeley be the Secretary, and
that the sum of 101. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. John Evans, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Mr. Edward Vivian,
Mr. George Busk, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Mr. William Ayshford
Sanford, Mr. John Edward Lee, and Mr. William Pengelly be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of finishing the Exploration of Kent’s Cavern,

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxi

Devonshire ; that Mr. Pengelly be the Secretary, and that the sum of 501.
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. J. Evans, the Rev. T. G. Bonney, Mr. W. Carruthers, Mr. F.
Drew, Mr. R. Etheridge, jun., Professor G. A. Lebour, Professor L. C.
Miall, Professor H. A. Nicholson, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Mr. E. B. Tawney,
Mr. W. Topley, and Mr. W. Whitaker be a Committee for the purpose of
carrying on the Geological Record ; that Mr. Whitaker be the Secretary,
and that the sum of 1001. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Professor W. C. Williamson, and Mr. W. H. Baily be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of collecting and reporting on the Tertiary (7.c.,
Miocene) Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North of Ireland; that Mr.
Baily be the Secretary, and that the sum of 15J. be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose, on the understanding that a collection of represen-
tative Fossils obtained be sent to the British Museum.

That Professor Hull, the Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Captain D. Galton,
Mr. Glaisher, Mr. G. A. Lebour, Mr. W. Molyneux, Mr. Morton, Mr.
Pengelly, Professor Prestwich, Mr. Plant, Mr. Mellard Reade, Mr.
Roberts, Mr. W. Whitaker, and Mr. De Rance be a Committee for the
purpose of investigating the Circulation of the Underground Waters in
the Permian New Red Sandstone, and Jurassic Formations of England,
and the Quantity and Character of the Water supplied to towns and
districts from those formations ; that Mr. De Rance be the Secretary, and
_ that the sum of 51. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. Pye-Smith, Professor M. Foster, and Professor Burdon
Sanderson be appointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the
Infiuence of Bodily Exercise on the Elimination of Nitrogen (the experi-
ments to be conducted by Mr. North) ; that Dr. Burdon Sanderson be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 50/. be placed at their disposal for the

ose.

That Major-General Lane Fox and Mr. A. W. Franks be a Committee
for the purpose of issuing a revised edition of the Anthropological Notes
and Queries for the Use of Travellers; that Major-General Lane Fox be
the Secretary, and that the sum of 20/. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.

That Mr. Stainton, Sir John Lubbock, and Mr. E. C.Rye be reappointed
a Committee for the purpose of continuing a Record of Zoological Litera-
ture; that Mr. Stainton be the Secretary, and that the sum of 1000. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. M. Foster, Professor Rolleston, Mr. Dew-Smith, Professor
Huxley, Dr. Carpenter, Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Sclater, Mr. F. M. Bal-
four, Sir C. Wyville Thomson, Professor Ray Lankester, and Mr. Sladen
be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of arranging for the occupa-
tion of a table at the Zoological Station at Naples; that Mr. Sladen be
the Secretary, and that the sum of 75/. be placed at their disposal for the

ose.

That Dr. Arthur Gamgee, Professor Schafer, Professor Allman, and
Mr. Geddes be a Committee for the purpose of conducting Palxonto-
logical and Zoological Researches in Mexico; that Mr. Geddes be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 502. be placed at’ their disposal for the
purpose.

That Sir John Imbbock, Major-General Lane Fox, Professor Leith
Adams, Mr. W. James Knowles, and the Rev. Dr. Grainger be a Committee
for the purpose of continuing Excavations at Portstewart and elsewhere in

lxxil REPORT—1879.

the North of Ireland; that Mr. W. James Knowles be the Secretary, and
that the sum of 15/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Dr. Farr, Dr. Beddoe, Mr. Brabrook, Sir George Campbell, Mr.
F. P. Fellows, Major-General Lane Fox, Mr. F. Galton, Mr. J. Park
Harrison, Mr. James Heywood, Mr. P. Hallett, Professor Leone Levi, Dr.
F. A. Mahomed, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. Charles Roberts, and Professor
Rolleston be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the collection of
observations on the Systematic Examination of Heights, Weights, &c., of
Human Beings in the British Empire, and the publication of photographs
of the typical Races of the Empire ; that Mr. Brabrook be the Secretary,
and that the sum of 500. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

That Mr. Bramwell, Dr. A. W. Williamson, Professor Sir W. Thomson,
Mr. St. John Vincent Day, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Dr.
Neilson Hancock, Professor Abel, Mr. J. R. Napier, Captain Douglas
Galton, Mr. Newmarch, Mr. E. H. Carbutt, Mr. Macrory, Mr. H. Trueman
Wood, Mr. W. H. Barlow, and Mr. A. T. Atchison be reappointed a
Committee for the purpose of watching and reporting to the Council on
Patent Legislation; that Mr. F. J. Bramwell be the Secretary, and that
the sum of 5/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.

Not involving Grants of Money.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor G. C. Foster (Secretary),
Professor W. G. Adams, Professor R. B. Clifton, Professor Cayley, Pro-
fessor J, D. Everett, Professor Clerk Maxwell, Lord Rayleigh, Professor
G. G. Stokes, Professor Balfour Stewart, Mr. Spottiswoode, and Professor
P. G. Tait, be reappointed for the purpose of endeavouring to procure
Reports on the progress of the chief branches of Mathematics and Physics.

That Mr. C. W. Merrifield be requested to report on the present state
of knowledge of the Application of Quadratures and Interpolation to
Actual Data.

That the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. Huggins (Secretary), Pro-
fessor J. Emerson Reynolds, Mr. G. J. Stoney, Mr. W. Spottiswoode, Dr.
De La Rue, Dr. W. M. Watts, Professor J. Dewar, and Captain Abney,
for the purpose of preparing and printing Tables of Oscillation-frequencies
be reappointed.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forbes (Secretary),
Professor Sir William Thomson, and Professor J. D. Everett, for the pur-
pose of making certain observations in India, and observations on Atmo-
spheric Electricity at Madeira, be reappointed.

That the Committee, consisting of Mr. David Gill, Professor G. Forbes,
Mr. Howard Grubb, and Mr. C. H. Gimingham, be reappointed to consider
the question of improvements in Astronomical Clocks.

That Professor Cayley, Professor F, Fuller, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, the
Rev. R. Harley, Mr. R. B. Hayward, Professor Henrici, Dr. T. A. Hirst,
Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Professor Bartholomew Price, Professor H. J. 8.
Smith, Mr. W. Spottiswoode, Mr. G. Johnstone Stoney, Professor Towns-
end, Mr. J. M. Wilson, and Dr. Wormell be appointed a Committee to
consider and report upon the subject of Geometrical Teaching, and parti-
cularly upon the Syllabuses prepared under the authority of the Associa-
tion for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching ; and that Mr. Merri-
field be the Secretary.

RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxiii

That the Committee, consisting of Mr. Spottiswoode, Professor G. G.
Stokes, Professor Cayley, Professor H. J. §. Smith, Professor Sir William
Thomson, Professor Henrici, Lord Rayleigh, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher,
on Mathematical Notation and Printing be reappointed; and that Mr. J.
W. L. Glaisher be the Secretary.

That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Professor G. G.
Stokes, Professor H. J. S. Smith, Professor Sir William Thomson, Mr.
James Glaisher, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, on Mathematical Tables be
reappointed ; and that Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher be the Secretary.

That a Committee, consisting of Dr. Muirhead (Secretary), Mr. C.
Hockin, Professor Sir William Thomson, Professor Clerk Maxwell,
Mr. W. E. Ayrton, and Mr. J. Perry, be appointed to consider the best
methods of making and issuing an Authoritative Standard of Electrical
Capacity.

That Professor W. G. Adams, Mr. John M. Thomson, Mr. W. N.
Hartley, and Mr. James T. Bottomley be reappointed a Committee for the
purpose of investigating the law of the ‘“ Electrolysis of Mixed Metallic
Solutions and Solutions of Compound Salts;” and that Mr. John M.
Thomson be the Secretary.

That Professor A. S. Herschel, Professor W. EH. Ayrton, Professor P.
M. Duncan, Professor G. A. Lebour, Mr. J. T. Dunn, and Professor J.
Perry be a Committee for the purpose of preparing a final Report on
experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks,
showing especially the geological aspects of the investigation ; and that
Professor Herschel be the Secretary.

That Professor Prestwich, Professor Hughes, Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins, the Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Professor L. C. Miall, Messrs. G. H. .
Morton, D. Mackintosh, R. H. Tiddeman, J. E. Lee, J. Plant, W. Pen-
gelly, Dr. Deane, Mr. Molyneux, and Professor Bonney be a Committee
for the purpose of recording the position, height above the sea, litho-
logical characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest connected with the
same, and taking measures for their preservation; and that the Rev. H.
W. Crosskey be the Secretary.

That Mr. R. J. Moss, Professor W. B. Dawkins, Professor E. Hull, Dr.
Moss, R.N., Mr. Pengelly, Dr. A. Leith Adams, Professor O’Reilly, and
Dr. J, Evans be a Committee for the purpose of obtaining information
with regard to the mode of occurrence of the remains of Cervus Megaceros
in Ireland ; and that Mr. R. J. Moss be the Secretary.

That Mr. C. Spence Bate and Mr. J. Brooking Rowe be reappointed a
Committee for the purpose of exploring the Marine Zoology of South
Devon; and that Mr. Spence Bate be the Secretary.

That the Rev. H. F. Barnes-Lawrence, Mr. C. Spence Bate, Mr. H. EH.
Dresser, Mr. J. E. Harting, Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. J. G. Shaw Lefevre,
Professor Newton, and the Rev. Canon Tristram be reappointed a Com-
mittee for the purpose of inquiring into the advisability of establishing a
“close time’’ for the protection of indigenous animals, and that it be an
instruction to the Committee to report to the Council in case of any action
being required ; and that Mr. H. E. Dresser be the Secretary.

That Mr. Sclater, Dr. G. Hartlaub, Sir Joseph Hooker, Captain F. M.
_ Hunter, and Lieut.-Colonel H. H. Godwin-Austen be reappointed a Com-
mittee for the purpose of investigating the Natural History of Socotra ;
and that Mr. Sclater be the Secretary.

lxxiv REPORT— 1879.

That Sir George Campbell, M.P., Lord O’Hagan, Mr. Morley, M.P.,
Mr. Heywood, Mr. Chadwick, M.P., Mr. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Mr. Hallett,
Professor Jevons, Dr. Farr, Mr. Stephen Bourne, Mr. Hammick, Professor
Leone Levi, Professor J. K. Ingram, Dr. Hancock, Mr. J. T. Pim, and
Professor Adamson (with power to add to their number) be a Committee
for the purpose of continuing the researches into the Incidence of Direct
Taxation, with special reference to Probate, Legacy, and Succession Duty,
and the Assessed Taxes; and that Professor Adamson be the Secretary.

That Mr. Mundella, M.P., Mr. James Heywood, Mr. Stephen Bourne, Mr.
Charles Doncaster, the Rev. A. Bourne, Mr. Taiso Masaki, Mr. Constantine
Molloy, Mr. R. J. Pye-Smith, Dr. Hancock, and Mr. Robert Wilkinson
(with power to add to their number) be a Committee for the purpose of
considering and reporting on the German and other Systems of teaching
the Deaf to speak; and that Mr. Robert Wilkinson be the Secretary.

That Professor Leone Levi, Mr. Stephen Bourne, Mr. Brittain, Dr.
Neilson Hancock, Professor Jevons, and Mr. Fellows (with power to add to
the number) be a Committee for the purpose of inquiring into the present
appropriation of wages and sources of income, and considering how far it
is consonant with the economic progress of the people of the United
Kingdom ; and that Professor Leone Levi be the Secretary.

That Mr. Mundella, M.P., Mr. Shaen, Mr. Stephen Bourne, Mr. James
Heywood, Mr. Wilkinson, and Dr. J. H. Gladstone (with power to add
to their number) be a Committee for the purpose of reporting whether
it is important that H.M. Inspectors of Hlementary Schools should be
appointed with reference to their ability for examining the scientific
specific subjects of the code in addition to other matters; and that Dr.
J. H. Gladstone be the Secretary.

That the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel and
in the North Sea, consisting of Sir William Thomson, Dr. J. Merrifield,
Professor Osborne Reynolds, Captain Douglas Galton, and Mr. James N.
Shoolbred, be reappointed, with power to add to their number, and to
communicate, if necessary, with the Government ; that Mr. J. F. Deacon
and Mr. Rogers Field be added to the Committee ; and that Mr. James N.
Shoolbred be the Secretary.

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of
the Association.

That the paper by Mr. Godwin-Austen, ‘On some further evidence
relating to the Range of the Paleozoic Rocks beneath the South-East of
England,’ be printed in ewtenso among the Reports.

That Lieutenant Temple’s paper, entitled ‘Hydrography past and
present,’ be printed in extenso among the Reports, with an outline map
to a scale to be settled by the editor.

That the paper by Mr. Rogers Field, ‘On Self-acting Intermittent
Siphons,’ be printed in extenso among the Reports, with the necessary
diagrams.

Resolution referred to the Council for consideration, and action if it seem
desirable.

That the Council be requested to take such farther action as regards
the correspondence with the Treasury about the Natural History Collec-
tions as they shall think desirable in the interests of Science.

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. lxxv

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes
by the General Committee at the Sheffield Meeting in August
1879. The Names of the Members who are entitled to call on
the General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed.

A.—Mathematics and Physics.

£ 8. d.
Lodge, Dr.—New Form of High Insulation Key ............-.. 10 0 0
Adams, Prof.—Standard of White Light... ...........:6.:seeeeee 20 0 0
_ Everett, Prof—Underground Temperature............-2+++++0+++ TOE ae 70
Joule, Dr.—Determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of
MTN Ns og ccc donaauaek oss2< sixes as coals taneqademammncmnciis nadnengs sem 50 0 0
Thomson, Sir W.—Elasticity of Wires.......-.sseesseeseeeerseeees 50 0 0
Glaisher, Mr.—Luminous Meteors ..........seseesseeceseeeceeeeeees 30 0 0
Darwin, Mr. G. H.—Lunar Disturbance of Gravity ............ S04. 0
Sylvester, Prof—Fundamental Invariants ..........00.2.-++eeeees 50 0 0
Perry, Mr. J.—Laws of Water Friction.....0...-ss0ssseessereeeees 20 0 0
Ayrton, Mr. W. E.—Specific Inductive Capacity of Sprengel
DMEGEET Yo. .0. <0 <nasscasmevaccarssssonscnensesceasencseanaenccosens sae 20 0 0
Haughton, Rev. Prof—Completion of Tables of Sun-heat
Coefficients..........c.coecoscecsscseesencsceesacconsnssacceseescoeses 50 0 0
Forbes, Prof. G.—Instrument for Detection of Fire-damp in
RRR po va eee pM tows in = sv'ansoos cavagaelasiinepdevientantgersacias sem HU 20/77 0
Thomson, Mr. J. M.—Inductive Capacity of Crystals and
MEHPAITIIOS ., .. . caucus dos sicbrua's’ oiiswee se cnwagmernnndne spiennnismeensis<sous vine 25 0 0
B.—Chemistry.

Dewar, Prof.—Spectrum Analysis... aaa Jaadaaaassant Og) oO
Wallace, Dr.—Development of Light Gunn al pas Meetenonsere TOO O
C.—Geology.

Duncan, Prof. P. M.—Report on Carboniferous Polyzoa....... 10 0 6
Adam, Prof. A. L.—Caves of South Ireland.................0+0++ 10 0 0
Seeley, Prof.—Viviparous Nature of Ichthyosaurus............. 10380" 0
Evans, Mr. John.—Kent’s Cavern Exploration ..........+++.++++ 50 0 O
Evans, Mr. John.—Geological Record.............-+ssesseseeseerees 100 0 0

Williamson, Prof. W. C.—Miocene Flora of the Basalt of
North Ireland... : to: 0. 0
Hull, Prof. Ls eee ‘Waters of Seen Fotinatianal “ek 3.00

Crehiad ewan eR sy tebe OIG O 0

lxxvi REPORT—1879.

D.— Biology.

Bronghy Lor ward .2: oe .icd. clk .oveedenigeaeer seep ssa nents nee 595
Pye-Smith, Dr.—Elimination of Nitrogen by Bodily Exercise. 50
Fox, Major-General Lane.—Anthropological Notes ............. 20
Stainton, Mr.—Record of Zoological Literature.................. 100
Foster, Dr. M.—Table at Zoological Station at Naples......... 75
Gamgee, Dr. A.—Investigation of the Geology and Zoology of

PA GSKIEO 0 bss. cseveeced <ep sues nsomen kath Mlibette ere tate te doa Cediteaee
Lubbock, Sir J.—Excavations at Portstewart ................... 15
F.— Statistics and Economic Science.
Bare, Dr+—Anthropometry sc7 cer eadestip- Re re deeseseorntacesnt 50
_G.—Mechamics.
Bramwell, Mr.—Patent. Laws. ............:scceseeseesscesevesereesers 5
£260

The Annual Meeting in 1880.

oO ors So oe

oooo Of

o

The Meeting at Swansea will commence on Wednesday, August 25, 1880.

Place of Meeting in 1881.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1881 will be held at York.

GENERAL STATEMENT.

lxxvii

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.

£ 8. d.
1834
Tide Discussions .......... we. 20 0 0
1835.
Tide Discussions ....... manedes - 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
£167 0 O
1836.
Tide Discussions ......... we. 163 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,

Rete ee sta dacmace saan COC EARS 50 0 0
Experiments on long-con-

tinued Heat .........0008 Soca ly are lee)
Rain-Gauges ..........sceeeesees 913 0
Refraction Experiments...... 15 0 0
Lunar Nutation..............2... 60 0 0
Thermometers ........ssescoseee 15 6 0

£435 0 O

1837,

Tide Discussions ....... seagcese FOL, 1, O
Chemical Constants ........... - 2413 6
Lunar Nutation...........s..0006 70 0 0
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Tides at Bristol............00. «- 150 O 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature............ 93 3 0
Vitrification Experiments ... 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations...... 30 0 0
Barometers ...........ssceseveecees 1118 6

£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions ............... 29 0 0
British Fossil Fishes ......... 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations

and Anemometer (construc-

LN o LD ee uadddneereenaraanaaen «--- 100 0 0
Cast Tron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-

stances (Preservationof)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
Bristol Tides vi............ececees 50 0 O
Growth of Plants ............... 7 0 0
TUG I Rivers .........sepsnseee 3.6 6
Education Committee ......... 50 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 5 3 0
Land and Sea Level........ we. 267 8 7
Steam-vessels.............cseesees 100 0 O
Meteorological Committee... 31 9 5

£932 2 2
1839
Fossil Ichthyology ............ 110 0 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &e, ............ 63 10 0

£ 8s. d.
Mechanism of Waves ..... we 144 2 ©
Bristol Tides ..........cccasseace - 3518 6

Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature.......... + 2111 0
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 7
Cast-Iron Experiments,........ 100 0 0
Railway Constants .......... 9s eeiliMh 5 12
Land and Sea Level........... - 274 1 4
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste..... - 17118 6
Stars in Lacaille ............... ll 0 O
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue ... 16616 6
Animal Secretions....... Sse dans 1010 0
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air ............... 1610
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ..,., - 38 00
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0

Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and
Kimgussie ........0...ccsscseee 49 7 §
Fossil Reptiles .......... esesseee 118 2 9
Mining Statistics ............06. 50 0 O
£1595 11 O
——

1840.
Bristol Tides ..........cc.sc0sceee 100 0 O
Subterranean Temperature... 1313 6

Heart Experiments ............ 1819 0
Lungs Experiments *........... 813 0
Tide Discussions ............... 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level ............ 611 1
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 24210 0
Stars (Lacaille).................. 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) .............0. 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air’ .......0....... 1515 0
Water on Tron ...........0...005 10 0 O
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 7 0 0
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population..........., 100 0 O
School Statistics ............... 50 0 O
Forms of Vessels ............... 184 7 0

Chemical and Electrical Phe-
TIOMIEN A. Re cherbscc ees eet eenee 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth .........0c:...... 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
; £1546 16 4

1841,

Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0

Meteorology: and Subterra-
neanTemperature ............ SG (0
Actinometers ............ccseeceee 10 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ....... meses Lg 7 0
Acrid Poisons............sesceeees 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents ...... - 38 0 0
Mud in Rivers ....... Baeeanee - 6 00

REPORT—1879.

Ixxylll

£ 3. a.
Marine Zoology .eccesssseeseeeees 1512 8
Skeleton Maps ...cccccsrrseeeee 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille) .........-.ssseeee 79 5 0
Stars (Nomenclature Gi) ecese- Type) AE
Stars (Catalogue of) 40 0 0
Water on Tron ......eceeeeeeeees bOEOneO)
Meteorological Observations

at Inverness \....-ceeeeeereeeee 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations

(reduction Of) «........+s0000 250° 0
Fossil Reptiles :.......0csescseeee 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ...........0++ 62 0 6
Railway Sections ........+--.++ Shh boe 0
Forms of Vessels .......seseeeee 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations

at Plymouth ......ssccceseeeee 55‘O 0
Magnetical. Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

BEONE .acesvcrcccccccrscsoncscess 100 0 0
Tides at Leith «.........cecsseers 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations...... 9 6 3
Races Of Men........sseeseseceees Bi OPO
Radiate Animals ...........+.+. 20 0

£1235 10 11

1842.

Dynamometric Instruments... 113-11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ........ obec, Oe le
Tides at Bristol......... reed oegc DS ROLE
Gases on Light .......0....000002 3014 7
Chronometers srecreceveeeeeees - 2617 6
Marine Zoology ...ccccesssseeeeee 1 6 0
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education ..... - 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

PINES) | cewwsnccocecnecesccesavsses 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ...........066- 161 10 0
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 O
Fossil Reptiles (publication

OE PREDOED) crercacenccssocssennd 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ..........006 80 016
Galvanic Experiments on

Rocks ..... “ace ASHER SEE eo 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments

BU PELUINOULN Ge nscccueseosves ses 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-

mometric Instruments...... 90 0 0
Force of Wind ..............000 lO 0010
Light on Growth of Seeds .. 8 0 0
Vital Statistics .......5...... owas) 50¢/0--10
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 0

£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
OF Stars ..cc..o0e Seeessesnetese 2 0 0

£s. d.
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of
WOrthippseretrsssesresssscrasks «se 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
TV ETHEES spec ss tancpapassepees 7712 8
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth *:..:2........0000e 55 0 O
Whewell’s Meteorological
Anemometer at Plymouth. 10 0 0
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
MMOUUH aw satstcess:scecspeaveneens 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations ........ Mannose 30 0 0
Meteorological ' Instruments
and Gratuities ............. 39 6 O
Construction of Anemometer
at INVerness’'..2:..2.0.scsesess 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ..........0+ 50 0 0
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Obser-
vatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
ROGUS anon ts .cstsesneecoeneen nena 81 8 0
Oxidation of the Rails of Rail-
WAN iecswasescsvansaavencereesauss 20 0 0
Publication of Report on Fos-
AU RCPOLES acs ocesneccaccaree 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections .............e0s0e 14718 3
Registration of Earthquake
SHOCKS assas.bcesstssateneesenee 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
(UAUUTC. cles) os acco apenas neces 10 0 0
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0
Marine Zoology .......-..00. seevey LOO.
Marine Zoology .......ccsseseeee ee ede. UL
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ........ «. 20 0 O
Vital Statistics ............s0008 - 36 5 8
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels .,.... 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator .............+5 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength
of Materials ..........s0000+ 0 0
£1565 10 2

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£8. d.
1844.
Meteorological Observations

at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
‘Completing Observations at

Plymouth ..... Seactsgo eet 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation ...........cee0 25 8 4
Publication of the British

Association Catalogue of

Ee vsiaastevce-deceecsancescle 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the

Hast Coast of Scotland ... 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature

SRP SALS veaseccosp ces asmses 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-

ment in Kew Observa-

COIN? <b co leXaaenePRe eran eanac 117 17-33
Instruments for Kew Obser-

Mean Vavercesaccnsoosnescecdeancse 56 7 3
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature

EPPEPEIATIC cocecptecssceccnsccs’ 5 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-

way Sections ................66 1517 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes

ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of

Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the

igean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 O
Geographical Distributions of

Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 O
Marine Zoology of Devon and

Mormwall ec... ..cecscneeducaase 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

HESS CCOS) 25. 0s..5iteenceaarcness 9 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

GE SECS. scicsvssiieees oxen 1842 8 7 3
Exotic Anoplura ............006 15 0 0
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on

the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 0
Anquiries into Asphyxia ..... 10 0 0
Tnvestigations on the Internal

Constitution of Metals ...... 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Mo-

rin’s Instrument ...... 1842 10 0 0

£981 12 8
1845.
Publications of the British As-

sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations

iy ENVETNESS' "32. .c2s.acccesenes 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation .........ceeeceeee 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments

MUOMOINDULEH'?.;.scecces uerece 13,00 9
Reduction of Anemometrical

Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0

Ac Ww MWA cooowoowon SF SO CO

Fi CA
Electrical Experiments at

Kew Observatory .......-.... 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establish-

ment in Kew Observatory 14915 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 O
The Actinograph ............006 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of

Shells. Acescccwscsteustsccccets 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 O
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1843 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

GINS. eehacsevtecsacedeesccens 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and

Mortality in York............ 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8

£831 9 9
| een
1846.
British Association Catalogue

GELSLANSE bps. ceveetescoses 1844 211 15
Fossil Fishes of the London

OV divans acene de sette-nesens suietsiaci 100 0
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 146 16
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 6 16
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0
Vitality of Seeds ........, 1844 2151
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1845 7 12
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0
Expenses attending Anemo-

AU GUCTN seca teedevesmsanadaenennes LE yf
Anemometers’ Repairs......... 2 3
Atmospheric Waves ..........4. 3.3
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819
Varieties of the Human Race

1844. 7 6
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 12 0
£685 16
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829............ 50 0 O
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

CIN ES E Teeceebecccssceetecehs 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 O
Atmospheric Waves ............ I ee es
Vitality of Seeds -......2........ (eal (ttf
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6

£208 5 4

lxxx

1848.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11

Atmospheric Waves ........+++ 2 LOMO
Vitality of Seeds ..............- 9:15 20
Completion of Catalogue of
SUATSI) Jo ccswscsasnnwensesedssens 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants ........- 15 0 0
£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory ......+.++++ 50 0 0
Maintaining Establishment
ELBIT GUO) Evscecesecdsecceneneatcen 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds ............26++ byst 1
On Growth of Plants ......... 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical
Phenomena........eseeeeeeeeees 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations ...... 13.9 0
£159 19 6
ES
1850.
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 0
Periodical Phenomena ......... te 40M 'O
Meteorological Instruments,
FAYOLES) , Suv usasnavencetssevaurene 25 0 0
£345 18 O
1851.

Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(ineludes part of grant in

SAU Me cecscessurnastenasscoted 309° 2-2
Theory of Heat ............ecee0e 20 ark
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-

mals and Plants...........+++- 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12 0 0
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0

£391 9 7
—
1852.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(including balance of grant

for 1850) ....-.s0c.ceseeesersnese 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-

tion Of Heat ......ssecserseees 5/2) 19
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-

THELIAA ....0..scccccecsecsverreese 10> S07 70
Vitality of Seeds .......seceeeee 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0

£304 6 7

es. Vd.

REPORT—1879.

£ 8. da.
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence

of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An- :

MGMIGAP. .sronerercesmencaness eh » 10 00
Dredging on the East Coas

Of Scotland). cysiwasmsaseasobee 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0

£205 0 0
1854.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(including balance’ of

former grant)..........sesseee 330°15 4
Investigations on Flax......... 11 0 oO
Effects of Temperature on

Wrought Iron..............s008 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical

PRENOMENA,...<...-0c000seorenns 10 0 0
British Annelida ..........2+0 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............54+ 5 2 3
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0

£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0O
Earthquake Movements ...... LO! “OETO:
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ...........06 se, 10) FUL
Map of the World............... 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0

£480 16 4
1856.
Maintaining the UHstablish-

ment at Kew Observa-

tory :—

1854......... £75 0 0
1856.........£500 0 os 2? 9 &
Strickland’s Ornithological

SYNONYMS ........ccceseeeeeres 100 0 ©
Dredging and Dredging

NOTE), ccinonn arene maseenee cones ile BES)
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical

PHENOMENA ...........scececeees 10 0 0
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0

£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

ALON TS eae dueseiereecacst>ee cane 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast

Of, ScoplanGsy, -snceassa> isp ee 10 0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT,

£ 8. d.
Investigations into the Mol-

lusca of California ......... 10 0
Experiments on Flax ........ ob 'O
Natural History of Mada-

GASCAL s.ceeecsececcscerecescsonce 20 0
Researches on British Anne-

LGA ee tae oisdsnis socio vteacvenve 25 0
Report on Natural Products

imported into Liverpool... 10 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-

IRE eia oncescess sas cncevcevce 10 0
Temperature of Mines......... 7 8
Thermometers for Subterra-

nean Observations............ ont
PRED ORS cece sscessccceysctasetse 5 0

£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

2) STOUT Shane CEROBRR eee ME Bene EABr 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast

Gi NCOane. 3... sescscsarens 10 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 50 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 5 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 18 13 2
Report on the British Anne-

Hida s..:.. Partatdak os cacarnansincne 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-

tion of Heat by Motion in

UIIUGS Seslocecasis -ijessaesenesees 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-

ducts imported into Scot-

ROEM socews ss sso SSRRpL ENG ToreAecee 10 0 0

£618 18 2
1859.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0 0
Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 O
OSMIUM ONICATAy |... sacesceevaes 5 0 0
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0
British Meduside ............... 5 0 0
Dredging Committee ......... D0" 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 O
Marine Fauna of South and

West of Ireland............... 10 0 0
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20 0 1
Balloon Ascents......... aweceige's 39 11 O

_ £684 11 1
1860.

Maintaining the Establish-

' ment of Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 0
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0 0
Inquiry into the Performance

of Steam-vessels ............ 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow

Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20 0 0

1879.

0
0
0
0
0)
0
0
4
0

lxxxi

£3. a.
Chemico-mechanical Analysis

of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of

Lambs. a stadiseds sees sesceve tes 10 0 0
Researches on the Solubility

OP WALES Bre cseca-gheteses so scssac 30 0 0
Researches on theConstituents

Obs Manures) | i.teseteecssedene-s 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon

ACCOUNS,........c000 Lewis ILS 6

£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the KEstablish-

ment of Kew Observatory.. 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and Kast

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0
Dredging Committee :—

1860...... £50 0 0

(ic POE al BOR cle opa
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 O
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 O
Fossils of Lesmahago ......... 15 0 0
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys ........:...... 20 0 0
Classified Index to the Trans-

BCHONS caeseqssesessseeannadsaes 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and

ID) ae) Seenaetandietetoceeboosde 5 0 0
‘Dijat CAG lee nasesetandcasencrste = 90, 0-0
Photoheliographic Observa-

GIONS caeensntueceacensocssss0cs 50 0 O
Prisons We tiesrseensiance debe cests 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............+ - 10 0.0
Alpine Ascents ........ sesscseee 6 5 10
Constituents of Manures ...... 25 0 0

£1111 5 10
1862.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment of Kew Observatory 500 0 0
PALGMG AWS | a sinnocsseasioesecmess 21 6 O
Mollusea of N.-W. of America 10 0 0
Natural History by Mercantile

Marine ......... Formecosterco: 5° 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 25 0 O
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0 0
Photographic Pictures of the

SLOT te eenah oases Bicsaiesa's semaunhne 150 0 0
Rocks of Donegal............... 25 0 0
Dredging Durham and North-

mmMponlanGep ce veccersecsscc 25 0 0
Connexion of Storms ......... 20 0 0
Dredging North-east Coast

OW Seotands ..sc-...ccsse sos 6 9 6
Ravages of Teredo ............ 311 0
Standards of Electrical Re-

SISDANCE, (use octet avaeeaenes neds 50° 0° 0
Railway Accidents ...........3 TO Oe.0
Balloon Committee ..... Beet 200 0 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10 0 0

Ixxxil
£ 3. a
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 O O
Prison Diet ........ Meeeeie ss beed 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............... 1210 0
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 O
Thermo-Electric Currents ... 5 0 O
£1293 16 6

1863.
Maintaining the LEstablish-

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 O
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other ex-

PPCTISES)| | -enensenetacssreasessoes 25 0 0
HHO ZOD sancewa ceases spspessannes 25 0 0
WoalPHOSSUS Hupscens «see sesesees > 20 0 0
Herrings....... “Sa geededainrinn eves) 20) 00 10
Granites of Donegal............ 5 0 0
ETISODMDICH oi. cceancosesseearece 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

PETES Se asecety rs ssestahnaseence 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 0
Dredging North-east coast of

DCOUATIG ss snccuanopeseeaneehen 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland

and “Durham <o..ccesecaee esas Li, ee LO)
Dredging Committee superin-

HeNGeNCe” syssscestapeoossss se 10 0 O
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 O
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure......... 10 0 0
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 O
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0

Construction and Distri-

DUTGION a ....c sce scnentnesuacesnetek 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 17 tga, 00)
Kew Additional Buildings for

Photoheliograph ............ 100 0 O
Thermo-Electricity ............ 157 10' 30
Analysis of Rocks ............ Se LO
ERY ANON Besos sacs astalessscaeesssce 10 0

£1608 3 10
1864,
Maintaining the HEstablish-

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
WOR IMOSSIIS ow isc esses. csscceenns 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

IMCS Bea ratanac to soseilenes'sodecec 20 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 1 090
Dredging Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ..........., 200 0 O
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 0
Standards of Electric Re-

SISLALICE \ namaeterteneiccntoans 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10 0 0
iy rOida. |. ieee vasoeceesanes cer 10 0 0
Asiham’s Gilt! sisscassconeaceess 50 0 0
Nitrite of Amyle ............... 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 0
Rain-Gauges ......cecceecee Meee (LO alb) 8
Cast-Iron Investigation ...,,. 20 0 0

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0 0O
RV roll anvermreasessensrsaekeees ss 13 0 0
Rain-Gauses jecccsseess coseavowes 30 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

ERGIMIDEL): cseeuesccscuaesaseteeees 6 8 0
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds ............... 20 0 0
DISH OT Als, coanceccacses-eeverses 25 0 0
American Mollusca ............ 39 50
OrpaniceACiOsS |) cecenscssoseuerkn 20 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10 0 0
SATU YPUCTUS §< oj. .cjse sues ss cnsleeeese 50 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Malta Caves Researches ...... 30 0 O
Oyster Breeding ............ Ao) Oe)
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 0
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 O

| Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 0O
Marine Hanna, -..<ssjs-dadeosts 25 0 O
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature...... D400)
Resistance of Floating Bodies

MAW ALC. woo novansaneaeeeeeee 100 0 O
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors ..........+. 40 0 0

£1591 7 10

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 O
Lunar Committee............... 64 13 4
Balloon Committee .,.......... 50 0 O

| Metrical Committee............ 50 0 O

| British, Ramtall. ccs, .sy-sdeceses 50 0 O

| Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed... 15 0 0
Luminous Meteors ....... erate DO, 0 10
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution of ,

CAS ARON ies nacho sesesensohmae 50 0 0
Amyl Compounds .............6. 25 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon

and Cornwall:.......<.--..cse.ssaon, 0 10
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast 50 0 0
Dredging the Mersey .......+. fy RUM Ce)
Resistance of Floating Bodies

in| Waters.. cwecrsec-sapeemarey 50 0 0
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

CAIS 4. isssn0scnspeeengeeins ssDNA mE,

REPORT— 1879

18s he

Tidal Observations in the
EMP Eh meeretccsasnscesesst ener 50 0 O
Spectral Rays....... setae tts ose 45 0 0
| Luminous Meteors .......0.. o2 2 20 OT

1865.
Maintaining the Establish-

1866.
Maintaining the Establish-

GENERAL STATEMENT.

e2

)xxxili

£ 3. d. ; oe 8 ds
Rigor Mortis ......ccccssserseeees 10 0 0 | Secondary Reptiles, &c. ...... 30 0 0
Trish Annelida .........seeeeseee 15 0 0O| British Marine Invertebrate
Catalogue of Crania............ 50 0 0 HUNG sevseasasecabebedacdecstdes'c 100 0 0
Didine Birds of Mascarene £1940 0 O
MSGS atenssnccciosesavecssesess 50 0 0 1869 ————
Typical Crania Researches ... 30 0 0 Mecilaaes the Establist
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0 0 ee) nae gee aes
i750 134 ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Lunar Committee ............606 50 0 O
1867. Metrical Committee............ 25.0 0
Maintaining the Establish- Zoological Record .......ss..+0+. 100 0 0
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0 | Committee on Gases in Deep-
Meteorological Instruments, well Water.........e.sscceccve 25 0 0
PPPUOSEITIC .. cccusscsncscsessas-ces 50.0. 0 | British Rainfall.......1.1i.-..« 50 0 O
aaa Porras eee eeococcence 120 0 O | Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
etrical Committee ............ 30 0 0 CEOs warcaneccntdecoses ipetseeeas binges 30 0 0
ede Hole Explorations 100 0 0 | Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 0 O
Palestine Explorations......... 50 0 0 | Steamship Performances ...... 30 0 0
eee penne, Ealesting Geass 30 0 0 | Chemical Constitution of
PIpSiy HaINtall,.......cecesesens BO. (Oy, :07 || CaSbURON oc... coasesccansems coos 80 0 0
ee ee eee aie ... 25 0 0 | Iron and Steel Manufacture 100 0 0
um Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed... 25 0 0 | Methyl Series..................0+ 30 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0 0 | Organic Remains in Lime-
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-Beds 30 0 0 stone ROckS........0cccsoesseees 10 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0 0 | Harthquakes in Scotland...... 10 0 0
Steamship Reports Condensa- British Fossil Corals ......... 50 0 0
PIOUM etc eoss> saysssacdeeeaests 100 0 O | Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 30 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 O 0 | Fossil Flora .........scsececseeee 25 0 0
Ethyl and Methyl series ...... 25 0 O | Tidal Observations ..........6+ 100 0 0
Fossil Crustacea .............+ 25 0 0 | Underground Temperature... 30 0 0
Sound under Water ............ 24 4 0 | Spectroscopic Investigations
nas Greenland harap se ne . 5 0 0 of Animal Substances ...... 5 0 0
0. ant Beds. 100 0 0 | Organic Acids .........cccceeee 12 0 0
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25 0 0 | Kiltorcan Fossils ............... 20 0 0
Patent Laws .......:ssee00+. 30 0 0 | Chemical Constitution and
£1739 4 0. Physiological Action Rela-
, —_ GIONS Wise ncsewaieacenaeensas cand 15 0 0
Memtainine the nd blish | Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
AOE Utilization of Sewage ......... 10 0 0
en rears “ o ‘ : Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 0
Metrical Committee ........... 50 0 0 2 iaaclebcele
Zoological Record.............0+ 100 0 0 1870.
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 0 0 | Maintaining the Establish-
Steamship Performances ...... 100 0 0 ment of Kew Observatory 600 0 0
British Rainfall .................. 50 0 O | Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0
Luminous Meteors............... 50 0 0 | Zoological Record............006 100 0 0
Orgamic ACIS ......esesseeeeee 60 0 O | Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 0
Fossil Crustacea.............+00+. 25 0 O | Harsin Fishes ................ 10 0 0
Methyl Series........sse.ss000-- 25 0 0 | Chemical Nature of CastIron 80 0 0
Mercury and Bile ....++... seeeee 25 0 O | Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 O
ee Remains in Lime- Heat in the Blood............... Lb) 20s 0
stone Rocks ........s6006 «.-- 25 0 OQ | British Rainfall.................. 100 0 0
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20 0 0 | Thermal Conductivity of
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall... 30 0 0O NOW CEC ries eaten cetesaee'ece Bead 20 0 O
British Fossil Corals ......... 50 0O 0O | British Fossil Corals............ 50 0 0
pent Leaf-Beds _teeteneeanes 50 0 0 Kent's Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0O
end Explorations ...... ou : 0 pect Ect es Be, Coe 4 0 0
OSSI] PlOVA .......0eeeeeeeeeeeen 2 0 | Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 15 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ LOM OMIO, | oscil Wlora .....-0cscesaaspaecee 25 0 O
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0 | Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 0
Spectroscopic Investigations Underground Temperature... 50 0 9
of Animal Substances ...... 5 O O | Kiltorcon Quarries Fossils... 20 0 9

Ixxxiv REPORT—1879.

£ 8. d. £ s. a.

Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0 1873.
Utilization of Sewage .......++ 50 O O | Zoological Record ............006 100 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 30 0 0 | Chemistry RECOLG)«... canac evo 200 0 0
Onny River Sediment ......... 3 0 O | Lidal Committee .........:-000¢ 400 0 O
Mechanical Equivalent of Sewage Committee .........0 100 0 0
HG ATcetpee qstasdsicesaatser ences 50 0 O | Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
£1572. 0 © | Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
———ee—— | Fossil Elephants .....,......... 25 0 0
1871. Wave-Lengths ..............0066 150 0 0
Maintaining the Establish- British Rainfall......-2.......00 100 0 O

ment of Kew Observatory 600 0 0 | Essential Oils................000+ 30 0 0
Monthly Reports of Progress Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0

in Chemistry ...s.esseceseeveee 100 O O | Gaussian Constants .......... sO ORO

* Metrical Committee...........- 25 0 O | Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Zoological Record..........+++++ 100 0 O | Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Thermal Equivalents of the | Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 O

Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10 O O | Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 O | Timber Denudation and Rain-

Fossil Flora .......cesseseceseres 25 0 0 Pal Weve epee ctsesdeccs soneearecteme 20500
Luminous Meteors .........++ 30 0 O | Luminous Meteors.............++ 30 0 O
British Fossil Corals ........- 25 0 O £1685 0 0
Heat in the Blood.............+5 (Be PAs

British Rainfall............:00++ 50 0 0 1874.

Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0 Zoological IREGCOLG cc chneoaan ene 100 0 0
Fossil Crustacea ....e+.00..0005 25 0 © | Chemistry Record..,....,...+, 100 0 0
Methyl Compounds .........+++ 2 0 0 Mathematical Tables Soda enante 100 0 O
Lumar Objects ......:ssseeeee 20 0 0 | Hiliptic Functions.............., 100 0 0
Fossil Coral Sections, for Lightning Conductors ......... LOO) /0

Photographing ......s.s0+0+ 20 0 | Thermal Conductivity of
Bagshot Leaf-Beds .........++ 2 0 0 Rocks beteeeeepeeeennen eens steees 10 0 0
Moab Explorations ..........++ 100 0 © | Anthropological Instructions,

Gaussian Constants .........++ 40 0 0 SAS Eies s wigisp nov CldnpapeieoeR manne 50 0 0
247222 «= Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0

Luminous Meteors ..........6. 30 0 0

1872. Intestinal Secretions ebcaeea sil 1400

Maintaining the Establish- British Rainfall...............00. 100 0 O

ment of Kew Observatory 300 0 0 Essential Oils...........0cseeeeees 10 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 75 0 © | Sub-Wealden Explorations ... 25 0 0
Zoological Record............++« 100 0 0 | Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Tidal Committee ........0c000 200 0 © | Mauritius Meteorological Re-
Carboniferous Corals ......... 250 0 SCALCH .....eseeeeesseeeeeeeesenee 100 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0 Magnetization of Iron ......... 20 0 0
Exploration of Moab..........+. 100 0 © | Marine Organisms............... 30 0 0
Terato-Embryological Inqui- Fossils, North-West of Scot-

TICS Mee eneetaa res nce cue seceaneter 10 0 0 Tad ......eeeeeee gpa 3000019- onset 210 0

Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0 | Physiological Action of Light 20 0 0
Luminous INIEHOONS® Kavecececnes 90° 0 0 Trades Unions Ga cucuane ween v wales! 25 0 0)
Heat in the Blood............++4 15 0 © | Mountain Limestone-Corals 25 0 0
Fossil Crustacea °.....cescssceee 29 0 0 Erratic Blocks. ..:.cscesesaneeaure 10 O 0
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25 0 0 | Dredging, Durham and York-
Lunar Objects .............e006- 20 0 0 shire Coasts ....++..+..+1 vee 28 5 0
Inverse Wave-Lengeths......... 20 0 © | High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0
British Rainfall....... ER 100 0 © | Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3.6 0
Poisonous Substances Antago- Labyrinthodonts of Coal-

rasta ce otc 10 0 0 | Measures.....sseevesrerreres vb) 0
Essential Oils, Chemical Con- | £1151 16 O

StUbUbION, GoC, iawseceeeeercesse> 40 0 0} 1875 ;
Mathematical Tables ......... 50 0 O | {ayes 4e a =
Thermal Conductivity of Me- Eliptic Functions ..........+++++ 100 0 0

Holst accavescsearavaneccesspmepess 25 0.0] Magnetization of Iron ......... 20 0 0

ae British Rainfall eisti-essessce.es 120 0 0
£1285 0 0 | Luminous Meteors .........0. 30 0 0
Chemistry Record....... Fadsseoe! LOOMMORAC

GENERAL

£8 da.

Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid.............4. 10 0 0
Isometric Cresols ............06+ 20 0 O
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... LO ORO
Development of Myxinoid

IMGs veudaderescccecnccttoneve 20 0 0
Zoological Record............665 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0

£960 0 0

1876.

Printing Mathematical Tables 159 4 2
British) Rainfall...........scseces 100 0 0
RASA. c0.ccscacsesedsssccuess 915 O
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Isomeric Cresols ..............- 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate or Ethyl Sodaceto-

PCE U ADO csieans ccdleissssceceseveeass 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid............... 13 0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave,

SGIIIUC’ Catncs ee SEER RR REReEeCoe ee 100 0 0
Geological Record.,.............. 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of

RGIS We ats. ae co a's a ecb ecare cites es 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0
Zoological Record............... 100 0 0
CHORCMIIMG 55 cic. saiissses «cap vin’ 5 0 O
Physiological ActionofSound 25 0 0
Zoological Station............... 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-

bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning

of Steam Vessels ............ bd OO

£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acids in
WWIHHICTAIS 5... 2.cctieeeotedssovases 20 0 O
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 O
Thermal Conductivity of

ERICA des tcoeta ses var sostase ss Cala he ey
Zoological Record........... Fem LOO OKO
Kent’s Cavern .......0...e..s00. 100 0 O
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Elasticity of Wires .......... «. 100° 0 0
Dipterocarpz, Report on...... 20 0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of

IT GHierees sete ess cecs Spacteon acne: 35 0 0

STATEMENT.
& 8. d.
Double Compounds of Cobalt

BDGPNUCKE! viv acacwustvoweteaees 8 0 0
Underground Temperatures 50 0 O
Settle Cave Explanation ...... 100 0 O
Underground Waters in New

Red Sandstone ........ ...06- 10,0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACETATES cise ciicscccecscnsences LOR. 0
British Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Elasticity in

AGIA Rca vasssiessthvesseene tee st too” O
Development of Light from

@oal=a asi. seit eccccedes- deer 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid............0+ 1h Swni0
Geological Record..........0+ . 100 0 O
Anthropometric Committee 34.0 =O
Physiological Action of Phos-

PHOTICRACTON ECs asescoesee sens 15 0 0

£1128 9 7
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 O
Geological Record............++ 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-

mena by means of Syphon

RECOLd Bit aeresnecneanseeeeaeee 10 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 O
Investigation of Underground

"WateMs:<.< esacqsersssnerancscso™ 15 0 0
Transmission of Electrical

Impulses through Nerve

SHLUCHOTE/ Ae densccrenare-- care 30 0 O
Calculation of Factor Table

of Fourth Million............ 100 0 0O
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Chemical Composition and

Structure of less known

AUIKALOIAR a pesccaces./essiesssenes 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record ........-...... 100 0 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 15 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

HROCKSH...24. nei caeacsesngenay os 416 6
Luminous Meteors..........+.+++ 10.9 0
Ancient Harthworks ..........++ 25)0)_.0

£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological

Station, Naples .............+ 75 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt

of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph

on the Mammoth ......... icc lim (0) 0
Record of Zoological Litera-

UELNG lagen ehissssiacadeeciennaceaed 100 0 O
Composition and Structure of

less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 O
Exploration of Caves in

BOERNE! | ssc .sacccneanesaedtene 50 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration .. . 100 0 0

Ixxxvi REPORT— 1879.

£ 8. d. £ 3. a.
Record of the Progress of Specific Inductive Capacity
(CCIE 0 Annicpadanoananaamnnnnen 100 0 O of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
Fermanagh Caves Exploration 5 0 0 | Tables of Sun-heat Co-
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu- CHICIOMUS)stecue pee desser= ncceare 30 0 0
tions and Solutions of Datum Level of the Ordnance
Compound Salts............06 25 0 0 STMIRYON” aoearosconshoaarancrodgaon. 10 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0 | Tables of Fundamental In-
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0 variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Calculation of Factor Tables Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 O servations in Madeira ...... 145 0 0
Circulation of Underground Instrument for Detecting
NUSINGES weahtccmesrenessiorer cst ens 10 0 O Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0 | Instruments for Measuring
Improvements in Astrono- .the Speed of Ships ......... 17.) 138,
MCA OLOCKS eens eniscmaen reoncs 30 0 0 | Tidal Observations in the
Marine Zoology of South English Channel ............ 10 0 O
DEVOMetesccsnaraeneuensret acts 20 0 O 1080 11 11
Determination of Mechanical Suey vas
Equivalent of Heat ......... 1215 6

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, August 20, at 8 p.m., in the Albert Hall, William
Spottiswoode, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. R.S., President, resigned
the office of President to Professor G. J. Allman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
L. & E., who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see
page l.
in Me Thursday, August 21, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place at the Cutlers’

all.

On Friday, August 22, at 8.30 p.m., in the Albert Hall, W. Crookes,
Esq., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on ‘ Radiant Matter.’

On Monday, August 25, at 8.30 p.m., in the Albert Hall, Professor
EK. Ray Lankester, F.R.8., delivered a Discourse on ‘ Degeneration.’

Pe ae Tuesday, August 26, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place at the Cutlers’
all.

On Wednesday, August 27, at 2.30 p.m., the concluding General Mect-
ing took place in the Albert Hall, when the Proceedings of the General
Committee, and the Grants of Money for Scientific purposes, were ex-
plained to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Swansea.!

1 The Meeting is appointed to commence on Wednesday, August 25, 1880.

=

RESIDENT'S ADDRESS.

‘A

carat

—
Sim oe,

ein
4 Lee
|

| AE CEL i

ADDRESS

BY

PROFESSOR G. J. ALLMAN,
M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and E., M.R.LA, Pres. LS,
PRESIDENT.

Ir is no easy thing to find material suited to an occasion like the present.
For on the one hand there is risk that a presidential address may be too
special for an audience necessarily large and general, while on the other
hand it may treat too much of generalities to take hold of the sympathies
and command the attention of the hearers.

It may be supposed that my subject should have been suggested by
the great manufacturing industries of the town which has brought us to-
gether ; but I felt convinced that a worker in only the biological sciences
could not do justice to the workers in so very different a field.

I am not therefore going to discourse to you of any of those great
industries which make civilised society what it is,—of those practical
applications of scientific truth which within the last half-century have
become developed with such marvellous rapidity, and which have already
become interwoven with our everyday life, as the warp of the weaver is
‘interwoven with the woof. Such subjects must be left to other occupiers
‘of this chair, from whom they may receive that justice which J could not
pretend to give them; and I believe I shall act most wisely by keeping to
a field with which my own studies have been more directly connected.

I know that there are many here present from whom I have no right
to expect that previous knowledge which would justify me in dispensing
with such an amount of elementary treatment as can alone bring my
‘subject intelligibly before them, and my fellow-members of the British
Association who have the advantage of being no novices in that depart-
ment of biology with which I propose to occupy you, will pardon me if I
address myself mainly to those for whom the field of research on which
we are about to enter has now been opened for the first time.

I have chosen, then, as the matter of my address to you to-night, a
subject in whose study there has during the last few years prevailed an
unwonted amount of activity, resulting in the discovery of many remark-

1879, B

2 REPORT—1879.

able facts, and the justification of many significant generalisations. I
propose, in short, to give you in as untechnical a form as possible some
account of the most generalised expression of living matter, and of the
results of the more recent researches into its nature and phenomena,

More than forty years have now passed away since the French natu-
ralist Dujardin drew attention to the fact that the bodies of some of the
lowest members of the animal kingdom consist of a structureless, semi-
fluid, contractile substance, to which he gave the name of Sarcode. A
similar substance occurring in the cells of plants was afterwards studied
by Hugo von Mohl, and named by him Protoplasm, It remained for
Max Schultze to demonstrate that the sarcode of animals and the proto-
plasm of plants were identical.

The conclusions of Max Schultze have been in all respects confirmed
by subsequent research, and it has further been rendered certain that this
same protoplasm lies at the base of all the phenomena of life, whether in
the animal or the vegetable kingdom. Thus has arisen the most important
and significant generalisation in the whole domain of biological science.

Within the last few years protoplasm has again been made a subject
of special study, unexpected and often startling facts have been brought
to light, and a voluminous literature has gathered round this new centre
of research. I believe, therefore, that I cannot do better than call your
attention to some of the more important results of these inquiries, and
endeavour to give you some knowledge of the properties of protoplasm,
and of the part it plays in the two great kingdoms of organic nature.

As has just been said, protoplasm lies at the base of every vital pheno-
menon. It is, as Huxley has well expressed it, ‘ the physical basis of life.”
Wherever there is life, from its lowest to its highest manifestations, there-
is protoplasm ; wherever there is protoplasm, there too is life. Thus co-
extensive with the whole of organic nature—every vital act being referable:
to some mode or property of protoplasm—it becomes to the biologist what
the ether is to the physicist; only that instead of being a hypothetical
conception, accepted as a reality from its adequacy in the explanation of
phenomena, it is a tangible and visible reality, which the chemist may
analyse in his laboratory, the biologist scrutinise beneath his microscope:
and his dissecting needle.

The chemical composition of protoplasm is very complex, and has not
been exactly determined. It may, however, be stated that protoplasm is:
essentially a combination of albuminoid bodies, and that its principal
elements are, therefore, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. In its
typical state it presents the condition of a semi-fluid substance—a tena-
cious, glairy liquid, with a consistence somewhat like that of the white-
of an unboiled egg.! While we watch it beneath the microscope move-

1JIn speaking of protoplasm asa liquid, it must be borne in mind that this
expression refers only to its physical consistence—a condition depending mainly
on the amount of water with which it is combined, and subject to considerable-

ADDRESS. 3

ments are set up in it; waves traverse its surface, or it may be seen to
flow away in streams, either broad and attaining but a slight distance
from the main mass, or else stretching away far from their source, as
narrow liquid threads, which may continue simple, or may divide into
branches, each following its own independent course; or the streams may
flow one into the other, as streamlets would flow into rivulets and rivulets
into rivers, and this not only where gravity would carry them, but in a
direction diametrically opposed to gravitation; now we see it spreading
itself out on all sides into a thin liquid stratum, and again drawing itself
together within the narrow limits which had at first confined it, and
all this without any obvious impulse from without which would send the
ripples over its surface or set the streams flowing from its margin.
Though it is certain that all these phenomena are in response to some
stimulus exerted on it by the outer world, they are such as we never
meet with in a simply physical fluid—they are spontaneous movements
resulting from its proper irritability, from its essential constitution as
living matter.

Examine it closer, bring to bear on it the highest powers of your
microscope—you will probably find disseminated through it countless
multitudes of exceedingly minute granules; but you may also find it
absolutely homogeneous, and, whether containing granules or not, it is
certain that you will find nothing to which the term organisation can be
applied. You have before you a glairy, tenacious fluid, which, if not abso-
Intely homogeneous, is yet totally destitute of structure.

And yet no one who contemplates this spontaneously moving matter
can deny that it is alive. Liquid as it is, it is a living liquid; organless.
and structureless as it is, it manifests the essential phenomena of life.

The picture which I have thus endeavoured to trace for you in a few
leading outlines is that of protoplasm in its most generalised aspect.
Such generalisations, however, are in themselves unable to satisfy the
conditions demanded by an exact scientific inquiry, and I propose now,
before passing to the further consideration of the place and purport of
protoplasm in nature, to bring before you some definite examples of proto-
plasm, such as are actually met with in the organic world.

A quantity of a peculiar slimy matter was dredged in the North
Atlantic by the naturalists of the exploring ship ‘ Porcupine’ from a depth
of from 5,000 to 25,000 feet. It is described as exhibiting, when examined
on the spot, spontaneous movements, and as being obviously endowed
with life. Specimens of this, preserved in spirits, were examined by Prof.
Hnuxley, and declared by him to consist of protoplasm, vast masses of
which must thus in a living state extend over wide areas of sea bottom.
To this wonderful slime Huxley gave the name of Bathybius Haeckelit.

variation, from the solid form in which we find it in the dormant embryo of seeds, to
the thin watery state in which it occurs in the leaves of Valisneria. Its distin-
guishing properties are totally different from those of a purely physical liquid, and
are subject to an entirely different set of laws.

B2

~

4 REPORT— 1879.

Bathybius has since been subjected to an exhaustive examination by
Prof. Haeckel, who believes that he is able to confirm in all points the
conclusions of Huxley, and arrives at the conviction that the bottom of the
open ocean, at depths below 5,000 feet, is covered with an enormous mass
of living protoplasm, which lingers there in the simplest and most primi-
tive condition, having as yet acquired no definite form. He suggests that
it may have originated by spontaneous generation, but leaves this question
for future investigators to decide.

The reality of Bathybius, however, has not been universally accepted.
In the more recent investigations of the ‘ Challenger’ the explorers have
failed in their attempts to bring further evidence of the existence of
masses of amorphous protoplasm spreading over the bed of the ocean.
They have met with no trace of Bathybius in any of the regions explored
by them, and they believe that they are justified in the conclusion that
the matter found in the dredgings of the ‘ Porcupine’ and preserved in
spirits for further examination was only an inorganic precipitate due to
the action of the alcohol.

It is not easy to believe, however, that the very elaborate investigations
of Huxley and Haeckel can be thus disposed of. These, moreover, have
received strong confirmation from the still more recent observations of
the Arctic voyager, Bessels, who was one of the explorers of the ill-fated
‘Polaris,’ and who states that he dredged from the Greenland seas
masses of living undifferentiated protoplasm. Bessels assigns to these
the name of Protobathybius, but they are apparently indistinguishable
from the Bathybius of the ‘Porcupine.’ Further arguments against the
reality of Bathybius will therefore be needed before a doctrine founded
on observations so carefully conducted shall be relegated to the region
of confuted hypotheses,

Assuming, then, that Bathybius, however much its supposed wide
distribution may have been limited by more recent researches, has a real
existence, it presents us with a condition of living matter the most
rudimental it is possible to conceive. No law of morphology has as yet
exerted itself in this formless slime. Even the simplest individualisation
is absent. We have a living mass, but we know not where to draw its
boundary lines; it is living matter, but we can scarcely call it a living
being.

We are not, however, confined to Bathybius for examples of proto-
plasm in a condition of extreme simplicity. Haeckel has found, inhabiting
the fresh waters in the neighbourhood of Jena, minute lumps of proto-
plasm, which when placed under the microscope were seen to have no
constant shape, their outline being in a state of perpetual change, caused
by the protrusion from various parts of their surface of broad lobes and
thick finger-like projections, which, after remaining visible for a time,
would be withdrawn, to make their appearance again on some other part
of the surface.

These changeable protrusions of its substance, without fixed position

ADDRESS. 5

or definite form, are eminently characteristic of protoplasm in some of
its simplest conditions, They have been termed ‘ Pseudopodia,’ and will
frequently come before you in what I have yet to say.

To the little protoplasmic lumps thus constituted, Haeckel has given
the name of Protameba primitiva. They may be compared to minute
detached pieces of Bathybius. He has seen them multiplying themselves
by spontaneous division into two pieces, which, on becoming independent,
increase in size and acquire all the characters of the parent.

Several other beings as simple as Protameba have been described by
various observers, and especially by Haeckel, who brings the whole
together into a group to which he gives the name of Mongra, suggested by
the extreme simplicity of the beings included in it.

But we must now pass to a stage a little higher in the development
of protoplasmic beings. Widely distributed in the fresh and salt waters of
Britain, and probably of almost all parts of the world, are small particles
of protoplasm closely resembling the Protameba just described. Like it,
they have no definite shape, and are perpetually changing their form, throw-
ing out and drawing in thick lobes and finger-like pseudopodia, in which
their body seems to flow away over the field of the microscope. They
are no longer, however, the homogeneous particle of protoplasm which
forms the body of Protameba. Towards the centre a small globular mass
of firmer protoplasm has become differentiated off from the remainder, and
forms what is knownas a uucleus, while the protoplasm forming the extreme ©
outer boundary differs slightly from the rest, being more transparent,
destitute of granules, and apparently somewhat firmer than the interior.
We may also notice that at one spot a clear spherical space has made its
appearance, but that while we watch it has suddenly contracted and
vanished, and after a few seconds has begun to dilate so as again to come
into view, once more to disappear, then again to return, and all this in
regular rhythmical sequence. This little rhythmically pulsating cavity is
called the ‘contractile vacuole.’ It is of very frequent occurrence among
those beings which lie low down in the scale of life.

We have now before us a being which has arrested the attention of
naturalists almost from the commencement of microscopical observation.
It is the famous Ameba, for which ponds and pools and gutters on the
house-roof have for the last 200 years been ransacked by the micro-
scopist, who has many a time stood in amazement at the undefinable form
and Protean changes of this particle of living matter. It is only the
science of our own days, however, which has revealed its biological im-
portance, and shown that in this little soft nucleated particle we have
a body whose significance for the morphology and physiology of living
beings cannot be overestimated, for in Amawba we have the essential
characters of a cELL, the morphological unit of organisation, the physio-
logical source of specialised function.

_ The term ‘cell’ has been so long in use that it cannot now be displaced
from our terminology ; and yet it tends to convey an incorrect notion,

6 REPURT— 1879.

suggesting, as it does, the idea of a hollow body or vesicle, this having
been the form under which it was first studied. The cell, however, is
essentially a definite mass of protoplasm having a nucleus imbedded in it.
It may, or may not, assume the form of a vesicle; it may, or may not,
be protected by an enveloping membrane; it may, or may not, contain
a contractile vacuole; and the nucleus may, or may not, contain within
it one or more minute secondary nuclei or ‘ nucleoli.’

Haeckel has done good service to biology in insisting on the necessity
of distinguishing such non-nucleated forms as are presented by Protamaba
and the other Monera from the nucleated forms as seen in Ameba. To
the latter he would restrict the word cell, while he would assign that
of ‘cytode’ to the former.”

2 In every typical cell three parts may be distinguished. There is first the more
or less liquid granular protoplasm; secondly the nucleus; and thirdly an external
more firm zone of protoplasm, known as the ‘cortical layer ’"—the Hautschicht of the
German histologists. All these parts may be regarded as portions differentiated
out of the original simple protoplasm. Cells do not, however, always remain on a
stage of such simplicity as that presented by Ameba. The nucleus is always at its
origin quite homogeneous, but as it increases in size it usually manifests a differen-
tiation resulting in a constitution which recent research has shown to be more
complex than had been previously supposed; for we often find it to present
an external firmer layer, or nuclear membrane, including within it the softer nuclear
protoplasm, in which again a network of filaments has been in many instances
described.

The structure of the nucleus has been quite recently studied by Flemming (Arch.
f. Mikr, Anat. Band xvi. Heft 2. 1878), who has given particular attention to this
intranuclear network. He maintains that in its completed state the nucleus consists
of a parietal firm layer, which encloses, besides specially differentiated nucleoli, a
framework (Geriist) of filaments with a more fluid intervening substance. He
further insists on the fact that, with the differentiation of a nucleus, there is intro-
duced a chemical difference between its substance and that of the surrounding
cell-substance, as shown not only by a different behaviour of the nucleus towards
re-agents, but by an actually determined difference of chemical composition.

Klein (Quarterly Jowrn. Mier. Sci. vol. xviii. p. 315) has shown that in the cells
of the stomach of Triton cristatus there is a delicate intranuclear network of fila-
ments in all respects resembling that described by Flemming; and he further
maintains that the network of the nucleus is here continuous, through minute
apertures near the poles of the nuclear membrane, with a similar network in the
surrounding cell-substance. In this cell-substance he distinguishes two parts—the
homogeneous ground-substance and the intracellular network of filaments.

Flemming, however, will not admit this connection between intra-nuclear and
intra-cellular filaments, and Schleicher, as the result of his very recent researches on
the division of cartilage-cells (Die Knorpelzelitheilung, Arch. f. Mikr. Anat. Band
xvi. Heft 2, 1878), concludes that in these there is no true intra-cellular network,
the nucleus being here composed of a multitude of separate rodlets, filaments, and
granules surrounded by the nuclear membrane.

The minute granules which are generally seen in the soft protoplasm of the cell
do not seem to be essential constituents. They are probably nutritive matter intro-
duced from without, and in process of assimilation and conversion into proper
protoplasm. Hanstein has distinguished by the term Metaplasm these granules
from the proper homogeneous protoplasm in which they are suspended. The
external cortical layer is quite destitute of them: on this devolves the property of
protecting the contents from the unfavourable action of outer influences, and to it
alone in plants is allocated the property of secreting the cellulose boundary wall.

Several recent observers, but more especially Strasburger (Studien wber das
Protoplasma Jenaische Zeitschr. 1876), have described in the cortical layer of
various cells a radial striation, as if formed by excessively delicate rodlets (Stiab-
chen), placed vertically to the surface and in close proximity to one another. He

ADDRESS. 7

» Let us observe our Ameba a little closer. Like all living beings, it
must be nourished. It cannot grow as a crystal would grow by accumu-

- lating on its surface molecule after molecule of matter. It must feed. It
must take into its substance the necessary nutriment ; it must assimilate
this nutriment, and convert it into the material of which it is itself
composed.

If we seek, however, for a mouth by which the nutriment can
enter into its body, or a stomach by which this nutriment can be digested,
we seek in vain. Yet watch it for a moment as it lies in a drop of water
beneath our microscope. Some living denizen of the same drop is in its
neighbourhood, and its presence exerts on the protoplasm of the Ameba
a special stimulus which gives rise to the movements necessary for the
prehension of nutriment. A stream of protoplasm instantly runs away
from the body of the Ameba towards the destined prey, envelopes it in
its current, and then flows back with it to the central protoplasm, where
it sinks deeper and deeper into the soft yielding mass, and becomes
dissolved, digested, and assimilated in order that it may increase the size
and restore the energy of its captor.

But again, like all living things, Ameba must multiply itself, and so
after attaining a certain size its nucleus divides into two halves, and then
the surrounding protoplasm becomes similarly cleft, each half retaining
one half of the original nucleus. The two new nucleated masses which
thus arise now lead an independent life, assimilate nutriment, and attain
the size and characters of the parent.

We have just seen that in the body of an Ameba we have the type of
a cell. Now both the fresh waters and the sea contain many living beings
besides Amceba which never pass beyond the condition of a simple cell.
Many of these, instead of emitting the broad lobe-like pseudopodia of
Ameba, have the faculty of sending out long thin threads of protoplasm,
which they can again retract, and by the aid of which they capture their
prey or move from place to place. Simple structureless protoplasm as
they are, many of them fashion for themselves an outer membranous or
calcareous case, often of symmetrical form and elaborate ornamentation,
or construct a silicious skeleton of radiating spicula, or crystal clear
concentric spheres of exquisite symmetry and beauty.

Some move about by the aid of a flagellum, or long whip-like pro-
jection of their bodies, by which they lash the surrounding waters, and
which, unlike the pseudopodia of Ameba, cannot, during active life, be
withdrawn into the general protoplasm of the body; while among many

has seen a relation between these and the cilia on the swarm spores of Vaucheria,
where each cilium seems to be supported by a rodlet. That this condition of the
cortical layer, however, is not a general feature of cell protoplasm, is certain; it
is but a special case of structural differentiation. Indeed, the complex structure
which has been detected in the nucleus and in the surrounding cell-protoplasm
can scarcely be otherwise regarded than as an expression of an early differentiation
in the structure of the cell, and not, as has been maintained, an ultimate or
‘plastidular ’ condition of protoplasm.

8 REPORT—1879.

others locomotion is effected by means of cilia—microscopic vibratible
hairs, which are distributed in various ways over the surface, and which,
like the pseudopodia and flagella, are simple prolongations of their pro-
toplasm.

In every one of these cases the entire body has the morphological
value of a cell, and in this simple cell reside the whole of the properties.
which manifest themselves in the vital phenomena of the organism.

The part fulfilled by these simple unicellular beings in the economy
of nature has at all times been very great, and many geological forma-
tions, largely built up of their calcareous or silicious skeletons, bear
testimony to the multitudes in which they must have swarmed in the
waters of the ancient earth.

Those which have thus come down to us from ancient times owe their
preservation to the presence of the hard persistent structures secreted by
their protoplasm, and must, after all, have formed but a very small propor-
tion of the unicellular organisms which peopled the ancient world, and
there fulfilled the duties allotted to them in nature, but whose soft, perish-
able bodies have left no trace behind.

In our own days similar unicellular organisms are at work, taking
their part silently and unobtrusively in the great scheme of creation, and
mostly destined, like their predecessors, to leave behind them no record
of their existence. The Red Snow Plant, to which is mainly due the
beautiful phenomenon by which tracts of Arctic and Alpine snow become
tinged of a delicate crimson, is a microscopic organism whose whole body
consists of a simple spherical cell. In the protoplasm of this little cell
must reside all the essential attributes of life; it must grow by the
reception of nutriment; it must repeat by multiplication that form
which it has itself inherited from its parent ; it must be able to respond
to the stimulus of the physical conditions by which it is surrounded.
And there it is, with its structure almost on the bounds of extremest.
simplification, taking its allotted part in the economy of nature, com-
bining into living matter the lifeless elements which lie around it,
redeeming from sterility the regions of never-thawing ice, and peopling
with its countless millions the wastes of the snow land.3

But organisation does not long rest on this low stage of unicellular
simplicity, for as we pass from these lowest forms into higher, we find
cell added to cell, until many millions of such units become associated
in a single organism, where each cell, or each group of cells, has its
own special work, while all combine for the welfare and unity of the
whole.

In the most complex animals, however, even in man himself, the com-
ponent cells, notwithstanding their frequent modification and the usual,

8’ The Red Snow Plant (Protococcus nivalis) acts on the atmosphere through
the agency of chlorophyll, like the ordinary green plants. As in these, chlorophylk
is developed in it, and is only withdrawn from view by the predominant red pig-
ment to which the Protococcus owes one of its most striking characteristics.

. ADDRESS. 9

intimacy of their union, are far from losing their individuality. Examine
under the microscope a drop of blood freshly taken from the human
subject, or from any of the higher animals. It is seen to be composed of
a multitude of red corpuscles, swimming in a nearly colourless liquid, and
along with these, but in much smaller numbers, somewhat larger colour-
less corpuscles. The red corpuscles are modified cells, while the colour-
less corpuscles are cells still retaining their typical form and properties.
These last are little masses of protoplasm, each enveloping a central
nucleus. Watchthem. They will be seen to change their shape; they
will project and withdraw pseudopodia, and creep about like an Ameba.
But, more than this, like an Ameba, they will take in solid matter as
nutriment. They may be fed with coloured food, which will then be
seen to have accumulated in the interior of their soft transparent proto-
plasm; and in some cases the colourless blood-corpuscles have actually
been seen to devour their more diminutive companions, the red ones.

Again, there are certain cells filled with peculiar coloured matters, and
called pigment-cells, which are especially abundant, as constituents of
the skin in fishes, frogs, and other low vertebrate, as well as many inver-
tebrate animals. Under certain stimuli, such as that of light, or of
emotion, these pigment cells change their form, protrude or retract
pseudopodial prolongations of their protoplasm, and assume the form of
stars or of irregularly lobed figures, or again draw themselves together
into little globular masses. To this change of form in the pigment-cell
the rapid change of colour so frequently noticed in the animals provided
with them is to be attributed.

The animal egg, which in its young state forms an element in the
structure of the parent organism, possesses in the relations now under
consideration a peculiar interest. The egg is a true cell, consisting essen-
tially of a lump of protoplasm enclosing a nucleus, and having a nucleolus
included in the interior of the nucleus. While still very young it has no.
constant form, and is perpetually changing its shape. Indeed, it is often
impossible to distinguish it from an Ameba; and it may, like an Ameba,
wander from place to place by the aid of its pseudopodial projections.
I have shown elsewhere‘ that the primitive egg of the remarkable hy-
droid Myriothela manifests amceboid motions ; while Haeckel has shown®
that in the sponges certain amoeba-like organisms, which are seen
wandering about in the various canals and cavities of their bodies, and
had been until lately regarded as parasites which had gained access from
without, are really the eggs of the sponge; and a similar amceboid con-
dition is presented by the very young eggs of even the highest animals.

Again, Reichenbach has proved * that during the development of the

4 On the Structure and Development of Myriothela. Phil. Trans. vol. 165, 1875,
p. 552.

5 Jenaische Zeitschr. 1871.

6 Die Embryonanloge und erste Entwickelung des Flusskrebse. Zeitschr. f. wissens.
Loologie, 1877.

10 REPORT—1879.

crayfish the cells of the embryo throw out pseudopodia by which, exactly
as in an Ameeba, the yolk-spheres which serve as nutriment for the
embryo are surrounded and engulphed in the protoplasm of the cells.

I had shown some years ago’ that in Myriothela pseudopodial pro-
cesses are being constantly projected from the walls of the alimentary
canal into its cavity. They appear as direct extensions of a layer of
clear, soft homogeneous protoplasm which lies over the surface of the
naked cells lining the cavity, and which I now regard as the ‘ Haut-
schicht’ or cortical layer of these cells. I then suggested that the func-
tion of these pseudopodia lay in seizing, in the manner of an amceba,
such alimentary matter as may be found in the contents of the canal,
and applying it to the nutrition of the hydroid.

What I had thus suggested with regard to Myriothela has been
since proved in certain planarian worms by Metschnikoff,8 who has seen
the cells which line the alimentary canal in these animals act like inde-
pendent Amcebee, and engulph in their protoplasm such solid nutriment
as may be contained in the canal. When the Planaria was fed with
colouring matter these amceboid cells became gorged with the coloured
particles just as would have happened in an amceba when similarly fed.

But it is not alone in such loosely aggregated cells as those of the
blood, or in the amceboid cells of the alimentary canal, or in such scat-
tered constituents of the tissues as the pigment cells, or in cells des-
tined for an ultimate state of freedom, as the egg, that there exists an
independence. The whole complex organism is a society of cells, in
which every individual cell possesses an independence, an autonomy, not
at once so obvious as in the blood-cells, but not the less real. With
this autonomy of each element there is at the same time a subordination
of each to the whole, thus establishing a unity in the entire organism,
and a concert and harmony between all the phenomena of its life.

In this society of cells each has its own work to perform, and the life
of the organism is made up of the lives of its component cells. Here it
is that we find most distinctly expressed the great law of the physiolo-
gical division of labour. In the lowest organisms, where the whole being
consists of a single cell, the performance of all the processes which con-
stitute its life must devolve on the protoplasm of this one cell; but as
we pass to more highly organised beings, the work becomes distributed
‘among a multitude of workers. These workers are the cells which now
make up the complex organism. The distribution of labour, however, is
not a uniform one, and we are not to suppose that the work performed
by each cell is but a repetition of that of every other. For the life pro-
‘cesses, which are accumulated in the single cell of the unicellular or-
ganism become in the more complex organism differentiated, some being
intensified and otherwise modified and allocated to special cells, or to

’ Loe. cit.

® Ueber die Verdawungsorgane eciniger Susswasscr-Turbellarien. Zoologisoher
Anzeiger, December 1878,

ADDRESS. ll

special groups of cells, which we call organs, and whose proper duty is
now to take charge of the special processes which have been assigned to
them. In all this we have a true division of labour,—a division of
labour, however, by no means absolute; for the processes which are
essential to the life of the cell must still continue common to all the cells
of the organism. No cell, however great may be the differentiation of
function in the organism, can dispense with its irritability, the one con-
stant and essential property of every living cell. There thus devolves on
each cell or group of cells some special work which contributes to the
well-being of all, and their combined labours secure the necessary con-
ditions of life for every cell in the community, and result in those com-
plex and wonderful phenomena which constitute the life of the higher
organisms.

We have hitherto considered the cell only as a mass of active
nucleated protoplasm, either absolutely naked, or partially enclosed in a
protective case, which still permits free contact of the protoplasm with
the surrounding medium. In very many instances, however, the proto-
plasm becomes confined within resisting walls, which entirely shut it in
from all direct contact with the medium which surrounds it. With the
plant this is almost always so after the earliest stages of its life. Here
the protoplasm of the cells is endowed with the faculty of secreting over
its surface a firm, resisting membrane, composed of cellulose, a substance
destitute of nitrogen, thus totally different from the contained protoplasm,
and incapable of manifesting any of the phenomena of life.

Within the walls of cellulose the protoplasm is now closely imprisoned,
but we are not on that account to suppose that it has lost its activity, or
has abandoned its work asa living being. Though it is now no longer
in direct contact with the surrounding medium, it is not the less dependent
on it, and the reaction between the imprisoned protoplasm and the outer
world is still permitted by the permeability of the surrounding wall of
cellulose.

When the protoplasm thus becomes surrounded by a cellulose wall it
seldom retains the uniform arrangement of its parts which is often found
in the naked cells. Minute cavities or vacuoles make their appearance in
it ; these increase in size and run one into the other, and may finally form
one large cavity in the centre, which becomes filled with a watery fluid,
known as the Cell Sap. This condition of the cell was the first observed,
and it was it which suggested the often inapplicable term ‘cell.’ By the
formation of this central sap cavity the surrounding protoplasm is pushed
aside, and pressed against the cellulose wall, over which it now extends
as a continuous layer. The nucleus either continues near the centre,
enveloped by a layer of protoplasm, which is connected by radiating
bands of protoplasm with that of the walls, or it accompanies the dis-
placed protoplasm, and lies embedded in this on the walls of the cell.

We have abundant evidence to show that the imprisoned protoplasm
loses none of its activity. The Charace constitute an exceedingly in-

12 REPORT—1879.

teresting group of simple plants, common in the clear water of ponds and.
of slowly running streams. The cells of which they are built up are
comparatively large, and, like almost all vegetable cells, are each enclosed
in a wall of cellulose. The cellulose is perfectly transparent, and if the
microscope, even with a low power, be brought to bear on one of these:
cells, a portion of its protoplasm may be seen in active rotation, flowing:
up one side of the long tubular cell and down the other, and sweeping on:
with it such more solid particles as may become enveloped in its current..
In another water plant, the Valisneria spiralis, a similar active rotation
of the protoplasm may be seen in the cells of the leaf, where the con-
tinuous stream of liquid protoplasm sweeping along the green granules of
chlorophyll, and even carrying the globular nucleus with it in its current,
presents one of the most beautiful of the many beautiful phenomena
which the microscope has revealed to us.

In many other cells with large sap-cavities, such as those which form
the stinging hairs of nettles and other kinds of vegetable hairs, the pro-
toplasmic lining of the wall may send off into the sap-cavity projecting
ridges and strings, forming an irregular network, along which, under a
high power of the microscope, a slow streaming of granules may be
witnessed. The form and position of this protoplasmic network undergo
constant changes, and the analogy with the changes of form in an Amaeba
becomes obvious. The external wall of cellulose renders it impossible for
the confined protoplasm to emit, like a naked Ameba, pseudopodia from its:
outer side; but on the inner side there is no obstacle to the extension of'
the protoplasm, and here the cavity of the cell becomes more or less com-
pletely traversed by protoplasmic projections from the wall. These often
stretch themselves out in the form of thin filaments, which, meeting with
a neighbouring one, become fused into it; they show currents of granules
streaming along their length, and after a time become withdrawn and
disappear. The vegetable cell, in short, with its surrounding wall of
cellulose, is in all essential points a closely imprisoned Rhizopod.

Further proof that the imprisoned protoplasm has lost by its im-
prisonment none of its essential irritability, is afforded by the fact that if
the transparent cell of a Nitella, one of the simple water-plants just
referred to, be touched under the microscope with the point of a blunt’
needle, its green protoplasm will be seen to recede, under the irritation.
of the needle, from the cellulose wall. If the cellulose wall of the com-.
paratively large cell which forms the entire plant in a Vaucheria, a.
unicellular alga, very common in shallow ditches, be ruptured under the:
microscope, its protoplasm will escape, and may then be often seen to:
throw out pseudopodial projections and exhibit amceboid movements.

Even in the higher plants, without adducing such obvious and well-
known instances as those of the Sensitive Plant and Venus’s Flytrap, the
irritability of the protoplasm may be easily rendered manifest. There-
are many herbaceous plants in which if the young succulent stem of a
vigorously growing specimen receive a sharp blow, of such a nature howe

— as

ADDRESS. 13

‘ever as not to bruise its tissues, or in any way wound it, the blow will
‘sometimes be immediately followed by a drooping of the stem com-
mencing at some distance above the point to which the stroke had been
applied: its strength appears to have here suddenly left it, it is no longer
able to bear its own weight, and seems to be dying. The protoplasm,
however, of its cells, is in this instance not killed, it is only stunned
by the violence of the blow, and needs time for its restoration. After
remaining, it may be for some hours, in this drooping and flaccid state,
the stem begins to raise itself, and soon regains its original vigour.
This experiment will generally succeed well in plants with a rather large
terminal spike or raceme when the stroke is applied some little distance
‘below the inflorescence shortly before the expansion of the flower.

In the several instances now adduced the protoplasm is in the mature
state of the plant entirely included within a wall of cellulose. Some re-
cent beautiful observations, however, of Mr. Francis Darwin, have shown
that even in the higher plants truly naked protoplasm may occur. From
the cells of certain glandular hairs contained within the cup-like recep-
tacles formed by the united bases of two opposite leaves in the Teazel
(Dipsacus) he has seen emitted long pseudopodia-like projections of the
protoplasm. What may be the significance of this very exceptional
phenomenon is still undetermined. It is probably, as Mr. Darwin sup-
poses, connected with the absorption of nitrogenous matter.

That there is no essential difference between the protoplasm of plants
‘and that of animals is rendered further evident by other motor phe-
nomena, which we are in the habit of regarding as the exclusive attribute
of animals. Many of the more simply organised plants give origin to
peculiar cells called ‘spores,’ which separate from the parent, and, like the
seeds of the higher plants, are destined to repeat its form. In many cases
these spores are eminently locomotive. They are then termed ‘swarm-

‘spores,’ and their movements are brought about, sometimes by changes

‘of shape, when they move about in the manner of an Ameba, but more
frequently by minute vibratile cilia, or by more strongly developed

flagella or whip-like projections of their protoplasm. These cilia and

flagella are absolutely indistinguishable from similar structures widely
distributed among animals, and by their vibratory or lashing strokes
upon the surrounding water the swarm-spores are rapidly carried from
place to place. In these motions they often present a curious sem-
blance of volition, for if the swarm-spore meet with an obstacle in its
course, it will, as if to avoid it, change the direction of its motion, and
retreat by a reversion of the stroke of its cilia. They are usually
attracted by light, and congregate at the light side of the vessel which
contains them, though in some cases light has the opposite effect on them
‘and they recede from it.

Another fact may here be adduced to show the uniform character of
protoplasm and how very different are its properties from those of lifeless
matter, namely, the faculty which all living protoplasm possesses of

14 REPORT—1879.

resisting the entrance of colouring matter into its substance. As many
here present are aware, microscopists are in the habit of using in their
investigations various colouring matters, such as solutions of carmine,
These act differently on the different tissues, staining some, for example,
more deeply than others, and thus enabling the histologist to detect
certain elements of structure, which would otherwise remain unknown.
Now if a solution of carmine be brought into contact with living proto-
plasm, this will remain, so long as it continues alive, unaffected by the
colouring matter. But if the protoplasm be killed the carmine will at
once pervade its whole substance, and stain it throughout with a colour
more intense than even that of the colouring solution itself.

But no more illustrative example can be offered of the properties of
protoplasm as living matter, independently of any part it may take in
organisation, than that presented by the Myxomycete.

The Myxomycet constitute a group of remarkable organisms, which,
from their comparatively large size and their consisting, during a great
part of their lives, of naked protoplasm, have afforded a fine field for
research, and have become one of the chief sources from which our know-
ledge of the nature and phenomena of protoplasm has been derived.

They have generally been associated by botanists with the Fungi, but
though their affinities with these are perhaps closer than with any other
plants, they differ from them in so many points, especially in their deve-
lopment, as to render this association untenable. They are found in
moist situations, growing on old tan or on moss, or decaying leayes or
rotten wood, over which they spread in the form of a network of naked
protoplasmic filaments, of a soft creamy consistence, and usually of a
yellowish colour.

Under the microscope, the filaments of the network exhibit active
spontaneous movements, which, in the larger branches, are visible under
an ordinary lens, or even by the naked eye. A succession of undulations
may then be noticed passing along the course of the threads. Under
higher magnifying powers, a constant movement of granules may be seen
flowing along the threads, and streaming from branch to branch of this.
wonderful network. Here and there offshoots of the protoplasm are:
projected, and again withdrawn in the manner of the pseudopodia of an
Ameba, while the whole organism may be occasionally seen to abandon
the support over which it had grown, and to creep over neighbouring
surfaces, thus far resembling in all respects a colossal ramified Ameba.
It isalso curiously sensitive to light, and may be sometimes found to have
retreated during the day to the dark side of the leaves, or into the recesses.
of the tan over which it had been growing, and again to creep out on the
approach of night. :

After a time there arise from the surface of this protoplasmic net oval
capsules or spore-cases, in which are contained the spores or reproduc-
tive bodies of the Myxomycete. When the spore-case has arrived at ma-
turity, it bursts and allows the spores to escape. These are in the form

ADDRESS. 15

of spherical cells, each included in a delicate membranous wall, and
when they fall into water the wall becomes ruptured, and the little cell
creeps out. This consists of a little mass of protoplasm with a round
central nucleus, enclosing a nucleolus, and with a clear vacuole, which
exhibits a rhythmically pulsating movement. The little naked spore thus
set at liberty is soon seen to be drawn out at one pointinto a long vibratile
whip-like flagellum, which by its lashing action carries the spore from
place to place. After a time the flagellum disappears, and the spore may
now be seen emitting and withdrawing finger-like pseudopodia, by means
of which it creeps about like an Amcba, and like an Ameba devours
solid particles by engulfing them in its soft protoplasm,

So far these young ameeba-like Myxomycetze have enjoyed each an
independent existence. Now, however, a singular and significant pheno-
menon is presented. Two or more.of these Myxamcebe, as they have been
called, approach one another, come into contact, and finally become com-
pletely fused together into a single mass of protoplasm, in which the
components are no longer to be distinguished. To the body thus formed
by the fusion of the Myxamcebe the name of ‘ plasmodium’ has been
given. :

The plasmodium continues, like the simple amcebiform bodies of
which it is composed, to grow by the ingestion and assimilation of solid
nutriment, which it envelopes in its substance; it throws out ramifying
and inosculating processes, and finally becomes converted into a proto-
plasmic network, which in its turn gives rise to spore-cases with their
contained spores and thus completes the cycle of its development.

Under certain external conditions the Myxomycete have been observed
to pass from an active mobile state into a resting state, and this may
occur both in the ameebiform spores and in the plasmodium. When the
plasmodium is about to pass into a resting state, it usually withdraws its
finer branches and expels such solid ingesta as may be included in it. Its
motions then gradually cease, it breaks up into a multitude of polyhedral
cells, which, however, remain connected, and the whole body dries into a
horny brittle mass, known by the name of ‘ sclerotium.’

‘In this condition, without giving the slightest sign of life, the sclero-
tium may remain for many months. Life, however, is not destroyed, its
‘manifestations are only suspended, and if after an indefinite time the
apparently dead sclerotium be placed in water, it immediately begins to
swell up, the membranous covering of its component cells becomes dis-
solved and disappears, and the cells themselves flow together into an active
amceboid plasmodium.

We have already seen that every cell possesses an autonomy or inde-
‘pendent individuality, and from this we should expect that, like all living
beings, it had the faculty of multiplying itself, and of becoming the parent
of other cells, This is truly the case, and the process of cell-multiplication
has of late years been studied, with the result of adding largely to our
knowledge of the phenomena of life.

16 REPORT——1879.

The labours of Strasburger, of Auerbach, of Oscar Hertwig, of Eduard
van Beneden, Biitschli, Fol, and others, here come prominently before us,
but neither the time at my disposal nor the purport of this address will
allow me to do more than call your attention to some of the more strik-
ing results of their investigations.

By far the most frequent mode of multiplication among cells shows
itself in a spontaneous division of the protoplasm into two separate por-
tions, which then become independent of one another, so that instead of
the single parent cell two new ones have made their appearance. In this
process the nucleus usually takes an important part. Strasburger has
studied it with great care in certain plant-cells, such as the so-called
‘corpuscula’ or ‘ secondary embryo-sacs’ of the Conifere and the cells of
Spirogyra; and has further shown a close correspondence between cell-
division in animals and that in plants.

It may be generally stated as the results of his observations on the
corpuscula of the Conifers, that the nucleus of the cell about to divide
‘assumes a spindle shape, and atthe same time presents a peculiar striated
differentiation, as if it were composed of parallel filaments reaching from
end to end of the spindle. These filaments become thickened in the middle,
and there form by theapproximation of the thickened portions a transverse
plate of protoplasm (the ‘ nucleus-plate’). This soon splits into two
halves, which recede from one another towards the poles of the spindle,
travelling in this course along the filaments, which remain continuous
from end to end. When arrived near the poles they form there two new
nuclei, still connected with one another by the intervening portion of the
spindle.

In the equator of this intervening portion there is now formed in a
‘similar way a second plate of protoplasm (the ‘cell-plate’), which, ex-
tending to the walls of the dividing cell, cuts the whole protoplasm into
two halves, each half containing one of the newly-formed nuclei. This
partition plate is at first single, but it soon splits into two laminz, which
become the apposed bounding surfaces of the two protoplasm masses into
which the mother cell has been divided. A wall of cellulose is then all at
-once secreted between them, and the two daughter cells are complete.

Tt sometimes happens in the generation of cells that a young brood of
-cells arises from the parent cell by what is called ‘free cell-formation.’
In this only a part of the protoplasm of the mother cell is used up in the
‘production of the offspring. It is seen chiefly in the formation of the spores of
the lower plants, in the first foundation of the embryo in the higher, and in
the formation of the endosperm —a cellular mass which serves as the first
‘nutriment for the embryo—in the seeds of most Phanerogams. The for-
‘mation of the endosperm has been carefully studied by Strasburger in the
embryo-sa¢ of the kidney bean, and may serve as an example of the pro-
-cess of free cell-formation. The embryo-sae is morphologically a large
‘cell with its protoplasm, nucleus, and cellulose wall, while the endosperm
which arises within it is composed of a multitude of minute cells united

———

ADDRESS. 17

into a tissue. The formation of the endosperm is preceded by the disso-
lution and disappearance of the nucleus of the embryo-sac, and then in the
midst of the protoplasm of the sac several new nuclei make their appear-
ance. Around each of these as a centre the protoplasm of the mother
cell is seen to have become differentiated in the form of a clear spherule,
and we have thus corresponding to each of the new nuclei a young naked
cell, which soon secretes over its surface a membrane of cellulose. The
new cells, when once formed, multiply by division, press one on the other,
and so combining into a cellular mass, constitute the completed endo-
sperm.

Related to the formation of new cells, whether by division or by free
cell-formation, is another very interesting phenomenon of living proto-
plasm known as ‘rejuvenescence.’ In this the whole protoplasm of a
cell, by a new arrangement of its parts, assumes a new shape and acquires
new properties. It then abandons its cellulose chamber, and enters on a
new and independent life in the surrounding medium.

A good example of this is afforded by the formation of swarm-spores
in Oedogonium, one of the fresh-water Alge. Here the whole of the
protoplasm of an adult cell contracts, and by the expulsion of its cell-
sap changes from a cylindrical to a globular shape. Then one spot be-
comes clear, and a pencil of vibratile cilia here shows itself. The cellu-
lose wall which had hitherto confined it now becomes ruptured, and the
protoplasmic sphere, endowed with new faculties of development and
with powers of active locomotion, escapes as a swarm spore, which, after .
enjoying for a time the free life of an animal, comes to rest, and de-
velopes itself into a new plant.

The beautiful researches which have within the last few years been
made by the observers already mentioned, onthe division of animal cells,
show how close is the agreement between plants and animals in all the
leading phenomena of cell-division, and afford one more proof of the
essential unity of the two great organic kingdoms.

There is one form of cell which, in its relation to the organic world,
possesses a significance beyond that of every other, namely, the egg. As
already stated, the egg is, wherever it occurs, a typical cell, consisting
essentially of a globule of protoplasm enveloping a nucleus (the ‘ germinal
vesicle’), and with one or more nucleoli (the ‘germinal spots’) in the
interior of the nucleus. This cell, distinguishable by no tangible cha-
racters from thousands of other cells, is nevertheless destined to run
through a definite series of developmental changes, which have as their
end the building up of an organism like that to which the egg owes its
origin.

It is obvious that such complex organisms as thus result—composed, it
may be, of countless millions of cells—can be derived from the simple
egg cell only by a process of cell-multiplication. The birth of new cells
derived from the primary cell or egg thus lies at the basis of embryonic

Sesame It is here that the phenomena of cell-multiplication in the
1879. C

18 REPORT—1879.

animal kingdom can in general be most satisfactorily observed, and the
greater number of recent researches into the nature of these phenomena
have found their most fertile field in the early periods of the development
of the egg.

A discussion of the still earlier changes which the egg undergoes in
order to bring it into the condition in which cell-multiplication may be
possible, would, however full of interest, be here out of place; and I shall
therefore confine myself to the first moments of actual development—to
what is called ‘the cleavage of the egg’—which is nothing more than a
multiplication of the egg cell by repeated division. I shall further confine
myself to an account of this phenomenon as presented in typical cases,
leaving out of consideration certain modifications which would only
complicate and obscure our picture.

The egg, notwithstanding the preliminary changes to which I have
alluded, is still, at the commencement of development, a true cell. It
has its protoplasm and its nucleus, and it is, as a rule, enveloped ina
delicate membrane. The protoplasm forms what is known as the vitellus,
or yolk, and the surrounding membrane is called the ‘vitellary mem-
brane.’ The division which is now about to take place in it is introduced
by a change of form in the nucleus. This becomes elongated, and assumes
the shape of a spindle, similar to what we have already seen in the cell-
division of plants. On each pole of the spindle transparent protoplasm
collects, forming here a clear spherical area.

At this time a very striking and characteristic phenomenon is
witnessed in the egg. ach pole of the spindle has become the centre of
a system of rays which stream out in all directions into the surrounding
protoplasm. The protoplasm thus shows, enveloped in its mass, two
sun-like figures, whose centres are connected to one another by the
spindle-shaped nucleus. ‘To this, with the sun-like rays streaming from
its poles, Auerbach gives the name of ‘ Karyolitic figure,’ suggested by
its connection with the breaking up of the original nucleus, to which our
attention must next be directed.

A phenomenon similar to one we have already seen in cell-division
among plants now shows itself. The nucleus becomes broken up into
a number of filaments, which lie together in a bundle, each filament
stretching from pole to pole of the spindle. Exactly in its central point
every filament shows a knot-like enlargement, and from the close approxi-
mation of the knots there results a thick zone of protoplasm in the
equator of the spindle. Each knot soon divides into two halves, and
each half recedes from the equator and travels along the filament towards
its extremity. When arrived at the poles of the spindle each set of half-
knots becomes fused together into a globular body, while the intervening
portion of the spindle, becoming torn up, and gradually drawn into the
substance of the two globular masses, finally disappears. And now,
instead of the single fusiform nucleus whose changes we have been
tracing, we have two new globular nuclei, each occupying the place of

— - ee

ADDRESS. 19

one of its poles, and formed at its expense.® The egg now begins to
divide along a plane at right angles to a line connecting the two nuclei.
The division takes place without the formation of a cell-plate such as we
saw in the division of the plant cell, and is introduced by a constriction
of its protoplasm, which commences at the circumference just within the
vitelline membrane, and, extending towards the centre, divides the whole
mass of protoplasm into two halves, each including within it one of the
new nuclei. Thus the simple cell which constituted the condition of the
egg at the commencement of development becomes divided into two
similar cells. This forms the first stage of cleavage. Hach of these two
young cells divides in its turn in a direction at right angles to the first
division-plane, while by continued repetition of the same act the whole
of the protoplasm or yolk becomes broken up into a vast multitude of
éells, and the unicellular organism—the egg, with which we began our
history—has become converted into an organism composed of many
thousands of cells. This is one of the most widely distributed phenomena
of the organic world. It is called ‘the cleavage of the egg,’ and con-
sists essentially in the production, by division, of successive broods of
cells from a single ancestral cell—the egg.

It is no part of my purpose to carry on the phenomena of develop-
ment further than this. Such of my hearers as may desire to become
acquainted with the further history of the embryo, I would refer to the
excellent address delivered two years ago at the Plymouth meeting of
the Association by one of my predecessors in this chair—Prof. Allen
Thompson.

That protoplasm, however, may present a phenomenon the reverse of
that in which a simple cell becomes multiplied into many, is shown by
a phenomenon already referred to—the production of plasmodia in the
Myxomycete by the fusion into one another of cells originally distinct.

The genus Myriothela will afford another example in which the for-
mation of plasmodia becomes introduced into the cycle of development.

® Though none of the above-mentioned observers to whom we owe our knowledge
of the phenomena here described seem to have thought of connecting the fibrous
condition assumed by the spindle with any special structure of the quiescent nucleus,
it is highly probable that it consists in a rearrangement of fibres already present.
That this is really the case is borne out by the observations of Schleicher on the
division of cartilage cells. (Die Knorpelzelitheilung. Arch. fiir Mikr. Anat. Band
xvi. Heft 2. 1878.) From these it would appear that in the division of cartilage
cells the investing membrane of the nucleus first becomes torn up, and then the
filaments, rodlets, and granules, which, according to him, form its body, enter into
a state of intense motor activity, and may be seen arranging themselves into star-
like, or wreath-like, or irregular figures, while the whole nucleus, now deprived of
its membrane, may wander about the cell, travelling towards one of its poles, and
then towards the other; or it may at one time contract, and then again dilate, to
such an extent as nearly to fill the entire cell. To this nuclear activity Streicher
applies the term ‘ Karyokinesis.’ It results in a nearly parallel arrangement of the
nuclear filaments. Then these converge at their extremities and become more
widely separated in the middle, so as to give to the nucleus the form of a spindle.
The filaments then become fused together at each pole of the spindle, so as to form
the two new nuclei, which are at first nearly homogeneous, but which afterwards
become broken up into their component filaments, rods, and granules.

c2

20 REPORT— 1879.

The primitive eggs are here, as elsewhere, true cells with nucleo-
lated nuclei, but without any boundary membrane. They are formed in
considerable numbers, but remain only for a short time separate and
distinct. After this they begin to exhibit amoeboid changes of shape,
project pseudopodial prolongations which coalesce with those of others in
their vicinity, and finally a multitude of these primitive ova become fused
together into a common plasmodium, in which, as in the simple egg cell
of other animals, the phenomena of development take place.

In many of the lower plants a very similar coalescence is known to
take place between the protoplasmic bodies of separate cells, and con-
stitutes the phenomenon of conjugation. Spirogyra is a genus of Alga,
consisting of long green threads common in ponds. Every thread is
composed of a series of cylindrical chambers of transparent cellulose
placed end to end, each containing a sac of protoplasm with a large
quantity of cell-sap, and with a green band of chlorophyll wound spirally
on its walls. When the threads have attained their full growth they
approach one another in pairs, and lie in close proximity, parallel one to
the other. A communication is then established by means of short con-
necting tubes between the chambers of adjacent filaments, and across
the channel thus formed the whole of the protoplasm of one of the con-
jugating chambers passes into the cavity of the other, and then imme-
diately fuses with the protoplasm it finds there. The single mass thus
formed shapes itself into a solid oval body, known as a ‘zygospore.’
This now frees itself from the filament, secretes over its naked surface
a new wall of cellulose, and, when placed in the conditions necessary for
its development, attaches itself by one end, and then, by repeated acts of
cell-division, grows into a many-celled filament like those in which it
originated.

The formation of plasmodia, regarded as a coalescence and absolute
fusion into one another of separate naked masses of protoplasm, is a
phenomenon of great significance. It is highly probable that, notwith-
standing the complete loss of individuality in the combining elements,
such difference as may have been present in these will always find itself
expressed in the properties of the resulting plasmodia—a fact of great
importance in its bearing on the phenomena of inheritance. Recent
researches, indeed, render it almost certain that fertilisation, whether in
the animal or the vegetable kingdom, consists essentially in the coales-
cence and consequent loss of individuality of the protoplasmic contents
of two cells.

In by far the greater number of plants the protoplasm of most of the
cells which are exposed to the sunlight undergoes acurious and important
differentiation, part of it becoming separated from the remainder in the
form usually of green granules, known as chlorophyll granules. The
chlorophyll granules thus consist of true protoplasm, their colour being
due to the presence of a green colouring matter, which may be extracted,
leaving behind the colourless protoplasmic base.

ADDRESS. 21

The colouring matter of chlorophyll presents under the spectroscope
a very characteristic spectrum. For our knowledge of its optical pro-
perties, on which time will not now permit me to dwell, we are mainly
indebted to the researches of your townsman, Dr. Sorby, who has made

these the subject of a series of elaborate investigations, which have con-

tributed largely to the advancement of an important department of
physical science.

That the chlorophyll is a living substance, like the uncoloured proto-
plasm of the cell, is sufficiently obvious. When once formed, the chloro-
phyll granule may grow by intussusception of nutriment to many times
its original size, and may multiply itself by division.

To the presence of chlorophyll is due one of the most striking aspects
of external nature—the green colour of the vegetation which clothes the
surface of the earth; and with its formation is introduced a function of
fundamental importance in the economy of plants, for it is on the cells
which contain this substance that devolves the faculty of decomposing
carbonic acid. On this depends the assimilation of plants, a process
which becomes manifest externally by the exhalation of oxygen. Now it
is under the influence of light on the chlorophyll-containing cells that
this evolution of oxygen is brought about. The recent observations of
Draper and of Pfeffer have shown that in this action the solar spectrum is
not equally effective in all its parts ; that’the yellow and least refrangible
rays are those which act with most intensity ; that the violet and other .
highly refrangible rays of the visible spectrum take but a very subordi-
nate part in assimilation ; and that the invisible rays which he beyond the
violet are totally inoperative.

In almost every grain of chlorophyll one or more starch granules may
be seen. This starch is chemically isomeric with the cellulose cell-wall,
with woody fibre, and other hard parts of plants, and is one of the most
important products of assimilation. When plants whose chlorophyll
contains starch are left for a sufficient time in darkness, the starch is
absorbed and completely disappears ; but when they are restored to the
light the starch reappears in the chlorophyll of the cells.

With this dependence of assimilation on the presence of chlorophyll
a new physiological division of labour is introduced into the life of
plants. In the higher plants, while the work of assimilation is allocated
to the chlorophyll-containing cells, that of cell division and growth
devolves on another set of cells, which, lying deeper in the plant, are
removed from the direct action of light, and in which chlorophyll is
therefore never produced. In certain lower plants, in consequence of their
simplicity of structure and the fact that all the cells are equally exposed
to the influence of light, this physiological division of labour shows
itself in a somewhat different fashion. Thus in some of the simple
green alow, such as Spirogyra and Hydrodictyon, assimilation takes place
as in other cases during the day, while their cell division and growth
takes place chiefly, if not exclusively, at night. Strasburger, in his re-

22 REPORT—1879.

markable observations on cell divisions in Spirogyra, was obliged to adopt
an artificial device in order to compel the Spirogyra to postpone the
division of its cells to the morning.

Here the functions of assimilation and growth devolve on one and the
same cell, but while one of these functions is exercised only during the
day, the time for the other is the night. It seems impossible for the
same cell at the same time to exercise both functions, and these are here
accordingly divided between different periods of the twenty-four hours,

The action of chlorophyll in bringing about the decomposition of
carbonic acid is not, as was recently believed, absolutely confined to plants.
In some of the lower animals, such as Stentor and other infusoria, the
Green Hydra, and certain green planariz and other worms, chlorophyll is
differentiated in their protoplasm, and probably always acts here under
the influence of light exactly as in plants.

Indeed, it has been proved!” by some recent researches of Mr. Geddes,
that the green planarias when placed in water and exposed to the sun-
light give out bubbles of gas which contain from 44 to 55 per cent. of
oxygen. Mr. Geddes has further shown that these animals contain
granules of starch in their tissues, and in this fact we have another
striking point of resemblance between them and plants.

A similar approximation of the two organic kingdoms has been shown
by the beautiful researches of Mr. Darwin—confirmed and extended by
his son, Mr. Francis Darwin—on Drosera and other so-called carnivorous
plants. These researches, as is now well known, have shown that in all
carnivorous plants there is a mechanism fitted for the capture of living
prey, and that the animal matter of the prey is absorbed by the plant
after having been digested by a secretion which acts like the gastric
juice of animals.

Again, Nageli has recently shown! that the cell of the yeast fungus
contains about 2 per cent. of peptine, a substance hitherto known only as
a product of the digestion of azotised matter by animals.

Indeed, all recent research has been bringing out in a more and more
decisive manner the fact that there is no dualism in life,—that the life of
the animal and the life of the plant are, like their protoplasm, in all
essential points identical.

But there is, perhaps, nothing which shows more strikingly the
identity of the protoplasm in plants and animals, and the absence of any
deep-pervading difference between the life of the animal and that of the
plant, than the fact that plants may be placed, just like animals, under
the influence of anesthetics.

When the vapour of chloroform or of ether is inhaled by the human
subject, it passes into the lungs, where it is absorbed by the blood, and

«Sur la fonction de la chlorophyll dans les planaires vertes.’ Comptes Rendus,
December 1878.

" Ueber die chemische Zusammensctzung der Hefe. Sitzungsbericht der Math. Phys.
Classe der hk. Ahad. der Wissens. zu Miinchen. 1878.

ADDRESS. 23

thence carried by the circulation to all the tissues of the body. The
first to be affected by it is the delicate nervous element of the brain, and
loss of consciousness is the result. If the action of the anzsthetic be
continued, all the other tissues are in their turn attacked by it and their
irritability arrested. A set of phenomena entirely parallel to these may
be presented by plants.

We owe to Claude Bernard a series of interesting ad most instructive
experiments on the action of ether and chloroform on plants. He exposed
to the vapour of ether a healthy and vigorous sensitive plant, by confining
it under a bell-glass into which he introduced a sponge filled with ether.
At the end of half an hour the plant was in a state of anesthesia, all its
leaflets remained fully extended, but they showed no tendency to shrink
when touched. It was then withdrawn from the influence of the ether,
when it gradually recovered its irritability, and finally responded, as be-
fore, to the touch.

It is obvious that the irritability of the protoplasm was here arrested
by the anesthetic, so that the plant became unable to give a response to
the action of an external stimulus.

It is not, however, the irritability of the protoplasm of only the motor
elements of plants that anewsthetics are capable of arresting. These may
act also on the protoplasm of those cells whose function lies in chemical
synthesis, such as is manifested in the phenomena of the germination of
the seed and in nutrition generally, and Claude Bernard has shown that
germination is suspended by the action of ether or chloroform.

Seeds of cress, a plant whose germination is very rapid, were placed
in conditions favourable to a speedy germination, and while thus placed
were exposed to the vapour of ether. The germination, which would
otherwise have shown itself by the next day, was arrested. For five or
six days the seeds were kept under the influence of the ether, and showed
during this time no disposition to germinate. They were not killed,
however, they only slept, for on the substitution of common air for the
etherised air with which they had been surrounded, germination at once
set in and proceeded with activity.

Experiments were also made on that function of plants by which they
absorb carbonic acid and exhale oxygen, and which, as we have already
seen, is carried on through the agency of the green protoplasm or
chlorophyll, under the influence of light—a function which is commonly,
but erroneously, called the respiration of plants.

Aquatic plants afford the most convenient subjects for such experi-
ments. If one of these be placed in a jar of water holding ether or
chloroform in solution, and a bell-glass be placed over the submerged
plant, we shall find that the plant no longer absorbs carbonic acid or
emits oxygen. It remains, however, quite green and healthy. In order
to awaken the plant, it is only necessary to place it in non-etherised water,
when it will begin once more to absorb carbonic acid, and exhale oxygen
under the influence of sunlight.

24 REPORT—1879.

\

The same great physiologist has also investigated the action of anss-
thetics on fermentation. It is well known that alcoholic fermentation is
due to the presence of a minute fungus, the yeast fungus, the living
protoplasm of whose cells has the property of separating solutions of
sugar into alcohol, which remains in the liquid, and carbonic acid, which
escapes into the air.

Now, if the yeast plant be placed along with sugar in etherised water
it will no longer act as a ferment. It is anzsthesiated, and cannot re-
spond to the stimulus which, under ordinary circumstances, it would
find in the presence of the sugar. If, now, it be placed on a filter, and
the ether washed completely away, it will, on restoration to a saccharine
liquid, soon resume its duty of separating the sugar into alcohol and
carbonic acid.

Claude Bernard has further called attention to a very significant fact
which is observable in this experiment. While the proper alcoholic
fermentation is entirely arrested by the etherisation of the yeast plant,
there still goes on in the saccharine solution a curious chemical change,
the cane sugar of the solution being converted into grape sugar, a
substance identical in its chemical composition with the cane sugar, but
different in its molecular constitution. Now it is well known from the
researches of Bertholet that this conversion of cane sugar into grape
sugar is due to a peculiar inversive ferment, which, while it accompanies
the living yeast plant, is itself soluble and destitute of life. Indeed it
has been shown that in its natnral conditions the yeast fungus is unable
of itself to assimilate cane sugar, and that in order that this may be
brought into a state fitted for the nutrition of the fungus, it must be
first digested and converted into grape sugar, exactly as happens in our
own digestive organs. To quote Claude Bernard’s graphic account :—

‘The fungus ferment has thus beside it in the same yeast a sort of
servant given by nature to effect this digestion. The servant is the
unorganised inversive ferment. This ferment is soluble, and as it is nota
plant, but an unorganised body destitute of sensibility, it has not gone to
sleep under the action of the ether, and thus continues to fulfil its task.’

In the experiment already recorded on the germination of seeds the
interest is by no means confined to that which attaches itself to the arrest
of the organising functions of the seed, those namely which manifest
themselves in the development of the radicle and plumule and other organs
of the young plant. Another phenomenon of great significance becomes
at the same time apparent—the anesthetic exerts no action on the concom-
itant chemical phenomena which in germinating seeds show themselves
in the transformation of starch into sugar under the influence of diastase
(a soluble and non-living ferment which also exists in the seed), and the
absorption of oxygen with the exhalation of carbonic acid. These go on
as usual, the anesthesiated seed continuing to respire, as proved by the
accumulation of carbonic acid in the surrounding air. The presence of
the carbonic acid was rendered evident by placing in the same vessel

ADDRESS. 25

with the seeds which were the object of the experiment a solution of
barytes, when the carbonate became precipitated from the solution in
quantity equal to that produced in a similar experiment with seeds ger-
minating in unetherised air.

So, also, in the experiment which proves that the faculty possessed by
the chlorophyllian cells of absorbing carbonic acid and exhaling oxygen
under the influence of light may be arrested by anesthetics, it could be
seen that the plant, while in a state of anesthesia, continued to respire in
the manner of animals: that is, it continued to absorb oxygen and exhale
carbonic acid. This is the true respiratory function which was previously
masked by the predominant function of assimilation, which devolves on
the green cells of plants, and which manifests itself under the influence
of light in the absorption of carbonic acid and the exhalation of oxygen.

It must not, however, be supposed that the respiration of plants is
entirely independent of life. The conditions which bring the oxygen of
the air and the combustible matter of the respiring plant into such rela-
tions as may allow them to act on one another are still under its control,
and we must conclude that in Claude Bernard’s experiment the anzs-
thesia had not been carried so far as to arrest such properties of the
living tissues as are needed for this.

The quite recent researches of Schiitzenberger, who has investigated
the process of respiration as it takes place in the cell of the yeast fungus,
have shown that vitality is a factor in this process. He has shown that
fresh yeast, placed in water, breathes like an aquatic animal, disengaging |
carbonic acid, and causing the oxygen contained in the water to dis-
appear. That this phenomenon is a function of the living cell is proved
by the fact that, if the yeast be first heated to 60°C. and then placed
in the oxygenated water, the quantity of oxygen in the water remains
unchanged; in other words, the yeast ceases to breathe.

Schiitzenberger has further shown that light exerts no influence on
the respiration of the yeast cell—that the absorption of oxygen by the
cell takes place in the dark exactly as in sunlight. On the other hand,
the influence of temperature is well marked. Respiration is almost
entirely arrested at temperatures below 10° C., it reaches its maximum at
about 40° C., while at 60° C. it again ceases.

All this proves that the respiration of living beings is identical,
whether manifested in the plant or in the animal. It is essentially a
destructive phenomenon—as much so as the burning of a piece of
‘charcoal in the open air, and, like it, is characterised by the disappear-
ance of oxygen and the formation of carbonic acid.

One of the most valuable results of the recent careful application of
the experimental method of research to the life phenomena of plants
is thus the complete demolition of the supposed antagonism between
respiration in plants and that in animals.

I have thus endeavoured to give you in a few broad outlines a sketch

26 REPORT—1879.

of the nature and properties of one special modification of matter, whicl
will yield to none other in the interest which attaches to its study, and in
the importance of the part allocated to it in the economy of nature. Did
the occasion permit I might have entered into many details which I have
left untouched ; but enough has been said to convince you that in proto-
plasm we find the only form of matter in which life can manifest itself;
and that, though the outer conditions of life—heat, air, water, food—
may all be present, protoplasm would still be needed, in order that these
conditions may be utilised, in order that the energy of lifeless nature may
be converted into that of the countless multitudes of animal and vege-
table forms which dwell upon the surface of the earth or people the
great depths of its seas.

We are thus led to the conception of an essential unity in the two
great kingdoms of organic Nature—a structural unity, in the fact that
every living being has protoplasm as the essential matter of every living
element of its structure; and a physiological unity, in the universal
attribute of irritability which has its seat in this same protoplasm, and is
the prime mover of every phenomenon of life.

‘We have seen how little mere form has to do with the essential
properties of protoplasm. This may shape itself into cells, and the cells
may combine into organs in ever-increasing complexity, and protoplasm
force may be thus intensified, and, by the mechanism of organisation,
turned to the best possible account; but we must still go back to pro-
toplasm as a naked formless plasma if we would find—freed from all
non-essential complications—the agent to which has been assigned the
duty of building up structure and of transforming the energy of lifeless
matter into that of living.

To suppose, however, that all protoplasm is identical where no
difference cognisable by any means at our disposal can be detected would
be an error. Of two particles of protoplasm, between which we may
defy all the power of the microscope, all the resources of the laboratory,
to detect a difference, one can develope only to a jelly-fish, the other only
to a man, and one conclusion alone is here possible—that deep within
them there must be a fundamental difference which thus determines their
inevitable destiny, but of which we know nothing, and can assert nothing
beyond the statement that it must depend on their hidden molecular
constitution.

In the molecular condition of protoplasm there is probably as much
complexity as in the disposition of organs in the most highly differentiated
organisms ; and between two masses of protoplasm indistinguishable from
one another there may be as much molecular difference as there is between
the form and arrangement of organs in the most widely separated animals
or plants.

Herein lies the many-sidedness of protoplasm; herein lies its sig-
nificance as the basis of all morphological expression, as the agent of

ADDRESS. 2

all physiological work, while in all this there must be an adaptiveness
to purpose as great as any claimed for the most complicated organism.

From the facts which have been now brought to your notice there is
but one legitimate conclusion—that life is a property of protoplasm. In
this assertion there is nothing that need startle us. The essential pheno-
mena of living beings are not so widely separated from the phenomena of
lifeless matter as to render it impossible to recognise an analogy between
them: for even irritability, the one grand character of all living beings,
is not more difficult to be conceived of as a property of matter than the
physical phenomena of radial energy.

It is quite true that between lifeless and living matter there is a vast
difference, a difference greater far than any which can be found between
the most diverse manifestations of lifeless matter. Though the refined
synthesis of modern chemistry may have succeeded in forming a few
principles which until lately had been deemed the proper product of
vitality, the fact still remains that no one has ever yet built up one par-
ticle of living matter out of lifeless elements—that every living creature,
from the simplest dweller on the confines of organisation up to the
highest and most complex organism, has its origin in pre-existent living
matter—that the protoplasm of to-day is but the continuation of the
protoplasm of other ages, handed down to us through periods of inde-
finable and indeterminable time.

Yet with all this, vast as the differences may be, there is nothing
which precludes a comparison of the properties of living matter with |
those of lifeless.

When, however, we say that life is a property of protoplasm, we
assert as much as we are justified in doing. Here we stand upon the
boundary between life in its proper conception, as a group of phenomera
haying irritability as their common bond, and that other and higher
group of phenomena which we designate as consciousness or thought,
and which, however intimately connected with those of life, are yet
essentially distinct from them.

When the heart of a recently killed frog is separated from its body
and touched with the point of a needle, it begins to beat under the exci-
tation of the stimulus, and we believe ourselves justified in referring the
contraction of the cardiac fibres to the irritability of their protoplasm as
its proper cause. We see in it aremarkable phenomenon, but one never-
theless in which we can see unmistakable analogies with phenomena
purely physical. There is no greater difficulty in conceiving of contrac-
tility as a property of protoplasm than there is in conceiving of attraction
as a property of the magnet.

When a thought passes through the mind, it is associated, as we have
now abundant reason for believing, with some change in the protoplasm
of the cerebral cells. Are we, therefore, justified in regarding thought
as a property of the protoplasm of these cells, in the sense in which we

28 REPORT—1879.

regard muscular contraction as a property of the protoplasm of muscle ?
or is it really a property residing in something far different, but which
may yet need for its manifestation the activity of cerebral protoplasm ?

If we could see any analogy between thought and any one of the
admitted phenomena of matter, we should be bound to accept the first
of these conclusions as the simplest, and as affording a hypothesis most
in accordance with the comprehensiveness of natural laws; but between
thought and the physical phenomena of matter there is not only no
analogy, but there is no conceivable analogy ; and the obvious and con-
tinuous path which we have hitherto followed up in our reasonings from
the phenomena of lifeless matter through those of living matter here
comes suddenly to an end. The chasm between unconscious life and
thought is deep and impassable, and no transitional phenomena can be
found by which as by a bridge we may span it over; for even from
irritability, to which, on a superficial view, consciousness may seem
related, it is as absolutely distinct as it is from any of the ordinary
phenomena of matter.

It has been argued that because physiological activity must be a pro-
perty of every living cell, psychical activity must be equally so, and the
language of the metaphysician has been carried into biology, and the ‘ cell
soul’ spoken of as a conception inseparable from that of life.

That psychical phenomena however, characterised as they essentially
are by consciousness, are not necessarily coextensive with those of life,
there cannot be a doubt. How far back in the scale of life consciousness
may exist we have as yet no means of determining, nor is it necessary for
our argument that we should. Certain it is that many things, to all ap-
pearance the result of volition, are capable of being explained as abso-
lutely unconscious acts ; and when the swimming swarm-spore of an alga
avoids collision, and by a reversal of the stroke of its cilia backs from
an obstacle lying in its course, there is almost certainly in all this nothing
but a purely unconscious act. It is but acasein which we find expressed
the great law of the adaptation of living beings to the conditions which
surround them. The irritability of the protoplasm of the ciliated spore
responding to an external stimulus sets in motion a mechanism derived
by inheritance from its ancestors, and whose parts are correlated to a
common end—the preservation of the individual.

But even admitting that every living cell were a conscious and think-
ing being, are we therefore justified in asserting that its consciousness like
its irritability is a property of the matter of which it is composed ? The
sole argument on which this view is made to rest is that from analogy.
It is argued that because the life phenomena, which are invariably found
in the cell, must be regarded as a property of the cell, the phenomena of
consciousness by which they are accompanied must be also so regarded.
The weak point in the argument is the absence of all analogy between the
things compared, and as the conclusion rests solely on the argument from
analogy, the two must fall to the ground together.

a

ADDRESS. 29

In a lecture !? to which I once had the pleasure of listening—a lecture
characterised no less by lucid exposition than by the fascinating form in
which its facts were presented to the hearers, Professor Huxley argues
that no difference, however great, between the phenomena of living
matter and those of the lifeless elements of which this matter is composed
should militate against our attributing to protoplasm the phenomena of
life as properties essentially inherent in it; since we know that the result
of a chemical combination of physical elements may exhibit physical
properties totally different from those of the elements combined; the
physical phenomena presented by water, for example, having no resem-
blance to those of its combining elements oxygen and hydrogen.

I believe that Professor Huxley intended to apply this argument only
to the phenomena of life in the stricter sense of the word. As such it is
conclusive. But if it be pushed further, and extended to the phenomena
of consciousness, it loses all its force. The analogy, perfectly valid in the
former case, here fails. The properties of the chemical compound are
like those of its components, still physical properties. They come within
the wide category of the universally accepted properties of matter, while
those of consciousness belong to a category absolutely distinct—one
which presents not a trace of a connection with any of those which
physicists have agreed in assigning to matter as its proper characteristics,
The argument thus breaks down, for its force depends on analogy alone,
and here all analogy vanishes.

That consciousness is never manifested except in the presence of
cerebral matter or of something like it, there cannot be a question ; but
this isa very different thing from its being a property of such matter in
the sense in which polarity is a property of the magnet, or irritability of
protoplasm. The generation of the rays which lie invisible beyond the
violet in the spectrum of the sun cannot be regarded as a property of the
medium which by changing their refrangibility can alone render them
apparent.

I know that there is a special charm in those broad generalisations
which would refer many very different phenomena to a common source.
But in this very charm there is undoubtedly a danger, and we must beall

_ the more careful lest it should exert an influence in arresting the progress

of truth, just as at an earlier period traditional beliefs exerted an authority
from which the mind but slowly and with difficulty succeeded in emanci-
pating itself. ;

But have we, it may be asked, made in all this one step forward
towards an explanation of the phenomena of consciousness or the discovery
of its source? Assuredly not. The power of conceiving of a substance

_ different from that of matter is still beyond the limits of human intelli-

gence, and the physical or objective conditions which are the concomi-

_ tants of thought are the only ones of which it is possible to know

anything, and the only ones whose study is of value.
«The Physical Basis of Life.’ See Lssays and Reviews, by T. H. Huxley.

30 REPORT— 1879.

We are not, however, on that account forced to the conclusion that
there is nothing in the universe but matter and force. The simplest
physical law is absolutely inconceivable by the highest of the brutes, and
no one would be justified in assuming that man had already attained the
limit of his powers. Whatever may be that mysterious bond which
connects organisation with psychical endowments, the one grand fact—a
fact of inestimable importance—stands out clear and freed from all
obscurity and doubt, that from the first dawn of intelligence there is
with every advance in organisation a corresponding advance in mind.
Mind as well as body is thus travelling onwards through higher and still
higher phases; the great law of Evolution is shaping the destiny of our
race; and though now we may at most but indicate some weak point in
the generalisation which would refer consciousness as well as life to a
common material source, who can say that in the far off future there
may not yet be evolved other and higher faculties from which light may
stream in upon the darkness, and reveal to man the great mystery of
Thought ?

\ Prod
vd
nf r t
34

REPORTS =

- ON THE

\

STATE OF SCIENCE.

—
4

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir WruttaM
THomson, Professor Cuerk Maxwet1, Professor Tarr, Dr. C. W.
Sremens, Mr. F. J. Bramweit, and Mr. J. T. Borromry, for com-
mencing Secular Experiments upon the Elasticity of Wires.
Drawn up by J.T. Borromiey.

Ar the last meeting of the British Association, the arrangements for sus-

pending wires for secular experiments in the tube which has been erected

in the tower of the Glasgow University Buildings, and for observing these

wires, were described and reported as complete. Some improvements

have since been found necessary ; but, so far as these are concerned, there
_ is not much to add to the report then given.

_ The long iron tube has been closed at the top and bottom go as to keep
out currents of air and dust, and the joints of the tube have been carefully
caulked.

Some improvements in the cathetometer used for observing the marks
on the wires were also found to be required, but the instrument is now
satisfactory.

Six wires have now been suspended in the tube; their stretching
weights have been attached to them, and they have been carefully marked
and measured. These wires are suspended in pairs—two of gold, two of
platinum, and two of palladium. One of each of the pairs is loaded with
a weight equal to one-twentieth of its breaking weight, and the other of
each pair with a weight equal to one-half of its breaking weight. The
points of suspension for each pair are very close together, so that any
yielding of the place of support affects both wires equally.

__ Each wire is marked with paint marks, and there are other marks on
he wires and on the weights attached to them where positions have been
determined. These marks are described in a laboratory book which is at
et kept in the room of the Professor of Natural Philosophy in the

niversity of Glasgow. The measurements that have been made, and
_ the experiments that have been undertaken in connection with the work
| os to the Committee, are all being entered in this book. This,

; D

34 REPORT— 1879.

however, can only be regarded as a temporary mode of keeping these
records.

It is intended that the record in this book shall contain—

1. Description of the tube and arrangements for suspending the wires,
and for suspending additional wires at future times, and description of the
mode of attachment of the stretching weights.

2. Description of the cathetometer and method of measuring the
changes, should there be any, in the lengths of the wires.

3. Description of the wires themselves, and record of experiments that
have already been made on them as to breaking weight and Young’s
Modulus of Elasticity.

4. Description of the marks put on the wires, and record of the mea-
surements that have been made as to the lengths of the wires and as to
the relative positions of the marks at the time of suspending the wires.

The stretching weights and the clamps attached to the wires are en-
graved each with the amount of its weight in grammes. The measure-
ments are all made in grammes and centimetres.

It seems desirable, considering the nature of the experiments that are
just now commencing, that information regarding them should be pre-
served to the British Association in some appropriate way ; and that pro-
vision should be made for recording every change that may take place,
and for communicating from time to time to the Association such infor-
mation as may be obtained.

In the report presented to the Association by this Committee last year,
it was mentioned that experiments had been commenced in the laboratory
of the University of Glasgow in connection with the present investigation
on the effects of stress maintained for a considerable time in altering the
elastic properties of various wires. These experiments are still being
carried on, and results of interest and importance have been already
arrived at.

The most important of these experiments form a series that have been
made on the elastic properties of very soft iron wire. The wire used was
drawn for the purpose, and is extremely soft and very uniform. It is
about No. 20 B.W.G., and its breaking weight, tested in the ordinary way,
is about 45 lbs. This wire has been hung up in lengths of about 20 feet,
and broken by weights applied, the breaking being performed more or less
slowly.

Tile first place, some experiments have been tried as to the smallest
weight which, applied very cautiously and with precautions against letting
the weight run down with sensible velocity, will break the wire. These
experiments have not yet been very satisfactorily carried out, but it is
intended to complete them.

The other experiments have been carried out in the following way :—
It was found that a weight of 28 lbs. does not give permanent elongation
to the wire taken as it was supplied by the wire-drawer. Each length of
the wire, therefore, as soon as it was hung up for experiment, was weighted
with 28 lbs., and this weight was left hanging on the wire for 24 hours.
Weights were then added till the wire broke, measurements as to
elongation being taken at the same time. A large number of wires were
broken with equal additions of weight, a pound at a time, at intervals of
from three to five minutes—care being taken in all cases, however, not to
add fresh weight if the wire could be seen to be running down under the
effect of the weight last added. Some were broken with weights added at

ON SECULAR EXPERIMENTS UPON THE ELASTICITY OF WIRES. 35

the rate of one pound per day, some with three quarters of a pound per
day, and some with half a pound per day. One experiment was com-
menced in which it was intended to break the wire at a very much slower
rate than any of these. It was carried on for some months, but the wire
unfortunately rusted, and broke at a place which was seen to be very
much eaten away by rust, and with a very low breaking weight. A fresh
wire has been suspended, and is now being tested. It has been painted
with oil, and has now been under experiment for several months.

The following tables will show the general results of these experi-
ments. It will be seen, in the first place, that the prolonged application
of stress has a very remarkable effect in increasing the strength of soft
iron wire. Comparing the breaking weights for the wire quickly broken
with those for the same wire slowly broken, it will be seen that in the
latter case the strength of the wire is from two to ten per cent. higher
than in the former, and is on the average about five or six per cent.
higher. The result as to elongation is even more remarkable, and was
certainly more unexpected. It will seen from the tables that, in the
case of the wire quickly drawn out, the elongation is on the average more
than three times as great as in the case of the wire drawn out slowly.
There are two wires for which the breaking weights and elongations are
given in the tables, both of them ‘bright’ wires, which showed this
difference very remarkably. They broke without showing any special
peculiarity as to breaking weight, and without known difference as to
treatment, except in the time during which the application of the break-
ing weight was made. One of them broke with 444 lbs., the experiment
lasting one hour and a-half; the other with 47 lbs., the time occupied
in applying the weight being thirty-nine days. The former was drawn
out by 28°5 per cent. on its original length, the latter by only 4°79 per
cent.

Tables showing the Breaking of Soft Iron Wires! at Different Speeds.

I.— WIRE QUICKLY BROKEN.

Being i cent. of
A : oe 5 Elongation
Rate of Adding Weight yaoi in Oat ea
sunds Length
*Dark WIRE.
3 1b. per minute . : : : - - ; 45 25:4
1lb.,, . 5 minutes : ‘A : 4 : 4 454 25°9
» 9 5 ” 5 ; 5 5 - + 451 24-9 |
”» 99 4 ” . e . . e : 444 24-58
”» » 3 ” . . . . e . 444 24°88
” » 3 ” . . 5 . . . A5L 29°58
” 9 5 ” . . . . . . 444 27-78
*Bricut WIRE.
1 Ib. per 5 minutes : . : ; : ; 442 28°5
» » 5 ” . z . . 44+ 27°0
” ” 4 ” . . . . . . 44% 21.

1 The wire used was all of the same quality and gauge, but the ‘dark’ and ‘ bright’ wire
had gone through slightly different processes for the purpose of annealing.

D2

36 REPORT—1879.

Il.—WtrE SLOWLY BROKEN.

| Pea ene. Per cent. of Elongation on

| Weight added and No. of Experiment eet Original L ength

| 1 Ib. per day. Toarises «et ee ee 7-58 |

| 5 ibis é ; : - 46 8-13
. {DOI 2 : : - 47 7-05
2 Miva ; : 5 : 47 6:51

5 Vela A : : 4 47 8-62
5 Vile ; . - ; 47 517
+ Viloe: 5 5 5 46 5:50
i VALET Ss : : E : 47 6-92 Bright Wire.

2 Ib. per day. IL 5 Opes : 49 8-50
# Lie : ; : : 481 8-81
is LTS 9 E ‘ 5 . | Broken by accident.
+ JAYS) : : ; z 4 7°55
” We 46 6°41
oS VI. 453 6°62
|
3 Ib. per day Lice GR EO Ou Getter 1 | 8-96

5s ADE 3 ; é : 50 8-42
gM . : : é 49 718 |
se to, | ooo } Bright Wires.
” 4 2. H

It is found during the breaking of these wires that the wire becomes
alternately more yielding and less yielding to stress applied. Thus, from
weights applied gradually between 28 Ibs. and 31 or 32 lbs., there is.
very little yielding and very little elongation of the wire. For equal
additions of weight between 33 Ibs. and about 37 Ibs. the elongation is
very great. After 37 Ibs. have been put on, the wire seems to get stiff
again, till a weight of about 40 lbs. has been applied. Then there is
rapid running down till 45 Ibs. has been reached. The wire then becomes
stiff again, and often remains so till it breaks.

It is evident that this subject requires careful investigation.

Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joun, Professor
Sir Witu14m Txomson, Professor Tart, Professor BALFOUR STEWART,
and Professor J. Clerk Maxwett, appointed for the purpose of
effecting the Determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat.

Tere is little to be reported by the Committee this year, the work at
present in progress being the protracted one for supplying the means of
correcting errors in the determination of temperature arising from tem-
porary changes of the fixed points of thermometers constructed of glass.
The Committee have learned with pleasure that an extensive series of
experiments has recently been made by Professor Henry A. Rowland, of
Baltimore, who, being unaware of what had been done by the Committee,

has arrived at an equivalent almost identical with that determined by:
Dr. Joule.

ON THE PROGRESS OF MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 37

Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of endeavour
ing to procure Reports on the Progress of the Chief Branches of
Mathematics and Physics ; the Committee consisting of Professor
G. Carny Fostmr (Secretary), Professor W. G. Apams, Professor R.
B. Cureton, Professor Cayntey, Professor J. D. Evrrerr, Professor
Cierk Maxwe 1, Lord Rayieiex, Professor G.G. Stoxrs, Professor
Batrour Srewart, Mr. Sporriswoopr, and Professor P. G. Tarr.

Owrne to unforeseen circumstances only one meeting of this Committee
has taken place during the past year. It seerns desirable, nevertheless, in
order that the question of the reappointment of the Committee may be
fully considered, and that there may be a full expression of opinions on
the subject referred to it, that a statement should be made to the Section
of the proceedings of the Committee, the more so since, in the hope that
greater progress would have been made by this time, no report was
presented at the last meeting of the Association.

The first matter discussed by the Committee was the character and
general plan of the reports which they should endeavour to procure; the
next was to what extent or in what manner the production of such reports
could be aided by the Committee. Important contributions to the dis-
cussion of these questions are contained in written communications to the
Committee from two of its members—Professors Clerk Maxwell and
Stokes. Professor Clerk Maxwell writes as follows :—

‘ Reports on special branches of science may be of several different
types, corresponding to every stage of organisation, from the catalogue
up to the treatise.

‘ When a person is engaged in scientific research, it is desirable that
he should be able to ascertain, with as little labour as possible, what has
been written on the subject and who are the best authorities. The ordinary
method is to get hold of the most recent German paper on the subject,
to look up the references there given, and by following up the trail of
each to find out who are the most influential authors on the subject.
German papers have the most complete references because the machinery
for docketing and arranging scientific papers is more developed in Ger-
many than elsewhere.

‘The “ Fortschritte der Physik” gave an annual list of all papers,
good and bad, arranged in subjects, with abstracts of the more important
ones. Wiedemann’s “ Beiblatter”’ is a more select assortment, given
more in full.

‘ ] think it doubtful whether a publication of this kind, if undertaken
by the British Association, would succeed. Lists of the titles of the pro-
ceedings of Societies and of the contents of periodicals are given in
“Nature.” These are useful for strictly contemporary science, and I do
= think that a more elaborate system of collection could he kept up

or long.

: The intending publisher of a discovery has to examine the whole mass
of science to see whether he has been anticipated, but the student wishes
to read only what is worth reading. What he requires is the names of
the best authors. The selection or election of these is constantly done
by skimming individual authors, who indicate by the names they quote
the men whose opinions have had most influence. But a report on the

38 REPORT—1879.

history and present state of a science has for its main aim to enumerate
the various authors and to point out their relative weight, and this has
been very well done in several British Association Reports, some of which
are nearly as old as the British Association.

‘There are some branches of science whose position with respect to
the public, or else to the educational interest, is such that treatises or
text-books can be published on commercial principles, either as books to
be read by the free public, or to be got up by the school public.

‘ There is little encouragement, however, for a scientific man to write
a treatise so long as he can, with much less trouble, produce an original
memoir, which will be much more readily received by a learned society
than the treatise would have been by a publisher.

‘ The systematisation of science is therefore carried on under difficulties
when left to itself; and I think that the experience of the British Asso-
ciation warrants the belief that its action in asking men of science to
furnish reports has conferred benefits on science which would not other-
wise have accrued to it.

‘There are so many valuable reports in the published volumes that I
shall indicate only a few, the selection being founded on the direction of
my own work rather than on any less arbitrary principle.

‘ First, when a branch of science contains abstruse calculations as well
as interesting experiments, it is desirable that those who cultivate the
experimental side should be conscious that certain things have been done
by the mathematicians. The matter to be reported on in this case is not
voluminous, but it is hard reading, and those who are not experts require
a guide.

=e Thus, Professor Challis in 1834 gave a most useful report on the
mathematical investigations by Young, Laplace, Poisson, and Gauss on
Capillary Attraction, and Professor Stokes in 1862 reports on Theories
of Double Refraction. This report may, indeed, be accepted as an instal-
ment of the treatises which, if the desire of the scientific world were law,
Professor Stokes would long ago have written. It is meant, no doubt, as
a guide to other men’s writings, but it is intelligible in itself without
reference to those writings. Such a report is a full justification of the
existence of the British Association, if it had done nothing else.

‘ Another type of report is that of Professor Cayley on Dynamics
(1857 and 1862). This seems intended rather as a guide in reading the
original authors than as a self-interpreting document, though, of course,
besides the criticism and the methodical arrangement, there is much
original light thrown on the mass of memoirs discussed in it. It will be
many years before the value of this report will be superseded by treatises.

‘The Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables deals with a
subject which, though not so abstruse, is larger and drier than any of the
preceding. It is, however, a most interesting as well as valuable report,
and supplies information which would never have been printed unless the
British Association had asked for the report, and which never would
have been obtained if the author of the report had not been available.

‘There are several other reports which are not mere reports, but
rather original papers preceded by a historical sketch of the subject. No
special encouragement is needed to get people to write reports of this.
kind.’

Professor Stokes thus expresses himself on the subject :—

‘It seems to me that reports on the progress of science may be of

ON THE PROGRESS OF MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 39

two kinds, with somewhat different objects in view; and in considering
the best mode of meeting these objects it may be well to keep the
distinction in view.

‘First, there is a report, the object of which is to prepare a sort of
repertorium of what has been done in a particular branch of science since
the date of the last report of similar character in the same branch of
science.

‘ A report of this kind should present the reader with a brief account
of the leading aim and chief results of the various memoirs which have
been published within the time on the branch of science to which it
relates; the writer should not be expected to criticise the memoirs, except
in plain instances of errors or imperfections, but the responsibility of
sifting the wheat from the chaff should in the main be left to the
reader.

‘Secondly, there are reports of a more comprehensive and far more
critical character. These should be made at wider intervals, should take
a more comprehensive view of the subject, and should be highly eriticai,
sifting out the substantial acquisitions that had been made to the branch
of science to which they refer.

‘Hach kind of reports are of value, though in somewhat different
ways. The first aids the individual in keeping himself up to the progress
of science around him,—a progress in which from his position he may be
expected to take part and to exercise influence. They lighten to him the
labour of search, but teach him to exercise his own discrimination.

‘The second should be a material aid to the student in making himself
master of what was really of value, and help him to avoid wasting his
time on what was of little importance, and aid him in judging of the
relative importance of different lines of research.

‘Reports of the first kind may be much promoted by the work of
committees. The division of labour lightens the task, and the feeling of
co-operation carries a man through labour which otherwise, as the man is
likely to have a good deal else to do, he might hesitate to undertake.

“Reports of the second kind eminently demand the hand of a master,
and the hand of a master is not always free. I doubt much if the
appointment of committees would aid much in the preparation of good
reports of this class, and unless reports are thoroughly good they are
better, perhaps, not attempted. Ido not see what is to be done except
to work a good man when you can get him.’

It is evident that the distinction here pointed out by Professor Stokes
has an important bearing on the question of the reappointment of the
Committee. The work required for the production of reports intended
simply as systematic records ‘of the leading aim and chief results’ of
published investigations, would be merely that of careful compilation. It
would not only be possible to divide work of this kind among a con-
siderable number of contributors, but to get it done at all such division
of labour would be necessary, and accordingly reports of this class could
only be furnished by committees. On the other hand, a report which is
of the nature of a critical survey of the condition of knowledge in any
branch of science, and is intended to indicate the relative value of different
investigations, requires to possess a unity of plan and thought which can
only result from its being the work of an individual author possessing
a complete mastery of his subject. In such a case the function of the
committee would be confined to the suggestion of the subject and to

40 REPORT—1879.

requesting some qualified person to report upon it—a function which
hitherto has been discharged by the Sectional Committees of the Asso-
ciation.

Considering all the difficulties of the undertaking and the extent to
which it is rendered unnecessary by existing (chiefly German) publica-
tions, the present Committee came to the conclusion that it is not at
present desirable for the Association to attempt to obtain reports in the
nature of compilations of abstracts of the papers published upon
mathematics or physics.

With regard to the other more critical class of reports, many have
already been obtained which are recognised as among the most valuable
results of the existence of the British Association; and the Committee
hope for a continuance of these valuable contributions. They are happy
to state that two such reports have already been promised. Professor
Stokes has undertaken to draw up the plan of a report on physical
optics, especially in reference to the theory of reflection, the theory of
dispersion, and the theory of phosphorescence and fluorescence. Pro-
fessor Balfour Stewart has also undertaken, in conjunction with Mr. J.
Allan Brown, to draw up the heads of a report on terrestrial magnetism.

Twelfth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Everett,
Professor Sir Wini1am Txomson, Professor J. Cherk Maxwett,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor Ramsay, Professor Guin, Mr. J.
GuaIsHeR, Mr. Prna@uity, Professor Epwarp Hutz, Professor
Aystep, Dr. Clement Lz Neve Fosrsr, Professor A. S. HerscuEt,
Mr. G. A. Lezsour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. Gattoway, Mr.
Josep Dickinson, and Mr. G. F. Dzacon, appointed for the pur-
pose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Tem-
perature downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and
under Water, Drawn wp by Professor Evurerr (Secretary).

Dr. Sraprr has forwarded to the Secretary a summary of his observa-
tions of temperature made in the St. Gothard Tunnel in 1878, in con-
tinuation of those of previous years, the places of observation being
always those which have been newly opened up. At the Swiss end the
portion reported on begins at 5000 and ends at 6400 metres from the
north portal; and at the Italian end the limits are 4600 and 5900 metres
from the south portal. In the former the temperatures (Centigrade)
25°5 26°6 27°38 * 27°9 28°8

were observed in the rock, at the distances from north portal (in
metres)

5157 5456 5593 5725 6297
and at the depths below the surface vertically overhead (in metres)
945 a7 983 1012 1250

The temperature of water was found to be higher than that of rock;
whence Dr. Stapff infers the existence of hot springs in the Serpentine
and the rocks immediately to the south of it.

ON THE RATE OF INCREASE OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 41

At the Italian end, the temperatures

28:2 28°7 29°5
were found in the rock, at the distances from south portal

4830 5101 5721
and at the depths below surface vertically overhead

1407 1513 1252

In English measures, these data are as follows :—
Temperatures (Fahrenheit) at Swiss end
“9 19°°9 82°°0 82°°2 83°°8
Distances from north portal (in miles)
3°21 3°39 3°48 3°56 391
Distances below surface (in feet)
3100 3186 3225 3320 4101
Temperatures (Fahrenheit) at Italian end
82°'8 83°°7 85°°1
Distances from south portal (in miles)
; 317 3°56
Distances below surface (in feet)
4615 4965 4108

The mean rate of increase downwards in the whole length of the
tunnel is ‘02068 of a degree Centigrade per metre of depth, measured
from the surface directly over. This is 1°F. for 88 feet. Where the sur-
face is a steep ridge, the increase is less rapid than this average; where
the surface is a valley or plain, the increase is more rapid.

The boring in connection with the Liverpool Waterworks at Bootle,
which was described in last year’s Report as having attained a depth of.
1004 feet with a temperature of 58°1, was completed in December, the
depth being 1302 feet, and the temperature at the bottom 59:0. The
boring ceased for six weeks at the depth of 1004 feet, and the temperature
fell during this interval from 58°1 to 57:0. The slowness of the increase
downwards, and the lowness of the temperature at the bottom, are very
remarkable. Mr. Symons found a temperature of 70 at the depth of
only 1100 feet in the Kentish Town Well, near London ; and Mr. Atkinson
found a temperature of 70 at 1366 feet in the boring at South Hetton
Colliery, Durham. A comparison of the temperature 59-0 at 1302 feet
at Bootle with the temperature 52°0 at 226 feet gives an increase of only
7° in 1076 feet, or 1° for 154 feet.

Mr. E. Wethered, F.G.S., F.C.S., has taken during the past year a
valuable series of observations at the Kingswood Collieries, near Bristol.
The instrument employed was one of the Committee’s slow-acting
thermometers, which was inserted in holes two feet deep, bored in newly
exposed coal or rock, special care being taken to avoid currents of air.
As there is no explosive gas in these collieries, powerful ventilation is not
necessary ; and the headings in which the observations were made were
ventilated by means of a square wooden pipe (called a trunk) lying on
the floor, and serving for the exit of the air, while the entering air flows
above and beside it. This trunk was always drawn some distance back
from the end of the heading where the thermometer was inserted.

As soon as the hole for the thermometer had been bored, it was closed
with clay rolled in the form of a plug, 6 inches long with a head, and the
thermometer was inserted about an hour afterwards, the mouth being
again closed as before. The holes were in most cases dry.

The strata in which the observations were taken belong to the lowest

42 REPORT—1879.

of the three divisions of the Bristol coal-field, and their dip, where not
faulted or disturbed, is about one in six.

The depths of the places of observation were determined by Mr.
Munro, teacher of mining and surveying in the Bristol Mining School,
and the surface-temperature is assumed to be identical with the mean
temperature of the air for the last fifteen years at Clifton (3 miles distant),
according to the observations of Dr. Burden, which is 48°7. The surface
of the ground at the centre of the collieries is 24 feet higher than Dr.
Burden’s observatory, and is 216 feet above sea level.

The first place of observation was in an exploring drift driven at a
high angle. The thermometer was placed in a hole in hard ‘ duns’ for
one week, and showed a temperature of 55°7. The depth was 441 feet,
and the hole partially filled with water from natural causes. The ther-
mometer was replaced, and after the lapse of another week the same
temperature was again found.

The thermometer was next placed in a hard arenaceous stone yielding
a considerable quantity of water, at practically the same depth as the
last observation, and in the same drift. It gave a temperature 55:4.

Under the stone, and resting upon the duns, was a seam of coal
averaging about 1 foot 6 inches thick, into which the thermometer was
next inserted, and 57:2 was read at the end of another week. [Illness
prevented Mr. Wethered from making a re-examination to ascertain the
causes of the discrepancies here exhibited, and he therefore proposes to
reject these first observations.

On the abandonment of the drift just referred to, the thermometer
was removed to a cross-measure branch, driven almost on a level. A
week or two before, a seam of coal about 2 feet thick had been cut in
this branch, and a level was now being driven on it. On Saturday,
June 15, a hole was bored, at the head of the level, in the coal, and the
thermometer inserted at 2 p.m., just as the men wre leaving work. On
Monday the temperature 54°7 was read. As the pit was idle on this day,
the thermometer was replaced, and after 12 hours gave the same reading.
The hole was perfectly dry, with the exception of what miners call
‘ sweating.’

On Saturday, June 23, the thermometer was placed in a hard blue
duns at the head of the cross-measure branch, 10 feet away from the last
hole ; and on Monday the temperature 54°7 was taken, the same as in
the coal. The pit being again idle, the observation was repeated, with a
confirmatory result. The depth in each case was 402 feet.

The next observation was in the deepest workings of the collieries,
in what is known as the Deep Pit colliery. A branch was being driven
for the purpose of cutting off an extent of road in the Great Seam workings ;
accordingly on Saturday, June 29, the thermometer was placed, in the
usual way, at the head of the branch in a blue duns; depth 1767 feet.
On the Monday, 74'7 was read, and this temperature was confirmed by an
observation from the following Saturday to Monday.

The next observation was made at a higher. level in the same pit, in
the Great Vein workings, depth 1367 feet. On Saturday, July 13,a hole
was bored in the same bed of duns as in the last observation, and on
the following Monday, 68°5 was read.

On Saturday, July 20, the thermometer was placed in the Great Seam
coal, which rests upon the duns, and after the lapse of the usual time 67:5
was read.

ON THE RATE OF INCREASE OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 43.

On Saturday, July 27, by a mistake, the hole was bored in the duns
20 feet behind the coal. This point had been exposed for a week or two,
and the temperature indicated, 69°2, is therefore rejected by Mr. Wethered.

On Saturday, August 3, another hole was bored in the coal, and gave
on Monday the same temperature, 68°5, which had been observed in the
first hole in the duns. Another hole in the duns gave, a week later, the
same temperature, 68°5. Mr. Wethered adopts this as the true tempera-
ture at the depth in question (1367 feet).

The thermometer was now removed to the Speedwell pit, the shaft of
which is distant about half a mile from the Deep pit, and observations
were commenced in a cross-measure branch, which shortly afterwards
cut the Two-feet seam of coal. :

On Saturday, August 17, the thermometer was inserted in a hard
arenaceous stone, and on Monday the temperature 69°7 was read, depth
1439 feet. This reading was confirmed from the following Saturday to
Monday.

On Saturday, October 12, the Two-feet seam of coal having been cut,
the thermometer was inserted in it, and on Monday gave a temperature
of 69-7, the same as in the stone further back in the branch in August.
The depth was the same within 2 feet.

On Saturday, October 26, a hole was bored in the duns under the
Two-feet coal, which again gave 69°7.

The next observation was made in the Great Seam coal of the Speed-
well pit, in an advanced level head, opening out new ground, depth 1232
feet. The thermometer was placed ina hole bored in the coal on Saturday,
November 2, and on Monday the temperature was 66°7. The same
reading was obtained the following week in the duns under the coal.

This was the last of the observations deemed reliable. Two other
observations were made, the first in ground from under which coal had
been worked, and the second in strata disturbed by faults, but in neither
case could reliable results be obtained.

The following is a summary of the temperatures, arranged in order of
depth, omitting those which are doubtful.

Depth. Temperature. Fahrenheit
Surface 48°7
402 54:7
1232 66-7
1367 68:5
1439 69:7
1769 TAT

Comparing each depth with the next, we have the following
results :—

First 402 feet 1° for 67 feet
Next 830 ,, Te AGH are
Next 135 ,, ORE een ity, s
Next 72 ,, OANA 60s
Next 330 ,, Oe rer OO! okies

a remarkably regular progression, especially for observations taken in
different parts of a colliery. Comparing the surface with the lowest
depth, we have an increase of 26°0 in 1769 feet, which is at the rate of
1° in 68 feet; and comparing the depth of 402 feet with the lowest depth,
He ‘ag an increase of 20°-0 in 1867 feet, which is at the rate of 1°:0 for
68°35 feet. .

44 REPORT—1879.

The observations appear to have been taken in very favourable circum-
stances, and with much care and judgment. Being the only observations
yet furnished to the Committee from the West of England, they form a
very valuable contribution to our knowledge.

Mr. Symons has continued his observations at the depth of 1000 feet
in the Kentish Town Well (see Report for 1876, p. 209). During 1877
little was done except to continue the record of the temperature of the
well-room, have the roof repaired, and make experiments with respect to
the elongation of wires of various kinds. In accordance with a suggestion
of Sir William Thomson, a new copper wire, No. 22, was purchased,
and the Phillips’s maximum thermometer, No. 14,608, of which each
degree Fahr. is 0°4 inch in length, was lowered to 1000 feet on January 10,
1878. The first noticeable feature, and a very unsatisfactory one, was, that
ou March 5, 1878, a little mud was found in the protecting case. It will
be remembered that the tube was originally 1302 feet deep, but that on
the first attempt to lower the thermometer to 1100 feet in May, 1868, the
cord was found to become slack at depths varying from 1070 to 1085
feet. It seems probable that the mud has now risen to 1000 feet. Its
extreme softness has been illustrated more than once by the fall of
thermometers into it, sometimes from a great height. They have never
been broken, nor even had their indices displaced. The new wire stretched
more than the old one, but after the first two months the elongation was
remarkably uniform. The thermometer having been many years in use,
it was thought desirable to reverify it, and on September 20, 1878, it was
sent to Kew Observatory for this purpose. Another thermometer was
temporarily substituted for it, which was only divided to whole degrees
and was read by estimation to tenths. With this thermometer the
following observations were taken :—

Date of lowering Depth indicated Date of raising Depth indicated Temperature

eet Feet Fahr.
1878, Oct. 10 1000 Nov. 2 1009 67°8
Noy. 2 1000 Dec. 2 1008 67'8

Mec. 2 1000 1879, Jan. 2 wire broke

The wire broke on January 2, 1879, and up to the present time no
serious attempt has been made to recover the thermometer, but this has
arisen rather from want of leisure than from any difficulty in the
operation.

The results given in the following table (which goes back to the
beginning of the observations), have all been obtained with one and the
same thermometer.

The index error of the thermometer has been determined several times,
as follows :—

1872, August, by Mr. Symons, error under + *°L
1873, November, by Professor E. J. Mills error + ‘34
1876, February, by Mr. Casella 57) ateD
1878, December, by Kew Observers » + °5

The gradual rise of zero here indicated is in accordance with usual
experience ; and the index errors at intermediate dates have been derived
from these by graphical interpolation, that is by drawing acurve in which
horizontal distance represents time and vertical distance amount of index
error, the curve being drawn so as to pass through the four points
determined by the above observations, and being made as smooth as
possible. The stretching of the wire is determined by the readings of the

ON THE RATE OF INCREASE OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 45

recording apparatus described in the 1869 Report, and the correction to
reduce from the actual depth to the depth of 1000 feet is made by
allowing ‘018 of a degree per foot, this being the mean rate of increase
found by observation (see Report for 1871). The above table shows that
the entire range of the corrected temperatures at 1000 feet is less than
half a degree, and that the departure from the mean exceeds a tenth of
a degree on only seven occasions out of twenty-nine. Mr. Symons has
directed close attention to those readings which differ most from the

on 5 Ss |oxy] Sa 2 |, $a
as es PE: Ebon: ae ose Zoe
feof Raising | SS |Se4| Su | Seu) Bo |eeS| SSES
Date o 8 Az S65 38 2.3 33 Hes eae
Slese| 22 |Ess| Be | 33] Ez
a) (as) BOM io & as
Feet ° ° °o ° fo) °
1872, December 23 . | 1014 | 67°71 | —:18 | 67°53 | —:25 | 67:28 | + -22
1873, April5 . - | 1007 | 67°66 °25 | 67°41 “13 | 67:28 | + -22
July5 . - | 1009 | 67°58 29 | 67°29 16 | 67:13 | + -07
September 5 . | 1008 | 67°50 *32 | 67:18 14 | 67.04 — 02
1874, May 8 . - | 1007 | 66°82?) — = — _
July 28 . - | 1005 | 67°40 “42 | 66:98 "09 | 66°89 — 17
September 8 . | 1004 | 67°51 “43 | 67:08 ‘07 | 67-01 — 05
os 29 | 1004 | 67-43 43 | 67:00 O07 | 66:93 — 13
October 30. | 1006 | 67°68 44 | 67°24 ‘11 | 67:13 | + -07
December 3 . | 1006 | 67:52 ‘45 | 67:07 *L1 | 66°96 — 10
1875, January 7 ~~. | 1009 | 67°63 46 | 67:17 ‘16 | 67-01 — 05
February 1 . | 1006 | 67°56 “46 | 67°10 ‘11 | 66:99 — "07
March 3. - | 1005 | 67°58 46 | 67:12 09 | 67:03 — °03
May3 . - | 1006 | 67-62 ‘47 | 67:15 ‘11 | 67-04 — 02
Junel . - | 1005 | 67:49 47 | 67-02 ‘09 | 66:93 — 13
July7 . - | 1005 | 67°53 48 | 67:05 ‘09 | 66:96 — 10
August 3 . | 1004 | 67°58 ‘48 | 67-10 ‘O07 | 67-03 — 03
September 10 | 1004 | 67:58 49 | 67-09 ‘O07 | 67-02 — 04
October 2 . | 1003 | 67°58 ‘49 | 76:09 05 | 67-04 — 02
" 19 . | 1004 | 67-62 5 | 67-12 O7 | 67:05 — 01
November 1 . | 1005 | 67:62 5 | 67-12 09 | 67:03 — ‘03
1878, February 1 . | 1017 | 67°88 5 | 67:38 31 | 67:07 | + -01
March 5. - | 1012 | 67°77 5 | 67-27 22 | 67:05 — ‘01
April2 . - | 1011 | 67°80 5 | 67:30 20 | 67:10 | + -04
May2 . - | 1010 | 67:70 5 | 67-20 18 | 67:02 — 04
Junel . - | 1008 | 67°63 5 | 67-13 14 | 66-99 — 07
Julyl . - | 1008 | 67:91 5 | 67-41 14 | 67°27 | + °21
August 1 - | 1008 | 67:97 5 | 67-47 14 | 67°33 | + -27
September 5 . | 1007 | 67-69 5 | 67-19 13 |, 67:06 00 00
“4 17 | 1008 | 67°68 5 | 67-18 14 | 67:04 — 02
Mean . f c : 67:06

mean, but has not yet been able to explain the circumstances on which
they depend. The maximum elongation of the wire has been 17 feet, and
this gives a correction of 31 of a degree. The gradual accumulation of
mud at the bottom would account for a gradual change of temperature
always in the same direction, if such had occurred (which is not the case),
but will not account for alternations of rise and fall such as the table
exhibits.

One of the Committee’s slow-acting thermometers has been supplied
(at his own expense) to Professor John A. Church, of the Ohio State

46 REPORT— 1879.

University, Columbus, Ohio, to be used for observing the temperature at
every 100 feet of depth during the sinking of a shaft, probably to the
depth of about 4500 feet, in one of the mines of the Comstock lode in
Nevada. Two others have been supplied on similar terms to the
Meteorological Office.

With the view of carrying out the resolution, expressed in last year’s
Report, to commence thermo-electric observations in filled bores, the
Secretary has procured from Messrs. Siemens 500 feet of No. 20 copper
wire, and the same length of No. 19 soft charcoal iron wire, both of them
well insulated with gutta-percha, and has conducted some thermo-electric
experiments with them in the Laboratory; but the apparatus is not yet
ready for actual use.

Mr. Lebour has improved the form of plug devised by him (on the
umbrella principle) mentioned in previous Reports (1876, p. 209, and
1877, p. 199). The apparatus now requires only one wire, and remains
collapsed so long as the wire is taut, but opens out and plugs the hole
when it becomes slack.

The following corrections are to be made in last year’s Report.

In the acount of Dr. Stapff’s thermometers, ‘steel cap’ and ‘steel
jacket,’ should be ‘brass cap’ and ‘ brass jacket.’

Ata later place in the extract from Dr. Stapff’s paper, ‘wet bore-
holes with standing water,’ should be ‘wet bore-holes with running
water.’

In the references to papers, in foot-note, ‘1878, 1876, and 1877,’
should be ‘1875, 1876, and 1877.’

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Carey, F.R.S.,
Professor G. G. Stoxns, F'.R.S., Professor H. J. S. Surru, F.R.S.,
Professor Sir Witt1am Tuomson, F.R.S., Mr. James GuaisuEr,
F.RS., and Mr. J. W. L. Guatsumr, F.R.S. (Secretary), on Ma-
thematical Tables. Drawn up by Mr. J. W, L. Guatsuer.

[PLATE I.]

Tux present report consists of two parts: I. An account of the state of
the calculation of the factor tables for the fourth, fifth, and sixth millions,
with some results of the enumeration of the primes in the fourth million;
and II. Tables of the Legendrian functions, with an introduction.

I.— State of the Calculation of the Factor Tables for the Fourth, Fifth,
and Siath Millions.

During the year the calculation has been carried on without inter-
mission under the direction of Mr. James Glaisher. At present the
factor table for the fourth million is printed and stereotyped, and will be
published immediately ; the manuscript of the fifth million is complete
and ready for the printer. In the sixth million all the entries by sieves

ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 47

have been made, and the factors obtained by the multiple method are in
course of being entered.

The mode of construction was described in last year’s report (Dublin,
1878, pp. 172-178), and a more complete account will appear in the
introduction to the factor table for the fourth million.

Results of an Enumeration of the Primes in the Fourth Million.

Two independent enumerations of the primes in the fourth million
were made, one from the manuscript before it was sent to the printer, and
the other by a different computer from the proof sheets. The results are
shown in the following table :—

3,000,000 to 4,000,000.

Number of centuries each of which contains x primes

i) o|o o|o ol c=) Solo a=) o|> fit) o|o o oS oS
a S Ssi& Ss SiS SIS SS SS SiS SIS SIS SIS S
sec|lsesc|lsossiscescileoscisesisossilsec|lssdsisces| sec
Soro|lo RolorisciorK olor oclorolor sels HsloaroloKa|-orsS
SSS fe ORR [ee SEH SM a ate a are Sami (Ream (Ere eS pee
oO cf jeD oD oO cM |oD oD 1D OD |OD oD |60 OD | of 13D GO | st of} sh
0 0 it 0 0 0 0 0 0 0) ib 2
1 2 3 1 4 3 4 2 3 4 4 30
2 1a 13 16 13 14 12 13 17 12 15 136
3 37 31 33 50 48 42 31 43 43 42 400
4 81 87 91 85 89 89 75 77 99 89 862
5 140 | 146 |} 139 | 133 | 140 | 156 | 180 | 146} 144 | 156 1480
6 206 | 173 | 199 | 194} 172 | 188} 190 | 209 | 189 | 209 1929
7 183 | 198 | 193 | 171 | 216 | 192 | 178 | 170 | 169 | 179 1849
8 168 | 169 | 140 | 169 | 143 | 149 | 150 | 176) 157) 140 1561
9 94 96 97 | 102] 100} 102 94 83 | 102 80 950
10 54 52 50 51 43 35 55 52 45 60 497
11 19 19 31 23 24 24 21 21 25 14 221
12 4 9 9 5 6 3 6 3 8 7 60
13 1 2 1 0 2 3 5 0 3 2 19
14 0 1 0 0 0 1 0) 0 0 2 4
No. of ii 6676 | 6717 | 6691 | 6639 | 6611 | 6575 | 6671 | 6590 | 6624 | 6535 | 66,329

primes al wag

The explanation of this table is as follows :—Calling, for convenience
of expression, the hundred numbers between 100n —-1 and 100 (n + 1) a
century (so that, e.g., the hundred numbers between 2,999,999 and
3,000,100 form a century), then the table shows the number of centuries
in each group of 100,000 which contain no prime, the number of
centuries each of which contains one prime, the number of centuries
each of which contains two primes, &c. Thus of the thousand centuries
3,000,000-3,100,000 no century is composed wholly of composite num-
bers, two centuries contain each one prime, eleven centuries contain each
two primes, thirty-seven centuries contain each three primes, and so
on. Of the thousand centuries 3,100,000-3,200,000, one consists wholly
of composite numbers, three contain each one prime, &c.

The numbers at the foot of each column give the total number of
primes in the group of numbers to which the column has reference ;
thus between 3,000,000 and 3,100,000 there are 6676 primes; between
3,100,000 and 3,200,000 there are 6717 primes, &c. Similar tables to the
above for the first, second, third, seventh, eighth, and ninth millions have

48 REPORT—1879.

been published in the ‘Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society,’ vol. iii. pp. 20-23, 54-56 (1877).

It may be remarked that in the first million there is no century con-
sisting wholly of composite numbers, in the second there is one, in the
third one, in the fourth two, in the seventh six, in the eighth four, and in
the ninth four.

It will be seen from the above table that no century in the fourth
million contains more than fourteen primes, and that only four contain
this number. In the third million, however, there is one century con-
taining as many as seventeen primes, one containing fifteen, and no less
than six containing fourteen ; in the seventh million there are three con-
taining fourteen primes, in the eighth million two containing fourteen, as
well as two containing fifteen, and in the ninth million two containing
fourteen.

The next table shows the number of primes in each successive group
of ten thousand between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000. Thus, for example,
between 3,000,000 and 3,010,000 there are 670 primes; between 3,010,000
and 3,020,000 there are 659, . . .; between 3,100,000 and 3,110,000 there
are 676, and so on. The numbers in the lowest line of the table are ob-
tained by adding the numbers in each column, and agree, of course, with
the numbers at the foot of the columns in the previous table.

3,000,000 to 4,000,000.

S o/c 5S 222.5 = SHO. OS 2/S o> iovo vs
So sic eyo Ss|S eSloavelse ssc Ss)jiSs SiS isis vo
SSIS o8/S,8/8.S/8 S/2.S/8 S18 Sle Sie Ss
escljeselseselessljesscsessiocssisogssoi/sesiscges
SS /SOFP SISOS (SOF SS Voor coors |orels toes
Se Tk |S ORES Sn | ammeter Acer. | SS | ES SS | CON aa
Cos Bore on os i os od Ro 8 Cl OC
ils 670 | 676 | 686 | 673 | 677] 651 | 692) 655 | 656] 651
I. 659 | 677 | 674} 660] 666] 663 |) 670) 671] 682] 658
it. 663 | 666 | 672 | 677 | 672] 630} 686] 687] 674 | 675
IV. 657 | 666} 687 | 645 | 685 | 663 | 652 | 658 | 646} 648
V. 671 | 658 | 649] 675 | 670) 654] 638 | 649] 677] 678
iva 657 | 677 | 662 | 623 | 646 | 668 | 650 | 667 | 650] 643
VII. 664 | 668 | 677] 688 | 654 | 670] 662 | 632] 646] 638
Vil. 695 | 663 | 666 | 667} 637 |) 640] 702 | 655] 651] 668
TX. 686 | 691 | 670] 669 | 636 | 667) 638 | 659] 661] 634
xX. 654 | 675 | 648 | 662] 668 | 669] 681] 657] 681] 642

6676 | 6717 | 6691 | 6639 | 6611 | 6575 | 6671 | 6590 | 6624 | 6535

The numbers of primes in each of the seven millions are :—

peat ab Difference
First million . 78,499} 8066
Second ,, ¥ 6 ; : % . 3 70,433 2548
Third 45 ; A % 6 A 4 3 ; 67,885 : 1556
houth , eee co Raa 66,329 =e
A bs Oe: 63,799 641
Eighth ,, i 4 ‘ : : 5 ‘ é 63,158 398
Ninth ,, F st ae . = : i 5 62,760 —

1] and 2 are’counted as primes.

ON MATHEMATIOAL TABLES. 49

The numbers of primes in each quarter million in the first four mil-
lions are :—

First Second Third Fourth

Million Million Million Million

First quarter. : 22,045 17,971 17,150 16,761
Second ,, - : 19,494 17,682 16,991 16,573
Thirdae., : : 18,700 17,455 16,922 16,566
Fourth ,, s 18,260 17,325 16,822 16,429
Total 2 ‘ 78,499 70,433 67,885 66,329

The following is a list of successions of composite numbers of ninety-
nine and upwards occurring in the fourth million :—

SEQUENCES OF 99 AND UPWARDS.

Lower Limit Upper Limit Sequence
3,064,751 3,064,861 109
3,117,299 3,117,421 121
3,225,539 3,225,647 107
3,240,983 3,241,093 109
3,254,959 3,255,059 99
3,279,841 3,279,949 107
3,359,113 3,359,221 107
3,392,341 3,392,443 101
3,422,813 3,422,917 103
3,453,833 3,453,943 109
3,583,417 3,583,529 111
3,592,109 3,592,213 103
3,593,203 3,593,311 107
3,595,489 3,595,589 99
3,826,019 3,826,157 137
3,828,973 3,829,079 105
3,851,459 3,851;587 127
3,933,599 3,933,731 131

The meaning of this table is that the 109 numbers between 3,064,751
and 3,064,861 are composite, and so on—viz., the numbers in the
first two columns are primes, and the numbers intermediate to the lower
limit and the upper limit are all composite. The above list is not given
as being necessarily complete, although it probably includes all, or
very nearly all, the sequences of ninety-nine and upwards.

Similar lists of sequences for the other millions are given in the
1 ie of Mathematics,’ vol. vii. pp. 102-106; 171-176 (1877 and
1878).

Tt may be mentioned that the longest sequence met with in the first
million was 113, in the second 131, in the third 147, in the fourth 137,
in the seventh 145, in the eighth 147, and in the ninth 151.

I.—Tables of the Legendrian Functions.

The tables contain the values of P(x) for n=1, 2, 3,...7 from 2 = 0
to #=1, at intervals of 0:01. The functions tabulated are
Poe) =I,
Pla) =«@
1879, E

50 REPORT—1879.

P?(x) = 3(32—1),
ah = 4(523—3z2),

= 1(35z2t— 302743),
Psa) = 1 3( 880" 7 7023 +152),

PS(x) = 7,(231e°—315at +1052? —5),
PL) = 7 (42907 — 693° + 31503— 35a).

The functions present themselves extensively in the higher parts of
mathematics (in reference to the attraction of spheroids and other physical
theories!) ; but they first occur in the theory of interpolation: see Gauss,
‘Methodus nova integralium valores per approximationem inveniendi’
(‘Comment. Gott. recent,’ t. iii. pp. 39-76 (1816), or ‘ Werke,’ t. iii. pp.
165-196), from which the numerical results given in the present intro-
duction are taken.”

Suppose that y, a function of x, has to be approximately determined
for the range «= 0 to x =1, by means of the values of y corresponding

1

to given values of z over this range; or say that the integralf ydz

has to be thus determined. In the original theory, as developed by Cotes
in the ‘Harmonia Mensurarum’ (1722), the given values of « are taken
to be at equal intervals, viz., for n = 2, they are 0,1; for n = 3, they are
0, 4,1; for n= 4, they are 0, 4, 2, 1, and so on.

a Yo Ya Y2a Y3a Y4a Y5a Y6a Y7a Y8a Yoa | Y10a

1 1
Ses |e

ae 2 1

21 6 3 6

ry oa 3 3 1

3| 8 8 8 8 |

Bove. 16 2 S|

4| 90 | 45 15 45 | 90

1) 19 | 25 25 | 25 | 25 | 19

5| 288 | 96 144 | 144 | 96 | 288 |

1) 41 | 9 9p) BE sloy fa oh eae he |

6| 840 | 35 280 |105| 280 | 35 | 840 |

1| 751 | 3577 | 49 | 2989] 2989 | 49 | 3577 | 751 !
7/17280|17280| 640 |17280| 17280 | 640 | 17280 |17280

1} 989 | 2944 464 |5248| 454 /5248| 464 |2944| 989

8 | 28350 |14175| 14175 |14175| 2835 14175| 14175|14175| 28350

1| 2857 |15741) 27 |1209| 2889 | 2889] 1209 | 27 | 15741 | 2857 |-

9 | 89600} 89600| 2240 | 5600] 44800 |44800| 5600 | 2240] 89600 | 89600

1 | 16067 | 26575| 16175/5675| 4825117807} 4825/5675! 16175 | 26575 | 16067

=
S

298752 149688} 199584/12474|~ 11088/24948] 11088|12474| 199584/149688|598752

Representing y as a function of w of the order n—1, and determining

* See Todhunter’s Treatise on Laplace’s Functions (1875), Ferrers’s Treatise on
Spherical Harmonics (1877), or Heine’s Handbuch der Kugelfunctionen (1878).

* A short notice of Gauss’s method is given in Boole’s Finite Differences, second
edition, edited by Moulton (1872), ch. iii, art. 12, pp. 50-53.

ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 51

the coefficients in this manner, we have an expression for y from which
1

the integral f” ydx may be calculated. Denoting the interval by a, that
0

is, writing a= nop the resulting formule, corresponding to the values
n = 2, 3,...11 respectively, are as follows :—
Thus, for example,

1

of yde = 4Y,4+4Y,
0 e
(6)

rp =7Y,+3Y+HY,,
or = sYoteYyt+3¥ataY,
C., &e.
In the new theory of Gauss, it is shown that it is advantageous to take
the given values of 2 not at equal intervals, but to be the values which
are the roots of the equation
P*-QQe—1)=0;

; 1
thus for n=1 the value is «=4, for n=2 the values are } +

2/3"
and so on.
The resulting formule are as follows :—

Sf yaa = 8. if c=
0

= Ay, +A’yy if n= 2,

= Ay, +Alys+A”y wif n= 3,

= &.,
where the values of a, a’... and the coefficients A, A’... for the different
values of n are

|
nes
: oy ae tt
Approximate correction = To LU’.
n= 2,

Suppose in general the true value of y is
y = L+ L/(e#—4)+ L(w@—})? + &e,,
1

then the correction to be applied to ydex in the general case is

0
[MTen , Jert+DPL ert) + &e.,
1

_ where 7) denotes the correction to be applied to (@—3)"da; so that 1°” Le”
0

1
may be regarded as the approximate correction of ydx. Thus, for example, y

f 0
being as above,

1
Lyn, iv 1 vi :
$e Leta hs +3 Lt + 7g Ui + &e.;

= : 1 2
if x =1, the formula gives L, and the approximate correction = igus if n= 2,

1

the formula gives L +e hi? +777 Liv+ &c., and the approximate correction
E2

52 REPORT—1879.

a, a’ =0°5 + 0:28867 51845 94812 9,
A=A’= q;
Approximate correction = in Liv,

ios

a, a’ = 0°5 = 038729 83346 20741 7,
da,
e\ aos Ya
Al = $3
Approximate correction = = Livi,
n= 4,

a, a’ = 0°5 = 043056 81557 97024 6,

a’, a!’ = 0°5 + 0716999 05217 92432 3,
A= A” = 017392 74225 68728 4; log = 924036 80612.
A’ = A” =0°32607 25774 31271 6; log =9°51331 42764.

35 17
Coefficients! given by — ia” + aah

: ; i m
Approximate correction = 77759 L™

n=.
a av = 0°5 + 0:45308 99229 69332 0,
a’, a’ = 05 + 0°26923 46550 52841 4
al! — Os
A = Aiv = 0:11846 34425 28094 5; log = 9:07358 43490,
A’ = A!” = 0:23931 43352 49683 2; log = 9-37896 87142,

A” i = 028444 44444 44444 4; log = 9'45399 74559,

= ops
: 91 1099
Coefficients, except A’, given by — Zoo" —— 36003

1
Approximate correction = 698544."
n = 6.
a, a¥ =0°5 + 0°46623 47571 01576 0,
a, a = 0°5 + 033060 46932 33132 2,
a’, a!" = 05 + 011930 95930 41598 5,
A = AY =0-08566 22461 89585 2; log = 893278 94580,
A’ = Av = 0:18038 07865 24069 3; log =9-25619 02763,
A” = A!” = 0:23395 69672 86345 5; log = 9°369138 59831,
4 23

‘ : 77
Coefficients given by — 300 igh 7B peut 963
1
Approximate correction = 77999088 ip
n= de
=(55- ia) Liv = 2) piv. Ge ie Woraetia hives Wipes Tyg aves
=\80 — 144 = 780 ; if x = 3, the formula gives BP 80
ee

= a500 "=

1 That is to say, the coefficients A, A’,... are obtained by substituting respectively
the values of a, a/,...for ~ in this formula; a similar explanation applies to the
cases of n = 5, 6, 7.

3 i : 1
1600 L™ + &c., and the approximate correction = (a - iw) L

ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 53

a, a =05 7 0°47455 39561 71879 8,
a’, a¥ =0°5+0:37076 55927 99697 2,
a’, a¥ = 0°5 + 0°20292 25756 88698 5,
al! = 0:5

A =Avi = 0:06474 24830 84434 8; log = 881118 93529,

‘As Sana 0°13985 26957 44688 4; log = 9°14567 08421,
A” = Aw =0°19091 50252 52559 5; log = 9:28084 01093,
do = = 0:20897 95918 36734 7; log = 932010 38766.
, 4 1859 1573 7947
Coefficients, except A’”, given by — 7¢g99 — a9400” + 39200?

1 ;
Approximate correction = 776679360 Les,

It is obvious that the foregoing formule give at once the roots of the
equations P”(a) = 0, viz.,

For n = 2, the roots are + 0°57735 02691 69626;

» n=3, ” ” 0 and
‘77459 66692 41483;

33998 10435 84865,
°86113 63115 94049;

53846 93101 05683,
‘90617 98459 38664;

0
0
0
0
0
0
023861 91860 83197,
0°66120 93864 66264,
093246 95142 03152;
0
0
0
0

‘40584 51513 77397,
74153 11855 99394,
"94910 79123 42760.

As the functions P”(x) contain only powers of 2 in the denominators
the decimal values terminate, and in the following tables the complete
values are given. Two independent calculations were made, one by Mr.
Barrett Davis, and the other under the supervision of the reporter, by
whom they were compared, corrected, and differenced. As the values
in the tables are complete, the second, third,...seventh differences in the
respective functions were absolutely constant, and thus afforded an exact
verification. The calculations were performed seven years ago, and are
referred to in the Report for 1873, p. 170; the tables were not published,
however, as about that time the issue of a separate volume containing
these and some other tables which it was proposed to calculate was con-
templated by the Committee.

The plate (Plate I.) contains drawings of the curves y = P!(q#),
y = P*(x),...y = P7(«) from »=0 to x=1, made from the tables.
The positions of the roots of the functions are readily identified with the
numerical values given above.

54 REPORT—1879.

Ce

x 1G) P2(zx) P5(2) P4(x)

0 0 —0°5 0 +0°375

0-01 0:01 —0°49985 —0°0149975 + 0°37462504375
0°02 0:02 —0:4994 —0-02998 + 0°3735007

0:03 0:03 —0°49865 —0:0449325 + 0°37162854375
0:04 0:04 —0°4976 —0°05984 +0°3690112

0:05 0:05 —0°49625 —0:0746875 + 0°36565234375
0:06 0:06 —0°4946 —0:08946 +0°3615567
0:07 0:07 —0°49265 —0°1041425 + 0°35673004375
0:08 0:08 —0°4904 —0:11872 ; +0°3511792
0:09 0:09 —0°48785 —0°1331775 + 0°34491204375
0:10 0.10 —0°485 —0:1475 + 0°3379375
O11 O11 —0°48185 : —0°1616725 +0°33026554375
012 0712 —0°4784 —0°17568 +0°3219072
0°13 013 —0°47465 —0°1895075 + 0°31287454375
0-14 0-14 —0°4706 —0°20314 + 0°3031807
015 0-15 —0°46625 —0-2165625 + 0°29283984375
0-16 016 —0°4616 —0°22976 + 0°2818672
017 0-17 — 045665 —0:2427175 + 0°27027904375
0°18 0:18 — 0°4514 —0°25542 + 0°2580927
0-19 0-719 —0°44585 —0:2678525 + 0°24532654375 ,
0°20 0:20 —0°44 —0:28 +0°232

0-21 0-21 —0-43385 —0°2918475 +0°21813354375
0:22 0°22 —0-4274 —0°30338 + 0°2037487
0°23 0°23 —0°42065 —0°3145825 + 0°18886804375
0°24 0:24 —0°4136 —0°32544 +0°1735152
0°25 0:25 —0:40625 —0°3359375 + 0°15771484375
0:26 0:26 —0°3986 —0°34606 +0:1414927
0:27 0:27 —0°39065 —0°3557925 + 0712487554375
0°28 0:28 —0°3824 —0°36512 +0°1078912
0-29 0:29 —0°37385 —0°3740275 + 0°09056854375
0°30 0°30 —0°365 —0°3825 + 0:0729375
0°31 O31 —0°35585 —0°3905225 +0°05502904375
0°32 0°32 —0°3464 —0°39808 © + 0°0368752
0°33 0:33 —0°33665 —0°4051575 + 001850904375
0°34 0°34 —0°3266 — 0-41174 —0:0000353

0°35 0°35 —0°31625 —0°4178125 —0:01872265625
0°36 0°36 —0°3056 —0°42336 — 0:0375168
0°37 0°37 —0°29465 —0°4283675 —0:05638045625
0°38 0°38 —0:2834 —0°43282 —0:0752753

0°39 0°39 —0:27185 —0°4367025 —0:09416195625
0°40 0-40 —0:26 —0-44 —0113

0-41 0-41 —0°24785 —0°4426975 —0°13174795625
0°42 0°42 —0°2354 —0°44478 —0°1503633

0-43 0-43 —0°22265 —0°4462325 — 0°16880245625
0-44 0-44 —0:2096 —0°44704 — 01870208
0°45 0-45 —0°19625 —0:4471875 —0°20497265625
0 46 0:46 — 01826 —0°44666 —0°2226113
0°47 0-47 —0:16865 —0°4454425 —0°23988895625
0°48 0°48 —0°1544 —0°44352 —0°2567568

0°49 0°49 —0°13985 —0°4408775 —0°27316495625

a

eo

0°62
0°63
0-64
0°65
0°66
0°67
0°68
, 0°69
0:70
0-71
0-72
0-73
0-74
0°75
0:76
0-77
0-78
0:79
0°80
0-81
0°82
0:83
0°84
0°85
0°86
0°87
0°88
0°89
0-90
0-91
0°92
0:93
0:94
0°95
0:96
0:97
0:98
0:99

0°61
0°62

0°68
0-69
0-70
0°71
0-72
0-73
0-74
0-75
0-76
O77
0:78
0-79
0°80
0°81
0°82
0°83
0°84
0°85
0°86
0:87
0:88
0:89
0:90
0:91
0:92
0:93
0°94
0:95
0:96
0:97
0°98
0:99

ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

P(x) _

—0'125
—0°10985
—0°0944
—0:07865
—0:0626
—0:04625
—0°0296
—0°01265
+ 0°0046
+0:02215
+0:04
+0°05815
+ 0°0766
+ 0°09535
+0°1144
+ 0:13375
+ 0°1534
+0°17335
+ 0°1936
+0°21415
+0°235
+0°25615
+0'2776
+ 0°29935
+0°3214
+ 0°34375
+0°3664
+ 0°38935
+ 0°4126
+ 0°43615
+ 0°46
+0°48415
+0°5086
+ 0°53335
+ 0°5584
+ 0°58375
+ 0°6094
+ 0°63535
+0°6616
+0°68815
+0°715

+ 0°74215
+ 0°7696
+0°79735
+0°8254
+ 0°85375
+0°8824
+0°91135
+ 0°9406
+0°97015
+1

P(x)

— 0°4375
—0°4333725
— 042848
—0°4228075
—0°41634
—0°4090625
—0:40096
—0°3920175
—0°38222
—'0°3715525
—0°36
—0°3475475
—0°33418

— 03198825
—0°30464
—0:2884375
—0:27126
—0°2530925
—0-23392
—0-2137275
—0:1925
—071702225
—0:14688
—0°1224575
—0:09694
—0-0703125
—0°04256
—0:0136675
+0:01638

+ 0°0475975
+ 0:08
+0°1136025
+0°14842
+0°1844675
+0°22176

+ 0°2603125
+ 0°30014

+ 0°3412575
+0°38368

+ 0°4274225
+ 0°4725
+0°5189275
+ 0°56672
+0°6158925
+ 0°66646
+0°7184375
+0°77184

+ 0°8266825
+0°88298
+0°9407475
+1

PA(a)

—0°2890625

— 0°30439745625
—0°3191168

— 0'33316645625
—0°3464913
—0°35903515625
— 0°3707408

— 0°38154995625
— 03914033

— 0°40024045625
—0:408

— 041461945625
—0°4200353
—0°42418295625
—0°4269968
—0°42841015625
— 0°4283553

— 0°42676345625
—0°4235648
—0°41868845625
—0°4120625
—0°40361395625
— 0°3932688
—0°38095195625
—0°3665873

— 035009765625
—0°3314048
—0°31042945625
—0°2870913
—0°26130895625
—0:233
—0°20208095625
—0°1684673
—0°13207345625
—0°0928128
—0°05059765625
—0:0053393

+ 0:04305204375
+ 0:0946672

+ 0°14959804375
+0°2079375

+ 0°26977954375
+ 0°3352192

"+ 0°40435254375

+ 0°4772767
+ 0°55408984375
+0°6348912
+ 0°71978104875
+ 0°8088607
+ 0°90223254375
+1

56

On — eee

0°20
0:21
0°22

P5(x)

0

+ 0°0187412507875
+ 0:03874300252
+0°0560139413625
+ 0:0744408064

+ 0:0926587109375
+ 0°1106161236

+ 0°1282619855125
+ 0°1455458048

+ 0°1624177510875
+ 0°17882875

+ 0:1947305776625
+ 0°2100759552

+ 0°2248186432375
+ 0°2389135364

+ 0°2523167578125
+ 0°2649857536

+ 0:2768793873875
+ 0°2879580348

+ 0°2981836779625

» +0°30752

+ 0°3159324795375
+ 0°3233884852

+ 0°3298573701125
+ 0°3353105664

+ 0°3397216796875
+ 0°3430665836

+ 0°3453235142625
+ 03464731648

+ 0°3464987798375
+ 0°34538625

+ 0°3431242064125
+ 0°3397041152

+ 0°3351203719875
+ 0°3293703964

+ 0°3224547265625
+ 0°3143771136

+ 0°3051446161375
+ 0:2947676948

+ 0°2832603067125
+0°27064

+ 0°2569280082875
+ 0°2421493452

+ 0°2263328988625
+ 0°2095115264

+ 0°1917221484375
+ 0:1730058436

+ 0°1534079430125
+ 0°1329781248
+0°1117705085875

REPORT—1879.

P&(x)

—0°3125

— 0°3118439468605625
— 0°309878149076

— 0°3066096863500625
—0°302050340864
—0°2962165712890625
—0°289129476404

— 0°2808147483175625
—0°271302615296

— 0°2606277741955625
— 0°2488293125

— 0°2359506199630625
— 0:222039289856

— 0°2071470098200625
—0°191329442324

— 0°1746460947265625
—0°157160178944

— 0'1389384607225625
—0°120051098516

— 0°1005714719680625
—0:080576
—0°0601439485030625
— 0:039357227636
—0:0183001787275625
+0°002940649216

+ 0:0242767333984375
+ 0:045617821516

+ 0:0668721864349375
+ 0:087946891264

+ 0°1087480648219375
+ 0°1291811875

+ 0°1491513875194375
+ 0:°168563747584

+ 0°1873236219274375
+ 0:205336963756

+ 0°2225106630859375
+ 0°238752894976

+ 0°2539734781549375
+ 0°268084244044

+ 0°2809994161744375
+ 0°292636

+ 0°3029141831044375
+ 0°311757745804

+ 0°3190944821449375
+ 0°324856631296

+ 0°3289813193359375
+ 0°331411011436

+ 0°3320939744374375
+ 0:330984749824

+ 0°3280446370894375

P(x)

0

— 0°021855316830981875

— 0°04359263856568

— 0:065094489407360625

— 0:08624443080704

— 0°106927576708984375

—0°12703110474216

— 0°146444762006283125

— 0'16506136410112

— 0°182777286047686875

— 0°19949294375

— 0°215113264646025625

— 0°22954814619648

— 0°242712900860129375

— 0°25452868620424

— 0°264922918798828125

— 0°27382967054336

— 0°281190046074551875

— 0°28695253990392

—0°291073371933730625

—0°2935168

— 0°294255408091194375

— 0°29327036889128

—0°290551679295773125

— 0'28609836754944

— 0°279918670654296875

— 0°27203018069656

— 0°262459958741195625

— 0°25124461494272

— 0'238430353520899375

— 0°22407298125

— 0°208237878110238125

— 0°19099992875008

—0°172443413408041875

—0°15266185694264

—0°131757834619140625

— 0°10984273330176

— 0:087036466699964375

— 0:06346714331752

— 0:039270685752943125

—0:0145904

+ 0°010423506603093125

+ 0°03561446012712

+ 0:060820108859314375

+ 0°08587296751616

+ 0°110601118212890625

+ 0°13482896954104

+ 0°158378075105391875

+ 0°18106801287168

+ 0°202717326676388125

[a re ee a ea ee ee ee!

8

0:50

051
0°52
0°53
054
0°55
0°56
0°57
0-58
0°59
0-60
0°61
0-62
0:63
0-64
0°65
0°66
0°67
0°68
0°69
0-70
0-71
0-72
0:73
0-74
0°75
0-76
0-77
0-78
0-79
0:80
0°81
0°82
0:83
0:84
0°85
0°86
0°87
0°88
0°89
0:90
0°91
0°92
0:93
0°94
0:95
0:96
0:97
0-98
0:99
1:00

ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

P5(x)

+ 008984375

+ 0°0672611351625
+ 0°0440906752

+ 0°0204052007375
— 0:0087175436

— 0:0281948046875
—0°0529387264

— 0:0778562551125
— 01028490452
—0°1278133645375
— 0715264
—0°1772141629625
— 072014153948

— 0°2251174723875
— 0°2481883136

— 0°2704898828125
—0°2918780964

— 0°3122027282375
—0°3313073152

— 0°3490290626625
—0°36519875

— 0°3796406360875
— 073921723648

— 0°4026048705125
—0°4107422836
—0°4163818359375
— 0:4193137664

— 0°4193212263625
— 0°4161801852

— 0°4096593357875
— 0739952
—0°3855160342125
—0°3673937348

— 0°3448917436375
—0°3177409536

— 0°2856644140625
— 0'2483772364

— 0°2055864994875
— 0°1569911552

— 0:1022819339125
—0°04114125

+ 0°0267568926625
+ 0:1017469952

+ 0°1841721582375
+ 0°2743841764

+ 0°3727436328125
+ 0°4796199936

+ 0°5953917023875
+ 0°7204462748

+ 0°8551803929625
+1

57

+ Pz)

+ 0°3232421875

+ 0°3165537082519375
+ 0°307963777024

+ 0°2974657669249375
+ 0°285062381836

+ 0°2707662021484375
+ 0°254600240896

+ 0°2365985102824375
+ 0-216806598604

+ 0°1952822575669375
+ 0:172096

+ 0:1473317079619375
+ 0:121087251244

+ 0:0934751162674375
+ 0:064623045376

+ 0°0346746865234375
+ 0:003790253356
—0°0278528043100625
—0:060059119616
—0:0926147173930625
—0°1252863125
—0°1578205977655625
—0°189943521536

— 0°2213595548275625
—0°251750948084
—0°2807769775390625
— 0°308073181184

— 0°3332505843400625
— 0'355894914836

— 0°3755658077905625
— 0391796

— 0'4040905139305625
— 0411925831316

— 0°4147490563600625
— 0411977068544

— 0°4029956650390625
— 0°387158692724
—0°3637871698075625
— 0°332168397056

— 0°2915550586255625
—0°2411643125

— 0:1801768705330625
— 0:107736068096

— 0:0229469233300625
+ 0°075124813996

+ 0°1874536240234375
+0°315055188736

+ 0°4589873742874375
+ 0°620351223724

+ 0°8002919601019375
+1

P(x)

+ 0°22314453125

+ 0°242169182105049375
+ 0°25961301164032

+ 0°275301132812545625
+ 0°28906351172696

+ 0°300735310498046875
+ 0°31016030173184

+ 0°317190355981123125
+ 0°32168800352488

+ 0°32352787 1823344375
+ 0°3225984

+ 0°318803631701880625
+ 0°31206508768952

+ 0°302323719507901875
+ 0°28954194558976

+ 0°273705771142578125
+ 0°25482699317064

+ 0°232945491983479375
+ 0°20813161054208

+ 0°180488622994175625
+ 0°15015529375

+ 0°117308528449836875
+ 0°08216611817472

+ 0°044989578251633125
+ 0:00608708300456

— 0°634183502197265625
—0°07541149024256
—0:117130141581289375
—0°15881333217672

— 0°199872118754868125
—0°2396512

— 0°27742527 2344831875
— 0'31239527900408

— 0'343684550900010625
— 0°37033483812864
—0°391302230615234375
—0:40545296660776

— 0°411559127656933125
— 0°40829421873152

— 0°394228632117536875
—0°36782499375

— 0°327433390625875625
— 0:27128647794688
—0°197494464640779375
—0°10403997590984

+ 0°011227208544921875
+ 0°15059554197504

+ 0°316497225062798125
+ 0°51151384877768

+ 0°738382166962419375
+1

58 REPORT—1879.

Siath Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor A. S. HERSCHEL,
M.A., F.R.A.S., Professor G. A. Lezour, F.G.S., and Mr. J. T.
Dunn, B.Sc., on Experiments to determine the Thermal Con-
ductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially the Geological
Aspects of the Investigation.

Tur research and correspondence necessary for the completion of an
historical sketch of the attempts hitherto made to determine experimentally
the Thermal Conductivities of various Rocks occurring widely over the
earth’s surface, which the Committee proposed to prepare during the past
year, are not so far advanced at present as to allow them to be compre-
hended in this year’s Report. The Committee hopes, by continuing its
enquiries for another year, with the addition to its numbers of Professors
W.E. Ayrtonand J. Perry, of the Imperial College of Engineering in Japan,
who have pursued the subject practically with the greatest attention and
success, to carry out the object of their undertaking, so as to exhibit the
present state of our knowledge of the data of Thermal Conductivity,
needful for discussions of the conditions of the earth’s temperature, which
have been determined by observations and experiments.

In a paper of great practical interest in this respect,! published at the
end of the year 1876, by Professor Stefan, of Vienna, a series of experi-
ments is described, by which he determined very accurately the absolute
thermal conductivity of ordinary Ebonite. The process used being the
same in principle (although differing from it a little in its details), as that
adopted by Professors Ayrton and Perry for determining the thermal
conductivity of some specimens of a kind of Japanese building-stone,
employs for its application Fourier’s formule, and therefore gives the
absolute conductivity, in the first instance, indirectly, or only in terms of
the heat-capacity of a cubic centimetre of the trial-substance as the unit
of heat-quantity, instead of in absolute heat-units. The value in absolute
heat-units of this thermal capacity of the substance has then to be deter-
mined by a subsidiary experiment. As the very trustworthy value found
by this otherwise convenient method affords a useful standard for com-
parison with other methods, that adopted by the Committee was checked,
during the past year, by applying it to determine directly the thermal
conductivity of a plate of ordinary ebonite, together with that of some
plates of vulcanised indiarubber, with which, by the courtesy of their
agent in Newcastle, Mr. W. Beer, the Committee was furnished from the
Silvertown Works of the Indiarnbber and Guttapercha Company in
London.

Some omitted measurements of rock conductivities were also made at
the close of the past year, with the Committee’s apparatus. But owing
to some deterioration which it has in the meantime undergone in its con-
dition, they are insufficiently high, as proved by the values found for red
serpentine and white Sicilian marble. As the results, however, possess a
relative value among themselves, and also in relation to these two speci-
mens of which the conductivities have before been very well determined,
they are added to the last-mentioned observations, in the accompanying

1 ¢Sitzungsberichte ’ of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna, vol. for
1876, part ii. ; November, 1876.

=

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS. 59

Table, with the probable values which they may be conjectured to indicate
very nearly as concluded from comparisons of the known with the defec-
tively observed conductivities of the two rock-plates of reference.

The uncertainty which attached, in last year’s Report, to the obser-
vations of the specific heats of some porous rocks, has now been removed
by repeating the experiment of boiling them in water, and immediately
weighing them to determine the quantity of boiling-hot water which they
absorbed. The result is that the assumption made in last year’s Report
that the quantity of water so imbibed is in general half the weight which
they are found to have gained by an immediate immersion, after boiling,
in cold water, is fully verified. The fraction of the total water-gain which,
for example, entered the six specimens of Craigleith sandstone during the
first process of boiling them, had the real values 0°41-0°49 (average 0°45).
The corrections which the specific heats of these porous sandstones given
in the Table of last year’s Report require for this little imperfection of the
adopted allowance is so small as only to affect by a single significant unit

(and in the ratio by one or two units), a few of the thirty numbers
Cc

given for these sandstones in the Table. The same substantiation of the
figures in the Table has been found for all the sandstones (water-absorp-
tion 6°1—-8:4 per cent.), and other rocks (including Mansfeld limestone,
absorption 8°1 per cent.), not exceeding them in porosity. Newcastle
firebrick (absorption 14°3 per cent.) is an extreme case in which the

allowance adopted, and the values of the specific heats, and of the ratio, f
c

given inthe Table require no sensible correction. In rocks which, like
the last, exceed the pure sandstones in porosity, the rule for correcting ~
the Table illustrated by examples in the last Report, to regard the allow-
ance adopted in the Table as too little by a half, is now proved to be sub-
stantially correct, the ratios for Caenstone, Great Pyramid, and Castle
Eden limestones, Godstone chalk,! firestone, and sandstone, magnesite,
and plaster-of-Paris, all lying between 0°74 and 0°85, the last of which
ratios is an exceptionally high proportion, for Castle Hden limestone.

On correcting the tabular specific heats of these very porous rocks (as
has been done in the short recapitulation of them given below, in the
manner described by some examples in last year’s Report), by the actual
fractions of total water-gain now found to have been introduced into the
plates by boiling them, a close agreement of the corrected values (with
only one exception) is produced with the common value, about 0°20, of
the heat-capacities of nearly all the other rocks recorded in the Table.
The real specific heat, by weight of plaster-of-Paris alone, agrees (as was
surmised correctly in last year’s Report) with that of English alabaster,
or gypsum, and nearly also with red and green serpentine from Cornwall,
in being exceptionally high (0:26-0:28). Ifthe metallic ores, galena and
iron pyrites, are excluded from the list, the only other examples of rocks
in the Table, whose specific heats differ by more than one or two significant
units from the common value, 0°20, are the specimens of Newcastle black

‘shale (0°29), and coal of two varieties, cannel coal, and ordinary pit-coal,

1 The specimen of pure white chalk, whose thermal properties, as partly tested,
have been previously described in these Reports, having yielded and crumbled last
year in the experiment on its specific heat, could not be submitted this year to a
Tepetition of the same experiment.

60 REPORT—1879.

which have the extreme specific heats by weight, 0°29 and 0°37. The
present well-measured specific heat of pumice stone (0-24, unless the plate
contained a considerable quantity of hygroscopic moisture), is also appre-
ciably above the common value to which the heat-capacities of nearly all
the different descriptions of rocks tested approximate very closely in the
Table.

To the above-proved rule of partial water-absorption by boiling, among
the very porous rocks, the plate of pumice stone presented an exception.
While absorbing a fifth of a pound (75:6 per cent. of its weight) of water
by boiling and immediate immersion in cold water, which far surpasses
the observed porosity of any other porous kind of rock examined, only
three-quarters of an ounce, or 0°21 of the former quantity, enters the
plate, and occupies its pores during the process of boiling only.! The
fraction of half the total water gain, provisionally assumed in the Table to
be introduced into the porous rocks by boiling, is therefore here too great,
instead of too little, by about a half of its amount. The large uncertainty,
until this plate’s water-absorption could be re-observed, led to the omis-
sion, in the Table of last year’s Report, of the data found for pumice stone,
the real values of which are now given in the subjoined list of verified
determinations.

In the hope of discovering an explanation of the wide difference which
exists between the various conductivities hitherto recorded in these
Reports, and a list of similar conductivities published in the Proceedings
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1873 (vol. viii., p. 66), by Professor
G. Forbes (the values in which are not more than a fourth or a fifth of those
described in these Reports), the Committee requested Professor Forbes to
search for possible errors among the numbers used as constant factors in
his calculations, while it submitted its own reductions to a similar ex-
amination. The result of Professor Forbes’s re-examination is not yet
received ; but the Committee has had the annoyance to find that one such
small error has unsuspectedly been committed in its own determinations.

Among the factors used, since the outset of its experiments, to convert
into terms of absolute conductivity the rate of heat-flow measured directly
in the 5-inch plates, a number, 196, was used inadvertently in place of
the correct multiplier, 220, to effect a portion of the transformation. All
the observed values that have hitherto been described in these Reports as
obtained from year to year of the absolute conductivities (%), and of the

ratio = of the various rock-specimens which have been tested are there-

1 Equally irregular departures from perfect conformity to a common rule occur
in some examples of the less porous kinds of rocks, where the yery moderate absorp-
tion of water, however, renders the deviations of their properties of little sensible
influence, as affecting the provisionally assigned values of their specific heats so as
to make them needful of any appreciable corrections. The hot-water absorption by
gas coke is like that of pumice stone, but a quarter, instead of a half or three-
quarters of its total water gain, which in this slightly porous substance is only 2-9
per cent. by weight. The small correction which this entails on the specific heat
by weight (0:193), as given in the Table, is the additional quantity 0:0073, making
the real specific heat from the experiments, 0:2003. This is even more nearly iden-
tical with the value, 0-201, for coke of anthracite, given by Regnault, than the
former provisional value was, the near agreement of which with Regnault’s deter-

mination was pointed out in the comparative Table of such observations in last
year’s Report.

———————eee——e es rc ere

ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF CERTAIN ROCKS, 61

fore deficient in their recorded values by an eighth part of their assigned
magnitudes. While requiring this addition of an eighth part to their

' magnitudes, the absolute resistances given as the practical results of the

experiments, require, to correct them for the same source of error, to be
diminished by a ninth part of their stated values. Examples of the
needful corrections which will suffice to remove the misconstructions
introduced by this entirely unsuspected error of reduction, are given in
the last three columns of the accompanying short Table of amended data.

The values of the measures & and ~ in the three preceding adjoining
C

columns are increased, for correctness, in these new columns by an eighth
part; while in the same columns the absolute resistances given in the former
columns are diminished by a ninth part of their values. The Committee
desires to submit this easy process of correction as an immediately neces-
sary treatment of all the experimental results of absolute thermal conduc-
tivities and resistances at which it has arrived, and which have hitherto
been published in the pages and Tables of these Reports, before the present
year, for their proper emendation. It will then be found by comparisons,
to which the Committee hopes to revert particularly in another year, that
a somewhat closer agreement than was exhibited in last year’s Report does
actually exist between its corrected determinations and those sure, indu-
bitable data of rates of thermal conductivity in certain terrestrial rocks
which able and elaborate reductions of several extensive series of obser-
vations of underground thermometers have made known. A valuable
store of new materials, it may be noticed, for these last investigations was
furnished by the publication last year, in the volume of ‘ Greenwich Meteoro-
logical Reductions, chiefly for the years 1847-73,’ of the continuous records -
during this interval of twenty-seven years, of the deep-sunk underground
thermometers in the grounds of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich ;
only the first half of which valuable results have yet been utilised (by
Professor Everett) for deducing the constant of thermal conductivity of
the great eminence of gravel strata upon which the Observatory is
placed.

62 REPORT—1879.

CORRECTED DATA OF THERMAL PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN VERY POROUS
Rocks, 1879.

Values obtained by

Ane a Earlier and erroneous New and correct reduc-
EY reduction-factor tion-factor (220),
(196), 1874-78 1879
ASE ae Absolute dr. Absolute dr
y
stance tested B B _ (wet) y Rano (wet) i
au y h Ratio
weight |e-volame | SSS k
caszay| (asz9) |tivity | Resis caszoy | tivity | Ress] @
oy Y | tance a2) ara tance
Sandstone (Godstone ; if o22/ 033), © | @| @ | ®}@) ©
greensand) . (0°36) | (0°66) a, Ss ree
Firestone (Godstone ; a 0:22 | 0:35 ‘ 7 \ ;
ereensand) (0°36) | (0-66) 0021 | 474 0059 | -0024 | 421 0066
Building Limestone { 0:21 | 0:43 . : ;
(Caen, Normandy) . {| (030) | (0°66) 0043 | 231 0102 | :0049 | 205 0115
Building Limestone 0:20 | 0:43 1
(Gt. ‘Pyr., Casing- (0°30) (0-67) 0040 | 250 | :0092 | -0045 | 222 | -0104
stone) . . J
Magnesite,! "white 24 45
amorphous (Pig- (-35) (-75) = = — 0044 | 227 | -0098
nerol, Genoa)
“ae Pee O19 | 034
esia.; Castle Eden, (08191 00-88) ‘0053 | 188 | -0155 | -0060 | 167 | -0174
Durham) :
Chalk CGodsione Sur- ae 0:21 | 0°36 y : Nine ;
se A | ib) om | a | wee] | a |
2 Te urn (0-57) | (0°61) | (-0010)| (971) | (-0017) | (-0012) | (863) | -0019
Fine Plaster-of-Paris { ne 0:27 0012 | 833 | :0045 | -0013 | 740 | -0051
(a light plate) (0°51) | (0°79) | (0016) | (625) | (-0020) | (0018) | (555) | (-0023)

1 New observations of the specific heats of Magnesite, and of Frosterley and Dent
marbles, have shown that the numbers found for them last year are fallacious. The
specific heats by weight and volume of the last two rocks are really ; Frosterley, 21, "57;
Dent, *22, °60, which agree very nearly with those which have been observed in the other
limestone and marble specimens of the list. When corrected for the known weight of
water which it absorbed in boiling, the specific heat by weight of Magnesite observed last
year becomes 0°175 ; lower than that of limestone, instead of higher as should be expected
from this rock’s lighter molecular weight. The real value now found of its specific heatis the
exceptionally high one 0°245; a specimen of hard crystalline magnesite from Trieste also
giving 0°244. Compared with Regnault’s specific heats of some earthy carbonates, and
with their molecular weights, this high specific heat of magnesite appears to be quite in
accordance with the low place which it occupies among those carbonates in its combining
weight, thus :—

Specific Heat Specific Heat Molecular
Substance (Beonatilt) in thal Reports Te Specific Heat,
(6) Cc peep IE mxC
Baric Carbonate . 11038 — 197 21:74
Strontic Carbonate *14483 — 147°6 21°38
Calcic Carbonate "21150 Avrge 0:210 100 21°15
Magnesic Carbonate — 9» 0°2445 84 20°54

ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY AT MADEIRA. 63

ABSOLUTE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OBTAINED IN A DEFECTIVE AND UNDERRATING
CONDITION OF THE APPARATUS, 1879.

Water ab- (1) (4) (5) (6)
White Chalk(Alum Bay, })| sorbed in ‘0012 | Obs. 1879 0014 }
I, of Wight) . . .]|| exper. 10 prob. value | °0028 357
p.c. by wt.

”

eeeronera, (Wile, 0019 | Obs. 1879. | -0022
Amorphous; Pigne-

ares prob, value | -0044 | 327 | -o107}
Red Serpentine (Com-} { 0020 | Obs. 1879 | -0023
eu: 0040 | Obs. 1875 | -0045}
White Sicilian Marble ee ves ere a
Sandstone (Valley of f ‘0027 | Obs. 1879 0030

Rocks, Linton) prob. value | -0060 167 0115}
eos 0028 | Obs. 1879 | -0032
eaten prob. value | -0063 | 159 | -o127}

MEASURES (IN 1879), COMPARED WITH STEFAN’S DETERMINATION (1876), TO TEST
THE ACTION OF THE APPARATUS.

3 Mean. tem. | 00032 Obs. 1879) | :00036 2778
pee Pponite;, two || oe plate, | -0003# he 00038 | 2632
experiments :
120° F. (Stefan,1876)} :00026 | Temp. | 35° F
| Soft, red vulcanised
| caoutchouc . !

Soft, grey vulcanised
(mearly pure caout-
GHOUG)hfey.. )

Hard, grey vulcanised
(containing much

MitcnarPe yin... .

.
.

{| 120° F. }] -00030 | (Obs. 1879) | -00034 | 2941
| 115° F. } 00089 | 4 4, ‘| "00044 | 2273

110° F. } 00049 ” » 00055 | 1802

Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor G. Fores, Professor
Sir Wit1t1am Tuomson, and Professor Everett, appointed to
obtain Observations on Atmospheric Electricity at Madeira.
Drawn up by Dr. Grasuam, Madeira.

Ov of the latest of Sir William Thomson’s portable electrometers was
entrusted to me two years ago for taking electrical observations in
Madeira. I received no intimation as to any particular set of observations
which were thought desirable to take, and I have hence considered myself

_ unfettered to seek out that which seemed most inviting and most likely
to yield new facts.

The daily observations I discarded, finding them extremely monotonous
and irksome, and I think they are not likely to prove instructive at all,
unless a continuous record is made by automatic means. But it is ob-
vious that in so uniform a climate as that of Madeira, where calm fine
weather often lasts steadily for several weeks without a break, a station
for observing the diurnal and seasonal electric variations would be ex-
tremely valuable.

I have, however, devoted whatever time I have been able to give to

_ this subject to the observation of the regular breezes and prevailing
_ winds. Harly in the morning, in ordinary fine weather, there is no wind

64 REPORT—1879.

at all, and there is then shown positive electricity of very moderate
intensity.

The electricity, however, rises very rapidly, and comes to a maximum
at about half-past eleven o’clock, and seems to correspond very much
with the flow of the sea breeze—which the sun shining on the land causes
with great regularity—and also with the accumulation of masses of cloud
or watery vapour, which rise and coalesce to form a thin screen during
the hottest part of the day over the basin of Funchal.

It is curious that the index of the electrometer, which is extremely
unsteady and oscillating whilst the electricity is rising—probably from
the influence of masses of variously electrified vapour or air in motion—
becomes steady, and remains fairly steady for two hours or more—during
which time the maximum is maintained. The electricity then subsides,
as the cloud-screen breaks up early in the afternoon, at first suddenly, and
then very gradually until evening, when it faintly begins to rise again.

The formation of the thin above cloud-layer over Funchal is very
regular, and occupies a vertical space of about 200 feet, at an altitude of
2,500 feet, varying slightly with temperature and atmospheric pressure,
and appearing, from a distance at sea, as a thin white sheet, beyond which
the black rocky peaks of the island shoot up for several thousand feet.

The electricity below this cloud is always positive and moderately
intense; in the cloud itself it is still positive, though feeble; and above
the cloud, in a sheltered situation where these observations were taken, it
is still positive, though still more feeble, and very irregular.

In warmer weather, as regards this cloud, the same conditions exist
exactly, although the moisture forming the cloud does not condense, but
appears from above as a dense blue transparent haze, liable, however, to
become opaque on any accidental puff of colder air.

In my own garden I found that every observation was mitigated or
quite vitiated by the numbers of lofty trees closely planted together.

The currents of air constituting the daily sea-breeze of Madeira are of
no great depth, perhaps 70 or 80 feet, and above the true wind blows in
the contrary direction.

I have often succeeded in flying a kite through the sea-breeze into
the upper wind, and have made some attempts, abortive for want of proper
insulation, to bring down the electricity of the upper current.

The electricity, however, of this upper current, which in fine settled
weather is the north-east trade wind, can easily be observed on exposed
mountain ridges, and always gives a steadily moderate indication of a
positive quality. Indeed, the only observations of the north-east trade
ever thought to have given a negative result were taken on a lesser peak
of Teneriffe with inferior instruments by Mr. Smyth, who, however,
attaches little value to them.

For my own part I have not had a single observation of negative
electricity in the atmosphere at any time, if I may exclude faint oscilla-
tions of the needle, when there has been no ponderable quantity either way.

In Madeira, at the termination of a long period of fine weather, on
the approach of rain clouds I have noticed a high electricity of a positive
character, very transient and irregular in character, and falling very low
when it actually rained. Rising electricity on the cessation of rain is
here, as in all other places, an important factor in forecasting weather.

But Madeira is occasionally subject, especially in summer weather, to
another wind of very peculiar character. This is a kind of Sirocco, called

ON ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY AT MADEIRA. 65

in Portuguese ‘1’Este,’ which blows with great force, striking in its in-
tegrity in a curious manner certain districts alone.

The wind appears to be generated in the sandy tract of the Great
Sahara, and also perhaps beyond in districts extending far into Asia.
The heated air of those burning plains ascends tumultuously and pursues
a course more or less easterly across the Atlantic. Far above the surface
of the water it can imbibe no moisture, and after its descent has become
possible by a partial loss of heat it strikes upon the surface of Madeira,
depositing sand, locusts, birds, and other evidence of its distant origin, and
for a while the mid-day climate of the Great Desert is felt 400 miles away
from Africa, in the middle of the Atlantic. The dryness of this wind is
wonderful; it will, in its greedy power of evaporation, separate the dry
and wet bulbs of Mason’s hygrometer 25° or more, and in a temperature
of 80 F. the dew-point is below the freezing point. All clouds disappear,
and the sun shines hazily in a sky which exchanges its ordinary deep blue
for a semi-transparent colour of light grey.

The electrical quality of this wind is simply a blank. I have been
unable during four favourable opportunities for observing it to detect any
registerable amount, either positive or negative; but I can see under a
high magnifying power an irregular swaying to and fro of the needle
similar in character to those given by a broken submerged cable. Pro-
bably at its origin, and especially if it takes up much sand, the wind is
resinously charged ; but it will be interesting to determine whether an
intensely dry wind can be strongly electrified or electrified at all.

In the neighbourhood of strong l’Este winds I have also made a few
observations on some curiously rounded clouds which hang with singular
immobility over deep mountain gorges, although tossed and tumbled by
strong wind on their upper surfaces.

I have some evidence to show that both their power and quietness
relate to their somewhat high electrical charge, and it is probable that we
shall find by-and-by in a more general way that the form of clouds de-
pends very much on the influence of neighbouring electrified masses, in a
manner nearly related to the experiments of Lord Rayleigh on fountain-
jets. But these cloud observations are both difficult and somewhat
dangerous. If any one should be tempted to fly a kite with a wet cord
and a metallic conductor in its tail down into one of these mountain
clouds, he should place his electrometer upon the ground or else have a
long trailing copper chain attached to the brasswork. The umbrella, too,
must be kept low. If these precautions are neglected a very painful
shock will probably be felt, which may cause the observer to drop the
instrument.

The very meagreness of this Report is enough to show the necessity
for multiplying electrometric observations. I would only ask, Has the
electrometer yet any share in determining our weather forecasts, or is elec-
tricity thought of in the relations of meteorology to the public health ?
I fear not.

The fascinating little instrament is my constant companion and the
solace of many a leisure moment. It has been taken to the north and
south of this country, and has twice crossed the Atlantic with me. In-
deed, it never failed to answer every question certainly and sensitively
until I attempted last Sunday to take it to St. Paul’s in London to take
an observation under the dome. Then the pumice-stone broke, and poured
its corrosive fluid upon the brasswork.

1879. F

66 REPORT—-1879.

I can only regret that so little help is to be got from the text-books
on electricity in these observations. They appear to devote most of their
space given to atmospheric electricity to a picture of Franklin holding a
kite under a shed, and another picture of a waterspout.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Syivester, F.R.S.,
and Professor Caytey, F.R.S., appointed for the purpose of
calculating Tables of the Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic
Forms.

Wirs a portion of the grant made last year, the valuable services of
Mr. F. Franklin, of the Johns Hopkins University, have been obtained
to aid in computing, under Professor Sylvester’s inspection, the ground
forms (otherwise called the fundamental invariants and covariants) of
binary quantics of the 7th, 8th, and 10th orders respectively, thus ren-
dering the list of tables of such forms complete for quantics of all
orders up to the 10th inclusive.

The sheets containing the calculations referred to are deposited pro-
visionally in the Library of the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore,
where they remain subject to the direction of the Council of the British
Association as to their future disposal.

The tables of the ground forms of the seventhic are published in the:
Comptes Rendus of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, 1878 ; the table of the
ground forms of the ninethic in the ‘ American Journal of Mathematics,’
March, 1879, and in a future number of that Journal will shortly also
appear the intermediary tables of the Generating Functions from which
such ground forms are deduced, as also the grownd forms and generating
functions connected with the tenthic.

These tables, in addition to those previously constructed, will, it is
believed, form a valuable, and (for the present) a sufficient basis for the
prosecution of this kind of research in what regards the theory of single
binary quantics, leaving a wide field still open for computations of a
similar nature connected with systems of binary quantics and ternary and.
quaternary quantics, single or in systems.

= —— =

Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Samurn Haveuton,
M.D., and Bensamin Wriiutamson, .A., appointed for the Cal-
culation of Sun-Heat Coefficients. Drawn wp by Dr. Havarton.

Tue calculation of the quantity of sun-heat received at a given place,
and in a given time, on the earth’s surface, neglecting the heat absorbed
by the atmosphere, was solved by Lambert in the middle of the last
century, and the researches of Poisson, Meech, and others have added
very little to the work done by Lambert.

I have myself published a simple solution of Lambert’s problem,
depending on trigonometrical series, well known and readily applied,*
copies of which are now offered to Section A.

1 Proceedings, Royal Dublin Society, 1878.

ON THE CALCULATION OF SUN-HEAT COEFFICIENTS. 67

When the absorption of heat by the atmosphere is neglected we have
merely to integrate

Aficos z dh (1)

from sunrise to sunset, where
A =the solar constant of radiation,
z=sun’s zenith distance,
h=sun’s hour angle ;
an integration readily performed ; and then swm the results from day to
day, from the summer to the winter solstice ; a summation which presents
no serious difficulty.

But when we attempt to compute the sun-heat received in a given
time and at a given latitude, allowing for the absorption of sun-heat by
the atmosphere, we are met by formidable mathematical difficulties
which have never yet been seriously acknowledged and attacked.

Tt is, in fact, easy to see that we must now attempt the integration,
daily, from sunrise to sunset, of

A Jp“ cos z dh, (2)

instead of
A fcos z dh,

where
p =the atmospheric constant of absorption ;
w= r/2rh+h?+r? cos? z —r7r cosz;
h= height of homogeneous atmosphere ;
y = radius of earth.

It is evident at sight that equation (2) is not integrable; and if we
attempt to integrate it by series we fail completely, for the following
reason :—

It will be seen, on trial, that the expansion of

‘p” COS 2
must be of the form
A, + A, cos 2+ A, cos? z+ &e.; (3)
+ B, sec 2+ By sec? z+ &e.
This series is to be multiplied by dh, and each term integrated from
sunrise to sunset. This is easily done for the cosine terms, but the secant
terms become infinite at the limits, because 7 = 90° at sunrise and sunset.
Hence any attempt to obtain the value of integral (2) by approximation
must be illusory, no matter how rapidly the coefficients
B,, B,, B;, &e.,

may diminish.

Under these circumstances it was proposed at the Dublin meeting of

_ the British Association (1878), to apply a small grant (301.) to a pre-

liminary quadrature of equation (2), at a few well-defined latitudes,
such as 0°, 30°, and 60°.
The method used was the following :—
1°. The values of p” cos z, for every value of z from 0° to 90°, were
first calculated, from which the values of p* cos z, for every zone of zenith
distance, one degree in width, were readily found.
F2

68

REPORT—1879.

These results are exhibited in the following table :—

z u pe p" cos z p™ cos = z
90° 12-6480 0:0312 0:0000 ° 397
89° 11-3296 . 0:04.48 0-0007 ta ar a0
88° 10-1600 0-0617 0-0021 0:0032 87° 30!
87° 91368 0:0817 0:0042 00057 86° 30!
86° 82448 01044 0-0072 0:0092 85° 30!
85° TATI2 0:1290 0-0112 00137 84° 30!
84° 68008 0:1551 0-0161 00191 83° 30/
83° 6°2208 0-1818 0 0221 0:0256 82° 30!
81° 52784 0°2354 0:0368 0:0411 80° 30/
80° 4:8952 0:2615 0:0454 0:0500 79° 30/
ie 45592 0°2867 0:0547 0:0506 78° 30
aie 4:0000 0°3341 0:0751 0:0806 76° 30!
76° 3°7664 0°3562 0:0861 0:0919 75° 30!
75° 3°5576 0°3772 0-0976 0:1035 74° 30
74° 3°3704 0°3970 0°1094 0°1155 73° 30!
Wa 3°2008 0°4160 0°1216 01278 72° 30!
72° 3:0480 0:4337 0:1340 0:1403 71° 30/
ihe 2-9088 0-4506 0°1467 01531 70° 30’
70° 2°7816 0°4666 0:1596 01660 69° 30’
69° 2°6664 0-4816 0:1725 01791 68° 30!
67° 24616 0°5094 0-1990 0:2056 66° 30°
66° 2°3720 0°5220 0°2123 0-2190 65° 30’
65° 2-2880 05342 0°2257 02324 64° 30’
64° 2-2112 0°5455 0:2391 02458 63° 30/
63° 21392 0°5564 0°2526 0:2593 62° 30!
62° 2:0728 0°5666 0:2660 0:2727 61° 30!
61° 20104 0°5764 0:2794 0-2861 60° 30°
60° 1°9536 0'5855 0:2927 0:2994 59° 30’
59° 1:8976 0°5945 0°3062 03128 8° 30!
58° 18464 0°6029 0:3195 0:3261 57° 30!
57° 1-7984 0-6109 0°3327 0°3392 56° 30!
56° 1-7536 0-6184 0°3458 0:3593 55° 30!
5B° 17112 0-6256 0:3588 03653 54° 30!
54° 16712 0°6325 0:3718 0°3782 53° 30’
58° 1°6336 06391 03846 0:3910 52° 30!
52° 1-5976 0-64.54 0:3973 0:4036 51° 30!
50° 1°5328 0:6570 04223 04284 49° 30!
49° 15024 0°6625 0:4346 04407 48° 30!
48° 1:4736 0:6678 04468 0°4528 47° 30!
47° 14464 06727 0:4588 4647 46° 30!
46° 1°4208 0°6775 0°4706 0:4764 45° 30!
45° 13968 0:6820 0:4822 0:4879 44° 30'
44° 13736 0°6863 0:4937 04993 43° 30°
42° 13304 0°6945 0°5161 O-5915 41° 30!
41° 13104 0°6983 0°5270 0°5393 40° 30!
40° 1-2912 0°7020 05377 05499 39° 30!
39° 1:2736 0°7054 0-5481 05533 38° 30!
38° 1:2560 0°7088 0°5585 05635 37° 30!
Bile 1:2400 0'7119 0:5686 0:5735 36° 30/
36° 1:2240 0:7150 0-5784 0:5839 35° 30!
35° 1-2096 0:7178 0°5880 05997 34° 30/
34° 11952 0°7207 0°5975 06020 33° 33/
33° 11816 0°7234 0°6066 0°6111 32° 30!

ON THE CALCULATION OF SUN-HEAT COEFFICIENTS. 69

z u p" p” cos z p” cos z Zz
fo} e 76 .
31 11568 0°7283 0°6243
5 0°6285 30° 30!
30 11448 0°7307 0°6328 peace ae
29° 1-1336 07330 06410 en are
28° 11232 0°7350 0-6490 28" 30°
i ae 0°6528 27° 30
27 1:1136 07370 | 0:6566 a Fie
26° 11040 07389 06641 es Hao
25° 10944 0:74.09 0°6714 ( 25° 30
i owe 0°6748 24° 30/
24 10864 0°7425 0°6783 end? Ses
93° 1-0784 07441 0°6849 Ree ae a
22° 1:0704 0'7458 0°6915 e 10 aq
& ae . 0°6945 21° 30
21 1:0632 0°7472 0°6976 erage Bee
20° 1:0568 0:7485 0:7033 aeadee 19° 30/
19° 1:0496 0°7500 0°7091 2 0
5 ; Lvs ' 0:7118 18° 30
18° 1:0440 0°7512 0°7144 aide igticg
17° 1:0384 0°7523 0°7195 Gots ae
16° 1:0328 0°7535 0°7243 2 0
‘ cE i 0°7265 15° 30!
15 1:0280 0°7545 0°7287 ee ae ae
14° 1:0230 0°7555 0:7330 eas 1a as
13° 1:0192 0°7563 0°7369
6 : fs i 0°7387 12° 30/
12 1:0152 0°7571 0°7406 files ee
11° 1:0120 0°7578 0°7439 peer aeons
10° 1-0088 0°7584 0°7469 feeds chee
9° 1:0056 0°7591 0°7498 OTBIO ne
g° 1:0032 0°7596 0°7522 eae Son
7° 1:0008 0-7601 0°7544 Green ha es
6° 0:9992 0°7605 0°7563 OnaE re Eg
5° 0:9968 0°7610 0°7581 ate ea
4° 0:9960 0°7611 0°7593 meee aaa
3° 0:9952 0:7613 0°7602 Gere Poe!
9° 0-9944 0:7615 0°7610 niveis fe Se
1° 0:9936 0°7616 0°7615 wreia ee S0!
0° 0-9920 0-7620 0°7620

Sun-heat Formule.

Heat received per sq. unit, in unit of time is represented by
Ap” cos z.

A = the solar constant ;

p = atmospheric absorption constant ;
U= J 2rh + h? + 7? cos?z —r cos z;
% = sun’s zenith distance ;

h = height of atmosphere ;

vr = radius of earth;

p=0°76 (Pouillet).

(1.) To calculate «w.—

5 2h ih?
VW cos @ ot ere — Yr COS z.

: h
If h = 50 miles, F 80"

Therefore, u = 80 ry cos? z+ = — 80 cos z;
u = 80 / cos? z + 0°025000 — 80 cos z. (4)

70 REPORT—1879.

(II.) To calcu. te p%.—

hk ku)? ku)?
ran GPa teas + aos

p= 0:76.
Therefore, since k = log, (p) = — 0°274;
(0°2740) (0°274w)? (0°274w)3
ay | es ee

Since w ranges from 1 to 12°65, this series does not converge rapidly
enough, and it is usually better to obtain p” directly, as follows :—

log (p") = u log p;
log (p") = —u x 0°119. (5)

2°. The next step was to determine how long the sun remains in any
zone of zenith distance, one degree in width, in the course of a year.

This was done, for the latitudes 0°, 30°, 60°, in the following manner ;
and although the calculations are not yet completed, involving as they do
300 folio sheets, enough has been accomplished to induce the Association
to proceed with the calculations for other latitudes.

We here append the form of the tables used in computing the time
spent by the sun in each zone, of one degree of width in zenith distance,
and, as it would be a useless expenditure of money to print in full the
details of the calculations, we propose to have two fair copies of the
calculations prepared and bound together, one to be deposited in the
library of Trinity College, Dublin, and the other placed at the disposal
of the British Association.

A complete summary of the entire results will, of course, be printed
in the Proceedings of the Association.

It will require an additional grant of 25/. to complete the calculations
for the latitudes 0°, 30°, and 60°, and a grant of 50/. would enable us to
complete the whole calculations for the latitudes 0°, 30°, 40°, 50°, and 60°.

The mean annual temperatures (as given by observations) between
0° and 30° are disturbed by the distribution of land and water, and the
temperatures of latitudes above 60° rest upon insufficient data of obser-
vation; for which reasons we propose to limit our calculations to the
latitudes above indicated.

toe Be

+ &e.

IlI.—Swun-heat Formule.

Let h =sun’s hour angle,
A = latitude of place,
6 = sun’s declination,
2 = sun’s zenith distance ;
j, = COB 8 sin A sin 6
Geen o7 cos A cos 6 7
,__ c08 2’ + sin A sin 6
Se
cos A cos 6
h — h' = time of passing through the zone (z — 2’),

degrees of arc being converted into minutes of time, as follows, 1° = 4™:
sin 6 = sin A sin J,

ON THE PHENOMENA OF STATIONARY TIDES IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. 71

where 1 = sun’s longitude,!
= +n x 59137,
nm = number of days from Equinox.
A= 23° 28’.

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir
Wituiam Tuomson, Dr. MerrirteLp, Professor OsBporNE REYNOLDS,
Captain Dovetas Gatton, and Mr. J. N. Sxoorpren (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of obtaining information respecting
the Phenomena of the Stationary Tides in the English Channel
and in the North Sea; and of representing to the Government of
Portugal and the Governor of Madeira that, in the opinion of
the British Association, Tidal Observations at Madeira or other
islands in the North Atlantic Ocean would be very valuable,
with the view to the advancement of our knowledge of the Tides
im the Atlantic Ocean.

[PuatEs IIl.—VIII.]

Tuis Committee was appointed at the Plymouth meeting in 1877, to
endeavour to arrange for, and to collect the results of a series of
simultaneous tidal observations in the English Channel and in the North
Sea; and also to impress upon the Portuguese Government the advan-
tage which would accrue from the establishment of a station at Madeira
for systematic and continuous tidal observations.

The Portuguese Government, having had this latter subject brought
under their notice by Her Majesty’s Foreign Office, readily fell in with
the suggestion of the British Association; and a self-registering tide-
gauge on Sir William Thomson’s principle has been made by Messrs.
White, of Glasgow. This instrument has been sent out to Madeira, for
erection on the Loo Rock, in the Bay of Funchal, where it is hoped that
it will soon be working satisfactorily. The entire cost of construction
and of erection has been borne by the Portuguese Government, and the
instrument remains, of course, in their hands.

The importance of an accurate knowledge of the tides at Dover in
particular, in connection with those of the entire English Channel, being
soon made evident to the Committee, as well as the great advantage
which would ensue from the establishment of a self-registering tide-gauge
at that place, the matter was brought by the Chairman under the notice
of the Board of Trade ; the request being further supported by the Lord
Warden of the Cinque Ports, Earl Granville. The Board of Trade
received the request most favourably, and consented to establish at their
own expense a self-registering gauge, at a site some distance down the
Admiralty Pier, where a tide-well had been made during the original
construction of the pier’; its connection with the water outside being at
a level of twelve feet below the low water of ordinary spring tides. The
gauge, embracing Sir William Thomson’s latest improvements, has been
constructed and erected by Messrs. A. Legé & Co., of London, under the

1 It was found better, in practice, to take the sun’s declination from day to day

from the ‘ Nautical Almanac,’ by which means the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit
was introduced.

72 REPORT—1879.

direction of Mr, Edward Druce, C.E., the resident engineer in charge of
the Admiralty Works at Dover. It will remain, of course, in the hands
of, and under the control of the Board of Trade.

The Committee having secured for the simultaneous. tidal observa-
tions in the English Channel and in the Irish Sea, their main duty, the
hearty co-operation of the Admiralty, of the Board of Trade, of the
French Minister of Public Works, as well as of the Minister of the same
department in Belgium, and also of a number of private observers, both
in this country and on the Continent, a programme of observations at
different times during the spring and summer of 1878 was arranged, in
accord with the different observers, a copy of which will be found in
Appendix I. These simultaneous observations extended on the English
side of the Channel from Portland to Yarmouth, while on the Continent
they embraced the coast from Havre to the mouth of the North Sea
Canal, leading up to Amsterdam.

Comparative tables are given in Appendix II., which show the
times and the levels of the high waters and of the low waters at the
different places, during the equinoctial tides observed in the month of
March; which may be taken as typical of the two other months. They
are all reduced to Greenwich time and to the level of twenty feet below
the Ordnance datum of Great Britain. This is in accordance with the
suggestion of the Committee on the Ordnance datum of Great Britain.!
The level proposed as a datum of comparison for tidal observations of
an international character, viz., ‘20 feet below the Ordnance datum of
Great Britain,’ is a point which practically coincides with ‘5°50 metres
below the French Zero du Nivellement’ (Bourdaloue), and with ‘12
feet 6 inches below the Ordnance datum of Ireland.’ Some of the tidal
curves from different points of observation are also appended; several
distinctive peculiarities, such as double tides, &c., are exhibited in them.
See Plates.

A careful consideration of the observations shows that on one point
alone, that of tidal constants, much valuable information might be added
to that already available, if a series of simultaneous observations, of a
somewhat similar character to those just obtained, were carried out
uninterruptedly, over a considerable period, of not less than twelve
months, and over a large extent of coast. The Committee, however,
feel that such a duty hardly falls within their province. They beg to
suggest that, possibly at some future time, this subject might be
entrusted to some suitable body; the more so, that the basis of the
means of obtaining the necessary observations is already furnished by
the labours of this Committee, with a considerable extension, however, in
the number of points of observation.

Before concluding their labours, the Committee request that the
thanks of the British Association be conveyed to the First Lord of the
Admiralty, the President of the Board of Trade, the French Minister of
Public Works, the Belgian Minister of Public Works, and to the several
other authorities and private individuals, both in this country and on the
Continent, who have kindly and gratuitously had the various observations
carried out and communicated to this Committee; and more especially
would they beg to thank the French Association for the Advancement of
Science for its cordial assistance in supporting the proposal of the British

1 See p. 219 of the present volume.

pod hh

ee

‘098 Y TeEf

ue

pany) ysbug aie sayy, Kuan pomunuowygs rq uo raTUnuE) ng Jo LOAN 5.2, I) Curporperny

SEO Yt = 9100 | MPR b= 6020-0
smog = ‘your j | TOMO por ~ your yf RH TOOL
sayDag
\
\ .
UENO WUD UPL)
nila |HOUVI
FES TAP TN HOON, vastopyy
pee
—~ <-
y
(7)
es)
m
m
z
=
is}
=x
aurmrogr \ wUDUP A)
ni OG HOUVW
WSTUp HOON 1 I
UOT in aru Up)
oOo
zD
m
m
2
=
fal
=
=
Jus rAp YL WOON, qWStapyy
@ZAL ac fl HOUVA

I] @teid

aLvYVoscmy &

Gen 2-V TE MOM abt

| Spottiomcode 2 C°Lith. London.

{Brit Asoo. 17 PORTLAND

Midnight MARCH 15°" 1878
; =) =
(2 oe 5
Ordnance Dahan aN tl ———
ra

MARCH 2078

Midmght

5
Urdnance Datta =
Ha =n), 2 — = _——_n.
Ea
MARCH 2774
Midnight Noon
Sah SS ae LETS
=
ee
Ordnance \Datum = os
nance |Datum =o = eee
Fa
Yl
Fa
= = —- = aa =o) — = _——
Scales
Vertical. iq 4 1 Inele = 9 Feet Horixontat { | Inch } Hours
OOR09 = 1 Metre 0o076™ i. Hours

Mustrating te 2"* Report of the Committee on Ue Phenomena of Stationary Tides in the English anne

49! Plate 1V

| F, night

Vertical '4e 1 Inch = 4 Feet
0-0209™ = 1 Metre
ininondtal: 1 Inch = 4 Hours
0-076™ = 12 Hours

v¢ English: Channel.

49% Report Uri Ana 1079 AMS TIER DA UW Plate IV
NORTH SEA CANAL ENTRANCE

MARCH 15°" 1878
Noon Midnight

ee

GREENWICH

AmsTeRDAM PIEL /

| AMSTERDAM

Crdnance Datum (Great Britain)

ee i we

<“2éro du. Nivellement (Bourvawue)|
Ik use 14

|

MARCH 20**
Midnight Noou Midmght

AMSTERDAM
GREENWICH

AmsteRoam Piet /_

|

Ordnance Dati (Creat BRITAIN)

\
iw

T
|
}

—
Zero it Nivellement (Bourvaoue)

£

&
\

a Verticat ia | VTuch = 4 Feet
Noon MARCH 277 Midnight goates 4 | 0.0209 = 1 Metre
|

3 Horixontay | 1 Inch = 4+ Hours
jane | | 0.076 = 12 Hours
b| E>
Zid = :

Ordnance Datugm (Great Britain)

AMSTERDAM Pie

0 du Nivellement (Bpurvatoue)

Mustrating the 2" Report. of the Committee on tue Phenonuna of Stationary Tides in the English Channel

.
Pee ae
’
i ad s | —
hgh | ?
7 s fies, - { Kos

$* Report Brit. Ansoo 1979

MARCH 157

Midmght Noon

france Datum / (Great Britain)

ov dea Nivellemeat (Bouroacove -

OSTEND
GREENWICH

fo dt Maregraphe @ Ostende (Buse del eolise des Bassins

Midnight

de Commerce)

Mustrating te

OSTEND

MARCH 20™ 1878
Midnight Noon

Midnight

OSTEND
GREENWICH

Scales

Inch = Ret poneomtqy | lnc = #Hours

Vertical /v6 is
O-0209"" = 1 Metre 0076" = 12 Hours

0" Tepert of the Comittee on te Phenomena ot Stationary Tides ut Uve Frulish Channel

|

MARCH

Noon

OSTEND
GREENWIGH

Midnight

Scales

Porixontal I Inch = 4 Hours
0-076 = 12 Hours

=

MARCH 20%

aa PE ove ey -
wAAM es

Rot

t

1

1

|

1

1
Noon:
1

1

'

1

{ 1
' 1
' i
' '
1 t
1 ||!
, 1
t {
1 1
' i
' 1
' 1
' !

| On (GREAT Britain)

'

' '

' '

| Zeit (Bourpavoue) —
| |
1
!
'
'

suv the English Channel

49% Report Brut, Assoc: 1579. Plate Vl

Noon Midnight
=
| mA eens a oa
iN DUNKERQUE
Ordnance Datum {Great Britain) _ -\ eel ee
\ Scales
Zé Bourpawove ;
> = Ty Vertical ia |! Inch = 4 Feet Horixontal | Inch = + Hours
\: 00209 = 1 Metre 0.076™ = 12 Hours
Noon
MARCH 137! (3
f MARCH 207
| |! \
I
| \
Zem des Cartes Marines (Chaxvallan | \
Noon Midnight | \
|
\ | \
| | \
\ | \
\ \
| Ordnance Datgim (Great Britain) | Ordnance Ddtium| (Great BRITAIN)
\

\ \
Zéro dw Kiyellement (Bouroaroue) div Nivpllemeyit (Bounvacoue) _\_

MARCH 27?

PARIS
GREENWICH

| fa | | \ |
| \* | | \ |

Léro des Cartes Marines (Chazalton) | | ee

Mustraling tue 2 Report of te Committee on Ue Phenomena ot Stationary Tides av the English Channel

49% Report Brit) Plate VI

i dey 1878.

; Shotttswoode &C°Lith Londo
ve English. Channel,

49% Report Brit. Assoc: 1879
MARCH 20T#
Noon
Wu,
\ MARCH 187" 1878.
Noon Midnight
\ { =
x \
\ | 2 \
\ x| |=
\ ai Zz \
Par ) \
\ ee [
| | ioe / \
| 2 /
\ Ordnanc$ Datum (Grear Britain)
\ Hi op Th =
\ f \
| = ih fdw Nivellement (Bounvavoue) {i
Ordnance Daf (GReat Britain) \ eee
| ie \
{
Zero du Nivellemend (B ) —
_fero du tyellemend _( OURDALOUE) Sa) Se a, ye
\
| \
\ MARCH 2777
| Noon Midhnght
\ | >
| 5 i | \
oO \,
O)-> \.
| z| = \
| & | |
} CSE \ | |
f & \ |
| \ / Ordnance] Datum (Creat Britain) | =
ho = t
\ | \ | \
} \ | N
\ / \ \
/ | = Vidrod fie Nivelierient (AnunpRVoUe) a
= ou Scales f
Vertical tig 4 1 Inch = 4 Feet orixontay | Lineh = 4Houre
00209 =1 Metre —_Hertxontal | 0.076™ = 12 Hours o

Mustrating the 2"* Teeport, of the Committee om the Phenomenu of Statuary Tides in the English Channel

fw AY R E
Plate VIU

20225 18718)

“gt MARCH
Midmght
MARCH 15™ MARCH 2778
f
}
| \
f \
Noon | Noon Midnight
} \ =
|
Ordnance Datu (Great Britain) [ }
} 1 x
| \ oO
| eS
__ her dix Nivellerent \Bourvacoue) a \ Abe:
= = | ar
a | re) o/
Qs o's \
k\'2 } | iz \
a) 2 | <| a
oO = ie \
| = \
}
|
\
\
| Scales
Vertical Vig)! Inelu= 4 Feet Horizontal, |! Inet ~ 4 Hours
\ 0.0209" ) Metre 0.076" ~ 1% Hours

era des Cartes Marines harallon) 0 70 en dessus)

hero de Maregrayhe

nd

Wustrating the 2“ Report of the Committee on the Phenomena of Stationary Tides in the English Channel

"en.

ON THE PHENOMENA OF STATIONARY TIDES IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. 73

Association, and in urging it upon the French Minister of Public Works.
The Committee beg to report that the 10/. granted to it for expenses in
connection with the collection and the reduction of the tidal observations
has been expended.

APPENDIX I.—PROGRAMME OF OBSERVATIONS,

TIDES IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL AND IN THE NORTH SEA.
OBSERVATIONS TO BE TAKEN IN 1878.

J. Observations every quarter of an hour, from Low Water to Low Water.

Tide. Time of H.w. (at Dover).

Feb. 12 5.46 afternoon. } The observations to commence one hour be-
wee Lo 0.31 Fp fore the first L.w. and to finish one hour
26 6.37 FP after the last L.w. of each tide.

March 13 5.23 7 The exact time of H.w. and of L.w. to be
ase 20) 0.2 a noted; the. other observations to be at
ae ae 6.16 rf each exact quarter of an hour (by the

April 11 5.12 ce clock). ;
ee LS 11.35 io Greenwich mean time to be kept through-
Hor 26 bade. J out.

2. Observations as to the times and heights of H.w. and L.W, only.
Tirarts On the morning tides, from 10th to 16th inclusive.

» 9 afternoon ,, eae 8 GE ae “s

Hits. >>) MOTnIn ge way Rs Bi. a LA nA

eu L. >, afternoon ,, » 15 ,, 23 ”

N.B.—At each place the zero of the tide gauge must be connected with the
Datum of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain. The condition of the barometer,
of the direction and force of the wind, to be observed from time to time.

POINTS FOR TIDAL OBSERVATIONS.

Yarmouth. Dungeness, North Sea Canal Boulogne.

Lowestoft. Hastings. Entrance. Tréport.

Harwich. Brighton. Flushing. Dieppe.

Sheerness. Shoreham. Ostend. St. Valery en Caux.
_ Ramsgate. Ventnor. Dunkerque. Fécamp.

Dover. Portland. Calais. Havre.

1879.

REPORT:

74

GS-96
06-41

16-81
§1-96
66-61

§-61
69-86
00-16

83-LT
19-13
19-81
98-06
98-91
02}

peonpery

‘morte irda | eney | "MTS I—|- STi © 9806 | et OL T ‘mdarg =
‘MH 9 F * geg “ | og.gg | ‘MH OL 9 | ‘Wwe gre ‘T10Z | 10-26 | ‘MH L 8 pa OPT Taaels
‘mtg ¢ |-ureorg “ | ast | ‘MT ts T—-| ‘md LIT WIGT | 99-06 | “MT fi2e | ueecl= =
‘EO etl. “ eq © | 0908 | (MH ue ST | “we erIL “ oehes |R OO TT) “ rep %
‘M'T OL @ = = s = om == a
Men g op | md og °° |pnee | MH Cote “orer © "6602 | Ma og PL, “aro *
= = g06 | ‘Mt ¢ o-| ‘wdeo, “ = s= =
‘MH IL 2t| “ seg “ | 2h0¢ | ‘MH &@ GI] woou Oar “ | 17-96 | MH G FT| “ OFS ©
‘MT Q 9 | WBVOTT “ | 90-6 TiNTATEMSE AEG tise sta (Opie ane ate al) OYE IAI off 2 Nava (hoa) 2 (eta
SMeT 08 iT eam oG:On ae aSU Tiel wo. 89: _.€ eo. “| THRGy'| ee Ry Ss iad oar ae
‘mt 6 g | urdesst “ | 9c | MH ¢ 06 | ~dorZl “ | SF8T | “1 g Or] “ gait ©
‘mH g gt| moo “ | 9FIT | “wT 6 ¢ | wece, “ ae ‘WH 9 JT | ‘MeVOsG “
= = Mle wie b= MS Oe 2 = = ==
‘MH T F ope Mi ‘ieee | we 7 Bo jeurdaey © |be.cg: | AH oF fe OU egee
‘wt g g—|udeto ‘Ze | 201 | ‘AT 8 OI-| we o8 “ | FBT | “AT O 6-) “ OFO ®
‘m1 §Z 9g | Ue Sst “WSs | SST | “MT PF & arg ~S Seelie | AOR pete 6) caer
‘mast gt | ‘uwdeso “ | 0083 | ‘MH O gt | ‘mdeesr “ | 09.cg | “MH 9 GT ‘md egg =
‘aT TT 9 |‘ureogir “ | 9ert | ‘wt ¢ T |weoeo “ | egos | MAT Pp 2 | Weer ©
‘mt orer| “. “it “ | sest | ‘wa for or | ‘mdoey “ | zt6r | “M1 8 st} “ aor ©
‘wa ét yt | urd oy “ |egec | aH F LT) “ 2e0r “ | 1390 | ‘wis 21] urdige ®
‘wT 9g FT| mee “ | FO-9T | “MTT9 6 “ ogh 03 | TL1s | “ATS ST | mecge
MANTA Fh “ oror “ | Ist | ‘MT O I-| ‘We Ory SSIS | eo-2T | “MI G T S06 =
me 9 g | wd 67 “ | 98-66 | MH 6 9 apor: “ |se2-66 | “AH Goo | sordiere. <=
‘M'T 9 @ ce yor & | Seer. |-aT OL O—| tad Op = 98-61 | “M1 6 & HOV Bo
‘MH @ f | WeVOGE WZ] 98-16 | MH 6 Y «796 “=| 0-4 | *AMH Teg: | “UM I¢e “Wel
‘a1 6 0 | wdoes ‘a9 | 9871 | ‘MT € T-| "wre 9% I0Z | 9821 | “M1 6 T | wd OL “WHET
“Ur “4F yoo “Ur “IJ 4025 ‘ul “4F
SyYSIOyL our, poonpayy sysop] aur], poonpay S}USIO]T oury,
dean perooumby Sudg peyooumby dea yy Teqooumby

‘VaS HLYON HHL NI GNV

"ACIS HSITON GD

puepytog

\ ‘ + ureqeroyg

* TOARTEMON

. . .

NAO,
* + ayessueyy
* —- ssomLe0yg

YOIMIe TT

4JO}SOMO'T

req qynoure x

uoTyBArsqC
Jo v0v[g

"QI8T ‘LG pus ‘OG ‘SL Gorey WO UoyeY,

TUNNVHO HSIIOND GBHL NI SNOILVAUASAO TVGIL SQOANVITOWIS—T xidNaddy

75

ON THE PHENOMENA OF STATIONARY TIDES IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL.

‘ULVILIG yVoIH JO UINZeT dULUpIO 9} MOTEq 499T OZ
[PAST B GAOGB OOF UL WAALS OI¥ SPYSTOY OY} ,“poonped , popwol| WUIN[OO oY} UT “POTMUMIETH 7B 7LT} St noYSnory} oT oYT,—' ALON

o8-ST
IF-¥3
1&-F1
90ST
1L-9G
10-41
L-FT
F016
06-F1
9L-FT
ST.9%
26-91
92ST
6-46
#o-91
9€-S1
C0-F%
€8-9T
16-91
86-85
PLLI
13-¥G
o-S1
29-81
93-98
9F-81
1B-B%
ST-6T
89-86
00-81

4223

poonpayy

“M'T TL-TT pets) 2 ae
‘WH 1106 | wdgtg
“MT €6-01 “ TS OL WZ
‘A'T 8.0L | Me THO WI8zZ
"MH F9.36 ‘ud 09 73
“MT $8-6 era aa G
"M'T 0G-0L | “We OST ‘T18zZ
"M'H 08:23 “ 0'9 “ee
‘M'T 99.01 | “urd OSI “TILZ
‘MT GG1F | “We cet ‘qI8g
"MH 6E-Eg “ 029 “
‘M1 G6E-6F | ‘wed seer “TIL
‘MT GL-G— | We EPL WS
"MH 68-9 “ 9¢°9 “
"MT 08-T— | ‘wad eget “WI1z
"MT GZ.G me GTS “YI8ZS
"MH ¥6-ST “c Gy a3
"MT G).9 umd gt ‘1g
“MT 18-L ‘me $F'S “YI8ST
‘M'H 18-S[ a OPe cake
"MT 83.6 ‘ud 99'T “e
"MH F0-9T “ec OFL “ec
"MT G0.) ‘me eT “
‘M'19¢-¢— | urdggg “
“M'H 96.7 Se ge"ki S12
"MT 09-8 ‘mre 0Z'9 + ‘NI8Z
"MH Te-2 “ OF'OT “
“MT 6L-F ‘md Ore “c
"MH 29.8 “ee OFS ‘e
“MT FOE me oop “ILS
qooy
S}SIO FT ouIry,

deayy Terooumba

96-F “MT TE-T ‘Ue SFG “4STZ | O8-FT “MT OT-TT OVAL Ce
8E-0€ | ‘MH FL.93 eh Rhee 08-36 | ‘MHOL6T | udoge <“
68:-F “MT GZ.T = eee tS 69-F1 ‘M'TG68-0L | “uecggg “
9L-F ‘MT ZG-0 SwoitOl (Yule wel 06-F1 “MT 99-01 ik 55 th Semen
6E-9§ | ‘M'H 60-ZE STO ellen PLIG | “MH TSO | wdgprp “
68-7 "MT 99'0 ee? Pej SL-F1 “MT 0G.01 “ 8F'OL ‘UIST
86-F "MT 00-0 umd ggg “ 16-81 “MT 89.6 ‘ure 0Z'0 “UIFT
69-16 | ‘M'H OF-§§ oe eG Tires 68-96 | ‘MH G91 | ‘ud gg *
StF "MT 03-0 ‘me éerg “ 98-F1 “MT §9-0T “OG TL WISI
19-¢ ‘MT 81-6 BeOS pipeS 16-E1 ‘MT 8O-1F | “Ue 140 “FT
CFE | “MWHSI-T9 | wdogear “ 10:96 | ‘WH §Z.oG | ‘umderg “
LLG “M'T #6-6§ | ‘egg, 0¢-F1. "MT 19-1F “ OS TT ‘WI8T
18- “MT JT-OT=—| ““ - eg, « FFF ‘M'T19-6€— | “Ue OF.0 “FT
F0-1§ | ‘MH 66-61 | wdeser “ FP-4G | “M'H OF-9 umd gpg = *
GG.) “M'T 09-01—| “me gt, ° “ T8-ST ‘MT §3.6— * 69 IL ‘WISI
09-01 “ML 6F-0 Seen eer $8-F1 “MT GL-F ‘ume OS = “UIFT
08-66 | ‘MHGLGL | wdgprer “ BEF "MH LG-F1 om OG; Ome oe
IL-0 “MT 00-0 SKE (Ge) Ne 19-91 "MT 99-9 Pe) hak Wl
OL-3I "M'L $6.8 GELS be GF-ST “M'T 83'9 CULE Orie
77-86 | “MH 1Z-0¢ | wd ge, 99:36 | ‘M'H O9'FT sre O: Ot an
GGL *M'T G0-¢ scoot () Ped iar os TL-ST “MT FG-L umd go «*
LL-86 | “MH 09:06 | ‘Ue GZO ‘GI0Z | 89-ES | ‘MH GF-GT | ‘me 69 ‘“qIET
68-21 "MT 99-4 “ $2 “Gi6L | &8-FT "MT LT-9 ‘urd SZ TT ‘HST
68:86 | ‘M'H GS-2 imdhome << L8-LT PANG Coils G — map Cle () fe
96-61 "AT F0-8 — “ 028 ‘790G | 06-93 | ‘M'H Z@-¢ ‘u's 089 “TET
FLL “MT 8) We OFO 4STZ | F6-LT "M''T 86-2 “ OFF WIFI
16-86 | “M'H ¢6.8 GSES me 8a-16 "M'H ZE.9 Sst OF. Sim) lene
69-91 “AT §L-T © OSs Tee 86-81 “MT Z0-F ‘tmdogg = *
16-83 | ‘M'H S6.8 SS ml Gea) ean GL-46 "MH LL-6 ‘cae OG Qmamae
G8-8T “MT 98-8 ‘ue OF'O GI0Z | 69-8T "M'T §9.8 ‘we OFS “YIST
yoot qooy yooy yoo}
peonpayy SYSOP oul, paonpayy S}USIOPT awry,

Ssudg peyooumby

4qIg HONAAT

devon peroounbsy

a SS a as | as aaa Sw)

. . .

OAC]

* addorg

4qxodaxy, |

* auso[nog

sTeleg

* onbrexung

* pua}sQ

‘+ Surysnyg

moqivA
899 YVION 4e
qeueg dryg

Wep19}suLy |

WOT}VAIOSGO
jo vor g

76 REPORT—1879.

Report of Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year
1878-79, by a Committee consisting of JamEs GuatsueEr, F.R.S.,
é&c., R. P. Gree, F.G.S., F.R.A.S., C. Brooxs, F.R.S., Professor G.
Forsrs, F.R.S.E., Waiter Frieut, D.Sc., F.G.S., and Professor
A. 8. Herscuer, M.A., P.R.A.S. (Reporter).

THE Committee regrets to record the loss during the past year, by Mr.
Greg’s retirement from active work with the Committee and by Mr.
Brooke’s death, of two most active supporters among its members. By
adding to its list the names of two observers, Mr. HE. J. Lowe and
Professor R. 8. Ball, who have distinguished themselves very greatly by
their contributions to this branch of astronomy, and who have consented
to take part in the Committee’s further operations, it is hoped to repair
the present loss of excellent counsel and assistance which the limited
numbers of the Committee have unexpectedly sustained.

From the loss of Mr. Greg’s assistance, and also to limit the extent
of this year’s Report to an ordinary and reasonable length, it has been
resolved to defer for discussion until a later Report the particulars of
observations of meteor showers, annual and occasional, which have
been received during the past year, and the papers and discourses on the
connections of cometary with meteor-hypotheses that have been published
and circulated during the same time. The expected return of Biela’s comet
to its perihelion in the present year, leading a shower of shooting-stars to be
looked for on November 27 next, with much confidence among astro-
nomers, will afford an occasion next year to return to this subject and to
review together the parallel results obtained in the two successive years
of observations on meteor showers of ordinary and extraordinary oc-
currence ; of the Andromedes in November last, however, nothing was
visible, and very unfavourable weather has generally caused only very
meagre views of the annual star showers of October, December, January,
and April last (and also of the major showers of August in this year and
last) from being seen.

The main Appendices of this Report, following a table of occurrences
of occasional phenomena of fireballs, review the discussions by different
authors of a great number of doubly observed fireballs recorded for a few
years past, describing the results and the views regarding them to which
the authors have been led by their reductions, Of these fireballs con-
Spicuous detonating ones occurred in the United States on August 11
and December 30, 1878, and on January 28 (a.m.), 1879; in Bohemia and
Saxony on January 12, 1879; and in England on February 22 and 24
(a.m.), 1879, the real paths of all of which have, to a greater or less
degree of certainty and closeness, been approximately ascertained.

The pages of a few lists of meteor shower observations and reductions
furnished by Mr. Greg and Mr. Denning are also given in an Appendix.
The rest of the Report consists of the review of recent aérolitic oc-
currences and investigations by Dr. W. Flight. The falls of two aérolites
during the past twelve or fifteen months are described in this review; at
Tieschitz, Moravia, on July 15, 1878 (a single stone), and at Hsterville,
Iowa, U.S., on May 10, 1879. The last of these stonefalls was
of unexampled magnitude, one stone which fell weighing 500 lbs.,
and the other fragments which have been found, together amounting also.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 77

to aconsiderable weight. The historical review of researches on meteorites
during the past year, which this last appendix of the Reports contains, is
also throughout of very particular and valuable interest.

Apprenpix I.
Notes or METEORS AND FIREBALLS DOUBLY OBSERVED.

The following double observations of shooting-stars were obtained by
Mr. Denning and Mr. Corder, during nights of simultaneous watch at
Bristol and Writtle, near Chelmsford, in October and November last.

| Radiant Point of the

D Hour, Place of Appar. Apparent Path projected Paths
Be Approx Observa-| Size as
1878 1g ha Oe
G.M.T. tion per Stars feta re Py neeres
pte hires Bal white, 8 ore
h. m. 2 : ee me 3 o}|, 0 © Near @
; {| Bristol | 5th mag. | 107+13 110+20/) :
Oct. 24 | 12 25 a.m. : 5 ~ | > 98—12 Canis
| Writtle | 2nd mag.| 54423 32435 \J i Majoris
Bristol | 2nd mag. | 133+23 144+25 Near a
Ben Zs | Ie 46 am. { Writtle | 2nd mag. | 131448 141+52 } 86 +6 11 Orionis

aor 18 ane file panying general fireball list.

Bristol Bhi ;
9 50 p.m ! ae descriptions of the meteor in the accom-

Only the resulting radiant-points of the first two of these meteors,
obtained from projections of their apparent paths, have yet been deter-.
mined. The real path of the last meteor, which was a small fireball,
vertical over Brittany, in the western part of France, will be found
described in the accompanying table which exhibits a list of such results,
continued from similar lists in the last three years’ Reports, of meteor
heights, &c., which have been recently determined. The following notes
include remarks and some further observations of these fireballs in
addition to those accounts of them which are given in detail in the
general fireball list of this report.

Path of the meteor of 1868, September 5, 8" 35™ p.m. Berne time
(8" 5™ p.m., G.M.T.), by G. von Niessl.! This large fireball (see these
Reports, vol. for 1869, p. 226) was widely and well observed at many
places in France and Switzerland, and in Germany and Italy; and some
accounts of it have already been submitted to calculation by M. Tissot,?
who places the end-point 192 miles over Mettray, near Tours, in France.
The point of first visibility and nearest approach to the earth of M.
‘Tissot’s track, is 70 miles over Belgrade, in Servia, and the meteor’s
geocentric velocity was 55 miles per second, corresponding to a helio-
centric velocity of 95 miles per second. While horizontal at Belgrade,
this is an ascending course, inclined upwards at an angle of 14° to the
horizon of Mettray, where the meteor disappeared, and these are
results which appear to require more complete demonstration before they
an be finally adopted. Professor Weilermann® also obtained from a

1 Verhandlungen des Naturforschenden Vereins in Briinn, vol. xvii. Excerpt of
16 pp. from the author.

? Comptes Rendus, vol. lxix. p. 326. See these Reports, vol. for 1869, p. 272.

8 Heis’ Wochenschrift fiir Astronomie, vol. for 1869, p. 153.

78 REPORT—1879.

rough apparent end-point of the meteor’s path at Clermont Ferrand, in
France, combined with observations of its course at Ziirich, and at
several other Swiss places, a terminal height of its flight, 102 miles
over Chatillon sur Loire, a position which is to the east of Tours, but
perhaps nearly the real height at which the meteor’s disappearance
actually took place.

Professor von Niessl has discussed a collection of well-recorded
accounts of the meteor, including those used by Tissot and Weilermann
and two described in these Reports (sup. cit.) at Puy de Sancy and
Geneva, and newspaper accounts, with less precise descriptions, preserved
in Continental journals.

As seen at the Ziirich Observatory, and also at a neighbouring place
in Switzerland, the fireball shot overhead, or a little south of the zenith,
from close to Jupiter near the east horizon, to near Arcturus in the west.
At Geneva and Morges, on the Lake of Geneva, it shot on a similar
course close past the star » Urs Majoris, half-way thence to the W.N.W.
horizon. French accounts state that at places in Céte d’Or, and near
Tours, it passed overhead in the latter part of its flight; and that it
was first seen at Trémont (Saone et Loire) rising upwards in the same
field of view with the planet Jupiter, in a telescope. At Puy de Sancy
the end of its course was exactly at @ Urse Majoris. At Mayence, in
Germany, it traversed the head of Capricornus, the Milky Way, and
Ophiuchus to near the S.W. horizon under a Serpentis. Its course as
seen at Bergamo, in Italy, by Zezioli, was from 17°+3° (5° or 6° left of
Jupiter) to a point between Coma and Arcturus at 202°+4+27°, the
duration of its flight, as there observed, along this long path, being 17
seconds. These were all the positions noted by the stars exactly
enough to be available for calculation.

The observations of the end-point give a height of 115 miles (imper-
fectly defined between 70 and 140 miles) over a point very clearly
indicated near Vend6me, about 30 miles N.N.H. from Tours. Using the
point so found to complete the Mayence observation, and projecting that
and the other apparent paths by their most carefully recorded points,
Professor von Niessl found as a well-defined place of the radiant-point a
position at 13°-9—2°, about 6° south of Jupiter’s apparent place.

The fact that several views of the meteor’s first visibility in France,
Switzerland, and Italy all describe it as having first made its appearance
very close to the planet Jupiter, plainly indicates a very long course of
the meteor’s flight before it approached the region of the Alps. Upona
map the course passes backwards about 20 miles north of Belgrade
towards the south coast of the Black Sea, and at a point 460 miles above
a point near this latter coast, a little west of Sinope, the lines of sight of
the meteor’s first appearance at Ziirich, Morges, and Bergamo intersect
each other. But the parallax which even the base-line of Zirich and
Bergamo (two places 130 English miles apart) offer of this point, is
scarcely more than 5°. ‘To assume it to be truly the exact place of the
meteor’s first appearance, would, it might certainly be contended, be
reposing too much confidence in observers’ first impressions of the earliest
point of this long-flighted and rarely splendid meteor’s apparition, in a
part of its course too, where their descriptions, if accurate, should
necessarily have represented the meteor as appearing to them to remain
nearly stationary for several seconds.

If, with M. Tissot, we suppose the meteor to have first made its

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 79

appearance over the neighbourhood of Belgrade, its height at that point,
on the course assigned to it by Professor von Niessl, would be 260 miles,
and the total length of its nearly horizontal course was close upon 1200
miles! From the above point of geometrical intersection of the lines of
sight, however, the entire length of course is about 1780 miles.

Professor von Niessl observes that a more southern track, with the
same radiant-point, but with a lower termination, 104 miles over Ozaine,
near Tours, passing backwards over Belgrade, and thus within 8 or 10
miles of the long course assigned to it by M. Tissot, agrees rather better
than the calculated one with the general descriptions. The observer’s
view (Mr. B. F'. Smith’s) at Puy de Sancy, of the end of the meteor’s
course, ‘exactly at ( Urs Majoris,’! gives an end-height, it should be
noticed, over Tours, of only 70 miles. But even with this minimum
elevation, and with heights over the neighbourhood of Ziirich, 400 miles
from the place of extinction, variously given by observations as between
105 and 150 miles, the height over Belgrade, if we assume the meteor’s
course to have been rectilinear, and to have begun so soon, cannot have
been less than 220 miles.

Performed in 17 seconds (the time of flight observed at Bergamo by
Zezioli), the course of 1200 miles from Belgrade implied a velocity of 70
miles per second. Four other observed durations varied from 12 seconds
at Clermont Ferrand to two minutes at Ziirich, and the average dura-
tion from the five accounts, of 42 seconds, gives with the same course a
velocity of 29 miles per second. Some 30 or 80 miles of the course
(‘20° or 30°’) were again described by Mr. HE. Jones as the meteor’s rate
of motion ‘ per second’ at Geneva; and about 120 miles of the terminal
part were observed at Puy de Sancy to be traversed in 4 or 5 seconds, -
giving a velocity of 25 or 30 miles per second. The parabolic speed of
a meteor having the same radiant-point as that which Professor von
Niessl has obtained of this large fireball would be 26 miles per second.
But the evidence relating to the meteor’s real velocity is scarcely certain
enough to allow it to be made a subject of useful speculation in compari-
son with any theoretical parabolic or other orbital velocity.

Tt seems probable from this discussion that the fireball passed in the
brightest part of its course from about 130 miles over the Lake of Ziirich
to not much less than 100 miles over the neighbourhood of Tours,
crossing the Jura range, and the Swiss and French plains near it at a
great height for a distance of 400 miles. An equal distance at least, if
not a still larger one, was traversed by the meteor along the valley of the
Drave, from a height of little less than 250 miles, near, or in the direction
of Belgrade, before crossing the range of Tyrolese Alps about that river’s
source, and entering Switzerland near the Brenner pass. Professor von
Niessl confines himself to presenting the much more startling results
obtained directly from exact comparisons of the most precise descriptions ;
and by clearly deducing the radiant-point, and fully establishing the
meteor’s great height, he, in the main, confirms M. Tissot’s track, while
yet showing that it was almost exactly horizontal at Tours, where the
meteor disappeared, instead of at its first origin at Belgrade, as M. Tissot
had supposed.

1873, December 24, 74 39™ p.m. (Washington Mean Time). Deto-
nating fireball—A Committee of the Philosophical Society of Washington

? This star is supposed by Professor von Niessl to have perhaps been accidentally
mistaken for the upper one, a of the two ‘ pointers’ in Ursa Major.

80 REPORT—1879.

was appointed immediately after the occurrence of this unusually large
fireball to collect accounts of its appearance, and to submit them to a
scientific discussion. Professor Cleveland Abbe, the Secretary of the
Committee, describes in this Report! the delay which arose in its publi-
cation from the conflicting nature of the particulars furnished by observers
of the meteor in the different accounts, together with a hope thata search
conducted near the point of disruption of the meteor which these accounts
had fairly established by the enquiries during the year 1874, might be
rewarded by the discovery of some fragments of its substance. But this
hope not having during the following three years been realised, the
Report containing the observations and some results of their comparison
together has no longer been withheld.

The fireball passed from about N.E. to S.W. nearly over Washington,
with an intense illumination of the streets and houses of the town
to a point so near the horizon (not more than 5° altitude), as in general
to have been lost sight of behind buildings while still continumg its
course. Professor Holden observed the terminal point at the U.S. Naval
Observatory at altitude 4°45’, 22° S. from W. Accounts of its first
appearance at Washington are much less certain and precise. Professors
Newton, Hilgard, and Baird heard the explosion indoors at an interval
after the light-flash which they noted variously as 15-3 minutes,
corresponding to a distance of the meteor’s track, at its nearest point, of
18 to 36 miles from Washington. The explosion was a ‘bang’ or loud
report, shaking doors, windows, and the earth, followed for 20° or 30° by
a roar or rustling sound which died gradually away. Professor Abbe
explains (in the manner theoretically investigated by Eotvos, Pog-
gendorff’s ‘Annals,’ 1874, clii., p. 513) that the sudden clap of a
meteoric detonation is probably not caused by the final disruption, but
by the combined impulse of all the sound-waves reaching an observer's
station from the long tract of the meteor’s roaring passage through the
air which is nearest to him, and from which all the sound reaches him
almost simultaneously, while a prolonged roll, like echoes of the first
sound, is afterwards heard from more distant portions of the meteor’s
track.

Accounts at Centreville and other places in Fairfax County, 30 or 40
miles W. a little S. from Washington, that the final explosion there was
nearly overhead, approximately fix the meteor’s end-point, which must,
if not more distant from Washington, have been at the low height of not
more than two or three miles above the earth to satisfy the observed
altitude at Washington of its final disappearance. It seems more probable,
as Professor Chickering has endeavoured to show from more distant observa-
tions, that the meteor’s flight was continued considerably beyond Fairfax
County, and that its final height (estimated at 20 miles by Professor
Chickering) was not less than 10 miles over a point some 60 or 70 miles
from Washington. The height and position of the remainder of the course
are somewhat variously defined by a great number of distant observations
at Danbury, Conn. (250 miles N.E. from Washington), at Newark,
Delaware, where its commencement was nearly overhead, at_ Westminster,
Mercersburgh, Baltimore, and other towns in Maryland, and at Richmond
and Appomatox Court House in Virginia. The slope of its path in the

1 By a Committee consisting of Hon. Peter Parker, W. L. Nicholson, and Cleveland

Abbe, ‘ Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington,’ vol. ii. p. 139; April 7,
1877. -Excerpt of 22 pp., with a map by W. L. Nicholson ; from the authors,

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 81

northern sky at the two last, southern stations, and observations in
northern stations at a distance from its track, combined with the localities
over which its course seems to have passed nearly vertically, determine
approximately the initial height along this course, and the direction and
slope of the real path by which the fireball approached the earth. This is
regarded in the Report as descending from about alt. 253°, 30° N. from E.
(as measured from the map of the American States, and of the meteor’s
projected path, appended to it), from a height of about 90 miles over the
northern point of Delaware State, in Newcastle County, to the low point
of disappearance which it reached near Fairfax County. The celestial
position of the corresponding radiant-point is at 115°+38°.

The observation most at variance with this deduction is that at
Richmond, where the apparent downward slope of the meteor’s path at
disappearance was but 11° from horizontal, corresponding to a much
slighter real gradient of the meteor’s path than 254°, and to a height of
only 42 instead of 90 miles above Newcastle County at its first appearance.
A fair compromise between this and the Washington and other observa-
tions of the early part of the meteor’s course would be effected if its
downward flight to the extinction point is regarded as having reached it
from a slightly modified direction at alt, 16°, 18° N. from E. instead
of alt. 254°, 30° N. from E.; and of this new provisional direction the
corresponding celestial radiant-point is 116°+4 24°, instead of 115°+38°.
A certain range denoted by the position 113°(+3°),+32°(+6°) may
perhaps be indicated as the bounding limits within which a direction of
the meteor’s flight may be considered to satisfy fairly the majority of the
observations. This is not so far distant from Mr. Denning’s observed
position of a ‘ Geminid’ radiant-point on December 31, 1872 (D. 1872- -
76, 27; at 108°+36°), as to make it improbable that this grand detonating
fireball was a surpassingly large member of an already well-recognised
and established system of December shooting-stars.

1878, April 2, 78 53™ p.m. Detonating fireball, Blackheath, Birming-
ham, and Leicester.—The real path assigned to this meteor in last year’s
Report ! admits of some small corrections by comparison with an addi-
tional observation of the meteor (described in the present fireball list) by
Mr. Christie at Blackheath, which was last year communicated to the
Committee by Major Tupman. No very material alteration of the real
course is, however, so produced, as Mr. Christie’s observation is in
extremely close agreement with those of the observers at Birmingham
and Leicester. The radiant-point is given by approximate intersections
of the three recorded tracks only three degrees from its former place ; but
a rather later commencement was observed at Blackheath than at
Birmingham and Leicester, and the time of flight, though not noted
carefully at Blackheath, was thought to be about one or two seconds only,
instead of five or six seconds for its slow passage at Birmingham. The
point of first appearance is lowered by the new observation, and lies
somewhat nearer to Leicester.2 The length of path corresponding to

1 These Reports, vol. for 1878, p. 303.

? An erratum, caused by typographical indistinctness in a map, was corrected on
the first page of the last year’s Volume of these Reports, by a slight removal of the
meteor’s calculated place of first appearance, and a mistaken alteration of the
town’s name to Buckingham. The town really intended was Rockingham, on the
borders of Leicestershire and Northamptonshire, about 20 miles E.S.E.from Leicester,
over which the point of first appearance was supposed to lie, The adopted place of

G

1879,

82 REPORT—1879.

it is therefore shortened, but the average time of flight observed at
Birmingham and Blackheath, being at the same time less than that
observed at Birmingham alone, the calculated real velocity still remains
about 12 or 15 miles per second, which very nearly agrees with the
parabolic speed, about 13 miles per second, of a meteor from the actual
radiant-point. The position of this point is at 177°+49°, and Heis’
shower-apex, M, for April 1-15 is at 180°+449°, so close to the observed
position that another example is afforded by this double observation, of a
detonating fireball proceeding from a known centre of divergence of
ordinary shooting-stars.

1878, August 11, 10 10™ p.m. (Indianapolis time) ; West Virginia
and Pennsylvania, U.S.—Descriptions of this meteor at three points in
the central part of the United States, collected by Professor Kirkwood,
enabled him to deduce approximately its real course. At Bloomington,
Ind., it shot northwards some 20° in the east with a track slightly
declining downwards from alt. 10° at first appearance in the east.
By a rough estimate the time of flight scarcely exceeded two seconds. At
Titusville, Pa., in that direction, near the point of concourse of the
three States of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Ohio, the meteors shot
northwards in the west, lighting up the country more strongly than the
full moon, with a greenish light, bursting at last into one large, and
two red fragments, and giving rise to a report like thunder heard at an
interval after the fireball’s disruption corresponding to a distance from
Titusville of 25 miles. The meteor also moved from south to north over
Oil city, Venango County, Pa., a meridian through the western boundary
of which county must have been the projected direction of its course upon
amap. This real course is 348 miles east from Bloomington, so that the
meteor’s probable elevation at first appearance was about 77 miles over
the northern part of West Virginia, and 160 or 175 miles from the place
of final disruption of the fireball into fragments west of Titusville. The
duration there of its illumination was ‘momentary,’ so that the only
recorded estimates of its time of flight seem to denote a real velocity
much greater than would correspond to original motion of the fireball in
a parabolic orbit. The radiant point of the adopted real path is about at
292°-31°; but if (as is quite possible) the real path’s geographical pro-
jection was considerably inclined to the meridian, its radiant was then
at some point of a great circle of the heavens passing through this
adopted place and through a point on the equator at about R.A. 10°.

1878, November 18, 92 50™ p.m.—Besides the determination of this
small fireball’s real course (seen by Mr. Corder and Mr. Denning at
Writtle and at Bristol) by Professor Herschel, in the ‘ Observatory,’ !
where the original observations of its appearance are given as described
in the accompanying fireball list by Mr. Denning, the real height and
position of its course were independently calculated by Major Tupman
with results which were not at very great variance with those already
published. The height, position, and extent of the fireball’s real path
have now been reinvestigated by Major Tupman and Professor Herschel
on the assumption that the short arc which it appeared at Bristol to
describe, was but the end-part of a much longer flight, the whole visible
extent of which was equally well seen and mapped at, Writtle by
origin of the meteor’s course is now 15 miles west from Rockingham, and nearer

Coyentry, over a point about 10 miles due south from Leicester.
1 Vol, ii. (1878-79), p. 306,

:

|

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 83

'Mr. Corder. No observation of the time of flight was recorded from
which the real velocity might have been determined; but the real

direction of the meteor’s course is found to be so exactly conformable to a
centre of divergence of a meteor shower detected by Mr. Denning on
the nights of December 1—2, 1877 (including a bright fireball from
$34°—11° to 322°—184°), that a connection of the fireball with this
newly discovered November-December meteor system may be pretty
certainly concluded.

1877, December 9, 85 12™ p.m. Meteor as bright as Jupiter observed
in Kent and Essex, and at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.—The path
of this bright meteor has been computed from the data of its appearance
at Writtle and Bromley given in last year’s report, with the addition
to them of observations of the meteor in London, and at the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich, now added in the present fireball list. Mr.
Corder’s opinion that the meteor belonged to a system of bright streak-
leaving, long-pathed meteors diverging on the same night from the
direction of a companion radiant of the ‘Geminid’ shower, near t
Geminorum, is exactly confirmed by the combined projection of all the
observations; and a satisfactory agreement is at the same time found
among them for determining the height and locality, and the real velocity
of the meteor’s flight. These results Major Tupman has deduced with
the new materials of the Greenwich and London observations which he
supplied, among other reductions of double observations of large meteors
which he obtained last year, and he obligingly communicated them to the
Committee as they are briefly represented in the present Table.

1878, December 30, 65 55™ p.m. (Indianapolis Time) ; Ohio, Indiana, |
and Pennsylvania, U.S.—This is another bright fireball of which Pro-
fessor Kirkwood has collected and discussed some observations (see the
accompanying general meteor list, and the fireball of August 11, 1878,
above), in the Paper on Large Fireballs of the years 1878-79, which he
communicated in May last to the American Philosophical Society. By a
description at Washington, Pa., the attention of an observer walking
eastwards was arrested by a sudden light like that of an additional street
lamp lighted close behind him. Turning after a little time to that direction,
he saw a meteor about half the full moon’s apparent diameter (which was
then shining brightly, but behind houses) falling in the W.N.W., large
and brilliant, and of a slight greenish colour. After coursing about 24°
(from near a Cygni to near a Lyre, by a later visit with Professor
M‘Adam, of Washington and Jefferson College, to the same place) it
changed its colour to a reddish tint and disappeared. It was seen at
Anderson, Indiana, about 270 miles due west from Washington, Pa.,

“commencing due east, at an altitude of between 15° and 17°, and imme-
diately disappearing behind houses.

The description at Wooster, Ohio (which is given in the accom-

' panying meteor-list) assigned very exact positions of both the points of

appearance and disappearance of the course. Combined with the account
at Washington, Pa., it gives the end-height and position of the meteor
over a point (in Tuscarawas County, Ohio) 70 miles distant W. by N. from

_ the latter station, while the point of commencement is found, by com-
bining the account at Anderson, Ind., with that at Wooster, Ohio, to

- have been 72 miles over Columbiana County, Ohio, lat. 40° 50’ N., long.
. 3° 40’ W. from Washington. The whole length of the track seen at

Washington, Pa., was about 85 miles, descending with a slope of 45° from
G 2

84 REPORT—1879.

a direction nearly due N.E, towards S.W. This corresponds at the time
and place of the meteor’s disappearance to a celestial position of the
radiant point at 174°+456°, near y Urse Majoris. Of its real speed of
motion exact enough observations of the fireball’s time of flight were not
obtained to afford a satisfactory determination. From the nearest point
of view at Wooster, Ohio, a disruption of the nucleus was seen about 20°
along its course before its point of disappearance, of which no mention
is made in the account at Washington (much further from the real
track), so that the fragments into which the meteor then broke appear
to have been unseen (as was also the case in distant observations of the
large fireball of August 11, 1878) at the more distant station. The final
height determined is that of the disruption seen at Wooster, and it seems.
probable that the fragments pursued their course and penetrated while
in sight to a still closer proximity than that deduced above of 17 or 18
miles, to the surface of the earth.

1879, January 12, 75 25™ and 7> 32™ p.m., Berlin time; large fire-
balls, the first detonating, seen in Bohemia and Saxony.—Of these two.
fireballs, which appeared within a few minutes of each other, Professor yon
Niessl collected a large number of accounts sufficiently exact and definite
in their descriptions, in spite of cloudy skies on the date of their appearance,
to enable him to assign their real courses with precision.' The two
meteors pursued real courses over the middle of Bohemia, nearly at right
angles to each other, the first extremely large and detonating, the second
a much smaller meteor, but also casting a strong light. It was hence
simply observed in some of the locally described accounts that the par-
ticulars furnished by various observers were too contradictory and op-
posed to each other to be worth recording in detail; the detonation of
the first meteor seems also to have been sometimes ascribed to the second
one, with whose appearance, at some places, it must have occurred almost
simultaneously. But both meteors were well seen and described by at
least one single observer (the railway station-master at Neucunnersdorf),
and exact descriptions, at other places, of the two meteors present no.
confusion, and could in general be easily distinguished and separated
from each other.

The nucleus of the first meteor, as seen from a distance, was globular,
resembling the moon’s disc in apparent size (and perhaps also in colour,
which was not noted), followed by a thin tail, and bursting at last into
sparks, while a portion pursued its career and was visible for a short
distance further. It cast a light as strong as that of a moonlight night
over the greater part of Bohemia, and as bright as daylight in the streets.
of Prague. The sound of its explosion in that city was like a sudden
thunderclap, of 3-20 seconds duration, heard in a minute and a half after
the meteor’s disappearance, shaking doors and windows, and rattling
together objects placed on shelves and tables, and even according to one
description at Rostock, near Prague, breaking window-panes. The time-
interval of the sound probably corresponds to a distance (about 18 miles)
of the nearest point of the meteor’s track from Prague, rather than to
that (about 27 miles) of its end-point from the town.

The fireball ended its course at a height of only 9 miles, nearly over
Rakonitz, due west of Prague, where it seems to have arrived by a flight
of somewhat uncertainly determined length from the direction of a

) Sttzungsberichte of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna, vol. 79, May 8,
1879. Excerpt of 22 pages, from the author.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 85

radiant-point whose celestial position was at 133°+19°, and whose ap-
parent place for the horizon of Rakonitz at the time of the meteor’s
apparition was about E.N.E. alt. 14°.!_ Mr. Denning’s January shower
of ‘ Cancrids’ (December 21-January 5, 130°+20°), and the comet of
1680 (December 26, 132°+21°5°),? together with the fireball of January
19, 1877, seen in England, Wales, and Ireland,’ all present radiant-
points with which this new detonating fireball’s real point of departure
was thus found to be nearly concentric in position.

Although doubtless visible (as some of the descriptions show) at a
much earlier period of its flight, the first point at which the fireball’s
course was well observed, and for which the time of flight was also noted,
was at a height of 41 miles above the earth’s surface, 125 miles from the
end-point of its track. This distance it traversed in 5 seconds; and
shorter lengths of the latter part of its flight were seen to be traversed,
by five other observers, in times varying from 23 to 5 seconds. The
meteor’s mean velocity at last, from all these estimates, was 17 miles per
second; while that of the fireball of January 19, 1877 (scarcely so
well determined) was not less than 35 miles per second. The parabolic
speed of meteors from this radiant-point is 23 miles per second, which is
intermediate between these two observed velocities.

The near approach of this fireball’s luminous track to the earth’s
surface is a rare and remarkable feature of the above described results of
its appearance, andit is very certainly determined. The depth to which the
igneous mass of the meteor penetrated the atmosphere accounts at once,
as Professor von Niessl conjectures, for the violence of the explosion, and
for the moderate velocity with which it appears at last to have been tra-
versing theair. The same condition of unusually deep penetration he con-
siders may also have occasioned the remarkably slow’relative velocity of the -
fireball of November 27, 1877, whose end-height Major Tupman found to
be only 14 miles, and whose velocity relative to the earth he showed not
to have exceeded 5 miles per second, answering in the visible part of that
fireball’s flight to a very short elliptic, and nearly circular orbit round
the sun.

It may be noticed here that a remarkable resemblance of the latter
fireball’s real orbit to that of Biela’s comet was pointed out by Mr. Hind,
of which the following particulars, here transcribed in full, appeared in
* Nature,’ vol. xix. p. 484, March 27, 1879.

‘Captain Tupman thinks the radiant-point was pretty accurately
determined in R.A. 285°, Decl.+64°, or in longitude 340°, and lati-
tude +83°. The elements of the real orbit which, with the aid of the
other corresponding data depending upon the earth’s position in her

1 With the omission of one discordant estimate, at Prague, of the meteor’s appa-
rent slope of path, a better defined position of the radiant-point, at 132° + 21°, would
be obtained, Professor yon Niessl shows, presenting an even closer agreement than
the adopted place with the above-quoted radiant-points.

2 See a note of this accordance of the comet with Denning’s meteor shower in
these Reports, vol. for 1877, p. 167.

$ These Reports, vol. for 1877, pp. 118, 153; and vol. for 1878, p. 267 (where the
shower D8, 1877, is erroneously indicated as the ‘ Cancrid’ system, with which the
fireball’s radiant-point appears to have been concentric). Professor von Niessl has
also re-computed the real path of the fireball of January 19, 1877, from its descrip-
tions ; and has obtained a position of its radiant-point at 135°°5 + 22°, instead of at
135° + 27° ( + 6°), the place assigned to it in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society, vol. xxviii. p. 228, and xxxix. p. 281, and in the place here quoted,
where its real path was first investigated, in these Reports.

86 REPORT—1879.

orbit are thence deduced, are as follows, taking the real duration as
fifteen seconds. (The elements of the orbit of Biela’s comet at its last
appearance in 1852 are added in a contiguous column for comparison.)

Fireball of Nov. 27, 1877. Biela’s comet (orbit in 1852).

Perihelion distance . 5 : ; 09858 0°8606
Longitude of perihelion . : : 70° 6! 109° 8!

> of ascending node . - 245 50 245 52
Semiaxis major. : : ; 11691
Eccentricity . : - : - 01568 0°75625
Inclination ; : 4 : - 15° 0! 12° 33’
Anomaly . : : = : : —4 16 4
Periodic time . : F : - 462 days
Motion . : 5 ; : “ direct direct

‘The precise Greenwich time of the occurrence of the meteor was
10 26”.

‘ If the duration of visibility is diminished to 74 seconds, the elements
are still very similar to the above, the semiaxis major becomes 1°3785,
and the period 591 days. Captain Tupman remarking that such favour-
able conditions for inferring the orbit of a meteor very rarely happen,
adds, it is sufficient for the establishment of a short periodic time (such
as 500 days) that “‘ the meteor moved slowly from a@ fairly well-deter-
mined radiant distant about 90° from the point of the heavens towards
which the earth’s motion was directed.”

‘ We may mention that there is one singular circumstance not alluded
to in Captain Tupman’s note: the elements defining the position of the
orbit of the meteor have a striking general resemblance to those of the
orbit of Biela’s comet, in the descending node of which body the earth
was precisely situated at the time.’

With sufficient allowances for possible perturbations and retardations
of its course by earlier encounters with the earth, it seems extremely
probable that the calculated real orbit of this remarkable and unusual
fireball may not be irreconcilable with its original derivation from the
Biela meteor stream.

The observations of the second fireball of January 12 last, in Bohemia,
all described a meteor moving nearly from S. to N., with a large disc of
bluish-white light casting a strong illumination like that of moonlight
on all objects. Hxact particulars of its direction were obtained from eight
stations near Salzburg, in the south, to Zittau, on the Bohemian frontier
of Saxony in the north, showing that its real path instead of crossing the
middle of Bohemia, as that of the first did, almost horizontally from east
to west, traversed the western part of Bohemia with a rather steeper descent
from south to north, crossing the northern frontier of the country at last
into Saxony. It terminated here at a probable height of about 23 miles
over Grossenhain, a point at a little distance N.N.W. from Dresden, where
it arrived by a flight of 130 miles, descending from alt. 28°, 9° HE. from
8. ata height of about 78 miles over the neighbourhood of Pibram in
the south-western part of Bohemia. At a height of about 40 miles, near
its passage across the Saxon and Bohemian frontier, the nucleus divided
or was partly extinguished at its maximum, a much smaller luminous
body only pursuing the same course farther to the point of disappearance.
No sound of this explosion or of any other disruptions along its course
appear to have reached observers who were most favourably situated by
their closeness to the lowest and most brilliant portions of its flight for.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 87

hearing them; but several notes of rumbling sounds heard simulta-
neously with the meteor’s passage appear to be referable to the distant
detonation of the earlier meteor. The real velocity, as far as it can be
gathered, from only two observed durations of limited portions of the
track near its termination was (from each of these) about 125 miles per

‘second. This is exactly the parabolic speed of meteors from the same

radiant-point, the celestial position of which, as obtained from the fore-
going discussion of the meteor’s real course, was at 52°—10° (+5°).

Professor von Niessl points out the coincidence of the resulting radiant
with that of the fireball of January 7, 1877, observed at Birmingham
and in London, of which he finds the radiant-point from the observations
to have been about 48°—11°, instead of the place assigned to it by
similar projections in these Reports (vol. for 1877, p. 185), at about
58°(+8°)—14°. But the position of both of these fireballs appears yet
to be in very close agreement with the centre of the January ‘ Hridanid ’
shower which Mr. Denning found on January 4-20, 1877 (D. 2, 1877)
to be situated very close to y Hridani, at 57°—12°.

1879, January 28, 24 28" am. (local time); Michigan and Wis-
consin, U.S. A detonating fireball—Local newspapers in these States
teemed with eloquent descriptions of the fiery scene and crashing ex-
plosion which attended this fireball’s appearance in the middle of the
night. But among them Professor Kirkwood was able to collect only a
few accurate and detailed descriptions of its apparent course. A night
watchman in Traverse City, Michigan, furnished Mr. T. Bates, the editor
of the ‘Herald’ of that city, with the following statement :—

‘ Was on watch, passing from due west to east; saw a great light ;
turned quickly, and saw a ball of fire over my right shoulder ; turned to
left and watched it until it disappeared; when first seen it appeared
about as high as ordinary rain-clouds; appeared to me larger than full
moon ; full moon looks to me to be 18 or 20 inches in diameter; meteor
appeared to pass me, and move out of sight at about the’rate of speed a
descending rocket has after its explosion; had a good chance to see it
plainly ; just after passing me a singular thing occurred; a ring of fire
seemed to peel off the meteor itself, and this followed the ball of fire out
of sight, but dropped a little behind it; it was perfectly distinct, and
appeared to be hollow, for I could see a dark centre. Everything was as
lightas day. I looked at my watch as it disappeared ; it was just 28
minutes after 2 o’clock. I passed on my beat, and shortly the terrific
explosion came. It shook and jarred everything around. I immediately
looked at my watch, and it was 32 minutes after 2.’

Seeing it, when facing east, appear over his right shoulder at no ex-
treme altitude, and pass before him to his left-hand side, this observer
must have watched the fireball travel before and east of him at some

_ considerable altitude on a course directed nearly from S,W. to N.H. At

Charlevoix, Michigan, about 35 miles N.E. by H. from Traverse City,
the fireball, in fact, burst overhead. It appeared four times as large
as the full moon, with an intensity of brightness surpassing that of sun-
shine, and its explosion, which followed at a very brief interval, resembled
that of musketry. Its direction was nearly from S.W. to N.E. About as
much further in the same direction, at Cheboygan, Michigan, the light
was seen within doors, casting shadows as it approached from 8.W. until
it disappeared. Its greatest (and apparently first) altitude (?), estimated
by the positions of the shadows, was found to be about 45°. No sound of

88 REPORT—1879.

an explosion was audible at this place (near, but in advance of the meteor’s
termination), which seems to be confirmatory of the view, elsewhere ex-
pounded, that the sudden concussion of a meteor-clap is not the conse-
quence of a disruption, but a cumulative sound, or combined acoustic
effect, at places near to and on one side of the meteor’s course, of the
sound produced, and reaching an observer simultaneously from long tracts
of its fiery passage through the air.! Regarding the meteor’s course
(apparently, from Mr, Walton’s description, indoors, of the moving light
and shadows, at Cheboygan) as a steeply descending one, Professor
Kirkwood is led, roughly, to the following general conclusions :—The
fireball first came in sight nearly 100 miles over a point about 30 miles
S.W. of Great Traverse City (at lat. 44° 25’, long. 9° W.), and it disap-
peared about 26 miles above a point about 42 miles N.H. by eastwards
from that town. The whole visible track was 124 miles, and its projection
on the earth’s surface 66 miles in length from a direction 8.W. by S.
towards N.E. by N. Of the time of flight, which was described as several
seconds, and of the real velocity, except that the observations indicate a
rather slow motion, nothing very definite can be affirmed.

The altitude of the radiant-point appears from this description to have
been about 55°, and from the course, 334° W. of S., from which it was
directed, the meteor’s radiant-point may be assigned provisionally at about
142° + 14°; but this cannot evidently be regarded as an exact determina-
tion. It is close to the border-line dividing Leo from the constellation
Cancer, and a suspicion may perhaps be entertained that, like the fireballs
above described, of January 12, 1879, and January 19, 1877, this imposing
aérolitic meteor of January 27-8, 1879, may have been a conspicuous
member of one of the ‘ Cancrid’ meteor systems which have been recog-
nised as discernible in December, January, and February, and as apparently
concentric in the first and last of those months with the hypothetical
radiant-points of the comets of 1680 and 1833.

1879, February 22,122 20" a.m. Detonating meteor; Essex.—Ac-
cording to the descriptions at Haverhill and Saffron Walden, two towns
scarcely ten miles apart east and west of each other, on the northern con-
fines of Essex, that the meteor passed from south to north between them
with a prodigious light and a report like thunder, audible in 20-45 seconds,
going east of the zenith to an end-point in N.E. at Saffron Walden, and
going overhead and down to N.W. at Haverhill, as the height above these
towns corresponding to the sound interval is only six or eight miles, the
meteor’s track, at its close near them, cannot have extended many miles
northward of their position into Cambridgeshire. A height of five or six
miles nearly vertically over Newmarket, about eight or ten miles north of
Haverhill, must be the utmost height and distance northward from that
town at which the final disappearance of the fireball can be supposed to
have occurred, if the time interval at the former place and at Saffron

} The example of the detonating fireball of April 2, 1878, seems to be a parallel
one to the case of the present meteor. The sound of its extinction and nearest
approach to the earth, about 25 miles from Birmingham, towards which town its
course was nearly directed, was not perceived there, although at the greater distance
(about 30-35 miles) at which the meteor passed, when nearest, by the town of
Leicester, a sound like thunder, attributed to the meteor, was heard at that place by
Mr. F. T. Mott. The observer at Galashiels on May 12, 1878, also heard a peal of
thunder, apparently proceeding from the fireball of that date, no sound of which was
heard in Edinburgh or Bathgate, nearly over which towns the meteor disappeared.
See the last volume of these Reports, for 1878, pp. 305, 306.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 89

Walden can be regarded as carefully observed.! But the statement at
Bury St. Edmonds, 15 miles due east of Newmarket, that the meteor
‘was seen in the west moving slowly downwards like a ball of fire falling
to the earth,’ while it cannot be strictly interpreted as a vertical descent,
since the meteor reached that neighbourhood from vertically over Brent-
wood, in the south, yet points to Newmarket, 15 miles due west of Bury,
as about the extreme point which the meteor perhaps reached, northwards,
in its descending route. It ‘ passed overhead ’ at Brentwood, ‘ from S.S.W.
to N.N.E.,’ a place of observation which is about 40 miles dwe south from
Newmarket, and 20 miles E.N.H. from London; and at Godalming, 30
miles 8.W. from London, it lighted the interior of a room facing south so
strongly, that a real path of the meteor towards Newmarket passing nearly
over or but little east of London, and descending with a sensible inclina-
tion, appears necessary to satisfy these several observations, and it accounts
perfectly for the description given of its course at Bury, that it appeared
‘ descending slowly like a fireball falling to the earth.’ The line of flight in
this course probably extended from about 75 miles over the neighbourhood
of Redhill to five miles over a point two or three miles south or east from
Newmarket, passing over Greenwich, and ata height of 40 miles over a
point 10 miles west from Brentwood. Its slope is from alt. 45°, 20° W.
from south; and its length (for which no exact limits can be stated) was
about 110 miles. It yet seems possible that the Bury and Brentwood
observations may be satisfied by a rather lower line of flight than this, if
the disappearance was only five or six miles high five or six miles north of
Haverhill, which is not at all impossible. With such small admissible
adjustments of the end-point, a great variety of initial points and of slopes
and directions of the real course might be selected which would not at all.
conflict with the exceedingly distinct but yet not accurate and precise
descriptions of the apparent track at Bury and at Brentwood. Heights
of 50-75 miles at commencement over any point between Godstone or
Reigate and Dorking or Guildford in Surrey, combined with a proper
end-point, would thus answer the imposed conditions, presenting various
slopes of path from altitudes of 35°-45°, and from directions between 15°
and 30° W. of south. These paths pass at heights of 30 to 40 miles over
points not more than 10-15 miles west from Brentwood, and might all
there be perfectly described as passing ‘overhead.’ They would all
occupy the south-western sky at Bury, ending due west, or but little south
of west, and might there be described as ‘in the west;’ and lastly, their
apparent slope in the sky, towards disappearance, would never be less
than 45° or 50°, so as to admit fairly of the description there, that the
meteor appeared ‘ falling towards the earth.’ That the meteor’s slope of
path was much greater than 45° appears scarcely probable, as the long
extent and duration of the full splendour of its flight, generally attested
by the observations, would not be very easily accounted for by a real path
whose slope was much greater than this, or whose grade at the utmost
materially exceeded 50°. The limits above adopted as extreme possible
positions of the radiant-point were at the time of the meteor’s appearance
between the head of Hydra and Sextans at R.A. 135° to 145°, and N. decl.
0° to 10°, immediately adjoining the equator, between those constellations,

1 The interval noted by a policeman at Saffron Walden was ‘20 seconds, or the
same as the duration of the meteor’s light.’ At Haverhill, an observer states, ‘I should
think that the meteor lasted five seconds or more; and half a minute or three quarters
of a minute after there was a sound like thunder.’

90 REPORT—1879.

on its northern side. There appears to be a long-stationary radiant near
this place, Greg, 1876, No. 15, January 1—-March 16, 141°-2°, which
includes Mr. Greg’s earlier radiant centres, 8, SG, and some more recent
determinations. Thus in Tupman’s catalogue, No. 3, January 4, is at
142°+5°; and the radiant-point of the fireball of March 17, 1877, which
he derived from the observations (these Reports, vol. for 1877, p. 135),
was fairly well determined at 145°-5°. In Mr. Denning’s new list of
stationary meteors, one of fourth magnitude, observed by Mr. EH. ¥. Sawyer
on February 24, 1878, is recorded at 145°+ 8°, which is very close to the
presumed place of the radiant-point of the great detonating meteor seen
this year on the morning of February 22.

1879, February 24, 2 53™ a.m.; Yorkshire. Large detonating fire-
ball.—The surprising and alarming nature of this meteor’s apparition in
York and its neighbourhood was described in the ‘ York Herald’ and in
the ‘ Middlesborough Gazette.’ A pear-shaped ball of fire travelled at
York across the sky, casting a light upon the town as strong as that of
day. After a moment’s interval following the fireball’s disappearance, a
peal of thunder burst upon the town, wakening sleepers who had not yet
been aroused by the blaze of light, and shaking doors, windows, and the
houses. The same occurred at Stockton, but a snowstorm, which only
began immediately after the sight appeared at York, was there raging,
and also at Newcastle at the time; and the intensity of the light at these
places, ‘as bright as a summer day,’ which the invisible body shed upon
the scene, ‘changing in about a dozen seconds from white to a beautiful
blue before it disappeared,’ was all the more surprising (though perhaps
exalted by the whiteness of the snow) from the thickness of the storm.
The shock of the explosion was even more incomprehensible on this
account at Stockton than at York, and it seems to have more universally
inspired alarm, and to have passed for an earthquake shock, in the northern
part of the county than at York, where the fireball was well seen. At Liver-
pool the sky was clear, and the meteor, like a powerful rocket, but without
a tail of sparks, illuminated the town vividly, and was watched for some
seconds, even in streets from which little of the sky was visible, travelling
rapidly away in a south-easterly direction. It was distinctly seen at
Stockport, near Manchester, an observer walking N.N.E. perceiving, when
half dazzled by the light, up in the air on his right, a whitish globe of
light with a mist of pale colour round it that lighted up the landscape for
a second and made every object visible in the distance. At Birmingham,
officials leaving the chief post-office turned about at the light, which was
like that of an electric lamp, and called each other’s attention to a large
pear-shaped object falling slowly down over the houses in a E.N.H. or N.
by H. direction, leaving a bright tail of some considerable length behind
it, and soon disappearing, when the sky then became intensely black.
The harbour-master of Shoreham (six miles west of Brighton, and 213
miles south from York) saw it pass in about 30 seconds between two hills
north of him, beginning at an altitude of 11° ‘N. by W..,’ and going
thence ‘ to N.W. by W., in a considerable curve,’ with a long tail like a
kite, of a magenta colour, making everything around as bright as day.
At Dundee (185 miles N.N.W. from York), it ‘ fell in a westerly direction
from a dark cloud hanging apparently over the rising ground west of
Newport. When first seen it gave forth a clear silvery light, which
quickly changed into purple, and afterwards the meteor assumed a bar-
like form, one end of which was brightly red. The morning was clear and »

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 91

frosty, but notwithstanding this the temporary illumination was almost
startling in its brilliancy.’ (‘ Dundee Advertiser,’ March 25, 1879.)

The vague descriptions contained in nearly all the newspaper para-
graphs not allowing of any accurate deductions, Mr. J. H. Clark, of York,
applied himself, by correspondence with persons at a distance, and by many
actual measurements at York, to collect materials for determining the
meteor’s real path. At York the meteor disappeared, as well as could be
ascertained, 41° W. of S., altitude 10°, observed by a point above the
Minster roof, near one of its towers. The point of first appearance was
less certain, but whether to the north or to the south side of the zenith,
the apparent path of the meteor certainly passed very nearly overhead.
The time interval of arrival of the sound was practically obtained in several
cases by repeating actions during the interval from recollection, and it was
very nearly 1}—13 minute, while one observer estimated it at half a minute,
and another as ‘fully two or three minutes,’ or twice the longest time
taken for a clap of thunder to arrive. The former of these exceptional
cases is probably below, and the latter, though confidently stated, probably
above the truth, and a lapse of one and a half or two minutes, it seems
probable, must have really intervened, corresponding to a distance or real
height of the meteor’s flight over York, of 18-25 miles. For determining
the height and position of the point of disappearance but one useful obser-
vation, that of Mr. 8. Walliker, at Hull, can be satisfactorily combined
with the York line of sight, although the very distant description at
Dundee confirms in a general way the position which was so obtained.
By a careful plan of his position, which was at his own front door, Mr.
Walliker found the apparent path at Hull to have been from 4° W. of N.,
alt. (estimated) 60°, beginning perhaps before caught sight of about 10°
E. of N., to W. by N., alt. 20° (estimated altitude). The intersection of -
the latter line with that, of the disappearance seen at York is midway
between Selby and Leeds, only 16 miles S.W. from York. The corre-
sponding height of the meteor above the earth’s surface at this point, on
the York line of sight, is only three miles; another observer’s estimated

_ altitude of 30° would give ten miles, but with allowance for unconscious
_ exaggeration near the horizon, cannot increase the final height certainly
to more than six or seven !

To find the point of first appearance, from equally scanty data, a
valuable account at Whitby, by Captain E. Heselton, of the ‘ Margery,’
passing two miles N.W. of Whitby on the voyage from Seaham to
Scarborough, when the meteor was observed, states that it passed directly
overhead, from alt. 45°, 20° H. of N. to alt. 45°, 20° W. of S., a course
which, prolonged, passes through York and Selby, and substantiates the
other observations. On this track the direction and distant altitude at
Hull, as well as those obtained at York, make the meteor’s height over
Whitby 65 or 80 miles; but regarding them, from their character as
estimates, as overrated, the probable height of the fireball over Whitby,
40 miles N.N.W. from York, can scarcely have been more than 40 or 50
miles. This estimate, making the meteor’s height as it does,-over York,

about 17 or 18 miles, agrees with the time interval of the sound there,
and leads it to be regarded as probably a near approximation to a point
of early appearance in the meteor’s real path. That it began at a much
~ earlier point is shown by Captain Heselton’s first view of it 45° before
reaching the zenith at Whitby, and by the brightness of its light behind

[ Continued at page 120.]

92 REPORT—1879.

A LIST OF LARGE METEORS OCCASIONALLY

Hour Position or

Date GAT. Cor ace ak Apparent Size Colour Duration BS

Local Time) pee p
a 8 a 6
hm

1862 |[Probably |Colchester, male ° . |Rather slow]. ‘ 5 .
Nov.27| 5 47 p.m.| Essex. motion.

See Rep.
1863, pp.
324. ]

No time
stated.

1876 | 9 48 p.m./Tedstone Dela-|As bright as oe From due &., alt.

Sept. 1 mere, near} Venus. 23°, to 8., 8° W.

Worcester. alt. 17° (alti-
tudes measured
azimuths, b
known __bear-
ings, ‘true’).

1877 | 8 30 p.m./Scarborough, |Twice as bright/White, then|4 seconds; /TravelledinaS.E
Nov.19 Yorkshire. as Venus, red, moved direction, an

slowly. disappeared be-
hind hills,
Dec.29) 6 2 p.m./Blackheath, As bright as Ju- - . |0°3 seconds .|Passed just abov
near London.| piter, and less a Andromedz
bright than 2 of the way to
Venus. 7 Pegasi.

1878 \11 20 p.m.|Ibid. .|Brighter than Bluish white.}2} seconds; |From 167° + 10
Jan.31 Venus, very swift.| to 110°—10°.
Mar. 9\(6 42 p.m.|Boston, U.S.A. |Much more bril- é . |About 3 Commenced at

Washing- liant than Mars, seconds, 48° 427°,
ton, M.T.)
April2| 7 54 p.m.|/Blackheath, Thrice as_ bright Between From near 6 Cas:
near London.) as Venus. land 2 siopeize to 11° +
seconds ; 32° (6° *S.p:
not exactly) Andromedz).
noted.
24| 8 12 p.m./Wimbledon __ .|Large disc, 5’ x 3';/Yellowish A : First seen abow
its light not in- 2eWN) Of) Px
tense, but total cyon; disaj
brightness peared abow
5 DI° “Wheegot vis
alt. 22°.
June 3\(2 59 a.m.)/Chicago, U.S.A.|As bright as the 5 SOR Fi From near t
moon when four zenith to abow
days old. 4° above B C
; siopeiz.
July 1/10 45 p.m.|i mile E. of the|Very brilliant .|/White . Began due E., al
Royal Obser- 45°; lost behini
vatory, trees 39° W.
Greenwich. N., alt. 34°,
July28| (9 7 p.m.)/Boston, U.S.A. |As bright as Mars ;/Deep red 3 seconds. /From 332° + 5
a fireball. to 6°+51°,

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

OBSERVED, CHIEFLY IN THE YEARS 1878-1879.

Direction or Radiant-point Appearance, Remarks, &c.

Len, of
Path

93

Observer or Reference

Burst like a firework, with a
dull report; but no other
fireworks were seen,

A diagram gives the apparent
path from 5°+31° to 347°+
28°.

- |Course rather concave to the|A diagram gives the apparent
horizon, path from 171°+11° to 110°
—12°.

-|Did not explode or break; left
a beautiful train, much the
colour of Mars.

After a sort of explosion, the
nucleus, becoming suddenly
faint and nebulous (perhaps
behind floating clouds), pro-
ceeded nearly 5° further;
left no distinct streak. [Seen
also at Birmingham and
Leicester. See Report for
1878, p. 292.]

-| Descending a little north-|Nucleus pear-shaped ; left be-
wards’ at a very steep] hind it, after travelling
angle. about 10°, three or four very

bright blue stars, and then
vanished in clear sky. No
sound heard, though waited
for 3 minutes.

-|Directed towards S.S,W.

or 15°

|F. S. Lea. (Communi-

- {Burst into seven or eight frag-
ments near a Cassiopeiz.

- |Left no streak. Azimuths (true)

and altitudes determined by
G. L. Tupman.

Left a red streak

|. F, Sawyer.

F’, Rutley.

cated by G, L. Tup-
man,)

G. E. Mass. Do.

W.H. M. Christie. Do.'

Id. Do.

Berlin H. Wright.
Boston ‘ Science Ob-
server,’ vol, i. p. 60.

W. H M. Christie.
(Communicated by
G. L, Tupman.)
[For a calculation
of the real path, see
Appendix I, ]

F. C. Penrose. ‘The

Times,’

E Colbert. (D. Kirk-
wood, ‘Am. Phil. Soc.
Proceedings,’ May 2,
1879.)

Rey. Lloyd Jones.
(Communicated by
G, L, Tupman.)

© Am,
Jour, of Sc.,’ Nov.,
1878,

94

REPORT—1879.

A List oF LARGE METEORS OCCASIONALLY

Hour
Approx. Place of
Date G.M.T. (or| Observation
Local Time)
hm

July380/11 52 p.m.\Brighton .

Aug.11| 3 31 a.m.|Sunderland

11\(10 10 p.m.|Bloomington,
Indianapo-| Ind., U.S.A.
lis time)

7/10 27 p.m.|Debenham,
Norfolk.

As bright as Ve-|Yellow .

Position or

Apparent Size Colour Duration Apparent Path
From to
a 8 a 6

From 3 (By) A
dromedz to
(8 ¢) Piscium
path careful
noted. ;

.|A bright meteor .|Bluish white.|1 second ;
; very swift.

Very quick .|Passed $° left of
Aquilz, 1° or 2
before its
appearance. §

Began due H., ¢

EK. 2° or 3°

nus.

. {Not more
than 2
seconds ;
very rapid.

About 4 of the
moon’s diameter

to 20° N. of v}

very near

horizon. |

As bright as Jupi-| . : > les - - {12+ 60 to 104 45)
ber.

335 + 26 to }

7/10 29 p.m.|Ibid. .|Twice as bright as
Jupiter. 335 +12
7; About |Ibid. .|As bright as Jupi-| . . mil eye 3204— 5 to
10 30 pm. ter. 3283— 1
16} About {Holdsworthy, |Two bright me-| . : - |Moved with|Disappeared b
7 15 p.m.| Devon. teors. great speed} hind stor
clouds, near thi)
horizon. — §
20) 8 57 p.m.jBetween Yar-|As bright as Jupi- 279 —423 to
mouth and ter. 275 —24
Lowestoft.
21/ 12am. |Debenham, Bright meteor . [Began due §., a
Norfolk. 45°.

22\(10 2 p.m.)/Boston, U.S.A. |Fireball as bright|Deep orange .|3 seconds

27| 9 32 p.m./Debenham,
Norfolk

31/11 0 pm|Ibid. .

Sept. 1} About
10 20 p.m.

8|8 35 pml|Ibid. ,

Bristol ,

16] 9 0 p.m. |Henryville,
Clark Co, Ind.,
U.S.A. *

-|; diameter of the] . : ope ae °

248 +63 to
as Mars. 230 +77
A fine meteor alee - ote 339 +18 to
3383 +414

From a little ¥

moon, of 8. to S.E. k
E., alt. abot
: ; 26°.

Nearly as_ bright! . |Very swift 161 +70 to
as Venus. 155 +56
Brighter than Ve- . |Very swift 246 +21 to
nus. ; ‘ 24444 5

About? oridiam,} . . Sil a
of the moon,

Began nean y, an
passed across
Urse majoris.

Path

course.

7

20° or 25°

Length of

ther long/Directed from 2°

OBSERVATIONS

BSERVED, CHIEFLY IN THE YEARS 1878-1879—continued.

Direction or Radiant-point

left of
5 Cygni.

. |At first nearly horizontal, at
last sloping downwards
considerably,

Towards S.W.

Shot westwards .

OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

Appearance, Remarks, &c.

No explosion; streak visible 2
seconds, broadened and dis-
appeared. 3 or 4 seconds
later a small meteor shot 2°
or 3° in the same direction
below e Piscium.

Left a streak. A Perseid.

No final disruption of the nu-
cleus seen, nor sound of an
explosion heard. (Seen also
at Titusville, Pa.; exploding
with loud detonation in the
west).

Left a streak

Appeared about two minutes
after the last meteor.

Seen by another observer about
the same time as the last
two meteors.

One bright meteor following
another at a little distance.

Nucleus with orange-coloured
train.

Lit up the landscape. Followed
at 11" 20™ by a smaller me-
teor, taking the same direc-

Radiant of this and the next
meteor at 295 + 83.
&

tion.

Left a short streak at 156° +
58° for 10 seconds.

Left a streak of 4° for 25 se-

conds. Resembled the last

.|V. Cornish.

95

Observer or Reference

H. Pratt. (Communi-
cated by G. L. Tup-
man.)

T. W. Backhouse.

J. A. Bower. (D. Kirk-
wood,‘Am. Phil. Soe.
Proceedings,’ May 2,
1879.) [For real
path of meteor see
Appendix i.]

‘The Ob-
servatory,’ vol. ii. p.
205.

Id. (Ibid.)

(Ibid.)
Mr. Bassett. ‘The

Observatory,’ vol. ii.
p. 203.

Communicated by W.

F. Denning. ‘The
Observatory,’ vol. ii.
p. 205.

.|Ibid.

E. F. Sawyer. ‘Am.
Jour. of Sc.,’ Nov.
1878.

Communicated by W.

F. Denning. ‘The
Observatory,’ vol. ii.
p. 205.

Id.; Ibid.; (and p. 243,
foot of the page.)

W. F. Denning.
Id.

meteor very closely,

Benj. Vail, D. Kirk-
wood, ‘Am. Phil.
Soc. Proceedings,’
May 2, 1879.

96 REPORT—1879.

A List oF LARGE METEORS OCCASIONALLY

Hour
_ Approx. Place of :
Date G.M-T. (or| Observation Apparent Size Colour
Local Time)
1878.| h m
Sep.21| 9 3 p.m. |Newcastle-on- |About + diam. of
(?) Tyne. the moon.

22\(8 33 p.m.)|Boston, U.S.A. |Brighter than Deep orange

Jupiter,

27|3 5 am. |Bristol . .|As bright as 5
Jupiter.

30] (8 434 Boston, U.S.A. |Nearly as bright/Orange ¢

p.m.) as Jupiter,

Oct. 4| 11 p.m. |Debenham, As bright as A : 4
Norfolk. Jupiter.

7| 9 15 p.m.|Ibid. Very fine meteor.] . : .

8| 7 49 p.m.|Sunderland _ ./As bright as
Jupiter or
Venus. in colour.

8} 10 10 p.m.|Leicester .

Position or
Apparent Path

to
a 6 a 6

Duration
From

. . . |From between 7
Urse majoris|
and Arcturus to
5° below vy Ursze
majoris.

2 secs.; very|From 23° — 173°

slow. to 5° —22°,
Very swift . |From 66° + 8° to
614°—3.
Rather slow/From 29° + 42°
speed. to 41° +36.
Not very From 3533° + 2
rapid. to 444+123°,

From 338°—3°
13°—6}°.

Deep yellow,|4 or 5 secs. ; Disappeared
but variable

very slow. | 108°+454.

.|As bright as Venus|Bluish white |2 secs. ; very|From 3° EH. of a,

swift. passed over ¥
and B to 4° o}
5° W. of @
Cygni.
15\(7 57} Boston, U.S.A. |As bright as Rapid . . |From 316° — 3
p-m.) Jupiter. to 325° — 8° neai
B Aquarii.
21109 193 Ibid. ° .|As bright as Venus|Green . . {15 sec. in |From 5° — 15° t
p.m.) sight; very} 343°—32°.
slow.
22| 7 40 p.m.|Sunderland ./At first = 2ndjAt first 3 secs.; very|Shot 2° past
mag.xexpanded| orange, slow. point at 34° (
to => 9. then Tauri, a Ceti)}
changed to from a point (ill
yellow, seen) about }
green, and (B Trianguli, 4
. : pale purple. Arietis).
22\(6 593 Boston, U.S.A. |As bright as Orange . |B sec.; ra-|From 16°—1° t

p.m.) Jupiter.

ther slow, | 34°9+7°.

aS

tp Length of
Path

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

Direction or Radiant-point

_ Seen.

1879.

- |Directed from y Andromed

About 25° of|Directed from 2 (5, vy) Urse
its course

- |Fell,vertically ; near B Ceti

- |An Aurigid; radiant on this
night at 87°+42°, near B
Aurige.

majoris.

OBSERVED, CHIEFLY IN THE YEARS 1878-1879—continued.

97

Appearance, Remarks, &c.

- |Nucleus pear-shaped, thus,

Observer or Reference

J. Hopper.

throwing off several sparks

above it.
Left no streak .

Left

streak 7° long on the
latter part of its course.

. |E. F. Sawyer. Boston

vol. ii. p. 26.

W. F Denning. ‘The
Observatory,’ vol. ii.)
p. 243.

EH. F. Sawyer. Boston

‘Science Observer,’

vol. ii. p. 27:

F. Denning. ‘The;

Vivid green, with a faint train,

|
- |The meteor at starting was not|Id,

much brighter than Saturn,
but when bursting at last
into several sparks (which
fell downwards about 1°), it
threw shadows in spite of the
moon, then 11 days’ old.

if any, train. No meteor
seen before to last so long.

to a mere point at last ; left
no streak, »

malhaut.

when brightest, casting a
glow all round, Faded 2°
before extinction to bright-
ness of Sirius, and disap-
peared rather suddenly. A
splendid meteor.

; ; . |Seen through haze . .

Observatory,’ vol. ii
p. 243.
Ibid.

Nucleus with only a very short,/T. W. Backhouse.

Beginning not seen; diminished/T. Brewin. (Communi-

cated by G. L. Tup-

man.)

5 c : . |E. F. Sawyer. Boston

‘Science Observer,’

vol. ii. p. 27.

From } (8 ) Ceti to near Fo-|Id.

T. W. Backhouse.

. |E. F, Sawyer. Boston

‘Science Observer,’
vol. ii. p. 27.

\

|
|
|

‘Science Observer, ‘

Communicated by W.])

98

Hour
Approx.
G.M.T. (or
Local Time)

Date

h m
Sep. 22/(9 74 p.m.)

24| (Evening)
Nov. 2] 6 43 p.m.

3/12 57 a.m.

12|(7 0 p.m.)

12\(7 15 p.m.)

13|(6 40 p.m.)
14\(3 30 p.m.)
18/9 50 p.m.

18/9 50 p.m.

Dec. 6/12 13 a.m.

11/(6 a.m.)

Place of
Observation

REPORT—1879.

A List OF LARGE METEORS OCCASIONALLY

Apparent Size Colour

Position or

ee

Boston, U.S.A.

Stanislas,
Austria.

York

Greenwich

Washington,

Davies’s Co.

Ind. U.S.

Boston, U.S.A.

Newhaven,
Mass. U.S.

Hillside Farm,
Mass. U.S.A.

Bristol .

Writtle, near

Chelmsford,

Essex.
London, or

Greenwich (?)

. [Brilliant meteor.| Yellow

. |As bright as Ju-

As bright as
Jupiter.

Thrice as bright/Violet colour
as Jupiter.

. |Disc larger than

Venus’. Daz-
zlingly bright.

Lighted the Park
up brightly.

About % apparent] . °
diam. of the
moon.

= Sirius

= Ist mag. x.

Fine meteor

piter.

As bright as
Venus.

A fine meteor. . |Bluish white

Miilhausen, and|Large fireball

Colmar, &c.,

Alsatia.

. |Very slow .

Duration Apparent Path
From to
a 3 a 6

Slow . [From 3°—10° to

346°— 28°.
In Ursa Major

From 28° W. of N.
alt. 18° to 60°
W.of N. alt.13°.
Positions mea-
sured (Azth.’s
magnetic).

. {8 seconds at|Part of path in

least; slow,| sight 310°+ 61°

sailing mo-| to 266°+42°;

tion. probable begin-
ning at 0° + 58°,
about y Andro-
medeze,

. |About 10 se-/Fromcloseto Vega

across the Milky’
Way to about
20° N.W. of Ju-
piter.

From N.E., alt.
30° to N.W. alt.)
30°; —— highest}
point of appa-
rent path due N.

conds ; very
slow.

1 or 1} se-|From a little N.}

conds. of Vega to al|
little 5. of x

Ophiuchi.

® |

i]

47 —26}to50-273})
low down in
8.S.E.

. {11—22 to 1730)

low down in 8. |

|
Shot under, and a ;
little past, Si-}
rius, 3 of that}
star’s alt. from)
the horizon.
é 5 . |From N.W. to S. |)

1

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 99

Direction or Radiant-point Appearance, Remarks, &c. Observer or Reference

From « Ceti to Fomalhaut ;|R. F. Sawyer. Boston
train visible for 1 sec. ‘Science Observer,’

vol. ii. p. 27.

Moving in a northerly direc-|Meteor with a reddish train . |‘ Nature,’ vol. xix. p.17.

\ tion.

‘bout 30° . |Moved almost horizontally|Like a rocket or Roman candle,|J. ©. Morland and
southwards. ball close at hand. End of| J. E. Clark. ‘Nat.
path apparently depressed ;| Hist. Jour.’ vol. ii.
left no streak. p. 145.

From y Andromedz, across a,{A. W. Downing. (Com-
n Cephei to under and 4° left} municated by G. L.
of y Draconis, half that star’s Tupman. )
altitude from the horizon. A
flash all round (before reach-
ing a Cephei?) made the ob-
server look up to it, after
which it was = Sirius, leaving
a streak for 2 seconds.

Nucleus with sharply defined|D. E. Hunter ; D. Kirk-
disc up to the moment of its} wood. ‘Am. Phil. Soc.
disappearance. Seen while Proceedings,’ May 2,
watching with students for} 1879.

November meteors.
or lak - : - : - |A smaller meteor broke off/H. E. Stevens. Boston
from it, just before its cross-| ‘Science Observer,’
ing the square of Ursa Minor,| vol. ii. p. 30.
and continued parallel to and
2° above it till both disap-
peared together as suddenly
as the meteor first appeared.

i. Si ae 5 , F : ; : é 5 4 , . |J. J. Skinner. (Com-

municated by H. A.

Newton.)

a =a 5 5 . : - |The sky was very clear, and the/Thomas Whitaker; D.
meteor was seen in bright) Kirkwood. ‘Am.
sunshine. Phil. Soc. Proceed-

ings,’ May 2, 1879.
ty short ;|Radiant of the two projected/Left no streak. [Identical with)W. F. Denning. ‘The

mly the} paths, near a Piscium, the next meteor; see cal- Observatory,’ vol. ii.

end seen? | 35441. culated real path in Appen-| p. 306.

dix I.
- |The same radiant observed !
by Denning (350°+ 2°) on
Dec. 1-2, 1877.
- |Nearly parallel to, but more [Seen also by Dr. Rae (in Lon-|W. Airy. (Communi-
horizontally than, a line| don 1): ‘Nature,’ Dec. 12,) cated by G. L. Tup-
drawn from Rigel to Sirius.) 1878.] man.)

H. Corder. Ibid.

alti. Z 2 ‘ - °. |Burst, exhibiting a display of|‘ Nature,’ vol, xix. p.
natural fireworks. Nosound| 160.
of an explosion heard.

H2

A List oF LARGE METEORS OCCASIONALLY

100 REPORT— 1879.
Hour
Date GALT: Cor pete 4. Apparent Size Colour
Local Time)
h m
Dec.11|9 36} p.m. |Sunderland . |About asbrightas/White, then
| Jupiter. green, and
variable at
last.
18/8 57 p.m. |Thames Em- |About thrice as
bankment, bright as Ju-
London. piter.
19)(9 293 p.m.)|New Haven, Brighter than a
(8 p.m.) Mass., U.S.A.| 1st mag. x.
21/9 33 p.m. |Bristol . |Brighter than
Venus.
25| (8 p.m.) |Boston, U.S.A. |As bright as

1879
Jan.12

30|Just before

7 p.m.,
Indiana-
polis
time.)

(9 66 p.m.)

3) (6 5 p.m.)

510 57 p.m.

(2 28 a.m.)

Wooster, Wayne
Co., Ohio.

[ Widely seen;
and also well
observed at
Anderson
(ind.), and
Washington
(Pa.). ]

The Observa-
tory, Monca-
lieri, near
Turin.

Boston, U.S.A.

Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

Traverse City,
and other
places in Wis-
consin and

Michigan,

Jupiter.

Tramsverse diam.
of disc =4 diam.
of the moon.

Large dise about
7’ diam., giving
stronger illu-
mination than
the moonlight.

Much brighter
than Venus.

Brighter than
Venus.

Larger than (3 or
4 times as large

[Slightly
greenish ;
reddish

Position or
Apparent Path

to
6

Duration
From
a 6

Disappeared
about + (53,
Eridani.

2°5 seconds . |Started exactly aii
, and passed 2
or 3° H. of

Orionis,
From close to the
‘erab’ nebula
to just above
and left of
Ursee majoris.
13—5 to 11—19.

3 seconds

3or4seconds;|Appeared in they
moved very] 8.W., alt. 23°;

slowly. altitude at dis-
appearance 18°,
[About 2 From E., alt. 50°,

seconds, or

to 8. 13° E., alt.§
a fraction i

13°,

when
bursting. }

as) the full

moon,

Nucleus gold|About 3

less. |

the first very
accurate).

Skirted the line

yellow ; seconds. of stars a, p,
vapour- and disappeared
envelope, near ¢ Leonis. |
and train
greenish
and bluish
white.
Deep yellow.|Shot very First appearane
slowly. a little E. of N,
alt. about 60
Disappeared _
behind a cloud
bank.
: From about 3° Hy
of B Urs ma
joris to the Pr
sepe in Cance
A ball of fire|Speed of a |Observer facin
(white, descending} due E. first sa
then red- rocket. it as high as ail]
dish illu- (About 8 or| ordinary rain
mination; | 10seconds;| cloud over

CHIEFLY IN THE YEARS 1878-1879

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

continued.

Direction or Radiant-Point

Appearance, Remarks, &c.

Observer or Reference

. |Course a little curved down-
wards (?), directed from }
(y Orionis, a Arietis).

. |Full almost vertically (in-
clined 3° towards the left,
by a diagram).

. |Shot towards E. .

. |Shot almost vertically down-
wards.

[Probable radiant near a 6
Draconis; Denning. j

. |It was moving on a descend-

Faded gradually at last; left a
slight train.

Left a few detached pieces in
its track; it seemed to hesi-
tate, and then die out.

A very bright meteor

Nucleus became faint, before
the maximum, then suddenly
increased to a vivid flash,
leaving a streak there, 1°
long, for 7 seconds, at the
end of its course.

Nucleus very elongated. First
part of course very accurately
noted through large tree-tops.
[See description of its real
path in Appendix I.]

A bright blue streak marked
the meteor’s path after the
disappearance of the nucleus
for a second or two.

Left a thin vapour-like streak
for 2 or 3 seconds stretched
along a line from above the
stars of Leo.

Just after passing the east, a

ing grade when first seen.

perfectly distinct ring of fire
with a dark centre peeled off
it, and dropping a little be-
hind it, followed the nucleus

. |J. J. Skinner.

T. W. Backhouse.

W. Wickham. (Com-
municated by G. L.
Tupman.)

Boston
‘Science Observer,’
vol. ii, p. 35.

W. F. Denning. ‘ The
Observatory,’ vol. ii.
p. 346.

N. M. Lowe.
43.

Ibid. p.

8. J. Kirkwood; D.
Kirkwood,‘Am. Phil.
Soc. Proceedings,’
May 2, 1879.

P. Denza, and other
observers. ‘ Astro-
nomical Register,’
vol. xvii. p. 150.

\James EH. Stone. Bos-|
ton ‘Science Obser-
ver,’ vol. ii. p. 43.

‘The Observatory,’ vol.

ii. p. 383. (Meteor
notes by W. I. Den-
ning.)

Report of a night

watchman, commu-|
nicated by T. T.)
Bates; D. Kirkwood,
‘Am, Phil. Soc. Pro-|

102

Hour
Approx. Place of
Date G.M.T. (or Observation
Local Time)
hm
U.S. [For a
description of

its real path
see Appendix
a

Feb. 3)(11 30 p.m.|Raysville,
Ind. time.)} Henry Co.,

About
12 20 am.

23) About
6 45 p.m.

24| 2 53 a.m./York (four or

(York
Minster
time.)

6 43 p.m. |Putney Hill,

Ind., U.S.

6 59 p.m. |Birkdale

Observatory,
Southport.

London.

Bury St. Ed-
munds (and
elsewhere in
Surrey, Es-
sex, and Suf-
folk). [See
description of
the real path
in Appendix
I]

Kersal, near
Manchester

five good ob-
servations

among nume-
rous descrip-
tions). [The
next observa-
tion to this
refers to the

REPORT—1879,

Apparent Size Colour
Princeton).
Larger than the
fireball of Dec.
21, 1876.
Brighter than Red
Venus.
As bright as Rigel.) White, or
yellowish.
Large fireball.|(Brilliant
(Lit up a room| white, then
facing south, pink, then
at Godalming,| green;
Surrey.) Brentwood,
Essex.)

Brilliant meteor .

% to 4 the moon’s|White,

diameter,with a) changing
haze or ‘glory’| to blue, or
round it 4 x] bluish

the moon’s dia-| green.
meter.

same
meteor. |

A List oF LARGE METEORS OCCASIONALLY

passed by hin
to N.E. on hi
left.

Brief dura- |Rose from th
tion; only | eastern horizon
a few and burst jus
seconds. before reachin:

the zenith, th
fragments no
proceeding very
far.
. Quick From 73° +32°
motion. “B42}° + 62°.

Position or
Apparent Path

to
a 6

Duration
From
a 6

Princeton,

right shoulde
Wisconsin)

in §.W., and i

2-3 seconds .|/From 25° + 40°

32° + 35°.
(20 seconds,|In the west, fall

Saffron ing downwards
Walden. 5) to the earth
or 6 se-| (Theglareinthe
conds, Go-| cloudy sky was
dalming strongest in the

and Haver-| §.E., at Haver4
hill. Seve- hill, and aj
ralseconds.| Saffron Walden,
Brent- a little S.E. of
wood.) the zenith. At)
Brentwood the
track passed
overhead.)
Moved ‘Ata small angle}
slowly ; just below the}
time to call] new moon.
another
person’s
attention
to it.
‘2 seconds.’ |Passed from N.H.

‘3 or 4 se-| (probably a littl

conds, &e.’| S.of thezenith
Perhaps nearly over-
about 6 head, to a point
seconds, at| (measured

full bright-| the towers of
ness, from| the Minster) at}:
general ac-| 41° W. for §
counts. (true). Alt. 10%

(Other note
were 53° andj
48° W. for §

Length of
Path

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

OBSERVED, CHIEFLY IN THE YEARS 1878-1879—continued.

Direction or Radiant-point

Rose upwards; E. to W.

. {Fell downwards.

(Course at
Saffron Walden, from 8.W.
to N.E.; at Brentwood
from §.8.W. to N.N.E.)

. |‘ Descending at a small an-/Had the night been dark it
gle;’ course about from) would have been a grand

north to south.

. |About N.E. to S.W., pass-|Pear-shaped, followed by a tail

ing (?) a little southward
from the zenith,

Appearance, Remarks, &c.

out of sight. The report fol-
lowed the meteor’s disap-
pearance in just 4 minutes
by a watch.

Extremely large, followed by a
stream of flame,and bursting
at last into fragments which
shot earthwards in various
directions, with a dull but
distinctly audible report.

A fine meteor. First seen ap-
pearing from above the house;
burst at last into numerous
brilliant fragments.

Projected a smaller body some
5’ or 6’ in front of its nucleus,
near the end of its flight.

Lit up the sky vividly. (Burst/‘

into a shower of sparks;
Brentwood. The glare in-
creased gradually, ending
with a sudden blaze; Go-
dalming.) Report like that
of an explosion (heard like
thunder at Haverhill in 30
secs. or 45 secs., rumbling
down to N.W. from alt. 45°.
A rumbling sound in 20
secs. heard at Saffron Wal-
den.)

fireball.

two or three times the length
of the head, leaving no
streak upon its track. Burst
when over-head with fre-
quent sparks and scintilla-
tions; but at the end of its
course the ball ‘disappeared
in mid-air.’ Light like day-
light, effacing street lamps,
and stronger than the electric
light. Report like a sudden
‘bang’ in 13 or 13", like

103

Observer or Reference

ceedings, May 2,
1879.
Indianopolis ‘Daily

News,’ Feb. 7; D.
Kirkwood, ibid.

Communicated by Jos.
Baxendell.

J. L. McCance. ‘The
Observatory,’ vol. ii.
p. 417.

Observatory,’
vol, iii. p. 22. ‘ Nat.
Hist. Journal,’ vol.
iii, p. 68. (V. Cor-
nish, W. F’. Denning,
J. E. Clark.) -

A writer in the ‘ Man-
chester Guardian,’
Feb. 27 (or 26?) 1879,

Accounts of several
observers, collected
by J. E. Clark.
Notes in the ‘ Ob-
servatory,’ vol. ii. p.
417 ; and ‘ Nat. Hist.
Journal,’ vol. iii. pp.
69-70.

104 REPORT—1879.

A List oF LARGE METEORS OCCASIONALLY

Hour Position or
Date GAY Cor Beale at Apparent Size Colour Darativa Apparent Path
Local Time) From to
a 6 a 6
hm
Beginning

doubtful; ap-

Feb.24, About |At sea, 2 miles\(Nucleusnotmore|(Primrose [Light 1 se-\From 20° B. of
3 0am) N.W. from) than} diameter; yellow.Nu-| cond be-| N.; alt. 45°
Whitby (and) of moon. Tail} cleus with] fore, and) to 20° W.ofS.;

at Hull). not more than| prismatic nucleus alt. 45° (first
[Seen also at} 4 x the length} tail. Hull.)}/ seen 10se-| and last ap-
Brighton, of the head. conds after} pearance among
Birmingham,| Hull.) its first snow-clouds. )
Manchester, clear ap- (At Hull, seen
Liverpool, pearance. from 4° W. of
and Dundee. N.; alt. 60° (?)
For real path to 4° N. of W.;
see Appendix alt. 20° (?) (di-
I] rections by a
map.)
Mar. 2/6 15 or 20/Winchester ./About } of full Yellowish, : ; . [From 70° — 20°
p.m. moon’s size surrounded 3 86° = 25°
by red (end point hidden
light by trees).
2} 8 45 p.m./Sideot . . |Bright; = Regu-| . : SAPs : . {Began at 3 (a Leo-
lus. nis, a Hydre.)
2| 9 40 p.m./Debenham, Bright; = Ist] . : pal %e ; . {From 184° + 63°
Norfolk. mag, * to 18}3°+58°
3 .|Sunderland . |Bright; = Sirius./Deep yellow ;|4or5seconds;/From 140° — 7°
tailreddish} very slow.| to 160° -7°
No | before
seen with
such a long
duration.
8) 7 20-25 |Bristol . . |As bright as Jupi-) . ; . |Rapid . . |Centre of course
p.m. ter. at alt. 18°,
8.5.E.
9| (Evening) |Newhaven, Bright meteor .} . : malts . . [From 55° W.of S.;
Mass., U.S.A. alt. 30° to 25°
E. of S.; alt.
about 15°, .
12| 7 37 p.m,/Greenwich _. Brighter than Green . . |Very swift;|From 205° + 35° —
Venus. not more| to 196°+6° /
| : than (?) 1
second.
12 7 35 pm./Bristol . allies 5 ; ie ‘ . |Motion slow ./From 210° + 40° —
| to 197° +7°
Apparent path
k as described to
| Mr. Denning.

Length of
Path

Descending

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

OBSERVED, CHIEFLY IN THE YEARS 1878-1879—-continued.

Direction or Radiant-point

105

Appearance, Remarks, &c.

| Observer or Reference

Towards 8.E.

obliquely
wards 8.E.

an earthquake shock, which
died away slowly.

Began like moonlight in N.E.
Dense luminous train, with
dropping sparks. Faint re-
port like distant thunder.
(Report at Gunby, near Filey,
intense ; not quite so strong
as loudest thunder. At Hull,
fainter, heard in 2™.)

Nucleus quite round

the same place, with a course
of 2° towards 8.8.H.

majoris.

Increased in brightness
stantly, with some fluctua-
tions, till it disappeared.
The sparkling tapering tail,
2° or 3° long, was brightest
near the nucleus. A fine
meteor,

Train

clouds and haze.

A fine meteor; seen ot th H. M.

Seen by two gentlemen, who
immediately described its
course to Mr. Denning.

Two minutes later a rather|C. EH. B.
brighter meteor appeared at

E. Heselton (of ship
‘Margery; Seaham
to Scarborough.)
Communicated by
J. E. Clark.

. \Communicated by J.

L. MeCancee, in ‘ The
Observatory,’ vol. ii.
p. 417. p

‘Nat. Hist.
Journal,’ vol, iii. p.
50.

The meteor burst 3° np. 6 Ursz|/V. Cornish, ‘The Ob-

servatory,’ vol. iii. p.
22.

con-|J. W. Backhouse.

‘Communicated by W.

F. Denning. ‘The
| Observatory,’ vol.
iii. p. 417.

Communicated by H.
A. Newton. Boston
‘Science Observer,’

vol. ii. p. 51.

Christie.
Communicated by
G. L. Tupman.

Communicated by
W. F. Denning.

106 REPORT—1879.

A List oF LARGE METEORS OCCASIONALLY

Hour
Approx. Place of .
Date GMT. (or| Observation Apparent Size Colour
Local Time)
hm
Mar.15|(3 53 a.m.)}/Washington, F - : . |Pale bluish

Davies’s Co., colour.
Ind., U.S.A.

Apr.18} 8 52 p.m.|/Sandymount,
Dublin.

Bright
star.

shooting

19} About

Birmingham . |Bright meteor
[?18]} 9 pm.

19) 12 50 a.m.|Bristol

mag. *. train of
yellow
sparks.
21) § 43}p.m.|Bath . {Fireball . Slee .
21) 8 43 p.m.|Bristol . |As bright as
Venus.
June 7} About |Geneva (Neu-/As large as full |Greenish,
10 p.m. chatel, Zug,| moon. with iri-
Milan, &e.). descent
colours.

18/10 38 p.m.|Bath .|Like a ‘fireball ’|Colours

of a firework. decidedly
bluish
green.
18/10 57 Bristol (seen by|Large disc.
several ob-
servers).
July27|(12 45a.m.)|Droeda, Saxony.|Large fireball. |Bright blue
(Similar ac-
counts from
Leipzig, Dres-
den, Zwic-
kau, Wieders-
berg, &c.)
27) 1 36 a.m.|Bristol .|As bright as Yellow

Mars.

About 5

. |Brighter than Ist/Nucleus with|6 seconds ;

Position or
Apparent Path

From to
a 6 a 6

Duration

First seen at a
point 10° W. of
S., alt. 25°.

From Arcturus
seconds; towards, and to
rather slow| within 10° or
speed. 12° of Procyon.

Shot from near 7
Ursz majoris to
a point about
E.S.E., alt. 40°,
From 310° + 51°

extremely | to 263°+48°.
slow
motion.
Disappeared 3° or
4° §$.E. of Pro-
cyon.

Began at a con-
siderable alti-
tude in the
southern sky.

2-3 seconds. |First appeared
about 10° §. of
Arcturus.
.|3 seconds; |Across the '
moved \ heavens.
slowly. {
.|Very slow |From 180° + 75%
motion. to 152° + 73°.

}

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 107

OBSERVED, CHIEFLY IN THE YEARS 1878-1879—continued.

Direction or Radiant-point Appearance, Remarks, &c. Observer or Reference

. |Moved westwards : . {Burst at last into fragments,|Several observers.
and lighted up everything] Communicated by
almost like daylight. Left} D. E. Hunter; D.
a smoke-cloud visible for| Kirkwood,‘Am.Phil.

several minutes. Soc. Proceedings,’
May 2, 1879.
. |Almost due E. to W. . . |Disappeared without explosion,|J. O’Reilly. Commu-

or any other peculiarities of] nicated by R. S.
appearance in its course. No} Ball.

meteor before seen with such

an extended course.

Noted while viewing the stars;|‘Aster.’ Birmingham
as remarkable, apparently, for| ‘Daily Post,’ Apr.
its long course. [?if iden-| 22, 1879.
tical with the last meteor. ]

A fine meteor, with bright/W. F. Denning, ‘The

train of sparks. Observatory,’ vol.
lil. p. 56. © °
Directed froma Leonis . |Attention drawn to the meteor|J. L. Stothert, ibid.

from a direction facing east,
by a sudden brightness of
the sky. Explosion like that
of a fine rocket.

Descended obliquely towards|Unusually large and brilliant ;|Bristol | Newspaper,

the west. seen by many persons in| April 22. Commu-
Bristol. nicated by W. F.
Denning.

Its entire course was sinuous,|A report heard in the Valaisan|‘ Nature,’ vol. xx. p.
presenting a strange zig-| Alps, and at Vittore Olona,| 183.
zag form. From N.E. to} Lombardy; a report like
5.W. (2). artillery followed its disap-
: pearance in about 4 minutes
(‘The Times’), An aérolite
(?) fell at the same time in
Lake Lugano.
. Very nearly N.E. to S.W. . |Left a faint trail. The decided|C: Armbruster,
colour of its nucleus was re-| ‘Nature,’ vol, xx. p.
markable. 197.

Course ‘almost a straight/A beautiful meteor, with im-|Bristol _ Newspaper ;
line’ from §, to N. mensely large nucleus, leav-| W. fF. Denning’s

ing very little tail behind) notes in ‘The Ob-
it. Attracted attention by| servatory,’ vol. ili.
its light illuminating the] p. 117.
ground.

Moving from §S. to N. . . |Mlumination of the whole fir-|‘Nature,’ August 14,
mament; nearly as intense] 1879.
as daylight.

Radiant near 7 Draconis . |Leftatrainofsparks . . |W. F. Denning.

108

REPORT—1879.

A List OF LARGE METEORS OCCASIONALLY

Hour
Date GALT Cor At aes Apparent Size Colour Duration
Local Time)
|J uly30) 12 16 a.m.|/Bristol . |As bright as Rapid .
Jupiter.
Aug. 9/11 53 p.m.|Ibid. ; . |As bright as Rapid .
Jupiter.
11}11 30 p.m.|Ibid. . |As bright as Rapid .
Jupiter.
1111 55 p.m.|Ibid . |As bright as Slow .
Mars. |
|
|
|

SUPPLEMENTAL ACCOUNTS OF LARGE METEORS

. {From 140° + 66°

. |From 34°+78° to

.|From 6°+47° to

. |From -30° + 64° to

Position or
Apparent Path

to
a

From

a 6 6

to 158° + 54°.

254° + 852°.

351° + 37°.

50° + 54°.

Hour
Date GALT. Cor Pe cco on Apparent Size Colour Duration.
Local Time)
1858.| h m
Aug.13|/Not noted,|1 or 2 miles E./At first 4 of the|At firstruddy,|Nearer 5 than
butabout| of Ryde, I. of} moon’sdiameter,| then pure} 3 seconds;
6 p.m.(?).| Wight. but increased| white; tail) speed very
[True as it advanced.| bluer, with} moderate,
time 6 39 Eclipsed the| faint pris-| smoothand
p-m. | light of the stars} matic co-| uniform.
and of the moon| lours.
(which was un-| [Streak
usually bright).| white ?]
1877.

Oct. 9/12 12 a.m.|Charleville, Very bright fire- Rather long
(Paristime;} near Meziéres,| ball. duration ;
=123a.m.| Ardennes, 3-5 secs,

G.M.T.) | France (and

Antwerp).

[See calcula-
tion of the

real path;

Appendix I.,
Supplement. ]

Position or
Apparent Path

From near E.8.E.,
alt. about 15°,
to near 8.S8.E.,
alt. about 20°;

centre of course

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 109

_ OBSERVED, CHIEFLY IN THE YEARS 1878-1879—continued.

aoe of Direction or Radiant-Point Appearance, Remarks, &c. Observer or Reference

. A Perseid II. : 3 . |Left astreak . : ..W. F. Denning.

. A Perseid I.. ’ 2 . |Left a streak. In 2, 45 meteors Id.
| seen, nearly a half of them
Perseids I., radiant, exact at
46° + 58°.
. |A Perseid I.. 2 ‘ . [Left a streak. Perseids morejId.
numerous (3:1) than other
meteors; rate of all meteors
at 10 p.m., 72 per hour.
Radiant in Cepheus or Lyra |Left a bright train. Perseids/Id.
and other meteors about
equally frequent on Aug. 12,
pm. A good radiant, Aug.
9-12, at 46°+ 58°.

OMITTED IN THE ABOVE GENERAL LIST.

Length of

Path Direction or Radiant-point Appearance and Remarks Observer or Reference

5° or 50° ~. |At first nearly stationary,/Nucleus a ‘ball’ throughout,/F. Caws. Communi-}
then slightly ascending for] with a short tail almost as} cated by H. R. Proc-
2 and descending for } of] bright, and along, somewhat) ter.
its track. wavy and inflated-looking’
streak following it on 3 (or
at last on only + or 2) of its
track. The whole, short tail
and nucleus together, va-
nished suddenly at last. A |
magnificent meteor. [Seen
also in London by Mr. Pope
Hennessy ; these Reports, vol.
General form and breadth of} for 1858. p. 152.—Radiant
the head and streak. about 335° + 5° (+ 4°).]
(Descending towards N.W.) |Left behind it a long streak,|Mons. Thibout ; ‘ Bul-
which remained visible for} letin hebd. de
six seconds. [Seen also at| 1l’Assoc. Scientifique
Bristol; these Reports, vol.) de France,’ xxi.
for 1878, p. 282. Mr. Den-| (1877-78), p. 63.—
ning’s radiant is confirmed} (Mons. de Boé; ibid.)
by the Antwerp track, at
77° + 34°. ]

110

REPORT—1879.

SUPPLEMENTAL ACCOUNTS OF LARGE METEORS

Hour . P
Approx. lace 0
eae GMT. (or | Observation
Local Time)
Oct.14) About |Neuilly En-
6 15-20 thelle, Oise
(Paris (and d’Oissel
time). Station,
Rouen to El-
boeuf),
France.
14, About [Clermont Fer-
6 55 p.m.| rand (and
(Paris Dijon, Vin-
time). cennes, Paris,
Arras, Yvetot,
Autheuil in
Eure; Cour-
ville, Eure
and Loire; St.
Honorin du
Fé, Manche).
14, About |Rubernpré, near
8 p.m. Amiens,
(Paris France.
time).
1878.

Jan.12/‘9 25 p.m. |Damblain,
(Paris Vosges,
time). France.

Feb. 4) 10 15 p.m.|Ibid.

(Paris
time).

20/10 40 p.m.
(Paris
time).

Between No-
gent and

Chaumont,
France.

Position or
Apparent Path

Apparent Size Colour Duration
From to
a 6 a 6
A fine bolide (White; the In the West.

= Bio!

rather than a| fragments [Shot from
shooting-star. red.) near Ursa major
Large size ; towards the
light like a left ;’ descrip-
lightning flash. tion in Paris
giving no time. |
Between the Colour de-|Scarcely 2 |From 1° prec. a
brightness of} cidedly seconds. Urs majoris to
Jupiter and green. (4-6 secs.,| the horizon.
Venus (4 of the} (Bright slow; Yve-| (‘Across’ the
moon’s diame-| pale-green,| tot, and sky, Yvetot.
ter at last, in} Dijon; Paris.) ‘Perpendicularly
Paris ; light blue, Vin- to Corona,’ Au-
stronger than| cennes. theuil. Ended
moonlight). White with at 22°+12°, be-
red and ginning less cer-
blue tail tain, at 14° + 45°,
and frag- St. Honorin du
ments ; Ar- Fé. Began at 7
ras, Yvetot, Ursee majoris
Paris.) and fell verti-
cally, Dijon. Be-
gan a little west
of, and shotaway
from, Ursa ma-
jor, Courville.)
Size of a shooting-|Colour of an Seen from a north
star. ordinary door ; shot quite
shooting- across the con-
star. stellation Ursa
major.
7; diam. of the|Bluishatlast,/Timeofflight,|Began in Lyra,
moon. and green| some 80 andshot towards
atbursting.| secs. [?] Saturn, disap-

pearing just
above Aquila.
. |Rather slow |‘ Appeared in the
speed. N.N.E. and shot
towards the
8.S.W. Altitude
of its course
about 25°.’

7 of the moon’s
diameter.

4th of the moon’s/Vivid green|Long dura-|Began near 6, «
diameter. at bursting.| tion; about) Cassiopeiz,

60 secs. (?)} passed near @

anda, and across

B and y Persei,
but to the right}
of
bursting near
the Pleiades.

x Persei,|

course,

Very long |From E. to W.

' OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

MITTED IN ABOVE GENERAL LIST—continued.

Direction or Radiant-point

. |Directed exactly from Po-

laris. (Going towards W.,
with a slight inclination
from §.H., Arras. — Shot
from near Ursa major
‘towards the left;’ fell
‘almost vertically,’ a little
inclined ‘from left to
right’ (?), and ‘from N.W.
to §.E.’(!), Paris; ‘in di-
rection of Boul. Sebastopol,
beginning over the Théatre
de Renaissance,’ Boul. de
St. Martin, Paris. Fell
vertically at Dijon.)

The track and final deport-|Left no streak. At bursting,|Id.

ment (even to the tracks
taken by the three frag-
ments at last) of the bolide
of Dec. 20, 1871, at Nancy
(‘C.R.’ Ixxxiv. p. 202), were
identical with this.

Appearance and Remarks

into pieces at last; lit up the
railway carriage in spite of
strong moonlight.) [Perhaps
identical with the next me-
teor (?)]

ished constantly in size as it
neared the horizon. (Nucleus
a kite-shaped body, with blue
and red vapour round it, and
a very broken flickering tail;
expanded gradually until it
burst into many fireballs or
fragments, leaving a blue
streak for a few seconds only;
Yvetot, Autheuil and Paris.
Moved, as it fell, by jerks,
Dijon ; or like a drop of gum
in water, Paris.)

meteor near Algol shot to-
wards Auriga, and disap-
peared quickly.

explosion audible.

appeared without bursting.
But about two minutes after
its first appearance, a distant
sound was heard like that of
waggons rumbling on a pave-
ment.

one fragment shot towards 6
Tauri, another towards, and
disappeared near, @ Aurigz ;
and a third moved westwards
and disappeared in Aries.
The bolide of Dec. 20, 1871,
was also green at bursting,
and it left no streak,

111

Observer or Reference

Burst like a bomb-shell. (Broke|See the next meteor.

Increased rather than dimin-|Accounts collected by

the Paris Observa-
tory and by the
‘Association Scien-
tifique de France.’
(‘Bulletin hebdo-
madaire ’ of the ‘ As-
sociation,’ tome xxi.
p. 205.)

. |Three minutes later another|Ibid.

Left no streak ; no sound of an/Mons. Guyot ;

‘Comptes Rendus,’
vol. 86, p. 729.

Left a reddish streak; and dis-|Id.; ibid.

Ibid. [For fire-
balls of Dec. 20, 1871,
Nancy, and Dee. 20,
1870, Hawkhurst,
see these ‘ Reports,’
vol. for 1872, p. 112,
and vol. for 1871, p.
32.)

112 REPORT— 1879.
SUPPLEMENTAL ACCOUNTS OF LARGE METEORS
Hour Position or
Date Patan . Ba fas Apparent Size Colour Duration a oF se
Local Time) eas a. 1B
Julyl2) 8 30 p.m./Privat, Ardéche,|Large : . |Light vivid
(Paris France. blue.
time). |
26/10 38 p.m./Montrouge, 5 The streak lay
(Paris Paris (?). little E. of th
time). zenith
ing from N.E. t
N.W. (? 8.W.)
Sep. 2) 9 35 p.m./Wonersh,Guild-/Twice or thrice as|Green, _like|About 3 secs.;|From 2721°—10
ford, Surrey. | largeas Jupiter.) burning sil-| moved to 255°—16°
ver,changed| slowly. (disappearance
to red in close to » Ophi
bursting, uchi).
6\About 9 10/Hanau (and : . [Whole dura-/Appeared in th
p-m.(Ber-| many other tion of the} S.E.; a solid-
lin time.)| places in) phenome- looking nucle
Germany. non about) and long tai
| 30 secs. stretching
| N.W.
15|Between 6)Tenez(and Con-|Very brilliant Very long du-! .
and7p.m.| stantine, and| fireball. ration.
(Local many other
times). places in) Al-
geria. And
Oct.17 the same me-'
teor (?) also
at Montpel-
lier, France.
(About |Harlton, Cam-| . . |Bright green.|About 2 secs.;/ Fell quite close
5 50p.m.)| bridge. motion the moon,
rapid.

ength of
Path

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

OMITTED IN ABOVE GENERAL List—continued.

Direction or Radiant-point

Appearance, Remarks, &c.

113

Observer or Reference

Fell towards the 8.W. hori-/Large meteor ; broke up, or fell
zon.

A magnificent fireball; broke

Shortly after a brilliant flash,

Appeared with a flash like

Whether all the accounts refer

into several pieces.

which lighted up everything,
the streak which it left was
seen, and remained visible

for 6 or 7 secs. Cloud and
haze hid the stars. No sound
heard.

to pieces at the end of its
course. Attention drawn to
it by its light while looking
for Jupiter in a telescope.

lightning; the comet-like
tail remaining when the
nucleus had disappeared, and
little stars being visible
through it with the naked
eye.

Tbid. p. 575.

‘Nature,’ vol. xviii. p.
318.

Th. Moureaux. ‘ Bulle-
tin Hebdomadaire
de 1’Assoe. Scienti-
fique de France,’
vol, xxii. p. 272.

Sydney Evershed,
‘Nature,’ vol. xviii.
p. 519.

to the same fireball is not
certain. A sound accom-
panied it at Constantine.

ng path . |Descending almost perpen-|Most brilliant, even in strong|O. P. Fisher.
dicularly, but inclined a
little from N. to S. as it
fell.

moonlight and daylight,
shortly after sunset.

Ibid.

Ibid. p.
643.

114

REPORT—1879.

LARGE METEORS IN 1878-9, OBSERVED

Place of : : Position, or
Hour Dpncrration. Apparent size Colour Duration Spree as
hm
About |Near Chelms-/Brighter than Orange . |Not veryslow|/In 8. (E. of and
9 45 p.m.| ford. Venus. under Orion).
9 50 p.m.|Writtle i =.9 . |Green . . |2 secs. (2?) . |From 11°—22° to
17°—30°.
About |Chelmsford .|Brighter than . |Not very slow|From a little W.
9 0 p.m. Venus. of Rigel to near
the horizon.
6 5 p.m. |Ibid. . jist . |Moderate . {From 311°+27°
to 313 + 20°.
About |Ibid. . |Fireball . |Fell downwards|
3 30 p.m. in N. (?)
11 5 p.m./Writtle 5 are! . |Emerald 2or3secs.. |From 245°+62°
green. _ to 207° + 52°.
10 20 p.m.|Broomfield,near} = 2 . |Emerald 2or3secs.. |From 114°+ 46°
Chelmsford. green. to 115° + 38°.
10 50 p.m.) Writtle . |= Sirius . |Orange S see . |From 194°+ 70°
to 203°+58°. |
12 25 p.m,|Tbid. Brighter than Green (?) . |0:2 sec. (?) . |From 50°+414° t

Venus.

1) Name et fas
doubtful.

ve?

4 7
ca
i
‘a
iy

y

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 115
NEAR CHELMSFORD. By H. Corner.
Appearance ; Train or Length Radiant-point ;
Sparks ; Streak, if any left, of Direction ; Remarks Observer
and its Duration Path Slope of Path.
Disappeared with bright |. : . |Somewhat in this . |Mrs. J. C. Smith.
flash behind clouds. position probably : —
pars
e .
46x ORION
e ‘. <
Short spark train; began|8° Bc c > “ .|[See the above general|H. Corder.
with flash. list. ]

eft a long streak: and). + .|Probable path :—
bright enough to light
up sky and road.

ft a streak ats : All : 3 y . |Possibly ‘same radiant
ight in daylight We ee aller ; 3 2 -|No stars out to map .
train . ; - {10° or 12°.|? From Cygnus, about
295° + 55°.
. . . ” ”
° - slic : - |Perseid
.|Perseid

-|ITwo others Ist mag.

.|Very low down; | not

Not seen by a regular
observer, so descrip-
tion vague. A bright
Ist mag. streak-
leaving meteor at
about 6.5 the same
evening. (See the
next observation.)

as the last meteor.

\ Exactly similar in
j every respect.

almost simultaneous

J. King.

H. Corder.
E. H. Christy.

H. Corder.

seen, only flash an
streak. }

D2

116 REPORT—1879.

REAL PATHS OF LARGE METEORS DOUBLY OBSERVED

Meteor’s Real Course

Date and Hour, G.M.T. (or Local
Time). Size and General Appear-
ance

Principal Places of
Observation

1858, Aug. 13, 6"39™ p.m., moon’s/London, and Ryde, I. of|28 m.

diameter. White, globular,) Wight.

with short bluish tail, and long

white comet-like train pursuing

it, but not persistent.

1868, Sept. 5, 8% 35™ p.m.|Tours, Clermont

(Berne time.) rand, Picde Sancy, «c.,
France ; Mayence ;
Zurich, Morges, Gene-
va; Bergamo; Ger-
many, Italy, and
Switzerland.

1873, Dec. 24 (7" 39" p.m.W.M.T.)
Conical nucleus, brighter than
full moon; yellow, with short
tail of red and blue sparks.
Burst (?) with loud detonation ;
left no streak.

1877, Oct. 8, 12" p.m. midnight.|Bristol, Antwerp,

Bright fireball with long streak.

1877, Dec. 9, 8° 12™ p.m. A fine/Royal

meteor = Jupiter, with long
course and streak, ‘mauve ’-
purple and green colours.

1878, April 2, 75 54™ p.m. De-/Blackheath,

tonating fireball ; } moon’s dia-
meter; red; slow, halting mo-
tion; burst into fragments.

1878, Aug. 11 (about 10" 10™ p.m.)/Bloomington, Indiana ;|About 77 m.

3 diameter of, and outshone
full moon; greenish ; burst into
three red fragments, and deto-
nated.

Washington, and neigh-

bouring towns in Vir-
ginia and Maryland ;
and at Richmond,
Newark, Danbury, &c.,
in the United States.

and
near Meziéres, France.

Observatory,
Greenwich, London,
Bromley, and Writtle
(Chelmsford). Three
or four good observa-
tions, compared to-

Height and Locality of

Beginning

End

point 20m. sea-
ward from the
French coast at
Dieppe (?)

Fer-/460 m. over a point|115[or(?)70, or 100]

a little W. of Si-
nope, Asia Minor.
[Or @) 250 m.
over Belgrade. ]

About 90m. over aj/10 or 20 (?) m. over

point near New-
castle in the
northern part of
Delaware State,
30m. S.W. from
Philadelphia.

80m. over a point|35 m. over a point

15m. W. of Alle-

maar, Holland.
55m. over

Ferry, Norfolk.

gether by Major Tup-
man.

ham, and Leicester.
Calculated path by
Major Tupman and
Professor Herschel.

Virginia and Penn-
sylvania. Notice and
calculation of the
meteor’s path by Pro-
fessor Kirkwood.

Birming-|60 m. over a point|15 m.

10m. §. from

Leicester.

the northern part
of Western Vir-
ginia (300 m. due
E. from Blooming-
ton; alt. 10°.)

(2) over aj/l2m. (?) over a

Stoke|36 m. over Stratford-

point midway be-
tween Brighton
and Cherbourg.

m. over Ozaine,
nearTours, France.

point near Fairfax
Co., Virg., 30 or
60 (2?) m. W.S.W.
from Washington.
Distance of the
track from Wash-
ington by th
sound-interval
there, 31 m.

60m. W. of the
same town.

on-Avon,

(end-height
very well deter-
mined) over a
point 5m. W.
from __ Coventry,
35 m. (agreeing
with the time-
interval of the}
sound) from Lei-
cester.

over/15 or 20 m. (?) over

Crawford County,
Pa. ; distance (by
interval of the
sound) W. of Ti-
tusville in that

‘county, 25 m.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. V7

PRINCIPALLY IN THE YEARS 1878-1879.

Distances in British Statute Miles ‘m.’

Observed Ratiaut Nearest known Radiant Point, and Remarks
Point
a 5 a )

Length of Path
and Velocity

75m. (?) in 2, or 44 secs.|335° + 5° (4 5°); nearj337°—6°, July 5-Oct. 31; Greg, 109, 137;
_ Velocity, 23 miles p.| @ Pegasi. A rough} ‘Aquariads.’ Many observed radiants near
sec.; not very certain.| approximation. this place in August,

Parabolic speed 25 m. p.

or (average) 42 secs.
Average velocity 43 [or
(2) 283] m. p.sec. Para-
bolic speed 26 m. p. sec.

ot definitely assignable ;30° N. of E.; alt. 25°/[108° + 36°, Dec. 31, 1872, Dec. 27, 1876 (a);
but probably about 120} by the mapped track.! a radiant, near Castor]. Account of the
m.in 3to5secs. [The| [Or at 115° + 38°,) meteor (by a Committee of the Society) in
parabolic speed is 35) neara,aGeminorum;} the ‘Bulletins of the Philosophical Society
and the observed speed} but about 113°(+3°);| of Washington,’ vol. ii. pp. 139-161, with a
probably about 30m. p.| + 32° (46°) is ad-| map of the fireball’s track.

sec. | missible from the ob-

servations ].

3m. in 4 secs.; 16 m. p.|77°+34°; at 16 Aurige.|Radiant-point of five other meteors on the
sec. Parabolic speed 403 same evening, W. F. Denning, at 77°+31°.
m. p. sec.
m. in 3 secs., by twojll2 + 27; between 8/108°+28°, Dec. 9, 1877; Corder. A sharply
estimates of the dura-| and +Geminorum. All| marked radiant of streak-leavying meteors
tion; velocity 33 m.p.| the observed paths| (of which this was one) apparently not
sec. (Parabolic speed| conform to it very) ‘Geminids,’ with long courses; not visible
35 m. p. sec.) nearly, with the true Geminids, at 107° + 35°, on the
10th.

m. (beginning andj117°+49° (43°); nearj180° + 49°, April 1-15, Heis M,. A principal
length of path not very} x Urs Majoris.' radiant of the April ‘ Ursids;’ whose streams
Certain) in 3 or 4 secs. are all nearly antiapical.

About 170 or 180 m. in\292°—31°, about (or|‘ The ‘Analyst,’ U.S. Journal of Mathematics,
_ ‘twoseconds.’ (An‘un-| from altitude about] vol. v. p. 178; Iowa,1878. The observations
certain ’ estimation; mo-| 17°, due south ?) are scanty, but difficult to reconcile with a
tion swift and apparent- parabolic speed of 20 (cica) m, p. sec.
ly hyperbolic.)

118 REPORT—1879.

REAL PATHS OF LARGE METEORS DOUBLY OBSERVED,

Date and Hour, G.M.T. (or Local
Time). Size and General Appear-
ance

Principal Places of
Observation

Beginning

Meteor’s Real Course

Height and Locality of

End

1878, Nov. 18, 9» 50™ pm. A
fine slow-moving meteor, as
bright as Jupiter or Venus.

Bristol and Writtle
(Chelmsford). Real
path calculated by
Major Tupman and
Professor Herschel.

point midway be-
tween Nantes and
Angers.

1878, Dec. 30 (about 6" 57™ p.m.)/Wooster, Ohio, and at

As wide as moon’s diameter,) Anderson, Ind., and} biana County,
and several times as long} Washington, Pennsyl-| Ohio.
(Wooster); greenish, and red| vania. (Notes and

at bursting, which it did into
pieces, some distance before
disappearing. No detonation
heard.

1879, Jan. 12, 7" 25™ p.m. (Berlin
time). Diameter of, and out-
shone the moon (Prague); glo-
bular with thin tail; disap-
peared suddenly. Violent shock
and detonation heard in
Prague, in 13} min. after disap-
pearance.

1879, Jan. 12, 7 32™ p.m, (Berlin|Rakonitz,
time). Similar appearance to
the last meteor, but smaller,
and not detonating.

calculation of its path
by Professor Kirk-
wood.)

dorf, Neucunnersdorf,
and many other places
in Bohemia. (Calcu-
lation, and accounts of
the fireball’s course, by
Prof. von Niessl.)

etengebirge (N.E.
of Bohemia); but
real _— beginning’
perhaps _ higher
and earlier.

near Pibram, Bo-
hemia.

dorf, &c., in Bohemia ;
and Salzburg, Zittau,
&e., in Tyrol and
Saxony.

1879, Jan. 28, 2" 28" am. Im-/Traverse City, Cheboy-
mense fireball 4 x moon’s dia-| gan, &c., Michigan;
meter (Charlevoix, Michigan,) and Princeton, Wis-
where it burst overhead into} consin. Real path and
fragments) ; fieryring of sparks} notes of the meteor
thrown off it, with earthquake] by Prof. Kirkwood.
like explosion, Traverse City,

Mich.

1879, Feb. 22, 12" 20™ a.m. Great|/Haverhill, Saffron Wal-
fireball 3 moon’s diameter; den, BurySt.Hdmunds,}] a point between
white and green, then red,| Brentwood, and Go-| Godstone and
burst into fragments; cast an| dalming. (Real path} Guildford, Surrey.
intense light; thunder-like re-| by J. BE. Clark and A.
port at Haverhill and Saffron} §. Herschel.)

Walden.

1879, Feb. 24, 125 45™ a.m. Great|York, Whitby, Hull, and/About 60m. over aj6
fireball = full moon (York),] atdistant places; Man-| point 28m. N.H.
white ; long red or yellow tail! chester, Liverpool, Bir-| from Whitby (be-

a point in N. lat.
44° 25’, long. 9°
W.

50m., or 75 m. over|5

seen at Brighton (at a dis-| mingham, Brighton,| ginning, unob-
tance); light like ‘a summer} Dundee, &c. served, still
day ;’ broke up or went out earlier).

suddenly; violent report like
an earthquake at York (and
Stockton) in 13 min.

70 or 80m. over aj45 or 50 m. over a
point midway be-
tween Le Mans

and Laval, France.

72m. over Colum-|17 or 18m. above Tus-

carawas County,
Ohio (the explo-
sion); height at
final disappear-
ance about 12 or
13 miles.

Prague, Rakonitz, Peters-|40 m. over the Sud-|9 m. over Rakonitz;

25m. W. from
Prague (where
distance by sound
interval was about
18 m.).

Neucunners-|78 m. over a point|23 m. over Grosshain,

near Dresden.

Nearly 100m. over/26 m. over Charle-

voix, Michigan
(probably lower,
or continuing its
flight somewhat
further ?)

or 6m, over a
point between
Haverhill and
Newmarket, Cam-
bridgeshire.

or Wm

tween Leeds and
Selby.

over a .
point midway be-

SS

About 70 m. (The duration

not recorded.)

About 85 m. in about 2

24 m., in 3-5 secs.; 6 esti-

bout 124 m.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 119

PRINCIPALLY IN THE YEARS 1878-1879—continued.

Length of Path
and Velocity

of the meteor’s flight was

secs. (first part of the
flight). Velocity uncer-
tain.

Distances in British Statute Miles ‘ m.’

Observed Radiant Nearest known Radiant Point, and Remarks

Point
a 5

a ) \

354° + 1°; at A Piscium.|350° + 2° Dec. 12, 1877; Denning. A radiant
[The radiant-point of] of very slow meteors, one of them a fireball.
Clausen’s ¥ is in this} 4 + 4 December, Schmidt.
constellation from
mid - November to
February.

90° + 55° (+10°); near|American ‘ Philosophical Society’s Proceedings,
5 Aurigee. (Direction| May 2, 1879; p. 241.
not very well deter-
mined.)

133° + 19° ( + 3°); near|130°+ 20°, Dec, 21-Jan. 5, 1876-7, Denning ;

mates; average velocity
18m. p.sec. (Parabolic
speed 23 m. p. sec.)

[24 m. in ‘10 secs.’ (and

60 m. in ‘5 secs.’); two
estimates of duration;
velocity about 12} m.
11 m, p. sec.)

‘not certainly estimated.

JAbout 85 m. in 2-5 secs./Between 135° and 145°/141°—2°, Jan. 1-March 16, Greg 15, 1876;
Length of path and} =a, and 0° and + 10°
duration not exactly de-| =8; near the head of

termined.

p. sec. (Parabolic speed

Duration

bout 87 m. in (?) 6 or 8310° (+ 15°), + 55°
‘secs. Velocity about 143) (410°) (alt. 32° N.
m™. p. sec. (Parabolic! 39° H.); provisionally
os about 18 m. p.| given by the adopted
sec.

8 Cancri. g# 1680, Dec. 26, 132° + 21°5°; fireball, Jan.
19, 1877 (Ireland) 135-5° + 22° (von Niessl).
The ‘Cancrids’ of January.—Vienna Acad.
‘ Sitzungsberichte,’ vol. Ixxix., May 8, 1879.

52°— 10° (+ 5°); near|57°—12°, Jan. 4-20, 1877; Dec. 2, 1877. And
y Eridani. fireball of Jan. 7, 1877, England; 48°—11°
(von Niessl).—Ibid.

From alt. about 47°|Apparently a Jan.Feb. ‘Cancrid;’ 133° + 26°,
S.W. by S. (corre-| Feb. 13, 8.2. 32; and ¥ 1833 y, Jan. 27,
sponding to 142°+14°;} 135° + 25° (?). American ‘Philosoph. Soc.
between Leo and} Proceedings,’ May 2, 1879, p. 243. |

Cancer).

145° + 8°, Feb. 24, 1878; stationary, 4th
mag. meteor; E. F. Sawyer.

Hydra.

No previously observed radiant at this place in
February-March.

real path ; near x Ce-
phei.

120 REPORT—1879.

[ Continued from page 91.]
the snow-clouds in the north-east for some seconds before the nucleus
could be distinguished, exactly resembling the light of the moon rising
behind the clouds in that direction.

It may therefore be concluded that the meteor passed about 40 miles
over a point just south of Whitby and about 20 miles nearly over, but one
or two miles north of York, to a point not more than six or eight miles
above the earth, about midway between Leeds and Selby. The direction
of this path is from 39° E. of N., alt. 32°, which at the time of the
meteor’s appearance corresponds to a celestial place of the computed
radiant-point at 310° + 55°, near x Cephei, a position, in February or
March, of which no morning observations hitherto appear to have been
obtained. The radiants of the comets 1854 IV. (Weiss, Feb. 13,
304°+37°5), and 1845 I. (Feb. 25, 309°+30°5), appear also to be too
distant from this place to be compatible with the fireball observations.

Remarks on Double Observations of Large Meteors recorded in the
Supplementary List.

1858, August 13, 65 39™ p.m. Fireball over the English Channel.—
According to the observation of Mr. Pope Hennessey in London (these
Reports, vol. for 1858, p. 152), a fireball exactly similar to that described
near Ryde passed in two seconds from §.8.E., alt. 25°, to 8.S.W., alt. 12°.
At Ryde it travelled in 5-5 seconds from about H.S.E., alt. 15°, to 8.S.E.,
alt. 20°. The lines of bearing intersect for the commencement about 20
miles off the French coast at Dieppe, 95 miles from both Ryde and Lon-
don; and for the end point about half-way between Cherbourg and
Brighton, 95 miles from London and 35 miles from Ryde. Comparing
together the altitudes and distances at which the first and last points
respectively of the meteor’s course were observed from the two places, it
will be seen that there is no exact agreement, the altitudes at the com-
mencement being 25° and 15° at the same distance, 95 miles, from London
and Ryde, while those of the end point are 12° and 20°, instead of about
8° and 20°, corresponding to the distances of 95 and 35 miles from Lon-
don and from Ryde. In order to remove the discrepancy, the altitudes at
first appearance cannot be retained without an enormous rotation north-
wards of both of the lines of sight of the meteor’s starting point. It is
true that very small departures of the two end point bearings from their
assigned directions, by removing the end point southwards, would bring
the final altitudes into good agreement. But it seems more probable that
both the altitudes (12° and 25°) at London are as usual a little overrated,
and if they are diminished by a third part, to 8° and 17°, their agreement
with the altitudes observed at Ryde is then extremely close. The con-
cluded heights are then 28 miles over the first and 12 miles over the last
of the two points of intersection, and the length of path is 75 miles directed
from an altitude of about 12° nearly due east. The correction which this
provisional path seems to require most urgently is increase of height,
especially at the end point. It would, in this case, be more nearly hori-
zontal, and at the same time directed somewhat towards the south of
west, or from somewhat north of east. The provisional radiant point on
this supposition was about 5° north of east, alt. 5°; and of this origin of
its flight, as a fairly probable direction, the corresponding celestial place

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 121

has been adopted in the table. The uncertainty of the meteor’s real height
and distance scarcely allows its real velocity (75 miles in 2 or 44 seconds)
to be very confidently derived from the observed durations. The para-
bolic speed for the adopted radiant-point is 25 miles per second.

1877, October 8-9, midnight. Fireball in Holland.—T wo observations
of this fireball besides that mapped by Mr. Denning (these Reports, vol.
for 1878, p. 282) were obtained, at Antwerp, and near Meziéres, on the
French frontier of Belgium. Although of the vaguest description, they
yet confirm each other and support Mr. Denning’s conjecture of the
meteor’s radiant point. Adopting this as quite certainly established, the
meteor’s real path may be pretty surely determined from the rough account
of its apparent course at Antwerp. It appears to have been from 80 miles
above a point of the German Ocean 15 miles due west of Allemaar to 35
miles above the sea 60 miles due west of the same town in Holland. The
real length of path, 63 miles, performed in four seconds, gives a velocity
relative to the earth of nearly 16 miles per second. The parabolic speed
for the meteor’s adopted radiant-points at 77° + 34° is 40°5 miles per
second.

1877, October 14, 65 15-20" and 6" 55™ p.m. (Paris time). A very
brilliant fireball (? two distinct ones) over Rouen and the mouth of the
Seine, France.—No time of appearance was recorded by one observer,
Mons. Martin, in Paris, who described the fireball as proceeding ‘from
near Ursa Major towards the left,’ and as this is opposed to another de-
scription in Paris, that it fell almost vertically, a little inclined from left
to right, and is only imperfectly corroborated by a third statement there,
that the nearly vertical descent (in the west) was ‘a little inclined from
N.W. towards S.E.’ (? S.W.), it is just possible that two other observa-
tions near Rouen, and at Neuilly Enthelle, in Oise, which give the time:
of appearance 6" 20™ and 65 15™, instead of 64 55™, may relate to another
perfectly similar and very similarly situated meteor to the later one, of
which this discordant account in Paris may have been an additional
description. But the celestial positions of the later meteor’s path at ‘7
p-m.,’ given by the observer in the Department of La Manche (which were
indeed only gathered from descriptions), are also quite irreconcileable
with the delineation of the meteor’s course by the stars at Clermont
Ferrand, although in conjunction with all the other statements they also
agree in defining the radiant point’s position as very near the zenith.

_ The whole of the very conflicting particulars of the recorded paths and

times of appearance of the meteor may therefore perhaps relate really to
the descent of only a single great fireball near the mouth of the Seine a
few minutes before 7 o'clock (Paris time) on the evening of October 8.
The stars between Cygnus and Cepheus were in the zenith at that hour,
and the meteor was without doubt directed from one of the northernmost
of the Lacertid group of radiants in Lacerta and Cepheus, which are

: thickly clustered in and about the latter constellation in October. No

sound of a detonation appears to have been distinguished, although the
fireball burst ‘like a bombshell’ at the end of its course into many
brilliant pieces; and it left a streak visible for a few seconds only on its
course.

et SE

‘on ‘snpredoyoureg “est ut Toda sq} 4%

OIGISTA SIOMOYS Ioyjo LavUt 911} PUL ‘OTE + oGF SPLISNIL !F 'AON-TE "FO [0G t ofF ‘SPUAMP OY} JO IO oTE + oT PUL “O91 + o0GT Sola oGS
‘TIL pur ‘IT “I sp209ung VY} JO SUOT}VOTpUL peplosp OU aavs raqniy ‘Iq Aq poyoeford srooyout Jo IoquINU soe, oyy YVTy IV[MSUIS SI 4T

A ; : qpranyog | * * 1090900 | OF — OF
juoypor omatp Atuoredde smn Jo pounber ||. (oq) uemdog, | gger‘gzoquoson | ¢— 28 | ac or |p | — | are
: ‘ ‘ (gz) wemdny, | 698T “9-g10q0}90 | FI — FF FI— €9
‘IOMOYS MOU W == = "=a Lae Ole 61 El-p
‘qanSny—Aqne ut yatod styy if ; (ZL8T) ‘Sa | ‘SL ‘AON-66 "990 | LE + 6
WOIF STUISTA St (E+ 2 ‘I Sepemorpuy (eZ1) LL8Tsuraueg | * €1 AON-Z'°}O | GE + 8
‘EOI 8.019 =) Tomoys pauyep-[[ea Yor vl * (891) ‘'Z pus ‘sg [S98T‘ZIIequIOAON | FE + 9 6e+ OT 8 OI-L xX
“(L) peugop ATdreyg *ayemo0y ( ‘ (gg) uemdny, | G98T‘,tequteaon | fF + FFET G+ géI 9 BI- ol
16) LLST
‘spuuhy ‘eStmy g JO “W o§ “AMOS OATOW | (8S) SLST ‘Surumsq | ‘SI ‘AON-ZI “20 | FF + 86 I¥+ OOT &I €1-6 ‘TIIA
"LLST ‘9T-S1 “90 ‘a
Aq ose weeg (TFT) Samp = st x1s-Aquomy, | (1g) 8287 “Surumod | * GT ~T 1eqUIaAON | 8h + ET 6g+ SEI 81 Siet TIA
, VA Royags ‘el raqoqo +
o |. ‘91 A0N-8 “990 ‘od+ oL0T (eet) Som = J)’ Saat mc ioaet Gees aor
& | “6981 ur romoys pouyop-yfoa puw eanoe uy |]. (ce) weudny, |gggr‘z xoqmoaon | 4+ Tor} e+ gor | or | #-@ | TA
rl ‘T spline, Wor; TaMoys
qOUTISI “TZ-OS 1040300 ‘oFS+o9L OquIH | * (FOI) 'Z pUe“g /898T‘OTIEquIOAON | OG + OL | 961+ OL II 1-6 "A
a *SONSOTVyVO SNOLIVA LLSTCSeD)
S) WoIy psonpap puv padarasqo sf outu-AjI0,q | BAST (GF) Surmuaq | *€T “AON-8Z “390 | 8F + T9
a ‘lestog yqestuaz |* ° (Cy) steH | 143-91 tequieaon | 6g + 69 eo+ 2&9 G81 81-1 “AT
Fa *‘SUOTJVAIASYO S,1[OIZaZ WOIT | * (gg) Suruusg | * 9-T tequraaoN | 19 + OTT | 969+ TIT GST FI-¥ ‘TI
“086 + 099 EMey, & pue (6F) ZI AON-ZI “20 | LE + 29
“066 + oSF STIOITY 2 “oLG+ 069 TOSIOT > Teou (Fg) QLST ‘Surmmog |) gI-T requieaon | #4 + 99 |S St Zo'L
SIOMOYS YIM posnyzuoo ATqeqoid Area pue CF) 9 09q-ZT ‘3990 | 16 + G9 Ler+ 99 9
‘N deg 003 st uortsod sreqnag "T sprmeyl}* * (9gT) SomH | “Og ‘“AON-16 "990 | 0 + 09 |S:0EF LE -F1 SI-1 ‘II
‘stuoay » ye Ayastoard st arjue0 sq, | * (gg) ueudny, | 69ST ‘TT teq0}790 | SI + OST | GI*S-6FT i ar : CD
"TL8T Ul teqniy fq uses querper etqnog (I) |° ° yprmmpg |* * r9qo0Q | 6G + OFT | 6+ SOFT g
; "998T ‘Tyemog ‘spmuory |* (TLT) “H pue'y | ST-€I equeaon | Eo + GFT | GIF SFI | O-€T a= Tt
g 2 g 2 TogUIaAON | 4,
$00 TOA “ST Jo uvipe TOUWPAON] yomoyg Jo | Pd
iss ect aeTeCL 2° NOR co aens Reet el Sire ge
a SIDAIOSGO 1OTIO LIST *toquuy T
re

‘SUOTJBAIOSGO TOYO YYIM poredutoo “(gFE osvd ‘gygT ,“jaodey WoTJeLOOSsy YStIIIg ,) sTVqG SuTpooysS OP's Worf poatsiod.
‘Q[-[ AWAWAAON WOd SENIOd INVIGVY 8,uastnUuy "T

t
f

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.

123

Meteor Showers observed by W. F. Denning, July 21—August 10, 1878.

Total number of meteors seen, 621, in 34 hours’ watching.

Duration Radiant
July 31—August 1 332 + 50
July 27-31 341-13
July 21—August 1 32 +53
July 31—August 1 . 12+70
July 31—August 1 . 321+ 31
August 1-2. 291 +70
July 25-31 6+ 37
August 10 - 6 +37
July 29—August 2 . 333 +9
11447
July 21—August 1 . ee i or
July 25-26 5 : 332 + 37
July 26—August 1 28 +36
July 26-31 : eS +58
August 7-10 421 4 54
August 7-10. : 44 + oy
July 31—August 1 . 6+11
July 29—August 1 23 +41
July 26-31 333 +18
July 27-31 332 + 27
July 26-27 354 + 42
July 28. 305 —15
July 31—August tx 3+ 27
July 30-31 96+ 72
July 27-31 28 + 28
August 1-10 47 + 25
July 20-28 18+59
July 21. 234 + 48
July 31—August 1 65 + 60
July 21-31 : 50+ 75
Slightly seen but
And 2 both probably {28s ue
good radiants J a A
July 31. 224138
July 30-31 : 31418
July 31—August 2 331 + 62
July 30-31 49 +31

WNW ANWWAANANAINDAHNS

wo >

Short swift meteors.
No streaks.

Lacertids.

Slowish long meteors.
Max.

Swift short meteors.
Max. July 31.

Not swift, faint. No streaks.

Very slow. Max. August 1.

Streaks.

Swift short meteors. No streaks.
Draconids.
Swift streak-leaving
meteors. | anaromedes
Swift meteors.

Very slow meteors.
Very swift meteors.
Swift. Streaks.
Bright slow meteors. Long paths.
Very swift meteors. Streaks.
Swift meteors. Streaks. Perseids.
Meteors very swift with streaks.
Perseids. A double radiant.

Very swift meteors. Streaks.
Swift meteors. Streaks.
Swift faint meteors.

Very swift and faint.
Slowish faint meteors.
Very slow meteors.
Bright slow meteors.
Slow meteors. Camelids.
Swift, not quite certain.
Very swift long meteors.
Swift meteors. Streaks.
Very bright slow meteors.
Small slow meteors.
Short swift meteors.

Two showers
close together?

Streaks.

No streaks.

Bright slow meteors.

Very bright, swift, long-pathed
meteors with streaks. Seen just
before daylight.

Swift streaky meteors.

Swift meteors with streaks.

Slowish faint meteors.

Swift meteors leaving streaks.

Shower centres also strongly suspected at 33° +21°, 134°+78°, 76°+54°, 20°+ 8°,

58° + 47°,

316° + 50°, and 41° + 31°.

The above radiants may nearly all be relied on as exactly determined.

124 REPORT—1879.

A List of observed Radiants of the ‘Geminids.’ By R. P. Greg.

No. | Ra. Dec. Observers and Mems.—‘ Geminids,’ December 9-14
° oo
1 104+ 37 | R. P. Greg, Dec. 10-11, 1877. Paths short, quick, not trained,
2 108+28 | Corder, Dec. 9-12, 1877. Paths long, slower, trained.
3 107+33 | Denning and Corder, Dec. 10-14, 1876 and 1877. (Three dif-
ferent results, almost identical.)
4 95 +33 | Dr. Heis, Dec. 8-11. (New Catalogue of 1876.)
5 | 105+32] R. P. Greg. General Catalogue (average) 1876.
6 110+40 | Major Tupman, Dec. 12, 1870.
ff 115+33 | Tisserand. Toulouse Observatory, Dec. 11, 1876.
8 | 112+34 | Mr. Wood, 1860.
9 | 112+39 | Dr. Heis, Dec. 1-15. (M,, Old Catalogue of 1867. Incorrect
position ?)
10 | 111+27 | Dr. Schmidt, Dec. 10-21. (Catalogue.)
1] 100+33 | Greg and Herschel, 1867. British Association Catalogue and

Atlas. (Schiaparelli and Zezioli’s Caret.)

107 +333) General average position of Geminid Radiant. N.B.—Gruey
thinks it a multiple radiant, so does Mr, Denning.

Radiants of Geminids,

Two different showers, one probably at 107° + 37°, and the second at 110°+ 30°, with
slower meteors and longer paths, and with more distinct streaks than the first one.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. - 125

AppEeNDIxX BY Dr. FLicut.

The Butcher Meteoric Irons of Cohakuila.}

Dr. L. Smith publishes a further paper on the new mineral occurring
in the irons, to which mineral he has given the name of Daubréelite. It
possesses the following composition :—

Calculated. Found.
Sulphur 4 ‘ , : : 44-29 43°26
Chromium . : é s 36°33 36°38
Tron 5 5 A 4 , 19°38 20°36
100:00 100-00

It is a sulphide corresponding in atomic constituents to the well-known
oxide, chromite (FeO,€rO;), daubréelite being FeS;€rS3, sulphur re-
placing the oxygen. The calculation of the composition is based upon
the sulphur found in the analyses, The finer powder obtained by cutting
sections of the irons are treated with a magnet to remove the nickel-iron;
that remaining consists of torilite and daubréelite. This is then digested
with strong hydrochloric acid several times; all the troilite dissolves
readily, and the residue consists of the new sulphide. ‘It consists of
shining black fragments, more or less scaly in structure, not altogether
unlike fine particles of molybdenite.’ The fracture is uneven, except in
one direction, where there appears to be acleavage. It is brittle and easily
pulverised, the fine particles retaining their brilliancy. It is not magnetic,
and but slightly altered before the blow-pipe. It is not acted upon in
the slightest degree by hydrochloric acid, either cold or hot, but dissolves -
slowly and completely in nitric acid when warmed with it. The specific
gravity is 5°01.

Other meteoric irons, such as those from Toluco, Mexico, and Sevier
Co., Tennessee, contain this mineral.

The Ovifak Irons.—Found 1870.?

The Academy of Sciences of Paris appointed a commission to report
on a paper by Dr. Lawrence Smith on the supposed native iron of
Greenland, and their report has recently been presented by M. Daubrée.
It is pointed out that the bodies which come from beyond our atmo-
sphere, and which are called meteorites, present, as regards their minera-
logical constitution, a most striking resemblance to certain terrestrial
rocks. The important fact that masses derived from most widely sepa-
rated regions of space should present such resemblances was pointed out
by Nordenskjéld in 1870, when he discovered large masses of native iron
at Ovifak, on the island of Disco, Greenland. The first thought which
suggested itself to him was that they were of meteoric origin. In order
to explain the fact that these masses were fused into the basalt, he
assumed that they had fallen into it while it was still liquid. Many
adopted this view, and, among others, Nauckhoff and Tschermak. Steen-.
strup, on the other hand, after visiting the locality twice, came to the
conclusion that they were masses of native iron, and that they had the.

1 Amer. Jour. Sc., 1878, vol. xvi., p. 270.
2 Compt. Rend., vol. lxxxvii., p. 911.

126 REPORT—1879.

same terrestrial origin as the basalt itself. Not far from Ovifak, in the ©

Waigatstrasse, Steenstrup found evidence which supported this theory :
in the basalt of Igdlokungoak he hit upon a mass of metalliferous mag-
netic pyrites weighing about 28,000 kilog., and again, in the basalt of
Aussuk, small grains of native iron. The graphite associated with this
iron pointed to the probability that carbonaceous substances had reduced
this metal; moreover, the rock enclosing the native iron contained the
silicate of ferric hydrate which has received the name of Hisingerite.
With these opposing views so plainly set forth, Dr. L. Smith has gone
over the whole question, and comes to the same conclusion as Steenstrup,
that the masses of metal are of terrestrial origin. He finds that in the
dolerite of Aussuk, as well as that of Ovifak, which it closely resembles,
metallic iron is found enclosed in labradorite; anorthite is likewise
found in certain parts of the mass of the rock, and oligoclase also.

Tron has been obtained from seven localities in Greenland: from
Sowallicke, Fiskenis, Niakornak, Gliick’s Bay, Jacobstown, Ovifak, and
Aussuk. The iron of Sowallicke and Niakornak is found by Dr. L.
Smith to contain combined carbon, just as the Ovifak iron does: in fact,
he states that all specimens of iron obtained from Greenland are similar
in this respect, and differ from meteoric iron, which contains no com-
bined carbon; moreover, these masses all contain cobalt in considerable
quantity in relation to nickel. Dr. Smith next refers to the similar
geological character of the area where the iron has been found, it being
found only in the basalt region, which extends from 69° to 76°, where it
disappears under a huge glacier. We shall probably never know how
wide the extent is of this volcanic area which stretches far away
north; that, however, which has been seen represents an area equal
to one extending from Gibraltar to Brest. We know that the terrestrial
rocks which present the closest resemblance to the meteoric rocks belong
to the lowest beds of the earth. Some are eruptive rocks of a basic
character, consisting of anorthite and augite, like certain lavas from
Iceland ; others are olivinous rocks, like lherzolite, to which the meteorites
containing magnesia—those, in fact, of the ordinary type—belong. The
gangue of olivinous rocks accompanying the platinum of the Urals, and
the presence of nickel in the native iron combined with the platinum,
have confirmed these relations, which are of interest alike for the geologist
and the astronomer. It was expected that among the aluminous and
magnesian rocks some might be found in which iron should begin to
make its appearance, and this gap has now been filled. In the Greenland
beds layers of lignite are found associated with the basalt, and this may
have furnished the material which has reduced the iron to the metallic
state.

The Siderolite of Rittersgriin.—Found 1833.1

The examination by Dr. Clemens Winkler of the siderolite of Ritters-
griin, Saxony, shows it to accord closely in composition with the siderolite
of Breitenbach in Bohemia, examined some years since (1871) in the
Laboratory of the Mineral Department of the British Museum; and to
strengthen the view expressed at the time that these bodies, as well as
the meteorite of Steinbach im Erzgebirge were probably members of

1 Nova Acta der K, Leop. Carol., Deut. Akad. der Naturforscher, xl. Nr. 8, 333.
‘Halle, 1878.

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 127

the same fall, possibly of the ‘ Hisenregen’ reported on by Sarctorius
(died 1609) as having fallen ‘im Meissnischen’ at Whitsuntide, 1164.

The Rittersgriin meteorite was found in 1833 by a workman employed
in clearing the forest, and offered for sale as old iron to the smith, but
without success; but in 1861 it came to the notice of the lamented
Professor Breithaupt, and was secured for the mineral collection of the
Berg-Akademie, of Freiburg. Its mean diameter is 0°43 métre, and its
weight 86°5 kilogrammes. It has recently been sawn through in Vienna,
a troublesome and costly labour extending over two months. An excel-
lent chromo-lithograph of the surface thus exposed was prepared by
Professor Weisbach, in 1876, and published with a few notes.

The meshwork of nickel-iron of the siderolite encloses the following
minerals: troilite, asmanite, bronzite, and chromite; the metallic portion
constitutes about 51-06 per cent., and the non-metallic ingredients about
48-94 per cent. of the stone. The nickel-iron contains :—

Fe Ni Co Ca P 8 Si C Asmanite.
89°990 9:740 0:230 0-035 0150 0-011 0:066 Trace 0:056 = 100-278

which constituents may be arranged as follows :—

Nickel-iron Fe,Ni : : » 98995
Iron-nickel phosphide (FeNi),P . 0293
Iron phosphide Fe,P : ; c : ‘ - 0539
Iron silicide Fe,Si ; : : : : . 0°330
Tron sulphide FeS . : ; : : ‘ . 0:030
Iron carbide . 4 : : : . : . Trace
Copper . : c : : ; : ; - 0:035
Asmanite . : - 2 . 2 é . 0°056

100:278

The iron sulphide, regarded as troilite, when in the form of pieces is
not acted upon by the magnet, and when in the form of powder but
feebly so. The ratios of iron to sulphur in troilite or iron monosulphite,
and in magnetic pyrites, differ in so small a degree that the analytical
results do not always put the question at rest. It is moreover a question
whether the meteoric sulphide, associated as it is with nickel-iron, does
not actually contain some of the metal as an ingredient. The numbers
obtained in these analyses are as follows :—

Calculated Found
iB II. Ii.
Tron . A . 63°63 65°87 63°58 63°00
Nickel 3 ._ — 1:40 — 1:02
Sulphur . g . 36:37 34:27 36°42 35°27

Silicic acid : _

100:00 101-54 100-00 99°96

The asmanite appears to have the density of 2:274-2-278, and the
following composition :—

Si0? Fe,0, CaO and MgO. Loss on ignition.

95°77! 3:16 Trace : 100:00

97°84 1°65 ” 1:01 = 100°50
As regards the crystalline form of this mineral, Weisbach considers
that the recent researches of Schuster and of Von Lasaulx, have placed
almost beyond any doubt the identity of tridymite and asmanite. It oc-
curred to the author that the relative solubility of tridymite and asmanite

1 By difference.

128 REPORT—1879.

in potash solution should be determined, and in as nearly parallel ex-
periments as it was possible to devise, it was found that of tridymite from
Siebenbiirgen 49°63 parts, and of asmanite from Rittersgriin 43°88 parts
were dissolved.

The bronzite, the most prominent of the non-metallic minerals, has
been obtained in a pure form with comparative ease. It is but slightly
affected by the blowpipe, and is not acted upon by acids with the excep-
tion of hydrogen fluoride. Its specific gravity is 3°310. It possesses the
following composition :—

iT II. III.

Silicie acid : : . 57:27 56°56 56°56
Alumina . : : SPP FAs) 2-05 2-04
Tron protoxide . : . 10:99 10°74 10:09
Manganese protoxide Ol 0°42 0°55
Magnesia . - : . 24°78 25°13 25°59
Lime : , ‘ ot hale? 17; 2°52 1:66
Soda . : : . not determined 1-43 1-43
Chromite . ° 5 » 0°94 0:98 0:98

98°44 99°83 98°90

No trace of olivine was met with in this material.

Heated in vacuo the substance of the meteorite lost 0°23 per cent. of
the weight, and the gas evolved took fire, but was so small in quantity
that it could not be further examined. The meteorite possesses the
‘crust of fusion’ in a fully developed form; it is of about the same
thickness as a sheet of paper, and close under it are found the mixture of
the minerals troilite, asmanite, and bronzite, of an unaltered light brown
colour, although they turn deep black when raised to a temperature
slightly above that at which lead melts. The author’s pages conclude
with some considerations on the probable temperatures of meteorites in
their passage through our atmosphere.

Meteorite from Tieschitz, in Moldavia, July 15,1878. 1.45 p.m

A stone fell at this date with the usual accompanying noise within 100
paces of some people whose attention was directed by a child four years
of age to a small dark cloud, from which a peculiar and increasing noise
proceeded. ‘This cloud was suddenly seen to become incandescent, but in
no very high degree, and the noise became still more intense when a body
was seen to fall from the cloud. The stone was warm when found. The
noise was heard about the neighbourhood 2 miles around. The stone was
secured and sent on the 19th to the Museum of the Technical High
School, of Briinn. The meteor appears to have passed over Daubrawic
and Sloup, and the path to have been directed from azimuth 108, alti-
tude 40°, or from an apparent radiant in R.A. 68°, N. declination 40°.

One stone only was found, and all search for other specimens of the
fall were in vain. The stone weighs 27°5 kilogrammes, and has the form
of an irregular pyramid with an almost square base.

The entire surface is covered with a black crust, in places of about
the thickness of that covering the stones which fell at Pultusk; on the
large convex side, which is called the ‘ breast-side,’ it is much thinner,
and exhibits a radiated character. On the back it is thicker and rougher,

1 Denkschrifte der math. Naturnissenschaften- Classe, Ahad. der Wissenschaften.
Wien. xxxix. November 21, 1878.

Se ee

OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 129

and without a trace of the radiated structure. The ‘breast-side ’ is free
from all great depressions, while the others show them, due probably in
part to the original form of the stone, partly to the action of currents of
air on the melting surface. The freshly broken surface of the stone is
dull ash-grey in hue, darker than the Pultusk stones, the texture finer
and more sharply marked than in the case of most of the chondrites.
We see many small dull grey or dark-coloured chondra, and splinters
and fragments of the same kind, many larger dull’ grey chondra, also
white small chondra and white fragments, the latter far fewer than the
former. Between them an ash-grey earthy matrix, and very few yellow
metallic lustrous particles. Most of the dark chondra are less than
1 mm. in diameter, those which have a diameter of 1mm. are fewer, and
there are occasional chondra which exceed 1 mm. in size; the largest one
had a diameter of 5 mm.

The microscopic examination of the action of this material displayed
many curious features, and appears to confirm the views already expressed
by Professor Tschermak regarding the probable influences which have
taken part in the form which the chondra and other enclosures take.

Some chondra presented an appearance which has not hitherto been
observed. They have round depressions, which point to a plasticity of
the chondra during contact, as if the spherules which form the splintered
fragments had acquired their form during the act of rubbing. Others
again have projections of a rounded form, or an almost pointed end.
These chondra are the result of volcanic eruptions or explosions.

Olivine.—Both in the matrix, and in many chondra, well-developed
crystals of olivine were met with. They have the same crystalline form
as the olivine in basalt. Many of the chondra consist of individual
crystals. Many crystals have cavities enclosing black angular grains, or |
a black impregnation of the crust, or black slightly translucent spherules
or enclosures of ‘glass’; some exhibit a most distinct surface of the
enclosed material.

Bronzite.—Barred and fibrous individuals of a brown colour are re-
garded as bronzite. Some of the barred chondra shown in the plate
accompanying the paper of Makowsky and Tschermak are very perfectly
developed and very curious. Some have a darker border, others a lighter
rim. In these chondra also the enclosed material already referred to is
met with.

Enstatite—Many of the chondra of this mineral are distinguished by
their marked foliated structure, and specimens of such are shown in the
plates. The enclosed ‘glass’ is also found in them. Many spherules,

and fragments of spherules, of a crystallised mixture of bronzite and

olivine or of enstatite and olivine were noticed, none however of a
crystallised mixture of bronzite and enstatite, and it appears therefore
as if this meteoric tuff originated from two sorts of stony mixtures.

Augite.—A few small chondra with a compact pale-coloured crust have
a texture and colour which differs from all the foregoing. The entire
spherule is shown by polarised light to be one individual; the crust is
almost colourless, the interior has a brownish-green hue. Their reaction
with light points to their being augite.

Magnetic Pyrites, and Nickel-iron—Magnetic pyrites occur as grains
enclosed in the other chondra and splinters of chondra, as well as free in
the matrix. The nickel-iron is for the most part in the form of irregular
baa with a hackly surface in the matrix. In some of the spherules

: K

130

REPORT—1879.

both magnetic pyrites and nickel-iron have a distinct concentric arrange-

ment.

The stone of Tieschitz belongs to that division of the chondritic
meteorites which Tschermak some years since classified as remarkable for
‘many brown finely fibrous chondra.’

The specific gravity of the stone

is 3°59. It contains aboot 85:0 per cent. of non-metallic minerals. No
trace of any mineral resembling a felspar could be detected. The
percentage composition of the stone was as follows :—
Bronzite 5 : Totals | Totals
Olivine an Augite Mocnege Nickel- = =
Enstatite ope tron |Calculated Analysis
SiO, 13°99 18°84 7:90 — —_— 40°73 40°23
Se,0, = — 2-09 = a! 209 | 1:93
Fe, 13°86 547 0:73 a= —- 20°06 19°80
MgO 10°94 9°53 0°61 — — 21:08 20°55
CaO = — 1:42 — — 1:42 1:54
Na,O = aa 1-26 ion = 1:26 | 1:53
Fe — — — 2°46 797 10°43 10°26
Ni — —_— — — 1:31 1:31 1:31
8 — _— — 1:62 — 1°62 1°65
38°79 33°84 14:01 4:08 9:28 100-00 y
or,
Olivine . : : 5 38°79
Bronzite and enstatite . 33°84
Augite - 14:01
Magnetic pyrites . 4:08
Nickel-iron é 9°28
100:00

Meteorite-fall at Esterville, Emmet County, Iowa, May 10, 1879, 5 p.m.)

A meteor exploded over this spot and was seen to fall in full daylight.
One fragment weighing 500 Ibs. fell on railroad land and was dug up
from a depth of 143 feet in a stiff clay soil. Another portion weighing
170 lbs. fell at a distance two miles from the first. Many smaller
pieces, of a few ounces or pounds weight, were scattered in the vicinity.
The smaller mass fell upon a dry knoll and penetrated the earth verti-
cally to a depth of 43 feet. The fall was accompanied by a noise
described as a continuous roll of thunder accompanied by a crackling
sound. The stone has been placed in the hands of Professor C. W. Hall,
of the Minneapolis University, for complete examination. The pre-
liminary examination points to the metallic portion consisting of an
alloy of iron, nickel, and tin. Full half the mass consists of stony
matter, which appears in dark-greén crystalline masses imbedded in a
light-grey matrix. When the wholé=ds powdered a violent reaction
ensues on the addition of hydrochloric ace, which is increased on boiling.
The boiling acid appears to dissolve all but the grey matrix. Some of
the crystalline masses are two inches in thickness and exhibit distinct
monoclinic cleavage. Under the microscope, in thin sections, olivine
and a triclinic felspar appear to be imbedded in a matrix of pyroxene. A

» Amer, Jow”. Se., vol. xviii., p. 77.

ON AN INSTRUMENT FOR DETECTING FIRE-DAMP IN MINES. 131

polished specimen of the iron exhibits the Wiedmanstiittian figures very
finely.

4 paper by Professor Giimbel, of Munich, entitled ‘Die in Bayern
gefundenen Steinmeteoriten’ (‘ Sitzber. der K. Bayer. Akad. d. Wissen-
schaften, math.-phys. Cl., 1878, 1) treats of the meteorites of Mauerkirchen,
Hichstadt, Massing, Schénenberg, and Krihenberg. He gives their
history, their earlier analyses, and includes some new analyses, and a
plate showing the microscopic sections as seen by the microscope.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Davin Git, Professor
G. Forses, Mr. Howarp Gruss, and Mr. C. H. Giminenam,
(with power to add to their number), appointed to consider the
question of Invprovements in Astronomical Clocks.

This was only a preliminary Report, and at Mr. Gimingham’s request
its publication is delayed until next year.—[ Ep. |

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forsus (Secre-
tary), Professor W. G. Apams, and Mr. W. E. Ayrton, appointed
for the purpose of improving an Instrument for detecting the

— presence of Fire-damp m Mines.

THis instrument is intended to measure the quantity of fire-damp in a
coal mine. From the rough model shown by Professor George Forbes
last year, the Committee have constructed two new instruments, which
appear to them to answer their purpose quite well. The one is of a large
size, and is worked by an electric battery, and is rather expensive. The
other is small, portable, easily worked, and answers all the purposes for
which it is required. Both instruments are founded upon the facts, that
sound travels quicker in light gases than in dense ones, and that air which
is contaminated with fire-damp is lighter than pure air. The velocity of
sound in different qualities of air is compared by noting the lengths which
must be given to a brass tube to cause it to resound to a tuning-fork.
The length of tube is proportional to the velocity of sound. The instru-
ment consists essentially of a tube with a tuning-fork at one end of it,
and closed at the other end by a piston which can be moved in and out so
as to lengthen or shorten the tube. The tuning-fork is caused to sound,
and on moving the piston in and out the sound is heard to augment and
diminish according to the position of the piston in the tube. The piston
must be left in that position which gives the loudest sound. The length
of the tube under these conditions measures the velocity of sound, and
thence the percentage of fire-damp in the air.

In the large-sized instrument the tuning-fork is kept in vibration by
an electric current which is made and broken in each vibration acting on
an electromagnet so as to maintain the vibrations. The Committee
have been unable to arrange the contacts in such a manner as to prevent
the occurrence of a false note of considerable loudness. But in spite of
this the ear can detect the true note and regulate the position of the

K 2 ;

132 REPORT—1879.

piston with even greater accuracy than when the tuning-fork is otherwise.
set in vibration. The reason is, that in other cases there is an irregularity
in the loudness of the sound which alters slightly the velocity of the
sound.

In the small-sized instrument the tuning-fork is set in vibration by
means of a striker or rod, which is drawn by the hand between the prongs
of the tuning-fork (which approach each other at their extremities). A
little practice enables anyone to obtain in all cases the same loudness of
sound. The Committee have added to this instrument a circular scale
along which an index travels, being moved by a rack on the piston so
arranged that it cannot give a false indication. By this means the length
of tube can be read off easily, even in a bad light. In its present form
the instrument is easy of use and convenient, and cannot easily get out
of order. A thermometer is attached by means of which the small
temperature correction can be applied. The percentage of fire-damp is
read off directly upon the scale.

The accuracy of the instrument is such that the percentage of fire-
damp can be determined with an error of considerably less than one per
cent. The Committee would draw attention to experiments described in
the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for April 1879, which show that a difference
of one part in 300 is not found between different observations of the
length of tube which resounds to a given tuning-fork.

On August 25, 1879, the Committee were enabled to descend the
Wharncliffe Silkstone Colliery by the kindness of the manager, Mr, George
Walker, who accompanied them, with a few other gentlemen interested in
the experiments. This pit is at a depth of 200 yards. Mr. Walker had
kindly arranged to stop the ventilation of the pit at the end of the
workings, so after proceeding a mile through the galleries they came to.
this spot, where they hoped to find a large amount of fire-damp. But
only a slight quantity was to be found; the Davy lamp generally showing
but a feeble blue cap, and the Forbes’ indicator registering only small
percentages. Disappointed here, they were taken by Mr. Walker to
another working, where it was thought possible that there might be some
gas. Here in a crevice in the roof a flow of gas was found forming a
stratum of light gas. Here the instrument indicated quantities gradually
increasing from 14 per cent. as the tube got filled with the air in the
crevice, up to 28 per cent. But the small quantity of gas rendered this
experiment unsatisfactory, and the Committee were then taken to a
disused part of the mine where it was known that there was a blower.
Here sufficient quantities were found, and the instrument registered gas
with more readiness than the Davy lamp. But the greatest quantity
registered was 6 per cent., or twelve times the smallest quantity which
the indicator detects. The fact is that there is in the present form of the
instrument a difficulty in filling the tube with the air of the place under
examination. The Committee consider that it would be well to alter the
instrument so as to obviate this difficulty ; and they also recommend that
experiments should be made to test whether the calculated percentages of
fire-damp agree with actual experiment. They have also to report that
the instrument was of a convenient form so as to be portable, and was
very consistent in its indications, and they can assert that this instru-
ment is capable of detecting and measuring fire-damp even in small
quantities.

’

ON THE CHEMISTRY OF SOME OF THE LESSER-KNOWN ALKALOIDS. 133

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. CuanpLER Ropers,
F.RS. (Secretary), Dr. C. R. ALpeR Wricut, and Mr. A. P. Lurr,
appointed for the purpose*of investigating the Chemistry of
some of the lesser-known Alkaloids, especially Veratria and
Bebeerine.

Srvcz last year investigations have been made on the alkaloids contained
in Veratrum album, and V. viride, with the following general results. As
the details of the experiments have already been communicated to the
Chemical Society in two papers (‘Journal of the Chemical Society,’
1879, i. pp. 405 and 421), it is unnecessary to quote them here.

Each kind of root was treated by the process described in last year’s
Report, viz., percolating with alcohol acidulated with tartaric acid,
evaporating to a small bulk, treating with water to precipitate resin,
filtering, alkalising with soda, and repeatedly shaking with a large bulk
of ether, the ethereal solutions of alkaloids, &c., thus obtained being
agitated with aqueous tartaric acid to remove the bases and then used
over again. In each case a certain amount of flocculent alkaloidal mat-
ter was left undissolved by the ether, consisting mainly of an alkaloid
analogous to jervine, but differing therefrom in certain respects, to which
accordingly the name Pseudojervine is applied. The solutions of tartrates
of alkaloids obtained were treated with soda and about an equal bulk of
ether, whereby a large portion of the bases was dissolved in each case,
but some left undissolved, especially with the V. album product; this
insoluble matter contained pseudojervine, together with a little jervine,
and in the case of the V. albwm product, a large quantity of an
uncrystallisable base sparingly soluble in ether, to which the term
Veratralbine is applied, as this body does not seem to be present in
V. viride roots in any considerable proportion. The second ethereal
solutions thus obtained deposited in each case crystals of jervine and a
little of a new base to which the term Rubjervine is applied ; the mother
liquors of these crystals dried up to varnish-like masses, which were not
identical in the two cases; the product from V. album roots consisted
essentially of veratralbine, with a minute quantity of an alkaloid forming
veratric acid on saponification with alcoholic potash ; this base was the
only alkaloid of the saponifiable class present in the roots; presumably it
was the veratrine obtainable from V. sabadilla seeds, as described in last
year’s Report, inasmuch as the mixture of this base and veratralbine
obtained was powerfully sternutatory, whilst the peculiar tendency to
provoke sneezing was lost on treatment with alcoholic potash (neither
jervine, pseudojervine, rubijervine, nor veratralbine produces sneezing).
The product from the V. viride roots was even more powerfully sternu-
tatory than that from the V. album roots; it consisted, however, almost
wholly of Cevadine (the second crystallisable alkaloid obtainable from
V. sabadilla seeds, as described in last year’s Report), not more than
traces of either veratralbine or veratrine being contained; on saponifica-
tion it yielded about the theoretical quantity of cevadic acid (the
methyl-crotonic acid of Frankland and Duppa, identical with the tiglic acid
of Geuther),

134 REPORT—1879.

The following table shows the approximate quantities of the different
alkaloids contained in a kilogramme of each root examined :—

V. album V. viride
Jervine 1:3. grammes . . 0-2 grammes
Pseudojervine 0-4 o - ° 0-15 x
Rubijervine . . 0°25 ay 5 ° 0:02 >
Veratralbine. 2°2 PS ah, : Not more than traces
Veratrine . t 0:05 p 2 5 Trace ; less than 0:004
Cevadine . . Apparently absent . 0°43
Total . ° A 4:20. 3 . : 0:80

The V. album roots were consequently about five times as rich in
total alkaloids as the V. viride roots.

The following are the chief characteristics and properties of the new
alkaloids examined ; in many respects the statements of former observers
concerning the alkaloids of these two kinds of roots appear to be
erroneous, probably owing to the complete separation of jervine, &c.,
from the other substances now shown to be also present never having
been previously effected.

Jervine.—When crystallised, C,, H3, NO3, 2H.O: if the crystals sepa-
rate from too hot or concentrated alcoholic liquors, somewhat less water
is frequently present ; readily becomes anhydrous at 100°; melts at 237°-
239° (purest specimens—corrected). Forms an almost insoluble sulphate,
aud a very sparingly soluble hydrochloride and nitrate. The gold salt is
C,, Hz, NO;, HCl, AuCl,, H,O, the water of crystallisation being lost
only slowly at 100°. With strong sulphuric acid dissolves to a yellow
fluid, quickly darkening to a greenish brown, which soon becomes a fine
green by absorption of a little water from the air if in an open dish; if in
a test tube, becomes green by cautiously adding minute quantities of
water. Not sternutatory: not saponifiable. The formula assigned in
1837 by Will to jervine (isolated by Simon), Cg, Hy; N. O; (C=6, 0=8),
modified by Gerhardt and his followers to C3) H,, Nz O3, is considerably
incorrect, the error being apparently due to an imperfect nitrogen
determination (by volume), and to the presence of pseudojervine in the
substance examined.

Pseudojervine.—Crystallises anhydrous, Cj, Hy; NO, Externally
resembles jervine closely: melts at 299° (corrected): forms a sulphate
crystallisable and soluble in water, especially when hot. Hydrochloride
very sparingly soluble in water even when hot, provided no free hydro-
chloric acid is present. Gives with sulphuric acid exactly the same
colour reaction as jervine. Not saponifiable: not sternutatory.

Rubijervine.—Crystallises anhydrous, C., H,,; NO, : resembles jervine
in appearance, and melts at nearly the same temperature (236° purest
specimen—corrected). Sulphate and hydrochloride erystallisable and
readily soluble in water, especially if warm. With strong sulphuric acid.
forms a yellow solution, becoming brownish yellow, brownish orange,
brownish blood-red, and ultimately brownish purple by absorption of
moisture: by cautious dilution with water the brownish blood-red fluid
becomes successively crimson, purple, dark lavender, dark violet, light
indigo. Not saponifiable ; not sternutatory.

Veratralbine.—Amorphous, approximately C., Hy, NO;. No erystal-
lisable salts obtained as yet. With sulphuric acid dissolves to a yellow
fluid, becoming brownish orange and brownish blood-red, with a strong

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 135

green fluorescence; in this respect it closely resembles cevadine, which
only differs in giving somewhat clearer tints, a crimson-magenta coloured
fluid of a peculiarly beautiful and permanent shade being developed on
absorption of a trace of moisture ; veratrine (of Couerbe) gives precisely
the same colours as cevadine, but the dark red solution formed before the
crimson tint is developed by absorption of moisture does not exhibit any
fluorescence. Veratralbine is not saponifiable, and is not sternutatory.

Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor PRrEstwicn,
Professor Huaurs, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Professor L. C.
Mratzt, Rev. H. W. Crosskny, Messrs. W. Prenaetty, W. Mo y-
neux, D. Macxintosu, R. H. Tippeman, J. E. Lez, and J. Puant,
and Dr. Drann, appointed for the purpose of recording the
position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size and
origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
reporting other matters of interest connected with the same, and
taking measures for their preservation. Drawn wp by the Rev.
H. W. Crossxzy, Secretary.

Durine the past year several contributions of interest and importance
have been received respecting the position and distribution of Erratic
Blocks.

Mr. Townshend M. Hall, F.G.S., reports the finding of a boulder (May
1879) in cutting a drain in the village of Bickington, parish of Frem-
ington, beneath the turnpike-road leading from Barnstaple to Bideford,
at a point two miles W. by S. of Barnstaple. Its dimensions are 3 x 2°5 x 2
feet. It is rounded and smooth on the sides and under surfaces. The
upper face is rough, having apparently been broken away in making the
road. It is doubtful whether there are any ruts, groovings, or striations,
the under surface having been only felt and not seen. It is composed of
fine-grained granite, and there is no similar rock nearer than Lundy
Island, 25 miles W.N.W. from the boulder, and Dartmoor, 25 miles 8.
by E. Its height above the sea is about 80 feet. It is not indicated on
any map. The larger portion still lies buried under the road, one end
having been broken away to make room for the drain. It is situated in
a bed of high-level gravels, with red sand and clay, resting upon car-
boniferous grits and shales.

The occurrence of this boulder (Mr. Hall remarks) is of special im-
portance in connection with the still larger one at Santon (described in
the first Report of this Committee, British Association Reports, 1873,
p- 193), from which it is distant 64 miles S.H. by E.

The Bickington drain was cut in places to a depth of 75 feet without
reaching the bottom of the gravel bed. Amongst the larger pebbles
associated with it, two of similar granite were found, well smoothed, and
measuring 7 x 5 inches.

Worcestershire.—Erratic blocks have been found at remarkably high
levels for the Midland district, of 750 feet, upon Frankley Hill. The
writer of this Report examined them in company with Professor Bonney

and Mr. W. Matthews.

136 REPORT—1879.

In a cutting of the new Hales Owen Railway, passing through Frankley .
Hill, the following section has been exposed :—
Permian clay.
Sand of clay texture.
Yellowish sand.
Greyish sandy clay, with Biinter pebbles.
Clay, somewhat sandy.

The heights of these various beds are very irregular throughout the
section, which is in itself about 60 feet in depth.

The Permian sandstone is exposed at one point in the section, and
fragments of it are scattered through the sands and clays.

Erratic blocks are rare in the sands and clays of the cutting itself;
one only, indeed, a greenstone, was noticed at the time of our visit,
although doubtless they occasionally occur.

No part of this section can be called a boulder clay, if by boulder
clay be meant either a clay formed beneath land ice, or a clay carried
away by an iceberg and deposited over the sea-bottom as the berg melted
or stranded.

The various sands and gravels present all the appearances of a ‘ wash’
from older beds, effected during the depression and subsequent upheaval
of the present land surface. They are neither compactly crowded with
erratics, nor are any grooved and striated fragments of local rock heaped
irregularly together. The way in which the pieces of native rock are
scattered through the beds does not indicate any other force than that
which would be exerted by the ordinary wash of the waters during the
movements just mentioned. The presence of a few erratics shows that the
wash must have taken place beneath the waters of a glacial sea over which
icebergs floated.

These beds appear to have been formed in the earlier rather than the
later part of the glacial epoch. Im a field on the summit of the section a
large number of erratics are to be seen which have been taken from a
recent surface drain. These erratics constitute a group of allied rocks
evidently from one district. Among those observed (undoubtedly, how-
ever, a large number must still be concealed beneath the soil) twenty were
felsites, two were basalts, one was a piece of varied quartz, and another a
Welsh diabase.

Professor T. G. Bonney makes the following remarks upon these
boulders :—

‘The basalts are very little if at all decomposed, such as might have
come from one of the basalts of post-carboniferous but pre-triassic age
at Rowley, Pouk Hill, or the Clee Hill. There is no reason, however, for
assigning them to the first or second of these localities ; with the third I
am not familiar. The “greenstone” is remarkably like several that I have
seen in Wales as, for example, in the vicinity of the northern end of Llyn
Padarn, from which locality, however, it is not likely to have come. If
examined microscopically it would doubtless be found to be composed of
a triclinic felspar augite and possibly olivine with some chlorite. Thus
it may be called a diabase. The felsites have a considerable semblance
one to another. They are of a greyish colour, weathering to a paler tint.
They present occasionally indications of fluidal structure and flow
brecciation, some looking rather slaggy as if from the outer part of a
flow, and I think they have been derived from this and not from an
intrusive boss. I feel certain they are from Wales, and are of Lower

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 137

Silurian age, but whether from the interbedded volcanic rocks of the
Llandeilo or the Bala series I am not sure. One would expect them to
come from the Arenig district. I have seen nothing like them in the
Lake District.’

Two of the felsites are of considerable size, the larger being
Ax 4x 2 feet.

Similar blocks may be traced almost to the summit of the hill. One
felsitic block opposite the Yew Trees is 4°5 x 3 x 2 feet.

The height of these boulders above the sea is remarkable for the dis-
trict, their highest level being about 750 feet. This fact indicates a
corresponding depression of the land, since no Welsh glacier could have
travelled over hill and down dale to this summit level. To render any
such glacier work conceivable, the Welsh mountains must have stood at
a height beyond any point for which there is the slightest evidence,

This group of boulders on the summit of Frankley Hill appears to
have been dropped by an iceberg travelling from Wales, upon the top of
the clays and sands exposed in the railway cutting, at a time when the
land was depressed at least to the extent of at least 800 to 1,000 feet.
In the clays and sands upon which the summit group of erratics rest, we
must have beds belonging to an earlier date than the close of the glacial
epoch, and the erratics in the cutting must be discriminated from those
left at the higher level.

Staffordshire—The following among the innumerable erratic blocks
scattered over the central part of the midland district deserve a special
record in addition to those described in previous Reports.

1. A boulder of felsite in the brickyard at the bottom of Oak Street,
Wolverhampton.

This boulder is of an oblong form, and measures 11x38 x3 feet for a
considerable portion of its length; although tapering in a somewhat
irregular manner towards its ends. On the upper surface are rude and
rough groovings running in all directions, and doubtless produced by
the plough; but one of the sides exposed is flat and smooth, and is
covered with parallel stris, affording an extremely fine example of glacial
action.

The clay by which it is surrounded contains many more or less
rounded pieces of granite, as well as of felsite, flints, together with
quartzite and other pebbles from the Biinter beds.

The large felsite ice-marked boulder described was probably dropped
upon the clay in which it rests, this clay itself being composed of the
material brought by one of the earlier icebergs and intermixed with
material of more local origin by the currents prevalent during the move-
ments of the sea-bottom at a later period.

In the immediate neighbourhood is a surface boulder of granite
measuring 3 x 3°5 x2 feet. The grouping of these surface boulders needs
to be carefully observed, as distinguished from the accumulation of blocks
of all kinds, in the sands and clays upon which they rest, or into the
heart of which they have fallen.

2. An erratic block of slate, situated in a field near the Fox Inn, on
the road to Trescott.

This block has split into two pieces, the larger piece measuring
11°25 x3°25x3°5 feet, and the smaller 9:°25x38x3 feet. It originally
rested upon the surface, but some years ago it was buried, in order to
utilize the land for agricultural purposes. An excavation was recently

138 REPORT—1879.

made (at the instance of the Dudley and Midland Geological Society)
that it might be examined.

This is the largest erratic block of slate that has yet been seen in the
district, and it is associated with very numerous boulders of granite and
felsite.

3. Mr. E. B. Marten has called attention to a boulder recently dis-
covered by Mr. Beale in a watercourse running nearly due N. and 8S.
near Moseley Hole, and the Wolverhampton, Willenhall, and Walsall
turnpike-road, and an accommodation road across the collieries from the
Osier Bed Furnaces and Slow Lane, to Bilston. It is in the line of the
third ‘h,’ in the words ‘Stow Heath Furnace,’ and the letter ‘ P,’ of
‘The Plough’ on the one-inch Ordnance Map, No. 62, S. W. Lichfield.

The boulder is composed of granite, and measures about 4°75 feet
every way. Its weight is probably about three tons. Its shape is sub-
angular, the angles being, with one exception, slightly rounded, but this
exception is as sharp and clean as though the block had just been detached
from its parent rock. The soil in which the boulder occurs is of a
graveliy and sandy nature, containing some pebbles bearing the well-
known indentations peculiar to, and characteristic of, the pebble beds of
Biinter. Its height is 420 feet above the sea-level.

4. At Manor Green, half-a-mile S. of Walsall, in a field near the Old
West Bromwich road, a block of felsite stands erect, like a pillar. It
measures 4°5 x 4°5 x 2 feet.

Mr. D. Mackintosh reports on the origin of the so-called ‘green-
stone ’! boulders around the estuaries of the Mersey and the Dee (the
occurrence of which has previously been recorded in these Reports by
Mr. G. Morton, F.G.S.), to the following effect :

While tracing Criffel boulders southwards, he has observed ‘green-
stone’ (or as they are locally called, ‘ whinstone’) boulders and pebbles
apparently on their way south, along with the granite on the west coast
of Cumberland, N. of Whitehaven. Between the Scottish and Cum-
brian coasts and the peninsula of Wirral (between the estuaries of the
Mersey and the Dee) the course of these boulders is lost under the Irish
Sea. The area around the Mersey estuaries in which the boulders are
very much concentrated is intensely striated, and nearly all the striz
point divergently to the S. of Scotland, i.e. between N. 15° W. and N.
45° W.

On the most extensively glaciated rock surface (successively exposed
and demolished by quarrying operations near St. James’ Church,
Birkenhead), the larger grooves point to between 25° and 30° W. of N.

A large ‘greenstone’ boulder has been found at Crosby, near Liver-
pool, resting on a perfectly flat glaciated rock-surface with strie pointing
N. 40° W.

Additional presumptions in favour of the Scottish derivation of these
boulders may be found (1) in the fact that nearly all of these boulders
consist of basic rocks similar to some at least found in the S. of Scotland ;
and (2) in the extent to which they are concentrated and almost entirely
locally limited to the peninsula of Wirral and the neighbouring part of
Lancashire. This Jast circumstance shows that they could not have come
from widely different points of the compass, while it is as probable as the

1 The word ‘greenstone’ is retained in the text because the boulders have fre-

quently been described under this name. It is, however, inaccurate. Most of the
boulders in question are dolorites or diorites.

ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 139

nature of the subject will admit that there is no single locality from which
they could have been derived excepting the S. of Scotland.

Many fresh ‘greenstone’ boulders have been lately exposed in the
newest Bootle Dock excavation. The largest is6x4°5 x3 feet, and was

found on the surface of the upper boulder clay. A very large proportion
of the boulders are excessively flattened and regularly grooved. One
has been removed to the inner end of the passage between the Liverpool
Free Library and the Picton reading-room. Three feet in diameter of its
surface are perfectly flattened and indented with deep parallel grooves
like a work of art.

It is a remarkable fact that in the Bootle Dock excavations the ‘ green-
stone’ boulders are accompanied by very little Scotch granite; while on
the shore of the Dee estuary between West Kirby and Parkgate similar
boulders are associated with much Scotch granite. It is also remarkable
(and equally difficult to explain) that whilst at Bootle the boulders are
intensely glaciated on the shore of the Dee estuary, scarcely any of them
show signs of ice-action.

The largest boulder on the shore of the Dee estuary is 6x4x 3 feet,
and is apparently a diorite.

Mr. J. R. Daxyys favours the Committee with the following Report
on the Shap Granite Boulders on the Yorkshire Coast :—

Shap Granite Boulders on the Yorkshire Coast.

I have examined this coast from Cloughton Wyke, 4 miles north of
Scarborough, to the Talbot Hotel, 6 miles south of Hornsea, a distance
of about 46 miles.

The boulders of Shap granite are not found indifferently on any part
of the coast, but they occur plentifully at certain parts, and are entirely’
wanting along the rest of the coast.

Within the space examined they occur principally in four localities, as
follows, beginning from the north: there are several, four at least, at
Long Nab, on the north side of the Nab; one of these measures 8 cubic
feet; there are also several, six or seven at least, at Cromer Point, also on
the north side of the point.

South of Cromer Point there are none till you come nearly to Filey.

_ There is one large one, measuring nearly 3 x 24 x 2 feet, on the top of the

_ cliff about a mile from Filey ; this is at the third fence north of the notice
‘No Road’ near the Spa; it bears N. 15° E. from Filey Station. It is
probably practically undisturbed, for the ground slopes inland from the
cliff, and therefore if it has been turned up in ploughing and moved, it
cannot have been moved far, for no one would take the trouble to cart a
huge boulder far uphill. This is the only undisturbed boulder of Shap
ete that I have seen on the land; all the others are on the shore, and
ave fallen out of the cliff above them. There are several on the shore
along the north part of Filey Bay, but none along the south, nor are any
more to be met with going south till one reaches Flamborough Head.

There are several on the shore between Flamborough Head and Flam-
oe South Landing. Some of these are large, one measuring 36 cubic

eet.

South of this locality, the only one I have seen on the shore, is a
small one rather more than a mile south of Bridlington Quay. But I do
not doubt that they do occur farther south occasionally, because there is.
one built into a wall at Hornsea. ,

140 REPORT—1879,

Nors.—In the British Association Report for 1874, p. 196, the
Hitching stone (Yorkshire) is described as an erratic block. Mr. Dakyns
cannot think that this is correct, and writes the following note
upon it:

‘The stone is a block of millstone grit, standing on the escarpment of
a bed of grit not dissimilar in character. I believe this stone to be a
portion of this bed remaining in place, the immediately surrounding part
having been denuded. The stone is standing, as it might have stood
originally in its bed. It is angular, and bounded by joint surfaces just as
it would be on the removal of the surrounding block.

‘In brief, it has no single characteristic of a boulder about it. It isnot
rounded nor scratched, nor is it standing on end, nor in any sucha way as
to raise a suspicion of its having been moved. Nor is it of a different
character from the rock on which it stands, and there are no other
boulders connected with it; nor are there anywhere in that country any
boulders that are not mere pigmies beside it; nor do I know of any
boulders in the country saving such as are actually embedded in drift, and
none of these are large.’

Fifteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Joun Evans,
F.R.S., Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., F.R.S., Eowarp Vivian, M.A.,
Grorce Busx, F.R.S., WintiAm Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., WriL1aM
AysHrorD Sanrorp, F.G.S., Josn Epwarp Ler, F.G.S., and
Witiiam Peneetty, F.R.S. (Reporter), appointed for the pur-
pose of exploring Kent's Cavern, Devonshire.

Your Committee, in this their Fifteenth Annual Report, on taking up
the narrative of their researches at the point at which it was dropped in
their Fourteenth Report, read during the meeting in Dublin in August,
1878 (see Report, British Association, 1878, pp. 124-129), beg to state
that, during the twelve months which have since elapsed, the work has
been continuously carried on in the same manner and under the same
daily superintendence as heretofore, and that the workmen named last
year—George Smerdon (foreman) and William Matthews—have con-
tinued to perform the manual labour throughout the year to the full
satisfaction of the Superintendents.

Visitors.—The Superintendents have had the pleasure, as in previous
years, of admitting and conducting numerous ladies and gentlemen into
the Cavern, and have availed themselves of such opportunities of stating
and explaining the principal discoveries made from time to time, as well
as their palzontological and anthropological bearings. The following
may be mentioned as amongst the visitors thus admitted :—The Princes
Edward and George of Wales, with their tutor, the Rev. J. N. Dalton;
the Revs. Canon Greenwell, Dr. Baron, P. Douglas, W. Downes, Dr.
S. Haughton, E. Mansfield, Dr. Punshon, and W. S. Symonds; Captain
Thomson, Dr. T. Barlow, Prof. A. H. Church, and Messrs. J. R. Barlow,
A. Baron, W. H. Baron, J. 8. Bartlett, C. Biggs, E. F. Boyd, F.C. Bury,
W. Bracken, R. A. Clark, T. E. Cobb, H. Cooper, W. Cotterell, R. E.

ON THE EXPLORATION OF KENT'S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 141

Cunliffe, M. R. Currie, W. Curtis, G. Doe, G. Ferrand, EH. Fox, F. W. Fox,
S. Haughton (Ceylon), G. J. Hinde (Canada), B. C. Hobbs (Indiana, U.S.),
C. 8. Hockin, W. Jones, T. G. B. Lennard, W. Medlicott, W. Parker,
A. C. Pass, A. Pengelly (Punjab), R. Perks, W. Perks, H. W. Reynolds,
T. W. U. Robinson, E. W. Smithson, H. Rowe, W. Russell, J. W. Wilson,
W. Wilson, and J. E. Wolfe.

In addition to visitors accompanied by a Superintendent, a large
number have been admitted by the authorised guide, under clearly-
defined and well-observed regulations.

Financial—During the year the following contributions towards the
funds for carrying on the work were handed to the Secretary :—Mr.
Gerard Ferrand, 5/.; Rev. Canon Greenwell, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., 11. ;
Mr. T. W. U. Robinson, F.G.S., 17.

Living Animals still frequenting the Cavern.—As in previous years, the
workmen have frequently seen rats in the innermost recesses of the
Cavern, and during the twelve months eleven were taken in a gin placed
on a rock at the remotest point of the ‘ Cave of Inscriptions,’ fully 380
feet from open day. It may probably be presumed that they were at-
tracted by the droppings of the workmen’s candles.

The High Chamber.—When the Fourteenth Report was closed (July
31, 1878), the workmen were engaged in excavating the deposits in a
branch of the Cavern termed the ‘ High Chamber,’ into which they had
then penetrated about thirty feet from its entrance, that is, its junction
with the Cave of Inscriptions, out of which it opens (see Report, British
Association, 1878, p. 128). This work was continued without intermission
until its completion on January 9, 1879, when the High Chamber was
found to extend in a north-westerly direction for a distance of about
58 feet, to vary in width from 5 to 10 feet, and in height from 14 feet
at the outer to 8 feet at the inner end, the measurements being made for
the width at the top of the mechanical deposit, and for the height from
the roof to the bottom of the excavation, which, however, did not reach a
limestone bottom.

At its inner or north-western end the High Chamber sends off two
branches, one towards the north and the other towards the south. The
northern branch was excavated for a distance of 12 feet, where, though
the end was not reached, the work was abandoned, for the deposit—
breccia, blocks of limestone, and crystalline stalagmite—reached the
roof, and was so compact as to bar all further progress, except by the
expenditure of a very large amount of time and money. This branch,
which varied from 5 to 7 feet wide, may be regarded as a portion of the
High Chamber. How far it extends, and whither it leads, are questions
for speculation merely.

The exploration of the southern branch presented fewer difficulties,
and was much more successful. This branch will be subsequently de-
scribed under the name of the ‘ Swallow Gallery.’

The roof of the High Chamber throughout the outermost half of its
length shows distinct traces of the long-continued action of running
water, but beyond that distance it has an angular and less ancient aspect,
due, no doubt, to the comparatively recent fall of the masses of limestone
which occupied the floor, whilst at the inner end it was much shivered..

142 REPORT—1879.

Indeed, the workmen had to dislodge one large mass of rock which
appeared very insecure and threatened to fall.

The mechanical deposit found in the High Chamber was exclusively
Breccia, the oldest the Cavern has yielded. It was covered with the
crystalline, or most ancient, Stalagmite over a considerable area (see
Report, British Association, 1878, p. 128), but elsewhere it lay immedi-
ately beneath the large masses of limestone already mentioned or was
without covering of any kind. Its upper surface, ascending continuously
from the entrance of the Chamber, reached near the inner end a level
about 7 feet above that of the Breccia in the adjacent Cave of Inscrip-
tions. From this point it rose at a comparatively steep gradient over a
series of limestone terraces or steps, and beneath a well-defined sheet of
Stalagmite, until it reached the roof, where the two deposits occupied
and completely filled a ‘swallow hole’ in the north-western corner of the
Chamber.

After the Fourteenth Report was drawn the High Chamber yielded
forty-one ‘finds,’ of which sixteen were either lying on the surface
without any covering or were within a foot of it; four were in the second
foot-level below the surface ; eight in the third foot-level; and thirteen in
the fourth, the lowest excavated. Hight of the ‘finds’ consisted of arti-
ficial objects only, whilst the remaining thirty-three were almost exclu-
sively relics of mammals, and included thirty teeth of bear and one of
fox, together with a considerable number of bones and pieces of bone.

At least some of the objects lying on the surface had no claim what-
ever to antiquity. Thus, on September 23, 1878, there were found
(‘find’ No. 7,214) on the exposed surface of the Breccia, where it con-
tained an unusual amount of very fine sand, a large number of quill-like
tubes of stalactite, and with them a portion of the stem of a clay tobacco-
pipe. The whole, including the sand on which they lay, had the appear-
ance of having been washed to the spot they occupied, probably during a
period of protracted and heavy rains, when the drip from the roof would
be unusually copious.

Again, on October 22, 1878, a one-bladed penknife (‘ find’ 7,222)
was met with on the unprotected surface of the Breccia, without any
object of interest near it.

The presence of these recent articles is in no way surprising, and
presents no chronological difficulty, as there was nothing to prevent an
adventurous visitor from reaching the spots where they were found; and
it cannot be doubted that some such person lost the penknife, and that a
smoker threw away a portion of the tobacco-pipe he had unfortunately
broken.

Many of the teeth of bear occupied jaws or portions of jaws. They
were most prevalent in the lowest level; there being four specimens in
the uppermost or first foot-level; five in the second; four in the third;
and seventeen in the fourth or lowest. Though many of them were fine
specimens, none call for detailed description or special remark. It may
suffice to direct attention to the ‘ find’ No. 7,245, met with on Novem-
ber 13, 1878, in the first foot-level, and consisting of an almost entire
right lower jaw of Bear, a portion of a left lower jaw, also of Bear, and
one bone. The right jaw contained the canine tooth only, and appears
to have been crushed after its deposition. The fragment of left jaw was
that of an immature animal, and contained one molar.

The artificial objects met with, in addition to the stem of tobacco-pipe

ON THE EXPLORATION OF KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 143

and the penknife, mentioned already, were flakes and chips of fiint and
chert, of which there were nine :—

No. 7,207, found, with one tooth of Bear, in the fourth foot-level,
August 8, 1878.

No. 7,211, found, with one tooth of Bear and one bone, in the fourth
foot-level, September 18, 1878.

No. 7,219, found, with one piece of bone, in the fourth foot-level,
October 5, 1878.

No. 7,220, found alone, in the fourth foot-level, October 9, 1878.

No. 7,224, found alone, in the fourth foot-level, October 25, 1878.

No. 7,225, found alone, in the third foot-level, October 29, 1878.

No. 7,226, found alone, in the fourth foot-level, October 30, 1878.

No. 7,232, found alone, in the third foot-level, November 9, 1878.

No, 7,256, found alone, in the fourth foot-level, January 9, 1879.

Compared with the numerous fine implements found, from time to
time, in other parts of the Cavern, none of the specimens in the foregoing
list are in themselves of much importance or interest. They are all
more or less porous, and adhere to the tongue when applied to it.

No. 7,211 measures 1:8 inch long and broad, and 0°4 inch in greatest
thickness. Its inner face is slightly concave: whilst the outer, produced
by the dislodgment of five flakes, is convex. Its margin, elsewhere
rudely curvilineal, is on one side almost a chisel-like edge, but somewhat
broken.

No. 7,224 is a leaf-shaped flake, bluntly pointed at one end, and
obliquely truncated at the other. The inner face is saved by the ‘ bulb
of percussion ’ from being quite flat ; whilst the outer has a strong, nearly
central, curvilineal ridge. There appear some indications on its edges of
its having been used as a tool, and it has perhaps undergone a slight
amount of rolling. It measures 3:1 inches long, 18 inch in greatest
breadth, and 0:7 inch in greatest thickness.

No. 7,232 is rudely rhombohedral in form. The inner face is slightly
concave, and has a ‘ bulb of percussion ;’ the outer is convex, and formed
by the dislodgment of three flakes, leaving as many parallel longitudinal
areas, the central one being broad compared with those on each side of it.
This specimen may also perhaps have been slightly rolled.

Including those reported last year (Report, British Association, 1878,
pp. 128-9) the ‘finds’ met with in the High Chamber amounted to
ninety-four in number, and contained 119 teeth of Bear, one tooth of
Horse, one of Fox, numerous bones and bone-fragments, one flint nodule
tool, eleven flakes and chips of chert and flint, and one quartzite pebble.

Your Committee remarked last year that the flint specimens occurred
in the third and fourth foot-levels only (op. cit., p. 129). It will be seen
from the list given above that this was also the fact with regard to the
similar specimens found since. In short, of the twelve specimens of flint
and chert found from first to last in the High Chamber, none occurred in
the first or second foot-levels, four were met with in the third level, and
eight in the fourth, or lowest foot-level, to which the excavation was
carried.

The Swallow Gallery—The branch thrown off towards the south from
the inner end of the High Chamber, as stated above, has a total length
of about 50 feet, and consists of two Reaches, the first extending south-
wards about 26 feet, where the Gallery turns sharply eastward, and

144 : REPORT—1879.

extends in that direction about 24 feet. The width varies from 10 to 2°5
feet; and the height, from 6 feet, at the entrance, to 8 feet at the inner
end. ; ;
Judging from its roof, this Gallery was, during a long period, a-tunnel
completely filled with running water; and this is confirmed by the cha-
racter of the walls, on which, however, indications of corrosion, subsequent.
to the erosion, are numerous and well-marked.

About 18 feet from the entrance of the first Reach, a considerable
irregularly-cylindrical ‘Swallow Hole’ extends obliquely upwards into
the roof, and is quite empty for a height of about 7 feet, above which it
is completely filled with typical Breccia and Stalagmite. The Gallery
takes its name from this hale.

The deposit occupying this gallery was everywhere the Breccia, having
no continuous stalagmitic covering until within the innermost 10 feet,
and even there its thickness was inconsiderable. The upper surface of
the Breccia had a uniform fall, amounting to a total of 38 inches, from
the outer to the inner end of the Gallery, where it plunged rapidly into,

and completely filled, a tunnel; and, being mixed with large masses of
- limestone, the work in that direction was abandoned on May 24, 1879,.

the exploration of the Swallow Gallery having occupied about nineteen
weeks.

This branch of the Cavern, the two Reaches included, presented fifty-
eight ‘ finds,’ of which thirty-three were on the surface of the Breccia or
not more than a foot below it ; fourteen were in the second foot-level ;
seven in the third; and four in the fourth. In the innermost six feet of
the second Reach the sections were cut to a depth of 5 feet, instead of the
customary 4: feet, but nothing was met with in any of the fifth foot-levels.
The ‘finds’ included ninety-four teeth of Bear (many of them in pieces of
jaw), four of Fox (in two pieces of jaw), one of Horse, one of Sheep, a very
large quantity of bones (many of them much broken), one chert nodule,
and three chips and flakes of chert and flint. The ‘finds’ were almost
equally numerous in the two Reaches, but those in the second or inner
Reach were comparatively very rich in specimens: thus, whilst the
twenty-eight ‘finds’ in the first Reach contained in all no more than
twenty teeth of bear, a single ‘find’ (No. 7,304) in the second Reach,
contained also twenty teeth of bear and bones enough to fill a wheelbarrow,
and the thirty ‘ finds’ of this Reach yielded a total of seventy-four teeth
of Bear. ;

The ‘find’ No. 7,297, consisting of bones and pieces of bone, met with
in the second foot-level, on April 14, 1879, contained the proximal end of
a left tibia, having on it at least five grooves or scores of different depths,
and some of them having within them finer scores, parallel to their sides.
When inspected with a lens, the surface of the bone showed several finer
lines in various directions. As it may be doubted whether the scores
were the teeth-marks of any animal, their origin is problematical.

Here again it may be remarked that several specimens lying on tho
surface of the Breccia, without covering of any kind, do not certainly or
probably all belong to the era of that deposit. Indeed, the tooth of

Sheep already mentioned, and a few bones belonging to the same ‘find’

(No. 7,261) are not only open to this cautionary remark, but from their
aspect and mineral condition, belong, without doubt, to very recent times.
The same may perhaps be said of the tooth of the Horse (No. 7,298),
which lay also on the unprotected surface.

a

ON THE EXPLORATION OF KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 145

The specimens of flint and chert found in the Swallow Gallery are
not entitled to more than a mere enumeration.
No. 7,260, a chert nodule, apparently never utilised in any way, was
_ found alone in the third foot-level, January 29, 1879.
No. 7,278, a small chip or fragment of flint, was found alone, in the
_ third foot-level, February 22, 1879.
, No. 7,275, a small flake of flint, probably a fragment of a flake imple-
ment, was found on the surface, near a tooth of Bear and pieces of bone,
February 24, 1879.
No. 7,301, a small chip of chert, was found in the first foot-level, with
three teeth of Bear and numerous bones, April 22, 1879.
| Your Committee, when treating last year of the flint implements which
had then been found in the High Chamber, remarked, ‘It is difficult to
_ understand how the tools found their way to a branch of the Cavern so
q remote from the known entrances, and occupying so high a level. The
_ -problem is apparently insoluble except on the hypothesis that the work-
men are approaching an entrance hitherto unknown; and as this sup-
position has been forced on the minds of the Superintendents by other and
independent facts, they believe it to be most desirable to settle this question,
if possible, as they do not doubt that it would give a definiteness to the
explication of some of the Cavern phenomena.’—(Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1878,
- p. 129.)
> The Superintendents have no doubt that the researches of the last
twelye months have converted their ‘hypothesis’ of ‘an entrance,’ or,
more correctly, of entrances, ‘ hitherto unknown,’ into an established fact.
They believe also that the facts prove that the said entrances—the
Swallow holes in the High Chamber and the Swallow Gallery—were com-
pletely closed before the beginning of the ‘ Cave-earth’ era, and have
__, mained so to the present day.
The entrance in the Swallow Gallery was probably never available as
_ @ passage for any living animal; but there can be little doubt that any
tolerably agile creature could readily have used that in the north-west
( rner of the High Chamber. That the roof dividing this branch of the
Cavern from the open day is of very inconsiderable thickness is plainly
indicated by the levels, as well as by the distinctness with which all
external sounds are heard in that. Chamber ; and the ‘ series of limestone
aces,’ mentioned already as leading up to the Swallow Hole, would
n convenient steps for a man or any infra-human animal desirous of
ring or leaving the Cavern.
Clinnick’s Gallery —Y our Committee, in their Eleventh Report (1875),
e the following statement :—‘ The comparative paucity of specimens
linnick’s Gallery induced the Superintendents, on December 1, 1874,
aspend operations in that direction for at least a time. The labour of
m months had been expended on it, during which the exploration had
reached 75 feet from the entrance, where the Great Chamber discovered
ny Clinnick may be said to begin.’—(Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1875,
_ On May 24, 1879, when, as stated above, they left the Swallow
Gallery, the workmen returned to Clinnick’s Gallery, the only known
branch of the Cavern the exploration of which has not been completed,
that is to the depth of four feet below the base of the Stalagmitic Floor.
~ In wet weather this Gallery surpasses all other branches of the Cavern
A Ut ee of drip from the roof; and this, on June 16, was so very
i re L

146 REPORT— 1879,

copious, on account of the unusually heavy rainfall the preceding day, as
well as the previous saturated condition of the ground,! that the workmen
were wet to the skin within two hours after beginning their work.

Since its resumption, the excavation in Clinnick’s Gallery has been
steadily carried on, and is still in progress; and at the end of July it had
advanced 27 feet beyond the seventy-five mentioned in the Eleventh
Report (1875). The deposit found there after the work was resumed
was exclusively the Breccia, the upper surface of which dipped steadily in
the direction in which the workmen advanced, and was 25 inches lower
at the point reached on July 31, than at that at which the work was
resumed in May. It was covered uniformly with Stalagmite, varying from
12 to 30 inches thick.

The paucity of specimens mentioned in the Eleventh Report still
characterises this branch of the Cavern, for though upwards of tws
. months have elapsed since the workmen returned thither, no more than
three ‘finds’ have been met with in that time—a small fragment of a
Bear’s jaw, with a few splinters of teeth (No. 7,314), found in the second
foot-level, on May 31, 1879, and two chert nodule tools (Nos. 7,316 and
iol?).

The chert tools, however, are of sufficient interest to repay the time
and labour spent in exhuming them. No. 7,316 is of a light drab-
coloured, granular chert, covered almost everywhere with a manganic (?)
smut, but having a considerable patch of Breccia cemented to it with
carbonate of lime. The outline of the tool is that of a trapezium with the
angles rounded, It is 5‘8 inches long, 3:1 inches in greatest width, and
2°3 inches in greatest thickness. The butt-end is almost square, and
measures 1'4. inch by 1'3 inch. The tool attains its greatest thickness
about 2 inches from this end, whence it tapers on each face to an oblique
chisel-edge. The condition of the various edges is not inconsistent with
the supposition that the tool had been slightly rolled. It was found alone
on July 15, 1878, in the third foot-level of the Breccia.

No. 7,317 was unfortunately broken by the workman by whom it was
found and dug out, and who, before he saw it, to use his own language,
‘throw’d the pick into’n.’ The surface of the fracture has a very white
chalk-like aspect, but the application of hydrochloric acid causes no
effervescence. Like the preceding tool, its surface is largely covered with
amanganic (?) smut. In form the tool may be said to be somewhat
pear-shaped. It measures 5:6 inches in length, 3°5 inches in greatest
width, and 2°6 inches in greatest thickness, It was found alone on
July 25, 1879, in the second foot-level of the Breccia, within 2 fe ' -f
No. 7,316. hues
It is perhaps noteworthy that the only other chert tool having, like

Nos. 7,316 and 7,317, a blackened surface, which the Cavern has yielded,
was the fine specimen, No. ;34,;, met with also in Clinnick’s Gallery, and
described in the Committee’s Tenth Report (Report, British Association,
1874, pp. 15-16). It was found, April 23, 1874, in the fourth foot-level
of the Breccia, and was also a nodule tool, but not quite so large as the
specimens described above.

Clinnick’s Gallery, so far as it has been explored, varies from 12 to 4
feet wide and from 7°5 to 11 feet high. It consists of three Reaches, of

1 Rain fell every day during the ten preceding days; the total fall amounted to —

3:01 inches, of which ‘97 inch fell on the 15th.

— a ae

A aaa

ON THE EXPLORATIONS OF KENT'S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 147

which the first or outermost extends in a northerly direction ab out 30 feet
The Gallery then turns at right angles and extends westward about 25
feet, where it again, though with some irregularity, takes a northerly
direction for 30 feet.

About 16 feet up the third or innermost Reach the explorer, by crawl-
ing up a steep sheet of stalagmite, formed on limestone rocks in situ on
the western side, and, having reached the top, by wriggling vermicularly
through a very small aperture, finds himself in a chamber from 10 to 12
feet long and broad, but not quite so high, where he soon comes to the
conclusion that there is little or no chance of finding anything of interest
to the paleontologist or the anthropologist. The walls and roof, how-
ever, are hung with a profusion of beautifully white stalactites, many of
them in the form of long, thin, quill-like tubes, whilst others of larger
volume assume various forms, but all of great beauty. From the floor
there rises a forest of stalagmitic ‘ paps,’ some of them nearly 2 feet high
and 10 or 12 inches in circumference, and all promising, were time
allowed, to become pillars reaching the roof. By letting himself down
over a rocky ledge, about 4 feet high, at the inner or northern end of this
chamber, the explorer enters a second chamber, about 25 feet long from
south to north nearly, and 12 feet wide; where, though stalactites and
stalagmites are almost as plentiful and as beautiful as in the ante-room
he has just left, his attention is rather rivetted on the walls, and especi-
ally the roof, which are rugged, and angular, and shivered. That blocks
of limestone have in great plenty fallen from them, and in times geologi-
cally recent, there cannot be a doubt, and their aspect is anything but
calculated to inspire confidence in their present stability. Nevertheless,
judging from the stalactites depending from the roof and the ‘paps’
rising from the floor, there can have been no very recent fall. The floor,
telling much the same story as the roof and walls, is made up of masses
of limestone, generally of no great size, with numerous pitfalls between
them.

On its eastern side, the third or innermost Reach of Clinnick’s Gallery
opens into a large chamber, which the workmen have just begun to
explore.

Paleontographical Society.—In 1878 your Committee had the pleasure
of receiving from Professor A. Leith Adams, F.R.S., an application for
permission to have drawings taken of any relics of mammoth they had
found in the Cavern, for the purpose of illustrating the monograph on
the ‘ British Fossil Elephants’ which he is preparing for the Palaonto-
graphical Society of Great Britain. It must be unnecessary to add that
the permission was at once granted, and that such specimens as he wished
were forwarded to him without delay.

Professor Leith Adams has accordingly, in Part II. of his monograph
(1879), directed attention (pp. 84, 85, 86, 91, 92, 94) to fifteen milk-
molars found by the Committee in the deposit known as the Cave-earth,
and has given natural-size figures of three of them (Nos. 1,063, 5,489,
5,774 ; see pl. ix., figs. 3 and 4, and pl. xii, fig. 2).

The principal facts connected with these specimens are set forth in
the following Table :

148 REPORT— 1879.

When and where found

T, —— A -nits” Milne -.h 6 + = ©. oe Found with

Nos. ‘a Re mao relics of Characters
ates arts of the cavern levels
315|June 23, 1865) Great Chamber 4th — Upper third milk-molar

L059 Dec. 20, ,, eH ms — Lower ,, Fr
1063} ,, 21, 3 a — Upper second ,,
1248|Feb. 10, 1866 be F -- Lower third vA
2135] ,, 13, 1867| Vestibule 5 Be > ae i
2677\July 4, ,, | Great Chamber 2nd — a - Ay
2902/Oct. 18, ,, | Lecture Hall 3rd — Upper fourth ,,

| ( Hyena, horse,
3i3s} », 6, 1870) Smerdon’s Passage | 4th;|} megaceros, - & re

{ rhinoceros

sess] «21, gy 3 Ox Lower third Ps

Hyzena, horse,
| gee7z|Dec. 24, 1869) North Sallyport 3 rhinoceros, ;| Upper ,, *

lion J
Hyena, ea

saqg\Sept. 8, 1870) Smerdon’s Passage | rhinoceros, 5 5 vi

badger,deer
5489 June 24, 1871) Sloping Chamber 4th |Hyeena Upper fourth ,,
=tzq\Dec. 2, 1874) Cave of Rodentia Fe, ie Lower first ie
5968 July 30, 1872 Long Arcade 3rd_ ‘| Bear Upper third 7
6066 Jan. 16, 1873 - 2nd — Lower ,, 2

Speaking of the enamel of the molars of the mammoth, Professor
Leith Adams says, ‘ It is remarkably attenuated in teeth from the Arctic
regions’ (p. 79), and that ‘all the teeth [of mammoth] from Kent's:
Cavern, Devonshire, show the Arctic type and have thin enamel’ (p. 80).

Again, he remarks, ‘The Arctic or typical crown represented by the
North-Asiatic and North-American specimens on the one hand, and Kent’s
Cavern on the other, presents a decided contrast to the molars from Iiford
on the Thames, where not only is the enamel thicker, but the teeth them-
selves are all much smaller. The same character [as to size] obtained in
other parts of the skeleton’ (p. 81).

The author describes the specimen belonging to the ‘find’ No. 1,063,
figured in his pl. ix., figs. 3, 3a, 3b, 3c, as ‘an excellent representative ’
of the antepenultimate or second milk-molar ‘ of the upper jaw, and pro-
bably of the right side.’ ‘The tips of the digitations of the four anterior
plates being slightly detrited show,’ he says, ‘ the owner to have been, at:
all events, not uterine’ (p. 85).

Attention was directed in the Highth Report (1872) to the specimen
No. 57,4 in the foregoing Table. Mr. G. Busk, F.R.S., a member of the
Committee, said then, ‘I consider that it represents the very rare occur-
rence of a true mm. 1. .. . This is a very curious specimen, and, as
regards the elephant, of remarkable interest’ (Report, British Associa-
tion, 1872, p. 37). Professor L. Adams adopts Mr. Busk’s determina-
tion, and adds, ‘ This tooth is one of the smallest milk-molars of any
elephant with which I am acquainted, and is even more diminutive than
the first milk-teeth of the Maltese pigmy elephants. . . . The tips of one
of the digitations show signs of detrition, and the well-formed and con-
solidated fangs give evidence, at all events, that the animal did not die in
the womb. The probability is, therefore, that this very small tooth may
be a rare instance of the pre-antepenultimate appearing in the lower jaw
of the mammoth, its long divergent fangs leading to the belief that it
belonged to the mandible’ (p. 84).

ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE BORNEAN CAVES. 149

Report of the Committee consisting of Mr. Joun Evans, Sir Joun
Luspock, Major-General Lanz Fox, Mr. Grorce Busk, Professor
W. Boyp Dawxins, Mr. Pencenity, and Mr. A. W. Franks, ap-
pointed for exploring certain Caves in Borneo.

Your Committee have to report that with the grant of 50J. from the Asso-
ciation, a similar grant from the Royal Society, and a further sum of
about 2001. from private sources, they have been able to prosecute an
examination of various caves in Borneo, under the superintendence of
Mr. A. Hart Everett, who has devoted himself to the task for a period of
nearly nine months.

His final report upon his work has not yet been received, but it appears
from his letters, and from the specimens which have been transmitted to
this country, that nothing of special interest, either from an anthropo-
logical or a geological point of view, has resulted from his explorations.
The animal remains discovered have all been of recent species ; the human
bones are probably of no very great antiquity, and none of the few objects
of human manufacture which have been found can be regarded as of
paleolithic age. Pending the arrival of Mr. Everett’s final report it
appears needless to enter into details, but it may be mentioned that up-
wards of twenty caves appear to have been explored in a more or less
complete manner, and the principal objects found, after examination b
some of the members of the committee, have been forwarded to the British
Museum.

Although the examination of these caves has not, as was hoped, thrown
any light upon the early history of man in that part of the world, it is
still satisfactory that the examination should have been made, and the
character of the cave-deposits ascertained by so competent an observer as
Mr. Everett. The evidence obtained, though negative, is not without
value, and those who are specially interested in cave explorations, and who
have so liberally assisted in the present instance, cannot now be re-
proached with not having availed themselves of the opportunity afforded
by Mr. Everett’s presence of obtaining further information as to the con-
tents of the Borneo caves.

It may be added that though for the most part the objects secured
were unimportant, there were among the cave deposits a number of shells
of land and fresh water mollusca, which have been examined by Colonel
Godwin-Austen and have proved to belong to at least twenty-five genera
and forty species, some of which are apparently new. Mr. Everett has
been requested to devote some attention to collecting a larger series of
these shells, but owing to the difficulties of postal communication it is
possible that the request may arrive too late. Your Committee propose
to communicate Mr. Everett’s final report, together with any observations
which seem called for on the specimens which are still to arrive, to the
Royal Society.

After the reading of the above the following letter was received from
Mr. Everett :—

Second Quarterly Report on the Bornean Cave Exploration.

To J. Evans, Esq.

DEAR Sir,—I beg to submit the following Report of my work during
past three months :—

150 REPORT—1879.

Cave No. V.—As mentioned in my first Report, I was still occupied at
the date of its despatch in the examination of this cave. Excavation B
was continued across the low-level chamber to its left-hand wall, where
the earth attained a thickness of about 5 feet. The contents preserved
the character already noted throughout, and they yielded no sign of
organic remains of any kind whatever. Hzcavation C, situated half-way
up the steep entrance talus was carried to a depth of 4 feet only. The
contents were washed, when their condition admitted of the employment
of this process, with the result that a few bones of bats and small rodents,
together with ‘abundance of the usual land and fresh-water shells were
met with ; but nothing to warrant an extended working until the remains
sent from the D excavation shall have been examined and reported upon.
The earth in C working became concreted just below the surface to such
a degree of hardness as to necessitate frequent blasting; but this stony
concrete was irregularly distributed, the earth being in parts quite friable
down to the bottom of the excavation. Hzcavation F' was cut into a bank
of pure guano, capped by a deposit of rotten stalagmite, about 1 foot thick.
This bank is a small local deposit of only a few yards’ extent. Neither
bones nor shells oceurred here. Hzxcavation D.—I blasted out a small
portion of the hard reddish-yellow concrete lying immediately below the
ossiferous river-mud in this excavation ; but seeing no sign of bones, and
the hole filling with water, I did not work down to the limestone floor. I
finally abandoned Cave No. V. on January 4, and transferred the work-
men the next day to No. XIII.

Cave XIII.—This cavern consists of a simple large tunnel piercing
the Jambusan hill from side to side (or rather that spur of it known
among the Dyaks as Gunong Bak), about a quarter mile to the eastward
of Cave No. V. The entrance is about 45 feet above the level of the
plain ; and the real floor, where the limestone rock has been exposed by
the drip about the centre of the cave, is some 10 feet lower. I enclose a
plan of the entrance hall, with one transverse and one longitudinal section
of the deposits worked through. Ihave already consigned you to a sample
of the ossiferous contents of the cave, together with specimens of the
various deposits it afforded. These latter, I should mention, are all much
wetter, and therefore harder and stiffer, when freshly exposed than will
be apparent from their appearance when they reach you. I made no
excavations in the interior part of the cave, where I found a great thick-
ness of the usual tenacious yellow clay ; but I cut one trench just within
the entrance, and a second one somewhat in advance in it, The series of
deposits met with were as follows :—

Hxcavation A.

Stratum 1.—A narrow band (1 to 4 inches thick) of black earth full
of fragments of charcoal, broken cooking utensils, bones, &c., being the
débris left in recent years by the Dyaks, when camping in the cave for
the purpose of taking the nest-harvest. This layer was thrown aside
after very superficial scrutiny. It is noteworthy that it contains sparingly
the shells of a marine bivalve—a Cardium, I think (lot 108).

Stratum 2,—A hard stalagmitic layer (about 4 inches thick), coloured
reddish by intermixture of clay, and containing a few land shells and
remains of bats, which, however, appear to die out in the next succeeding
stratum.

—- =o

a

ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE BORNEAN CAVES. 151

Stratum 3.—Concreted yellow clay (8 inches to 12 inches thick), with-
out apparent stratification, and without organic remains. This stratum
is sharply defined from the preceding one; but not so from Stratum 4, of
which it is, in fact, an integral part. Both this stratum and the preced-
ing required steady blasting throughout the excavation, and any remains
they might have contained would have been likely to escape notice unless
of large size or occurring in some abundance.

Stratum 4.—Unstratified reddish-yellow clay, with small water-worn
gravel, and without any kind of organic remains. This stratum rested
immediately on the limestone floor, which:was worn into deep longitudinal
furrows.

The dimensions of this excavation were 23’ x 6! to 7’, and the depth
varied to 6’ in the deepest part. It was completed in six days, as it was
not necessary to follow the tedious process of washing the contents.
Section 1 coincides with the longer axis of the excavation, and it is i-
correct in one particular, i.e. it shows the black band as subjacent to the
deposit of clay marked 5, which is really below it.

Excavation B.

Stratum 1.—The black band, as in Excavation A.

Stratum 2.—A bed of river mud, indistinctly stratified, mixed with
guano, and crowded with the remains of bats and of land and fresh-water
mollusca, together with bones and teeth of a variety of mammalia, fish,
and reptiles, the majority of which are much broken and waterworn.
Greatest depth 4 feet. This bed corresponds to the ossiferous stratum of
Cave V. Excavation D, with which it is essentially identical. The re-
mains, however, obtained from XIII., B, are more varied and in better
condition than those from Cave V.

Stratum 3.—Unstratified yellow clay, concreted, except in its upper-
most part, into a hard stalagmitic rock. This deposit corresponds to the
strata 3and 4 of Excavation A. It contains shells and a few bones.
Owing to the scarcity of these latter, and also to the influx of water by
underground drainage, I did not continue this trench down to the lime-
stone floor.

In this excavation it was needful to wash the whole of the river-mud
in sieves, which caused the work to be excessively slow. During the
process a small V-shaped fragment of stone, seemingly artificial, was
found. It is that marked 110 in the Catalogue. If this fragment is
considered to be undoubtedly of human workmanship, it forms the first
evidence of the co-existence of man in the district with the fauna of the
river-mud horizon, and as such is not without interest. A more impor-
tant result of the exploration of No. XIIL is the proof obtained—meagre
though it is—of the presence of the remains of mammals in the yellow
clay lying below the river-mud deposit.

During the quarter, I have visited fourteen additional caves in the
Paku and Bidi districts. One of these, known as the Guah Kokan in
the Kapoh hill at Bidi, is of great size, has seemingly a considerable
thickness of deposits, and is situated at a height of upwards of 100 feet,
in the face of a perpendicular cliff. It is very large for the few men at
my command to make an adequate impression on, but I will attempt it if
no better offers within the next few days. Before the completion of the
ensuing quarter I hope to be able to report having visited the ossiferous

>

Ihsy4 REPORT— 1879.

cavern discovered by Mr. Coulson, to the locality of which I believe I have
at length a clue. I am, dear Sir, ;
Yours faithfully,
(Signed) A. Hart Everert.
SARAWAK, March 8, 1879.

List of Remains, &c., found in Sarawak Caves, Borneo.
0.
“a Remains of raptorial bird (recent). Obtained from Cave No. V. at Jambusan.

Found on the surface of the earth, at the bottom of the deep pit at the
farther end.

2. Molar tooth and fragment of bone. Purchased from Chinese gold-washer.
Found in the swampy flat of alluvium, débris of limestone, stalagmite,
and veinstones, &c., which skirts the south-east base of the Busan hills
between them and the village of Paku.

3, 4, 5. Teeth procured at different times by Chinese washing for gold in the same
situations as No. 2. All purchased.

_ 6. Portion of jaw with teeth, apparently of wild hog, procured from the silt at
the mouth of Cave No, VI. Originally brought from the interior when
the caye was examined for gold.

7. Fragments of bone found in same locality as Nos. 2, 3, 4,5. Purchased from
Chinese gold-washer.

8. Seven teeth of a large deer (?), with fragment of bone. Purchased from
Chinese gold-washer, and found in the same locality as No. 7.

9. Human remains. Procured from Cave No. Il. at Paku. Collected by
myself. (See Report.)

10. Remains of wild hog, apparently. Purchased from a Dyak, who stated that
they were found far within a cavern too contracted to allow of the passage
of a living pig, if it could have climbed the precipitous hill half-way up
which the cave opened, which he thought impossible, Being dissatisfied
with the price paid, he refused to show this cave.

11. Bones and teeth purchased from a Malay gold-washer. Found in the pan in
washing the earth in Oaye No. III. Cave visited by myself. (See Report.)

_ 12. Human remains purchased from another Malay gold-washer. Found in Cave

No. VIII. close to Paku, in the Busan hills, and near the mouth of the
cave. Only slightly covered with earth.

13. Bones and teeth purchased from Dyaks. Found within a narrow cave high
up on one of the hills near the Tagora road—Cave No. IX. The bones
were either on the surface of the cave earth or but slightly buried.

14. Remains of a large Chelonian, purchased from Dyaks. Found in Cave No.
VII. Jambusian hill, tightly wedged in a fissure of the rocky floor which
had been laid bare of a thick bed of very tenacious clay at this spot. The
bones seen in situ by myself.

15. Remains of bats, &e. Collected from the surface of the inner talus, at the
entrance of the Jambusian cave (No. V.).

16. Remains found close to the surface in Excavation B, Cave V.

17. Remains found at depth of 1 inch to 18 inches in Excavation D, Cave V.

18. Ppeiiy, &e. Cave V. Excavation D. Found about 18 inches below the
surface.

19. Ramus of lower jaw of small rodent. Cave V. Excavation D.

20. Remains of bats, &c., from surface of inner talus. Cave V.

21. From the same situation as the preceding. ¢

22. Bones. Cave V. Excavation D. Found about 2 feet below the surface.

23. From the same situation as the preceding.

_ 24, Bones and land shells. Cave V. Excavation D. From uppermost foot-leyel

of the deposit.
25. Land shells from the inner talus. Oave V.
26. Land and fresh-water shells from cave-earth of Excavation B, Cave V.
27. Bones with Potamides. From upper part of deposit in Excavation D, Cave V.

/

-

ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE BORNEAN CAVES. 153

28. Bones and land shells. Excavation D, Cave V. About 2 feet below the
surface.
29. Purchased from Chinese washing gold in the Paku flat.
_ 80. Miscellaneous bones, jaw of rodent, &c. Excavation D, Cave V. Nearly
8 feet below the surface.

_ 381. Remains from Cave No. Il. Found in a little calcareous earth on a ledge

u

:
-

6

-

just without the mouth.

32. Bones from a deep fissure cavern at Paku. Found in gold-washer’s refuse.
The whole contents of this cave had been disturbed by the Chinese.
Purchased from Dyaks.

33. Fragment picked up on the Busan hills.

34. Bones and teeth purchased from Malays. Found in a cave at Paku.

35. Single rib-bone. Found by a Dyak partly buried in cave earth at Jambusan.

: The finder made a search for more, but without success.
36. Remains of a young Macacus (?). Found on the surface within a cave near

aku,
37. Teeth, land shells, &c. Excavation D, Cave V.
88. Teeth of Hystrix, &c., &c. Excavation D, Cave V. About 3 feet below the
surface.
“39. Purchased from gold-washers. Obtained from the Paku flat.
_ 40. Purchased from Dyaks. Obtained from a cave in the Jambusan Hill,
41. Remains of Hystvix. Found on the surface. Cave at Jambusan.

42. Carapace of tortoise. Found on the surface. Cave at Jambusan.

7

_ 43. Teeth and bones purchased of gold-washers. From the Paku flat.

1, 4A. Teeth and bones purchased from Dyaks. Found in a cave in the Jambusan

hill,

, 45. Human remains, &c. Partly purchased, partly collected by myself in Cave

: No. XIV. Cf. Report.
46. Remains of bats. Excavation E, Caye V.
_47. Reptilian remains. Surface of a cave in Jambusan hill.

“ 48. Teeth and bone. From the surface of a caye in the Jambusan hill.

49. Pottery, teeth, marine shell (Cyprea), &c., found associated with the human
remains in Cave No. XIV., at the second milestone on the Tagora road.
Cf. Report.

(50. Chelonian remains. Surface of a cave half-way up the southern face of the

Busan hills.
_ 51. Bone. Purchased from Chinese. Found in a cave at Paku.
52. Chelonian remains. Purchased from Chinese gold-workers, and found at a
spot in the Paku flat where the contents of a cave were washed in former

ears.

53. Skill of Helarctos. Found at about 3 feet depth in a cave in Gunong Jawang.
Bears marks of a cutting instrument.

54. Chelonian remains. Obtained in the Paku flat at a spot where the contents
of adjacent caves were formerly washed for gold. Purchased.

55. Skull of Simia satyrus G. Obtained from same situation as the preceding.
The gash cutting through the parietal and other bones on the right side
of the cranium was probably caused by the tools of the gold-seekers when
the skull was first exhumed. It has since been again covered with earth
for some years. The occipital foramen bears marks of a sharp cutting
instrument. The skull has evidently been exposed to smoke, and it might
stand for one which has hung griming for years in the smoke of the head
house of the Dyaks on Siranbu.

| 56. Cervine, molar, and other remains. Cave No. III.

- 57. Teeth of Simia, fragments of chelonian, &c. The Paku plat. Purchased.
58. Skull and portion of skeleton of a small monkey, purghased from Dyaks.
They stated that the remains occurred in a cave near the summit of one
of the Jibong group of hills, at a long distance within the cave (‘distant
from the entrance the burning of one torch’), and from their description
they appeared to have been laid bare by the washing of water.

“x

154 REPORT—1879.

59. Quadrumanous remains from the same locality as the preceding, but from
distinct cave situated only half-way up the hill.

60. Remains of Cervus and chelonian from the swamp at the base of the fore-
going hill.

61. Cervine remains. Purchased from Dyaks, who said the bones were found in
one of the Jambusan caves about half-way up the hill. From the Dyaks’
description I understood that these bones had been laid bare by the drip
over the spot where they rested.

62. Portion of skull with two molar teeth. From a cave on the water-level in
the Jambusan hill (No. XVI.).

» 68. Bone found on the surface in the interior of Cave XIV.
~ 64, Two lower jaws of a carnivora in same Cave XIV., at about 18 inches’ depth
from the surface.

65. Two lower jaws (two halves) of Cervus. Obtained by myself in the same

cave as No. 62, partly embedded in calcareous earth.

66. Teeth, apparently of wild pig. From a cave in the Jambusan hill.

67. Skull, &c. Obtained from Dyaks, who affirmed that these remains were
lying in a narrow oblique fissure, connecting one of the Jambusan caves
with the top of the hill, and that the reason why some of the bones are
stained with smoke is that the fissure opened immediately above a flat
ledge of rock on which the Dyaks were accustomed to light their fires for
cooking, so that the smoke escaped habitually up the fissure. I suspect
that the smoke-coloured remains may have belonged to recent animals
eaten by the Dyaks in the cave when taking the nest-harvest.

68. Purchased from Chinaman, Found on a heap of gold-washers’ refuse, the

L produce of a fissure at Paku, the mouth of which is situated about 50 feet

above the water-level. Only bones found. Cave No. XVII.

68. Teeth. Cave at Jambusan. Obtained from Dyaks. (The number inad-
vertently repeated.)

69. Human remains brought from a cave at Ahup. Said to be about 3 fathoms

; from the entrance, the cave being situated in the upper half of the hill.
These bones lay on the surface, but the finder did not dig to see if any
were below.

70. Remains purchased from a Malay. They occurred in a caye on the hills
abutting on the Tagora Road. The cave is situated in the upper part
of the hill. The fragment of jaw with teeth was found near the entrance;
the other teeth occurred at some distance within, and together; and the
bones in the innermost recess of the cave, which is extensive, only one rib
showing on the surface, and the remaining bones at depths varying up to
12 inches.

71. Teeth of Simia. Found by myself in the refuse on the surface of which the
large bones No. 68. were procured by the Chinaman. Cave No, XVIII.

72. Teeth of Stmia. Purchased from a Malay, who met with them in a fissure
close to Cave No. III., the floor of which is 8 fathoms below the entrance
—the latter being situated some 50 or 60 feet above the water-level.

73. Mollusca from Cave V. Excavation D.

74. Various Teeth. Cave V. Excavation D.

75. Lower jaws of rodents, &. Cave V. Excavation D.

76. Vertebree, chelee of crustacea, fish scales, &c. Cave V. Excavation D.

77. Human remains, pottery, &c., brought from a cave in the Ahup hill.

78. Remains, apparently of wild pig. Found by Dyaks in one of the higher
caves at Jambusan.

79. Remains of carnivore. Found by Dyaks in a cave at Jambusan.

80. Simian remains. Said to have been procured from Cave X VIII.

81. Bones. Said to have been obtained in an old gold cave at Piat.
’ 82. Miscellaneous remains. Cave V. Excavation D.

84. Two Cervine teeth. Found by Malay gold-washer in a deep fissure at Paku.

85. Molar of pig. The Paku Flat. Found by gold-washers.

86. Land and fresh-water Mollusca. Cave V. Excavation G.

L 87.
88.
, 89.
vy? 90.
91.

2
92
93
94
_ 95

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 155

Bones of bats, rodents, &c. Cave V. Excavation G.

Teeth of pig and of a carnivore. The Paku flat, Found by gold-washers,

Two fragments of bone. Crows. Said to have been obtained from same
situation as No. 88. == ~~

Fragments of bone. Crows. Found by Malay gold-washer in a fissure at
Paku. (Radius of Bos)-

Bones obtained from the Kawa Cave near Bidi. This cave is considerably
above the present water-level, and the bones are said to have lain on the
bare floor, there being no earth. Bones of a young pig, apparently roasted.
The cave is a deep fissure descended by means of ropes. Purchased from
Malays.

. Cervyine molar. The Paku flat.

. Ditto and pig. Ditto, fragment of bird_humera.

. Molar of pig with fragment of bone. The Paku flat.

. Teeth of pig. From a cave in the Eusunah gorge, near Paku.

. Bones and teeth. The Paku flat. Young deer, &c.

. Three teeth. Large deer. Ditto pig.

. Various remains. Cave V. Excavation G. Bats and small rodent.

Bats and small rodents.

. Lower jaw of Simiasatyrus, Purchased from Chinese gold-worker. Doubt-

fully from a cave.

. Fragments of bone. From heap of gold-workers’ refuse in Cave No. I.
- Molar of pig, incrusted with crystalline stalagmite. Found by Malay gold-

washer at Paku.

- Sample of remains (three boxes) washed from the river-mud in Cave No.

XIII. Excavation B. Stratum 2.

. Fragments of bone and teeth of pig (?), &e. Cave XIII. Excavation B.

Stratum 3.

- Chips of quartz, artificial? Cave XIII. Excavation B, Stratum 2.

- Cardium. Cave XIII. Excavation B. Stratum 1.

- Various teeth. Cave XIII. Excavation B. Stratum 2. Chiefly pigs.

- Portion of worked stone. Cave XIII. Excavation B. Stratum 3.

- Skull of Simia satyrus. Said to have been found in a cave at Paku. Doubt-

fully genuine, as regards its alleged situation.

Fifth Report of the Committee consisting of Professor Hunt, Rev.

. H.
q Howett, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr. W. Morynevx, Mr. Mor-

W. Crosskry, Captain D. Gatron, Mr. Guaisner, Mr. H. H.

ton, Mr. J. Rozperts, Mr. Prnertty, Professor Prestwicu, Mr.
James Prant, Mr. Mevitarp Reape, Mr. W. Warraker, and Mr.
Dr Rance (Reporter), appointed for investigating the Circulation
of the Underground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red Sandstone,
and Permian Formations of England, and the Quantity and
Character of the Waters supplied to various Towns and Districts
from these Formations.

Your Committee had this year hoped to submit a general report of the
capabilities of the Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic formations, and to
close the inquiry which you entrusted to them. This has been found
impracticable from several causes, especially from the fact that important
sinkings for water are being carried out in the Staffordshire and Midland
district taken charge of by Mr. Molyneux and Mr. Plant, who cannot re-
port until they are completed. Secondly, your Committee find the more

156 REPORT—1879.

their labours become known, the greater inclination is shown by engineers
and contractors to furnish information, and the greater tendency is
exhibited to make available our underground water for the purposes of
consumption. And they are of opinion, that until it becomes the duty of
a Government Department to collect the various information accruing
from day to day, it is important that the Committee should be reap-
pointed, and further that their inquiry should not be limited to certain
formations, but should extend to the whole of the permeable formations
of England.

The attention of your Reporter has been specially given since the last
meeting to the estimation of the areas of water-bearing formations in the
various river-basins, and to the extent to which they may be expected to
underlie the more impermeable clays and marls; towards this object he
has personally examined a large area of the country, and endeavoured to
ascertain how far the rain falling in certain river-basins is carried by the
dip into other hydrographic areas. These results he is prevented laying
before you in detail through illness, brought on by a railway accident;
but the following totals may be found useful, giving the Permian and
Triassic formations in fourteen groups of the 215 river-basins of the
Ordnance Survey Catchment Basin Map :—

River Basin Groups Seu Ben Ee Bs a Total
Square Miles Square Miles Square Miles

Tyne and Tees . ; ; 100 70 170
Ouse and Trent. . . 1171 1870 3041
Witham and Ouse . ; — 6 6
Exe and Dart . : : 315 49 364
Cornwall and Devon. : 10 — 10
Severn, &c. : > . 438 1393 1831
Neath to Clywd : : 52 — 52
Dee to Duddon . j , 1070 850 1920
Esk to Eden . 4 7 Bye - ot
3193 4238 7431

Of the 3041 square miles of Trias in the Ouse and Trent basins, 200
of Red.marls probably rest directly on the non-water-bearing Paleozoic
rocks of Charnwood Forest age. The 1171 square miles of sandstone,
at 5 inches absorption, would givea daily average of 234 million gallons,
or a supply for four-and-a-half million persons ; the population is probably
not less than six millions ; the demand is here in excess of the supply, the
deficiency is made up by moorland surface waters from the elevated table
lands of the Penine chain. The underground supply is, however, only
pumped to a fraction of its yielding capacity.

In the Severn and (Bristol) Avon basins 438 square miles of sand-
stone, with 10 inches’ percolation, would yield a supply for three-and-a-
half million persons, at fifty gallons per head; but part drains away
underground into the Trent basin, between the north and south Stafford-
shire coal-fields in its northern area, and into the Thames basin in its
southern area. The Triassic sandstones in the south-east area towards the
Thames basin are thinning rapidly, and much of the 1593 square miles red
marls is not supra-pervious, and rests on Paleeozoic impermeable rocks.

South of the Mendips 315 square miles of Triassic sandstone crop to

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 157

the surface, which, on 10 inches’ absorption, would yield a daily average
of 126 million gallons, or a supply for two-and-a-half million persons ;
and is available for the supply of Exeter. In this district further infor-
mation has been collected by Mr. Stooke, C.H.

In the Lancashire and Cheshire plains New Red sandstones crop over
1070 square miles, which, at 10 inches’ absorption, would give a daily
average yield of 428 million gallons, or a supply for eight-and-a-half mil-
lion persons at fifty gallons per head. The new boring at Bootle, carried
to a depth of 1300 feet, by Messrs. Mather and Platt, for the Corporation
water-supply of Liverpool, reported on last year, is now completed, but
further details are deferred until pumping has determined how far the
underground yield of Liverpool is increased by this sinking. Some
doubts having been thrown on the determination of the age of the hard
coarse-grained rock, met with under the Pebble Beds at Bootle, which
your Reporter considers to be a compact variety of the Lower Mottled
sandstone, he is glad to be able to state the correctness of this opinion
is proved by a boring made for the Warrington Waterworks Company, at
Winwick, by Mr. E. Timmins, of Runcorn, which, after passing through
the base of the Pebble Beds, and a compact ‘ millet seed ’’-grained rock,
identical with that of Bootle, again entered soft, loose, red and white
sand, of the Lower Mottled sandstone type, which in its turn again rested
on the Upper Coal Measures, including a limestone probably referable to
the age of the Ardwick limestone of Manchester.

AppEenpDIX A.

Triassic Wells, §c., South Devon.
By Tuos. 8. Stooxe, C.H., Kingskerswell, Newton Abbot.

Lyons Holt Spring, situate near Exeter, on the New Red sandstone
formation at a height of about 126 feet above sea level.

The water yielded in the twenty-four hours being about 47,000
gallons, and which is conveyed through pipes to various parts of the city

of Exeter, being distributed by means of drinking fountains.

_ The water is much valued, and Mr. Perkins of that city supplies the
following analyses, viz. :—

100,000 parts contain free ammonia . . : » 1004
Albuminoid ammonia . : c : : » 0074
Nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites . . - - 236
Chlorine : - - a : : sg OG

Name of Individual or Company applied to—

W. Shepherd & Son.

1. Lunatic Asylum, Exminster. 2. 100 ft. 3. Depth of shaft 117 ft., diameter
9 ft.; from surface to bottom of bore-hole 473 ft. 6in. 4. Before pumping 30 ft.

‘above bottom of shaft; after pumping 12 hours 25 ft.; restored in 6 hours after

pumping. 5. 200,000. 6. N.B.—This bore-hole has only very recently been com-
pleted. 7. The new pumping machinery not yet reported at work. 8&. The water
is very good, and is highly valued by the authorities. 9. Conglomerate, chiefly red
sandstone. 10. Yes. 21. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No.

J. M. Drew.

1. Bridge Mills, Silverton. 2. About 80 ft. 3. 20 ft.; 4 ft.; 237 ft. 6 in.
4. 20 ft. and 343 ft. from surface. 5. 180,000. 6. No. No. 7% No. &. Not
analyzed further than to prove it to be free from iron.

158 REPORT—1879,

Feet.
9. Sand 2 - 5 . 94
Rock : 5 5 os
Marl : : A . 23
Clay and greensand 4 . 30
Gravel, water : eg IkeD b Bore-hole, strata.
Hard clay . = 5 . 16
Red rock . 4 4 . 16 |
217
10. Very little. 11. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No.
C. R. Collins,

1. Hele Paper Works. 2. About 90 ft. 3. 20 ft., 10 ft. diameter, 120 ft. 6 in.
. Pumps always at work, Sundays excepted, suction pipes 30 ft. below surface.
5. 259,000 gallons. 6. Yes, a few feet in very dry weather. 7. Yes, but plenty
of water always available; variation 15 to 20 feet in dry weather. 8. None; no,
very pure. 9. New Red sandstone. (No wells were sunk before I came here).
10. Yes. 11. No. 12. Not known. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No.

Norman & Pring.
1. City Brewery, Exeter. 2. 25 ft. 3. 70 ft.; 4 ft. diameter; 270 ft.; 4 in.
diameter. 4. Cannot tell, as the adits hold several thousand gallons. 5. About
4000. 6. No. 7. No; no variation.

Grains

8. Organic and volatile matter, including +112 of oxidisable
organic matter . : : 2 : : 3 115

[ Oxide of iron and alumina, with traces of phosphoric
acid . : 2 : : . : : . : "15
| Sulphate of lime . é : 0 : : : 6°24
* = of magnesia . c : - : ; : “48
' \ Nitrate of os 5 : ; 5 : : ; “99
| Chloride of sodium : : a is : 3 ; 479
| Carbonate of soda . . : : . 2 : ; 9°75
(Soluble silica ; : : ; : : ° : 10
23°65

* Total solid matter per gallon, dried at 270° F.
Feet

9. Gravel. - - : : : - : : : LD
Shellet : : : ‘ : J : : : sali)
Alternate layers of trap and red shellet . : F 2 MERE
Blue shale or clay . : - . ; 5 5 wi ao0
Water, sand - * 5 , F ; ; 5 3
Blue shale or clay’ . 5 ; : ; A 3 sae
” > 5 5 : : é : : : 8
270

210. No. 11. Yes. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No.

Gillman & Co,
1. At Treus Weir, near Exeter. 2. About 20 ft. 3. 20 ft. well; 240 ft. bore ;
7in. . Pumping continually going on; lowers about 5 ft. 5. 250,000 from high
level. 6. Never diminished for 10 years; more water in the autumn and spring.
7. Never affected by rain. 8. Considerable quantity of carbonate of lime and
chloride of sodium. 9. Entirely in red rock; the bore is not through the rock, but
ends init. 10. Gravel and springs. 11. No. 13, No. 14. No. 15. No.

J. M. Drew.

1. Kensham Mills, Hele. 2. About 100 feet. 3. 40 ft.; 5 ft.; 200 ft.; 7 in.
4. Pumps always at work except Sundays; suction pipe 30 ft. under surface.
5. 170,000 gallons. 6. Yes ; not diminished. 7. Yes, but no register of water
levels has been kept. 8. None; no. 9. Bore-hole pierces the New Red sandstone.
zo. Yes. 11. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No.

:
4
?

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 159

APPENDIX B.

Report on the Water in the Triassic Sandstones at West Kirby, Cheshire.
By Isaac Ropers.

Ty the year 1877 I was requested by the Hoylake Waterworks Com-
pany (then just formed) to report upon the advisability of sinking a well
on Grange Hill at West Kirby, which is distant about 14 miles to the
south of Hoylake, with the object of obtaining a supply of water for the
inhabitants of Hoylake and West Kirby.

On making a: careful survey of the private wells in the neighbourhood
of the proposed well, I determined the surface of the water plane in the
rock to be 30 feet above the Ordnance datum at the highest part of
Grange Hill, and 22 feet above the datum near the plain at the foot of
the hill, and I reported that if a well were sunk at the point indicated by
the company’s engineer, a point 219 feet above Ordnance datum, the
surface of the water plane would be reached about 195 feet below the
summit of Grange Hill.

The sinking of the well was commenced about twelve months ago, and
on visiting the site on the 11th of this month (July. 1879), I found the
well sunk 205 feet in depth, and the surface of the water plane 186 feet
5 inches below the point on the Grange Hill which I have already re-
ferred to, thus agreeing very closely with my calculations made in the
year 1877.

The well on Grange Hill is distant about a mile from the river Dee,
which is the nearest outlet forthe discharge of the rainfall upon the hill and
which passes throughits mass into the sea. Itis therefore demonstrated that
the inclination of the water plane within the Triassic rocks of this district
-does not in any case exceed 30 feet in altitude to one mile in horizontal
distance; and as the natural water level in the rocks of this district has
not hitherto been materially disturbed by pumping, the inclination of the
water plane given above will probably be, within narrow limits, the normal
an all similar rocks.

The rock which forms Grange Hill is marked ‘ Pebble Beds’ of the
Bunter on the maps of the Geological Survey, but in examining the well
which is now being sunk it appears probable that an error has been made
in so naming them, for the lithological characteristics of the rocks agree
better with the base of the Keuper forming the surface of the hill, and
“upper soft red’ or ‘mottled’ sandstone beneath, than with ‘ pebble
‘beds’ as marked on the maps.!

Appendix C.—Jurassic Wells, &c.

Name of Member of Committee asking for information, W. Whitaker.
Name of Individual or Company applied to :—

Messrs. 8. F. Baker & Sons.

1. Farringdon, Berks. 1a. 1871. No. 3. From surface to bottom of boring,
‘114 ft. 6 in.; upper portion, 5} ft.; and lower portion, 43 ft. diameter. 5. Should
“Say about 70 gallons per minute.

» The error Mr. Roberts refers to is rectified in the new edition of the Geological
‘Survey Map of the district.—C. E. De R.

160 REPORT—1879.

Ft. In.
9. Clay, with sand and limestone . 4 6 . ‘| 6 6
5» very sandy ; : : 4 0
Blue and grey clay and calcareous erit ; 4 ¢. IDO
Fine sand . 3 4 Q - 23% 80
Grey sand and clay, with water . : ' ; - 2280
114 6

Messrs. Baker & Sons.

1. Gillingham, Dorset. 1a. Unaware of date of sinking. Deepened by boring
1878. 3. To bottom of shaft, 60 ft. from surface; to bottom of boring, 86 ft. 8 in..
from surface. . Before pumping, about 50 ft. from surface; after pumping, about
70 ft. from surface.. 5. Pump only equal to about 20 gallons per minute. Could
not exhaust at this. 9. Well sunk through clay and rock. Boring through clay,
hard sand, and rock.

Name of Member of Committee asking for information, James Plant.

1. Hinckley, Leicestershire. 1a. 1875. Deepened 30 ft. since. 2. About 350 ft.
O.D.? 3. 30 ft.; diameter 6 ft. Bore various, 11 in. to 7 in.; 520 ft. deep. 3a.
None. 4. 450 ft. 6. Not known. &. Sulphate and carbonate of lime was first
found; this was due to the water from the red marl and gypsum beds above the
waterstone ; it is now partially stopped out, and will be entirely so when shaft is °
sunk,

9. Section of Shaft aa Bore at ge Ge 8 Leicestershire. 550 feet.

Depth Shaft and Rocks penetrated
od Feet
S 50 Brown clay, with pebbles (a few seams of sand).
ue]
&
g 50 Sand, no pebbles (a few seams of clay).
ic)
5 50 Brown clay, no pebbles. At base, 3 feet red clay,
Ss with stones.
2 3
3 mt
aG'<
| 30
7 aes Upper Keuper sandstones.
f. 6.
| 217 Red marl, with gypsum in bands (thin) and nodules.
| (Water at base of each band of gypsum).
MG:
‘ Waterstones,’ thin bands of red and white sandstones,
150 with thin ‘wayboards’ of red clay ; thicker red and
white sandstones at base of formation. ‘ Water-
stones’ not penetrated, but estimated to be alto-
gether 320 feet. Bore-hole to be carried to 650 feet.
550

Thick line represents permanent level of water for four years, standing 300 feet
above ‘ waterstones.’
uo. Yes. 12. Yes. 122. An upthrow fault, distant two miles east; amount of
throw from 600 to 700 ft. 13. None now. 124. None known. 15. None.

ie ell

ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.

1. One mile west of Oakham, Rutlandshire.
2. About 350 ft. O.D. 3. Shaft 80 ft., diameter 7 ft.

several times.

4. 40 ft.; level not perceptibly reduced. 4a. Same height.
Is fed from hills 2 miles each; 755 ft.O.D. 8&. Very

6. Not observed to vary.

161

1a. About five years, and deepened
3a. None.
5. Not estimated.

sweet and pleasant water; used solely for brewing.

Rocks
9. Drift . : : 4
G 3, upper lias clay

G 2, marlstone rock

G 2’, Rs sands

Depth in
Feet

98 Lias formation.

80

Shaft is about to be carried deeper, as a larger supply of water is wanted.

10. None seen.

fault is 6 miles long, running E.and W. 13. None.

12. Fault 5 miles 8.W.; several faults about 6 miles $.E. This

14. None. 15. No.

Appennix D.—Form of Inquiry now circulated.

1.— Position of well or wells with which
you are acquainted.

la.—Date at which the well was sunk.
Has it been deepened since?

2.—Approximate height of the same
above the mean sea level.

3.—Depth from surface to bottom of
shaft or well, with diameter.
Depth from surface to bottom of
bore-hole, with diameter.

3a.—What is the extent and number
of the horizontal drift-ways, if
any?

4,—Height at which water stands de-
Sore and after pumping. Number
of hours elapsing before ordinary
level is restored after pumping.

4a.—Height at which the water stood
when the well was first sunk,
and height at which it stands
now.

5.— Quantity capable of being pumped
in gallons per day.

6.—Does the water level vary at differ-
ent seasons of the year, and
how? Has it diminished during
the last ten years?

7.—Is the ordinary water level ever

effected by local rains, and if so,
in how short a time? And how
does it stand in regard to the
level of the water in the neigh-
bouring streams, or sea?

8.—Analysis of the water, if any.
Does the water possess any
marked peculiarity ?

9.—Nature of the rock passed through,
including cover of drift, with
thicknesses.

10.—Does the cover of drift over the
rock contain swrface springs ?

11.—I£ so, are they entirely kept out of
the well?

12.—Are any large faults known to exist
close to the well?

13.—Were any salt springs or brine wells
passed through in making the
well ?

14.—Are there any salt springs in the
neighbourhood ?

15. Have any wells or borings been dis-
continued in your neighbourhood
in consequence of the water
being more or less brackish? If
so, if possible, please give section
in reply to query No. 9.

1879.

162 REPORT—1879.

Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Maxwri Cxosn,
Professor W. C. Wintramson, and Mr. W. H. Batty, appointed
for the purpose of collecting and reporting on the Tertiary
(Miocene) Flora, &e., of the Basalt of the North of Ireland.
Drawn up by Wu. Hevumr Barry, F.L.S., F.G.8. (Secretary).

Tue discovery of plant-remains in a deposit of brown and red bole under
a thin bed of lignite, and immediately over a thick bed of conglomeritic
or pisolitic iron ore, interstratified with the basalt of County Antrim, was
facilitated by the excavations made for extracting this valuable iron ore,
which has been found to extend over a considerable district of the North
of Ireland, having been largely worked at various places.

The locality which has yielded the largest number of specimens is at
and close to a cutting through basalt on the Belfast and Northern Coun-
ties Railway at Ballypalady, about seven miles east of Antrim. The
section observed at that place, and supplied to me by the late G. V.
Du Noyer, District Surveyor of the Geological Survey of Ireland, was the
following, that gentleman also having sent me the first consignment of
these interesting fossils for examination :—

Ta [ie ses ae cert + a

—
a

. Basalt, 15 feet.

2. ~ 2, Layer of brown earth, 3 inches thick.
3 SSS 3. Layer of impure earthy lignite, 8 to
== = 12 inches.
-4, Bed of brown earth or bole, passing
as s into red at the lower part, and gra-
duating into the plant bed, No. 5.

5. 5. Plant layer, 4 to 8 inches thick.

ER tech Lee icin: ws gous aise Go Bed Oe pisolitic iron ore in ferruginous
Ore eRe Sic aio looiat com oie earth, 3 feet exposed.

DHa®,s wtS Soe oO Seg CODD ODO CONS
7. Rails resting on basalt, 7. Basalt overlying chalk, thickness vari-

able,

A notice of these plants, as well as some accompanying insect remains,
was communicated by me in 1869 to the Geological Society of London.!

Since then I have visited the locality several times, always obtaining
fresh materials and increasing the list of species. In addition to these,
and to the use of the specimens in the collection of the Geological Survey,
I am indebted to William Gray, Esq., F.G.S., and William Swanston,
Ksq., F.G.S., of Belfast; the Rev. Dr. Grainger, of Broughshane, near
Ballymena; to the Belfast Natural History Society; and to the Director
of the Natural History Museum of Science and Art, Dublin, for permission
to draw and describe the specimens in their several collections.

1 Quarterly Journal Geol. Soc. of London, vol, xxv. p. 357, plates xiv. xv,

ON THE MIOCENE FLORA, ETC. 163

In working the iron ores of this district there are other localities where
beds of lignite and plant-remains have been observed, but none of them
up to the present have been found to be anything like so rich in the
remains of a fossil flora of so decided a character as the place just de-
scribed, although it would be highly desirable to investigate occasionally
places where similar excavations are being carried on.

The existence of another very interesting fossil plant locality, evidently
of the same age, near Glenarm, was kindly communicated to me by Mr.
William Gray, who was good enough to accompany me from Belfast to
Glenarm, where, notwithstanding the severity of the weather (and it was
snowing hard at the time), we succeeded in obtaining a good number of
specimens; the material in which they are embedded, a light grey,
laminated marl, being lithologically quite different from that of Bally-
palady, although identical species occur at both localities.

On the east shore of Lough Neagh, at Sandy Bay, and in the bed of
‘Glenavy river, near the same place, in drift deposits and in loose water-
worn masses, the celebrated silicified wood is found; it is for the most
part coniferous,! the structure being beautifully preserved, exhibiting the
typical characters of the Cupressinez, or cypress group. The silicification
in all probability was caused by water holding silica in solution, although
not by the water of Lough Neagh. The popular idea that the waters of
this lake possessed petrifying properties has been satisfactorily shown to
be fabulous, and that the lake itself in all probability did not exist at the
period when this silicification took place.

Accompanying the silicified wood on the shores of Lough Neagh are
also water-worn pebbles of fine granulated iron, which, on being broken,
disclose the impressions of plants, amongst them a fern, Henvitelites, twigs .
of Sequoia Couttsie, and leaves of dicotyledonous trees in beautiful preser-
vation. Where a fresh fracture has been made, the finely reticulated
structure of the leaf is shown, and in the Sequoia the woody character of
the twig, apparently unchanged, is preserved in the cavities made by its
impression in the ironstone.

Up to the present time I have been enabled to enumerate at least
twenty-five species from these Miocene deposits of the North of Ireland.
They are as a group most closely allied to the fossil flora of North Green-
land (described by Professor Heer in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions,’
1869). Some of them are certainly identical, such as Sequoia Couttsie,
(Heer), occurring at Bovey Tracey, shores of the Baltic, and North
Greenland; Phragmites Giningensis (Ad. Brong), the well-marked leaves

_ doubtfully referred by Heer to the family Menispermacex, and named by
him McClintockia Lyalli; and M. trinervis, the fruits or seeds of Nyssa

~~

ornithobroma and Viburnum Whymperi, together with a leaf of the latter

_ Species ; also leaves of Alnus, closely allied if not identical with A. Kefer-
Stemi; Platanus Guillelme, and Juglans acuminata. It is also interesting
to be able to identify a fern which I believe belongs to Heer’s genus
_ Hemitelites, species of which occurs at Bovey Tracey and North Green-

1 Dr. Scouler, in the first volume of the Jowrn. Geol. Soc. of Dublin, shows, from
the evidence of Dr. Lindley, that these masses of wood were coniferous. The Rey.
Dr. Macloskie, in a paper read at the Belfast Natural History Society, February 14,
1872, stated that they belong to the Cupressacez, and probably to the genus Sequoia,
a coniferous tree (of which the great Wellingtonia of California is a living example,
there being but two existing species, Sequoia sempervirens and 8. gigantea, both
natives of California) frequent in the Miocene of the Antrim basalt, and also in the
accompanying ironstone nodules.

M 2

164

REPORT—1879.

land, and to show that in all probability the fern named by Edward Forbes:
Filicites Hebridicus also belongs to the same genus.

LIST OF SPECIES.—NORTH OF IRELAND.

CRYPTOGAMA. Fungi.

Spheria concentrica (Massalonga Flor. Senégalliese)

Filices.

Hemitelites Frazeri, n. s. (Baily)
CONIFERA. Order Cupressine.
‘ ~
eer ury fee eee Ballypalady,

Cupressites McHenrici (Baily),
Lond.’ vol. xxv. pl.15.
Order A bietine.

Sandy Bay, Lough Neagh.
” ”

co. Antrim.

Sequoia Du Noyeri (Bally), * Journal Geol. Soc. Lond.’ ‘\ Ballypalady and Glenarm.

vol. xxv. pl. 15, f.4.

Sequoia Conttsiz (Heer)

f Sandy Bay, Lough Neagh,.
Bovey Tracey, N. Green-
1 land, Baltic shores.

Pinus Plutoni (Baily), ‘ Journal Geol. Soc. Lond. Sap Ballypalady.

xxv. pl. 15; f.'1!.
Pinus sp. ; .
Fam. Taxine.
Torellia sp. .

MONOCOTYLEDONES.

Fam. Gramninee.

Phragmites (iningensis (Ad. Brong.).

~ sp.
Poacites sp.

Tride.
Tris latifolia? (Heer) .

DICOTYLEDONES.

Fam. Salicine.
Populus sp.
Betulacee.
Alnus Kefersteini? Goepp .
Cupulifere.
Corylus sp. .
? Fagus sp. .
Quercus sp. .
Moree.

Platanus Guillelme, Goepp .

Aceracee.
Acer sp. -
Ericacee.
Andromeda sp.

Caprifoliavee.

Viburnum Whymperi (Heer)
Avaliacee,
Nyssa ornithobroma (Heer)

Menispermacee ?
McClintockia Lyalli (Heer)

7 trinerva (Heer)

Rhamnee.
Rhamnus sp.
TUG glandec.

Juglans acuminata? (A. Braun).

”

”

J Ballypalady (@iningen, N
\. Greenland, Spitzbergen).
Ballypalady.

”

a Spitz. Baltic.

Ballypalady.

5 and Baltic.
Lough Neagh and Glenarm..
Ballypalady.

Glenarm.

SGlenarm, ningen, N.
\ Greenland.

Glenarm.
Ballypalady.

f Ballypalady, Spitz. and N.
Greenland.

Glenalvy river, near Lough
Neagh, N. Greenland.

Glenarm, N. Greenland.

Glenarm and Ballypalady,
N. Greenland.

Ballypalady and Glenarm.

Ballypalady, Giningen, and
N. Greenland.

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 165

Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. T. Barnus-
Lawrence, Mr. Spence Bars, Mr. H. E. Dresser (Secretary), Mr.
J. E. Harrine, Dr. Gwyn Jerrreys, Mr. J. G. Saaw Lerevere,
M.P., Professor Newton, and the Rev. Canon Tristram, appointed
by the Council, for the purpose of inquiring into the possibility
of establishing a Close Time for the Protection of Indigenous
Awmals.

Your Committee has gratefully to acknowledge the resolution of the

_ Council of the Association, whereby your Committee has been not only

reappointed but also instructed to report to the Council in case of any
action being required. Your Committee begs leave to state that no such
emergency as was provided for by this instruction has arisen since the
presentation of its last Report. Notwithstanding complaints that are
occasionally heard, your Committee believes that public opinion continues
strongly in favour of the close time principle, as applied to indigenous
animals ; and on the part of Her Majesty’s Government no steps have been
taken to carry out the recommendations of the Scottish Herring Fishery
‘Commissioners, upon which your Committee deemed it its duty to anim-
advert last year. The Bird Preservation Acts, though doubtless evaded
in some places, in general appear to work well, and to be enforced without
difficulty when occasion requires. Having regard to future contingencies,
your Committee ventures to solicit its reappointment with the instructions
as to reporting to the Council in case of emergency.

Report of Committee, consisting of Mr. C. Spunce Bare and Mr. J.
Brooxine Rowe, appointed for the purpose of Exploring the
Marine Zoology of Devon and Cornwall.

TuE exceptionally severe weather during the past winter and spring has
prevented the Committee carrying on the intended investigations, and,
although some facts of interest have been noted, it is not prepared to
report this year.

It therefore asks that it may be re-appointed, and that the grant may
be continued.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. M. Fosrmr, Professor
Roxizston, Mr. Drew-Smira (Secretary), Professor Huxiny, Dr.
Carpenter, Dr. Gwyn Jerrreys, Mr. Sciater, Mr. F. M. Batrour,
Sir C. Wyvitte Tomson, and Professor Ray LANKESTER, ap-
pointed for the purpose of arranging for the occupation of a
Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.

Since we submitted our last Report to the Association, the Zoological
Station at Naples has continued to be successful in providing opportunity
and appliances for naturalists studying the various forms of marine
animals and plants. From September 1, 1878, to the end of July, 1879,

166 REPORT—1879.

twenty-six naturalists have occupied the tables at the Institution. A list
of their names and the time of stay will be found appended. During the
same period, packages of specimens have been forwarded to fifty-one
different naturalists and institutions. A list of these is also appended.

Recently a new department has been added to the Station. Through
this naturalists will be enabled to obtain mounted specimens of microscopic
animals, viz., sections of embryos of all kinds of fishes, &c., preparations
of larvee or other animals too small for being sent in alcohol or other
preservative solutions. Next year a catalogue of these specimens will be
published, and the Station will be prepared to send the specimens to any
naturalist requiring them.

Trials of diving by means of the new Scaphander apparatus have also
recently been made with very satisfactory results.

The aquarium of the Station is being in part reconstructed, with some
important new features, viz., moveable rockwork, for saving and examin-
ing the different animals which thrive by themselves on these rocks. This
will enable statistical notes to be established on the growth of these ani-
mals, and on such changes as may occur by changing their habitat, inas-
much as these rocks may be replaced in the sea at different depths.

The following monographs are in preparation by workers in the Sta-
tion :—Ctenophore, Fierafer, Balanoglossus, Sipunculoide, Capitellide,
Planarie, Nemertinese, Pycnogonide, Caprillide, and on several families of
Algee.

~ Three parts of the ‘ Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu
Neapel, zugleich ein Repertorium fiir Mittelmeerkunde’ have been pub-
lished, containing sixteen papers illustrated with many very carefully
executed plates. Further parts are in active preparation.

It is, moreover, intended to publish the following works :—

‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel und der angrenzenden
Meeresgebiete.’ Folio. Yearly, 1 volume with 10-20 plates. The first
volume is already in the press.

‘Prodromus Faune Mediterranee.’ A selection from the whole
Zoological Literature of short Latin Diagnoses of the Animals found in the
Mediterranean, with their habitats and local names.

‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht.’ This will contain short notices on the
various memoirs and papers published in various countries on the subjects
of Zoology, Development, and Comparative Anatomy. It is under the
editorship of Professor Carus, with the assistance of four collaborateurs in
different countries. One volume will appear yearly.

Two naturalists have occupied the table hired by the Association, viz.,
Mr. Walter Percy Sladen and Mr. Patrick Geddes. Mr. Sladen has sent
in a report on his stay and his work, which is appended. In this report
he proposes ‘a means by which the table might be even more fre-
quently occupied than it has been, and its sphere of utility thus extended,
by suggesting to the consideration of the Committee that a further addi-
tional grant might be made by the Association, which would serve as a
travelling fund. This might be apportioned in moieties say of 251. to
naturalists who desired to avail themselves of such assistance, and it is not
improbable that many a student would by this means be enabled to par-
ticipate in the advantages of the table at Naples, who might otherwise be

,erred by the expense of the journey. The plan, extended or modified
cording to circumstances, is one adopted by several of the foreign bodies
haying tables at the Zoological Station.’

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 167

Mr. Patrick Geddes worked at the Station from February 26 to April 4.
He ‘ repeated and extended certain observations on Echinoderm histology,
and made experiments on Bonellia viridis and Idotea viridis, with a view
of ascertaining the functions of their (supposed) chlorophyll.’ The results
of these studies are at present being published in the ‘ Archives de Zoo-
logie Expérimentale’ of M. de Lacaze Duthiers, viz., ‘Htudes sur le
Chlorophylle Animal;’ ‘Observations sur le Fluide Périviscéral des
Oursins.’

Mr. Geddes also gained information on the working of the Station, in
the hope (now realised) of helping to found a Zoological Station in Scot-
land. This station is now in working order at Stonehaven.

Mr. Arthur Wm. Waters, who worked at the Association table last
year, intends again to apply for the appointment to occupy it, with a view
of extending his researches on the Bryozoa of the Bay of Naples, already
published in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ 1879.

Your Committee think that the above particulars are sufficiently en-
couraging to induce the Association to renew the grant of 75/. for the
ensuing year.

Report on the Occupation of the Table, by Mr. W. Percy Sladen.

In conformity with the requirements of the Committee of the British
Association appointed in connection with the Zoological Station at Naples,
I beg to submit the following report concerning my occupancy of the
table which I had the privilege of using.

In availing myself of the opportunity of working at Naples, the main
object which I had in view was that of studying the pre-mature stages of
the Echinodermata, and more especially the growth-phases which inter-
vene between the period when the pluteus is resorbed and that at which
the adult characters are developed—the range and significance of these
changes being very important and remarkable throughout the group. In
addition to this chief object, it is scarcely necessary to add that there were
numerous points in the morphology of Echinoderms upon which, as a
specialist, | was anxious to direct my attention, should time and oppor-
tunity permit.

Larrived in Naples on December 3, 1878, and remained there until
February 17, 1879. During the greater portion of the time the weather
was very inclement and stormy; in consequence of which the pelagic
larval forms that I had hoped to have met with, by use of the surface-net,
were driven to too great a depth, and owing to their microscopic propor-
tions became thus altogether inaccessible. or this reason I was greatly
disappointed in my expectations, and the material which I was able to
obtain, in any way available for my projected investigations, was unfortu-
nately very scanty ; nevertheless several pre-mature forms of considerable
interest were procured, and these I am hoping still further to elucidate,
before the end of the year, by finding if possible the corresponding and
intermediate stages on our own coasts, and which will then enable me to
work out the development of at least one or two forms completely. I also
endeavoured to contribute somewhat to this subject by means of the arti-
ficial fertilization of ova in several different families, but was always un-
successful in keeping the plutei alive beyond a certain stage; whilst the
fact that those thus raised in confinement were subject to very consider-
able abnormality in their development and present unnatural modifications
which require much care and skill in elimination, in order to avoid error

168 REPORT—1879.

in subsequent deductions, greatly diminishes the utility of such observa-
tions as a direct method of embryological study, although they are not
without value as furnishing some indication of the plasticity inherent in a
given form.

Better success rewarded what I may speak of as desultory investiga-
tions upon the general structure of Echinoderms. I may mention that I
have in hand a contribution to the knowledge of Pedicellariew, which I
consider will throw light (if not entirely, at least in part) upon the
functions of these obscure appendages. It was also my good fortune to
discover in certain Asteroids an hitherto undescribed organ, most pro-
bably performing sensorial functions; an account of which I hope to
* publish shortly, as soon as time permits me to work up the material which
I collected more exhaustively than I was able to do whilst staying at
Naples. In addition to the above I amalso hopeful of furnishing a com-
munication upon the pre-mature anatomy of certain young Echinoderms,
for which purpose I was able to preserve and bring back with me several
very good series of specimens.

The general success and continually increasing prosperity of the
Zoological Station at Naples are now so fully known from the reports and
various publications emanating from the Institution itself, that it would
be presumption on my part to offer any remarks in such a direction. I
consider, however, that it is a duty for me to bear my individual testi-
mony to the admirable arrangements which characterise the working of
the Station, and which conduce so greatly to the comfort of naturalists
engaged in studying there. The daily supply of fresh material, the tank
and aquarium accommodation for keeping the same alive, are highly satis-
factory, and leave little to be desired; whilst in the way of ordinary
laboratory apparatus and re-agents no reasonable requirement is un-
provided for.

Talso desire to record my indebtedness for the genial kindness and the
ever-ready assistance which I met with not only from Dr. Dohrn and the
acting director Dr. Hisig, but the same friendly spirit of courtesy and
help was accorded me without exception by every gentleman connected
with the staff.

The utility of the Zoological Station being now so thoroughly estab-
lished, and its reputation world-wide, itis unnecessary for me to allude to
the fact, except to point out that the maintenance of such an undertaking
is very costly, and that of necessity the results can only be continued by
keeping up the funds. So much good work has already emanated from
the Station at Naples that the Institution has a fair claim not only upon
biological specialists, but on every one interested in the advancement of
science. Upon such an argument, therefore, the Zoological Station is
particularly worthy of the support of the British Association, even if its
members were not (as many of them have already been), individual par-
ticipants in the advantages which the Station provides; and on this
ground I would strongly urge the continuance of the grant usually made
by the Association.

I would further beg to propose a means by which the table might be
even more frequently occupied than it has been, and its sphere of utility
be thus extended, by suggesting to the consideration of the Committee
that a further additional grant might be made by the Association, which
would serve as a travelling fund. This might be apportioned in moieties
say of 25]. to naturalists who desired to avail themselves of such assist-

ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 169
ance, and it is not improbable that many a student would by this means
be enabled to participate in the advantages of the table at Naples, who
might otherwise be deterred by the expense of the journey. The plan,
extended or modified according to circumstancss, 1s one adopted by

several of the foreign bodies having tables at the Zoological Station.
In conclusion I desire to express my cordial thanks to the Committee
of the British Association for the privilege of using the table at their

disposal.

The following tables are extracted from the ‘ Annual Report’ issued
by Dr. Dohrn :—

List OF NATURALISTS TO WHOM SPECIMENS HAVE BEEN SENT FROM
AUGUST 1, 1878, TO JUNE 30, 1879.

Lire
1878, August 1 Dr. K. Heider, Graz . Coelenteraten . : : 10
o 1 L.C. Miall, Leeds Fische, Mollusk., Wirmer,
Coelent. F 5 : 80
cf 4 Dr. Balfour, Cambridge Selachier . , é 20
“- 5 Dr. Pieper, Olfen ‘i 5 Alle Classen . a " 52
» 12 Prof. Mecznikoff, Odessa > é : 340
», 12 Prof. v. Siebold, Miinchen . Muraeniden . é 3 65
Oct. 4 Prof. Ray Lankester, London Moll., Crust., Wiirmer. Coel. 215
Ay 4 Progymnasium, Schlettstadti.H. Alle Classen . . : 55
“in 22 Prof. E. van Beneden, Liittich . Coelenteraten . : eo) lds
op 25 Museum, Oxford Moll., Wiir., Coel. . A 68
Nov. 5 Prof. Semper, Wiirzburg Mollusken . : 40
¥ 5 Prof. Todaro, Rom Salpen . : 4 = 40
Fr 6 Dr. Nagel, Tilsit Alle Classen . : i 59
a 21 T. Rier, Paris 3 Amphioxus = A 20
Dez. 6 Dr. H. Ludwig, Bremen Echiniden - 4 5 16:
of 12 Prof. Schwalbe, Jena K6épfe vonHaienund Rochen 32
As 20 F. Balfour, Cambridge Coelent., Wiirmer, Mollusk. 60
Summa 1,295
1879, Jan 9 Prof. Ehlers, Gottingen Mollusk., Wiirmer., Coelent. 137
rc 18 Prof. E. K. Hoffmann, Leiden Selachier, Wiir., Tunikaten 130
A 30 Realschule, Zweibrucken . Alle Classen ASA 128
Feb. 3. Prof. Kiihne, Heidelberg Torpedo . 5 : : 28
es 10 Prof. Hoffmann, Leiden . . Selachier, Embryonen . 1/3).
Fs 21 Realgymnasium, Gebweiler i. EH. Alle Classen . : ; 95
Mirz 2 Zoolog. Museum, Palermo . Hische ‘ 6 : 41
» 17 Prof. Maly, Graz - ‘ - Dolium . ; : - 25
» 17 Prof. G. du Plessis, Lausanne . Hydromedusen .-. é 34
» 24 Prof. Ed. Brandt, St. Petersburg Fische, Moll. Coelent. . 112
» 17 Zoolog. Mus., Wien. . e . Fische ‘ 3 et py als;
» 17 Zoolog. Inst., Graz Spongien, Radiolarien,
Foramf. is : . 40
» 81 Prof. Benecke, Strassburg . Alle Classen . fi : 98
» 31 Naturwiss. Samml., Bremen Moll., Wiirmer, Crust.,
Coelent. 3 153
» 31 Zool. Institut, Strassburg . Alle Classen 131
April 4 Prof. Cossar Ewart, Aberdeen 3 ‘ 3 . 233
” 7 Prof. Kossmann, Heidelberg Moll.,Wiirm., Echin., Coelent. 87
' 7 H. Zehrfeld, Dresden Alle Classen . , p 80
» 10 Dr. H. Ludwig, Bremen , Echinodermen und Ce-
phalopoden . - 5 94
» 15 Prof. Ehlers, Gottingen Alle Classen ' . 224
» 21 Grossh. Gymnasium, Constanz a H : 21

Carried forward . + . 2,017

1879.

REPORT

170

TasuNyoUg

“ “

. . “

62 : Aromg ‘Jorg
sf mye | st | ° ‘ udTTeIT ; * orepoy, ‘Jorg
“ “ec 92 . . se . Aysmoxloaroyy ap 79)
“ “ 9a | ° : purissmyy | * . . “Aossq “Iq.
s tune | FT | ° : *uIeIeg 2 * jouuey “A “Id
= tune | 6r | “ Te | OT | yprysuteq-uessey ; * Yyooy “A "Ford
$ ‘ F aS ns GT | ermepeoy reurp1eg ‘ SInqioy ‘YW ‘Jorg
se wy | 1r| “ | mdyw ier: = aesyouge|* ~ Sraqrery “Oo Jorg
sf + GS ae a (ie New : * ueprg | ° *TassnIg IeIye{1EqO
6L8T wepruryow
‘ueSuvpy = “00g | 1eq aseluvaRscIO
‘pew ‘shygieg‘zqg | pun Jey; e[qQuUILEy se i ¥Z ss s €1 : ‘uleteg | * . * eymeleg "JorIg
6LET sues
-ryep ‘0g ‘IN ‘103 ayOTYOsas
-I8ZUY LaYOSISO[OOZ | -SSuNpPPYOIAMyUG MZ ¢ Se | 26. S pf OT : ZIOMYOS | * : e To H Id
“ Tudy IZ ‘“ “6 OL . “ . . . IOSpOY “Iq
S S 6 * wessnerg | ° : * ppoussteg ‘1d
‘“c “ F . . ‘watery | ° . . sepuy “Id
§ wm | & af ss eal * - puvissnyy | * * yoytuvlsmg ‘Jorg
% Tue | 6 es ZIV | . > Smassvyyg | pouquny-sulpog Jery ‘fog
“| tady | F 3 ; 9% | WoIwroossy ysTyITg | ; * sapped “Id
es Tone | eE ee” ‘qaqa | 9 aSpuqmeg |* ° ° woppe ‘IW
<f A i pede eps gee 7 + OTA BL ep I
6L8T | “UeE | T | ° : *maryeiy | * 7 * 9juvyoe,A “Iq
a qaqa} ot} “ ‘zeq. | ¢ |uoreMossyysumg |* * wepeTg Aorag “IW
3 Tey | £1.)2 = ‘ON | FL] ° ° puepom |’ ° * yyderqnyA Iq
“ tune | T “ “ 94 |° . ZIOMTPS : . + Suey aq
6L8T | THdy | 6 Ms 1900 |@¢°| 2 «9 yuxemg | (ee = so nonnnTe earn
“ “cc OL “ oe GZ . . Ssinque yy -° . . . qyooaiqTy ‘Id
8181 | “390 | 9% | SL8T | “deg | 3 SIIGMI}IN A | * ao toZ}9u “IC
s S |] ¢ & | 3
SUBTILOTPOSIT Sop WO YLIYOY Tap [LL = SI a = 3 =
= ES a = apn 4zqynUEq sTroMal
puls 450.10 Sunppuqy Sunppuay Yost], Ustep 7RVIS TOUOSAOFANJY NY Op WOUre NT

TASUNYONSIa}U/) U9}[[O}seSuv UOTIVIG Joep UL
dip Taqn oyney stq syoreM WauOTyworTqng

WONVIG Jap UL say[VyJUenVy sop Ionepz1ez

-IVAIU(] apo yvrjg

FEI
S61
GGL
Té6L
061
611
SIT
LTT
OTT

SIL

a4sv'yT
Jap rouruIN

‘6181 ATOL JO GNA AHL OL ‘8ST ‘1 AMANWALATG WOU NOILVIS AHL LV ASMU0M DAVH OHM SLISITVUNLVN AHL AO LSIT V

iE ee a

ON EXCAVATIONS AT PORTSTEWART, ETC. 171

List oF NATURALISTS, &c.—continued.

Lire
Brought forward . : - 2,017
April 21 Dr. Keller, Ziirich . 2 . Coelenteraten . : se LG,
» 29 Prof. Kossmann, Heidelberg . Physalia . ; : : 30
Mai 1 K.Puls,Gent . é P . Spong., Anthoz. : LOG.
33 6 Prof. van Beneden, Liittich . Alle Classen . : Re 7s}
* 11 Prof. Todaro, Rom . : . Salpen . ; : : 2B!
» 20 Dr. Hubrecht, Leiden r . Fische . : é ae hs)
cp 21 Anatom. Institut, Halle. . Mollusk., Wiirm., Crust.,
Coelent. ; = d 47
“ 21 SS. Brogi, Siena . : ‘ . Alle Classen . 5 , 33
3 24 Prof. Reitimeyer, Basel . . Fische, Coelent. : Su Wey
Juni 20 Prof. Ray Lankester, London . Hier von Cephalop. : 5
f 20 Prof. Berlin, Amsterdam . . Fische, Mollusk., Wiirm.,

Coelent. 3 : PLZ
53 20 Prof. Harting, Utrecht : . Alle Classen . ‘ 2) 19L6
» 23 W. Kitchin Parker, London . Embryonenvon Hippocampus 17
Summa 4 5 . 4,079

Lire

Einnahmen im Jahre 1876 F ‘ : ‘ 3,194

“ a 1877 . ' 5 ; 2,459

as 1878 : 5 : : 3,175

A 1879 (Jan. 1—Juni 30) . 4,079

Report of the Committee, consisting of Major-General Lang Fox, Mr.
Wituiam James Know ss, Dr. A. Leira Apams, and the Rev. Dr.
Grainger, for the purpose of conducting Excavations at Port-
stewart, and elsewhere in the North of Ireland. Drawn up by
Mr. Knowuzs (Secretary).

Tux present report records a continuation of work hitherto carried on by
the Secretary of this Committee, on the subject of which several papers

' have been read by him at previous meetings of the British Association.

Up till the meeting of last year the work was chiefly confined to surface
exploration. Several large pits had been found among the sand hills at
Portstewart, and other places along the northern coast of Ireland, to
contain large quantities of flint implements, hammer-stones, cores, and
flakes, mixed up with numerous broken and split bones and teeth,
which were supposed to be the remains of animals which had been used
as food by the flint workers. It required very little attention and study
to perceive that the pits had been excavated within a comparatively recent
period, that the wind had but lately removed the sand which had previously
filled the hollows, and left the flints and other objects in the bottom,
because they were too heavy to be blown away. These objects had
evidently been previously imbedded in a layer of dark colour, remains of
which were visible all around the sides of the pits, but on which there
remains in places undisturbed a covering of sand varying in thickness.
from 10 to 50 feet. This layer has been generally cut through where.
pits are formed, and the remains found in the bottom have gradually
reached a somewhat lower level than the place formerly occupied by

172 REPORT—1879.

them, but in some cases the layer has resisted denudation and forms a
sort of platform. In other places, where the layer dips, it may appear at
the surface as an outcrop, or form a diminutive escarpment.

The space over which this layer spreads has not been accurately made
out. It is not, however, co-extensive with the sandhills, which can be
explained by supposing that other hills of sand have been heaped up
since the time the manufacturers of flint implements lived there. At
Portstewart and the opposite side of the river Bann this layer may be
estimated with safety to spread over two square miles, all of which,
with the pits already mentioned, has a covering of sand, not of a shifting
nature, but of a permanent kind, because covered and protected by a close
crop of vegetation. Although the sandhills now reach to the very mouth
of the Bann, the black layer does not extend so far. It has been observed
that from 1} to 2 miles from the river’s mouth, though we have the same
kind of sandhills and pits as we have farther inland, there are no such black
layers or flint objects to be found on either side of the river, which would
lead to the conclusion that at the time this black layer was an exposed
surface the river Bann emptied into the sea about two miles farther inland
than it does at present.

The operations of the past year at Portstewart have been chiefly
confined to digging over the exposed portions of the black layer, though
a small amount of excavation has been made into the black layer which
is still beneath the sandy covering.

In one spot of exposed layer, measuring three square yards, one scraper,
one core, and several flakes were obtained, but no animal remains. Another
small piece of layer, of similar extent in a different pit, yielded several
flakes and a great many fragments of pottery. Two small pieces were
ornamented. These were parts of the rim of a vessel, and the orna-
mentation was longitudinal lines with cross striation, resembling what
would be produced if the milled edge of a shilling were rolled along soft
clay. No animal remains were found. Another small piece of exposed
layer in a third pit yielded a little nest of eleven small scrapers, but no
other remains.

In one of the largest pits, at a place where the edge of the dark layer
is seen cropping out under 50 feet of sand, and where bones, both cut and
split, and also teeth had been found in abundance lying exposed, a portion
of the covering was removed, laying bare about 20 square yards of the
dark layer, which was carefully dug over. A considerable quantity of
broken and split bones and teeth were obtained, chiefly those of ox and
deer, two flint flakes, two hammer-stones, one of which, in addition to
the hammered ends, had its sides also hammered, as if an attempt had
been made to form an oval tool-stone. The depression seems to have
been formed by repeated blows with another stone being struck on the
same spot. Also a small stone, four inches long, rather square in section,
having one end sloped away by rubbing. Mixed up with these in the
layer were small pieces of charred wood and many broken and rounded
stones, and also a few shells, chiefly Patella. It was near this place that
some bone implements, a small ornament, and cut bones were found on
the surface, and which have been described in previous papers. One of
the persons employed, in the absence of your secretary, dug out of the layer
at this place a portion of the antler of a red deer having several tines
sawn off. It is the upper half of the antler, and one long tine remains
projecting at the upper extremity in such a way that a sort of pick is

ON EXCAVATIONS AT PORTSTEWART, ETC. 173

formed. In the centre of this pit, and only a few yards from the place
where the bones have been found so plentifully, a very large quantity of
flint scrapers, several arrowheads, knives, hammer-stones, and cores
were obtained, all mixed up with an immense quantity of flint flakes and
chips.

inde deleeoilbo Bann separates this place from Portstewart. Sand-
hills containing similar implements are found here. On a recent visit of
the Ballymena Naturalists’ Field Club, accompanied by the Rev. Dr.
Grainger, M.R.I.A., Vice-President, and also a member of this Committee,
as many as 200 flint implements of various kinds were obtained, but the
layer where experimented on yielded rather poor results.

Whitepark Bay, Ballintoy—There are sandhills at this place some-
what similar to those at Portstewart, and there is also the dark-coloured
implement-bearing layer, but the portion richest in remains lies along the
top of a bank quite close to the sea and about 30 feet above sea level. The
sand has been removed from above the layer on the top of this bank for
about a quarter of a mile in length by a few yards in breadth, leaving
the comparatively solid floor of blackish matter undisturbed in many
spots. About 30 square yards of the richest part of this floor was dug
over, and it yielded a great quantity of flakes, fifty-three scrapers, two
large triangular-shaped flints, one of which is dressed at the pointed
end after the manner of a scraper, a bored stone or whorl, the thick end
of an antler of a red deer, having a hole bored through near its base, the
half of an oval tool-stone, cores, several hammer-stones, one showing
work on the sides as well as at the ends, a bone pin, a bone needle, several
pieces of pottery, showing handsome ornamentation, an ochreous stone,
which has been much rubbed and scraped, and a small portion of a
similar stone. There were also a few shells and a great quantity of teeth
and bones mixed up with the implements. The long bones were all
broken and split. The bones and teeth corresponded very closely with
those previously found lying exposed on the surface, and which Professor
A. Leith Adams found to contain those of man, horse, ox, wolf or dog,
fox, deer, and hog.

The hole in the antler is oval, and gets narrower towards the centre,
like the holes in many stonehammers. At the surface it is 14 inches in
diameter longitudinally and 1} inches across. In the centre of the hole
the diameters are nearly 1 inch and ? inch respectively.

The hole in the whorl is comparatively wide at both surfaces of the
stone, about 2 inches in diameter, and gets narrower towards the centre.
The outer and wider portions have a battered appearance, as if those
parts had been formed by hammering, but the central portion has a
ringed appearance, some parts being wider than others. This central
part may have been bored by means of a rotating stick and sharp sand
and water. The wider portions would be formed when the end of the
stick had become slightly broader by wear, and the narrower portions at
the times when it was newly trimmed.

Dundrum, Cownty Down.—There are extensive sandhills at this place,
which were lately examined by the secretary of this committee. Fre-
quent visits have been made to this place by the Belfast Naturalists’ Field
Club and by Mr. Gray, who is president of the society for the present
year, and it has been described as one of several places where flint flakes
and scrapers are to be found. It was not, therefore, expected that any
quantity of remains would be obtained, and the chief object in going

174 REPORT—1879.

was to ascertain if there were the same implement-bearing layers here
as at Portstewart and Ballintoy. Mr. Knowles visited Dundrum on two
occasions alone in July, and once in August, accompanied by the Rev.
Dr. Grainger. On these three occasions 1122 manufactured objects were
obtained, viz. 1013 scrapers, forty-one arrow heads, forty-six scrapers
with concave scraping edge, eighteen dressed flakes and borers, one stone,
somewhat of the nature of an oval tool-stone, one of those oval stones
with a small track on each side, described in the Catalogue of the Royal
Irish Academy as sling-stones, one stone like a tool-stone, but having only
one side indented, and also a small serpentine bead of similar form, but
slightly larger than those found at Portstewart, which have been described
in previous papers. Here, as at Portstewart and Ballintoy, there are some-
times several black layers to be seen, and it has been remarked that
generally only one of those layers contains flints. Sometimes a large pit
has a pillar of sand standing up capped by a black layer, or perhaps there
may be a large table-like mass, capped in a similar way. The majority of
the objects described were found exposed, many showing evidence of
having only recently dropped from the layer, but in places where exca-
vation was tried as an experiment, scrapers were found, as at the places
previously mentioned, In one place the flint objects were found close to
the edge of a layer, where they had been set free by denudation; while in
another layer, higher up on the side of the same pit, there was no trace
of implements, though full of rounded and broken stones, and at first
sight presenting a very similar appearance to the layer below.

The scrapers are mostly all of very small size. Hundreds of them
are not larger than the finger-nail, and in almost every case, no matter
how small, there is found remaining a portion of the original crust of the
pebble from which the scraper has been formed. Some of them are very
neatly dressed, and are beautiful objects.

About one-third of the arrowheads are perfect and of great beauty.
In one case a broken one has had the broken edge dressed and formed
into a scraper.

The scrapers with concave scraping edge were no doubt used for
scraping cylindrical objects. They are nearly all perfect, and it was re-
marked about them, as about the arrowheads, that where one was found
several more might be expected. These hollow scrapers were found
chiefly in three spots, and about a dozen were obtained in each place. The
other objects are chiefly flakes, dressed over the back or along the edges,
and having a flat side undressed. The contrast between this place and
Ballintoy is very marked. Here everything points to a scarcity of
material, and comparatively few flakes are left undressed. Hvyen other
rocks are found split up into flakes, and two beautiful flakes of a rock
crystal were picked up. At Ballintoy and some other places, on the
other hand, there seems to have been a perfect waste of material, and
every object is of large size.

The stone which bears some resemblance to a tool-stone is rather
irregular in form, and the hollows are not equal in size nor exactly
opposite each other, but the hollows communicate by a very narrow
opening.

The so-called sling-stone was picked up by Dr. Grainger. He was
walking slowly along near the edge of a large pit and found it lying
among a few other pebbles, but it cannot be said that any flint objects
were in association with it. At the distance of a few yards, however,

bal
,
2

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 175

towards the centre of the same pit, ten or twelve scrapers with concave
edge, several other scrapers, and a beautiful stemmed arrowhead, were
found.

The bead was also found by Dr. Grainger, and some scrapers were
found quite near to it. It is rounded on one side and flat on the other,
and similar in every respect, except size, to those found at Portstewart.

Several hammer-stones were found having their sides as well as
ends hammered, sometimes hollows being formed, bearing a resemblance
to those on the sides of the oval tool-stones.

Animal remains were very scarce, only a few teeth were picked up,
and these chiefly belonged to the horse, ox, and deer.

Report of the Anthropometric Committee, consisting of Dr. Farr,
Dr. Beppor, Mr. Brasroox (See.), Sir Grorgu CAMPBELL, Mr. F. P.
Fettows, Major-Gen. Lanz Fox, Mr. Francis Garon, Mr. Park
Harrison, Mr. James Huywoop, Mr. P. Hatuerr, Professor Lzonz
Levi, Sir Rawson Rawson, Professor Rotueston, and Mr. Cuarizs

RoBERTs.
[PLATES IX.—XII.]

Tue Committee was appointed for the purpose of continuing the collection
of observations on the systematic examination of heights, weights, &c., of
human beings in the British Empire, and the publication of photographs
of the typical races of the Empire. That any conclusions drawn from .
statistics thus collected may be trustworthy, it is obviously essential that
as large an average of facts as possible should be obtained, and that the
services of a large number of independent investigators should be enlisted.
Having, in previous years, laid down the lines upon which observers
should proceed, and prepared a circular of instructions, the attention of the
Committee has been directed this year not so much towards any attempt
to draw conclusions from the facts before them, as towards completing the
collection of data, and obtaining the services of fresh observers in various
quarters. They have endeavoured, wherever practicable, to induce per-
sons in a position to collect anthropometric statistics, particularly those
tending to establish a law of growth and development, to establish a
system of periodical record, which from year to year will increase in value
and interest. By this means, many difficult problems in relation to race,
occupation, climate, culture, &c., may in due course be solved.
Considerable progress has been made by the Committee during the

_ year in the collection of observations and in reducing the results to a
tabular shape. No alteration has been made in the forms and instru-

ments used, except that the capacity of the spirometer-bag has been in-
creased, it being found that many persons in selected occupations exceeded
the maximum capable of registry by the original instrument. The types

for colour of hair have been seriously reconsidered, and the ‘stenochromic’

process approved—but as the process turned out not to be commercially
available, no alteration in the existing book of types has been adopted.

Returns have been received from the following sources, containing
the particulars undermentioned in respect of the number of individuals
stated in each case :—

176

REPORT—1879.

=

oo ADP w

46.

: Soldiers .
. H.M.S. Fisguard.

Sources

. Cadets Royal Military Col-)

lege, Sandhurst

S
. Boys at Westminster School
. Students at Aberystwith

Boys at Christ’s Hospital
Medical Students

. Felstead Grammar School :
. Men in Mr. Whiteley’s em-

ploy

. Letter Sorters

. Metropolitan Police .

. City Police (first instalment) |
. Metropolitan Fire Brigade.

. Jews :

» (another source)

. Industrial Classes

. Workmen of Messrs. Howard
. Workmen (Dr. Bain) .

. Scotland, various occupations
. Weavers

Rifle Volunteers.
Northumberland
Cumberland
Cornwall .
Somerset .
Hssex
Suffolk
Kent

. Royal Surrey Militia .
. Volunteers

and Militia, \
Surrey

. Recruits

Industrial Schools.
Newcastle
Birmingham
Greenock . :
Park Row (Bristol) .
St. James (Bristol) .

Sale, near Manchester, |
Girls’ . c : , if
Criminals - :

Birth-
place,
Origin,

and Sex | Weight

Age, |Colour
Height, jof Hair
and and

Eyes
300 300
200 200
40 40
1936 —
46 46
62 62
242 —
1980 —
205 205
60 60
80 80
140 140
20 20
82 42
67 66
28 28
20 20
120 —
200 200
40 40
110 110
155 155
89 89
135 135
90 —
459 459
124 124
100 100
32 —
79 62
190 —
100 —
218 88
128 108
356 —
200 200
199 199
20 20
59 59
150 150
84 84
100 100
70 70
70 70
80 80
2480 _—
11745 | 4011

Girth | Strength

Chest

+ 300

6321

of
Arm

2131

1368

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 177

To which are to be added the very extensive observations collected by
Mr. Roberts, which will be referred to at length in a subsequent part of
this Report. In those marked * particulars of race and origin have not
been in all cases given; on the other hand, in those marked f the im-
portant particular of breathing capacity has also been observed.

The Committee are thus already in possession of nearly 12,000
original observations on the main question of weight and height in
relation to age, in addition to the 50,000 collected by Mr. Roberts, and
they have information of returns being in preparation from many other
sources.

The following tables exhibit the general result of the returns of height
and weight, and the relations between them :—

AVERAGE HEIGHT.

F Letter

._ | Metropoli- Mr. Messrs.
Militia Recruits ores tan Fire Whiteley’s Sores Sls cae

Brigade Shopmen Post Office Workmen

Age 2 a 2) ./3 2 2 &
BBB e (PS Ay (SS / Be 3S] He (ss | He |es|H, [Ss la,
rT o H oo | x a) oO] 28 2l/He| oS lus] os
O4)821 98/88) 34 2}| 34 a| 04/88) $4 |)8?2] 34
28 | <8 |26| 44 [25 | 9a (28| se lee| Sa |28| Sa |£6 | Sa

12- | | ice Me NA es wal Vas ae
13- —}— 2|54:0| — | — | —| — | — | — | 36 | 55-9) — —_
14— Gia Wap-Oiee Oa oo: gi —) | — 8 | en | amy. 5) eee —
Line mal alls a | — | — | 2 | 65:5 |670 | 61:7; — =
16- Pema Odor ea GO' Es | —— fe es 8 |65:1|275 |63°9| 7 | 64:5
7 Toa 64: Oiler dl G572) | —— | — 8 | 63:5 |724 |65:4| 4% | 61°5
18- SiMe Gao aalect Gps Sel | | 8 |66°8| 98 | 65:4) 3 | 69-2
19_- 35 | 65:4) 44 | 66:3] — | — 2 | 69°5) 70 | 66:1! 86 |66:4| 3 | 67-2
20- 34 |65:3| 29 |66:5| 7171°5| 7 |69-5| 27 167-3! 30 | 66-4 4 | 6673
21- 43 |66°5| 79 |668] 5 |69:5| 4 | 68-3} 23 | 65-9 43 |65°8| 6 | 67:7
22- 388 |65°5| 75 |67-4) 7 | 69-2 4 | 67°8| 27 | 67:3} 79 |67-:1| 6 | 68-2
23- 37 | 65:6 | 73 |66°8| 75 |70°4| 4 |68:0| 22 |666| 75 |668| 7 70°5
24— 22 |66:3| 27 | 67:7] 78 |69°8| 3 |665| 27 | 66-6 17: \66°6| 7 | 64:5
25-— 93 |65°8| 8 167-9} 75 | 70:2) 25 | 67-5 54 |66:0| 67 | 66:2) 72 | 66-7
30- 48 |66:1) 2 | 69-5 47 |71:0| 76 | 68:2| 22 |67:0| 2 1|65:0| 72 | 66-1
35— 30 | 65°9| — | — | 33 |69:6| 70 | 68-4| 78 |66-4| 7 | 64-0 9 | 668
40- 45 \ 66:9} — | — 7 |69°6| 9 |67:3| 7 |66:5] — | — 3 | 65:2
45- 72, \ 60% | — | — 3 |69°8| 2/66:0| 7 |645) — | — 3 | 66:2
50- 3 69:0} — | — |—|— |—|}— | 2}705;—|— | 7 | 685
55-60 I lipesig Tete) ee od Se 8 a 7 \72°5} — | — | — =
All ages | 459] 65°8 | 200 | 66-1 | 205| 70:2 So 67:9 | 242 66:4 |7980) 62:6 | 67 | 66:7
7 | a
cc \ 25:9 20:9 30-0 30°8 25-4 16-6 28-9

Norr.—If the comparison is limited to the ages between 20 and 35, the averages
range as follows :—

Letter Sorters . 3 - 64 to 67:1
Militia. F “| 4 - 65°3 ,, 66°5
Mr. Whiteley’s Men : - 65:9 ,, 67°3
Messrs. Howard’s Men . - 66:1 ,, 70°5 (one case only)
Recruits ‘ C Q - 66°5 ,, 69°5
Fire Brigade . a . - 66°5 ,, 69°5 (one case only)

Police. 5 . ° - 69-2 ,, 71:5 (one case only)
1879, N any?

178

REPORT—1879.

AVERAGE WEIGHT.

Letter

‘ . | Metropoli- Mr.
Militia | Recruits | Memopoli- | “tan Fire | Whitciey’s | Sorters &.,
Brigade Shopmen Post Office
| 4 » ~ » » re ia
Age n &) 7) 7) n % n e) +2) m ic
oO vo o o q oO
BS/Fe /8S/Ee/Ss\Fz /8s|Fe |ts/Pe |ts\ Ee
He] 2 ee er) HE He | o 5e|/ 28/88
He) 2 /25/ be |28) 25/25) #2 |28| 28 20) 22
S| oa a] oA | Sa] om 2] Oo 2| SQ | 2S] ou
26/28 |26|48|26| 48 |25| 48 (26/55 |26| Ss
12- — —} —F}—o—] — I — |] — Pe Os Ke I ad eK
13- —};— TT Bf at || el a es aa gt
14- 7 | 72:0; 6) 85:0) — | —|]— |] —|]—] — 803 | 93:3
heya —| —{—|] —|—|.—|—| —] 2 |127-5|670 |100°5
| 16- 4 |122°5) 7 |107°5} — |} —|—)|] — 8 126°3|275 |111°5
17- 73 }119°4) 3 |110°8} — | —}—] — S |113:1/724 |120°5
| tf Se 35 |126:2} 37 |129°0) — | —|—] — 8 |135-0) 98 |123:3
lo eho 35 |136:3) 44 |135°8) — | — 2 155-0} 70 137-5) S6 |128-7
20- 34 |134:1] 29 |137-°3] 7 |162:5) 7 162-5) 27 1146-3) 30 |130-0
21- 43 |137-6| 79 |141°4| 35 1163°5}) 4 155-0] 23 139-5) 43 |127°6
22- 38 |138:0| 75 |148°8] 7 |161°6) 4 (148°8 27 (145°8) 79 |132:0
23- 37 |133°8] 73 |142°5) 75 |172°2} 4 156-3) 22 |146°4| /5 |136°5
| 24— 22 |128:4| 27 |146°5| 78 169-7} 3 140°8} 27 144-9) 717 \139°9
25- 93 \140°5| S§ |145°0) 75 '173°6 25 1551) 54 |146°0) 67 {137-7
30- 48 |\144°6) 2 |132°5) 47 182-7] 76 166°3 22 \163°2} 2 |122°5
2 8 30 |138:2; — | — | 33 |183°6] 70 |169°0| 78 |158°3) 7 |117°0
| 40- 15 \152°2} —| — | 7 |208:9] 9 !170°3] 7 |172°5| — | —
le 45— 72 '1145:0|; — , — 3 \209°2} 2 1167°5| 7 |157°5}) —} —
50- 3 (154:0); — |. — |} —] —}—! -- 7 |217-5| — | —
| Baap | 2 TAD Bb ae ye ee ee Re 4) | ae
/ an ages |459 137-6200 |135°6'205 177-6] SO 160-4|242 |145-9/7980|106-4
P= ! =
Average x, 90: ; 21). oR. :
| io } 25-9 20°9 30-0 30:8 25-4 16°6

Messrs.
Howard’s
Workmen

Average Weight

Number of
Observations
in Pounds

aaa
|

WW AAA AL O G ton
—
He
eS
~I

AN

| | sccw
=
1
(es)
a

Notre.—Taking, as before, the ages between 20 and 35, which affords means of
comparison between all the columns, the diversity of weights in the various classes
appears to be much greater than that of height, as follows :—

Letter Sorters

Militia

Recruits

Messrs. Howard’s Men
Mr. Whiteley’s Men . ;

Fire Brigade

Police

122°5 to 139°9
128-4 ,, 1446
132°5 ,, 148°8
1325 ,, 157°5
139°5 ,, 163-2
140°8 ,, 1663
162°5 ,, 182°7

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 179

RATIO OF WEIGHT TO HEIGHT.

| Letter
, Metropoli- Mr. Mes
Militia | Recruits | Metroveli- | “tan Tire | Whiteley’s yy reer Hevard’s
Brigade Shopmen Post Office Workmen
* % * ‘ e * *
g| GF] o|/ SF | =|8=| al Se] «| SE| =| SE| «| gE
88/22 |ss| 22 | s8|22|8S| 23 |es|2E ee) 22 |s8| Be
eel Se lge|Sciee|S5182| 25 18/25 /xel SS le3) 82
w6|\én\26|aul26| 20 \26|8n 26) 25 26125128) és
io SA RS aah ek |S i ee ee vate
13- eI ae rl een een) | 2 ee | Rh wee gp
14— Peis at) aes | ae PP et eee NE sagas eee Ee
15— — | — | — |} — | — | — | — | — |] 2] 1:9 | 6701 1:6) — | —
16- 4) 19 4\/18)]— —|— _— 8 1:9 | 275| 1:7 7) 21
17- 939119] 3\r7/—| —|—] —| 8] 18 | 724] 201 2] 20
18_ 85 | 2:0 | 37 | 20)—}| —|—] —1 &] 2:0] 98 1:9| 3} 21
19- 35|21|44|/20}|—| —| 2] 22] 70/91] 8619] 3| 1-9
20- 34|21|29|/21] 2/23) 7| 23] 27/92] sooo] 4] 21
21 43.|\21|79|21| 5] 24] 4/23)/23/91)! gal ro! 6] 21
22- 38 | 91/75/22) 7/23] 4|22|27/22)] 29120] 6] 22
23- 37120) 73 | 21|75| 24] 4/23) 292/92] 2120] 7 | 22
24 22|1:9| 27 | 22| | 23) 3|21)] 27/92) 77) 911 7] 94
25- 93|21] 8| 21] 78/25] 25/23] 54/22! 67] 21 | 72] 2-9
30- 4g |22| 2119] 47] 26] 76/241 22|24] a 19 | 22 | 23
35- 30 | 21|—| — | 33| 26] 70| 25] 78) 24) 718) 9 | a4
40- ‘eos | — | Lh FeO os) 26 | al ee) — og
45- CAVED Sei A TS NR 0 ee -v Wa?
50- Sse ee Wh es | eel eet ad atl eel, ee gif ane
errr RT| eile. if ieee | ell pene Se Moh eee P|
Allages | 459| 2:1 | 200) 2:1 |205| 2:5 | 80 | 2-4 | 942| 2-2 |s980| 1-7 | 67 | 2-2
i 25:9 20°9 300 30°8 25-4 166 28-9

* Viz., number of pounds in weight to an inch in height.

NOTE. ee as before, the ages between 20 and 35, the average ratios are as
ollows :—

Letter Sorters 1:9 to 2-1
Recruits and Militia TS eee:
Messrs. Howard’s Men . 21 4, 23
Mr. Whiteley’s Men and the Fire Brigade 21 ,, 2-4
4 Police . : $ : 2:3 ,, 2°6

N 2

180 REPORT—1879.
HEIGHT.
4 Industrial Schools
Westminster »,
School,
Dean’s Yard Newcastle ceo Greenock aa)
Age last : |
ABEL Number Average Number|Average Number|Average | Number|A verage| Number) Average
of Ob- | Height | of Ob- | Height | of Ob> | Height | of Ob- | Height | of Ob- | Height
serva- in serva- in serva- in serva- in serva- in
tions | Inches | tions | Inches | tions | Inches | tions | Inches | tions | Inches
| —
5 —_— —_ 1 41°5 —_ — —_ — — —
| 6 — — 2 43°5 —_— — —_— a = =
| 7 — _— 3 43°8 — 2 43°5 1 44:5
8 — — 10 45°7 3 45°5 2 46:0 — —_
9 —_— — 11 47-5 5 49-1 6 48°5 a 47-7
| 10 2 | 580) 27 | 47:8| 78 | 49-0 7 | 49-2 6 | 49:7
11 7 55-4 22 49°7 713 49:0 17 bib 17 50°9
12 15 57°8 26 51-4 15 51°6 24 52°1 10 52:7
13 20 59:7 ay 51°8 17 52°6 29 53°5 Ny 54°7
| 14 48 61:3 18 53°9 o 54:5 16 bot 14 574
1S 39 64:8 12 57°8 11 55:0 2 56°5 9 585
16 43 | 66°5 4 | 565 3 | 555 4 | 595 4 | 59-5:
17 fi, | 678i) —— | =) | ee
| 18 8 67°5 = = — — = — — —
jose =
| All ages 200 | 638 | 750 | 504| 8% | 51:2} 700 | 525 | SO | 537
| Average age 15:2 “119 12-4 12°6 12°8

Nots.—It will be observed, upon comparison of the columns relating to Industrial
Schools, that the Sale school, which consists of girls, has the advantage in height,
nearly throughout, over the three schools which consist of boys.

WEIGHT.
Westininster a ; boas pais vy
School,
Dean’s Yard Newcastle Peo aie Greenock (pennies)
Age last a . e eX S i. 2 eS
ee noay Number|Average| Number Average Number! Average|Number Average| Number)A verage
of Ob- | Weight | of Ob- | Weight | of Ob- | Weight | of Ob- | Weight | of Ob- | Weight
serva- in serva- in serva- in serva- in serva- in
tions | Pounds} tions Pounds| tions | Pounds; tions |Pounds| tions | Pounds
r 5 1 ile jie 4 | aap’) 22 RE Be a ee Cee ees
6 — i — @ | 49-68] Se Se
ff — — 3 47°5 — | = 2 50:0 a 875
8 — — 10 51°5 3 54:2 2 575 — —
9 _ — 41 53-4 5 61:5 6 64:2 5 50°5
10 2 69:0 25 55:3 18 60:0 7 668 6 56°7
11 7 68-4 22 62:0 13 | 64:8 11 716 a. 59°6
12 15 781 26 64:8 15 69°8 24 TED 10 66:0
13 20 86°2 17 69°6 44% \ 67°8 29 80°3 Id 76°6
14 48 95:3 18 74:2 5 79°5 16 90:0 14 88°6
15 39 1115 12 92°5 11 95°7 4 90:0 9 95°8
16 43 | 124-2 1 82°5 3 97°5 4 |112°5 1 875
17 gs) \1996} —*} — | — |) — |. Sa
18 § | 138-1 — — — —_— — — — —
All ages 200 106 | 748 64:3 84 | 70°6 | 700 178 80 72:4
Average age 15:2 11°9 12-4 12°6 12:8

Nots.—The Girls’ Industrial School seems to have an advantage in weight over
the Boys’ Schools (Greenock excepted), but not equal to the advantage in height.

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.

RATIO OF WEIGHT TO HEIGHT.

181

Industrial Schools,

eral
a oan ‘i Newcastle Benepe Greenock crenelaay

Age Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio |

Number) between} Number} between! Number, between, Number between! Number|between

of obser-| height |of obser-| height |of obser-| height |of obser-| height \of obser-| height

vations| and | vations} and |vations} and | vations}; and | vations} and |

weight* weight* weight* weight* weight* |
5 — “= 7 1:0 — — — _ — —_
6 —_ = 2 1:0 —_ — = —_ _ —

tf —_ — 3 11 — — 2 11 c| Os |

8 Seah) fas) | | 1k 3 | 12 FN aN Ne |
9 —_— — 17 apa r9) 1:3 6 1:3 3 11
10 2 1:3 2 1:2 18 1:2 7 14 6 1-1
11 7 1:2 22 1:2 13 1c 17 14 17 1:2
12 135 1:4 26 LS 15 1-4 2 1°5 10 | 1:3
13 20 1-4 an 1:3 41 13 29 | 15 Fe aie, 4
14 USO) SG i) 78) |) 14 goal ee) 46 16 | 74 | 15
15 39 ie 12 16 11 17 Ze 16 9 16
16 43 1:9 Hf 15 3 18 chad ec 1 15
17 18 1:9 — — — — — — — ==
18 & 2:0 — — — — — —_— — —
Allages .| 200 | 1-7 | 150 | 13 | 8 | 1:4] 700] 1:5 | 80 | 1:3

| |

Averageage|} 15:2 years 11°9 years | 12-4 years 12°6 years 12°8 years

* Number of pounds in weight to an inch in height.

Notr.—Taking the ages 12 and 13 as those which afford the largest number for
comparison, it would seem that the ratio between height and weight does not
differ largely among these very diverse classes.

The returns relating to Christ’s Hospital have been abstracted for the
Committee by Sir Rawson W. Rawson, for each month of age as shown
by the subjoined tables :—

182 REPORT—1879.

TasLe I.—Statement of the Height, without shoes, of boys in the School
of Christ’s Hospital, showing the average, maximum, and minimum
at each month, quarter, and year of age, between 9 and 16.

| Height in Inches and Decimals
=a ae of Monthly Quarterly Yearly
| and bsnl
| Months | “Hons No. of No. of
Average |Maximum |Minimum]| Obser- | Average| Obser- | Average
vations vations
| 90 1 47-4 aes — a = aes bs,
1 = eee ee =e ant _ ue ae
2 — Bid te pa = fet Les ee
3 — aes = —_ zoe Lt me wots
4 1 49°] iis = = = =a pa
5 — = as =. me ae es ea
6 3 50:1 52-4 48-4
7 3 51:2 52°5 50 9 51:2
8 3 52:3 57 49 }
9 2 50°7 51 50-4 22 50°8
10 7! 51:2 _ -—— 13 50°6
11 10 50°5 52:3 49-2
Average of ;
Monthly Averages } rl ie
10 0 10 | 51-9 BE5 | 484 [7
1 8 51°6 545 49°6 27 517)
2 9 51-4 52 | 49 «If
3 17 51:3 54°6 476
4 14 51:3 56 48°4 } tt 51°5 |
5 13 52-2 54-1 49 3
6 | 21 | 5x2 B44 | 49-4 a
if 13 524 552 47°6 \ 64 52°5
8 30 | 52:9 56°6 49-4
9 24 52:3 57 48°5
10 27 52°8 56:2 47-4 i 75 52°5.
11 24 52°3 55:7 49-4
Average of i
Monthly Averages \ aa sedi
11 0 24 526 57 49
1 24 52°9 56 50°3 \ 83 526 |)
2 35 52:5 56 49-1
3 36 52°9 60-4 47°6 i |
4 29 | 54 59-4 49-1 i 102 532
5 37 | B31 60°2 49 ‘
6 33 531 57 50°3 } aoe ear
7 38 53-4 58°7 47-6 \ 102 536
8 31 54:3 59 48-2
9 24 54:2 59-4 50°3
10 37 54-4 60°2 AT-4 } 105 542 |)
ll 4 54:2 59 50°6
Average of ; :
Monthly Averages } hg an

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 183

TABLE I.—STATEMENT OF THE HEIGHT, &C.—continued.

rs G —
eS w ee bo
FOC ONDoFWNrO FOC ONAOrWNrHO rFOoOVaNaurwnNro

a

Height in Inches and Decimals
No. of Monthly Quarterly Yearly
vations No. of No. of
Average |Maximum|Minimum| Obser- | Average | Obser- | Average
vations vations
33 54:2 58°5 48-4
37 54 60°1 51-4 105 54:2
35 54:5 58 51
31 54°6 58°6 51
51 54°6 59°4 49 115 54:6
33 54:9 59 50 :
47 | 549 | 585 | B15 b410 | 547
38 54:7 58-4 49-2 118 54:6
33 54:2 59-4 50°3
22 551 57°5 52 i
19 54:9 59°7 49-4 72 55:6 | J
31 55-9 61 506 | J
Average of { 7
Monthly Averages \ oe. aoe
21 57 62 517 it
39 56:2 61°5 49 91 562 1)
31 55:9 624 | 514 [J
29 56°9 61 51-4
34 56°5 65°7 52 \ 98 564
35 56 61°5 51 :
34 | 566 61-4 | 501 + 353 | 567
35 56°7 62:2 51-4 95 569
26 57°8 63 54:2
20 56°5 59-4 52°3 )
17 57°5 60-4 53°4 69 573 J
32 577 64-4 48
Average of 5 ‘
Monthly Averages i eat BUe
26 57°8 62°4 53 1.
28 58°3 64°4 501 83 58-2 |)
29 | 586 655 | B81 [J
22 59-2 64:2 53°7
27 57°2 63 53:2 80 584
31 58°9 63-4 52°6 i :
22 «| 585 653 | 52 ae coe
25 58°6 62°4 53-2 68 59:2
21 60-4 65°7 55
18 58:7 63-4 53
13 59:3 64 56 60 586 |J
29 58°3 66°4 54

Average of 7 q :
Monthly Averages} f ee Be

184

REPORT—1879.

TABLE J.—STATEMENT OF THE HEIGHT, &C.—continued.

Age in

Years
and

Months

or

FPOVCONATr WNW RES

_
SD Se
KP OVONaorwnWro

ee

$$$ $$$ — —_—.

Monthly Averages

Average. of i 65°7

Height in Inches and Decimals
No. of Monthly Quarterly Yearly
Obser-
ramones No. of No. of
Average |Maximum|Minimum) Obser- | Average| Obser- | Average
vations vations
29 6071 66 51:2
33 | 60-4 652 | 53-4 91 | 604 |)
29 60°6 67-4 541
17 61:4 66°3 54°6
25 61:8 66-2 57°2 54 61°6
12 61:3 66-4 57°4 236 61°3
14 61:9 66 55
13 60°2 65 571 42 61:3
15 61°6 67 57
22 62°6 67°4 55°7 |
16 62'8 682 | 56-4 49 | 6g J
11 63-4 69°4 574 f
Average of 5 :
Monthly Averages } eae oe
8 63:4 67°4 56°6
4 62°9 68:2 60 a
2 64-2 662 | 62-2 17 | 63-4
1 63°6 _ =
2 63°7 67:1 63:4
ab ie ee ze pe | 92 | 628
!
2 59 59°5 56°8
1 61-2 — —_ 5
A) 62°4 ad ee ° 61:3
1 65 — —
6071

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 185

TaBLe I1.—Statement of the Weight of boys in the School of Christ’s Hos-
pital, showing the average, maximum, and minimum at each month,
quarter, and year of age, between 9 and 16 :—

| Weight in Ibs. and Decimals
: = hay No. of | Monthly Quarterly Yearly
Obser- a
Months | Vations No. of No. of
| Average} Maximum|Minimum| obser- | Average | obser- | Average
. va a |
90 if 48 — ~- — — — —
1 — — = == 24 — pols =
ee Pe St eS Pe Pe PE
3 = rms a3) a aS — — =
4 1 59 — — — == — ee
5 — = = — = ae = we
: 6 3 58 64 52
7 3 63 65 61 9 60°7
8 3 61 62 59 =
9 2 | 575 58 aan an oS 7
10 1 61 _— _— 13 58°7
11 10 58-7 67 56 J
Average of aS
| Monthly Averages \ na af
: 10 0 10 63 75 52
1 8 60 66 52 27 6) i
2 9 60 70 54
3 17 62-9 73 56 2
: 4 14 64 81 50 i 44 63:4
5 13 64:8 76 57 3
6 | 21 62'8 72 cami poet Bet
7 13 64 75 52 64 64:2
8 30 65:3 78 54 J
9 24 64:5 80 53
10 | 27 66:3 79 56 75 65-6 ||
11 24 63-9 77 53
Average of i
Monthly Averages } Cie ane
110 24 64:4 77 56
1 24 658 77 55 83 64:8
2 35 64:9 76 51
3 36 65°8 98 51 |
4 29 68°5 93 56 i 102 66°9
5 37 66°6 83 52 { 7
6 | 33 66-1 79 521) ¢a22 67-4
of 38 67°5 81 57 102 67:7
8 31 69°7 88 54 ii
9 24 67°8 81 58
LY 10 37 70°6 84 54 105 69:7 |)
11 44 70 90 46
Average of : r
Monthly Averages i ae a

Note.—Weight is taken without coats, waistcoats, and shoes. The average
weight of clothes worn when weighed is ascertained to be 23 lbs.

186 REPORT—1879.

TABLE II.—STATEMENT OF THE WEIGHT, &c.—continued.

Weight in Ibs. and Decimals

Age in| No, of Monthly ie 1
No. : y Quarterly Yearly
TEE | Obser.
Months vations i eet No. of No. of
Average |Maximum|Minimum] obser- | Average| obser- | Average
vations vations
12 0 33 68:4 83 ES
1 37 69°7 81 5 :
2 35 70°2 86 58 hos 69°5 |)
3 31 7071 92 58 1 |
4 51 70 114 51 :
5 33 70°2 90 43 ate 70°8
6 47 70 86 61 } 410 71:3
7 38 71:3 91 48 f
8 33 73 93 61 bus Te
9 22 74 84 64
10 19 73-5 90 56 :
11 31 75-9 92 62 I Jo eT |)
Average of s
Monthly Averages| / 9071 56°7
13 0 21 755 90 60
1 39 WT 100 57 '
2 31 757 113 55 \ i 162}
3 29 78°3 102 58 (ee
4 34 17-6 131 57 | | 98 77:3
5 35 762 106 56 Kf
6 34 76:8 93 62 7 , 353 78-3
Ti 35 79:5 100 56 A ‘
8 26 82 114 65 i oe $253
9 20 786 91 62 1
10 ir 82:5 100 66 9 | B19
rh 32 82 120 66 | f ay oat et” J
Average of 1
Monthly Averages jf les 60
1140 26 80 104 61 )
1 28 86°6 108 62 4-9
2 29 87-4 133 60 f a : }
3 22 88-1 117 64 4 |
4 27 83-2 110 64 iS ‘
5 31 86-8 125 66 | { a0 aie :
6 | 29 85:2 112 69 1 + 291 86-7
7 25 86 105 57 3
8 21 94-1 131 70 i 8 a6
9 18 89 ne 67
10 13 90°3 112 70 7
11 29 87:7 129 69 \ etl aa
Average of : ;
Monthly Averages \ Ee te

Norr.—Weight is taken without coats, waistcoats, and shoes. The average
weight of clothes worn when weighed is ascertained to be 23 lbs.

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 187

TABLE II.—STATEMENT OF THE WEIGHT, &C.—continued.

Weight in Ibs. and Decimals
en No. of Monthly Quarterly Yearly
Obser-
d :
| ifcmtbs ae No. of No. of
Average |Maximum|Minimum) obser- | Average} obser- | Average
vations vations
15 0 29 91°9 126 66
1 33 93 113 70 91 939
2 29 9671 145 70
3 17 100°7 140 71
4 25 96°8 130 71 54 98-1
5 12 96°9 122 TEES
6 | 14 | 1027 122 80 |) t aie -
7 13 95:2 120 70 42 99
8 15 98-6 116 | ae | fi /
| 9 22 102-5 124 83
| 10 16 104-0 129 72 49 1048 | J
j il il 110 137 85
i} |
|
Average of f ip
Monthly Averages \ ot oa
16 0 8 101-1 122 71
| i 4 96:7 116 86
| 9 pate ee abd pees ,
= 2 | 113 120 | 106 i | ae)
+ of 113 _ —
5 2 113 139 88
6 — “= — — 22 104
a mone = — ae
8 2 98 98 98
| 9 1 108 — — :
p 10 Al 107 we ey 5 105°2 |)
11 1 105 — cen
Average of ; 119 90

Monthly Averages

Norr.—Weight is taken without coats, waistcoats, and_ shoes. The average-
weight of clothes worn when weighed is ascertained to be 2} Ibs.

188 REPORT—1879.

Tasxe IIJ.—Statement of the empty chest-girth of boys in the School of
Christ’s Hospital, showing the average, maximum, and minimum at
each month, quarter, and year of age, between 9 and 16 :—

Chest-girth in Inches and Decimals
Age in ‘ ‘
years mie. aA q2 Monthly Quarterly Yearly
figathis tions ; wl No. of No. of
Average |Maximum |Minimum} obser- | Average} obser- | Average
vations vations
90 25 =o = Be aad = a
1 = = go Le ae 4 = zs
9 am = = a= xis. pean Ls a
3 ves as a4 22 am £2 == —
4 it 29:3 os = a ihe = El
5 pa = oh eer pes pe pee Se
6 3 25°6 26 24-2 |
7 4 26°5 27-2 25-4 i 10 26
8 3 26 26°6 24-6
9 2 26:2 26-4 | 26 2: 255
10 1 24 — — 13 25:3
11 10 25 27:1 24
Average of rit
Monthly Averages \ at eae
10 0 10 25°6 27 23-4
1 8 24-9 26°6 24 28 25:2 17
2 10 25 25-6 24-4
3 15 25°5 28 22:5
13 25°8 28 24 \ 39 25
11 26°1 281 24 {
6 | 20 | 255 282 | 224 |) oo =
7 11 26-1 28 24 58 25°8
8 27 26 28 23-4 | J
9 23 25°7 28-4 24
10 24 26°5 296 | 25 69 26-2 |)
11 22 26°3 28°6 22
Average of ;
Monthly Averages } le Bee
11 0 20 25-7 28-2 23-4
1 18 25°7 28 | 23 68 257 1)
2 30 25°7 28 23-4
3 27 26 29-4 23
: 24 26:3 28-2 24 \ 74 26°3
23 265 28:6 | 24 :
6 24 25-9 284 | 23-4 a 26
7 28 2671 29:2 23°2 72 26
8 20 26 28-4 23
9 12 26°4 28°3 24
10 26 26°6 29 23 65 26:3 |)
11 27 25-9 30 22-7

Average of } 23+4

Monthly Averages

__ NotE.—The chest is measured over nipple and under bladebones, over the shirt.
The allowance for shirt would be one inch.

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTER. 189

TABLE III.—STATEMENT OF THE Empry CHEST-GIRTH, &C.—continued.

Chest-girth in Inches and Decimals. :
pein No. of Monthly Quarterly Yearly |
re observa- ee eee ||
months tions No. of No. of
Average |Maximum/|Minimum] obser- | Average | obser- | Average
vations vations
12 0 21 26°6 29 24-4 |
1 19 26:2 28°6 21 55 26-4 |)
2 15 265 30 22-4
3 15 26°6 29-6 24 71
4 30 2671 28-2 224 60 26°5
5 15 27 29°4 25°4 f 159 26°5
6 23 2674 29-4 24
7 11 26-1 29-4. 23 42 26-4
: 8 26°6 27-4 25
1 29 — —_—
‘A ; a ie t } 2 a J
11 Sz py es es. a
Average of 92. ;
Monthly Averages : get a2
13 0 1 25:6 ae = — =
1 we pelea ae pa ase ned
2 wee! as 24 os. as Se
3 rae es a pee is ==
4 feat gi ran et = pa
5 vi Aes ea a pa a
6 = ota a = oe -.
7 ht ead ae BES ar She
8 = art 25 = pao te
9 ae eh = ae at a
10 zt As Bi = be, ce
11 ene) fq) SY L) ts ee fat, a
‘J \
Average of A ae He
Monthly Averages] f |
14 0 — mes pes Rox
1 1 29-4 — — 3 311
2 2 32 32 31:9 {
3 as = oe a
4 ae ou = — \ 1 30°4
5 1 30°4 — —
| ai vy ae \ 90 30
7 4 281 31 26 } 4 28°1
8 ee aA mee ee
9 iL 35-5 — —
10 4 31-2 36 .| 27-4 12 30°3 |)
11 if 29-1 31-1 26-9
Average of . .
Monthly Averages } oe aay

NorE,—The chest is measured over nipple and under bladebones, over the shirt.
The allowance for shirt would be one inch.

190 REPORT—1879.

TABLE IJJ.—STATEMENT OF THE EMPTY CHEST-GIRTH, &C.—continued.

Chest-girth in Inches and Decimals
.. No. of Monthly Quarterly Yearly
and | 0bserva= |t————____________
months tions No. of No. of
Average |Maximum |Minimum|] obser- | Average | obser- | Average
vations vations
15 0 13 30°1 34-4 26°4
1 22 29°5 33 25°2 55 29:7 |)
2 20 29:7 34-4 27
3 inl 30°2 35 26 j
4 17 30°8 32 26 ; 34 30°3
5 6 31:3 34 28-4 ;
6 8 31-4 34 28 + Be ae
7 6 28°9 34 26 26 30°3
8 12 30°3 33°4 28
9 14 301 34 27-4 i
10 14 31:0 34-4 28 38 - 311 |)
11 10 32-2 35 29 «IJ
Average of | ere
Monthly Averages \ = gk
16 0 6 31:2 33 28-4 — _
1 5 29°8 31 26-4 a —
2 eae = = ue
3 1 32°4 _ _
4 = Sa = —
5 1 2 -- --
ge a a, 5x | \ a7 30'8
7 aa ca aay,
8 2 30°7 32 29°4 — —
9 1 31-4 _— —
10 — — — =
11 1 33 — — J
Average of 3
Monthly Averages : iZ aa

Nore.—The chest is measured over nipple and under bladebones, over the shirt.
The allowance for shirt would be one inch.

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 191

Taste [V.—Abstract of the height, weight, and chest-girth of the boys,
observed at each year of age, with the actual and proportionate rate
of increase :—

Height in Inches and Decimals
| Per-
Age Number Average | Average cs ay
of |averace| Maxi- | Mini- | of | of | Annual | ,7°P% |
ge tion of
Observa- mum | mum /Monthly Monthly|Increase lincreake
tions Maxima) Minima | piv eon
| | Age
Inches |
From 9to10. 22 50°8 57 48-4 53 49-4 — —
mor.) LL. p< 210 §2°2 57 47-4 553 | 49-1 1-4 2°75
ceeelle 12s ue B92 53°7 60-4 47-4 58-4 49:1 15 2°87
» 12.,,13.] 410 547 61 48-4 591 50°3 ] 1:86
ee do yf LE. | 6858. 56:7 65°7 48 62:1 51:3 2 3°65
Ree Leys) LO. |) 29 58:6 66-4 50:1 64:2 53°2 1:9 3°35
Pdi, LO! ||| 2a6 61:3 69-4 55°6 667 , 55:6 2:7 4:60
fe UGE ey 22 62°8 68:2 56°6 65:7 | 6071 15 2:44
Total - 1936
Weight in lbs. and Decimals
| lbs.
From 9 to 10. 22 58°7 67 52 63:2 57 — =
» 10,,11.| 210 64:1 81 50 751 | 53:6 54 | 9:20
» Il, 12./ 392 | 67-4 98 46 83:9 35 33 | 514
eZ ss koe || 410) 71:3 114 48 90°71 56-7 39 5:78
eels) 55 14. | - 353 78°23 131 55 105 60 7 9°95
Pepetd ss Ld). | 4 29) 86°7 133 57 116°5 64:9 84 | 10°72
fee 10.5, 16.1 236 98 145 66 127 74:6 11°3 | 13:03
j » 16,, 17. 22 | 104 139 7 119 90 6 6°12
| xs
Total. . 1936
Chest-girth in Inches and Decimals
Inches
From 9 to 10. 23 25°5 27:2 24 27 24-9 — --
me LO); 11. 194 25°38 | 29°6 22 27°9 23°6 03 aly
mee’, 12). |) 279 26 = 330 22°7 28:7 23:4 0:2 0-79
wele) 5, 13). 159 265 | 30 21 28:1 23:2 0:5 1:92
S 5 14. 1 256 | — — _ —_— — -
3» 14,15. 20 30 36 26 32°5 28°1 35 | 13°20
lor, 16. 153 30°3 35 25°2 34 27-1 03 1:00
oe LG, 17. 17 308 | 33 26°4 32 28:1 05 1:62

192 REPORT—1879.

Taste V.—Abstract of the average height, weight, and chest-girth of boys
in the School of Christ’s Hospital, at each year of age, and the increase
and percentage proportion of increase at each age :—

< : Percentage
puree yet Average at each | Increase at each Proportion of
Gons Age Age Increase
at each Age
pe qui 4 4 z
= = » » » ~ = » » a
4'ap “0 = ash “bp ih = 15) = ren | 13)
ce eae Pee aC Fae en PRP RR | 2 Ps
ah Svar | YS ay etre le
ie | 1S 2) iS) S)
E
In Ibs. | In In Ibs. | In. | In lbs. I
From, 9 to 10 | 22, 23 | 50:8} 58:7) 25:5; — | — | — | — | — | —
» 10 ,, 11 | 210 , 194 | 52:2) G41) 25:8] 1:4 | 5-4 | O38 | 2°75) 9-20) 1:17
Lh Gy 2 | 3929) 279 | 53:7) 6r-4 | (26 15 | 3:3 | 0:2 | 2°87) 5:14) 0:79
» 12 ,, 138 | 410 | 159 | 54:7] 71:3) 26:5) 1 3°9 | 0:5 | 1:86] 5:78} 1°92
» ld 5, 141) 353; 1 | 56:7.) 78:3] 25:6) 2 7 — | 265] 9:95) —
» 145, 15 | 291 | 20 58-6) 86-7) 30 1:9 | 8-4 | 3°5 | 3:35 |10°72 |13-20
to lo a ON Zoo | 153 | 61:3] 98 30°3| 2°7 | 11:3 | 0-3 | 4-60 |13:03| 1-00
gee Whats DEE I 2} | 17 | 62°8/104 | 30°8| 15] 6 0-5 | 2°44) 6:12! 1°62
Total. . . |1936 | 846 | |

Taste VI.—Statement of the weight and chest-girth in relation to.
height of boys in the School of Christ’s Hospital, between the ages
of 9 and 16 :—

Weight Chest-girth
Height a = ; P :
Number of Average Number of Average
Observations in lbs. Observations in inches
ft. in.
5 9 1 135 1 33°4
5 8 2 116 1 31
SY 8 124 5 33
Deno 15 122 10 32°6
5 5 22 118 10 32:1
5 4 34 108 14 31°8
eG) 46 103 20 30°3
5 2 53 100 23 31:2
5 1 73 96 26 30°5
5 0 100 91 27 29:7
411 109 86 ie 28'7
4 10 135 84 29 28°7
4 9 148 79 28 27:8
4 8 189 75 56 27
4 7 201 73 73 26:9
4 6 211 70 96 26:3
4 5 181 67 105 26
4 4 166 64 94 26
4 3 106 61 66 25°5
4 2 87 59 75 25°5
4 1 50 58 40 25°5
4 0 12 54 11 24:6
3 11

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 193

Taste VII.—Statement of the percentage proportion which the averages
of maxima and minima bear to the general averages of height, weight,
and chest-girth among boys in the School of Christ’s Hospital, be-
tween the ages of 9 and 16 :—

wears Height Weight Chest-girth
ee Maxima | Minima | Maxima | Minima | Maxima | Minima
+ = + — + —
9 3-9 27 76 29 6 23
10 59 59 171 163 81 81
nl 87 8:5 244 20°6 10-4 10
12 8 8 26°3 20-4 6 124
13 9:5 9:5 34-1 233 me Al
14 9:5 9:2 34:3 251 8 7
15 88 93 29:8 23-8 12-2 10:5
16 46 43 14-4 13-4 39 8:8

TasLe VITI.—Abstract of the mean height, weight, and chest girth of boys
in the School of Christ’s Hospital, between the ages of 9 and 16 :—

Quarterly Yearly
Age
Height | Weight | Chest-girth Height | Weight | Chest-girth
Years Months| Inches | Lbs. Inches | Inches | Lbs. Inches
= =e = = 62:1 101 31
16 0 == = == =e
15 9 63:1 102°5 31
15 6 62-2 98 30-4 : : 4
15 del Gl 95 30-4 i des as eu
15 0 60°7 92:5 29-4
14 2 59-2 86 29°2
14 6 59-4 87 = : : ,
“4 3 | 585] 855 = eae Re =
14 0 58 83°5 —
13 9 57:2 80 =
13 6 56°5 77 —
m3 (| (nee | 75% = pe ms
13 0 562 75 —
12 3) 56:2 74:5 _
12 6 54:5 72 26°4 . 70.6 ;
eS | Bs 69-5 26-4 eM ane
12 0 53°7 68°5 27
11 9 — 69 26
m6 6 — 665 26 ¥ ;

ll 3 pon 65 26 53°2 65°5 26
ll 0 — 63 25°6
10 9 — 64 26°2 |
10 6 — 65 25°6 ; ‘
. 62-5 cog ig eall | he te
10 0 — 59°5 25

9 0 — poe — 49'8 58°5 25°4

194

rEPoRT—1 879.

Taste IX.—Statement of the mean height of boys in the School of
Christ’s Hospital, between the ages of 9 and 16 :—

Number of Boys at each Age

Height in
Inches and

Half-Inches 9 10 ry 12 13

68 = aa

67°5 3

67 a a = ar a

66°5 =<

66 — = == = —

65°5 — —— = oa. 1

65 — = 7 as =

64°5 — — = a. =

64 — — — oa 3

63°5 — = — => =

63 = = = 1 2

62°5 _- — — =

62 — = — _ 4

61°5 — — — — 4

61 — — — 3 7

| 60°5 — = — 1 3

60°0 — —_ 3 + 20

| 59°5 _ —- — 1 6

59 - a 5 6 27

| 58°5 — —- 2 5 11

58 _— — 6 21 29

57°5 -- — 3 11 9

57 1 1 10 31 43

56°5 = 3 3 “) 10

56 — 8 24 |—56—| 35

55°5 _- 3 14 16 12

55 a 12) |—43—) 41 38

54:5 — i 15 12 16

54 — 18 53 46 24

53°5 — 6 ile 17 4

53 — 24 41 |—43—| 15

525 1 13 16 19 3

52 3 jee23——| 45 30 12

ay It) — 7 12 6 3

51 —4 | 22 28 16 6

50°5 1 8 a: 4 1

50 — 6—/—30—| 16 4 1

49°5 2 6 8 3 —

49 4 9 12 3 +

48°5 — 6 — — —

48 i 4 1 1 —

475 — —_— 3 _ —

47 ] — 1 — —

| Total 24 210 932 410 | 353

|
mies | to el | es

|
| ewe

14 15
a) 1
= 1
— 5
— 1
1 13
1 6
4 8
— 3
9 16
— 4
9 27
3 8
13 22
8 |— 6—
22 21
10 2
28 24
8 ay
—33—|—_16—
8 3)
28 15
4 uy
20 g)
8 1
25 4
1 2
17 5
6 1
9 3
3 =a
if 4
1 =
1 pass
1 a!
1 na
if ae
it es
291 236

i
for)

[esas esa Nines

22

|

Total 9to16

1938

The middle bar in each column indicates the actual mean: the upper bar the
mean of excess, and the lower bar the mean of defect.

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 195

Taste X.—Statement of the mean weight of boys in the School of Christ’s
Hospital, between the ages of 9 and 16 :—

Number of Boys at each Age

Weight in lbs.

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
145 — — = a ase aw. 1 ad
140 — — — == — = 1 ae
139 — — = — 1
137 = = == — = — 1 —
136 — — — = ae ae 1 cat
135 — — — — — = 1 a!
133 — — = aaa = — — —
132 — — 2 1 =
131 = = == aa = 1 3 = 3
130 — — = — — — 1 =
129 = = = =~ = a 1 a
128 — =
; 125 _— —_— == = — 2 1 =
124 = pt = = = dt: 2 2
122 _ — = = = — 5 1
121 = as = af 1 _ 3 ae
120 —_ 1 = 4 1
119 — - — _— — = 2 aa
8 — — = — = 1 5 =
‘a — — = = = 2 4 =
6 sa re = = = 1 4 1
5 == oes — — —_ — Co Seip
4 = 3 = a 1 = 3 ae:
3 ei == Te — 1 = 3 1
2 — — == a = 3 7 —
1 — — == = = = 3 1
110 _- — _ — -- Gi |e
109 — —_ = = = — 2 —
8 i oe = — = 2 4 1
7 — — = = = — 3 1
6 e. = is aS 1 4 3 1
5 = = w= == 2 2 9 2 is
4 _ — = = == 4 5 =
3 —_ — — _ — 4 2 way
2 — — = — 1 7 4 ae
1 _ = = — Hi Bi)
100 o ~— -— — 3 7 + 2
99 — — -- — ] 5 2 —
8 os xt 1 = 5 6 11 2
7 — — — — 3 7 3 1
5 _— — — = 2 7 7
4 — — — — 4 5 10 il
3 — — 1 1 3 6 5 —
2 — — _ 4 1 5 5 —
1 — — — 1 6 5 7 — |
90 _ — 2 3 15 8 10 --
89 — = — 2 4 8 4 28
8 — — 1 5 8 11 8 1

The middle bar in each column indicates the actual mean; the upper bar the
mean of excess, and the lower bar the mean of defect.
02

196 REPORT-—1879.

TABLE X.—STATEMENT OF THE MEAN WEIGHT, &C:—continued.

Number of Boys at each Age
Weight in lbs.
9 10 11 12 18 14 15 16
ih 2 7 7 3 —
6 — = 1 7 11 j— 11— 7 1
5 — _ — 3 4 5 6 —
“ — — 6 8 13 10 2 —
3 _ — 2 5 6 5 2 1
2 — — 3 5 16 9 2 =
1 — 2 7 16 10 11 7 =
80 — 1 8 11 12 13 2 —
1 = 1 5 12 10 5 1 =
8 — 3 4 10 13 8 2 =
i — 5 10 6 iy esis. 4 =
6 _ 2 11 22 16 12 3 =
5 — 4 8 17 21 8 1 —
4 — 6 20 20 14 5 2 —
3 — 6 10 22 14 14 — =
2 == 6 19 16 15 i 6

1 — 4 Oy Ss Te 2 1 1
70 — 12 19 22 15 10 4 =
69 eat 10 12 14 9 5 2 =
8 = 4 18 21 8 1 — =—
7h 1 6 12 11 10 1 = =
6 = OT bles” $25) “is 10 3 1 =
5 1 7 ote 8

4 1 4 16 20 2 — =
3 2 8 25 11 4 i — ==
0, a ee aS el Os ei 5 2); — —
1 3 9 17 18 2 1 = -
60 = 8 21 9 1 2 = ==
59 gy Sh ig 15 As 1 es ~ ar:
8 By) |e io 6 6 1

ff 1 7 6 1 2 1 = =
6 i OB} 14 5 2 = = as
5 = 2 1 = 1

4 aa 4 2 = en

3 — 2 ie
2 1 4 4

1 S= — 4 1

50 — 1 1 =
49 oe Ea} a. HY,
8 1 =— 9 Be =) Ls
i = — = a aa weit ae
6 — — 2 = aes = ee oe

4 fee 2
Toballies seeaeee pees 210 392 410 353 291 236 22

The middle bar in each column indicates the actual mean; the upper bar the :
mean of excess, and the lower bar the mean of defect. : :

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.

Tapte XI.—Statement of the mean chest-girth of boys in the School of
Christ’s Hospital, between the ages of 9 and 16 :—

LOT

;
|

Chest-girth in

Number of Boys at each Age

Inches and

Tighths 9 1). La \ a ge || 16. | 46
35 4 22S 0 SO ae a oe al ae ED
35 a en een ea ee | 2) —
34 6 Seite abl Wy eles =
4 yet |) ee ae ee grt

9 es = ae: ae ne PO a at

34 Aen) A aie — | 6 yr —
33 6 le tal tl | a a ea
4 Sy) eli Se te) eo es ee Tyas gee

2 —— — —s a at —— — —

33 A A) RR er 7 1 8 2
32 6 cafe) OES ae — |=
4 Es) i fe 3 1

= 3 ms Se a cs Fe i ie
32 Ela) Paes ge a) SY ee uae ye
31 6 — — = = a= 1 = =
4 Se) pC |. 22 REN 6 1

2 — — —t
31 a lS ES ER hee ere ee
30 6 Seay | ts eae ane evil eee A ee 1
4 ara ae 1 eect ih

2 det 11) RAR PRR A oh ee es tt

30 er ie 1 Ts: 4 deka OA Rae Ba lea
29 6 aS Te ee ein Lube eae Bd 9 SE
4 Sty 2 Tho} Sy AIS Ns ey al Se

2 et Pea bee) ES Ty eae By ja

29 a 1 Fel BE WN Mp ase gy Te
28 6 ia 2 5 apace Ppa Or ee eee
4 a 2 7 Ctl SBE 4M [ea 3 1

2 a 2 8 Nao as pou Br hfe

28 edi In. a2 epee as A) eae sh
27 «6 a 5 4 pay ake gps | each
4 a 6 Sie ree 2 eee

2 2 4 BEA 509) GMa Se thee

27 Th slbs 19s [os 20-2 eee tee fee 2 ayy 2d
26 6 cal Gene ie: Sie 1 a ee
4 eit 19] aa ema se 3 1

2 1 6 | 15 Hanlag tee] (b Nios

26 Bt 16 le Coe de | 2 4 Seals | ae
25 6 bi ie se soe at ay aay hades
A yb lS RA RMIT 9 le SRR Pe Wa

2 1 ry ares gee ee ak ea ee eget

25 pag iy Mc ea 2g ae Mila Ua ge pe
24 6 1 4 6 a a as ges eee ee
aoe |) ae Paige Bead SE as aan geen

2 1 5 4 RS Se Sie!) | Base) eae gee

24 4 |) i 9 fae Boss: Sagi Sea ee
23 6 is 1 (ON fees Glee: Son) Rat ee eee
4 a 4 ©) Aeon See Big) | age Sa) Pepe

2 mg) pee Te aes ee) ee

23 eae | gee 6 Pees — iss |
22 6 BS 1 bh 2 arbor teraly 2 lps
4 ss 1 1 BAe 1 [el —. fee ee

2 — — == = — — — a=
i ts tf} a Ms coe
SSO | See 20 | 188 [| i7 |

The middle bar in each column indicates the actual mean; the upper bar the
_ mean of excess, and the lower bar the mean of defect.

‘

198 REPORT—1879.
TABLE I.—SHOWING THE STATURE (WITHOUT SHOES)
British-born American-born
(Roberts’s ‘ Manual of Anthropometry,’ pp. 72 and 80) (Bowditch ‘On the
Bri of ee P.
; Labouring and Arti- 41. Baxter, ‘Statist.
Age | Professional Class : : d. Anthrop.’
sist Town and Country |S” oe he Towns| Average English | Me 2 a aad
irth-
day Males Males Males Males
No. | Inches|Métres} No. | Inches] Métres} No. | Inches|Métres| No. | Inches |Métres
Birth} — == = 100} 19:34] 0-491} 100} — | 0-491) — —_ —
1 — — — 8} 29:13] 0°740
2 — — — 8| 32°85} 0°834
i — — 8| 36°37 | 0:921
4; — — == 21) 38:45] 0:977 21) 38:45] 0:977 9} 39°50} 1:003
5 | — = = 175! 41°16} 1:046} 175] 41:16] 1:046 848] 41°57] 1:056
6}; — — — 327] 43:18] 1:097| 327] 43°18] 1:096| 1258] 43°75) 1:111
ai 3| 46°16} 1:173| 781} 45:01] 1:144] 784] 45°58} 1158) 1419} 45°74) 1:162
8 16| 47:31 | 1-202] 1036] 46-99} 1-194] 1052] 47:15] 1:198| 1481} 47:76] 1:213
9 59| 50°18} 1:275|1182)| 49-22} 1:251| 1241} 49-70| 1:263) 1437] 49°69] 1-262
10 74| 53°40! 1:357} 1119} 50°52] 1-284] 1193] 51:79] 1:320| 1363] 51°68] 1:313
11 |} 150} 54°91] 1:396| 1080) 51-52] 1:°309| 1230] 53°21} 1°352| 1293) 53°33| 1:354
12 | 248] 56:97} 1:448| 620) 52:99] 1-347] 868] 54:98] 1:°397| 1253) 55-11] 1-400
13 | 473) 58:79! 1:495| 991] 55-93] 1-422) 1464] 57-36] 1-458] 1160] 57-21} 1-453
14 | 477} 61:11] 1-553 | 2247) 57-76| 1-468 | 2424] 59-43] 1-511 908} 59°88] 1°521
15 | 541} 63-47] 1:613}] 754] 60°58] 1:539| 1297] 62:02} 1-575 636| 62°30] 1:°582
16 | 686) 66°40} 1687/1018] 62-93] 1-599|1704| 64:66 | 1-643 827| 64:55] 1°651
17 | 1602| 67°86) 1:724] 453] 64:45] 1-638 | 2055] 66°15| 1-681} 1129} 65:90] 1-673
18 | 1522) 68:29} 1-735] 153] 65-47} 1-663 | 1675] 66°88 | 1:699 | 30,540} 66°52 | 1-689
19 | 794) 68:72) 1:747 97| 66:02] 1:°678| 891] 67°37] 1:711 | 14,994) 67-07) 1:703
20 | 391] 69°13] 1-757 69} 66°31] 1°685| 460] 67°72} 1°721 | 11,526] 67°51] 1:714
21 | 340! 69:16] 1-758 55] 66°84] 1°699| 395] 68°00] 1°728 | 14,146] 67°78] 1°721
22, | 205) 68:93) 1-752 36| 66:25] 1°684} 241] 67°59} 1:718| 10,479] 67:92) 1:725
23 91) 68°52} 1°741 29| 66:23] 1-683} 120) 67°37] 1-712] 8907} 68:01] 1:725
24 45} 68:95) 1°752 34| 66°62] 1°693 79| 67°78| 1:723| 7335) 68°02) 1-727
25 7940) 68:05 | 1:728
26 6986] 68:09 | 1:729
27 : ae le ; 3 6351] 68:11} 1:730
28 70} 69:06 | 1°755 72| 66:95] 1:702| 142] 68:00) 1:728 6033] 6813] 1-730
29 4447] 68°17] 1°731
30 6256] 68:18} 1:731
aL | — = = = — — —— — — 5562) 68°20] 1:732
a = — — 4635) 68-20] 1-732
ao == == — — a= — — — 3939] 68°29} 1-734
34) — — = = =: = — — — 2782) 68°35] 1:736
oi <= — -— 4966] 68:47] 1:739
aon -= — = = —— = — — 4138} 68°28} 1:734
37 | — — a — — — — — — 4172) 68°26} 1:734
2 os = oe — = — — = 4014! 68°24} 1:733
3) || a= == = ues — _ = — — 3402] 68°23] 1:733
208 a ae sa: == i — — — |15,750) 68°23] 1-733
50 | — = as = — — —
60 = s oe
70 | — — se — al, ae == — == a
80 | — == = es 2x ast a= _ ae. he
90: | — = a as ge: ae a ly oes Ls

No.

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.

OF THE BRITISH RACE IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA.

Anglo-American

American-born

19°34
29°13
32°85
36°37
38°97
41°36
43°46
45°66
47°45
49°46
51-73
53°27
55:04
57:28
59°65
62°16
64°61
66:02
66°70
67°22
67°61
67°89
67:75
67°69
67°90

68°12

Inches | Métres

0-491
0°740
0°834
0921
0-989
1-051
1-104
1161

(Roberts, Bowditch, and| (Bowditch ‘On the
Baxter) Growth of Children,’
All Classes p- 51)
Males Females

No. | Inches} Métres

100

18-98
27°86
31°60
35°65
38°36
41:29
43°35
45°52
47°58
49°37
51°34
53°42
55°88
58°16
59-94
61:10
61°59
61°92
61°95

0482
0-708
0°796
0:906
0-974
1049
1101
1156
1:209
1:254
1304
1357
1-419
1:477
1523
1552
1564
1572
1573

199

Belgian
(Quetelet, ‘ Anthropométrie,’ p. 177)

Males. Females
Inches| Métres| No. | Inches| Métres
19°68 | 0°500| — | 19°45) 0:494
27°48 | 0-698} — | 27-16} 0°690
31°14} 0°791 | — | 30°75| 0°781
34:01] 0°864| — | 33°63} 0°852
36°49 | 0°927| — | 36°02} 0°915
38°85 | 0°987| — | 38°35} 0°974
41:18} 1:046| — | 40°58} 1-031
43°46 | 1:104| — | 42°81} 1:087
45°74| 1:162| — | 44°97] 1:142
47-95 | 1:218| — | 47:10] 1:196
50°11 | -1:273| — | 49°17] 1:249
52°16] 1:325| — | 51°21] 1-301
54°13 | 1:375| — | 53°23] 1:352
56:02} 1:423} — | 55:11] 1:400

| 57°83] 1:469|} — | 56°94] 1°446
59°56| 1:513| — | 58°60] 1:488
61°18 | 1:554] — | 59:90) 1°521
62°75 | 1-594] — | 60°87 | 1:°546
64:17 | 1630] — | 61°53 | 1:563
65:15] 1°655| — | 61°82] 1°570
65°75 | 1°670| — | 61°98 | 1:574
66°22} 1-682] — | 62°13} 1:578

The number of observations is not given, but they were probably ten for each age.
See ‘ Anthropométrie,’ p. 24.

200

REPORT—1879.

TABLE IL—SHOWING THE WEIGHT (INCLUDING CLOTHES)

British-born

(Roberts’s ‘Manual of Anthropometry,’ pp. 74 and 82)

Average English

Age | Professional Class ee ra ee
last | Town and Country only
Birth-
aay Males Males
No. | Lbs. | Kilos.| No. | Lbs. | Kilos.| No.
Birth} — — — 100| 7:55} 3:4 | 100
"I =k ann
|) eee ug ae
oF ea a = eh pa 14s pe
4 | ie — — 21} 41:16| 18-6 21
nl p= — — 176| 49°99] 22:7 | 176
6 | — _ — 327| 54:19] 246 | 327
7) — — — 631 | 56°89) 25°9 | 631
8 16} 60:00} 27:3 | 1038} 59-00} 26:8 | 1038
9 59| 62°02} 28:1 | 1203) 62-56| 28:4 | 1262
10 74| 67°44) 30°6 | 1126) 66:31] 30-1 | 1200
11 | 150] 72:94] 33-1 | 979} 69-46} 31:5 | 1129
12 | 248) 80°33) 36:5 | 615] 73°68| 33-4 | 863
13 | 473] 88°60} 40:2 | 1054| 78:27) 35:6 | 1527
14 | 477] 99:21] 45+1 | 2094] 84:61] 38:4 | 2571
15 | 541/110-42) 50:2 | 910) 96:79) 44:0 | 1451
16 | 686 |128°34| 58:3 | 1038 |108:70| 49:4 | 1724
17 | 1602 |141-03 | 64-1 504 |121°53 | 55°2 | 2106
18 | 1522 |146-00 | 66:3 147 |128:14 58-2 | 1669
19 | 794 |148:20| 67-4 105 |133-39 | 60°6 | 899
20 | 391 |152:07| 69-1 68 |142°61| 648 | 459
21 | 340|152°34) 69:2 54 |142°83| 64:9 | 394
22 | 205 |154-78 | 70:3 39 |141:13 | 64-1 244
23 91 |151:70| 69:0 26 |141:00| 64:1 ih
24 45 |149°20 | 68:0 35 |142°37 | 64:7 80
25 |)
26 |
27
28 70 |155:20 |70°54 60 |146:05 | 66-4 130
|
30 J
40 | —} — <>

American-born
(Bowditch, ‘ On the
Growth of Children,’
p. 43. Baxter, ‘Sta-
tistics, Medical and

Anthropological,’
p. 53)

Males

Lbs. | Kilos. | No. | Lbs. | Kilos.

755| 3:4 — — —
416 | 186° | — -- —
49°99 | 22-7 848 | 41:09! 18:6
54:19 | 246 |1258) 45°17] 20°5
59°89 | 25:9 |1419] 49:07] 22:3
59:50} 27:0 | 1481] 53°92] 24+5
62°29 | 28°3. | 1437] 59-23] 26-9
66°87 | 30-4 | 1363) 65:30! 29-6
71:20| 32°3. | 1293] 70°18] 31:8
77:00| 35°0 | 1253] 76°92 | 34:9
83:43 | 37-9 |1160| 84:84] 38°5
91°91 | 41°7 908 | 94°91] 431
103°60 | 47-1 636 |107°10| 48-6
118°52 | 53:8 359 |121:01} 55:0
131°28 | 59°6 192 |127-49} 57°8
137°57 | 62°5 84 |132°55| 60°1
141-79] 64-4 | — | feu
146°34 | 66°5 29 |146°41| 66°5
147:58 | 671 38 |151°50| 68:9
147°95 | 67°2 34 |153°53| 69°8
146°35 | 66°5 30 |154:23 | 701
145'78 | 66-2 42 |148:09| 67:3
150°62| 68:4 | 247 |149-20| 67:8

578 |151°71| 68°9

See

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE,

201

OF THE BRITISH RACE IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA.

Anglo-American
(Roberts, Bowditch,

American-born

(Bowditch ‘On the

Belgian

and Baxter) Growth of Children,’ (Quetelet’s ‘ Anthropométrie,’ p. 346)

All Classes Ae, ao
Birth-
Males Females Males Females asy

No. | Lbs. | Kilos.} No. | Lbs. | Kilos.| No. | Lbs. | Kilos.| No. | Lbs. | Kitos
100| 7:55) 3:4 | 100] 7:23) — 683| 3-1 661} 3-0 |Birth
ile es 19:84] 9:0 18:96] 8-6 1
ee ee ee 24-25 | 11.0 24°25 | 11-0 2
pe ee ee 27°55 | 12°5 27°33 | 12-4 3
BAl-te 18-64. — | — |),— 30°87 | 14:0 30°65 | 13-9 4
1024| 45°54 | 20°7 | 605] 39°66] 18-0 35:06] 15:9 33°73 | 15:3 5
1585 | 49°68 | 22°6 | 987] 43-28| 19-6 39°24 | 17°8 36°82 | 16°7 6
2050 | 52°98 | 24-1 | 1199] 47-46] 27-1 43-43 | 19:7 39-25 | 17°8 7
2519 | 56°46 | 25°6 | 1299] 52-04] 23-4 47-62 | 21°6 41°89} 19-0 8 |
2699 | 60:76 | 27°5 | 1149] 57-07| 25-9 5181| 23:5 46°30 | 21-0 9
2563| 66-08| 30:0 | 1089) 62°35| 28-3 | | | 55°56] 952 | _ | 50°93] 231 | 10
2422| 70°69| 32-1 | 936] 68:84| 31:2 | 3 | 59°53| 27-0 | & | 5622] 25-5 | 11
2116| 76:96| 35:0 | 935] 78:31| 35°5 % 63-94 | 29-0 & 63:93] 29:0 | 12
2687 | $4:13| 38:3 | 830| 88°65] 402 | & | 72:98| 331 | & | 71-66] 32:5 | 13
3479| 93-41] 42-4 | 675| 98-43] 44-6 | § | 81-80] 37-1 # | 80-04| 363 | 14
2087 |105°35| 47-9 | 459/106-08| 48-1 = 90°84] 41-2 = 88:20] 40:0 | 15
2083 |119-76| 54-4 | 353/112-03| 50°38 | & [10010] 45-4 | $ | 95-91] 435 | 16
2998 |129°38| 58-8 | 233|115-53| 52-4 | © |209%58| 49-7 | [103-20] 46-8 | 17
1753 |134-81| 61-2 | 155 [115-16] 52-2 © 11884] 53:9 © 10980} 49°8 | 18
899 /141-79| 644 | — | — | — | & 127-00] 57-6 | © |114:88] 52:1 | 19

g |
| 488|146°87| 66-7 |] — | — | — | & 1819} 595 | 2 |117-30| 532 20
i432|149°54| 680 | — | — | — 134-94] 61:2 119-73] 54:3 | 21
mare |150°74/ 68:5 |} — | — | — 138-69 | 62-9 12082] 548 | 22
a7 1150-29) 68-3 | — | — | — 14222 | 64:5 121°71| 55-2 | 23
| 122/146-93| 663 | — | — | — seh i oA (aang
r 145-97] 66-2 123-04| 55°38 | 25
26
27
| 877 (149-91 | 68-1 aa
29
14575 | 66°1 121:93| 55:3 | 30
Sraneert) 6e9 | — |.— .| — PTY ont cstnged es

202 REPORT—1879.

By the kindness of the authorities, a circular from the Committee was
distributed with the annual official return forms to every industrial and

reformatory school in the Kingdom, and returns have been obtained ©

from several such schools ; some of the results of which are shown in the
foregoing tables.

The Committee have also addressed insurance companies with the view
of inducing their medical officers to keep accurate records of the physical
measurements of persons whose lives are proposed for insurance, and
in some instances have been informed that attention will be given to the
matter.

They have also addressed the following circular to the head-masters
of Public Schools :-—

‘The Anthropometric Committee of the British Association have
directed me to forward you the enclosed papers, with the view of calling
your attention to the great service which the Public Schools might render
to Anthropometric Science by establishing a system of statistical record
of height, weight, strength, &c., for the purpose of ascertaining the laws
of growth and development in youth and adolescence.

‘Some schools have already furnished the Committee with valuable
information of the kind desired. Marlborough School, for example, has,
for the last seven years, published in the Reports of the School Natura!
History Society details of height, weight, chest and other measurements of
the boys; and these statistics have been abstracted under the direction
of the Committee. The Warden of Christ’s Hospital, Major Brackenbury,
has for several years recorded the same details.

‘The Committee hope that you may be induced to attempt a similar
record in your own school, and I am directed to say that they will gladly
render any assistance they can in setting it on foot. They are confident
that, when once established, you will find the materials collected so full of
interest and usefulness in many ways, that you will not regret any little
trouble it may give you at the outset, and they therefore do not refrain
from asking at your hands this service to Science, however unwilling
they may be to trespass upon time already fully occupied.

‘The Medical Officer and the Drill Master of the School would, no
doubt, do whatever may be necessary towards preparing a complete and
accurate record.’

Several replies to this circular have already been received from public
schools; among them, the Head-master of Eton (the Rey. J. J. Hornby,
D.D.), who writes that he will be happy to do what he can to establish a
system of statistical record of height, weight, strength, &e., at Eton, for
the purpose of the Committee, at the termination of the present vacation.

Mr. Roberts, a member of the Committee, whose ‘ Manual of Anthro-
pometry ’ is of the utmost value to inquirers, has furnished the Committee
with'a series of observations, illustrated by diagrams, and accompanied
by the following remarks on the establishment of a standard of stature and
weight. These are given as a specimen of the manner in which the infor-
mation the Committee is collecting may be made available.

‘The accompanying tables and charts show that the average height
and weight varies with the social position and occupation of the people,
and to obtain the typical proportions of the British race it would be neces-
sary to measure a proportionate number of individuals of each class, or a
community which comprised all the classes in the proportions in which

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 203

they exist in the whole nation. If we take the census of 1871 we shall
find that such a model community would consist of 14°82 per cent. of the
non-labouring class, 47:46 per cent. of the labouring class, and 37°72 per
cent. of the artisan and operative classes. But as many trades are con-
fined to certain districts it would be very difficult to find such a repre-
sentative population in a limited space in this country. The nearest
approach to one would be found in some of our larger county towns, such
as York, Derby, or Exeter, with a large portion of the surrounding agri-
cultural districts.

‘ As the statistics which I have collected in England represent various
classes rather than the general population, I have arranged them in a
double series—a most favoured class and a least favoured class—and I
have adopted the average of the two extremes as typical of the English
nation, The American statistics, with which I have compared my own,
are very valuable, as they represent the general population of the United
States. Dr. Bowditch’s data were collected ‘“‘in nearly all the public
(common) schools of the city of Boston, in several schools in South Bos-
ton, Roxbury, Charlestown, and Jamaica Plain; in the Institute of Tech-
nology, in two Latin schools, a school for young ladies, and in several
public (common) schools in Brookline,” (“ On the Growth of Children,”’
8th An. Rep. State Board of Health of Mass., 1877), and Dr. J. H. Bax-
ter thus vouches for the representative character of the statistics published
by the United States Government :—‘“‘ It should be borne in mind that
this statistical matter does not relate to soldiers already in the service—
picked men in no wise representing the masses—but to the people, the
men engaged in every occupation; the professional man and the man of
letters, the trader, the merchant, the clerk, the artisan and the unskilled ©
labourer.” (‘‘ Statist. Med. and Anthrop.,” vol. i. p. 19.)

‘The accompanying tables and charts show the relation which exists
between the height and weight (1) of the most favoured and the least
favoured classes of the English population; (2) between the English and
Americans of British origin ; (3) between the two sexes of the British
race; and (4) between the British and Belgian populations of both
sexes.

‘1. The height and weight of the English male population. (Chart
tracings No. 1; tables I. and II., columns 1, 2, and 3.) From birth
to the age of 6 or 7 years the statistical data are imperfect, but it
is probable from the directions of the curves of growth that all classes
_ of the English population are about the same in height and weight at
_ this period. After the age of 8 years the curves diverge very rapidly,
the divergence being due to a slower development of the labouring and
artisan class.

‘ After 8 years the professional class exceeds the labouring and artisan
class, thus :—

Height. Weight.

Inches. lbs.

At 8 years the Professional Class exceeds the Labouring
and Artisan Class by : : ; A : - 0°32 1-0
» 10 years A a a + 2°88 1:13
” 12 ” ” ” ” ” 3-98 6°65
» 4 ,, ” » %9 » 3°35 14°60
» 16 and 17 years 3 “9 Fr AG 3-44 19°55
» 18, 19 ,, ” ” ” ” 2°76 16°33
” 20 ” 21 ” ” ” ” ” 2°50 9°50
» 25 to 30 ,, = a Hf FA 2:11: 9°15

204 REPORT—1879.

‘The greatest difference in height is at 12 years, when it amounts to
about 4 inches ; the greatest difference in weight is at 17-18 years, when
it amounts to nearly 20 lbs. The full stature is attained earlier in the
professional than the artisan class; in the former about the age of 21
years, and in the latter between 25 and 30 years. The American statis-
tics show that a slight increase in height takes place up to the 35th year.
The growth in weight does not cease with that of the stature, but con-
timues slowly to increase in both classes up to about the 30th year.

‘2. The relation between the height and weight of English-born and
American-born subjects. (Chart tracings No.2; tables I. and II., columns
3, 4, and 5.)

‘A comparison of the average stature of the English and American
branches of the British race shows that they are nearly identical from
the age of 4 years to the period of full growth, but the weights differ at
the two ends of the curves.

‘In stature, between the ages of 4 and 8 years, the American exceed
the English by rather less than half an inch; but this is, no doubt, to be
attributed to the fact that the English statistics during this period are
derived entirely from our town population. From 9 to 15 years the sta-
ture of the two branches of our race is the same, and from 16 to 22 it is
slightly in favour of the English. At adult life the Americans are a little
taller than the English, but the number of the English observations after
the age of 22 is not sufficient to determine this point accurately.

‘In weight, from the age of 5 to 10 years, the English exceed the
Americans, but this is probably to be attributed to the greater weight of
the clothes worn by the poorer classes in this country. At 12 the weight
is equal; from 13 to 16 it is in favour of the Americans, from 17 to 19 of
the English, and after 20 years of the Americans. The number of obser-
vations for each age after 16 years of the Americans are too few to be
relied on.

‘Mr. Gould and Dr. Baxter have shown that, of the recruits for the
American Army those born of American parents are taller than those born
of English parents, and it has been inferred that a change has taken place
in the physical proportions of our race in that country. Dr. Baxter found
the average stature of the American-born recruits, between the ages of
30 and 35 years, to be 68°22, the English-born 66°92, and the Irish-born
66°91 inches. But the difference in height is to be explained by the dif-
ference in the class from which the recruits were drawn. The English
and Irish being emigrants from this country consisted almost entirely of
the labouring and artisan class, which we find in this country has an
average stature of 66°95 inches ; while the American recruits were drawn
from all classes of the community by conscription. The average height
of all classes in England between the ages of 25 and 30 years is 68°00
inches, and of the corresponding ages in America 68:12 inches, and the
slight advantage which the Americans possess is probably due to the
very large number of observations (38,055) from which the average is
drawn, compared with the very smali number of the English (142).

‘The averages of the stature and weight of the two great branches of
the British race being so nearly alike, I have deduced from them a typical
standard of height and weight for the whole British (Anglo-Saxon or
Anglo-American) race, which will be found in the 5th column of Tables
I.and II. This standard does not consist of any one of the nationalities
—English (and Welsh), Scotch, and Irish—of which our race is com-

=~ Fs

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 205

“Taste III.—Showing the Height (without shoes) of Recruits for the
British and American Armies. (AI] born in Great Britain) :—

Recruits for the British Army Difference

Age last Birthday | SS ae ae
England Scotland Ireland |England|Scotland| Ireland
le NOs Ins. | No. | Ins, | No. | Ins.} Ins. Ins. Ins.
ty 560 | 65°61) 134/66°58) 176) 66°36) o., 0-97 | O75
18 2923 | 66-69] 1000 | 67-01] 1323] 66°82] & © 0°32 | 013
19 2122 | 67-04| 538 | 67°51 725) 67-42) 3 = “E| 0-47 0°38
20 1532 | 67:08} 400|67°76| 534) 67-14 aS "Sp 068 | 0:06
21 | 1112 | 67°36) 295 | 67°84) 303) 67°87| g a5 0°48 0°51
22 } 1000 | 67-55} 263) 67:77| 305| 67-76) Rus 0°22 0°21
23 804 | 67:18} 188] 68:06} 200) 67-70) 3 3 0-88 | 0:52
24. 831 | 67°80] 300] 67°95} 246] 68-02) 4+ 015 0-22
25-30 451/ 68°15) 98/68:09) 138) 68°39) 0-06 _ 0:24
otal for 1862-3,
Minimum standard | 411,335 | 67:16) 2316 | 67-62] 3950) 67-50) — 0-46 | 0-34
66:0 inches
Total for 1864-5,
Minimum standard 2068 | 66°99} 559 | 67-41) 1517) 67-25) — 0-42 | 0:26
65:0 inches
American recruits | srl aaa f a ; ar
of British birth \ 16,196 66°57) 3476 | 67:06|50,537| 66°74, — 0-49 | O17
| British recruits are
taller than American! Ke : 2 axe Ye fee
of the same nation- git fo bOp iw nO eOh dam Oee
ality by

Taste IV.—Showing the Weight of Recruits for the British Army (with-
out clothes) :—

Recruits for the British Army Difference
Age last Birthday
England Scotland Treland | England|Scotland|Ireland
——

No. Lbs.| No. | Lbs.| No. | Lbs.| Lbs. Lbs. | Lbs.

17 560 | 124°5| 134|122°5) 176|123°6} 2-0 ee Gt

18 2923 | 130°3) 1000 | 126-4) 1323|129-7) 3:9 Sr 33

19 2122 | 133-5) 538/131:7| 725)134°8) 1:8 oo 31

20 1532 |136°5| 400|133°6) 534|138°5) 2-9 ae 4-9

21 1112 | 138°5| 295|133:4) 303)140°0) 5-1 osm) 66

22 1000 | 139-9} 263) 134:2) 3805/1411) 5-7 SE 6-9

23 804 | 142°2) 188/ 135-1) 200)140°0) 7:1 aS 49

24 831 | 141-5} 300) 135°9) 246/143:2) 5°6 og 73

25-30 451 | 142-5} 98/|137°1) 138)143:9| 5-4 ae 68

Total for 1862-3 . | 11,335 | 136-6] 3216 | 132-2) 3950}137-2} 4:4 — 5:0

Total for 1864-5 . 2068 | 137-9) 559} 138-9) 1517) 1380) — 11 |-—09

33 | 1
Oe SR (eM kal (Se

206 REPORT—1879.

posed, but of all three in various proportions. In my statistics the
English predominate ; in the American, Irish blood must be very largely
represented, and there is a large admixture of the Scotch element in both.
In order to distinguish the relative stature and weight of the three na-
tionalities I have had recourse to the army returns of both countries, and
the results are given in detail in Tables III. and IV. (as shown on pre-
ceding page).

‘These tables show that the English (and Welsh) recruits are shorter
in stature than the Irish by 0°30 of an inch, and the Scotch by 0°44 of an
inch; and the American recruits born in Great Britain are about half an
inch shorter in stature than those of corresponding nationality in the
English army.

‘ The Scotch recruits in Great Britain though possessing the greatest
stature, are lighter in weight than the English (and Welsh) by 3:3 lbs.,
and the Irish by 4:1 lbs., and the Irish are nearly 1 lb. heavier than the
English.

‘Lowering the standard of height from 66 inches in 1862-3 to 65
inches in 1864-5 lowered the average stature of the English by 0°17 inch,
of the Scotch by 0:21 inch, and of the Irish by 0°25 inch ; but there was
an increase of weight in all three nationalities. In the Scotch it amounted
to 6:7 Ibs.

‘It is probable that the stature of the English recruits is lowered by a
large admixture of Welsh, and by the young musicians, who are almost
entirely of English birth and often under the standard height.

‘3. The relation between the height and weight of the two sexes of the
British or Anglo-Saxon race. (Chart tracings No. 3; tables I. and IL.,
columns 5 and 6.)

‘My statistics of the height and weight of females in England are
very limited in extent (from 8 to 14 years of age), and refer only to the
labouring and artisan class. As the average male population of England
and America are so nearly identical, we may accept the measurements of
American girls published by Dr. Bowditch as applicable to this country
also. These were collected in the common schools in Boston and sur-
rounding neighbourhood, under the same circumstances and at the same
time as the males, and fairly represent the general population. They are
given in column 6 of tables I. and II., and the tracings are shown in
diagrams 3 and 4. The observations at the time of birth are English,
collected by myself, but all the remainder are American.

‘ At birth girls are about 3 of an inch shorter than boys, and from 1 to
4, there is a much wider difference, but the statistics are too few to deter-
mine the amount. From 5} to 10} the stature of the two sexes is nearly
the same, the advantage being slightly in favour of the boys; but after
the age of 113 and up to 144 years the girls are the taller; at 124 the
difference is 0°84, and at 13} 0°88 of an inch. From 153 to 18} the growth
of the boys is much greater than that of the girls. At 15 the difference
in favour of the boys is 1:06 inches; at 16, 3:02 inches; at 17, 4°10; and
at 18, 4°85 inches, at which age the females probably attain their full
stature. (Chart tracings No. 4; tables I. and II., columns 5, 6, 7, and 8.)

‘In considering the weight of the two sexes, we find that at birth girls
are 4 lb. lighter in weight than boys; at 5 and 6 the difference amounts
to about 6 lbs., but after the latter age the weights gradually approximate,
and at 12 they are identical. From 123 to 154 the girls are heavier than
the boys, the difference at 13} being 4°52 Ibs., and at 144, 5°02 Ibs. At

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 207

153 the weight of the two sexesis again identical, and after this period
the excess is largely on the side of the boys; at 16} it is 7°73 lbs., at 174,
13°85 lbs., and at 184, 19°27 Ibs.

‘As M. Quetelet’s tables are the only complete series of observations on
the height and weight of both sexes, and at all ages, we possess, and as
they have been generally accepted by anthropologists and physiologists
as reliable standards, especially at ages below the adult period of life, I
have added his figures to my tables, and traced their relation to the British
statistics on the diagrams 3 and 4, for the purpose of comparison. M.
Quetelet does not state the number of observations on which his tables
were based, but they were few (‘‘ peu considerable.” ‘‘ Anthrop.” p. 182);
and probably did not exceed ten individuals for each age (‘‘ Anthrop.” p.
24); moreover, the measurements were made on persons “regularly formed,”
and therefore to a certain extent selected. It is necessary to bear these
facts in mind in estimating the value of M. Quetelet’s tables as standards
of reference, and when comparing them with the English and American
tables based on many hundreds of observations for each age. M. Quetelet
does not state whether the values for each age are for the birthday or for
the interval between two birthdays, and I have therefore arranged them
like the British, as representing the age between two birthdays. This is
important, as bearing on the absolute height and weight, but not on the
curves of growth. In the tracings on diagrams 3 and 4 the lines repre-
senting the Belgians would be one division of the scale nearer to the lines
representing the English if the figures represent the birthdays, but the
relative position of the various curves would remain the same. If M.
Quetelet’s figures represent the heights and weights of the birthdays
exactly, there is a difference of half a year in favour of the British at all
ages after that of birth.

‘ The curves show that growth in height is greater in the British from
birth to 5 years than in the Belgians. From 6 to 12 years the curves
approximate, and the difference is two-thirds less than it was at 5 years of
age. From 13 to 17 years the growth of the British is much more rapid
than that of the Belgians, the difference in stature at the latter age
being about four times greater than it is at 12 years. At adult life the
difference in height of the males of the two countries is nearly 2 inches,
while the height of the females is the same in both. The most marked
differences of the height of the two peoples, is in the relation of the two
sexes, the British girls being taller than boys from 11 to 14 years, while
the Belgian females are shorter than the males throughout their lives.

‘The curves of the weight of the body in the two countries are very
similar, except that the weight of the British girls from 12 to 15 is
greater than that of the boys of the same ages, whereas the weights of the
Belgians of both sexes are the same at 12, but at all other ages the
females are lighter than the males.

‘The differences between British and Belgian statistics cannot be attri-
buted to differences in race, as they are not uniform throughout, and we
must consider M. Quetelet’s tables, based as they are on so small a number
of observations, rather as approximations or estimates of the stature and
weight of his countrymen. The difference in the height and weight of the
sexes, which was first pointed out by Dr. Bowditch (“ Boston Med. and
Surg. Journal,” 1872), has quite escaped the notice of M. Quetelet,
althcugh he has published some British statistics, which demonstrate its
existence, and it has been confirmed by all the statistics which have been

208 REPORT—1879.

collected since. The difference is due to the more rapid growth, and the
attainment of maturity at an earlier age, of females than males, for we
find that the curve representing females between the ages of 114 to 181
is almost identical with the curve representing males between the ages of
144 and 214 years, these two periods corresponding with each other in
the physical development of the two sexes. It is probable that the curve
representing males from 11 to 14 years is depressed a little by school life
and the earlier occupation of boys than girls, but the chief difference is
obviously attributable to the quicker development of girls, as it is found
to exist in all classes of the community. The large number of observations
included in my tables show that the difference is constant, and it must there-
fore be accepted as a fact essential to the proper study of the growth of
civilised races, no matter from what cause it may arise.’

The attention of the Committee has been directed to the progress of
anthropometric research in other countries. The ‘ Annals of Statistics’
for 1878, published by the Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Com-
merce of Italy, has two anthropometric papers of considerable interest
directly bearing on the subject of this Committee’s inquiry, The first is
by Dr. L. Pagani on the development of the human body. Referring
to his own work ‘Sopra aleuni fattori dello sviluppo umano,’ to Dr.
Bowditch’s investigations as to the growth of children, and to ‘Die
Entwickelung des Menschen in den der Geschlechtsreife vorangehenden
spiteren Kindesjahren und im Jiinglingsalter (von 7 bis 20 Jahren) in
Verhaltniss zum Geschlecht, zur Ethnographie und zu den Nahrungs- und
Lebens- Bedingungen in Moleschott’s Untersuchungen zur Naturlehre des
Menschen und der Thiere,’ Dr. Pagliani confirms the observation of Dr..
Bowditch that up to 10 years of age the stature and weight of children
of both sexes present but little difference, though they are always in
favour of boys; that from 10 to 15 years of age the difference becomes
greater, and is always in favour of girls; and that after 15 the boys
reassert their superiority, and are found to be taller and heavier. Dr.
Pagliani also confirms Mr. Roberts’s observation that the economic
condition of the child has much influence on his, or her, weight and
stature. In weight and stature alike the children of the labouring
classes stand lower than the children of the well-to-do classes. This
is the result of a considerable number of observations in Turin, and
is fully borne out by the diagram which accompanies the memoir.
Signor Cesare Lombroso in his paper ‘On the Anthropometry of the
Lucchesia and Garfagnana’ endeavours to prove from the high stature,
black hair, formation of the head, tending to the dolichocephalic, or
head of the African type, 7.e. one with its diameter from side to side
notably shorter than the diameter from front to back, the opposite
to brachycephalic, and from other distinctive characteristics, that the
people of those States come from the old Etruscan race. Both memoirs
illustrate in a conspicuous manner the utility and importance of the in-
quiry which our Committee has undertaken to institute. M. Quetelet’s
work upon ‘Man (Sur ’homme et le développement de ses facultés),’ is well
known. But at this moment extensive inquiries in the same direction are
being made in Germany, the United States, and other countries. Recent
political events, moreover, have imparted a fresh interest on questions of
races, and if we are able to extend our researches over all the portions of
the British Empire, the home of so many races, we may contribute largely

aayrunuc) = n.nrucdanpyup 24) Jo 2udry mp bhunansrpy

sopop hurpnpin qybrey ssoys qnoynm aybroy

2 tO COLCikC(‘<i Cia CS C(CtCSCC CO

‘SUMO], WI SS¥IQ WesHay pue Surmoqey opeqaAy

SS¥ID TEUOISS gO.

‘NOILV1NdOd HSIISN]Z 3H1 40 LHOISM GNV LHOISH S3HL ONIMOHS WVHOVIC (1

CUEL 2°88 TT POLY abt

| aryrununy = rznuodaapup sy) jo qodny mp hharaxysrmpy

ssnpop tnrpmein qybry 204s qnoynn ayer

oe oe eo We A Oo oe mM Ub eM we oe he

PEEEE EEE FEE ae,
a

WM © Bm Oe

SUMO] AW SEI AMSHAY pre Fucmoquy —

oBuanay ——— seg Torssayoag

“NOLLVINdOd HSIIDNS 3H1 40 LHOIM GNV 4HOIAH 3HL ONIMOHS WYHOVIG *1
XL MTG

GOSt Poms TI” Quedoy

‘sayunuo) onmuodnymp 2 49 Ida 74) bunoasmpy
‘saypop burpmann qybray “soys qnoynn qybrory

£10509 0 OB 92 UE SF. UG DE EL SE LUE GEESE Oe SE GE te 0b Ce 8 Ee SE eee
]

UOPUOT UY27T 4.) PY FPIOMPIZZOES

oie

ce eon a en ne IS
5) I III
a

Of 6G SL tk OW St HW St Cte U HO EG

Li FSP TT PE
ee ee Ree
eo
z eo

t Had ah as a ad

i

te

ns

co
[|
g

RUT Pun ynpMog SBT Weowioury ——— _ s.vqoy sare YsTsuy

“NOLLVINdOd NVOINAWV GNV HSITDNA 40 LHOISM ONV LHOISH 3HL ONIMOHS WVUYOVIC “Z%

‘6LEL POSS Fug jody yA Gr

ooprunuoy oiyruodanyrup- 24) 49 L0dey 74) hunpasry
“sanop) Burpmenn ny bray sons moyna rye

He Sk uw oO oC Pb 8 8 ep oe et
ry

roa 9 spread

a OS Db OW 9s te sz oe
ifatayey

st

SERRE sasauietes EEE EEE EEE Ht
on meg) — H+ + oe ee

BudSHS¥0205030¢S06040#es0sG00/G2se=05S0tG2eH

KRoOR RR RBM eh Oe

Alc

Deraoen PN pag, Be TET RU STAOTTTY: Eoin at nc =————

“NOLAVINdOd NVOIMAWY ONY HSITONS 40 LHOISM ONV LHOIZH 3H. ONIMOHS WWHOVIG “Zz

GLE Pome Tee HEAT Ber

MOPUOT RT oD P 7POOMoZIdS

saxas

rau)

ry

ny Bunp.nsn

HLOB 40 SNVIDI3@ ONY HSItIMa 40 aNNLvIS

aHL

ONIMOHS WvHOVIG

et Pt anno) NANUuOdanUR np 70 200d ay) hia.ynsMpT

seypn) ey apnpxe Kqnqosd srybren aummbpg ay, spo ap apmon spybom ysmg ay], ‘OVOK
SOL OR APOE GE. VE SE RE, IE DE RCE OP. UL. GOT NGD ieee emp aes 8) RD OE Le Ree & O

Wruyr 22 Jo wodny

ry NOL) I) I

Sax3S H108 30 SNVIOI3G ONY HSILIMG 40 LHOIAM 3H1 ONIMSHS WyHOVIG >

REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 209

fo the amount of general knowledge on the physical and intellectual
powers of man.!

Professor Bowditch, of Harvard, Mass., has published a supplementary
investigation of the growth of children, with suggestions in regard to
methods of research, in the 10th Annual Report of the State Board of
Health (Boston, 1879). His object was to ascertain whether differences of
race or differences in the mode of life affect the rate of growth the more
‘profoundly. The general conclusion he arrives at is that mode of life, as
indicated by the occupation of the parents, is equally important with race
in determining the rate of growth of children. In his remarks on An-
thropometrical methods, Dr. Bowditch reprints, with approval, the forms
and instructions which have been issued by this Committee, and recom-
mends the manual and chart prepared by Mr. Roberts. He also advises
the use of the card system, extensively adopted in Germany, in which the
facts relating to every single person are collected upon a card, which can
be combined with other cards in any number of ways, according to the
nature of the facts desired to be grouped together. “This plan the Com-
mittee have resolved to adopt wherever it can conveniently be applied,
und a form of card has been drawn up for use by the head-masters of
public schools.

A special inquiry has recently been instituted in almost every primary
school throughout Switzerland, at the instance of a Committee of the
Société des Sciences Naturelles, for the purpose of ascertaining the dis-
tribution of the different colours of the iris, hair, and skin, as connected
with the settlement of the aboriginal races in that country.

The coincidence of these several inquiries with that undertaken by
this Committee is exceedingly interesting, and leads to the hope that,
from all these various sources, information of great value may in due
_ course be elicited.

The Committee have made progress during the year in the collection
_ of typical photographs of the inhabitants of the British Islands, and have
compiled an album which is exhibited to this section. A sub. Committee
has been appointed for Bradford, but has not yet furnished a report.
_ Mr. Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S., has kindly undertaken to assist the Committee
in Sheffield with the results of his experience and observation. The
Committee hope to continue this branch of their operations during the
‘coming year.

' _ In addition to the collections referred to in the last Report, the Com-
“mittee have been favoured with several other gifts and loans, and in par-
ticular with the loan of a fine collection, comprising 102 Maori and 4
#ijian photographs belonging to Mr. Alfred Eccles, of Torquay, with per-
‘Mission to select from them such as may be suitable for reproduction in a
Collection of photographic types of the races of the Empire.

The Committee owe thanks to the numerous employers of labour,
ead-masters of public schools, medical officers of volunteer regiments,
“public officers, and other persons who have furnished them with statistics,
48 well as to those who are now engaged in the collection of observations
for their use next year.

4 " Communicated by Professor Leone Levi.

1879. P

210 REPORT—-1879.

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Scrarer, Dr. G. Harr-
LAuB, Sir JosepH Hooker, Capt. F. M. Hunter, and Professor
FLower, appointed to take steps for the Investigation of the
Natural History of Socotra.

THE Committee have not held any formal meetings, but have been in fre-
quent communication with each other on the subject.”

The best time for the exploration of Socotra being from November to
March, the Committee were not able to make the necessary arrangements
last autumn. Next winter, however, they believe that Colonel H. H.
Godwin-Austen, than whom no more competent naturalist could be found,
will be able to undertake an expedition to Socotra, and to make a thorough
investigation of its natural history. Colonel Godwin-Austen has applied
to the Surveyor-General of India for the use of some of the assistants on
his staff, and proposes to make a complete topographical survey of the
island during the expedition.

It is estimated that the total cost of the expedition will be about £300.
_Of this £100, granted by the Association last year, has been received by

the Committee and deposited in the London and County Banik at interest.
The sum of £175, having been devoted to this same purpose out of the
Government Fund of £4,000 administered by the Royal Society, has been
paid to Colonel Godwin-Austen, and has been added to the account at the
London and County Bank.

There remains, therefore, only £25 requisite to complete the sum of
£300, which the Committee consider will be required for the expedition.

The Committee request that the Committee for the investigation of
the Natural History of Socotra may be reappointed, with the additional
name of Colonel H. H. Godwin-Austen, and that the balance of £25
necessary to complete the estimate of expenditure may be placed at their

disposal.

Report of the Cominittee, consisting of Mr. F. J. BramMweE 1,
My. A. E. Furrcusr, Rev. E. L. Bertoon, Mr. James R. Napizr,
Mr. C. W. Mernirietp, Dr. C. W. Sremens, Mr. H. M. Brunet,
Mr. J. N. Snoorsrep (Secretary), Professor James Tomson, and
Professor Sic Wintt1aM Tuomson, on Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships.

Ir is with feelings of great regret that the Committee have to advert to
the death of their chairman, the late Mr. Wm. Froude, M.A., F.R.S.
His somewhat sudden demise was a great loss to science, and especially
to that branch of investigation—the action of waves upon ships—to
which he had devoted himself. His loss must be greatly regretted by
the British Association generally, but more particularly by this Com-
mittee, since by his death was left incomplete that series of experiments
upon those instruments for measuring the speed of ships, which had been
referred to this Committee to report upon, and which, at the instance of

ie ‘sy

‘ ON INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE SPEED OF SHIPS. 21}

the Committee, he most kindly undertook to carry out at the experi-
menting tank at his house at Torquay.

The result of the first portion of those experiments he presented,
through this Committee, to the Association at its meeting at Belfast in
1874. The second and concluding part he did not live to complete.

His son, Mr. R. Edmund Froude, who assisted his father throughout
the entire of his first set of experiments, has, however, communicated to
the Committee the result of some experiments carried out by Mr. Wm.
Froude last year with H.M.S. Iris, upon a pressure log, the form of
which was in accordance with the conclusions drawn from the first set of
experiments, detailed in the Report of 1874.

The results are, it is understood, confirmatory of the views held by
the late Mr. Froude.

The Committee deem themselves fortunate to be able to terminate
their labours by the presentation of this document as an appendix to this
report. They have only to add that having ascertained that the first
series of experiments for the Report of 1874 had entailed upon the late
Mr. Wm. Froude expenses amounting to 171. 1s. 8d., they have refunded
that amount to his executors (out of the 50/. originally granted to the
Committee).

APPENDIX.

To the Secretary of the British Association Committee on Instruments for
Measuring the Speed of Ships.

Chelston Cross, Torquay, 27th July, 1879.

Dear Sir,—In compliance with your request I proceed to give a
description of the character and behaviour of the pressure log used in the
M.M. trials of H.M.S. Jris last summer, in so far as it throws light upon
the points suggested for further inquiry in my father’s Report to the
Committee at the Belfast meeting of the Association in 1874.

In the Iris two pressure tubes were used which I will call A and B.
Both were 14 inches external diameter. Tube A finished at the outer
end in a gunmetal disc 8 inches diameter, and 4% inch thick, turned in
a lathe on both faces nicely flat and square to the axis of the tube. The
disc extended completely across the tube end, so as to close it. Tube B
was simply plugged up, the plug being turned off square and true to the
axis, forming a plain flat end to the cylindrical tube. In each tube was
fitted a central tube of smaller diameter. A nice clean hole about
ith inch diameter was drilled in the centre of the closed end of each
tube, communicating with the central tube, and a similar hole in the side
of each tube communicating with the annular chamber round the central
tube. In tube A the side hole was distant 2 inches from the outer
surface of the disc, in tube Bit was distant 3 inches from the outer
surface of the closed end. A cross section of each tube is given above.
Each of the two chambers in each of the two tubes communicated with
a gauge glass, the level of the water surface in which indicated the
pressure in the chamber. There were thus four gauge glasses in all,
two communicating with the side holes of the two tubes, two with the
end holes,

P2

212 REPORT— 1879.

Both tubes were fixed in the upright side of the ship (of course nicely
square to the plating) between 2 and 3 feet below the water level, and a
little way abaft the midships. [The Iris, it should perhaps be stated, is
300 feet long, 46 feet beam, 18: feet mean draught (on trial). She has

DIRECTION OF
Marion OF, ws
TUBE

TITTLLLL ET ELTLL TLE.

VPALLLLL STAT PTL EPL

PRESSURE
HOLE

N

K,.,. C€&

Ee
q ZERO HOLE
Fic. 1—Tube A.

TUBE

S ean he
q) HOLE
io HR
es Ne
+ fain Sol | N
1 Sho RB
A pelsvee]} aR
y= eR
Tay Wo ovrec7vow oF:
HS Y morrow oF =
OR TUBE
——
ZERO HOLE
Fie. 2— Tube B.

Cross-sections of tubes A and B, half size.

exceptionally fine lines for her length, the ratio of displacement to circum-
scribing cylinder being only ‘54.] Tube A was 9 inches further forward,
and also 9 inches nearer the water surface, than tube B.. Both tubes
worked in stuffing boxes, and could be set so as to project any desired
distance from the side up to about 23 inches.

ON INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE SPEED OF SHIPS. 2135

The object of the application of a pressure log to the ship was to aid
in the determination of the speed during the steam trials ; the special
object of the use of two tubes and other principal peculiarities of the:
arrangement jast described was to investigate, if opportunity should
serve: (1) the effect of distance of pressure hole from the ship’s side (in
virtue of difference of position in regard to the frictional wake) ; (2) the
extent to which, if at all, the indication given by a pressure hole not far
from the end of a plain tube such as tube B, falls short of that given by
one in the side of a tube fitted with an end plate or disc, such as tube A ;
(3) the relative goodness of the measures of general pressure of water
(to give the zero of the scale of pressure due to speed) respectively
afforded by the hole in the end of the disc-tube A when projected far from
the ship’s side, and that in the end of the plain tube B when drawn in
flush with the ship’s side. (That some such arrangement as either of
these might fulfil the desideratum of a‘ working zero’ was suggested in
Mr. Froude’s Report.) The general method in which the two tubes were
to be utilised for the above objects, was to retain one of the two unaltered,
as a check on variations of speed or trim of ship, while the desired
variations of condition were successively introduced into the other, and
the effeet noted.

Experiments of this kind could not however be carried on during the
runs on the mile, and as a fact circumstances did not admit: of the
investigation of the points above described except in a- very hasty and
cursory manner during a preliminary run. During the runs on the mile
the dise tube alone was used, retained unaltered, at a projection of 15.
inches (to the outer surface of the disc), the side hole being of course used
for the pressure, the end hole for the zero. The trials of the ship in
which the log was used were made on two different days, there being on
each day 8 runs on the mile, namely, 4 at 16 knots, 2 at 12 knots, and 2
at 8 knots.! During each run over the mile, the zero of the scale by
which the height of column was read off, was held level with the surface
of water in the glass communicating with the ‘ zero’ hole, the height of
column in the pressure tube being: noted by the scale every 12 seeonds:

The speed of the ship through the water in any series of measured
mile runs in tidal water has of course to be inferred from the recorded
times occupied in running the mile, by the aid (explicit or implicit) of
some assumptions in respect to the character of the variations of tide that
may have been occurring throughout the series of rans. The method of
eliminating tidal errors adopted by Mr. Froude in analysing the results of
the measured mile runs of the Iris would take too long to explain here ;
suffice it to say that it is clearly as accurate a method as can be found,
since it utilises to the full all the obtainable facts.

The information yielded by the experiments generally may be stated
as follows.

1. Comparison of speed theoretically appropriate to height of column
indicated by log, with speed of ship through water estimated from time
running the mile, in the manner above referred to, assigns about 9205
to 1, as the average ‘rate’ of the log (or ratio of speed of ship to
apparent speed by log). The results are not inconsistent with the
supposition that the ‘rate’ was uniformly ‘925 at all speeds; but are

' Four runs were also taken on each day at full speed (about 18} knots), but the :
Jog could not be used in these.

214 REPORT— 1879.

more consistent with the supposition of a variation of rate at different
speeds from about ‘91 to ‘93. The impossibility of making a more definite
statement than this is an example of the impossibility of ‘ rating’ a log
very correctly for different speeds, by runs on the measured mile in a
tideway, except by means of a great number of runs.

2. The instrument did not appear very sensitive to the effect of varia-
tions in distance of pressure aperture from the ship’s side, at any rate
when such distance exceeded one foot.

3. The pressure hole in the side of the plain tube B gave little if at
all less height of column than that in the disc tube A. (This agrees
with proposition (3), page 257, in the 1874 Report.)

4. The ‘zero’ holes in the ends of tubes A and B both gave the same
height of column when tube B was, not flush with the ship’s side, but
projecting about 2 inches ; the column given by tube B when flush with
the side being the greater of the two by perhaps 2 per cent. of the whole
head due to the speed of the ship at the time. There was no means of
testing which of these two ‘zero’ holes (or whether either) gave the
correct zero of pressure. As speed increased both sank somewhat, rela-
tively to a fixed point in the ship, but whether more or less than the
water outside the ship was not ascertained. I am myself doubtful whether
the excess of pressure given by the zero hole in tube B, when flush with
the ship’s side, relatively to that given by the zero hole of the disc-tube
A,is a genuine excess of pressure on the former due to some action of
the frictional eddies, or a genuine defect of pressure on the latter due to
the tube being possibly not dead square to the side (the dise consequently
moving somewhat obliquely through the water). An error of squareness
of the tube to the ship’s side of 1° (pointing sternward) would, perhaps,
have been competent to produce the observed effect.

Now, as to the information afforded by these results on the points
suggested by the 1874 Report, as needing solution.

The treatment of the subject in that Report suggests a division of the
question mto two, namely (1), the operation of the pressure log regarded
simply as a measure of its own speed in reference to the water it passes
through (the foremost difficulty here involved being that of establishing
a ‘working zero’ for the instrument) ; (2), in what way its operation as
an independent measure of the ship’s speed through the water is affected
by the motions impressed by the passage of the ship on the fluid she dis-
places ; in other words, by the difference between the speed of the in-
strument through the water it meets with and the speed of the ship in
reference to the surrounding ocean.

The Report described a series of experiments which dealt only with
question No. (1), and stated that the investigation of question No. (2)
might perhaps be introduced as a part of the methodical series of expe-
riments on resistance of ships which Mr. Froude was conducting at
Torquay. The investigation would certainly be of great value in refer-
ence to the general question of resistance of ships; but the pressure of
other work has, I regret to say, prevented its being undertaken.

Of the results obtained in the Iris, and which I have above enume-
rated, Nos. (3) and (4) are pertinent only to question No. (1), namely,
the performance of the instrument regarded as a measure of its own
speed through the water it meets with. I think they show that a hole
iu the side of a tube, as much as two diameters distant from its end, will
furnish as good a measure of pressure due to the speed of flow past it

=~ oo ~~ iil

————— a

ON INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE SPEED OF SHIPS. 2a

as can be wished; and that a small hole in the closed end of another
tube, flush with the ship’s side, will furnish at any rate a very tolerable
working zero.

The results I have numbered (1) and (2) are, so far as they go, per-
tinent to question No. (2), namely, the effect on the indications of the
log, produced by the motions caused by the ship in the surrounding
water. The information they afford is, however, very slight, as I will
proceed to show.

The motions caused by the ship in the surrounding water are two-
fold, namely, the frictional wake, and the stream line (or quasi-stream
line) motions. On the frictional wake part of the question, the expert-
ments which were intended to be made in the ris (as stated in paragraph 4,
above), on the effect on the pressure column of distance of the pressure
hole from the ship’s side, would have given most important information,
had the trials of the ship permitted of their being properly carried out. The
hasty observations actually made, though sufficient to show that the pres-
sure hole, at a distance of a foot from the side, is clear of the extreme
ardency of the frictional wake, do not inform us how far it is necessary
that the pressure hole should be from the ship’s side (at any given dis-
tance from the bow of the ship), in order for it to be altogether clear of
the wake. Yet if it is not altogether clear of it, the instrument cannot
be a permanently satisfactory measure of the speed of a ship which has
to remain long afloat, because any fouling of the ship and consequent in-
erease in skin friction, must increase the speed of frictional wake at given
speeds and given distance from the ship’s side, and consequently diminish
the pressure indicated by the log at given speed.

With reference to the more complicated question of the effect of the
stream line or quasi-stream line motions upon the ‘ rate’ of a pressure
log, the measurement of the ‘rate’ (as by these experiments) in the
special case of the Iris, with the log in the single position in which it was
tried, is of small general value. The experiments which Mr. Froude
contemplated making in reference to this point, referred to in the 1874
Report, were to be of the nature of the application of a pressure log
to a great variety of models of ships in a great variety of positions. I
do not think that Mr. Froude expected that the information so ob-
tained would do more than enable us to so place the log in any given
ship, that its ‘rate’ should be approximately predeterminable and so far
aniform for all speeds, that it could be ‘ rated’ with sufficient accuracy
for ordinary sea-going purposes by a few runs at one speed on the mea-
sured mile.

In the absence of these special experiments, our present knowledge of
the phenomena attendant on the passage of a ship through water may be
brought to bear advantageously on the question of the right place in the
ship for a pressure log; and as I have had the advantage of frequently
discussing the subject with Mr. Froude, and had other opportunities for
its special study, in connection with our experiments on Resistance, I may
be permitted perhaps to add a few words in reference to it.

At low speeds in smooth water, when the surface of the water sur-
rounding a ship is visibly quite undisturbed by waves caused by her
movement, it cannot be doubted that the motions taking place at various
points in the surrounding water are simply those which would take place
in the same positions relatively to a symmetrical submerged body the
lower half of which was similar to the immersed hull of the ship.

216 REPORT—1879.

It is an accepted proposition of the stream line theory that the stream
lines surrounding a submerged body are similar in character at all speeds,
the speed of stream at any one point in the system bearing at all speeds
the same proportion to the speed of the submerged body. We may as-
sume then that as with a submerged body so also with a ship moving at
the surface of water, the speed of stream at any given point with refer-
ence to the ship (except in the purely frictional wake perhaps) will be
proportional to the ship’s speed, at all speeds up to that at which sensible
waves commence to be formed. This would, moreover, continue to be
the case at higher speeds conld the water surface be forcibly kept level
by a water deck (for instance) surrounding the ship in all directions, at
the level of her water-line.

Put then a pressure log where you will, its ‘ rate” will under the sup-
posed conditions be constant for all speeds.

In the actual case of a ship without the imaginary water deck, the
‘rate’ will be in the same manner constant at all low speeds, and will at
higher speeds vary with varying speed only in virtue of the introduction
of the new set of fluid motions appropriate to the wave system which
begius to accompany the ship at higher speeds, and which essentially varies
in its character with varying speed.

The predominant characteristies of the wave-system which thus comes
into play at the higher speeds may be roughly noted, so far as pertinent
to the pressure log question, as: follows :—

(kt) The wave system may be divided into two distinct series, the
transverse: and the diverging, in the former of which the line of crest is
nearly square to the line of motion, in the latter trailing backwards at am
angle of forty or fifty degrees.

(2) The waves (of the diverging series particularly) are comparatively
short along the line of crest, and die away gently into the level water at
the ends.

(3) Each series of waves is a continuous series, which, though it has
an abrupt commencement at the bow of the ship,” has no definite termi-
nation, but extends away backwards wave behind wave, the waves only
very gradually diminishing in height as they lengthen along the crest.

(4) In the transverse series the waves are placed directly one behind
the other, or nearly so, so that in a ship with very long parallel sides the
crests of the waves may be seen in eross section against the side repeated
one after the other. In the diverging series, on the contrary, a line drawn
from the highest point of each wave crest to the highest point of the next,
and from that to the next, and so on, intersects the lines of the crests at
an angle much sharper than the angle contained between the lines of the
crests and the line of motion of the vessel. The consequence of this
arrangement is that none of the diverging series:of waves touch the side
of the ship at all, with the exeeption of the first member of the series,
which has its highest point near the stem of the ship (and im some cases
the second member also in a very small degree).

(5) The system of proper local motions of the water composing: the
waves probably resembles that recognised as appropriate to ocean waves,

1 T am speaking here only of waves originating at the entrance of the: ship, and
which are the only ones very important in reference to the pressure log question ; but
it is worth noting that a very similar set of waves, of both transverse and diverging
character, originate at the run of the ship also, the two sets of transverse waves Ni é.
the bow set and the stern set) becoming fused into one joint series.

a a ee

ON INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE SPEED OF SHIPS. 217

namely, a forward motion under the crest and a backward motion under
the trough, though these local motions clearly cannot be supposed in the
leading members of the system to penetrate the water so deeply as in
properly formed ocean waves.

(6) The transverse waves are necessarily much longer (measured
normally to the line of crest) than the diverging waves, and their proper
motions therefore probably penetrate much the more deeply of the two.
(In ocean waves the wave motion at a depth equal to about one-ninth the
wave depth is held to be about half that at the surface.)

(7) The diverging wave system is well marked at moderate speeds, at
which the transverse system scarcely appears. When, however, the speed
of the ship becomes high in comparison with her length of entrance, the
transverse system comes rapidly into prominence.

(8) The lengths of the waves (that is, their distance apart measured
normally to the crest line) vary as the square of the speed, and as the
leading wave crest remains always at the bow of the ship, change of speed
changes considerably the fore and aft positions of the subsequent members
of the transverse series relatively to fixed points in the side of the ship,
this rate of change of position increasing with distance.sternwards.

The general effect of the wave system upon the ‘rate’ of a pressure
log fixed, near the water surface, amidships in a ship with long parallel
side will, then, be somewhat as follows. At moderate speeds. at which
the transverse wave series does not come into play, the effect of the wave
system on the log will be nil, and the ‘rate’ will be the constant ‘rate’
due to the stream line motion at its position. As the speed increases and
the transverse waves appear, and lengthen out with increasing: speed, the °
log indication will be alternately increased and diminished relatively to
the true speed, according as the speed reached brings trough or crest
over it. This kind of result would clearly be almost the most inconvenient
imaginable,' and though I have supposed an extreme case, the evil would
in most cases partake of the character I have sketched.

The most objectionable feature in this supposed result is clearly due
to the change of position of the wave features relatively to the logs which
accompanies change of speed, and the magnitude of this evil is clearly
lessened generally speaking by putting the log as far forward as possible,
and therefore closer to the bow wave, the stationary or datum point of the
system, but by so doing it will be rendered more subject to irregularities
in its action due to pitching of the vessel. I am inclined to think that
underneath the position of the first wave-trough at a little under the full
speed of the ship would generally give about the best result, and I con-
sider this position (independently of the pitching question) preferable. to
the back slope of the bow wave, for although the absolute effect of the
wave on the indication of the log would be more in the former position
than in the latter (in fact on the midslope it would be nil), the change of
wave position due to change of speed would produce a more changing
effect (and cause a more rapidly changing ‘rate’) in the latter position
than the former.

It is of course advisable to put the log as deep as possible, and indeed

"It did not indeed appear noticeably in the Tris, although the log was, as has
been stated, amidships and quite close to the water surface; but she is a ship with
nothing resembling parallel sides, and makes no transverse waves of importance

S she comes to making a single waye from end to end, with the trough amid-
ships,

218 REPORT—1879.

a log near the keel of the ship would be altogether ont of the depth of the
effect of the diverging waves, though not of the transverse waves, except
perhaps in deep slow ships.

To rehearse briefly the statements and line of argument of this com-
munication.

(1) The behaviour of the pressure log in H.M.S. Iris showed that a
pressure hole in the side of a 14 inch tube, and 3 inches from the end,
gave substantially the same pressure reading as one in the side of a similar
tube fitted with a disc at the end, such as that above described as
tube A.

(2) The Iris pressure log results further show that either a small
hole in the end of a tube with a disc such as tube A, when projecting
from a ship’s side; or again a small hole in the end of a plain tube, such
as tube B, set with the end flush with the ship’s side, will furnish a very
serviceable ‘ working zero’ for the pressure column.

(8) Though the Iris results show that at a distance of 150 feet or so
from the bow of a ship a pressure hole more than one foot distant from
the ship’s side may be accounted as clear from the extreme ardency of
the frictional wake, it remains to be tested how far distant from the side
a pressure hole need be (at any given distance from the bow) in order to
be so far clear from the frictional wake that the instrument may be ac-
counted as unaffected in ‘rate’ by the degree of cleanness of the skin of
the ship.

(4) There is an absence of direct experimental data generally appli-
cable to all cases, as to the effect on the ‘rate * of a pressure log, of the
‘stream line’ (or quasi-stream line) motions of the water surrounding
the ship. Variability of such ‘rate’ with varying speed is clearly a
much greater evil than absolute greatness of such ‘rate,’ as involving
great additional difficulty in correctly ascertaining its value for a given
ship at all speeds by means of M.M. ‘ Trials.’ Our general knowledge of the
fluid conditions essential to a ship’s progress through the water are so far
of assistance to us, in the absence of proper experimental data, in that
it shows pretty clearly (a) that ‘ stream line’ motions proper, i.e. those due
to motion of a submerged body (or a ship at the surface at low speeds)
would cause a ‘rate’ of log constant for all speeds; and that varying
speed will produce varying ‘rate’ only in virtue of the formation of sur-
face wayes ; (b) that to avoid the variability of ‘rate’ with varying speed,
introduced by the wave system, the best plan appears to be to fix the log
as deep below the surface as possible; and, in fore and after position,
vertically under the position of the first wave-trough at rather less than
the full speed of the ship.—I remain, dear sir, yours faithfully,

R. Epmunp Frovupe.

ON THE DATUM-LEVEL, ETC., UF GREAT BRITAIN. 219

Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir WILLIAM
Txomson, Major-General Srracnuzy, Captain Dovcias GaLron,
Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. Rogers Fietp, Mr. E. Roserts, and
Mr. J. N. Sxootsrep (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of
considering the Datwm-level of the Ordnance Survey of Great
Britain, with a view to its estublishment on a surer foundation
than hitherto, and for the tabulation and comparison of other
Datum-marks.

[PLATE XIII. ]

AppornTeD in 1875 at the Bristol meeting, to inquire into some uncer-
tainties as to the exact position of the Datum-level of the Ordnance
Survey of Great Britain, the Committee presented in 1877, at the
Plymouth meeting of the Association, a Report upon the subject.

At the conclusion of that report, the Committee requested to be re-
appointed ‘in order to obtain information as to some of the various local
datum-marks in use in the British Isles, and to endeavour to ascertain
the difference of each relatively to the Ordnance datum; which would
thus become a means of comparison between them.’

The Committee beg to present, as an appendix to this Report, a list
of about fifty local datum-marks in Great Britain; the connection of each
of which has been obtained on reliable authority. In Ireland the position
of some datum-marks there relatively to the datum of the Ordnance
survey of that country has also been ascertained.

On the assumption that the mean sea-level, as given in the book of
Ordnance levels of the respective countries, is uniform across the Irish
Sea, the difference between the systems of levels in use in the two coun-
tries has been computed. In a similar way also has the difference been
ascertained between the Ordnance datum of Great Britain and the official
datum in use in France (Zero du Nivellement général de la France—
ligne de Bourdaloue); and, through it, with the official levelling in
Belgium and in Holland. Several local datum-marks in these countries
have been obtained, each with the connection with the Government
levelling of its own country.

The Committee trust that this list may serve as a basis, which may be
further extended, and become a means of obtaining accurate comparative
levels, not merely for engineering and other levelling operations, but also
for the connection of tidal observations round our coasts. On the
assumption already mentioned, of an uniform sea-level, tidal observations
on the adjoining coasts of Ireland and of the Continent may also be
included,

The question of a suitable datum-level as a basis for these international
tidal observations, has been considered by the Committee. A level which,
while sufficiently low, so as to exclude negative readings, shall bear an
easily found relation to the respective datum-marks of the different
countries, is requisite for the purpose.

It is found that, with the differences given in the list appended, a
level of ‘20 ft. below the Ordnance datum of Great Britain’ coincides
(to within 0:01 metre, or 2 in.) with ‘5:50 metres below the French
Zero du Nivellement;’ and also to ‘12 ft. 6 in. below the Ordnance
datum of Ireland’ (to within 0:04 ft., or} in.). This level has, more-
over, the advantage of being below the range of almost all the tides

220

REPORT—1879.

round our coasts, excepting the low water of a few equinoctial springs at
two or three points, such as in the River Severn near to the mouth of the
Avon, and in the Bay of St. Malo on the coast of France.

Tn conclusion, the Committee beg to add, that the 10/. granted to it
has been expended ; in expenses, in connection with levelling to ascertain
the exact relative position of the Ordnance datum of Great Britain, and
in correspondence and in other matters in the preparation of the list of
local datum-marks appended hereto.

Appenpix.—List of various- Local Datum Marks in use in the British
Isles, with difference of each from the Ordnance Survey Datum Level.

ENGLAND.

Ordnance Datum of

Great Britain

Mean Sea Level at Liverpool, from
Observations taken in 1844 by Ordnance
Survey Department

Ordnance Datum |

of Great Britain

Authority

Trinity H.W.
Standard’
(River Thames)

Avonmouth

Barrow .
Birkenhead

Boston
Bristol .
Cardiff
Dee
Devonport

Dover
Ellesmere Port

Fleetwood
Garston .
Goole .
Goole
Grimsby.
Hartlepool
Harwich.

Holyhead

Hull
Hull P

King’s Lynn .

H.W. mark on east side of Hermitage
entrance of London Docks.

Inner sill of lock, Bristol Port and
Channel Dock.

Outer sill of Ramsden Dock .

Outer entrance to Alfred Dock (12
ft. below O.D.S.).

Black sluice sill (91:30 ft. above,
100 ft. below Ordnance).

Sill of Cumberland Basin

Sill of sea gates of Bute Dock. :

Zero of tide-gauge, Chester. (Dee
standard is 15 ft. above zero of
this tide-gauge).

Sill of New Long Dock

Zero of tide-gauge at Admiralty Pier

Sill of Entrance Dock (6 ft. above
O.D.S.)

Datum of New Docks

Sillof Old Dock . s
Lower sill of Outer Ship Lock.

Datum of Admiralty Chart (2 ft.
8-in..on sill of Ship Lock),
Datum. of Admiralty Chart .

Old Dock sill . °

Zero of tide-gauge .

Zero of tide-gauge (tidal observa-
tions, 1875).

Humber Dock sill - q :

Datum of Admiralty Chart

Free Bridge datum, zero of gauge
(mean of Ordnance B.M.’s).

Feet
Above | Below
12°50

1:38

113

J. N. Douglass.

J. Brunlees.

F, C. Stileman.
G. F. Lyster.

W. H.Wheeler.

T. Howard.
J.MeConnochie
G. A. Bell.

8. L. Church-
ward.

E. Druce.
Captain G. H.
Hills, R.N.
Sir J. Hawk-

shaw.
J. N. Shool-
bred.
W. H. Bartho-
lomew.
Captain E. K.
Calver, R.N.
Captain KH. K.
Calver, R.N.
J. Howkins.
A, A. Langley.
Sir J. Hawk-
shaw.
R. A. Marillier
Captain E. K.
Calver, R.N.
Rogers Field.

easiest

Ordnance Datum of

Great Britain

Liverpool
Lowestoft
Nene Valley .
Newhaven
Newport

Piel :
Portishead
Portland
Portsmouth
Ramsgate

Runcorn .
Sheerness

Silloth :
Shoreham,
Southampton .
Sutton Bridge

Swansea .
Tees

Tyne, river

Wear. ;
Welland . 4

Whitehaven

Widnes . ,
Wisbeach 4

Yarmouth

Aberdeen

Dundee .

Glasgow .

ON THE DATUM-LEVEL, ETC., OF GREAT BRITAIN. 221
List oF VARIOUS LocAL Datum MARKS, &C.—continued.
ENGLAND—continued.
Mean Sea Level at Liverpool, from
Observations taken in 1844 gt Ordnance evap ee Authority
Survey Department
Feet
Above | Below
Level of Old Dock sill datum (Can- _ 4:67 | Ordnance
ning Island gauge). Survey.
Zero of tide gauge . ‘ 7 ‘ — 135 | A. A. Langley.
Ordnance B.M. cut into quoin- = 25°83 | Sir J. Coode.
stone of cellar near Peterborough
Bridge.
Zero of tide-gauge (Tidal Observa- oss 8-03 | F. D. Banister.
tions, 1878)
Outer sill of Alexandra Dock (44 ft. = — | J. Abernethy.
below coping).
Zero of tide-gauge . — 140 | F.C. Stileman.
Outer sill of ‘Portishead Docks. _— 11:86 | F.C. Stileman.
Admiralty datum (L.W.8.T.) . = 1:57 | J. O. Andrews.
Sill of No. 6 Dock of H.M. Dockyard = 6°66 | H. Wood.
(L.W.0.S.T.)
Zero of tide-gauge . ; —_ 11°72 | R. Braine.

Sill of Duke’s Dock. — 3°46 | J. F. Bateman.
Zero of tide-gauge (mean water ae — | Col. Lloyd and
level). Ordnance

Survey.
Sill of dock entrance - == — | J. Abernethy.
Zero of tide-gauge (tidal observa- = 775 | W. Swales.
tions, 1878).
Top of coping at N.W. corner of | 12°5 — | A. Giles.
outer dock.
Zero of gauge at (94°18 ft. above, — 5°82 | W.H.Wheeler.
100 ft, below Ordnance).
Sill of lock, East Docks . — 14:46 | J. Abernethy.
177-7 ft. below top of stone sill of — 83°5 | J. Fowler.
Fardenside House, High Worsall.
H.w. of a spring tide (observed by | 8°94 — | P. J. Messent.
George Rennie, May 31, 1813),
marked on the Low Lighthouse,
N. Shields.
(Rennie’s standard) H.W.0.8.T. 1 | 7:60 — | H.H. Wake.
Zero of gauge at Fosdyke Bridge 00 — | W.H.Wheeler.
is set to Ordnance datum.
Zero of tide-gauge . — 4:75 | J. Brunlees.
Sill of Old Dock 1:83 — | J. F. Bateman.
Town datum 50 ft. below B.M. eut — 32:21 | W. H.Wheeler.
in church tower (being 6°375 ft.
lower than Nene Valley datum).
L.W.0.8.T (tidal observations, 1878) — 3°89 | W. Teasdel.
SCOTLAND.
(Harbour Works) sill of south, or — 14°62 | W. Dyce Cay.
single entrance of the Victoria
Dock.
Sill of King William IV. Dock _— 718 | D. Cunning-
(L.W.0.8.T. ) ham.
Clyde datum, 6} in. above the 13°81 — J. Deas.
springing of the arches of Glas-
gow Bridge.
Sill of Old Dock , . . E — 9:03 | G. Robertson.

Leith

222

REPORT—1879.

LIST OF VARIOUS LocaAL DATUM MARKS, &¢C.—continued.

IRELAND.
L.w. of Spring Tides in Dublin Bay,
being 20°90 below a mark on the base
course under the south window of
Poolbeg Bente Suppo
sea level on English Coast to be the
ies eco Deum same, the shore datum is 8-094 ft. eo ere Datum Authority
below mean level of sea round Ire- of Ireland
land, which is 0-623 ft. above Ordnance
datum of Great Britain. The Irish
Ordnance datum is, therefore, 7°46 ft.
below that of Great Britain
Feet
t Above | Below
Belfast Harbour datum, level of No. 2 Old | 2°92 — | T. R. Salmon.
Graving Dock sill.
Dublin Port of Dublin, north wall, standard | 1:43 -- | B. B, Stoney.
Hawlbowline Floor of New Graving Dock — 22°30 | C. Andrews.
Island, near
Queenstown
EUROPE.
Zéro du Nivellement (Bourdaloue). This
is mean tide level at Marseilles, and it
is found to be 0°80™. below the mean
tide level of the Atlantic and English
French Datum Channel Ports of France French Zéro du Dépét de la
(Dépot de la On the assumption that this last mean | Nivellement, Guerre,
Guerre) sea level coincides with the mean sea Bourdaloue |Pontset Chaussées
level of the Ordnance of Great Britain, (Baudot)
the French Zéro du Nivellement is
0-61™, (2:00 ft.) below the Datum of
the Ordnance of Great Britain
Metres
Above | Below
FRANCE—
Boulogne Zéro des Cartes Marines (Chazallon) — 4:13 | Ponts et Chaus-
, sées (France)
Calais a 5 5 — 3°17 "5
Dieppe ” ” ” ae 4:21 ”
Dunkerque “f A) 55 — 2°42 ”
Havre 5 ra oe 4 — 4:29 BS
(Zero of self-registering tide-gauge
0:10™ lower). |
Tréport . Zéro des Cartes Marines (Chazallon) — 4:21
BELGIUM Zéro du dépot de la Guerre ; — 1:37 | Ponts et Chaus-
sées’ Belgium)
Ostende . Zéro du buse de l’écluse des bassins — 301 | (Maus)
de Commerce (zero of self-regis-
tering gauge),
HoLLAND Piel d’Amsterdam (Standard level) | 0:91 — | Dutch Water-
staat (Maus)

ea eS ee ee eee

4
au

& Report Brit: Assoc: 1879. Plate XIII .

Feet Métres

3 ] 5
eH
‘ Amsterdam Fel 4 Hl (Dutch Datum)
Sea L eve - : = : : | | Niveau moyen de:la® mer Atlantique
English. Ordnance Datim
a Sr a 5 *
ae SS H 4 ? = >
| — 1 eS r=
we zi a _ French ‘Nivellement geveraL” |
4 aa en |
3 hell
, ee + 5 | : |
ie +8 ova |
a H oats
; ‘ i — } !
: 5 | l
| ome ; 2
oe Deptt de la ®T H Guerre (BELGIUM) | ee :
eee Ol Ae Ered SI ee
ae | 7 a oe eS
a ee Ordnance Datum H i IRELAND dae ‘
-— |
; 84
. ' H H 2
d ! aoe i ' \
4
Hf RO)
| OH Es cw. °)
t i : {
Tae -
| Zero d'Ostende : i 2 Buse de Liécluse des buissins dy commerce
(Belgian Datum) = H H Leéro duu Marégraphe
4
13 Hq
Ej e |
it
4 |
: yeaa ap | !
qu ;
= 16-4 H =
pap 4 i Zo
= vw f° o
a
AE | |
\ 18-4 '
; ; : 5 Metres
. Feet 19+ }
| H
og ti Il -

Datum for International Tidal Observations

Mustrating the 374 Report of the Committee on the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain.

Spottiswoode &C* Lith London

©

cota! ©
; ao se
Ray _ =

ON SELF-ACTING INTERMITTENT SIPHONS, ETC. 223

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. W. WiLLIaAM-
son, Professor Sir Wittiam Tuomson, Mr. Bramwe xu (Secretary),
Mr. Str. Joun Vincent Day, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. C. W. Mernri-
FIELD, Dr. Netison Hancock, Professor Abrr, Mr. J. R. Napinr,
Captain Doveztas Gauron, Mr. Newmarcu, Mr. E. H. Carsurr,
Mr. Macrory, and Mr. H. Trusman Woop, appointed for the
purpose of watching and reporting to the Council on Patent
Legislation.

Ture Committee have to report that they have held several meetings, at
which they prepared a memorial upon the Bill for the Amendment of the
Patent Laws, brought in by the Home Secretary and the Attorney-
General.

This memorial is printed as an appendix to the Report of the Council,

. lxill.

: The memorial was presented to the Attorney-General by a deputation
from the Council of the Association on the 17th of May last.

The bill became a lapsed order; but the Committee have every reason
to hope that their recommendations will be duly considered if a similar
measure should be introduced in the next or any future session.

On Self-acting Intermittent Siphons and the Conditions which
Determine the Commencement of their Action. By Rogers
Fretp, B.A., M. Inst. C.E.

|A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. |

In the discussion on Mr. Barlow’s paper on the upward jets of Niagara,
read at the Plymouth meeting of the Association, I made a few remarks
with reference to an improved form of self-acting siphon I had invented,
the action of which depends on the power of falling water to drag air
along with it, and I now, by request, will give a description of the action
of this siphon illustrated by a working model.

Before proceeding to describe the peculiarities of this siphon, it will
be well to say a few words generally as to self-acting siphons employed
for the intermittent discharge of fluids from vessels. The idea of em-
ploying siphons in this way is by nomeans new, and I may instance the
philosophical toy, called ‘ Tantalus’s cup,’ which many of us have seen
in our youth. In this cup there is a concealed siphon, which is brought
into action when the cup is raised to the mouth to drink, so that the
water sinks away from the lips and cannot be drunk. A self-acting
siphon has also been employed for emptying vessels used for measuring
water, as in Osler’s and Bickley’s self-recording rain gauges, as well as
on a large scale for reservoirs.

The chief difficulty to be overcome in applying siphons in this way
is to start therm or put them in action. In an ordinary siphon, such
as that shown in fig. 1, the siphon will not be put in action unless the

234 REPORT--1879.

ON SELF-ACTING INTERMITTENT SIPHONS, ETO. 225

water in the vessel rises above the top of the bend of the siphon, and it
will be readily seen that if the siphon is of any size, this will require a
large accession of water in the tank, so that the siphon will not work
except in cases where there is a large flow of water.

This difficulty can, to a considerable extent, be overcome by dipping
the outer leg of the siphon in water, as shown in fig. 2. The water
which runs over the bend of the siphon will then drag a certain quantity
of air with it, and drive this air out at the lower mouth of the siphon,
and as the air cannot return in consequence of this mouth being sealed,
the air in the outer leg is gradually reduced in tension below the
atmospheric pressure. Whether this partial exhaustion of the air in the
outer leg is sufficient to start the siphon, depends on the quantity of water
that runs over the siphon, but the quantity required will be much less
than if the outer end were open, and it will not be necessary for the water
in the vessel to rise above the top of the bend of the siphon.

Although the expedient of dipping the outer leg of the siphon in
water greatly reduces the quantity necessary to start the siphon, the re-
quired quantity is still very considerable if the siphon is of any size, and
farther expedients have therefore been adopted to reduce this quantity.
One of the simplest of these expedients is to have two siphons of different
sizes connected together by a tube at the crown, and so arranged that the
water runs through the smaller siphon first. The outer ends of both
siphons are dipped in water, the smaller siphon then starts with a com-
paratively small quantity, and afterwards by means of the connecting
tube exhausts the air from the larger siphon, and brings it also into
action. This method was adopted by Professor James Thomson, F.R.S.,
in 1860, for his jet pump, and it was also carried out on a large scale in
France in 1867, at the Reservoir de Mettersheim. In this latter case,
there are two siphons of about 28 inches in diameter, each of which is
put in action by a smaller siphon of 6 inches in diameter.

This expedient, however, and several others which have been adopted,
leave much to be desired, as they are to a certain extent complicated,
and yet do not sufficiently reduce the quantity required for starting the
siphon to enable it to be used in many cases. The method which I am
now about to describe is both simpler and much more effective.

In an extensive series of experiments which I tried some years ago
on siphons, with their outer legs dipped in water, I was much puzzled by
finding that the quantity of water necessary to put a siphon of given size
in action varied in the most unaccountable way at different times. The
only difference that could be perceived between the cases in which the
siphon started and those in which it did not start was, that in the former
case air-bubbles escaped freely at the mouth of the siphon, whereas in
the latter case, under apparently the same conditions, very few bubbles
came out. At last the idea suggested itself to me of making a portion of
the siphon in glass, so as to see what was going on inside the pipe, when
the cause of the irregularity was at once discovered. Sometimes the
water which ran over the bend adhered closely to the sides of the pipe; at
other times a portion of it would fall more or less clear of the sides. When
the water adhered to the sides it produced very little effect in displacing
the air, so that only a small quantity of air was driven through the water
at the mouth of the siphon. When, on the other hand, the water fell clear
of the sides, it produced a great effect in displacing the air, and large
we, of air at once escaped from the mouth of the siphon.

: Q

226 REPORT—187 9.

I pursued the investigation further by producing artificial irregularities
in the pipe, and I then found the more completely I could throw the
water clear of the sides of the pipe, the greater effect it produced in ex-
pelling the air and starting the siphon. The form of siphon which I
have finally adopted as most effective is shown in fig. 3, and in the
working model.

The siphon consists of two concentric tubes, A and B, the outer one, A,
being closed at the top, and steadied and supported by three radial ribs
projecting from the inner tube, 8. The annular space between A and B
constitutes the ascending or shorter leg of the siphon, and the inner tube,
B, the descending or longer leg. At the upper mouth of 8 is fixed a conical
shell, c, projecting inwards clear from the inner surface of the tube, B.
The lower mouth of 8 dips into a discharging trough, D, which has a weir,
BE, level with this lower mouth. The action is as follows:—When the
vessel is full, the water begins to trickle over the edge of the conical shell,
, and is so directed by the shell as to fall towards the centre of the tube,
B, quite clear of the sides, thus producing the maximum effect in displacing
the air. The action of the siphon soon commences, and continues till the
water in the tank is lowered to the level of the lower mouth of A, after
which air is admitted by that mouth to the siphon, and the action ceases.

In some cases, the quantity of air admitted at the end of the discharge,
though sufficient to stop the siphon, is not sufficient to fully charge it with
air, so that the next discharge will commence before the water in the
vessel has risen to its full height. To obviate this, the best expedient is
a secondary siphon, F, fixed in the trough, p, and put into action by the
discharge from the larger siphon, 4B. When this discharge has stopped,
the siphon F continues in operation, so that the water in the trough, D, is
drawn off, the lower mouth of the pipe, B, unsealed, and the larger siphon
fully charged with air. Presently, also, the action of the secondary siphon,
F, 1s also stopped by the admission of air. When the vessel is filled, and
water trickles over the shell, c, the trough D is again filled up to the level
of the weir, and the siphon 4 B becomes sealed.

There are other minor conditions which affect the commencement of
the automatic action of the siphon, such as the roughness of the top of the
conical shell c, the ratio of the area of the tank to the area of the siphon,
the length of the siphon, &c., but these I will not go into.

In conclusion, it is evident that the above form of self-acting siphon
will be of great practical use for a number of purposes. I will merely
mention one, namely, that of flushing sewers, by means of small quantities
of water which ordinarily run to waste. Take, for instance, a drinking
fountain, the water which escapes from it is, under ordinary circumstances,
absolutely useless for flushing purposes. Collect this water, however, in
a tank with a large self-acting siphon, and as soon as the tank is full, be
it in one day or in several days, the siphon will be brought into action, and
the contents of the tank discharged with great rapidity. The trickle from
a drinking fountain would start a siphon of as much as 10 or 12 inches’
diameter of the improved form, and would, therefore, flush a sewer of
considerable size, say nearly 3 feet in diameter.

*
ON PALZOZOIC ROCKS IN SOUTH-EAST OF ENGLAND, 227

On some further Evidence as to the Range of the Paleozoic Rocks
beneath the South-East of England. By Roxmrr A. C.
Gopwin-AustEn, F.R.S., F.GS.

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed
in extenso among the Reports. ]

[PLATE XIV.]

dn a communication to the Geological Section of the meeting of the British
Association at Plymouth in 1878 I called attention to the significance
of the result of the deep boring at Messrs. Meux’s, as to the Upper
Devonian beds there met with, next beneath the cretaceous strata, also as
to the importance of some further knowledge as to the direction of the
dip of the said Upper Devonian beds. An accurate acquaintance with this
point is essentially needed with reference to its immediate bearing on a
question which may possibly become one of national importance, namely,
the place of the true Coal-measure series, beneath our south-east area, and
which must serve as an excuse for another short communication on the
same subject.

The question involved has attracted the attention of sundry foreign
geologists during the past year; and upon our own area facts have been
ascertained which now enable us to arrive inferentially at what, but a
year since, was mere speculation.

M. Dewalque, ata meeting of the Belgian Geological Society,! remarked
first on the absence of Jurassic and Triassic deposits, as along the Paleozoic
ridge extending from the Ardennes by the north of France; being just
what the borings at St. Trond, Laeken, Menin, and Ostende, would
indicate. Secondly, that inasmuch as the Belgian and north of France
primary formations are extended into England, it is an important point,
with reference to the prolongation of the Belgian coal-basin, that London
should be known to be situated immediately above a formation which is
itself so close to the Coal-measures. ‘The supposition that the dip of
these Upper Devonian beds’ is to the south, and that they belong to the
extension of our northern basin, is that which is the most probable. The
‘coal formation may therefore occur at a short distance (quelques kilo-
métres) south of London, and at a workable depth.’

With asouthern dip it may be that these beds (Upper Devonian) belong
to the extension of our southern basin. In this case coal may occur in the
north as well as on the south, and nearer on this side (N.) than on the
south. Should there be such a coal basin, it might be as useless as ours
(Belgian) of the ‘Condros and the Entre Sambre and Meuse.’ 2

In answer to some observations of M. J. Van Scherpenzeel Thim,

? Société Géologique de Belgiques, Bulletin LXV.

? The exact significance of this latter alternative of the Belgian geologist may
not perhaps be understood by English geologists generally, as it has reference to a
feature in the physical structure of Belgium, but the which is very properly referred
to by M. Dewalque now that the Palzozoic band of the Continent is known to reach
our south-east district. The band of Belgian and North of France coal-measures
‘may be truly represented as trough-shaped, however produced.

The northern border of the coal basin of Namur is formed of strata each older
than the other in a northerly direction, The carboniferous series occurs at the sur-
face at Soignies and Journay ; the Devonian at Rhines; the Silurian at Gembloux.
To the north the Silurian strata sink—at Bruxelles they are at 200, and at 300 at
Ostende. The primary formation of the North of Belgium undulates, and the like
may be supposed to be the arrangement here,

Q2

228 REPORT—1879.

M. Dewalque added : ‘ Starting from the supposition that our (Belgian):
old strata are prolonged westward into England, and from the fact that

Upper Devonian strata occur under London, we are led to admit that the

band of Silurian slates of the Ostende boring must pass north of London.

These slates, which are referable to those of Tubise, must be separated

from Upper Devonian by other beds, such as the black slates of the Menin

shaft, which are Silurian. Considering the geographical position of
these three places, together with the east and west direction of our older
formations, it would not seem that their prolongation into England would

carry them sufficiently north of London, so that the Devonian beds there

should represent our Condros basin, and not that of Namur.

‘Tf then at that place (London) we are ina prolongation of the Namur
basin, the strata at Meux’s must dip south; consequently, it is most
probable that the Coal-measures are to be found at a short distance:
south.’

Such were the inferences drawn by M. Dewalque in 1878 from the-
result of boring at Messrs. Meux’s.

It may be stated that at the several places named, the Paleozoic strata .
reached were, at Ostende, Silurian ; at Menin, Silurian, like the strata at
Gambloux; at Laeken, also Silurian.

The supposition that the Silurian strata met with at Ostende would,
in their course westward, pass north of London has been proved by the-
occurrence of beds of Wenlock age at Ware, near Hertford, twenty miles
north of London. This discovery has come most opportunely to supply
the information which, only a year since, was needed as to the dip of the
Upper Devonian strata at Messrs. Meux’s.

The succession of the Paleozoic strata, on this the English side of the
Channel, even into the far west, is just what it is in Belgium and the
north of France. From Brussels and Ostende, from north to south, the
successive members of the series mostly rise to the surface, and are-
exposed in all the valleys of denudation extending north from the line of
the Coal-measures, as long since laid down by Dumont.

With this guidance, and in spite of little as yet known with respect to
our own underground structure on the south-east, it can be safely put in
relation with what obtains on the European continent for an extent of
400 miles. The order in which the successive members of the Paleozoic
series rise to the surface from beneath one another there, may be taken as
our guide as to the order and relation of the Upper Devonian at the end.
of Tottenham Court Road and Oxford Street, and the section at Ware.

The question of the strike and direction of the dip of the beds at
Meux’s is now determined as forming part of the northern base of the
trough, containing first the mountain limestone series, and next, above,
the true Coal-measures.

For practical guidance one point alone remains to be considered: from
the place of the Upper Devonian strata in the heart of London, what must
be allowed for the breadth of the outcrop of the mountain limestone
series, next in sequence ?

In parts of Belgium the mountain limestone has been estimated as:
600 feet thick ; it is less than that in easterly and westerly directions.

The nearest place to London at which this is exposed is on the north
of the Boulonnais denudation, where, with its associated beds, it may be:
put at 600 feet. The breadth of such a mass at its outcrop, and with an
angle of 30 to 35 degrees, such as the Devonian beds at Meux’s had, would

eh eis

49% Report Bra
MAP

ive Coal measures beneath the
S.E.Counties of

NGLAN D.

S$?Bride. cS onwin-Austen F.A.S..G.5

evidence in support of Ue continuity of

Plate XIV.

ae WS

Jurassic
Tew Red se

3 Coal mea.

Gaur

Mins
‘Cu
oe)

MM Vertical sh

Sf oitiswoode & C°Lath London.

1879. Plate XIV.

MAP
To Uluatrate the evidence inv support of Ure continiias of

productive Coal. menaures bowath the

|

Bh orascoms
irene ine Bits
Wow Rect verses BEB 01d Pied mrice ss bien}

HYDROGRAPHY, PAST AND PRESENT. 229

be nearly doubled, or about 1200 feet ; in other words, the lower members
-of the true Coal-measure formation may be fairly expected to occur at
-about that distance south from the corner of Tottenham Court Road and
Oxford Street, the upper, or productive Coal measure, still farther to the
‘south.
What has been ascertained beyond all doubt as to the line of section
underlying a part of our English area from London to Ware, may be
safely taken as holding good for a great extent of country on the east as
on the west. The ages of more modern overlying formations do not affect
this question, as is shown by the borings here in England, but more
abundantly on the European continent. In our attempts to trace accu-
rately hidden physical arrangements of the earth’s crust, the restrictions
to be observed are the positive data of the ascertained thicknesses of the
Several formations, and their positions, and which enable us to replace,
without much chance of error, the line of each band and of its direc-
‘tion of dip.

Hydrography, Past and Present.
By Lieutenant G. T. Trmptn, R.N., F.R.GS.

[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed
in extenso among the Reports. ]

[PLATE XV.]

‘THE immediate aim of this paper is to bring to the notice of the section
‘the present state of hydrographical science, which forms an essential part
-of the machinery by which our enormous commerce is carried on in time
of peace, and defended during war. The subject is therefore of great
national importance, and I sincerely trust that it will meet with your
favourable consideration.

In the annual address to the Royal Geographical Society, the unsatis-

factory state of the Admiralty charts for South Africa was pointed out by
-our President, Mr. Clements Markham, whose unremitting devotion to the
-advancement of geographical science is well known to most of those
present. He observed that the war in Zulu-Land had called public
attention to the unsurveyed state of parts of the coast of South Africa,
H.M. Ships Active and Tenedos having been placed in great danger
through grounding on some unknown reefs between the Tugela River
and Point Durnford. He told us also that both the east and west coasts
-of South Africa (northwards from Bashee River on one side, and
St. Helena Bay on the other) have not been sounded since the days of
Captain Owen, half a century ago. This must have been a startling
‘announcement to those who fancy that we already know the world
perfectly, and who are not aware that the outlines given on the beautiful
maps of Keith Johnston and others are, to a great extent, mere guess-
work. It was, however, well known to the few who for some years past
have been steadfastly working to restore the surveying branch of the
Navy to the high position it formerly held.

The story of this essential branch of the public service, which has
‘been characterised as ‘not only useful in peace, but terrible in war,’ is
@ curious illustration of the difficulties attending the construction and

230 REPORT— 1879.

maintenance of any thoroughly good institution. ‘Inch by inch,’ we are:
told, did the surveying service ‘fight its way into life,’ until under the.
bold and skilful rule of Sir Francis Beaufort, it achieved the success.
prepared for it by the struggles and death of Dalrymple, and the earnest
efforts of Hurd, Michael Walker, and Parry.

Although many unsurveyed coasts were charted during the last
century by Cook, Vancouver, Flinders, and others, yet it was not until.
1795 that the Hydrographical Department of the Admiralty was.
established by Order in Council. It consisted of the hydrographer
(Mr. Dalrymple), one assistant, and a draughtsman. Mr. Dalrymple’s.
orders were ‘to take charge and custody of such plans and charts as then
were, or should thereafter, be deposited at the Admiralty, and to select
and compile such information as might appear to be requisite for the
purpose of improving navigation.’ From this small beginning, the
important department that may now be fairly regarded as the main.
source of hydrographical information to the civilised world was developed..
It is impossible, in the limited time at my disposal, to trace the progress
of the department step by step; it is also unnecessary, as full information
on the subject may be found in the Geographical Magazines for April and
July, 1874, and in the United Service Gazettes for the 12th and 26th of
July, and the 16th of August, 1879. It will be sufficient to say that after
many struggles and reverses it advanced slowly but surely, until the year
1849 found no less than twelve surveying ships in commission, under the
late eminent hydrographer Sir Francis Beaufort, while twenty-three
officers were borne on ships’ books for detached surveying service. After
presiding over the Hydrographical Department for nearly a quarter of a
century, Sir Francis retired in 1854, leaving a surveying force of nineteen
captains and ten commanders, with sixteen lieutenants in training, and.
eight ships in commission, notwithstanding the fact that we were then at
war with Russia, and that three surveying captains and two commanders
were employed in Arctic service. The views of a nation are supposed to
extend with its opulence and prosperity, but in the middle of 1873, the
surveying service had fallen so low that only one of Her Majesty’s ships
(the Shearwater, under Commander Wharton) was engaged in actual
surveying duties. It is true that the Challenger was also in commission
under Sir George Nares, but she was an exploring rather than a surveying
vessel. Since then matters have somewhat improved, but we still find a
decrease of ships and men where there should have been increase.

In January 1873 the sad falling-off in the surveying service was
noticed in the press, a leader in the Daily News showing that, although
the annual nayal expenditure had increased from about four and a half
to seven and a half millions, and the tonnage of the mercantile navy from.
less than four and a half to upwards of seven million tons, yet the
surveying service had been allowed to decline. In December of the same
year, Sir Bartle Frere wrote to Mr. Gladstone, earnestly protesting against
the insinuation that voyages of survey and discovery were not ‘ strictly
professional naval services ;’ at the same time expressing his belief that
there are few better naval schools than a surveying or discovery ship,
and that if such ships were multiplied, not only would commerce benefit,.
but men-of-war would be better supplied with practical seamen than is
possible at present. In April 1874, Mr. Markham pointed out, in the
Geographical Magazine, the great need that our rulers should more
fully appreciate the importance of an efficient administration of the:

HYDROGRAPHY, PAST AND PRESENT. 231

surveying service ; and expressed an earnest hope that the days of false
economy and lamentable neglect of enterprises of discovery and survey
were numbered. In the following July he showed that although one
of the most obvious duties of a country with an extensive seaboard and
a great sea-borne trade is to provide for the safety of vessels frequenting
her ports, by the provision of lighthouses and buoys, and, above all, by
the preparation of reliable charts and sailing directions, yet nothing had
been done for a space of twelve years for the coasts of our Indian Empire.
In February 1875, Captain Hull read an able paper at the Royal United
Service Institution, in which he especially drew attention to the un-
surveyed parts of the world. The Army and Navy Gazette has also taken
the matter up, and on the 22nd of last March published a letter from
‘ An Old Officer,’ headed ‘The One Man Needful.’ This letter pointed out
that when a competent successor to the late Admiral Bedford was
required at the Board of Trade, it appeared that such a man was not to
be found in England. The only man said tobe fit was Sir George Nares,
who was then in command of the Alert surveying the Straits of Magellan.
Sir George, who is apparently a sort of hydrographic Sir Garnet
Wolseley, was accordingly taken out of the Alert, just as in 1874 he was
taken out of the Challenger to command the Arctic Expedition, in both
cases leaving his work to be carried on by his executors, or the men he
left behind him. The reason for this is obvious; in place of the nine and
twenty captains and commanders, from whom, in 1854, competent men
might have been selected either to command Arctic expeditions, to fillthe
place of Admiral Bedford at the Board of Trade, or that of Sir George
Nares in the Straits of Magellan, we have now only two. One great evil
arising from the want of trained men of the required rank is that the
surveying service continually suffers demoralisation from the appointment
of inexperienced chiefs, who are obliged to learn their duties from their
juniors, a proceeding curiously at variance with the general tone of this
age of competition.

At the present time the Hydrographical Department of the Admiralty
consists of twenty-four individuals, including the hydrographer and four
messengers and packers. The expenses of the department are provided
for under Vote V, which includes several other branches of the scientific
service. The total grant for the scientific branch was 120,357/. in
1861-62, and 106,041/. in 1878-79, a deplorable reduction of more than
14,0007., which represents a proportionate decrease in the amount of
useful work done, And yet, as I shall presently show, the Hydrographic
Office is in a great measure self-supporting, and might be made still more
so by the ordinary mercantile expedient of increasing the size of an
establishment to meet the requirements of customers.

It is beyond the scope of this paper to enter fully into the manifold
duties of the department, but amongst the most important are the follow-
ing:—To execute accurate surveys of all parts of the world that are
visited by British ships ; to prepare and publish these surveys in the form
of charts ; to write and publish sailing directions to accompany the charts ;
to collect, compile, and promptly publish all hydrographic information ;
and to keep the charts and other nautical documents corrected up to the
latest dates. It is also the duty of the department not only to supply
Her Majesty’s ships, but also to see that there are always sufficient
charts and nautical works to meet the public demand. It will give some
idea of the extent of this demand to state that on an average upwards of

232 REPORT—1879.

106,000 copies of Admiralty charts, and nearly 19,000 copies of the
Nautical Almanac, besides sailing directions and other books, are sold
annually to the general public and to foreign governments, exclusive of
the supply to the Royal Navy. Four hundred and fifty chart boxes, each
containing from 300 to 400 charts, are required for the Navy, and 1000
chronometers are in constant circulation between the Royal Observatory
and Her Majesty’s ships. Foreign navies navigate by our charts, and all
our sailing directions are immediately translated, especially by the French
authorities. Another important function of the department is its respon-
sibility for all matters connected with the compasses of Her Majesty’s
ships.

The preparation of charts is under a superintendent, whose duties are
of a very important and responsible character. They are ably performed
by Commander Thomas A. Hull, who received his early education in the
school of Sir Francis Beaufort, and whose abilities as sailor, surveyor,
and draughtsman are well known. I have here a few Admiralty charts
selected to give a general idea of the different styles. They may be
divided into five classes: ocean charts, general charts of any particular
country or coast, coast charts, plans of harbours, and physical charts.
The latter have given a greater impetus to our knowledge of the causes
and effects of winds, currents, and temperatures than any publications that
have preceded them, and they have already been reproduced in France
and other countries. In the course of a voyage the sailor uses four
classes of charts. Fixing his position by astronomical observations, he
marks the ship’s place and her track from day to day upon the ocean
chart, which is drawn on a very small scale. The curved lines on these
charts represent the lines of equal magnetic variation, and the small
figures show the deep-sea soundings; these are of the greatest value to
our merchants, and to those interested in the laying of submarine cables.
They are also the result of great care and experience, as the ship must
be kept for hours in the same position to obtain them, telegraph engi-
neers requiring not only accurate position and depth of water, but also
samples of the bottom at great depths. They want to know what kind
of bed their cables are to he upon. As the land is neared, larger scales
are required, and the next chart used is the general chart of the country
the vessel is bound to. When in sight of land, a coast sheet is prepared ;
and last of all comes the plan of the haven in which the weather-beaten
ship is to rest.

When a coast has only been partially surveyed, the charts for it are
drawn in a light and unfinished style, which is a sufficient warning to
the initiated that the land must be approached with caution. As the great
aim of the Hydrographic Department is correctness, all charts are sub-
jected to the searching criticism of the naval assistants before publica-
tion, and it is to this measure that their extreme accuracy is to a great
extent due. The charts are not by any means done with when issued ;
they have then to be kept up to date. In fact, every chart published may
be regarded as a sort of official child, requiring the paternal vigilance of
the office to insure its doing good instead of evil. Correcting the charts
is a very delicate and responsible duty. All changes of lights, buoys, and
beacons have to be inserted, and as there are in round numbers 4000
lights and 10,000 buoys to be watched over, it is no trifling task. The
change of a single light or buoy sometimes necessitates the correction of
no less than five charts. These corrections, though small, must be made

—ee—,

HYDROGRAPHY, PAST AND PRESENT. 233

with the greatest care, for if such important simplicities are neglected, and
the chart be incorrect in these essentials, no finish or cunning engraving
can save its credit; it is beauty without discretion, a danger instead of a
safeguard. A very slight error in the position, colour, or character, of a
light or buoy, or in the insertion of a simple dot, cross, or figure, may
lead to the gravest disasters. Charts, like books, require study to be
properly understood, and familiarity with the abbreviations and conven-
tional signs is essential. A good chart, to those who study it with the
attention it deserves, is ‘a thing of beauty and a joy for ever.’ My life
has been saved more than once by Admiralty charts, and therefore I
speak of them with affection. From six to twelve copies of each chart
are kept in the office for correction, and as there are about 2700 charts in
eirculation, the number collected at one time on the shelves may exceed
30,000. The assertion of the Daily News that ‘space is wanted to spread
out a chart, without having first to remove books or papers that are at
the same time under consideration,’ is literally true. At the Dépdt des
Cartes et Plans de la Marine, in Paris, a greater amount of space is
allotted to the British charts alone than the English Admiralty affords
for those of the whole world. From the sale of charts the Treasury re-
ceives about 60001. a year; but though the number of charts increases
yearly, though the work required is more finished and elaborate, and
though the demand and sale have also increased, there is no cor-
responding addition to the staff employed. The Hydrographer’s Report
for 1878-79 tells us that during the year sixty-one new charts and
plans were published, 1950 charts were corrected, and 202,800 charts
were printed for Her Majesty’s service and for the use of the general
public. Although the maximum of work which this branch of the office
manages to perform with a minimum of hands is truly surprising, yet
the present staff, which consists of a chief draughtsman and five assist-
ants, is unequal to the demands upon it, and the unpublished informa-
tion is steadily accumulating. The result is that insurance is high,
and that valuable cargoes, and still more valuable lives, are thrown
away in order that the already narrow limits of the scientific vote may
be still further contracted. Itistrue that this vote has been reduced by
a few thousands ; but how much did it cost to repair the Lord Clyde and
the Agincourt, and how many vessels are annually lost on partially sur-
veyed or little-known coasts P

Having now sketched the constitution and working of the Hydro-
graphical Department, I shall endeavour to show what it is now doing,
and what remains to be done. On the outline chart of the world which
accompanies this paper, an attempt has been made to depict, faithfully,
the present state of hydrography, and I fear it will be only too easy to
show that a surveying Alexander need not weep. The surveyed coasts
are marked by a heavy coast line; those only partially surveyed, by
shading; while coasts that have merely been explored are drawn in
fine outline. The ships show the stations of the four regular surveying
vessels and three schooners at present in commission ; and the crosses
show the head-quarters of officers doing their best with small craft, or
with hired boats and crews, the latter method being adopted, where
practicable, with a view to economy. In some cases the expenses are
shared by Colonial Governments.

Owing to the vastness of the subject, I fear that errors will be de-
tected in the chart by sailors knowing the respective coasts; I shall be

234 REPORT—1879.

only too glad to find that the heavy coast line should be extended, but I
trust that no one will be able to remove any of that line or the shading.

The large cross in the Bay of Bengal represents the Department
recently established in India for Marine Surveys, and which will be men-
tioned hereafter.

On the home coast there is one small surveying vessel, the Porcupine,
under Staff-Captain Parsons, as well as the hired steamer, Knight Hrrant,.
under Staff-Commander Stanley. It should be borne in mind that owing
to their shifting nature the sands surrounding our shores require constant
examination, while the mouths of rivers are often as changeable as the
fashions. The continuons attention of a strong surveying staff is there-
fore indispensable, if the charts of our own coasts are to be kept in good
working order. It is not enough to make a road and then leave it, or to
lay down rails and then neglect the permanent way. The same principle
applies to our ocean highways, and charts, like roads, require constant
attention and repair to prevent them from falling into decay.

The Alert left England in September last under the command of Sir
George Nares, and reached the scene of her first year’s labours—Magellan
Strait and the adjacent waters—early in January. Sir George, as already
observed, has since accepted an appointment at the Board of Trade.

The Fawn, under Commander Wharton, after determining the position
of the Cosmoledo group, and other islands to the north-west of Mada-
gascar, has been transferred, at the request of Admiral Sir Geoffrey
Hornby, to the unsurveyed waters of the Sea of Marmora.

The Magpie has been employed on the sea-board of China, between
Hong-Kong and Shanghai, and is now in the Gulf of Tong-King, while
the Sylvia, under Commander Pelham Aldrich, is steadily working on
the western shores of Japan.

It is much to be regretted that a very important part of the comple-
ment of officers in these vessels is generally overlooked. The well-known
labours of Sir Wyville Thomson and his staff lead us to hope that the
surveying ships of the future will carry a skilled naturalist, as in the
days of Sir Francis Beaufort. The opportunities offered by a surveying
vessel for observing and collecting on distant and little-known coasts,
such as those of East Africa and Japan, are so exceptional that we can
only wonder at their being neglected. In other respects, also, an amount.
of economy is now enforced which impairs efficiency.

Staff-Commander Maxwell, in the hired steamer Gulnare, is working
in Newfoundland, and the shores of Jamaica are being surveyed by
Lieutenant Pullen, in the schooner Sparrowhawk.

Lieutenant Moore, in the Alacrity schooner, is following up the
examination of the Fiji Islands; and Lieutenant Richards, in the schooner
Renard, is under the orders of the commodore of the Australian station.
The Hydrographer observes that the useful surveying work performed
among dangerous reefs, in these two small sailing vessels, deserves warm
commendation.’

The Queensland coast survey, under Staff-Commander Bedwell, is
now being pressed forward in a hired steamer. Staff-Commander
Howard is working on the mainland in the neighbourhood of Nuyts
Archipelago and Fowler Bay ; and we are also told by the Hydrographer
that Staff-Commander Archdeacon, with one naval assistant, has been
working hard for six years in Western Australia, with ‘linited nautical
resources. Now this phrase is worthy of special notice. It means that

HYDROGRAPHY, PAST AND PRESENT. 235,

the surveyors cannot always get small craft wherein to obtain soundings,
and however truly a coast may be delineated, the charts are almost
useless unless the soundings are correct. In fact, soundings, which
represent the depth and bottom of the sea, constitute the great point of
difference between a chart and a map, and it is upon their accuracy that
the character of the nautical surveyor mainly depends. The land work
may be done by the soldier or civil engineer, but the sounding is the
sailor’s portion, requiring all the ready wit and tact of his profession.
Well-sounded localities may be safely navigated by means of the lead, a
simple but very important instrument, which is only too frequently
neglected. In thick weather the lead and line are to the sailor as
antenne to a beetle—though blinded by ‘any vile congregation of
vapours,’ he may still feel his way. Another great disadvantage of
detached surveying parties is that we lose that grand school for practical
nautical surveying, a ship, and the disciplined life of a man-of-war. ‘No
man,’ says Captain Hull, in his useful treatise on surveying, ‘can be
expected to attain a trusted position as a nautical surveyor who is not
essentially a good officer and sailor, or, to speak more exactly, a good
pilot, knowing how to handle a body of men, the requirements of a ship,
and the room she wants to wear, stay, or anchor in. This knowledge
cannot be acquired under the ‘one-man-and-a-boy’ system. If is in
ships only that men can discover ‘the secrets of the sea,’ or, to quote
Longfellow,
Only those who brave its dangers
Comprehend its mystery.

Now Mr. Laughton observes, in his work on nautical surveying, that
‘acquaintance with both the practice and theory of surveying is a
necessary part of the training of every naval officer, without which he
cannot have an intelligent understanding of the charts, the methods of
using them, and the confidence to be placed in them.’ It is also a
favourite dictum of Admiral Ryder’s that a fair surveyor must be a good
navigator. The battle of the Nile could never have been fought at the
hour it was if Nelson had not been a pilot as well as an Admiral. At
Copenhagen, also, he made a rough survey of the approaches, and was.
thus able to take his squadron close to the batteries.

In the ‘Navy List’ for August we find that only fifty-three officers
are now employed on surveying service, and if we exclude those working
under the Indian Department the total is reduced to forty-nine, or but
little more than half the number left by Sir Francis Beaufort a quarter
of a century ago.

While the surveying service has thus been steadily retrograding, the
energy of the British merchant and shipowner has almost annihilated
distance. With your permission, therefore, we will just run round the
world, noting the surveyed and unsurveyed coasts as we pass them, and
I will try to make our voyage at least one of the shortest on record.

Although the dark line naturally prevails over European coasts, yet.
before we are out of the Bay of Biscay we come to the shading that
necessitates caution, the shores of the Peninsula being still only partially
surveyed. Madeira and the Canaries may be considered as done; the
Cape de Verd Islands, however, require further examination.

Passing the West Indies, where the greater portion of San Domingo
and Porto Rico require surveying, we first anchor at Bahia, a surveyed

236 REPORT—1879.

port, with, however, some unexamined shoal ground on the western side
of the entrance.

Pushing onward to Rio, we are still on the dark line, but on leaving
that beautiful harbour we enter a partially surveyed region until we
‘come to the River Plate, of which a survey is much required.

During the voyage to Cape Virgins we have time to pay a respectful
tribute to the memory of Admiral Robert FitzRoy, who with limited
means, and in a marvellously short time, mapped the coast of South
America from the River Plate in the Atlantic to the Guayaquil in the
Pacific. Sir Francis Beaufort reported to the House of Commons, in
1848, that ‘all that is zmmediately wanted of these shores has been
already achieved by the splendid survey of Captain Robert FitzRoy.’
‘That, however, was before the days of steamships 375 feet long, and
before the Strait of Magellan was the high road to the Pacific Ocean.

Entering the Strait of Magellan, our charts carry us safely on for
110 miles, when we again come to partially surveyed ground.

We should like to continue our voyage by the inner channels leading
northward from Magellan, but as there are orders from the owners
against using these partially surveyed waters, we are reluctantly forced
into the Pacific (an ocean by no means worthy of its name in the vicinity
of Cape Pillar) with a loss of fuel and comfort, and much wear and tear
of ship and engines. The rapidly increasing traffic of large and powerful
steamers between Europe and the western coasts of America, points to the
urgent necessity for a thorough survey of Magellan Strait, and the
channels leading northward to the Gulf of Penas.

Pursuing our way along the coast of Chili, whose increasing trade
with this country would be much benefited by better charts, we touch at
Valparaiso, Callao, and Payta; but we cannot place reliance on our charts
until we reach the River Guayaquil. The sight of this coast reminds us
how the Independencia, pounding along with vicious intent to ram and
utterly annihilate the Covadonga, suddenly found herself on the reef which
her clever opponent avoided, and so lost the day and herself too. It was
pilotage and cool nerve, not gunnery, that enabled the little wooden ship
to cause the destruction of Peru’s finest and most powerful ironclad, and
the moral is that though ships and guns may be brought to perfection,
yet they will avail nothing without skilled pilots and trustworthy
charts.

From Guayaquil to Panama we are on the dark line, therefore, venturing
nearer to the shore, we can coast along one of the most beautiful and
interesting parts of the globe, passing La Plata island, where Drake
divided the spoils of the Cacafuego. ‘In sea-divinity,’ it has been
quaintly said, ‘the case was clear, the King of Spain’s subjects had
undone Mr. Drake, and therefore Mr. Drake was entitled to take the best
satisfaction he could on the subjects of the King of Spain.’ We also pass
Gallo island, where Pizarro drew the famous line on the sand, over which
(as we are told by Mr. Markham in his ‘ Reports on the Discovery of
Peru’) sixteen of his followers crossed.

Entering the Bay of Panama, we pass the beautiful Pearl Islands,
which have been well described as a perfumed archipelago, lying like
baskets of flowers on the tranquil surface of the ocean. To the eastward
lies the Gulf of San Miguel, where Balboa, after a journey of twenty-five
days across swamps, rivers, and woods, took possession of the Pacific
Ocean in the name of the King of Spain and the Indies. A branch of

HYDROGRAPHY, PAST AND PRESENT. _ 237

the cold Peruvian current renders the temperature pleasanter here than it
is at a distance from the coast, but during the wet season ‘it pours,’ says
old Dampier, ‘as out of a sieve.’

Before leaving Panama, let us reflect upon the advantage to English
commerce of continuing the survey, begun by Sir Henry Kellett, from
Guayaquil to Cape Pillar. The trade of this part of South America has
enormously increased since the introduction of steam. The enterprise of
the Pacific Steam Navigation Company has diverted the trade from the
Isthmus of Panama towards the Strait of Magellan, and this new stream
of travel and commerce has been so successful that the Company’s fleet of
magnificent steamships is barely sufficient to meet the demands upon it.
In 1874, 524 voyages on the coast and 124 to Europe, were made by the
various steamers of six different companies.

Looking northward from Panama, there is much work to be done.
The rising trade of the Central American ports calls for more attention to
coasts of which we have little information since the days of Malaspina in
1794. A partial survey of the coast and Gulf of California has been made
by officers of the United States Navy, who are, I believe, about to extend
their operations to the southward.

In the North Pacific our chart of that important group, the Sandwich
Islands, is said to be ‘ from various but imperfect authorities,’ and some-
thing better than this isrequired in 1879. We may also notice that Queen
Charlotte Island is only explored.

Leaving Panama, we pass the Galapagos, where nothing is imme-
diately required, and come next to the Low Archipelago, where the three
symbols are blended. Here we find that the ocean roads followed by
vessels from Panama and Valparaiso, through dangerous patches of coral,
are sadly in need of repair.

After touching at the beautiful and famous Tahiti, we pass through
the Friendly Islands and our new colony of Fiji, rejoicing to see Lieutenant
Moore hard at work with his smart little schooner, for reliable charts are
much wanted here to clear away doubtful dangers.

Readers of Dickens will remember how Quilp, when despatching
Sampson Brass home one night in what sailors call a pea-soup fog, con-
ducts his guest to the door, and tells him the way lies through a lane in
which there is a savage dog, who generally lives on the right-hand side,
but at times conceals himself on the left ready for a spring. He cautions
Brass to take great care of himself, blows out the light, slams the door,
and leaves him. What a splendid hydrographic official Daniel Quilp
would have made! To tell a man there is a rock in a certain passage,
and not to tell him where it is, is virtually to block up that passage, and
the caution is of little use except to some comfortable official, who, if
anything happens, is able to look wise and say ‘I told you so.’

After calling at Sydney, where we hear that the coasts of New
Zealand are still unfinished, we find that the islands and dangers in the
much-used routes between Australia and China are a constant source of
anxiety, and it is not until we are northward of the Caroline Islands that
our captain is able to go below and take off his boots, in which for some
time past he has been obliged to sleep.

After visiting Hong Kong and Singapore, we pass through the
Malacca Strait to the Indian Ocean, impressed with the idea that the
Magpie and Sylvia have got their work cut out for them in those great
seats of industry China and Japan.

238 REPORT—1879.

Thanks to the unflagging energy of Mr. Clements Markham, we leave
the Indian coasts to the able treatment of Captain Taylor and his well-
organised staff; but as the Indian Marine Survey forms the subject of a
separate paper in this section I shall not further allude to it.

We have no time to visit the east coast of Africa; and the state of
the charts, as illustrated by the Active and Tenedos, would render it
imprudent to do so under any circumstances. When reading of the
important services lately rendered by Captain Campbell and his Active
brigade, it is humiliating to reflect that they might have been lost to us,
and gained by the submarine fleet, in order to save the expense of
executing a much-needed survey.

The Red Sea being unfortunately shaded, we are unable to use the
inshore passages, except in the Mussawa Channel, and consequently
suffer much discomfort from the violence of the winds. The trade through
the Suez Canal points to the necessity for connecting the surveys of the
Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb and the Gulf of Suez.

In the Mediterranean, we notice with regret, mingled with surprise,
that the coast of Karamania is only partially surveyed, and that the
shading also extends from Alexandria to Sphax in Tunis, the black spot
representing the harbour of Tripoli.

Being by this time hardy travellers, we decide on a trip across the
North Sea before the end of the season, and therefore land at Brindisi and
make the best of our way to Hull, marvelling much at the immense tracts
of coast that are still nnsurveyed.

I need hardly remind you that amongst other things we are indebted
+o Scandinavia for large quantities of timber and iron, or that the iron
from the Dannemora mines supplies us with our finest steel. The people
also, and especially those of Norway, are peculiarly interesting to the
British nation. They have, morally and politically, a claim upon us ; and
among them we may trace the germ of perhaps nearly all the free institu-
tions which distinguish the British Constitution at the present day.

We leave Hull witha fair wind, but meet with a heavy north-westerly
gale off the coast of Norway; and after an anxious night, daylight finds
us, partially disabled, driving rapidly towards a formidable iron-bound
shore, fronted by rocks above and below water. Our case seems desperate ;
we cannot get out to sea, and pilots cannot get out to us; the Admiralty
charts are practically useless, for they are on a very small scale, and we
are now dashing before sea and wind towards a terrible line of breakers.
The captain is out on the bowsprit, however, and fortunately discovers an
opening just when destruction appears inevitable. We escape the outer
rocks, by a miracle as it seems, and at last a pilot boat sheers cautiously
alongside. A rope is thrown to her, the pilot ties it round his body,
plunges into the sea, and is hoisted on board. The danger is now past,
and in half an hour more we are safely at anchor, deeply thankful for our
narrow escape from the horrors of shipwreck.

Now this incident has actually occurred more than once, and has only
too frequently ended in the loss of ship and crew. Excellent charts for
this coast are published by the Norwegian Government, but as far as
English seamen are concerned it is but little better than explored. The
Norwegian charts, with a book of sailing directions in manuscript and
slip, are at this moment lying unused on the shelves of the Hydrographical
Office. Why are they not published? Because, for ‘ departmental
reasons ’—mark the phrase—it has been decided that they are ‘to stand

HYDROGRAPHY, PAST AND PRESENT. 239

over.’ Of these, and similar documents, we may say, in the words of the
old Scotch song, that

Wives and mithers maist despairin’
Ca’ them lives 0’ men,

Apart from humane considerations, the new branch of commerce that
has been opened in Siberia, and our increasing trade with Norway, which
is already worth nearly five millions a year, would appear to justify the
small additional outlay that would be required to publish work that has
already been done, and paid for. I am quite sure that neither the
Government nor the public have realised the state of things that I have
endeavoured to set before you, and that if it could only be made clear to
them, fewer ships would be wrecked on the dangerous shoals called ‘de-
partmental reasons.’

I hope I have succeeded in proving that hydrographical information
is urgently needed by our merchants, and by their fleets, while the fate of
the Independencia, and the narrow escape of the Active and Tenedos, clearly
show that it is required by our Navy. Both duty and interest call upon
us to provide this information to the utmost extent of our power, for
hardly a ship floats that does not insome way carry British interests, and,
as the First Lord of the Admiralty publicly said only a few weeks ago,
‘our national greatness is principally due to the fact that we have a larger
mercantile marine than any other nation.’

In the words of a great English Minister, ‘I refer it alike to the
hearts and understandings of those who hear me, and of those out of
doors who will consider our discussions, whether we should not shrink
from our duty, and disgrace the memory of those who have gone before
us, if we were to hesitate to say that we would provide for the wants of
the day in which we live? Iam not addressing you in unconsciousness
of the increase made to the Army and Navy Estimates, which unforeseen
circumstances have rendered of immediate necessity, but in considering
the amount of estimates voted, I would say, it is not the amount to be
considered, but the national exigencies imperatively required for the
country’s safety.’

This is essentially a humane and industrial, and in no way a party
question, and I would earnestly appeal to you to use your influence for the
restoration of the Surveying Service to the prominent position it ought
to hold among the forces of civilisation, and to protect it in some measure
from those blasts of ruinous economy which occasionally sweep over our
country. By increasing the number of surveying ships, and extending to
navigation and nautical surveying a fair share of the encouragement so
freely bestowed on ship-building and great-gun-founding, you would
establish a first-rate finishing school, which would produce not only
nautical surveyors, but superior officers for the general service; and, in
giving your naval officers the opportunity of practising afloat what they
learn at Greenwich, you would enable them more efficiently to protect the
trade they would be helping to extend.

I trust that the country will take this matter up; that before long the
commander-in-chief of every station will have a properly equipped sur-
veying ship at his disposal; and that the Hydrographical Department
may be extended to enable it to keep pace with the wants of the times,
and to publish and circulate the stores of valuable—or rather invaluable—
information, that are now shelved for ‘departmental reasons.’ While

240 REPORT—1879.

occupied in exploration and discovery, our officers and men would escape
the idleness engendered by a long interval of peace; that idleness which,
like a slow poison, little by little wears away the strength and valour of a
nation. They would be advancing civilisation, extending knowledge, and
exciting friendly interest and sympathy throughout the world, thus help-
ing to consummate the high aspiration—

That England may still be respected and free,
The envied of nations, the Queen of the Sea.

late XV.

Ni

% Indicates stations of detached Goverrunent

Surveying parties, working iv hired) vessels.

Brit). Asso

49% Report

ti> Indicates
Vessels

r
LONAOR

tswoode &C°L1tA

mete

ations of HM Surveying

> Indicate

Plate XV

WORLD mn of detached.

sng inv hired

veasela

CHART OF THE

urtially Surveyed Cousts only Explored

feasts Surveyed — Coasts

at)

—

Pegrat*

Dd

GREENTAND

s

6

AS

=
- AFRICA

Marquesas,

south reat
Lima Tiabia Lnengucla
-AMRRICA 25t htetena: |

Ansterdlam
Sip fhal

Ct ea

Mustrating Lieutenant George T Temples Piper om Hydrography Past & Present

eu

a

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.—G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA,

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

The PreEsrpEnt delivered the following Address :—

In order that we may understand the present position of Natural Science upon
the Earth, we must remember that the universe is in itself one great whole, which
includes minds no less than bodies, for thought is as much a phenomenon of what
really exists as motion. But though the universe be but one, man with his limited
powers is unable to treat it as such, but has to push his investigation of Nature
when and where he can. Thus have arisen many sciences which were at first quite
isolated. Their separate condition is a mark of the feebleness of our powers of
investigation. Their gradual convergence, and especially where any complete con-
tact can be established between them, is the mark that our advancing knowledge is
penetrating deeper.

That there are many sciences of Nature, instead of one science of Nature, hasits
relation, then, to human imperfection. But the coalescence of sciences has com~
menced, and is steadily taking place; magnetism is no longer isolated from electri-
city, nor light from heat, nor the power of thinking from the condition of the brain.
In all such cases we have got nearer to understanding what is really going on in
Nature. There are already many such achievements of science ; but, nevertheless,
it remains true that human powers of investigation are so narrow, and the use we
have made of them up to the present is so short of what we may reasonably look
for in the future, that the sciences of Nature are still many, and most of them stand
lamentably aloof from one another.

We find, then, in the present passing condition of our knowledge, one group
of sciences which investigate the phenomena of consciousness; another distinct
group of the biological sciences ; and a third, the group of the physical sciences.
These are all but parts of the one great investigation of Nature, but for the present
they exist almost disconnected, as separate provinces of human inquiry.

When we endeavour to investigate mental phenomena, we are encountered by
the complexity and remoteness of the effects which present themselves for exami-
nation, and by a deep and unpenetrated obscurity hanging over the interval
between them and their causes. In order to make any progress even in the sub-
ordinate task of tracing out the relations of these effects to one another, the inquirer
finds it necessary to venture upon hypothesis, and in all metaphysical speculation
we sadly miss that healthy discipline with which Nature in other branches of
science relentlessly refutes our hypotheses if they are wrong. Here, then, is a
Tregion in which the plausible may be mistaken for the true; and it is unfor-
ica certain that it has sometimes been so mistaken by the ablest human.
minds,

R2

244 REPORT—1879.

The biological sciences treat of all the phenomena of living beings, except
their mental phenomena, which are those which lie most remote from their causes.
Here the complication is less, but it is still too great for the human mind to have
yet penetrated behind it. We are still occupied with phenomena which lie at a
great distance from their real causes. We are accordingly still far beyond the
range of the exact sciences. Most of the great discoveries of biological science
have been made by estimating the general drift of what is taught by a vast num-
ber of particular facts. This, it will be observed, is a kind of reasoning that
is necessarily more or less inexact,’ and, as a consequence, it is one which requires
wide intellectual training and great experience and tact to handle it with safety.
When the investigator has brought these qualifications to his task, astonishing
progress has been made in these sciences: without them the reasoning may degrade
into being either trivial or loose.

In the rest of the study of Nature we are not embarrassed by the phenomena of
life, and many mysteries therefore stand aside out of our path. Here lies the
domain of the physical sciences. It is here that the mind of man has best been
able to cope with the realities of the universe, and in which its greatest achieve-
ments have been effected. It is here that exact reasoning finds a predominant

lace.
i The study of the physical sciences has been remitted by the British Association
to its first two sections, chemistry being assigned to Section B, and the rest of the
physical sciences to Section A. Accordingly, Section A includes the whole range
of mathematics, along with the study of the conditions of rest and motion in that
part of matter which is endowed with mass, and of the phenomena of sound, heat,
light, and electricity, with the applications of these abstract sciences in molecular
physics and to astronomy, crystallography and meteorology.

In meteorology, owing to the complication of the materials that have to be
dealt with, we must have frequent recourse to the same kind of reasoning as has
been found so effectual in the biological sciences ; but in the other physical sciences
which I have enumerated exact reasoning prevails, and on this account they are
frequently classed together as the exact sciences.

The process of investigation in the exact sciences is fundamentally one in all
cases. It has been well described by Mill in the third book of his ‘ Logic.’ Never-
theless, it is notorious that minds which are well fitted for some branches of
physical inquiry find difficulty—sometimes insuperable difficulty—in pursuing
Others. Itis not every eminent mathematician who would have made an equally
good chemist, or vice versd. This is because there exists a practical distinction
separating the investigations of exact science into two well-marked classes when
they are viewed, not as they are in themselves, but in their relation to the powers
of us human beings. I refer to the distinction between the experimental method
or the method of observation, on the one hand ; and the deductive method, or the
method of reasoning, on the other. All valid investigations in exact science appeal
to what can be directly perceived, and all lead to a conclusion which can be
reasoned out from it; but there are some of these investigations in which the main
difficulty consists in making the appeal to the senses, and there are others in which
the main difficulty lies in the process of reasoning.

To contend with these difficulties successfully requires very different qualities
of mind and body. In experimental science the powers. principally called into
requisition are readiness and closeness of observation, dexterity in manipulation,
skill in contriving expedients, accuracy in making adjustments, and great patience.
It also requires that the investigator should have an accurate memory of what else
he has witnessed resembling the phenomenon under observation, that he should be

uick to detect every point of agreement and difference that can be perceived, and
be skilful to select those which are significant, and to employ them as materials
for prevision to guide his further proceedings. But the strain on the reasoning

1 Exeept when the reasoning takes a form in which its strength can be gauged
by the doctrine of probabilities. The most satisfactory instance of this is that
« statistical method ’ which has proved our most searching tool in molecular physics.

7

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 245

powers is generally less, often of trifling amount. The question is put to Nature,
and it is Nature usually that gives the bulk of the answer. The most striking
monument of splendid achievements by the experimental method of investigation
unaided by the deductive method is to be found in the science of chemistry,

An equally typical instance of the power of the deductive method is the science
of mechanics. ‘This science, which has sunk deeper into the secrets of Nature than
any other science, and which is the science towards whom all other physical
sciences are at present more or less gravitating, is essentially deductive. There is
little or no difficulty about its fundamental data. They are facts of Nature so
patent to all men, and so indelibly implanted in human conception, that some
persons have supposed that we have an intuitive perception of them. But, while
the materials from which the mind is to work are thus easily obtained, it has taxed
to the utmost the reasoning powers of understandings like Newton’s to evolve the
few consequences of them which are already known, and the investigator has to
call to his assistance every aid to prolonged consecutive thought which mathe-
maticians can devise.

In grappling with the problems of Nature we are seldom allowed the choice of
the method of investigation we shall employ. This is commonly settled for us and
not by us. Where we cannot advance without further information, we must make
further observations, z.e., we must employ the experimental method, the appeal ad
expertentiam: where we cannot advance without understanding better what the
information we possess really amounts to, we must employ the deductive method.

No reach of intellect applied to the materials in existence before 1860 could
have elicited the fact that iron exists upon the sun. This great discovery was
made by Professor Kirchhoff, a scientific man who was equally versed in both
methods of investigation. On the present occasion it was the experimental method
he employed. He applied to the scrutiny of the sun’s spectrum four prisms of the
most homogeneous glass that could be procured, figured with the greatest accuracy
that the eminent artist Steinheil could attain. He expended far more pains
on their adjustment for each successive part of the spectrum than any of his
predecessors had done, and he was rewarded by a more perfect vision of the sun’s
glorious spectrum than had met the human eye before. In a collateral inquiry,
suggested by an observation made by Foucault, he and Bunsen placed a metallic
vapour emitting bright rays in front of a still brighter incandescent body, so that
the light from the brighter background had to pass through this vapour, and they
found that the vapour now caused dark lines in the spectrum occupying the
positions which its own bright lines had before filled. Professor Kirchhoff there-
upon added an appliance to his spectroscope which enabled him to bring a metallic
spectrum and the solar spectrum together into the field of view, alongside of one
another. On accomplishing this he saw sixty of the brightest of the iron rays as
continuations of sixty of the strongest of the dark lines in the sun’s spectrum ;
and, by an elaborate scrutiny, he satisfied himself that the observations had been
aye to a sufficient degree of exactness to make sure that a deviation would have

een detected in any one of these sixty cases if it had amounted to as much as one-
fourth of the average interval between consecutive lines of the solar spectrum.
From this it was obvious that the sixty coincidences are not due to chance, but
indicate that there is really iron vapour in the path of the rays. It will be observed
that Kirchhoff’s great merit and the real difficulty of his work lay in the scientific
foresight and the industry which were required to frame hypotheses that were
worth testing, to guide the investigation by these hypotheses, to contrive, construct,
and adjust adequate apparatus, and to make with it the elaborate observations and
the exact observations and maps which were necessary. But when by these means
the new facts had been brought to light, the inference from them that there is
iron in the atmosphere of the sun was an easy one. This example will better
convey than a definition what are the characteristic features of an experimental
inquiry. :

On the other hand, no series of observations or experiments, however skilfully
arranged, could have enabled anyone to understand the cause of that familiar but
truly surprising phenomenon that a top stands upon its peg while it is spinning.

246 REPORT—1879.

But a full explanation of it is within the reach of any student who will train his
mind to reason consecutively, and avail himself of the aids to prolonged con-
secutive thought which mathematicians have contrived. He will then see that the
most obvious and familiar mechanical facts involve as necessary consequences all
the phenomena which he finds in the schoolboy’s top, in the physicist’s gyroscope,
and in the precession and nutation of the heavens. This then isa problem of Nature
wuich falls within the province of the deductive method.

Wherever data are known exactly, there inferences from these data however
remote may be depended upon as corresponding with what actually occurs in Nature.
And if in such cases the mind of man has proved equal to the task of drawing
inferences which can effectually grapple with the problems he finds around him in
the -Universe—which is, alas! as yet but too seldom—then will the deductive
method, our plummet, explore depths in the great ocean of existence which our
anchors of experiment could not have reached.

The distinction which is here made between deductive and experimental inyes-
tigations would have no place in a logical system. But it has direct reference to
human convenience, and derives its importance from this circumstance. It is
obvious, too, that an investigation may partake of both characters—that it may
require all the powers of the scientific observer to get at the facts, or even to ap-
preciate them, and all the resources of the mathematician to elicit the consequences
of them. For instance, on beginning his electrical studies, the student of Nature
must master a mixed experimental and deductive inquiry to get at the elementary
fact that free electricity resides either at or outside the surfaces of conductors ;
and he must engage in a further inquiry, and one only within the reach of a trained
mind, to deduce from this the law of the inverse square. And, again, no full
appreciation or even intelligent use of the common electrostatic and electrodynamic
measures which he meets at the threshold of his electrical studies is within the
reach of the mere experimentalist or of the mere theorist. And if this treacherous
ground lies before the immature student at his entrance, what shall we say of the
bogs he struggles into as he advances. We are perpetually meeting with inquiries
of this mixed character in electricity and some of the other physical sciences, but
they are comparatively rare in either mechanics or chemistry, and none that is
difficult lies in the path of the beginner. How many students are there who are
made to slur over the above and a multitude of similar difficulties, and who are
told that they are learning science, when in fact what they are really learning is
the pernicious habit of being content to see Nature through a fog or through other
men’s mental eyes.

In mechanics valuable progress can be made by the mere mathematician, the
student of deductive science; and in chemistry similar progress can be made by the
mere experimentalist. Of all the physical sciences these are the most purely
deductive, and the most purely experimental. What I desire particularly to invite
attention to is that the two great methods of investigation may best be acquired in
these two sciences, and that fora really sound grasp of the remaining physical
sciences, and especially with a view to further advance in physical science, a com-
mand of both methods of investigation is essential. I ought to add, however, that
to confer this inestimable boon on the investigator of Nature, the great science of
mechanics must be studied by him in its own best form, and not degraded by the
vile expedient of evading the legitimate use of the infinitesimal calculus, to
comply, perhaps, with the ill-judged requirements of some examining body ; and
his practical chemistry must be the study of a science, and not a mere accumula-
tion of exercises in a lucrative art.

We must bear in mind, too, that either method of investigation may be mis-
‘applied, and that this is a risk carefully to be guarded against. The deductive
method when misapplied lands us in speculation, the experimental method becomes
empiricism ; and it so happens that the sciences of mechanics and chemistry are not
only monuments of the power of the two great methods: of investigation, but
instructive examples of their weakness also. For in chemistry, scarce any attempt
at prolonged reasoning, carrying us by any lengthened flight to a distance from
the experiments, can be relied on, The result has seldom risen to anything better

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 247

And on the other hand, in mechanics, conclusions which depend
on experiments only are empirical; that is, they are deficient in accuracy, and
their relation to the other phenomena of the science is left in darkness. Here, then,
we find in these two sciences not only how strong these two methods of investiga-
tion are, but how weak they may become if misapplied.

T do not know whether any of my predecessors in this chair have experienced so
much difficulty, or have hesitated so long and so much as I have hesitated in select-
ing the topic to which he would ask your attention. My first effort was an attempt
to delineate the great recent progress of the mathematical and physical sciences, but
it was unsatisfactory, partly from my own too scanty powers, and also because the
variety and even disparity of the numerous sciences somewhat arbitrarily grouped
together in Section A gave to the outline too sketchy a character. My next
attempt was to make a selection among them, confining myself to those with which
I am best acquainted, and endeavouring to direct attention to the problems which
at the present time seem most to stand in need of solution. But here I felt
unwilling either to bring forward or to withhold views which might be disputed. I
then applied myself to the single consideration of what I hoped might prove useful and
not inopportune at a time when one university, which I trust will prove a great uni-
versity, is rising in the north of England, and when another university which has
carefully and successfully fostered a high standard of education for thirty years, and
which has thereby deserved and won the respect of educated men, has just been sacri-
iced to ecclesiasticism in the sister isle. In this university I have held the most central
office for twenty-two years, and in the discharge of my duty had largely to influence
its destiny in respect to almost every educational problem. Parliament in its
wisdom has now seen fit to destroy this work, and I have not heen without hope
that from the experience which has been gained some effect which shall last may
yet arise, and that the Queen’s University may perhaps at its extinction bequeath a
useful legacy to the University of Victoria. The advancement of science in the
north of England will largely depend for many years on the wisdom of the regu-
lations for scientific training which are adopted at first by the new university ; and
I have therefore ventured, at this peculiar juncture, to submit to the judgment
of my scientific brethren the principles which much thought and many trials
extending over several years have led me to believe should guide them in selecting
this part of a curriculum.

_ Thave sought to show that it is in the study of mechanics and in the practice
of chemistry that the two great methods of investigation may best be acquired. In
them they may be studied separately, by steps of graduated difficulty, and with a
superabundance of materials; and each of them supplies the necessary cautions
with respect to the method which is all powerful in the other. No scientific man
‘is really equipped for the pursuits in which both methods have to be employed till
he has separately acquired a grasp of each. For it is only then that he will be
‘armed against the errors which lead so many to mistake empiricism on the one
hand and speculation on the other for solid science, or to underrate solid science
mistaking it for speculation. Nor is it only in his scientific occupations that he
will derive benefit from this training. All exact reasoning, whether in science or
in common life, belongs to these great divisions; and in the numberless instances
4n which we must be satisfied with reasoning which falls short of being exact, our
only safety lies in having by the practice of exact reasoning, both deductive and
experimental, attained to that intellectual tact and caution which alone will enable
us to handle with safety the sharp and slippery tool. It is thus that a sound
judgment with regard to truth may best be acquired by man or woman; and
soundness of judgment is the noblest endowment of man’s understanding, just as

veracity stands first among his virtues.

than speculation.

248 REPORT—1879.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee for commencing Secular Hxperiments upon the
Hlasticity of Wires.—See Reports, p. 33.

2, Report of the Committee for making more Accurate Determinations of the
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.—See Reports, p. 36.

3. On Etherspheres as a Vera Causa of Natwral Philosophy.
By Rev. 8. Harnspaw, VA,

The author of this communication, assuming an admitted parallelism between the-
phenomena of light and heat, proceeds by means of three hitherto overlooked
propositions in natural philosophy to establish the universal existence of what he
has denominated etherspheres, the third of his propositions being—‘ Every atom of
matter in the universe is surrounded by an ethersphere of its own.’ The follow-
ing is the system of nature which he finds sufficient for his purpose :—

1. In nature there are two distinct substances, matter and ether, neither of
which has any power to attract or repel the other.

2. Matter consists of atoms which attract each other with forces varying
according to the Newtonian law (distance),

3. The atoms of bodies of the same kind are alike in all respects; atoms or’
bodies of different kinds differ from each other in size, and possibly also in other
respects, such as shape, &c.

4, Atoms, whether of matter or of ether, are incapable of experiencing any
change of figure or dimensions ; and they are all assumed to be of such geometrical
forms as cannot fill space.

5. From the phenomena of light it has been inferred that atoms of ether repel
each other with a force varying as (distance)—.

6. Every atom of matter is impervious to ether, and acts on ether in no other
way than by pressure of contact.

7. A portion of space filled with matter is recessarily yoid of ether; and all
space void of matter is pervaded by ether.

8, The enormous velocity of light in free space has led to the opinion that
very great must be the repulsive power of ether on ether; and it seems to follow
from this that an ether atom will experience great difficulty in moving from one:
part of the ethereal medium to another, Except as waves and currents ether
motion will be under great restraints, and especially shall we see this when we
also remember the high power (*) of its inverse law of force.

9. In free space light is believed to be transmitted with the same velocity in
oe direction, and from this we infer that the atoms of ether are all spherical
in form,

The following is the author's definition of an ethersphere :—

All space not filled by matter is pervaded by ether, so that every atom of mat-.
ter is surrounded by ether, but this is not what is included in the word ‘ ethersphere.”
The author shows that if any portion of space be rendered void of ether from any-
cause whatever, that space has become void of the repulsive forces which were:
centred within it, and that, consequently, when these forces are taken away the
medium outside the space will draw closer towards that space; and if the space
be occupied by an atom of matter, the density of the surrounding ether will be
greater than before, and the ether, being in contact with the atom at its surface,
will press upon it. This excess of ether about the vacant space above its original
quantity constitutes the ethersphere; and though this gathering together of ether

ae

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 249

about the space now occupied by the atom is a consequence of the presence of
the atom, it is in no way owing to its action on the ethereal medium.

The author then argues that if every material atom, so must every compound
system of atoms, 7.e., every material body, whether gaseous, liquid, or solid, have
an ethersphere, which not only surrounds the whole body, but also penetrates tne
interstitial spaces of the body which lie between its atoms.

By means of these etherspheres the author believes the phenomena of heat

may be satisfactorily accounted for, on the supposition that the ethereal medium is

the medium of heat as well as of light. They are shown in the original memoir
itself to have a remarkable bearing also on the phenomena of magnetism, electricity,
galyanism, and the various sciences connected with the agency of imponderables.
He therefore concludes that etherspheres constitute a vera causa the existence of
which in nature is as certain as is that of the ethereal medium itself, about which
no philosopher expresses doubt in the present day.

4, On some New Instruments recently constructed for the continuation of
researches on Specific Inductive Capacity. By J. KE. H. Gorvoy, B.A.,
Assistant Secretary of the British Association.

Mr. Gordon exhibited and explained the following new instruments which he
has arranged during the last year :—

(1) A minature five-plate induction balance, similar in principle to the large
balance exhibited at the Dublin meeting, but intended for the examination of crystals:
and other precious substances which cannot be obtained in sufficiently large quan-
tities for the large balance. :

The large balance requires the dielectric plates to be 7 inches square and } to
8 inch thick. for the small balance it is sufficient to make them 2 inches square
and 4 inch thick.

ts} A gauge for measuring the thickness of the dielectric plates to =4,; inch.

3) A new form of quadrant electrometer for use with the small induction

balance.

The capacity of the smaller plates of the little induction balance is so minute
that when they are attached to the quadrants of the electrometer of ordinary con-~
struction (Elliott pattern) disturbances in them produce hardly any effect on the
needle, on account of the much greater capacity of the quadrants of the electrometer.

In order to construct an electrometer whose quadrants should have very small
capacity, and which should yet be very sensitive, the author has arranged the
of as pieces of a flat disc, only one inch in diameter, and the needle has been

mt round them so as to be acted on by both their upper and lower surfaces and
their outside edge.

(4) A new rapid commutator. =

This was invented by Professor Cornu, of the Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, who
had the great kindness to devise it for the author of this paper, who, when M.
Cornu took up the matter, had just constructed three different instruments for the
experiments for which this one is intended, all of which had proved unsuccessful.

Some preliminary experiments with M. Cornu’s instrument have shown that it
promises to be entirely satisfactory. It can be used with either the large or small
induction balance on the one hand, and with a Holtz machine or battery of 500 or
more cells on the other. It reverses the electrification of the plates of the balance
eighteen times per second, and between each reversal, short circuits, and puts.
to earth both poles of the induction balance and both poles of the battery. By
altering two screws it can be arranged to short circuit and put to earth the poles.
of the induction balance only, and to insulate the battery poles.

(5) Driving-wheel for the Cornu commutator,

All the instruments have been constructed by Mr. Kieser of the firm of
Elliott Brothers,

250 REPORT—1879.

5. On Secular Changes in the Specific Inductive Capacity of Glass. By
J. E. H. Gorvon, B.A., Assistant Secretary of the British Association.

At Christmas 1877 I made some determinations of the specific inductive capacity
of optical glass by a method which has already been fully described both before
this section and elsewhere."

At the end of July 1879 I commenced a repetition of the experiments, using
the same slabs of glass, and was surprised to find a large increase in the specific
inductive capacity in every case. In some cases the increase was as much as
twenty per cent.

The following is a table of the results :—

Specific Inductive Capacity of Optical Glass.

Christmas, 1877 July and August, 1879
Double extra dense flint. . . . 3°164 3-838
Hxtra dense flint - . . . =. . 3°053 3°621
den fimbaeiset as i. Fiske bth eal 3-013 3-443
Hardicrowniw dati. me ou tll). 3°108 3310

The arrangement of the apparatus, including the coil and rapid break, was
precisely the same as in my earlier experiments. The electromotive force was as
nearly as possible the same, and experiment has shown that moderate variations
in it do not affect the results.

The differences observed might have been caused by any one of three things :—

(1) By error in the 1879 experiments ;

(2) By error in the 1877 experiments ;

(3) By a change in the specific inductive capacity of the glass between
‘Christmas 1877 and July 1879.

Careful repetition of the 1879 experiments has conyinced me that there is no
error in them.

If the difference is caused by error in the 1877 experiments, then in 1877 I
must have obtained too low a result. With my induction balance the effect of
covering the dielectric with a well-conducting film is to prevent observation ; the
effect of covering it with a badly-conducting film is to give too low a result.

Before rejecting the second explanation of the difference, based on the hypothesis
of error in the 1877 experiments, it is therefore necessary to prove that in 1877
there was no film on the surface of the glass of sufficient conducting power to
cause a large error in the results.

In 1877 the glasses were not washed by immersion in water, but were
thoroughly cleaned with a glass-cloth and wash-leather. To the best of my recol-
lection they were first rubbed with a damp cloth, then with a dry one, and then
polished with the leather, being frequently breathed on during the process, and
then usually warmed at the fire. This process was so far efficacious in removing
any conducting film of moisture from the glasses, that at the end of it they were
usually found to be electrified by the friction of the leather. When this occurred

_ they were passed rapidly a few times over the flame of a spirit-lamp to discharge
‘them. They were always so warm that any visible moisture deposited by the
‘spirit-lamp disappeared instantly.

In the 1879 experiments, which are quoted in the preceding table, the glasses

1 Report Brit. Assoc., 1878; Proc. Roy. Soc., 191, 1878; Phil. Trans., 1879;
Four Lectures on Electric Induction, delivered at the Royal Institution (Sampson
Low & Co.), 1879.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 251

vere washed in hot water, wiped and polished, and passed over the spirit-lamp
while still hot. After observing a difference in the first two specimens examined, I
made preliminary experiments on the other two before cleaning them. The follow-
ing are the results obtained :
f HARD CROWN GLASS.

‘ S.LC.
Christmas 1877 . ‘ . : - fs 4 : : 5 : . 3108
August 7, 1879.—Not wiped for more than a year ; placed in balance covered
with dust exactly as taken from box, which does not shut airtight . 3°236
August 8,—Cleaned in hot water, as described above . * , . 3°310
LIGHT FLINT GLASS.
S.LC.
Christmas 1877 . . : : é 2 - - . . . . » 301
August 4, 1879.—Dusted lightly with duster, not rubbed . : : . » 2:90
August 4.—Cleaned in hot water, experimented on while hot . , : » 344
August 4.—Cooled under tap, wiped with glass cloth = - . . 344
August 5.—Had stood twenty-four hours uncovered on table, not wiped . . 3:39
August 5.—Smeared all over with oil ‘ 7 5 : . : - 348
August 5.—Smoked on oily surface over paraffin lamp, so as to make glass
semi-opaque. . 5 . ; : = : 4 3 : - . 346
August 5.—Glass made very wet with solution of sal-ammoniac . Experiment
impossible

August 5.—Roughly dried with duster; surface appeared opaque, like ground 3
lass. : . : . 5 . . . . . . . » 16
eeu 5.—Wiped over with glass-cloth, but not rubbed . 5 : . . 2°36
August 5.—Rinsed under cold tap, and wiped with glass-cloth, but not polished 3°46
August 5.—While still cold, passed over spirit-lamp till much more clouded
than ever would be the case in actual work; placed in balance, and
experiment made as quickly as possible , . : . : . . 348

My conclusion from the above numbers is, that although it is possible by
sufficiently wetting the surface of the plate to produce any apparent reduction of
the specific inductive capacity, yet that even if very much less care had been taken
‘to clean the plates than was taken in 1877, the greatest quantity of moisture that
could accidentally have been left on them would have been totally incapable of
producing anything like the difference now under examination.

I am therefore led to the conclusion that in the course of a year and a half an
actual change has taken place in the glasses, which is shown by a considerable real
increase in their specific inductive capacities. To complete our knowledge of this
new phenomenon we require a series of monthly observations, extended over
perhaps a period of several years. I shall hope to be able to give the results of
another year’s experiments at the next meeting of the Association.

These experiments have some importance as regards Professor Clerk Maxwell’s
electro-magnetic theory of light. In a recent lecture’ I ventured to suggest ‘ that
it is quite possible that the relation between electric induction and light exists—
namely, that they are disturbances of the same ether, but that there is some un-
known disturbing cause affecting the electric induction.’

Possibly a clue to the nature of this disturbing cause may be found in the fact,
that the specific inductive capacities are affected by some of the changes which
chemists tell us are constantly going on in glasses, but that these changes do not
affect the refractive indices.

6. On the Cause of Bright Lines in the Spectra of Comets.
By G. Jounstone Sronzy, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA.

Dr. Huggins and other observers have seen the bright lines of some compound
of carbon in the spectra of several comets. This establishes the fact that a com-
pound of carbon is present in the comets. It is always assumed in what has been

1 Royal Institution, February 6, 1879.

252 REPORT— 1879.

hitherto written on this subject that the vapour which has thus been detected is:
incandescent because it emits these bright lines.

The author of the present communication wishes to put forward an alternative:
hypothesis, which he believes to be entitled to much weight. It is that these lines
are due to the sun’s light falling upon the compound of carbon, and rendering it visible:
in the same way that light renders other opaque objects visible, the vapour being
opaque in reference to the particular rays which appear as bright lines in its spectrum,

An opaque body is visible in the presence of a luminary from three causes—
because of such a scattering of the incident light as takes place when a transparent
body is reduced to powder; because of the reflection of light from its surface if of
sufficient extent and sufficiently smooth ; and because of phosphorescence. Bequerel
has shown that phosphorescence contributes to render objects visible in a vast
number of instances, and it is this which seems to produce the effect in the case.
now under consideration.

Phosphorescence consists in the exaltation of such molecular motions by radiant
heat as are unable readily to communicate their superfluous energy to the other
kinds of motion which are going on in or among the molecules. The motions.
within the molecules of gases stand in this predicament if the intervals between
the encounters of the molecules are sufficiently long. Now in comets, on account
of their small mass, the vapour must be excessively attenuated, and these intervals
must be proportionately long. Hence the conditions are such as will eminently
promote phosphorescence, and therefore visibility, in the presence of a luminary.

7. Sur le Maximum d’Intensité du Spectre Photographique Solaire. Par
le Dr. J. Janssen, de l'Institut de France, Directeur de V Observatoire
de Meudon.

Cette communication est la suite des recherches sur ce sujet, et qui remontent 4
1874, Des cette 6poque j’avais reconnu que le spectre solaire présentait un
maximum d’intensité situé au dela de F vers le violet.

Depuis 4 diverses reprisés j’ai communiqué le résultat de ces recherches, qui ont
été fréquemment interrompues. (Voir les notices de ‘L’Annuaire du Bureau des
Longitudes, 1878, 1879, et le ‘ Report of British Association, 1878.)

Les parties nouvelles de ce travail concernent l’examen des diverses substances
photographiques et des divers milieux optiques, et surtout l’emploi d’une nouvelle
méthode d’étude du spectre par la variation du temps de pose et que je propose de
nommer analyse chronométrique du spectre.

Méthode d’ Analyse Chronométrique du Spectre.—Cette méthode consiste 4 faire
passer devant la fente d’un appareil 4 photographier le spectre, et pendant la pose un
écran en forme de triangle, qui, par le progrés de son mouvement, vient masquer
successivement les diverses parties du spectre dans le sens de sa hauteur ; en sorte
que si l’on considére deux lignes ou bandes brillantes du spectre ces lignes prendront
dans la photographie des longueurs en rapport avec leurs intensités lumineuses.

En effet si on considére le spectre dans un sens perpendiculaire a celui de ses.
lignes spectrales ou de la fente, on reconnaitra que les points dans cette direction
recoivent une pose égale, que cette pose est au contraire de plus en plus grande &
mesure qu’on marche dans le sens perpendiculaire dans la direction des raies et
vers les parties que l’écran triangulaire couvrira les derniéres.

Le mouvement de l’écran triangulaire est donné par un rouage d’horlogerie et
doit pouvoir prendre des vitesses variables.

L’écran triangulaire rectiligne peut étre remplacé par un triangle dont ’hypo-
thénuse est une courbe de forme déterminée pour produire une pose variant suivant
une loi déterminée.*

1 Cette méthode permet de mettre en évidence et de mesurer les intensités.
photographiques des divers points des spectres par la considération des longueurs.
des lignes ou bandes dans leurs images photographiques. Elle pourra étre
spécialement employé a la question de la présence des lignes brillantes de l’oxygéne
dans le spectre solaire.

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 253

Maximum du Spectre. Expériences.—Les études qui ont mis en évidence ce
maximum sont les suivantes :—
On a employé des spectrographes formés avec prismes et lentilles de quartz, de

spath d’Islande, de crown, de flint, et aussi des réseaux pour produire le spectre.

Les substances photographiques employés sont les collodions aux iodures et
bromures de potassium, sodium, ammonium, zinc, cadmium. Ces substances ont
6té essayées soit isolément soit associées.

Pour la pose: on s’est procuré relativement 4 chaque disposition d’expérience
une série de spectres depuis cinq minutes de pose jusqu’a une fraction de seconde,

On a aussi employé la méthode des écrans & marches et la méthode chronométrique
décrite plus haut.

Résultats —Ces études ont conduit 4 reconnaitre qu'il existe un maximum
daction dans le spectre solaire.

Ce maximum est situé prés de G.

Tl est un peu variable d’étendue avec les substances photographiques; les
bromures lui donnent plus d’étendue que Jes iodures.

Il est toujours trés limité, et pour des poses courtes et bien déterminées il se
traduit par une étroite bande prés de G.

Certains flints le réduisent encore, et il devient presque une ligne.

Ces conclusions ne visent que les conditions expérimentales décrites.

Conséquences.—L’existence d'un maximum trés-limité dans le spectre photo-
graphique du soleil conduit 4 des conséquences dont on 6numére ici quelques-unes.

1. Elle montre qu’on peut obtenir de bonnes photographies du soleil avec des
lentilles simples, si elles ont un long foyer et si elles sont formées avec un flint
donnant le maximum trés-limité dont nous avons parlé.

2. Elle explique comment il a été possible d’obtenir par la photographie des
images de la surface solaires donnant des détails et révélant des phénoménes que les
lunettes ne peuvent montrer, car Yachromatisme photographique peut étre
beaucoup plus parfait que l’achromatisme oculaire. Il y a aussi 4 tenir compte du
temps de pose de ces images, qui est d’environ 545 de seconde, ce qui empéche
Yaction des perturbations atmosphériques.

On comprend en outre l'importance de la découverte de ce maximum pour la
construction des objectifs et appareils optiques de la photographie. On devra y
avoir égard dans la recherche de l’achromatisme des objectifs si l’on veut avoir une
trés grande perfection.

8. On the Changes of Volume in Iron when passing from the Liquid to the

Solid State, and on an Instrument for observing the same. By
T. Wricutson, Memb. Inst. C.E., F.G.S.—See Section G., p. 506.

9. On the Isophotal Binocular Microscope. By Samurt Howes.

10. Some Observations on Generic Images. By W. Cave Tuomas, F.S.S.

At the first Art Congress held in Antwerp many years since, in propounding
the theory, that the average or mean form, was, according to probability and expe-
rience, the fittest form of the species, and in man the form of beauty, I attempted
to demonstrate the truth of the theory by experiment, though with very imperfect

appliances. I again alluded to the matter in one of my earliest published works,

*The Science of Mcderation, and expressed my conviction that the demonstration
would be more completely effected at some future time, as appears to have been
done by Mr. Francis Galton in his ‘ Composite Photography.’

The rationale of such experiments is simply this, that we perform a mechanical
averaging. Instead of any one object being presented to our gaze, we have a mean

image, in which proportions of excess and defect have mutually neutralised each
other. It is true that in photography the process is very limited; it can deal but

254 REPORT—1879.

with a few individuals, but on that sensitive surface, the retina, a vast range of
individual images of the same species may be impressed, but as excesses and defects
neutralise each other, the mean or average image is most forcibly impressed on the
mind, and that image constitutes our ideal. We arrive at the idea of beauty in
precisely the same way that we arrive by a series of observations at the true place
of astar. But it is not necessary, in order to illustrate the mental process by a
mechanical process, that we should photograph human beings. We may take
geometrical forms, such for instance, as the genus ellipse, whose transverse and
conjugate axes may vary between the limits of 1: land1:0, The diameters of
the mean ellipse, parallelogram rhombus, and oviform are as 1: 2, a proportion in
these figures which has been a favourite one through the ages. The genus ellipse
may be divided into species, any one of which may be experimented with, for
instance the species lying within the limits of 1 : 13 to 1:14,or of 1: 1} tol: 2, &e.
I propose to photograph the impression which such figures would make through
an aperture in a revolving disc.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee fur Procuring Reports on the Progress of
Mathematics and Physics.—See Reports, p. 37.

2. Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature.
See Reports, p. 40.

3. Report of the Committee on Atmospheric Electricity at Madeira.
See Reports, p. 63.

4. On the Retardation of Phase of Vibrations transmitted by the Telephone.
By Professor Smvanus P. Tuomeson, B.A., D.Sc.

It was predicted from theoretical considerations by Dubois-Raymond that a dif-
ference of phase, amounting to a quarter of a complete vibration, would be found
to exist between the diaphragms of two associated Bell telephones, the receiving
telephone being a quarter of a vibration behind the transmitter. A more complete
theory, worked out independently by Helmholtz and Weber, gave a somewhat
contradictory result, and required only a small difference of phase. Recently Konig,
in a series of delicate experiments, effected an optical comparison by the method of
Lissajons of the vibrations of a pair of telephones, replacing the vibrating discs by
tuning-forks armed with mirrors. The experiment is a delicate one, and is per-
formed under conditions not free from objection. The author has proposed the
following method of observing. A pair of Bell telephones are suspended by wires
of about a metre in length, so as to oscillate as pendulums, to frames so disposed
as to avoid the possibility of any mechanical transmission of the vibrations. Below
the point of rest of each telephone, and at some little distance from it in the plane
of its swinging, is placed a steel magnet. After the lengths of the wires have been
so adjusted that the telephones will swing in identical periods, one telephone is set
swinging. As it alternately approaches and recedes from the magnet, the induced

A ee an

EE? ee er er eee ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 255

currents traversing the second telephone set it swinging. In every case the differ-
ence of phase observed amounted to one quarter.

In the case of those telephones which transmit vibrations by varying the resist-
ance of the circuit, instead of varying the electromotive force, there is no such
retardation of phase produced in the ordinary electromagnetic receiver. If, how-
ever, the current so transmitted is first passed through an induction coil, a re-
tardation of phase of one quarter is produced, and in the case of several successive
inductions the retardation amounts to an additional quarter for every additional
induction. This remark applies only to vibrations of harmonic and quasi-harmonic
type. Vowel sounds, which consist of compound harmonic vibrations, are un-
changed to the perception of the single ear, which is unable to distinguish differ-
ences of phase, or between compound sounds which differ from one another only
in the difference of phase of their components. The vibrations of consonantal
sounds, on the contrary, depart more and more widely from their original type at
each successive induction.

In the case of Edison’s motographic or electro-chemical receiver, the velocities,
not the displacement of the disc, are proportional to the strength of the currents
received. Hence vibrations already retarded one quarter in transmission, as is the
case with those of the carbon transmitter in conjunction with its induction coil,
always used with this instrument, are restored to their primitive phase, The
vibrations of this receiver therefore agree in type, not with the vibrations of the
induction current (which correspond to the derived function of those of the original
vibration), but with those corresponding to the function of which the vibrations
of the induction current are the derivate; that is to say, they agree in type with

‘the primitive vibrations of whatever form. Hence in the receiving telephone of

Edison consonantal sounds which depart widely from the purely harmonic type
are better rendered than in a telephone which like that of Bell both retards the
vibrations in phase and alters them in type.

5. The Pseudophone. By Professor Sirvanus P. THompson, B.A., D.Sc.

The pseudophone is an instrument whose object is to illustrate the laws of the
acoustic perception of space by the illusions it produces, just as the pseudoscope
of Wheatstone illustrates the laws of the optical perception of space by the ocular
illusions it produces.

The pseudophone consists of certain adjustable reflectors which can be at-
tached to the head, and which perform the functions of the natural pinne in
ordinary hearing. According to Steinhauser’s theory of Binaural Hearing, the
acoustic perception of space depends upon the relative intensity with which a
sound-wave is received into the two ears, this again depending on the conforma-
tion and position of the head. Though in general true for many sounds, this
theory fails to account for certain observed facts in the perception of sound, and
fails in so far as it neglects differences of phase and of pitch.

Experiments made with the pseudophone indicate the direction in which Stein-
hauser’s theory requires modification.

6. On the Tension of Vapours near Curved Surfaces of their Liquids.
By G. F. Firzgera.p.

The paper is intended to give a physical explanation of the fact that the tension
of a vapour in contact with the surface of its liquid when that surface is convex or
concave is greater or less respectively than when flat. It rests upon the assumption
that evaporation is not merely superficial, but that molecules are emitted from a
certain depth beneath the surface of a liquid. From this it follows that the
chances of escape of a molecule from a given depth below a convex surface are
greater, and from below a concave one less, than from a flat one. Taking the depth

256 REPORT—1 879.

from which emission takes place as very small compared with the radii of curvature
of the surface, I have deduced the same formula for the increase or diminution of
tension as Sir W. Thomson deduced from capillary phenomena.

7. On the Curve of Polarisation Stress, as determined by Mr. Crookes’s
Measures with the Radiometer. By G. Jounsrone Stonzy, M.A.,
F'R.S., MBDA.

Mr. Crookes has published in his Bakerian lecture (‘ Philosophical Transactions,’

1878, pp: 800 and 301) a table and curve representing v, the number of revolutions

r minute of a radiometer at different tensions of the residual gas when influenced

y a candle three inches off. And at pp. 313 to 316 he gives similar values and the

curve for p, the coefficient of viscosity of the residual gas at low tensions. From

these observations we may obtain information with regard to the polarisation stress
which caused the motion.

The observations of vy were made when the radiometer had attained a constant
velocity, from which it follows that the retarding forces then balanced the impelling
force, and were therefore a measure of it. Now the retarding forces were three:
the friction on the peg, an approximately constant force which may be represented
by a; the resistance from viscosity, which may be represented by buv (6 being
another constant), and the force required to drive the residual air out of the path of
the advancing vanes, which may be represented approximately by cPv’, ¢ being
another constant and P the tension. Hence the polarisation stress

=a + buv + cPo’,

the second and third terms of which can be deduced from Mr. Crookes’s curves, and
separately plotted down. pv will then furnish a curve resembling Mr. Orookes's
curve of velocity in its general shape, but with its maximum at a higher tension,
Pv? gives a somewhat similar curve, also with a maximum at a higher tension than
Mr. Crookes’s curve. ‘he friction of the peg will obviously furnish a horizontal
line. We do not know the coefficients a, b, and ec, but can perceive that the curve
representing the impelling force, z.e., the polarisation stress (whose ordinates will be
the sum of the ordinates of the foregoing curves, multiplied respectively by the coeffi-
cients a, 6, c), must have a form somewhat resembling Mr. Crookes’s velocity curve,
the chief difference to be noted being that the maximum stress occurs at a higher
‘tension than the maximum velocity.

The form of the curve thus deduced from the observations is in harmony with
the approximate curve which results from the theory of polarisation stress put
forward by the author of the present communication (see ‘Scientific Transactions of
the Royal Society of Dublin, New Series, vol. i.; or ‘Philosophical Magazine,’ for
December, 1878). It is also consistent with the complete expansions for the polari-
‘sation stress given in the next communication.

8. On Complete Expansions for the Conduction of Heat and the Polarisation
Stress in Gases. By G. Jounstone Stonny, M.A., F.R.S., MRA.

Clausius obtained for the flow or conduction of heat across a layer of gas, the

expression,
MI
=i V3
G=28 nn f 1% dy,

and by the extension of Clausius’s investigation, which Mr. George F. Fitzgerald
suggested in a letter to ‘ Nature’, the present author obtained for the accompany-

ing polarisation stress, the expression,

4-1
K= pn ft IV2(3n2—1)dp.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 257

These expressions cannot be integrated, since we are ignorant of the laws
according to which V%, V*, and I are distributed round the origin. But the form
of the series which will express them can be obtained on the hypotheses that the
gas is perfect, and that G and K are capable of being expanded in integer powers

of rr The expressions which result are
iy
VvoM.G
PVT
5 = AU? + BUS 4 he, (| Caceres 7)

=AU+BU8+&. . . . . (J)

AAW? 4 BYWE+ be ee te (eo)
Lo VoM.G
where U stands for ae — and W stands for Pye the coefficients A, B,

&c., being numerical quantities, the same in all‘ perfect’ gases, which remain to be
determined by experiment. In these equations G is the flow of heat, K the polari-

sation stress, P the tension of the residual gas, T its temperature, da the rate at

which the temperature decreases across the layer, T, and P, standard temperature
and pressure, e, the mean free path of the molecules at standard temperature and

pressure, o the specific gravity of the gas compared with a standard gas (say
hydrogen), and M a standard mass (say one gramme).

The method by which the foregoing expansions were obtained is believed to be
new. The expressions for G and K must be compatible with any change in the
gas which is consistent with its continuing a ‘ perfect’ gas, Accordingly a succes-
sion of such changes was conceived as happening, and the forms under which
P,o,T,e, must enter were thereby successively determined, the final determina-
tion being made by the condition of homogeneity.

The first term of expansion (1) is the approximate expression which Clausius
found for the flow of heat; and the first term of expansion (3) is the approximate
expression which the author of the present communication found for the polarisa~
tion stress. Acccordingly the approximate expressions which had before been
known prove to be the first terms of the complete expansions.

9. On the Action of Magnets on Liquid Jets.
By Professor Srrvanus P. Tuompson, B.A., D.Sc.

In studying the phenomena of the voltaic arc, the author has been led to inquire
into the actions produced by magnets upon movable conductors, such as jointed
wires, flexible metallic leaves, liquid conductors, gases in high rarefaction, flames,
and liquid jets, traversed by currents.

Nearly all the phenomena of rotations and translations due to electrodynamic
and electromagnetic attraction or repulsion have been demonstrated to hold good
for liquid conductors, both those which possess metallic conductivity and those
which possess only electrolytic conductivity. Davy, Casselmann, and Walker haye
shown the electric arc to behave as a mobile conductor. Pliicker and De la Rive,
and more recently Crookes, have observed the existence of these electro-dynamic
actions on the luminous discharges in highly rarefied media, and which appear to
be electric convection currents rather than electric currents proper.

The author has examined the case of liquid veins, both of dilute acid and of
mercury traversed by currents, and finds that these, when subjected to the action of
powerful magnets, exhibit analogous motions of translation, rotation, &e. Thus a
liquid vein carrying a current between the poles of a horizontal horseshoe electro-
magnet no longer falls straight but is thrust aside and falls down an inverted curve.
A vein falling in front of the pole of a vertical magnet is likewise drawn aside,

1879. 8

258 REPORT—1879.

tending to become parallel to the hypothetical Ampérian currents, and to rotate in
an opposed sense around the pole. Further, a liquid vein carrying a current falling
upon the pointed pole of a vertical magnet is twisted, the sense of the torsion depend-
ing on the direction of the current and the polarity of the magnet. The author has
also essayed to extend his observations to the case of liquid jets which break in the
air, and which, therefore, cannot carry electric currents proper, but only electric
convection currents, and the results obtained, though not yet completed, dispose
him to include in this set of phenomena the so-called diamagnetism of flames and
of jets of smoke and steam.

10. On a Hypothesis concerning the Ether in connection with Maawell’s
Theory of Hiectricity. By Dr. O. J. Lopes.

11, On a New Electrometer Key.! Dr. O. J. Lopae.

12, On Improvements in Dynamo-LElectric Machines.
By W. Lavon, F.R.A.S.

My object in this communication is to describe in a few words the peculiarities
and improvements in the construction of Weston’s dynamo-electric machine.

The field magnets are composed of iron plates placed side by side in a mould,
but separated a uniform distance from each other. The iron magnets on which
the wire is to be wound are cast on to ‘lugs’ or projections on the ends of the
plates. The two cast-iron ends and uniting plates form one magnet. The upper
and lower magnets are alike, and when joined together by the perforated vertical
supports, the inner curved edges of the field plates embrace about two-thirds of
the circle in which the armature is made to revolve. The armature is built up
of plates which are somewhat like a cogged-wheel in shape. These are stamped
out of sheet iron, and when mounted on the shaft are separated from each other at a
uniform distance. The radial projections are then arranged in lines, so that the
whole forms a very broad cogged-wheel or cylindrical structure, having longitudinal
grooves with transverse spaces at regular distances. The longitudinal grooves are
for carrying the wire, and it will be observed from the nature of the structure that
the wire lies in channels three sides of which are iron, so that the mutual effect
upon each other is increased as much as possible.

The ends of the wires are connected to the field magnets and commutator in
much the usual way, the currents travelling in one direction only. The commu-
tator is fitted on a portion of the shaft which projects beyond the bearings; this
admits of its easy removal and a new one being replaced in three minutes.

Another important feature in the construction is the arrangement for ventila-
tion. The separation between the pole plates of the field magnets, the perforations
in the vertical supports of the magnets, and the light framework of the armature,
are all for this purpose. The air enters the centre of the armature and is driven
out between the layers of wire through the spaces formed by the separated plates
of the armature and the field magnets, and thus prevents any part from becoming
unduly heated.

Machines of this description are made of various sizes and strengths, and give
from one to sixteen lights in single circuit,

1 The instrument was exhibited,

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 259

13. On Lightning Protectors for Telegraphic Apparatus,
By Witu1amM Henry Preece, Electrician, General Post-Office.

For many years it was not the practice in England to protect telegraphic
apparatus from the injurious effects of atmospheric electricity, because the damage
done was so insignificant, and because the remedy was found to be worse than the
disease.

But as telegraph systems increased, as the country became enveloped in one vast
network of wires, it was found that the damage done became considerable, until, in
fact, about 10 per cent. of the apparatus in use was in one year damaged.

Lightning protectors then became essential. Many forms were tried, based on
the fact that when a discharge takes place through a non-conductor, such as dry
air, at the moment of discharge the resistance along the line of discharge is
practically nothing, and therefore all the charge is conducted away. According to

Faraday, ‘the ultimate effect is exactly as if a metallic wire had been put into the
Place of the discharging particles’ (Researches, Series xii. 1406). Most of those
tried failed.

The survival of the fittest has been exemplified in the ‘ plate’ protector, In this
form—one of the earliest introduced—one thick plate of brass is in connection with
the earth, and another similar plate in connection with the line is placed above it,
but separated from it by paper, or by insulating washers, The lightning, entering

82

260 REPORT—1879.

the wire, bursts across the paper or air space in preference to passing through the
apparatus, and thus escapes to earth.

An important modification of this plate-discharger has been made by Dr. Werner
Siemens, who, by serrating or grooving with a pointed tool the opposing faces of
the two plates at right angles to each other, converted them into a conductor, which
was supposed to be one composed of an infinite number of opposing points. The
remarkable action of points in facilitating discharge is well known, and their intro-
duction into lightning protectors occurred very early in the annals of telegraphy,
by Mr. C. V. Walker, F.R.S.

Messrs. Siemens’ arrangement, very pretty in theory, never carried conviction of
its value in the mind of the author, because protectors so prepared never singled
themselves out as evidently superior to others that were not so prepared ; and while
the intersection of the grooves certainly formed mathematical points, they did not
form physical or mechanical points, and it is upon the action of this latter kind of
point that such remarkable electrical effects are produced.

Dr. Warren De La Rue haying very kindly placed his well-lnown battery of
11,000 cells at the disposal of the writer, he prepared four plate protectors, identical
in dimensions, excepting that two were serrated and two were not. The two plates
were separated from each other by narrow ebonite washers, ‘01 inch thick. The
upper plate was placed in connection with the positive pole, and the lower plate
with the negative pole. The number of cells was increased until a continuous.
current of electricity flowed.

1. PLAIN PLATES.

No. of Cells. Effect Produced.
1,000 . A Slight sparks just commencing on completing circuit.
1,080 . : Sparks evident.
1,200 . - Sparks frequent and abundant.
1,500 . Continuous are.

2. SERRATED PLATES.

No. of Cells. Effect Produced.
1,000 . : Sparks just commencing on making contact.
1,080 . 5 Sparks evident.
1,200. ; Sparks frequent.

1,500 . - Continuous are, but fitful.

2,000 cells in each produced a continuous stream of electricity. The effect with
1,500 cells was decidedly more marked with the plain plates than with those
serrated. The experiments were extremely pretty, and very decided in their
character.

Hence it appears that grooving is not only of no use, but that it rather deteri-
orates the value of the protector.

These experiments confirm very decidedly the accuracy of the fizures obtained
by Dr. Warren De La Rue and Mr. Miiller on the striking distance between two flat
discs given by them in their paper read before the Royal Society (Phil. Trans., vol.
169, 1877), where it was shown that 1,200 cells struck across ‘012 inch. Here 1,000
cells struck across ‘01 inch, which agrees perfectly with the curve produced by
those observers.

It is the practice in the Post-Office Telegraph Department to keep these plates.
apart by thin paraffined paper, ‘002 inch thick, so that the air-space is really much
thinner than that experimented upon, and the striking difference of potential only
250 volts.

Messrs. De La Rue and Miiller have shown that for points and various kinds of
surfaces opposed to each other plain surfaces act the best for potentials less than
1,500 volts, and that points are only efficient for high potentials. Now, as it is
doubtful whether atmospheric electricity causes much higher potential in telegraph
wires than 1,000 volts, it is clear that plain surfaces are the most effective for
protecting apparatus. It is quite certain that such plates, plain and smooth,

Pre ee ee EQ

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 261

separated by an air-space ‘002 inch thick, will form very efficient lightning pro-
tectors. _

The author is very much indebted to Dr. Warren De La Rue for the performance
of the experiments in his laboratory.

SATURDAY, AUGUSY 23, 1879.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee for calculating Tables of the Fundamental
Inwariants of Algebraic Forms.—See Reports, p. 66.

2. Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables.
See Reports, p. 46.

3. On some Problems in the Conduction of Electricity.
By A. J. C. Auten, B.A., Scholar of Peterhouse.

The principal object of this paper is to solve the problem of the conduction of
electricity in a spherical current sheet, the electricity being introduced and carried
off from the sheet at any number of points, called electrodes; and also to do the
same for certain finite portions of a spherical sheet, bounded either by current or
equipotential lines, the motion being in all cases steady.

The method of doing this is summed up in the following theories :—

Let v’=w (2” 6’) be the potential at any point (7” 6’) of a plane conducting
sheet of any conducting isotropic material and any infinitely small thickness, the
sheet being bounded by the curve

FO N=6
the boundary being either a current or equipotential line, or partly the one and
partly the other, and there being electrodes of strengths £, F,...at points 7’, 6’,,
1”, 0,...subject only to the condition = H=o: then if we take a portion of a
spherical sheet of radius a of the same material and thickness, bounded by the
curve

6
f (a tan 9 p)=C
(6 } being the ordinary polar currents on the sphere), and place electrodes of strengths
L, £,...at points 0, ,, 6, p2...where $,=6',, a tan war , &e., the potential at

any point will be v=» (a tan ks dp), the boundary on the sphere being a current

_ Or equipotential line, according to the nature of that in the plane.

his theorem is then applied to deducing solutions for a number of finite
areas on the sphere. The case of one source and an equal sink on a complete sphere

_ is discussed in detail, and the current and equipotential lines shown to be two sys-

tems of small circles.

A similar theorem, though not quite so universal in its application, is shown
to hold for a sheet in the shape of a circular cylinder.

The paper concludes with a solution in singly infinite series of the problem of the
conduction of electricity in a plane area, bounded by two concentric circles, and also
in that bounded by two concentric circles and two radii, meeting at an angle

= (n integer).

262 REPORT—1879.

4, On the Fundamental Principles of the Algebra of Logic.
By AtExanpER Macraruans, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.

In a work recently published, entitled ‘ The Algebra of Logic,’ I have investigated
anew the foundations of that branch of mathematical analysis which was originated
by Boole in his celebrated treatise on ‘The Laws of Thought.’ In making this
inquiry I have studied the contributions to the subject made by Harley, Venn,
Jevons, and other philosophers.

The difficulty and apparent irrationality of Boole’s calculus is due to the fact
that it is founded on the old and inadequate theory of the operation of the mind in
reasoning about quality. That theory supposes that the mind, in forming a com-
pound conception out of two simple conceptions, necessarily considers the second of
these as limited by, and in a measure dependent upon, the first; in the theory
which I advance it is maintained that the mind may, on the one hand, form com-
pound conceptions in which the second element is entirely dependent on the first;
and, on the other hand, compound conceptions, in which the two elements are
mutually independent.

I consider that the fundamental notion in this branch of analysis is that of a
collection of homogeneous objects having differentiating characters. The collection
of objects, so far forth as they are homogeneous, may be denoted by w (as they form
the universe considered in the particular investigation); a differentiating character
may be denoted by a small letter, as « The symbol x applies to, and is entirely
dependent upon, uw. The arithmetical value of u is the number of the objects
considered, and may be singular, plural, or infinitely great. The arithmetical
value of « is the ratio of the number of the objects which have the character x to
the whole number of objects considered.

By x=y it is asserted that those of the objects which have the character x are
identical with those which have the character y. Hence the members of a logical
equation are also equal arithmetically, and have the same sign. When the cha-
racters equated are identical, the equation is an identity; when they are merely
equivalent, the equation is one of condition.

The symbol +1 denotes that mental operation which, when applied to uz,
takes them once and arranges them in the positive direction along the line in which

the mind moves in counting; and —1 arranges them along the negative direction.

These operations are connected by the relations +1—1=0. The symbols (—1)?

and(—1)z that is, (—)#, and (=)3, when applied to wa, arrange them along
another and independent line of counting in the positive and negative directions
respectively.

In x+y the two parts are perfectly independent, and therefore are not neces-
sarily mutually exclusive. In the expression «—y, the two parts destroy one
another as far as possible in virtue of the relation + 1—1=0; the result in general
consists of a positive part and a negative part.

Thus a qualitative expression « is in general both positive and negative. When
it is positive and not negative, it satisfies the condition 2?=«; when negative and
not positive, it satisfies the condition «?=—w; and when neither positive nor
negative, it satisfies the two conditions 2? =. and 2? = —w.

uxy properly denotes those of the objects which have the character x and
which have the character y. The expression zy is a function of « and y, in which
these symbols are co-ordinately dependent on wu. According to Boole, « applies to
u, and y applies towr. But y applied to wa has in general a different meaning and
a different arithmetical value from y applied to u; hence it is necessary to denote
the change of subject by a mark, as zy. This distinction appears in the
theory of probability, in the contrast between two events which are independent of
one another, and two events which are dependent one on the other.

rv
The function zy has a single meaning and arithmetical value. The function —»

on the contrary, has a manifold meaning and arithmetical value. It means any

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 263

expression which, when multiplied by y, is equivalent to 2, The manifoldness
of the arithmetical value of = follows from the circumstance that in zy=w the y is

co-ordinate with, not subordinate to the z.
The expression 2™ denotes the selective operation resulting from m of the x

1
operations being applied together; and similarly «m denotes that selective opera-~
tion which is such that when m of it are taken simultaneously the result is
identical with x,

The rule of signs follows from the relation connecting + and —, viz.,
+1—1=0; taken together with the restriction of + to denote no change of
direction by defining +?7= +.

Since an expression is in general both positive and negative, an equation in
general involves two component equations, the one of which refers to the positive
part and the other to the negative part. Hence an inequation requires in general
two signs. Thus a—b7 Za2—y asserts that the positive part of a—b includes the
positive part of 2—y, and that the negative part of a—6 is included in the negative
part of z—y. The ordinary axioms concerning the transformation of equations
and inequations still hold true.

It follows from these principles that there is an Algebra of Quality which
absorbs the ordinary theories of necessity and probability, and that this Algebra is
a generalised form of the ordinary Algebra. Hence all the theorems about
quantity are, after being properly generalised, true of quality also; and conversely,
all the novel theorems about quality are, after being restricted by a particular
condition, true of quantity.

5. Note on a Theorem in Linear Differential Equations.
By W. H. L. Rossext, F.R.S.

The author after calling attention to the circumstance that a linear differential
equation of the second order is immediately integrable, if the coefficient of the last
term taken negatively is equal to the sum of the two first terms, gave the following
theorem :—

4 2,

Let a +K = + uss - um au + N = O, be a linear differential of

the fourth order, where H, K &c. are rational functions of «, then if z =
2 .

r = as — + vu, the proposed equation may be reduced to linear differential
equation of the second order in , if

N‘p? —2LN°®p? + (L2N? + KMN*)p® + (QHLN?— KLMN — K?N?— HM?N)p°

— (2H2N? + 2HL?N —2HKMN — K?LN — HM?L)p*

+ (2H?LN — HKLM — H?M? — HK°N)p? + (H?L + H®KM)p? —2H®Lp + H’= O,

where p is any constant.

6. On the Repulsion of Wires influenced by Electric Currents.
By W. H. L. Russi, F.B.S.

The object of this paper was to ascertain the possibility of a certain experiment
for ascertaining the repulsion of two voltaic wires influenced by currents moving
in them in opposite directions.

7. On Plane Class-Oubics with three Single Foct.
By Heyry M. Jerrery, M.A.

1. These cubics may be studied in three divisions, as the triangle ABC formed by
the foci as angular points is equilateral, isosceles, or scalene. The cases have been

264 REPORT—1879.

already published, in which one or more foci are at an infinite distance, or two or
three foci unite to form a multiple focus.

2. The locus of the satellite-point, when there are inflexional cubics in a family
of confocal groups, is material to the classification: it is obtained by eliminating
the parameter from the quartic and sextic invariants of the cubic equation to a
group. According to the position of the satellite-point on or within the several
convolutions of this locus, a confocal group may contain an odd or even number
of critical values; if the satellite is on the locus, there is one inflexional cubic,
and there may be three or one other critical values; and if it do not lie on the
locus, there is an even number, four, two, or none. If a focus be at infinity, there
is one additional critical cubic. If the satellite lie on a side of ABO, there is a loss
of a critical value. There are at the most six critical values.

3. The envelope of the stationary tangents of the inflexional cubics in a family
of groups of confocal cubics is a class-quartic.

4, Let there be inflexional cubics in a family of groups of class-cubics, thus
denoted :

2k abe par + (axp + byg + car) = (ap? —2begr cos A) =0;

the locus of the satellite («, y,z) is found, by equating the invariants to zero, For
brevity 7, mn, denote cos A, cos B, cos C.

2 2
=- { [e—Ca+ mB +ny) | - [e+e +y? + (2l+4mn)By+ ... |
— 12k? (/By + mrya + naB)
+ 12k {aay(1 +P 4m? +n? 4 Almn) +0(8?+)(Ltmn)+ ... 7 “0,

=~8 {(« —3la)?— = [@ + (20+ 4mn)By | :
+144 { (x—3la)?—3[ a? + (20+ 4mn)By |

: { — P3IBy +x [ «8c + Almn + SP) + 3a(B? +4) (0+mn)

— 8643aBy + 43202 | — (SiBy)? +3 [er + (21+ 4mn)a8 | 20:

These forms are equally true for spherical and plane geometry. But if the cubic
is plane, S and T may be simplified.

=-— G —2kSla— a) —12k?S7By + Gee SaBy =o
R R2

®
3
T= -8( *—2¢3la— 2,

A? KA
~144(2 —2x3la—4°\esipy— A: )
(« 2k3Sla E a¢ z/By ape PY

2
— 8645aBy + 10853 (2aBy)" =0.

The eliminant of « is the locus of the satellite-point. This would not be useful
to calculate; but the asymptotes, the intersections by the sides of ABC, and b
parallels to those sides, and intersections by the circle circumscribed about AB!
(SaBy =0) can be obtained in serviceable forms, as well as the form of the curve at
the vertices of ABC.

? See Reports of British Association, and the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics
for 1876-8, in which last-named periodical the present memoir will be published in
extenso,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 265

5. These equations may be presented in a simpler form. Let P, Q, R, denote

1 (seya)?,

5 PX A
the several functions x? — 2«Sla— RY K=IBy — FRehy® 2kaBy — aR?

The invariants of § 4 may be written:
PP +12kQ=0. . P* + 18«PQ + 54x?R = 0,
These may be combined to form two cubics in x:
PQ+9R=0... (1) 3PR=4Q’?... (2).

If we neglect z and its powers, the direction of the asymptotes*can be ob-

tained by the resultant of two quadratics in x, and if the first power of - be also

retained, the position of the asymptotes may also depend on the solution of two
quadratics.

They are found to be eight in number, but only six real. Two more asymp-
totes would appear to be given by the factor 38y, which occurs in the eliminant.
But this factor is irrelevant, since Q=0, R=o satisfy the equations (1), (2), so that
4aByA — By sin A. S/By is a factor of the resultant, and should be omitted.

6. Let the three foci of the cubic constitute the vertices of an equilateral
triangle.

A group of confocal cubics is thus denoted :

Qxpgr + (xp + yg + 2r)(p? + g? +7? — Gr —pr —pq) =o.
S= (xk? — 2A — 8A*)? + 6x(k —3A)3By =0,
if each side of ABC be the unit of length.
It is remarkable that «3A measures 8, so that

GApgr + (xp + yq + 2r)(p? + 9° + 9° — gr —pr — pq) = 0,
denotes an equiharmonic cubic, whatever be the position of the satellite. We can
examine its properties apart. Thus the Hessian of this family is the same complex,
wherever the satellite is placed, viz., the centre of ABC, and the line at infinity.
The species of equiharmonic is thus determined: for the Hessian of the other
Species consists of three real points.

' Its Cayleyan is also independent of the satellite, and determines the line at
infinity and a point-conic at the centre. The evectant of T is also an equiharmonic
cubic of the other species, so that the series of equiharmonics may be multiplied
indefinitely.

7. The bounding curve, when ABC are the vertices of an equilateral triangle
is a complex, one portion forming a tricuspidal bicircular quartic.
(1) It is shown in § 6, that k-—3A measures 8. This value substituted in T

gives the bicircular quartic
(By + ya + a8)? =4aBy(a+B +)

Or, hs + Bet
V By + /ya + /aB =o
When transformed to line-co-ordinates it exhibits an acubitangential class-cubic
. protrt=o,
whose bitangent is the line at infinity,
(2) The second factor of S is
ck —K°A — «(5A? — 63 By) —3A5 =0
When combined with T "
4x°SBy + x(d6aBy —8ASBy) + 3(SRy)* —12A7SBy =o.
Their eliminant is the locus of the satellite, when the confocal family contains in~
flexional cubics. The direction of the asymptotes may be obtained by neglecting
A and its powers in these two equations, and their actual position, by retaining the
first power of A only.
8, The group, in which the satellite is the centre of ABO, has been studied in

266 REPORT—1879,

point-co-ordinates by Professor Cayley, ‘On Cubic Cones and Curves’ (Cambridge
Phil, Trans. 1856). If we write the parameter

(61+ 3)pqr + (pt+g+r)(p +9" + —gr—pr—pgq) =o.
this assumes the canonical form
p+g+r> + 6lpgr =o.
The whole series of non-singular forms may be exhibited at once by line co-
ordinates. For order-cubics diagrams are most conveniently drawn by the
equivalent equation referred to the cusps (or inflexional points, dually viewed), and
the points in which the tangents at the cusps concur:

(P+Q+R)>+6xkPQR=o0.
where P= —2ip+qt+r:Q=p—2q+7r: R=p+q—2ir.
2 2G=0)%
1—2/ + 40?

The dual order-cubics are the two redundant hyperbole, with three diameters,
simplex trilateral (Newton’s Fig. 33) and simplex quadrilateral (Fig. 34). The
equiharmonic form, in which the stationary tangents or asymptotes concur, is drawn
(Fig. 42). The complex or bipartite form, in which an oval is enclosed by the

asymptotic triangle is not considered by Newton, but by his commentator, Stirling.
In one case the form of conversion fails, when

c= —%, (P+Q+R)?—27 PQR=o, or P*+Qt+ Ri=0.

This represents part of the bounding curve when ABC is equilateral (supra, § 7).
But it is not represented in the canonical form, by the value 7= —3, except that
the line at infinity is common to both forms. Especial interest attaches itself to
this fault, since 7 plano there is thus occasioned a loss of one critical value, as
compared with spherics, which loss first occurring when the satellite is at the
centre of ABC, and therefore when it is within the bounding curve (P+ Q?+ R?),
continues throughout the various positions of the satellite.

It may be noticed that the two harmonic curves of this group are conjugate,
z.e., each is the Hessian of the other. Hence it becomes apparent why the in-
variant (T =o) expresses the condition that the second Hessian shall be the original
curve. This relation holds good also when the parameters are imaginary.

9. If three foci of a class-cubic be in any finite position, the envelope of the
stationary tangents of the inflexional cubics in a family of such confocal groups is
a class-quartic.

If such a group be denoted—

yy Se
apP + bqgQ+erR

where P =ap—bq as C —cr cos B, and Q, R have similar values, so that
apP + b9Q +crR=5 (a*p*—2bcgr cos A) =4A?.
One condition for a point of inflexion is
fU @U /;@Uy2
dp? dg (Gis =
This determines the envelope :
(ap + bg +er) (—ap+bq+er) (ap—bq+ er) (ap +bg—er)
=8abe pgr (ap cos A + bg cos B+ er cos ©).

Lines which join the centres of the inscribed and escribed circles with the foci and
the centre of the circumscribed circle, touch the envelope.

This is the analogue of Pliicker’s theorem: the locus of the cusps in a family of
groups of redundant hyperbole is the maximum ellipse, which can be inscribed in
the triangle formed by the asymptotes.

If the triangle formed by the foci is equilateral, the class-quartic degenerates

+Ap+ mq + vr =O

O

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 267

into the complex formed by the centre of the triangle and an equiharmonic cubic,
whose cusps are at infinity,

(—p+q+r) (p—g+r) (w+q—r) =4p9r.

10. Diagrams were exhibited of the bounding curves, or loci of the satellites of
the foci in groups of confocal cubics, when the foci stand at the angles of equi-
lateral, isosceles, and scalene triangles, both acute-angled and obtuse-angled. Com-
plete sets of critical bitangential and inflexional cubics, with their companion
curves, were also exhibited, to illustrate every possible variety of class-cubic in
each family of groups.

8. On a Modification of the Law of Facility.
By Donatp M‘Aurster, B.A., B.Sc.

Suppose we prepare a series of tints of grey, composed of varying proportions of
black and white, and arrange them in regular gradation of depth so that to the
eye the successive terms of the series differ by equal amounts. Then experiment
and observation, summed up in the Law of Fechner, show us that the series of
numbers which express the percentages of black (or of white) in the successive
tints form a geometrical series. If now a person tried to match a grey tint which
he had seen, he would be liable to error. By the ordinary principle, in any large
number of such fallible matches, we deem equal departures from the truth to be
equally probable, and take the mean of all the estimates as the best value of the
true tint which we can derive from them. But the previous considerations show us
that the ‘mean’ must be not the arithmetic mean, but the geometric mean. For ex-
ample, tints containing 4, 8, 16, parts of black will seem equally graded. It is as
likely, therefore, that, the true tint being 8, an estimate (16 shall be made as an
estimate 4, We should make a mistake if, having only these two estimates before
ie we inferred that the AM. or 10 was most probably the truth, and not the

. or 8.

This particular example is the type of a large number of cases connected with
fallible estimates, and of many statistical series where there is reason to believe that
a ‘ geometric mean’ gives a truer average or representative than the ordinary arith-
metic mean. It becomes of importance to inquire what modification must be made
in the Law of Facility. This law purports to represent the distribution of aberrant
measures round the mean. And it is well known that the assumption that the
AM. is the most probable value leads to the expression of the Theory of Errors,
viz., y = «2-0, x being the measure and a the mean, Whatlaw follows from
the assumption that the GM. is the most probable mean? This is the gist of the
reasoning and the problem which Mr. Francis Galton laid before me some time
since. I propose here merely to state my answer, leaving the proofs and the
development of the theory to another occasion.

If x (as before) be the measure, @ the geometric mean, the (infinitesimal) pro-
bability that x is the estimate made is proportional to

exp ( —h* (log )'),

where ‘ exp’ is brief for ‘ « to the power of.

If the question be modified, as suggested by the ordinary theory, and it be asked
‘What is the probability of an estimate lying between the close limits x and
x + dx?’ The answer is—

h F a .?\8x
ae ( h (loge) =

In both cases / is a constant depending on the general closeness of the measures
which, as in the ordinary theory, we may call the ‘measure of precision’ or
‘ weight

The matter has statistical and physiological bearings of great interest, and I
believe of some practical value.

268 REPORT—1879.

9. Note on the Enumerations of Primes of the Forms 4n+1 and 4n+8.
By J. W. L. Guaisuer, M.A., F.R.S.

At the last meeting of the British Association I communicated the results of an
enumeration, then just completed, of the primes of the form 4n+1 and of the
form 4n +3 in three groups, each of 100,000 numbers, viz., between 0 and 100,000,
between 1,000,000 and 1,100,000, and between 2,000,000 and 2,100,000. These
results are printed on page 471 of the ‘Report’ for 1878. It is there stated that
‘the numbers given in the table are the result of a duplicate enumeration; but a
third enumeration will be required, in order to render it certain that they are
absolutely free from error.’ This third enumeration has now been made, and the
following two errors in the table were detected by means of it: in the first ten
thousand of the second million the numbers of 4n+1 and 4 +3 primes should be
respectively 390 and 363, instead of 391 and 362 as printed, and in the third ten
thousand of the third million the numbers should be 350 and 343 instead of 349
and 344 as printed. The totals of the columns thus become 3,642 and 3,574 in
the second million, and 3,463 and 8,411 in the third million,

Since the meeting at Dublin the enumerations have also been made for the first
hundred thousand numbers of the fourth, seventh, eighth, and ninth millions. In
the case of the fourth million the enumerations were made from the proof sheets
of my father’s factor table for this million, which is now stereotyped and ready for
publication.

The total numbers for primes of the forms 4n+1 and 4n+8 in the first one
hundred thousand numbers of each of the seven millions are—

Number of Number of Total
4nt+1 4n+3 Difference number of
primes primes primes

O— 100,000 4,784 4,808 —24 9,592
1,000,000—1,100,000 3,642 3,574 +68 7,216
2,000,000—2,100,000 3,463 3,411 +52 6,874
3,000,000—3,100,000 3,368 3,308 +60 6,676
6,000,000 —6,100,000 3,193 3,204 —i1 6,397
7,000,000—7,100,000 3,182 3,187 -— 5 6,369
8,000,000—8, 100,000 3,126 3,124 + 2 6,250

The results for the whole seven groups are—

Number of Number of Diff Total number
4n+1 primes 4n+3 primes vaeren of primes
24,758 24,616 142 49,374

It should be stated that 1 was counted as a prime of the form 4n+1; 2, of
course, was not counted at all.

The details of these enumerations will appear in the ‘Proceedings of the
Royal Society’ (vol. xxix. pp. 192-197).

Professor Tchebycheff, in a letter to M. Fuss, ‘sur un nouveau théoréme relatif
aux nombres premiers contenus dans les formes 4n+1 et 4n+8,’! states that he
has found that the functions which determine the total number of primes of the
form 4n+1 and the total number of those of the form 4n +3, inferior to a given
very large limit 2, differ essentially in their second terms; this term being
greater in the latter case than in the former, so that for certain values of x the
number of 4n+38 primes exceeds that of 4n +1 primes by a number approximately
equal to = .

og x
Of course an enumeration of primes in certain groups such as those chosen

_' *Bulletin de la Classe Physico-Mathématique de l’Académie Impériale des
Sciences de Saint-Pétersbourg,’ t. xi. (1853), col. 208.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 269

above is different in character to an enumeration extending from zero to a given
high number, but Professor Tchebycheft’s result gives a special interest to sepa-
rate enumerations of 4n +1 and 4n+8 primes.

10. Formule in Elliptic Functions. By J. W. L. Guatsuer, M.A., F.R.S.

The formulz in question, which give the products of three dn’s or three sn’s
in terms of the sn, en, dn’s of the four arguments $(a+6b+c), $(-—a+b+c),
4(a—b+e), $(at+b— c),, are

_ k* + Kens en(s—a) en(s—d) en(s—c)
Che 1+*sn s sn(s—a) sn(s—b) sn(s—c) ’.
—k/?+dnsdn(s—a) dn(s—6) dn(s—c)
1+’sn s sn(s—a) sn(s—bd) sn(s—c)

ken a cn 6 cn c=

I

where s=3(a+6b+c).
Adding the two formule, we have
dn adn 6dne+f%en a cn 6 en e=
dn s dn(s—a) dn(s—6) dn(s—c) + fen s en(s—a) en(s—6) en(s—c)
1+*sn s sn(s—a) sn(s—4) sn(s—c)
As a particular case let

@—0—¢—20,
and the formule become

antes ki? + ken3x ensx

1+#sn3z sn8x ”

— Kk? +dn3z dnix
7en?9r =
ona = T+ Pande sia’

dn32 dnéx + h?en3 xensx
an 2s + en2s ee
ia ee 1+ ksn3e sintx ;
and to these may be added
h2= dn3x dn’ — ken3x ensx
1+f?*sn3a snéx

The paper in which the above formule occur will be communicated to the Cam-
bridge Philosophical Society.

11. Summation of a class of Trigonometrical series.
By J. W. L. Guatsuer, M.A., F.R.S.

We have
l+a%=l—we .l-w’e... l—w*le

where w=cos”+7sin Be
n n

whence

bee =1 - CR ee aera

where ¢=cos = +7 sin ™
2n Qn

Replacing x by x (cos 7 — —?¢sin Aa this becomes
l—ir"=1-(px)? . 1- us Wis ah | L— (pase

where p=cos ~ +7sin ~
Pas, An in

270 REPORT—1879.

Now
sin (a—2) sin (a+ 2)
sin 7a

= 1-B} to eaep) Urey) Uo weep) erp
so that if
sin (a—p2) sin (a+ pz)
sin 7a

be denoted by (p), then
$00) + 6) ve Gotr*)= 1-17} {1+} {1-7} (1)

Also
sin (a—pzx) sin (a+p2) _ , cos 2px—cos 2a
sin?a sin*a

and therefore
cos 2Az cosh 2Bx—cos 2a—7 sin 2Azx sinh 2B

(A +iB)=3 ee . @)
Now if (a, +78,)(a, +78.) . = (1 + 1y;)(La +MY)» « semi)
(the number of factors on either side being arbitrary)

then
are tan 91+ are tan 8 +&c.=are tan “i+aretan¥+&e. ...,.... (4)
ay ay at vs

for, changing the sign of 7 in (3)
(a, —28,)(a,—7By) «+» =(%y—-%;)(%q—M) - - -

and therefore
3 log 27 ue =3 lo vty

which leads at once to (4) in virtue of the formula

B- doch ae8
Ao? Aa

Applying this theorem to (1) and (2), we find that

are tan

are to —————

umn
( ae 7)" Gene —
3 sin (2 A,v) sinh (2 Br)
s=0 cos (2 A,r) cosh (2 B,v) —cos 2a

where A,=cos (es u ny B, =sin eZ a r)

em
are tan —_ + arc tan
an

and this, on replacing x and a by and a becomes

2n

an x
are tan qn + are tan Cane + are CED = =, + are tan——__—__ (a—2b)™

pay sin au) sinh 8 )
+ are tan opm +&e.= : b b

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 271

As a particular case, put a=1, 6=2; and this equation gives

gm gen 4 ym
are tan Im + are tan 3mm +are tan Bin + &e.
s=n-1__ sin (wxA,) sinh (12B,)

s=0 cos (7xA,) cosh (7rB,) +1

snl sin (mvA,) sinh (72B,)
s=0 cos (7rA,) cosh (7xB,) +1.

=}

Tt can also be shown by the method employed above that

an gen ym
arctan im +are tan 3mm +arc tan Bm + &e.

s=n—l
=> are tan { tan (3 mrA,) tanh (4 72B,) }

s=0
which is readily connected with the result just written; and that

an vin r om &
arc tan [m + arc tan om + arc tan in + &e.
tanh (77B,)

Ak s=n—1
=(-)"14197-5 are tan
s=0 tan (rxA,)

Of course the two sides of these equations may differ by any multiple of r.
As particular cases, by putting n=1 and 2, we have :

2 nit 2 A
arctan ~~ + are tan”. +are tan” +&c, =are tan | tan 7” Te
a Tr 3 me r an 272 tanh 279

x
2 2 2 tanh 7
arctan i + arc tan 5 +arc tan - + &c. =i7—are tan J/2
tae
/2

yt
arctan = +are tan S +are tan mi + &y

-=are tan {tan ($mva) tanh (4 m8) | —arc tan {ton (3 728) tanh (4 na) }

4 A yf

-are tan is + arctan 5 + are tan x + &e.

tanh (mra) _ are tan 20h (#28)
tan (7x8 tan (ma)

where a=cos 47, B=sin dr

formule which are given in the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, vol. XV., pp.
151-157. The general formule to which this note refers are more fully discussed

‘in a paper which will appear in the Quarterly Journal, vol. xvi.1

= —j7+are tan

12. Note on a Method of checking Calculations. By W. H. Wauunn.

The object of this note is to draw attention to the advantages of checking cal-

culations by casting out the elevens in preference to casting out the nines,
By this means, in many cases, the calculation can be checked by an appeal to

the question and answer only. Also decimal calculations can be checked in

* Addition to a paper ‘A Theorem in Trigonometry,’ vol. xvi, (No. 64.)

272 REPORT—1879.

consequence of the remainders used being wnitates, that is, simply the number of
units by which the number to be dealt with isin excess of being exactly divisible
by the divisor. This divisor may, in practice, be either 9 or 11.

As an instance, suppose the calculation to be checked is w= 62°32, 2:375, 3:25,
3°75 = 1803-871875. In casting out the nines the symbolisation is U, w=U,
(4.8.1.6) =3. In casting out the nines there is no check upon the number of digits in
the number operated upon, neither is there a check upon the place of any particular
digit, nor upon the figures themselves, if they be either 9 or 0, or if their sum be
9 or any multiple of 9. In 100 there are 33 fractional unitates to reciprocals.

In casting. out the elevens there is a check upon the number of digits, upon the
place of any digit, and, for the most part, upon the figures themselves. In 100
there are only 9 fractional unitates to reciprocals. Un (3,4, 4, 4, 4, 4,4, 4)3,75 a) =
1, 6, 4, 3, 9, 2,8, 7,5, 10,4.

Additions can be dealt with at one operation. Subtractions must have the
unitate of the minuend made greater than that of the subtrahend. Decimal
multiplications must be without contraction; but divisions may he finished at any
predetermined place of decimals, taking into account the remainder. Fractions

are treated as if of the form ay,

The table of powers of U»N repeats after every ten powers, and is therefore
very serviceable for checking tables and formule in which the higher powers occur.
An Appendix, containing examples, tables, and illustrations, accompanies the

original paper.

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.

The following Reports and Papers were read :

1. Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations im the English Channel.
See Reports, p. 71.

2. Report of the Committee on Calculations of Sun-heat Oo-efficients.
See Reports, p. 66.

3. Report of the Committee on Luminous Meteors.
See Reports, p. 76.

4. On the Direct Motion of Periodic Comets of Short Period.
By Professor H. A. Newton.

In the ‘ American Journal of Science ’I published a few months since an article
on the origin of comets. I undertook in that article to find out if there is in any
facts we know about the comets reason to say whether they must have come to us
from outside space, or whether they have been formed out of matter that lay on
the outer edge of the dise-shaped nebula which the solar system is supposed to have
been condensed from. The comets may be divided into two very distinct classes; .

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 273

the first, the comets whose orbits are very long—so long that they are usually
treated as parabolas; the second, the comets of short period, about twelye or
fifteen in number.

I found that the distribution of the inclinations of the orbits of the first group
was such as should naturally have resulted from a foreign origin of the comets,
and was not such as should be expected on the hypothesis that they came to us
from a distant source or sources nearly in the plane of the solar system.

The second group, however, consists of comets having orbits but little inclined
to the ecliptic, most of them having angles less than 30°. Two only have retro-
grade motions, Halley’s comet, which has so long a period as almost to belong to
the first group, and the comet of the November meteors (1866, i.). This latter is
probably identical with one of the two comets which crossed our sky in 1366, one
chasing the other along the path of the meteors just after the star shower of that
year. Even if 1866,i. be a third fragment, it must be classed amongst the
periodic comets.

But with these two exceptions, the periodic comets have such a uniform relation
to the plane of the solar system as to compel the belief that there is something
peculiar to the group in their origin or history. If these comets came to us
at first from the stellar spaces, they have been turned into these short orbits by
coming very near to a large planet. Can we explain the nearly uniformly direct
motion by supposing such a history for them? We may state the question thus.
Suppose an immense number of comets to have passed in all conceivable directions
by and near to a large planet in such a way as to have their orbits greatly changed.
Some of those resulting orbits would be hyperbolas, in which the comets would
travel off into outer space. Others would be ellipses of short period, and part of
these would bring the comets near enough to the sun for us to see them.
Would a large majority of these last move around the sun in the same general
direction as the disturbing planet ?

To answer this we have to ask how a comet must pass the planet to have its
velocity diminished? For it is only by having its velocity diminished that a comet
can be turned from a parabolic orbit into one of short period. Though the general
problem of perturbations is very complex, yet there is an exceedingly simple
answer to the above question, the simplicity being due to the fact that the pro-
blem is one of change of potentials only.

If the comet pass in front of the planet the comet’s attraction helps the planet
forward and increases the planet’s velocity. The energy gained by the planet is lost
by the comet, and the comet’s periodic time is therefore diminished. But if the
comet passes behind the planet their mutual attraction checks the planet’s motion,
and hence increases the velocity of the comet. The simplicity of this law enables
us to reduce the whole problem to elementary algebra and trigonometry.

It has been shown by Laplace that when a comet comes very near to a large
planet we may divide the path into two parts. The first is so far from the planet
that it is regarded as an orbit about the sun with a small perturbation from the
planet. The second part is that near to the planet, where we may treat the relative
path as a conic section (hyperbola) about the planet, and then the sun’s action is
only a small disturbing force.

Suppose now a sphere to be described about the planet, which shall be called
the sphere of action of the planet, of such size that, without the sphere, the planet’s
action may be disregarded, and within it the small per-
turbing force of the sun disregarded. Draw a tangent to 2 Fic.
that sphere at a point A, and let the plane of the paper be
the tangent plane. The planet will be on the perpendicular
to the plane of the paper beyond A, and its line of motion
will meet the tangent plane in some point as B. In the
figure assume B to be in front of the planet. Join A B, and
draw A CO perpendicular to A B.

Further, suppose that an indefinite number of comets approach the planet in
a relative direction perpendicular to the tangent plane, all having the same velo-
cities. Those passing near to the point A will go down and strike the planet.

1879. T

274 REPORT—1879.

Those passing behind the planet, that is meeting the plane in the figure on the side
of the line AO beyond B, will gain velocity and possibly be thrown from elliptic
into hyperbolic orbits, along which they would travel off into space.

Those on the other hand which meet the tangent plane in front of the line
A C will in general lose velocity and be thrown into orbits having a diminished
periodic time. The amount of diminution will depend upon the point in which
the comet’s path meets the plane A BC, and those comets which suffer a given loss
will meet the plane in a locus whose equation may be determined.

Using polar co-ordinates,{making 6 the angle of a radius vector with AB, and
p the radius vector, the equation between p and @ is found to be that of a
circle.

Let AOD be a spherical triangle about the planet asa centre. Let A be in the
relative direction from which a comet comes, O be the apex of the planet’s motion,
and D the relative direction from which the comet leaves the planets. Then the

angle at A is 6 and the are AD is the measure

of the angle between the asymptotes of the

hyperbolic orbit which the comet describes

¢ / about the planet (which we call 2a). Let v be

/ the velocity of the comet in its solar orbit on

/ entering the sphere of action of the planet,

oh VES - the same on leaving that sphere, v’” that of the

D planet in its orbit, and V the relative velocity

of comet to planet, which is the same at the two epochs, Let V, and p, be the

relative velocity and the distance of the comet from the planet at the peri-planet.
We have then the following equations :—

Fic, 2. 0
if

(1) V.p~o= Vp, by conservation of areas.
(2) tana+seca =, by the property of the hyperbola.
Po

(3) V2, — V2 =, by the law of potential, » being constant.

2 = V24 7? + 2Vv" cos w. Ae eis
4 e 5 aa composition of velocities.
(4) | 2 = V2 4 0/2 4 2V0" cos OS

(5) cos @ =cos w cos 2a + sin w sin 2a cos 6, by spherical trigonometry.

Since v, v’, and v’ are assumed to be given quantities, we have cos p in terms of
cos w from equations (4), (that is, the comet coming from A must leave the planet
in a direction from some point of a small circle described on the spherical surface
about O as a centre).

From (1) (2) and (5) we have 2 tana= mi Substituting this value of a, and
Pp

the value of cos @ from (4) in equation (5), we have the polar equation of a
circle between p and 6 and constants.

If the comets of short period were thrown into their present orbits by Jupiter,
their velocities were diminished in general more than in the ratio 4/2 to l.

With such a diminution the circle of fig. 1 is imaginary for all values of w
less than about 70°, and is very small for all values of w less than 90°. Hence
Jupiter can very rarely throw a comet whose motionis at all opposed in direction to
his own from a parabolic orbit into one whose period is less than that of the planet.
On the contrary, when the comet approaches the planet from behind, the circle
rapidly increases in size as w approaches 180°. Hence of the comets which have
their orbits thus shortened, by far the largest proportion approach Jupiter from
behind. They go around the planet, and though their directions are thereby
greatly changed, yet after the change nearly all still follow the planet, that is
have a direct motion about the sun.

So far then from the direct motion of the periodic comets being a reason for
assigning to them a separate genesis from that of the other comets, that direct
motion is just what we ought to expect upon the supposition that the comets have
been thrown into their orbits by Jupiter or by other planets.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 275

The two bodies, the comet and the planet, will of course in time, if undisturbed,
come back again to the place from which they parted company. The comet will
here undergo a new disturbance, perhaps pass close behind the planet and be
thrown out into the stellar spaces again.

Some comets will by reason of smaller perturbations haye their orbits so
changed as to no longer come back to the appointed place of meeting, and these
may become more or less permanent members of the solar system.

This conclusion suggests the possibility that the asteroids have also an outside
origin. If a comet were to be brought to move in a nearly circular orbit at a dis-
tance from the large planets, and it is probably only such an orbit that can be
really permanent, then the action of the sun by which the comet’s tail is developed
ought in the course of time to drive off all the matter that makes the comet's
tail and leave the exhausted nucleus to travel in its orbit as a small planet.

Tf in like manner we can suppose a like origin for some of the satellites, we
may be relieved of our difficulty. I cannot conceive how such small bodies can
become solid from a gaseous state in the immediate presence of the sun and the
large planets.

A possible explanation of the lenticular form of the zodiacal light and its near
coincidence with the ecliptic is alike suggested. That body may be matter in
very minute parcels which has been thrown into this position by the action of the
planet Jupiter.

&. On Self-acting Intermittent Siphons and the Conditions which Determine
the Commencement of their Action. By Rocers Fiery, B.A.—See
Reports, p. 223.

6. A short Account of some Experiments made to determine the Friction of

Water upon Water at low Velocities. By the Rev. Samuet Havcuton,
M.D., D.O.L.

A spherical ball of granite, unpolished, was suspended by a pianoforte wire, and
allowed to hang freely ; from the brass collar by which the ball was suspended an
index projected on each side, the pointed ends of the indices traversing a graduated
horizontal circle, whose centre corresponded with the line of suspension. The sus-
pended ball was immersed in water contained in‘an iron tub.

The weight of the granite ball was 22452-85 grams, and its mean diameter was
251:46 millimeters. The length of the wire of suspension was 610°8 centimeters,
and its diameter was 0°889 millimeter. The diameter of the iron tub was 2 feet
4 inches, and the depth of water contained in it was 1 foot 9 inches.

The method of observation was as follows: the indices of the ball haying arrived
at the zero of rest, the ball was then displaced by a torsional movement of the wire,
and allowed to regain its position of rest by a succession of vibrations, of diminish-
ing amplitudes,

The quantities observed were the time of vibration and the rate of diminution of
the amplitude.

The equations of motion of the apparatus are thus found.

Px 7
See Nat ak
dt M ()
where « = the varying amplitude of any point of the surface of the ball measured
from its zero of rest.
X = the tangential forces of torsion and friction acting at the point 2.

If we assume, that for low velocities the friction will be proportional to the
velocity, we shall have

dx
X =e = f=
TOS (2)

T2

276 REPORT—1879.

where & is a coefficient depending on torsion, and f is a coefficient depending on
friction.

It is easy to see that the complete integral of the equation of motion

ax dx
Beep ee we) =O
de tT a (8)
must be of the form
mt mt,
a2 = aecosnt + besin nt (4)
where a and 0 are arbitrary constants, and where m and m have the values
ae ee
he ar

na y/e—o (5)

If we reckon the time from the commencement of the oscillation, equation (4)
reduces to
mt

x = ae cos nt (6)
If T denote the time of a complete double oscillation, we find from the above
ful
6, = Ge? (7)

where 6, = amplitude of the (n + 1)” vibration.
6, = amplitude of the first vibration.

From (7) we obtain the following working equation for use in the calculations:
todetermine the coefficient of friction.

f= a log. () (8)

ne Pe
aap a/ # -G

from which we obtain, after some reductions

Also we have

- Jae oP (9)

If we introduce into this equation the value of f determined by (8) we obtain
k, which depends on the torsion only.

The mean value of /, the coefficient of friction, in air and water, for amplitudes
6, ranging up to 360°, was found to be

igs
f= eosa7

1
f= 307.57 (water)

The details of my experiments will be published by the Royal Irish Academy,
and will show that the results are very close to each other, and that the method of
observation admits of great precision.

My intention, in commencing the experiments was to ascertain the coefficient
of tidal friction, and also to ascertain the elevation of water at the equator or pole,

necessary to cause a current; both these results I hope to secure with some
approach to accuracy.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 277

7. On an Instrument for Determining the Sensible Warmth of Air.
By Professor G. Forzes, F'.R.S.

8. On Synchronism of Mean Temperature and Rainfall in the Climate of
London. By H. Courrmnay Fox, M.R.C.S.

My object is by the examination of a long series of facts to ascertain whether there
be any law which regulates the occurrence at the same time of extremes of tempera=
ture and rainfall, so far as we can ascertain it in the English climate.

The facts which I have used are the rainfall and mean temperature as for the
Royal Observatory in each month and season for 66-67 years. The mean
temperature from 1813 to 1840 is that computed by James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S,
(vide Philosophical Transactions, 1850, part 7); and from 1841 to the present time
it is from direct observation. The rainfall from 1813 to 1840 is derived from
sundry observations about London collated by George Dines, Esq., F.M.S., and
from 1841 to the present time it also is from direct observation at the Greenwich
Observatory.

I have constructed tables for each month, in which the sixty-seven (or sixty-six)
years are arranged in the order of the mean temperature of that month, beginning
with the coldest and ending with the warmest, and also arranged in like manner
in the order of their amount of rain. The sixty-seven years are then divided, as
nearly as can be, into five equal sections, of which the middle section is termed
average years; the division on each side of the average I term cold and warm,
dry and rainy, respectively ; while the extreme sections I qualify by the word very,
calling them very cold, very warm, very dry, and very rainy, respectively, We
have thus a pretty fair division of the series of years in both these characters.
‘What I have done for each month has been also done on exactly similar principles
for each season and for the whole year.

1. In the winter months, cold tends to be synchronous with dryness, warmth with
large rainfall__In January so strong is this tendency that the synchronism of cold
with dry is without marked exception (that is, there was no instance of a very dry
month being also a very warm one).

2. In the summer months, cold tends to be accompanied by much rain, warmth by
dryness.—The synchronism of warm with dry in July, and that of cold with wet in
August, are both without marked exception. f

3. To put this in popular language, rain brings warmth in winter and cold in
summer—that is (if rain be cause, which is by no means proven), it mitigates the
special character of each extreme season, winter and summer. ;

4, But the peculiar laws of summer and winter are found to extend a little
over the adjoining months in the following manner. In November there are the
synchronisms, cold with dry, warm with wet; and both October and March have a
slight tendency to the combination of cold with dryness, although there is in these
months indefinite relation between excess of rainfall and temperature. So that
there are six months, from October to March, of which four possess strongly the
winter character of cold with dry, warm with wet, and two have it to the extent
of slight cold with dry. On the other hand, the summer synchronism of warmth
with dryness obtains in April and to a small extent in May. The connection
between large rainfall and temperature in these months is ambiguous, but upon the
whole the balance is in favour of the union of cold with wet. Consequently we
have five months, from April to August, the last three of which possess the
summer character, warm with dry and cold with wet, whilst the first two exhibit
the same tendency in a much slighter, though still perceptible, degree. The only
definite tendency in September is to the synchronism of dry with warm, which so

278 REPORT—1879.

far as it goes indicates a preference for the eestival rather than for the hyemal
character.

5. Rainy years tend to be either very cold or very warm, whilst years of drought
tend to assume an average temperature.—The dry year is not (as we might expect
if the summer synchronism prevailed) a very warm one, nor is it a very cold year (as
would be the case if the winter tendency preponderated), but the two tendencies
seem in each instance to balance one another. On the other hand, if the year be
wet, either it will be also cold, as if it were the law of summer that chiefly
affected it, or it will be warm, as though the temperature depended principally
upon the winter synchronism.

So far as my reading has extended, I am not aware that these striking laws
have been made public before. It would be an interesting subject for further
inquiry to ascertain if they prevail for other parts of the globe, or whether they are
peculiar to our insular position.

9, Hxperiments on the Influence of the Angle of the Lip of Rain Gauges on
the Quantity of Water Collected. By Batpwin Laruam, C.H., M. Inst,
O.#., F.G.S., FILS., §.

The author having observed that, in the ordinary pattern of the Glaisher gauge,
in high winds the rain was often driven up the sloping lip and into the gauge,
thought that if the rim of the gauge were made very acute, having a sharp knife
edge and equal angles both inside and outside the gauge, any rain which might
strike upon the outer angle on one side of the gauge might be thrown into the
gauge. Rain striking upon the inner and opposite side of the gauge would be
thrown out, and so an equilibrium rim would be constructed, as the gain on one
side would be balanced by the loss on the other side.

With this view, the author had an 8-inch gauge made and tested alongside of
an 8-inch Glaisher gauge. The sloping lip of the Glaisher gauge had an angle of
45° from the perpendicular, and the rim of the equilibrium gauge was ‘8 in. deep,
‘18 in. in thickmess, sluping off on both sides at an angle of 3° from the perpen~
dicular. Both gauges were fixed at Croydon, 4 feet above the ground, and 259 feet
above the Ordnance datum. These gauges had been working side by side for 551
days, from January 5, 1878, to July 5, 1879, during which period rain or snow has:
fallen upon 306 occasions. Upon 438 occasions it was found that the rain collected
in the Glaisher gauge exceeded, by a small amount, the rain in the equilibrium
rim-gauge, and on two occasions the quantity in the new gauge exceeded that in
the Glaisher gauge. Upon 261 occasions the rain in both gauges was absolutely
equal. On all occasions, it should be observed, the rain from both gauges was
invariably measured in the same graduated measuring glass. On the 45 occasions
when the Glaisher gauge collected most rain, the wind without exception was
high. On the two occasions when the equilibrium rim-gauge collected more rain
than the Glaisher gauge, it was probably due to dew, the equilibrium gauge pre-
senting a larger surface for condensation than the other gauge. As the Glaisher
gauge was not calculated to contain snow, all falls of snow are recorded in the
equilibrium rim-gauge, which is constructed to hold about one foot in depth of
snow.

The total quantity of rain collected in the Glaisher gauge during the period of
observation, plus the snow as caught in the equilibrium rim-gauge, was 46°68 in.,
and the quantity collected in the equilibrium rim-gauge was 46°45 in., showing
a difference of but half per cent. In all probability, however, the small excess
measured by the Glaisher gauge would tend to compensate for the losses by
evaporation in periods of small rainfall and at other times, and therefore, as a
measuring gauge, the Glaisher pattern of gauge, when tested by a gauge of the
description mentioned, gives results in practice which may be taken as correct.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 279

Summary of Results.

Times Times
when when
Total | y Amount of Amount of Glaisher | Equili-
umber P rain col- 3 :
number | “of q ays | xain col- | jected by Gauge in| brium
Date of days’ | “hen lected by Equili. | &X¢ess of} Rim-
experi- | sain fel] | Glaisher aah Rim. Equili- Gauge in
| ments Gauge Gauge brium | excess of
) Rim- | Glaisher
Gauge. | Gauge
) |
1878 Inches Inches
January . . ah. ok 17 1:145 1115 6 —
February . : ah 28 15 1-440 1°430 2 —
March - mae a 10 1:300 1:295 1 —
April te 30 17 3°940 3°940 0 —
May ; rie 30 22 3480 3-460 4 —
Gene) ets |) 30 13 3-205 3-190 1 oe
July c [ee OL 11 B95 “600 0 1
August er 31 20 5°725 5°690 7 1
September | 30 11 1015 1:010 1 —
October . : > owes! 18 2140 27135 1 —
November : -| 30 22 3°775 3°735 8 —
December ; mah) OL 20 1:460 1455 1 —
1879
January . é Pai vio 13 2°610 2°610 0 —
February. : a. 28 22 3°380 3°360 + —
March . : : 31 13 540 540 0 —
April j = : 30 19 2°535 2°515 4 —
May ; | 2/31 18 3°600 3595 1 —
June ‘ ; ri), ; 30 20 3°690 3°680 2 —_—
July F : ; 5 5 1:105 1-095 2 —
Mobis \) «4 ; | 551 306 | 46-680 46-450 45 2 Tan

10. An Anemometer for Measuring the speed of Smoke or Corrosive Vapour.
By Aurrep HE, Fretcusr, F.0.8.

In the year 1869 I had the honour of reading a paper descriptive of an
anemometer I had contrived for measuring the speed of currents of air, which,
being highly heated or containing corrosive gases, forbad the use of the instruments
hitherto in common use. These all have moving parts, wheels, pivots, &c., which
would be destroyed or rendered useless by great heat or acid vapours.

My anemometer consists of a bent tube and a straight one, which, together, are
thrust into the current whose velocity is to be measured, the outer ends of the
tubes being connected by means of flexible tubing with a delicate manometer for
ad the difference there may be between the pressures exerted in the two
tubes.

The manometer I prefer, and which I have for many years constantly used,
is a simple U tube partly filled with ether. One of the flexible tubes being
connected with each limb of the U tube, the position assumed by the ether is an
indication of the difference of the pressures exerted on it. If the pressures are
equal, the surfaces of the ether in the two tubes remain level one with the other.
To measure the deviations from this normal position, finely-divided scales provided
with a vernier are employed. In the hands of some who use the instrument, so
fine a measurement is found to require too delicate handling, and too close an
observation. To obviate this, or to assist the observer, I have introduced in the

280 REPORT—1879.

present instrument magnifying glasses in front of the columns of ether, carrying
a line to guide the eye while the vernier scales and the horizontal lines which are
to be adjusted to the ether surfaces are drawn on glass, so as to admit of light
shining through. This arrangement affords, therefore, a means of magnifying
optically the small motions of the ether, instead of doing the same by mechanical
means, as has been attempted by some.

11. On an improved Rain Gauge. By N. Lowenrnat Lonspas.

This gauge records the exact quantity of rain and snow on paper as well as on
a tell-tale dial. The funnel is suspended on an enclosure with a sloping roof and
two air pipes, within which enclosure, in winter, a small flame is kept burning to
melt the snow in the funnel. From the funnel the water runs into an intermediate
receiver, which can be closed by a valve. When open, the water runs on into
a larger receiver, where a float with a tube in the centre rises and falls, This
tube is closed at the top, and embraces a long open tube fixed in the centre of the
large receiver, the two together thus forming an intermittent siphon, the diameters
of the inner and outer tubes of which must be, at least, as 2 to 8. To the top of
the float is fixed a rod with a pencil, for marking a sheet as usual. The rod also
moves an index which marks whole inches, and another for fractions.

12. On a Galvanometer for demonstrating the Internal Current transmitted
through the Liquid within a Voltaic Cell. By Conrap W. Cooks, 0.E.,
J Ba We DR

It is of course well known that when the external circuit of a voltaic cell is closed
a current of electricity is transmitted through that circuit, and at the same time a
current of equal strength is transmitted through the liquid within the cell from one
plate to the other. The former of these is detected by its electro-magnetic and
electro-chemical effects, producing deflections in galvanometers and electroscopes
and sounds in telephonic instruments, and is utilised in all the applications of
voltaic electricity. :

As far as the author has been able to find out, there has not hitherto been any
satisfactory means in the hands of the demonstrator of physics by which the
existence of the internal current within a single cell can be made apparent.
Faraday, in the course of his early researches, made the following experiment: he
suspended a magnetic needle by a silk thread, and lowered it into the liquid between
the plates of one cell of a voltaic battery, so that its length should lie in a plane
perpendicular to those of the plates; and he observed that when the needle was
Just below the surface of the liquid it was deflected the moment that the external
current was closed. On lowering it still deeper (the current being maintained
complete) its deflection gradually diminished as the depth of immersion was in-
creased, until it reached a position about half the depth of the liquid, when it
returned to zero; and after passing this depth it was again deflected, but this time
in the opposite direction, its amount of deflection in either case increasing as its
distance from the neutral or central point was increased. The cause of this phe-
nomenon is obvious from the following considerations:—If a wire eonyeying an
electric current be held above and parallel to a magnetic needle, the latter, obeying
Ampere's law, will be deflected with an angular displacement dependent upon the
strength of the current and its distance from the needle; and if the same wire be
held below the needle, the latter will be similarly deflected, but in the opposite
direction. Now the flow of electricity through the liquid in a voltaic cell may
(for the purpose of this explanation) be looked upon as made up of an infinite
number of currents transmitted in a horizontal direction from one plate to the
other ; and when a magnetic needle is immersed just below the surface of the

* This Paper was printed in extenso in Engineering, August 29, 1879,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 281

liquid, a series of currents are flowing in one direction below it, and a correspond-
ing deflection takes place ; when, however, it is lowered deeper into the solution
a certain number of currents are flowing below it tending to deflect it in one
direction, and a certain number are flowing above it tending to deflect it in the
mgpostte direction, and its permanent deflection is due to the electro-magnetic
effect of the difference between the two. When these become equal, as they are
when the needle is at the middle of its depth, their effects on the needle are
balanced and neutralised, and no deflection takes place; and when that point is
passed the currents above the needle are in excess of those below it, and a corre-
sponding deflection in an opposite direction is given to the needle.

Professor Hughes, by placing in the circuit of a battery an apparatus, such as
a clock-microphone, or a key, by which an intermittent or undulatory character

may be given to its current, and holding one side of a rectangular coil of wire in
circuit with a Bell telephone over one of the cells of his three-cell battery, a
secondary intermittent or undulatory current was induced in the coil by that
portion of the primary circuit transmitted through the cell, and a corresponding
ticking was heard in the telephone.

In both these experiments, however, the effects observed must be attributed
rather to the external current of the other cells than to the internal current of the
cell under examination ; and the author is unaware that any successful attempt has
hitherto been made to construct an instrument which shall utilise the whole of the
internal current of a single voltaic cell for the production of electro-magnetic
effects. While engaged in some experiments a few years ago it occurred to the
author that if a voltaic cell were divided into two portions, having the zine element
in one portion, and the positive element in the other, and the solution contained in
the one portion were connected to that in the other by a tube filled with the same
liquid, the tube being coiled round a magnetic needle, a deflection of the latter,
due to the current within the cell being forced by the convolutions of the tube to
circulate around the needle, would be produced when the two elements were con-
nected together. An apparatus (which was before the section) was then constructed.
This instrument consists of two glass test tubes united together by a small tube about
two feet long, and convoluted into two circular coils after the manner of a Thomson’s
Reflecting Galvanometer. Within the coils is suspended an astatic system of
magnetic needles, of which the upper carries a light mirror by which its deflections

282 REPORT—1879.

may be made apparent by the movement of a spot of light on a screen. It may
therefore in this respect be looked upon as a Thomson’s Reflecting Galvanometer,
coiled with liquid instead of with metallic wires. The elements are placed one in
each of the little cells, and may be connected by a key; or, by placing a reflecting
galvanometer in the external circuit, both currents may be simultaneously indicated
on the screen, and their interdependence or identity be demonstrated.

The author is indebted to Mr. Gimingham, whose name is now inseparably con-
nected with the splendid researches of Mr. Crookes, for being able to produce the
instrument on the table, in which the tubes and coils are of glass, all in one piece,
and is a very beautiful specimen of accurate glass blowing. Below the base of
the instrument is a fine slightly magnetised sewing needle, which can be rotated
on a vertical axis through a small angle by means of a little lever, and by which
the instrument may be adjusted to zero.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879.

The following Reports and Papers were read :-—

1. Report of the Committee on Astronomical Olocks.
See Reports, p. 131.

2. Report of the Committee on Rock-conductivities.
See Reports, p. 58.

3. Report of the Committee on Instruments for detecting Fire-damp in
Mines.—See Reports, p. 131.

4, Suite des Recherches sur la Photographie Solaire.
Par Dr. J. Janssen, de l’ Institut de France.

La nouvelle méthode est fondée sur trois conditions—

1. Liachromatisme chimique de l’objectif, qui est fondé sur le maximum
d’action dans le spectre photographique.

2. L’extension de la grandeur des images qui ont été portées successivement
& 20, 30, 50 centimétres de diamétre.

3. Le temps de pose, qui a été réduit jusqu’a ;4, et quelquefois 7, de seconde.

Résultats—Ces photographies ont montré que les formes admises pour les
granulations n’étaient pas exactes.

Les formes sont celles de nos nuages atmosphériques, sauf qu’au lieu de vapeur
d’eau ce sont des poussiéres métalliques solides ou liquides qui forment les nuages
solaires.

Les photographies ont montré 4 la surface du soleil existence du 7éseau photo-
graphique—e est-a-dire, que la surface solaire est divisée en régions de calme et
Wactivité relatives.

Les derniéres études ont montré que les formes et la grandeur des polygones
du réseau photographique sont variables, ce qui montre que les émissions gazeuses
du soleil sont soumises 4 des périodes, qui sont sans doute en rapport avec les
périodes des taches.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 283

Le Dr. Janssen étudie en ce moment les mouvements dont la surface solaire est
le siége.

Bee cette étude il a institué des expériences par lesquelles une méme portion
de la surface solaire est photographiée & courts intervalles (2 secondes, 1 seconde,
3 seconde, etc.) sur la méme plaque. I] opére aussi avec deux lunettes photo-
graphiques, qui donnent, soit au méme instant soit 4 des intervalles déterminés, deux
images d’une méme portion de la surface solaire.

Ces études, qui sont en cours, montrent déja que la surface solaire est le siége
de mouyements d’une violence dont nos phénoménes terrestres ne peuvent donner
aucune idée. L’étude de ces mouvements dans ses rapports avec ceux des protu-
bérances révélées par le spectroscope conduira sans doute aux plus importans ré-
sultats sur la physique solaire.

5, Sur V Application du Révolver Photographique a? Etude des Eclipses Par-
tielles et & celle des Mowvements des Animaua. Par Dr. J. JANssEN, de
U Institut.

Le Dr. J. Janssen explique qu’a Vaide du révolver photographique, qui a été
imaginé & l’occasion du passage de Vénus, on pourra obtenir des photographies suc-
cessives des éclipses partielles, et que l'inspection ou la mesure de images conduira
& la connaissance du temps des contacts et & celle de la position relative des
astres.

En modifiant les dispositions du révolver M. Janssen montre qu’on pourra aussi
Vappliquer & l’étude des mouvements des animaux, soit pendant la marche soit
pendant le vol. M. Janssen s’occupe de ce sujet.

6. Further Results of Experiments on Friction at High Velocities.
By Captain Gatron.—See Section G., p. 508.

7. On the Bursting of Firearms when the Muzzle is closed with Snow,
Earth, §c.'—By Professor Guorcr Forsus, F.R.S.H.

This well-known fact is explained in a simple manner. If the charge moved
slowly of course a very small pressure of air would drive out the obstacle, which
offers a very small resistance. But in practice a charge travels with a speed of
more than 1,000 feet a second, the velocity of sound, and greater than the velocity
with which the pressure of air in front of the charge can be transmitted along the
bore. Consequently we have a layer of air in intense pressure in front of the
charge, and the obstruction cannot be forced out until this layer reaches it, so as to
give it the velocity of the charge in the time taken for it to leave the muzzle. The
mathematical investigation shows that the pressure generated with a plug of the
density of air is 74 tons. This pressure is independent of the size of bore of
the gun and of the length of the plug.

8. Note on the Constancy of Capacity of Certain Accumulators.
By Dr. AexanveR Murrueap, F.C.S.

The object I have in view in making this communication is to draw the attention
of Section A of the British Association to the desirability of issuing a temporary
standard of electrical capacity, the want of which has considerably increased

' This investigation is given with the numerical calculation in the ‘Proceedings
of the R. S. E.’ 1878-9.

284 REPORT —1879.

since the last Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards, September 4,
1867.

At that time it was thought worth while to issue a provisional unit of capacity
to meet the requirements of the electric telegraph service, in the shape of a mica-
paraffin condenser of capacity to be determined by the ballistic method; but
according to the Report no decision had then been arrived at whether the new unit
should be issued by the Committee or on Professor Jenkin’s own responsibility. In an
appendix to that Report, Professor Jenkin has published the results of several deter-
minations of the capacity of a certain condenser of Mr. Latimer Clark’s construction,
adjusted to equal 10-14 electro-magnetic absolute units; in the values he obtained
there was an approximation of only -42 per cent. between the mean and any single
result, so that copies of such a preliminary standard would probably not have been
correct within much less than 1 per cent.

This apparent variation of capacity was due chiefly to the absorption of charge
by the dielectric used to separate the conducting plates; and, I believe, this con-
denser, and others made like it at the time, have failed altogether in insulation since.

In 1869 I carried out a series of experiments for Messrs. Clark & Muirhead, to
determine the best and most durable dielectric to use in the construction of con-
densers for the electrical testing and working of submarine telegraph cables, and I
soon found that a given dielectric absorbed less, the freer it was from foreign
matter. The materials that seemed best suited for the purpose were paper, mica,
paraffin, and shellac. Several condensers were made in the manner described by
Professor Jenkin in Appendix IV. to the above-mentioned Report, in which these
materials were used, purified in different ways, great care being taken in every
case to prevent the deposition of moisture on the plates during the construction of
the condensers. The plates that showed the least amount of absorption, with ordi-
dinary differences of potential, were those made of mica coated with shellac, that
had been purified with absolute alcohol. The condenser which I now exhibit was
constructed of such plates, and its capacity adjusted to equal one-third of a micro-
farad on comparison with four condensers lent to me by Mr. Latimer Clark and
My. Forde, one of which was the condenser referred to above in Professor Jenkin’s
report, and the other three were made from it by Messrs. Laws and Lambert,
assistants to Mr. Latimer Clark. According to my own determinations at the time,
by the ballistic method, using a needle whose period of vibration was 8 seconds, its
value was ‘331 microfarad, and I decided to take as correct the mean °332 of this,
and the value ‘333 got by comparison with the four condensers referable to Pro-
fessor Jenkin’s determinations. Ever since then, copies have been made of this
condenser and supplied by Elliott Bros., the late firm Warden & Co., and Clark,
Muirhead & Co. to manufacturers of scientific apparatus and others as standards ;
the number so issued is over 600. From the close agreement of the determinations
just made by Mr. Hockin (a member of the late Committee on Electrical Standards),
of the capacity of this condenser with mine made nine years ago (vide his note ap-
pended to this), it will be seen that probably no change greater than one-third
per cent. has taken place in it, and, therefore, one might confidently recommend the
British Association either to adopt this form of condenser as their temporary
standard, or to appoint another committee to re-investigate the subject. I might
add that I found very little absorption in condensers of brass plates embedded in
paraffin wax allowed to solidify under pressure, and also in some made with silvered
glass plates embedded in the same manner. In the absolute determination of the
capacity of these condensers by discharge through a galyanometer, no greater
differences than one-third per cent. need be made in the results, even with needles
varying in period of vibration by as much as from 23 seconds to 25 seconds. This
is the result of experience; and in defining the capacity it will be sufficient for all
practical purposes to specify complete saturation of the condenser and the method
of measurement adopted.

L have asked Professor Ayrton to draw the attention of the Section to the fact
that there is no one authorised to certify to the correctness of copies of the
various electrical standards originated by the British Association. I would sug-
gest that some public body, such as the Kew Observatory, be asked to undertake

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 285

the labour of comparing resistance coils, condensers, absolute electrometers, &c.,
against the standards to be lodged by the British Association for the purpose.

Value of the condenser from comparison with four con- 333 mf
densers lent by Messrs. Clark and Forde 1869 . A ;

Value of condenser determined by Dr. Muirhead, January 331 mf
1870, from throw of galvanometer needle . Z . Hii aes

Values obtained by fall of potential through small resistances—10,000—
vary according to time; for short time, ‘001 sec., the condenser comes
out *3305; for much longer time, *1 sec., its capacity comes out *335.

9. Note on the Capacity of a certain Condenser, and on the value of V.
By C. Hocxin, M.A.

The observations given in this paper were first begun with the object of re-
determining the value of the capacity of certain condensers employed in the practical
testing of cables, and in terms of which the capacity of many cables now submerged
have been recorded and published.

Dr, Muirhead and Professor Ayrton stated to me that they proposed to draw
the attention of the British Association to the desirability of recognising some one
condenser or condensers as a provisional standard.

Fully concurring in their views on this point, I have determined in various ways
the capacity of a condenser made by Dr. Muirhead several years ago, and the
particulars of which he has given in his paper.

The agreement of the value of the condenser now with the value it had when
first made is satisfactory, as showing the permanence of a well made condenser.

The order of the experiments made was as follows :—

1. A condenser was built up of silvered glass plates insulated from each other
by three small fragments of shellac.

2. The capacity of the glass condenser was determined by the ‘ ballistic’ method,
the deflection of a Thompson’s galvanometer needle being observed.

3. The glass or air condenser was compared with three other condensers by the
null method, that is to say, the glass condenser was charged to a definite positive,
say, potential, and one of the other condensers to some lower negative potential
such that when the two condensers were connected the potential of each fell to zero
immediately after the connection,

4, The capacities of the three condensers last mentioned were determined by
the throw of the needle of a Thompson’s galvanometer moving freely, and haying a
period of oscillation which was varied from 2°9 seconds to 25 seconds.

5. The rate at which the condensers lost their charge when the opposite plates
were connected by a known large resistance was determined.

6. A correction in one case has been applied for absorption determined by
observing the rate at which the potential of the condenser varied when after
discharging through a known resistance for given times, the circuit of the high
resistance was suddenly broken.

The glass condenser was thus made.

A hundred circles of the best flat plate glass were obtained and silyered on both
sides by the chemical process. They were supplied by Messrs. Farmiloe & Sons.

These were carefully examined, and any spots observed not covered by the
hed were covered with gold leaf secured by a little very weak gum or by a trace
of lard.

Connection was made with the surfaces of the glass plates by soldering a
thin copper wire to them with an alloy of cadmium and bismuth melting at a
very low temperature.

Fifty plates had a diameter of 127 mm. and 50 were of considerably greater
diameter.

The plates were built up thus.

A plate of shellac was made with flat sides by pouring melted shellac on a

286 REPORT—1879.

stout plate of glass about 12 mm. thick, and pressing the melted lac into a disc

by another similar plate of glass, the two plates being separated by slips of thin
lass.

e The plate so pressed was cut into small pieces, and the thickness of each piece

measured, the fragments having the same thickness (within ;2,; of an inch) being

placed together.

A stout piece of good plate glass was covered with tin-foil, and on this in
proper position three little pieces of lac were laid to support the first small circle of
glass ; on this three other pieces were placed over the first three pieces to support
the first large circle, and so on to the end. Care was taken to select the three
pieces supporting each plate of the same thickness.

The mean distance between the plates was determined by measuring the height
of the pile when completed, and the height after removing the shellac separating
the plates.

The mean area of the shellac by weighing the fragments used and comparing
their weight with that of a piece of the plate from which they were cut of such size
that its dimensions could be measured with some accuracy.

The three other condensers used (called A, B, C) were—

A. The condenser referred to in Dr. Muirhead’s paper.

B. A condenser made by Messrs. Warden & Clark at some time not known by

me and used for comparison.

C. A small mica condenser, capacity about 0-1 mfd. made in 1867, and copied
from the condenser described by Professor Jenkin in his paper, ‘ British
Association Reports,’ 1867.

The method of observation was as follows:—

a. The time of oscillation of a galyanometer needle was observed.

b. The deflection of the galvanometer needle produced by a steady current was
noted, the current being either that produced by the battery employed to charge
the condenser flowing through a resistance of from 500,000 to 1,000,000 ohms, or
else a current produced by any other battery, the electromotive force between
two points in the circuit separated by a lmown resistance being determined
in terms of the electromotive force employed to charge the condenser.

c. The condenser was charged and discharged several times. As it was found
impracticable to maintain the galvanometer needle at rest absolutely when the
time of oscillation was great, the method employed was to reduce the oscillations
to a small amount, 2, 3, or 4 divisions, read three successive oscillations and
discharge the condenser at the moment that the needle was at rest, and on the
point of changing its direction of motion. The mean of the second deflection and
the half sum of the first and third deflections is taken ‘as the zero, and the total
excursion of the needle in the case in question is not altered by the fact that the
needle started from a position of rest but not of equilibrium.

{n fact, let © be the angle defining the extreme excursion of the needle due
a given impulse applied to it when it was at rest in a position of equilibrium.

6 the extreme excursion when the impulse is applied, when the position of the
needle is defined by the angle 6, and is oscillating through an angle 6, on either side
of its zero point. Then (neglecting the effect of air resistance)

On /gimOp + Var=O3

and, therefore, if 6,=6,, or the impulse is applied at the moment the needle is at
the extremity of an excursion,

O=/ 86?
n\2
= (1-28 + &e.)
ew ae 4”
a

may be neglected, as it may in all the cases occurring in these experiments,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 287

’ d, Experiment 6 repeated.
e. Experiment a repeated.

Jf. The coefficient due to damping was determined. An oscillation being set up, a
number of swings of the needle were observed, and the log. decrement of the
deflections calculated.

Let 6, and On +1 be two excursions of the needle measured on the same side
of the zero and separated by complete oscillations.

1 6
Let = lor —. = 1]
Can a On+1 noe
Then if 6 is the observed excursion of the needle due to an instantaneous
impulse applied when the needle was at rest near the zero point, and 8.6 the ex-
cursion that would have occurred had there been no resistance to the motion of the
needle,
1 1 Or
Qa log a

If we write a = 1+2 where z is small,

* Lo 3 =)
pl aoa en
res yy ASA
= 4 pEee bef Uvest
at (seleitee a
ese A BI

—zt

2408 38477 96 n+
+ &e.,
or
B = 1 + 0:25000z
— 0:119082?
+ 0:07369z5
— 0:0515824

—a convenient expression sufficiently accurate for most practical cases.

The time of oscillation was determined as follows :—The needle was brought
to rest, started by discharging a condenser through the galvanometer exactly at the
beat of a chronometer; by listening to the heats the periods of the first five swings
of the needle were observed and registered, a certain number (usually ten) of oscil-
lations were then counted, and the periods of five successive swings again measured,
cand so on.

The mean of the first five observations, the second five, and so on were
treated as the time of the 2nd, 16th, 30th, &c., oscillation. No sensible change
- in period due to extent of oscillation was observed.

In this manner results agreeing within 0:1 per cent. were readily obtained.

The galvanometer was inclosed in an iron chest of 3 in. wrought iron with a
‘small opening to admit the light to the needle. The zero of the instrument re-
mained yery constant even when the period of oscillation was larze—25 seconds
for example.

The needles were made of little pieces of watch spring hardened and well mag-
netised ; the lower series being attached to a brass disc fixed to an aluminium
Wire perpendicular to the plane of the disc, and vertically over its centre.

The results obtained are now given :—

Glass condenser as first set up.

Ist series of experiments Cap. =0:00697 mfds.
Tet oy PS a =0:00694 _,,
ord fe rf er =0:00696 __,,

Mean... . . 000696 _ ,, °

288 REPORT— 1879.

By comparison with glass condenser—

a B =0°3261 Thompson’s method.

’
‘; C =0:0995 _,,
Condenser A = osass

Condenser A =0'3324 ra

By direct measurement, the time of oscillation

” B =0:8255 of the needle being 16°8 sec. approximately.

» 0 =0°1026

The discrepancy in the two values of O is due to the great absorption noticed
in this condenser.

The value of B is also rather too large from the same cause.

The surfaces of forty-nine plates of diameter 0°127 mm., and separated by an
average distance of 1:623 mm. from the larger plates, were discharged in this case,
giving for v, without corrections, the value 296 x 10°—m. per second. The cor-
rection for the greater induction through the pieces of shellac is +3 x 10°, and for
the edges of the plate —1 x 10°, giving for v the value 298 x 10°.

The condenser was then taken to pieces and set up again. In the second case
the larger plates were separated by pieces cut from a plate of flat plate glass, and
the smaller plates resting on them were insulated by three very small fragments of
shellac.

The distance of the surfaces was determined in this case differently. Fifty
small plates were used. The 150 slips of glass separating the larger plates were
cleaned with nitric acid, brushed with a camel’s hair pencil, and piled on each
other on an inclined metre scale, and the total height measured several times.

The small plates were brushed in like manner, placed on each other, resting on
a plate of flat glass, and another large stout plate placed on them, with a weight of
about 3 kilos. The distance between the glass plates was measured with a pair of
inside calipers at four points on a circle, concentric with the pile of small plates,
From the data thus obtained the average distance apart of the inducing surfaces
was estimated. The result was as follows:—Fifty plates, diameter 127 mm.,
distant 2°362 mm. from larger plates. Capacity, 0°005007 mfds.,

Whence . : - - : v=299°5 x 108
Correction for edges - 5 —1:0 x 10°
ap shellac ; 0 +0°3 x 10°

Final result. : 298°8 x 10°—say 299.

A further slight correction should have been made for the connecting wires
and for the small quantity of solder on each plate, but the corrections will not be
sensible within the degree of accuracy obtained by the measurements.

The final result, 298,000,000 metres per second, agrees closely with that
obtained by Professor Ayrton, whose method (nearly) is adopted, and with the
best value of the velocity of light determined by direct experiment.

A great many measurements of condensers A and B were next made by the
ballistic method. I give only the result of each set of experiments here, leaving
the figures for a supplement, to show the sort of accuracy obtained in observation.

Time Oscillation. Capacity of A Capacity of B
Seconds. in mfds. in mfds
1 Tore) : : — ; ; 0°3276
2 16°80 : : — . 5 03214
3 T 784 ; ; — , : 0:3218
4 16°76 5 4 0°3312 3 : 0°3255 Mean of three sets.
D 25°12 ; : 0:3272 5 ; or
6 x 25:00 5 ; 0°3241 4 4 0°3167
7 x 12°88 m1 ; 03248 - ; 0:3176
8 12°32 4 0°3314 5 0°3247
9 12°30 A 5 03305 ‘ ‘ 03234
10 2°923 5 < 0°3310 5 “ 0°3219

Sets 6 and 7 I have put down, but they may fairly be neglected, I think,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 289

because the batteries were found next day not to be in good order, In taking the
mean I reject them, and find

Cap. A =0'3806
‘PZ o393, } mids

To determine the capacity by loss of charge the connections were arranged as
below,

{

s

eo
i

(

if

(

?

¢

Fig, 1,

B is the battery, s a Varley’s ‘slide resistance, dividing the potential into
10,000 parts.

a, @ resistance in pt. a g wire = 200,000 ohms.

b, a variable resistance.

x, a selenium resistance from 200 megs, to 270 megs.

r, a pt. a g wire resistance = 1,000,000 ohms.

The resistances « and 7 were lent me by Mr. H. A. Taylor, who had made
them with great accuracy, and in conjunction with whom a few of the observations
now given were made.

The selenium resistances were made by Mr. Bassett; the selenium bars were
sealed in glass tubes with platinum terminals. The tubes inserted in holes bored
in a plate of ebonite and filled in with paraffine wax, ensuring a very high degree
of insulation.

CO is the condenser, K a Lambert’s discharging key, E a Thomson’s quadrant
electrometer, and G a sensitive galvanometer.

The method of observation was as follows :—

a. f and g were pressed down and 6 adjusted, so that 2:7 =a:b.

8. At a given instant g is raised and the slides eradually moved to the
expected position of the spot after the condenser had discharged itself for the
proper time.

y. At a given instant fis raised, the slide reading, and position of the spot
noted as soon as possible, and also after given intervals,

8. Observation a repeated.

1879. U

290 REPORT—1879.

In this way the following results were obtained for condenser B (corrected for
absorption) :—

Time of Insulating Condenser.

Seconds. Capacity of B.
Dy? i : : : 3 ; 0°3095
LO ; . ‘ : 0°3160
TBA te : : : 5 3 03175
Ua F - : , , 0°3232
25—CO« : ; : : : 3207
80. - : 4 Q F 3224
85. : ? : - . 3244
40. , : i : : 3203
ARRAN, : ; : ¢ _—
50.—C : : : ; é 3224
3216
GQ. ; fl i : : 3994

Omitting the first value, as 5 seconds is too small a period to be measured
accurately by ear, the mean capacity of condenser B becomes 0°5211.

Without assistance I was unable to repeat with the same accuracy the experi-
ments with condenser A. There was much less absorption with this condenser,
but greater leakage, owing, I believe, to the surface of the ebonite a good deal.
The mean of all values gave for A the capacity 0°332 mfds.

If, therefore, the capacity of A is defined as the apparent capacity, deter-
mined by the throw of a galvanometer with a period of between 3 and, say, 15
seconds, I think the value 0°331 mfds. will be correct to the last figure.

10. On an Electrical Gyrostat. By Professor G. Forsus, F.2.S.E.

11. On the Condition which must be fulfilled by any number of Forces
directed towards Fixed, or Movable, Centres, in order that any given
curve should be described freely by a particle acted on by these Forces
simultaneously ; and an analogous Problem. By Arruur Hitt Curtis,
DLLD.

I. When a particle describes a curve freely under the action of any number
of forces the equations of motion can be reduced to the two foollowing :—

VaF, G+FG+ée . . . « (0)
vdv = —(F, dr, + F, dr, + &e.) : ; . (2)

or v=SF 5) vdv= —& Fdr,
F,, F., &e., being forces acting along 7,, 7,, &c., and tending to diminish them,
while ¢,, ¢,, &c., are the chords of curvature coinciding in direction with these
lines respectively, and dr,, dr,, &c., are the projections on them of the element of
the curvilinear path of the particle.

From the above equations the following equation results :—

B{F(de+4dr)+edFhao, . . . (8)

but, if d,, do, &e., denote the forces respectively codirectional with F,, F,, under
which singly the given curve would be described, we must have, as particular
cases of (3), p, (de, +4 dr) +e dp,=0, hy (de,.+4dr.)+¢e, dpz=0, &e., &e.

ao

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 291

o*. de, +4 dry= — 1, and .*, from,(3) 5 ¢ (ar-*7) = 0, or
a

F
sepd(=)=0 J sions OF. ,.yeor(A)
which is the condition sought, and must be ¢dentically true for every point on the
curve, the initial velocity being given by the equation v,? = (s F 5 i

One consequence of the condition (4) is that if an orbit be describable by a
particle under the action of each of a number of forces, acting towards fixed, or
movable, centres, including the case where some of the centres may be at an
infinite distance, this orbit can also be described by a particle acted on by these
forces simultaneously, each being multiplied by an arbitrary constant, while the
square of the initial velocity is the sum of the squares of the initial velocities cor-
responding to the forces separately, these squares being multiplied by the same
constants respectively. Any laws being assumed for all the forces, F,, F,, &c.,
except one, the equation (4) determines the remaining force. Special applications
to an ellipse, the forces being directed towards the centre and foci, are made in
the paper.

II. A condition identical with (4) exists in the case of a string acted on by a
number of forces and in equilibrium in any given form.

Special applications to the case of an ellipse, the forces being directed towards
the centre and foci, are made in the paper.

12. On a Theorem relating to the Transformation of Series.
By the Rey. S. Harnsuaw, M.A.

13. Improved Photographic Screens. By J. H. Sraruine, F.0.8., A.1.C.

There have been many attempts from time to time to devise a particular form of
lens-covering or cap for photographic cameras which would permit the operator to
expose or cover the lens as quickly as possible, and with the least possible disturb-
ance of the apparatus.

The old and usual form of cap cannot be said to fulfil these requirements, since
the rapidity of manipulation depends entirely upon the operator. Moreover, how-
ever skilfully this is used, it is almost impossible to ayoid disturbing the apparatus
more or less.

The spring sliding shutter, which is by no means a new invention, although an
improvement as regards mere mechanism in the above, can only be used for rapid
working. A third form of lens-covering has been devised by a Mr. Cadet, which
consists simply of a circular disc, which can be made to open or shut externally or
internally on an ordinary hinge by means of suitable mechanism.

It occurred to the inventors that the kind of covering which would meet the prac-
tical requirements necessary for the perfect working of a camera must be one which
should open if possible from the centre, and be so under the control of the operator
as to be opened or shut either rapidly or slowly, and at the same time noiselessly,
so that it might be used either for landscape, photography, or portraiture.

The present invention, which I have the honour of bringing before your notice,
may without doubt be said to fulfil these somewhat difficult conditions.

By means of a suitable transmitting power, which may be used at any required
distance from the camera, the covering, which you will perceive consists of two
peculiarly curved halves, is caused to be opened or shut much in the same manner
as a pair of shears, thus exposing the lens from the first at the centre, and gradually
increasing the opening towards the circumference. This may he done rapidly or

U2

992 REPORT—1879.

slowly, as you perceive the cover is placed inside the camera, and when in perfect
order may be worked noiselessly.

Norr.—Can be kept open any length of time without exertion. Can be closed
instantaneously. No vibration,

14. On a Binocular Spectroscope. By G. Jounstone Stoney, M.A., F.R.S.

In this instrument, which is not yet finished, there will be two collimators placed
parallel to one another, provided with horizontal slits which lie in the same right
line. The telescopes will also be parallel, and will be in a convenient inclined
position, Between them lie the prisms, which are a semiprism, a complete prism,
and another semiprism of bisulphide of carbon, plunged in a tank of water, and
connected by Mr. Grubb’s simple automatic motion, which consists of a link and
two cogged wheels. The angles of the prisms will be large, their faces disks of
optical glass five inches square, and the collimators and telescopes are of two-inch
aperture. With this instrument the spectrum will be spread out vertically, and
the lines in it will be horizontal.

15. On a Simple two-prism Automatic Motion.
By G. Jounstone Sroney, M.A., F.R.S.

In this arrangement, which is easily constructed by an amateur, and which has
worked for a long time satisfactorily, the collimator and telescope are fixed on two
boards, A and B, jointed together by a hinge, the prisms stand on little wooden
tables, a and 6, which turn on pivots fixed in the boards, A and B, under the
middles of the first and last surfaces of the prisms respectively. The motion of
each of these tables is trammelled by a link, connecting a projection from the front
of the table with a point on the front of the board upon which it does not stand,
the radius from the first end of the link to the pivot on which the little table turns
being four times the radius from the other end of the link to the hinge of the
boards, and these radii being parallel to one another when the instrument is set
upon the middle of the spectrum. Thus the table ais connected by its link with
the front of the board B, and the table 6 with the board A. Strips of brass are
let into the wood to receive the holes in which the pivots and links work, and the
links are also of brass. One of the links is arched upwards and the other down-
wards, sufficiently to clear each other. Pencilled lines are drawn on the little
tables to mark the proper positions of the prisms, so that they can be replaced
without delay after they have been removed.

16. On Scales of Variable Length for the eye-pieces of Spectroscopes.
By G. Jounstone Stoney, M.A.,-F. B.S.

This communication was made chiefly for the purpose of inviting the attention of
instrument makers to the want of a convenient scale in the field of view of a
spectroscope, the interval between the divisions of which can be varied to suit the
part of the spectrum under examination. It was suggested that the property of a
spiral spring, to retain the equal spacing of its spires when extended, might be
made use of, A scale, of which the length can be varied, is also very much wanted
for use with maps of spectra. Possibly a scale simply laid down on vulcanised
india-rubber would work sufficiently well here.

17. On Flight and its Imitations. By F. W. Breary.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 293

Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor J. DEWAR, M.A., F.R.S., L. & E.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.
The PresrpEnt delivered an Address.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on the Chemistry of some of the lesser known
Alkaloids—See Reports, p. 133.

2. On some Relations between the Numbers expressing the Atomic Weights
of the Elements. By Watrer Wetvon, F.B.S.E.

3. On the Synthesis of Diphenyl Propyl. By M. R. D. Sitva.

4. Recent Researches in Explosive Agents. By F. A. Abet, F.B.S.

5. On Vapour Densities. By Professor Dewar, F.R.S.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.

The following Papers were read :—
1. On Large Crystals of Mercury Sulphate. By Pump Branay, F.C.S.

The crystals exhibited had taken over two years in forming, and were due
2 the presence of a trace of Nitric Acid in the sulphuric in which they were
‘ormed.

2. On the Manufacture of Crucible Steel. By Henry S. Bett, F.0.8., Se.

The manufacture of crucible steel is one of the most important industries con-
nected with the town of Sheffield, which boasts of not less than 120 firms engaged
in the production of this material. Notwithstanding the enormous output of
steel by the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes, this kind of steel is unrivalled

294 REPORT—1879.

for the manufacture of the finer varieties of cutlery and edged tools, &c. A brief
outline of the process itself is as follows :—The most of the iron employed for this
purpose is imported into this country in the shape of bars from Sweden, where it
has been smelted from very pure iron ores, in a blast furnace, by the aid of charcoal,
and subsequently puddled to free it from impurities.

The first operation to which it is subjected, is that known as the cementation or
converting process, the object of which is to combine a certain quantity of carbon
with the iron; this operation is performed in a furnace of peculiar construction,
where the iron and charcoal are packed together in air-tight chests or converting
pots, subjected to a high temperature short of the fusing point of iron, where it
remains for a matter of three weeks.

After the conversion, when the pots are cold the bars are taken out and found
to be covered with blisters, hence it is termed Blister Steel. In consequence of the
various theories proposed to account for this peculiar formation, the writer was
induced to make a series of investigations. For this purpose he was kindly fur-
nished by Messrs. Seebohm and Dieckstahl of the Dannemora Steel Works, with
some samples of this blister steel, various portions of which he submitted to
analysis, the results of which showed a marked increase of silicon where the blisters
occurred, thus—

Sample 1. Blister 2 inches in length contained . 0-070 per cent. silicon.
» 2. Small blister contained : ‘ - 0:048 ”
+ Wy Bh = i 3 ; . 0:056 »
» 1. Unblistered portions contained ‘ . 0:023 “
” 2. ” ” ” > 3 0:021 ”
nat ieee 53 = 3 ; . 0°025 5

On inspecting one of these bars of blister steel, it is found that it has undergone
both a physical and a chemical change.

The iron has now assumed a crystalline structure, and has chemically combined
with a certain amount of carbon. This latter chance commences on the exterior,
and extends itself to the interior of the bar, if the process be continued sufficiently
long, thus showing that carbonic oxide never penetrates into the centre of the bar,
until the whole is converted into steel.

The writer is indebted to the kindness of the above-mentioned firm for a sample
of bar iron, before and after conversion, in order to ascertain the exact chemical
change that took place during the process. The following are the results obtained :—

Before Conversion After Conversion

Fe ; ; ‘ 99°471 98-603
C ; : : - 0°352 1°250
Si ; ‘ ‘ é 0°050 0:035
SS) : : ; : 0:027 0:022
P : : é e 0°025 0-018
Mu F - : : 0:075 0:072

100-000 100:000

The decrease in impurities appears greater than it really is, owing to the fact
that the bar itself has increased in weight by the addition of carbon.

One remarkable fact is that, after the conversion of the iron, a quantity of the
charcoal, in the converting pots, is found in a pulverised state, so as to be unfit for
further use.

Some of this waste charcoal the writer has examined, and from one sample, by
the aid of a magnet, he succeeded in extracting 5 to 6 per cent. of iron scale and
smali pieces of steel. These on being treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, evolved
considerable quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen; in one case he estimated the
quantity of sulphur, and found it to contain as much as 1:25 per cent. of this
element. The blister steel thus produced, for the sake of convenience is divided
into six different classes, viz.,

Spring heat. Country heat.
Single shear heat. Double shear heat.
Steel through heat, Melting heat.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 295

The steel is now broken up into small pieces and melted in crucibles, and cast
into ingots. These are sent to the forge, where they are heated and rolled. In
this part of the process the chief difficulty with which the silter has to contend is
the porous or ‘ honey-combed ’ structure of the steel.

One of the characteristic features relied on by practical men as indicating the
quality of a piece of steel is the appearance of its fracture ; but this is by no means
an infallible test, as the fineness or coarseness of grain can be produced by
mechanical treatment or chemical means.

The characteristic property possessed by steel is its capability of being hardened
and tempered. The temper of cast steel may be said to range from 0°75 to 1:50
per cent. carbon. The temper of steel is an important question in connection with
the purpose for which it is required, thus a steel containing 1:50 per cent. of carbon
is the class employed for razors, 1:26 per cent. is that known as ‘ tool temper.’
Steel containing 1-00 per cent. carbon is termed ‘chisel steel,’ and this temper is
extensively used in the arts.

The favourite marks of Swedish now employed in the manufacture of this kind
of steel, are those obtained from Dannemora, the most noted of which are the 00=

Double Bullet, G, = GL, and (L.) =Hoop L.

The most important of the elements which affect the quality and mechanical
properties of steel are the following :

Carbon, Silicon, Sulphur, Phosphorus, and Manganese.

Carbon, by its direct combination with iron, is essentially the steel-forming ele-
ment, and greatly increases the hardness and tensile strength of the metal. The
maximum quantity of carbon capable of being taken up by iron is 6°5 per cent. to
7:00 per cent. This high percentage of carbon is only attained, as in the case of
rich Ferromanganese, containing as much as from 85 to 86 per cent. of manganese.

Silicon.—The action of this element on steel is to produce both red and cold
shortness, especially in high made steels. Under certain conditions, it is capable
of imparting hardness without brittleness. The presence of this element also tends
to favour a solid casting, and prevent the formation of a honey-combed structure.

Sulphur in steel, as is well known, produces ‘ red shortness,’ and has also a ten-
dency to prevent the chemical combination of iron with carbon, and also to dis-
place it when in combination.

Phosphorus produces cold shortness and brittleness, but the detrimental influence
of this element, when present only in small quantities, can be partially neutralised,
providing the percentage of carbon is very low.

Manganese is a valuable ally of the steel melter, and serves to correct the evil
effects produced by the presence of sulphur, oxygen, &c. ; and when in the state of
an oxide serves to eliminate a large percentage of the silicon.

Manganese is generally introduced into the steel in the form of ‘ Spiegeleisen,’ an
alloy of iron, carbon, and manganese, generally containing about 10 per cent. of the
latter element.

Other metals have been employed to replace carbon, such as tungsten, chromium,
and titanium: these impart great hardness and fineness to the texture of steel.

For a considerable amount of practical information given in his paper, but
necessarily omitted from this abstract, the writer is indebted to a valuable essay
written some years aso on this subject by Henry Seebohm, Esq., of the firm of
Messrs. Seebohm & Dieckstahl.—This paper is not intended to give any additional
information to the practical steel makers of Sheflield, as to the manutacture of
steel, or to offer any criticisms or advice in the matter; its object is simply to give
an outline of the manufacture as it is still carried on in this town, with the hope
that it may prove interesting to many of those who have come from a distance to
attend the visit of the British Association, and who are unacquainted with the pro-
cess which has caused Sheffield to become the great manufacturing steel centre in
this country,

296 REPORT—1879.

3. On the Separation of Iron and Phosphorus, specially with reference to the
Manufacture of Steel. By Tuomas Buair.

The larger proportion of iron ores raised in this and most other countries con-
tain so much phosphorus as to render them unsuitable for the manufacture of steel.
Pig irons made from pure hematite ores, containing 0:03 to 0-06 per cent. of
phosphorus, are alone suitable for this purpose. The bulk of iron made from English
ores contains 0°50 to 1:60 per cent.

Steel made from phosphoretic iron is excessively brittle when cold, and is, con-
sequently, unsuited for most purposes. In a high-class steel the phosphorus should
never reach 0°10 per cent.; but in second qualities it is not unusual to find 0:20
or 0:25 per cent.

As the removal of this objectionable element is very necessary, numerous
attempts have been made to eliminate it in the various stages of the manufacture
of iron and steel.

M. Jacobi based a process for removing phosphorus from ores containing it as
calcium-phosphate, on the fact that this salt is soluble in an aqueous solution of
sulphurous acid gas; but although he effected this removal commercially, the
process was impracticable, owing to the circumstance that it was necessary to
pulverise the ore, thereby unfitting it for exclusive use in the blast furnace.

The action of the smelting operation is such that not only is all the iron reduced,
but also other elements, notably phosphorus, silicon, sulphur, carbon, and man-
ganese; and it is only during disordered working, when oxide of iron is being
slagged off, that any of the phosphorus existing in the mineral is removed. In the
earlier days of iron smelting, when the furnaces used were very imperfect, it was
possible to make excellent iron from ores which now give a very inferior product
in the modern furnace, owing to this fact.

No method has as yet been discovered by which phosphorus and iron can be
separated during smelting.

Up to the time of Bessemer’s invention pig-iron was usually purified in the
puddling process, the principle of which is the washing out of phosphide of iron by
intimate contact with fused oxide of iron. Silicon and carbon are also removed,
and wrought-iron of good quality can be made by this process from iron containing
much phosphorus. Some of the silicon, and small quantities of phosphorus and
carbon, are sometimes removed previous to puddling by the action of an air blast,
and addition of oxide of iron, in the refinery, or ‘running-out fire.’

The Henderson process has been very successful in removing the whole of the
phosphorus rapidly during puddling ; it consists in the addition of fluor-spar and
titaniferous ore.

In the Bessemer process the carbon and silicon are rapidly and completely
removed, but the phosphorus actually increases in quantity, or rather becomes cor-
centrated, since the iron is to some extent oxidized, while the phosphorus remains
unattacked. The siliceous lining of the converter forbids the existence of a basic
slag, which is the condition necessary for its removal.

In the Siemens’ process the same state of things exists, and since the greater
proportion of the steel made in the world is the product of these two processes, it
will be readily seen that the use of phosphoretic irons is very necessary, and in fact,
is now a burning question since many articles formerly made of puddled iron, such
as rails, are now made of steel. Iron ores suitable for puddled iron are consequently
unfitted for the production of iron for steel-making.

The first process suggested for the rapid removal of phosphorus was that of
Mr. Isaac Lowthian Bell, who proposed to wash the molten pig-iron with a large
quantity of molten oxide of iron. By this means he succeeded in removing as
much as 90 per cent. of the phosphorus.

Krupp’s process consists in forming a thick coating of manganiferous iron ore
on the bottom of a Pernot-Siemens furnace, and melting pig-iron thereon. It is
stated that good results have been arrived at by this method.

The use of alkaline chlorides, fluorides, and other salts, have also been suc-
cessful, likewise the action of chlorine gas in presence of an excess of carbon,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. - 297

In 1872 Mr. G. J. Snelus pointed out that phosphorus could be eliminated by
the maintenance of a basic slag in the Bessemer converter. Having noticed that
certain kinds of magnesian limestone became indurated when fired hard, he lined
up a vessel with such lime, and in it successfully dephosphorised Cleveland pig-
iron containing about 1°50 per cent. of phosphorus.

Messrs. Thomas and Gilchrist have during the past year successfully worked out
a process which is hkely to be universally adopted. It is briefly, as follows :—

Ist. A durable basic lining.

2nd. Additions of basic material.

3rd. Continuing the blast after the carbon has been fully oxidized, for the pur-
pose of scorifying phosphorus.

Bricks of the following composition are made by firing at a temperature nearly
equal to the melting point of platinum, and are very durable.

Silica i ; A 2 é : ; : A 4 ‘ 9:20
Lime F A : : : : : : F : ; 46:70
Magnesia . 5 : : : . : : : : é 32°80
Oxide of iron, alumina, &e, ‘ ; : : F 11°30

100-00

A proper selection of the stone is all that is necessary; the presence of silica
and alumina causes ‘fritting,’ and the bricks are very sound. Silicate of soda has
been used, and Mr. E. Riley has made a lining by using petroleum or kindred oils,
to render the lime plastic.

The additions of magnesian limestone, with or without mixture with oxide of
iron, are made at the commencement of the process, resulting in the rapid removal
of silicon; the carbon then commences to disappear, and when this has gone the
phosphorus goes.

On the addition of spiegeleisen, the manganese, reacting on the phosphoric acid
contained in the slag, causes a portion of the phosphorus to return to the metal.
Hence the blown metal, with 0-076 per cent. of phosphorus, is converted into
steel, with 0:177 per cent. by addition of spiegeleisen. This reaction was discovered
by Mr. Stead, some years ago.

In the refining and puddling processes, as also in Bell’s, the silicon and phos-
phorus are removed at the same time, and the carbon later, the elimination of
ep eeiorus ceasing as soon as the carbon begins to go, whereas in the Thomas
and Gilchrist process the carbon is all gone before the phosphorus commences to
scorify. M. Pourcel argues from the foregoing that a highly silicious pig would
be better than one low in silicon, but experience teaches that an excess of this
element is very undesirable, owing to the fact that the blow is prolonged, an in-
creased quantity of slag is made, the waste is greater, and the corrosive action of
the silica on the lime lining is excessive. At present, however, the presence of
silicon is necessary as a source of heat. Attempts have been made by Bell, Wilks,
and Hollway to add carbon to the bath during blowing, as a source of heat.
Hollway proposes to burn the flame within the vessel itself, by means of a separate
range of tuyeres.

Some objections have been raised as to the commercial possibility of the manu-
facture of steel by such processes; these may be answered as follows :—

Ist. Every kind of pig iron made is capable of treatment. Pigs high in silicon
are objectionable, for the reasons previously stated.
mane. Operations on a large scale are even more successful than experimental

a
_ 3rd, The waste is found to be 17 to 18 per cent., only 2 per cent. higher than
in the ordinary Bessemer process. The amount of slag made is from 3} to 6 ewt.
per ton of pig iron used. The after-blowing is not a source of waste, inasmuch as
that the iron does not commence to oxidise, until practically the whole of the car-
bon and phosphorus are burnt out.

4th. The corrosive action on the lining is greater than in the ordinary Bessemer
process, but when blowing iron low in silicon the lining answers well.

298 REPORT. —1879.

5th. It has been said that the result of the process will be uncertain. In prac-
tice this is not found to be the case; in 20 blows the phosphorus was found to
range from 0:04 to 0:14 per cent., and the analysis of numerous samples proves the
steel to be of excellent quality. In a few cases, however, when the blast was not
continued long enough, as much as 02 per cent. has been found.

6th. The sources of extra cost may be summed up as follows :—

1. The slightly increased waste.

2. The labour necessary to deal with the extra slag.

3. The cost of the bassie additions.

4, The extra cost of linings.

5. The decreased output of the plant, it being necessary to blow smaller charges
owing to the slag, and the risk of splashing; and also the time occupied in taking
samples.

6. The smaller production of the blast furnace while’ smelting poor phosphoretic
ores, than when smelting rich hematite ores. This, however, it is contended, is
already considered in the price of such iron,

The margin between Cleveland and Bessemer pig iron is now about 10s. per
ton, but when prices reach a normal state it will be more than this. There is,
therefore, that sum to work upon, and it does not appear that the items mentioned
will amount to even 7s. 6d. per ton.

As a set-off against the cost of the process may be considered the fact that
enormous deposits of cheap iron ore, now worthless for steel making, will be
utilised, and that existing works will prolong their lives, especially those within
easy reach of coal and ironstone.

It has been gravely asserted that steel made by any of the processes described
cannot be of equal quality to that made from pure iron. This is simply an assertion
not based on fact. Steel of good chemical composition, sound and clean, is as good
as any other of the same composition, irrespective of how, where, or from what it
is made It appears to be every day more and more probable that Bessemer and
Siemens steel will gradually replace the finer qualities, now made by very ex-
pensive processes.

4, A New Process in Metallurgy. By Joun Houuway.

The theory of this process has been developed from known principles, aided by
experimental work undertaken for the purpose of investigating the action of rapid
oxidation upon pyritous substances, with a view to their metallurgic treatment
upon a large scale. Before these experiments were made, metallurgists had not
realised the fact that pyrites and other sulphides (even with the addition of a
considerable proportion of incombustible materials) can be decomposed and fused by
the heat developed in the oxidation which takes place whenever air is rapidly
brought into contact with an excess of molten sulphides. When this is effected by
introducing air under pressure through apertures of a few millimetres in diameter
in the bottom of a hearth upon which the molten sulphides lie, the results pro-
duced are very remarkable. Thus when cupreous pyrites was so treated, a true
combustion of the more oxidisable constituents took place, flame and incandescence
resulted, and the decomposition was effected with great rapidity.

It was primarily surmised that in this manner, neglecting the influence of
mass, the elements would be burnt in the regular order of their relative affinities
for oxygen, and that the second atom of sulphur in iron pyrites, which can be ex-
pelled by fusion, would escape oxidation in the molten bath and be volatilised in
the current of sulphurous acid and nitrogen emerging from the surface of the
molten liquid. The more volatile oxides and sulphides in the material operated
upon, such as those of arsenic, antimony, lead, and zine would volatilise with this
freed sulphur, and condense partly before the latter, though more or less contami-
nating that product. If the oxidation be arrested at a point determinable by prac-
tice, calculation, or some marked change in the spectrum, two products of different
specific gravity will be obtained, namely a slag of silicate of iron, lime, alumina,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 299

&e., containing the iron protoxide resulting from the oxidation of the iron sulphide,
combined as silicate with the siliceous fluxing materials present in the bath; and
underneath this, the regulus or remaining unburnt sulphides, containing in an ap-
proximately known state of concentration the more valuable metals derived from
the metalliferous substances operated upon. It was, however, necessary for the
practical application of the theory that sufficient heat should be developed during the
combustion of the iron, zinc, or other less valuable sulphides to keep the materials
molten during the operation. The temperatures of oon of various sulphides,
calculated from known data, approached the maximum temperature attainable by
the combustion of coal, and this inspired a considerable amount of confidence. In
the case of iron pyrites these calculations are only rough approximations, as the
latent heat of sulphur vapour is not known. It was found that when thus
treating cupreous pyrites, the order in which the elements became oxidised was as
follows:—

1. Zine and iron.

2. Sulphur.

8. Lead and copper.

The above reactions find a parallel in the elimination of the metalloids from cast
iron by Bessemer’s process, in which silicon and carbon and then phosphorus and
manganese are successively burnt out of the crude metal. Parallel analogies also
exist between the process of puddling and English copper smelting; where the
oxidation proceeds but slowly, and the necessary heat is obtained by the burning
of coal.

The foregoing conclusions have been verified experimentally ; full particulars
thereof will be found in papers brought before the Society of Arts, February 12
and April 30 of this year.

The spectroscopic observations taken by Dr. W. M. Watts during the course of
these experiments were valuable and interesting, and I am indebted to him for the
following information :—

In the experiments at Penistone two spectra were observed ; the first, that
given by the flame from the charging door of the cupola in which the pyrites was
melted; the second, produced by the blast of air through the molten protosulphide
in the converter. The cupola-spectrum was shown by direct comparison with the -
spectrum of a flame coloured by lead chlorate to be mainly due to oxide of lead,
but contained besides some few of the lines which appear to be proper to the
converter-spectrum. Analysis showed that the lead present in the ore was almost
entirely volatalised during the preliminary melting of the ore, the molten proto-
sulphide charged into the converter containing only 0:8 per cent. lead. The
converter flame gives a brilliant spectrum extending from the lithium line some-
what beyond the thallium line, which is usually present. Its most marked feature
is the presence of four bright red lines about equally spaced between the sodium
and lithium lines. Their wave lengths, as far as at present known, are approxi-
mately 5,999, 6,151, 6,320, and 6,466, besides a fainter line at 6,110. These lines
are not those of any known spectrum. The way in which the flame is obtained
suggests the theory that they are sulphur lines. When sulphur is burned in air or
oxygen the spectrum obtained is entirely continuous, and even if air be bubbled
through boiling sulphur no lines are obtained. Two spectra of sulphur obtained by
the electric discharge through a vacuum tube containing vapour of sulphur have
been described, but neither contains these four red lines. The spark with a
Leyden jar in a current of sulphur dioxide at the ordinary pressure yields a
spectrum (at present under investigation) apparently not previously described, in
which, however, the red lines are altogether different from those of the converter-
spectrum. The constancy with which these four red lines are associated tcegether
seems to preclude the possibility of their being due to different substances, other-
wise the most refrangible line might be due to lead. No lines of copper were
observed except in the fourth experiment, in which all the lines except those of
sodium disappeared about six minutes before the turn-down. When in this ex-
periment, towards the end of the blow, the subsulphide of copper began to burn, a
splendid emerald green flame suddenly appeared, and all the lines except those of

300 REPORT—1879..

copper and sodium left the spectrum. During the last few minutes of the blow the
mouth of the converter was dull and without flame, the sulphur and oxidisable
matter having been burnt out.

The principal cost of plant will be for the blast. Where sufficient water-power
is available, a plant capable of treating 15,000 tons of pyrites annually could be
erected at a cost of about 1,500/. Where, however, water-power is not available,
steam boilers will be requisite, and the additional cost for plant may be 500/., or
perhaps 1,000/.

With regard to the furnace, it is proposed to make the hearth, or rather crucible,
of siliceous, aluminous, or refractory carbonaceous material. A sufficiently large
proportion of siliceous flux in the furnace charge will greatly mitigate the action
of the resulting iron protoxide upon the silica of the lining. Aluminous shrunk
bricks may answer still better. It might even be found convenient to allow con-
siderable corrosion to the lining to take place, if the converting hearth is of such
form, and the materials are of such a nature, that it can be readily and economic-
ally renewed.

It may be also advantageous to run the regulus and slag, after the desired con-
centration has been effected, directly on to the hearth of a reverberatory furnace,
where they can be kept molten by external heat, and where a more perfect
separation of the one from the other may be effected. In such a furnace the final
oxidation of the rich regulus would probably be most conveniently effected,
although it is of course possible to produce metallic copper from the regulus by the
transmission of air currents in a specially constructed furnace.

Not only would antimony, lead, zinc, copper, nickel, silver, and other valuable
metals be extracted from the sulphides that contain them, but also from the incom-
bustible fluxing materials that are added to the charge, and the extraction of the
copper, and silver, and gold will probably be more complete than by any other
known process. In countries where cupreous siliceous schists and sandstones
abound, the use of these as siliceous fluxes would partially, if not wholly, compen-
sate for the loss of copper in the slag. Thus, by using 0°5 ton of such material,
containing 0°5 per cent. of copper for each ton of the sulphuretted ore, the whole
of the copper could be recovered from the latter, assuming the slag to contain even
as much as 0:2 per cent. of that metal.

The crude sulphur may be freed from the accompanying sulphide of arsenic by
boiling it with milk of lime, and from the metallic oxides and sulphides with which
it is contaminated by distillation; or purification by bisulphide of carbon might be
resorted to. The sulphurous acid can be oxidised in chambers to sulphuric acid,
either with or without previous liquefaction.

This process, on account of its simplicity and economy, may reasonably be
expected, not only to take the place of the ordinary smelting, but also of many of
the wet processes now in use.

5. A Lecture Experiment in Illustration of the Hollway Process of Smelting
Sulphide Ores. By Atrrep H. Auten, F.C.S.

By causing oxygen gas to bubble through molten antimony sulphide contained
in a V-shaped piece of combustion-tube, combustion takes place with such rise of
temperature as to soften the glass, while a sublimate is obtained of antimonious
oxide, and sulphurous acid gas is evolved. ‘The sublimate is collected in an empty
globe, and the sulphurous acid is absorbed by passing it into a large vessel containing
lumps of wood-chareoal, At the conclusion of the experiment the contents of the
combustion-tube may be poured out, when a button of metallic antimony free
from sulphur is obtained.

By passing oxygen over lumps of pyrites contained in a heated combustion-tube,
vivid combustion takes place, much free sulphur sublimes, and sulphurous acid gas
is obtained and absorbed as before described.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 301

6. Lead Fume, with a Description of a New Process of Fume Condensing.
By A. FRenca.

1, The great loss of lead, and sometimes silver, by volatilisation induced Messrs.
Wilson and myself to investigate the physical nature and deportment of metallic
fumes as they exist in the furnace and in the flues.

2. The following is a classification of the various methods of condensing :—

(a) Deposition by its own gravity in long flues, with or without the addition of
settling chambers. }

(6) Filtering through porous materials, such as coke, brushwood, or coarsely
woven fabrics.

(c) The use of water, either in the form of steam or in spray projected across
the flue current.

(d) Processes based on the inverse of the preceding principle, viz., passing the
lead smoke under and through water in a more or less comminuted condition.

5. We made experiments to prove the efficacy of each of those classes. The
microscopic aspect of the fume was taken in the nascent stage, and after it had
cooled and been exposed to friction in the flues. The fume taken from the interior
of the lead flame forms a continuous film on a glass plate, that taken after it has
assumed the condition of a white vapour, is granular, and consists chiefly of small
isolated round particles,

4. We studied the chemical character of lead fume with analyses, and the
influence of lead and zinc in promoting the volatilisation of silver.

5. Cooling and friction hasten the deposition of fume in flues, A good arrange-
ment of flues is described.

6. We give a description of the filtering methods, with results of some ex-
periments.

7. We also state the results of a condenser worked at the Wanlockhead Lead
Works on the shower-bath principle. This apparatus was highly eulogised in the
descriptive catalogue of the Exhibition of 1851; since then the company have
doubled the quantity of lead saved, by supplementing a long flue, of one mile, to
the condenser.

8. We describe the fourth class of condensers. The requisite conditions to
obtain good condensation are to minutely subdivide the smoke current under
water, and at the same time use means to neutralise the surface tension of the
bubbles ; those conditions are obtained by passing the smoke through a series of
wire gauge diaphragms set close together and submerged in water to a depth of
seven inches.

9. The paper concludes with a description of a new process and apparatus on
the foregoing principle, assays of smoke before entering and after leaving the con-
denser, and general results.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 23, 1879.

The Section did not meet.

302 REPORT— 1879.

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Constitution of Aluminie Compounds.
By Professor Opuine, F.2.8.

2. On the Presence of Nitrogen in Steel. By A. H. Atxen, F.0.S.

The author made some preliminary experiments on this subject in 1872, but has
only recently obtained any definite results. The method adopted has been to
dissolve the steel in hydrochloric acid, by which means any combined nitrogen
may be presumed to be converted into ammonia. The solution obtained was then
distilled with excess of lime, and the distillate examined for ammonia by Nessler’s
method. The employment of this extremely delicate test enabled the author to
operate on a much smaller quantity of steel than was employed by previous
investigators. Very special precautions were taken to obtain the hydrochloric acid
and other materials free from any trace of ammonia or nitrous compounds, and
the air was entirely expelled from the apparatus before commencing the operation.
The hydrogen evolved was freed from any traces of ammonia by passing it through
a tube filled with glass beads moistened with hydrochloric acid. It was proved by
blank experiments that no'source of ammonia existed in the reagents or apparatus.
When absolutely pure materials were used, and every precaution taken to get rid
of the contained air and other sources of error, the addition of Nessler’s solution
to the liquid obtained on distilling with lime caused a yery marked yellowish-
brown colouration, On comparing the tint produced with that yielded by a dilute
solution of ammonium chloride of known strength, results were arrived at repre-
senting the proportions of nitrogen present in various typical specimens of steel.
As the results obtained from steels of different kinds varied greatly, it cannot be
assumed that there was a constant source of error in the mode of manipulation ;
while as the same samples gave substantially concordant results on repeating the
experiment, the figures obtained were not the result of accident, but were true
expressions of the proportions of nitrogen present.

In order to obtain ammonia in quantity sufficient for its recognition by other
reactions than that with Nessler’s test, the following plan was employed :—Steam,
generated by boiling water ina flask, was passed over a considerable quantity of steel
borings contained in a combustion tube, which was bent beyond the furnace, and
prolonged so as to form the inner tube of a Liebig’s condenser. To the further end
a tube filled with glass beads and furnished with a glass stopcock was attached. A
rapid current of steam was driven through the apparatus for a considerable time
to expel every trace of air. On condensing the steam it was found free from any
trace of ammonia. The steel borings were then heated to redness by a com-
bustion furnace, and a rapid current of water passed through the condenser.
The condensed steam, when tested by Nessler’s solution, was found to contain
abundance of ammonia, which did not diminish in amount till the borings were
almost entirely oxidised. On redistilling the condensed steam, a distillate was
obtained having a distinctly alkaline reaction to litmus paper, and on treating it
with hydrochloric acid and platinic chloride a sensible amount of yellow pre-
cipitate was obtained, having the characteristic crystalline form of ammonium
chloroplatinate. The amount found was larger than could possibly have been
produced had the whole of the nitrogen of any residual trace of air been converted
into ammonia. The author regards the results now recorded as preliminary merely,
and proposes to extend the research to various classes of steel and iron, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 303

especially to such specimens as have been found to possess anomalous characters.
Of these characters the evolution of ammonia from freshly fractured surfaces is
among the most striking.

3. Colour Tests for the Estimation of Sulphur and Phosphorus in Iron or
Steel. By A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S., Lee’s Reader in
Chemistry at Christ Church, Oxford.

A weighed portion of finely divided iron or steel is treated in a flask with diluted
sulphuric acid (previously boiled to expel air), with the addition of a lump of pure
zine. ‘The sulphur contained in the iron is evolved as sulphuretted hydrogen,”
which, passing into a foot-glass containing lead solution, colours the latter. The
phosphorus is evolved as phosphoretted hydrogen, which passes through the lead
solution into a second foot-glass containing a dilute solution of silver nitrate. The
flask is heated gradually to boiling, and then the depth of colour in the two foot-
glasses is compared with two sets of standards.

4, Some Haperiments with the Voltaic Induction Balance.
By W. Cuanvier Roserts, F.R.S., Chemist of the Mint.

The author stated that this instrument, which we owe to Professor Hughes,
the discoverer of the microphone, appeared to be one of no ordinary importance ;
and although the experiments about to be described were far from complete, they
possessed sufficient interest to warrant their being submitted to the Section. He
then described and exhibited Professor Hughes’ instrument, showing the extreme
delicacy by which changes in the induced current were indicated by the micro-
phone and telephone.

The relative values of different metals, as indicated by the induction balance,
do not accord with the values usually accepted as representing the relative con-
ductivities of the respective metals; and this being the case, Mr. Roberts had
ascertained what relation the indications given by alloys when under the influence
of the induced current bear to their electric conductivities.

The experiments on a comprehensive series of alloys proved that, in the case of
alloys of certain metals, the induced current curves closely resembled those repre-
senting electric conductivity ; but that in certain other cases the induced current
revealed differences that had hitherto escaped observation. As an example, Mr.
Roberts alluded to the curve of the copper-tin alloys, in which there is a sudden
break between the points, representing two alloys, which only vary by a single
equivalent, or by 6:4 per cent. of copper. These two alloys are widely different in
colour, fracture, density, and structure, and the induction balance at once afforded
evidence of a marked difference not shown in Matthiessen’s curve of electric
conductivity.

It is known that certain metals when alloyed undergo a molecular change, and
that an allotropic condition may in some cases be induced by alloying a metal with
a small quantity of another, facts which will doubtless receive careful examination
from those who are pointing to the non-elementary character of certain metals,

Mr. Roberts then referred to the question of applying the induction balance to
the assay of metals. In the case of gold-silver alloys the instrument will show
the presence of less than 2 grains of gold in the pound of silver. On the other
hand, the silver-copper alloys used for coinage are situated at the flat portion of the
curve, so that it is impossible to detect even considerable differences in their com-
position, and these alloys, which are very peculiar to their nature, appear to be
greatly affected by annealing. More hopeful results were obtained with the gold-
copper alloys, and Mr. Roberts demenstrated a difference of 1 per cent. in the
standard of two gold discs, which, though far short of the existing method of
assay in delicacy, appeared to afford grounds for the belief that very accurate
results will ultimately be obtained.

304 REPORT— 1879,

5. A Historical Sketch of the various Vapour Density Methods.
By Jawes T. Brown, F.C.S.

Although Southern in 1803 made some very careful experiments to determine
how much water was required to furnish one cubic foot of steam at various pres-
sures, still the foundation of vapour-density methods was laid by Gay-Lussac.
He, in 1811, started on the correct basis of accurate work when he heated a
weighed quantity of substance over mercury in a graduated vessel. In 1822,
Cagniard de la Tour determined the combined effects of heat and pressure on
certain volatile liquids, but as his results were on the question of maximum vapour-
density, they hardly enter the domain of the present sketch. In the same year,
Despretz, whe gave no drawing, and only a very imperfect description of his appa-
ratus, published a method in which he used a 9-litre exhausted globe, and made
his determinations at atmospheric temperatures, employing only a small quantity of
substance. In 1826, Dumas, wishing to operate on substances which attack mer-
cury, worked out and published his well-known method, in which the volume is
definite, but the amount of substance required to fill that volume with vapour has
to be subsequently determined.

In 1833, Mitscherlich proposed using tubes, sealed at one end, and drawn to
a neck at the other, instead of bulbs, and gave details and drawings of the appa-
ratus for heating them; but Dumas, two years later, objected to the proposed
alteration in his method, for he wrote:—‘ We must then leave to this operation
all its simplicity to make it essentially practical, and such, in fact, that with an
ordinary cast-iron pot, and some pieces of iron wire, we can perform it. This is
what I have done from the first, and what I persist in doing, my aim never having
been to make a piece of apparatus for the cupboard of the physicist, but to give
chemists a simple and eminently practical, and yet exact process. After all they
are the only ones to be considered.’ Deville and Troost, however, in 1860, in
referring to that same apparatus, called it, ‘la méthode si élégante de M.
Mitscherlich.’

Bineau, in 1838, published an elaborate paper, but, unfortunately, without any
drawings, for when we read the following paragraph‘ The bodies on which I
have worked have been volatilised, sometimes by the aid of heat, by following the
process of Dumas or that of Gay-Lussac, sometimes without elevation of tempera-
ture, by working in the barometric vacuum, or by allowing the vaporisation to
take place in dry air or hydrogen’—we cannot but feel that an enormous amount
of valuable work has been lost for want of details. In 1844, we find Cahours, as
well as Bineau, at work at the same subject. In 1846, the latter repeated the
experiments of Despretz with slight modifications, but called attention to the fact
that the result was seriously atfected by very small errors in reading off the mer-
curial column.

In 1849, Regnault used an apparatus very similar to that of Mitscherlich, but
arranged the tube supports so that the two could be withdrawn simultaneously ;
he also dispensed with sealing the tube containing air, by providing it with a stop-
cock. Bineau, in 1859, in order to operate at high temperatures, coated the glass
tubes with clay, and heated them in a sand-bath.

Regnault, in 1861, to obtain the same result, used iron tubes, and to ensure
uniformity of temperature, heated them in a cast-iron tube, which was made to
revolve over gas-burners. The tube which served as air-thermometer, was fur-
nished with a stop-cock, but that containing the substance only terminated in a
small aperture, and was not closed, as a sufficient quantity was introduced before
the heating to allow it to be taken for granted that during the experiment there
was no residualair. Another method of Regnault’s was to have two iron bottles, of
as nearly as possible the same size, cast in one piece. In one of these the substance
was placed, and in the other a small quantity of mercury. The necks were then
partially closed by loose stoppers, and the system was heated in a muffle. After
heating, it was withdrawn, and allowed to cool, and the quantities remaining in
the bottles were determined by suitable means.

Grabowski, in 1866, did much to shorten the Dumas calculation, while he

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 305

allowed the method to retain all its accuracy and simplicity, when he proposed to
heat a bulb containing air in the same bath, and of the same size, as that con-
taining the substance. After being heated, the two bulbs were then sealed at the
same temperature. Bunsen, in 1867, employed an air-bath, similar in principle to
those of Mitscherlich and Regnault, but heated it by a very elaborate arrange-
ment of gas burners. He also simplified the calculation by taking care that ail the
tubes were of exactly the same weight and same size. He did not seal the tubes,
but closed them by glass caps, lined with india-rubber and fitted with glass
plugs. Dumas, in cases where the vapour rendered the outlet difficult to seal,
used globes fitted with ground stoppers.

For the Dumas process at high temperatures, Deville and Troost, in 1860,
recommended heating the bulb in a specially constructed furnace, in the vapours
of substances having high but definite boiling-points, such as mercury, sulphur,
zinc, or cadmium. For temperatures above the boiling-point of sulphur, they used
porcelain globes. For temperatures up to that point, the smaller and more com-
pact apparatus devised by Greville Williams answers admirably.

Roscoe, last year, in determining the vapour-densities of the chlorides of lead
and thallium, used porcelain globes of 300 ¢.c. capacity, heated in a muftle, but
determined the temperature by the method of specific heat, a large piece of
platinum being employed for the purpose, and checked the result by the simul-
taneous determination of the vapour density of mercury.

For working at a reduced pressure, Regnault proposed partially exhausting
the bulb by means of an air-pump during the experiment; when the desired tem-
perature was reached, it was sealed off at a point where the neck had been nar-
rowed to a conyenient size. In 1876, Habermann gave a complete diagram of the
apparatus, replacing the air-pump by a Bunsen pump; but although he made no
alteration in the method, still it was referred to by Sommaruga as Habermann’s,

Various experiments had been performed on vapours mixed with air, but the
main point in Playfair and Wanklyn’s method (1861) consisted in stopping the
supply of vapour before the bath in which the bulb was being heated had attained
its maximum temperature.

Natanson, in 1855, in order to use the Gay-Lussac method up to a temperature
of 300°, heated the upper part of the tube by means‘of charcoal in a cylindrical
furnace, and determined the temperature by thermometers suspended in the air-
space between the graduated tube and the inner tube of the heating apparatus, In
correcting for the tension of mercury-vapour he used Avogadro’s tables.

Greville Williams, in 1857, wishing to make some determinations at varying
pressures, devised the following method :—The graduated tube is, after it has been
filled and the bulb has been inserted, screwed by means of a nipple cemented to
the bottom into an orifice in the top of a small metallic cistern into a second
orifice in which a long open glass tube is fitted. Into this tube mercury is poured
until the required pressure is obtained. To reduce the pressure the excess of
mercury is allowed to escape by a tap in the side of the cistern. The whole is
heated in a water- or oil-bath.

In Regnault’s apparatus for the same purpose, the two tubes are fastened to
the bottom of the water-bath and are connected by a T piece, which is closed by a
three-way cock of special construction.

For determinations up to 150° Greville Williams’s compact modification consists
in replacing the large vessel of mercury, and the open glass cylinder by a cylinder
closed and rounded at the lower extremity, so as to resemble a large test-tube.
This is then filled to a depth of 50-60 m. m. with mercury, and above that with
_ Water or oil to a convenient height. The graduated tube is filled and the bulb
inserted over the mercurial trough; it is then immersed’ in the large tube by
means of a rod having at the end a small cup containing mercury. The large tube
may be supported on wire gauze and heated by a Bunsen burner, or may be
placed in a shallow oil-bath.

Schiff, in 1862, proposed steadying and manipulating the graduated tube by
means of a loaded handle, which was secured toits upper extremity by spring clips.

Grabowski, in 1866, replaced the charcoal‘furnace of Natanson by a very much

1879. x

306. REPORT—1879,

neater air-bath heated by gas, but the chief merit in his method is that a tube
containing air is heated by the side of that containing the substance. As soon as
the substance is all converted into vapour, air is passed up into the second tube
until it occupies as nearly as possible the same volume as the vapour, After the
operation the air is measured at atmospheric pressure and temperature,

Croullebois, in 1874, reverted to Bineau’s method of using a large globe with a
long tube, but took the precaution to heat the upper portion in a water-bath.
Deville, however, criticised his method rather severely, and pointed out that it was
an unwieldy apparatus to manipulate.

In 1868, Hofmann, in modifying the Gay-Lussac method, while he adopted the
long tube which had been previously used by Bineau, Playfair and Wanklyn, and
Grabowski, introduced such an important alteration into the apparatus that it is
not spoken of as his modification but as his method. Instead of heating the
substance-tube by a water-, oil-, or air-bath, he simply enclosed it in a slightly
larger mantle tube, and passed the vapour of a liquid of definite boiling-point
through the intervening space, selecting the liquid according to the temperature
required, By this means he not only rendered the apparatus much more compact,
but he maintained a steady temperature with the greatest ease. Wichelhaus,
in 1870, anxious to avoid the uncertainty introduced by the doubt as to the
temperature of the column of mercury between the bottom of the outer tube and
the trough, dispensed with the latter by fixing to the lower extremity of the
substance-tube an inverted siphon containing mercury. Then, by lengthening and
suitably enlarging the lower extremity of the outer tube, the whole of the inner one
can be surrounded by vapour.

Grabowski, in 1875, in order to obtain a high temperature, employed the vapour
of naphthalene as the heating medium in using Hofmann’s apparatus; but Engler,
in the following year, finding that the stoppage of the tubes from the solidification
of the condensed hydrocarbon was troublesome, proposed to obviate the difficulty
in the following manner :—He fixed to the lower end of the outer tube a metal
socket provided with a short side-tube similar to those used for heating funnels.
Then, by boiling the heating medium in this tube and allowing the vapour to
cohobate in the space between the two glass tubes, he dispensed with all the
arrangement of flask, tubes; and condenser.

Hofmann at the same time made several modifications in his apparatus :—

(1.) He proposed heating the whole length of the inner tube by making the
outer one long enough to enter the mercury in the trough, and provided for the
escape of the condensed liquid and excess of steam by haying a small side-tube
affixed a short distance above the level of the mercury.

(2.) Finding that graduated tubes were yery liable to crack, he proposed using
plain ones in the following manner :—In the bottom of the mercurial trough he
placed a piece of sheet india-rubber attached to an iron plate and provided with a
groove on its upper surface; the iron plate was furnished with a handle. During
the heating the inner tube stood over the groove to allow of the escape of the
mercury. When the level became stationary, communication with the mercury in
the trough was cut off by shifting the india-rubber disc until the inner tube rested on
the flat surface. The height of the column in the inner tube was then noted by
means of a cathetometer; the outer tube was then removed, and a gummed label
attached to the inner one to indicate the mercury level, After cooling, the volume
of the vapour is determined from direct measurement.

(3.) In order to avoid the cracking of the tubes in cases where liquids of high
boiling-point were used, he proposed connecting the lower end of the outer tube
with the inner one by a cork, through which two tubes leading to the flask or
boiler passed. One of them led below the liquid, while the other, which was pro-
vided with a stop-cock, reached only just below the cork. If this stop-cock be
closed while the liquid is being heated a portion of itis forced up the space between
the two glass tubes, and thus the mercurial column is heated more gradually.
When the liquid reaches the boiling point the stop-cock is opened and the circula-
tion of the steam proceeds as usual. The upper part of the outer tube must be
sufficiently elongated or provided with a small tube leading to a condenser.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 307

Briihl proposed working the Hofmann method at a very low pressure by
employing a tube 1°5 metrés long with only a small quantity of substance, and
was therefore able to make determinations at temperatures far below its boiling
point. He also made the following suggestions :—

1, In order to eliminate the troublesome element of the tension of mercury-
vapour (without using two tubes, as Grabowski did), heat the column to the
required temperature, note its height, then allow it to cool ; introduce the substance,
and heat again to the same temperature till the height is constant. To ensure
uniformity of level in the bath keep it full to overflowing.

2. Betore the first reading of the mercurial column, a small piece of thin
glass is passed up to liberate any air that may be contained in the mercury.

3. To make a mark on the tube a little above the vacuum mercury level, and
then only to calibrate about 150 m.m. down from that point; then, to find the
total volume, add the variable volume below the mark to the fixed volume above
the mark.

Muir and Suguira, in 1877, finding that sometimes the weight of the inner tube
caused the groove in the india-rubber disc to so far close as to prevent the escape
of the mercury while heating the substance, used a plain india-rubber disc, which
was fastened to the bottom of the trough, a disc of cork intervening. Oom-
munication between the mercury in the tube and that in the trough was maintained
by means of a short piece of glass tubing bent at right angles. A second tube,
long enough to stand slightly above the level of the mercury in the trough, served
to carry off from the space between the two tubes the condensed liquid and
excess of vapour. They adopted Hofmann’s original method of passing the steam
in at the top of the outer tube, but used a small tube passing through a perforated
cork in preference to one fused to the end.

Briihl has this year proved, by most carefully conducted experiments, that the
Hofmann method cannot be used above 220°, owing to the great and rapidly
increasing vapour-tension of mercury; but has omitted the grave objection to
his own method. Playfair and Wanklyn called attention in 1861 to the fact that
Bineau, in 1846, pointed out that in vapour-density methods, at very reduced
pressures, slight errors in the readings of the mercurial level introduce very serious
errors into the result.

In the Overflow methods, which are in reality modifications of the Gay-Lussac,
seeing that they are performed with known weights of substance, the first name
is Hofmann, who in 1860 gave a very meagre description of his apparatus, when
he wrote that he used an U tube heated in a paraffin bath, and estimated the
volume of the vapour by the mercury expelled. Werthein, in 1862-64, in his
papers on Coniin, gave full details of his method, in which he used two tubes
suspended side by side in a flask. :

Watts, in 1867, employed a globe with a ground neck, into which an outlet
tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of the globe was accurately fitted. The globe
_ being filled with mercury, and the substance introduced, the quantity of mercury
expelled on heating served as a basis for calculating the volume occupied by the
vapour, Victor Meyer, in 1876, introduced two very important alterations, he
avoided the vapour-tension of mercury by using fusible metal, and placed the
outlet at the bottom of the bulb. His experiments at that time were all made
in the vapour of boiling sulphur, but Graebe, last year, wishing to employ a higher
temperature, used phosphorus pentasulphide, which boils at 530°.

Frerichs, in 1876, used mercury in an apparatus similar in principle to that of
Watts, but employed an inverted flask, and brought the exit-tube, which was
ad with an inverted siphon, through a suitable outlet in the bottom of the
bath.

Goldschmiedt and Ciamician, in 1877, used mercury with the simpler bulb of
Victor Meyer, but added a small side-tube to the outlet, so that the mercury
expelled could be weighed from time to time during the heating. Victor Meyer,
in the same year, modified the shape of the bulb, but heated it in a tube similar to
that employed by Greville Williams in the Gay-Lussac determinations, but of
sufficient length for the upper part of the tube to serve as condenser.

x2

308 REPORT— 1879.

Pfaundler’s method, of which a preliminary notice appeared in 1870, but
which was not brought prominently forward till this year, is based on the increased
tension of the air in an elongated bulb produced by heating after the introduction
of the substance, as compared with a similar determination of air in a bulb of the
same size. A very short description appeared in 1874 of a method devised by
Dulong, which is based on the same principle.

Last year Hofmann proposed two methods; in one of these, he heated the
weighed substance over mercury in the closed limb of an U tube, and marked the
level of the mercury in the open limb by sliding a pointed tube through a loosely-
fitting perforated cork until it touched the surface. When the apparatus was cool,
the volume of the vapour was calculated from the weight of mercury required to
restore the level to that same point. The other consisted in introducing into a
tube a small but weighed quantity of substance, then exhausting it, and sealing it,
and heating in a jacketed tube. At the required temperature, the point of the
glass tube is opened to allow air to enter, and then at once sealed again. After
cooling, the point is opened under mercury or water, and the volume occupied by
the vapour is measured.

In Meyer’s method, which is so recent and well Jnown as not to require any
explanation, the principle is that of Pfaundler’s, but by haying the neck elongated,
and the outlet as a side-tube, the substance is introduced after the bulb is heated
to the required temperature, and by allowing the air expelled by the vapour free
egress into a graduated tube, it can be measured under atmospheric conditions.
It is, therefore, so simple that the operation only requires a very short time from
first to last.

In this sketch I have purposely kept off the very enticing ground of formule,
as they, of themselves, open up so wide a field that they could not be dove-tailed
into the history of the subject, which from any point of view is interesting.

6. Note onthe Vapour Densities of Ferrous Chloride and Iodide of Potassium.
By J. Aurrep WaANKLYN.

The recent observations made by the method of Victor Meyer admit of expla-
nation on the supposition that ferrous chloride, when strongly heated in an iron
vessel, is resolved into Fe, Cl,, and that the iodide of potassium, under like con-
ditions, gives K, + Fe, I,.

7. Note on the Constitution of Isocyanopropionic Acid.
By J. Aurrep WANELYN.

In the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for last May, Mr. Cooper and myself described
an acid to which we gave the name isocyanopropionic acid.

The acid had been prepared by the oxidation of wool by means of perman-
ganate of potash and caustic potash, and had the formula C,H,NO,.

We have acted upon the acid by means of caustic potash at 200° C., and
thereby obtained ethylamine and oxalate of potash, thus :—

C,H.NO, + 2KHO =C,K,0, + O,H,N.
This reaction points to the following structure :——

HO CO
C

:
CH
CH,,

and the acid should therefore be called ethylene-isocyan oxalic acid.
It is no doubt the representative of a numerous class of acids, characterised

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 309

by furnishing oxalic acid and an organic base on treatment with alkali at high tem-
peratures. It is an exceedingly interesting fact that oxidation in alkaline solutions
should give oxalic acid in the case of non-nitrogenous organic bodies, and a nitro-
genous oxalic acid in the case of nitrogenous organic bodies.

8. Physical Constants of Liquid Acetylene and Hydrochloric Acid.
By G. ANSDELL.

9. The Action of Ammoniacal Salts on Metallic Sulphides.
By M. Dr Ciermont.

10. On the Chemical Composition of a Nodule of Ozokerite found at King-
horn-ness. By W. Ivison Macapam; F.C.S., §c., Lecturer on Chemistry,
Edinburgh. :

The nodule to which this paper refers was discovered at Kinghorn-ness during
the excavations rendered necessary by the fortifieations at present being raised for
the defence of the Firth of Forth,

The material was enclosed in a nest or nodule, and was found at a depth of
15 feet from the surface of the ground and embedded 5 feet in hard trap rock.

The rock in which the nodule was obtained was sound, no crack or fissure
being observable for several feet round the nest. At a point some distance below
the nodule the section shows a series of small veins or fissures running through
the rock in various directions and averaging # of an inch in breadth. The analysis
of this rock gave the following results calculated to percentages.

1. On treating the pulverised sample with hydric chloride (HCl) and sub-
jecting the mixture to a prolonged low heat, it was found that 29°73 per cent of
the substance dissolved in the acid. The detailed results of the analysis of this
solution are as follows :—

Per cent.
Ferric oxide (Fe,0,) . 5 : : : é . 11°45
Aluminic oxide (Al,0,) : : : ; : . 363
Calcic oxide (CaO) E ‘ : : : 3 . 370
Magnesic oxide (MgO) ; ; - : ; 2 (HO'37
Potassic oxide (K,0) . 5 : : 5 lal | 013
Sodic oxide (Na,O) . : : : , co hah
Carbonic anhydride (CO,) . c “ ‘ 4 we Oe
Sulphuric anhydride (SO,) . : A ; ; » O21
Silica from soluble silicates (SiO, ci é : 2 207
Total soluble in acids . : : : . 29°73
Insoluble in acids, silicates, &e. : 5 MOT
100-00

2. The portion insoluble in acids was then fused with a flux, and the follow-
ing results obtained from the after solution in acids :—
Per cent.

Ferric oxide (Fe,0,) . 9°92

Aluminic oxide (A,10,) ; ; : 5 ; » 5°36
Calcic oxide (CaO) . - j ‘ : : oe OL
Magnesic oxide (MgO) = : 2 : : . 5.67
Silica from silicates, &c.(SiO,) . . - : . 41:12
Total from fused portion , ; : 3 - 70°24
Soluble in acids - 5 - - 5 . 29°73

310 REPORT—1879.

The rocks lying next to the trap were also analysed and gave results as stated
below :—

1. Soluble in Hydric Chloride (HCl).

No. 4. q
No. 2. No. 3. Sameas No. 2, |
Rock above | Rock below but nearer
trap trap the surface of
ground
Ferric oxide (Fe,0,) . : A : 21:37 31:48 15°78
Aluminic oxide (Al,0,) . . 4:06 4:59 7:92
Calcic oxide (CaO) . : A : 2°83 3.11 219
Magnesic oxide (MgO) . J 5 2°98 4°23 247
Potassic oxide (K,O) . 3 . ; 5) ’

Sodicoxide (Na,O).. . 7 vee Sg =
Carbonic anhydride (CO,). A ¢ 5:19 6:01 4°62
Sulphuric anhydride (S0O,). 4 0°32 0°28 1:62
Sulphur (8) . : 5 : 8 013 0°16 iba
Silica (SiO,) from soluble silicates . 2°08 2°23 3°95
Moisture . . . A ’ . 3:22 3:41 3:14
Total soluble in acid . ‘ 43-16 56°32 44°34
Insoluble inacid . 2 ° 56°84 43°68 55°66
100-00 100-00 100-00

2. Matter insoluble in Hydric Chloride (HCl), fused with flux and treated with
d

Acid.
No. 4.
No. 2. No. 3. Same as No. 2,
Rock above | Rock below but nearer
trap trap the surface of
ground
Ferric oxide (Fe,0,) . f 5 5-28 4°84 7-04
Aluminic oxide (A1,0,) - . - 3°48 4:12 7°76
Calcic oxide (CaO) . . A : 2°15 118 0:78
Magnesic oxide (MgO) : : a 1:03 0:28 0:24
Silica (SiO,) from silicates &e. . A 44°68 33°12 39°72
Total from fused portion . 3 56°62 43°54 55°54
Soluble in acids : : ; 43°16 56°32 44-34
99°78 99°86 99°88

The nodule when broken consisted of

1, An outer coating of hard rock;

2. An inner lining of calcite crystals; and

3. Centre nodule of bituminous matter.

When first brought to light, the calcite crystals were almost black in colour,
due to a certain amount of the bituminous matter; but this slowly evaporated, and
left the crystals pure white in colour. The analysis of these crystals of calcite
yielded the following results :—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 311

Black crystals,

containing White crystals

bitumen
Calcic carbonate (CaCO,) . : : F 96°76 98-11
Ferrous carbonate (FeCO,) F ‘ : 019 0:21
Magnesic carbonate (MgCO,) . : * 031 0°33
Silica (Si0,) S| Cn 1:06 1:22
Bituminous matter . . : j ; 1-68 0-13

100-00 100-00

The lower veins or fissures were also calcite-lined, and contained within this
coating the bituminous matter.

Besides the nodule found at Kinghorn-ness, another nodule of a similar
character was obtained on the Island of Inchkeith, embedded in solid trap, ten feet
from the surface, and a small spring of water on that island smells and tastes dis-
tinetly of paraffin products.

The Kinghorn-ness nodule has a distinct bituminous odour, is a lustrous black,
amorphous, soft solid, easily cut with the nail and pliable between the fingers.
The specific gravity is 970 (water 1,000), so that the nodule floats upon water.
It fuses at 176° F., and becomes solid on cooling. Experiments with the various
solyents upon the bituminous material showed that water and ordinary acids had
practically no action whatever. Alcohol, both hot and cold, had a very slight
solvent power, but ether dissolved a considerable proportion, giving a brown solu-
tion, and turpentine readily acted upon the substance, yielding a deep brown-black
solution. The ethereal liquid had a fine iridescent green colour when viewed by
reflected light. The substance of the nodule readily burns when lighted, giving a
strongly luminous flame,

The analysis of the contents of the nodule gave as follows :—

Per cent.
Volatile organic matter . - ° : . : c : 99°38
Ash or mineral matter. : : : : . : . 0°61
99°99
Volatile gaseous matter given off below 212° F. .. : : 5-961

When distilled at a bright cherry-red heat, 26°57 grains being used, the results
gave :—

Grains

Volatile matter A : : é : : : : 15:93

; P Fixed carbon . : f : : : 10°48

ee 10 64 grains Ash (mineral matter) : : - : 0:16

; 26°57

These results, calculated to the percentage, give :—

Per cent.

Volatile matter . : . . ° - - ‘ . 59°955

‘ Fixed carbon . : 3 A fe DO eo

Coke 40:041 per cent. Ash (mineral matter) : ; : 0°610

99°996

The coke left behind after this treatment was a hard, black, shining, porous
mass, and the ash obtained by incinerating it was pure white, and principally con-
sisted of calcic carbonate (OaCO,) and silica (SiO,).

The material was afterwards submitted to destructive distillation at a black-red
heat, when the substance was found to split up into six distinct parts—four dis-

312 REPORT—1879.

tillates, a coke, and a volatile non-condensable gas. In this operation 58:29 grains
were used, and yielded :—

Grains
Ist Distillate . : : : 5 ‘ : - 5°65
2nd 4 : 2 ; : ; A : : 11°35
3rd ie wile oh. ee ilies
4th 3) ‘ ° > < : ; : : 14°72
Total volatile condensable products s E 5 : : 53°05
Coke . ° : 5 ; : d ; : : 2°28
Uncondensable gas . : ; 4 ape | ae f 2:96
58°29
Calculated to percentages, the results stand :—
Per cent
Ist Distillate . : ; ; : : : ; 9°694
2nd 35 : : : : : ; -» dO saat
3rd. “ ; é A ‘ ; . 7 . _ 36°592
4th a errs Rai | RM es
Volatile condensable products . ‘ : F : ; + 1912010
Coke . 3 5 E : : : : : : 5 3911
Uncondensable gas . ‘ ; ; , : : ; : 5078
99:999

When first heated the substance fused and frothed, and on the further
application of heat gave the first distillate, which was of a gray colour, somewhat
mobile, and had a disagreeable odour. The second distillate was black in colour,
fully more mobile than the first distillate, and also possessed a most disagreeable
odour. The third portion was more mobile than the second, had a yellow colour,
and a marked paraffin odour. The fourth distillate was obtained after raising the
heat, had a yellow-red colour, was liquid whilst hot, but turned solid on cooling,
and had also a paraffin odour. The uncondensable gaseous matter readily burned
on the application of a white light, gave a pale non-luminous flame, and possessed
all the chemical properties of methane or marsh gas (CH,). The carbon left in
the retort added to the amount of uncondensable gas gives 8989 per cent., and on
calculating the uncondensable gas into ethylene or olefiant gas (C,H,), the result ob-
tained is 8:886, or nearly identical. These results go far to show that the bituminous-
like matter of the nodule consists of a member or members of the olefine (O,H,)
series of organic compounds—a point which is further strengthened by the fact that
the carbon and hydrogen in the original substance are contained therein in almost
exactly the necessary proportions to form an olefine.

It is probable that the source of the contents of the nodule lies in one of the
coal or shale beds abounding in the district, and that a low internal heat has dis-
tilled the material from its parent stratum. That the heat was low, or certainly not
above a cherry-red, is certain, else the olefine would have been split up into a
member of the methane or CH, group of organic substances, accompanied by a
deposition of free carbon.

11. On Some Curious Concretion Balls derived from a Colliery Mineral
Water. By Tuomas Anprews, F.C.S.

The water on which these observations were made was collected from the
‘sump’ of the Wortley Silkstone Colliery, a small pit situated near the ‘ Bassett’ or
‘outcrop’ of the great Silkstone seam of coal; the samples being obtained during
typical dry and rainy seasons. The water had percolated from the surface a
distance of 35 yards, through strata, as indicated on the accompanying table.

The bottom layer in which the water lodged was the Silkstone seam of coal,
here some 5 feet in thickness.

One noticeable feature of this water is, that it always gives an acid reaction
with blue litmus paper.

Several analyses of this water made at various times indicate that the chief

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 313

mineral constituents of the water are, iron—calcium, magnesium, in the form of
sulphates,

This water when heated quickly throws down a copious ochreous deposit. The
deposit found in the engine boilers after having used the water in them for steam
purposes was of the composition given below.

The boiler residue from which this sample was taken, consisted of an in-
crustation about one inch thick, which had adhered to the bottom of the boiler.

The incrustation was of a light reddish yellow colour in the bulk, it was very
hard and tough, and not easily broken in pieces.

The iron work in connection with this colliery engine and boilers, in any way
exposed to the action of either the acid water itself, or the steam generated from tt,
becomes corroded and partially dissolved. The most effectual remedy against this
corrosive action and deposit, is that described in my letter to the Chemical News,
June 15, 1877.

Analysis of Boiler Deposit, from Wortley Silkstone Colliery Boilers, Sep-
tember 15, 1875.
Moisture . ‘ : : : . 6°85 per cent.
Combined water, organic matter, &c, ea, ASS Oley less
Silicious matter - : ; : cL eSOI, e O3
Per-oxide or iron and alumina are, 6-10

taining phosphoric acid 0°76 per cent. . iy

Sulphate of lime . : - - 78°55 55 45
Magnesia . B : : ; Ps - 065, 5
99°75

Some curious balls of mineral matter are occasionally found in the feed tank of
the colliery boilers, which are supplied with this water. The water is pumped up
from the engine pond into a cylindrical feed tank, and is there heated by the
exhaust steam from the engine playing on its surface (not blowing through it),
The water in this feed tank has an average temperature of 164° F.

It sometimes happens that during the short space of even two or three weeks,
great numbers of these balls are formed, varying in size from about three and a half
inches in diameter to five-eighths of an inch diameter, and in weight from about
one and a half pound to a quarter of an ounce.

The author has many of these in his possession. They are perfectly hard and
compact when taken from the tank, and are no doubt formed from the deposit
thrown down when the mineral water is heated.

The action of steam playing on the surface of the water probably causes circular
eddies, and when a nucleus has thus once been formed, it is easy to conceive of the
gradual formation and consolidation of these balls. : .

The author suggests that the conditions of formation of natural nodules of iron
ore, pyrolusite, &c., may be similar to those observed by him in the foregoing cases.

The following is the analysis of the balls formed in the feed tank, from which
it will be seen that they are quite different in composition to the residue deposited
in the boilers, owing probably to the difference in the temperature between the feed
tank and the boiler.

Analysis of a Concretion Ball, found in the Engine Feed Tank. Wortley Silkstone
Colliery.

Moisture . . ‘ : . - 2°30 per cent.
Loss on ignition, organic matter, &c,
contains matters extracted by een 24°40 4, 5,
5°8 per cent. . E - : :
Silica - : é , 2 d Surte 1580\05 Sis
Per-oxide of iron . i : : = (62:86) S510 55
Alumina . s : ; , sey (OPES busy yeebias
Phosphoric acid j 2 5 : 5 nde Lis Tea tee
Lime ; : * 5 A ‘ ap oy O24 0 ety shaaing
Magnesia : ; : : . . trace

100°00

314 REPORT— 1879.
They also differ in composition from concretions deposited at the pit bottom in
the cold, which show only 47:71 per cent. of Fe,O,,

Observations made to ascertain the Temperature at which the deposit and turbidity
take place.

Temperature at which Turbidity commences.

Dry Seasons Wet Seasons

Average of Four Observations . . . 147°F, 160°4°F,

The action of this mineral water is destructive to all iron work with which it
comes in contact. The amount of iron dissolved by samples of the water in the
cold being as follows :—

July, 1868—7,000 fluid grains=1 Ib. of the water dissolved 1:85 grain of iron
during one month.

Feb., 1876—3,500 fluid grains=$lb. of the water (collected during a dry season)
dissolved 2°91 grains of iron in eight months.

July, 1876—3,500 fluid grains=}lb. of the water (collected during a dry season)
dissolved 4°73 grains of iron in eight months.

Reaction of the water with litmus at the conclusion of these experiments only
faintly acid.

Quantities of iron pyrites are found in the coal strata of this neighbourhood,
and account for the large quantities of sulphates often found in these colliery
waters.

The water during flood seasons required (as an average of five determinations)
an addition of 10:48 grains of anhydrous Na,O per gallon, before an alkaline reaction
was obtainable, and during dry seasons (as an average of three determinations) an
addition of 17°35 grains of anhydrous Na,O per gallon. This amount of alkali
ne not all correspond to free acid, as the sulphate of iron would also neutralise
soda.

Determinations of the total inorganic constituents were made at the dates and with
the results as below.—Results in grains per gallon.

Date Total amount of Inorganic Matters
June 20,1865 . 4 * : : 56°60
October 12,1867 . : : F 66°60
July 27,1868 . . : 5 -| 67:70 (Very dry season)
June 25, 1874 , . 4 A Sa 133-70
Frise SyAIBY Wai wicks el sep! tne oo-ce 198-80 y (Very eon)

The sulphates, a very important element in the composition of this water, were
determined as per following results, An average of six estimations of the total
sulphates (results calculated as SO,), extending from 1865 to 1876, made during—

Dry seasons—giving 115-41 grains per gallon of SO,:

An average of eight estimations, extending over the same period of time, but

made during
Rainy seasons—gaye 67:62 grains per gallon of SO,.

A fact worthy of notice in course of these analyses is the steady and large
increase in the amount of the sulphates, from the commencement of these observa-
tions in 1865 to 1876.

The same result is also noticeable on reference to the total amounts of inorganic
matter, which show a great increase in quantity during the latter part of the
time.

Now why this increase in the total sulphates and total matters in solution
should take place, it is not easy to say. It may be owing to the fact of the increased
length and area of the workings in the colliery, as undoubtedly there is more bulk
of water to contend with now than formerly on this account; but why the mineral

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 315

matter in the water should have increased owixe simply to this increase in quantity
is not at first sight very clear.

It may be possible that the largely increased number, area and length of air-
ways has a tendency to expose the water for a longer time to oxidising influences,
and thus add to the percentage of sulphates, and this increased facility for oxidation
no doubt also induces more rapid solution of the strata as the water slowly permeates
through it.

The author hopes these few imperfect observations may not prove altogether
uninteresting to those who take pleasure in the study of mineral waters.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On some points in connection with Agricultural Chemistry.
By Dr. J. H. Grpert, F.R.S.

Dr. Gilbert stated that in the experiments of Mr. Lawes and himself, conducted
on the farm of Mr. Lawes, at Rothamsted, Herts, wheat had now been grown for
thirty-six years in succession on the same land; barley for twenty-eight years in
succession, oats for nine years, root crops for more than thirty years, beans for more
than thirty years, and they had experimented on the mixed herbage of grass land
for twenty-four years. They found minor distinctions in the manurial requirements
of different plants of the same natural family, but very great distinctions in the
requirements of plants of different natural families. The gramineous crops are very
low in their percentage of nitrogen, and yield but a small quantity of it per acre.
Yet nitrogenous manures are very effective when applied to such crops. Legumi-
nous crops, on the other hand, are very high in their percentage of nitrogen, and
yield a large amount of it per acre. Yet nitrogenous manures are of little avail to
these plants, and potass manure is especially effective. The difference in the manure
requirements of plants of other natural families was also pointed out. Much more
complicated, however, was the problem when experiments were made upon the
mixed herbage of grass land, where they might have fifty or more species growing
in association, representing perhaps twenty natural families. It was at once found
that the manures which most favoured gramineous crops separately grown on arable
land brought forward the gramineous plants of the mixed herbage. Those, on the
other hand, which favoured the leguminosew, grown separately, on arable land,
brought forward the leguminosz in the mixed herbage. Somewhat similar results
occurred with the plants of other natural families. Hence, the twenty different plots
in those experiments soon showed as many distinct floras. Tables were exhibited
illustrating the variation in the number of species, their percentage by weight, and
the amounts which the different natural families yielded per acre. With the great
difference, not only in the flora, but also in the character of development of the
pants, there was the greatest possible difference in the chemical composition. The

ry matter of the mixed herbage contained in some cases 1} time as much nitrogen
as in others. The percentage of potass in the produce varied as one to two, and
the amount of potass yielded per acre as one to five in the different experiments ;
and there were considerable differences among the other constituents. The produce
of the respective natural families possessed its own normal composition within certain
limits. Yet this was varied immensely according to the conditions supplied, and
the character of the produce grown. Thus, the ash of the gramineous produce
showed a variation in the percentage of potass of from about 24 to about 40; the
ash of the leguminous produce from 12 to 33; and that of the miscellaneous pro-
duce from 17 to 37. One point of especial interest was the difference in the
amount of nitrogen yielded by the plants of the different natural families. It was

316 REPORT—1 879.

assumed by some that some plants assimilated the free nitrogen of the atmo-
sphere; but the authors considered that the balance of the direct experimental
evidence on the point was decidedly against such a supposition ; and so far as their
existing evidence went they considered it much more probable that the different
plants only took up combined nitrogen, and chiefly from the soil. They showed
by reference to their experiments that in the growth of wheat or barley for many
years in succession on the same land without nitrogenous manure the annual yield
of nitrogen in the crop gradually diminished. With this they found a diminution
in the percentage of nitrogen in the soil. In the case of the root crops, where the
diminution in the annual yield of nitrogen was even greater than in the case of the
cereals, the diminution in the percentage of the nitrogen in the soil was also greater.
In the case of beans there was also a diminution in the yield of nitrogen in the
crop, but still much more was yielded over the later period than in either wheat
or barley. In this case there was not found a marked reduction of nitrogen in
the surface soil. In the case of the mixed herbage experiments very much more
nitrogen was yielded by the application of potass manure; and here they found a
great reduction in the percentage of nitrogen in the soil. In the case of clover
grown for many years in garden soil, the percentage of nitrogen in the soil was
also very largely reduced. Part of this reduction might be due to other causes;
but the indication was that the leguminose had derived their nitrogen from the
soil. Admitting that the sources of the whole of the nitrogen of vegetation were
not conclusively made out, they nevertheless considered that the existing evidence
was against the idea of the assimilation of free nitrogen by plants, and in favour of
the opinion that the nitrogen was mainly, if not entirely, derived through the
medium of the soil.

2. The Rare Metals of the Yttrium Group.
By T. 8. Humpmes, Ph.D., B.Sc. (Lond.)

This paper consisted of a few remarks on some experiments with these metals,
instigated for the purpose of finding some better method of separation of the metals,
and of separating the metals themselves to determine their specific heats. The
main objects of the investigation produced only negative results.

The material employed for the preparation of the earth was gadolinite, and the
method of extraction was the usual one. The earths themselves were separated by
Bunsen’s well-known method with the basic nitrates; no better means of separa-
tion could be found. Three earths were first obtained, viz., yttria, terbia, and
erbia, with their usual properties. Afterwards Marignac’s ‘ytterbia’ was looked
for in the supposed pure erbia, and the existence of this new earth confirmed. The
earths ‘ X’ of Soret, ‘ phillipia,’ and ‘decipia’ of Delafontaine in all probability do
not exist ; though at present the evidence at our disposal is too meagre for any de-
cisive opinion to be formed.

The reduction of the fused chlorides by an electric current was attempted, but
numerous experiments only yielded the metals in the shape of a powder of small
metallic scales; their specific heats could not therefore be determined. As no
volatile compound of these metals is known, the only other method for determining
their atomic weights was by isomorphism. Rammelsberg had stated several years
ago that the sulphates of cadmium, didymium, and yttrium are isomorphous, whence
he drew the inference that the two latter metals (or groups of metals) are dyads,
and their oxides therefore monoxides. This was proved to be incorrect by Hilde-
brandt’s experiments with the didymium group of metals, by which he found that
their specific heats were such that the atomic weights assigned to them by
Rammelsberg must be increased by half as much again, so that their oxides would
become sesquioxides. Kopp has lately shown, and his experiments have been con-
firmed by the author, that the isomorphism which Rammelsberg imagined to exist
between the cadmium, didymium, and yttrium salts is forced and unnatural, and,
further, that cadmium sulphate and didymium sulphate, or cadmium sulphate and
yttrium sulphate do not crystallise regularly together; while, on the other hand,
didymium sulphate and yttrium sulphate do so. Yttrium and the other metals of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 317

its group are, therefore, isomorphous with didymium and not with cadmium, whence
it follows that the oxides of this group of metals are sesquioxides. The numerous
compounds of the yttrium metals prepared by M. Cleve are more simply formulated
on this assumption than on any other.

The author exhibited a few specimens connected with this investigation.

3. On the Synthesis of Hydrocyanic Acid. By Professor Dewar, F.R.S.

4. On the amount of Nitrous Acid produced in Electri¢ Illumination.
By Professor Dewar, F.R.S.

5. On the Kinoline Bases. By Professor Dewar, F.R.S.

6. An account of some Recent Experiments on Supersaturated Solutions.
By Joun M. THomson.

In this paper the author alluded to his experiments communicated to the Chemical
Society, in which he shows that perfectly isomorphous substances, that is, bodies
possessing the same chemical constitution and crystalline form, are capable of ex-
citing crystallisation in supersaturated solutions of each other. Instances were
given of the different classes of salts examined, such as the sulphates of the Mag-
nesium group possessing the general form M’’SO, 7H,O upon each other. Experi-
ments were also made on other isomorphous groups, such as the group of Alums,
and the phosphates and arseniates of sodium (Na, HPO,. 12H,O and Na, HAsO,.
12 H,0). The author then alluded to experiments on mixtures of isomorphous and
non-isomorphous bodies with each other, pointing out that a considerable separation
between non-isomorphous bodies, when mixed, may be brought about; but that.
this separation could not be carried out with isomorphous substances.

Mr. Thomson then described some new experiments upon the action of the dif-
ferent constituents upon supersaturated solutions of compound salts, such as the
action of potassium sulphate on an alum solution, the action of mercury iodide or
potassium iodide on the double iodide of mercury and potassium, the action of mer-
eury chloride or ammonium chloride on the double chloride of mercury and ammo-
nium, and finally the action of normal tartrate of potash or soda on a solution of the
compound salt, viz., rochelle salt. From these experiments it seems that in the case
of the double chlorides and iodides mentioned the different constituents behave as
active nuclei in exciting the crystallisation of the compound salts; but that in the
cases of the alum and rochelle salt solutions, the different component salts were
not able to excite the crystallisation of the double salts. Mr. Thomson proposes
to extend these experiments, if possible, in the direction of an examination into
the condition of compound and double salts when in solution.

7. Notes on recent Spectral Observations.
By J. Norman Locxygr, F'.2.S.

The following results have been obtained by the method recently described to
the Royal Society (Proc. R.S., vol. xxix. p. 266) :—

1. Carefully distilled sodium condensed in a capillary tube, and placed in the
retort, gives 20 volumes of hydrogen.

2. Phosphorus carefully dried gives 70 volumes of gas, chiefly hydrogen, which,
however, is not PH,, although it gives some of the lines of phosphorus. It is not
PH,, because CuSo, is not touched by it.

&. Magnesium carefully prepared by Matthey is magnificent in its colourings;
we get first hydrogen, then the D line [not sodium, for the green line is absent],

318 REPORT—1879.

then the green lines of magnesium, (5) then blue line, then various mixtures ofall of
them, as the temperature is increased, D being always the brightest. 2 volumes
(4 cc) of hydrogen only were collected.

4, With gallium and arsenic the pump always clicks, indicating that no gas is

iven off.

: 5. From sulphur and some of its compounds there is always So,.

6. From indium, hydrogen comes over before heating.

7. Lithium gives 100 volumes of hydrogen.

The conditions of the experiments have always been the same, the only variable
being the substance. The volumes stated are those generally obtained; almost all
experiments are ended by the cracking of the tube.

8. Notes on} Petrolewm Spirit or ‘ Benzoline.’
By AurreD H. ALLEN.

The application of the commercial names ‘benzoline’ and ‘benzine’ to the
more volatile portion of petroleum has led to great confusion between petroleum
spirit and coal-tar naphtha, the most characteristic constituent of which is the
hydrocarbon benzene or benzol.

Although presenting close general resemblances, the following characteristic
differences exist between petroleum spirit and coal-tar naphtha. All the tests
given have been carefully verified by the author on representative samples of
petroleum spirit and coal-tar benzol.

Petroleum Spirit, ‘ Benzoline’ or‘ Benzine,’ Coal-Tar Naphtha, or ‘ Benzol.
1. Consists of heptane, C,H,,, and its 1. Consists of benzene, C,H,, and its
homologues. homologues,
2. Heptane contains 84:0 per cent. of 2. Benzene contains 92°3 per cent. of
carbon. carbon.
3. Commences to boil at 54° to 60° C. 3. Commences to boil at about 80°C.
4, Specific aa at 15:5°C. about 4. Specific gravity about ‘88.
69 to *72.
5, Smells of petroleum. 5. Smells of coal-tar.
6. Dissolves iodine, forming a solution 6. Dissolves iodine, forming a purple-
of a raspberry-red colour. red liquid of the tint of an
aqueous solution of potassium
permanganate.
7. Does not sensibly dissolve coal-tar 7. Readily dissolves coal-tar pitch,
pitch, andis scarcely coloured by forming a deep-brown solution.

it, even on prolonged contact.
8. When shaken in the cold with one- 8. Miscible with absolute carbolic acid
third of its volume of fused in all proportions.
erystals of absolute carbolic acid,
the latter remains undissolved,
and forms a separate lower

stratum.

9. Requires two volumes of absolute 9. Miscible with absolute alcohol in
alcohol, or four or five volumes all proportions. Forms a homo-
of methylated spirit of *828 sp. geneous liquid with an equal
gravity, for complete solution at measure of methylated spirit of
the ordinary temperature. *828 sp. gravity.

10. Warmed with four measures of 10. Completely miscible with four mea-
nitric acid of 1:45 sp. gravity sures of nitric acid of 1:45 sp.
the acid is coloured brown, but gravity, with great rise of tem-
the spirit is little acted on, and perature and production of dark
forms an upper layer. brown colour. (A certain amount

of nitrobenzene may rise on
cooling the liquid.)

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 319

The greater number of the above tests are valueless when applied to mixtures
of petroleum and coal-tar naphthas, but No. 10 is capable of giving quantitative
results if the treatment with nitric acid be conducted in a small flask and an
inyerted condenser attached, to prevent loss of vapours. When action has nearly
ceased, if the liquid be poured into a narrow graduated tube, the measure of the
upper layer indicates with approximate accuracy the amount of petroleum spirit
present. If the proportion of benzene is considerable, the nitrobenzene produced
may not remain completely dissolved in the nitric acid, in which case it rises and
forms a layer of a dark brown colour below the stratum of petroleum spirit. Nitro-
benzene and petroleum spirit are readily miscible in the absence of nitric acid, but
agitation with strong nitric acid dissolves out the nitrobenzene, a portion of which
may rise and form an intermediate layer as above described.

By fractional distillation, the author found that the proportion of heptane,
O,H,,, present in commercial benzoline probably equalled, or even exceeded, that
of all the other constituents.

9. On the Illuminative Value of a Mixture of Hydrogen with some Hydro-
carbons. By A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S., Lee’s Reader in
Chemistry at Christ Church, Oxford.

The author has determined the proportions in which pentane and hydrogen
must be mixed to form a gas which, burnt at the rate of 5 cubic feet an hour at
a standard argand burner, gives the light of 16 candles, He has also made a
comparative experiment with benzene.

The experiments were made by passing hydrogen from a gasholder into a
cylindrical glass about an inch wide, containing the volatile hydrocarbon, and thence
though a meter to the burner. By regulating the temperature of the liquid, and
the distance between the mouth of the tube through which the hydrogen entered
and the surface of the liquid, the light of the gas flame upon the disk of the photo-
meter could be kept nearly equal to that of the candles used for comparison when
the gas was passing through a meter at 5 cubic feet an hour.

Each experiment lasted one hour, at the end of which the weight of pentane
which had evaporated was ascertained, and the weight of spermaceti consumed by
the two candles, An observation of the illuminating power of the gas was made
every minute, and the rate of evaporation adjusted so as to keep the illuminating
power as nearly as possible equal to that of 16 candles.

The following results were obtained :—

Duration of | Illuminating | Grains of sper- Grams of pentane burnt
experiment power maceti burnt Actual Corrected
if 1 hour 146 — 362 39:7
2 a Lil, 219 38°3 39°8
3 9 16:4 217 387 41-9
4 39 16:3 218 38°1 411
Mean . 16-1 218 378 40°6

The weight of pentane burnt is corrected proportionally from what it was with
the actual illuminating power obtained, judged by the light actually given by the
candles, to what it would have been if the gas had given the light of 16 candles
each burning at the rate of 120 grains per hour.

The weight of pentane required to maintain this light for one hour is 40-6
grams. The mixture consisted of 4:55 cubic feet of hydrogen, and 0:45 cubic foot
of pentane. Thirty-nine grams of pentane burnt with this proportion of hydrogen
under the conditions of the experiment yield as much light as 120 grains of
Spermaceti burnt in a candle.

320 REPORT—1879.

A similar experiment, was made with benzene in order to compare quantitatively
the illuminative value of the two hydrocarbons :—

Grams of benzene burnt

Duration of Illuminating Grains of sper-
experiment power maceti burnt Mcival Goridct ba
96 minutes 16:4 354 24:8 16°5

The weight of benzene required to maintain the light of 16 standard candles
for one hour is 165 grams. The mixture consisted of 4:83 cubic feet of hydrogen
and 0°17 cubic foot of benzene. Thus, while hydrogen must be mixed with +th
its volume of pentane to yield a gas of the illuminative value of ordinary coal as,
it requires only about th its volume of benzene. The illuminative value of
benzene is 2°46 times greater than that of pentane, comparing the two by weight
and 2:66 times greater comparing equal gaseous volumes of the two. 4

If the light of a hydrocarbon flame is due to the incandescence of the carbon,
or highly condensed hydrocarbons, formed at the temperature of combustion, it
would seem that the products or mode of decomposition of the two hydrocarbons
must differ. If the carbon of each were separated, their illuminative value would
be similar. Actually carbon present as benzene vapour has 2-05 times the illumi-
native of carbon present as pentane.

10. The New Condenser. By Guorce S. Haztenurst.

T have striven to make my condenser a contrast in every possible way to the
usual method. Its principle is the exact opposite of condensing towers. Oold by
rarefaction is the old idea—the gas, attenuated by the chimney draught, is drawn
through long lengths of expensive glass tubing, through towers of Yorkshire flag,
5 feet square and 50 or 60 feet in height, thence to a brick tower, where it is
drenched with water, thence to the chimney—sometimes not quite innocuous
even then!

The new idea is cold by compression. Not new to science by any means, but
new as far as muriatic acid is concerned. The difficulty has been to find a valve
which would not be eaten up by even an hour’s work in the hot and powerful gas
—no valve would stand it—but if by any conceivable means the wear and tear and
motion of the valve could be thrown solely upon the acid liquor itself, the difficulty
would be overcome.

s This single ray of hope soon broadened into fuller light. It was evident if a

long pipe were placed, say 3 inches deep, in liquor in a closed vessel, it would be
much easier to draw air down the pipe and make it bubble through the liquor than
it would be to press the liquor up the tube to any considerable height; make it
easier for the gas to enter than to get back; provide a readier outlet trapped in
similar fashion, and you have at once a suction and a delivery.

Four large ebonite tubes, 30 inches diameter, closed at the upper end, rising
and falling in liquor, alternately pull in the gas through one set of liquor traps and
expel it through a second, making sufficient draught to take the gas from a pot and
furnace whose farthest door is fifty yards distant. The suction valve is so arranged
that when full it overflows into the delivery valve, and this again overflows into a
cistern. Thus the valves are made to regulate themselves, they merely require a
small supply of liquor, and apply themselves naturally to their work. In first cost,
in wear and tear, and in the amount of water used, the patent offers larger
advantages compared with condensing towers.

It soon became evident that the enormous amount of heat evolved from pot
and furnace, and also from the gas itself by the very act of condensation, would
prove a serious drawback. Fifteen-inch vertical pipes, chequered with tiles, and
supplied with a stream of cool strong acid or water have hitherto sufficiently
reduced the temperature to make it safe to use the ebonite tubes. The greatest

TRANSACTIONS OF SECYION B. 37441

length of 15-inch pipes that I have used has been only 15 feet, and in this short
length a plentiful stream of water can be changed into acid, 24° Twaddel, when
the vitriol has been freshly run on the salt. Of course where the charge has boiled
down this cannot be maintained with such a short length of tube, hence, up to the
present, strong acid has been delivered down the tube by a pump I introduced to
the trade about two years ago. Ultimately, I trust, no acid pump will be needed
in connection with the condenser, but the gas cooled and the acid made from
water alone.

A vertical range of 12 inch pipes filled with coke and supplied with water is
provided to make away with the remains of the gas; this may be all put under
pressure by narrowing the exit. There is reason to believe that a very short range
will eventually be required here, even if one be needed at all.

The large powers of cooling and acid making shown by 15 feet of piping
chequered with tiles, show that further development may be expected in this
direction. If 15 feet can do so much, what of 30 or 50 feet? In this way I hope
to dispense with acid pumping entirely.

The highest test taken at the exit pipe showed an escape of 1:2 grains per
cubic foot, and the lowest test ‘09 grain per cubie foot. This on a 12 inch
pipe, with a speed too slow to be found in the usual fashion, would yield merely
a fractional percentage on the salt used, or a figure in the third place of decimals
if reckoned on a cubic foot taken from a moderate sized chimney with 6 or 8
feet of speed a second. These satisfactory results obtained at the outset are most
encouraging, and lead me to hope that ultimately the very smell of the acid vapour
may be quenched.

If this method prove capable of making vitriol, it will effect changes of an
importance difficult to estimate.

The old plan stands aside, as it were, provides long lanés of piping in which
the gas may spread its giant bulk and wander on, until weary with gradual
cold, it slowly submits to the liquid form. The new plan stands directly in front
of it, quenches its fire ere it has gone six yards, draws it swiftly on, and crushes it
between cool surfaces of liquor until its power to harm has passed away.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 27, 1879.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Notes on a Sample of Fuller’s Earth, found in a Fullonica recently
excavated at Ponpeti. By Witt1aM Tuomson, F.K.S.L.

In visiting the ancient city of Pompeii in April last, I observed in one of the
Fullonica establishments a large square tank set in the ground, filled with a white,
soft substance, which was soapy to the touch, and which was pointed out to us as
‘the soap of the ancient inhabitants. I took a sample of the substance with a view
of making a chemical examination of it.

_ 4 This substance is named by the Italians ‘Terra Fullonica,’ and besides being
found in the dyers’ and washers’ quarter of the city, it has been discovered fre-
quently in the ordinary houses which have been excavated.

Among the literature of chemistry I searched for but failed to find any
mention of this Fuller’s earth or its composition, but through the kindness of
Signor Felice Niccoline, Director of the National Museum of Naples, I obtained a
Sater written by Professor de Luca, entitled, ‘Chemical Researches on “ Terra

ullonica,” found in Pompeii, April 13, 1878.’
In this he gives the general chemical peculiarities of the clay, such as its being

1879. Y

322 REPORT—1879.

faintly alkaline and containing silica, lime, magnesia, chlorides, and traces of sul-
phates—potassium and sodium. He gives its composition, according to a mechanical
analysis, as follows :—
50 grams of the clay stirred in water gave different residues, which
were separated according to their tendency to settle to
the bottom.

10:282 ,, settled first, and was composed of sand and carbonate of
lime.

17-710 ,, was composed of a little sand and carbonate of lime and
much clay.

10:050 ., is formed of traces of carbonate of lime and much clay,.
and the fourth residue.

| 8-230 ,, was greasy to the feel and plastic, and fused before the
blowpipe into a vitreous bead of a yellowish-white
colour.

Professor de Luca also states that it contains 17 per cent. of water, 24 per cent.
of matter soluble in hydrochloric acid, and 2°7 per cent. of carbonic acid ; the re-
mainder being insoluble in hydrochloric acid.

On drying the substance thoroughly at 100°C., and then subjecting it to
analysis, I found it to be composed of—

Per cent.
Silica . - : 5 5 : : : . 67:145
Alumina . . . é 5 . ‘ 3 . : vag LeU)
Oxide of iron . s ‘ . : A 5 2 > , 2-107
Lime . E ; 4 : : A 2 4 5 6°41 2.
Magnesia . . ¢ 5 : : ; ; 4 1:822
Carbonic acid . ‘ * 2 é c 6 5 ; ‘ 3451
Manganese ‘ ; : : é : : ° 3 : Trace
Combined water “ bs 4 : ; : é 3953
Alkaline salts (loss). a : : : 0 4 4 - 2°253

100:000

2. On the Detection of Milk Adulteration. By Wiuttam H. Watson, F.C.S.

From analyses of milk from various dairies, and by a comparison of the results
obtained with circumstances existing as to the character and quantity of the food ;
nature of different cows; conditions and health of them at particular periods; and
changes of the seasons of the year, the author concludes that cows’ milk is subject
to considerable variations in composition. He has found in many instances milk
from well-fed healthy cows to contain as little as 10°5 per cent. of total solids, and
from 85 to 9 per cent. of solids not fat. The results of other experimenters are
compared, and it is then suggested that the present limits adopted by public
analysts for genuine milk should be reconsidered.

3. Chemical Researches on Palmella Cruenta. By Dr. T. L. Puipson, |
F.C.8., London, formerly of the University of Brussels, Cor. Memb. of
the Chemical Society of Paris, and of the Royal Society of Med. and
Nat. Sciences of Brussels.

‘&

Palmella cruenta is a minute alga, of a blood-red colour, which is found at the
foot of damp walls, especially where there is much mortar or lime-wash, and always
near to the ground. The older botanists called it Chaos sanguinea, Tremella san~
guinea, &e., and during wet weather, in summer, this minute plant is not unlike

clotted blood. ;
But when giving to it the names just mentioned, botanists could not have fore-

seen how far this analogy extends, and how many curious points of resemblance this

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 323

vegetable production possesses with the blood of animals. In the first place, when ob-
served under the microscope, it is found to consist of minute spherical cells, about
0:004 of a millimetre in diameter, according to my own determinations, and these
may be easily likened to human blood corpuscles, which I find measure 0-005 to
0-006 of a millimetre, with the same instrument. These little cells, each distinct
and independent, swarm ina kind of mucous substance which may, for analogy’s
sake, be compared to the serum of the blood. But I have found that they contain
a colouring matter of a very remarkable character, that will be here spoken of as
Palmelline, Up to the present time there is no substance known to chemists which
at all resembles it, except the colouring matter of blood, or hemoglobine. Like
the latter, it is insoluble in alcohol, ether, benzol, and sulphide of carbon, but
dissolyes in water. Like the colouring matter of blood, palmelline is dichroic ;
like it, also, its aqueous solution is coagulated by acetic acid, alcohol, and ammonia,
and it is a colouring matter of an albuminous nature, Like hemoglobine, the new
substance, palmelline, also produces wide bands of absorption in the yellow of the
spectrum, though not exactly in the same position, The solution of palmelline in
water easily undergoes putrefaction with development of ammonia, precisely as
does the colouring matter of blood. Finally, like hemoglobine, palmelline contains
a little iron. i

These and other strong analogies are certainly extremely curious, since the two
substances are really distinct; in other terms, the analogy does not amount to
identity. But it is the first time that any substance at all similar to the colouring
matter of blood has been discovered in the vegetable kingdom.

Palmelline cannot be extracted from the little plant whilst the latter isin a
moist state, for, then, its vitality is such that it does not allow water to extract the
colour, The plant must be dried by exposure to the air for some twenty-four to
forty-eight hours, without the application of any artificial heat. It must then be

laced at the bottom of a porcelain dish containing a little cold water, the dish
a covered with a sheet of glass, and allowed to remain for another period of
twenty-four to thirty-six hours. By that time the colouring matter is almost all
exhausted, and forms a beautiful rose pink solution, if seen by transmission, and
orange yellow by reflection. No other colouring matter is extracted from the plant
in this manner. The dry plant may also be treated first with sulphide of carbon,
and then by strong alcohol ; being afterwards thoroughly dried, water will then
extract the palmelline as before.

Evaporated to dryness at about 40° C., the solution yields the substance in
question, as more or less crystalline crusts, without any definite form.

The solution is coagulated by alcohol, ammonia, and acetic acid, producing in
each case flocks similar to the fibrine of blood. It is also coagulated by heat, like
albumine. It yields several wide bands of absorption in the spectroscope: these
are situated below D in the yellow, and extend into the green of the spectrum.

Palmelline is insoluble in ether, aleohol, or sulphide of carbon and benzol. Its
solution in water enters easily into putrefaction at 25° to 30° C., with a very strong
ammoniacal odour of putrid cheese, and development of swarms of active vibrios
and bacteria, This decomposition can only be prevented, so as to preserve the colour,
by saturating the recent aqueous solution with ether, As long as the odour of ether
is perceptible in the flask, no decomposition sets in. A little salicylic acid also
preserves the solution for a week or so; but it modifies the colour, turns it more or
less violet, and takes away the curious yellow fluorescence, which is so characteristic
of palmelline.

When the aqueous solution is coagulated by alcohol, the palmelline is precipi-
tated as red filaments like fibrine, which soon become colourless. Ammonia and
potash act in the same manner, first turning the pink to a greenish-blue shade, and
afterwards destroying the colour, Sulphide of ammonium turns the solution
yellow without coagulating it. Hydrochloric acid and nitric acid change the tint
of the solution to brick red, which is no longer dichroic, and then destroy it,
without coagulation.

When a few drops of palmelline solution were treated so as to obtain what are
called microscopic ‘ blood-crystals, like the crystals produced by hematine with

Y2

324 REPORT— 1879.

acetic acid, I obtained a great quantity of rhombic (nearly cubic) plates, colourless,
or only slightly coloured. A second experiment gave the same result.

When palmelline obtained by the evaporation of its aqueous solution at 40°C is
calcined, it leaves a small quantity of ash, in which lime chlorine and iron were
detected.

i,

If, instead of drying the little plant by exposure to the air, in order to extract
the palmelline, as described above, it is allowed to steep for some hours in a large
excess of sulphide of carbon, this liquid soon becomes a dark golden-yellow colour,
and on eyaporation leaves, together with a little fatty matter, a large quantity of
xanthophyli—the yellow colouring matter of leaves in autumn—which is charac-
terised, as I showed in 1858,! by dissolving in concentrated sulphuric acid, with a
magnificent emerald green colour. After the complete separation of the sulphide of
carbon, strong alcohol extracts chlorophyll in a very pure state, forming a beautiful
bluish-green solution, which, on evaporation, yields nothing but chlorophyll; and
this is, perhaps, the easiest mode of obtaining the substance in a state of purity.
‘When, after these two operations, the alcohol is completely separated, pure cold
water extracts the palmelline in the course of about twenty-four hours.

By these successive treatments, xanthophyll, chlorophyll, and palmelline are
entirely separated, and the Palmella cruenta contains no more colouring matter.

iil.

But both the treatment by water and that by alcohol, as above made known,
separate, at the same time as thesubstances already named, small quantities of another
yery interesting compound, which I have isolated and have termed Characine. It is
the odoriferous substance which is characteristic of fresh water alge, desmids,
diatoms, oscillarie, &c., in general, and is highly developed in plants of the genus
Chara, giving to all these that peculiar marshy odour so well known to botanists.
This odour is due to a substance produced by the plants (a kind of camphor), and
not, as is generally supposed, to some products of their putrefactive decomposition.

Characine can be extracted from the alcoholic solution, or from the water which
has lain over the dry Palmella cruenta for thirty or forty hours. The alcoholic
solution is first mixed with about fifteen times its volume of water, and allowed to
deposit in a closed tube; the contents of the tube are decanted from the deposit,
and shaken up with a certain quantity of ether. The latter is then separated and
evaporated. It leaves the characine in the form of a colourless greasy substance,
haying a strong characteristic marshy odowr. It is soluble in alcohol and ether,
almost insoluble in water, to which it communicates its odour; its specific gravity
is less than that of water, on which it floats, producing those thin films which are
seen occasionally on stagnant water abounding in algee, and on the water of tanks
where alge are cultivated. Potash does not saponify it. Abandoned to itself it
either volatilises or disappears by oxidation from the surface of cold water, which
thus loses all marshy odour. But when heated in contact with water, in a closed
tube, it yields a substance melting at 83° C, very similar to ‘vegetable wax,’ and
having the odour of that substance.

It can also be obtained from water which has stood for two days on the air-
dried Palmella. On the surface of the liquid, which is of a beautiful rose pink from
the palmelline it has dissolved, are seen numerous thin films of characine. The
liquid can easily be decanted off into a long narrow tube, and shaken up with ether,
which extracts the characine and respects the colouring matter.

Characine is the substance to which all the fresh-water alge, oscillarie, &c.,
owe their peculiar odour whilst in life and health. The Chara fetzda is, perhaps,
the plant in which it is most developed. I hope to make a more complete study of
it at the first opportunity.

1 Phipson, Comptes Rendus, Paris, 1858; and Wiirtz, Dict. de Chim. art. ‘Couleur
des Feuilles,’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 325

4, Description of a Glass Burette for Collecting, Measuring, and Discharg-
ing Gas over Mercury. By PHinip Braunam, F.C.S.

Tux burette consists of a divided glass tube open at both ends, the lower end, a,
haying a lip and the upper end being covered z
with a loosely-fitting boxwood cap.

A piston, B, formed of a disc of india-
rubber between two plates of steel, connected
to a steel rod, ¢, is fitted into the tube.

To fill the burette, the piston is depressed
below the lower end until some of the mer-
cury escapes above it, and on drawing it up
any portion of the tube can be filled.

When the gas has been delivered its
measurements may easily be made by lower-
ing the piston till the mercury inside is level
with that out, and the content read off. By
placing the lip under a eaudiometer, on fur-
ther depression of the piston any required
amounts of gas may be delivered for analysis,
the clamp E being fixed to stop the piston
when the required amount is discharged.
The clamp D is used to prevent the piston
descending when the instrument is full of
mercury. A

326 REPORT—1879.

Secrion C.—GEOLOGY.

PRESIDENT_OF THE SECTION—Professor P. MARTIN DuNCAN, F.R.S.,“Vice-
President of the Geological Society.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

The PrEsIDENT delivered the following Address :—

Everyone who is interested in the science which is especially considered in this
section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science must be impressed
with the importance of the geological construction of this district in determining
its physical geography, in producing the features of its landscapes, and in originating
and developing many of the industries of the busy town of Sheffield.

It was inevitable that you should be addressed, at the commencement of your
labours, upon the subject of the Carboniferous formation, especially as the intention
of this peripatetic congress is to advance science amongst those who require it.
It will therefore be my privilege to bring before you some of the more important
generalisations of the day, and some other considerations, regarding the great
formation which is so fully developed in this part of England; trusting that
whilst many of you will submit to be reminded of the results of the labours of
the men who have established our science and of those of yourselves, some who
desire further information than they have hitherto obtained may be advanced in
knowledge.

Of all geological formations, the Carboniferous is the most important to
mankind at the present time, and the most interesting to the student. It gives the
earliest clear and definite idea of a land surface on the earth, or rather of the
existence of many lands; for they are to be traced here and there from high up in
Arctic latitudes to Australia, and from the West of America to Hastern Asia.
It offers evidence of the existence, even in those remote days as in the much
later Miocene age, of astronomical conditions which do not now prevail. It yields
proofs of the persistence of a vast lowland flora during extraordinary vicissitudes
of the relative level of land and sea, and of the existence of a fauna remarkable
for its great fish and amphibia, and whose air-breathing mollusca and insecta are
of surpassing interest, foreshadowing as they do many recent forms. And its study
indicates that the movements of the crusts of the earth, which occurred during
and terminated the age, were of the grandest kind, and have been of the greatest
importance to mankind, destroying, it is true, all the vestiges of a large part of a
volume of the earth’s history, but bringing coal within the reach of the explorer and
miner.

This world-wide formation, usually very thick everywhere, has all the evidences
of having lasted during a vast age, and there are present in it the relics of sea
flows, of shallow seas and estuaries, of land surfaces, rivers and marshes. The
volcanic activity of the age was great, and is capable of demonstration.

So deep are some of the sediments composing the Carboniferous formation in
different parts of the world that the idea of exact contemporaneity is not neces-
sarily much modified. It was in all probability coal time universally, and for a
long duration. But the beginning of the period was not synchronous in different
parts of the earth, neither was the ending. The Devonian age lasted longer in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 327

some parts of the earth than in others, and the crust movements which so altered
the physical geography of the Carboniferous hills, dales, and swamps as to develop
a new aspect of nature, terminated the period sooner in some quarters of the globe
than in others. In such a locality, however, as Eastern Hindostan, the duration
of a Carboniferous type into the secondary ages is apparent. Hence, in spite of
a recognised general contemporaneity, it must be credited that Carboniferous,
Devonian, Permian, and later deposits were accumulating early and late during the
lapse of one great age in distant parts of the globe.

The duration of the Carboniferous age in the broadest sense may be attempted,
but with no great success, to be estimated by the time which must have elapsed
during the world-wide dispersion of identical species; and its biological relation
to the preceding and subsequent formations may be appreciated from the fact that
the Carboniferous flora, lasting as it did from the bottom to the top of the forma-
tion, was foreshadowed in the Devonian, and that it founded the Mesozoic. Thus
the Australian, Himalayan, British and North and South American marine strata of
the Carboniferous age contain many identical species of Brachiopoda—the variation
from the English types, which were the first described, being very slight. Amongst
the corals some forms are equally widely diffused. Now, according to what occurs
in nature at the present time, the movement of species from one locality to another
by ova, or by wafting of the young—the only method of the lateral or horizontal
progress of the Brachiopoda—for instance, is impeded by many physical conditions,
and is constantly rendered abortive by predaceous and obstructive living forms, and
by what is called the struggle for existence. Miegration, or rather the extension of
the locality of the species, for the first term implies much more than was or is ever
done, is so rarely possible to any great extent under the present complicated natural
history and physical condition of the earth, that the mind fails to grasp the time
which would lapse between the commencement of the dispersive process and the
establishment of identical species, even a few thousands of miles off. To bring the
subject a little nearer, however, it is necessary to consider that the Arctic and
Antarctic cold areas and the frigid bathymetrical ocean zones did not then exist,
and that the movements of the crust, producing extension of coast lines, were
exceedingly frequent during the age, and must have facilitated the dispersion of
littoral and moderately deep sea species. :

The dispersion of the species of the numerous cryptogamous plants was doubtless
rapid in relation to that of the animals, for their spores could be wafted to a great
distance by wind, and they do not appear to have had much to struggle against.
With the Coniferze it was different, and the examination of the methods in which
fir trees spread in favourable localities at the present time is very suggestive of
exceeding slowness of dispersion. Nevertheless, the cones of the Coniferze were
carried here and there by water during the Carboniferous age.

To add to the notion of the long duration of the age it must be remembered
that a succession of identical floras occurred nearly on the same areas, involving
repetitions of growth and of migration.

The growing of the vegetation of each swamp and lowland tract, its accumu-
lation and covering up with sand, shales, and gravel, occupied much time, and the
last process involved the destruction of considerable breadths of plant life. The
formation of under-clay or warp, if the similar occurrences of the present day be
taken as examples, occupied much time, and then a lapse occurred, whilst the
- nearest flora supplied a new vegetation to the virgin soil.

In some instances the recurrence of vegetation was evidently the result of
spreading from no great distance; but in others so great a depth of sediment sepa-
rates the consecutive deposits of coal, and the great subsidence which took place is
so evident, that the migration must have been from a considerable distance, and
must have occupied commensurate time. In endeavouring to appreciate this lapse
of time, it must be remembered that, even on the small surface of the United
Kingdom, there was land on some parts during the whole of the Carboniferous
Age, notwithstanding the diversity of the deposits and the frequent occurrence of
marine conditions.

It would appear that prior to those movements of the earth’s crust which ter-

328 REPORT—1879.

minated the physical geography of the Devonian Age, three elevated tracts of land
crossed the kingdom from west to east, and that there were mountainous regions
running northwards and north-westwards, including North Wales, Western Ire-
land, and much of the North Atlantic.

The southern high land barrier passed somewhere in the direction of the Bristol
Channel, and then to the east and slightly to the south, having a somewhat definite
continuation with the Ardennes, The central barrier, or high land, passed from:
Shropshire eastwards by Leicester, and then to the coast; and the northern
was formed by hills in the present Lake district, extending eastwards, On the
south of the southern high land, the marine Devonian accumulated in a coral sea,
and to the north of it and between it and the central barrier the Old Red lakes
obtained their water supply and sediment from the Welsh hills of the period.
North of the central barrier interrupted lakes and land occurred and also to the
north of the northern barrier. The dry land and the barriers and hills were formed by
sub-rocks of Silurian and Cambrian age.

There is no evidence to indicate that the southern barrier was of great height at
the end of the Devonian period, but there is some which points out that the first
physical change which initiated a new aspect of nature—the Carboniferous—was
a general subsidence of the region. The coral reefs sank below the bathymetrical
zone of the composite forms, and the sea breached the barrier. The southern Old
Red lake began to have its waters impregnated with salt, and its great ganoid fish
were replaced by the cestraciont sharks of the age. These left their remains in
the bone bed at the base of the lower limestone shales, which are the earliest of the
Carboniferous series there. The irruption of the sea appears to have taken place to
the north of the central barrier also, and the subsidence was great there, a limestone
with some sandy strata forming gradually. In the north and north-east, in the
present district of the Tweed, deposits collected in shallow water, and vege-
tation grew which formed the coals at the base of the great Scour limestone.

On the same and on slightly higher horizons are the coals of Fallow Field,
Tindall Fell, and Heskett. These are the earliest evidences of the Carboniferous
i capabe, and it was doubtless in full vigour whilst marine conditions existed to
the south.

Probably the high lands constituting the barriers were not covered during the
subsidence, which permitted the accumulation of the marine deposits of the Car-
boniferous limestone age. For close to the coal-fields near the central barrier,
and which rest on upper Silurian rock, borings here found the remains of Car-
boniferous plants on the paleozoic rock without the intervention of any sediments.

Now the depth of the deposit of limestone about this central barrier is ereat,
and the question arises how was it produced in the immediate proximity of land
which was not covered by sea, and which does not appear to have sunken con-
temporaneously with the sea floor close by ? Sinking along definite lines bounded by
faults, is the only means by which this can be explained ; and this suggestion, which
was a favourite topic with Phillips, is all the more probable, when it is remem-
bered that the area of accumulation to the north of the barrier was one of vast
subsidence during the consecutive ages of the grits and coal measures, whilst there
was land still further north. If the stability of one and the instability of the
other are not conceded, the original height of the barriers must have been stupendous
and beyond example, so far as the size of their bases is concerned.

There are many examples of what I resolved to call in a presidential address
before the Geological Society areas of comparative instability and which relate
apparently to radial upheaval subsidence along long lines of country where move-
ment has been rare. An instance on the grandest scale is seen in the history of the
Himalayas in relation to the peninsula to their south and south-west. For whilst
this last area was land during a vast age, that of the Himalayas was repeatedly a
marine tract, and suffered subsidences and elevations.

Still further north and beyond the northern barrier, in the Scottish area,
Carboniferous plants lived a little later, and after a subsidence which permitted the
lower Calciferous series to accumulate. The lowest coals of the basin of the Clyde
are of this age, and the accompanying clay, ironstone, and the fresh water limestones

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 329

and gigantic fish of Burdie House are all indications of terrestrial conditions,
All these evidences of Carboniferous vegetation occur in the geological horizon of
the Carboniferous limestone and Yoredale series.

Never entirely free from sandy impurities the Carboniferous Limestones north
of the central barrier gradually became covered with a thick arenaceous series
containing here and there marine fossils and traces of coal plants. Those on
the Yoredale strata consist mainly of the sediments of a somewhat distant
north-westerly land, the plants of which were carried to sea by rivers and depo-
sited here and there on the sea floor. It would appear from the evidence collected
by the Geological Survey that, after a very considerable thickness of these rocks
had collected, either a filling up of the shallow sea or a slight upheaval of the floor
vecurred, for denudation of their surface happened, considerable depressions and
ridges being produced on it, On those spaces and ridges, and indeed on the whole
surface of the Yoredale rocks, collected strata which are popularly called the millstone
erits, so well seen west of Sheffield. All the depths of this great land wreckage,
consisting of silicious and felspathic sandstones and shales, accumulated on a sink-
ing area, some near land and the rest in deeper places. And here and there coal
seams are found intercalated, being evidences of the existence of contemporaneous
vegetation. Some of them are workable, and others are only valuable as evidences
of the existence of the vegetation of the age; many are placed on a hard silicious
or ganister bed, but some have an underlying fire-clay. They are very usually
covered with deposits containing goniatites and aviculopecten, which doubtless
are the remains of marine organisms,

Admitting, therefore, that some of this millstone grit coal may be the result of
the drifting and sinking of the vegetation from off lands rather remotely situated,
it is still evident, from the existence of the under-clays elsewhere, that some of the
grits, by silting up, or by slight upheaval, above sea level, formed the subsoil of
swampy ground on which vegetation grew. This approach of the millstone grit
sea floor to above sea level was decided enough in the region of the great coal-field
around us, for a conglomeratic rock—the rough rock—occupies a somewhat defi-
nite horizon on the top of the series,

This rough rock collected in shallow water, and it is important to the geolo-
gical surveyor, for it formed the base on which the coal measures proper rest;
and it is suggestive to the physical geologist that a general and wide, but not great,
upheayal took place which removed the ocean of the day further off, and which
determined a total change in the direction of sediment-depositing currents.

Hitherto the greatest thickness of the sediments of the millstone grit age had
been towards the north-west, and the direction of the currents had been from
north-west to south-east, but subsequently, as has been suggested from very strong
evidence by Sorby, the depositing currents of the next age had no very definite
direction. But the Carboniferous land of this part of Europe was not yet remote
from the sea. Much of it was on the borders of estuaries, and the aspect of nature
was probably that of wide flats of grit covered usually by terrestrial vegetation and
occasionally overwhelmed by sea. In fact, both practically and theoretically there is
much difficulty in separating the millstone grits from,the lower coal measures. The
lower measures contain some thick and widely-spread sandstones, and the important
coal seams, in some instances rest on a hard ganister bed, and in others on a fire-
clay. And to add to the similarity of the deposits of the upper grits and lower coal
measures, marine fossils, such as species of goniatites, aviculopecten, and posido-
nomya, are intercalated above the coals. But the evidences of marine invasion
ceased as the deposits accumulated, and more perfect terrestrial conditions arose. The
Elland flag-stones, for instance, such prominent features to the west of this town
and in the neighbourhood of Halifax, are fresh-water deposits, and are undoubtedly
accumulated in an under-clay indicative of terrestrial conditions.

_ In the region north of the northern barrier successive coal seams and impure
limestones and fire-clays occurred during the age of the depositions of the English
grits, and then a thick fossiliferous sandstone was followed by the upper coals of

id-Lothian. :

All the minor upheavals and upsiltings of this long age were subordinate to a

330 REPORT—1879.

progressive general subsidence, in which the central and northern barriers were
slichtly implicated, and this extraordinary crust movement was to continue during
the accumulation of over 3,000 feet of coal measures and other deposits, all subaerial
in their method of formation, or having collected in shallow water or swampy ground.
These products of denudation and of organism succeeded each other time after time ;
great gravels, shales, and sands were intercalated, and even traces of some of
the rivers of the age are to be found breaching the seams. The more the subject,
commonplace as it may be thought, is considered, the more astonishing does it
become, for"the regularity of the subsidence and its amount must have kept pace
with the thickness of the accumulating deposits. That there were many long
intervals of quietude in the earth’s crust may be gleaned, not only from the thick-
ness of many coal seams, but also from the subaerial denudation which occurred.
For instance, high up in the eries in this district, is a mass of red sandstone which
covers the denuded middle measures beneath; and this red rock of Rotherham,
the result of coal measure denudation and removal, accumulated during the early
days of the upper coal measures, for it is lower in the geological series than some
members of the uppermost coal measures.

Before the close of the age, marine conditions occurred in the rock, and a
limestone with goniatites was formed; but still coal seam formation proceeded
until a totally different series of crust movements commenced in this country.

The flexures which were produced at the close of the Carboniferous age had
their long axes east and west ; they suffered denudation and on the worn edges of their
strata rest the ‘ used-up Carboniferous ’—the lower Permian. Elsewhere, resting
apparently and often really conformably on the Carboniferous strata, the Permians
accumulated until great north and south curvatures occurred and produced the
Pennine chain.

The denudation of the anticlinal or upward curves of the north and south
flexures progressed, and the coal measures, once continuous across England, were
worn off along the back-bone of the country and from off the east and west ridges
also. Vast as was the destruction and removal, there was still more compensa-
tion in nature, for faulting occurred on a large scale,and the measures were in
many places sunken down below the level of possible subaerial denudation.
It is to the pre and post Permian crust movements in producing basins and in
uptilting the formerly horizontal seams, and to the subsequent faulting, that we owe
the preservation and the possibility of reaching and working much of the coal of
this country.

It appears that the position of this town refers quite as much to some remark-
able faults, and the results of the past Permian uptilting, as to the presence of the
river Don. Two important lines of fault run almost parallel, the one traversing
the centre of Sheffield, and the other being to the north of the outcrop of the
Silkstone coal. They pass, nevertheless, in a north-easterly direction, and the
country between them is much broken. Moreover, by a combination of the
results of uptilt and faulting, the strike of important coal seams has been so altered
that they encircle the town on the south, west, and north, The mineral products
have thus been brought within the reach of those by whose industry this town has
increased in size and population.

With regard to the lithology of some of the great series just mentioned, it may
be suggested that the condition under which the beautiful limestones of the
Avon, and the dark, shaly, muddy, calcareous deposits of the corresponding
age accumulated in Scotland, were very different. The stone in the southern
example is many-coloured, and is nearly an organic deposit, whilst the shaly strata
of the northern series have crowds of calcareous fossils in them. Remove the shaly
substance, however, and consider and compare the fossils of both localities, and no
satisfactory distinction can be drawn between the depths at which they may have
accumulated.

Both deposits contain crinoids, polyzoa, brachiopoda, and simple and compound
hydro-corals. The same occur in the limestones to the north of the central barrier,
which are intermediate in the arenaceous condition between those just mentioned.
It is admitted that the mineral condition of the original deposits has altered, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 331

it is possible that much impurity may have been removed by percolating car-
bonated waters from the purest of the limestones. And, indeed, unless this is
credited, it is impossible to compare some of these old marine sediments with any
now forming on the floor of the sea, All the known calcareous sea floor deposits
contain a very considerable percentage of silica and other matters, and if the
Carboniferous limestones were ever in the condition of modern deep-sea ooze, in
order that they should have looked like the chalk they must have lost, in some
manner or other, more than 35 per cent. of impurities, So far as I can understand,
much of the Carboniferous limestone may have accumulated at no very great depth
and on banks within the scour of currents, and their prevalence would account for
the comparative absence of sandy sediments in some situations. No traces of Atoll
formation exist.

With regard to one or two late discoveries relating to the organic remains of
the Carboniferous limestones, it is necessary to refer you to Moseley’s important work
amongst the Tabulata. These must now be removed from the true stony corals,
and some will be relegated to the Hydrozoa, and others to the Aleyonaria. It is
a fact of great interest that Sorby should have noticed that whilst the modern
true corals are built up of carbonate of lime in the form of arragonite, the great
tabulated forms of old are composed of calcite.

Quite lately Mr. Busk has been investigating the large polyzoa of the genus
Heteropora, and Isaw, under his manipulation, that this recent and Crag group,
with strong paleeozoic affinities, is so constructed that the branching tubular or-
ganisms of the oldest rocks with perforations in their walls and tabule must be
included amongst species of genera closely allied to it.

A host of ill-defined tubular forms, such as the Stenoporze, will thus find a final
zoological resting-place.

The arenaceous series of the Carboniferous formation in England are not less
wonderful than the Calcareous. They thin out very rapidly from 10,000 feet in
the Burnley district to 100 close to the central barrier in Leicestershire, and it
would appear that the sea drift was from the present region of the North Atlantic,
along the shores of the swampy coal-plant growing land.

The arenaceous deposits to the south of the central barrier have the same general
relation ‘as those to the north, and the grits of the Welsh and Bristol coal-fields are
silicious, and were in all probability derived from the Silurian and Old Red rocks
to their north-west. The culm measures of Somersetshire and Devonshire—those
thick deposits with impure thin coals with limestones towards the bases—are of the
age of the upper parts of the Carboniferous limestones and of the grits of the central
area, The evidences in this age of the denudation of granite and other silicious
lands, and of more or less distant diffusion of the sediment, extend far and wide
from the United Kingdom, a belt of similar rocks being found in south-western
and central Europe. It is, moreover, very probable that the upper Vindhyan rocks
_ of Hindostan, those fine sandstones and grits which have yielded the building-stones
to the great Gangetic cities, are of the same relative age (or slightly older) as
the strata of which so many Yorkshire towns are mainly built.

Whence came the thousands of feet of the sands and shales of the coal
measures ? is as yet a question which cannot be answered. It appears that very
widely distributed deposits of the same kind are comparatively rare amongst them,
and that most of the organic deposits, as well as the inorganic sedimentary, do not
extend over great breadths, but are more or less lenticular in shape, or thin out
or become changed in their lithology. This fact and Sorby’s suggestion that the
currents which deposited the strata had not any definite course rather tend to the
belief in the former presence of a vast delta during that ancient aspect of nature.
It is certain that some of the vegetation which subsequently became coal, and many
feet of the roof above, were not always formed with great slowness, for stumps and
trunks of trees have been found standing where they grew, with their roots in
their under-clay and their stems wrapped round with coal, and the shale and gravel
above. Moreover, in some places, a series of these interesting relics exists, one set
being placed above the others.

With regard to the coal itself, varying as it does in its physical peculiarities,

332 REPORT—1879.

all that has an under-clay grew as vegetation on land. It is at present rather diffi-
cult to believe that where a coal seam is found upon a hard silicious bed without a
vestige of clay or of old soil, its plants were rooted there. But the stigmarian
roots are not unfrequent in the ganister, and at the present time a peculiar vege-
tation is growing on the grits to the west of this town with a very small amount of
humus intervening. Some coal seams, especially the cannels, would appear, how-
ever, not to have been produced by plants which grew on the rocks beneath, and
they are the result of vegetation drifting and becoming water-logged.

In reflecting upon the history of those Carboniferous deposits in relation to the
subsequent great changes in the physical geography of the earth, the idea that
geological histories repeat themselves does not obtain that importance with which
it is credited in relation to human events. It is true that there were important
Triassic, Oolitic, Wealden, Neocomian, and Tertiary lands whose vegetation has
been metamorphosed into a kind of coal. But the wonderful depth and the
extraordinary vertical repetition of organic and inorganic deposits, of the Car-
boniferous formation, and the remarkable crust movements which enabled them to
accumulate, are without subsequent examples.

In conclusion, I must remind you that the volumes of the ‘ Geological Record’
give the literature of the Carboniferous formation year by year, and that lately a
magnificent contribution to the subject has appeared in the memoirs of the
Geological Survey of England and Wales in the form of a great volume on the
geology of the Yorkshire coal fields, by Professor Green, one of our Vice-Presidents,
and Mr. Russell, A very concise and excellent geology of the West Riding has also
recently been published by Mr. Davis, who is amongst us to-day, and Mr. Bauer-
mann has contributed a capital article on coal to the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica.’

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Seventh Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of recording
the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin
of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ; reporting other
matters of interest connected with the same, and taking measwres for
their preservation.—See Reports, p. 135.

2. Notice of the occurrence of a Fish allied to the Coccosteus in a bed of

Devonian Limestone near Chudleigh. By Joun Epwarp Lex, F.G.S.,
ESA.

In this paper the author mentions the discovery of a fish, allied to coccosteus, in
the Devonian Limestone of Lower Dunscombe, near Chudleigh, and endeavours to
show that this fish occurs in the middle or upper part of the Devonian Limestone,
just as it is found chiefly in the upper beds of the Old Red Sandstone. He also
points out that, from being associated with goniatites, clymenia, and crinoidal
remains, it cannot have been a fresh-water fish.

3. Notice of Fossils found in a bed of Devonian Rocks at Saltern Cove, in
Torbay, and in a quarry of the Old Red Sandstone, near Caerleon, in
Monmouthshire. By Joun Epwarp Les, F.G.S., F.S.A.

In this notice the author states that the fossils found at Saltern are precisely
similar to those found at Bidesheim, in the Hifel, which are commonly considered.
as Upper Devonian, and he therefore believes that, as the fossils are identical, this
small exposure at Saltern may be considered as Upper Devonian. He exhibits a
small series of fossils from both places, to show their identity.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 333

The latter part of the paper describes a quarry of the Old Red Sandstone in
Monmouthshire, containing apparently an abundance of comminuted vegetable
remains, and also several specimens of pteraspis, one of which he believes to be
new.

4, On the Nomenclature of the Plates of the Orinoidal Calyz.
By P. Herpert Carpenter, M.A.

According to the present system of nomenclature there are two distinct sets
of plates in the calyx of the Crinoids, to which the name basals is given. In
Platycrinus, and in all those forms in which there are only two sets of plates in
the calyx, the upper set were called radials by Miller, while he termed the lower
set, resting on the upper stem segment, the dasals. This was perfectly correct, for
their position is interradial, and they correspond in every respect to the basals of
Pentacrinus, the calyx of which genus was taken by Miiller as a type on which
he based his analyses of the calyx in all the other Crinoids.

In Cyathocrinus, however, there are two rows of plates below the radials, and
the plates in the lowest of these were called basals by Miiller because they rest on
the upper stem-joint. Nevertheless, they are not homologous with the basals of
Pentacrinus and Platycrinus, because they are radial in position. But intervening
between them and the radials is a second set of plates (the so called parabasals or
subradials), which alternate with both series, and are therefore interradial. I
regard these plates as the true basals, while the lower (radial) set are homologous
with the under basals of Encrinus, which were discovered by Beyrich. They are
absent in the Apiocrinidae, except perhaps in A. Murchisonianus, in all the recent
species of Pentacrinus and in most of the fossil species, but they occur in P..driareus
and in P. subangularis, where they have been wrongly described as the basals.
This name, however, really belongs to the next series of plates, the so called para-
basals, or subradials, which are inter-radial like the basals of P. caputmedusae, and .
pierced like them by bifurcating canals, so that there is no doubt as to the homology
of the two series.

The American paleontologists have sometimes followed Beyrich and some-
times followed Miiller in their system of nomenclature. For example, Heterocrinus
has two rows of plates below the radials which are variously called (1) subradials
and (2) basals, or (1) basals and (2) sub-basals. The relative positions of these
two rows are always the same, the upper (subradials or basals) being interradial,
and the lower (basals, or sub-basals), being radial. As the former (interradial)
series represents an important element in Echinoderm morphology, being homo-~
logous with the (likewise interradial) genital plates of the urchins and star-fishes,
and is also of great morphological importance in the Crinoids themselves, it is
very desirable that it should always bear the same name; and also that this name,
basals, should not be used for plates which are neither interradial in their position
nor constant in their occurrence. Similarly-named parts are usually supposed to
be homologous; but if we give the same name to plates which are radial in one
species and interradial in another, we disregard the principles of homology
altogether, and introduce unnecessary confusion into the study of echinoderm
morphology.

Beyrich has already remarked on this and has led the way towards a more
‘rational and scientific nomenclature, by introducing the name ‘ wnder-basals’ for
the radially situated plates which occur beneath the true basals of Encrinus.

If it be objected that these under basals, resting as they do upon the upper
stem-joint, form the true base of the calyx, let us retain the name basals for this
radial series, and call the upper (interradial) series the sub-radials, as is generally
done at present. This, however, would necessitate our discarding the name basals
altogether for such forms as Pentacrinus caputmedusae, &c., and, as it was first
used for the lower row of plates in the calyx of this species, such a step would
be inconvenient. The fact remains that the lowest part or base of the calyx is
formed in some Crinoids by interradial, and in others (the minority) by radial

334 REPORT—1879.

plates; and the precise nomenclature we employ is not of much consequence, The
important point is that homologous parts should be similarly named, and that
parts which are not homologous should not receive the same name as if they were
so. In the latter case, Echinoderm morphology, and especially that of the Crinoids,
becomes greatly confused. We cannot then say that the basals of the Crinoids
are homologous with the genital plates of the urchins and starfishes. One set of
plates so-named does answer to this description, but the other set does not, for it
is altogether unrepresented in the other Echinoderms.

5. On the Coal Fields and Coal Production of India.
By V. Batt, M.A., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of India.

When exhibiting the new geological map of India to this Section at the last
meeting of the Association in Dublin, the author gaye a brief sketch of the geology
of India. On the present occasion he deals with the economic resources of one of
the principal formations.

The coal-bearing rocks of Peninsular India are all included within the limits of
the great series of plant-bearing rocks to which the term Gondwana has been
applied, and they are further limited to two groups of rocks which occur in the
lower portion of that series.

By some authorities the age of these Gondwana rocks is supposed to be equiva-
lent to that of the European formations which range between and include the
Lower Oolite and the base of the Trias (Buntsandstein). By others the lower
measures, including the coal, are believed to be paleeozoic. The author proceeded to
give an outline of the recent discussions on this subject, referring particularly to
Mr. W, T, Blandford’s judicial summary of the evidence in the lately issued ‘ Manual
of the Geology of India.’

The distribution of the coal-bearing areas was then pointed out on a series of
maps which were exhibited, and the number of distinct coal-fields was stated to
amount to about thirty. Some details were then given regarding these fields, of
which five only are worked at present, namely, Ranigunj, Kurhurbali, and Dalton-
gunj in Bengal, and Mopani and Warora in the Central Provinces.

The total area of the Indian coal-fields is estimated by Mr. Hughes at upwards
of 30,000 square miles, Three countries only contain larger areas, viz. United States
500,000, China 400,000, Australia 240,000,

The amount of coal raised in India varies a good deal from year to year with
the supply of sea-borne coal in the market; this latter depends very much on the
amount of tonnage available. Wars, famines, and other extraneous influences
arising from time to time, bring a greater or less number of steamers and ships to
the Indian ports, and these, in default of other cargo, often load up with coal.

During the last twenty years coal from Australia has been imported into India
somewhat fitfully, and the supply from that source has now nearly dwindled
to nothing,

In quality the Indian coals are inferior to the average of English and Austra-
lian; but they are capable of accomplishing good work in locomotives, and for this
purpose they are largely employed on the main lines of railway in India, And
were it not for the long and expensive land carriage from the fields in Bengal and
the Central Provinces to the Bombay and Madras Presidencies there can be little
doubt that they would be employed to the exclusion of all foreign sea-borne coal.
Partly from this reason, and partly also from the impurity of the coals, they are
not largely used in steamers, but even in this respect their employment is steadily
increasing, Some of the steam companies rely chiefly upon them, and the swift
opium steamers which run between Calcutta and China use Indian coal mixed in
equal proportions with English.

The author proceeded to give further details as to the quality of the coal,
stating that the anthracite varieties were rare, the general character being bitu-
minous and the structure laminated—bright and dull layers alternating.

In Bengal the mines are worked by a number of different companies, some of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 335

_ which conduct their operations with method and skill, and are financially in a very

rosperous condition, others work in a more or less slovenly manner. In the
Sentral Provinces one of the mines is worked by Government, but has not as yet
repaid the outlay uvon it.

In round figures it may be stated that at present 1,000,000 tons of coal are
consumed in British India per annum in locomotives and factories, the quantity
employed in the form of coke for domestic purposes being inconsiderable; and
that of this 1,000,000 tons, about one-half is raised from Indian mines, the other
coming from England, France, and Australia.

6. On Geological Episodes. By J. F. Buaxn, M.A., F.G.S.

Geological nomenclature was first founded on the theory of universal deposits ;
then the idea of lateral changes was introduced with the necessary misuse of litho-
logically descriptive names; ultimately all deposits were seen to have their boundaries.
Beds deposited in distinct areas can thus be proved only homotaxial, and these
are by no means necessarily synchronous. The object of this paper is to show that
a somewhat similar principle ought to govern all our geological classification. A
single area is defined to be one over which we can trace one or more related for-
mations consecutively, and which formations contain identical characteristic fossils.
Deposits in single areas may be compared as to time and divided into life zones ;
but these in different areas are homotaxial only. In each single area the outlines
and characters of the several deposits must first be determined and denoted ac-
cordingly.

In studying any group of rocks in a single area it is seen that some members
have a much wider range than others. Such differences in range are accompanied
by marked differences in character and point to differences in the circumstances of
deposit. The wide-spread formation indicates uniform changes of level over the
area and a mixture of deposits—such circumstances may be called normal. But
mere local changes may bring more restricted areas into peculiar physical condi-
tions. Such local changes may be called ‘ geological episodes,’ and they will result in
the formation of deposits of marked character easily distinguishable from the normal.

The first point is to determine the characters by which an episodal deposit may
be differentiated from a normal one. The supreme test is that derived from its
definition, z.e., its local development ; but if it be very small, it may be insignificant ;
if relatively very large, the distinction may be of no consequence. As a rule argil-
laceous rocks are normal, and arenaceous and calcareous episodal ; but this is by no
means universal. When the normal formation of a period is determined, the
episodes are marked by their differing mineral nature. The two kinds of deposits
may also be determined by the nature of their fossils, after we have first dis-
covered what kinds of fossils are usually episodal. For this purpose those fossils
which are found in all kinds of rocks, and therefore appear to have been indifferent
as to their physical surroundings, may be called invariant, and those found only
under particular conditions, and which change their locality as these conditions
change, covariant. Invariants only are suited for zonal classification; covariants
are characteristics of episodes. A table is drawn up showing the classes, families,
and genera which may be covariant, according to the imperfect observations of the
past. The chief covariants are a few Foraminifera—the sponges—a large number
of Hydrozoa and Actinozoa, some Orinoids, the Blastoids, a few Lamellibranchs,
and at least half the Gasteropod families,

The main proposition is that similar, but distinct episodes, in a normal series of
strata are neither necessarily nor probably of the same age. The true method of
eel classification is therefore to arrange only the normal deposits in a series

y their stratigraphy and their invariant fossils, while the episodes are put in their
place as such.

These doctrines applied to British strata yield the following results: No episodes
are recognised in Cambrian or Pre-Cambrian rocks. In the Lower Silurian, the Dur-
ness limestone, the Llandeilo flags, the Bala limestone,and the Caradoc sandstone, and.

336 REPORT—1879.

the May Hill and Llandovery beds are characterised as such. Hence the term ‘ Cara-
doc’ is inapplicable as a name for the normal portion of the series. The ‘ Colonies’ of
Barrande may be episodes recurrent on the same area, In the Upper Silurian, the Wen-
lock and Aymestry limestone, the Denbigh grits, and Tilestones are episodes. The
Carboniferous series present us with the Coomhola grits, Burdie House limestone,
Millstone, and Pennant grits, while the Mountain limestone is merely a gradually
changing normal deposit. The episodes of the Permian are the fossiliferous lime-
stone and underlying marl slate. The absence of the Muschelkalk from England
is not regarded as due to its being an episode, but to our deposits as a whole being
formed in a distinct area, the true episodes of the period being the Hallstadt,
St. Cassian, and Dachstein beds, The Lias is remarkable for its great freedom
from episodes, which accounts for the success of its zonal classification, the only
exceptions being the Sutton series, and some of the Middle Lias rock beds. The
lower Oolites, on the contrary, are almost entirely episodal, none of the beds having
a wide range. The Yorkshire deposits were formed in a distinct area, and may
cover the period of the Great Oolite as well as the Inferior Oolite, the deposits sup-
et: to connect them with the latter being episodes. The rocks above the Corn-
rash formed one connected series, as recognised by all German writers and some
French, in which the Kelloway rock, the Corallian, and the Portland rocks are well-
marked episodes in this country. It is therefore suggested that the term ‘ Middle
Oolites’ should be abolished from the classification of British strata, and the whole
be known as Upper Oolites. The various episodes in this series on the Continent and
in England will never be truly located until their real character is seen, and it has
been by the study of these rocks that the doctrine of episodes has been suggested.

In the cretaceous series—the Wealden, the Tealby ‘series, and parts of the
Lower Greensand are episodal, the ironsands being the nearest approach to a normal
formation. The Upper Greensands are also episodes ; but the Chalk, though calea-
reous, is normal.

The Lower Tertiaries, like the Lower Oolites, scarcely present any normal
deposits, the London Clay being, though argillaceous, episodal in character.

In the result, the series of sedimentary rocks should be represented not by so
many parallel lines, but in many cases by lenticular masses, whose age is denoted
by their position—according to a table which presents their true character. It is
urged, therefore, that the names proposed—or else some better—be used to dis-
tinguish the different kinds of strata and fossils, in order to give definition and.
importance to truths which must have long been floating in the minds of geologists.

7. On the Keuper Beds between Retford and Gainsborough.
By F. M. Burvon, £.G.S.

After describing the general position of the beds in relation to the Triassic
system, and remarking on the absence of the Upper Mottled Sandstone, as well
as the ‘Muschelkalk,’ in this part of England, the author described the various
strata of the district, as shown on the line between Retford and Gainsborough, and
pointed out the want of any division in the beds of the Lower Keuper Sandstone,
as in other localities, and the absence of any boundary line between this series and
the ‘red marls’ above. From the base of the Lower Keuper Sandstone, which
rests directly on the ‘pebble beds’ at Retford, to the Keuper marls at Gains-
borough, beds of light red clays, veins and blocks of gypsum and thin lines of
ripple-marked sandstone occur throughout, and it is only when the highest beds of
the Keuper marls are reached that any kind of stratification is discernible; bands
of red, blue, and grey earths occurring just before the rocks dip under the Rheetie
beds at Lea.

The author remarked also on the singular changes in the composition of the
gypsum as the higher beds are reached. In the Lower Keupers at Retford, up
to the ‘red marls’ at Gainsborough, this mineral is invariably fibrous or satiny in
character; in the higher beds, however, it changes, at first, to rubbly patches, and,
afterwards, to large granular or saccharoid blocks.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 337

On the subject of life, the author was only able to record, from the beds in
question, doubtful impressions of a shell, strongly resembling Pullastra arenicola
of the Rhzetics, and annelid burrows; but he had hopes, after more minute
research, that further remains would be discovered in some of the more highly
developed beds of the series, which would throw fresh light on their structure, and
tend to establish their marine or estuarine origin.

From the fact of the same line of dip existing between the ‘pebble beds’ and
the Lower Keuper Sandstone, notwithstanding the absence of the intervening
Upper Mottled Sandstone and ‘ Muschelkalk, the author inferred that the beds in
question were deposited ata period of great and long-continued tranquillity, an
inference which was borne out, he considered, in this part of England at least, by
the position and contents, as well as the general configuration and line of dip, not
only of the Rhzetic beds above, but of the several Liassic, Oolitic, and Cretaceous
strata beyond, and on through the Tertiary deposits to the present time.

8. On a Northerly Extension of the Rheetic Beds at Gainsborough.
By F. M. Burton, F.GS.

At the meeting of the British Association at Nottingham in 1866, the author
announced the discovery of beds of the Rheetic age at Gainsborough, a full account
of which will be found in the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for
1867.’ These beds occur to the south of Gainsborough, on the Great Northern line
between Doncaster and Lincoln, and were discovered through the lowering of the
gradients of that line in 1866. The author has since found them in a cutting of the
Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway at Blyton, about five miles to the
north of Gainsborough, where they must have been exposed since the making of
that line in the year 1848, though hitherto they have remained unrecorded.
Though much defaced by vegetation and the action of the weather, they appear to
be of the same thickness as those at Lea, to the south of the town, and doubtless
are of the same character and composition. The Keuper escarpment, in which
these beds are situate, continues northward through Lincolnshire, east of the river
Trent, to the south bank of the Humber, and extends on the other side into York-
shire ; and though, at present, these beds have escaped detection, the author had na
doubt that, wherever the true junction of the Keuper marls and Lower Lias is
laid bare, there beds of the Rhezetic series will be found.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Fifteenth Report on the Exploration of Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire.
See Reports, p. 140,

2. Report on the Bone Caves of Borneo. See Reports, p. 149.

3. On the Bone Caves of Derbyshire.
By Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A., F.B.S.

The author gaye an account of discoveries in the bone caves in Derbyshire. The
first cavern brought into light in Derbyshire, he said, was the famous one of

1879. Z

338 REPORT—1879.

Wirksworth, about the year 1820, accidentally come upon in the workings of a
lead mine. The finding in it of the remains of elephants, an almost perfect skele-
ton of the rhinoceros, and other remains of the same animal, established the
fact of the existence of great extinct animals in that part of the world in olden
days. In 1875 Mr. Mello found in the caves of Oresswell Crags bones of animals
and remains of man’s handiwork. The latter were of the highest interest, and
led to an important chapter in the history of ancient man upon the earth. Last
year his and the author's explorations were fitly ended by the working out of an en-
tirely new cave down ‘ Mother Grundy’s Parlour.” Among other remains discovered
in the caves of Cresswell, Professor Dawkins named the hyena, the bison, the reindeer,
the lion, the hippopotamus, and the bear. Besides these traces of the lower animals,
there were in the lower strata rude and rough implements of quartzite, together
with fragments of charcoal, proving that man was living in the district in those
days. In the upper were more highly finished implements of flint, bone, and
antler. The most important contribution, however, which had been offered to
the history of man in this country was the discovery of a sketch of the horse
engraved on a small fragment of bone. The subject of that engraving brought
the cave-men -into relation with those in Switzerland and France, for instance,
where similar works of art, of a by no means low order, had been met with.
Comparing the remains of implements, the rougher and the more highly finished
specimens, they had evidence of the development of man in culture. In 1876
the author and Mr. Rooke Pennington explored a cave known as Windy Knoll,
near Castleton, and came across a ‘swallow’ hole or chimney, containing vast
uantities of the remains of the bison, the grizzly bear, and of some wolves and
oxes. They also met with large numbers of the reindeer. He was able to make
out an interesting point relating to the time of the year when some of these
animals visited that part of the country; it being pretty clear the bison were there
in the summer, and possibly in late spring ; and the reindeer in winter. The last
cavern that had been explored was discovered at Matlock Bath, in 1879, and the
remains of animals found were of the same sort as those met with in Cresswell
Crags. The next most important thing they would like to have settled was: the
age of those caverns, but that he looked upon as an impossibility. There was
nothing to show that they existed before or during the Glacial period, and all the
attempts which had been made to fix a date—outside the written record in the
pages of the historian—he looked upon as mischievous, because they put before
the minds of people who did not know, a definiteness with regard to geological
events which those events did not possess.

4. Discovery of a Bone Cave near Cappagh, Co. Waterford.
By R. J. Ussner and Professor A. Lerra Apams, M.A., F.R.S.

The above cave is in a limestone knoll that rises above a flat containing gravel.
The sides of this flat are bounded by similar kmolls and cliffs of limestone. ‘The
cave, which is tunnel-shaped, was, when discovered, nearly filled to its roof with
stratified deposits. The upper stratum consisted of dark brown earth, closely
packed, containing stones,:both angular and worn, the latter chiefly sandstone.
The numerous bones found in this stratum were yellow and recent-looking, and were,
when not small, usually broken. They represented man, pig, horse, red deer, ox,
goat or sheep, dog or wolf, fox, cat, marten, hare, rabbit, and birds. Charcoal
occurred frequently. In the top stratum were also found, near the caye’s mouth, a
polished symmetrical celt of greenish stone, and near it a large flattened bead of a
reddish transparent substance. At about fourteen feet inside the entrance was found
a cut bone, of the size of asmall gimlet-handle, with a hole drilled through it trans-
versely, also the broken shaft of some carved implement with one barb or catch
remaining ; and at various points stones suited to the hand with ground surfaces, or
with their edges chipped as if by use. In one rock erevice was found the shin-bone
of some ruminant formed into a chisel, and in another a bone Imife handle that
had held an iron blade, and was ornamented with concentric circles on its four

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Cc. 339

sides. Both the latter articles may have got into the crevices where they were
found from the top stratum. The second stratum was clearly defined from the
first, was of a grey colour, very distinct, and contained much carbonate of lime that
in places formed white seams in it. Much charcoal occurred in this stratum, and
in part of the eave formed a faint black seam reposing on one of the white above
mentioned ; while underneath this more charcoal was found, not only in the grey
stratum, but deep in that below it. The bones in this second stratum were gene- .
rally blackened and had whitish dendritic markings. They represented man, ox,
Trish elk, ved deer, goat, pig, bear, dog or wolf, badger, fox, cat (?), marten, hare
and rabbit. Remains of ox were not numerous, but those of Irish elk were abund-
ant, and formed a leading feature of this stratum. They consisted chiefly of the
small bones of the feet and leg-joints, and of the extremities of the marrow-bones
(which were in all cases broken off), and splinters of the same. The metacarpal
and metatarsal bones were split lengthways, often into narrow strips. One meta-
tarsal was not only cleft in two through both extremities, but strips of bone which
we found had been severed from it. Some of the Irish elk’s bones appear to have
been gnawed by some carnivore. Fragments of the antlers were also found.
Along with a lot of the elk’s remains (including the split metatarsal) was found a
rounded bone, supposed to have been an awl, that was blackened like the neigh-
houring bones, and a worn stone with large perforations, Near these two was a
bear's scapula; elsewhere a marine mussel-shell and a limpet occurred near human
bones and charcoal in this stratum. In it were found, too, many stones, with their
extremities chipped, some on both edges, as if by human use, and others that were
ground down. Two fragments of coarse, hand-made pottery, blackened by fire on
the concave side, were obtained either from the first or the second stratum. Under
the second stratum was crystalline stalagmite, forming in the inner part of the cavea
solid floor from 23 to 3} feet in depth, but in the outer part of the cave it had been
broken up into blocks, which were enveloped in a pale sandy earth underlying the
two upper strata. This sandy earth contained charcoal in several places and bones
of bear, pig, deer, dog or wolf, and hare. The ursine remains were of very large
individuals, equal to Ursus speleus in size. On removing a floor of stalagmite that
had not been broken up we found numerous bones of a large bear embedded in it,
as well as the creature’s mandible with the teeth, also teeth of deer ; while embed-
ded in the stalagmite and under it we got an astragal of Irish elk and a metacarpus
of deer, short and stout, with the deep postern furrow of reindeer. The lowest
stratum that reposed on the floor of the cave consisted of a coarse brown sand,
mixed with gravel composed of fragments and pebbles of purplish, greenish, and
yellow sandstone. This was united to the stalagmite on the line of contact.
No hones nor implements have yet been found in this lowest stratum,

5. On some remarkable Pebbles in the Boulder-clay of Cheshire and
Lancashire. By Cuartes Ricxerrs, M.D., F.G.S.

Erratic pebbles, ice-marked and otherwise eroded, occur abundantly in the
Boulder-clay of Cheshire and Lancashire. There are others not so exceedingly
infrequent which, with or without eroded surfaces, bear indications of weathering,
but in such peculiar forms that it cannot have occurred under conditions existing
in the British Isles at the present time. Some blocks of granite, volcanic rock,
and sandstone are weathered all over, except at a necklike portion where they have
heen broken off as at a joint. Others of granite and trap are completely disinte-
grated, sometimes even throughout the whole mass, but each individual granule
remains in its original position. Whilst other trappean blocks, generally partially
striated, have portions of the surface roughened and honeycombed, the disintegrated
material remaining attached in the form of a light green powder with minute
fragments of the rock.

Carboniferous limestone pebbles are sometimes split apart, and are often affected
by chemical action in various forms, generally since they have been glaciated ;
though some haye subsequently been again exposed to glacier-friction. In a few

Z2

340 REPORT—1879.

instances the whole surface is eroded, causing organisms to project in relief; more
frequently a considerable area is affected whilst the remainder continues ice-
scratched and intact ; often hollows or channels have been formed, the other portions
retaining the ice-marked surface. In some instances of impure limestone the car-
bonate of lime has been dissolved away in parts, leaving behind the insoluble sand
ormud. A few blocks of carboniferous limestone not only bear marks of glacial
erosion, but are covered with borings formed by marine animals; one example is.
likewise chemically eroded in channels.

Even some hard quartzites have not escaped weathering, as indicated by con-
cealed joints and by channels hollowed on their surface.

Single fragments of glaciated pebbles of Silurian grits and slates are often found
detached ; a very few have the separate pieces lying at a short distance from each
otker; but in many, though quite separate, they are exactly in apposition, the
pebble itself being broken into two or many parts.

From the examination of these different examples of glaciated and weathered
pebbles, it may be inferred that they had formed portions of moraines on land, and,
as a consequence of being there exposed repeatedly to successions of frost and thaw,
have become thus weathered and split into fragments; those blocks of limestone
which have been perforated by marine organisms bear evidence to their deposition,
for a period, in a moraine accumulation beneath the sea. Subsequent to this reces--
sion an increase of snow-fall has caused an extension of the glaciers, which in its
progress carried forward the accumulation into the sea, either directly, or by joining
a main glacier from which the bergs have been broken off that conveyed away these
boulders. As these erratics are common in the Boulder-clay at different horizons,
it follows that there must repeatedly during a prolonged period have been a
succession of instances of an advance and retreat of glaciers similar to what is
recorded as taking place in Greenland.1

When examining moraine accumulations, pebbles of carboniferous limestone
were obtained which were glaciated, weathered, and fractured, in a similar manner
to some from the Boulder-clay; also similar fractured pebbles of Silurian grit and
of Longmynd rock have been met with under the same conditions.

The existence of these pebbles both in moraines and also in the Boulder-clay
illustrates what had been deduced from previous investigations in the Valley of the
Mersey—that in Britain, during what is called the Glacial Period, ‘the glaciers did
not progress from an immense accumulation in the north, but were formed by the
snow-fall in the respective valleys; being of such an extent only as might reason-
ably be considered due to the amount of deposition on their water-slopes.’ *

6. On the Volcanic Products of the Deep Sea of the Central Pacific, with
Reference to the ‘ Challenger’ Expedition. By the Abbé A. Renarp and
T. Murray.

The mineralogical and petrological researches on the sea-bottom of the Pacific
area extending from the Sandwich Islands to the 30th degree of S. latitude, and
having the Low Archipelago in its approximate centre, show that volcanic matter
plays an important part there. It is present in the form of lapilli and of ashes
spread in great abundance in the ‘red clay.’ - These lapilli nearly all belong to the
basaltic type, passing from the felspathic basalts to allied rocks in which the
vitreous base assumes greater and greater development until it almost completely
displaces the crystalline constituents of basalt. The fragments then become true
glassy rocks of the basic series, in which are still found generally crystals of
peridote, and numberless crystallites which are sometimes grouped in opaque
granules or arranged regularly around the microlites of peridote. The forms of

1 ¢On the Fiords, &c. of Norway and Greenland,’ by Amund Helland, Fellow of
the University of Christiana.— Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. page 142.~

2 «The Conditions existing during the Glacial Period,’ &c., by Charles Ricketts.
—Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., 1876-77, ‘

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 341

these volcanic fragments, which are often coated with manganese, their association
with volcanic ash, and their lithological constitution, shows them not to be derived
from submarine flows of lava. They must rather be regarded as incoherent pro-
ducts—lapilli, the accumulations of which form in the Pacific a series of submarine
tufts.

One of the most remarkable facts elicited by the soundings in the Pacific is the
large share taken in these sedimentary deposits by palagonites, quite identical in
lithological characters with those of Sicily, Iceland, and the Galapagos Islands.
One may, in fact, call them glasses of the basic series, playing the most important
part among the sediments of the Pacific, and consisting either of sideromelane or
decomposed into a red resinoid substance. The small lapilli, of 2 or 3 millimetres
in diameter, are cemented by zeolites, the crystalline forms of which are those of
christianite. It is enough to indicate the presence of the easily alterable basic
glasses in order to show the source of the clayey matter with which they are
associated, since it is known that wherever rocks of this type occur there also
decomposition into clay is observable.

Among the minerals present in the voleanic ash are rhombic tabular crystals of
plagioclase, augite, magnetite, with very little sanidine or hornblende. It is also
remarkable to notice that in these deep-sea deposits quartz-grains are practically
absent, in striking contrast to the coast deposits. It is not, however, this fact
which is most worthy the attention of the Section, since it is not so unexpected as
the formation of zeolites in the free state. The latter phenomenon takes place in
the zone in question, where fibrous radiated spherules are found in the mud, 0-5mm.
in diameter, and possessing the crystallographic character of christianite. Besides
these zeolotitic globules there are other crystals of the same kind in the form of
small prisms, not more than 0:026mm, in length, and occurring in such prodigious
numbers that they form about a third of the red clay. Orystallographically these
microlites must be referred to those forming the zeolotitic spherules. The authors
regard them as belonging to one species. The formation of these zeolites and of
the red clay in which they are developed is easily understood if one bears in mind
ei nature of the above-described basic tuffs and of their decomposition-
products.

7. On Ammonites and Aptychi. By Cuarius Moors, F.G.S.

The author remarked that ammonites and aptychi are always found associated to-
gether in beds of secondary age, the latter organism never being met with beyond
the range in time of that shell. The Aptycus is a peculiar triangular-looking body,
usually bilobed, oftenest found loose in beds containing ammonites ; but now and
then in the outer chamber which that animal occupied during life. In structure
it appears to be partly calcareous and partly corneous or horny.

Probably no organism has given rise to so much speculation or to more diverse
views as to its zoological position. As far back as 1811 it was described asa bivalve
shell and named Trigonellites by Parkinson, since which time it has been raised to
the genera Munsteria and Aptychus, or considered by other authors as the plates of
fishes, valves of cirripedes, internal bony plates of Teudopsis, the gizzards of ammo-
nites, or a parasitic body attached thereto, and at last the general view arrived at
and still entertained is that they are the opercula of ammonites.

The great variety of opinion thus entertained has arisen from the ammonite
haying become extinct, its only living analogue being the nautilus, and even of this
genus only two or three examples with the animal have ever been obtained, one of
which was dissected and described by Professor Owen, the aptychus in the ammonite
ee supposed to represent and to occupy the position of the fleshy hood in that
shel,

Ina paper published some years ago the author expressed a doubt as to the
aptychus being an operculum, one reason being that it was not of sufficient size to
cover the mouths of the shells in which they happened to be found, though for other
reasons he had no doubt they were allied. He had now obtained new facts, which
he would first give, and if he afterwards suggested any heterodox notion his justifi-

342 REPORT—1879.

cation might be found in the views propounded by the many learned geologists who
had preceded him.

The variety of forms which the aptychi assume appears to indicate almost a

eneric modification in the forms of the animals occupying the shells to which they
long. In the earliest known British ammonite (the A. planorbis) it is in one lobe
only, with coarse concentric lines of growth, finer longitudinal striz being visible
by aid of the lens. In this species an inner layer is always black, as if stained by
the pigment of cuttle fish, a circumstance seen also with some others from the upper
lias. The author considered this might be due to the presence of animal matter to
which the lobes were originally united. Although so many ammonites were known
in the lower lias, he was only acquainted with the above species from this formation.
In the upper lias they were oftenest found in connection with ammonites in a bed
of about a foot in thickness, which he had called the Saurian and Fish bed, and in
the clays which surround it. From this bed he had obtained microscopic ammo-
nites, in which the aptychus might be seen far back in the outer chamber. They
were found also in another remarkable way. Larger ammonites were deposited in
the upper portion of this bed, but the shell itself has disappeared, leaving usually
only the mould where it lay. It has not been washed out, but dissolved away,
probably by carbonic acid. Strangely enough, in many examples the aptychus
which was in the interior of the shell has not been affected by this action, and the
siphuncular tube also has been left passing round its whorls where once were its
many chambers. The fact that the aptychus belongs to the ammonite is shown by
its presence in such minute specimens, by there never being more than one example,
and by a special form being united to each species of ammonite. A remarkable
point respecting the siphuncular tube is that it is not the mere tube as usually seen in
other ammonites and nautili, but has an envelope of concentric layers surrounding it,
increasing considerably its usual bulk. On examining the moulds of Ammonites ser-
pentinus the author stated that he was surprised to find that theirsurfaces were covered
by hundreds of thousands of minute scattered eggs, some apparently hatched, whilst
other larger ovate bodies were possibly an advanced or metamorphosed form of the
same animal. Amidst these scattered eggs there were also strings of similar eggs,
though at times somewhat compressed and varying in size, lines of them lying to-
gether. In one instance the siphuncular tube passes over the aptychus, but they
had not been noticed actually in connection. The question arose to the author,
‘What have the aptychi and the tube to do with these eggs? Can either or both
be an ovarian sac P’

Minute examinations of different forms of aptychi were then made, when it was
found that in every instance they were almost entirely cellular, and the author was
able to extract from them lines of cell-tubes, differing in scarcely any respect from
the egg packets lying amidst the scattered eggs on the Ammonites serpentinus of the
upper lias. Aptychus levis of the Kimmeridge clay had yielded him great numbers
of globular bodies which, though converted into iron pyrites, were undistinguishable
from the eggs of the upper lias. In smaller numbers they were also found in
Aptychus lamellosus. Both tubes and clusters of eggs were also obtained from the
curiously formed Aptychus Didayi, whose curved and bold lines of growth gave a
twisted form to the tubes. Microscopic sections of Aptychus Didayi and A. levis
showed what appeared to be eggs within their cellular tubes. The thinness of the
structure of the upper lias species might seem almost to preclude this tubular cha-
racter, but on examining unworn specimens it may be seen that the lamine fold
over like venetian blinds, and that their edges are fringed with tubes, coming to the
surface, and which pass down obliquely through them. When the corneous layer
which covers the concave side of the aptychus lobes is removed, myriads of minute
cells are visible; these, as they pass through the body to the convex surface,
bifurcate and enlarge.

The layer referred to is as thin as tissue paper; the author had been able to
remove and preserve an example of this layer which, under the microscope, was a
beautiful object; comparing small things with great it looked like the gnarled sur-
face of a walnut-wood table, and showed the structure with openings in the centre
of concentric circles passing round the tubes immediately below.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 343

In his examination of the character of Ammonites planorbis and its aptychus,
he had obtained curious and interesting results. He had found animal matter in
the interior of the whorls of the shell, probably the equivalent of the siphuncular
membrane as seen in the upper lias specimens. This contains thousands of rounded
ege-like bodies in its substance.

All these facts were scarcely consistent with the idea that the aptychus was
simply an operculum. He hoped to obtain further evidence before asserting posi-
tively that—possibly with the siphuncular tube—it is an ovarian sac, but the facts
he had already worked out he thinks tend to that conclusion.

8. Notes on a Fossil Tree from the Upper Silurian of Ohio.
By EH. W. Cuaypo.e.

9. On Ostracocanthus dilatatus, gen. et spec. nov. A fossil fish from the
Coal-measures S.E. of Halifax, in Yorkshire. By Janus W. Davis,

F.G.S.

The fossil fish remains so named were found in association with Ganoid and
Elasmobranch fishes of the genera Megalichthys, Rhizodopsis, Ccelacanthus, and
Gyracanthus, Ctenacanthus, and Pleuracanthus and several others, in a bed of
cannel or stone coal, a few miles SE. of Halifax. This peculiar Ichthyodorulite
is nearly 1} inches long, and 3 inch broad at the base. From the base the diameter
diminishes rapidly, and at } an inch from the apex it is only 15 of an inch. It
remains about the same to the apex and endsina blunt point. The upper part
is smooth and covered with hard ganoine. The lower part is grooved longitudinally,
increasing by bifurcation towards the basal end. Extending from the base, there
is a mass of bony matter, joined to the spine; this is produced into two or three
short denticles, it then becomes thinner, but again expands into a mass which may
very well have served as the base of a second spine, if one was present. The only
_ fossil spine bearing any resemblance to it is Byssacanthus of Agassiz. It is, how-

ever, only a superficial resemblance, and this one cannot be arranged under that
genus. It also exhibits great similarity to the spines of Ostracion cornutus, the
Trunk-fish, one of the Siluroid Teleosteans. Prof. Huxley has advanced several
reasons for considering the Old Red species, Coceosteus, Pterichthys, &c. as nearly
related to the modern Siluroids. It appears probable that the present specimen
may be a representative of the Teleosteans during the coal period. It may be
premature, considering the fragmentary nature of the specimen, to express such
an opinion, but the spine and its attachments are so different to all other fossil
fish remains which have been found in this country that I venture to suggest that
such may be the case, and that further discoveries may place its relationship
beyond doubt. I suggest the name Ostracocanthus dilatatus, as expressing its
resemblance to that of Ostracion and indicating its wide and dilated base.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 23, 1879.

The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Age of the Penine Chain. By H. Wixson, F.G.S.

In this paper the author combated the generally accepted view of the post-
Permian origin of the Penine chain, and contended for a pre-Permian upheaval.

1 Published in the Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geol. and Polyt. Society, vol. vii.
part 2, 1879.

344 REPORT—1879.

In support of this opinion the following facts were cited: The Yorkshire coal-basin
was admittedly pre-Permian, for north of Nottingham the magnesian limestone
everywhere overlaps the coal measures; but the axis of this basin is parallel with
and was evidently determined by the same series of movements that upraised the
Penine chain. The Permians disappear on the west in approaching the Penine
chain ; in this direction also the marl slates attenuate, and the marl slates and
magnesian limestone become more sedimentary, as if approaching a margin.
Mountain limestone pebbles occur in Permian breccias on one or both sides of the
Penine axis. Many fragments of carboniferous rocks occur in Lower Bunter Sand-
stone (breccias) on the borders of Notts and Derbyshire; but the author finds no
fragments of Permian rocks in these breccias. No outliers of Permian rocks are
found at any distance west of the magnesian limestone escarpment between
Nottingham and Northumberland. The character and succession of the Permians
on the two sides of the Penine chain are very dissimilar.

2. On the Foundation of the Town Hall, Paisley, with Notes on the Rocks
of Renfrewshire. By MatrHew Brat.

Dolerite underlies the Boulder Clay there ; it is probably the source of boulders
of a similar rock which occur in the drift, and which have hitherto been considered
as strangers to the district.

3. On the Deposit of Carbonate of Lime at Hierapolis, in Anatolia, and the
Lflorescence of the Limestone at Les Baux, in Provence. By Dr. PHEnt,
EG.S., F.S.A.

The author brought this subject forward as part of a duty which he considered
ought to be recognised by travellers, of giving examples of matters of an exceptional
character coming under their notice, the more.so when, as in the present case, the
particulars might be turned to purposes of utility. He had selected these two
distant sites of caleareous deposit, not alone from their picturesque beauty and
effect, but because they presented, he believed, the two most widely differing
conditions of a somewhat similar material probably to be found. In the former
case, the deposit of lime was so rapid that a large extent of country was covered
with it. Its forms were eccentric and yet so beautiful that there was hardly any
style of ornament the simulation of which would not be found in it. The Roman
city, which took the place of a former Grecian one, was half submerged beneath
a sea of rock of intense hardness, which, blocking up streets, temples, and vast
arches, after reaching to a certain height, viz., the level of its source, ran over the
natural aqueducts which it formed as it went, and began new ones lower down,
which it again and again, as it reached the level of its source, repeated. He had
counted six or eight of these natural walls nearly 50 feet in height, which, if they
have been formed in consecutive order, give many hundred feet of deposit since
the Roman occupation, perhaps within about 1,500 years. Part of the deposit
was perfectly white, the other part quite black, giving the most singular
appearance, as it looked like a snow drift lying in the intensely hot sun of Asia
Minor, or a cataract of snow falling over black rocks, or a frozen cascade, which
could only be illustrated in drawing by giving a representation in black and white,
while the other parts of the landscape were in their usual natural colours. The
Turks called it Pambuk Kalessi, or castle of cotton, from its whiteness, The
destruction of this city by being hermetically sealed in stone, contrasts strangely
with that of Eski-Hissar or Laodicea, on the opposite range of hills, which has
had its stone edifices reduced by earthquake almost to a level. The hardness
of this deposit, and the rapidity of its formation, contrasted strangely with
the stone at Les Baux, which, though by no means soft to cut, had from its
natural cavities suggested the idea to the founders of the city of excavating their
houses in the sides of the rocks, quite as much as they built them outwards. This

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 345

rock, with little or no warning, disintegrates and discharges itself in efflorescence
in the air, producing an effect as destructive to the city built there as in the
former case, with quite as picturesque an effect, though from an exactly opposite
cause. So much was being done now in ascertaining the component parts of stone
for the purpose of hardening, as in the recent experiments on the Houses of
Parliament, Cleopatra’s Needle, and other well-known works, that it occurred to
him that an analysis of these two rocks of similar component parts, but with
varying conditions, would be well worth the attention of the chemist and the
practical constructor.
The paper was illustrated with views of Hierapolis, &c.

4, Report on the Miocene Plants of the North of Ireland.
See Reports, p. 162,

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.

The following Report and Papers were read:

1. Sixth Report on the Conductivities of certain Rocks.
See Reports, p. 58.

2. On some Broad Features of Underground Tenvperature.
By Professor J. D. Evarnrt, F.R.S.

© The temperature at the surface of the ground is not sensibly influenced by the
flow of heat upwards from below, but is determined by astronomical and atmo-
spheric conditions. i

The rate of increase in travelling downwards from the surface may conveniently
be called the temperature-gradient, and averages about one degree Fahrenheit for
fifty or sixty feet. This is about five times as steep as the temperature-gradient in
the air.

If we draw isothermal surfaces for mean annual temperature in the ground,
their form beneath mountains and valleys will be flatter than that of the surface
above them. This is true even of the uppermost, and the flattening increases as
omg to lower ones, until at a considerable depth they become sensibly horizontal
planes,

The temperature-gradient is consequently steepest beneath gorges, and least
steep beneath ridges,

In a place where the surface of the ground and the isothermal surfaces beneath
it are horizontal, the flow of heat will be vertical, and the same quantity of heat
will flow across all sections which lie in the same vertical. In this case the flow
‘across a horizontal area of unit size will be equal to the product of the temperature-
gradient by the conductivity, if we employ the latter term in an extended sense, so
as to make it include convection by the percolation of water, as well as conduction
proper. It follows that, in comparing different strata lying in the same vertical,
the gradient will vary in the inverse ratio of the conductivity. It seems probable
that the same law of inverse proportion between gradient and conductivity holds
approximately even when the strata compared are not in the same vertical, but are
widely distant.

_ As regards the modes of observation which have been employed for the deter-
mination of gradients, shafts full of water, and wells of large diameter, afford so

346 REPORT—1879.

much facility for equalisation of temperature by currents between the colder, water
above and the warmer water below, that they furnish no useful results. Hyen in
bores of small diameter the same disturbing cause exists, and always makes the
observed less than the true gradient. ;

Observations in mines will be vitiated by the presence of pyrites, which
generates heat by its slow combustion, and are also liable to be vitiated by strong
currents of air; but when they are taken at the newly-exposed face of a gallery
which is being driven into the rock, care being taken to prevent strong air-currents
at the place, and the surrounding ground not being too much honeycombed by
previous excavations, good results may be obtained. A hole should be bored to
the depth of about two feet in the newly-exposed face, the thermometer inserted,
and the hole very tightly plugged with clay.

3. On the Botanical Affinities of the Carboniferous Sigillarice.
By W. C. Witu1amson, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in Owens College.

The affinities of the Sigillariz are still in dispute. The English palzeo-hotanists,
apparently without exception, regard them as representing the highest modifications
of the Lycopodiaceze. The French paleontologists, and to some extent the
American ones, elevate them to the Gymnospermous group. The question is of
importance, both geologically and in reference to the problem of Evolution.

The only plants associated with the Sigillariz in the Carboniferous forests, that
exhibit any possible affinities with them, are the Lepidodendra on the one hand,
and the Gymnospermous Dadoxylons and Cordaites on the other. Adopting the
processes by which we ascertain the affinities of any newly discovered plant, we
obtain results which appear to the author sufficiently conclusive. The old
idea that Sigillariz must have been large branchless stems must be abandoned.
Various examples, such as Lepidodendren Selaginoides, which the French paleon-
tologists claim to be Sigillarian, branch like other Lepidodendra ; hence, whilst of
some forms the branches are yet unidentified, this branchless state is most probably
not a characteristic condition, Then the external leaf-scars of Sigillarizs exhibit
nothing distinctive. Whilst in some iypes we have the vertical flutings of the
stem and the linearly disposed leaf-scars of the Syringodendra, typical examples,
such as Stgillaria elegans and spinulosa, along with many others of Brongniart’s
species, exhibit the diagonal arrangement of the leaf-scars characteristic of the
unquestioned Lepidodendra, Then no one ventures to doubt the absolute identity
of the cortical tissues in the two types of Lepidodendra and Sigillarie. It is
only when we reach the vascular axis that we find the supposed distinctions
upon which the French botanists rely. These distinctions rest wholly upon
the fact that, according to them, the Lepidodendra have a vascular axis in
which the scalariform vessels are not arranged in any radial order, nor increased in
bulk by any exogenous mode of growth, in the Sigillarie, whilst the central
part of the vascular area is occupied by a cylinder in all respects identical with;
that of the Lepidodendra, it is surrounded by an outer zone in which the vascular
wedges are radially disposed, are separated by medullary rays, and have grown
exogenously through the operation of a cambium-layer.

Whilst the author recognises the existence of these differences between the
Lepidodendron Harcourtii on the one hand, and the so-called Sigillarie, elegans and
spmulosa, on the other, he denies that such differences are even generic, much less’
ordinal, since in several cases they can be shown to be due solely to age. Three states
of Lepidodendron Selaginoides demonstrate this. In the one extreme form we
have the central non-exogenous vascular axis, giving off foliar bundles, but unens
closed by any exogenous zone. In the extreme opposite condition we find the
foliar vascular bundles apparently given off from the exterior of an exogenous zone
of the supposed Sigillarian type. In reality, these foliar bundles pass from the
inner cylinder through the outer one, but only appear conspicuously in transverse
sections at the exterior of this latter exogenous cylinder.

But the author’s cabinet contains intermediate examples, in which the stems

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 347

exhibit the transition from the younger or non-exogenous to the more advanced or
exogenous type. The cambium-layer has not developed throughout the entire cir-
cumference of the stem simultaneously, but has begun at one point, at the periphery
of the non-exogenous cylinder, from which point it has extended slowly right and
left, so as gradually to have crept round this inner vascular axis. In the specimens
referred to, this exogenous cylinder is incomplete, exhibiting a crescentic form, the
crescent being thickest at the centre, where the cambium-layer began to form, and
gradually becoming thinner as we approach the extremities of its two lateral
horns. This crescent, in different specimens, only embraces from one-third to two-
thirds of the circumference of the non-exogenous axis; hence we have the anoma-
lous condition of a plant one side of which is a Sigillaria and the other a
Lepidodendron. Unless new features can be found other than what is often
designated the Diploxyloid condition of the vascular axis, whereby to distinguish
Sigillarie from Lepidodendra, the above-named distinction must obviously be
abandoned as having no"generic value.

When a Lepidodendron was about to dichotomise, the vascular cylinder, as seen
in transverse sections, splits into two horseshoe-shaped halves. The author ex-
hibited specimens showing exactly the same conditions in a Sigillarian example.
The invariable dichotomisation is in itself a Lycopodiaceous feature.

But one more remarkable fact is now demonstrated, which appears even yet
more conclusive. M. Van Tieghem has carefully shown that the ultimate roots of
the Lycopodiaceze and of the Ophioglosse have a structure which does not reappear
in any other portion of the vegetable kingdom. In the Cycadez and Conifers, as
well as in the other vascular cryptogams, the centre of each root is occupied by a
cellular procambium enclosed within a pericambium or special cellular sheath.
From this sheath, at points located at measured distances and in varying numbers,
several, but never less than two, bundles of vessels are developed. The first
formed vessels are of small size; but the more newly added ones increase in size as
each bundle develops centripetally, until their converging lines meet in the centre
of the procambium, But at the free ends of the peripheral portions of the roots,
in the case of the Lycopodiums, and throughout their entire length in the
Selaginellx, only one such procambial bundle makes its appearance. When per-
fected this bundle exhibits a triangular form in the transverse section—the apex of
the triangle, which always remains adherent to the pericambium, being occupied by
the small and first formed vessels, whilst its broad base, composed of larger vessels,
projects into the centre of the pericambium. These conditions reappear in the
most exact manner in the rootlets of the Stigmaria jficoides, which all paleon-
tologists who know anything about the matter now admit to be the roots of
Sigillaria, as well as of Lepidodendron. This latter fact appears to the author, when
combined with the numerous other features which the plants have in common, and
with the absence of all real differences beyond such as are due to age, to be conclusive
of at least the ordinal unity of the Lepidodendra and the Sigillariz, and of the
Oryptogamic character of both.

4, Hvidence of the Existence of Paleolithic Man during the Glacial Period
in Hast Anglia. By S. B. J. Sxertcuty, F.G.S8.—See Section D,
Anthrop,, p. 379.

5. The Geological Age of the Rocks of West Cornwall.
By J. H. Coutins, F.GLS.

The author had examined during some years the stratified rocks of West Cornwall
(marked as Devonian on the Government maps).! He discussed the determinations

1 Some of the results of these observations have been already published. See
‘The Hensbarrow Granite District,’ Lake, Truro 1878, and Trans. Royal Geol. Soc. of
Cornwall, vol. ix, 1879.

348 REPORT—1879.

of fossils, especially the fish remains of Lantivet Bay and other districts, and con-
tended that they partook more of the character of Upper Silurian than of Devonian,
and showed that the stratigraphic evidence supported this conclusion.

He then showed that these rocks rested upon Lower Silurian rocks, which, how-
ever, covered a very much more extensive area than was shown on the official
maps. ‘

oe also stated that still older rocks, of at present indeterminate age, came up
from beneath the Lower Silurians at several points on the coast, and especially on
the north, between Newquay and Perranporth, and suggested that the mica-schists
of the Lizard were probably of the same age as these last-mentioned beds.

In conclusion, he drew attention to the vast periods of time indicated by the
successive changes in direction of the folds in the strata, and to the vast amount of
metamorphism to which all the rocks had been subjected. He also suggested that
the rarity of fossils in many of the older beds might be due to the existence of a
highly-mineralised condition of the waters through which the sediments fell, and
which would cause those sediments to be charged with mineral matter. The sub-
sequent segregation of these substances into later-formed fissures would account for
the abundance and richness of the Cornish mineral lodes.

6. The Surface Rocks of Syria (suggested by the Quarries at Baalbek).
By Jamzs Perry, B.EH., County Surveyor, Roscommon.

The country of Syria, where there are vast areas of irregular bare limestone rock,
with alternations of heat and rains, and where the radiation into a clear sky at
night is considerable, gives evidence of the action of a geological agent not taken
much account of by persons who live in and visit countries where the hard rocks
are mostly covered with a considerable thickness of soil, gravel, or clay.

I visited in the neighbourhood of Beyrout some quarries of a peculiar kind of
sandstone. Beyrout is situated on a limestone coast, but to the south of the town
there is a shifting field of sand which extends itself in varying directions as the
prevailing winds vary, and it at the present time threatens to bury a considerable
portion of the town, gradually advancing over a few additional houses each year.
The sandstone in question is formed by a mixture of particles of limestone from the
coast and the sand I have spoken of, which drifts and consolidates layer by layer
into a series of low hillocks; these are one connected mass, and the mass is in-
creasing in an evident manner under existing circumstances, although it is cut into
caves and passages by quarrying the stone for building purposes. The stone is un-
equal in composition and appearance; in some places there is more carbonate of
lime than in others; in parts the fantastical appearances of drifted snow are shown
in miniature ; and in many places the stone looks like rigid sponge. The mass is
made solid by the action of rain water which dissolves the particles of carbonate of
calcium, and, on being slightly elevated in temperature, re-deposits the carbonate
of lime so as to cement together the particles of sand. It is this function of lime-
stone in solution, affected by change of temperature distinct from mere evaporation
(a cause usually supposed to effect more than I think it is capable of effecting), to
which I wish to direct attention.

T have been at least a mile inside a stalactitic cavern whose floor was a river or
lake, the atmosphere was continuously saturated, and if there be evaporation it is
very slight indeed, where the stalactites were of huge proportions. The idea that
these stalactites are formed when water which has filtered throigh hundreds of
feet of limestone reaches an atmosphere slightly higher in temperature than the
rocks, appears to me the correct one, although the rotten incrustations on the
intrados of masonry bridges may be accounted for principally by evaporation.

I have repeatedly come to the assistance of housekeepers in limestone districts,
by recommending a little hydrochloric acid to remove the deposit of limestone in
glass bottles where water is kept for drinking purposes, and this is clearly a case of
the kind of deposition in question. ;

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 349

Persons quarrying in Syria will find the good compact stone on the surface, and
the explanation is the dissolving and depositing action I have described. This
state of things is persistent all over the country, and in places I found a satisfactory
explanation of a matter which had long puzzled me, viz., the formation of marble.

hen a bed of mud dries it shrinks and cracks; if the first set of cracks is filled up
with mud of some different colour, of cohesion equal to or greater than that of the
principal body of mud—you may imagine a second system of cracks filled with a
slightly different colour, and so on—you will have such an appearance on
making a section parallel to the surface as is shown in the diagram.* Now it
is easy to see that if the process of solution and deposition set up by the action of
rain water and sunshine tends to cover the country with a solid cake of crystalline
limestone, expansion and contraction at the surface continually forms cracks which
descend more or less deeply into the mass. According to this, from a plane sur-
face there should proceed an irregularly columnar structure. This is observed in
pieces of veined marble to some extent, but since the surface is not a plane surface
but a changing surface, the columns intersect. Marbles of the kind I am describing
are actually in course of formation at the surface of the ground. It is, however,
quite plain that many marbles may have been subjected to heat metamorphic action
after the veining has been produced.

Tt will be seen that all over the surface of a limestone country where the
proper conditions exist, there may be formed a universal cake of limestone varying
in thickness from 1 to 10 or 12 feet, and in some instances being 20 feet or more.
Such a formation will produce large blocks of stone, and it is from such a formation
the enormous blocks 14 x 14 x 64 at Baalbek have been quarried.

7. On certain Geological Facts observed in Natal and the Border Countries,
during Nineteen Yeurs’ Residence. By the Rev. Grorcu BLEncows,

The basal rocks of the coast are shale, with superincumbent sandstone, which has
apparently received its present configuration from subsidence, as the strata dip at
an inclination corresponding with the surface, and are cross-fractured. In this
sandstone district a square mile of granite protrudes, with a few large loose blocks
on one side and mounds of decomposed granite in the neighbourhood.

The sandstone is succeeded in the middle belt of Natal by deep beds of shale,
in thick rusty strata, having in its higher portion blocks of sharp-angled trap
scattered on the tops of the hills.

The northern portion of Natal is a white sandstone capped with trap, which
in a high plateau of about fifty miles in length is undisturbed, but in the remaining
portion has been scooped out by an abrading force, which has left ridges and
isolated hills, corresponding in structure with the plateau, and like it with unbroken
horizontal strata.

At the south-eastern extremity of this plateau there is a district, in and on
the edge of Zululand, in which are evidences of violent volcanic action at a
period intermediate between the deposit of the sandstone and the varied shale on
which it rests. The two most conspicuous evidences of such action are an extinct
a voleano and the turning up beyond the perpendicular of a thick bed of vitrified
shale.

In these newer sandstones coal abounds at various heights, and over a distance of
‘several hundred miles. The water supply of this district is peculiar, coming from
the surface of the basaltic trap, and not from the sandstone which underlies it.

The distinguishing peculiarity of this part of Africa is the presence of isolated
hills of sandstone and trap on a high plateau, from which they rise 2,000 feet ; from
their correspondence of structure they have evidently at one time been united.
The difficulty in accounting for their original construction and their present condi~

* A diagram was exhihited.

350 REPORT—1879.

tion is the absence of all evidence of volcanic action in their neighbourhood, and
of débris, the result of abrasion.

In the higher region petrified timber abounds, but no coal is found; whilein the
lower coal is abundant. The valley of the Tugela, which has been cut through the
sandstone and trap to more than 2,000 feet in many places, reveals a depth of 1,500
feet of sandstone in diminishing strata, and occasionally shows basaltic trap at
apparently long intervals of deposition.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Fifth Report on the Underground Waters in the Permian, New Red
Sandstone and Jurassic Formations.—See Reports, p. 155.

2. Report on the Progress of the ‘ Geological Record.’

3. On the replacement of Siliceous Skeletons by Carbonate of Lime.
By W. J. Soutas, M.A., F.G.S.

The author gave an account of certain calcareous fossil remains which exhibit,
both in gross and minute structure, a close resemblance to certain existing siliceous
sponges, and which differ widely from any known form of caleareous sponge. The
natural inference appeared to be that the calcareous fossils were once siliceous
sponges, the siliceous parts of which had undergone replacement by carbonate of
lime. The alternative view that the fossils were originally calcareous, and that they
represent an extinct group of Calcispongia, was discussed and shown to present far
greater difficulties to the zoologist than the inferred mineral replacement offered to
the chemist. Siliceous sponge spicules were stated to be remarkably soluble,
yielding readily to the attacks of minute boring alge, and undergoing solution in
sea water soon after the death of the sponge which possessed them.

The Radiolaria of the Carboniferous limestone were likewise regarded as having
once possessed a siliceous composition, which they had since exchanged for a
calcareous one.

4. On Carboniferous Polyzoa and Paleocoryne. By G. R. Vine.

In this paper the author drew attention to the inadequate study that had been
given to the Carboniferous Polyzoa. During the last few years vast masses of
shales, containing polyzoal and other remains, have been brought to lizht, but none
that he was acquainted with excelled in richness the Hairmyres débris. Here the
specimens were well preserved, and the characters of the several species almost

erfect.

; The author considered that it was too early yet to draw up a classification that
would be satisfactory to all naturalists. Attempts had been made to do this, but
many details had to be furnished that could only be furnished after close study,
Besides the Fenestella, other genera were alluded to in the paper, such as Certopora
Rhabdomeson, Hyphasmapora, Glauconome, and Diastopora, but these are being
studied analytically, and further details of their structure will be brought forward
in a future report.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©. 351

The Paleocoryne were next alluded to, and the author said that he had
identified all the species and forms of Paleocoryne that had been figured by Dr.
Duncan in his various papers. But the conclusion the author had arrived at was,
that these so-called organisms were neither Hydroid, as was supposed by Dr. Dun-
can, nor foraminiferal, as was suggested by Dr. Allman—all the forms were refer-
able to species of Fenestella and Polypora. Although this opinion was given with
some confidence, the author was not prepared to say at present that the whole of
Dr. Duncan’s views were illusive. There can be no doubt but that the forms P.
scotica were really infertile processes; but P. radiata had presented so many
peculiar details to the author, that until he had satisfied himself as to the nature
and purpose of this structure in the Polyzoary of the Polyzoa, he was not prepared
to substantiate that Dr. Duncan had given an erroneous judgment. Although P.
radiata may turn out to be after all a portion of Fenestella, and not a parasite.

5. On the Classification of the British Pre-Cambrian Rocks.
By Henry Hicks, M.D., F.G.S.

The author divides the Pre~-Cambrian rocks into four groups, under the follow-
ing names, in ascending order: 1, Lewisian; 2, Dimetian; 3, Arvonian; and 4,
Pebidian.

1. The ZLewistan, so named by Sir R. Murchison to indicate the crystalline
rocks of the Hebrides and North-Western Highlands of Scotland, is retained
for the oldest group at present recognised in Britain, and largely developed in
the Hebrides. It is found also in parts of the Malvern chain, the north-west of
Treland, and possibly also in Anglesey. The prevailing rocks in this group are
massive gneisses, in which hornblende and red felspar are the chief ingredients, and
quartz, chlorite, and mica but sparingly present. They are usually of a dusky red,
grey, or dark colour. Sometimes almost a pure Jhornblende rock is found. The
strike in these beds is usually E. and W., or some point between that and N.W.
and 8.E.

2. The Dimetian. This group is largely developed in Wales, as at St. David’s,
Oaernarvon, Rhos Hirwain, and Anglesey. It has been found by Dr. Callaway
in Shropshire, and I have recently seen it in the Malvern chain, especially in
the Worcester Beacon. I noticed it also last year in large development at Ben
Fyn, Loch Maree, and near Gairloch in Ross-shire; as well as at several other
points in the North-Western Highlands of Scotland. The prevailing rocks in this
group are granitoid and quartzose gneisses, with pinkish, flesh-coloured, or white
felspar; and with limestones, micaceous, and, occasionally, chloritic and hornblendic
bands. Brecciated beds also occur, in which bits of the older Lewisian eneiss are
sometimes found, The strike is generally N.W. and S.E., or from this to N. and
S. It evidently overlies the Lewisian unconformably in the areas where both have
hitherto been found associated, and its highly quartzose character and lighter
colour generally is in marked contrast to most of the members of that group.

3. The Arvonian. At the last meeting of the British Association I mentioned
for the first time the discovery, or rather the separation, of this group. It is largely
developed in Pembrokeshire and Caernarvonshire. It occurs also in Anglesey and
Shropshire, and I have recently found it at the base of the Harlech group in the
heart of the Harlech mountains. I have seen masses of it also from the Orkneys,
and it probably occurs both in the Western Islands and in the Grampians of Scot-
Tand. It is the great Hiilleflinta group of the Swedish geologists, and the Petro-
silex group (Hunt) found so largely developed in North America. It is chiefly
made up of quartzo-felspathic rocks, sometimes porphyritic, frequently brecciated ;
-and of compact quartzose rocks or hiilleflintas, which on microscopical examination

Many particulars respecting Paleocoryne will be published in Science Gossip
for this year, and the greater bulk of the latter part of the above paper will be repro-
duced and fully discussed.—G. R. V.

352 REPORT—-1879.

have frequently the appearance of incipient gneiss. The strike is usually about N
and S., and it overlies the Dimetian unconformably.

4. The Pebidian. This being the newest group in the Pre-Cambrian rocks, is
the least altered in character, and most nearly approaches in strike to the overlyine
unaltered or Cambrian rocks. It resembles that group in many of its rocks, and on
that account was for a time supposed to be identical with it, only that it had
undergone local alteration. Now we know it underlies the latter unconform-
ably, and that the apparent similarity in character is to be attributed to the fact
that most of the Cambrian rocks were derived from the denudation of this group.
That it was also in a high state of alteration before the Cambrian rocks were de-
posited upon it is evident from the fact that an abundance of pebbles and masses
of it occur in the conglomerates at the base of the Cambrian. It consists for the
most part of chloritic, felspathic, taleose and micaceous schistose rocks ; alternating
with massive and slaty greenstone bands, dolomitic limestone, serpentine, lava-flows,
porcellanites, breccias, and conglomerates. It is traversed also frequently by dykes
of granite, dolerite, &c. It is a group of enormous thickness, and is largely dis-
tributed over Great Britain. It occurs in many parts of Wales, in Shropshire, and
in Charnwood Forest. I found it also last year in the North-West of Scotland, and
have seen specimens of it, collected by Mr. James Thomson and others, from
Islay’ and others of the Western Islands. Dr. Hunt recognised it also along the
Crinan Canal, and in the vicinity of Lough Foyle in Ireland. It is probably re-
presented in America by the Huronian group. The prevailing strike is N.N.E. to
8.S.W., or from this to N.E. and S.W. The conglomerates at its base are largely
made up of masses derived from the Arvonian ; and it is undoubtedly at most of
the points examined unconformable to that group.

6. On some further evidence relating to the range of the Palwozoic Rocks
beneath the South-east of England. By R. A. C. Gopwiy-AvstTEn,
F-.R.S., F.G.S.—See Reports, p. 227.

7. On ‘Culm’ and ‘ Kulm” By G. A. Lesour, M.A., F.G.S., Professor
of Geology in the University of Durham College of Physical Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

The word ‘Culm, locally denoting an impure, ‘smutty’ kind of coal in the
West of England, is now applied by geologists to the series of beds containing
this coal in Somersetshire and Devonshire. The horizon of these series is generally
admitted to be that of the Millstone Grit, with, perhaps, the uppermost portion of
the Upper Carboniferous Limestone series (vide Murchison, Renevier, &c.).

The German geologists, soon after the recognition of the Carboniferous age of
the greater part of their so-called ‘ Jiingere Grauwacke’ in 1838, adopted for it the
term Culm (spelt Kulm), chiefly, it would appear, on the strength of the charac-
teristic fossil Posidonomya Becheri which is common to these slaty rocks and to
the Culm beds of Devon. Under this name of Kulm are now grouped a yast mass
of carboniferous slaty beds, which strike across Europe from Eastern Silesia to the
westernmost point of Portugal, and include most of the puzzling deposits scattered
over Southern and Central France. These were formerly classed as belonging to
the vague ‘Terrain anthraxifére, and as representing in age the entire Lower Car-
boniferous series, of which they must be regarded merely as a great altered shaly
or non-caleareous facies.

The following table will show the inequality of the British Culm and of the
Continental Kulm :—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 353

General W. Britain. Germany

Coat-MEASURES.

Millstone Grit Millstone Grit Flétzleehrer Sandstein
F Culm (unconformity frequently)

Upper a1 a
Carboniferous Limestone! wR pis space is left
without designation, be-

F Lower. cause to fill it up would be Kulm
Carboniferous Limestone | to enter into the great De-
———..—] vonian question, which the

Ursian or writer wishes to avoid.
Tuedian Beds

DEVONIAN.

It is too late in the day to expect that either term (Culm or Kulm) can now be
abolished. But by adopting the Germanised form of the word for the Continental

. Younger Greywacké, and limiting the English ‘Culm’ to the local beds in Devon

and Somerset, the very great difference in stratigraphical value of the terms may
perhaps be brought home to the minds of students.

1879. AA

354 REPORT—1 879.

Srection D.—BIOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor St. GEORGE MivArt, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

The PRESIDENT delivered the following Address :—

In responding to the honour which the authorities of the British Association have
conferred in nominating me to fill this chair, I have deemed it best not to occupy
your very valuable time with any matter of detail at which I may happen to have
worked, but rather to offer to you a few remarks on questions which seem to me
to have a general biological interest.

Last year my esteemed friend, Professor Flower, called your attention to the
great name of Linnmus. I propose this year to refer to Linneus’ illustrious
contemporary, Burron—not, however, in the character of a rival of Linneus.
Each was a man of genius, each did good work in his own way—work still
bringing forth fruit. It must be admitted, however, that they were men of
a very different stamp, and if it is necessary to express a relative judgment with
respect to them, I should myself feel inclined to say that Buffon’s mind had the
greater aptitude for sagacious speculation, with an inferior power of acquiring and
arranging a knowledge of facts of structure.

Various circumstances have concurred to favour our recollection of the merits
of the great Swede, and to obscure those of the French naturalist. The well-
earned fame of Linnzeus is kept ever fresh in our memories by the necessarily
frequent references to him in matters of nomenclature. On the other hand, not
only are Buffon’s claims on our esteem in no similar way brought before us, but
those very speculative opinions of his, which are a merit in our eyes, have gained
him disfavour with our immediate predecessors, whose opinions and sentiments we
more or less inherit.

No one, however, can dispute Buffon’s title to our grateful respect on account
of the very powerful effect his writings had in stimulating men’s love of nature,
an effect which I think is not sufficiently appreciated.

It is fitting that I should call attention to his (once generally recognised) claims
in this respect; since my own love of natural history is probably due to the
circumstance that his great work was always accessible to me in my childhood,
and was one of the earliest books with the pictures of which I was familiar.

Buffon was indeed Linnzeus’s contemporary, for the same year (1707) saw the
births of both. In 1733 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences,
and six years later was appointed superintendent of the Jardin du Roi,! which

1 The Jardin du Roi was first instituted by Louis XIII. in 1628, and definitively
established in 1635. It cannot be affirmed that Buffon enriched the incipient museum
—the Cabinet du Roi—so much as might have been expected; although the skeletons
which served for Daubenton’s descriptions were, at least in many instances, preserved.
It is to Geoffroy St.-Hilaire that the magnificent museum of the Jardin des Plantes,
which now exists, is most indebted.

. ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 355

was the occasion of that work to which he is indebted for his fame, and to perfect
which he displayed so much zeal in collecting specimens and in obtaining informa-
tion respecting the various kinds of animals with which he became acquainted.
His Histoire Naturelle générale et particuliére began to appear in 1749, and in
1767 was published the fifteenth volume, which closed his history of mammals,
Herein are contained those numerous anatomical illustrations (due, with their
accompanying descriptions, to Daubenton) which have been again and again copied
down to the present time. Next came nine volumes on birds, then his history of
minerals, and, finally, seven supplementary volumes, the last of which appeared
in 1789, the year after his death. His life was thus prolonged ten years beyond
that of his illustrious contemporary, Linnzeus.

Buffon can claim no merit as a classifier. With the exception of the Apes of
the old and new worlds (which respectively fill the fourteenth and fifteenth
volumes of his work), the beasts treated of are hardly arranged on any system,
beyond that of beginning with the best known and most familiar—a system
necessarily applicable to but a few forms.

But Bution deliberately rejected the Linnean classification—a graye error,
certainly, yet one not altogether without excuse. Indeed, some of the objections
he brought against that classification have considerable force. Such were his
objections to the association of the hippopotamus, the shrew-mouse, and the horse
in one order, and of the monkey and the manis in another.1 What indeed could
be more preposterous than the separation of the bat, Noctilio leporinus, from the
other bats, and its association with the rodents, on the ground of its having (as
supposed) only two incisor teeth above and two below ?—an anomaly of arrange-
ment of which you were reminded last year. It scarcely seems possible for the
pedantry of classification to go further than this. Yet, perhaps, the association
im one group of the walrus, the elephant, the ant-eater, the sloth, and the manatee,
was hardly less unphilosophical. Moreover, zoologists should not forget, in
blaming Buffon for his want of appreciation of the classification of Linneus, that
one great portion of that classification—the classification of plants—has been super-
seded by us. Had he lived to witness the publication of Jussieu’s Genera Plan-
tarum,’ it might have given him a, truer insight into biological classification,
and have led him to endeavour to improve on Linnzus’ system instead of only
criticising it.

But it is Buffon’s speculative views which have most interest for us. Those
views exercised 4 very wide-spread influence in their day, though the time was not

ipe for them. Indeed, it is far from improbable that writers whose speculations
have been made public at a more propitious season, owe much to their comparatively
forgotten predecessor.

Amongst Buffon’s various speculations we might glance at his Théorie de lu terre
(put forth in the very first volume of his work), and at his Epoques de la Nature,
which fills the fifth volume of his supplement. We might consider his speculations
concerning the formation of mountain and valley by water, and the evidence that
there was present to the ear of his imagination :—

‘The sound of streams, which, swift or slow,
Tear down Aolian hills and sow
The dust of continents to be.’

That he saw, in thought, the projection of the planets from the sun’s mass ; the
primitive fluidity of the earth, and the secular refrigeration of the sun. Such
considerations, however, are foreign to this Section, I will therefore select two
which are of biological interest.

In the first place I may refer to Buffon’s speculations concerning ANIMAL
VARIATION. In this matter Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire has affirmed that Buffon
stands to the doctrine of animal variability in a position analogous to that in which
-Linneus stands to the doctrine of the fixity of species.

1 «Hist. Nat.’ tome i. p. 39.
* This appeared in 1789.

AA2

356 REPORT—1879.

Buffon, in his chapter on the animals of the Old and New World, remarks, ‘ It
is not impossible that the whole? of the New World’s animals are derived from the
same source as those of the old, whence they have descended.’ . . . . ‘ Nature is
in a state of perpetual flux.’ In his chapter on the Degeneration of Animals* he
sums up saying, ‘After comparing all the animals, and arranging them each in
their own group, we shall find that the two hundred kinds described here may be
reduced to a small number of original forms, whence it may be all the rest have
issued.’

As to the modes and causes of the origin of new forms, he entertained four
connected. opinions :

(1) He attributed much modifying efficacy to migrations ;

(2) Also to the direct action of external conditions ;

(3) He believed largely in the origin of new forms by degradation ; and

(4) He regarded each animal as the manifestation of an individuating force,
lying, as it were, at the root of the changes manifested by it.

The view that MIGRATION (with isolation) is a necessary antecedent to the origin
of new species is one which has been advocated by a modern naturalist, Moritz
Wagner ;* who does not hesitate to affirm® that the formation of a really new
species ‘ will only succeed when a few individuals, having crossed the barriers of
their station, are able to separate themselves for a long time from the old stock.’

In support of his view the author brings forward a multitude of interesting
facts, one of the most significant of which appears to me to be the following. It
concerns Beetles of Tropical America of the genus Tetracha. In Venezuela (as also
in the western part of Central America), he tells us, rivers flow partly through
savannahs, where they have undermined the light tufaceous soil, forming deep beds
with high precipitous banks. According to Professor Wagner, individual beetles
from the highlands have thus been isolated, and in no longer time than has been
required by the rivers to undermine the loose soil of the savannah, have given rise
to a distinct species markedly different in form and colour. Itis to similar causes—
migration and complete isolation—that he traces the formation of distinct races of
men: a formation he deems no longer possible, while the wide diffusion of mankind
renders more and more difficult the evolution of new species of animals of any kind.

Instances which appear to support this view will readily suggest themselves to-
the naturalist—instances, that is, of forms which are both peculiar in structure and
remote and isolated as to their habitat. Thus for example, even in the group which
structurally most resembles us, we have the Orang confined to very limited tracts
in Borneo and Sumatra, and the Gorilla to a small portion of Western Africa.
The Proboscis Monkey is found nowhere but in Borneo, while the singular ape
named ‘ Roxellana’ (from its wonderfully ‘tip-tilted’ nose) is confined to the
lofty and isolated mountains of Moupin in Thibet. The very peculiar black ape
(Cynopithecus) is limited to Celebes and Batchian, while the Baboon, which has

the baboon character of muzzle most developed, was found at the extreme south of
the African continent.

1 Op. cit. vol. ix. p. 127.

* He thought that the American Jaguars, Ocelots, &c., and even the Peccary,
were positive degradations of Old World forms. He thought that the Llama, the
American Apes, Agoutis, and Ant-eaters might be examples of such forms; but the
Opossum, Sloths and Tapirs he took to be original species. (See vol. xiv.
pp. 272, 273.)

3 Vol. xiv. p. 358.

* In a paper read before the Royal Academy of Sciences at Munich on March 2,

1868. This has been translated by Mr. James L. Laird, and published by Edward
Stanford in 1873.

5 Op. cit. p. 29. '

* Isolation, it ought to be remembered, may take place as the result not only of
changes in inorganic nature (such as the formation of islands, and the excavation of
river beds), but also by the presence of enemies in intermediate tracts, by the cir-
cumstance that the food of the species is found only in certain restricted localities,
and by whatever other causes determine the extinction of a species in a given place.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 357

Again, if we take the group of Lemur-like animals (Zemwrordea) as haying
had their home and starting-point in or near their present head-quarters—Mada-
ascar—then some of the most aberrant forms are those which must have migrated
arthest. The character which is perhaps the most peculiar of any which the grou
presents, is the elongation of two of the ankle-bones, as we find it in the Mada-
gascar genus Cheirogaleus. But this character is more exaggerated in migrants to
Africa—the Galagos—and most so of all in the more isolated emigrant, the Tarsier,
now found in Celebes and Borneo.

The sub-family of slow-lemurs (Wycticebine) would, on this view, seem to
have migrated in opposite directions, as we find the slender slow-lemur (Zorvs) in
Madras, Malabar, and Ceylon ; the typical slow-lemur (Mycticebus) in South China,
Borneo and Java; the Potto (Perodicticus) in Sierra Leone, and the Angwantibo
(Arctocebus) in Old Calabar. Of these, it is the African forms which have the
st agg most atrophied—a tendency to its atrophy existing in the whole sub-
amily.

red would, of course, be very easy to multiply instances of the kind ; but it would
be also easy to cite a number of cases which appear to conflict with the view in ques-
tion. Thus familiar to us as it is, few animals are more peculiar in structure than
the common mole, which gives no present evidence of isolated origin ; and the most
aberrant of all bats, the Vampire (Desmodus),is rather widely distributed in South
America. Again; with regard to the Lemur group, the most absolutely exceptional
is the Aye-Aye (Chetromys), which, on the hypothesis supposed, has remained per-
sistently at the head-quarters of the group, i.e. in Madagascar.

Even, however, if no exception existed to the co-existence now of singularity
of form and isolation and remoteness of situation, we could not safely draw any
decided conclusion from such facts, because fossil remains show us that forms
which have now a very limited distribution, were either widely spread in ear-
lier times, or existed in regions very remote from those they now inhabit.
Thus, in Eocene times there existed in Europe true opossums (now confined
to America), Tapirs, and a form like the African Potto before mentioned. In
Miocene times we had in Europe long-armed apes (creatures now found only in
Eastern Asia), with the now exclusively African Secretary Bird and Cape Ant-
Eater (Orycteropus). In the same period the Orang—or a nearly allied form—
seems to have ranged over India. What are more emphatically old-world forms
than the camel, horse and elephant, with the typical porcupine? Yet all these
existed in America in Pliocene times. Did we know the Tapir in only one of the
two widely-separated stations in which it dwells to-day, we might well deem its
evolution to be due to migration and isolation. But we know from palontology
that it existed in Europe from the Eocene to the Pliocene period.

Such facts as these do not, of course, disprove the doctrine that migration and
isolation are necessary antecedent conditions to specific genesis, but they show
how much caution must be used in drawing the conclusion that they are necessary,
from the distribution of animals much less likely to be found fossil than mammals are.

But an argument in favour of the views of Buffon and of Wagner may be
obtained from our own species, which exhibits some singular coincidences between
peculiarity of form and isolation. Among such instances may be mentioned the
Tasmanians, the Andaman Islanders, and the Ainos or Aborigines of Japan. One
of the most striking examples is that of the Eskimo—a people presenting many
peculiarities, some of which exaggerate the characters of the highest races of man-
Kind. Thus, the pelvis differs from the European pelvis in an opposite direction to
that by which the Negro pelvis differs from the European, and the same is the case
with the proportions of the limbs, while the skulls of the Eskimo have the largest
and narrowest nasal aperture of all races, being in this respect the very opposite to
the Australians. The Eskimo have migrated eastwards, not reaching the south of
Greenland till the fourteenth century, and the race characters are most marked in
the most easterly tribes. These facts were brought forward by Professor Flower in
his Hunterian lectures for the present year,’ when he said that the characters of

1 The lecturer also said : ‘ The large size of the brain of all the hyperborean races,
Lapps as well as Eskimo, seems not necessarily to be connected with intellectual

358 REPORT—1879.

this peculiar race ‘must be attributed to those gradual modifications produced by
causes at present little understood, by which most of the striking variations met
with in the human species have been brought about—modifications more strongly
expressed the more completely isolated the race has become, and the farther
removed from its original centre of distribution.’ I think, then, that though we
have not data for conclusively answering the question as to how far migration
(together with isolation) may be necessary for specific genesis, it is certain that it
is of very great efficacy and importance, and that credit is justly due to Buffon for
his early appreciation of its importance.

The next question to which I would advert is that concerning THE DIRECT
ACTION UPON ORGANISMS, OF THE EXTERNAL CONDITIONS WHICH SURROUND THEM,

Buffon’s belief was* that changes of specific form were brought about by change
of temperature and climatic change generally, as well as by change of food.

The curious effects of stimulating food on colour—as of cayenne pepper with
canaries, and hemp-seed with parrots—are notorious. The direct action of the
environment on organisms has, I think, been of late somewhat undervalued.
Amongst evidences in fayour of its importance, I would refer to some of Mr. Alfred
Wallace’s observations.* He tells us that in the small island of Amboina, the
butterflies (twelve species, of nine different genera) are larger than those of any
of the more considerable islands about it, and that this is an effect plainly due to
some local influence. In Celebes, a whole series of butterflies are not only of a
larger size, but have the same peculiar form of wing. The Duke of York’s island
seems, he tells us, to have a tendency to make birds and insects white or at least
pale, and the Philippines, to develop metallic colours, while the Moluccas and
New Guinea seem to favour blackness and redness in parrots and pigeons. Species
of butterflies which in India are provided with a tail to the wing, bce to lose that
appendage in the islands, and retain no trace of it on the borders of the Pacific.
The Atneas group of Papilios never have tails in the equatorial region of the
Amazon Valley, but gradually acquire tails, in many cases, as they range towards the
northern and southern tropics. Mr. Gould says that birds are more highly coloured
under a clear atmosphere than in islands or on coasts—a condition which also seems.
to affect insects, while it is notorious that many shore plants have fleshy leaves.
I need but refer to the English oysters mentioned by Costa, which, when trans-
ported to the Mediterranean, grew rapidly like the true Mediterranean oyster, and
to the twenty different kinds of American trees, said by Meehan to differ in the
same manner from their nearest European allies, as well as to the dogs, cats, and
rabbits which have been proved to undergo modifications directly induced by
climatic change.

It appears then that much may be said in favour of that direct effect of sur-
rounding circumstances on Organisms in which Buffon believed.

Lastly, I would refer to Buffon’s belief that new species have arisen by DEGRA-
pation. This again is an opinion which, after a period of disfavour, or at least of
neglect, has been of late revived, and has acquired considerable influence. I
may here refer to Anton Dohrn, who has recently advocated the very widely spread
and effective action of degradation as a cause of specific change. It will, I think,
be generally admitted that such exceptional Copepod crustaceans as T'racheliastes:
and Lerneocera are due to degradation, and the probability seems to me very strong
that the Rhizocephala, at least many cirripeds, and the certoid worms, are also.
degraded organisms. Very interesting would it be to know whether existing
Ascidians are also examples of degradation, as not a few zoologists now suppose ;
but most interesting of all is that parasite of cuttle fishes, Dicyema, the structure
of which has been recently investigated by Professor Edward Van Beneden, and
made the type of a new primary division of animals. Should this small worm-like-
organism hereafter turn out to be a degraded form, it will show what an extreme

development, but may have some other explanation not at present apparent.’ I
would suggest that in this case—as in the large brains of Cetaceans—it may be due
to the need in their climate of generating much heat to sustain the necessary tem-
perature of the body.

' Op. cit. vol. xiv. p. 317. 2 See Tropical Natwre, pp. 254-259.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 359

degree of retrograde metamorphosis may occasionally be brought about. I think
then that we have considerable ground for suspecting that degradation has acted
much and widely in the field of Biology, and if so, Buffon is fairly entitled to a
certain amount of esteem on account of the views he entertained with regard to it
in so early a day and in so undeveloped a condition of zoological science. For it
must not be forgotten that migration, the influence of external conditions, and
degradation, are connected points: parts of one view. Degradation is most con-
spicuous under violent changes of condition (such as parasitism), while migration
only acts by bringing organisms under new conditions.

These reflections lead me to urge upon such of my hearers as may have any
unusual facilities for experimental investigation, a course of inquiry which seems
to be very desirable.

What is needed in order to solve as far as possible the question of specific
genesis, is a Imowledge of the laws of variation, which must, I think, be deemed the
true cause and origin of species.

We may, I think, accept as true two propositions :

(1) Animals may change in various ways, and amongst them, by degradation.

(2) Changes in the environment with isolation, induce and favour changes in
form.

I would urge then that inquiries should be pursued in two directions simul-
taneously.

(A) There might be undertaken one set of inquiries to investigate the effects
on different species of the same variations of environment.

(B) Other inquiries might be undertaken with a view to ascertaining the effects
of different changes of environment on one and the same species. By series of
experiments contrived with these ends in view, and carried on with various
selected animals and plants which reproduce with rapidity, we may possibly be able
to determine what to attribute to external influences (shown by such influences
haying the same effects on all), and what to the peculiar nature and innate powers
and tendencies of different organisms—shown by the diverging reaetions of the
latter under the same changes in their environment.

I next desire to direct your attention to another matter treated of by Buffon—
I mean THE RESEMBLANCES AND DIFFERENCES WHICH EXIST BETWEEN THE MIND
OF MAN AND THE HIGHER PSYCHICAL FACULTIES OF ANIMALS.

This question is eminently a question of our own day, and one which I feel
cannot but excite interest in this Section.

But its accurate investigation is attended with special difficulties, and amongst
them are two temptations, which are apt to beset the inquirer:

(1) The first of these arises from the wide-spread love for the marvellous
of whatsoever kind, and the tendency to inverted anthropomorphism.

(2) The other is the temptation to strain or ignore facts to serve a favourite
theory.

a to the former of these dangers, I may perhaps be permitted to quote some
remarks made by Mr. Chambers, approvingly cited by Professor Bain: ‘ There are
two subjects where the love of the marvellous has especially retarded the progress
of correct knowledge—the manners of foreign countries, and the instincts of the

brute creation . . . . Itis extremely difficult to obtain true observations’ as
to the latter ‘ from the disposition to make them subjects of marvel and astonish-
ment.” . . . ‘It is nearly as impossible to acquire a knowledge of animals

from anecdotes as it would be to obtain a knowledge of human nature from the
narratives of parental fondness and friendly partiality.’ This I believe to be most
true, and that here the danger of mistaking inference for observation is exception-
ally great. The inquirer ought not to accept as facts marvellous tales without
criticism and a careful endeavour to ascertain whether the alleged facts are facts
and not unconscious fictions,

As to the second danger, the lamented George Henry Lewes, whom no one can
suspect of any hostility to Evolution in its most extreme form, remarks (in his
posthumous work! just published) that the researches of various eminent writers

1 Problems of Life and Mind. Third Series, 1879, p. 122.

360 REPORT—1879.

on animal psychology have been ‘ biassed by a secret desire to establish the identity
of animal and human nature,’ and certainly no one can deny that those who do
assert that identity are necessarily exposed to the temptation referred to. Of course
persons who desire to disprove this identity are exposed to the opposite temptation ;
but it cannot be maintained that there is evidence of Buffon having been influenced
by any such desire.

The obvious differences between the highest powers of man and animals have
led the common sense of mankind to consider them to be of radically distinct kinds,
and the question which naturalists now profess to inyestigate is whether this is so
or not.

But we may doubt, whether many who enter upon this inquiry do not enter
upon it with their minds already made up that no such radical difference can by any
possibility exist. To admit it, they think, would be tantamount to admitting some
non-natural origin of man, to accepting as a fact something not harmonising with
our views as to nature generally, leading to we know not what results. To
admit it, would be to deny the principle of continuity. There cannot, therefore,
be any essential difference between man and brute, and their mental powers must
be the same in kind. This, I think, is no unfair representation of the state of
mind in which this question is very likely to be entered upon at the present time,
Surely, however, if we profess to investigate a question, we ought in honesty to
believe that there zs a question to investigate, or else leave the matter to others;
and if evidence should seem to show that ‘ intellect’ cannot be analysed into sense,
but is an ultimate, it ought to be accepted, at the least provisionally, as such, even
at the cost of having to regard its origin as at present inexplicable. Can we explain
the origin of ‘motion’? But what rational man thinks of denying it on that
account? Let us not reject anything, then, which may be evident, on account of
certain supposed speculative consequences.

But that no such consequences as those referred to need follow from the ad-
mission of the radical distinctness of human reason, seems evident from the views
of Aristotle. He certainly was free from theological prejudices or predispositions,
and yet to his clear intellect the difference between the merely sentient and the
rational natures was an evident difference, and the facts which are open to our
observation are the same as those which presented themselves to his.

To enter on this inquiry with any fair prospect of success, it is not only
necessary to guard against such temptations as these, but it is also necessary to be
provided with a certain amount of knowledge of a special kind; namely, with a
clear knowledge of what our own intellectual powers are. I conceive that, great
as is the danger of exaggeration and false inference as to the faculties of animals,
the danger of misapprehending and underrating our own powers is far greater.

Buffon held very decided views as to the distinctness of the mind of man
from the so-called minds of animals. But an ingenious and gifted writer,’ who
has recently done good service in supporting Bufton’s claims to greater considera-
tion than he commonly receives, has, nevertheless, done him what I believe to be
strange injustice in attributing to his great work an ironical character, and this in
spite of Buffon’s own protest * against irony in such a work as his. I cannot venture
to take up your time with controversy on this subject; but, apart from Buffon’s
protest against ‘équivoque, it is incredible to me that he should have carried on a
sustained irony through so voluminous a work—thus making its whole teaching
absolutely mendacious. One remark of Buffon’s, which has been strangely misin-
terpreted by this writer, I shall have occasion to notice directly ; but I think it may
suffice to clear Buffon’s character from the aspersion of his admiring assailant, to

oint out that in the table of contents in the final volume of his ‘ History of
ammals’* (which table gives the pith and gist of his several treatises), he
distinctly affirms the distinctions maintained in the body of his work.

The following were Buffon’s views. In his ‘ Discourse on the Nature of
Animals,’* he says, ‘Far from denying feelings to animals, I concede to them

1 Mr. Samuel Butler. See his Hvolution, Old and New, Hardwicke & Bogue, 1879.
2% Op. cit. tome i. p. 25. 8 Op. cit. tome xv.
4 Op. cit, vol. iv. p. 41.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 361

everything, except thought and reflection’... . ‘they have sensations, but no
faculty of comparing them one with another, that is to say, they have not the
ower which produces ideas.’ He is full of scorn! for that gratuitous admiration
or the moral and intellectual faculties of bees, which Sir John Lubbock’s excel-
lent observations and experiments have shown to be indeed gratuitous. Speaking
of the ape, most man-like (and so man-like) as to brain, he says:” ‘Il ne pense
pas: y a-t-il une preuve plus évidente que la matiére seule, quoique parfaitement
organisée, ne peut produire ni la pensée, ni la parole qui en est le signe, 4 moins
quelle ne soit animée par un principe supérieur?’* Buffon has been accused of
vacillation with respect to his doctrines concerning animal variation, but no one
has accused him of vacillation with respect to his views concerning reason and
instinct.

I come now to the passage which I said has been so strangely misunderstood.
It is that in which he expresses his conviction that ‘ animals have no knowledge of
the past, no idea of time, and consequently no memory.’ But to quote this
passage without explanation is gravely to misrepresent the illustrious French
naturalist. Buffon was far from ignoring, indeed he distinctly enumerates the
various obtrusive phenomena which often lead the vulgar to attribute, without
qualification, both knowledge and memory to brutes. But, in fact, he distinguishes
between* memory and memory. His words are: ‘Si Von a donné quelque
attention & ce que je viens de dire, on aura déja senti que je distingue deux
espéces de mémoire infiniment différentes l’une de autre par leur cause, et qui
peuvent cependant se ressembler en quelque sorte par leurs effets; la premiére
est la trace de nos idées, et la seconde, que j’appellerais volontiers réminiscence >
plutét que mémoire, n’est que le renouvellement de nos sensations,’ and he declares?’
true memory to consist in the recurrence of ideas as distinguished from revived
sensuous imaginations.

This distinction is one which it is easy to perceive. That we have automatic
memory, such as animals have, is obvious; but the presence of intellectual memory
(or memory proper) may be made evident by the act of searching our minds (so to
speak) for something which we know we have fully remembered before, and thus
intellectually remember to have known, though we cannot now bring it before our
imagination.

As with memory, so with other of our mental powers, we may, I think, distinguish
between a higher and a lower faculty of each; between our higher, self-conscious,
reflective mental acts—the acts of our intellectual faculty—and those of our merely
sensitive power. This distinction (to which I have elsewhere’ called attention) I
believe to be one of the most fundamental of all the distinctions of biology, and
to be one the apprehension of which is a necessary preliminary to a successful
inyestigation of animal psychology. It is, of course, impossible for us thoroughly
to comprehend the minds of dogs or birds, because we cannot enter into the actual
experience of such animals, but by understanding the distinction between our own
higher and lower faculties,* we may, I think, more or less approximate to such
a comprehension.

1 Op. cit. tome iv. p. 91. 2 Op. cit. tome xiv. p. 61.

$’ Mr. Butler cites objections brought forward in a certain passage (from pp.
30 & 31, vol. xiv.), as if they were Buffon’s own. But they are the objections of an
imagined opponent whose views Buffon himself combats. It is worthy of note that
Buffon long anticipated our contemporaries with respect to man’s place in nature
in so far as concerns his mere anatomy. For he did not hesitate to affirm that
the Orang differs less from us structurally than it differs from some other apes.

4 Op. cit. tome iv. p. 60.

. * Here he follows, without citing, the old distinction of Aristotle between

memory and reminiscence.

§ Op. cit. tome iv. p. 56.

7 Lessons from Nature, Murray, 1876, p. 196.

:® Certain writers (as, for example, Professor Ewald Hering, of Prague) have
used the word ‘memory’ to denote what should properly be called ‘organic habit,’
i.e, the power and tendency which living beings have to perpetuate, in the future,

362 REPORT—1879.

It may, I believe, be affirmed that no animal but man has yet been shown to
exhibit true concerted action, or to express by external signs distinct intellectual
conceptions—processes of which all men are normally capable. But just as some
plants simulate the sense-perception, voluntary motions and instincts of animals,
without there being a real identity between the activities thus superficially similar,
so there may well be in animals actions simulating the intellectual apprehensions,
ratiocinations, and yolitions of man without there being any necessary identity
between the activities so superficially alike. More than this, it is certain @ priort
that there must be such resemblance, since our organisation is similar to that of
animals, and since sensations are at least indispensable antecedents to the exercise
of our intellectual activity.

Ihave no wish to ignore the marvellous powers of animals or the resemblance
of their actions to those of man. No one can reasonably deny that many of them
have feelings, emotions and sense-perceptions similar to our own ; that they exercise
voluntary motion and perform actions grouped in complex ways for definite ends;
that they to a certain extent learn by experience, and can combine perceptions and
reminiscences so as to draw practical inferences, directly apprehending objects
standing in different relations one to another, so that, in a sense, they may be said
to apprehend relations. They will show hesitation, ending apparently, after a con-
flict of desires, with what looks like choice or volition, and such animals as the dog
will not only exhibit the most marvellous fidelity and affection, but will also mani-
fest evident signs of shame, which may seem the outcome and indication of incipient
moral perceptions. It is no great wonder, then, that so many persons, little given
to patient and careful introspection, should fail to perceive any radical distinctions
between a nature thus gifted, and the intellectual nature of man.

But, unless I am greatly mistaken, the question can never be answered by our
observations of animals, unless we bear in mind the distinctions between our own
higher and lower faculties.

Now I cannot here even attempt to put before you what I believe to be the
true view of our own intellectual processes. Still I may, perhaps, be permitted to
make one or two passing observations.

Everybody knows his own vivid feelings (or sensations), and those faint revivals
of feelings, simple or complex, distinct or confused, which are imaginations and
emotions; but the same cannot be said as to thought. Careful introspection
will, however, I think, convince anyone that a ‘ thought’is a thing widely different
from an ‘imagination ’—or revival of a cluster of faint feelings. The simplest element
of thought seems to me to be a ‘judgment,’ with an intuition of reality concerning
some ‘fact,’ regarded as a fact real or ideal. Moreover, this judgment is not
itself a modified imagination, because the imaginations which may give occasion
to it persist unmodified in the mind side by side with the judgment they have called
up. Let us take, as examples, the judgments ‘That thing is good to eat,’ and
‘Nothing can be and not be at the same time and in the same sense.’ As to the
former, we vaguely imagine ‘ things good to eat,’ but they exist beszde the judgment,
not én it. They can be recalled, compared, and seen to co-exist. So with the other
judgment, the mind is occupied with certain abstract ideas though the imagination
has certain vague ‘images’ answering respectively to ‘a thing being’ and ‘a thing
not being,’ and to ‘At the same time’ and ‘in the same sense ;’ but the images
do not constitute the judgment itself any more than human ‘ swimming’ is made
up of ‘limbs and fluid,’ though without such necessary elements no such swimming
could take place.

This distinction is also shown by the fact that one and the same idea may be
suggested to, and maintained in the mind by the help of the most incongruous
images, and very different ideas by the very same image. This we may see to be
the case with such ideas as ‘ number,’ ‘ motion,’ ‘identity,’ &c.

effects wrought on them inthe past. But to call such action as that by whicha tree as
it grows preserves the traces of scars inflicted on it years before, ‘memory,’is a gross
abuse of language—a use of the word as unreasonable as would be the employment
of the word ‘sculptor’ to denote a quarryman, or ‘sculpture’ to indicate the
fractures made in rocks by the action of water and frost.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 363

But the distinctness of ‘thought’ from ‘imagination’ may perhaps be made
clearer by the drawing out fully what we really do when we make some simple
judgment, as, e.g., that ‘a negro is black.’ Here, in the first place, we directly
and explicitly affirm that there is a conformity between the external thing, ‘a
negro,’ and the external quality, ‘blackness ’—the negro possessing that quality.
We affirm secondarily and implicitly a conformity between the two external entities
and the two corresponding internal concepts. And thirdly, and lastly, we also
implicitly affirm the existence of a conformity between the subjective judgment
and the objective existence.

All that it seems to me evident that sentience can do, is to associate feelings and
images of sensible phenomena, variously related, in complex aggregations ; but not
to apprehend sensations as ‘facts’ at all, still less as internal facts, which are the
signs of external facts. It may be conceived as marking successions, likenesses
and unlikenesses of phenomena, but not as recognising such phenomena as ¢rue.
Animals, as I haye fully admitted, apprehend things in different relations, but no
one that I know of has brought any evidence that they apprehend them as related,
or their relations as relations. A dog may feel shame, or possibly (though I do not
think probably) a migrating bird may feel agony at the imagination of an abandoned
brood ; but these feelings have nothing in common with an ethical judgment, such
as that of an Australian, who, haying held out his leg for the punishment of
spearing, judges that he is wounded more than his common law warrants.

,Animals, it is notorious, act in ways in which they would not act had
they reason; while, as far as I have observed or read, all they do is
explicable by the association of sensations, imaginations, and emotions, such
as take place in our own lower faculties. We cannot, of course, prove a
negative, but we have no right to assume the existence of that for which there is
no evidence, without which all the facts can be explained, and which if it did
exist would make a multitude of observed facts impossible. Apes (like dogs and
cats) warm themselves with pleasure at deserted fires, yet, though they see wood
burning and other wood lying by, though they have arms and hands as we have
and the same sensient faculties, they have never, so far as I know, been recorded
to have added fuel to maintain their comfort. Swallows will continue to build on
a house which they see has begun to be pulled down, and no animal can be
gn to have made use of antecedent experience to intentionally improve upon

e past.

ip on the other hand, animals were capable of deliberately acting in concert,
the effects would soon make themselyes known to us so forcibly as to prevent
the possibility of mistake.

Mr. Lewes has not hesitated to affirm! that ‘between animal and human
intelligence there is a gap which can only be bridged over by an addition from
without,’ and he also says:* ‘The animal world is a continuum of smells, sights,
touches, tastes, pains, and pleasures: it, has no objects, no laws, no distinguishable
abstractions, such as self and not self.’ ..... ‘If we see a bud, after we have
learned that it is a bud, there is always a glance forward at the flower and back-
ward at the seed..... but what animal sees a bud at all except as a visible sign
of some other sensation?’ As a friend of mine, Professor Clarke,’ has put it: ‘In
ourselves sensations presently set the intellect to work; but to suppose that they do
so in the dog is to beg the question that the dog has an intellect. A cat to bestir
itself to obtain its scraps after dinner, need not entertain any belief that the clat~
tering of the plates when they are washed is usually accompanied by the
presence of food for it, and that to secure its share it must make certain move-
ments; for quite independently of such belief, and by virtue of mere association,
the simple objective conjunction of the previous sounds, moyements, and consequent
sensations of taste, would suffice to set up the same movements on the present
occasion.’ Let certain sensations and movements become associated, and then the
former need not be noted: they only need to exist for the association to produce its
effects, and simulate apprehension, deliberation, inference, and volition. ‘ When

Problems of Life and Mind, vol. i. p. 156, 2 L. c. p. 140,
% Questions on Psychology, p. 9.

364 REPORT—1879.

the circumstances of any present case differ from those of any past experience,
but imperfectly resemble those of many past experiences, parts of these, and
consequent actions, are irregularly suggested by the laws of resemblance, until
some action is hit‘on which relieves pain or gives pleasure. For instance.....
let a dog be lost by his mistress in a field in which he has never been before. The
presence of the group of sensations which we know to indicate his mistress is
associated with pleasure, and its absence with pain. By past experience an asso-
ciation has been formed between this feeling of pain and such movements of the
head as tend to recover some part of that group, its recovery being again associated
with movements which, de facto, diminish the distance between the dog and his
mistress. The dog, therefore, pricks up his ears, raises his head and looks round.
His mistress is nowhere to be seen; but at the corner of the field there is visible a
gate at the end of a lane which resembles a lane in which she has been used to
walk. A phantasm (or image) of that other lane, and of his mistress walking
there, presents itself to the imagination of the dog; he runs to the present lane,
but on getting into it she is not there. From the lane, however, he can see a tree at
the other side of which she was wont to sit; the same process is repeated, but she is
not to be found. Having arrived at the tree he thence finds his way home.’ By the
action of such feelings, imaginations, and associations—which we know to be vere
cause—l helieve all the apparently intelligent actions of animals may be explained.
without the need of calling in the help of a power, the existence of which is in-
consistent with the mass, as a whole, of the phenomena they exhibit.

But if there zs a radically distinct intellectual power or force in man, is such a
distinction of kind so isolated a fact as many suppose? May there not exist
between the forces which living beings exhibit other differences of kind ?

Each living being consists of an aggregation of parts and functional activities
which are evidently knit together into a unity. Each is somehow the seat or
theatre of some unifying power or condition which synthesises their varied activities,
and is a PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUATION. This seems certainly to have been the
opinion of Buffon, and it is to this opinion that I referred in speaking of the fourth
cause to which he attributed the changes in organic forms. And to me it seems
that we must admit the existence of such a living principle. We may analyse the
activities of any animal or plant, and by consideration of them separately find
resemblances between them and mere physical forces. But the synthesis of such
forces as we find in a living creature is certainly nowhere to be met with in the
inorganic world.

To deny this would be to deny the plainest evidence of our senses. To assert
that each living body is made up of minute independent organisms, each with its
own ‘principle of individuation,’ and without subordination or co-ordination, is
but to multiply difficulties, while such a doctrine conflicts with the evidence of our
own perceptions, which lead each of us to regard himself as one whole—a true
unity in multiplicity. .

The existence in each creature of a peculiar, co-ordinating, polar force, seems to
be specially pointed to by the phenomena of serial and bilateral symmetry, by the
symmetrical character of certain diseases, by the phenomena of monstrous growths,
and by the symmetrical beauty of such organisms as the Radiolarian Rhizopods.

It also seems to me to be made evident, by the various activities of each animal,
which are, as a fact, grouped in one in mutual interaction—an organism having
been described by Kant as a creature, the various parts of which are reciprocally
ends and means.

I think now I hear the exclamation—This is ‘ Vitalism!’ while some of my
hearers may deem these matters too speculative for our Section.

But consciously or unconsciously, general conceptions of the kind exist in the
minds of all biologists, and influence them in various ways, and their consider-
ation, therefore, can hardly be out of place here ; while as to ‘ Vitalism,’ I am con-
vinced I shall not be wasting your time in endeavouring to remove a wide-spread
misconception. :

_ The ‘ Vitalism ’ which is so reasonably objected to, is that which supposes the
existence in each living creature of some separate entity inhabiting the body

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 365.

—an extra-organic force within the living creature, and acting by and through
it, but numerically distinct from it. But the view which I venture to put before:
you as that which is to my judgment a reasonable one, is that of a peculiar
form of force which is inéva-organic, so that it and the visible living body are one
thing, as the impress on stamped wax and the wax itself are one, though we can
ideally distinguish between the two. It is, in fact, a mode of regarding living
creatures with prime reference to their activities rather than to their material
composition, and every creature can of course be regarded either statically or
dynamically. It is to regard any given animal or plant, not as a piece of complex
matter played upon by physical forces, which are transformed by what they
traverse, but rather as a peculiar immanent principle! or form of force (whensoever
and howsoever arising), which for a time manifests itself by the activities of a certain
mass of complex material, with which it is so entirely one that it may be said to con-
stitute and be such animal or plant much rather than the lump of matter which we
can see and handle can be said to constitute such animal or plant. On this view a
so-called ‘ dead bird’ is no bird at all, save by abuse of language, nor is a ‘ corpse’
really a ‘dead man’—such terms being as self-contradictory as would be the
expression ‘a dead living creature.’

Thus the real essence, the substantial constituent, of every living thing is
something which escapes our senses, though its existence and nature reveal them-
selyes to the intellect.

For of course our senses can detect nothing in an animal or plant beyond the
qualities of its material component parts. But neither is the function of an organ
to be detected save in and by the actions of such organ, and yet we do not deny it
its function or consider that function to be a mere blending and mixture of the pro-
perties of the tissues which compose it, Similarly it would seem to be unreasonable to
deny the existence ofa living principle of individuation because we can neither see nor
feel it, but only infer it. This power or polar force, which is immanent in each
living body, or rather which is that body living, is of course unimaginable by us,
since we cannot by imagination transcend experience, and since we have no experi-
ence of this force, save as a body living and acting in definite ways.

It may be objected that its existence cannot be verified. But what is verifica-
tion? We often hear of ‘verification by sensation,’ and yet even in such verifica-
tion the ultimate appeal is not really to the senses, but to the intellect, which may
doubt and which criticises and judges the actions and suggestions of the senses and
imagination. Though no knowledge is possible for us which is not genetically
traceable to sensation, yet the ground of all our developed knowledge is not sensa-
tional, but intellectual, and its final justification depends, and must depend, not on
‘feelings,’ but on ‘ thoughts.’ I must apologise to such an audience as that I have
the honour of addressing for expressing truths which, to some of my hearers, may
appear obvious. I would gladly suppress them as superfluous did not my own
experience convince me that they are not superfluous. To proceed: ‘ Certainty’
does not exist at all in feelings any more than doubt. Both belong to thought
only. ‘Feelings’ are but the materials of certainty, and though we can be perfectly
certain about our feelings, that certainty belongs to thought and to thought only.
* Thought,’ therefore, is our absolute criterion. It is by self-conscious thought only

1 The word ‘principle’ has been used to denote that activity which, together
with material substance, constitutes a living creature, because that word calls up a
less sensuous, and therefore less misleading, phantasm than anyother. The old term
Wuxfh, or soul, has in modern times come to be associated with the idea of a substance
numerically distinct from the living body, and capable of surviving the destruction
of the latter. But as structure and function ever vary together (as do the con-
vexities and concavities of a curved line), so ‘the principle of individuation’ or
soul of an animal or plant and its material organisation must necessarily arise,
vary, and be destroyed simultaneously, unless some special character, as in the case
of man, may lead us to consider it exceptional in nature. Even in man, however,
there seems no adequate reason for believing in the existence of any principle of
individuation, save that which exerts its energy in all his functions, the humblest as
well as the most exalted.

366 REPORT—1879.

that we know we have any feelings at all. Without thought, indeed, we might
feel, but we could not know that we felt or know ourselves as feeling, If then
we have rational grounds for the acceptance of such a purely intellectual concep-
tion as that of an immanent principle as the essence of each living creature, the
poverty of our powers of imagination should be no bar to its acceptance. We are
continually employing terms and conceptions—such, e.g., as ‘ being,’ ‘substance,’
‘cause,’ &c.—which are intelligible to the intellect (since they can be discussed),
though they transcend the powers of the imagination to picture.

It seems to me that the spirit which would deny such realities is the same spirit
which would deny our real knowledge of an external world at all, and represent any
material object as ‘a state of consciousness,’ and at the very same time represent ‘ a
state ofconsciousness,’ as the accompaniment of a peculiar state of a material object
—the body.1 This mode of representation may be shortly, but not unjustly, described
as a process of intellectual ‘ thimble-rigging,’ by which the unwary spectator is apt to
be cheated out of his most valuable mental possession—his rational certainty.

The same spirit asserts that our psychical powers never themselves enter into the
circuit of physical causation, and yet few things would seem more certain to a plain
man than that (supposing him to have received a message saying his house is on
fire) it is his knowledge of what has been communicated which sets him in motion.
To deny this is to deny the evident teaching of our consciousness. It is to deny
whatis necessarily the more certain in favour of what is less so. If I do not Inow
this I know nothing, and discussion is useless. As a distinguished writer has said :
‘That we are conscious, and that our actions are determined by sensations, emotions,
and ideas, are facts which may or may not be explained by reference to material
conditions, but which no material explanation can render more certain.’ The adyo-
cate of ‘ Natural Selection’ may also be asked, How did Imowledge ever come to be,
if it is in no way useful, if it is utterly without action, and is but a superfluous
accompaniment of physical changes which would go on as well without it ?

As we may be confident that thought not only is but also acts, as well as that
there are things which are not psychical, but which are physical ; so I would urge
that the conception of living things, which I venture to put before you, is one
which may be rationally entertained.

Assuming for the moment and for argument’s sake that it may be accepted,
what light does our knowledge of ourselves throw upon the intimate life-processes
of lower organisms? We know that with us a multitude of actions, which are at
first performed with consciousness, come to be performed unconsciously ; we know
that we experience sensations? without perceiving them; we know also that
countless organic activities take place in us under the influence and control of the
nervous system, which either never rise into consciousness at all, or only do so
under abnormal conditions. Yet we cannot but think that those activities are
of the same generic nature, whether we feel, perceive, or attend to them or
not. The principle of individuation in ourselves, then, evidently acts with intel-
ligence in some actions, with sentience in many actions, but constantly in an
unperceived and unfelt manner. Yet we have seen it undeniably intervene in the
chain of physical causation.

1 Those who deny that we have a real power of perceiving objects, refute them-
selves when they speak of ‘purely physical changes,’ or of anything ‘ physical’ of
which feelings are but the ‘accompaniment’ or ‘subjects.’ For according to them
‘matter’is buta term for certain ‘states of consciousness,’ while they represent each
state of consciousness as a function of matter. According to this, let a represent a
‘state of consciousness, and } a physical state.’ Then a sensation and its physical
accompaniment may be represented by the symbol a + b. But a physical state is
itself but a state of consciousness with its objective correlate, and is, therefore,

.a@ +b. We thus get an equation infinitely more erroneous than b = a + b, because
the } of the a + 0 is itself ever again and again @ + bd.

2 As when having gazed vacantly through a window we revert to the pages of a
manuscript we may be writing and see there the spectra of the window bars we had
before unconsciously seen. Here the effect on the organism must have been similar
to what it would have been had we attended to it—i.e. it was an unfelt sensation.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 367

An animal is an organism all the actions of which are necessarily determined
by the adjustments of its various organs, and by its environment. But even its
sensations cannot be regarded as mere accompaniments of its activities, but as
guides and directing agencies intervening in the circle of its actions, and as facts,
in the chain of physical causation. The sight of a stick may change the course of
actions which a dog would otherwise have pursued—that is, the feeling of the
moment, together with the faint recurrence of various past feelings and emotions
therewith associated which the sight of the stick calls up, may cause such change.
Besides its feelings, the general and the organic movements of the dog are, like
our own, governed by a multitude of organic influences which are not felt, but
which operate through the nervous system, and so must be taken as parallel with
those which are felt, ic. as unfelt, nervous psychoses. The animal then, like
each of us, is a creature of activities partly physical, partly psychical, the latter—
both the felt and the unfelt-—being directive and controlling.

As we descend to the lowest animals, the evidence as to sentience fades. Yet
from the resemblances of the lowest animals and plants, and from the similarity of
the vegetative functions in all living creatures, we may, I think, analogically conclude
that activities also take place in plants which are parallel with, and analogous to
the unfelt psychoses of animals. As Asa Gray has said with respect to their
movements: ‘Although these are incited by physical agents (just as analogous
kinds of movements are in animals), and cannot be the result of anything like
volition, yet nearly all of them are inexplicable on mechanical principles. Some of
them at least are spontaneous motions of the plant or organism itself, due to some
inherent power which is merely put in action by light, attraction, or other external
influences.’

I have already adverted to insectivorous plants, such as Dionea. In such

lants we have susceptibilities strangely like those of animals. An impression
is made, and appropriate resulting actions ensue. Moreover, these actions
do not take place without the occurrence of electrical changes similar to
those which occur in muscular contraction. Hardly less noteworthy are the
curious methods by which the roots of some plants seek moisture as if by instinct,
or those by which the tendrils of certain climbers seek and find appropriate support,
and haying found it, cling to it by a pseudo-voluntary clasping, or, finally, those
by which the little ‘ Mother-of-a-thousand’ explores surfaces for appropriate hollows
in which to deposit her progeny.

Nevertheless, nothing in the shape of vegetable nervous or muscular tissue has
been detected, and as structure and function necessarily vary together, it is impossible
to attribute sensations, sense-perceptions, instincts, or voluntary motions to plants,
though the principle of individuation in each acts as in the unfelt psychoses of
animals and harmonises its various life processes.

The conception then which commended itself to the clear and certainly
unbiassed Greek intellect of more than 2,000 years ago, that there are three
orders of internal organic forces, or principles of individuation, namely, the rational,
the animal, and the vegetal,! appears to me to be justified by the light of the
science of our own day.

| 1 Difficult as it confessedly is to draw the dividing line between animals and
plants, such difficulty is not inconsistent with the existence of a really profound
_ difference between the two groups. That there should be a radical distinction of
: nature between two organisms, which distinction our senses, nevertheless more or
less, fail to distinguish, is a fact which on any view must be admitted, since animals
_ of very different natures may be indistinguishable by us in the germ, and in the earlier
stages of their development. The truth of this is practically supported by the late Mr.
Lewes, who says (as to the difference between the protoplasms from which animals
and plants respectively arise) : ‘That critical differences must exist is proved by the
_ divergence of the products. The vegetable cell is not the animal cell ; and although
both plants and animals have albumen, fibrine and caseine, the derivatives of these are
unlike. Horny substance, connective tissue, nerve tissue, chitine, biliverdine .
and a variety of other products of evolution or of waste, never appear in plants;
while the hydrocarbons abundant in plants are, with two or three exceptions,

368 REPORT—1879.

I come now to the bearing of these remarks on the science of Biology generally.

Animals and plants may, as I have before said, be regarded either statically, by
anatomy, or dynamically, by physiology.

Physiology, as usually understood, regards the properties of the ultimate mor-
phological components of organisms, the powers of the various aggregations of
such components, i.e. of the various ‘tissues’ and the functions of the different
special aggregations and arrangements of tissues which constitute ‘ organs.’

But as each living creature is a highly complex unity—both a unity of body
and also a unity of force, or a synthesis of activities—it seems to me that we require
a distinct kind of physiology to be devoted to the investigation of such syntheses
of activities as exist in each kind of living creature. I mean to say that just as
we have a physiology devoted to the several activities of the several organs, which
activities are the functions of those organs, so we need a physiology specially
directed to the physiology of the living body considered as one whole, that is,
to the power which is the function, so to speak, of that whole, and of which the
whole body, in its totality, is the organ.

In a word, we need a physiology of the individual. This science, however,
needs a distinct appellation. I think an adequate one is not far to seek.

Such a line ef inquiry may be followed up, whatever view be accepted
as to the nature of those forces or activities which living creatures exhibit.
But if we recognise, as I myself think our reason calls on us to recognise, the
existence in each living being of such a ‘ principle of individuation’ as I have adyo-
cated the recognition of, then an inquiry into the total activity of any living
being, considered as one whole, is tantamount to an inquiry into the nature of
its principle of individuation. Such an inquiry becomes ‘ Psychology’ in the widest
and in the original signification of that term—it is the Psychology of Aristotle.

Mr. Herbert Spencer has already made a great step towards reverting to this
original use of the term, for he has made his ‘ Pyschology ’ conterminous with the
animal kingdom, having made it a history of the psychoses of animals. But the
activities of plants must not be ignored. A science which should include the
impressionability and reactions of a Rhizopod, and exclude the far more striking
impressionability and reactions of Venus’s Fly-trap, and of other insectivorous
plants, the recognised number of which is greatly on the increase, must be a very
partial and incomplete science. If Psychology is to be extended (as I think Mr.
Spencer is most rational in extending it) to the whole animal kingdom, it must
be made to include the vegetable kingdom also. Psychology, thus understood, will
be conterminous with the whole of Biology, and will embrace one aspect of organic
dynamics, while physiology will embrace the other.

PuystoLoey will be devoted (as it is now) to the study of the activities of
tissues, of organs and of functions, per se, such, e.g., as the function of nutrition,
as exhibited in all organism from the lowest plants to man, the functions of
respiration, reproduction, irritability, sensation, locomotion, &c., similarly con-
sidered, as manifested in the whole series of organic forms in which such powers
may show themselves.

PsycHOLOGY will be devoted (according to its original conception) to the study
of the activities of each living creature considered as one whole—to the form, modes,
and conditions of nutrition and reproduction as they may coexist in any one plant; to
these as they may coexist with sensibility and motility in any kind of animal, and
finally to the coexistence of all these with rationality as in man, and to the inter-
actions and conditions of action, of all these as existing in him, and here the science

absent from animals. Such facts imply differences in elementary composition ;
and this result is further enforced by the fact that when the two seem to resemble,
they are still different. The plant protoplasms form various cells, but never form a
cartilage cell, or a nerve cell; fibres, but never a fibre of elastic tissue ; tubes, but
never a nerve tube; vessels, but never a vessel with muscular coatings ; solid
“skeletons,” but always from an organic substance (cellulose), not from phosphates
and carbonates. In no one character can we say that the plant and the animal are
identical ; we can only point throughout the two kingdoms to a great similarity
accompanying a radical diversity.’—(The Physical Basis of Mind, p. 129.)

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 369

which corresponds to the most narrow and restricted sense of the word, psycho-
logy, i.e. the subjective psychology of introspection, will find its place.

Psychology in the widest sense of the term, in its oldest and in what I believe
will be its ultimate meaning, must necessarily be, as to its details, a science of the
future. For just as physiology requires as a necessary, antecedent condition, a know-
ledge of anatomy—since we must know that organs exist before we investigate what
they do—so psychology requires as a necessary, antecedent condition, an already ad-
vanced physiology. It requires it because we must be acquainted with the various
functions, before we can study their synthesis and interactions.

When, however, this study has advanced, one most important result of that
advance will be a knowledge, more or less complete, of the innate powers cf
organisms, and therefore of their laws of variation. By the acquisition of such
knowledge we shall be placed in a position whence we may advance, with some
prospects of success, to investigate the problem of the ‘Origin of Species ’"—the
biological problem of our century.

This reflection leads me back once more to my starting point, the merits of the
great French naturalist of the last century, whose views as to variation, and as to
animal psychosis, have enabled me to bring before you the questions on which I have
presumed to enter. Bufton’s claims on our esteem have, I think, been too much for-
gotten, and I rejoice in this opportunity of paying my debt of gratitude to him by
recalling them to recollection. As to the questions which his words have suggested
to me and upon which I have thus most imperfectly touched, the considerations I have
ventured to offer may or may not commend themselves to your approval; but, at
least, that they are the result of not a few years of study and reflection, and I am
heey they have consequences directly or indirectly affecting the whole field of

iological inquiry, which belief has alone induced me to make so large a call upon
your patience and your indulgent kindness.

The following Paper and Reports were read :—

Ll. On the Occurrence of Leptodora hyalina in England.
By Sir Joun Lussocx, Bart., V.P.R.S., MP.

Sir John called the attention of the Section to the occurrence in England of
Leptodora hyalina, a very interesting crustacean first found in deep lakes abroad,
and more recently in a reservoir near Birmingham, It was forwarded to him by
Mr. Bolton. Like many marine organisations it was as transparent as glass. This
rendered the creature less conspicuous to its foes. Like other animals of the same
group it laid two kinds of eggs. The young produced from these two kinds of eggs
were said to differ from one another, but this he had had no opportunity of verify-
ing. He then entered into a description of the little animal, and by means of
sketches illustrated the peculiar functions of the different organs, pointing out the
difference of the organs in male and female.

2. Report of the ‘ Close Time’ Committee.—Nee Reports, p. 165.

3. Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of exploring the
Marine Zoology of South Devon.—See Reports, p. 165.

4, Report on the progress of the Zoological Record.

1879. BB

370 REPORT—1879.

5. Report of the Committee on the Zoological Station at Naples.—
See Reports, p. 165.

6. Report of the Committee for investigating the Natural History of
Socotra.—See Reports, p. 210.

FRIDAY, AUGUST. 22.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Fruits and Seeds.
By Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., V.P.R.S., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D.

Sir John commenced by calling attention to the difference presented by seeds,
some being large, some small, some covered with hooks, some provided with hairs,
some smooth, some sticky, &c., and after observing that there were reasons for all
these peculiarities, proceeded to attempt to explain some of the more striking. In
the first place, he said, many seeds required protection from birds and insects.
Hence the shells or husks of the beech, Spanish chestnut, horse chestnut, walnut,
&c. In some cases, as in the common Herb Robert, the calyx or outer envelope of
the flower opens when the flower expands, closes over the seeds when the flower
fades, and opens again when the seeds are ripe. In other cases the flower-stalk
changes its position, Thus, in the Dandelion, it is upright when the flower is
expanded, lies close to the ground after the flower has faded, and rises again when
the seeds are ripe. In the Cyclamen, again, the flower-stalk curls itself up into a
spiral after the flower has faded,

He then called attention to the modes of dispersion, by means of which seeds
secure a sort of natural rotation of crops, and are also in other cases enabled to
rectify their frontiers. Some plants actually throw their seeds. Thus, in the
common Cardamine, the outer membrane of the pod becomes very tense, and when
ripe, at the least touch it gives way at the base, and curling up with a spring,
throws the seeds three or four feet. ‘The common geraniums and violets also throw
their seeds, and so do some of the cucumbers ; but in these cases the mechanism is dif-
ferent. He then described the curious ‘elaters’ of the equisetums, and other means of
dispersion possessed by seaweeds and other low organised plants. Among the higher
plants the seeds are in many cases transported by the wind. Sometimes, indeed,
the whole plant is thus blown about, as in the case of the celebrated Rose of
Jericho, an annual, inhabiting the sandy plains of Palestine, Syria, and Arabia,
which, when dry, curls itself up into a ball, and is thus blown over the surface of
the ground till it comes to a damp place, when it uncurls, the pods open and shed
their seed.

Many seeds are provided with a wing which catches the wind and thus aids in
dispersion. Such seeds occur, especially on trees, such as the pine, fir, ash, maple,
sycamore, hornbeam, and many exotic species. In these cases the seeds are large,
but many herbs have small seeds, provided with foliaceous expansions serving the
same purpose, These are sometimes so thin as to be transparent, and in Thysano-
carpus elegans the membrane is even perforated by a series of holes. In other
cases the seeds are provided with hairs, which catch the wind, sometimes forming
exquisite fairy parachutes. Such, for instance, are the dandelion, &c.; but it is
curious that very different parts of the plant are modified into these hairs. Thus
in the dandelion and valerian it is the calyx; in the bulrush, the perianth, in the
willow herb, the crown of the seed ; in cotton grass, the base. In the true cotton
the whole seed is covered with hairs. Thus, then, although the result is the same,
the mode of arriving at it is very different.

He then proceeded to the cases in which the dispersion of seeds is effected
by the agency of animals. In many cases the seed is surrounded by a sweet,
fleshy pulp, which is eaten, while the true seeds, being surrounded by a tough

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 371

shell, remain undigested. Such fruits are generally brightly coloured, such as
the strawberry, peach, apple, currant, &c.; the colours, like those of flowers,
serving to attract animals. In other cases the action of animals is involuntary.
These may be divided into two classes, those in which the seeds adhere to animals
by hooks, and those in which this is effected by sticky glands. Various cases of
both were cited, and specimens shown, especially the South African Harpagophyton,
a plant whose seeds are provided with terrible hooks, more than an inch long.
These seeds are said sometimes even to destroy lions; they roll about over the
sandy plain, and if one attaches itself to the skin the wretched animal tries to tear
it off, and getting it into its mouth, perishes miserably. Sticky seeds*are also thus
transported.

The next point is that seeds’should find themselves ina spot suitable for growth.
Most seeds, we know, germinate on the ground: the mistletoe, however, is parasitic
on trees, and its seeds are imbedded in a viscid substance, so that if dropped by a
bird on a bough it adheres to it, and is in no danger of being blown or washed off.
An allied species described by Sir J. Hooker, which lives on the beeches of Tierra
del Fuego, has four long feathery, flexible appendages. By means of them it is
blown from tree to tree, and as soon as the seed touches a twig the appendages
twine round it and thus anchor the seed.

In some cases plants bury their own seed. This, for instance, is the case with
our subterranean clover, and the ground-nut of the West Indies. In both cases the
seed-stalk elongates, curves downwards, and forces the seed into the ground. In
other instances the seed buries itself, as in some grasses and the Crane’s Bills (Zyo-
dium). The seed of Stipa, for instance, is pointed, and clothed with short, re-
versed hairs. It terminates ina spiral appendage, covered with similar hairs. Now,
if one of these seeds is laid on the ground, it remains quiet as long as it is dry, but
as soon as it is damp the hairs on the seed commence to move outwards, eradually
raising the seed into an upright position, with its point downwards. The spiral
appendage then begins to unwind, and if its hairs come in contact with any ob-
stacle, such as a leaf, twig, &c., as is most probable, the seed is then forced into
the ground. Sir John, in conclusion, called attention to mimicking seeds. The
pods of Scorpiurus, for instance, a plant allied to the vetch, do not open, but they
look so exactly like worms that birds are probably induced to peck at them and
thus free the seeds.

2. On the Insects which Injure Books. By Professor Westwoon, M.A.

Referring to an address delivered by Dr. Hagen, of Harvard College, Mass.,
US., on July 2, 1879, before the American Library Association on the same sub-
ject, Professor Westwood passed in review the life-history of the different species
of insects which have been found to destroy books and printed papers, several of
which were not noticed by Dr. Hagen in his address.

The caterpillars of the moth Aglossa pinguinalis; and also of a species of
Depressaria, often injure books by spinning their webs between the volumes,
gnawing small portions of the paper with which to form their cocoons. A small
mite (Cheyletus eruditus) is also found occasionally in books kept in damp situa-
tions, where it gnaws the paper.

A very minute beetle (Zypothenemus eruditus, Westw.) forms its tiny burrows
within the binding of books, of which a small portion, with specimens of the
beetles, was exhibited.

The small silvery insect (Lepisma saccharina) found in closets and cupboards
where provisions are kept, also feeds on paper, of which a curious example was
exhibited in a framed and glazed print, of which the plain portion was eaten,
whilst the parts covered by the printing-ink were untouched. The Professor had
been assured that the same fact had been observed in India, where some of the
Government records had been injured in the same manner. This habit of the
Lepisme had not been previously recorded.

The white ants (Termitide) are a constant source of annoyance in hot and

BB2

372 REPORT—1 879.

warm climates, eating all kinds of objects of vegetable origin, of which several
instances were recorded by Dr. Hagen, including the destruction of a stock of
Bibles and prayer-books, and the professor exhibited a small Bible which had been
oreatly gnawed by these insects. Cockroaches (Blatta orientalis) are also equally
destructive to books when they fall in their way, of which some sad instances were
recorded by Dr. Hagen.

But it is the Death-watches (Anobium pertinax and striatum) which do the
oreatest injury, gnawing and burrowing not only in and through the bindings, but
also entirely through the volume, and instances have been recorded where not
fewer than taventy-seven folio volumes placed together on a book-shelf had been so
cleanly drilled through by the larva of this beetle that a string might be run
through the hole made by it and the volumes raised by the string.

Various remedies for the destruction of these insects were mentioned, and
especial notice was directed to a ‘ Report of the Commission appointed to inquire
into the causes of the decay of wood carvings (by the Anobia), and the means of
preventing and remedying the effects of such decay,’ issued by the Science and Art
Department of the Committee of Council on Education at South Kensington in
pc in which Report the Professor gave an account of the life-history of the
Anobia.

Reference was also made to a previous Parliamentary Report on the National
Gallery, with the observations thereon by the late Dr. Waagen, especially with
reference to the state of Sebastian del Piombo’s picture of the Raising of Lazarus,
which had been attacked by the Anobia. The Arabic MSS. in the Cambridge
Library, brought from Cairo by Burckhardt, and various Oriental MSS. in the
Bodleian Library, had been much injured by these insects.

The remedies against the attacks of the Anobium upon objects of carved wood
must necessarily be of a different character from those used against the book-worms,
which are the larvee of the Anobia. In the former case, satwration with chloride
of mercury dissolved in methylated spirits of wine or other analogous fluid had
been found to be efficient, but with respect to books it was necessary to have re-
course to vaporisation, and experiments were recorded in which objects attacked
by the Anobia had been placed in a large glass-case made as air-tight as possible,
and small saucers with pieces of sponge saturated with carbolic acid were placed
at the bottom of the case, and on the recommendation of the Professor it had been
found successful to place the infected volumes in the Bodleian Library in a closed
box with a quantity of benzine in a saucer at the bottom. A strong infusion of
colocynth and quassia, chloroform, spirits of turpentine, expressed juice of green
walnuts, and pyroligneous acid have also been employed successfully. Fumigation on
a large scale may also be adopted by having a room made as air-tight as possible,
burning brimstone in it, or filling the room with fumes of prussie acid or benzine.

Lastly, Dr. Hagen suggested that by placing an infected volume under the bell-
glass of an air-pump and extracting the air, the larvee would be found to be killed
after an hour's exhaustion.

3. A Case of Disputed Identity, Haliphysema.
By Professor Ray Lankuster, F.R.S.

4. On Budding in the Syllidian Annelids, chiefly with reference to a
branched form procured by H.M.S. ‘Challenger. By W. C. McInvosx.

Propagation by budding is a prevalent feature amongst the Coelenterata, the
organisms assuming in many cases a dendritic appearance, so that the name of sea
trees given to them by our fishermen is by no means inappropriate to their external
contour. A similar condition is seen in many of the Polyzoa, and in the creeping
stolons of Clavelina and Perophora. In the sub-kingdom Vermes, again, naturalists
have long been familiar with a mode that has been called propagation by division

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 373

or Fissiparous development. Thus O. F. Miiller deseribes two kinds of budding in
the freshwater Nats proboscidea,and gives an account of the same process in Nereis pro-
lifera (the Autolytus prolifera of modern authors). Amongst others, De Quatrefages
and Frey and Leuckart in the same species, Milne Edwards in Myrtanida, Sars and
Huxley in Filigrana,O. Schmidt in Nats, Microstoma, and Filigrana, Max Schultze,
R. Leuckart, and Tauber in the former species, Alex. Agassiz in Autolytus cornutus,
Schmarda in Catenula, and Lankester in Chetogaster, show how widely this mode
of development has been recognised. The feature that mainly concerns us at
present in regard to these descriptions is the fact that a new animal is produced, in
a line with the old, by various modifications of budding. In no instance is there
any approach to a branched condition by lateral offshoots from either parent-stock
or bud. Asan example of one of the best-known marine forms the account of
Autolytus cornutus by Alex. Agassiz may be cited. This species exhibits a kind of
alternation of generation, the parent-stock (which is a sexual) giving rise posteriorly
to male and female buds, which differ much in appearance from each other. The
latter produce ova, which by and by develop, in the peculiar body sac, into a swarm
of parent-stocks with which the cycle commenced.

The discovery of a species (Syllis ramosa) of the same family (Syllide) which
forms an intricate series of branches by lateral budding of the parent-stock, by Sir
Wyville Thomson in a Hexactinellid sponge from Zebu, is one of the remarkable
additions to our knowledge made by the voyage of H.M.S. ‘ Challenger.’

The Syllidian’ is located for the most part in the basal canals of the sponge,
above the ‘ wisp.’ In this region masses of the annelid about a quarter of an inch
in diameter occur, and a multitude of branches pass into the smaller canals adjoin-
ing. Two of such masses are especially conspicuous. The intricate manner in
which the branches are arranged makes it a very difficult matter to dissect them
out, especially when the friability of the annelid and the sharp spicules of the
sponge are taken into account. Even after removal from the sponge it is a laborious
operation to unravel them without frequent rupture.

The masses and their numerous branches, as well as the isolated portions, con-
sist of a Syllis-like annelid of the thickness of common sewing-thread. No head
can be observed either in the parent-stock amongst the masses or in the canals.
elsewhere, so that they must either be very few, only occasionally developed, or by
some means have been swept off, as it is hard to believe that they are entirely
absent. The latter, however, must be the condition in some of the examples (un--
less we are to suppose that all are connected with a single head), which, therefore,
would appear to derive nourishment at the open end, yet in many the aperture
rapidly develops.a bud which nearly closes it. If in life there are many examples
with such open ends, then the whole series branching from them presents an analo-
gous condition to that of very elementary animals, the food being swept in with
the sea-water to traverse the moniliform nutritive canal throughout the organism. ©

The body of the animal stretches, from any of the broken ends, of a nearly
uniform diameter for a considerable distance, the numerous narrow segments being
distinctly marked, and each furnished laterally with well-formed feet. The latter
have dorsally a long and often gracefully curved cirrus, composed of a variable
number of segments, since injury and reparation constantly occur; moreover the
cirri are alternately long and short. The longer cirri have about twenty-six seg-.
ments, and all the organs are gently tapered from base to apex. Beneath and-
confluent with the base of the cirrus is the somewhat conical setigerous region,
which has a few simple bristles, with a stout and slightly curved shaft, the dilated
distal portion having the simple terminal process apparently anchylosed to it.
This modification of the bristle is peculiar. A single stout spine supports the
setigerous region, and, as usual, its point passes to the upper border. The ventral
cirrus is broad and short, its tip being within the vertical line of the former division.

The body of the annelid appears to have a furor for budding—laterally, termin-
ally, and wherever a broken surface occurs. The young buds remain slender till
they have reached a considerable length, and into each a diverticulum of the ali-
mentary canal of the parent enters. These buds, on attaining a certain size, by

1 See forthcoming Proceedings of the Linnean Society, ‘ Zoology,’

374 REPORT—1879.

and by give off other buds, so that the whole has a remarkably branched condition.
The tail of the bud (ie. its distal point) is early formed, and soon becomes fur-
nished with two long cirri. Indeed, it would seem that in such a case the tail
and the anus were more useful than the head, the eyes, and the finished buccal
and pharyngeal apparatus.

The number of buds seems to be indefinite, the data at present being insufficient
to enable me to fix a limit. Some of the larger fragments show nine or ten buds,
yet they are evidently far from being complete. The absence of a head leaves
great uncertainty on the latter point, and, if it existed at all, it could only have
been in the siliceous stem of the sponge, which had been torn off.

Two female buds were found. One of these was still attached by its pedicle of
four segments to the parent-stock. These intermediate segments somewhat resem-
bled those of ordinary buds, only they were more slender. All had rudimentary
lateral cirri and setigerous processes, The diverticulum of the alimentary canal
proceeded from the main trunk in the ordinary way, passed through the anterior
segments of the bud, and became lost in the opacity caused by the ova. The head
of the bud is bilobate, and furnished dorsally with a large reddish-brown eye on
each side, and a still larger pair, of similar shape (somewhat circular) and colour, on
the ventral surface. These eyes, while useful for both dorsal and ventral vision,
approach so near the margins that they are also available for lateral sight. The head
terminates laterally in two short cirriand a setigerous process furnished with a spine.

The body of the female bud is somewhat fusiform, gradually increasing in
diameter till full breadth is attained, and, after a nearly:cylindrical region, dimi-
nishing towards the tail, though to a less degree than anteriorly. The entire body,
from the middle of the second segment backwards, as well as the bases of the feet,
is filled with ova, which in each case shows germinal vesicle and spot. The
anterior segments are provided with bristles of the same type as the parent-stock,
only the terminal appendage is more differentiated. None of the long simple
bristles are apparent in this fragmentary example.

Exactly opposite the point from which the pedicle of the foregoing bud sprang
is another small bud, consisting of upwards of a dozen segments. Moreover, in the
same specimen a pair of young buds occur opposite each other. In these cases the
segment of the intestine of the parent-stock, from which the diverticulum proceeds,
is shorter than the rest. It would seem that the bud arises opposite a foot, and
there is no evidence that a bud ever arises between two (successive) feet. The
shortening of the intestinal segment may be due to the appropriation of the sub-
stance of both it and the body-wall in the production of the new bud.

A free female bud, again, occurred in one of the basal canals of the sponge. It
closely agrees with the description of the foregoing specimen, except in the larger
garnet-tinted eyes, and the presence of beautiful tufts of long simple bristles in each
foot. Its length is about 9 mm., and its breadth, including the latter, is rather
more than 2 mm. There are twenty-nine segments; but the condition of the tail
is open to doubt. Dorsally each segment has a slender and distinctly-jointed cirrus.
Beneath the foregoing is a dense tuft of lone translucent simple bristles, with broad
flattened tips, after the fashion of the straight Roman swords, but marked at the
tip by two peculiar longitudinal processes, and sometimes the end assumes a fim-
briated appearance. The setigerous region beneath is short and conical, having
superiorly the spine and inferiorly the bristles, which differ from those of the parent-
stock, in showing a more evident differentiation at the junction of the terminal
process. Ventrally is a tongue-shaped cirrus, which nearly reaches the tip of the
setigerous region. The entire body is filled with ova, which likewise occupy the
feet, almost to their tips; the first segment and the extremity of the tail (which is
apparently in process of regeneration) alone being devoid of them. Some of the
feet, indeed, assume a bulk four or five times larger than the others, from distention
with ova. The latter, apparently, have embryos internally.

Amongst the tangled masses in the channels of the sponge was a fragment of
the posterior end of a form which differed from either of the foregoing. The feet,
which are well-marked and long, have dorsally a slightly convex margin ; ventrally
the outline is also somewhat convex at the base, but curves upward toward the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 375

tip. A short cirrus of four or five segments extends from the extremity of the
dorsal margin, while beneath it is a dense tuft of long straight sword-shaped trans-
lucent bristles, similar to those described in the female bud. A flat papilla, about
the middle of the bristle-bundle, shows that part of the foot to which the tip of the
slender supporting spine proceeds. This slender spine diverges upward from the
side of the stronger inferior one, the arrangement of the parts indicating that the
foregoing tuft of simple bristles is of less morphological value than the others. A
somewhat lanceolate process occurs at the ventral margin of the foot, and apparently
corresponds to the setigerous division. It is supported by the stronger spine, and
bears two or three bristles, with simple terminal processes, similar to those in the
parent-stock. No ventral cirrus is present. The body contains a large number of
granules, and also masses of what appear to have been fully-formed spermatozoa.
‘Whether this is the male of the above form or another is, of course, an open ques-
tion ; but the bristles certainly correspond.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 23.

The Departinent did not meet.

MONDAY, AUGUST 25,

The following Papers were read :—

1. Recent Additions to the Moss-Flora of the West Riding.
By Cuartes P. Hosxrex, F.L.S.

This paper is supplementary to one read by the author at the Bradford Meeting
in 1878, ‘On the Mosses of the West Riding,’ giving a list of 294 species, with
their localities. After treating on the work of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union,
in investigating the fauna and flora of the county, the author particularised some
of the chief species found since 1873, and gave the history of them, viz., Seligeria
tristicha at Littondale ; Aulacomnium turgidum at Whernside ; Fontinalis gracilis
at Malham Cove; Plagiothectwm nitidulum at Penyghent, &c. Four lists were
appended to the paper, viz., (1) New species, 48; (2) Species found in fresh
localities, 142; (8) Localities previously known, but not recorded, 29; and (4)
Species inserted in error in previous list, 8: making the total number of species now
recorded for the Riding, 327.

2. On the Embryology of Gymnadina conopsea. By H. Marsuatn Warp.

The ovule arises on the placenta as a mass of cells consisting of an axial row,
surrounded by an epidermal layer of cells one deep: the terminal cell of the axial
row, just beneath the epidermal layer, enlarges and cuts off two cells at its apex
as described by Strasburgher; these cap-cells and the epidermal cells become flat-
tened and finally destroyed as the cell which remains enlarges and becomes the
embryo sac. The existence of the remains of the cap-cells as refractive masses
above the embryo sac is cited as evidence against Vesque’s view as to the origin
of the embryo sac by the fusion of two or more superposed cells, The protoplasm
in the embryo sac then divides into two masses, one passing to each end of the
sac; they there undergo further division into fours. Of the four nucleated masses

376 REPORT—1879.

in the anterior part, one becomes the egg-cell, attached to two others, which have
elongated as the ‘Gehiilfinnen’ or ‘Synergide’ of Strasburgher, and become
packed into the top of the sac; the fourth remains suspended in the protoplasm of
the sac, and is said by Strasburgher to fuse with one of the similarly produced
masses below, the product becoming the nucleus of the embryo sac. The three
remaining nuclei are the ‘ antipodal cells’ of authors, The writer confirms these
views, except that the actual blending of the two nuclei has not been seen; in
Ranunculus, Anthericum, and other plants, however, the evidence is sufficient to
render this view most likely, since two nuclei in all stages of approach occur, as
well as sacs with one large central nucleus.

The fertilised ovum divides by a horizontal wall into two similar cells; the
upper one becomes the suspensor, and divided by cross-walls only; the lower is cut
by walls in alternating planes at right angles to one another into a few-celled simple
embryo, showing no differentiations into tissues, or into cotyledons, stem, root, &c.
Short reference was made to the proposed homologies for these structures in the
embryo sac, and especially to the reasons against accepting the older views as to
the correspondence between the synergide and the canal-cells of the archegonium.

Confirmatory results have also been obtained in Butomus, Ranunculus, Alisma,
Anthericum, and others. The views of Vesque do not appear to be supported by
these researches ; and those of Warming appear to involve considerable difficulties
as to the meaning of the embryo sac nucleus.

3. On the Homologies of the Cephalopoda. By J. F. Brake.

The flexure of the intestine in Cephalopoda and Pteropoda is ‘ pedal,’ and that
of other Odontophora, ‘ cephalic ;’ and the body of a cephalopod must be placed
with the mantle cavity horizontal for comparison with a gastropod. The arms are
not homologous with the foot, but form an ‘antivelum.’ The labial and tentacular
processes, and not the individual tentacles of a Nautilus are shown to be homo-
logous to the arms of an Octopod. The hood is associated with the aptychus of the
Ammonite, the shell of an Argonaut, and the neckplates of a Sepia. The Ascoceras
is cited to show the relations of the Sepia-bone to the Nautilus shell.

4. On Cyclops. By Marcus M. Hartoe, M.A., B.Sc.

The nervous-cord of Cyclops is essentially Copepodan in type, it is not distinctly
dilated into special ganglia containing cells evenly distributed up to the third thoracic
sezment, which is here continued by a fibrous commissure to a ganglion in the next
seement. Beyond this are no cellular elements in the cord, which bifureates in the
second abdominal segment, and the branches terminate in the furca. The sensory
and motor nerves appear to be wholly distinct, the latter coming off at a higher or
deeper level. All the sensory nerve-fibres pass through a bipolar ganglion cell near
their distal termination. Minute rounded spaces in the hypoderm, especially one at
the base of the last thoracic limb, and a pair on either side of the upper face of the
front of the head, appear to be auditory organs (containing one or more minute,
irregular, highly-refractive corpuscles in the male), Respiration in Cyclops is
entirely anal.

5. On Minusopee, a Section of the Order Sapotacee.
By Marcus M. Harroa, M.A., B.Sc.

In this paper the genus Dipholis is merged in Bumelia, and the genera Imbri-
caria, Labramia, and Muriea in Mimusops: a review of the differential characters
hitherto relied on showing their inadequacy from every point of view—even con-
venience.

6. On Solid-mounted Preparations. By Ll. C. Matt.

TRANSACTIONS. OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 377

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On a Spore-producing Gleocapsa, from the great Conservatory at Chats-
worth. By Professor M. A. Lawson.

2. On the Capreolus (of Lister) or the Spermatophore of some of the Indian
species of the Helicide. By Cou. H. H. Gopwiy-Austey, F.Z.8.

The author points out the importance of making an examination of the animal
in many genera of the Helicide, and thus obtaining better characters for specific
distinction than are often presented by the shell alone. The or can first discovered
and described by Lister in 1694 is treated of, and the views of later naturalists
alluded to. Many different forms of the Spermatophore found in Helices from
Eastern Asia are shown, and the position of the organ in the generative system
of Helicarion magnifica from Burmah is described.

3. On a Sponge from the Norwegian Coast, simulating a Hydroid Polyp.
By W. J. Sortas, M.A.

4. Comparison of the Effects of the Frosts of 1860-1 and of 1878-9.
By HE. J. Lows, FBS.

The greatest cold of 1860 exceeded that of last winter by 10°; it was 6° below
zero in 1860, it was 4° above zero in the last frost, i.e., 4 feet above ground.

The present paper records the great difference in the effects in the two frosts at
Highfield House.

frost of 1860 . Frost of 1878

E ifs | { Three-fourths of the boughs
Elm (broad-leaved) . . | Uninjured ||. killed back at least 2 feet

| J Many boughs killed, and |

Acacia (long-spined). . | Slightly injured was a month later in|
i coming into leaf

Bay (sweet). . . . . | Killed to the ground Milled, sof thes ait

Cedar (deodar). . . | Became ) deetdupua ; ) | Not injured

* "U otherwise uninjured f |
{ Half the branches killed,

The arbutus. . . . . | Killed to the ground ‘the others injured
eH ee 7 Uninjured
Pampas grass . . . . | Killed Killed

att, { Killed to where buried +s
Araucaria imbricata . “reer \ Uninjured
Wewe. . . . | Slightly damaged : ' | Slightly damaged
Wellingtonia gigantea . | Much injured Slightly injured

Many killed; all be- cat

Evergreen oak . Fa mae Hadous } Uninjured
INOS. oe | More or less injured More or less injured
Hennes: . . . | Uninjured All killed
Pacem. . «| Killed Uninjured

Many killed, nearly all
injured

Roses, standards . . . | All killed

378

REPORT—1879.

Frost of 1860

Roses on their own roots
Retinospora obtusa . .
5 squamosa

3 leptoclada

35 ericoides .

A filifera . .

a5 plumosa. .

” tk} }
argentea

Juniperus excelsa .

9 chinensis aurea

Phormium tenax
Eugenia Ugni .
Yucca gloriosa . °
Cineraria maritima .
Laurel, common .

» Portugal .

EVOL yarev ate: apie

Thuja aurea... 5).

Corkturee Sr, 8. 88,
Deutzia gracilis
Quince.

Yew, golden.
Pinus insignis .
Abies pygmea

»» Menziesii.
» Morinda .
Waarustinus. “s 9 24.

Picea Nordmanniana .

Walnut

Apples.

Garrya elliptica
Double gorse /
Hydrangea hortensis
Peeonia moutan
Berberis Bealii .
Weigelia rosea .

Many killed
Killed

”

f Killed on the north
‘UL _ half of the tree

Killed

”
”

”
Many killed to ground
Nearly all killed
Most killed in the
5 branches to the
L height of 7 feet
Mostly killed
Killed
Severely injured
Killed
Slightly injured
Killed
Slightly injured
Became deciduous, and
{ had no leaves for a >
year i
Slightly injured
All killed

Uninjured

Boughs killed and one tree

Killed

Many killed
Killed to ground
Killed to ground
Many killed
Killed

Frost of 1878

Uninjured

Slightly injured
Uninjured

Slightly injured

Uninjured

9
Only killed to the ground
Half the branches killed
Slightly injured
Killed
Uninjured

”

”
Slightly injured
Uninjured

Uninjured
”

”
9

”

3”
f Lost half its leaves and
‘L some boughs
{ Uninjured excepting a
want of vigour, leaves
i only half the usual size
Leaves small and fruit
1 scarce and remarkably
small
Only blooms killed
Slightly injured
Killed back several inches
Uninjured
LE
”

The above will sufficiently illustrate the effects of the frosts in two severe

winters.

Itis worthy of remark that instead of the cold killing the slugs and various
pests of plants, they were never known so numerous. Many hardy plants, in pots,
were killed, such as Ivy, Pteris aquilina, &c., when they escaped if plunged in the

ground.

5. The rarer Birds oceurring in South and West Yorkshire.

By T. Lister.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.— DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 379

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY.

CHAIRMAN OF THE DEPARTMENT.—E. B. Tylor, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S.
(Vice-President of the Section.)

[For Mr Tylor’s Address see p. 381.]

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21.

The following Papers were read :--

1. On the Cagots. By D. Hack Tuxe, M.D., F.R.C.P.

1. The Cagots are not the descendants of the Goths; they are not a distinct
race, but a despised class among the people of the country in which they live. ‘

2. They are not more subject to goitre or to cretinism than the inhabitants in
their vicinity ; in short, cagotism and cretinism are in no way allied. ib

3. The present representatives of the Cagots are now recognised by tradition,
and not by their features, and are not distinguished by any peculiar mental or
physical disorder, except when residing in an unhealthy locality.

4, Although nothing like leprosy or leucoderma has for Jong affected the Cagots,
and no one on the spot regards them in this light, there is evidence to show that
they were originally either lepers labouring under a particular variety of leprosy, or
were affected with leucoderma ; the form of the affection accounting for their being
regarded as in some respects different from ordinary lepers, though shunned in the
same way.

5. Many were no doubt falsely suspected of leprosy in consequence of some
slight skin affection. Others again, in later centuries, were members of families
in whom the disease had died out.

2. Evidence of the Existence of Paleolithic Man during the Glacial Period
in Hast Anglia. By Sypney B. J. Sxerrcnty, F.G.S., H.M. Geological
Survey.

The object of this paper is chiefly to record the sections in which the author
has Be reed paleeolithic implements beneath the chalky boulder clay in East
Anglia.

The beds which yield the implements are a series of loams, clays, and sands, to
which the author has given the name of Brandon Beds. They occur at the top of
the Middle Glacial Series of Messrs. 8. V. Wood, jun., and F. W. Harmer, and
underlie the Chalky Boulder Clay or Upper Glacial of the above-named authors.

They have yielded paleolithic implements in many places, but only those will
be described in which the Chalky Boulder Clay overlies the Brandon Beds at the
present time.

Mildenhall.—Near Mildenhall, on the River Lark, in Suffolk, two sections haye
yielded implements. They are at Warren Hill and Mildenhall Brickyard.

The section at Warren Hill is as follows :—

ft. in.
1. Sandy soil, &c. 2 0
2. Chalky Boulder clay 6 0
3. Gravel : . 4 0
4. Loamy clay. 4 0
6. Boulder clay 6 0
6 : 0 0

. Chalk .

380 REPORT—1879.

This spot has yielded great numbers of flakes and many implements. It was
originally described by Professor Prestwich, but the boulder clay has only recently
been exposed above the tool-bearing loams.

At Mildenhall Brickyard the section is—

ft. in.
1. Sandy soil . : 4 . : : Penalty
2. Chalky Boulder clay . - : : = OG
3. Loam . : 5 : : - : ; 10°50
4. Chalk. : - : 5 - - - 0-30

From this place many implements and flakes have been obtained. They occur in
the loam.

Culford, in Suffolk.i—The Brandon Beds are here dug under 16 feet of solid
boulder clay. From these I obtained two flakes.

West Stow in Suffolk.—Boulder clay overlies, underlies, and wraps round the
Brandon Beds at this place. Some well-worked implements have been obtained,
one of which was dug out by the author.

Brandon.—Near Brandon the same beds are being dug beneath boulder clay,
and have yielded very good implements.

The peculiarities of the implements are pointed out, and the mode of distin-
guishing them from specimens from the gravels is indicated,

The author in this paper merely desires to emphasize the fact that from several
sections he has himself dug out paleolithic implements from below tough, undis-
turbed chalky boulder clay.

3. On a New Estimate of the Date of the Neolithic Age.
By Sypyey B. J. Sxerrosty, F.G.S., H.M. Geological Survey.

M. Morlot estimated from the rate at which the cone of Tiniére was forming,
that from 5,000 to 7,000 years ago Switzerland was in its Neolithic age; and M.
Gillierson ascribes a like date to that period from a calculation of the rate of silting
up of a portion of the Lake of Bienne.

The author points out that a similar result is obtained from physical evidence
in the Fenland. This district occupies an area of 1,300 square miles around the
great bay of the Wash. The surface of the inland portions consists of peat, and
that of the seaward parts of marine silt. This silt is still in process of deposition,
and the land is consequently gaining upon the sea. From the time of the Roman
occupation, at least, banks have been successively erected to reclaim the newly
formed ground ; and as the dates of these banks are known, very accurate estimates
can be formed of the rate at which the deposition is going on in different parts.
The maximum rate is 59 feet per annum; and 4 miles of new land has been
formed since the oldest banks were erected. These banks are generally ascribed to
the Romans; but they are probably British. In this estimate they will be taken
as Roman, in order that the age may not be over-estimated, and the maximum rate
of deposition will also be used as giving the minimum of time.

The geological evidence shows that as the silting went on, and the area became
converted into land, peat grew and gradually spread over the newly formed ground.
But in process of time the climate became unfitted for the growth of peat, which
gradually lost its vigour, and finally ceased to form. Hence a wide stretch of silt
land borders the Wash, upon the surface of which no peat has ever formed. The
peat died upon its eastward march; the silt still travels on.

The nearest approach of the peat to the banks along the line of most rapid accu-
mulation is 12 miles distant therefrom. The age of this, the newest peat in the
Fenland, can be thus determined. Between the ‘Roman’ banks and the seu lie
four miles of silt, which has taken 1,700 years to accumulate. Between these
banks and the sea lie 12 miles of silt, which at the same rate of formation would
take 5,100 years to accumulate. Adding 5,100 to 1,700 years, we have 6,800
years as the least possible age of the newest peat. This peat has yielded many
Neolithic implements. Hence we may assume that 7,000 years will take us back

Bas.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 381

into the Neolithic age. The coincidence of this estimate with the two Swiss ones
above mentioned is remarkable.

These results do not, however, give us the date of the introduction of the Neo-
liths into Europe, for neither in the Swiss nor English localities are we sure that
the Neolithic relics belong to the early part of the Neolithic age. The author,
indeed, has recently obtained evidence of Neolithic handiwork in Fenland peat of
far greater age than that described, the peat bed underlying silt more than 7,000
years old. He is inclined to. think that the Neolithic Age in England began at
least 10,000 years ago, and perhaps 20,000 years; but that it does not approach
the close of the Glacial epoch, seems to be shown by the fact that the older Fen-
land beds (themselves post-glacial) do not contain human relics.

4, A Classification of the Physical Conditions of Life.
By C. Roserts, F.R.C.S.

It is only by examining the physical condition of a large number of individuals
by anthropometry that the actual state of health of a nation can be determined. The
present paper indicates the direction in which investigation may be made by
classifying the conditions of life which modify the development of the human
body. The most important of the agencies are race, climate, nurture, occupation,
and disease. An elaborate table accompanied the paper.

5. On the Yarra and the Languages of Australia in connection with those of
the Mozambique and Portuguese Africa. By Hyon Cuarxe, V.P.A.I.

In this paper Mr. Clarke showed that the Yarra dialect of Melbourne, and many
others of North, East, South, and West Australia are to be identified with the
Mozambique languages on the east coast of Africa, the Muntu, Kirimau, Marawi,
&c., with those of the other Bantu or Kaffre languages of Portuguese South Africa,
This was accompanied by a large table of words. Further, he showed that those
Mozambique roots which are not represented in the Yarra, &c., are represented in
the Echuca and other Australian languages, thus completing the chain of identity.
Mr. Clarke pointed out that Dr. Caldwell had recognised the grammatical resem-
blances between Australian and the Dravidian of India, and Dr. W. H. Bleek
between Australian and Bantu. They had not been able to follow up these resem-
blances or to account for them. He stated, in the facts in another paper, that these
languages belonged to a common group, but had undergone different processes of
development. He supported the view of Mr. Brough Smith that Australia had
been under the influence of a white race in ancient epochs. Apart from the evi-
dence of language, grammar, and mythology, he dwelt on the curious fact that the
names of the languages of Australia are negatives, one of these negatives, Kabi,
being common throughout the world. He also referred to the geographical doc-
trine of the Four Worlds, as taught in the School of Pergamus, in proof that Aus-
tralasia had in earlier epochs been known to the ancients.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22.

The Chairman delivered the following Address :—

In surveying modern scientific opinion, the student is often reminded of a doctrine
proclaimed in the ancient hymns of the Zend-Avesta, that of Zrvdna akarana, or
‘endless time.’ Our modern schemes of astronomy, geology, biology are all

382 REPORT—1879.

framed on the assumption of past time immense in length. In fact, one reason why
the latter sciences grew so slowly till almost our own day, was their being shackled
by the bonds of a short chronology, allowing no room for the long successive
periods through which it is now clear that the earth with its plants and animals
passed into their present state. Even the Science of Man, though concerned with
the later forms of being, belonging to times which geologists treat as almost
modern, has nevertheless to deal with periods of time extending far back beyond
the range of history and chronology.

Looking back 4,000 to 5,000 years, what is the appearance of mankind as dis-
closed to us by the Egyptian monuments and inscriptions? Several of the best-
marked races of man were already in existence, including the brown Egyptian
himself, the dark-white Semitic man of Assyria or Palestine, the Central African
of two varieties, which travellers still find as distinct as ever, namely, the black or
Negro proper, and the copper-coloured negroid, like the Bongo or Nyam-nyam of
our own time. Indeed, the evidence accessible as to ancient races of man goes to
prove that the causes which brought about their differences in types of skull, hair,
skin, and constitution, did their chief work in times before history began. Since
then the races which had become adapted to their geographical regions may have,
on the whole, undergone little change while remaining there, but some alterations
are traced as due to migration into new climates. Hven these are difficult to follow,
masked as they are by the more striking changes produced by intermarriage of
races. Now the view that the races of man are to be accounted for as varied
descendants of one original stock is zoologically probable from the close resemblance
of all men in body and mind, and the freedom with which races intercross. If it
was so, then the fact of the different races already existing early in the historical
period compels the naturalist to look to a pre-historic period for their development
to have taken place in. And considering how strongly differenced are the Negro
and the Syrian, and how slowly such changes of complexion and feature take place
within historical experience, this pre-historic period was probably of vast length.
The evidence from the languages of the world points in the same direction. In
times of ancient history we already meet with families of languages, such as the
Aryan and the Semitic, and as later history goes on many other families of lan-
guage come into view, such as the Bantu or Kafir of Africa, the Dravidian of South
India, the Malayo-Polynesian, the Algonquin of North America, and other families.
But what we do not find is the parent language of any of these families, the original
language which all the other members are dialects of, so that this parent tongue
should stand towards the rest in the relation which Latin holds to its descendants,
Italian and French. It is, however, possible to work back by the method of philo-
logical comparison, so as to sketch the outlines of that early Aryan tongue which
must haye existed to produce Sanskrit and Persian, Greek and Latin, German,
Russian, and Welsh, or the outlines of that early Semitic tongue which must haye
existed to produce Assyrian, Phcenician, Hebrew, and Arabic. Though such theo-
retical reconstructions of parent languages from their descendants may only show a
vague and shadowy likeness to the reality, they give some idea of it. And what
concerns us here is that theoretical early Aryan and Semitic, or other such recon-
structed languages, do not bring our minds appreciably nearer to really primitive
forms of speech. However far we get back, the signs of development from still
earlier stages are there. The roots have mostly settled into forms which no longer
show the reasons why they were originally chosen, while the inflexions only in part
preserve traces of their original senses, and the whole structure is such as only a long-
lost past can account for. To illustrate this important point, let us remember the
system of grammatical gender in Greek or German, how irrationally a classification
by sex is applied to sexless objects and thoughts, while even the use of a neuter
gender fails to set the confusion straight, and sometimes even twists it with a
new perversity of its own. Many a German and Frenchman wishes he could
follow the example of our English forefathers who, long ago, threw overboard
the whole worthless cargo of grammatical gender. But looking at gender in the
ancient grammars, it must be remembered that human custom is hardly ever
wilfully absurd, its unreasonableness usually arising from loss or confusion of old
sense. Thus it can hardly be doubted that the misused grammatical gender

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 383

in Hebrew or Greek is the remains of an older and reasonable phenomenon of
language ; but if so, this must have belonged to a period earlier than we can assign
to the theoretical parent language of either. Lastly, the development of civilisa-
tion requires a long period of pre-historic time. Experience and history show that
civilisation grew up gradually, while every age preserves recognisable traces of the
ages which went before. The woodman’s axe of to-day still retains much of the
form of its ancestor—the stone celt in its wooden handle; the mathematician’s tables
keep up in their decimal notation a record of the early ages when man’s ten fingers
first taught him to count; the very letters with which I wrote these lines may be
followed back to the figures of birds and beasts and other objects drawn by the
ancient Egyptians, at first as mere picture writing to denote the things represented.
Yet, when we learn from the monuments what ancient Egyptian life was like
towards 5,000 years ago, it appears that civilisation had already come on so far
that there was an elaborate system of government, an educated literary priesthood,
a nation skilled in agriculture, architecture, and metal work. These ancient Egyp-
tians, far from being near the beginning of civilisation, had, as the late Baron Bunsen
held, already reached its halfway house. This eminent Eeyptologist’s moderate
estimate of man’s age on the earth at about 20,000 years has the merit of having
been made on historical grounds alone, independently of geological evidence, for the
proofs of the existence of man in the quaternary or mammoth period had not yet
gained acceptance.

My purpose in briefly stating here the evidence of man’s antiquity derived from
race, language, and culture is to insist that these arguments stand on their own
ground. It is true that the geological argument from the implements in the drift-
gravels and bone-caves, by leading to a general belief that man is extremely ancient
on the earth, has now made it easier to anthropologists to maintain a rationally
satisfactory theory of the race-types and mental development of mankind. But we
should by no means give up this vantage ground, though the ladder we climbed
by should break down. Even if it could be proved that the flint implements of
Abbeville or Torquay were really not so ancient as the pyramids of Egypt, this
woula not prevent us from still assuming, for other and sufficient reasons, a period
of hu:nen life on earth extending many thousand years farther back.

It is an advantage of this state of the evidence that it to some extent gets rid
of the ‘sensational’ element in the problem of fossil man, which it leayes as
merely an interesting inquiry into the earliest known relics of savage tribes.
Geological criticism has not yet absolutely settled either way the claims of the
Abbé Bourgeois’ flints from Thénay to be of Miocene date, or of Mr. Skertchly’s
from Brandon to be Glacial. The accepted point is that the men who made the
ordinary flint implements of the drift lived in the quaternary period characterised
by the presence of the mammoth in our part of Europe. More than one geologist,
however, has lately maintained that this quaternary period was not of extreme
antiquity. The problem is at what distance from the present time the drift-cravels
on the valley slopes can have been deposited by water action up to one hundred feet
or so aboye the present flood-levels. It does not seem the prevailing view among
geologists that rivers on the same small scale as those at present occupying mere
ditches in the wide valley-floors could have left these deposits on the hill sides at a
time when they had not yet scooped out the valleys to within fifty or a hundred
feet of their present depth. Indeed, such means are insufficient out of all propor-
tion to the results,as a mere look down from the hill-tops into such valleys is
enough to show. Geologists connect the deposit of the high drift-gravels with the
subsidence and elevation of the land, and the powerful action of ice and water at
the close of the Glacial age ; and the term ‘ Pluvial period’ is often used to charac-
terise this time of heavy rainfall and huge rivers. It was then that the rude stone
implements of paleolithic man were imbedded in the drift-gravels with the
remains of the mammoth and fossil rhinoceros, and we have to ask what events
have taken place in these regions since? The earth’s surface has been altered to
bring the land and water to their present levels, the huge animals became extinct,
the country was inhabited by the tribes whose relics belong to the neolithic or
ee age, and afterwards the metal-using Keltie nations possessed the

nd, their arrival being fixed as previous to 400 B.c., the king of the Gauls then

384 REPORT—1879.

being called by the Romans by the name Brennus, which is simply the Keltic
word for ‘king’—in modern Welsh brenin. To take in this succession of events
geologists and archeologists generally hold that a long period is required. Yet
there are some few who find room for them all in a comparatively short period.
I will mention Principal Dawson, of Montreal, well known as a geologist in this
Association, and who has shown his conviction of the soundness of his views by
adressing them to the general public in a little volume entitled ‘The Story of the
Earth and Man.” Having examined the gravels of St.-Acheul, on the Somme,
where M. Boucher de Perthes found his celebrated drift implements, it appeared
to Dr. Dawson that, taking into account the probabilities of a different level of
the land, a wooded condition of the country and greater rainfall, and a glacial
filling up of the Somme valley with clay and stones subsequently cut out by
running water, the gravels could scarcely be older than the Abbeville peat, and
the age of this peat he estimates as perhaps less than four thousand years. Within
this period Dr. Dawson includes a comparatively rapid subsidence of the land,
with a partial re-elevation, which left large areas of the lower grounds beneath
the sea. This he describes as the geological deluge which separates the post-glacial
period from the modern, and the earlier from the later prehistoric period of the
archeologists.

My reason for going here into these computations of Dr. Dawson's is that the
date about 2200 z.c., to which he thus assigns these great geological convulsions,
is actually within historic times. In Egypt successive dynasties had been reigning
for ages, and the pyramids had long been built; while in Babylonia the old
Chaldean kings had been raising the temples whose ruins still remain. That is to
say, we are asked to receive, as matter of geology, that stupendous geological
changes were going on not far from the Mediterranean, including a final plunge of
I know not how much of the earth’s surface beneath the waters, and yet national
life on the banks of the Nile and the Euphrates went on unbroken and apparently
undisturbed through it all. To us in this Section it is instructive to see how the
free use of paroxysms and cataclysms makes it possible to shorten up geological
time. Accustomed as we are to geology demanding periods of time which often
seem to history exorbitant, the tables are now turned, and we are presented with
the unusual spectacle of chronology protesting against geology for encroaching on
the historical period.

In connection with the question of quaternary man, it is worth while to notice
that the use of the terms ‘primeval’ or ‘ primitive’ man, with reference to the
savages of the mammoth period, seems sometimes to lead to unsound inferences.
There appears no particular reason to think that the relics from the drift-beds or
bone-cayes represent man as he first appeared on the earth. The contents of the
caves especially bear witness to a state of savage art, in some respects fairly high,
and which may possibly have somewhat fallen off from an ancestral state in a more
favourable climate. Indeed, the savage condition generally, though rude and more
or less representing early stages of culture, never looks absolutely primitive, just
as no savage language ever has the appearance of being a primitive language.
What the appearance and state of our really primeval ancestors may have been
seems too speculative a question, until there shall be more signs of agreement
between the anthropologists, who work back by comparison of actual races of man
toward a hypothetical common stock, and the zoologists, who approach the problem
through the species adjoining the human. There is, however, a point relating to
the problem to which attention is due. Naturalists not unreasonably claim to find
the geographical centre of man in the tropical regions of the old world inhabited
by his nearest zoological allies, the anthropomorphous apes, and there is at any
rate force enough in such a view to make careful quest of human remains worth
while in those districts, from Africa across to the Eastern Archipelago. Under the
care of Mr. John Evans a fund has been raised for excavations in the caves of
Borneo by Mr. Everett, and though the search has as yet had no striking result,
money is well spent in carrying on such investigations in likely equatorial forest
regions. It would be a pity that for want of enterprise a chance, however slight,
should be missed of settling a question so vital to anthropology.

While the problem of primitive man thus remains obscure, a somewhat more

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 385

distinct opinion may be formed on the problem of primitive civilised man. When
it is asked what races of mankind first attained to civilisation, it may be answered
that the earliest nations known to haye had the art of writing, the great mark of
civilisation as distinguished from barbarism, were the Egyptians and Babylonians,
who in the remotest ages of history appear as nations advanced to the civilised
stage in arts and social organisation. ‘The question is, Under what races to class
them? What the ancient Egyptians were like is well known from the monuments,
which show how closely much of the present fellah population, as little changed in
features as in climate and life, represent their ancestors of the times of the
Pharaohs. Their reddish-brown skin, and features tending toward the negroid, have
led Hartmann, the latest anthropologist who has carefully studied them, to adopt
the classification of them as belonging to the African rather than the Asiatic
peoples, and specially to insist on their connection with the Berber type, a view
which seems to have been held by Blumenbach. The contrast of the brown
Egyptians with the dark-white Syro-Arabians on their frontiers is strongly
marked, and the portraits on the monuments show how distinctly the Egyptian
knew himself to be of different race from the Semite. Yet there was mixture
between the two races, and what is most remarkable, there is a deep-seated
Semitic element in the Egyptian language, only to be accounted for by some
extremely ancient and intimate connection. On the whole, the Egyptians may
be a mixed race, mainly of African origin, perhaps from the southern Somali-land,
whence the Egyptian tradition was that the gods came, while their African type
may have since been modified by Asiatic admixture. Next, as to the early rela~
tions of Babylonia and Media, a different problem presents itself. The languages
of these nations, the so-called Akkadian and the early Medic, were certainly not
of the same family with either the Assyrian or the Persian which afterwards
prevailed in their districts. Their connection with the Tatar or Turanian family
of languages, asserted twenty years ago by Oppert, has since been further main-
tained hy Lenormant and Sayce, and seems, if not conclusively settled, at any rate
to have much evidence for it, not depending merely on similarity of words, such
as the term for ‘god,’ Akkadian dingira, being like the Tatar tengri, but also on
similarity of pronouns and grammatical structure by post-positions. Now language,
though not a conclusive argument as to race, always proves more or less as to con-
nection. The comparison of the Akkadian language to that of the Tatar family is
at any rate primd facie evidence that the nations who founded the ancient civilisa-
tion of Babylonia, who invented the cuneiform writing, and who carried on the
astronomical observations which made the name of Chaldzan famous for all time,
may have been not dark-white peoples like the Assyrians who came after them, but

erhaps belonged to the yellow race of Oentral Asia, of whom the Chinese are the
Beek now most distinguished in civilisation. M. Lenormant has tried to identify
among the Assyrian bas-reliefs certain figures of men whose round skulls, high
cheek-bones, and low-bridged noses present a Mongoloid type contrasting with that
of the Assyrians. We cannot, I think, take this as proved, but at any rate in
these figures the features are not those of the aquiline Semitic type. The bronze
statuette of the Chaldean king called Gudea, which I have examined with Mr.
Pinches at the British Museum, is also, with its straight nose and long thin beard,
as un-Assyrian as may be. The anthropological point towards which all this
tends is one of great interest. We of the white race are so used to the position
of leaders in civilisation, that it does not come easy to us to think we may not
have been its original founders. Yet the white race, whether the dark-whites, such
as Phoenicians or Hebrews, Greeks or Romans, or the fair-whites, such as Scandi-
nayians and Teutons, appear in history as followers and disciples of the Egyptians
and Babylonians who taught the world writing, mathematics, philosophy, These
Eayunens and Babylonians, so far as pent evidence reaches, seem rather to have
belonged to the races of brown and yellow skin than to the white race.

Tt may be objected that this reasoning is in several places imperfect, but it is
the use of a departmental address not only to lay down proved doctrines, but to
state problems tentatively as they lie open to further inquiry. This will justify
my orate attention to a line of argument which, uncertain as it at present is, may

879. co

386 REPORT— 1879.

perhaps lead to an interesting result. So ancient was civilisation among both
Egyptians and Chaldzeans, that the contest as to their priority in such matters as
magical science was going on hotly in the classic ages of Greece and Rome. Looking
at the literature and science, the arts and politics, of Memphis and of Ur of the
Chaldees, both raised to such height of culture near 5,000 years ago, we ask, were
these civilisations not connected, did not one borrow from the other? There is
at present a clue which, though it may lead to nothing, is still worth trial. The
hint of it lies in a remark by Dr. Birch as to one of the earliest of Egyptian monu-
ments, the pyramid of Kochome, near Sakkara, actually dating from the first dynasty,
no doubt beyond 3000 B.c., and which is built in steps like the seven-storied Baby-
onian temples. Two other Egyptian pyramids, those of Abu-sir, are also built in
steps. Now whether there is any connection between the building of these pyra-
mids and the Babylonian towers, does not depend on their being built in stages, but
in the number of these stages being seven. As to the Babylonian towers, there is
no doubt, for though Birs-Nimrud is now a ruinous heap, the classical descriptions
of such temples, and the cuneiform inscriptions, put it beyond question that they
had seven stages, dedicated to the seven planets. As to the Egyptian pyramids,
the archeologists Segato and Masi positively state of one step-pyramid of Abu-sir,
that it had seven decreasing stages, while, on the other hand, Vyse’s reconstruction
of the step-pyramid of Sakkara shows there only six. Oonsidering the ruinous
state of all three step-pyramids, it will require careful measurement to settle whether
they originally had seven stages or not. If they had, the correspondence cannot be
set down to accident, but must be taken to prove a connection between Chaldea
and Egypt as to the worship of the seven planets, which will be among the most
ancient links connecting the civilisations of the world. I hope by thus calling
attention to the question, to induce some competent architect visiting Egypt to
place the matter beyond doubt, one way or the other.

While speaking of the high antiquity of civilisation in Egypt, the fact calls for
remark, that the use of iron as well as bronze in that country seems to go back
as far as historical record reaches. Brugsch writes in his ‘Egypt under the
Pharaohs, that Egypt throws scorn on the archeologists’ assumed successive
periods of stone, bronze, and iron. The eminent historian neglects, however, to
mention facts which give a different complexion to the early Egyptian use of
metals, namely, that chipped flints, apparently belonging to a prehistoric Stone
Age, are picked up plentifully in Egypt, while the sharp stones or stone knives
used by the embalmers seem also to indicate an earlier time when these were the
cutting instriments in ordinary use. Thus there are signs that the Metal Age in
Egypt, as elsewhere in the world, was preceded by a Stone Age, and if so, the high
antiquity of the use of metal only throws back to a still higher antiquity the use of
stone. The ancient iron-working in Egypt is, however, the chief of a group of facts
which are now affecting the opinions of anthropologists on the question whether
the Bronze Age everywhere preceded the Iron Age. In regions where, as in Africa,
iron ore occurs in such a state that it can after mere heating in the fire be forged
into implements, the invention of iron-working would be more readily made than
that of the composite metal bronze, which perhaps indicates a previous use of copper,
afterwards improved on by an alloy of tin. Professor Rolleston,in a recent address
on the Iron, Bronze, and Stone Ages, insists with reason that soft iron may have
been first in the hands of many tribes, and may have been superseded by bronze as
a preferable material for tools and weapons. We moderns, used to fine and cheap
steel, hardly do justice to the excellence of bronze, or gun-metal as we should now
call it,in comparison with any material but steel. I well remember my own surprise
at seeing in the Naples Museum that the surgeons of Herculaneum and Pompeii used
instruments of bronze. It is when hard steel comes in, that weapons both of bronze
and wrought iron have to yield, as when the long soft iron broad-swords of the
Gauls bent at the first blow against the pikes of Flaminius’ soldiers. On the whole,
Professor Virchow’s remarks in the Transactions of the Berlin Anthropological
Society for 1876, on the question whether it may be desirable to recognise instead
of three only two ages, a Stone Age and a Metal Age, seem to put the matter on
a fair footing. Iron may have been known as early as bronze or even earlier, but
nevertheless there have been periods in the life of nations when bronze, not iron,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 387

has been the metal in use. Thus there is nothing to interfere with the facts rest-
ing on archeological evidence, that in such districts as Scandinavia or Switzerland
a Stone Age was at some ancient time followed by a Bronze Age, and this again
by an Iron Age. We may notice that the latter change is what has happened in
America within a few centuries, where the Mexicans and Peruvians, found by the
Spaniards living in the Bronze Age, were moved on into the Iron Age. But the
question is whether we are to accept as a general principle in history the doctrine
expounded in the poem of Lucretius, that men first used boughs and stones, that
then the use of bronze became known, and lastly iron was discovered. As the
evidence stands now, the priority of the Stone Age to the Metal Age is more
firmly established than ever, but the origin of both bronze and iron is lost in
antiquity, and we have no certain proof which came first.

Passing to another topic of our science, it is satisfactory to see with what
activity the comparative study of laws and customs, to which Sir Henry Maine
gave a new starting-point in England, is now pursued. The remarkable inquiry
into the very foundations of society in the structure of the family, set afoot by
Bachofen in his ‘ Miitterrecht” and M’Lennan in his ‘ Primitive Marriage,’ is now
bringing in every year new material. Mr. L. H. Morgan, who, as an adopted
Troquois, became long ago familiar with the marriage-laws and ideas of kinship of
uncultured races, so unlike those of the civilised world, has lately made, in his
‘ Ancient Society,’ a bold attempt to solve the whole difficult problem of the develop-
ment of social life. I will not attempt here any criticism of the views of these and
other writers on a problem where the last word has certainly not been said. My
object in touching the subject is to mention the curious evidence that can still be
given by rude races as to their former social ties, in traditions which will be forgotten
in another generation of civilised life, but may still be traced by missionaries and
others who know what to seek for. Thus, such inquiry in Polynesia discloses
remarkable traces of a prevalent marriage-tie which was at once polygamous and
polyandrous, as where a family of brothers were married jointly to a family of
sisters; and I have just noticed in a recent volume on ‘Native Tribes of South
Australia,’ a mention of a similar state of things oceurring there. As to the
general study of customs, the work done for years past by such anthropologists as
Professor Bastian, of Berlin, is producing substantial progress. Among recent
works I will mention Dr. Karl Andree’s ‘Ethnologische Parallelen’ and Mr. J. A.
Farrer’s ‘ Primitive Manners.’ In the comparison of customs and inventions,
however, the main difficulty still remains to be overcome, how to decide certainly
whether they have sprung up independently alike in different lands through like-
ness in the human mind, or whether they have travelled from a common source. To
show how difficult this often is, I may mention the latest case I have happened to meet
with. The Orang Dongo, a mountain people in the Malay region, have a custom of
inheritance that when a man dies the relatives each take a share of the property,
and the deceased inherits one share for himself, which is burnt or buried for his
ghost’s use, or eaten at the funeral feast. This may strike many of my hearers as
quaint enough and unlikely to recur elsewhere; but Mr. Charies Elton, who has
special knowledge of our ancient legal customs, has pointed out to me that it was
actually old Kentish law, thus laid down in Law-French :—‘ Ensement seient les
chateus de gauylekendeys parties en treis apres le exequies e les dettes rendues si il
y est issue mulier en vye, issi que la mort eyt la une partie, e les fitz e les filles
muliers lautre partie e la femme la tierce partie.’—‘ In like sort let the chattels of
gavelkind persons be divided into three after the funeral and payment of debts if
there be lawful issue living, so that the deceased have one part, and the lawful sons
and daughters the other part, and the wife the third part.’ The Church had indeed
taken ssession, for pious uses, of the dead man’s share of his own property ; but
there is good Scandinavian evidence that the original custom before Christian
times was for it to be put in his burial-mound. Thus the rite of the rude Malay
tribe corresponds with that of ancient Europe, and the question which the evidence
does not yet enable us to answer, is whether the custom was twice invented, or
whether it spread east and west from a common source, perhaps in the Aryan
district of Asia.

It remains for me to notice the present state of Comparative Mythology, a most

cc2

388 REPORT—1879.

interesting, but also most provoking part of Anthropology. More than twenty years:
ago a famous essay, by Professor Max Miiller, made widely known in England how
far the myths in the classical dictionary and the story-books of our own lands
might find their explanation in poetic nature-metaphors of sun and sky, cloud and
storm, such as are preserved in the ancient Aryan hymns of the Veda. Of
course it had been always known that the old gods and heroes were in some part
personifications of nature—that Helios and Okeanos, though they walked and
talked and begat sons and daughters, were only the Sun and Sea in poetic guise.
But the identifications of the new school went farther. The myth of Endymion
became the simple nature-story of the setting Sun meeting Selene the Moon; and
I well remember how, at the Royal Institution, the aged scholar, Bishop Thirlwall,
grasped the stick he leant on, as if to make sure of the ground under his feet, when
he heard it propounded that Erinys, the dread avenger of murder, was a personifica-
tion of the Dawn discovering the deeds of darkness. Though the study of mythology
has grown apace in these later years, and many of its explanations will stand the
test of future criticism, I am bound to say that mythologists, always an erratic
race, have of late been making wilder work than ever with both myth and real
history, finding mythic suns and skies in the kings and heroes of old tradition, with
dawns for love-tales, storms for wars, and sunsets for deaths, often with as much
real cogency as if some mythologist a thousand years hence should explain the
tragic story of Mary Queen of Scots as a nature-myth of a beauteous Dawn rising
in splendour, prisoned in a dark cloud-island, and done to death in blood-red. sunset.
Learned treatises have of late, by such rash guessings, shaken public confidence in
the more sober reasonings on which comparative mythology is founded, so that it is
well to insist that there are cases where the derivation of myths from poetic
metaphors is really proved beyond doubt. Such an instance is the Hindu legend
of King Bali, whose austerities haye alarmed the gods themselves, when Vamana,
a Brahmanic Tom Thumb, begs of him as much land as he can measure in three
steps; but when the boon is granted, the tiny dwarf expands gigantic into Vishnu
himself, and striding with one step across the earth, with another across the air,
and a third across the sky, drives the king down into the infernal regions, where he
still reigns. There are various versions of the story, of which one may be read in
Southey; but in the ancient Vedic hymns its origin may be found when it was
not as yet a story at all, only a poetic metaphor of Vishnu, the Sun, whose often-
mentioned act is his crossing the airy regions in his three strides. ‘ Vishnu tra-
versed (the earth), thrice he put down his foot ; it was crushed under his dusty step.
Three steps hence made Vishnu, unharmed preserver, upholding sacred things.’
Both in the savage and civilised world there are many myths which may be
plainly traced to such poetic fancies before they have yet stiffened into circumstan-
tial tales; and it is in following out these, rather than in recklessly guessing myth-
origins for every tradition, that the sound work of the mythologist lies. The scholar
must not treat such nature-poetry like prose, spoiling its light texture with too heavy
agrasp. In the volume published by our new Folk-Lore Society, which has begun
its work so well, Mr. Lang gives an instance of the sportive nature-metaphor which
still lingers among popular story-tellers. It is Breton, and belongs to that wide-
spread tale of which one version is naturalised in England as ‘ Dick Whittington
and his Cat.’ The story runs thus:—The elder brother has the cat, while the next
brother, who has a cock left him, fortunately finds his way to a land where (there
being no cocks) the king has every night to send chariots and horses to bring the
dawn ; so that here the fortunate owner of Chanticleer has brought him to a good
market. Thus we see that the Breton peasant of our day has not even yet lost
the mythic sense with which his remote Aryan ancestors could behold the chariots
and horses of the dawn. But myth, though largely based on such half-playful
metaphor, runs through all the intermediate stages which separate poetic fancy
from crude philosophy embodied in stories seriously devised as explanations of real
facts. No doubt many legends of the ancient world, though not really history, are
myths which haye arisen by reasoning on actual events, as definite as that which,
some four years ago, was terrifying the peasant mind in North Germany, and
especially in Posen. The report had spread far and wide that all Catholic children:
with black hair and blue eyes were to be sent out of the country, some said to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 389

Russia, while others declared that it was the King of Prussia who had been playing

cards with the Sultan of Turkey, and had staked and lost 40,000 fair-haired, blue-
eyed children; and there were Moors travelling about in covered carts to collect
them; and the schoolmasters were helping, for they were to have five dollars for
every child they handed over. For a time the popular excitement was quite serious ;
the parents kept the children away from school and hid them, and when they
appeared in the streets of the market-town the little ones clung to them with
terrified looks. Dr. Schwartz, the well-known mythologist, took the pains to trace
the rumour to its sources. One thing was quite plain, that its prime cause was
that grave and learned body, the Anthropological Society of Berlin, who, without a
thought of the commotion they were stirring up, had, in order to class the popula-
tion as to race, induced the authorities to have a census made throughout the local
schools, to ascertain the colour of the children’s skin, hair, and eyes. Had it been
only the boys, to the Government inspection of whom for military conscription the
German peasants are only too well accustomed, nothing would have been thought of
it; but why should the officials want to know about the little girls’ hair and eyes ?
The whole group of stories which suddenly sprang up were myths created to
answer this question; and even the details which became embodied with them
could all be traced to their sources, such as the memories of German princes selling
regiments of their people to pay their debts, the late political negotiations between
Germany and Russia, &c. The fact that a caravan of Moors had been travelling
about as a show accounted for the covered carts with which they were to fetch the
children; while the schoolmasters were naturally implicated, as having drawn up
the census. One schoolmaster, who evidently knew his people, assured the terrified
parents that it was only the children with blue hair and green eyes that were
wanted—an explanation which sent them home quite comforted. After all, there
is no reason why we should not come in time to a thorough understanding of
mythology. The human mind is much what it used to be, and the principles of
myth-making may still be learnt from the peasants of Europe.

When, within the memory of some here present, the Science of Man was just
coming into notice, it seemed as though the study of races, customs, traditions,
were a limited though interesting task, which might after a few years come so near
the end of its materials as no longer to have much new to offer. Its real course
has been far otherwise. Twenty years ago it was no difficult task to follow it step
by step; but now even the yearly list of new anthropological literature is enough
to form a pamphlet, and each capital of Europe has its Anthropological Society in
full work. So far from any look of finality in anthropological investigations, each
new line of argument but opens the way to others behind, while these lines tend
as plainly as in the sciences of stricter weight and measure, toward the meeting
ground of all sciences in the unity of nature.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee for conducting Bacavations at Portstewart and
elsewhere in the North of Ireland. See Reports, p. 171.

2. On Flint Implements from the Valley of the Bann. By W. J. Know ins.

The author has obtained within the last three or four years, from the banks of
the river Bann, a series of flint weapons or tools which differ considerably in type
from the ordinary flint implements of the North of Ireland. They have been
obtained from a deposit of diatomaceous earth used for brickmaking near the town
-of Portglenone, and are of two types. That which is most numerous appears to
have been made by splitting nodules into halves or quarters and then forming these
into rude pointed implements by a process of coarse chipping. This kind timbers
upwards of 50, and they all agree in having a cutting point, and thick base for

390 REPORT— 1879.

holding in the hand. They are, as a rule, long, narrow, and of a cylindrical form,
rather than broad and flat, but some of the latter kind occur. Some of the largest
are 7 or 8 inches long, and from 2 to 3 inches broad at the base, and there is one
very fine implement of the flat kind, resembling the triangular Paleolithic imple-
ments, which is 6 inches long, nearly 4 inches broad at the base and 1} inch
thick. Dr. Evans, in ‘ Stone Implements and Ornaments of Great Britain,’ mentions
that he has found implements of Paleolithic form on the shores of Lough Neagh,
near Toome. The author has also found similar implements at that place; but as
Toome is only a little farther up the Bann, and the diatomaceous earth is found
there, he believes they have been obtained from that deposit by denudation.

The second set of objects may be described as large triangular flakes with a
central rib down the back and having the base wrought into a tang. In the
Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy, this form of implement is represented in.
Fig. 3, the tang being looked on as the first step in the process of development into
arrow and spear heads; but the author is of opinion that instead of showing a step:
towards greater perfection these were perfect implements of their kind, and also
manufactured specially for use about rivers.

There is no means of determining the age of these objects, except some sort of es-
timate is formed from the fact of their being found in a deposit underlying the peat.
If they are of Neolithic age, they are very interesting from being contined chiefly to-
a river valley and not being obtained where other Neolithic implements are found
in abundance. This fact would, according to the author, suggest a reason for the
large triangular flints of Paleolithic age being chiefly confined to the old river
gravels, while the implements of the same age from the caves are so different. The
implements of the pointed kind in all cases might not be for general use, but chiefly
for the river valleys. They may probably have formed weapons for attacking the
larger animals when they came down to drink, but the theory that they were used
for breaking holes in ice is also a very likely one. The author believes that the
tanged flakes were used mounted, probably for spearing fish, as suggested by Dr.
Eyans in ‘ Archzeologia,’ vol. xli. p. 401.

3. Notes on the Polynesian Race. By C. Srantuanp Wake.

The object of the paper was to show that the statements of recent writers that:
the Polynesian Islanders are a scantily bearded race, and that they are not acquainted
with the bow and arrow, are erroneous, The evidence of travellers was cited!
showing that the beard is fully developed with the natives of Penrhyn Island, the
Gambier Islands, the Hervey Islands, the Society Islands, Savage Island, New
Zealand, the Marquesas Islands, and the Sandwich Islands. It was shown also
that the natives of some of the Ellice group of islands, which were populated
from Samoa, wear the beard, and that the Tongans who visit Fiji cultivate consider-
able beards, in imitation of the Fijians, from which we may infer that the beardless.
character of the Samoans, who appear to be the parent stock of the Eastern Pacific
islanders, is not owing to a natural defect.

As to the bow and arrow, it was shown that this weapon was formerly used
by the Society Islanders, the Sandwich Islanders, and the Friendly Islanders, and
that it was not unknown to the natives of Savage Island, the Ellice Islands, the:
Hervey Islands, and New Zealand. Its inefficiency as a weapon of war had, how-
ever, led to its abandonment, except in certain sports which were restricted to the
chiefs. That it had not been derived by the Polynesians from the Papuans is.
proved by the word for ‘bow,’ panah, being the same in the Polynesian and
Malayan languages, but different in that of Fiji.

As the bow was not known to the New Caledonians and Tasmanians, probably
the Papuans were not acquainted with it at the date of their earliest migrations ;
and as the Polynesians used it only in their sports, it must have lost its warlike
character before they left their early home in the Indian Archipelago.

In conclusion, the paper proposed the use of the term Adndka as a name for
the Polynesian race, instead of Mahori, a name recently introduced by Mr. Ranken;

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 391

justifying the proposal by reference to the meaning and derivation of the term
kiinaka or tangata, which denotes ‘man’ and ‘mankind’ in all the Polynesian
dialects, and by the fact, that the Pacific Islanders are already known in the East
as Kanaks,

4. On the Relations of the Indo-Chinese and Inter-Oceanie Races and
Languages. By A. H. Keanu, M.A.L.

Recent ethnological research in Further India and Malaysia could not fail to
affect the views hitherto entertained on the affinities of the peoples occupying this
area, The discovery of a non-Mongolian fair type in Indo-China, connected in
physique with the Western Asiatic type conventionally known as ‘ Caucasian,’ and ~
speaking polysyllabic untoned languages, introduces a distinctly new factor into
the problem. An attempt is here made to show that this factor offers the true
solution of the intricate questions connected with the mutual relations of all the
Indo-Chinese and Inter-Oceanic peoples. The conclusions I have arrived at are
briefly these :—

I. Two ethnical types, the fair and the yellow, have oceupied Indo-China from
the remotest times. The yellow, or Mongoloid, is represented by the Burmese,
Khassias, Shans, Siamese, Laos, Annamese, mostly semi-civilised and settled, and
all exclusively speaking monosyllabic toned languages. The fair, or Caucasian,
varying from white to different shades of brown, is represented by the semi-civilised
and settled Cambojans or Khmérs, Khmér-doms or ‘ Primitive Khmérs, Chams and
Kays, and by the unsettled hill-tribes collectively known as Mois, Khas, Penongs,
or Lolos, all speaking closely related polysyllabic untoned languages. The his-
torical continuity of the fair type is shown by reference to the bas-reliefs of Ongkor-
Vaht.

II. Malaysia and Western Polynesia were originally occupied by two dark
autochthonous types, for the present to be held as distinct—the Papians mainly
in the East, the Negritos mainly in the West. The Negritos are still represented
by disjecta membra—Aetas in the Philippines, Samangs in Malacca, ‘ Mincopies’ in
the Andaman Islands, Kalangs in Jaya, Karons in New Guinea, possibly by others
in Borneo and Formosa. But elsewhere they have everywhere been rather sup-
fe than absorbed by the intruding fair and yellow races from Indo-China.

he Papians are still represented by compact masses—Nufors, Arfaks, Kiotapus,
Koiaris, Waigiu, Aru, &c., in and about New Guinea; elsewhere they have rather
been fused with than supplanted by the fair and yellow races, the fusion resulting
in the so-called ‘ Alfuros’ of Ceram, Timor, Jilolo, Mysol, and other islands west of
New Guinea, and in the Melanesians of the Admiralty, New Hebrides, Solomon,
Fiji, Loyalty, New Caledonia, and other islands east of New Guinea.

III. Western Malaysia is now almost exclusively occupied by the fair and
yellow stocks from Indo-China, everywhere intermingled in diverse proportions, but
the fair, as the earliest arrivals, everywhere forming the substratum. Where the
yellow prevails, the outcome are the typical Malays of Malacca, Java, parts of -
Sumatra, Bali, Lombok, Coasts of Borneo, &e. Where the fair prevails, the out-
come are the so-called ‘Indonesians,’ or ‘ Pre-Malays ’—Battaks, Passumahs,
Atyehs, Lampungs of Sumatra, Dyaks and Kayans of Borneo, the natives of
Celebes, Nias, Poru, &c. Thus the Malay is not an organic, but essentially a
mixed type, oscillating between the fair and yellow, and at the extremes impercep-
tibly merging in both.

IV. But though the Malay is ethnically a mixed type, its speech is unmixed in
structure, and fundamentally related to the Cambojan and other languages spoken
by the fair races of Further India. This relationship is established on a sound
philological basis, and the morphology of all these tongues is shown to be iden-
tical. The Indo-Pacific (so-called ‘Malayo-Polynesian’) linguistic family is thus
extended so as to embrace the polysyllabic untoned languages of Indo-China, as
the source whence all the Oceanic branches derive. The total absence of the
monosyllabic toned languages of the yellow races from the Oceanic area is accounted
for, this remarkable fact affording the key to the order in which the prehistoric
migrations took place from the mainland to the Archipelago.

392 REPORT—1879.

V. The large brown race in almost exclusive possession of Eastern Polynesia
(Samoans, Tahitians, Maoris, Hawaiians, Tonga and Marquesas islanders), is
affiliated, not to the typical Malays, but to that element in Malaysia which diverges
most from the Mongoloid and approaches nearest to the Caucasian type. The
migration of the fair race from the Archipelago eastwards is shown to have taken
place at an extremely remote epoch, before or simultaneously with the arrival of
the yellow races from Further India, consequently before the evolution of the Malay
type proper. Hence there are no true Malayan ethnical elements and no Mongol
blood in Eastern Polynesia. The direct connection of the Eastern Polynesians
with the Indonesians of Malaysia is further confirmed on linguistic, physical, and
ethical grounds.

Conclusion. Excluding the dark races there are in the Indo-Chinese and Inter-
Oceanic area two fundamentally distinct racial types only—the yellow or Mongo-
lian, and the fair or Caucasian; and corresponding to them two fundamentally
distinct forms of speech only—the Monosyllabic spoken vario tono, and the Poly-
syllabic spoken recto tono, All the rest is the outcome of incessant secular inter-
minglings,

5. On a Classification of Languages on the Basis of Dthnology.
By Dr. Gustav OppERt.

All languages display either a concrete or an abstract tendency, and it is on this
distinction that the author's classification is primarily based. Both the concrete
and the abstract divisions are subdivided, each into two classes. The divisions of
the concrete class are termed heterologous and homologous; while those of the abstract
class are called digeneous and trigeneous. Further subdivisions are suggested. The
author’s views are developed in a work on Comparative Philology, recently published
in Madras.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 23.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On the Manners and Customs of the People of Urua, Central Africa.
By Commander Camuron, R.N.

The author remarked that the king of this people, Cassango, claimed divine

honours ; that it was supposed by the people that on the death of one king his
spirit entered the body of his successor ; and that on the death of the monarch his
wives, with the exception of one, who remained to be the pythoness of his suc-
cessor, were buried alive with him, with savage rites. The course of a river is
diverted to furnish a ready grave. Here the terrible sacrifice is made, and then
the waters, sent back into their original course, flow over the dreadful tomb. It
seems that the religion of these people centres round an idol which is said to be
located in an immense jungle. Such is the reverence, or rather awe, in which the
people hold this god that they fear to pronounce its name. None but the king may
sacrifice to it, excepting the sovereign’s sister, who is given to the idol as a wife.
Priests, of course, guard the grove of this oracle ; and smaller oracles, of which the
people do not stand in so much awe, are consulted on matters of every day life.
The ventriloquial powers of the wizards who carry those idols are exercised when
the answers are given. A clearly defined caste prevails amongst the people. One
chief may not sit down in the presence of another of superior grade. Each class
wears a distinctive apron. Mutilation iscommon as a punishment. A story was
told of one wife of the king offering to undergo the penalty of haying her ears cut
off if she might have a slave. The king took her at her word. The mutilation

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 393

‘was done without giving much apparent pain or vexation to the lady. The flow of
blood is staunched by an application of boiling porridge. Their notions of pro-
priety are peculiar, and will not allow them to cook at another person’s fire, or
to drink while another is looking on. Tattooing is an elaborate work of art in this
curious country ; and one of the punishments a husband may inflict on an insubor-
dinate wife is to cut, say out of her arm, a portion of the pattern tattooed there.
The lady is then obliged to stay at home. Attention was called to the skill of
this rude people in communicating long messages to distant places by the beat of
the drum. They employ, in fact, a kind of telegraphic system.

_ In Urua, weddings generally lasted three or four days. The author was present
at one, and had an opportunity of witnessing the festivities. All the people in the
village were assembled. Some men blowing pipes and beating drums stood in the
centre of a great circle of people who danced around them, groaning and howling
and making a great noise. This was kept up day and night. Suddenly at the end
of the third day the bride came out of a hut dressed in all the finery the village
could muster. She wore a small apron made of a piece of linen which had been
given to the chief, and was adorned with feathers, beads, and shells. She was
carried on the shoulders of a very stout woman, and supported by a woman on
each side. She was brought into the middle of the dancing people and jumped up
and down on the shoulders of the woman. A number of beads and shells were
given to her, which she scattered about indiscriminately, and the people scrambled
for them, as they were considered to possess some virtue as charms. The jumping
up and down of the bride was carried on so energetically that the skin was com-
pletely worn off the shoulders of the woman who carried her. Then the husband, a
great pelo, came in, picked up his bride, put her under his arm, and walked off
with her.

The resemblance between the African names Zambesi and Chambesi, and that
of a river called the Tambezi, suggested to the author the speculation that there
might be some connection between the language of that part of Africa and the
Malayan tongue. He could find no root for these words in the African languages.
The Malays had been in Madagascar, and this led him to the supposition that they
might have gone further west.

2. On the Native Races of the Head-Waters of the Zambest.
By Major De Serra Pinto.

The author gave an account of the people of Bihé and some tribes on the west
side of the Zambesi River. The Bihé people are slightly cannibal, but never eat
each other except on great occasions. On féte days a limited number of people are
sacrificed and their flesh eaten, mixed with beef. The inhabitants of the Bihé
district are not the original residents of that country. A hundred years ago it
was a deserted country. The son of the King of Humbe came north with a great
many followers to this country on a hunting excursion. An encampment was
formed. The prince one day met a princess of the north in his travels, and resolved
to marry her. She came to his camp, bringing with her a train of maidens. The
ae of the north, who was a daughter of the King of Andulo, could not long
be in her new country without having a following of her father’s subjects who
were attached to her. In like manner the King of Humbe’s subjects emigrated to
the north to live with the son of their king. Mixed marriages resulted, and the
race of Bihé people were established under the native name of Muhumbes. This
was only 100 years ago. They have rude manufactures in iron and fabrics. They
were able to supply the traveller with 15,000 rude bullets. He further described two
races who both live near the river Cuchibi, one a black race called the Ambuellas,
and the other the Mucassequeres, a white race. These races contrasted strongly
not only in their colour, but in their form and feature. The most impressive
characteristic of the Mucassequeres is their extreme ugliness. Of the Ambuellas,
on the other hand, the author speaks in terms of admiration. Their eyes do not
retreat like those of the Mucassequeres, but are perfectly well set; their noses are

394 REPORT—1879.

finely shaped ; they have small mouths, and thin lips. The whole contour of the
face is well designed. The author spoke of another race, a little further south,
who, in the cultivation of their lands, were so far advanced as to avail themselves
of irrigation.

3. On the Native Races of Gaboon and Ogowé.
By the Comte Savorcnan De Brazza.

This was a verbal communication in French, on the races which the author had
visited. He explained that the practice of cannibalism had been greatly exagge-
rated in descriptions of these peoples. He threw discredit on Du Chaillu’s stories
of human flesh being exposed for sale in the villages, and of the dead from disease
being sold for food. They only partook of the flesh of their enemies killed in war,
and it was part of their religious belief that to eat the heart of a brave would
increase their own valour. These maligned tribes were capable of the most gene-
rous sentiments, and in the case of the author, not only did they show no desire to
eat him, but they had shown him a devotion to which he owed his life. One day,,
when his escort failed him and he himself fell sick, he was befriended by a Fan
chief, who, to procure him succour, put himself in the power of a tribe with whom
he was at enmity. He went to the hostile tribe to seek help for the sick explorer
whom he had left in the bush. The astonished hostile tribe were incredulous, and
feared an ambush. The Fan chief, determined to stick by his European friend,
offered himself as a hostage until the escort should return, and, by reason of some
delay in their return, was near forfeiting the life he had thus put in peril. The
author also gave an account of a pigmy race—the Akas—who are not attached to
any place, but are a wandering people.

4. Report of the Anthropometric Committee. See Reports, p. 175.

MONDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Forms and Geographical Distribution of Ancient Stone Implements
in India. By V. Bau, M.A., of the Geological Survey of India.

In continuation of some remarks made on this subject at the last meeting of
the Association in Dublin,! the author gave an account of the results at which he
had since arrived from an examination of all the available data. These are, that
the three classes into which the stone implements may be grouped occupy inde-
pendent geographical tracts, which overlap one another towards the centre of the

eninsula,
The geographical tracts, &c., characterised by the prevalence of one or other of
the particular forms, when laid down on a map, show a remarkable coincidence
with the limits of the areas of distribution of the non-Aryan races belonging to the
several families whose waves of migration haye contributed to form the lower
strata of the population.

Thus the manufacturers of the polished celts are probably identical with the
Kolarian races who entered India from the north-east and Burmah.

On the other hand the manufacturers of the flakes and cores of flint, chert, &c.,
appear to have entered the peninsula from the north-west, and may have belonged
to the Dravidian family.

1 Report for 1878, p. 588.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 395.

The identity of the manufacturers of the chipped quartzite implements which
are found in Southern India is less clear, but suggestions regarding it were also.
offered by the author.

The paper was illustrated by diagrams, showing the’principal forms of the stone
implements which have hitherto been found in India, by a map showing the areas
of distribution, and by some specimens.

2. On the Discovery of certain Pockets of Chipped Flints beneath the Peat on
the Yorkshire Moors, near Halifax. By Jamus W. Davis, F.S.A., F.G.S.

The hilly country to the north and west of Halifax forms a part of the great
Penine Anticlinal, which extends from the borders of Westmoreland southwards to:
Derbyshire. It is composed entirely of millstone grit rocks, except small exposures
of Yoredale shales at Todmorden and Diggle. Thick massive beds of sandstone
crown all the hill-tops, forming extensive plateaus with a regular dip towards the
south-east. This plateau is broken through by the river Calder and its tributaries,
exposing still greater thicknesses of shale beneath the several sandstones. The

lateaus of grit rock are almost universally covered with heather and peat, the
atter averaging from six to twelve feet in thickness. On these moorlands, north of
Halifax, quarrying operations are carried on, and in the district about Warley Moor
and Fly-flats, 1,200 to 1,300 feet above the sea level, discoveries have been made of
numerous fragments of flint, evidently chipped from larger cores. They are found
beneath the peat, near the surface of the rock. There is no locality nearer than the
chalk wolds of Kast Yorkshire where the parent flints can be obtained in situ, and
this leads to the inference that they were carried to their present situation for the

urpose of manufacturing flint implements, and that this must have taken place a
ong time ago, from the great accumulation of peat above them.

3. On an elaborately finished Celt found on the Moors near Marsden.
By James W. Davis, F.S.A., F.G.S.

Several years since a smoothly-polished axe-head was found on the hills about
a mile north-west of Marsden, whilst boring for an extension of quarrying operations.
It was found beneath a considerable thickness of peat on the surface of the rock.
The implement is flint, 5 inches long, 2} inches broad at the cutting end, and 1 inches
thick about the centre, converging to a sharp edge at each end. The cutting edge
is considerably fractured by use.

4. On some curious Leathern and Wooden Objects from Tullyreagh Bog,
County Antrim. By W. J. Knowtes.

The author lately obtained from a workman some curious objects made of
leather. One is the greater part of the hide of some animal very roughly tanned,
out of which so many pieces have been cut of a diamond or oblong shape that what
remains looks like a wide-meshed net. It was found surrounding a wooden vessel,
made from a single piece of wood, and the thought has occurred to the author that
it may have been used for surrounding heavy objects that required to be carried. It
would be more suitable for that purpose, owing to its greater pliability, than a com-
plete piece of hide. The other leathern object was a lid for another wooden vessel,
also made from a single piece of wood. This vessel is still perfect, and measures
1 foot 4 inches in height, and is in diameter 1 foot 2 inches at top, and 1 foot
4 inches at bottom. The other vessel is broken up, but both contained, when
found, what the workman described as a creamy substance, which flowed away
when the yessels were taken out.

396 REPORT—1879.

All these objects were found together during the time of cutting peat for fuel,
about two months ago, and about 12 feet from the surface. They appeared to have
been placed in a hole that had been excavated on the surface and then covered for
protection, but being forgotten or lost, they remained where they were, it is believed,
until 12 feet of peat accumulated over them.

5. On Savage and Cwilised Warfare. By J. A. FARRER.

There is a superficial difference between savage and civilised warfare in their
tactics, weapons, and usages; a civilised army does not actually worship a war-
god, does not mutilate its dead foes, nor sacrifice nor torture its prisoners, and it
generally spares the lives of women and children. Yet there is no such difference
as to make the expression ‘civilised warfare’ other than the most flagrant con-
tradiction in terms. Warfare can no more be civilised than a circle can be a square.
Indeed, warfare is all the worse which claims to be civilised. The author traces
the effect of military necessities on the political and religious development of savage
races, and points out the links which connect modern warfare with barbarism.
Lastly, he discusses the question whether mankind will ever be sufficiently advanced
in civilisation to shake off the pursuit and lust of war.

6. On the Origin of Fetishism. By ANDREW Lana.

Opposing Professor Max Miiller’s views, which regard Fetishism as a corruption
of a higher religion, the author seeks to prove that it is a primitive form of belief
in the supernatural, and represents one of the earliest factors in the development
of religion. The paper will be published in ‘ Mind.’

7. On certain Inventions illustrating the Working of the Human Mind, and
on the Importance of the Selection of Types. By A. Trtor, F.G.S.

Desire to economise mental and mechanical labour is one of the great sources
of the invention of new thoughts. Nothing tends to save labour so much as using
a type instead of a number of individual cases, The mind is burdened with masses
of detail, and the system of types must be carried out for the arrangement of
materials for thought. One of the most important aids to progress of every kind
has been the art of choosing types. The invention of the Arabic numerals was a
striking example of a perfect type-system. Examples are given in which the same
Jind of invention is applied to mental and to mechanical objects.

8. On the Discovery of Animal Mounds in the Pyrenees.
By Dr. Puent, F.S.A., F.G.S.

The present discovery was very greatly due to the description given by Sir
Vincent Eyre, in the ‘Atheneum’ (July 24, 1869) of a remarkable custom of
burning living serpents at a particular spot in the Pyrenees. The author had long
intended to make a more complete exploration of these mountains than former
visits had enabled him to do, and in this case he determined to investigate all the
districts around this spot of immolation. In doing so, he found in certain direc-
tions indications which always accompany these mounds. The churches abounded
in features expressive of the subversion of a pagan faith of which the serpent or
dragon had evidently been the representative, and with these were found built into
the walls examples of pagan Roman occupation, as votive altars, &c., &c. Follow-
ing the track where these were most expressive, he had come upon mounds as
distinct in form to an animal appearance as that presented by any of the American
mounds ; they were altogether artificial, and shaped into an appearance of animal
outline so real as to seem like life. In the parts forming the heads, the chamber
had been appropriated, in one case by an arched chamber of Roman work, in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 397

another by a descent of several feet into the body of a small church. On the spine
of the least molested one had been a tumulus in which, the ewé of the church
informed him, had been found several of the most primitive incinerary urns, con-
taining bones, Celtic articles, and above these, objects of the Gallo-Romano
description, and again above these, later or Christian Roman works. One of the
most interesting of the latter had been laid aside, and the cwré sought it out for
Dr. Phené amongst some débris; it was the stem of an ancient cross, and on it
were sculptured serpents—not in the usual position of subjection to a superior
power, but evidently as being in a condition of supremacy ; but as there were also
several dead ones represented, it might be that the sculpture figured the condition
of the real serpents before and after the ceremony of burning. Everything in the
district was emblematic of the serpent or dragon, and the mounds were distinctly
of such a form. On the mountains overlooking these mounds were a number of
stone circles, like those so well known in Britain. The description of these and
further details he reserved to meet a request, made by the representatives of the
American Congress at Brussels, to read a paper on the mounds of Europe. In this
last discovery he had the advantage of having some members of the British
Archeological Association present with him, who also identified the exact resem-
blance of the mounds with life-like animal forms.

9. Evidence of Early Historic Events and Pre-historic Customs by perpetua-
tion of design in art and manufactures in later, and even in present, times.

By Dr. Pusné, F.S.A., F.G.S.

The author admitted, in the outset, the difficulty of the subject, which he
thought had not yet been opened. The sources of information were few, and the
researches were consequently not to be pursued continuously, but caught up in
other investigations as they occurred. He thought a large amount of matter was
dormant in the hands of other inquirers, which, when a distinct channel was given
to it, would arise in discussion and be found of great interest. As the further we
go back in time the more difficult it is to identify causes or to determine events, he
proposed to give such evidence as he had collected inversely, and beginning at the
present to work gradually into the past, as by investigating familiar and existing
examples, the more remote might, when brought forward, appear less confused by
the mists of time.

He selected first the works of ordinary artizans, and took as an example the
carpenter and joiner of the present day. He pointed out that in Western Europe
all their ordinary work was made in a rectangular manner; ordinary doors and
windows, for instance, were shown not only to be so formed, but designs and
sections alike always produced that which the artizan never contemplated as a part
of his work, but which he unthinkingly perpetuated from his forefathers, viz., the
emblem of the faith of Europe—the Cross, It would not do to say this was the
result of the simplest mode of construction, because in Asia, and even in Eastern
Europe, it was argued with the same persistency that a curve was not only the
most beautiful, but the easiest and simplest form of construction. Of course, the
force of habit is great, and the artizan working continually in curved work finds it
much easier than one only accustomed to the square. But the work in India,
whether in plain solid work, such as had been taken as an example for Europe, or
the delicate metal work, was always curved or interlaced; and the old religion of
India was that of the serpent. In Persia the circular was always contending with
the curved and the undulating design, and the contending religions there were the
sun and serpent. In Turkey the designs, as for instance of the dome of a mosque,
were formed of a series of crescents by omitting the intermediate ones of which
separate crescents existed, which appeared hardly capable of producing the design.
Every Turkish article, even to the oar and scimitar, was formed of more than one
crescent, and the Christian sword was as great a contrast as the French window.
Gothic and Byzantine work had been introduced among the artizans of Europe,
but it had failed to grow upon the soil, and was clearly exotic. The author gave
evidence that these arts were introduced by the Templars, the most cultivated

398 REPORT—1879.

men of their day, but notoriously given to the old Pagan faiths, and who met with
symbols of the old faith of their Pagan forefathers in their contact with Orientals.
He considered there was abundant evidence from their design to attribute all inter-
laced work, and the sculptured stones of Britain and Ireland, to the influence and
designs of the Templars. They all perpetuated, directly or indirectly, the form of
the serpent. The author then examined the art of pre-Christian Rome—not in
Rome itself, but in the countries where such art was significant of matters con-
nected with them—in Gaul, Britain, the Campania, and others. In special countries,
and eyen in particular districts of those countries, the grand object of Pagan Roman
sculpture was the serpent or dragon. For example, the works of this class in
Provence were abundant, but though more and better preserved Roman remains
-~were to be found of the same date in Languedoc, as at Nimes, there was no indica-
tion of the serpent. Other emblems, used as standards by Gauls and Teutons were
profusely shown in some of the early Roman sculptures in Provence, but they were
nowhere perpetuated, showing that the great emblem—the greatest of their stan-
dards and, no doubt, therefore their chief deity—was the dragon. It was even
adopted by the Popes in their dealings with Gaul, and in one notable instance they
ased only two emblems—the eagle of pagan Rome and the dragon of Gaul—and
gave equal honour and position to both, as a compliment to the people of both
countries, showing that these emblems of nationality were retained irrespective of
the new faith. He had referred so much to the serpent or dragon simply because
it was the most prominent object. The whole district he was treating of was
dragonesque. He had lately officiated himself at a great dragon ceremony, in
which the clergy of the district took the chief part. In this case, cakes in the
form of the dragon were distributed; when the ceremony is abolished the form of
these cakes will not be understood; all the ordinary loaves of the district were
formed like sections of a creeping thing like a caterpillar. Nothing of the sort
existed in the adjoining districts. The dragon was only appeased by the death of
children. These things strongly pointed to immolation to a serpent deity. There
were many other examples he could from want of time only enumerate. The
schoolboy notches on a stick the number of runs at cricket; in doing so he per-
petuates the old custom of the Exchequer. The baker of Brittany still notches a
stick for the number of loaves he sells you, instead of making a bill. The milk and
other tallies in England were till recently kept in the same way. This was, no
doubt, a very old custom amongst the Gauls, and he (Dr. Phené) discovered in the
former temple of Triptolemus, near Eleusis, two disused columns, the flutings of
which, though rude and very ancient, gave the number of days of the week and
month, in fact, formed a lunar calendar. Our schoolboys and Breton bakers of
to-day had no idea they were perpetuating these ancient customs.

The disc found on the forehead of Dr. Schliemann’s cow’s head, or Hera, had
been perpetuated by Greek sculptors, apparently without the meaning, and had
subsequently been represented merely by the concentric form the hair of a cow or
bull takes on the forehead; the exhumation of this antique showed it to have a
special meaning. In the Persian mace he (Dr. Phené) produced, the cow’s horns
were gilt, showing, though the meaning had been lost, that the horns were those
of the moon, This agreed also with the horns of Schliemann’s Hera. In a bronze
head of Isis he (Dr. Phené) had lately found, the crescent was between the cow’s
horns, and this was evidently the original emblem from which the Mahommedans
of to-day derived their crescent and star; instead of giving a double crescent, as
the horns and crescent if perpetuated would have done, they introduced the star ;
but your Mahommedan, although scrupulous in praying at sunrise and sunset,
would repudiate the idea that he worshipped Astarte or Isis, and does not know
that he uses the special symbol of those deities. The success of Mohammed was,
no doubt, greatly attributable to this emblem, as all these scattered worshippers,
finding their own deity debased, gathered round his standard. This emblem was,
as he pointed out last year, found in Ireland, on a cow’s head, of which he gaye an
illustration.

He exhibited a tile from the monastery at Patmos; it had three serpents—
everything at Patmos had three serpents. He also exhibited a horse from Troy ;
no child at Troy would be content without a horse for a toy; it was the old Trojan

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 399

horse of the Dliad, which was shown by an antique bronze horse found in the plains
of Argos, of exactly the same shape. A water-jug from Ephesus, made in that
locality alone, was as much in the form of Diana of Ephesus as Dr. Schliemann’s
jugs were of Minerva, and modern jugs gave the form of the latter. A large Italian
water-jug he had represented the sun and serpent, without any intention of the
maker, but evidence of their worship abounded in the locality where the jug was
made, These were evidences quite as expressive as the etchings on bones from the
caves were of what the etchers saw being so portrayed by them,

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26.

The following Papers were read :—
1. The Profile of the Ancient Greeks. By J. Park Harrison, M.A.

Two theories have been propounded to account for the remarkable facial lines in
early Greek sculpture, one deriving them from Hellenic models, the other assuming
them to have been more or less ideal: and it is this latter view, in the absence of
any trace of the feature in modern Greece (except, perhaps in some of the islands),
joined with the fact that the ancient Greek crania are without the lines in
question, that is now most commonly accepted.

The peculiarity in question consists in the absence of any nasal point, or, in
other words, in the continuity of the lines of the brow and nasal bone, and in the
close proximity of the mouth and nostril; in addition to which the upper lip is
often curved, and the chin more or less massive.

Now if any superior race in point of culture, and possessing these features, could be
shown to have had intercourse with the Greeks, when in a low state of civilisation,
it would appear probable that the peculiarity was copied by them, rather than that
it represented any abstract ideal of beauty, or some divine attribute unconnected
with any living model.

When then we find examples of the feature in early monumental frescoes, and
some of the more ancient crania from Egypt, in the portraits of Sidonians from the
tombs of the Pharaohs, and in the remarkable busts on the covers of the Phoenician
sarcophagi in the gallery of the Louvre at Paris, and the one from Sidon in the
British Museum, as well as in the terra cotta statuettes from Camirus, Panormus,
Tortosa, Calvi, Carthage, and other depéts and towns established by the Pheni-
cians, it seems probable that the early Greeks, who received their gods from the
Phoenicians, gave them the features of this remarkable race. With varieties for age
and sex, the images of the great gods in Greece all display the same facial lines.
Unfortunately there are no skulls of a sufficiently early date in Phenicia to com-
plete the identification.

2. On the Geological Bvidence as to the Antiquity of Man.
By Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S.

The evidence which Geology has to offer as to the antiquity of manis as follows:
—In the Eocene age there were only families and orders of living mammalia, and
no living genera or species. It is, therefore, hopeless to look for man at this time
in the earth’s history. In the succeeding or Meiocene age living genera of mam-
mals appear, but still no living species of mammalia.

If the flints found at Thenay, and supposed to prove the existence of Meiocene
man, be artificial, and be derived from a Meiocene stratum, there is, to my mind,
an insuperable difficulty in holding them to be the handiwork of man; seeing that
no living species of quadruped was then alive, it is to me perfectly incredible that
man, the most highly specialised of all, should have been living at that time. The
flints shown to me in Paris by Professor Gandry appear to be artificial, while those
in the Museum of St. Germains appear to be partly artificial and partly natural,
some of the former, from their condition, haying been obviously picked up on the

400 REPORT—1879.

surface of the ground. It is less difficult to believe them to be the work of the
large extinct anthropoid apes then living in France, than to view them as the work
of man. The cuts on the Meiocene fossil bones discovered in several other
localities in France may have been produced by other agencies than the hand of
man.

Nor in the succeeding Pleiocene age is the evidence more convincing. The
human skull found in a railway cutting at Olmo, in Northern Italy, and supposed
to be of Pleiocene age, was associated with an implement, according to Mr. John
Evans, of Neolithic age. Some of the cut fossil bones discovered in various parts
of Lombardy, and considered by Professor Capellini to be Pleiocene, are un-
doubtedly produced by a cutting implement before they became mineralised, a
point on which the examination of the specimens leayes me no reason for doubt.
I do not, however, feel satisfied that the bones became mineralised in the Pleiocene
age, and the fact that only one species of quadruped now alive then dwelt in Italy,
renders it highly improbable that man was living at this time. This zoological
difficulty seems to me insuperable.

The only other case which demands notice is that which is taken to establish
the fact that man was living in the Interglacial age, in Switzerland. The speci-
mens supposed to offer ground for this hypothesis consist of a few pointed sticks in
Professor Riitimeyer’s collection at Basle, of the shape and size of a rather thin
cigar, crossed by a series of fibres running at right angles. They appear to me,
after a careful examination, to present no mark of the hand of man, and to be
merely the resinous knots which have dropped out of a rotten pine-trunk, and survived
the destruction of the rest of the tree. As the evidence stands at present there is
no proof, on the Continent or in this country, of man having lived in this part of
the world before the middle stage of the Pleistocene age, when most of the living
mammalia were then alive, and when mammoths, rhinoceroses, bisons, horses, and
Trish elks, lions, hyeenas, and bears haunted the neighbourhood of London, and
were swept down by the floods of the Thames as far as Erith and Crayford.

3. On the Survival of the Neolithic Period at Brandon, Suffolk.
By Syoney B. J. Sxertoury, F.G.S., HM. Geological Survey.

This paper embodies the results of the author’s researches into the origin of the
gun-flint trade, still carried on at Brandon, in Suffolk. From Paleolithic times to
the present day this locality has been renowned for the excellent quality of its flint,
and during the Neolithic period flint was regularly mined for, just as it is at present.
A careful study of the methods of mining, modes of working flint, of the tools used,
and the implements made by the Neolithic and modern people reveals so many
singular coincidences that the conclusion is drawn that the working of flint must
have been carried on uninterruptedly in the vicinity of Brandon since Neolithic times.
This opinion is further strengthened by the absence of the similarities in question
from those gun-flint centres which are known to be of modern origin. The peculiar
phraseology of the Brandon flint-knappers is also pointed out, and the suggestion
made that some of these words may possibly prove to be of pre-Aryan stock.

The points of similarity between the ancient and modern arts are briefly as
follows :—

1. Mining.—At Brandon flint is still mined for in a very primitive manner
In the neighbourhood the remains of extensive Neolithic flint mines, known as
Grime’s Graves, are still extant, and a plan of one of these is like a bad drawing of
a modern pit. There are also numerous old pits, whose age is unknown, but is
certainly newer than Neolithic times, and they are sufficient in number to bridge ~
over the interval between Neolithic and historic times. Moreover, those pits which
are known to have been independently started about the time of the introduction of
flint-locks, are, in other places, worked upon modern, and not ancient plans.

2. Mining Tools.—A very singular one-sided pick is used by the Brandon flint-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 401

diggers, which seems to be derived from the deer-horn picks used by the Neolithic
flint-diggers at Grime’s Graves, of which a great number have been found.

8. Flaking Hammer.—The flaking hammer used by the Brandon flint-knappers,
which is known as the English Hammer, seems also to have been derived from the
Neolithic hammer. The peculiarities of these tools are pointed out.

4, Implements.—The strike-a-lights now made at Brandon are in many cases
precisely similar to Neolithic specimens. The gun-flints have clearly been de-
veloped from strike-a-lights, The manufacture of strike-a-lights was the connect-
ing link between the Neolithic tool trade and the gun-flint trade; and as strike-a-
lights have nearly succumbed to lucifer matches, so have their offspring, the gun-
flints, nearly become extinct before the percussion caps.

4. On the Stone Age in Japan. By Professor Joun Mite, F.G.S.

The author describes, from personal examination, many of the archeological
remains of Japan. Kitchen-middens are abundant. Lists of the shells and the
bones which they contain are given, and the character of the associated pottery is
minutely described. The middens are ascribed to the Ainos, and it is noticed
that the ornamentation on the pottery resembles that still used by the Ainos of
to-day. The stone implements found in Japan include axes, arrow-heads, and
scrapers. Many of these occur in the middens. The axes are formed generally of
a greenish stone, which appears to be a decomposed trachytic porphyry or andesite.
It is pointed out that the Ainos used stone implements up to a comparatively
modern date. Tumuli occur in many parts of Japan, and in some cases are asso-
ciated with traditions. Of the many caves in Japan some are artificial, and their
exploration promises a rich harvest to the cave-hunter. The paper also contains
references to recent geological changes in Japan.

5. On a collection of Organic Remains from the Kitchen-middens of Hissarlik.
By Staff-Surgeon Epwarp L. Moss, RN.

The author remarked that whatever opinions may be held as to the site, or
even as to the actual existence, of heroic Troy, there could be no question about
the extreme interest attached to the Walled Acropolis, unearthed by,Dr. Schliemann.
It occupied the very spot at that stepping-off place between Asia and Europe where
tradition had placed the ancient stronghold.

Dr. Schliemann had most liberally given him permission to collect some of the
bones which were exposed in every yard of the excavations, but the accumulations
were so extensive and of so many successive ages, that he had found it necessary to
restrict himself to those immediately overlying the old wall. They consisted of
charred and broken bones of deer, goat, sheep, ox, and boar, often marked by
sharp cutting instruments, sometimes, as in an instance of a tibia of deer exhibited,
converted into implements—worn astragali were common, and may have been used
in the well-known children’s game. He had seen no human bones except those of
an unborn infant of about six months, enclosed in a pot with a quantity of, perhaps,
unidentifiable calcined bones.

Bones of dog and of a small carnivora, like a weasel, were, no doubt, acci-
dentally mixed up with the vestiges of the prehistoric feasts. Birds were repre-
ay in the collection by the tibia of a teal, and the leg and wing bones of a
wader.

The very abundant molluscous remains consisted almost entirely of the edible
genera now used everywhere on the shores of the Hellespont and Agean, namely,
cockle, oyster, mussel, limpet, whelk, pecten, solen, petunculus. A trochus and a
bored columbella may have been used for ornament.

Most of the bones of pig were of young animals, in which the epiphyses had not
become attached. The antlers of red deer often had the tip of the brow-line sawn
off. They were generally cast antlers, or, at all events, knocked off near the cast-

’ DD

402 REPORT—1879.

ing time. Amongst vegetable remains the siliceous casts of large reeds, used,to line
the plaster of houses, should be noticed. Masses of carbonised wood were not
uncommon, and carbonised peas or lentils were occasionally found in the domestic
vessels.

All these remains occurred amongst quantities of rude potsherds,! amongst
which spinning whorls were conspicuous—débris of stone and brick walls—the
latter sometimes vitrefied as if they had formed the side or floor of a furnace.’ Dr.
Schliemann’s half of the worked gold and bronze, found in the same layer, has
been generously deposited in South Kensington. The other half was the perquisite
of the Turkish Government,

6. On High Africa as the Centre of a White Race.
By Hyver Crarket, V.P.A.L.

The object of this paper was to support a division proposed by the author
between the Aryans and the other white races of early historical epoch. Treating
the Akkad-Babylonians, Lydians, Canaanites, Etruscans, as the ancient types of
the non-Aryan white races, he proposed as modern representatives the Georgians,
Circassians, Armenians, Koords, Persians, Afghans, Greeks of Scioxa. The migra-
tions and historical incidents of the non-Aryan whites were, he said, to be accounted
for by a migration from Africa, and a habitat in High Africa. He showed that the
languages of the great states of Africa belong to a like class with the Akkad,
Lydian, Phrygian, Thracian, Etruscan, Georgian, &c. He referred also to the
community of mythological origins. The traditions of Abyssinia treated it asa
paradise, and the cradle of the world. To the white race he gave the name of
Turano-African ; and assigned to it the foundation of Egypt, of the great empires of
Asia, and the kingdoms of Southern Europe and Northern Africa. He attributed
to it not only a knowledge of North and South America and Australia, but also
the occupation of those regions, the evidences of which are found in their languages,
mythology, and monuments.

7. On the Turcomans between the Caspian and Merv.
By Professor Arminius VAMBERY.

The Turcoman tribes inhabiting the western portion of the great Turanian
desert, though split up into hostile divisions, have never lost their purity of race
and language, and are Turks par excellence. They have avoided intermixture, and
retain the genuine Turkish physical type, not exhibiting the peculiarities of those
Turks who live in the north-east of Central Asia and form a transition to the
Mongol race. The purest Turcoman type is found in the Tekehs (particularly the
Tchaudors and Imolis), whilst the Goklans, a fraction of the Yomuts, and the
Eusaris are the most degenerate. The Salars or Salors, a tribe now living to the
south-east of Mery, are the first mentioned in history, and next to them, the Guz
or Gozz, formerly living near the present Andkhoi.

According to modern philology, the Turcomans are nearest to the old Selju-
kians and the Osmanlis of to-day, the affinity being striking both as regards
grammar and vocabulary: for instance, an Anatolian peasant can converse with
greater ease with a Yomut or Goklan Turcoman than with an Azarbajani Turk,
his near neighbour. It is supposed that the migrating Seljukians who founded
the first Turkish principalities in Asia Minor were a brother tribe of the Turcomans
who remained in their ancient seat, with gradual encroachments in its immediate
neighbourhood,

The general characteristic of the Turcoman tribes is a surpassing love for a
wandering life, resulting in the avoidance of any change (except in two isolated
cases), owing to the influence of political revolutions or Buddhistic or Islamite
culture, which have affected the Kazaks and other Turkish tribes. Thus they
show a laxity in the observations of the Mohammedan tenets, and exhibit many

‘ Flint chips. (Hints are still used by the local housewife to grain her corn.) .

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 403

remnants of the Shaman faith. Although superficially decidedly more sayage
than the tribes to the north and north-east, many of the fine qualities of the un-
sophisticated primitive life of the Turkish race are retained by them.

As to their number, it is believed that the figure of 1,000,000 is more likely to
he increased than diminished by any statistics possible. The Tekehs are now the
most numerous, and next to them the combined Yomuts of Khiya and on the
Gorgan. Those of the ancient tribes who from their position first came in contact
with the political movement from Turan to Iran, were the first to diminish ; and
the Tekehs, heretofore sheltered by Persian anarchy, will now probably share the
same fate under the Russian supremacy. They have always been fierce soldiers
and dauntless adventurers.

Nothing can exceed the sterility and nakedness of the Turcoman steppes (Kara
Kum, Ust-yust, Kizil-kum, &c.), which serve only as a temporary abode to the
Kazaks, but are often used from necessity as a home by the Turcomans. The
Yomuts in the south of Khiva have adopted a half settled life, tilling the soil and
attending much to irrigation. They would do so still more, if not too severely taxed
by the Khans of Khiva. Similar but weightier exactions have prevented the
Tekehs and other tribes from settling on the Atreck, and in similar localities suitable
for agriculture, and have given rise to devastating inroads by the Persians, repaid
by foraging and plundering expeditions called Alaman. But as the Kazaks,
formerly man-stealers and robbers, now permit unmolested intercourse to a certain
extent, there is no reason why the Turcomans, if properly met, should not also
abandon their cruel and plundering habits, especially as they still retain a rigid
observance of their plighted word. They also show family love, respect females,
practise hospitality, and have an ineradicable love of independence. ;

In considering the question of the difficulty of the roads from the Caspian to
Mery, Professor Vambéry is of opinion that the Turcomans will not be so easy for
the Russians to deal with as the Kazaks and Karchalpaks, though it required more
than a century before these were brought under subjection. The Tekehs, whose
country is now desired, are not only the most numerous but the most warlike of
the tribes; and unless Russia has made up her mind for a war of extermination,
the expenses of the present and any future campaign will be entirely thrown away.
A peaceful solution of the question, whereby the Tureomans would have their
independence secured as against Russia and Persia, would appear more satisfactory
and feasible than the use of force.

404 rEePorT— 1879.

DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAIRMAN OF THE DEPARTMENT.—P. H. PyE-Smiru, B.A., M.D.
Vice-President of the Section.

[For Dr. Pye Smith’s Address see p. 406. ]

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21.

The Department did not meet.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Observations on the Automatic Mechanism of the Batrachian Heart.
By Professor J. Burpon Sanperson, M.D., F.R.S.

2. The Influence of Domesticetion on Brain-growth.
By W. F. Cricuton Browne.

3. On a Law of Retinal Activity.
By Professor Sirvanus P. Tuompson, B.A., D.Sc., Sc.

A memoir was read by the author in 1877 before the Physical Section of the
Association ‘ On some new Optical Illusions, some of which did not appear to accord
with any explanation hitherto offered. The illusions in question are those of the
subjective motion observed in apparent existence after the eye has for some time
been fixed upon a moving object, and which are executed, apparently in an opposite
direction. The most striking of these illusions are those produced by slight move-
ments given to certain patterns of lines and circles drawn in black upon a white
ground, and described in the author’s memoir. The oldest illusions of apparent
motion are those recorded by R. Addams and by Brewster. While pointing out
that persistence of the retinal images failed to account for the production of these
iJusions, the author abstained from advancing any completed theory until experi-
mental evidence was more complete.

Quite recently Dr. Javal, Director of the Ophthalmological Laboratory of the
Sorbonne, has advanced an explanation of a different nature. He refers the pro-
duction of the subjective sensation of motion to small muscular movements uncon-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 405

sciously executed by the eyeballs attempting to follow the real movements, and
continuing their unconscious slipping afterwards, so causing apparent motion in
objects that are really stationary. The theory of Dr. Javal, however, appears to
be untenable in the presence of two facts of capital importance: jist, that the
illusion of apparent motion is confined to objects occupying that portion of the
visual field occupied before by the moving body; secondly, that if two or more
simultaneous motions occur in different directions, in different parts of the visual field,
each produces its own illusive motion in a complementary direction, and all these
different motions appear to be going on at the same time. Thus, if a turning
spiral pattern be steadily regarded for some minutes, the gaze being directed at
the centre, the sense of rotation being such, that from all directions there appears
to be a movement of convergence to the centre, on turning the gaze to some other
object, that object appears to be enlarging and approaching.

The muscular-slipping theory is therefure out of the question, since the muscles
of the eye cannot slip in all directions at once: and if they slipped in any one
direction, this would affect objects over all the visual field, not over one region
only.
‘The theory which the author has, however, to propound is virtually a new law
of retinal activity. It is as follows: the retina ceases to perceive as a motion a steady
motion of images that pass for some time over a particular region ; and to a portion of
the retina so affected, a body not in motion appears to be moving in a complementary
sense. It is a law analogous to that of the subjective complementary colours seen
after looking at a coloured body. It is analogous to other laws of nerve perception,
where we lose consciousness of steady phenomena, and become conscious only of
changes. Thus a steady sound of one pitch and intensity ceases to be heard. A
steady light of one colour, as gas-light, ceases to be noticed as yellow. A steady
taste—as that of garlic pervading every kind of food in some countries, ceases to
be perceived until it is perceived by its absence. The same is true of our percep-
tions of change of temperature. All these laws are probably only different aspects
of a much more general law of nervous perception. It is quite consonant with
these laws, that when any portion of the retina is affected by an image of objects
moving steadily in any direction over it that portion of the retina gradually loses
consciousness of the motion, and perceives it only as if at rest. When, however,
an object really at rest is looked at, to that portion of the retina thus affected the
fixed object appears in motion, but in an opposite direction. To the law expressing
this fact the author proposes to give the name of the Law of Subjective Comple-

mentary Motion.

4. On the Comparative Osteology of the Arm. By Dr. T. P. Duranp.

The author, after referring to Martin’s theory of the torsion of the humerus,
states his belief that in tracing the variations of the forelimb from the amphibia
upwards, two groups of animals may be distinguished. In one, including ‘the
Cetacea and Aves, the torsion is outwards; in the other, including the Emyde,
most other reptiles, and all terrestrial mammals, the torsion is inwards. The
exceptional forms of humerus observed in Monotremata, the Sirenia, Proboscidea,
and Pinnepedia are then treated at length. Due weight is given to the action of
muscles as a modifying agent in the form of the humerus.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 23.

The Department did not meet.

406 REPORT—1879.

MONDAY, AUGUST 25.
The Chairman delivered the following Address :—

The Association to which we belong seeks to advance Natural Science, that is
to say, accurate knowledge of the material world, by the following means :—

1st.—By bringing together men who are engaged in the various fields of science
indicated by our several Sections, by promoting friendship between them, by giving
opportunity for discussion on points of difference, by encouraging obscure but
genuine labourers with the applause of the leaders whom they have learnt to
venerate, and by fostering that feeling of respect for other branches of science, that
knowledge of and interest in their progress, which chiefly marks the liberality of
scientific study,

Secondly.—The Association provides funds, which, though small in amount, are
great in worth, from the mode of their distribution ; and serve in a limited degree
as an encouragement, though not an endowment, of research. One proof of the
value of this method of subsidising unremunerative work by small grants distri-
buted by the master workmen themselves is given by the fact that the sum of 4,000U.
annually contributed by the Government of the United Kingdom for the endow-
ment of research is distributed on the same plan by a Committee of the Royal
Society.

The Third and most important aim of our Association is, ‘ to obtain a more general
attention to the objects and methods of Science, and the removal of any disad-
vantages of a public kind which impede its progress.’ It is for this reason that the
Association travels from one to another of the great centres of population and intel-
lectual activity of the kingdom. Local scientific societies and local museums are
generated and regenerated in its path, local industries are for a time raised to a
higher level than that of money-getting, and every artisan may learn how his own
craft depends upon knowledge ot the facts of nature, and how he forms part of the
great system of applied science which is subduing the earth and all its powers to
the use of man. We wish to make science popular, not by deceiving idlers into the
belief that any thorough knowledge can be easy, but by exciting interest in its
objects and appreciation of its methods. In the popular evening lectures you will
hear those who are best qualified to speak upon their several subjects, not preach-
ing with the dry austerity of a pedant, but bringing their own enthusiasm to kindle
a contagious fire in those who hear them.

Endeavouring to aid in these objects, I shall in this introductory address offer
you some considerations upon the hearing of Biology in general, and Anatomy and
Physiology in particular, upon national well-being and public interests.

Biology is the science of the structure, the functions, the distribution, and the
succession in time of all living beings. If the proper study of mankind be man,
he has learnt late in the inquiry'that he can only understand himself by recognising
that he is but one of a vast chain of organic creation; that intelligible human
anatomy must be based upon comparative anatomy; that human physiology can
only be approached as a branch of general physiology, and that even the humblest
mould or seaweed may furnish help to explain the most important problems of
human existence.

The branch of Physiology which is concerned with man, not as an individual,
but a family, the branch which we now call Anthropology, is obviously re-
lated to practical Politics, and it was not without reason that the late illustrious
pathologist Rokitansky began a speech in the Upper House of the Austrian
Parliament on the Autonomy-of the Bohemian nation with the words, ‘ The question
really is whether the doctrine of Darwin be true or no.’

In another department, that of Psychology, the physiology of the nervous
system has already thrown more light upon the mysterious phenomena of con-
sciousness than was gained by the acutest minds of all ages without the help of
anatomical methods.

All the improvements of modern Agriculture and stock-breeding rest upon more
or less perfectly understood scientific principles, and the more perfectly the results

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 407

have been first worked out in the laboratory the more safe and the more lucrative
will be their application in the field."

Still more important is the relation of Physiology to the national Health. The
commonplaces of hygiene which are now, one may be thankful to say, taught, if
not practised, in almost every schoolroom and factory in England, are the direct
results of the abstruse researches of Boyle and Priestley, of Lavoisier and Pasteur
Ages of experience did not teach mankind the value of fresh air or the innocence
of clean water. Indeed, I have myself heard astonishment expressed by a German
professor at the peculiar immunity with which English skins will bear the daily
and unstinted application of soap and water.

If the art of keeping a community in health is but the application of plain physio-
logical laws, it is no less true that the art of restoring the health, curative, as
distinct from preventive Medicine, rests upon the same basis. In former days the
physician was one who recognised what he called the disease of his patient, who
referred to his books of precedents as a lawyer to his statutes, and who prescribed
a proper remedy to cast out the disease. We now know that dis-ease is, as the
name implies, a purely subjective conception. The disease of a host is the health
of the parasite, and we cure a human sufferer by poisoning the animals or plants
which interfere with his comfort. The same changes which in the old man are
the natural steps of decay, the absence of which after a certain age would be truly
pathological, are the cause of acute disease in the young. Pathology has no laws
distinct from those of Physiology.

When these now obvious considerations are thoroughly understood, it clearly
follows that all ‘ systems of medicine’ are in their very nature condemned. All
that the art of Medicine can do is to apply a knowledge of natural laws, of me-
chanics and of hydrostatics, of botany and zoology, of chemistry and electricity, of
the behaviour of living cells and organs when subjected to the influence of heat and
of cold, of acids and alkalis, of alcohols and ethers, of narcotics and stimulants, so as to
modify certain deviations from ordinary structure and function which are productive
of pain, or discomfort, or death. It is, therefore, plain that rational medicine, or
keeping right and setting right the human body must rest upon a knowledge of its
structure and its actions, just as a steam-engine or a watch cannot be mended upon
general principles, but only by one who is familiar with their construction and
working, and who can detect the source of their irregularity.

An objector may say :—‘ Admitting that medicine is an art, it is a purely em-
pirical art. You cannot detect ihe origin of many of the maladies which you are
yet able to cure; your best remedies have not been obtained by scientific experi-
ment, but by chance observation and accumulated experience; and if you doctors
would give more time to practical therapeutics, that is, to finding out what is good
for the several aches and pains we complain of, you would spend your time better
than in abstruse researches into microscopic anatomy or the properties of a dead
frog’s muscle.’

The answer to the objection is an appeal to fact. For centuries, so called
observation and experience left medicine in the condition it occupied at the end of
the 17th century. The progress of therapeutics is to be marked, not by the labours
of ‘practical men,’ (who, by the way, are of all the most theoretical, only that
their theories are wrong), but by the, at first sight, unconnected studies of Des-
cartes and Newton, of Hooke and Grew, of Lavoisier and Davy and Volta, of
Marshall Hall and Johannes Miiller.

The history of science proves that unconnected, unsystematic, inaccurate obser-
yations are worth nothing. For untold ages men have had ample opportunities of
studying the indications of the weather, and have felt the utmost desire to obtain
a knowledge of what they portend. Yet it may fairly be said that nothing had
been done to the purpose, until combined and systematic observations were made
in this country and America. The fact is, that popular notions do not rest upon
experience or observation. They rest, with scarcely an exception, upon metaphysical
theories. In dealing with uneducated persons, both of the lower and higher ranks,

? I need only refer to the fruitful labours of Mr. Lawes and Dx. Gilbert in this
direction.

408 REPORT—1879.

physicians find abundance of theories as to the nature and the origin of disease,
and of suggestions as to its cure. The only thing which would be of value is what
we can scarcely ever get, an accurate observation of what they see and feel. Every
fallacy of popular medicine, every solemn medical imposture, is the ghost of some
long defunct doctrine of the schools. Therefore, it is that common experience is
almost absolutely useless in all practical arts which, without exception, depend for
their progress upon the advance of science, that is, upon methodical, continuous
and scrupulously accurate observations and experiments,

Many important advances in the practice of medicine have been gained by
direct and intentional experiments instituted with a therapeutical object. Such
was the Hunterian operation for aneurism, the process of skin-grafting, and subperios-
teal operations, such was the administration of chloroform and the introduction of
nitrite of amyl, chloral hydrate, and carbolic acid. Such direct experiments still
go on, and among them deserve mention for the skill and the untiring patience
with which they were carried out, those investigations upon the action of various
drugs upon the secretion of bile for which we are indebted to Professor Rutherford
and his coadjutors. Even apparently accidental discoveries were not made acci-
dentally. Hundreds of country surgeons must have been familiar with the cow-
pox, and have seen examples of the immunity it conferred from the more terrible
variola, but he who discovered vaccination was no falsely called practical man. He
was a man of science, the friend of Hunter and of Cavendish, an anatomist and
natural philosopher. The fruits of Jenner's discovery are spread over the whole
earth. This humble village doctor has saved more lives than the most glorious
conqueror destroyed, but his name is little honoured, and the only monument to his
memory has been banished from association with vulgar kings and skilful homi-
cides to an obscure corner of the great city, where his only homage is the health
and beauty of the children who play around his statue.

But after all, it is not so much by direct and immediate contributions to the
art of healing that Physiology has vindicated her ancient title of the Institutes of
medicine, numerous and important as these contributions have been. It is still
more by the scientific spirit which has transformed the empty learning so justly
ridiculed by Moliére and Le Sage into the practical efficiency of modern surgery.
Let me give an instance of what I mean. The notion of measuring the temperature
of the body is simple enough, and the rough observation that in inflammation the
temperature is raised had led to the various terms by which it was denoted in
ancient medicine, and to numberless theories now happily forgotten. But although
the thermometer was well known, and had been applied by many scientific
physicians, notably by De Haen, by Dr. John Davy, and by Sir Benjamin Brodie,
yet the practical value of the clinical thermometer which now every practitioner
carries in his pocket was not understood until the other day. Those only who had
been trained in accurate physical and physiological investigations, who had learned
the worse than uselessness of ‘rough observation,’ were able to see the enormous
importance of clinical thermometry. This most practical of modern improvements
in medicine would never have been dreamt of by ‘ practical men’: we owe it to the
scientific training of German laboratories.

If Physiology is of such great national importance, if the necessity of experi-
mental research is so vital to the common national wealth, to agriculture and
commerce, to health and well-being, ought -not its well-ascertained results to be
bie in our common schools, and its prosecution directly encouraged by the

tate P

There is no question of the great importance of children being taught the rudi-
mentary laws of health, thé bodily evils of dirt and sloth and vice, the excellence of
temperance, the danger of the first inroads of disease. Such teaching now broad-
cast in many excellent manuals as ‘ The Personal Care of Health,’ by the late Dr.
Parkes, and Dr. Bridges’ ‘Catechism of Health’ is no doubt extremely valuable,
and happily is daily more and more diffused. But when beyond the direct utility
of such knowledge, we attempt to make it an intellectual discipline, there are, I
conceive, difficulties which will always prevent even elementary physiology from
forming an important part of general education. First, there is the practical

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 409

difficulty of the necessary dissections, next the impossibility of making physiology
demonstrative, and thirdly, the abstruseness of the subject. It is impossible to
have even an elementary knowledge of the laws of living beings without a very
considerable familiarity with those of physics and of chemistry, and even in medical
schools it requires all our efforts to prevent it degenerating into a mere dogmatic
statement of results, or a laboured repetition of hearsay statements. As an intel-
lectual discipline, for facility of demonstration, for the simplicity of the objects,
their beauty and interest, their associations with the green lanes and broad moors
of England, with the poetry of Cymbeline and Lycidas, with fairy tales and local
folk-lore—Botany is to my mind the branch of natural science which is above all
others to be chosen where one only can be taught. Next in importance I would
place Elementary Physics, the knowledge of the simplest laws of masses at rest
and in motion, of heat and light. Its great recommendations are its precision, its
constant and useful illustrations in daily life, the interest it gives to the handicrafts
and manufactures in which so large a number of English boys and girls are busied,
and the necessity of such knowledge as the first step in acquiring all other natural
sciences.

First, then, I would that every Sheffield girl should love flowers with the deep
and abiding affection of familiar knowledge, and that every Sheffield lad should
know every common plant in your beautiful woods and find his purest pleasure on
the heights of Bell Hag and the broad expanse of Stanage Edge. And next I would
that your workmen and workboys should know so much of mechanics that they
may take an intelligent pride in your vast factories, and that in some of them may
be awakened the genius to which we trust to repeat in future generations the
national services of Arkwricht, and Watt, and Stevenson.

With regard to the endowment of research in Biology, I must confess that I
should be sorry to see it undertaken by government funds. That such investigations
are of public interest, that they are difficult and expensive, and that at present they
languish for want of adequate support, is all true. But this country is not so poor,
nor our countrymen so wanting in public spirit, that we need appeal to the national
purse to supply every ascertained want. Great as is the national importance of
science, the nation is more important still; and even if that were the alternative, I
would rather that we should indefinitely be dependent on Germany for our know-
ledge than give up the local energy, the unofficial zeal which has made England
what she is. Far better for the strength and the civilization of the nation that a
thousand pounds were raised every year for the endowment of unremunerative
researches in this wealthy town of Sheffield, than that ten thousand were paid you
by a paternal monarch or an enlightened department.

But surely there is no need for us to go to Parliament for such sums as we
require. In the first place, scientific men themselves show a good example of not
asking before they give. There is the modest sum which we raise in this Association,
there are the funds for helping research of the Royal Society, the Chemical Society,
the British Medical Association, the Iron and Steel Institute, the Whitworth Scholar-
ships. Next we have the resources of our Universities, which have scarcely begun
to apply themselves to the task. I need do no more than allude to the Cavendish
Laboratory, or to the Physiological School, at Cambridge, where a simple College
tutor, of rare ability, and of still more rare sympathy and energy, has, in ten years,
achieved results which we need not shrink from comparing with those of the great
continental laboratories. The magnificent Museum of Anatomy, maintained by the
College of Surgeons almost entirely out of their own funds, is another instance of
private care for science to which we find no parallel abroad ; and the Zoological
Society wisely spends a large part of its income in prosecuting Comparative Anatomy,
and publishing its beautifully illustrated Memoirs.

ut beside the efforts of scientific bodies and the wealth of our national Uni-
versities, we may surely look to the public spirit of ancient companies and corpora-
tions to do something for the cause of science. In the middle ages our country
was covered with parish churches by private munificence: in the sixteenth cen-
tury most of our public and grammar schools were endowed ; in later times our
great religious and charitable societies were founded. May we not hope that,

410 REPORT—1i 879.

before the close of the present century, the discriminating knowledge which alone
prevents gifts of money from being a curse instead of a blessing to a community,
may lead to the establishment of libraries, and museums, and laboratories by
universities and towns, which shall bear comparison, I will not say with those of
Paris, or Leipzic, or Bonn, but with the poorer but scarcely less distinguished
schools of Heidelburg and Gottingen, of Wiirzherg and of Utrecht?

Here and there we have institutions already under Government control and
patronage. Let them be maintained as efficiently and liberally as possible. “The
British Museum andits Library, the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, and the Royal
Gardens at Kew (happily preserved for the present from the short-sighted eagerness
of those who would destroy their scientific value), these are great national insti-
tutions of which we are justly proud. Successive Governments will have enough
to do to maintain their efficiency and to guard them from incompetent interference.

Whatever may be thought of the duty of the State directly to encourage the
pursuit of Animal and Vegetable Physiology, one would haye supposed that at least
what diplomatists call a benevolent neutrality would be shown to a pursuit so
laborious and costly, which demands trained workmen and the devotion of a life-
time, which is so important for the national wealth and health, and which, by
reason, by experience, and by testimony, we know to be the only guarantee for
advance in the various branches of the healing art. Why isit then that institutions
which owe nothing to government assistance, and men who spend their time and
talents in self-denying and unremunerative service for the public good, are not
suffered to pursue their beneficent work in peace? You know that certain persons
who profess to be shocked by the methods of physiological research have suc-
ceeded in placing this branch of science under as great disabilities as that sense
of humour would allow which so often redeems British ignorance from its most
mischievous results.

The method that has given rise to so much excitement is the performance of
experiments upon living animals. Now, if this were injurious to the greatest good
of the greatest number of the community, or if freedom to perform these experi
ments interfered with the freedom of other persons to abstain from them, or if such
experiments were forbidden by any religious or moral authority, by the Ten Com-
mandments or by Mr. Matthew Arnold, of course they must be given up; but
equally, of course, the science of Physiology must also come to a stop, and the
farmer, the cattle-breeder, and the physician must be content with such knowledge
or such ignorance as he at present possesses. I know it has been asserted that the
science of the functions of living organs is quite independent of experiment upon
living organs. But this is said by the same persons who have denied that the
art of setting right the functions of the body when they go wrong has anything to
do with the Inowledge of what those functions are.

If you could be persuaded that Chemistry can make progress without retorts and
balances, that a geologist’s hammer is a useless ineumbrance, or that engineers can
build bridges just as well by the rule of thumb as by the knowledge gained in a
workshop, then you might believe that Physiology also is independent of experi-
ment.

It is absurd to object to the difficulties of the research or even the contradictory
results sometimes obtained. The functions of a muscle ora gland are more com-
plicated than those of water or gas, and their investigation needs greater skill, more
caution, and more frequent repetition. Imperfect experiments can lead to nothing
but error; criticism from other physiologists, or from scientific men experienced in
other branches of research, is not wanting and is always valuable. But vague
assertion that further progress is impossible by the very means which have led to
all our present knowledge, coming from those ‘who are not of our school ’—or any
school, is undeserving of serious notice.

The real contention of course is a moral one, that we ought to relinquish the
advantage of all experiments which are accompanied with pain to the creature
experimented on. The botanist may serve his plants as he pleases, and even the
animal physiologist may cut, or starve, or poison all sentient organisms which
happen not to possess a backbone, and he may try experiments with all backboned

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 411

animals, including himself and his friends, so long as they do not hurt, but that
must be the limit. On the most extreme humanitarian views no objection can be
made to experiments upon animals in a state of insensibility to pain, and as these
constitute, happily, the vast’ majority of physiological experiments, the question is
narrowed to comparatively restricted limits. Is it wrong to inflict painful experi-
ments upon animals for the sake of Science? ‘In the absence of any authority to
appeal to, we can but judge of the matter by analogy. Now it has been the prac-
tice of all mankind, and is still allowed by the common consent both of law and
feeling, that we should destroy by more or less painful means, that we should
enslave and force to work, and mutilate by painful operations, and hunt to death,
and wound, and lacerate, and torture the brute creation for the following objects :—
for our own self-preservation, as when we offer a reward for the killing of
tigers and snakes in India; for our comfort, as when we poison or otherwise
destroy internal parasites, and vermin, and rats, and rabbits. Our safety, our
food, our convenience, our wealth, or our amusement: all these objects have been
and are regarded by the great mass of mankind, and are held by the laws of
every civilised country to be sufficiently important to justify the infliction
of pain or death upon animals in whatever numbers may be necessary. The only
restriction which Christian morality or in certain cases recent legislation imposes
upon such practices is, that no more pain shall be inflicted than is necessary for the
object in view. Killing or hurting domestic animals when moved by passion or
by the horrible delight which some depraved natures feel in the act of inflicting
pain was until lately the only recognised transgression against the law of England.
I trust I need not say that it is only under such restrictions that physiologists desire
to work.!| Anyone who would inflict a single pang beyond what is necessary for a
scientific object, or would by carelessness fail to take due care of the animals he
has to deal with, would be justly amenable to public reprobation. And, remember
it is within these limits that the whole controversy lies, for after a long and patient
examination of all that could be said by our accusers, the Royal Commission which
was nominated for the purpose unanimously reported that in this country at least
scientific experiments upon animals are free from abuse.

What is deliberately asserted is that within the restrictions which all humane
persons impose upon themselves, it is lawful to inflict pain or death upon animals
for profit or for sport, for money or for pastime; that property and sport are in
England sacred things; but that the practices which they justify are unjustifiable
when pursued with the object of increasing human knowledge or of relieving human
suffering.

Of those persons who answer that they consider vivisection for the sake of sport
to be almost as detestable as vivisection for the sake of duty, I would only ask
first that they should deal impartially with both offences; and secondly, that since
in the one case their opinions are opposed to the practice of genteel society, and
in the other to the convictions of all who are qualified to judge, they should
at least contemplate the possibility of being mistaken. Putting the question of
field sports altogether aside, you know perfectly well that in every village in
England an extremely painful mutilation is constantly performed upon domestic
animals in no registered laboratory, under no anesthetics, and with no object but
the convenience and profit of the owner. You remember how when an epidemic
threatened the destruction of valuable property, every booby peer now eager to stop,
so far as in him lies, the advance of knowledge, was no less eager to have carried
out at the public expense any slaughter and any experiments, painful or other-
wise, which would save his pocket.

Bat you will say: all this seems reasonable enough; but if so, how do you
account for the prejudice against you, what has induced so many amiable and
otherwise sane persons to join in the outery against Physiology ?

First, I answer, it is due to the most frequent cause of folly—Ignorance. Many

? They are, in fact, the very limits that were put on record by this Association
long before the agitation against Physiology began. See Report for 1871, p. 144.

412 REPORT—-1879.

persons supposed to be educated are so destitute of the most ordinary conceptions
of natural science that they do not understand the necessity for experiments. So
little do they appreciate the difference between formal knowledge and real know-
ledge, that a distinguished statesman once assured me that he would as soon have
his leg set by a man.who had gained what he called his knowledge from books, as by
one who had ‘ walked the hospitals.’ Next, there is the vulgar dislike of whatever
is not obviously and immediately useful. When knowledge for its own sake is in
question, those of the baser sort are always ready to ery with equal ignovance of
literature and of science, Cuz bono ?

In another class of persons, less ignorant and less stupid than these two, oppo-
sition to physiological experiments appears to spring from what may fairly be
stigmatised as Sentiment, that is to say, excitable, rather than deep feeling, uncon-
trolled by reason, People first gratify their fancy by calling cats and dogs our
fellow creatures, which, in one sense, undoubtedly they are, and then, by the
familiar fallacy of an ambiguous middle term, argue that it is cruel to put our
fellow creatures to pain; or, as some would add, to reduce them to slavery, or to
use them in any way for our own, rather than their good. Such persons compel
their fellow creatures to drag them through the streets, they eat their fellow crea-
tures when sufficiently vivisected to be palatable, and they find philosophical
excuses for those who kill their fellow creatures for fun. But they are properly
shocked when their fellow creatures are hurt or killed for the benefit of mankind.
Such persons have been accused of feminine weakness; but I must say that I have
never found an intelligent woman who could not see the rights of the case when
fairly explained to her, whereas I have met a few men who on this, as in other
matters, consistently refuse to give up to argument the notions which were formed
by prejudice.

This sentiment is, I admit, the degradation of just feeling. ‘To many unaffectedly
compassionate hearts there is a peculiar pang in thinking of suffering which is
deliberately inflicted, with only the justification of duty, instead of the excuse of
ignorance or passion. They see in the helplessness of the dumb animals an appeal
for pity, almost like that of childhood, and are justly indignant with the selfish
cruelty so often exercised upon them. All honour to the efforts which have
banished so many cruel sports from England; all honour to the Society which seeks
to prevent cruelty to animals. If it can point to any additional means by which
the sufferings of animals in the cause of Science can be diminished, we shall be
anxious to adopt them. If it can point to any abuse in one of our laboratories, we
will hasten to correct it. This Society has honourably declared that they know of
none. That physiologists have been heedless, or even callous, in their ex-
periments upon animals in past times, when men were strangely insensible even to
human suffering, or in countries where a healthy result of Christian civilisation
has not yet been seen in habitual gentleness to animals, I need not deny. Such
cases have been eagerly sought and sometimes most unfairly judged. Only
lately a learned body felt itself not strong enough to retain the admittedly in-
valuable services of an eminent foreigner who had once admitted that when
absorbed in scientific and beneficent researches he lost sight of any pain that might
be inflicted.! Is not this the very excuse which is held valid in the case of sport?
Doubtless we ought to be ever mindful of every branch of duty, but such occasional
forgetfulness does not show hardness of heart. It is an excusable wealmess for a
student of medicine to shudder or to faint at the sight of hlood, but he learns that
this merely physical sensibility becomes selfish and mischievous if indulged : he is
taught to suppress all such exhibition of emotion, and to let it stimulate without
interfering with his efforts to relieve. But no one surely would think the hysterical
youth more truly humane than the surgeon whose compassion is shown in the very
firmness with which he inflicts a temporary pain for an ultimate good.

1 Fortunately, Dr. Klein, whose researches in microscopic anatomy and pathology
are so well known and appreciated, knows that he retains the confidence and respect
of his scientific brethren, and we hope that his honourable connection with the largest
school of medicine in London will strengthen other and closer ties in binding him
to England.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 413

Thave hitherto rested the whole argument upon the lawfulness of inflicting
pain and death upon the lower animals for the sake of science and humanity, but
as a matter of fact I may again assure those who, while assenting to the justice of
the plea, yet shrink from what it may involve, that the great majority of experi-
ments upon animals are rendered painless, and that the remainder are mostly those
experiments which are most immediately and directly subservient to medical art,
and which happily are generally productive rather of discomfort than of pain.
Let me give you an example of such a vivisection, far more painful than the
immense majority of those of the laboratory. Suppose a country surgeon were
sent for late at night to some case of urgent peril; knowing that his ride is for life
or death, and unsparing of himself or his horse, he rides him to the utmost limits
of endurance, and beyond : who would not applaud the action? Those only who
appear deliberately to believe that our life is worth less than that of many sparrows,
those legislators only who look forward to the time when wars will cease, not
because of human slaughter, of devastated homes, of all the horrors which the
world has endured for centuries, but because of the cruelties to which the horses
in the artillery are subjected. We, who are familiar with human suffering and
sorrow, which our knowledge is all too feeble to prevent, best understand how
in testing some new remedy on a less precious fellow-creature than a man, one who
is truly humane may be tempted to forget the comparatively trivial suffering of a
rabbit or a frog.

But some enthusiastic opponent will say, ‘I cannot pretend to doubt that these
experiments are in every sense of the word useful, but we ought not to purchase
the benefit they confer by inflicting pain upon innocent creatures. I would sign a
petition to-morrow to put down all field sports by law, I would allow no opera-
tion upon domestic animals, and I will abstain from all animal food until I am
certain that I can eat creatures which have been killed without suffering pain. But
if I were lying at the point of death, and you brought an animal to my bedside and
assured me that by putting it to pain my life could be saved, I would refuse to pur-
chase it on such cruel terms.’ We may hope that the excellent person who made this
heroic profession would in the hour of trial be better advised, but if not we may
surely reply, ‘ Right reverend sir, you are the best judge of the value of your own
life, and if you think proper to sacrifice it to the comfort of a guinea-pig we must
submit to the loss with such resignation as we can muster; but when you say that
in obedience to this silly whim you will let your dearest friend suffer, allow the
sacrifice of the most important life, and forbid those studies which have already
rescued multitudes from deformity and misery and death, then those of us who
have to do with the real responsibilities of life, and on whom presses the awful
sense of impotence to which our defective science too often leaves us, answer that
we too have duties to fulfil, and to the best of our power we mean conscientiously
to fulfil them.

There is, I fear, another reason which animates much of the opposition to
physiological experiments. It is nothing else than aversion from the methods and
the results of science. It may be that an excuse for this dislike has been furnished
by the pretence of false science, and the arrogance of much even which is true.
But surely, no reasonable creature, from such trivial invitation, can deliberately
wish to check the progress of accurate knowledge by observation and experiment.
There are, indeed, some who, fearing (as I think prudently) that, while a little
knowledge inclineth men to Atheism, greater knowledge turneth them round again
to religion, and desiring to subject the human mind to a bondage as hard and more
degrading than that of medizyal Rome, would gladly call off interest from the
unremunerative labours which are prompted only by the thirst for knowledge and
faith in the possibility of learning more and more of the divine order of the world,
to pursuits which bring obvious and material utility. There are those again, who,
fearing (as I think foolishly) that increasing knowledge of this Divine order will
lower our admiration of its beauty, or that the better a man understands the laws of
God the more likely he is to break them, have an unfeigned dislike for natural
science in general, and for Biology in particular. They repeat over again the error
of which the Dominican friars with far greater excuse were guilty when they im-
prisoned Galileo, If any such are here, may I venture to tell them—in quietness

414 REPORT—1879.

and in confidence is your strength: the vast fabric of Christian morals is in no
danger of being overturned by the discovery of a new chemical method in the la-
boratory, or of a hitherto undescribed animalcule. If noisy attacks are made in the
injured name of science, you have only to wait, and you will see these attacks
repelled by the true leaders of science themselves, or, at the worst, by the next
generation. But if, leaving your secure fortress of defence, you come down with
your rhetoric and your sentiments, your petitio principit, your ignoratio elenchi, and
all your familiar fallacies and tropes, thinking that with such weapons you can meet
on their own ground meu who have spent their lives in the study of science, then
no wonder if you suffer grievous defeat. Happy for you if you learn, like another
discomfited pilgrim, to betake yourselves to another ‘ weapon.’

But I imagine that some of my audience are saying: ‘ This defence would have
been necessary before the Royal Commission made their report; but when that was
made, and affirmed the necessity of physiological experiments, and the groundless-
ness of accusations of cruelty against physiologists, when an Act was passed which
licenses physiological laboratories, under the very restrictions which you had already
imposed upon yourselves, may we not regard the controversy as closed, and the
result as satisfactory ?’

I answer that I have taken up your time with this defence of physiological
experiments partly because I would fain help, however feebly, in the enlightenment
of the public conscience, but also because the result of recent legislation is not
satisfactory.

Science does not work readily in fetters. A system of licenses and certificates,
numerous and complicated, obtained with trouble and delay, and revocable at the
will of a Minister who may, by the accidents of party, beat any time amenable to
anti-scientific influences, such a system adds serious difficulties to those already in
the way of experiments.

Suppose, as an illustration, that certain persons opposed on various grounds to
learning, and especially hostile to Greek, had attacked the study of Plato, They
would point out the danger of modern ladies becoming as well read in his writings
as was Lady Jane Grey. They would show that the laxity of modern manners
was coincident with the popularity of the Symposiwm, and that the notorious
increase of infanticide was the result of the teaching of the Republic. Associations
for the total suppression of Plato would be formed, with hired advocates, and
anonymous letters, and ‘ leaflets,’ spreading a knowledge of his most objectionable
passages, Scholars would be threatened with eternal punishment, and school-
masters with the withdrawal of their pupils. Then a Royal Commission would
be appointed—a great Latin scholar, a Whig and a Tory statesman (who, having
taken a B. Sc. degree at Oxford, would be impartially ignorant of Greek), the most
intelligent despiser of Plato who could be found, the master of a grammar
school on the modern side, and (perhaps the most efficient of all) a lawyer, who
knew nothing about Greek but hated cant. This Commission would take evidence
that the Platonic writings were not all immoral, that they had been quoted with
approval by Fathers of the Church, that they were of great importance to litera-
ture and philosophy, and even to the elucidation of the Sacred Writings. It would
also be proved that the Platonic Dialogues were far less immoral than multitudes of
other widely circulated books, and even than a French novel which one of the
Royal Commissioners happened to be reading, and, lastly, that the morals of Greek
scholars, and of clergymen who had read Plato at college, were not obviously

degraded below those of other people. On the other hand, witnesses would depose |

that a knowledge of Plato was of no consequence to a student of philosophy ; that if it
were, the text. was in so corrupt a condition that no two scholars agreed as to a single
chapter ; and that, after all, philosophy was of no practical use, least of all to clergy-
men, Others would affirm that though they had never read a line of him, they knew
that his style was as vicious as his sentiments; and perhaps some cross-grained
scholar might be found who, having once edited a Greek play, would declare that
all studies in Greek literature ought to be restricted to the tragedians, and that for
oe part he had never opened any other authors and had never felt the want. of
them.

At last the Commission would report that there was no question of the value —

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 415

of the works of Plato, that it would be mischievous and impracticable to prohibit
their study, and that there was no evidence that schoolmasters habitually chose
the least edifying passages as lessons for boys. Then what is called a compromise
would be made. It would be enacted that Plato might be read, but only in colleges
annually licensed for that purpose; that everyone wishing to read must have a
general certificate signed by certain professors, and setting forth his object, also to
be renewed every year; and that special certificates might be severally obtained
for reading certain excepted dialogues, for copying from them, for publishing them,
or, in rare cases, for translating them.

However reasonably such a system might be administered, who can doubt that
the result would be a diminution of the number of scholars, and a check to the
progress of learning ?

Now this is what legislation has done for physiological experiments. The Act
39 & 40 Victorize was hastily drawn and hurriedly discussed ; for noble lords and
honourable gentlemen who had been taught from childhood to vivisect for un-
scientific purposes were eager to hurry off to their own merry vivisections, for
which they were ready provided with license and certificates.’ And it works as
might be expected. Some shrink from seeing their names figure in disreputable
newspapers, and receiving more or less savagely abusive anonymous letters. Others
have no laboratories, and find difficulty in licensing their houses. Others are refused
the certificates they require. i

In one case two thoroughly qualified men were anxious to carry out an important
investigation on the treatment of snake-bites. They procured venomous snakes
from a distance, and applied for the special certificates necessary. Considerable
delay ensued; various objections were raised, and set at rest; and at last all the
certificates were obtained ; but meantime the snakes had died.

I must apologise for having detained you so long. The whole history of this
controversy is melancholy but instructive.

To those of my audience who wish well to Science, I hope that I may have
made more clear the grounds on which vivisection is necessary and right, and thus ful-
filled one of the chief objects of the Association—‘ to obtain the removal of any
disadvantage of a public kind which impedes the progress of science.’

To those working physiologists who haye honoured me by their presence I would
express the assurance that they have the confidence and the gratitude of the medical
profession, witnesses at once competent and impartial, who know the difficulties
and the value of such labours ; and as to present discouragements, looking back to
the obstacles which so long retarded the progress of our kindred science, Anatomy,
I may say
O passi graviora, dabit Deus his quoque finem.

When, in the earliest years of the Royal Society, Sir Christopher Wren and
Dr. Lower made those experiments on transfusion of blood which have at last proved
so beneficent, there were not wanting shallow witlings who scoffed at their re-
searches, It was of them that Cowley wrote with a just indignation—

Whoever would deposed Truth advance
Into the throne usurped from it,

Must feel at first the blows of ignorance
And the sharp points of envious wit.

You haye at least escaped the latter penalty.

Dishonour fall on those
Who would to laughter or to scorn expose
i So virtuous and so noble a design,
So human for its use, for knowledge so divine !

You wish your culminators no greater dishonour than failure to do mischief,
You wish for yourselves no other reward than ‘ the wages of going on,’

416 REPORT—1879.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Experiments on Septic Organisms in Living Tissues.
By Staff-Surgeon Epwarp L. Moss, R.N.

In 1874 some attempts to preserve meat in a state fit for dietetic purposes, and
apparently some suggestion from the eminent German, Surgeon Bilroth, induced
Professor Tiegel to undertake a series of experiments with the intention of deciding
whether septic organisms exist in the living tissues.

With this object Dr. Teigel sealed up various parts of the bodies of newly-slain
rabbits by dropping them into melted paraffin at a temperature assumed to be high
enough to destroy any infection they might receive in transit from the animal's
body to the dish of paraffin. He found that, in most instances, the unheated
centre of his lumps of flesh became in a few days putrid and swarming with
bacteria.!

This result was so striking that his experiments were repeated by Dr. Burdon
Sanderson,” with the only difference that the red kernel of uncooked tissue always
contained bacteria, whereas Teigel’s results were not so uniform, as may be seen
by his reply to Professor Klebs in a number of Virchow’s ‘ Archives’ following the
paper summing up his experiments.

On the other hand, Messrs. Chiene and Cossar Ewart reached a very different
conclusion after a course of similar experiments, in which, however, they laid
special stress on the use of an additional precaution in the shape of antiseptic
spray. But the action of a bactericide cannot be limited to defence only, and
their experiments would have been more convincing if the pieces of meat had not
been exposed to an agent capable of penetrating the flesh and killing or arresting
the growth of any bacteria it may have contained. If, however, meat sealed in
air pure and simple will remain unputrefied, it is fair to conclude that the frag-
ments so remaining are free from the special organisms that cause putrefaction.

In the winter of 1875, I sealed up a piece of musk-ox meat in clean Arctic air,
and it remained perfectly fresh until the glass tube containing it was accidentally
broken thirteen months afterward. In this case any sources of putrefaction which
may have existed in the flesh were possibly destroyed by the low temperature to
which it had been exposed. On looking up what had been written on the subject
I found the accounts of the experiments just referred to, and it appeared worth
while to try whether flesh would keep equally well if removed warm from the body
of a recently killed animal and simply sealed in an atmosphere whose freedom from
life could be guaranteed.

Availing myself of the facilities afforded by the laboratory of the Royal Dublin
Society, I led a pipe from the nozzle of a well-weighted blacksmith’s bellows,
through a tube of hard glass six feet long well packed with platinum foil, and
heated to redness in a Hoffmann combustion furnace. I thus obtained a stream of
air at the rate of 70 cubic feet an hour at a temperature which quickly singed
cotton-wool, and varied during the operation between 380° and 420° Fahr., as was
shown by a thermometer let into the outflowing end of the tube—a brass pipe, first
thoroughly cleansed by heating to redness, was surrounded by a freezing mixture
and served to cool the current to a temperature between 70° and 80°.

In the air thus obtained I removed pieces of flesh from the dorsal muscles of a
decapitated rabbit—using a scorched knife and forceps—and sealed them in glass
tubes cleaned by heating to redness, and through which a current of the sterilised
air was kept flowing until the fragments were put in. In order to close the tubes,
the wider end of each was first stopped with well-baked cotton wool, the narrower
end then fused off from the branch-pipe conveying the current, and, finally, the
space of tube between the stopper of cotton wool and the flesh was fused, drawn
out, and closed.

Three tubes containing muscle, and one with brain, were thus hermetically

1 Vinchow’s Archives, vol. 16, p. 453.
2 British Medical Jowrnal, January 1878.
3 Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, April 1878.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 417

sealed, and ‘two others, each containing muscles, were (being found rather too short)
- left closed with cotton-wool only, which, for security sake, was afterwards covered
with a cap of resin and wax cement.

The tubes were filled and sealed on September 2, 1878, and left in a tempera-
ture averaging 60° Fahr. On the 9th, tubes Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, containing muscle,
showed minute hairs of mycelium projecting in one or two places from the flesh.
In Nos. 1, 2, and 3 the mycelium never fruited, but disappeared with an increase
of the moisture of the flesh. In No. 4—which was one of those stopped with
wool only—it fruited into a yellow-headed mucor and then disappeared in a
softening débris of evidently putrid flesh. I opened the tube, its contents were
foetid and held myriads of active bacteria, large and small.

The brain remained quite unchanged for ten days, and then suddenly softened
and broke down, thus leaving but one of my six specimens intact. On my return
home, a few days ago, I found this one altogether unchanged, and I embrace this
opportunity of exhibiting it, a piece of muscle which appeared to have neither held
or received infection.

Although Nos. 1,2, and 3 developed mycelium and extruded a quantity of
slightly glairy fluid almost equal in bulk to the flesh, it is remarkable that they did
not become putrid. I opened one of them three days ago; it had an odour like
boiled rabbit and catchup, and was most decidedly not offensive. It, like the
others, was speckled over with white aggregations, which I at first thought were
fungoid, but on examination found to be bunches of acicular crystals entirely
organic. They are insoluble in alcohol or ether, like creatin, but only slightly
soluble in warm water. They dissolve in sulphuric acid without blackening, I
had not enough of them to examine further, I could not find any bacteria in the
fluid, and it was decidedly free from any in an active condition.

The apparatus not being portable, circumstances rendered it impossible for me
to continue experiments on flesh; but 1 endeavoured to follow up the subject of
septic organisms in living tissues by observations on blood removed from human
veins, by a method which appears to exclude possibility of infection, and at the
same time allows the blood to be examined at different intervals, so that germs, if
any exist in it, may be cultivated and studied with convenience.

The apparatus consists of a series of small glass bulbs connected by capillary
tubes, so that one bulb and its contents can be separated from the rest by fusing
and drawing out the connecting tube in the flame of a blowpipe.

The tubes and bulbs are bent on each other, so that the whole series can be
readily baked in a water or paraffin bath. One end of the series is left open,
packed with baked wool, and connected with an aspirator. The other is drawn to a
fine point and sealed. Then the sealed point is enclosed and secured in a short
piece of stout indiarubber connection-pipe, which, in its turn, is fastened over the
— of a fine hypodermic needle, protected ready for use in a calcined glass
sheath,

When connected, the whole arrangement is baked repeatedly in a water-bath
at intervals of four hours. (Mr. Dallinger’s septic organism required 5} hours for
its life cycle. Cossar Ewart’s bacillus anthracis produced spores in 24 hours.)
The apparatus is then ready for use. The mode of procedure is as follows:—The
_ sheath is removed from the needle, and the latter is plunged into any suitable vein
—the radial is a convenient one. The sealed point inside the rubber connection
tube is broken, and blood flows gently through the series of bulbs drawn on by the
oat acting through the cotton plug. When sufficient has entered, the lame
of a blow-pipe severs the capillary tube next the needle, and instantly afterwards
the similar tube next the wool plug.

The apparatus is easily used. I have repeatedly obtained blood from my own —
arm without assistance. No inconvenience follows the puncture of the vein if the
needle is kept steady and a little care exercised to prevent extravasation.

By adopting this method I have constantly, after the lapse of 48 or more
hours, found organisms in the blood of intermittent fever which I was altogether
unable to find in the fresh blood. They consist of bacterine pairs or single indi-
viduals in active locomotion, sometimes stationary in zooglea groups, and occasion-
ally ie = of four or more. The ghost cells recently described at the meeting ©

. EE

418 REPORT—1879.

of the British Medical Association in Cork, are also to be demonstrated by this
method in blood a month sealed.

I have as yet not had sufficient opportunities of experimenting with blood
absolutely free from possibility of malarial infection to speak with certainty about
the development of organisms in healthy blood ; but so far as my experience goes
the appearance after a few days of bacterial bodies with more than Brownian
motion, which most decidedly do not exist in fresh blood, is the rule rather than
the exception.

I have not, however, found any samples of blood subject to a definite sponta-
neous putrescence. The only change apparent is that the serum, at first of a faint
greenish tinge and opaline, becomes more transparent and acquires a crimson
colour,

2. On the Stroma of Mammalian Red Blood Corpuscles.
By L. C. Woouprives, B.Sc. Lond.

A new method of preparing stroma by means of dilute sulphuric acid was de-
scribed, the advantages of which were, that it gave a stroma retaining perfectly
the shape of the original corpuscle, and that it was a very expeditious method.

The Stroma itself consists of—

1. Globulin.

2, An albumin, probably alkali albumin.

3. An albuminoid body, containing phosphorus; soluble in dilute soda, insoluble
in dilute acid, and insoluble by digestion with artificial gastric.

4. A erystalline body, extracted by ether, which is not fat or cholesterin, nor
does it contain any phosphorus; its other properties have not yet been investigated.

The research was mostly carried out under the supervision of Prof. Drechsel, in
Prof. Ludwig’s Laboratory, at Leipzig.

3, Note on Crystallisation of Urea in presence of a Colloid.
By Dr. W. M. Orp.

4, The Nervous System of Comatula. By P. Hurpert Carpenter, M.A.

Although there is a close histological resemblance between the ambulacral
nerves of the starfishes and Crinoids, there is one important point of difference
between them. The ambulacral nerves of the starfishes, at any rate of the Ophiurids,
send off branches to the muscular bundles which connect successive joints of the
rays, and effect the movements of the animal. The swimming moyements of
Comatula ave far more active than the movements of any starfish, and are also
performed with a singular regularity, while they are effected by the combined
contraction of several hundred pairs of muscles; but no branches are traceable
from the ambulacral nerves on to these muscles, such as are known in the Ophiurids.

Dr. Carpenter's experiments at Naples have shown that these muscles are under
the influence of a governing centre which not only regulates their contractions,
but co-ordinates these contractions in the most remarkable manner; and that this
centre is situated in the fibrillar envelope of the chambered organ, while the axial
cords of the rays and arms are the channels by which the influence of the centre is
communicated to the muscles,

This experimental evidence as to the neryous nature of the axial cords is further
supported by the results of anatomical investigation, Sections show that these
axial cords give off branches regularly in the centre of each segment of the arms
and pinnules ; and that while some of them ramify upon the ends of the muscular
bundles, others are traceable into the small marginal leaflets bordering the ambu-
lacral grooves, where they break up very minutely and become lost. It has also
been discovered that in many tropical Comatule, which have an excentric mouth,

RANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 419

more or fewer, sometimes even more than half of the arms, which come off from

the aboral side of the disc, have no ambulacral nerve at all, although the dorsal

axial cord gives off its two pairs of branches in the usual way. In one large

cies from the Philippines, with nearly 200 arms, this condition is not limited to

e aboral arms only, but occurs on some of the arms on each radius, while the
others have the usual groove and subjacent ambulacral nerve.

These facts are strongly indicative of the nervous nature of the axial cords,
although Claus and Gegenbaur in their recently published text-books make no
mention of this view at all, and describe the nervous system of Comatula as essen-
tially similar to that of the starfishes. It would seem, however, that while the
ambulacral nerve of the Ophiurids supplies the muscles as well as the tentacles,
these functions are more differentiated in the far more active Crinoids, The axial
cords of this group appear to be the principal motor nerves as far as the skeleton
‘is concerned, while the ambulacral nerves supply the tentacles only, possibly having
some influence on the slow creeping movements which the isolated disc has been
observed to perform. Why should we deny the nervous nature of the axial
cords, simply because our doing so would clash with our preconceived notions as
to what the Crinoids ought to be, in order to agree with the views on Echinoderm
morphology which were adopted without a sufficient knowledge of the anatomy
of this most interesting group ?

5. On a Visual Phenomenon and its Explanation.
By Wi11am Acxroyp, F.C.

Visual phenomena are of general interest, and have been noticed by Brewster,
Herschel, and others. The following is the visual phenomenon in question: a
globule of water is made to impinge on the cornea, whilst the gaze is unwinkingly
fixed on a distant light. Directly after the impact the light appears to be sur-
rounded by a luminous ring, which gradually contracts in diameter. Explana-
tion: A minute ripple is produced on the surface of the cornea. The crested
waye-ring and the refracting media of the eye produce two hollow cones of light
within the vitreous humour, one with a circular portion of the crystalline lens as
base, and the other with the retina as base. As the ripple increases in diameter,
the first cone increases in size, and its prolongation (the second cone) diminishes,
and its base (in other words, the visible luminous ring), becomes less and less,
until it merges into the lamp-light itself.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26.

The Department did not meet.

EE2

420 REPORT—1879.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

‘PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, Esq., C.B., FRS., F.LS.,
Sec. RG.S., F.S.A.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

The PrestpEnt delivered the following Address :—

_ Parr I.

I propose to-open the proceedings of this Section by attempting to place in &
clear licht the objects and aims of geographers, and the position which their science
holds relatively with reference to the other sciences, and positively as a distinct
body of knowledge with defined limits.

Geography is a knowledge of the earth as it is, and of the changes which have
taken place on its surface during historical times. These changes explain to us the
laws according to which similar changes are now taking place around us. The
subject may be considered from various points of view; but my present endeavour
will be to introduce to you, through the remarks I propose to make, the papers
that will come before you to-day and at our subsequent meetings. I shall try to
do this by explaining the practical uses of geographical knowledge, and its import-
ance to usi » 2!most every occupation in which we may be engaged.

Our first work as geographers is to measure all parts of earth and sea, to
ascertain the relative positions of all places upon the surface of the globe, and to
delineate the varied features of that surface. This great work has been proceeding
from the first dawn of civilisation, and it will probably be centuries longer before
it is completed. Geographers and explorers, surveyors and geodesists, of each
generation, work their allotted time, gradually increasing the stock of human
knowledge, by enabling other sciences and other branches of inquiry to make
parallel advances. For they are all dependent on the accurate measurement and
mapping of the earth. Locality is the one basis upon which all human knowledge
must rest. Arts, sciences, administration, commerce, depend upon accurate geo-
graphical knowledge; and as that knowledge becomes more extensive and more
exact, so will every other human pursuit gain increasing light and truthfulness.

We are still very far indeed from an accurate scientific geographical knowledge
of even the most civilised countries, while by far the largest portion of the earth’s
surface is inadequately surveyed, and a smaller, though far from inconsiderable,
part is unsurveyed or entirely unknown. In the division of labour, the geodesist
produces the accurate large-scale maps which are necessary in thickly populated
countries, the topographical surveyor furnishes less exact maps of more thinly
peopled and less civilised regions, while the trained explorer forces his way into
the unknown parts of the earth.

From the labours of these three classes of workers we, in this generation, and
our descendants for many generations to come, must be content to derive our
knowledge; but in the fullness of time the whole earth will be measured and
delineated as Hallamshire is now. It is to the furthering of this great work that
the geographers of each age devote their energies, and its advancement will

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 421

increase in rapidity, because, as men become better instructed, there will be more-
geographers,

The construction of large scale maps on rigorously accurate principles has as
yet made inconsiderable progress, It is only in the countries of Europe, in India,
and some of our colonies, and in the United States that it has been commenced.
But it is very far from being completed anywhere, and the people of Sheffield have
had this fact brought home to them within the last year ; for the Memoir on the
Yorkshire Coal Field, published by the Geological Survey in 1878, was obliged to
stop short with the limits of the county, an artificial and inconvenient line which
leaves the southern portion of the field undescribed, entirely because the six-inch
survey had not yet been extended over Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. This
circumstance strikes us in two ways. It reminds us that geographical work is far
from being completed even in the most populous and civilised parts of our own
country ; and it also brings the fact home to us that the progress of other sciences
is dependent upon the advance of geography.

ere the trigonometrical surveys have not been commenced, we have only
those maps which are based on positions fixed by astronomical observations, on
cross-bearings and chained distances, and which I call (to distinguish them from
the results of trigonometrical surveys) the topographical maps. One of the oldest
and most interesting of these maps is the famous atlas of the Chinese Empire
constructed by the Jesuits between 1708 and 1718. But we are also dependent on
such maps for our geographical knowledge of all Asia except India and Palestine,
of the Eastern Archipelago, of all Africa and South America, and of the greater
part of North America.

Accurate maps are the basis of all inquiry conducted on scientific principles,
Without them a geological survey is impossible; nor can botany, zoology, or
ethnology be viewed in their broader aspects, unless considerations of locality,
altitude, and latitude are kept in view. Not only as the basis of scientific inquiry,
but also for the comprehension of history, for operations of war, for administrative
purposes, and for the illustration of statistics, the uses of accurate maps are almost
infinite. M. Quetelet, in one of his well-known letters, declared that such graphic
illustration often afforded immediate conviction of a point which the most subtle
mind would find it difficult to perceive without such aid. Maps both generalise
and allow of abstraction. They enable inquirers at once to detect and often to
rectify errors, which, if undetected, would affect results and throw calculations into
confusion. As an example of the use of maps for administrative purposes, the
series constructed by Mr. Edward A. Prinsep in India is worthy of notice. They
showed the agricultural tribes of a special district arranged according to occupancy
of land, political and fiscal divisions, physical features and zones of fertility, produc-
tive power as influenced by rain or aided by irrigation, different kinds of soils, acres
under different kinds of produce, and lines of traffic. Another most instructive
series displays the State irrigation canals acting on improvable waste lands, the
depth of wells, the rainfall and zones of drought, and the parts of the country
already irrigated. As another noteworthy instance of the use of maps for statistical
illustration, [ may mention the interesting ‘Carte agricole de la France,’ by M.
Delesse, which not only shows the extent of arable, meadow, and vine lands, and
of woods, but the relative value of land by shades and contour lines of equal
revenue. The idea has been adopted by Mr. Ralph Richardson in his map of Mid-
Lothian showing the annual rentals by colours; and of course the colours also
indicate the positions of barren mountains, of fertile valleys, and of centres of
population. Such maps ought to be far more extensively used than is now the
case, for in no other way can economic and industrial facts be so lucidly and
clearly, as well as so rapidly, impressed on an inquirer’s mind.

_ The third division in which geographical delineation is classed is that comprised
in the labour of pioneer-exploring and discovery. This branch of our subject ex-
cites the most interest, because the heroic devotion and gallantry of our travellers
1s @ source of just pride to the nation; and because their perils and hardships,
their adventures and discoveries surround them with a halo of romance. Yet
these romantic associations are not confined to the pioneers of geography. Though

422. REPORT—1879.

less known, they equally belong to the more scientific geodesist. In the whole:
range of exploring narrative there is nothing more calculated to excite admiration,
nothing more touching, than the devotion of Colonel Lambton, the first superinten-
dent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, the old man who was absorbed.
in his great work for half a life-time, who wasted away from exposure and hard-
ship, but who, to the last brightened up to renewed animation and vigour when
the great theodolite was before him, and who died at his post in a wild part of
Central India, This was sixty years ago, but quite recently the equally heroic
death of Captain Basevi was recorded. At 17,000 feet above the sea, in a tempera~
ture below zero, and protected only by a light tent, this martyr to science was en-~
gaged in the delicate operation of swinging the seconds pendulum. One morning,
when gallantly striving to rise from a bed of suffering and to recommence work,
he died. Nor do these names stand alone. Assuredly, the more scientific sur-
veyors run equal risks, and deserve equal recognition with their exploring brethren.
Still the interest justly attaching to new discoveries naturally commands most
popular applause, and the importance of opening up an unknown country cannot
well be exaggerated.

In this glorious field there are still harvests to be reaped through the bravery
and endurance of future travellers. In spite of all that has recently been done in
Africa, there is a vast unknown tract to be discovered. In Asia, in New Quinea,
in Sumatra and Borneo, in South America, wide regions also remain unexplored.
Above all, the greatest problem of this age awaits solution in the far north, and
will call forth the best scientific ability, and all the highest qualities of our naval
explorers.

vary year, new regions are brought within our knowledge, and we are able to
welcome the adventurers home, and to add them to the list of geographical worthies.
But, with regard to many explorers, there can be no doubt that much more valu-
able information might be obtained than is now the case. Men, with various
ayocations, traverse unexplored or little known countries, who, from want of
previous training, are unable to lay down their routes or to observe with scientific
accuracy and intelligence. There are naval and military officers, missionaries, con-
“sular agents, colonial officials and planters, engineers, telegraphers, collectors, and
sportsmen or persons merely travelling for pleasure, many of whom are led, by
business or curiosity, to penetrate into regions of which little is known. It is
most important that there should exist, in this country, the ready means of furnish-
ing the necessary training to such explorers, and the subject has recently received
serious consideration from the Council of the Royal Geographical Society.

It has been resolved that a course of instruction shall be supplied by the
Society to all who are about to visit unknown or little known countries, and who
desire such training. As a preliminary measure, the present arrangement is to
give such instruction as will enable the pupil to fix positions by astronomical ob-
servations, and to lay down his route; but this is only a beginning, and it is to be
hoped that, in due time, such a course of instruction will be provided as will enable
an intelligent traveller to observe with scientific accuracy, and to bring home really
valuable results in various branches of inquiry. It is very desirable that this reso-
lution of the Geographical Society should be widely known, and I trust that the
local members of this Section will co-operate so far as to bear in mind that this
aid is offered by the Geographical Society, when the intention of any native of
Hallamshire to visit a distant region comes to their notice. Incalculable good
may be done to the cause of geography by a system which will have the effect of
making every traveller a scientific and intelligent observer.

The surveying and mapping of the ocean is only second in importance to that
of the land; and this work also divides itself into three sections, namely, the
coasts surveyed, the coasts partially surveyed, and the unsurveyed coasts. Hydro-
graphy will not be completed until all the coasts in the world are included in the
first section, which is now very far indeed from being the case. Yet this is not
merely a question of science, of the study of the physical geography of the sea,
interesting as this branch of our subject has become. Upon the accuracy and
completeness of charts hangs the safety of thousands of lives, and the prosperity

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 423

of commerce in all parts of the world. When it is remembered how much
depends upon the work of marine surveys, it must be a subject of astonishment
that so many hundreds of miles of coast line frequented by our shipping remain
unsurveyed ; and that even, in some cases, when the surveys have been executed
and charts published by foreign governments, they are not accessible in an English
form. In the interests of humanity and of the well-being of our trade, the
efforts of geographers in urging the completion of marine surveys ought to
be cordially seconded by Chambers of Commerce, and by all those whose material
interests are concerned in the provision of accurate charts of all coasts visited by
our shipping.

Hitherto I have invited your attention to the basis of geography, to the
measurement of the surface of land and sea, and of their heights and depths; to
the mapping of the world, and to the innumerable uses of maps and charts. But
this only forms the skeleton of our science, which is endued with flesh and blood,
with life and motion, by those who study the causes and nature of the changes
that have taken place and are now taking place upon the earth; by comparative
and physical geographers, by those who study and classify natural phenomena,
and demonstrate their connection with each other and their places in the great
scheme of nature.

Geography and geology are, from one point of view, sister sciences. The
former treats of the earth as it now is and of changes which have occurred within
historical times. The latter deals with the condition of the earth and the changes
on its surface which went on during the cycles of ages before the dawn of history.
The two sciences are quite distinct, while they aid each other. No geological
survey can be undertaken without the previous completion of geographical maps, and
the geologist is enabled to comprehend the condition of the earth in remote ages
by studying the phenomena of physical geography. On the other hand, the
geographer acquires a correct understanding of the present state of the earth’s
surface by considering the records of those marvellous changes which can be
gathered from history and from the narratives of travellers and observers in all
ages. Without their services, geography would lose half its interest.

Comparative geography (the study of the changes which have taken place on
the earth’s surface within historical times) is, therefore, a most important branch of
our science; and it enlists the historian and the topographer in our service. It is
a branch of geography which has not hitherto received the amount of attention
it deserves.

The importance of the study of history and of early narratives for the elucida-
tion of points in physical geography will appear from the consideration of a few
instances. Take for example the great and fertile basin of the river Ganges in
India. The Sanscrit historian finds reason for the belief that in 3000 8.c. the only
habitable part of the alluvial plain of India was the water-parting or ridge between
the Sutlej and the Jumna. The rest was a great estuary or arm of the sea, It
has only been fit for man’s occupation withix the historical period, and hundreds of
square miles of the delta have become habitable since the days of Lord Clive.
The wonderful history of these changes can be traced by the student, who thus
enables the geographer to explain the phenomena which he observes. Mr. Blan-
ford, in his charming work on physical geography for the use of Indian schools,
supposes a native of the country to be standing on the bank of the river
that flows by his village, watching the turbid flood swirling past. The chur
opposite, which the river left dry when its waters fell at the close of the last rainy
season, and which, till lately, was covered by a rich green crop of indigo, is now
more than half cut away, and buried beneath the water. Masses, many times
larger than the house he lives in, from time to time detach themselves, and are
swallowed up by the deep muddy stream. If the Hindu ponders over what he sees
he will perhaps be led to make inquiries, and old people will probably tell him that
half a century ago the river itself was a moderate sized Ahall, and that the old
channel, seven or eight miles off, now little more than a string of pools, was at
that time a great river. These facts and their causes will open to him an in-
teresting chapter in physical geography ; which is made more complete and more

424 REPORT—1879.

interesting by the ancient records of his people. But geography is an applied
science. This body of facts and their causes is not a subject for mere speculative
study only. It is of practical utility; for the knowledge of the way in which
Nature has worked in past ages discloses her present and future operations,
and enables the enlightened administrator and engineer to work in harmony
with them.

Again, to pass to another part of the world. The student of history reads of
the great sea fight which King Edward III. fought with the French off Sluys;
how, in those days, the merchant vessels came up to the walls of that flourishing
seaport by every tide; and how a century later a Portuguese fleet conveyed Isabella
from Lisbon, and an English fleet brought Margaret of York from the Thames, to
marry successive Dukes of Burgundy at the port of Sluys. In our own time if a
modern traveller drives twelve miles out of Bruges across the Dutch frontier he
will find a small agricultural town surrounded by corn fields and meadows, and
clumps of trees, whence the sea is not in sight from the top of the town-hall steeple.
This is Sluys. A physical geographer will seek out the causes which have brought
about this surprising change. They are most interesting, and most conducive to
an intelligent comprehension of his science, and he will find them recorded in
history. Thus the historian and the geographer work hand in hand, each aiding
and furthering the researches of the other.

Once more. We turn to the great Baie du Mont Saint Michel, between
Normandy and Brittany. In Roman authors we read of the vast forest called
‘Setiacum nemus,’ in the centre of which an isolated rock arose, surmounted by a
temple of Jupiter, once a college of Druidesses. Now the same rock, with its
glorious pile dedicated to St. Michael, is surrounded by the sea at high tides. The
story of this transformation is even more striking than that of Sluys; and its
adequate narration justly earned for M. Manet the gold medal of the French
Geographical Society in 1828.

Once again let us turn for a moment to the Mediterranean shores of Spain, and
the mountains of Murcia. Those rocky heights, whose peaks stand out against
the deep blue sky, hardly support a blade of vegetation. The algarobas and olives
at their bases are artificially supplied with soil. It is scarcely credible that these
are the same mountains which, according to the forest book of King Alfonso el
Sabio, were once clothed to they summits with pines and other forest trees; while
soft clouds and mist hung over a rounded shaggy outline of wood, where now
the naked rocks make a hard line against the burnished sky. But Arab and Spanish
chroniclers alike record the facts, and geographical science explains the cause.

There is scarcely a district in the whole range of the civilised world where
some equally interesting geographical story has not been recorded, and where the
same valuable lessons may not be taught. This is comparative geography.

The peasant of Bengal sees the mould falling into his turbid river, and learns
the first lesson of a course which teaches him the history of the formation of the
mighty basin of the Ganges. So should we, in England, to use the words of
Professor Huxley, ‘seek the meanings of the phenomena offered by the brook which
runs through our village, or of the gravel pit whence our roads are mended.’
Their meaning is equally significant, equally instructive, and it is thus that we
should all begin to learn geography.

Here, in this valley of the Don, as elsewhere throughout England and the wide
world, the lessons of geography are open for you to learn. I intend, with the
permission of the Section, to conclude this address by referring to the physical
geography of the basin of the river Don, not presuming to teach the natives those
natural features which they must needs know far better than I, but endeavouring
to point out how each feature has its lesson to teach, which bears on questions
relating to distant lands, and how a man may become a sound practical geographer
without going more than twenty miles from his own door. In this way I would
urge all my countrymen whose destiny is not to travel far afield, by studying the
geography of their own native district, to acquire a comprehensive prone
will fit them to discuss more general geographical questions relating to broader
problems and more distant regions.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 425

Your own poet had all the instincts of a true geographer: he who sang. of
our—

4 Five rivers, like the fingers of a hand,
Flung from black mountains, mingle, and are one
Where sweetest valleys quit the wild and grand
And eldest forests o’er the sylvan Don,
Bid their immortal brother journey on,
A stately pilgrim, watched by all the hills.

In the region watered by that river there are doubtless many others whose
unspoken thoughts often echo the words of the Sheffield poet, and to whom I
would fain speak of the valley of the Don and its geographical features.

Afterwards the Section will be occupied with several important papers teaching
us lessons, and telling us most valuable stories relating to other and more distant
parts of the world. In the few remarks I have now addressed to the Section, I
have endeayoured to introduce the subjects of those papers, by touching upon the
position of geography as a science, and on the numerous practical uses to which
our various results can be applied. These uses will appear in their concrete form in
the papers which will occupy us during the present and ensuing meetings,

PART II,
THE VALLEY OF THE DON.

In discussing the geography of the valley of the Don, the river basin in which
Sheffield is situated, I am anxious again to assure the local members of this Section
that I do not presume to give lessons to them respecting their own country. My
objects are rather to point out the ready means of acquiring geographical knowledge
at their own doors, and to explain the connection between geography and other
sciences, especially geology, by making use of the illustrations furnished by a
special region.

I shall endeavour to show you, although geography requires the aid of other
sciences—of geology in explaining the physical phenomena on the earth’s surface ;
of ethnology, in treating of the effects of climate and other physical conditions on
the races of men; of botany and zoology in studying the distribution of plants
and animals; of meteorology ; and of history in telling us of the changes that have
been progressing in former ages—that nevertheless our science forms a distinct
body of knowledge, with its own objects, and its own methods of research.

The river basin of the Don, the region of which Sheffield is the capital,
occupies an area of 600 square miles, and is about 40 miles in length by 15 to 20
miles wide. It extends from the central water-parting of England eastward to the
tidal waters of the Ouse; and from the sea level to the highest peaks on the
water-parting there is a rise of nearly 2,000 feet. At the first glance over this
region we see at once how diversified are the physical features it presents, from
craggy heights round the sources of the Don to the levels of Hatfield Chase and
Thorne Waste. This diversity assists an inhabitant to study, round his own home,
many of the geographical problems which he reads or hears of in connection with
distant regions, where nature has worked on a grander or more extended scale.
Instead of confining himself to the study of books, he may go to the book of nature
which is open before him, and to which he will return with ever-increasing delight
and interest. For almost every geographical point that he meets with in the
course of study will be found illustrated in the physical features of his native
river-basin ; and if the chances of life lead to his becoming a traveller in distant
Oe he can have had no better training than a study of the valley of the Don
affords,

A range of mountains containing the sources of the Don extends for some
twenty miles, and forms the western rim of the river basin. To the north is
Ramsden Clough, where the Don and Calder take their rise, and near here the Holme
Moss attains a height of 1,860 feet. The country is diversified by high hills of

426 REPORT—1879.

moorland and deep valleys, through which the Don makes its way until it reaches
Penistone, when it takes a sharp turn to the south, and flows along the eastern
skirts of the hills, receiving several tributaries. First, the Little Don rises on
Langsett and Harden Moors, and falls into the parent stream at Deep Car. Next
comes the Ewden Beck flowing down a moorland dell, and joining the Don
opposite to the woods of Wharncliffe. The Locksley rises in a desolate and
mountainous waste on the borders of Derbyshire, and is at first a torrent—the
Dale Dyke, dashing over a rocky bed amidst beautiful and romantic scenery, so
well described by Mr. Davis: ‘Lower down there are scattered hamlets, sylvan
nooks of rare loveliness, villages nestled under the shelter of the hills, shaded by
overhanging woods, At the village of Locksley the scenery becomes very beautiful.
The river runs through a narrow gorge, with precipitous crags on either side, and,
at Malin Bridge it opens on a plain where the Locksley and Rivelin unite, and falls.
into the Don.’ Lastly, the Sheaf and Porter brooks, flowing through vales
which were once yery beautiful, unite in this town of Sheffield, and also send their
waters to swell the Don. Ebenezer Elliott, the poet of this district, had the true
spirit of a geographer when, with a light but accurate touch, he swiftly strikes
note after note of his homely lyre, at each touch calling up a clear memory in the
mind of his fellow-townsmen :—

Say, shall we wander where, through warriors’ graves,
The infant Yewden, mountain cradled, trills

Her Doric notes? Or where the Locksley raves

Of broil and battle, and the rocks and caves

Dream yet of ancient days? Or where the sky
Darkens o’er Rivelin, the clear and cold,

That throws his blue length, like a snake, from high 2
Or where deep azure brightens into gold,

O’er Sheaf, that mourns in Eden? Or where, roll’d
On tawny sands, through regions passion wild

And groves of love, in jealous beauty dark,
Complains the Porter, Nature’s thwarted child,

Born in the waste, like headlong Wyming.

These tributaries drain the wild moorlands, while the river which receives
them flows from north to south, from Penistone to Sheffield, down a deep glen
along the foot of the western hills, and confined on the east by the steep forest-
clad escarpment of Wharncliffe, with a background of higher fells.

At Sheffield the Don entirely alters its course, turning to the north-east, and
flowing through a country diversified by high hills and deep valleys, but still far
less rugged and lofty than the western hills, which are drained by the torrent-like
affluents. Here the Don receives the Rother from the south; and some miles fur-
ther on, the Dearne, with a course entirely within this lower and less rugged
country, enters from the northern side.

Readers of ‘ Ivanhoe’ will remember that this is ‘ the pleasant district of merry
England, watered by the river Don, where extended in ancient times a large forest,
covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield
and the pleasant town of Doncaster.’ At Locksley, in the mountain glen above
Sheffield, was the birthplace of bold Robin Hood, all this region was the scene of
his exploits, and away to the east, in the same river-basin of the Don, is Robin
Hood’s well, and Barnesdale—scene of the encounter described in the ballad of
‘Guy of Gisborne.’ As the Don, in this part of its course, approaches the old
castle of Conisborough, it enters upon a fertile stretch of meadow land. Sir Wal-
ter Scott, in ‘Ivanhoe,’ says that ‘there are few more beautiful or striking scenes
in England than are presented by the vicinity of this ancient fortress; where the
soft and gentle river Don sweeps through an amphitheatre in which cultivation is
richly blended with woodland.’

After leaving Conisborough a change takes place in the scenery. There is a
plateau, some four or five miles in width, and extending north and south across
the river-basin, terminating on the west with a clearly defined escarpment.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 427

Through this plateau both the Don and its tributary the Went, flowing in a
parallel course to the north, have to force their way. The rivers flow through nar-
row valleys of fertile pasture bordered by undulating wooded banks, and the
western escarpment, in the Went valley, is bold and picturesque. Leaving this
region at Hexthorpe, the Don enters a level plain which, beyond Doncaster, is in
places overlaid with peat, and there are wide stretches of marsh-lands called car's ;
a vast level extending to the Humber.

Such are the general features of the Don river-basin, which would strike the
least observant traveller. But the physical geographer investigates and explains
the occurrence of these features. He inquires why the western hills are the
loftiest and most craggy; why the Don changes its course and flows in a deep
trough along their skirts; why the adjoining country, though still hilly, is softer
in outline. He examines into the reason of the existence of a belt of plateau land
through which the Don and Went have to pass in scarped ravines ; and into the
causes which have led to the formation of the vast levels extending from Don-
caster to the Humber. In these researches, our science receives aid from geology,
which tells us the nature of the various rocks and the influence they have on the vary-
ing features of the earth’s surface as we now see it. We do not concern ourselves with
the way in which the rocks were originally formed, with lists of fossils with long
Latinized names, or with the condition of the earth’s surface in the remote ages when
those fossils were living creatures, We are only interested to know the nature
and texture of the rocks as they now exist, the order of their deposition, and
their economic uses. This information teaches us the causes which have produced
the varied configuration of the surface as we now see it.

Geology tells us the story of the formation of the Penine range of mountains
where the Don and its tributaries have their sources. The disturbances which the
beds of rock have undergone have had the effect of crumpling them up into a
number of troughs and arches. As each arch was raised up, the denudation took
slice after slice off its crest, so that along the saddle of each anticlinal line the
lower beds were laid bare, and now appear on the surface. The Pennine anti-
clinal, of which the hills containing the sources of the Don form a part, is a broad
arch extending north and south from Scotland to Derbyshire. Along the central
line of this arch, in the part whence flow the Don sources, the hard massive sand-
stones of the millstone-grit come out and, on account of their hardness, stand up
in a chain of rugged and lofty hills and moorland plateaux. It is the hardness of
the rock in the millstone-grit formation which produces the strongly featured
country of this part of the Penine range, and, by offering greater resistance to
denudation, maintains the superior height of these hills over all the country on
both sides.

Where the Don makes its great southerly bend from Penistone to Sheffield the
surface formation has changed, its course is then over the lower coal measures and
skirting the edge of the millstone-grit. In this fact, no doubt, is to be found the
reason of the direction taken by the river. The country where the lower coal
measures form the surface shows a repetition of the features of the millstone-
grit region, but somewhat less marked, and with less elevation.

On leaving Sheffield, the Don changes its course and enters the country of the
middle coal measures, where the bold features which characterise the lower coal
measures and the millstone-grit are missing. Here again there are indications of
the causes which decided the direction of the river bed. There are two faults
Yanging in a north-east direction from Sheffield, along either side of the valley of
the Don, towards Conisborough, and between these faults the rocks are much con-
torted. The southerly Don fault passes S.W. to N.E. through Sheffield, along the
south-east margin of the Don valley to near Aldwark, and runs on by Thrybergh
and Hooton Roberts to Cadeby. The thick beds of sandstone which alternate
with the coal in this formation often form bold escarpments, such as the ridge
which adds so much to the beauty of Wentworth Park.

We can next account for the picturesque ravines through which the Don and
Went find their way before reaching the levels. For here is the more recent
Permian formation of magnesian limestone which extends in a narrow belt, four or

428 REPORT—1879,

five miles in width, right across Yorkshire from the North Riding to Nottingham-
shire. Wherever the rivers force their way across this limestone, we find picturesque
scenery. Outside the Don valley we have Jackdaw Crags, near Thorparch, rising
over the river Wharfe and Anston Rocks to the south, within the Trent drainage
system. On the south-east bank of the Don also there is a bold escarpment; and
the Went is, on either hand, bounded by precipices of limestone, where it cuts its
way through the Permian formation.

Eastward of the magnesian limestone, which forms a distinct escarpment across
the river-basin from north to south, is the Trias formation, consisting of the deep
red Bunter Sandstone on which the town of Doncaster is built. But the Trias
only occurs in patches, and is generally overlaid by the muddy deposits from the
Humber, on which are the wide expanses of level peat moss, ranging from 1 to
20 feet in thickness. In cutting through this peat, cones of Scotch firs haye
been plentifully found, and in the lower layers there are stumps of trees firmly
rooted into the sand, proving that a forest once grew there.

Tt will have been seen how the geology of the Don basin helps us to understand
its physical features. The different formations decide the position of the water-

arting, the direction of the drainage, and even the character of the scenery. A
owledge is often desirable, not only of the surface rock, but also of the formation
which underlies it. When, for example, the magnesian limestone rests on a hard
sandstone, its escarpment often rises to more importance than when its foundations
are on a softer rock,

The distribution of plants, which is another and a very interesting branch of
inquiry in the study of physical geography, is decided chiefly by climate and alti-
tude above the sea, but it also depends a good deal upon the soils and the forma-
tions from which they come, and here again geology is useful to the geographer.

On the millstone-grit mountains we find high Alpine plants, but not in such
abundance as in other parts of the Penine range to the north, when it reaches a
higher altitude, and where the mountain limestone comes to the surface ; and we
are told that the characteristic of this formation is many individuals but few
species. The ivy-leaved campanula is found by the moorland rills, pennywort
grows wild at Bradfield, and the hills contain a rare fern ( Asplenium lanceolatum)
discovered by Dr. Gatty, the locality of which is wisely kept a secret from ruthless
collectors. But the oak is the prevalent and self-sown tree on this gritstone soil,
and is indigenous in the beautiful woods of Wharneliffe. Elliot sings of the
‘ Rivelin Oak,’ and Evelyn, in his ‘ Sylva,’ records the gigantic size of some of the
trees in Sheffield Park.

In the valley of the Dearne, and generally over the coal measures, the Jlora is
not rich. The alternations of shales and clay hold the rainfall above them, instead
of allowing it to filter quickly away, and cause a wet and stiff soil. In the
Permian formation, on the other hand, there are many uncommon limestone-
loving plants, and the levels beyond Doncaster abound in marsh plants.

A cursory study of the floras in these several formations, guided by the labours
of botanists, will enable the geographer to appreciate the causes which influence
the distribution of plants, and the various effects of soils, altitude above the sea,
moisture and temperature. In extending his view, he would compare the flora of
the Don river-basin with those of neighbouring basins, and thus obtain a know-
ledge of the comparative flora of a wider region, and of the influences which regu-
late its distribution. There cannot be any better training for the study of botanical
geography on a broader and more general scale.

Meteorology is also an important element in the study of physical geography,
not only as determining climate, and its’influence on plant distribution, but as
affecting the hydrography of a region, and the amount and rapidity of denudation.
Its study should not be confined to mere registration, the barren results of which
have too often been demonstrated. It is very seldom that reliable observations
range over a sufficiently long time to give useful results even in countries where
there is a trigonometrical survey (the height of civilisation), and scarcely ever in
less advanced districts. In Mr. Harrison’s interesting history of the flood of 1864,
I notice a record of the rainfall in the Dale Dyke valley, varying from 46 inches

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 429

in 1859 to 38 in 1861; and at Barnsley, within the Don valley, there was an
extraordinary difference between the annual rainfalls of two succeeding years,
namely, 42 inches in 1872, and 16 in 1873. The latter example shows the
necessity for a series of observations extending over many years. The geographer,
in his meteorological researches, should not of course neglect registration. On the
contrary, he should be habitually exact on this point; but he should be careful, at
the same time, to collect all kinds of information respecting normal and abnormal
seasons, and all other particulars which might serve both to supplement and to
check his observations.

In all these branches of the subject the comparative elements should be kept
in view. We must look back as far as the records of history will allow us, to
learn the causes of the present state of the surface of our district, from its past
condition at various historical epochs. It is here that the historian and the topo-
grapher come to our aid. Time is a powerful and active agent in these changes;
but the most interesting and instructive side of the subject is the examination of
the effects of human agency in the changes on the earth’s surface.

From this point of view the history of a mountain range frequently offers a
most valuable subject for study. Mountains usually supply within themselves a
natural regulator which checks the rapid flow of the rain water in surface drainage.
The absence of such a regulator causes disastrous floods. The regulator acts as a
sponge, and is supplied either in the form of a large area of forest, of swamps or

eat bogs, of a system of lakes, or of artificial reservoirs. Where there are no
orests, nature usually supplies their place with swampy moors,

The surface of the wild moors where the springs of the Don and its tributaries
take their rise is covered with heath and ferns, and in winter, after heavy rains,
the ground is spongy, and persons have been lost and buried init. A Inowledge
of these moors explains the route taken by William the Conqueror in February
1070, in his winter march from York to Chester. The horses of the knights were
swallowed up by the treacherous swamps, and swept away by the torrents;
and the record of Ordericus Vitalis gives a vivid picture of a march across the
Penine chain in mid-winter 800 years ago. In this condition it long remained,
and eyen now the unchanging hills are little altered. But at the same time that
cultivation encroached on the moorland sponge, the necessities of great centres of
population have called for the construction of large artificial reservoirs, which also
serve the purpose of regulating the flow of surface drainage.

There is the artificial lake of Dunford bridge near the main source of the Don.
The reservoir at Barker Pool, in use since 1434, appears to have been the first
artificial attempt to store water for use in Sheffield, and afterwards a chain of
dams in the valley on Crooks Moor met the demand. In 1864 the Dale Dyke or
Bradfield Reservoir was completed, covering an area of 78 acres; and on the
11th of March it burst through the dam, making a breach 100 yards long and 70
deep. This appalling catastrophe, so admirably described by Mr. Harrison, shows
the irresistible power of floods in motion which, in other countries, are the work
of nature unaided by the labours of man. The cataclysms of the Indus, for
example, in 1841, and of the Sutlej, in 1819, were caused, not by faulty con-
struction of an engineer’s dam, but by the rending away of the shoulder of a
mountain which had fallen into the river-beds. But the effects were similar.
The lesson of the desolating flood of 1864 was profited by in Sheffield, and the
work of storing water proceeded. In 1869 the Agden Dam was completed. The
Strines Reservoir was finished in 1872, the Dale Dyke in 1874, and the Dam
Flask in 1875, the united area forming, I understand, 300 acres of water.

The necessity for the storage of water, owing to the destruction of forests, and
for irrigation purposes, is often a subject of discussion with reference to other
mountain ranges, and to disastrous floods in other countries; and the native of
Sheffield may acquire a practical knowledge of many sides of an important problem
by an observant exploration of the hills and moorlands within a few miles of his
own home.

The effects of human agency on the aspects of nature are also very strikingly
displayed in the country between Sheffield and Doncaster, and northwards towards

430 REPORT—1879.

Barnsley and Pontefract. Now this recion is alive with busy collieries, iron works
and quarry workings—is covered with cultivation and intersected by canals and
railways. Within historical times it was a vast forest, with patches of cultivation
at long intervals, and dominated by the mighty barons, the Furnivals and Warrens,
in the feudal castles of Sheffield and Conisborough. There are still patches of the
primeval forests, or at least tracts which have never been under cultivation. The parks
of Wentworth and Wortley and Thrybergh have probably never known the plough,
and in the smaller area of Aldwark there have been Clarels, Fitzwilliams, and
Foljambes for at least six centuries. One would expect to find plants, the survivors
of an old forest or marsh flora, in these patches, which are unknown or uncommon
elsewhere; and this appears to be the case. We are told, for instance, that at
Aldwark the rare Stellaria glauca grows, and that the Carex elongata has been
found there, though not recently, It is probable that many points of geographical
interest would be deduced by an intelligent observer who makes a careful comparison
of the descriptions of the country in past times with its actual condition.

But the most remarkable effects of man’s agency are to be observed in the levels
upon which the Don enters after leaving the town of Doncaster.

The vast expanse of levels comprised in Hatfield Chase, Thorne Waste, and
Goole Moors covers several square miles. Hatfield Chase alone has an area of
70,000 acres, and was a wild country consisting of forest and moor, intersected by
watercourses and dotted with large pools and swamps. The waters of the Don
spread over this expanse, the overflow finding its way to the Trent at Adlingfleet.
The Idle, now part of the Trent system, also emptied its waters into the great
levels. There were large meres or lakes yielding much fish and frequented by all
kinds of water-fowl, and boats were the means of communication between Thorne
and Hatfield. There were a few islands rising above the level, such as Lindholme,
in Hatfield Turf Moor, which could only be reached in seasons of extreme drought.
The Earls Warren of Conisborough Castle had a timber-house at Hatfield, whither
they went to hunt the deer in a well-stocked park. Here the second son of
Edward IIJ., named William of Hatfield, was born, and Henry, the eldest son
of Richard Duke of York, in 1441. William of Worcester also mentions another
event relating to the Duke of York and the Duchess Cicely as happening at Hatfield,
which I need not further particularise. The births of these Plantagenets at
Hatfield are only interesting to the geographer because they indicate the nature of
the surrounding country, which would afford attractions to that sport-loving race :
@ wild district abounding in game.

One of these royal hunts took place in 1609, when Henry, Prince of Wales,
embarked at Tudworth, accompanied by a hundred boats. Deer, to the number of
five hundred, were frighted out of the woods and closes, and all took to the water,
being driven into Thorne Mere, where the fattest were killed.

This was the last royal hunt in the Hatfield swamps; for in 1626 the famous
undertaking was inaugurated which has effected so marvellous a change in this
part of the Don basin. In that year Cornelius Vermuyden, of Tholen in Zealand,
with the aid of Dutch capital and Dutch labour, undertook to drain the levels.
The south channel of the Don, by which it discharged its waters into the Trent,
was to be stopped, and all the waters were forced into the north channel to flow
into the Aire. The river Idle, which spread its waters over the level, was to be
stopped also, and carried by a new channel into the Trent; and deep drains were
to be cut to the Trent from the great ponds and swamps round Thorne and Hatfield.
The Dutch labourers, who understood the work thoroughly, made rapid progress ;
but there was one great mistake in the original design. It was soon found that
the north channel could not carry off all the Don water to the Aire, and there was
great loss from floodings of the adjacent lands. It then became necessary to make
the existing straight cut from the Don to the Ouse at Goole, which is known as the
Dutch river, and this added so largely to the cost that it prevented the undertaking
from being commercially successful to the first adventurers. Many Dutch families,
however, settled on the reclaimed lands ; and one of their descendants, Abraham
de la Pryme, wrote a history of the undertaking.

The change has been wonderful, and it now seems almost incredible that boats

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 431

‘were once the means of communication between Thorne and Hatfield. The
fertility of the banks of the Ouse has also been maryellously increased by the
system of warping which was introduced early in the last century. Mr. Ralph
Creyke, of Raweliffe, warped 429 acres, and received the gold medal of the
Society of Arts in 1825 for his interesting paper on the subject. Warp is a fine
light-brown sediment held in suspension in the river. It is soft and silky to the
touch and contains numerous glistening scales of mica. The land to be warped is
surrounded by a substantial bank. The water is then admitted, and kept there by
closing the flood-gates until the second return of the tide, when it is allowed to
flow off. The same process is repeated at the next tide, mud being deposited.
Thus either a new soil is created or a thin and poor soil improved, there being 12
to 16 inches deposited in one season, and even more. Indeed, as many as 10 to 15
acres have been known to be covered with 2 to 3 feet of warp during one spring
of ten to twelve tides. An expert warp-farmer can, by careful attention to the
eurrents, even temper his soil as he pleases. For the heaviest particles are first
deposited, which are those of sand. Then a mixture of sand and fine mud, the
most valuable soil. Lastly the pure mud subsides, which is rich but tenacious.
The great point is to get the second and mixed deposit over the whole surface, and
this is done by keeping the water in constant motion, for the last deposit only takes
place in still water. Mr. Caird mentions that fifty years ago Armyn pastures, near
‘Goole, were mostly under water, a breeding-place for wild ducks, and the rest
yielded a few cranberries. Now 400 acres are under crops.

We thus see the important influence that human agency has had in determining
the character of the earth’s surface, and of what consequence a study of the
history of that agency must always be to the comparative geographer. Away in
the western hills large artificial lakes have altered the face of the wild moorlands.
In the region between Sheffield and Doncaster the forest haunts of Robin Hood
haye disappeared before the collieries and ironworks, the cultivators and quarriers
of modern times. In the levels high cultivation and warp-farms occupy the sites
of wide lakes and swamps and dreary wastes, while the courses of the rivers have
been altered. Kindred changes have taken place or are in progress in other parts
of the world, often upon a much larger scale; so that a study of the effects of
human agency in the valley of the Don is an admirable training for a more
-extended examination of the facts of comparative geography.

Our science also occupies itself with the economic statistics of the earth, with
the circulation of trade and the products of various regions. Geographers note,
for example, the uses of rocks and soils, and the mineral resources of a district. In
the millstone-grit range of hills it belongs to geography to record that the lowest
-grit or Ainderscout furnishes blocks for engine beds, for foundations, and reservoir
works, but that there are difficulties in making use of it owing to the wild and
inaccessible character of a great part of the country in which it is found. We
should note that the second grit is quarried for road-paving, and that the first or
upper grit (called rough rock) is good building-stone ; that the lowest underclay
-of the coal measures is a valuable fire clay which is largely wrought; that the
Elland flagstones are extensively quarried and cut into blocks and slabs; and that
the magnesian limestone is used for lime-burning and repairing the roads. We
should also note the positions and yield of the collieries, the statistics of the iron
trade, the agricultural statistics, and the commercial routes, as well as the distribu-
tion of population. Many of these vital interests of the region are capable of
cartographic illustration. ; wit :

This region round Sheffield is fortunate in its writers, who have made the road
easy for future students. Your very poets, Ebenezer Elliott and James Mont-
gomery, were endowed by nature with geographical instincts. Few districts have
had such topographers as Hunter and Eastwood, Holland and Gatty, or so able an
antiquary as Mr. Stacye. The authors of the ‘Geology of the Yorkshire Coal Field’
have furnished you with a detailed history of your rocks; and in their admirable
work on the physical geography and botanical topography of West Yorkshire, Mr.
James W. Davis and Dr. Lees have rendered you an inestimable service. From
their work I have derived many of the ideas and a great deal of the information

432 REPORT—1879.

which have been submitted to you in this paper; and I must pay my tribute of
admiration to the excellence of their design, and to the ability and learning that
they haye brought to bear on its execution. It is much to be desired that their
example should be copied by other workers, and that books on the same plan
should be prepared for the rest of England. But a combination of equal energy,
learning, and literary skill is not easily to be found.

T have now endeavoured, to the best of my ability, by using illustrations from
the river-basin in which this town is situated, to bring to the notice of the Section
a complete view of the objects and methods of the science of geography. My aim
has been to show that geographical researches may be made within the range of a
few miles of your own homes, and that there can be no better training for a
geographer than the study of the various branches of inquiry which are comprised
in our science, within his own river-basin. If I should succeed in arousing an interest
in the subject, in the minds of only a few of the natives of Hallamshire, my object
will be attained; for it is by the formation of such small centres of workers that a
whole mass is leayened, and it is thus that steady advances in the varied pursuits
and objects which are included in human progress are secured.

The following Papers were read :—

’ 1. The Trade Routes from Bengal to Tibet.
By Lieut.-Col. T. H. Lewy, late Deputy Commissioner of Darjiling.

In the absence of statistics of the actual trade which the author had not had
time to obtain from India, a general view only could be given of the nature and
extent of the present exports and imports between India and Tibet. The chief
wealth of Tibet lies in her flocks and herds; and were the passes open and the
roads improved, large quantities of cows, sheep and goats, wool, cheese, and butter
would find their way to our territory. At present the export of live stock is
limited to the carrying capacity of the animals themselves. The Tibetan traders
drive in before them sufficient sheep, goats, or yak to supply them with food on
the road, and to carry the goods and merchandise which they bring with them.
No trade in live stock is carried on, save that a few ponies come in for sale ; and of
late years even these have decreased in numbers and increased in price. Other
articles brought to India by Tibetan traders, are—coarse woollen blankets and
carpets, sheep’s wool (to northern and central Himalayan districts), yaks’ tails,
musk, borax, and rhubarb. The country abounds in minerals, which are not
worked, except gold ina rude fashion. The gold-fields extend along the base of
the southern watershed of the Brahmaputra, and the gold-diggers come chiefly
from the country round Shigatze. But the most important of all the exports from
Tibet is brick-tea, obtained from Sze-chuen, from a coarse-tasted leaf, which the
inhabitants, however, prefer to the finer teas grown in our own plantations of
Assam and the Himalayan valleys. Tea is one of the principal sources of revenue
to the Lhasa Government, and the trade is guarded with jealousy from foreign com-
petition. The imports into Tibet are far more important at present than the exports :
chief among them are English broadcloths and woollens. The great lack of fuel
and the cold dry air of these high mountains render warm clothing an absolute ne-
cessity of life, thus the cold-weather clothing of a Tibetan is almost like a vast
moving bed, and our English broadcloths are highly prized. The Tibetans are
somewhat superstitious as to the colours to be worn. They will not wear blue or
black, and only persons of rank wear velvet; their favourite colours are scarlet,
purple, a liver-brown, and a snuff-coloured yellow. Turkey-red cloths, prints and
flowered calicoes are in good demand. Imitations of Indian handkerchiefs and
Cashmere shawls are very popular among the lower classes; chintzes do not seem
to be worn. Cottons are not used, save for linings, and also as coverings for sacred
pictures. Cheap silk handkerchiefs, especially if the sacred sentence Om mant
paduni houm were woven into the fabric. There is a good demand for indigo and
opium. Quicksilver, vermilion, and red and white lead are also imported in con-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 433

siderable quantities, for gilding the roofs of religious houses. Wall shades, chande-
liers, tumblers, wine-glasses, small mirrors, and lanterns find a ready sale. English
cutlery, knives and scissors are much prized, and if our manufacturers would con-
descend to work upon native models a much larger sale would be commanded.

After passing in review the various trade-routes from India to Tibet, vid Assam,
Bhutan, Darjiling, and Nepaul, and giving a brief historical sketch of our commer-
cial and political relations with Tibet, Nepaul, and Bhutan, the author summed up
by saying that he thought the arguments in favour of a trade route from Darjiling
to China wd Tibet were very strong, Lhasa is less than a month’s journey for an
unladen man from our frontier ; once there, the old established trade-routes between
Tibet and China are open to us, leading by well-known roads to the great river-
basins of the Hoang Ho and the Yang-Tsze. The great province of Sze-chuen,
with its 30 millions of inhabitants, would be opened up, and its silk, tea, rhubarb,
musk, jade, amber, and cinnabar obtainable in exchange for British manufactures.
The inhabitants of Tibet are a peaceful, well-educated and commercially well-dis-
posed race. The routes through Burmah have been tried and have failed. A
better route to China may perhaps be found through Assam, but only when railway
communication shall be extended up the valley of the Brahmaputra. In future
this will be the best road, but for the next 50 years the central route vid Darjiling
will no doubt be the best. The Tibetans are Buddhists, and the creed of Buddhism
is based on the equality and brotherhood of mankind. It will not be religious
intolerance which bars the way to Lhasa; the real obstacles to be contended with
are and will be commercial interests. It is the interest of the Lamas or governing
classes to exclude us, for, at present, they hold a practical monopoly of the trade,
and profit largely both from the duties on important goods, and by the sale of
permits to the traders: and it is also the interest of the traders to keep us out;
for competition would be ruinous to their present high rate of profits. The real
cause of Chinese opposition to us in Tibet lies in their fear that we shall oust
them from their commercial and political pre-eminence in the country. In conclu-
sion, the author urged the necessity of our insisting on the carrying out of the
privileges with regard to Tibet granted to us by the Chefoo Convention. A clause
in this treaty sanctions our intercourse with the country, and authorises our send-
ing a mission thither. This mission should be sent, and we should direct our efforts
to establishing permanent trading agents or consuls at Shigatze and Lhasa, or trad-
ing-posts on the frontier at Chumbi and Phakri, similar to that possessed by the
Russians at Kiachta,

2. The Upper Cowrse of the Brahmaputra River. By C. E. D. Brack.

The river Sanpu forms a unique and important feature in the geography of
Tibet, for the two provinces of U and Tsang occupy its basin from the Mariam-la
pass eastward. Until last year the lower course of the Sanpu was a matter of
complete uncertainty. Klaproth had contended that its waters discharged them-
selves into the Irrawaddy (a theory which had been recently revived and ably
argued by a aed in India), while two years ago Colonel Godwin-Austen
suggested that the Subansiri might be the lower course of the Sanpu. Although
the question cannot be looked upon as settled beyond all possibility of doubt, a
recent exploration of its lower course has left very little room for theory in the
matter.

The Sanpu rises in Western Tibet in 82° KE. longitude and 30° 35’ N. latitude
at a height of upwards of 15,000 feet above sea-level. It thence flows eastward
over a series of elevated undulating plains, where are found sheep, goats, and yaks.
On the south lie gigantic glaciers, clothing the slopes of the central Himalaya.
From thence its course lies pretty uniformly eastward, while it is joined both on the
right and left by some seven or eight tributaries of varying importance, those from
the south appearing to proceed from glaciers, while those from the north by the
clearness of their waters would seem to have a different origin. The principal
aera a in the basin of the Sanpu are Jang-lache, Shigatze, and Lhasa. These

9. FF

434 REPORT—1879.

are connected with themselves and with Gartok in the extreme north-west by a
remarkable road 800 miles long, which follows in a general direction the course of
the main river to the junction of the Lhasa river. This road is dotted at intervals
by brick-built post-houses for travellers and for the special official messengers who
cover the entire distance in an average period of 23 days, The Sanpu is spanned
by a few bridges, but these are nearly all unsafe, and the usual method of crossing
is by clumsy ferry-boats, which are minutely described by Mr. Bogle, Warren
Hastings’s envoy.

The furthest point to which the Sanpu had been traced was Chetang, a village
the position of which had been fixed by Pundit Nain Singh. In 1877 a native
surveyor, N ©, was despatched by General J. T. Walker, Surveyor-General
of India, to follow and map out the course of the Sanpu eastward of this point,
and as far as possible. Crossing to the northern bank of the river, he followed it
eastwards for about 30 miles, and then had to diverge to the north-east and back
again towards the south-east for a distance of 50 miles, while the river itself
wended its way through impenetrable mountains for about 20 miles. Up to Gyatsa-
Jong, the point where he struck the Sanpu again, the river flows pretty much as
reported by Nain Singh, but beyond that point it proves to flow first due eastward
for about 50 miles and then north-east for about 80 miles. It reaches its most
northern point near the intersection of the meridian of 94° with the parallel of 30°
about 12 miles to the north-east of a place which the explorer calls Chamkar, and
which apparently may be identified with D’Anville’s Tchamea. After attaining
its most northern point, the river turns due south-east, reaching Gya-la-Singdong
in 15 miles, From this point the explorer was unable to follow it. Thence, how-
ever, he saw that it flowed on for a great distance, passing through a considerable
opening in the mountain ranges, to the west of a high peak called Jung-la.
Beyond this opening the river was said to pass through a country inhabited by
savages into a land ruled by the British. The distance between Gya-la-Singdong
and the highest point hitherto fixed on the Dihong would thus be only about 100
miles. The height of Gya-la-Singdong was found to be 8000 feet, showing that
the river had fallen about 3500 feet in 200 miles, and leaving a descent of 7000
feet for the distance of 160 miles to its junction with other Himalayan rivers.

This exploration gives an interesting explanation of the large bulk of the
Subansiri, as within the large bend of the Sanpu room is left for a northern feeder
of that river. The recent measurement of the discharges of the Assam rivers
by Lieutenant Harman! also testify to the probability of the Dihong being the only
possible lower course of the Sanpu.

Corroborative information of this theory is also supplied by the Abbé Desgodins’s
researches as communicated to the French Geographical Society, as he had been
informed that some days’ journey east of Lhasa the river turns southward with a
long bend and traversing the Hia-yul district flows into the Lhopa country under
the name Dehon.

The combined information thus afforded appears to argue irresistibly in favour
of the identity of the Sanpu and Dihong.

3, The Dutch Expedition to Central Sumatra.
By Professor P. J. Vatu, President of the Dutch Geographical Society.

Although we possess in Marsden’s ‘ History of Sumatra’ the best and most ex-
haustive general work on that island, still it is antiquated, and the nowledge of
the country in his time was even less complete than it is now. The war in Achen
since 1873 has increased our acquaintance with the northern province, and in
Central and Southern Sumatra many explorers have recently been at work,
especially on the west coast. But an extensive area from the central mountain
range towards the east coast yet remains comparatively unknown, and has been
taken in hand by the Dutch Geographical Society, which determined to investigate
the Jambi district (about equivalent to the Congo in African exploration). The

‘See J. Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol, xlviii. part 2, 1879.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 435

Sultanate of Jambi, comprised in the river basin of the Batang-Hari, is coterminous
on the west with the Padang Highlands and Bencoolen, along the water-parting
of the island ; it is bounded on the south by Palembang, on the north by districts
dependent on the Sultan of Liugga, and on the east by the sea. It is watered by
a fine navigable river, the Batang-Hari, with several important tributaries, and
comprises districts rich in natural products and peopled by industrious inhabitants.
Sultan Taha, having been driven inland by the Dutch in 1858, and his uncle Ahmed
set up in his place, is naturally opposed to Europeans and averse to exploration.
The Dutch Geographical Society, however, sent out an expedition, divided into
two parties, one from the west to explore the sources of the Batang-Hari and its
affluents; the other under Lieutenant Schoun Santvoort to go up the river ina
steam-launch from the east coast, with the intention of meeting the first party.
At the end of March 1877, Schoun Santvoort made an unaccompanied successful
preliminary journey from Padang, crossing the mountains and descending the river
to Jambi in a boat ; he then went to Batavia for the launch and returned to Jambi
on June 7, but died on November 23, before ascending the river, of the lower part
of which he had made an accurate survey. Lieutenant Cornelissen, who succeeded
him in command, after two attempts to ascend the river in which he was foiled by
native opposition, returned to Jambi, where he remained until last March, collecting
information.

The western party, under Mr, Van Hasselt, accompanied by a son of the author
of the paper, commenced with a survey of the southern division of the Padang
Highlands. Excursions were made for ascertaining the navigability of the affluents
of the Batang-Hari, collecting specimens, photographing, and ascending peaks,
including Mount Talung and Mount Karinchi (11,820 ft., never before ascended).
The precise course and navigability of the main river was ascertained for a con-
siderable distance, and a considerable bend towards the north discovered; this
is of great importance, as it brings the river nearer than was expected to the
valuable coalfields of the valley of the river Ombilin, for which an east coast out-
let is required in the direction of Singapore and Batavia. The name Ombilin is
given to the upper course of the Indragini, which falls into the sea north of the
Batang-Hari, but is not supposed to be so large or so navigable. In January 1878
the party returned to Padang, intending to start for the interior from Palembang
on the south. Accordingly, Van Hasselt and Veth went up the river Musa and its
affluent the Rawas by boat to Muara Rupit, whence they marched to Surulangum,
the residence of the chief officer in Rawas, the northern district of Palembang.
Pending negotiations with Payung Putik, the only friendly chief, an endeavour to
penetrate the district of Batang Asei in Jambi was not successful. The district of
Lebang was, however, visited, and the explorers advanced through it to Rejang,
returning to Surulangum in June 1878, through Sindang. Photographs and
ethnological and zoological collections were secured during this part of the journey.
The friendly chief having declared his readiness to admit the party, Van Hasselt
and Veth crossed the frontier and reached the Limun, a feeder of the Tambesi, the
main southern tributary of the Batang-Hari. They got as far as Temiang on the
Limun, which is about thirty miles distant from the farthest point reached by
Cornelissen in his ascent from the east coast, but were then compelled to retreat
by a muster in force, finally reaching Surulangum on July 9, all exploration from
Palembang being abandoned. Van Hasselt then joined Cornelissen at Jambi,
returning overland to Padang, and Veth crossed the entire Palembang Residency
on foot, reaching Jambi in September. Both have now returned to Holland, with
many valuable observations and collections. The most important result of this
expedition is the gain in Imowledge of the great extent and capabilities of the
Batang-Hari, which is found to be about 210 miles in length in a straight line,
and over 490 miles following its windings, being in fact larger than the Musi om
Palembang, hitherto considered the only large river in Sumatra. It is practicable
for small prahus, used in transport of merchandise, for 480 miles; and the steam-
launch drawing 33 ft. could navigate it for 370 miles, both these distances far
exceeding the navigable portion of the Musi. Its tributaries are also navigable
for boats, and one of them at least for the launch. The population of its district
as a whole is scanty, yet there are numerous villages close to each other; cattle

FF2

436 REPORT—1879.

abound in the highlands, and coffee is largely cultivated in Karinchi. The im-
portance of the river as a highway for the eastern parts of the West Coast Goyern-
ment and the inland districts of Jambi and Karinchi does not therefore merely
depend upon its fitness for transport of coal from the Ombilin valley.

4, Discovery of the Sources of the Chico in Southern Patagonia.
By Dow Ramon Lista.

After a summary of the chief physical characteristics of Patagonia and its
people, and a brief mention of the chief authorities referring to that country, this
paper described the explorations of Don Ramon Lista, who in 1878 was sent by
the Buenos Ayres Government and the Sociedad Cientifica Argentina to investigate
Southern Patagonia for scientific purposes. Having landed at Punta Arenas in
the Straits of Magellan in March, after a careful examination of the mines there
he set out in mid-August on his northward journey. After passing the Santa Cruz
valley, the exploration of the course of the Chico commenced, being the important
part of the undertaking. At the end of September the confluence of the Shehuen
and Chico was reached, and the valley of the latter followed past the curious
isolated basaltic rock Mawaish, to the confluence of a new river on the north side,
named Belgrano by the traveller. On the 19th, a lake was discovered four miles
long and two broad, fed by several streams. The valleys at the foot of the
Cordillera were thickly clothed with fragrant, evergreen, antarctic beeches of very
large size and great age, only found on the skirts of the Andes. Above these trees,
at the extreme point reached, Sefor Lista planted the flag of the Argentine
Confederation. Having examined the two northern sources of the Chico, the
southern one was also explored, and on October 30 the party returned eastward,
reaching an encampment of friendly Tehuelches in the Shehuen Valley on
November 6. These Indians are divided into two great tribes, one inhabiting
northern Patagonia, between the Chubut and Limay, and the other wandering
between the Chubut and the Straits of Magellan. These main divisions contain
many smaller clans, under about ten chiefs. The large average stature of the
Patagonians is in the main confirmed, the tallest man measured being 6 ft. 4 in.
They are indolent and addicted to gambling, but very hospitable and kind, and
with the chase as their only occupation. A collection of words now in use made
by Sefior Lista was found to agree very closely with those given by Pigafetta
in 1520.

Geographers are indebted not only to Lista for his explorations of the Chico,
but to his predecessor Moreno for his examination of the Santa Cruz and discovery
of two lakes. Lista has also brought home many objects of zoological and ethno-~
logical interest.

3. On Present Italian Geographical Explorations. By G. Datta Vupova,
Professor of Geography at the University of Rome, Secretary of the
Italian Geographical Society.

After referring to the national difficulties in the way of Italian geographical
enterprise, the writer enumerated the following modern voyages of exploration by
his countrymen :— :

1. That of Renzo Manzoni, of Milan, who has twice journeyed from Aden to
Sanah in Yemen. Being prevented by native opposition from penetrating further into
the interior both at Sanah and Berbera, he has started for Hadramaut, to make
zoological collections.

2. That of Carlo Piaggia, of Lucca, who in March 1879 started from Khartum
on his way to the Tumut River, and camped near Famaka for the rainy season,
He has probably now left that place, as an invitation has been sent to him by the
Milan African Society to command a new expedition.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 437

3. That of the first Milanese Expedition for Commercial Exploration, sent out
Dy a society founded in 1878, with the object of opening up trade in Abyssinia and
the Red Sea, under the leadership of Dr. Pellegrino Matteucci, who has entered
Tigre and set out for Debra-Tabor to be personally introduced to the chief, Jo-
hannes Kassa, after a stay in Adowa. His plan is to reach Shoa and the Galla
country.

4. The Italian Expedition to Equatorial Africa, This originated in a subserip-
tion promoted three years ago by the Italian Geographical Society, and resulted
in the departure in March 1876 of the Marquis Antinori, Engineer Giovanni
Chiarini, and Lieutenant Sebastiano Martini-Bernardi, with the object of pene-
trating to Shoa from Zeila, then turning southwards, crossing the Galla country to
the Great Lakes, and returning to Zanzibar. At Harar, on the way to Shoa,
Martini was sent back to Europe for fresh supplies, in consequence of theft; he
reached Italy and set out again in March 1877 with Captain Cenhi and reached
Shoa in the following September, finding Antinori to have lost his right hand by a
gun accident. Instead of resuming the proposed journey, Martini was once more
obliged to go back to Italy, on a mission from King Menilek, who made this a con-
dition of his support. This accomplished, he once more started from Italy, in March
last, reached Zeila, where he was met by a special caravan sent to bring him to
Shoa, and started for the interior in July with Count Antonelli and Signor Giu-
lietti, Antinori returning home. Meanwhile Chiarini and Cenhi started in May
1878 for Kaffa, and were last heard from under date of July 20, 1878, at Demekash
in the Guragwe country. Details of the route from Zeila to Shoa and of the phy-
sical and other conditions of the country and its inhabitants; a political history of
Shoa, and economical and ethnological accounts of its people and of the Gallas;
astronomical determinations of positions; plans and route-maps, &c., have already
been received from this expedition, with many zoological and other collections
(more of which are on the road), A station has been granted to the Italians in
the valley of the River Mantek, and is already for the greater part brought under
cultivation.

Besides these four expeditions by Italians, it is to be noted that Lieutenant
Giacomo Bove has charge of the hydrographic operations and surveys of Professor
Nordenskjéld’s N.E, Arctic Expedition, of which he is a member.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22.

The following Papers were read :—
1. Journey across Africa from Benguela to Natal. By Major Serra Pinto.

Starting from Benguela, on the Atlantic coast, Major Pinto proceeded first to
Bihé, a native settlement in the interior, crossing different territories subject to the
King of Portugal, and rectifying the positions of rivers, mountains, and villages,
of which the chief, subject to Portuguese authority, are Quillengues and Caconda.
In May, 1878, in obedience to the instructions of the Portuguese Government, by
svhom he was sent to Africa, he left Bihé, accompanied by good native guides, his
principal object being to investigate the hydrographical system of the country
to the east-south-east of that place, as far as the Zambesi. This country, forming
the southern limit of the Benguelan highlands, stands 5,000 feet above the level
of the sea, and possesses great advantages in its salubrity and commercial and
agricultural capabilities. It is, in fact, of all tropical Africa the territory most
suitable for European colonisation. :

438 REPORT—1879.

Owing to circumstances alien to the wishes of his Government, this journey
was performed with scarcely any resources, the party living on the product of the
chase with occasional help from friendly natives. The traveller was well supplied
with scientific instruments, having two sextants, an artificial horizon, a telescope,
several compasses, three hypsometers, a small aneroid, and thermometers. His
meteorological observations, however, were not quite continuous for the whole
period, on account of interruptions by serious illness. He brought home a great
number of chronometrical longitudes, which cannot contain important errors, as his
chronometers were continually reculated and were compared with the result of the
eclipses of the first satellite of Jupiter. In May, 1878, he had the chance of observ-
ing the transit of Mercury across the sun, and such an observation afforded a
strictly correct longitude.

Before reaching Bihé the traveller was surprised to meet the Cubango (Kubango)
river taking its rise to the west and not to the east of that place, as all existing
maps had led him to believe. This large river receives on the east a great affluent,
the Cuito (Kwito), which unites its waters with the Cubango at a place called
Darico. Within the wide fork formed by the two rivers, the Cuanza (Jwanza, or
Quanza) takes its source with some smaller affluents.

Here was remarked a peculiar feature in the physical geography of this part of
Africa, viz., the dovetailing of the sources of rivers which in the rest of their
courses run in opposite directions. Close to the source of the Cuito rise three
other rivers; two of which flow into the Atlantic by the Cuanza (of which they
are tributaries), and one into the Indian Ocean through the Zambesi. The same
feature is noticeable even beyond Lake Bemba, the Congo and the Zambesi, as well as
their affluents having their sources and mingling their streams near the 12th
parallel of south latitude. ast of the river Cuito, in latitude 13° S. and longitude
19° E., the Cuando (or Kwando, named Chobe by Livingstone, who saw it near
its junction with the Zambesi) takes its rise. This is a large, navigable river,
watering a great extent of inhabited and fertile country. The Cuando receives
several great affluents, as navigable as itself.

In this region, covered by forests and where the elephant still abounds, the
traveller found the Mucassequeres, peculiar from their yellowish-white colour.
They are nomadic and perfectly savage, spending their time continually wandering
in the region between the Cuando and the Cubango. There exists likewise another
nomad tribe, the Mussambas, who are black, and wander about to the south,
making their raids as far as the country of the Sulatebele. These people are, how-
eyer, quite distinct from the Massaruas or Bushmen of the Kalahari desert.

The country between Bihé and the Zambesi is inhabited by three distinct races:
the Kimbandes, the Luchares, and the Ambuellas. Another race is beginning now
to settle there; and there is a considerable emigration of Quibocos (Kibokwes)
coming from the north for the purpose of establishing themselves on the banks of
the Cubango and the Cuando, in their search of more fertile lands. Major Pinto
met large caravans of emigrants, and made a stay in their new settlements.

All the above-mentioned country is splendid, and very fertile; inhabited by
people of a docile character, susceptible of development, and strikingly fond of
dress, a disposition which points to a great prospective market for the consumption
of European manufactures.

These tribes are governed absolutely by independent rulers, and constitute
confederations although belonging to different races. The missionary has never
reached them, nor had any European been seen among them till the arrival of
Major Pinto, who met with a cordial reception.

Travelling eastward, the Liambai (the name given to part of the Zambesi above
the Falls) is the first river met with beyond the Cuando. As regards that part of
this great river which he examined, Major Pinto found these settlements of races
of a very different kind, and of very different customs, from those observed by
Livingstone.

He fancies that the Liambai, where it describes its great curve to the westward,
lies more to the west than Livingstone supposed. Between the 16th parallel of
latitude and the Victoria Falls, a distance of 220 geographical miles, the river has
Seventy-two cataracts and rapids.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 439

At the time Livingstone first visited this part of Africa, it had recently been
conquered by Chibitano (or Sebituane), who induced the native tribes to confede-
rate, thus constituting a powerful empire. Six years afterwards, during the Zam-
besi Expedition, when he visited Sesheke, Livingstone foretold the extinction
of the Makololos, which has since taken place.

Whilst on the Zambesi, Major Pinto met with Machuana, who had been Living-
stone’s companion on his journey to Loanda, and who, being at that time a slave
Pelonging to King Sekeletu, is now an important individual in his capacity of a

uina.

On the west the Zambesi does not receive between the Liba (Leeba) and the
Ouando any other affluents, except the Lungo-é-ungo, and the Nhengo. The latter
is formed by the junction of three rivers: the Ninda, the Loati, and the Luangu-
inga. From the confluence of the Cuando as far as Victoria Falls, it receives only
one small stream close to the cataract. South of the Zambesi and the Cuando, the
land-surface of the country, which from Bihé had declined some 1,200 feet, began
slightly to rise again, and exhibited a rich vegetation. But as far as population is
concerned, this part of the country is a desert ; and only two settlements were met
with, constituting two small villages, Luchuma and Daka, the latter being situated
on a different spot from the village bearing the same name, and formerly existing
there.

The policy adopted by the Matabeli does not permit of the settling of any tribe
on the southern border of the Zambesi. This powerful Zulu tribe look upon that
great river as their natural frontier of defence against their enemies the Luinas, and
eyen they themselves do not settle in that country, in consequence of the bad fevers
prevailing all along the river banks, The soil, however, is fertile; but the country
can never expect a prosperous future, not only in consequence of its climate, but
because of the difficulty of access to it from any point on the African coast. Here
Major Pinto met Dr. Benjamin Bradshaw, an English zoologist, and José Anchietta,
a Portuguese explorer, resident in Africa for eleven years, who holds an official
position under the Portuguese Government, and is employed making scientific
collections for the Zoological Museum in Lisbon. He also met with a French
missionary, M. Coillard, with his wife, a Scotch lady, and their niece, in whose
company he made his journey across from the Zambesi to the Bamangwato country,
and visited the famous Makarikari, the enormous basin into which run and are
evaporated the waters of many different rivers coming from opposite points of
African soil. There ends the Botletle, which is nothing else than the Cubango
after having made its passage through Lake Neami. On arriving at Shoshong, the
chief town of the Bamangwato, he found its position very different from that which
it occupies on maps, as regards longitude.

His journey from Shoshong to Pretoria was full of incident; and no less in-
teresting was that from Pretoria to Natal, during which he had as companion
Lieutenant Barker, of the 5th West York.

Major Pinto has only given one new name during his whole journey, viz.
Baines’s Desert, as he terms the country crossed between the Botletle and the
Zambesi; desiring to render honour to Thomas Baines, one of those who have
worked most laboriously in the interior of Southern Africa.

Some small zoological collections were made; but the traveller's attention was
specially given to the different races, customs, and habits which he had the oppor-
tunity of obserying during the course of his journey.

2. The Basin of the Ogowé. By M. Savorenan DE Brazza,

The largest area in Africa now unexplored is to the north of the equator from
the Congo to Lake Chad, and from the Ogowé, on the western side to the country
of the Nyam-Nyam, visited by Dr. Schweinfurth. From the western coast this
unknown region has been entered by the French Expedition under M. Savorgnan de
Brazza and Dr. Ballay, which left Bordeaux in August, 1875, to explore the whole
course of the river Ogowé, reaching the Gaboon on October 20. They succeeded in
hiring canoes, and commenced the ascent of the river in the following year, making

440 REPORT— 1879.

their first halt at a village called Lopé. From this station Brazza set out to explore
the country of the Fans, a very difficult and hazardous journey. Thence the ex-
pedition advanced to Doumé, on the upper part of the Ogowé, where its course is
from south-east to north-west. Doumé is about 50 miles south of the equator.
After a serious illness Brazza was obliged to return to the coast, but he rejoined his
party at Doumé in April, 1877, and reached the Poubara Falls in 1° 45’S. Here
the Ogowé, flowing from the south, becomes an insignificant stream, and it was not
considered necessary to follow its course any farther.

But here the most important part of M. Brazza’s work commenced. He re-
solved, in spite of the sufferings he and his party had already gone through, and
the diminished stock of provisions, to leave the basin of the Ogowé, and penetrate
farther eastward into the unknown interior. The region they had to traverse was
devastated by famine, and they suffered much from hunger and thirst. After
crossing the water-parting, they followed the course of a stream which brought them
to a great and previously undiscovered river flowing eastward called the Alima. It
was 150 yards in width, and there can be very little doubt that the Alima isa
tributary of the Congo. The inhabitants proved to be hostile, a people devoted to
war and pillage, and the explorers were attacked from all the villages they passed,
and chased by canoes. Leaving the river, they took a northerly course, and crossed
several streams flowing to the east, like the Alima. After having crossed the large
river Licona, on the equator, and penetrated to a place called Okanga, some 30 miles
farther north, M. de Brazza found it necessary to retrace his steps on August 11,
1878, arriving at the Gaboon on November 30. He described the region between
the rivers Ogowé and Alima as 50 miles across, consisting of hills of moderate height,
with many easy passes.

3. The Southern Galla Country. By Rev. J. WaknrieLp.

4. German Explorations in Africa. By Professor ERMAN.

5. The Euphrates Valley Railway. By Commander V. L. Cameron, R.N.

6. On Proposed Indo-Mediterranean Railways, with an Account of a Journey
by Land from Bagdad to Bushire. By WitrripD ScaAwEN Buunt.

After discussing the routes which have been proposed for a railway to Bagdad,
viz. by Palmyra, the Euphrates Valley, and the Tigris (all of which are considered
more or less impracticable), and also alluding to a possibly feasible line, adhering
pretty closely to the existing caravan road which passes through Orfa, Mardin,

‘isibin, Mosul, and Kerkuk, approaching Bagdad eventually from the north, the
author described his own experiences (in company with his wife, Lady Anne
Blunt) of the last 500 miles of the proposed route.

Starting from Bagdad on March 19, Mr. Blunt landed on a peninsula of the Tigris
called El Wudian. There are very few settlements on the left bank of the river,
partly on account of danger from the Persian frontier, but principally from the in-
different nature of the soil, which contains a good deal of saltpetre and is in parts
unhealthily swampy. On the third day the party left in search of a camp of Beni
Laam Bedouins, said to be five days’ journey off in a nearly easterly direction.

Their road lay across a very barren plain, varied only by occasional swamps,
and now and then a patch of spotted thistle, on which their camels fed vora-
ciously, The Hamrin hills are not more than fifteen miles from the river at its
nearest point, and run in a perfectly straight line north-west by south-east, There
is no cultivation at all away from the river bank, and but a few Bedouins were
met, living in groups of only three or four tents together, on account of the
scantiness of the pasture. They seldom had camels (for it is a poor camel country),
but sheep or goats, and a few half-starved cows.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 44]

On the fifth day Mr. Blunt came to the camp situated on the bank of the Tibb,
a river about fifty yards wide, and at the ford from three to four feet deep, The
Tibb rises beyond the Hamrin hills, which it cuts through, and after flowing for
about fifty miles across the plain, joins the Tigris at Amara. They were now close
under these hills, and found the soil good and carrying a rich crop of grass.

Here the servants and camel men refused to accompany the party further,
as they were afraid to venture across the frontier, which has a very bad reputation
as the haunt of robbers and outlaws. Only the cavyass remained, and they were
forced to load and drive the camels themselves.

About thirty miles from the Tibb, the party came to a very similar river, the
Dueri, which they had some difficulty in crossing. It was much swollen by the
melting snows, and the horses had to swim. It was not too deep, however, for the
camels, and like the Tibb had a good gravelly bottom. Another thirty miles
brought them to the Kerkha, a much more formidable river, having a great
volume of water three hundred yards across and running at the rate of about six
miles an hour. Here they found a Persian prince living in exile with a Kurdish
tribe, and put themselves under his protection.

The country passed over between the Tibb and the Kerkha is a low rolling
down, the last ripple in fact of the Hamrin hills, bare of trees and bushes,
but covered for the most part with excellent sheep pasture. There is, however, an
interval of about ten miles immediately east of the Dueri, where desert gravel is
found with the usual desert vegetation. The river banks are thickly wooded with
tamarisk and arghal jungle, and are said to contain numerous lions of the Persian
breed (not the maneless lion of the Euphrates). The whole of this strip, sixty
miles across, is uninhabited, although the pasture is excellent and the country well
watered.

They crossed the Kerkha on a raft, and found cultivation and soon after villages
on the opposite side. The Kerkha is indeed the boundary here of Persia. The
party passed within sight of the ruins of Susa, and the same evening arrived at
Dizful.

Dizful is a large town, the capital of the province of Luristan. It contains
perhaps 20,000 inhabitants, and is the centre of a considerable trade. It is the
market of all the pastoral tribes of the Bactiari mountains, and stands in a really
rich agricultural district. Between it and Shuster they passed several villages and
a fair amount of cultivation. Shuster is a town of about the same size as Dizful,
and both stand upon large rivers resembling the Kerkha, and crossed by ancient
stone bridges of twenty and twenty-two arches. These three rivers, uniting lower
down, form the Karun, the third of the rivers of Eden.

Once past Shuster the road became deserted. On the whole seventy miles
between it and Ramuz they found not a single village, and only three Bedouin
encampments. The nomads here again are Arabs, but so poor and so ruthlessly
oppressed by the Persian government, that their flocks are unable to pasture a
hundredth part of the good grass land, which is abundant and well watered. The
soil, a rich red earth, would produce excellent crops and at little cost in labour,
for the rainfall here at the edge of the hills may be depended on. The Persian
' government, however, is systematically destroying agricultural wealth in Arabistan,
which, though belonging to Persia, is treated like an enemy’s country and is rapidly
becoming depopulated. Beyond Ramuz, Mr. Blunt travelled through miles of
standing corn, self-sown now for several years, though the deserted villages seemed
hardly yet in decay. Gardens with vines and fruit trees still surrounded the
houses, but there was nobody to gather the fruit.

Bebahan is a considerable place, equal perhaps to Shuster, and though a decay-
ing town, is still the centre of no little wealth. It stands in a fertile district, and
the inhabitants being Persians have been less ruthlessly treated. Bebahan lies,
- however, out of the direct route to Bushire, and is surrounded by an intricate line
of hills, so that a railway could not easily pass that way. It stands about a thou-
sand feet above the sea. The descent towards the coast is by a series of precipitous
cliffs, and after passing two more rivers the level plain which skirts the coast is
reached. Mr. Blunt struck the Persian Gulf at the little town of Dilam.

From the time Shuster was left, the party had run considerable risk from the

442 REPORT—-1879.

unsettled state of the country, the few villages that remained were at war with
each other, and it was almost impossible to induce any one to serve as guide or
accompany asservant. On the coast, however, all was comparatively civilised. The
inhabitants of the little towns along the Gulf, though given to piracy by sea, are
peaceable on shore, and there are no Bedouins to make travelling unsafe. The
country indeed is very barren, a uniform plain of saltpetrous clay intersected by
tidal creeks and salt morasses. There is but one low range of hills, and these
would offer no serious obstacle to a railway.

Mr. Blunt’s party had now been travelling for many days and nights almost
without rest, and were nearly exhausted from heat and flies. When at last, on
April 28, worn out and almost in rags, they alighted at the English Residency at
Bushire, the sepoys at the gate refused them entrance. They could not understand
that they were British subjects or honest people of any sort.

They had travelled five hundred miles, crossed nine considerable rivers, passed.
through three large towns and about a dozen villages. About fifty miles of the
route had been through well-cultivated districts, and fifty more through intermit-
tent cultivation ; the rest may he fairly described as an uninhabited waste.

7. The Physical Aspects of Zululand and Natal. By Beavcuame Tower.
The water-parting of this part of South Africa is formed by the Drakensberg, a

range of mountains which runs parallel with and about 150 miles from the coast of
the Indian Ocean. The descent from the Drakensherg to the sea is over an irregular
surface of mountain and valley, the mountains gradually diminishing to low undu-
lating hills near the sea, But between the 27th and 28th parallels of south
latitude a range branches out nearly at right angles with the Drakensberg, which .
is 7000 to 8000 feet high, and again between 29 and 30 8. there is another
yange between two branches of which stands the capital of Natal. There is thus
an area bounded on three sides by mountain ranges, and on the fourth by the sea;
which includes the northern part of Natal, nearly all Zululand, and the SE. cor-
ner of the Transvaal. E

This area is one mass of alternate mountains and valleys; many of the hills
haying a peculiar table-topped form. They are of granite capped by huge slabs
of sandstone, which seem the remnant of a broadly spread pavement formerly
continuous with the central table land. One of the finest specimens of these
table mountains is the Inhlazatye, which rises on the north bank of the White
Um~yolosi to a height of about 6000 feet. The principal river is the Tugela, which
drains the greater part of the area. The only others of any size are the Umvoti,
on the Natal side, and the Umlatoosi and Umvolosi in Zululand. After describ-
ing the rivers, Mr, Tower dwelt upon the beauty of the scenery, and gaye some
details respecting the climate, the vegetation, and the character and habits of the
people.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 23.

The Section did not meet.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 443

MONDAY, AUGUST 25.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Afghan War—The Jellalabad Region. By Wit11am Smpson, Special
Artist of ‘The Illustrated London News.’

Having been attached to the Peshawur Field Force under General Sir Samuel
Browne, the author accompanied it from the Khyber as far as Gundumuck. The
troops were quartered for over three months at Jellalabad, and during that time he
had opportunities for making himself acquainted with the region. The tendency
of his explorations, beyond his own proper sphere as an artist, was rather archeo-
logical than geographical. Still, the ancient remains of a country belong un-
doubtedly to its geography, and have in all cases to be considered as a portion of
our knowledge of any locality under consideration ; and no account of the Jellalabad
Valley would be complete without some notice of the Buddhist remains to be
found there. Mr. Simpson was aware previously of the existence of these remains,
but what astonished him was the vast quantity of them still to be seen. On all
sides are extensive mounds and heaps, that being the condition in most cases of
these remains. Here and there structures may be found, which, although in
ruins, yet bear on them some traces of architecture. At Hada, about five miles
south of Jellalabad, are some elevated ridges, extending to a considerable distance ;
these are in the present day a mass of undulating heaps, marking the site of a city
of monasteries and shrines, which was celebrated in the Buddhist period. This is
about the only one of these Buddhist groups which has retained its ancient
name: it was called Hi-lo, or Hidda, by Fah Hian. Here, we know from
the Chinese Pilgrims, was exhibited in a most costly shrine the skull-bone
of Buddha; and not far from this was a cave with a miraculous shadow
of Buddha, a spot which the Buddhist devotees all visited. At the
western end of the valley, on the south of the road to Kabool, there
are some low hills of conglomerate; here for a number of miles are caves,
mounds, and topes—the remains of what have been Buddhist monasteries. The
western end of the Jellalabad Valley is terminated by the Siah Koh, or ‘ Black
Mountain’ range, and along the base of this rocky mass, towards Duranta, is
another extensive collection of similar ruins. Here some of the topes are not so
dilapidated, and their architectural features can still be traced. Crossing the
Kabool River we find, on the left bank, about a mile or so from Duranta, another
very large group of mounds, topes, and caves. This group extends for about three
miles, On the same side of the river are the districts of Besoot and Kamah.
Although not so familiar with them, still, in an expedition which the author accom-
panied against the Momonds, he noted the existence of Buddhist remains on the
lower ridges of the hills; as a rule, elevated ground seems generally to have been
selected for these religious establishments, and they all commanded good views of
the valley. At Mirza Kheyl, which is in the Kamah district, and close on the
eastern end of the valley, is a mass of white rock covered with remains. Near this
is an island in the river called Girdao, with the ruins of an extensive monastery.
This list of the larger groups is far from being exhaustive, on account of numerous
remains of lesser importance scattered about.

One point is apparently clear, that in the Buddhist period the population of the
Jellalabad Valley must have been much more numerous than at present, and that the
area of cultivation must have been also more extensive. The topes were large and
elaborate architectural structures, and the author believes the same might be said
of the monasteries, for the explorations produced sculptures and plaster figures in
great quantities, which had been all painted with bright colours, and in many cases
thickly gilt. The wealth necessary to construct such a mass of buildings, as well
as the maintenance of them, and the large population of monks who lived in these

laces, must have been great. The scanty number of people in the region at this
ay would be quite insufficient to support them. The Buddhist ascetic priests.

444 REPORT— 1879.

must have been, judging by the remains, two or three times greater than the
present population. Kamah is well cultivated, but on the Jellalabad side there is
only a narrow strip along the bank of the Kabool and Surkhab rivers under eulti-
vation ; the remainder of the valley is covered with sand and boulders. At Girdi
Kas, where the river flows out of the valley at the eastern end, are the remains of
an aqueduct and an old road. The last is known as the Badshah-i-Rah, or the
‘Imperial Road,’ and it was supposed from its name to have been made by one of
the Emperors of India. Our engineers made repairs on this road, and from the
officers engaged on this work Mr. Simpson received the information that portions
of ‘ Buddhist masonry’ are still to be seen on it, showing it is older than the Bad-
shahs who ruled in Delhi, and that regularly constructed ways were made in the
more civilised period of Buddhism, a kind of public work which the Afghan has
long ceased to trouble himself about. While the engineers were at work at this
spot, they also discovered an old aqueduct constructed along with the road, with a
considerable tunnel through one of the hills by which the water was led to the
‘Chardeh Plain, on the east of the Jellalabad Valley, and which is now a desert of
stones, and so dangerous from heat that no native of the country, they were told,
would venture to pass over it in June or July in the daytime. The- ‘aqueduct dis-
covered by the officers is a pretty clear evidence that this wilderness of boulders
was at some former period under cultivation. In this case archeology is of some
value as throwing light on the past, and the contrast is not favourable to the con-
dition of the country in its present condition. Further valuable light drawn from
the same source was afforded by Major Cavagnari (now Sir Pierre Louis Napoleon
Cayagnari), supplying the author with a working party to make excavations at the
Ahin Posh Tope, about a mile south from Jellalabad. The principal object was
to explore the architectural details of the remains, but while thus engaged, the
author penetrated, by means of a tunnel, cut for about 45 feet through solid
masonry, to the central cell of the shrine, and found along with what were most
probably the ashes of some Buddhist saint of high repute, twenty gold coins, each
about the size of a sovereign. Seventeen of these were Bactrian, or Indo-Scythian;
and three were Roman, One belonged to Domitian, another to Trajan, and the
third to ‘ Sabina Augusta,’ the wife of Hadrian. Evidence of a road has already
been given, and these coins prove that at a past date a commerce went along that
road; and it must have been a commerce of considerable importance which brought
coins all the way from ancient Rome in its track.

We imow that in the Buddhist period the capital city of the Jellalabad region
was called Nagarahara. When Mr. Simpson started for the Afghan War, Colonel
Yule called his attention to this, as a point of importance, and that the fixing of its
site would be of some value. This task the author thinks he has accomplished.
About four miles to the west of Jellalabad there is an isolated rock which stands
up out of the plain. It is covered with the débris of former structures, amidst
which a little careful examination soon discovers remains of ‘ Buddhist masonry.’
This rock, the natives say, was the Bala Hissar of an old Kaffir city. The word
‘ Kaffir’ means, in the mouth of a Mahomedan, an‘ infidel,’ and they apply the word
to everything pre-Mahomedan ; hence all the old Buddhist remains they tell you are
‘Kaflir log Ke.’ There are long mounds to be seen in different places around,
apparently the vestiges of the old walls, and the quantity of stones scattered about
has led the people to call the place Wuttapoor, or the ‘ City of Stones.’ It is also
called Begram, which some authorities haye rendered ‘ Chief City.’ Our surveyors,
in the new map made during the campaign, give one place here, for there are a
number of villages within the space of the old city, as ‘ Nagarat,’ which is no
doubt a contraction of Nagarahara—Fah Hian, the Buddhist Pilgrim, uses the word
‘Nagrak ’ (Beal’s Trans., p. 40). Close to the old rock the author made a very
partial exploration of a large tope, and the name of it as given by the villagers
was Nagara Goondi, the last word here meaning a ‘ knoll’ or ‘ mound,’ and which
is used in relation to all topes when they have been reduced to a simple heap.
This name would therefore mean the ‘ Nagara Tope, and in these words Mr, Simp-
son thinks we have the remains of the old name, and they form a very strong
evidence, when added to what is already given, that this is the site of the old
Buddhist city of Nagarahara, Its position would have been a strong one. It was

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 445.

protected on the north by the Kabool river, and on the west by the Surkhab, and
there is another smaller stream on the east, which may have been the boundary
on that side. On the opposite bank of the river is the Pheel Khana group of
topes and caves, which would overlook the city, and form a picturesque suburb in
that direction; on the west there would be the Duranta monasteries on the lower
skirts of the Siah Koh, also overlooking the city and forming another pleasant
suburb for the Buddhist devotees of the city to stroll to and worship at the various
shrines. The Char Bagh group is a little more distant on the south, but still near
enough to be looked upon as a part of the capital city. The city, when in its days
of splendour, was not only a fine one, securely situated, and surrounded with impo-
sing architectural temples and monastical buildings full of statues and pictures,
resplendent with gold and every bright colour, but it was a good strategical situa-
tion, commanding at once the entrance to Lughman, the Kunar Valley, and the
high road to Kabool.

2. Afghan War.—The Kuram Valley. By Captain Grratp Martin.

Captain Gerald Martin (writing from the Peiwar Kotal) reported on the survey
operations conducted by officers of the Indian Survey Department attached to the
‘ Kuram Column’ of the Afghanistan expeditionary force. Captain Woodthorpe,
Captain Martin, and Lieutenant Manners Smith were the surveyors, and the area com-
prised the whole of the Kuram Valley and the district of Khost to the south,
representing an addition to our geographical knowledge of 4,500 square miles.
Captain Martin gave a short summary of the movements of the troops, including
the battle on the Peiwar Pass, the march to Shutor-gardan, the action in the
Mangior defile, and the advance into Khost. The surveyors accompanied all the
more important reconnaissances.

The report then described the sources and the course of the river Kuram, with
its numerous tributaries, as well as the Shamil and other rivers in Khost. The
account of the rivers was followed by an enumeration and description of all the
principal routes up the Kuram Valley, and of those branching from it to Khost or
across the Safaid-Koh range to Jellalabad. The towns, or rather chief villages,
were then enumerated and described, and some information was given respecting
the climate of the Kuram Valley. Captain Martin next gave a general description
of the country, dwelling on the beauty of the scenery at several points, and specially
on the magnificent views of the Safaid-Koh and other mountain ranges. Several
peaks and important passes in the Safaid-Koh range were visited by the surveyors,
and Captain Martin gave an interesting account of journeys to the Lakerai and
Shutor-gardan Passes, and of an ascent of the Sikeram peak, the loftiest in the
Safaid-Koh range, and 15,600 feet above the sea. He also explained the great
value of the heliograph in field signalling, and for triangulation. During this expe-
en ostion was kept up by means of a 3-inch heliograph, at a distance of
34 miles.

The paper concluded with a very interesting account of the botany of the
Kuram Valley and of its forest-clad slopes (which was furnished by Dr. Aitchison),
and with a detailed account of the Hill tribes.

3. Afghan War.—Country between Kandahar and Girishk.
By Captain R. Bravan, F.R.G.S.

Captain R. Beavan, F.R.G.S. (writing from Kandahar), describes the country
between Kandahar and Girishk, which was traversed by the division under the
command of Major-General Biddulph in January and February, 1879, Girishk,
on the right bank of the river Halmand, is of great importance asa military position,
because it lies at the extremity of the vast mountain masses that break up the whole
country between the Halmand and the Arghastin into a troubled sea of rock.
Skirting the route to the south lies the great sandy desert, equally impassable for
troops. Thus the tract from Girishk to Kandahar forms practically the sole mili-

446 REPORT—1879.

tary passage between India on the one hand, and Persia or Turkistan on the other.
It is for armies what the Suez Canal is for ships.

The narrow strip of plain which this route traverses forms the interval between
the desert and the hilly country. The desert rolls up in undulating sand hills from
the far south. It is bounded by the rivers Arghandab and Dori, the thin lines of
running water seeming as if they had some magic influence in restraining the over-
flow of the sand. To the north are the mountains, bare and rugged, not a sign of
verdure anywhere about them, not an indication of moisture. The great peculiarity
of the country is that only the upper portions of the hills are exposed above ground.
The whole country, including the lateral valleys, appears to have been filled up at a
date subsequent to the elevation of the hills with a deposit of rubble, waterworn
boulders and pebbles, with hardly sufficient soil to hold them together. The
elevation of this part of the country is over 3,000 feet above the sea. This deposit,
though apparently level, in reality slopes considerably upwards from the rivers to
the base of the hills, while the valleys have a slope in the direction of their length.
Captain Beavan then explained how this formation aided the peculiar system of
irrigation by means of karez or underground aqueducts, which is constantly made
use of in this part of Afghanistan.

At the junction of the two rivers Halmand and Arghandab, and from this point
along the banks of the Halmand to a considerable distance above Girishk, are scat-
tered the remains of numerous forts and entrenchments, showing the importance
that has always attached to this part of the Halmand river. Girishk itself is
simply a fort, commanding the Herat road. There is no town near it, but the
whole of the Halmand valley is full of small, scattered villages, with gardens, trees,
and fields. To the north-west from Girishk, by the Herat road, the country is
mountainous, and again towards the north-east, but in a northerly direction it
appears quite open and level as far as the eye can see. The only exception is that,
on very clear mornings after rain, a few snowy peaks are visible, just showing their
tops above the horizon. Captain Beavan found the old position of Girishk fairly
correct, and he ascertained the heights of the camping grounds along the route from
Kandahar to Girishk by aneroid and boiling point. He concluded his paper with
some valuable suggestions on the subject of the formula for barometric heights.

A. Afghan War.—The Pishin Valley.
By Lieutenant Sr. Georce C. Gore, RL.

Lieutenant St. George C. Gore (writing from Gulistan, in Pishin) described the
Pishin Valley, which is now to be annexed by the British Government. Its
extreme length is about 48 miles, and its average width, including the hill ranges
on either side, from 25 to 30 miles. Its two sides are formed by the parallel ranges
of the Khwaja-Amran on the west, and the Mashalak-Ajiram (or Ghazarband
range) on the east; the southern end being shut across by spurs of hilly ground
which separate Pishin from Shorawak. The upper end of the Pishin valley is shut
in by the high plateau of Toba on the north, and the ridges running between the
Kand and Takatu mountains on the east.

The valley of Pishin is a perfectly open, nearly flat alluvial plain, with a very
barren aspect owing to the absence of trees, except fruit trees in a few gardens.

Lieutenant Gore described the Khwaja~-Amran mountains bounding the Pishin
valley on the west, which are but a spur of the Suliman range, the water-parting
being continuous and well marked from the Kand Peak along the southern edge of
the Toba plateau and thence down the Khwaja-Amran range. He also gave full
details respecting the river Lora, which waters the Pishin valley, and its affluents ;
the irrigation system by means of kayez ; the passes over the mountain ranges; and
the inhabitants of the valley.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 447

5. Afghan War.—Shorawak Valley and Toba Plateau.
By Major Camesett, 2.2.

Major Campbell described the Shorawak valley and the Toba plateau in
Afghanistan, The Shorawak valley had never been visited by Europeans before
the recent campaign. It is a narrow strip of flat country lying between the desert
on the west and north-west, and a range generally known as the Sarlat Hills to
the east. Its total length is about 40 miles, with a width of 10 miles at the
northern end ; and it is 3,250 feet above the sea. The head of the valley, to the
north, is closed in by the southern spurs of the Khwaja-Amran range of mountains,
which nearly join the north-western spurs of the Sarlat Hills, only leaving a gap
of about a mile through which the Lora river runs into the valley.

The desert, which stretches away westward as far as the Persian frontier, rolls up
in the form of sand hills to the edge of the cultivated land of the valley, The Lora
river, which waters the valley, runs nearly dry in summer, and its water is always
brackish, whence the name of the valley from the Persian words Shor (brackish),
and Adak (scarcity of water). The valley is thickly populated, and crops of wheat
and barley are raised. Major Campbell suggested that Shorawak was once a lake,
which was gradually silted up by deposits from the Lora, and this seems to account
for most of the phenomena. The river, after flowing through the valley, is swal-
lowed up in the sand of the desert.

The Toba table-land is at the north-eastern extremity of the Khwaja-Amran
range of mountains. It was visited by Major Campbell last May. The crest of
the Khwaja-Amran bifurcates at a short distance north-east of the Khojak Pass, one
line running nearly due east, and the other about north-north-east. Between these
two crests there is an elevated mountain mass extending eastward until it merges
in the general confused mountain system in that direction. This table-land is
divided into two portions, called Toba and Tabin; the former on the southern and
eastern edge, the latter on the western side. They are separated by a narrow line
of hills, running about north-east by east. The general elevation is over 7,000 feet.
Major Campbell gave an interesting account of this plateau and of its inhabitants.
It will probably form an excellent hill sanatorium for the troops stationed in the
Pishin Valley. The climate of the plateau in summer is very pleasant.

6. New Routes to Candahar. By Captain T. H. Hoxpicu, R.E.

In weighing the capabilities of the various passes now known to exist in the
mountain barrier of Western and North-Western India, with the important
political and strategical object of selecting the best main route to Candahar, the
author commenced by stating his objections to those in use at present. Admitting
that Karachi may prove the best base for communication with our frontier posts as
they stand at present at Quetta and Pishin, he considered that the direct Son
Miani route, connecting the coast with Biela, Khelat, and Quetta, though passing
through a friendly country, would be too great a burden to maintain, as it traverses
a wild, unproductive, and most unpromising region. The Jacobabad-Bholan route
on the western side of the Indus is also open to the periodical danger of inundation
by that river (resulting last year in the isolation of Jacobabad itself from Sukkur
by thirty-eight miles of water), and to the restriction of its use to cold weather,
owing to the painful and disastrous effects of crossing the Kachi desert in the hot
season.

The journeys, however, of the native explorers, instructed by Colonel Browne,
through the previously unknown district lying between the Quetta-Pishin line and
the Sulimani range, have resulted in the accumulation of material sufficient to
warrant the march of a column under General Biddulph from Candahar eastwards
towards Dera Ghazi Khan, which has been selected as the base on the Indian side
on account of its proximity to Mooltan on the Indus Valley Railway, and its
avoiding a desert passage to the hills. The object of this march was to investigate
the various practicable caravan and other routes said to exist between the Pishin

448 REPORT—1879.

Valley and Dera Ghazi. Starting from Kushdil Khan, at the eastern end of the
Pishin Valley, this expedition reached Bolozai, in the Surkhab valley, by crossing
the Suranari Pass, and here were discovered two great rivers, the Zhob and Bhori,
radiating eastwards through open valleys, and affording the finest openings for a route
to India. The Zhob, which trended too much northwards, was not followed, but
apparently would strike the frontier ranges at the Gulére (or Gomul) Pass. The
Bhori Valley was reached from Bolozai by following the bed of the Surkhab river by
Yusuf Kutch to the Ushtara Pass (a wide and convenient one), the sandstone hills
culminating at Mashkwar in grand and vividly coloured scenery, contrasting
strongly with the usually tame aspect of the Candahar region. Thence, from
Chimjan through the Bhori Valley to Anumbar, the road recalled the Lombardy
plains. Part of the expedition turned southwards at Katz, vid Smalan and Baghao,
with the intent of exploring the Thall and Chotiali route ; but the main party kept
the straight road, following the river to Anumbar, and reached the Chimalang
Valley by the Treek Kuram Pass, whence they struck south among winding
precipitous ranges to Baladaka, eventually arriving by the Han Pass and Hasni
Kot to the valley of Lugari Barkan.

This valley is open to the Kaho Pass by Vitakari, and reaches the Derajat plain
about forty miles south of Dera Ghazi. All this road is capable of easily carrying
a railway, and as it now is will exist for ever; it could be shortened by not
striking south at the Treek Kuram Pass, but keeping eastward and south-eastward
on the Karwaddi route wd Rakni to the Fort Monro or Sakli Sarwar Passes,
opening opposite Dera Ghazi. The party that followed the Thall and Chotiali
route also reached the Lugari Barkan Valley, but no good direct route could be
found between Thall and Vitakari, which is a desirable position at the head of the
Chachar Pass.

The chief addition to our Inowledge from this expedition is that the hitherto
unknown region between the Pishin Valley and the Sulimani Range is found to be
open, rich, and fertile, with nothing in its physical characters preventing travel
across it in almost any direction.

7. Afghan War.—Surveys round Kandahar. By Major Rogers, R.E.

Captain Malcolm Rogers, R.E. (writing from Kandahar), gave an account of
the recent survey operations in Baluchistan and Southern Afghanistan. During
the march to Kandahar the work was restricted to a route survey of the immediate
line of march; and the careful survey made during the former Afghan war by
Lieutenant Durand, R.E., was found to be very correct. Captain Rogers, however,
connected his work near Quetta with points on the Khwaja~-Amran range of moun-
tains, and thence fixed points on the great plain stretching from the mountains to
Kandahar. He climbed the highest hill of the range, whence its name is derived,
which is 8,960 feet above the sea.

Between the Khwaja-Amran mountains and Kandahar there is a vast plain,
with numerous detached hills and ranges, mostly of limestone. There is little
water, and the general appearance is treeless and barren. To the westward this
plain is bounded by a vast desert of rolling sand-hills. The river Dori is the only
perennial stream in this plain.

Captain Rogers accompanied General Stewart when he advanced from Kandahar
to Kalat-i-Ghilzai, and carried on a route survey ; but the division followed on the
track of the army of 1839, and there was not much to add to former work. The
troops advanced up the valley of the Tanak, the river being rapid and muddy in
January, and having cut for itself a deep winding channel. There were many
villages on both banks. During the stay of the army at the fort of Kalat-i-Ghilzai,
the surrounding country was mapped. When the troops returned to Kandahar,
arrangements were made for small columns to march back by the valleys of the
Arghastin and Arghandab. Thus 50 miles of the courses of these two rivers above
Kandahar were surveyed. A trigonometrical survey of the country for 12 miles.
round Kandahar was also executed ; and an expedition was sent into the Khakrez.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 449

valley, about 30 miles north of Kandahar. It drains into the river Arghandab,
from which it is separated by a range of low hills. The longitude of Kandahar was
fixed by electric telegraph.

8. On the Orography of the North-Western Frontier of India.
By Trevawny Saunpers.

The paper divides the mountains into groups, to each of which distinct limits are
assigned. The several parts of certain groups are then discussed, for the purpose
of assigning definite limits to the nomenclature of each part. The parallelism of
the ranges with the axis and base of the mass is next enlarged upon, with a view
to expose the fallacious assumption of the prevalence of formidable spurs obstruct-
ing lateral communication. Various examples of prolonged lateral communications
in the mountains on the north-western frontier of India are cited. In conclusion
the southern part of the high land extending along the Arabian Sea and the Per-
sian Gulf from the plain of the Indus to the plain of Mesopotamia is referred to,
especially with reference to the proper line of the future railway to India.

The low land along this coast is particularly objected to for a railway, on
account of its deadly climate and an atmosphere reeking with intensely hot vapour.
A chain of elevated valleys running parallel to the coast is traced by way of Shiraz
and Kej as a preferable railway route.

9. Imperial Survey of India. By J. O. N. Janus, Esq., Deputy-
Superintendent of the Surveys of India.

The object of Mr. James’s paper was to sketch out, in a concise manner, the
nature of the work in progress and already performed by the Indian Survey Depart-
ment, and to point out its practical utility. The Imperial Survey of India, up to a
late period, consisted of three distinct branches, namely, the Trigonometrical, Topo-
graphical, and Revenue Surveys. The Trigonometrical Survey, besides its purely
scientific work, furnishes the great basis by principal triangulation for the origin
and extension of detail surveys executed by the Topographical and Revenue
Branches. Already the whole of India is covered with principal triangulation
which, for scientific accuracy, is unsurpassed by any similar undertaking in the
world. To the Topographical Branch is assigned the labour of executing geo-
graphical surveys of native States and hilly or forest tracts in British territory, usually
on a scale of one inch to the mile. Mr. James described the methods adopted in the
execution of these topographical surveys, and pointed out the vast amount of geo-
graphical information which is collected by the surveyors. During the administra-
tion of Sir Henry Thuillier, late Surveyor-General of India (1861 to 1877), an area
of not less than 290,000 square miles was surveyed and mapped, including the
wildest and least known tracts of India. This enormous area, more than double
the size of Great Britain and Ireland, was surveyed in sixteen years at an average
cost of 27. the square mile.

The Revenue Survey operations are chiefly confined to open and well cultivated
districts in British territory. They furnish complete and accurate records of the
area and boundaries of every village and district. They show the extent of waste
and cultivated land, the nature of the soil, and the principal features of the count
on a scale of four inches to the mile. From these original surveys excellent maps
of complete districts are completed on various scales, for general administrative
purposes. In some special districts the system of cadastral field surveys has been
introduced. During Sir Henry Thuillier’s superintendence (from 1847 to 1877) an
area of 493,000 square miles was completed on the village survey system on a scale
of four inches to the mile, and 12,281 Square miles by cadastral measurement
on a scale of 16 and 32 inches to the mile; making an aggregate of 505,574 square
miles, considerably more than double the area of France. The Revenue Surveys
comprise a great portion of Bengal and Assam, all Oudh, part of the North-West

a our Provinces and Bombay, nearly all the Punjab, and all Sind.
9. GG

450 REPORT— 1879.

This work has not been accomplished without the sacrifice of many valuable
lives, and the necessity of facing dangers and hardships of no common kind. The
zeal and devotion of the Indian surveyors are beyond all praise; and their work
has been and continues to be most valuable. It must, however, be clearly under-
stood that a considerable portion of what has been accomplished by the Topogra-
phical Branch of the Department is nothing more than a first survey, rapidly
executed, for geographical and general administrative purposes. Hereafter more
rigorously accurate and complete surveys will be needed. Meanwhile there is not
a single official in India who does not possess maps of the portion of the country
included in his jurisdiction, which are suited to every present requirement. The
maps issued by the Surveyor-General’s Department are also utilised by engineers
in the construction of public works, by the foresters for conservancy purposes, by
mining companies, planters, holders of estates, and by every branch of the civil
and military services for purposes too numerous to detail.

10. Three Months in Cyprus. By Samurt Brown, M.LC.£.

Having had charge of certain preliminary surveys undertaken with a view to
the improvement of the harbour, inland communications, and sanitary condition of
Cyprus, as well as the development of its material resources, the author, during
three months of constant travelling and camp life last winter and spring, had oppor-
tunities enjoyed by few Englishmen since the occupation in July 1878, of making
himself acquainted with the place and people.

After describing first impressions on approaching the southern coast, the bare
treeless desert-like aspect of the hills behind Larnaca, the road thence to Nicosia
and from Nicosia across the great Mesavoria plain to Famagosta, as they appeared
late in the year before the rainy season had set in, the author confesses to the dis-
appointment he shared with other visitors after reading the couleur de rose descrip-
tions during the early days of the occupation. First impressions were, however,
greatly modified by subsequent experience. About Christmas heavy rain fell, and
in a few days the aspect of the country changed. The great corn-growing plains
became green, and the moorlands and pastures afforded herbage for large flocks of
sheep and goats, while the ground was thickly studded with wild flowers, chiefly
narcissus, anemones, cyclamen, and two species of lily. And although the eastern
part of the island, including the districts of Larnaca, Nicosia, and Famagosta (@.e.
those parts best known to visitors) is painfully destitute of trees and shrubs, this
does not hold good of other parts. The park-like beauty of portions of the Limasol
coast district, the secluded and exquisitely beautiful valleys of Kythrea and Lefka,
rival on a small scale for rich sub-tropical vegetation anything that is met with in
countries bordering the Mediterranean. The winter climate of the south-west coast
is warm and balmy, and probably is hardly surpassed by that of any fashionable
health resort. In artistic beauty, too, the fantastic form of the northern range, and
the grander masses of Troados with its romantic valleys, may well compare with
the scenery of any neighbouring island.

The fruit-producing capacity of Cyprus is almost unlimited, but needs for its
development irrigation, better cultivation, and roads for the conveyance of produce
to market. A great extension of vine culture is anticipated. Last year the
Limasol district alone produced 1,622,500 gallons of wine, against 618,000 during
the preceding year, being an increase of 270 per cent. This wonderful advance is
accounted for chiefly by the removal of certain vexatious conditions attached to the
making of wine, due to the ingenuity of the Turkish tax farmer.

The population, estimated approximately at 200,000, consists probably of about
three-fourths Greek Christians and one-fourth Mohammedans. No census has yet
been made. Both Turks and Greeks are indolent, unambitious, self-willed, and
obstinate ; but peaceable, domestic, and fairly honest. Life and property are pro-
bably not safer in any part of Her Majesty’s dominions than in Cyprus. Education
of all classes, clergy and laity, is of the lowest standard. Good elementary secular
education should be provided by the State.

In speaking of antiquities, special attention is called to the fine remains of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 451

western medisval architecture in the churches of Nicosia and Famagosta. These
merit a special memoir by a competent archeologist. The fortifications of Fama-
gosta are probably one of the finest and best preserved examples of the military
engineering of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. A colossal vase of compact
limestone, 11’ 6” diameter, nearly 8 feet in height, with sides 10 inches thick, is
seen on the summit of the hill which formed the citadel of the Pheenician city of
Amathus. There is a similar vase in the Louvre, also from Cyprus. The author
carefully examined vestiges of an ancient canal, which formerly served to connect
the salt lake south of Limasol with the sea.

The climate of Cyprus is next described, more especially with regard to the
fevers prevalent in some districts. The malarious fever is attributed chiefly to
emanations from marshes, which are, however, of limited area. To improve the
climate, especially about Famagosta, the marshes should be drained, and the river
Pidias embanked in the lower part of its course, and thus prevented from spreading
over and converting the plain intoa swamp. The necessary works may be carried
out at moderate cost, and should prove remunerative by bringing land, now worse
than useless, into cultivation.

Agriculture is, with few exceptions, in a very backward and unsatisfactory
condition. Attempts at cultivation are only made in the case of the best lands, and
these produce but one corn crop every two or three years. The rainfall is often
insufficient, and the period at which raix falls, and the quantity, vary within wide
limits. During the past ten years there have been but five fairly good harvests.
Much of the water needed for the crops is carried off rapidly by torrents to the
sea. The remedy for these evils is to store water in tanks, after the Indian native
system, and distribute it over the land by canals as needed. This supply of water
for nrigation from tanks should be supplemented by artesian wells and an extension
of the method which has prevailed in Cyprus from an early age, of collecting water
from a series of shallow wells. Water is met with at moderate depths over the
greater part of the island. lrigation, wherever employed (as it now is in many
districts on a small scale), is attended with the happiest results. The irrigated
lands produce a succession of abundant crops, and their value is at least five times
that of land of similar quality not irrigated.

In conclusion, the author calls attention to the fact that no map exists of the
island with even an approximation to accuracy, and recommends, first, the com-
pletion of the trigonometrical survey which was commenced, but has heen suspended;
secondly, a geological survey ; and thirdly, systematic meteorological observations,
the existing data as to rainfall being of the most meagre description.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26,

The following Papers were read :—

1. Hydrography, past and present. By Lieutenant G. Tempie, R.N.
See Reports, p. 229.

2. Arctic Research. By Commander L. A. Beaumont, R.N.

The author holds that the future of Arctic work must depend upon the
persevering efforts and reasonable arguments of those who advocate it ; and that
the revival of interest in Arctic exploration will commence amongst those who are
‘sure to be more influenced by valuable and substantial results as an object, than by
the prospect of a brilliant but profitless achievement. .

In spite of the unfortunate controversies which followed the return of the late

GG 2

4.52 REPORT—1879.

Arctic Expedition, the discovery of the unknown will never be permanently
abandoned, and the Arctic Regions, in common with the rest of the world, will
surely be discovered and explored. As regards the alleged risks and dangers, the
author asks why they should exercise a deterrent effect any more than the perils
and dangers of African or Australian travel. There will always be men ready to
go, and in due time there will be sufficient support forthcoming to provide the
means. But it is desirable to utilize the experience of the present generation,
rather than wait until all experience must be obtained anew.

On the east coast of Greenland and beyond Robeson Strait there is heavy ice
similar to that met with by MacOlure and Collinson, and afterwards by Meahan
and McClintock, along the coast of North America and adjacent islands, and when-
ever it occurs ship navigation entirely ceases, while the difficulty of sledge travelling
is immensely increased. It would seem that in all future work this sort of ice must
be reckoned upon; and that no ship will ever get much beyond 82° north. In sledge
travelling it is indispensable that land should be near, and that the ice should be
fast, and there are few known points where these conditions can be obtained.

Nevertheless, Commander Beaumont contended that there was nothing dis-
couraging in this; nor need the work be confined to the highest latitudes, for where
scientific research and a practical school for future explorers are the objects, much
important work can be done in all parts of the unknown region. He anticipated a
rich harvest of valuable results from the work of the present year. The Swedish
Expedition is already a great success, and those who know Captain Markham feel
certain that his present cruise will bear good fruit.

The author then addressed himself to the question of which route affords the
best promise of geographical discovery, observing that geographical discovery will
always embrace much that is valuable in many other branches of science. Franz
Joseph Land seems, at first sight, to fulfil the conditions required to ensure success.
Here the land extends far to the north, and if any part of the shore could be
reached by a ship, a sledging party might certainly attain to the 86th parallel.
But the disadvantages of the route are, that it is uncertain whether a vessel could
reach the land, while there is no alternative after starting but to succeed or fail.
If the main object is not gained, no lesser useful work can be done. The next
route, in Commander Beaumont’s opinion, now that the North-east passage has been
achieved, is the exploration of the land about Cape Britannia, proceeding by way
of Smith Sound: that is—the discovery of the northern side of Greenland. He
prefers this route to an attempt along the eastern side, because a higher latitude can
be reached by Smith Sound ; and believes that a vessel might winter on the eastern
shore of Robeson Strait, and advance depéts to Repulse Harbour in the autumn.
Commander Beaumont, who has seen Cape Britannia, the most northern known
point of Greenland, believes that to stand on its highest peak would alone throw
much light on Greenland geography. He then submitted calculations, derived from
his own experience, of the time that it would take for a sledge party to reach
Cape Britannia, and of the nature of the ice; and offered several valuable sugges-
tions for improved appliances in travelling over soft and deep snow.

Commander Beaumont confidently predicts important geographical discoveries,
and other useful scientific results for an Arctic Expedition despatched up Smith
Sound with Cape Britannia and coasts beyond as its principal goal.

3. On the Interior of Greenland: the principal points of Geographical
Interest connected with it, and the recent Expeditions for its Exploration.
By Dr. H. Rox.

. This paper contains a sketch of the presumed physical conditions of the interior
of Greenland, as the best and largest existing illustration of the glacial epoch of
geologists which has had so much effect upon the surface of modern northern
Europe, and the only region where true icebergs can be observed in course of forma-
tion. Of this interior,very little is actually known, the point reached by the expe-
dition mentioned in the present paper being the farthest hitherto attained. Even
of the coast some 600 miles still remain unknown ; but, supposing it not to extend

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 453

further northwards than is at present supposed, the whole coast line is 3,400 miles,
and its area 512,000 square miles, wholly covered with ice, except, perhaps, where
some barren highland may penetrate the glacial surface, and constantly engaged in
the formation of material for icebergs, which probably take one hundred years to
travel from the presumed central water-parting to the heads of the fjords where
they fall into the sea, but only at certain points. In one of these ice-fjords the
portion of glacier annually pushed in, and representing the annual surplus from an
extensive area, has been calculated to constitute a cubical body 900 feet high, two
miles long, and two miles broad.

The investigation of the interior of this country, of especial interest to geo-
graphers as one in which the whole system of river drainage is represented by a
continuous sheet of ice, has since 1875 been taken in hand to some small extent by
the Danish Government, which has in 1876-78 annually voted 550/. for scientific
work there, mainly with the object of completing the coast-maps in connection
with the geological survey. In the course of these operations explorations were
extended over the border of the inland ice. In 1876 the geologist Steenstrup, with
Lieutenant Holm and Mr. Kornerup, travelled over the Julianshaab district,
between 60° and 61° N. lat.; in 1877 the investigations were continued by him
and Lieutenant Jensen between 61° and 63° N. lat.; and in 1878 the expedition
was divided, Jensen, Kornerup, and Mr. Groth exploring the coast between 62° 30’
and 64° 30’ N. lat., and Steenstrup, who has not since been heard from, turning to
the more northern regions between 70° and 72° N.

Lieutenant Jensen’s party, in July 1878, crossed the inland ice in 62° 30’ N., in
the endeavour to penetrate as far as possible into the interior. The object was to
reach certain iceless mountain-tops, called Nunataks, emerging in the distance from
the surface of the glacier, and which more than a century ago had been ascended
by a Danish trader. These were reached after a march of more than forty miles in a
straight line across the ice. On the lower of these Nunataks the roughness of the
surface of the ice was very great, being traversed by yawning chasms divided by steep
and slippery elevations, and cut by watercourses disappearing as cascades into the
creyasses. The party consisted of four, one of whom was a Greenlander, drawing
three small sledges, and generally tied together by a rope. After many perilous
adventures they reached the foot of the hills, the view from the summit of which
was obscured for a week by snow-storms and mist. On the weather clearing, a
successful ascent was made, the elevation being found to be 5,000 feet. The ice
waste of the interior was found to rise very slightly inwards, without visible inter-
ruption. In the present year Jensen, Kornerup, and Lieutenant Hammer have been
sent on a coast survey between 67° and 68° 30’ N. lat., of which very little is known.

4, Indian Marine Surveys. By Ciuements R. 8. Marxuan, C.B., F.B.S.,
President of the Section.

The Indian Navy created a splendid staff of surveyors, and many admirable
marine surveys were executed by them before the abolition of that useful service
in 1862. But from that time, during a period of twelve years, all marine surveys
on the coasts of India were absolutely stopped. Meanwhile trade increased, more
especially the coasting trade, and new ports were opened to facilitate the export of
coffee and other products. While the Government utterly neglected the duty of
making the approach to Indian coasts and harbours tolerably safe, the urgent need
for correct guides to navigation became each year more and more apparent.

These facts were earnestly represented to the authorities both at home and in
India in 1871 and succeeding years, and at length the creation of a Marine Survey
Department was sanctioned, and Commander A. D. Taylor (late of the Indian
Navy) was appointed Superintendent. The work was commenced in October, 1875,
but no suitable vessels have yet been supplied, and the work has hitherto been done
by boat parties.

Captain Taylor makes annual inspection tours, by which means he has discovered
many serious errors in existing charts, and has contributed largely to our knowledge

454: REPORT—1879.

of what is needed at the various ports around the coasts of India. Lieutenant
Jarrad, R.N., conducts the actual surveys; and the construction of charts, the pub-
lication of notes to mariners, wreck returns, and lighthouse lists are entrusted to
Mr. Carrington, the Chief Civil Assistant. A new steamer, called the Investigator,
is now being built at Bombay, specially fitted for scientific surveying, and will be
ready in 1880, A naturalist forms one of the staff of the Department; and when
the new steamer is ready, and fitted with apparatus for deep sea sounding and
dredging, systematic scientific investigations will be undertaken. Useful results
have been produced by the Department in a wonderfully short time. From the
spring of 1875, when Mr. Carrington got his branch into working order, to 1879,
as many as eighty charts have been produced, or more than one each month, from
which 11,400 copies have been photo-zincographed. Upwards of 15,000 charts
have been corrected for new lights aud buoys, and 20,000 copies of notices to
mariners have been distributed. A very great improvement has also beer. made in
the report of wrecks and casualties. A chart depdt has been established at Calcutta,
where some 20,000 charts are shelved and numbered, and considerable sales are
now being effected. This is animmense benefit to the merchant shipping in Indian
ports, and the Department has also been able to supply H.M.’s ships when charts
were urgently needed.

The continued prosperity and efficiency of this useful Department is of the
utmost consequence to the shipping and manufacturing interests of nearly all the
maritime nations in the world, as well as to the people of India; and it is no less
important to geographers who are supplied with accurate hydrographic informa-
tion, and are thus enabled to obtain a sound Imowledge of the physical geography
of the Indian coasts.

5. The Exploration of the American Isthmus and the Interoceanic Canal of
Panama. By Lucien N. B. Wyss, Lieut.-Commr., French Navy.

After some general observations upon the long recognised necessity of a connec-
tion of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through Central America, and a discussion
of the various aspects of the subject, the author pointed out, among other con-
nected erroneous conclusions, a frequent error of opinion as to the practicability of
a canal in places where the sources of two rivers on opposite water-partings nearly
touch each other, and gave an account from personal experience of the natural diffi-
culties in the way of the explorer in this region. The badness of the climate,
however, except in marshy places on the coast, such as Greytown, he believes to
have been grossly exaggerated, Panama being considered by him to be the most
healthy of inter-tropical towns. There, the waters descend rapidly from great
heights; the width of the Isthmus not exceeding 37 miles, and the water-parting
being only 10 miles distant. In Nicaragua, however, the physical contour is very
different, the elevation of the lake being so slight that the San Juan flowing from it
has only a fall of 107 feet in 124 miles, the least rise causing a flood, with marshes
extending for 74 miles. On leaving the hill region, the river breaks up into a count-
less net-work of streams, forming an immense marsh of hundreds of square miles,
with proportionately bad climatic conditions. Darien, hitherto considered most un-
healthy, has been found by the American expeditions to be nothing of the kind,
subject to simple medical precautions. From a hygienic point of view, therefore,
Nicaragua is the worst of the three great divisions of routes; and, though all are
productive in wood suited for hydraulic purposes, Darien is the most so.

As to the supply of labour, the population is scanty and indolent throughout,
though more numerous at Panama. The Indian will not bear regular work; he is
timid, and will give way to the spread of civilisation. The chief supply must be
from Asia, but negroes will be useful in cutting roads, at which they are very
expert; and they may be bought for purposes of liberation at a cheap rate by law
of the Spanish Antilles and Brazil, their freedom being made the ultimate reward
of their labour.

Of the routes proposed, that of Tehuantepec is the first from the north. Capt.
Shufeldt, of the U.S, Navy, after examining the river Coatzacoalcos, found it at a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 455

distance of 120 miles from the great oceans to be small and shallow, necessitating
144 miles of canal and 140 locks. It has no port on the Pacific, and not a good
one on the Atlantic side.

The Honduras route is no better, from the extent of its mountainous tract and
the distance (93 miles) between the two oceans.

In Nicaragua the mountains disappear, and the lake is only 36 feet above sea
level, but a canal would require projecting jetties at each end, especially on the
Atlantic side. The badness of the climatic conditions has been above mentioned,
and dredging to keep down the deposits of mud and sand would require to be
unceasingly carried on.

Of the Darien routes, that by the Atrato is very attractive. Large steamers
can ascend it for 156 miles, and it has a wide delta, the most favourable com-
mencement for a canal being at the mouth of the Uraba. Obstacles to its naviga-
tion require, however, to be removed. The Tuyra has a less volume of water, but
its mouth is very suited for a great international harbour, the climate being healthy
and anchorage good. Extensive surveys of these routes have been made, that by
Commander Selfridge being the most conspicuous. The Isthmus is narrowest here
between the Atlantic and the navigable waters of the Bayano, being only 30 miles
wide, but the mountains are narrow and very precipitous. Selfridge’s proposed
canal follows the Atrato and Napipi, passes the Cordillera by a tunnel, and ends in
the bay of Cupica; it obtained the second place at the recent Congress. The
lecturer’s own Darien expedition of 1876-77 was severely tried by the death of
Captain Bixio, the Engineer Brooks, and Musso. Engineering explorations were,
however, continued on the Cué and Caquiri rivers; the plateau of Cana was ex-
plored as far as Tiati, where an important discovery of a low valley was made.
The work was connected with that of the Americans, and a canal planned, which,
starting from the bay of San Miguel, was projected to fall into the Atrato. Three
hundred and sixty miles of forest and river bank were levelled during this survey.
An alternative route was to follow the Tuyra to below the island of Piriaque, join
the Chucunaque, utilise the Tupica valley, and passing to the south-east of the
Peak of Gandi, reach the Atlantic by the valleys of Tola and the Acanti. In the
following year the Bayano was explored, and the line from San Miguel to Acanti
determined. The line by Gandi has great advantages; its tunnel is long, but the
rock is not hard, and the space is short between the Pacific and the confluence of
the Chucunaque and Tuyra. The total cost would not greatly exceed 375,000/.

The Panama route, selected almost unanimously at the recent International
Congress at Paris, with M. Lesseps as President, is the only one on which a level
uncovered canal is possible. It requires a cutting of 262 feet in height, therefore
a tunnel is more economical. This would be from 53 to 9} miles long, z.e., not
longer than the St. Gothard. Volcanoes are extinct or dormant on this line, and
no earthquakes are felt.

The route is from Panama to the Bay of Colon by way of the valleys of Chagres
and the Rio Grande, and practically follows a road which kas been in use since
1532. The elevations of the rail already existing are not great, but the sinuosities
are frequent and curves sharp, and the rock to be penetrated in tunnelling is hard.
But this route has the advantage of being short, on one level, and near a railway,
with consequent facilities of transport ; of not requiring delicate works rendering
constant repair necessary ; and of possessing on the Atlantic side a perfect port in
the Bay of Limon, and on the Pacific one not requiring important works, and
with a generally calm sea, The tunnel required is short, and can even be dispensed
with if absolutely necessary ; if made, there is a possibility of multiplying wells
for its perforation. Although not geographically connected with this project, it
may be observed that a convention has been agreed upon between the lecturer and
the railroad company, permitting and aiding the proposed canal. The cost of
this plan is estimated at 32,500,000/.

456 REPORT—1879.

6. On Geographical Studies and Works in Italy.
By Professor G. Datta Vepova.

In Italy, the aids to Geographical knowledge may be thus divided :—

Stare Unperraxines.—The general topographical survey of the kingdom,
commenced at the end of 1861, under the general staff of the Italian army, and
subsequently carried on by a special office, the Royal Military Topographical Insti-
tute at Florence. In 1873, the ex-kingdom of the Two Sicilies was completely
triangulated, with other partially geodetic works elsewhere; and since that time
the general triangulation of Italy has been undertaken, commencing with Piedmont,
with other topographical works to be utilised in the preparation of a map of Italy
on the scale of 1 : 100-000, though frequently themselves on a much larger scale.
In the present year, Ist and 2nd class surveys are being executed in Piedmont,
Lombardy, from Leghorn to Civita Vecchia, in Sardinia, and elsewhere, and are
expected to be completed in three years. Operations have also been conducted in
aid of the determination of the European level. The Institute also published in
1878 a complete map in photolithography of the province of Naples and Sicily, 174
sheets, scale 1 : 50:000, with elevation in contour lines of 10-metre intervals.
Work has also been executed towards the publication of a large map of Italy in
photogravure, by Avet’s process, to be completed in 277 sheets, scale 1 : 100-000.
Twelve sheets of this have been completed in proof.

As to Hydrographic Surveys, under the Minister of Marine, the whole Adriatic
coast is completed, with extension in 1877 to Calabria and Sicily, and in 1878
to North Sardinia. Sixteen sheets (with many others provisionally) have been
published of a coast map, scale 1 : 100-000.

The Minister of Public Works has in hand the river hydrography, high roads,
and railways, on which memoirs are published in the ‘ Hydrographic Bulletin” He
presented a general account to the Paris Exposition.

The Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, apart from economical statistics,
undertakes Meteorology, having a council and thirty-two observatories in his de-
partment, and also a geological committee (with Commissioner Felice Giordano as
president). The ‘ Italian Statistical Annual, under this minister, edited by Com-
missioner Luigi Bodio, contains condensed results of official information on internal
geography and statistics.

In all the schools, geography forms part of the curriculum, though in unequal
degrees. It is relatively larger in the elementary, very limited in the lower, and
entirely insufficient in the higher classical schools. There are special teachers in
only seven of the twenty-three State and private University Institutions, viz., at
Bologna, Florence, Naples, Padua, Pavia, Rome, and Turin, and in all these the
time and course of instruction devoted to geography are inadequate.

As to State aid in explorations by foreigners, although never organising such
expeditions, Italy has always been ready to contribute substantial and moral sup-
port for the advantage of science or the benefit of her subjects.

Private Insrrrurrons.—Chief of these is the Italian Geographical Society,
founded at Florence in 1867 by Commander Cristoforo Negri, who continued
President until 1871, when the Society was transferred to Rome. He was suc-
ceeded by Commander Cesare Correnti, who held office until January last, when
Don Onorato Caetani, Prince of Teano, was elected. The Society now has over
1,400 Fellows, and publishes an ‘ Annual Bulletin’ of 800 pages, with twelve maps,
of which 15 vols. had appeared in 1878. It has also published a volume of
‘ Memoirs’ (1878), one of ‘ Biographical and Bibliographical Studies on Italian
Geography,’ and another on the ‘ Physical and Political Geography of Italy’ (1875).
It has promoted or subsidised various expeditions to the Bogos country, Abyssinia,
New Guinea, Morocco, &c. It delivers lectures, gold medals (the last two to
D’Albertis and Savorgnan di Brazza), and two pecuniary awards, endowed by the
present King and Commissioner Canevaro.

The Turin Geographical Club, founded some years before the Society by Pro-
fessor C. Peroglio, and of which Signor Guido Cora is now President, has issued
some few publications, but is not of any considerable size.

The Italian Alpine Club, with its centre at Turin, presided over by Comman-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 457

der Q. Sella, is now extended all over the kingdom by local sections, chiefly
owing to the exertions of Mr. R. E. Budden. It publishes a Bulletin.

The section for Commercial Geography of the Geographical Society, originated
by Count Telfener, has not as yet found any definite object.

The Milanese Society for African Commercial Exploration, founded in 1878,
with Commander Negri as honorary, and Commander C. Erba as acting Presi-
dent, has already started an expedition under Dr. Matteucci, and has invited
Piaggia to undertake another, for pearl explorations on the Gualima.

Of Geographical periodicals, Italy has ‘ L’Esploratore’ (Milan), ‘Cosmos,’ edited
by Guido Cora at Turin, the ‘ Geological Bulletin, ‘Consular Bulletin,’ and the
‘Giro del Mondo’ (Milan). Of other publications, the account by Professor Giglioli
of the ‘ Voyage of the Magenta,’ and the first volume of the account of the ‘ Travels
on the Blue Nile,’ by the Missionary Beltrame, are specialised.

In Cartography, the chief progress has been made in scholastic maps; a large
relief map of Italy, by Cherubini, being the best, though Guido Cora is preparing
a globe and set of wall-maps of considerable excellence.

7. Italian Explorers in New Guinea. By Professor GiGLiont.

Much scientific work in New Guinea has been done by Italian explorers, while
a very great deal still remains to be done, the high chain of mountains running
through the length of this great island being yet quite unknown. Professor Giglioli,
of Florence, in this paper, gave some account of the labours of Italians in this field
of research. ‘The first Italian who ever visited New Guinea was the Count Carlo
Vidua di Conzano, in 1830, who went to Triton Bay in a Dutch vessel. In 1869-70
Colonel G. di Lenna, a distinguished military officer, and G. Emilio Cerruti reached
the south-west coast of Papua, but were treacherously attacked by the natives on
the north side of MacCluer Bay. A survey was made by them of Galewo Straits.
Dr. Odoardo Beccari and L. M. D’Albertis, in 1872, reached an island in Galewo
Straits, whence they made excursions to the mainland of New Guinea. They after-
wards explored the Arfak mountains, the home of the birds of paradise; but
D’Albertis was attacked with fever and obliged to retire to Sydney. Meanwhile
Beccari visited the Aru and Kei Islands. In New Guinea the travellers made very
important botanical and zoological collections, including a new bird of paradise. In
1876 Dr. Beccari started on his second visit to New Guinea, with generous aid from
the town and provincial councils of Genoa. Hiring a schooner at Amboyna, he landed
at Dorei-Ham, ascended Mount Morait to a height of 3,500 feet, and obtained a
view of the largest river in the northern peninsula of New Guinea. He afterwards
reached its banks, and found that it flowed from the Arfak mountains to the north-
west coast. Beccari then explored the whole curve of the wide Geelvink Bay, and
visited the islands in it. He also again visited the Arfak mountains, attaining a
height of 7,000 feet, and ascertained that the highest peaks reached 9,500 feet.
He returned with immense natural history collections. Signor Albertis, after a
long stay in Australia, set out on a second expedition to New Guinea in 1875,
intending to visit the south coast, and to penetrate into the interior by one of the

e rivers. He was accompanied by a young Genoese, named Tommasinelli. They
reached Yule Island; whence they made several excursions; but afterwards endured
much from sickness and want of food, and Tommasinelli was obliged to return
home. After again visiting Australia, D’Albertis joined the English missionaries,
Macfarlane and Stone, to make an expedition up the unknown Fly river. That
Tiver was ascended for 150 miles. Returning to Sydney, he met with liberal support,
and was provided with a steam launch. In this small craft he re-entered the Fly
river in May 1876, and ascended it for about 500 miles, planting his flag nearly in
the centre of New Guinea. In 1877 he once more entered the Fly river, but the
natives had become hostile, and after encountering great dangers he reached Mount
Ernest Island in Torres Straits, on January 1, 1878, having been deserted by all
his crew, except the English engineer and a boy. He made very large botanical,
zoological, and ethnological collections, which are of great value. The Italian
explorers in New Guinea have brought home about 5,000 specimens of plants,
nearly 100,000 of animals, of which 10,000 birds and 80,000 insects have been
deposited by Beccari and D’Albertis in the museums of Genoa and Florence.

458 REPORT—1879.

Srection F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—G. SHAW LEFEVRE, M.P., Pres. Statistical Society.

[For Mr. Lefeyre’s address see p,. 479. ]

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

The following Papers and Report were read:

1. The Scientific Societies in relation to the Advancement of Science in
the United Kingdom. By Professor Luonz Levi, F.S.A., F.S.8.,
F.R.G.S., Doctor of Economic Science, and of Lincoln’s Inn, Barrister-
at-Law.

At the meeting of the British Association at Norwich in 1868, I had the honour
of laying before this Section a paper on the progress of learned societies, illustrative
of the advancement of science in the United Kingdom. The importance of the
subject, and the renewed effort to rear a building in the metropolis for several
scientific societies, now but insufficiently accommodated, have induced me to submit
to this Section another communication on the number and resources of such
scientific societies at this moment, and therewith on the improved condition of
science.

The relation of our learned societies to scientific progress is close and intimate.
Men of science are not now, as they once were, secluded from human society;
they live in our crowded cities; they frequent our centres of manufacture and
commerce ; they cluster together; they unite for scientific researches; they pursue
their studies in the openday. No air of mystery, no jealousy or secrecy, surrounds
their movements. The discoveries they make find a ready vent at our scientific
societies. A communication at the Royal Society constitutes an era in physical
science. It was at the Society of Antiquaries that Dr. Schliemann laid bare the
wonders of Homeric Troy; it was at the Royal Geographical Society that Livingstone
related his discoveries in Africa, and Captain Sir George Nares his adventures in
the Arctic exploration; it was at the Institute of Civil Engineers that Mr. Bidder
expounded the system of mental calculation, in which he was so distinguished ;
and it was at the Society of Arts that Professor Bell explained his discovery of
the telephone, and Mr. Priestley endeavoured to popularise the principles of the
electric light. Happy moments that Newton and Faraday, and the host of past
and present workers on the golden soil of science and philosophy, were and are able
to spend in the rooms of our scientific societies! Read their transactions for any
one year, and see how brimfull they are of precious seeds of human advancement !

We have reason to be thankful for the advancement of science. If by science

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 459

we mean a clear and certain knowledge of anything founded on self-evident prin-
ciples or demonstration, little progress, I fear, can be expected, because necessary
or mathematical truths are limited in number, and because we live under conditions
that we can but seldom have any clear or certain notice of things capable of
producing absolute conviction. But if we use the word ‘science’ for a formed
system of any branch of knowledge, for knowledge generalised, systematised, and
verified, comprehending the doctrine, reason, and theory of the thing, with or
without any immediate application of it to any use or office of life, then we may
say science is making immenee progress. We certainly know more than eyer we
did of the physical property of things, and their operations. Many things which
were formerly known but vaguely and loosely are now known more fully and com-
pletely. Much of what was, at best, a guess or a supposition, is now founded on
experimental knowledge. There has been both a large accumulation of facts and
a clear discerning of their relation one to another. We have fathomed Nature
more closely, discovered more of her powers, and utilised more of her forces. What
problems in mathematics and algebra have been solved, and how happily have their
principles been applied to the science of life—td mechanics, navigation, and astro-
nomy! What advance in medical science, especially in hygiene, pathology, and
surgery! What advancement in scientific instruments, as revealed in our late
exhibition at South Kensington! What revolutions in our knowledge of geology,
mineralogy, and biology! And how much have the philosophical sciences, espe-
cially of politics and social economy, become extended and methodised! Science
has truly made, and is making, constant progress, and we have abundant proof of
it in the multiplication of our scientific societies, in the greater reverence paid to
science, and in the greater activities of its votaries.

In the seventeenth century there were only two scientific societies in the United
Kingdom—the Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries. In olden time the
Universities were the sole centres and propagators of science. The eighteenth
century saw the establishment of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Irish
Academy, the Linnean Society, the Royal Institution, and the Society of Arts.
But the nineteenth century has been very prolific in the formation of scientific
societies. As each science expanded, its cultivators became more numerous, and
they soon saw the advantage of uniting in their labours, publishing their trans-
actions, and forming themselves into groups and distinct societies. At this present
moment London, the metropolis of science, possesses upwards of forty to fifty
scientific societies, and the calendar for the season exhibits an amount of activity
quite unknown in former periods. And it is the more remarkable in this age,
often described as wholly given to the ignoble occupation of money-making, that all
the labour thus performed by men of science in England, Scotland, and Ireland,
year by year, is the spontaneous offering of time and learning of men, in most cases
far from affluent, to the great cause of human and scientific progress.

First and foremost among our scientific societies are the three Royal Societies, one
in England, one in Scotland, and one in Ireland. Though the primary objects of the
Royal Society of London are the promotion of mathematical and physical science, it
has for a considerable time achieved the distinction of having among its members some
of the most distinguished men from all branches of science. The Royal Society differs
from the French Institute and other foreign academies principally in the fact that it
is not divided, like them, into sections, and its members are not paid by the State.
The Institute of France, in its five divisions—the Académie Francaise, Académie
des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, des Sciences, des Beaux Arts, and Sciences
Morales et Politiques—has 226 members, 36 free academicians, 32 foreign members,
and 236 foreign correspondents. The Royal Prussian Academy of Science, in its
two divisions—the Physico-Mathematical and Philosophic-Historical—has 44
ordinary members, 16 foreign members, 11 honorary members, and 175 correspond-
ing members. Other Royal Academies have fewer members. The Imperial
Academy of Science of St. Petersburg is composed of 15 professors, besides the
president and directors. The Royal Academy of Science of Turin consists of 40
members resident in Turin, 20 non-resident, and 20 foreign members, The Royal
Society of London has now 549 members. Since the passing of the law, in 1847,

460 REPORT—1879.

restricting the yearly elections to 15 members, the number of Fellows has gradu-
ally become smaller. The Royal Society of Edinburgh has now 428 members,
and the Royal Irish Academy 328 members, making altogether 1,305 members.

In comparison with the return given in 1868, the number of members of the
three leading Societies was as follows, showing a decrease of 4 per cent.:—

ae |
a Sm 3
23 Societies 3 oe $e} se
a a2 a4 Sa | 58
AS es 5B 1 reise ane
= a
1662 | Royal Society . : . : ¢ : 651 | 549 — 15
1783 | Royal Society of Edinburgh . 2 - 350 428 22 —
1790 | Royal Irish Academy . : : C 358 328 — 8
1115359 1,305 — |397 |

For the promotion of the physical and mathematical sciences, including all that
is classed under the various branches of natural philosophy—all, in fact, that we
know of the material universe—we have at least nine societies, having together some
5,300 members. We have, first, the Physical Society, holding its meetings at South
Kensington, with 270 members. Next, the Chemical Society, for the study of the
laws which regulate the relation of the elements with one another, and to which their
compounds are subject in their mutual action, and of the properties of the elements
and of the compounds formed by their union. The Chemical Society has made
considerable progress within the last ten years. It now consists of 1,015 members.
Geology is another branch of physical science, as the science of the earth, including
all the sciences that treat of the constitution and distribution of the inorganic matter
of the earth, as well as those which describe the living beings that inhabit it.
The Geological Society has 1,356 members. Astronomy is a mathematical as well
as a physical society. It is physical in so far as it is concerned with the nature
of the power or forces that carry on the heavenly motions, the laws that they
observe, and the calculation of the motions from a knowledge of their laws. The
Royal Astronomical Society has now 631 members. Meteorology, which treats of
the phenomena and modifications of the atmosphere as regards weather, climate,
&c., is another physical science. The Meteorological Society of England has 425
members ; the Scottish Meteorological Society 658 members. For mathematics,
as the science which has for its subject-matter the properties of magnitude
and number, we have the London Mathematical Society, with 147 members. And
in connection with the science of numbers, applicable alike to all that relates
to the physical, economical, moral, or intellectual condition of mankind, we have
the Statistical Society. Some doubt has been expressed as to whether statistics be
moreanartthanascience. Statistics are truly fit instruments in the hand of men of
science. In chemistry and medicine, in astronomy and meteorology, in population
and education, in commerce and finance, the scientific collection of facts or the nu-
merical expression of experience is of the greatest utility, and there is doubtless much
art in the using of statistics. In the words of Lord Derby in his opening address
to this Section at Cheltenham, its characteristics as a scientific method of obser-
vation are, ‘ that it proceeds wholly by the accumulation and comparison of regis-
tered facts; that from those facts alone, properly classified, it seeks to educe
general principles; and that it rejects all @ priori reasoning, employing hypothesis,
if at all, only in a tentative manner and subject to future verification.’ Dr. Guy,
in his paper on the meaning of the term ‘statistics,’ asserted the claims of Statistics
as a science on the ground of its exact classification and nomenclature, of its nu-
merical method, of its analysis in tabular forms, of its power of eliminating dis-
turbing elements, and establishing numerical equalities. The province of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 461

Statistical Society is certainly not only to bring together those facts which are
calculated to illustrate the condition and prospects of society, but to show how, by
the scientific collocation and classification of facts, the student may draw results
and lessons of the highest importance, especially to the economist and politician.
The Statistical Society numbers now 746 members ; there is also an active Statistical
Society in Manchester, with 178 members, making in all 924 members.’ Altogether
the Societies for the propagation of physical and mathematical sciences exhibit the
satisfactory increase of 49 per cent. in their membership.

Physical and Mathematical Scrences.

~ co
mI 5 6 Es S % 4 oO so
oe ce wu | #2 | Be
ie) Societies 26 25 op | of
As ee | fe | Be | £2

Ao ®

* Sb) 8
1878 | Physical Society . é : : 5 — 270 _- —
1841 | Chemical Society . : 5 518 1,015 95 —
1820 | Royal Astronomical Society . : ; 528 631 19} —
1807 | Geological Society . A ‘ ; . | 1,100 1,336 21 ==
1850 | British Meteorological Society t : 306 425 38 | —
Scottish Meteorological Society . : 520 658 26; —
1865 | London Mathematical Society : : 111 147 32 | —--
1834 | Statistical Society . i ; : F 371 746 101 | -—
1834 | Manchester Statistical Society : : 162 178 9; —
3,616 5,406 49 | —

Another group of sciences which numbers many cultivators is that connected
with natural history. First among these is Anthropology, or the natural history
of mankind, for which a special society exists, with 462 members. There was
formerly an Ethnological Society of sufficient number, but that is now amalgamated
with the Anthropological. The Psychological Society, for the investigation of the
forces by which the human mechanism is directed, has 117 members. The biolo-.
gical sciences are numerous, dealing as they do with all the phenomena manifested
by living matter. We have the Linnwan Society, devoted alike to botany and
zoology, with 668 members ; the Entomological, for the study of insect life, with 238
members. Most important, however, are the Royal Agricultural Society with
6,797 members, the Royal Horticultural Society with 2,398 members, the Royal
Botanic Society with 2,504 members, and the Royal Zoological Society with 3,350
members. Their aim doubtless is to unite science with practice, and thus in some
sense they must be said to belong to the group of applied science ; but in truth
their exhibitions and gardens are museums of the greatest value for the study of
the vegetable productions of the globe, and for the advancement of zoology and
animal physiology.

1 There is also a Statistical and Social Enquiry Society of Ireland, but the num-
ber of members is not published.

462 REPORT—1879.

Biology and Natural History.

ee: 2

Se 5 | 6 2 S Ss so 42
par ent | oe Se Se | 83
25 Societies | 23 oe 5 5 zs 5
a | me | ae |e] ae
1863 | Anthropological Society . ; : : 1,031 462 | — | 123
1875 | Psychological Society : : — 117 | — -—
1788 | Linnean Society . : : ¢ : 482 668 39 -=
1833 | Entomological Society . 5 : : 208 238 | 14 | —
1839 | Royal Agricultural Society . : ; 5,525 6,797 | 21 —
1804 | Royal Horticultural Society . 7 5 3,595 2,398 | — 33
1836 | Royal Botanic Society . : : «| 2,492 2,504 3 —
1826 | Royal Zoological Society : : : 2,923 3.350 | 14 —-

16,186 | 16,534 2 —

We might imagine that we have well exhausted the sciences connected with
matter and life when we have reviewed the objects of the societies devoted re-
spectively to physical and biological sciences. But there are more. Archeology,
which not only embraces whatever pertains to the early history of any nation,
but concerns itself with the fossil remains of man, counts several important societies.
They are the Society of Antiquaries, with about 600 members, the British Archzo-
logical Institute, with 492 members, and the Royal Archeological Institute, with
614 members, besides a number of local societies. Geography is no longer content
with a mere description of places and geographical discoveries, but treats of
astronomy and meteorology. Professor Duncan’s lecture on ‘ Mainland Masses,’
Mr. Wallace’s lecture on the ‘Comparative Antiquity of Continents as indi-
cated by the Distribution of Living and Extinct Animals,’ and Professor Geikie’s
lecture on ‘Geographical Evolution,’ have placed the science of geography on
a higher platform than it was wont to occupy. The Royal Geographical Society is
one of our most popular and most useful societies, and counts the goodly number
of 3,332 members. The French Société de la Géographie has 1,563 members, and
the Societa Geografica Italiana counts 1,583 members.

Archeology and Geography.

| |
I LS re
a2 | Og ios er 3 2
aS 5m own & Z 5 a
ge Societies 28 25 38) 8s
S35 feo) e2 Ho ww =
As ee Se) 2s ee
is AS Ae
= =
1572 | Society of Antiquaries . 4 oi me (abt B00 | 7
1864 | British Archeological Association . f 480 492 | 2 xs
1843 | Royal Archeological Institution . i ay | 614) | = 1
1830 | Royal Geographical Society . ; - | 2,102 | 3,332 | 58 = 5
| 3980 | 6038/88 | —

Another group of scientific societies deals with science in its manifold applica-
tions. They encourage science in relation to special arts and occupations. To
this group belongs the Institute of Civil Engineers, for the general advancement
of mechanical science, and more particularly for promoting the acquisition of that
species of knowledge which constitutes the profession of a civil engineer, with
3,315 members. The Institute of Mechanical Engineers has 1,146 members;

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 463

the Society of Engineers, 355 members; the Iron and Steel Institute, 900 mem-
bers; besides the Society of Naval Architects and Telegraph Engineers. More
allied to art than to science is the Royal Institute of British Architects, for the
advancement of civil architecture, which has now 820 fellows and associates.
There is the Society of Arts, ever active, promoting inventions, discoveries, and
other matters connected with the arts, manufactures, and commerce, having
also an Indian section, an African section, and a Chemical section for the discus-
sion of subjects connected with practical chemistry and its application to the arts
and manufactures. The society has now 3,686 members. The Pharmaceutical
Society, for the purpose of advancing chemistry and pharmacy, has 4,536 members
and associates; the Institute of Actuaries, for the extension and improvement of
the data and methods of the science which has its origin in the application of the
Doctrine of Probabilities to the affairs of life, and from which the practice of life
insurance and the valuation of reversionary interests, deferred annuities, &c., derive
their principles of operation. The Institute has now 362 fellows and associates.
And of the same character are the Clinical Society, with 836 members; the
Obstetrical Society, with 738 members; the Pathological Society, with 601
members; and the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society, with 666 members.

Applied Sciences.

t™~
Se 8 s Ea x % +4 oO +4 2
Ss HH “ = qm gq @2
25 Societies 2 5 2s 85 | 8s
| a2 £5 ~ S nS
As ER: fe | 2S ees
& Ag AS
a a

1753 | Society of Arts : - 5 3 Sb et eiel 3,686 12 ae
1818 | Institute of Civil Engineers . : soos 3,315 95 =
Institute of Mechanical Engineers : 572 1,146 100 ats

1856 | Society of Engineers . : : ; 483 355 — 26
1841 | Pharmaceutical Society . : F - | 2,500 4,536 81 a
Clinical Society 5 : ; x ‘ 200 336 68 ee:
Obstetrical Society 2 : : 600 738 23 =
Pathological Society : é - : 400 601 50 a2

Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society . 641 666 3 —

1834 | Royal Institute of British Architects . 623 821 31 25
1831 | Royal United Service Institution . . | 3,283 4,485 36 =
1847 | Institute of Actuaries . “ - : 228 362 58 me
1877 | Institute of Chemistry . : 3 3 _— = a af
Tron and Steel Institute : é : -- 900 == pees

14,506 | 21,947 51 —

Besides these there are many scientific societies of a miscellaneous character,
such as the Microscopical; the Philological, for the investigation of the structure,
the affinities, and the history of languages; the Numismatic; the Asiatic, with 320
members; the Areonautic, with 81 members; the Royal Institution, with 544
members; the London Institution; above all, the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, with 3,622 members, and the National Association for the
Promotion of Social Science, with about 700 corporate members, composed partly
of members already belonging to one or other of the scientific societies, and partly of
persons interested in scientific inquiries, though not themselves engaged in the same.
‘We should add also the Victoria Institute, or Philosophical Society of Great
Britain, whose objects are to investigate fully and impartially the more important
‘questions of Philosophy and Science; but more especially those that bear upon the
great truths of Holy Scripture, with the view of reconciling any apparent dis-
crepancy between Christianity and Science; and also to consider the mutual
bearings of the various scientific conclusions arrived at in the several distinct
branches into which science is now divided, in order to get rid of contradictions

464 REPORT—1879.

and conflicting hypotheses, and thus promote the real advancement of true science.
This Society, now in the thirteenth year of its existence, counts 744 members.

The numerical progress of the scientific societies during the last forty years
has been by no means uniform. In some cases a law is in force for the very purpose
of restricting the membership. Thus the Royal Society, which in 1846 had 841
fellows, in 1878 had only 549 fellows. The Society of Antiquaries, under a similar
law, had 867 fellows in 1831, and in 1878 only 600. Other societies, however,
have no limit to their membership, and are capable of great expansion. The
danger, indeed, is that in the eagerness to increase their number due care may
not be taken to elect only persons sufficiently conversant with the different
sciences. There has always existed considerable difference in the character of
several of our scientific societies. In some cases they consist exclusively of men
of science; in others they comprise many simply interested in the progress of
certain sciences; in others, again, they are purely composed of professional men.
The Society of Arts, the Royal Geographical Society, the Royal Botanic Society,
and the like, are mixed societies, the scientific element being represented in them
in more or less proportion. The Institute of Civil Engineers, the Pharmaceutical
Society, are composed of professional men. In the interest of the advancement
of science, it is undesirable to close the door of entrance too tightly to these
societies, and thus lose the means which a large membership places at their dis-
posal for increasing usefulness. I venture to suggest that fellowship in such
societies, and the honour of using their initials, should always be reserved
for men of science; but that an unlimited number be admitted as members or
associates.

Taken at four intervals of ten years, the number of members of the principal
societies was as follows :—

\

ar ; | l papas
= 4 5 ab “as _
‘ 3 o> doer. | 2b. | Sead | oe 3
S a | eo ee | se | aches |. Fa
va ra 29 as =) — 29 se a
Sow HE Say | ee | Been | Bg g
fo} > aye =} g
| iam] | | = | = | =
| 1848 812 o24 | 899 | — 344 a a
1858 706 277 872 = 436 359 129 i
1868 600 518 | 1,204 | 341 528 387 | 2265 535
1878 549 937 | 1,336 | 480 631 746 | 362 668
| ! SS SS
Per cent. | |
of increase \ 32 318 | 48 = 83 81 | — —
| 1848-1878 | |
is 3 pa ] 2 2 r g
1 “4 a 2
eae: jell ate dead es |: 2. eee come
5 ae .| bei) Bee igee | 3 ee | 238) a8
a ae anil el ee lace > | SB | som | 33
Pet re eel, a a2 | See a
= <q 5 | Ss > i=l
1848 | 6335 | 584 | 1,039 | 627 644 626 189 | 3,947
1858 | 5,146 635 + 1,039 | 1,909 857 341 | 3,246
1868 | 5,446 622 686 | 2,102 | 3,134 | 1,694 825 | 3,812
1878 | 6,797 600 492 | 3,333 | 3,686 | 3,315 | 1,140 | 4,484
ie t. : |
osinaece } 7 2 52 431 472 429 | 503 13
1848-1878 |

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 465

Assuming that these societies fairly represent the number of persons in the
United Kingdom conversant with and interested in the respective branches of
science, the following proportion of each to one million of the population is

interesting :—

Members of Scientific Societies
Per 1,000,000 inhabitants

1848 1878

Members of Royal Society, London . 29 16
s Royal Astronomical Society , 12 18
i Chemical Society . - = 18 27
os Geological Society . - “ 32 39
Royal Agricultural Society . 227 201
“f Royal Geographical Society . 22 98
Pa Statistical Society . ; i 15 22
9 Engineers, Civil . 3 3 22 98
. Engineers, Mechanical , - 6 33
1 Society of Arts : P : 23 109

Altogether, including local scientific societies (see Appendix), the number of
members of scientific societies of the United Kingdom is about 60,000. From
this number, however, we must deduct at least ten per cent., representing those
belonging to several’ societies—leaving about 54,000 individual members. But
even that can scarcely be considered as representing men of science. Probably
the half may give us more approximately the number, say about 25,000 persons,
having any recognised status in the world of science, or actually engaged in the
pursuit of the same in the British Isles.

The income of our scientific societies ordinarily arises from annual subscriptions,
or life subscriptions, of members, and from the proceeds of any funded property.!
The expenditure consists of house rent, salaries, including sometimes secretary and
editor, cost of publications and miscellanies. The Royal Society, the Society of
Antiquaries, the Linnean, the Royal Astronomical, the Geological, and the Chemi-
cal are provided with rooms at Burlington House by her Majesty’s Government.
The Royal Geographical Society receives 5007. a year subvention towards house
rent for the purpose of a public exhibition of their maps and charts. Other
societies are but indifferently located, and their house rent constitutes an appreci-
able proportion of their expenditure. Dr. Siemens, the eminent president of the
Tron and Steel Institute, has offered the munificent sum of 10,000/. towards the
erection of a building suitable for the accommodation of the various societies
representing applied science in the metropolis. We trust several societies may
see theix way to combine for such a purpose, and it would not be too much to
expect that her Majesty’s Government may, if applied to, be willing to grant at
least a site for such a building.

The funds of many scientific societies are far from abundant. A few have a
certain amount of stock, but several scarcely succeed in maintaining a perfect
equilibrium in their receipts and expenditure. Those societies which hold exhibi-
tions, whether permanent or periodical, are committed to operations not uniformly
successful and profitable. The activity and usefulness of the societies may best
be tested by the promptitude, character, and extent of their publications. The
principal societies publish both journal and transactions. The Society of Arts
publishes its Journal weekly, the Royal Geographical monthly, and other societies

uarterly. In some cases, however, as in the Society of Antiquaries, the publica-
tions appear at long intervals. Some societies publish only mutilated fragments

* The Royal Society of London possesses two estates in Lincolnshire and Acton,
and upwards of 80,0002, in different stocks. The Society of Antiquaries possesses
12,000/. stock ; the Royal Institution, 33,1782. ; Royal Geographical Society, 15,4697. ;
the United Service Institution, 18,750/.; Statistical Society, 2,000/.; Institute of
Civil Engineers, 41,5007. ; Society of Arts, 16,9927. ; Pharmaceutical Society of Great
Britain, 40,8057. ; Medical and Chirurgical, 3,224, ; Royal Agricultural Society, 25,3407.

1879. HH

466 REPORT—1879.

of their communications; others publish them in full, together with the discussion
which ensued after the papers were read. For non-resident and busy members
the full and early publication of memoirs is of the utmost importance.

It is not to be desired that our scientific societies should be subsidised by the
State, but the claim of science to State assistance has been fully recognised, and we
may well demand that whatever amount is so devoted be fairly distributed among
all the branches of science. In the case of house accommodation it is difficult to
see on what ground many of our best and most useful societies are excluded from
the boon of free rental. When recently, on the recommendation of the Royal
Commission on Scientific Instruction; the State resolved to vote 4,000/. annually
to aid research, the societies whose presidents were to be taken in consultation
were named as the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh and the Royal Irish
Academy, the Royal Astronomical, the Mathematical, Chemical, Linnean, Zoolo-
gical, Geological, and Physical Societies, the Institutes of Civil Engineers and
Mechanical Engineers, the General Council of Medical Education, the Royal Colleges
of Physicians and Surgeons, and the British Association. Several important
societies were thereby not recognised.

The amount voted by the State yearly for education, science, and art appears
large, and constitutes a somewhat greater percentage on the total national expen-
diture than in former years, as may be seen from the following figures :—

Year | Total Expenditure eae Eaton, Per Cent.
£ £ £
1835 45,669,000 135,000 0:29
1845 48,075,000 300,000 0°62
1855 65,692,000 832,000 1:26
1865 66,462,000 1,361,000 2°04
1875 74,328,000 3,037,000 4:08
1878 85,408,000 4,153,000 4°88

If, however, we eliminate from the total vote the amount expended for element-
ary education, the proportion left for science and art is considerably diminished :—

ane Vote ar Elementary Vote for hes and Bib erg tc
ucation u Science and Art
£ £ £
1835 65,000 70,000 52
1845 150,000 150,000 50
1855 612,000 219,000 26
1865 1,019,000 341,000 25
1875 2,569,000 464,000 15
1878 3,624,000 529,000 12

The aid now given by the State to science takes the form of grants for salaries
to professors in the Universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrew's, where
the professorships are insufficiently endowed; of payments to the University of
London and other Universities for examiners in certain sciences; of sums devoted
to the maintenance of royal observatories and museums of science and art; the
support of schools of science and art; the cost of the Geological Survey; and the
maintenance of the Royal Gardens at Kew and Botanical Garden in Edinburgh.
In this manner the physical sciences are aided by 1,500/. for chemistry, 1,3162. for
astronomy, and 100/. for physic. Geology, including the cost of the Geological
Museum and Geological Survey, receives the sum of 33,373/. Meteorology, in-
cluding the vote for the Meteorological Council, receives 14,987/., and natural
philosophy 841/., making altogether the goodly sum of 50,8017. The natural
sciences are well remembered. To natural history 2007. is awarded, to zoology
5001., to botany 8,013/., to agriculture 1507. The medical sciences receive for
medicine 860/., anatomy 680/., surgery 750/., materia medica 600/., medical science

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 467

420/., forensic medicine 250/., Institute of Medicine 500/., physiology 200/., obstetric
medicine 150/.; total, 4,410/. A grant is made of 475J. for engineering, and also
5007. for logic, 2917. for moral philosophy, 607. for political economy, 450/. for law
and jurisprudence, and 50/. for constitutional history. The amounts granted for the
British Museum, 110,949/., for the South Kensington Museum, for scientific research,
and for schools of science cannot be classified with any precision. It is easy to see,
however, that Government aid is principally given to physical and natural ‘science,
leaying a wide range of scientific exploration altogether unassisted.

Great have been the achievements of science in modern times, and England
owes to its cultivators a profound debt of gratitude. Our manufactures and in-
dustry, our productive power and means of locomotion, all depend for their develop-
ment on the advance of science, and our scientific societies have a high economic
value. The Royal and Mathematical Societies are labouring to evolve the prin-
ciples of those sciences which govern the phenomena of the material universe and
the practical problems of the Law of Probabilities. The Statistical Society subjects
‘the real worth of economic doctrine to the close test of numbers, the great corrective
of experience, using the inductive rather than the deductive method in its researches
for the guidance of the philosopher and statesman. The Royal Astronomical Society is
expanding our knowledge of the meteorology and magnetism of the universe, as
well as of the laws which govern the motion of the heavenly bodies, to the immense
benefit of navigation. The Chemical Society is analysing matter, finding out new
elements, and enriching the world with the knowledge of their capabilities, The Geo-
logical Society maps out for us the very strata of the earth. The Royal Geographical
explores for us unknown regions, and makes us acquainted with the habits and
wants of distant races. The Institute of Civil Engineers discusses those pro-
blems relating to railways, telegraphs, and steam navigation, which so especially
distinguish this age of material progress. Much has been done in the pursuit of
science, but much more remains to be accomplished ; and England’s hope to main-
tain her high position in productive industry must depend on the success which
men of science may yet attain in fathoming the inexhaustible secrets of nature, on
the increase in the number of patient yet ardent votaries of science, and still more
on the diffusion of education and scientific Inowledge among the great body of the
people.

Local Societies.

Edinburgh Botanical Society.
‘Glasgow Natural Society.
Yorkshire Agricultural Society.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
Ulster Chemical Agricultural Society.
Wiltshire Natural History Society.
Norfolk and Norwich Archeological Society
‘Cambridge Antiquarian Society.
Worcester Diocesan Architectural Society.
Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society,
Tweeddale Physical and Antiquarian Society.
Lincoln Diocesan Architectural Society.
Suffolk Institute of Archeology and Natural History,
Liverpool Architectural and Archeological Society.
Lancashire Historic Society.
Glasgow Archeological Society.
Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
Edinburgh Philosophical Society.
Leamington Philosophical Society.
Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society,
Newcastle Natural History Society.
Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society.
Falmouth Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society.
Exeter Naturalists’ Club.

HH 2

468

Year

Royal Society

Statistical Society

Astronomical

Society

Royal

Chemical Society

Geological Society

REPORT—1879.

Society of
Antiquaries

Royal Geographical
Society
Institute of
Civil Engineers

1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872

1873 |

1874
1875
1876
1877
1878

1,631 | 945
1,750 1,000
1,909 |1,040
1,987 11,095
2,036 1,203
2,097 |1,339
2,102 |1,493
2,150 |1,694
2,234 |1,727
2,263 |1,876
2,387 |1,989
2,448 |2,123
2,548 |2,253
2,719 |2,411
2,898 |2,609
2,982 |2,844
3,279 |3,059
3,332 13,315

anical Engineers

Institute of

PreePaeee ©

tet in

= 4

8 218 3

Seep S| Slee
be ae | 6 [BS] §
aa; ae} Sie | &
Piale | 3

o

Fait Shas

— |1,4387) — —
— |2,699| — =) =
eS eT oo eee
— |3,748| — —Fe
em EOT Bil cae | |
— |4,069| — Le) eee
S505 0 Sa ae |e
|| i lf
esol — | = |
— |4,257| — = |PS=
— |4,243| — |4,595|) —
— |4,127) — |5,834| —
— |4,078| — |7,000| —
— |3,968| — |6,927| —
— |3,988| — |6,933) —
— |4,031) — {6,971} —
— |4,017| — |6,391) —
— |3,947) 672 |6,335 | —
— |3,970| 644 |5,512| —
244 |3,997 | 990 |5,261 | —
264 |3,188| — |5,121| —
244 |3,078 |1,118 |4,981 | —
264 |3,251| — |4,923| —
245 |3,171 |1,418 |5,177 | —
212 /3,131| — |4,882) —
177 |3,204 |1,755 |4,979 | —
129 |3,168 |1,908 |5,068 | —
144 |3,246| — |5,146| —
156 |3,344 |1,865 |5,161 | —
147 |3,518| — |5,165) —
155 (3,689 |2,380 |4,633 | —
167 |3,797 |2,826 |4,823 | —
184 |3,847| — |5,183| —
198 |3,902 |3,012 |5,496 | —
203 |3,895| — |5,752| —
220 |3,891 |3,164 |5,622 | 331
228 |3,823| -—— |5,465 | 328
221 |3,812 |3,134 |5,461 | 330
234 |3,792 | — |5,446 | 341
255 |3,831 |3,122 |5,438 | 340
271 |3,922 |3,146 |5,648 | 314
296 |4,116 |3,181 |5,766 | 309
313 |4,276 |3,342 |5,916 | 308
324 |4,330 |3,545 |5,846 | 327
331 |4,308 |3,694 |6,145 | 358
335 |4,320 |3,777 |6,486 | 398
351 |4,405 |3,693 |6,634 | 425
362 |4,484 |3,686 |6,797 | 480

dical and Chirur-
' gical Society

re ae

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 469

2. Report of the Anthropometric Committee.—See Reports, p. 175.

3. Apprenticeship Schools in France.
By Professor Sitvanus P. Tuompson, B.A., D.Sc., Sc.

The system of apprenticeship, as it has existed in England and on the Con-
tinent, is falling into decay from social causes, which render the education of the
apprentice at the hands of his master impracticable. The question of apprentice-
ship is one of the knotty points of technical education, and involves the following
problem :—How to give to artizan children (in the skilled industries) that technical
training and scientific knowledge which their occupation demands, without detain-
ing them so long at their schooling as to give them a distaste for manual labour.

Four distinct solutions of this problem are possible :—

Ist. Send the children to work in the factory or workshop before their primary
education is completed, making it obligatory all through their apprenticeship that
they shall have every day a certain number of hours’ schooling in a school in the
workshop, or attached to it.

2nd. Keep the children at school as long as their education is unfinished, but
set up a workshop wn the school, where they shall pass a certain amount of time
every day, so as to gain at least an aptitude for manual labour.

3rd. Organize a school and a workshop side by side, and co-ordinate the hours
given to study with an equal number of hours devoted to systematic manual labour.

4th. Send the children half the day to the existing schools, and the other half
to work half-time in the workshop or factory.

Illustrations of all these systems are to be found in Paris.

Of the first type there are no fewer than 237 in France, of which the schools of
M. Lemaire and of MM. Chaix (in Paris) may be taken as excellent examples.

Of the second type of apprenticeship school is the Ecole Communale d’Ap-
prentis, in the Rue Tournefort, Paris. This is an ordinary elementary school,
having workshops attached to it, and used for about three hours a day by the lads.

The third type, which is par excellence the apprenticeship school, is well
illustrated by the Ecole Municipale d’Apprentis of the Boulevard de La Villette,
Paris, and by the Kcoles d’Horologerie of Besancon and of Cluses. Statistical
tables were given of the attendance at these schools, of the education given, of the
capital and current expenditure per pupil, and of the results attained.

Fourth type.—Half-time schools are rare, and not very important in ‘their
results.

The author conceives that there is room for schools of all these different types
to exist side by side in all large manufacturing centres, though schools of the first
and third types are probably best suited to the conditions of British industry.

The author claims to have established, by facts drawn from the experience of
the French schools,—

Ist. That the systematic instruction of apprentices in the skilled industries is
possible.

: 2nd. That it can be effected in several different ways.

érd. That apprenticeship schools of one or other type afford a most satisfactory
and economically sound way of attaining this result.

4th. That this New Apprenticeship solves the knotty problem of technical
education which arose out of the decay of the Old Apprenticeship.

4. On Credit as an Asset of a State. By Hype Crarxe, V.P.S.S.

The purpose of the author was to show, in illustration of his previous paper,
“On the Loans of Sovereign States,’ that independently of all material natural
resources and of capital, a State may possess credit, which will supply capital, and
is to be reckoned as an asset. Taking a colony as an example, he pointed out that the
natural resources, land, pasturage, harbours, water-power, rivers, forests, mines,

470 REPORT—1879.

were, without the application of capital and labour, of simply nominal value, All
the resources of such a State are applied to production, and transport is a condition:
without which production can merely supply local food, without producing ex~
changeable commodities. With the development of the means of transport by
railways, new communities are no longer in a position to be self-sufficing in com-
munications, and are dependent on the supply of external capital for rails, machinery,
and works. These must be furnished by credit, and where credit cannot be ob-
tained the country must remain undeveloped. This resource of credit has been
unduly neglected in many States of the American Union, and in those of Central
and South America. To ascertain the statistical value of this credit, he took the
amount expended by the State, by municipalities, and by companies on public works,
supplementing this by a further sum where the credit was unexhausted. Thus, Mr.
Clarke estimated the minimum credit of Canada at 50,000,0002., of New South Wales
at 30,000,000/., of Victoria at 30,000,000/., of South Australia at 15,000,0002., of
Queensland at 20,000,0007., of Tasmania at 5,000,000/., of Natal at 4,000,0007.
At zero, he estimated Bolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Hayti, Hon--
duras, Mexico, Persia, Peru, San Domingo, Venezuela, The cultivation and main-
tenance of credit he urged as an essential provision in the administration of a
State, and as an immense resource. He contrasted England, the United States,
Germany, and France, with Russia and China.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Decay in the Export Trade of the United Kingdom.
By 8. Bourne, F.S.S.

The question whether the diminution in the value of the exports of British and
Insh produce and manufacture, which has undoubtedly taken, place in recent years,
is solely one of price and not in quantity, has given rise to considerable discussion.
The Prime Minister, in his place in Parliament, has, on the authority of a
report from the head of the Statistical Department of the Board of Trade—in
which the trade of 1877 was compared with that of 1873—taken comfort from
the thought that had the prices of 1873 been realised in the valuation of 1877,
the two years would only have differed by a million of money instead of the
apparent difference of forty-five millions, and most of the leading political
economists have adopted the same view for other years. Yet there is reason to
doubt whether the decay has not been to a great extent in volume as well as
value—in quantity as well as price.

There is no difficulty in determining to which cause this is owing in the case of
any single article of which we possess records, of both quantity and value; but.
where some have increased and others decreased it is only by analysing the-
returns, assigning to each item its relative proportion, and combining the results,
that it can be ascertained to which or in what degree the preponderance of either
cause is on the whole to be awarded. Tables are compiled for the seyen principal.
articles of export, viz.: Cotton, jute, linen and woollen manufactures, coal, copper,
and iron, contrasting the several periods—1877 with 1873, 1878 with 1872, and
the first six months of 1879 with 1872—bringing out the following results.

(In miliion pounds to the decimals.)

£ |

ell £
Value of specified articles ... | 1877— 125-02 | 1878—120°62 | 1879—54:96
Value—being less than .. | 1873— by 42°30 | 1872— 56:13 | 1872—28-50
Value of decrease in quantity 2°10 14:12 6°88

Value of decrease of prices... 40°20 42°01 21°62 |.

ae"

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 471

These figures, however, fail to represent the true state of the case. In 1872-3
the price of coals was unduly inflated, and so of all articles in the manufacture of
which coal is largely consumed. The valuations, therefore, for these earlier years
require to be brought down to the average prices of previous and subsequent years.
Again, a large portion of the value of the exports is to be found in the cost of the
foreign materials of which they are composed, and the variations in the prices of
these for the respective years needs to be estimated and allowed for. Dealing thus
with coal, iron, and cotton, the above figures are thus reduced in every particular
save that of loss in quantity, and will stand thus :—

£ £ £
; 1873—113-88 | 1872—126-41 | 1872—60-77

eta eomparison ... 1877— 98:02 | 1878— 95°62 | 1879—43-46
Difference due to quantity ... 2°10 14:12 6°88
Price... 13°76 16°67 10-43

15°86 30:79 17°31

These calculations dispose of the fallacy that in price alone has there been any
serious decrease in the value of our exports, establish the fact that there has
been a real decay in the quantity of our manufactures for sale abroad, and show
that this is still proceeding at an accelerated pace.

TaBLeE I.
(In millions to two decimals.)

Total Value More or less Increase or Decrease

Goops ExPportED Years in than in Value due to
Later Years Earlier Year Quantity Price

E £ &£ &
Cotton Manfs. ee 1877 with 1873 6422 — 7°54 + 630 — 13°84
1878 ,, 1872 63:01 — 13:98 + 514 — 19:12
(@Mo:) 1879 ,, 1672 28:27 9— 8:34 + 2°51 — 10°85
Jute ne Rew LOTT), yy lice 328 — 0:43 + 060 — 1:03
1878 ,, 1872 Boo .— 0:03 + 1350 — 1:38
(6 Mo.) 1879 ,, 1872 1:64 + 0:08 + 085 — O77
Linens te sve g. LOT Tiga 659. —. 212 — 164 — 0-48
L878i 45) LSre 593, —. 368 .— .348 — 0:20
(6 Mo.) 1879 ,, 1872 ete ae 2:00 - 1°61 — 0:40
Woollen ,, ace 1877 ys 1870 EZ 04 OIG ee 88
; 1878 ,, 1872 1952 — 1752 — 1090 — 6°62
(6 Mo.) 1879 ,, 1872 848 — 1002 — 644 — 3°58
Coals aia see, LOT semenones 784. —. 534 + 293 — 8:27
1878 ,, 1872 732. —- 312 + 179 — 4:91
‘(6 Mo.) 1879 ,, 1872 3°34 — 0°63 + 065 — 1:28
Copper fs ane LOT elLsto 3:06 — 0:22 + 043 — 065
1878 ,, 1872 311 — O14 + O98 — 1:12
(6 Mo.) 1879 ,, 1872 150 — 0:09 = 060 — 069
Tron ... = ove LETT ye Sia SOUL Or 5°56 — 12°05
1878 ,, 1872 1840 — 17.66 — 900 — 8:66
(6 Mo.) 1879 ,, 1872 851 —. 749 — 3844 — 4:05
Totals of 1877 ,, 1873 12502" — 4230 “— ‘2:10 — 40:20
specified 1878 ,, 1872 12062 — 5613 — 1412 — 42-01
-Articles (6 Mo.) 1879 ,, 1872 54:96 —' 2850 — 688 — 21°62

472 REPORT—1879.

TasBeE II,
(In millions to two decimals.)

1873 1872 6 Mo. 1872
Value of Specified Articles £167°52 £176°75 £83'46
Deduct Coal £647 £4.06 es £1:07
> lron 13:17 os 9-28 “ei 4:12
» Cotton... 34:00 sho 37:00 aoe 17°50
53°64 50°34 22°69
Net Value for Comparison 113°88 126°41 60°77
1877 1878 6 Mo. 1879
£125:02 £12062 £54°96
Less Cotton 27:00 25-00 Ano 11°50
98-02 95°62 43°46
Per ct. Per ct. Per ct.
Fall in Value 15°86 = 13°9 30°79 = 24-4 17:31 = 28°4
Due to Price ia 13°76 =12:0 16°67 =13°2 10°43 =17:0
» Quantity... 2:10= 1:9 14:12 =11:2 6°88 =11°4

2. Agricultural Statistics, Tenure, and Depression.

By Witt1am Botty.

In previous papers I have shown the national importance of agricultural sta-
tistics, with illustrations from history, both sacred and profane, as being a safeguard

against scareity and famine.

I will now review the acreage of corn, green crops, flax, hops, &c., in the United
Kingdom in 1878, with the number of cattle, sheep, pigs, and agricultural horses,
with increase or decrease in the year 1878 as compared with the previous year

1877,

Corn Crops ; ' : . .
Green Crops . . ; ° .
Flax . . . . ' . .
Hops .

Bare Fallow and Uncropped Arable
Clover and Artificial Grasses under
rotation 3 F 4 5
Permanent Pasture, exclusive of
Heath and Mountain Land ,
*Orchard and Fruit-trees . i

*Woods, Coppices, and Plantations

}

Acres — Acres |
11,030,175 Decrease 73,021
4,832,195 ahs 129,496
119,076 “a 11,770
71,789 Increase 550
650,238 “3 16,743
6,557,748 5 97,344
24,065,394 as 162,080
165,415 Great Britain only, and
of which there is no
2,187,078 return since 1872.

* Orchards, Fruit-trees, Woods, and Plantations do not

1872 only.

Live Stock

| Cattle Ret ie a Me cb ua
Sheep i . ’ A . >
Pigs .

Horses used in Agriculture .

No.

9,761,288
32,571,018
3,767,960
1,927,066

include Ireland, and are down to

— No.
Increase 29,751
es 350,951
Decrease 216,487
Increase 32,938

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 473

—— No. — No.
Oxen, Cows, Sheep, Lambs, and
Swine imported in 1878 . : L201 OU? |) Uiceease eae
Wool A . ; » bs. 395,461,286 Decrease 10,487,875
| Butter F 6 F i cwts. 1,795,413 Increase 157,474
Cheese , 5 ( - if 1,965,949 Pa 314,861
Eggs . ® great hundreds 6,529,036 “ 271,144
Imported in 1878 Cwts. Declared value Increase in ewts.
Meat . ; i : : 1,307,954 £3,493,471 30,268
‘ Decrease in cwts
Wheat, Beans, Barley, Maize ; '
Oats, Peas, id Flour ; \ 88,238,700 58,372,624 35,740,804

Whilst the decrease in declared value is only . 5 - F £4,836,884

The average price of wheat in the years 1863, 1864, and 1865 was 4s. 2d. below
the average of 1878, whilst that of barley was 10s. per quarter lower in these years
than in 1878, and for the said years 1863, 1864, and 1865 oats were 3s. ld. per
quarter below the year 1878, Meat averaged about three farthings per lb. more in
1865 than in 1868, and 1d. more in 1878 than in 1868, Asno nation can allow
its population to perish of hunger, or to suffer the terrible evils of and following
upon scarcity and famine, it is an evident necessity to attend to these statistics.

From September 1, 1878, to the last week in July 1879, viz., ten months,
the import of cereal produce was 102,747,256 ewts., of the declared value of
41,256,356. Our exports were 2,286,869 cwts. in the ten months.

The tenant farmers of the United Kingdom are about 1,000,000, employing a
capital of or about 400,000,000/. sterling. With security on judicious outlay it
might be increased to five or six hundred millions, when they might farm at a
profit instead of a loss, as we are continually told many are doing at present.

Peru was formerly the foremost as regards agricultural statistics, to its great
advantage, and now our own magnificent Australian Colonies are pre-eminent for
their elaborate and minute agricultural statistics, In all probability had a good
system of that sort been established in India at a former period, the entire cost of
the two famines—17,000,000/. sterling—might have been saved.

The importance of the subject of this paper is recognised by the mercantile
and shipping interests as well as by that powerful engine and interest the press,
and it was observed by the chairman at the meeting of the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety in December, 1877, that the earlier publication of our agricultural statistics
was due to the papers read thereon before the British Association ; and on May 22,
1879, at the meeting of the same Society, a prominent member advocated the ob-
taining, at any cost, by the Royal Agricultural Society of England, statistics of the
agricultural produce of every clime and country in the known world, as essential to
the interests of manufactures, commerce, shipping, and agriculture.

The fear of advance in rent, from these returns, is becoming less as knowledge
advances.

Long and equitable leases, #.e., security of tenure, will materially assist the
onward improvement in agriculture, which, with compensation for all unexhausted
improvements, will attract and bring more men of skill, capital, and enterprise into
agriculture, and we shall then cease to hear the farmer calling for Parliamentary
assistance, to which we mustadd that the game should be under the control of the
tenant, With those equitable adjustments, the farmer need not fear foreign or colo-
‘nial competition or prices. Moreover, as we have seen greater depression many
times before, so when the other great industries revive agriculture will also
improve.

474 REPORT— 1879.

3. The ‘German’ Speech and Lip Reading System of Teaching the Deaf.
By Davio Buxton, Ph.D,

The number of those who are deprived of hearing, though relatively small, is
larger than is commonly supposed, and quite large enough to form a very important
item in that world of humanity with which science, and philanthropy taught and
directed by science, have to deal.. In the various populations of the world the
deaf are probably not less in number than a million of souls; the distribution of
this number is very unequal, no doubt, and varies not only in different countries
but in different districts of the same country, as in our own for example, some
counties in England showing twice and even three times as many deaf persons to
the general population as are to be found in other counties not far distant. In
the whole of Great Britain and Ireland at the census of 1871, the number of per-
sons returned as ‘deaf and dumb’ was 19,287, being a proportion to the whole
population of one in 1644, the local differences ranging from one in 1972 for
England and Wales, to one in 975 for Ireland. In April 1881 the next enumera-
tion of the people will take place. Many striking facts of recent occurrence have
led thoughtful observers to the conclusion that our deaf population will then
exhibit a considerable increase; that it will reach as high a figure as 30,000.
The ‘ German’ system of teaching the deaf is the only one which inyokes science
and applies science in its operations. That England does stand far in the rear of
most other countries in respect of the teaching of her deaf children is as true as
_ itis humiliating. She does not teach so many and she does not teach so well,
The number of deaf children of the school age is always reckoned as sixteen per
cent. of the whole deaf population. This on the census of 1871 would give us nearly
3200 as the number who should have been at school; the best calculation I was.
able to make showed that the actual number was under 2000, In July 1877 (ac-
cording to the ‘ Organ,’ a periodical devoted to the special subject), the institutions
and schools for the ‘ deaf and dumb’ in Germany numbered forty-nine, and contained
2932 pupils, under the instruction of 288 teachers, giving an average of 10:18
pupils to each teacher. The increase in the number of institutions within the
previous two years had been nine, of pupils 682, of teachers 118. Probably,
no other country can show equal progress during the same period. In 1872,
the Swiss schools contained 344 deaf pupils, under the instruction of thirty-
seven teachers: an average of nine to a teacher. What is the case in the institu-
tions of Great Britain? A table compiled in 1877 gives 2340 pupils and a total of
171 instructors, including pupil teachers and deaf persons promoted out of the school
to take the charge of classes. The number of these latter is thirty-three, and the
number of female teachers, including fifteen nuns engaged at St. Mary’s, Dublin,
sixty-eight. This gives an average of fourteen to one teacher, the German average
being 10°18, and the Swiss only nine per teacher. Thus, on the mere ground of
numbers, we compare very unfavourably, but when we reflect upon the materials of
which the teaching staff in England is so largely composed, it is no wonder that
the subject is one which, in the minds of all who are interested in the welfare of
the deat, has for a long time created the deepest anxiety. Few of those who are
engaged in teaching haye entered upon the work with any special qualifications for
it, none have been trained to it, and a very large proportion tire of it before they
have acquired sufficient experience to make their teaching of any value. The
superiority of the ‘German’ system nobody questions. Its bitterest opponents do
not deny that; they only say, in effect, that the other is good enough for its pur-
pose, that it is cheaper, and that in some cases where the time and capacity of the
learner are limited, the ‘German’ method isinapplicable. Butis this great country
content to be put off with an inferior system in the matter of education to that
which poorer countries are determined to have and willing to pay for? Germany
is poor, especially Prussia proper. Switzerland is not rich, nor is Italy, nor Hol-
land, in comparison with ourselves. Yet all these countries afford to support
almost universally the ‘German’ system, which it has been alleged is so expensive
as compared with the French. But is it a fact that the ‘German’ system requires.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 475

a larger staff of teachers than the other system? The best French teachers will
not tell you so. Probably under any system eleven pupils are as many as any one
teacher should be expected to attend to. But even if the better system is somewhat
more expensive to work, surely, eyen in a commercial sense, it is worth the money.

SATURDAY, AUGUST 23, 1879.

This Section did not meet.

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Hlementary Natural Science in the Board Schools of London.
By Dr. J. H. Guapsrone, F.R.S., Member of the London School Board.

In elementary schools a knowledge of the facts of nature is generally given im
two very different ways. In the Infant department there usually linger some
remnants of that instruction by object lessons which was considered a valuable
sad of education before the Revised Code of 1861. In the higher standards of tie

ys’ and Girls’ departments certain sciences may be taught as ‘ specific subjects,’
and receive encouragement by a Government grant.

The London School Board has all along desired that this knowledge of nature
should not be confined to the least and the most advanced scholars, but should be ex-
tended throughout the whole course of a child’s school life. It covers the walls of
its schools with natural history pictures, and other diagrams, it gives a preference
to teachers holding science certificates, it publishes full instructions to the teachers in
regard to object lessons, and it provides a box of simple apparatus, and loan collec-
" tions illustrative of various manufactures, animal physiology, and mechanics. On
May 7 it unanimously passed a resolution that, ‘In the opinion of this Board it
would be expedient to include the elements of natural science amongst the recog-
nised subjects of class examination, under Article 19, c. 1, of the Education Code,’
and on June 27 a deputation of the Board presented a memorial to that effect to
the Lord President of the Council.

At the present time, out of 1074 male and 1790 female teachers, 888 males and
442 females hold advanced science certificates, varying in number from 1 to 23, as
will be seen in the following table :—

Number of Advanced Science Certificates held Total

Teachers number of
1/2/31!141!151 61] 7) 8 | 10] 12| 28 | Teachers

Male . . |112] 151] 272|181) 86 | 48) 19 | 10} 6; 2) 1 888
| Female . | 262}102} 60; 10); 6; 2); —j|—}]—|—}|— 442

Object lessons may be assumed to be given in all the Infant departments, and.
are regularly reported on by the Inspectors of the Board. Advanced object
lessons, generally on natural history, are taught in many of the Boys’ and Girls’ de-
partments, and there is little doubt that they will soon become much more general
and systematic.

476 REPORT—1879.

Out of 248 boys’, 218 girls’, and 46 mixed schools, more than half include in
their course of instruction scientific specific subjects, which are thus distributed :—

Boys’ Schools Girls’ Schools
Mechanics . . . . . 1 ae
Animal Physiology . : . s 299 13
Physical Geography . > 5 - 68 5
Botany ; : . . : a 1
Domestic Economy . . . — 131

The cost of books and apparatus for the instruction in natural knowledge during
the past twelvemonth was :— .

Object teaching, diagrams, &c. . ‘ . £587
Natural sciences . ; : ; : : : WG
Domestic Economy (exclusive of cookery centres) 130

£834

This amount forms a very small item in the £23,000, which was the expenditure of
the year on books and teaching apparatus for the 205,010 children usually on the
rolls. and is, in fact, rather less than one penny per child per annum.

There are other ways in which the Board works in the same direction: such as
the placing of popular books on science in the school libraries, and the co-operation
with the National Health Society in respect of the prizes in physiology which are
offered to girls.

2. On Science Teaching in connection with Elementary Schools.
By J. F. Moss, Clerk of the Sheffield School Board.

The conditions under which grants in aid of elementary schools are given
naturally suggest the consideration how far science teaching may be extended with the
facilities already offered, and what improvements can be suggested in the direction
of making science teaching more thorough and useful. The new code of regula-
tions prescribes a certain course of training for every child attending a Government-
aided school. The essential subjects are carefully arranged so that a child of twelve
or thirteen should be fitted by such an education for any of the ordinary positions
in life. There are also optional subjects, which include mechanics, animal physi-
ology, physical geography, and botany. In the arrangements for the promotion of
science teaching in connection with the Science and Art Departments there is a
programme of twenty-four subjects in respect of which grants are given to
teachers whose students attend certain classes and pass the prescribed examinations.
It is undesirable to encourage the taking up of too many special subjects, any one
of which would require an immense amount of time and hard work. Some teachers
can produce most wonderful arrays of certificates, embracing subjects most comical
in their variety, and involving studies widely different in their character. When
we come to special science teaching, such as ought to be insisted upon, it will be
obvious that the work should be well done, and can only be safely intrusted to
those who devote themselves specially to a limited range of subjects, and who can
be relieved of other responsibilities so as to admit of proper preparation and
research. First of all we want really good teachers, and we should then attend to
the necessity of economising their labours by framing such a system as will be
calculated to secure the best results without waste of power. The teacher should
be encouraged to concentrate his energies in whatever direction he is best fitted to
follow, and should not be distracted by incongruous pursuits. At present the
supply of really good science teachers is by no means sufficient, but as the field
widens the demand will be met. Supposing we have the teachers, how can we
best utilise and economise their work? The ordinary elementary school is scarcely
the place best adapted as the sphere of operations; not that I would exclude
elementary science teaching altogether from the lower schools, I would rather con-
sider them as the place where should be discovered the adaptability of the pupil

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 477

for the profitable pursuit of advanced studies in one direction or another. Directly
a pupil arrives at that point at which he may demonstrate his adaptability for
special lines of training he should have the opportunity of availing himself of the
best instruction he can get in that particular direction. This can be best carried
out by providing centres at which the special training may be carried on under
better conditions than is possible in separate schools. In every town of even
moderate size there should be a special school to which might be drafted those
pupils of either sex who demonstrate in their early career an adaptability for
advanced training. For every special subject there should be special teachers of
approved qualifications, training, and skill; one teacher might take a group of
da tbite. There should be scholarships or exhibitions enabling naturally gifted
pupils to pursue their studies longer than would be possible without such helps,
aid the course of instruction should in each case be directed in view of a con-
sideration of the position in life which the pupil is hereafter likely to fill. Branches
of science more immediately bearing upon the industries of the district should be
brought prominently forward, so as to provide for the training of young people who
may hereafter be intelligent artisans, foremen, and managers. There need be no
fear of educating young people beyond what is suitable for their station in life.
The clever pupil should not be taken away from the elementary school at too early
an age, so as to afford discouragement to his teacher there, and, on the other hand,
he should be well grounded in all the essential subjects, so that he may pursue with
the greatest benefit the special course. The expense of the scheme proposed
would be less than might at first be imagined. Grants for special subjects, as
already provided for in the new code, and the grants in aid of science and art
teaching administered by the South Kensington authorities, should be available;
they would produce more satisfactory results than those which are at present too
commonly obtained. There should be also evening classes for the further advance-
ment of students after they have entered upon their business career.

3. Some Account of the System of Instruction in Elementary Science intro-
duced by the Liverpool School Board into their Schools. By Epwarp M.
Hance, LL.B., Clerk to the Liverpool School Board.

Almost as scon as the Liverpool School Board had any schools of their own to
manage, they were painfully struck with what appeared to them the mechanical,
monotonous, and utterly uninteresting character of the instruction then generally
imparted in elementary schools. They felt that the incessant and almost entirely
unrelieved grind at reading, writing, and arithmetic, in which the attainment of
mechanical accuracy appeared to be the ultimate aim, did very little, if anything,
to develop the intelligence of the children, and was calculated to defeat its own
object by generating in a great majority of cases a distaste for intellectual attain-
ments. They were impressed therefore with the necessity of providing a some-
what more varied curriculum, and especially with the importance of introducing
some subject calculated to awaken the observing faculties of the children. In the
choice of subjects they were by no means free, for though in theory they may
perhaps be at liberty to introduce subjects not specified in the New Code of the
Education Department, they are practically almost unable to do so, since teachers
under a system of payment by results are naturally anxious to devote their main
energies to subjects that will ‘pay ’ in the Government examination. At this point
the board obtained the valuable advice of Professor Huxley, Uolonel Donnelly, and
one or two other gentlemen of eminence in the world of science, The result was,
at their suggestion the board selected ‘Mechanics’ for boys, and ‘ Domestic
Economy’ for girls, as the subjects most suitable for their purpose, the definition
of these subjects given in the New Code being of such a nature as to allow of the
instruction being considerably expanded, in the one case in the direction of
elementary physics, and in the other in that of elementary chemistry, physics, and
physiology. In reference to the system of instruction, it was decided to absolutely
abandon the use of textbooks, and to rely entirely upon oral instruction, illustrated

478 REPORT—1879.

by, or rather explaining, a series of experiments performed by the science instructor.
It then became necessary to determine whether the children should receive
instruction at their own schools or at certain fixed centres; the latter method
would have greatly economised the time of the instructor and have diminished the
number of lessons required, while it would have allowed of somewhat more delicate
apparatus being used. In view, however, of the requirements of the Education Depart-
ment, that the ‘attendances’ upon which a large share of the Government grant
depends, shall each be of two hours’ continuous instruction, and of the importance
of haying one or more of the teachers present at the demonstration, in order that
they may subsequently go over with the children the subject of each lecture, it was
decided to have the instruction given in each school separately. The system
followed was this. The science instructor prepared for each week a lesson in
mechanics for the boys of each of the two groups into which the schools of the
Board are divided, and in domestic economy for the girls of one of these
groups, that is, three lessons per week, of which each lesson necessitated a
different set of apparatus. The lessons to one group would be given during the
earlier, those of the other during the later days of the week. The requisite
apparatus was transported from school to school in a small hand-cart by a boy
specially employed for the purpose. By this means the instructor was enabled to
give four lessons each day, or twenty in the course of the week. In each school
the children in the three upper Standards (IV., V., and VI.) were during the first
year grouped together into one class for the purpose of this instruction, but after
the following examination by the Government inspector, when the children were
all moved a standard higher, and those who had previously formed Standard III.
entered on Standard IV.,a second class became necessary. This increased the
number of lessons required in each week, and it became necessary to appoint an
assistant to the original science instructor, and now after the expiration of a second
year, and the formation of a third class in each school, a second assistant has been
required; but, in the instruction of the later stages—when the children have been
already well grounded in the subject—a larger share is left to the ordinary
teachers of the school, so that the actual demonstrations given by the science in-
structor or his assistants in each school are as follows. Boys, Stage I., one lesson
per week; boys, Stage IL, one per fortnight; boys, Stage III., one per month,
Girls, Stage L., one lesson per fortnight ; Stage [., one per fortnight; Stage IIIL.,
one per month, Although a large proportion of the demonstrations are now given
by the assistants, each lesson is still prepared by the science instructor, and is
actually delivered by him in one school in the presence of the assistant, who is
afterwards to give that lesson in other schools. The number of children now
under instruction is about 2700, and will shortly be 3,000, The cost to the
board has been about L00/. for the stock of apparatus, and about 470/. a year for
salaries to the instructor and his assistants. This amount is diminished by one
half the grant earned from Government, the other half being for each school paid
in equal proportions to the science instructor and the head teacher. The experi-
ment has so far been very successful, the demonstrations are extremely popular
with the children, and have made a perceptible increase in their intelligence,
especially among the elder children, and even more markedly among the girls
than the boys.

4. Reformatory Punishment. By F. T. Mort, F.R.GS.

The reformation of the criminal is the only basis of social punishment which is
consistent with the highest morality. Upon this principle the following system of
punishment is suggested, viz.:—l. That the criminal, when convicted, should be
removed from those influences under which the crime has been committed, and
treated as a weak and selfish child. 2. That he should be detained for no definite
period, but until he has given evidence that he is not likely to commit crime again.
3. That prison discipline should consist in teaching every one to labour for the
benefit of the others, the principal test of reformation being the willingness to
sacrifice ease and comfort continuously for the good of others. 4. That Courts

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 479

should be established, with the best guarantees obtainable for impartiality and
practical wisdom, to determine when each criminal is fit for freedom.

The first result of this system would be to clear the country of habitual
criminals, and to fill the jails; but in a few years crime would be much diminished,
and the moral tone of the people greatly elevated.

5. On the Feasibility and Importance of Extending to Scotland the proposed
Criminal Code for England and Ireland. By W. Nutmson Hancock,
DL.D., M.R.LA.

The criminal code first proposed for England only, after inquiry, was proposed to
be extended to Ireland also. A delay has occurred in passing it, which afforded
an opportunity of including Scotland also. The system of public prosecution so
long prevailing in Scotland, and partially adopted in Ireland, had been partially
adopted in England. The complete system in Scotland led to some great
economies and simplification of procedure, in dispensing with the double pre-
liminary inquiry before coroners and magistrates and the double attendance of
witnesses before grand juries and petit juries, the Scotch dispensing altogether
with inquests and with grand juries, except in cases of treason. If grand juries
were preserved for the two classes of cases of private prosecution and treason
and offences against public authority, the double attendance of witnesses might
be obviated in the vast majority of cases, and grand juries would not be necessary
in Scotland to a greater extent than at present. The English Fmd jeten police
report shows numbers of cases abandoned from cost and trouble of prosecution.
The system of inquests might also be limited to a few cases to be conducted more
on the plan of Board of Trade inquiries as to ships, and railway inquiries as to
accidents, and a few other special cases, so the Scotch would not have to adopt
inquests. The Statistical European Congress held at St. Petersburg in 1870,

“recommended uniform criminal tables for all Europe. A criminal code is the
first step towards uniform statistics for England, Scotland, and Ireland. The
value of statistical comparison is shown by some results of the first complete
comparison of Scotch, English, and Irish crime. In the same population the
English figure for crimes against property with violence was 1,014, the Scotch
3,175, and the Irish 458, The Scotch figure for assaults and breaches of the peace
98,145, the English 22,000, and the Ivish 38,351. The first excess was accounted
for by the peculiarity of the Scotch Poor Law which prohibited guardians from
relieving the able-bodied, however great their distress might be. The second by
the weakness of the Scotch in police, only 5,034, as compared with 12,546 for
Treland, and 6,670 for England in the same population. The paper also suggested
the importance of reducing the law as to offences disposed of summarily to a code.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879.

The PresrpEnt delivered the following Address :—

I cannot commence my address to the present meeting of this Section without
referring to the very brilliant essay delivered last year at Dublin by my predeces-
sor, Dr, Ingram, and which has justly attained an Huropean fame and circulation.
Tt was at once a vindication of the claim of Sociology to a high place in the pro-
ceedings of this Association, and a protest against the somewhat narrow limits and
methods which political economists have for some time past imposed on themselves.
With most of his arguments and statements I cordially: concur. So far from

480 REPORT—1879, ©

agreeing that this is a time when we should abandon sociological inquiry as beyond
the limits of true science, I venture to think there never was a time when it was
more desirable that these subjects should be treated in a scientific manner.

I do not purpose, however, on the present occasion to follow Dr. Ingram further
in his philosophical disquisition on the proper limits of economic inquiry, but I
shall endeavour to deal with one of the many questions which are unquestionably
open to us.

There can scarcely be a more interesting economic question at the present time
than the state of agriculture and the causes of its present depression. How deeply
important is it that we should be able to trace the causes of that depression, to
analyse how far they are of a climatic and temporary character, and how far they
are due to the competition of foreign produce; to what extent also the low prices
are due to the alteration in value of gold; and, having ascertained this, to discuss
how far we may expect these causes or any of them to continue or to diminish in
their effect, and to estimate their ultimate effect upon rents, on wages, and on the
profits of farmers, and indirectly upon other interests of the community.

Pending the investigations of the Royal Commission recently appointed to con-
sider the subject, it may seem almost an act of temerity to venture upon it; but
the Report of the Commission will probably not be forthcoming for two years; in
the meantime events will not wait for it, and it is desirable that every licht should
be thrown upon the subject by independent criticism and observation. I feel also
that I owe no apology for so doing, for although the community in which we
meet is essentially a manufacturing one, yet it will be admitted that the depression
of a great interest like that of agriculture has a serious import and effect upon every
other interest in the country, and is probably at this moment one of the causes of
the stagnation which is so much complained of in the manufacturing world.

It must be admitted most freely that the agricultural interest, or at least a
large part of it, has suffered severely during the last few years from a combination
of bad harvests and low prices. These phenomena are especially to be noted since
the year 1873; of the six years including and following that year, four have
been years of exceptionally bad harvests, giving results of from 20 to 25 per cent.
below the average ; and for the whole period the average production of cereals has
been 13 per cent. below the average. In the memory of living men there has been
no such concurrence of bad seasons.

Bad harvests, however, in previous years were generally followed by higher
prices, which recouped the producers to a great extent for the deficient quantity ;
but bad harvests during the last six years have not only not been followed by
higher prices, but in the case of wheat at least, prices have fallen still lower, and
the consequence has been most serious to those who rely mainly on this cereal.
But when, in addition to the low price of wheat, we take into account the reduced
acreage of corn cultivation, the reduced number of cattle owned in the country,
notwithstanding the greatly increased price of meat, and the rise of wages of agri-
cultural labourers which occurred in 1872, we can easily realise the great losses of
those farmers who rely mainly upon corn for their returns, and who cultivate the
heavy and inferior lands of this country.

The produce of wheat is so important a part of the agricultural industry of so
large a proportion of the country, that it may be taken as to a great extent an index
of the position of agriculture ; its abundance and price are also of not lessinterest to
the bulk of the population of this country, who rely upon it mainly for their food.
It is worth while, therefore, to pay special attention to this product. The position
of the producer with respect to it may best be estimated by multiplying the known
average produce per acre in each year by the average price obtained for it in the
twelve months succeeding the harvest.

I have before me a table constructed on this basis, showing the average product
in money per acre of wheat for each year since 1849. It shows that for the first
four of these years following shortly after the repeal of the Corn Laws the pro-
duction of wheat must have been anything but profitable to farmers ; the harvests
were somewhat above the average, but the prices were very low, averaging only 41s,
per quarter, and the result in money to the farmer for an ayerage acre of produce

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 481

was only 7/. 9s.; after that year prices again rose, and for the next twenty years
the average product per acre in money was 9/. 13s., or 27. 4s. per acre above that of
the four years succeeding 1848. During these twenty years it is to be observed
that the price of wheat as a general rule varied inversely as the quantity produced,
in other words, a very good harvest was succeeded by lower prices than the average,
a bad harvest was followed by higher prices, and the farmer was compensated in
a great degree by a higher price for the deficiency of the harvest ; thus in 1863 the
best harvest of the period, the production was 41 per cent. in excess of the average,
and the price fell to 40s. 11d. per quarter, the result to the farmer being 10/. 0s. 6d.
per acre ; and in 1867 the harvest was the worst of the period, 26 per cent. below the
average, but the price rose to 68s. 4d. per quarter, giving a result to the farmer of
81. 17s. per acre.

In 1873 we observe a marked change in this relation between quantity and
price, and it is obvious that some causes must have operated from that time to
depress prices to a very marked degree. Unfortunately for the producers, the six
years which followed 1873 have heen years of very serious deficiency of pro-
duction ; as already shown the harvests have been 13 per cent. below the average.
In lieu, however, of rising in proportion to this deficiency, the price of wheat
has fallen somewhat lower than on the average of previous years. It has been
49s. 7d. per quarter, as compared with 55s. 5d., the average of the previous six
years of good harvests; the result, therefore, in product per acre has been an
average for the six years of only 7/. 9s., or exactly the average of the four years
1849-52, while the average of the last four years has been even lower, namely,
71, 4s. 5d. per acre, or 2/. 8s, 6d. per acre below the average of the twenty years
from 1853 to 1872. It is obvious from these figures that the reduced product per
acre is due, not merely to the deficient quantity, but also to a fall of prices; and
so far from the prices having risen in inyerse proportion to the bad harvests, there
has been a distinct tendency to fall in spite of the bad harvests.

From these figures it is easy to estimate how great has been the deficiency
to the producers of wheat upon their average crops of the last six years. The
present extent of wheat production in the United Kingdom is about 8,300,000
acres, and compared with the average of the previous twenty-four years, including
the bad years succeeding 1849, the last six show a reduction of gross product of
about 2/. per acre, equal to an annual reduced gross return of 6,600,0007. For the
six years, then, the reduced return to the producers of this cereal has been
39,600,0007, It is quite clear, then, that the position of those farmers who rely
upon wheat for their main profit, and who have suffered most from the wet seasons
of the last few years, has been very serious, and the prospect of another bad
harvest must be most discouraging to them.

Before, however, we examine the causes of this, and speculate as to the future,
let us look at the question from the point of view of the consumers. To the public
who are consumers the failure of the harvest is a matter of as much regret as to
the producers. It is the interest of all that the product should be plentiful. It
cannot, however, be said to be equally the interest of all that the price of wheat
should be high, or even that it should rise in proportion to the deficiency of
harvest. If the increased price were paid wholly to the producers of this country,
the money would at least remain here and be circulated again among the community ;
but as the greater part of the wheat consumed now comes from abroad, a rise in
value not only raises the price to the home producer but also to the foreign pro-
ducer, and the increased price paid to the consumer is so much loss to the country
asa whole. For many years past the proportion of importations to the home pro-
duction of wheat has been increasing. Thirty years ago we imported little more
than one-fourth of our total consumption, during the last six years we have imported
considerably more than the half our total wants. Comparing the last six years
with the previous six years, it will be observed that the proportions of home
aa and foreign imports have been reversed; in the first period we produced

2,000,000 quarters and imported 10,000,000; in the second period we produced
10,000,000 and imported 13,000,000 quarters.
The following table will show at a glance how rapid has been the growth of

1879. II

482

REPORT—1879;

imports, and how more and more this country is becoming dependent for its
supplies on other countries :—

Average Population, Production of Wheat, and Importation, for periods of 6 Years.

i 2 3 4 5
: Average acre- Average im-
Periods of eee of | a88¢ under Pirie: ¢ portation of Total average
6 Years ae cultivation of | Production of | vy cat in years| Consumption
United wheat in Whee succeeding of wheat in
Kingdom each year each year anata each year
qrs. qrs. qrs.
1849-54 27,666,000 4,267,000 14,763,000 4,207,000 18,970,000
1855-60 28,688,000 3,836,000 13,812,000 5,873,000 19,685,000
1861-66 29,760,000 3,625,000 13,052,000 7,760,000 20,812,000
1867-72 31,370,000 3,562,000 12,343,000 9,667,000 22,010,000
1873-78 33,102,000 3,313,000 10,089,000 | 13,050,000 23,139,000
|

[The table is constructed on the basis of Mr. Caird’s table, showing the production
of wheat per acre for each year since 1849; on the trade returns from which column
4 is arrived at; and from the agricultural returns, which give the acreage under
wheat cultivation for the last few years; the acreage for the first three periods is
estimated, after taking into account the importations, the requirements for con-
sumption, and the known produce per acre. ]

The price of wheat has averaged during the last six years 6s. per quarter less
than the previous six years. The consumer, therefore, has been saved that much on
each year on the total average consumption of 23,000,000 quarters, or a sum of
6,900,000. a year, a saving nearly sufficient to pay for the excess ee as
compared with the previous six years. But this is not the whole of the case; if
the price of wheat had risen during the last six years in inverse proportion to
the deficiency of product, as it has already been pointed out was generally the case
in the previous 20 years, it is easy to show that the average price during the six
years would have been 62s, 6d. per quarter, in lieu of 49s. 6d., a difference of 18s.
per quarter. This increase would have been paid by the consumer upon the average
consumption during the six years of 23,139,000 quarters, making an increased charge
to the community of about 15,000,000/. in each year; and of this 6,550,000/. would
have gone to the home producer in each year, and 8,450,000. to the foreign producer.
For the six years, therefore, the home producer would have gained 39,000,000/., and
nearly 51,000,000/. would have been paid away to the foreign producer, in excess of
what was actually paid.

It is clear, therefore, that the country, as a whole, has very greatly benefited
by the low price of wheat; and it is not too much to say that had this additional
sum been paid away for wheat during the last few years of depression, in addition
to proportional increased payments for other food supplies, the commercial depres-
sion would have been greatly aggravated.

The low price of food has unquestionably been the chief cause that the work-
ing classes have passed through the period of commercial depression with so little
general suffering. It has also been the cause that one of the three great classes
which make up the agricultural community, namely, the labourers, have been better
off during the last six years than they have been during any period in the last
century. Not only did they succeed, in 1872, in asserting a rise in wages, but
their money wages have, owing to the low price of wheat, gone much further. A
rise of 13s. per quarter of wheat would have almost neutralised the rise of money
wages,

aaa consideration of these facts will, I think, show how immensely the country
gains by the low price of wheat, and that such gain is altogether out of proportion
to any loss which may be incurred by the producers in this country, of that propor-
tion of the consumption which they are able to produce. It will also show how

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 483

impossible must be the attempt to revert to any expedient for artificially raising
the price of wheat in the interest of the home producers. Any arguments there
may have been 30 years ago in favour of such a course, are multiplied tenfold at
the present time, when the proportion of imports to home produce is so greatly
altered.

Let me now revert again to the table showing the gross product in money per
acre of wheat. I have already pointed out that in the year 1878 there evidently
came into operation causes which exercised a very powerful influence on the price
of wheat, and which prevented its rise at a time when deficient harvests would
have led us to expect a very considerable rise. I do not think it is difficult to trace
and determine one and the main of these causes. It appears to me to be very
intimately connected with that which is the main cause of the commercial depres-
sion of the last few years. We know that between the years 1869-1872 there was
an extraordinary inflation of trade in America, due mainly to the enormous exten-
-sion of railways in the Western States; this was in a great measure stimulated by
reckless and unwise concessions of Congress, which gave away millions of acres of
land to the companies who obtained concessions for their lines, and by reckless and
unwise lending by capitalists and investors in this country and Germany. In four
years not less than 17,000 miles of new railways were constructed. The installa-
tion of these new lines, and the consequent speculation, led to an enormous and un-
natural development of the iron and coal industries in America, and to immense
importations of iron rails from England ; it also stimulated prices generally, and was
-a main cause of the inflation of that period.

The immediate result of this vast extension of the railway system in the
Western States was to bring to market a great amount of corn already being
grown in those districts, and which had hitherto been beyond the range of the
English markets, and the effect of this doubtless began to be felt on the price of
wheat in England about the year 1873.

Its next effect was to produce a reaction and collapse without parallel to any
which we have experienced in the last 30 years. The collapse was mainly felt
in the American States, In 1873 no less than 7,000 miles of railway became bank-
rupt and were sold up by their creditors. The iron manufactures which had been
called into existence were involved in the collapse ; nearly one half of those in the
States stopped work. The importation of iron from England fell to zero. The
loss of capital engaged in these new railways and ironworks told in a hundred ways
upon the commercial prosperity of the States, and indirectly, though by no means to
the same extent, upon ourown. Thousands of labourers were thrown out of work
in the manufacturing districts of America. Their imports fell off by 40,000,0007.
a year, or 32 per cent. There is no better illustration of the distress caused
in America than the almost total cessation of emigration to it from this country.
The intending emigrants soon learned that they had nothing to gain by transferring
themselves across the Atlantic. There was greater difficulty in finding work in
New York, Philadelphia, and even Chicago, than at Liverpool or in Ireland. In
each of the years 1872 and 1873 the emigrants had ftnhared 230,000, in 1876
and 1877 there was an excess of returning emigrants.

What followed must have affected, even more powerfully, the prices of agri-
cultural produce in this country, The great surplus of unemployed labour has
during the last five years been transferred from the manufacturing districts and
great towns in the Atlantic States to the new districts opened out by the railway
extension of the previous years. The cultivation, therefore, of corn in these newly
opened-out fields has increased at a ratio never before experiénced. The new railways,
constructed before there was population or trade to supply them, stimulated this
new settlement by lowering their traffic rates to a minimum; the commercial de-
pression operated upon the steam-carrying trade across the Atlantic in the same
manner, and greatly lowered freights; coincident with this movement there has
been a succession of abundant harvests in America, while this country was suffer-
ing from such deficient harvests.

| So great a movement in the direction of increased cultivation of the surface of
_ the earth has probably never been yet experienced in so short a period, nor has

I12

484 REPORT—1879.

there ever been so rapid and great a reduction of the cost of transit, both by land
and sea,

The following table taken from official returns shows the growth of production
of wheat alone in the United States :—

1849 1859 1869 1877 1878
Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels

Atlantic States 51,657,000 | 53,294,000} 57,476,000} 64,344,000} 65,000,000
Central States 43,522,000 | 94,458,000 | 140,877,000 | 147,890,000 | 150,000,000

Trang Pa eae eh 5,306 | 25,352,000] 89,392,000 | 152,860,000 | 215,000,000

Total | 106,485,000 | 173,100,000 | 287,745,000 | 365,094,000 | 420,000,000

The aggregate production of wheat has increased from 100 millions of bushels
in 1849 to 365 millions in 1877, and 420 millions in 1878, and the production per
head of the population, notwithstanding that the population has nearly doubled in
the interval, has increased from 4°33 to 7°87. Not less interesting is the relative
increase in different sections of the country. In 1849 the production beyond the
Mississippi was insignificant. The production of the Atlantic and the Central
States was not far from equal, each about 50 million bushels. The production of
the Atlantic States has increased but very little in the 380 succeeding years; it
is now only 64 million bushels. The production of the Central States doubled in
the decade ending 1859, and increased again by 50 per cent. in the decade ending
1869, while the trans-Mississippi production, which amounted to 25 millions in
1859, rose to 90 millions in 1869, and to 215 millions in 1878 ; the whole increase,
therefore, in the last seven years has been in the States beyond the Mississippi.

From 1870 to 1878 the area under cultivation of wheat in the States increased
from 19 millions of acres to 30 millions, and of maize from 38 millions to 50 mil-
lions ; and the exports of wheat alone increased in ten years from 50 millions of
bushels to 90 millions, of which this country has taken more than half. Of the
total importations of wheat to this country the production imported from the
United States has increased from 26 per cent. for the six years ending 1872, to 44
per cent. for the last six years, or, including Canada, about 50 percent. For the 12
years ending 1866, the proportion was 35 per cent. The figures show that the rela-
tive capacity of America for supplying this country with wheat had greatly fallen
off during the six years preceding 1878, but since then has enormously increased.

The excess production of the American States and Canada beyond the wants
of their own population is at the present time sufficient, in average harvests on both
sides of the Atlantic, to supply the whole excess wants of this country ; and the
actual acreage under wheat cultivation is nearly ten times the extent under similar
cultivation in this country.

In view of these facts, who can be surprised that the price of wheat in this
country should have been so profoundly affected ? The result of the movement in
the States during the last eight years, of the vast extension of cultivation, combined
with the cheapening of the cost of transit, has been almost to annihilate the distance
between the two countries, and to subordinate the production in this country to
the vastly greater production on the other side of the Atlantic. It has rendered us
comparatively indifferent, so far as our interests as consumers are concerned,
whether we have good or bad harvests in this country, and a complete command.
over the markets here has been given to the vastly greater production of the
far West.

Is it then to follow that the cultivation of wheat in this country is, in the
future, to become impossible, because unprofitable? Is the price to be so per-
manently reduced as to prevent its cultivation upon any but the very best soils?
We should, I think, be wrong in forming any such conclusion. It must be recollected
that the last six years have been years of most exceptionally low production in
this country; the competition of America has been much more felt in the bad

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 485

seasons than in the good seasons; it has had the effect of preventing the rise of
rice in bad seasons. We can scarcely as yet estimate its effect upon the price
in average seasons or when harvests are above the average in this country. The
bad harvests here have been balanced by exceptionally good harvests in the States ;
we have yet to learn what may be the result upon prices here of indifferent
harvests in America. A diminished production of one bushel to the acre in this
- country results in a loss of less than half a million of quarters; a reduction to
the same amount in the United States will produce an aggregate loss of three and a
half million quarters, or one-third of her exporting power. A general bad harvest,
therefore, may even now materially interfere with her exports. In 1859, and again
in 1865 and 1866, the exports from America were reduced to very small amounts
by bad harvests, after having been exceptionally large, and there may be similar
variations in the future. It is probable also that the effect of the recent bad
seasons and low prices will be to reduce still further the acreage of wheat cultiva-
tion in this country. In future, therefore, we must look for an ever-increasing
requirement from abroad for our wheat consumption. An average harvest in this
country will produce not more than eleven million quarters, leaving twelve millions
for imports. A harvest 20 per cent. above the average will still necessitate the
importation of ten millions. It is quite possible, and indeed probable, that a bad
harvest in the States, coincident with a good harvest here, may raise the price of
wheat so as to give a large profit to the farmer. There are many questions also
affecting the future production in America and the future balance remaining for
exportation which have to be considered. The increase of population there is
rapid ; new districts become quickly peopled; States which a few years ago were
large exporters are now producing no more than suflicent for their own consump-
tion; others are become importers, and every year the centre line of wheat
production is being carried farther to the westward. A general revival of trade
will probably increase the traffic rates of the Western railways and the Atlantic
freights. These and many other causes may in future tend to raise the average
price of wheat and other agricultural produce in the States.

If I were to venture a prediction on so difficult and obscure a question, I would
incline to the opinion that wheat has during the past year reached its lowest point;
that we have felt the maximum of the effect of the recent great extension of corm
production in the Far West; that with the revival of trade, the increase of popu-
lation both here and in the States, and the tendency to reduced cultivation
of wheat in this country, there will be a rise in the price of wheat; and that,
coupled with better harvests in this country, or, at least, a return to average harvests,
we may find the product to the farmer in money such that the difference as com-
pared with the past is capable of adjustment by a comparatively slight reduction
of rent and wages.

The business of farmers, especially in this country, where it is separated from
the ownership of land, and is connected with the land only by contracts of
short date, is one which cannot be carried on without such a rate of profit as
will induce capital to embark in it. It is certain, therefore, that such an adjust-
ment of profits, rents, and wages must be made as to enable the business to be
earried on, and it is probable that this adjustment will be made before the Royal
Commission recently appointed can conclude its labours.

It may be worth while to point out that the competition of the Far West has
‘told upon other lands much nearer to it than our own country. The farming inte-
west of the New England States, and even of some of the other Atlantic States,
thas been much affected by it during the last few years. The value of land in these
States, remote from the larger towns, has been much reduced, and large numbers
of farmers from New England have been induced to leave their homes and settle
in the new opened-out district in the West. Their place has been taken in part by
Irishmen and in part by Frenchmen from Canada, who are content to farm in a
more humble manner, and who can get a living by laborious and minute attention
which their predecessors disdained to give to the land. At the same time a great
change has come over the manufacturing industry of New England. It is not
many years ago that its factories were mainly supplied by the sons and daughters

486 REPORT—1879.

of the New England farmers of the true Anglo-Saxon descent. This class has
now all but disappeared ; the factory workers are now Irishmen or Frenchmen, and
form a true manufacturing population. The true New Englander is rarely found there,.
except in a position of trust as overlooker or manager. The change which has
taken place, and the depreciation in the value of land, has not affected the total
value of property in New England. The low price of food has been a great benefit
to the manufacturing industry, and the aggregate wealth of these States never
was greater than at the present time.

If the competition of the great corn-fields of the Far West has thus told upon
States so near at hand, it is to be expected that some of its effects would be
felt in this country. Although the position of the farming interest for the twenty
years preceding 1873 was satisfactory and fairly prosperous, yet it was certainly
not progressive. The cultivation of wheat has gradually diminished, and the
breeding and feeding of cattle has been substituted for it; the dependence of this
country upon foreign produce for its food has every year become greater; the num-
ber of persons employed in agriculture has remained stationary, and their propor-
tion to the rest of the population has been continually diminished. The whole
increase of population during the last forty years has been absorbed in other
pursuits than agriculture. In 1831, 28 per cent. of the population of England and
Wales was occupied in the business of agriculture; the proportion is now less
than one-tenth ; and great as still is the importance of the agricultural interest as
compared with any other, its relative importance to the whole manufacturing and
commercial interests of this country is greatly changed. That, notwithstanding
this, the wealth of the country has increased by enormous leaps and bounds in the
interval is indisputable, and especially was this the case in the few years preceding
1873. That we have been able to provide fora population increasing by about three
millions in every ten years, without any increase of territory, and with a some-
what reduced agricultural industry, that we have been able to turn the tide of
pauperism, and to reduce it considerably as compared with the past, is a most
striking fact, and strong testimony to the soundness of our general system. It may
be that the enormous agricultural development in America will drive us further on
the same road ; but that it will permanently injure the economic condition of this
country as a whole is not to be believed.

If, then, I am right in my explanation of the agricultural depression, it may be
connected not remotely with the depression which has weighed so heavily upon com-
merce and manufactures also during the last five years. Both are probably due in
the main to causes operating over a great area and over a long period, and are indica-
tions of the flow of the great tide of population and cultivation advancing
over the great plains of America. The collapse of credit in 1873, and the conse-
quent discredit and depression, has been much more felt on the other side of the
Atlantic than on this. The imports to the States fell off enormously; the
investment there of foreign capital wholly ceased. In this country we haye felt
severely the temporary loss of our largest customer for our exports ;/ but our other
customers in every part of the world have made up for the bulk of our exports,
though not for their value.

I am confident, however, it will be found, on making a comparison between this
country and others, that we have passed through the period of depression with
infinitely less suffering to the bulk of the people, and with less real loss of capital,
than in any other part of the world—excepting perhaps France, which has been saved
by the extraordinary thrift of her working population; and that free imports and
consequent low prices have saved the labouring classes from what would otherwise
have been a period of far greater distress to them. Already there are symptoms of
revival in that quarter from whence the principal cause of the depression issued.
All accounts from America testify to the improved condition of trade, to the fact
that the immense extension of agriculture is producing its natural effect in reviving a
demand for manufacturing products, which her own workshops will soon be unable to
supply. With reviving trade and renewed confidence in America, the investment

* Our exports to the United States fell from an average of 36 millions for the
three years ending 1873, to 16 millions for the last three years,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 487
of capital will again flow towards it, and we may again confidently expect a renewal
of our export trade. It is impossible the people of the United States can long con-
tinue to supply the world with food and take nothing in return for it. On the other
hand, all past experience shows that in spite of high duties and protection rates, a
great import trade may exist,and may find the means of overcoming all the impedi-
ments of hostile tariffs. Within the last few weeks we have heard of an order for
20,000 tons of rails, to be manufactured in this town, and to be delivered at New
York, where the duty payable will be more than the cost price at Sheffield. The
trade returns of the last few months likewise show that in every item enumerated
there is a great increase of exports to America, As the United States, therefore,
haye been the main cause of the past depression, so they may in the future be the
main cause of a reaction; and the reaction which will tell first in trade and manu-
factures will certainly later reach the agricultural interest.

It appears to me, then, that it would be a most useless waste of time and energy to
expend efforts in trying to reverse the commercial system established by Sir Robert
Peel in 1846, or in making inquiries with a view to a return to exploded fallacies
and obsolete systems ; but it is a time, when attention having been so much directed
to the condition of agriculture, we may with great advantage inquire whether the
conditions under which it is carried on in this country are such as to attract and
encourage to the utmost the application of capital and labour to the land ; whether
a system of tenure which seems calculated to forbid the combination of ownership
and occupation, to prevent security for improvements effected by the occupier, and
to accumulate land in the hands of persons who are frequently unable to afford
capital for its improvement, is the best suited for the development of agricultural
industry. Although changes in such a system may not be fraught with imme-
diate remedies for present depression, and may not affect the price of produce, yet
they may tend ultimately to place the cultivators in a better position to meet the
varying conditions of the future ; which in agriculture, as in other trades, must be
expected to present alternate periods of prosperity and loss.

APPENDIX.

Production of Average price
wheat per acre|Production per| of wheat Sverage cron EroHuce
iy cat a as compared | acre in qrs. of| during 12 ee eae we wheat EE,
sephy with standard wheat months suc- SRA)
of 100 per acre ceeding harvest, excluding value of straw
& a. eee ey
1849 123 4:3 40 4 Sls 5
1850 102 36 39 «10 eco une
1851 110 39 39 7 (ame: Dia dae:
1852 79 2°8 447 6 4 10
1853 71 2°5 72 121 Ds Dad iS
1854 127 4-4 70 O 1b 8henO
Avrege. for 6 yrs. 102 3°6 51 O Se) ie 1 0)
1855 96 34 73 11 2
1856 96 34 60 1 LOY hl 3
1857 124 4:3 47 8 10e_ 5 0
1858 116 41 43 9 8 14 4
1859 92 3°2 48 3 Tee Ua
1860 78 2°7 553 OP SC
Avrge. for 6 yrs. 100 35 54 10 ony CATE
1861 92 3°2 58 1 JoeB LO
1862 108 38 alt Shee. shG
1863 141 4-9 40 11 OT Os 06
1864 127 44 40 0 aia 0
1865 110 39 46 6 Oe 4
1866 90 32 60 4 Stetss Vr
Avrge. for 6 yrs. 111 39 49 O Diet ees Cd

488 REPORT—1879.

APPENDIX—continued.

Production of Average price
-Vdaraie wheat per acre/Production per} _of wheat Set cat te
harvest as compared | acre in qrs. of} during 12 geritéd aalenene P
with standard wheat months suc- sdk 1 - i
of 100 per acre ceeding harvest CROs on
1867 74 2°6 68 4 S) Limes
1868 126 4:3 49 11 10 14 8
1869 102 3°6 46 2 8. (~6ir2
1870 112 39 54 2 10, Lies
1871 90 3°2 56 7 9. dna
1872 92 3:2 57 3 95, Spee
Avrge. for 6 yrs. 100 3°5 55 OB 9. 9 IO
1873 80 2°8 61 3 Sell) LG
1874 106 37 44 7 ccf Poy bil
1875 78 2:7 46 9 tae: See 2)
1876 76 27 54 8 eh ak
1877 74 2°6 50 10 Bole 2
1878 108 3°8 40 5 EC bs eae A
Avrge. for 6 yrs. 87 32 49 7 Teo ee LO).

Novre,—The figures in Column 2 are taken from Mr, Caird’s table in his work on the
Landed Interest.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Vital Statistics of Sheffield. By Tuomas Wuirssipe Hime, B.A
M.B., S§c., Medical Officer of Health, Sheffield.

The following is a brief abstract of Dr. Hime’s paper. He began by describing the
physical topography and geography of the town as a necessary introduction to the
description of the physical condition of the inhabitants. Sheffield, the sixth town
in size and in rateable value in England, is situated on a spur of the Penine range,
at the junction of five rivers. The Don, which is the largest, is 144 feet above
the sea-level where it flows through the centre of the town. Although handsome
public buildings are not a prominent feature in the town, still there are few towns
in England where the great bulk of the population is as well provided for in the
way of domestic architecture. Overerowding is very rare, cellar-dwellings are
unknown, and almost every family has an entire house, a most important agent in
securing physical as well as moral health. Owing to the impervious clay existing
below the subsoil, surface wells used to be very common; most of them are closed
now, and the water supply is almost exclusively drawn from the Water Company,
which has large reservoirs to the west. They are eleven in number, and cover
4923 acres. The average daily supply is about 173 gallons per head. High winds
are rare, owing to the high escarpments which protect the town on all sides.
The prevailing wind in the first quarter of the year is east, in the other three it
is westerly, varying towards the north or south. The average temperature of the
first quarter of the year is 40 deg. F.; of the third (the warmest), 61 deg. F.
The estimated population now is 297,138, showing an increase of 48,031 since the
last census. Some of the sub-districts increase little, or even negatively. The
population of Sheffield South has fallen off 311 persons, and the Park only grows
at the rate of about four persons per annum. According to an old authority,
“by a survaie of the towne of Sheffield made the second daie of Januarie 1615 by
24 of the most sufficient inhabitants there, it appeareth that there are in the towne
of Sheffield 2,207 people, of which there are 725 which are not able to live
without the charity of their neighbours. These are all begging poore.’ . In 1801

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 489

the population was 45,755, in 1841, 110,891, and in 1861 it had grown to 185,157.
‘The rateable value of the town was 11s. 43d. as recorded in some old ratebooks ;
‘in 1878 it amounted to 915,888),

The density of the population in general in the borough is only 15:1 per acre.
But a large part of the area is wild moorland, never built on, while some parts are
closely packed. In Sheffield North there are 257 people living on each acre ; in
Sheffield West, 89; while in Upper Hallam there are only ‘36. The birth-rate is
high. During the period 1870-78 it amounted to 40:7 per 1000 living; the
highest birth-rate, 41-7, among the twenty largest towns in England, being found
in Salford ; the lowest, 30-7, in Plymouth. The males born in the whole borough
are slightly in excess of the females, but this is not true of each of the sub-districts.
‘The marriage rate is also high. In 1875 it was 22 per 1000 living, while the rate
for all England was only 16:8. In 1877 it had fallen to 17-9 per 1000, the rate
for all England being 15:8. Last year the death-rate was 24'8 per 1000, or °4
above the rate in the twenty largest towns, if London be included, during the nine
years 1870-78. But there has been a considerable improvement in the mortality
of late years. In fact, Birmingham is the only town of equal size which has had
as low a death-rate during the past nine years, if London be excluded. Zymotic
and local diseases are the most fatal in Sheffield. Hitherto no hospital has existed
in the town for the treatment of infective fevers, but the Sanitary Authority is
building one which will, when finished, be one of the most complete in the
kingdom.

TABLE SHOWING THE RATE OF MORTALITY! PER 1000 LIVING FROM ALL CAUSES

IN SHEFFIELD AND ITs NINE REGISTRATION SUB-DISTRICTS DURING THE

FIVE YEARs 1874-8.

All Causes
1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878.
Borough Total : : - | 26:9 24°8 24:3 21:8 24:9
Sheffield, West . ‘ : . | 29°8 26-4 22:0 21°8 26°9
“p North . F : ¢ 27°9 26°'8 27:0 26°5 28:3
9 South . 7 | . | 380-7 29-0 28°4 23°6 25°7
DBS. ° Park F : : 3 27:2 27°6 31°6 25°0 30°5
Brightside f F . f 5 25°7 24-1 22°0 19°8 21-0
Attercliffe . % ; F » | 9322 25°1 24°5 21°6 26:0
Nether Hallam - F 5 c 24-1 23°1 21:5 19:0 25:0
Upper Hallam : : 6 - | 22:0 15:0 20°7 15°3 21:7
Ecclesall Bierlow . ‘ : ‘ 24:8 22:8 | 23°4 21:2 23°7

TABLE SHOWING THE RATE OF MORTALITY FROM ZYMOTIC DISEASES IN SHEFFIELD
AND ITS NINE REGISTRATION SUB-DISTRICTS DURING THE FIvE YEARS 1874-8.

1874, 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878.

Borough Total . : ‘ 70 5:7 5:3 4:0 6:4
Sheffield, West . 79 54 4:3 45 61
» North . 6-9 6-4 57 5:8 8:5
fesouth oo) 8-6 57 4-2 54

59 Park a 8-4 6:3 10°3 6°4 9°5
Brightside . 6°8 5:0 4:5 3-4 47
Attercliffe . e 9°9 6:0 5-9 3:4 TT
Nether Hallam a & : : 5:0 5:0 44 33 6:2
Upper Hallam C : j Pat ny (2: 1:9 74 27 4:8
Ecclesall Bierlow . 61 54 47 3:2 56

a ss Ne a ll ee
1 After distribution of the deaths in public institutions.

490

REPORT—1879.

The above tables show the death-rate from all causes and from zymotic
diseases in Sheffield, and also in each of its registration sub-districts during the

past five years.

On the next table will be found arranged the eleven largest towns in England.
They are placed in order in accordance with the place they occupy with reference
to some of the more important signs of salubrity. From the table it will be seen
that Sheffield does not take an unfavourable place.

THE ELEVEN LARGEST TOWNS IN ENGLAND ARRANGED ACCORDING TO BIRTH
RATE, DEATH RATE, ZYMOTIC RATE, AND DEATHS UNDER ONE YEAR TO
1,000 BIRTHS DURING THE NINE YEARS 1870-78.

Birth Rate

Salford . 41:7
Birmingham 40:8
Leeds. . 408
SHEFFIELD 40°7
Newcastle-

upon-Tyne 40°3

Manchester 39°9
Bradford . 38:9
Liverpool . 38:5
Bristol . 36:0
London. _ 35'7

Nottingham 34:0

Death Rate

Zymotic Rate

Diarrhoea

Deaths under
1 Year

Liverpool . 29-4
Manchester 29-4
Salford » 27:2
Newcastle-

upon-Tyne 26:5
Leeds. . 2674
SHEFFIELD 25°5
Bradford ° 25:2
Birmingham 24:7
Nottingham 23-7
Bristol . 23°6
London ., 23:0

Liverpool . 6°57
Salford . 6:08
SHEFFIELD 5:70
Birmingham 5°38
Manchester 5°35
Leeds. . 5:24
Newcastle-

upon-Tyne 4°83
Bradford . 4:43
London .. 4:08
Nottingham 3:81
Bristol . BTA

Salford . 2°02
Leeds. mOb
Manchester 1:86
Birmingham 1-82
Liverpool . 1:79
SHEFFIELD 1°69
Newcastle-

upon-Tyne 1-42
Nottingham 1°38
Bradford . 1:35
London . 1:01
Bristol . O86

Liverpool , 222
Leeds . penis}
Bradford . 191
Manchester 190
Salford . 186
Nottingham 184
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne 181
SHEFFIELD. 179
Birmingham 177
Bristol . 162
London . 160

From the following table more details can be ascertained as to the sanitary
condition of Sheffield, actually, and as compared with other towns of a similar

size. The table is extracted from one prepared by Mr. N. A. Humphreys, of the
General Register Office.

ANNUAL RATE PER 1000 LIVING OF BIRTHS, DEATHS, AND DEATHS FROM SEVEN
ZYMOTICS, IN TWENTY LARGE ENGLISH TOWNS DURING THE NINE YEARS

1870-78.
2 |
piso eel Bel, s|.|2 Be
Estimated] | @loeia|S|21/3|/Hio|./8 Be |
Population| & | = 2& a A 3 | a ie 2 Z Stal
Midde of | 2/2 |S3/8/3|/8/83/5/8/2)/8|8s
1878 H\ Sige!) sats] eg) 2) & & | 2S|
Belge S/S] la |F ls 38
A = =)
Mpenrauee 7,269,976 |37-1|24-4| 19°8 |4:61|0-47/0-50/0-90.0-11|0-74/0-58]1-31| 174 |
largest Towns are |
1|London. — . | 3,577,304 |35:7|23-0) 18-9 |4-08|0:52/0°50|0-71/0-11|0-79|0-44/1-01| 160°
2| Liverpool 532,681 |38:5|29-4) 22-8 |6-57/0-64|0-74|1-35|0°11 0-93) L-O1]1-79| 222 |
3| Birmingham. | 383,117 |40-8/24-7| 19:3 |5-38)0-41|0-42/1-19|0-20/0-83|0°51|1-82| 177°
4| Manchester . | 360,514 |39-1|29-4| 24-0 |5:35|0-21|0-59|1-03|0-07|0-85|0-74|1-86) 190
5 | Leeds 304,948 |40-8]26-4) 21-2 |5-24/0-20/0-46|1-13 0-07|0-64|0°79/1-95] 195 |
6) SHEFFIELD . | 289,537 |40-7|25°5) 19°8 |5-70)0-46|0-40)1-53 0-08|0-63)0°91/1-69) 179
7| Bristol . 206,419 |36-0)23-6| 19-9 |3-74/0-23|0-46|1-08,0-07/0°51)0°53/0'86) 162 |
8 | Bradford 185,088 |38-9|25-2| 20-8 |4:43!0:10|0-46/1-1 4|0-09|0-60/0°69\1-35] 191 |
9 | Salford . 170,251 |41:7|27-2| 21-1 |6-08|0-61/0-82|0-95/0-09/0'87|0-72/2-02| 186 |
10| Nottingham . | 165,267 |34-0/23-7| 19-9 |3-81/0-44|0-28|0-60 0-04|0°33|0-74/1-38] 184
Le ees } 144,570 |40:3|26-5] 21-7 |4:83|0°73/0-26 1-11 0-08|0°54|0-69/1-42| 181
upon-Tyne |

The distribution of deaths among the various trades of the town is a subject

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 491

which is deserving of the greatest attention. The table exhibiting the average

e at death during 1862-71, and embracing 10,000 deaths, reveals many remark-
able facts. There is some reason to believe that the mortality among grinders is
not so excessive as it was, though it is still very high. According to the table it
was in 1862-71 44 years; from the tables for 1878 it was 47°83.

The following table contains the particulars of the number of deaths, and the
average age at death among various classes of workmen in Sheffield during the
year 1878, and also the numbers dying at certain groups of ages. A few years ago
it was currently believed that a grinder aged above fifty was a curiosity in
Sheffield. But we see from the table that thirty-eight died over fifty years of age
in 1878, or 45:2 per 100 of the total number of deaths.

AVERAGE AGE AT DEATH, AND NUMBER OF DEATHS IN VARIOUS TRADES IN
SHEFFIELD IN THE YEAR 1878, AND DURING THE EIGHT YEARS 1864-71.

Ages at death. 1878 1878 .| 1864-71

f—) | Es a 8 r= gb

Occupations expe alnetili elolF| 813s 21st

SPIT I PIT IT IRR] Ss) Ss | ws] ss | os

Sisicol/elisl/siclisclsa! sg SU) x ee)

ALA; w [Ss Sirlo!; es) sl se S$ | 5s

~ a Oo |e te) BS

o| A it oH |<

ad id olf | a a PENA ben) | a.

Grinders 3 | 9] 16/18 | 20; 13} 5 | 0 | O | 84 | 47:3) 729) 44

Cutlers 2]8)| 11) 7] 10) 9) 3} 3 | 0 | 53 | 48:0) 881) 48

Forgers 0;}8/ 8 5/10) 9} 8/0) 0 | 48 | 50:5} 320) 49

File-cutters F A . | 2 {13 | 13}17 9} 412 )1) 0 | 55 | 42-1) 423) 45

Book-keepers and Clerks .|0|7]| 4/0] 5) 2} 1]1) 0 | 20 | 43-8) — | —

Colliers . > OR RE 1} 1 Oo} 11);0;0 5 | 51:0) 181) —

Soldiers a ba Dt [lL 2} 0} 0} 0] 0] 11 | 34:9) 107) 34

Butchers ‘ ; 2 OES TSRe: 1} 2} 3} 1} 0} 15 | 49-8) 113] 48
Publicans and Beer-house

Keepers . 0;0; 3/2] 3 0} 0]0) 0] 8 | 45-9} 139) 50

Shoemakers é 0;0; 22 5} 416] 2] 0 | 21 | 61-7] 220) 56

Bricklayers and Masons 0;3/] 3/8] 6 3/2); 0] 0} 25 | 48:8) — | —

Tailors ‘ i -|O0!10} 1;2] 2 8 5] 1) 0) 19 | 63-5) 168) 52

Silversmiths and Platers .| 0 | 1 2}3) O| 1/3]0)] 0} 10 | 50:2) 190) 52

Joiners and Cabinet-makers | 0 | 1 3) 4 7; 8| 2/11) 0 | 26 | 55:0} 203} 49

Painters 0} 4 3) 3 6| 4/3} 0] 0 | 23 | 49-1) 78) 43

Labourers . 6 |19 | 27/28 | 25) 35)14 | 4 | O 1158 | 49-0)1243] 46

otal. *. . (14 (8! 103/97 |111/103} 58/14 | O |581 | 48-9

Among the local diseases those affecting the lungs are the most fatal, owing to
a large extent to the nature of some of the trades of the town. During the ten
years, 1851-60, disease of the lungs amounted to 4°247 per 1000, and during 1862-71
to 4°867 per 1000. Phthisis, or consumption, a disease very fatal in Sheffield, is
not included in this. During 1851-60, 3-061 per 1000 fell victims to consumption,
a rate which is ‘364 in excess of the average for all England and Wales. The
presence of silica and iron has been demonstrated in the lungs of persons much
exposed to the dust of grinding and stone cutting. Meinel found an excess of from
30 to 50 grains as compared with the lungs of those who were not exposed to the
danger of dust. If hygienists believe that fevers are preventible, which are caused.
by an invisible, unknown agent, surely we should be able to diminish the terrible
mortality among stone cutters and grinders, the cause of which may be seen and
felt and tasted, as it hangs suspended in the air they breathe for hours every day
in earning their bread. Why many workers, at trades of entirely different cha-
racter, should have exactly the same average age at death is a problem which is
deserving of attention. Why should policemen have such very bad lives, an
average of only 41 years, the same as the bricklayer? Of 107 soldiers who died

492 REPORT—1879.

in Sheffield, the average age at death was only 34, the same as among rollers,
though the former are enlisted in the prime of life, are well fed, housed, and
clothed, and have easy work, while the latter live under very trying conditions.
During the past five years 2004 persons have been buried in Sheffield without any
certificate from a properly qualified medical man as to the cause of death, This
is done, no doubt, inaccordance with law, but it is undoubtedly a law which calls
loudly for amendment. Another great defect in our sanitary legislation is the
want of a registration of disease. An epidemic has often made considerable pro-
gress in the town before the Sanitary Authority becomes aware of its existence,
the first intimation of which may be the return of the death of some victim. The
great and laudable energy displayed in getting children into school nowadays
renders it imperative that the master should be aware where the infective diseases
exist, and the brothers and sisters of children suffering from such disease should be
rigidly excluded from school until there is proper certification that they can return
without danger to themselves or others. It is a cruel and unjustifiable thing to
compel children to come to school, and, as at present, take no precaution to see
that their life or health is not the penalty. Indeed, the schooling arrangement
should be in other respects also supervised by proper medical authorities, seeing
that a School Board has such power for good or evil over the physical health of a
large part of the population in the tender years of growth. The lighting, venti-
lation, and warming of the schoolroom, the construction of the seats, the colouring
of the walls, the age for schooling, and the hours of attendance, are all alike
subjects on which every School Board should have the advice of skilled and ex-
perienced medical men. The hygiene of the sight of school children is in itself an
all-important subject not to be lightly considered. The common employment of
rough opaque glass for schoolroom windows, by which much light, so necessary
for life, is excluded, and any accommodation of ‘the eyes for distant vision during
school hours is prevented, cannot be too earnestly deprecated. By means of
gymnastic exercise much might be done to promote the bodily vigour of the
children. It should be impressed on every child that the most important know-
ledge it can acquire is how to maintain the body in health and vigour. This is a
necessary condition for the acquisition of a sound education and for the full en-
joyment of life. It is to be hoped that the time is near at hand when hygiene
will be a compulsory subject in every school, and that at least as much time will
be devoted to the study of the living body, and how to maintain it in health, as is
given to the study of dead languages and of inert matter. Sickness is the fruitful
parent of poverty and crime. The miseries it entails are worse than war or
famine; its victims are infinitely more numerous. But there is reason for antici-
pating that the great increase in the value of life, and the steady decrease in mor-
tality which has been witnessed even within a comparatively short time, will be
more marked still in the future, as our knowledge and scientific methods of re-
search become perfected.

2. On the Savings of the People as evidenced by the Returns of the Trustees’
and Post Office Savings Banks. By Professor Lrons Levi, F.2B.G.S., &c., Sc.

In my last report to Mr. Bass, M.P., on the earnings of the labouring classes,
including labourers and artisans, their total amount in 1878 was estimated at about
422,000,0002., of which 350,000,0002. was in cash, and 72,000,000/. in board, lodging,
clothing, and other perquisites. The wages were somewhat higher in 1878 than in
1866, when I made a similar estimate, though considerably lower than in 1872 and
1873. Yet the total amount of earnings was not greater, as the stagnation in
trade reduced the number of labourers and the number of days they were actually
earning wages. The difference in wages to the working men of the United Kingdom
between prosperous and bad times was upwards of 50,000,000/. per annum ; and it
is interesting to ascertain how far our labouring classes have as yet learned to set
aside something for a rainy day. In the three years from 1871 to 1873, when
wages rose at least twenty per cent., and in some cases forty and fifty per cent., the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 493,

labouring classes received in hard cash some 70,000,000/. per year, or a total of
210,000,0007. more than the normal amount. The cost of living, however, increased
during those three years; a rise of wages was not all gain to the working man,
for the cost of production increased, and higher prices had to be paid for food,.
rent, and every enjoyment. That rise was estimated at ten per cent.; therefore
105,000,000/., were required for the increased cost of living in the three years.
Allowing five per cent. more for a legitimate increase of the comforts of life in
times of prosperity, or 42,500,000/. in the three years, or in all 147,500,000/., there
still remained 63,000,000/. which should have been saved and stand now to the:
eredit of the labouring classes in some form or other. Since 1872 wages had
suffered a considerable fall, yet even now in many occupations the wages were:
liberal, and, with the lower prices of many articles of consumption, there might
be room for saving something if only a sense of economy and proper management

revailed in the households of the working population ; for at least the half of the
fast eight years, wages were most liberal, and afforded ample room for saying a
handsome amount. What trace of these savings did they find stored in the Savings
Banks? The account of the savings in 1870 and 1878 stood as follows :—In 1870
Trustees’ Savings Banks 37,958,0002., Post Office Savings Banks 15,099,000/.—total
52,987,000/7.; in 1878, Trustees’ Savings Banks, 44,293,000/., Post Office Savings
Banks, 30,412,000/.—total 74,705,0007. Thus the Savings Banks in 1878 possessed
21,700,000/. more than in 1870. Deducting 14,000,000/. for interest, there remained
7,500,000/. saved in this form out of all the extra wagesin the eight years. It cannot
be said that what was saved in 1873 had been since lost and withdrawn ; for the
accounts showed that in the totals there had been no going back, but only a slow
progress, as shown by the following table :—

England and Wales Scotland Treland
1870 £46,229,000 £4,132,000 £2,696,000
1878 64,433,000 ; 6,726,000 3,546,000

This was an increase of twenty-four per cent. for England and Wales, fifty per cent.
for Scotland, and thirty-two per cent. for Ireland. The results of the last eight
years were therefore most favourable to Scotland and Ireland, the next to England
and Wales. Comparing six agricultural—Bedford, Buckingham, Cambridge,
Hereford, Oxford, and Essex, with six manufacturing districts — Lancaster,
Yorkshire, Warwick, Durham, Northumberland, and Gloucester, it will be found
that the savings of the manufacturmg districts had increased forty-eight per cent.,
and the agricultural seventy-one per cent.; but in large towns there were many
other ways of saving, and that may account for the difference in the percentage,

3. On the Assimilation of the Law in England, Scotland, and Ireland as to
the care of Lunatics and their Property. By W. Nettson Hancock,
DLL.D., M.R.LA.

The report of the Irish Lunacy Inquiry Commission disclosed the startling fact
that the neglected lunatics have increased from 1,500 to 3,000 in the last twenty
years. This had arisen in part from the non-extension to Ireland of the English
Act of 1853, and in part from the non-extension of the provision of the English
poor-law order of 1844 allowing out-door relief to be given on account of mental
infirmity not only of the head of a family, but of any dependent member of it.
A large number of harmless lunatics and idiots were provided for by out-door
relief in England. But in Ireland the guardians were prohibited by Imperial
statute from giving out-door relief on account of the mental infirmity of the
dependent member of a family. In Scotland, paupers suffering from mental
infirmity may be supported out of local rates while residing with relatives or
boarded with strangers. This was a portion of the famous Belgian system which

494 REPORT—1879.

had existed for centuries at Ghent. -In an equal population for those in asylums
and lunatie wards in workhouses, the English figure was 8,636, the Scotch 9,438,
and the Irish 11,616. The English boarding-out figure was 1,620, and the Scotch
2,097. Under the power of sending paupers to private asylums 609 were provided
for in England. In Ireland there were no paupers boarded-out or sent to private
asylums. The adoption of the Scotch law in Ireland would provide for 2,097
boarded-out, the adoption of the English law for 609 in private asylums, or 2,706
in all. Of the Irish 3,000 neglected lunatics 2706 would thus be provided for: it
followed that the non-assimilation of the laws was almost the sole cause of the
3,000 neglected lunatics in Ireland being in the state they were in. As to the
protection of the property of lunatics, the Scotch Law Commissioners and Scotch
Lunacy Commissioners had for years suggested that the County Court judges
should have the jurisdiction of appointing care-takers of lunatics’ property when
of small value. In 1865, the English County Court judges had got this jurisdiction
in the case of minors; in 1877, the Irish County Court judges had got it for
minors also, In the past session a Bill was brought in by Mr. Ramsey, Mr. Baxter,
Sir Graham Montgomery, and Mr. Dalrymple to tbe the Scotch County Court
judges similar jurisdiction as to lunatics. Lord O’Hagan brought in a similar Bill
for Ireland, but no Bill was brought in for England. The Scotch and Irish Bills
have been printed but not passed. If there was a uniform code as to the whole
three kingdoms of the law as to lunatics, this delay in legislation need not have
occurred ; and such assimilation as this and other branches of law is one of the
most effective means of diminishing the block of business in Parliament.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 495

Section G.imMECHANICAL SCIENCE,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—J. ROBINSON, Pres. Inst. Mech. Eng.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 21, 1879.

The PrestpEnt delivered the following Address :—

On the Development of the Use of Steel during the last Forty Years,
considered in its Mechanical and Economic Aspects.

Much has been written by poets and others of a succession of the Ages of the
human race in comparing their degradation with the various kinds of metal, con-
sidered metaphorically—thus we have the golden age, the silver age, the age of
‘brass, and the age of iron.

Our own time may very appropriately and literally be described as a branch of
the latter age, and be named the age of steel.

In the metropolis of the steel manufacture it would seem fitting that the Me-
chanical Section of this great scientific association should direct its attention to
this wonderful metal, the uses of which are daily becoming more numerous and
‘important.

But it may be said, on the other hand, that as the use of this material is per-
petually growing more common, so are discussions as to its manufacture, compositior,
and characteristics, becoming almost wearisome from their frequency.

Notwithstanding an appearance of truth in this objection to our occupying more
time in referring to the 2 I would venture to entertain the hope that a treat-
ment of the question in its mechanical and economic aspects may prove not unin-
teresting to this meeting.

At the time when railway extension was becoming general, about forty years
ago, the use of steel in this country was confined mainly to tools for mechanical
purposes, including files and other articles, springs for vehicles, weapons of various
sorts, and implements for agricultural and domestic uses; and it is proposed to
measure the scientific and mechanical energy brought to bear upon the manufacture
and improvement of this metal, by the increase in the number of purposes to which
it is applied, and the diminished price at which it can be obtained, as compared
with the price at the time of its introduction for constructive works. There are,
however, several important exceptions to this method of appreciation to which
reference will hereafter be made.

We will take, then, the simplest form in the preceding list, viz., tool steel, the
oe of which for ordinary purposes varied from 50s. to 56s. per cwt. at the period

have named ; and we shall find that the development of the manufacture of steel
in general has but little affected this particular material, which is still produced in
much the same fashion, ¢.e., by the use of carefully selected Swedish iron, carburised
by exposure in ovens to the heat of burning charcoal, and then recast from crucibles
and hammered down to the required size. The result of a somewhat stationary
condition of manufacture has been the maintenance of prices at the same, or about
the same, level up to the present time.

A superior quality of tool steel has been produced by the adoption of a process

496 REPORT—1 879.

invented by Mr. R. Mushet, in which titanium is introduced in the manufacture,.
and which dates back to the year 1838-39. This steel is of great endurance when

applied to the working of steel and iron of considerable hardness, and its higher

price of 140s. per cwt. is quite justified by the excellent results obtained from its
use, and other steels of similar fine quality are produced by several manufacturers,
who make specialities of them. “

Some twenty-seven or twenty-eight years ago, Krupp, of Essen, gave an enor-
mous impulse to the application of steel, by his method of producing much larger
masses of crucible steel than had previously been possible. He at that time accom-
plished the casting of an ingot of ‘crucible’ steel of 50 ewt., a weight then con-
sidered incredible, and this was followed up by the production of weldless cast
steel tyres in 1852, which led to the very rapid development in the use of his steel
for railway tyres, cranked axles for locomotive and other engines, straight axles,
and shafts, and parts of machines in general.

It is most interesting to consider the prices of such of these objects as have up
to this time maintained similar forms, with the object of ascertaining by the selling
price the progress in the scientific and mechanical appliances used for the production
of the materials just referred to.

At the time of their coming into use, about twenty-five years ago, the price of
cast steel tyres was 120s. per cwt.; it is now from 18s. to 25s. perewt. The price
of forged steel cranked axles was, when first introduced, 15/, per cwt.; it is now
from 65s. to 70s. per cwt.

The price of straight axles and shafts was from 40s. to 50s. per ewt.; it is now
from 19s. 6d. to 23s. per cwt.

Now to what do we owe this enormous reduction of price and consequent more
frequent and more economic application? The answer must be that, follow-
ing the initiation of Krupp, our English engineers and men of science set them-
selves to work to discover and apply new processes for the production and manufac-
ture of this most wonderful metal; and I venture to say that in the whole history
of metallurgy, from the time of Tubal Cain downwards, there has been no such
progress in invention and manufacture as has been realised by the aid of such men as
Musheit, Krupp, Bessemer, Siemens, Whitworth, Martin, Bell, Bauschinger, Styffe,.
and many others within the period comprised in this retrospect ; and our national
predilections will perhaps lead us to the opinion that our own country may fairly
appropriate a large share of merit for the results achieved.

Another of the uses of steel to which attention may be given is that of the
production of cannon of large size.

Efforts had been made by some of our enterprising workers in metal to produce
large guns of solid wrought iron; but the processes of heating and hammering
were attended with so much difficulty that the attempt was given up. Here again
Krupp stepped in, and succeeded, thirty-two years ago, in manufacturing cannon of
cast steel, which unhappily have become ordinary commodities with those nation-
alities who could afford such expensive weapons. Since that time Krupp has
produced about 2,000 guns, the heaviest being, when finished, 72 tons (16 inch).

Sir William Armstrong and Sir Joseph Whitworth soon came into the field
with guns of their own invention. The former, by adopting the system of iron
coils applied externally to a central cylinder ; and the latter, by shrinking cylindrical
hoops on to a central cylinder made of cast steel.

In the adaptation of the steel manufacture of the cast or crucible steel period
to the production of every object demanded by the march of engineering and
mechanical science, I need not mention the names of individuals and firms in this
town who have shown themselves equal to the task ; but I will venture to say that
their success has been such as to raise the town of Sheffield to the very pinnacle of
fame as producing steel of any, even the highest, quality demanded in the markets
of the world.

I must now turn to a name honoured everywhere for the benefits and renown
he has brought to his country by his inventions and appliances, developed during
the last twenty-four or twenty-five years, in the manufacture of a steel which can
be cheaply produced and readily adapted to the requirements of the purchaser. I

i
é

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 497

am sure the audience will in their minds anticipate the record of the name of
Bessemer—a name which will be handed down to posterity in connection with the
manufacture of steel as lone as that manufacture exists.

Another name which will most deservedly figure in the history of the develop-
ment of the steel manufacture is one, like that of Bessemer, which has been known
not only in that development, but in connection with many other discoveries in
physical science—I mean that of Siemens, who, like his compeer, has not only
invented processes, but has personally carried them out into practical application.
An expression let fall by the latter as President of the Iron and Steel Institute at
its meeting last year in Paris, exhibits very strikingly the absence of any other
feeling on the part of these two great men save that of the most friendly rivalry.

Speaking of a comparison between the results of steel manufactured by the
Bessemer blowing process and the Siemens-Martin open-hearth process, Dr. Siemens
said, ‘ He did not see how the result could be the same. It might be better in the
Bessemer process than in the open-hearth for aught he knew, but it could not be
the same ;’ and it seems to augur well for the advancement of science in our day
that so little of a contrary spirit is exhibited in the discussions which ensue from
time to time upon any improved process either chemical or mechanical, haying for
its object the production of a better material and at a lower first cost. The name of
Robert Mushet may very properly be introduced here as one of our early inventors
of the improved processes for the manufacture of steel, and it is gratifying to find
that other countries besides England have learnt to appreciate the results obtained
by him during so many years of scientific and experimental research.

It is needless that I should do more in an assembly like that before me than
refer in the simplest terms to the differences in the processes of manufacture con-
nected with these names.

In that of Bessemer, pig-iron of a selected quality is charged into what is
technically called a ‘Converter,’ a large iron vessel lined with refractory material,
into which air can be blown at considerable velocity by suitable blowing machinery.
This goes on until the iron is thoroughly exposed to the decarbonising influence of
the blast, and the impurities contained in the metal are driven off. When this
happens the blowing ceases, and a certain proportion of Spiegel eisen or of ferro-
manganese is added to the charge so as to give the required amount of carbon.
Blowing recommences, this time only to effect complete mixture of the materials,
and then the casting of the ingots takes place of a quality corresponding to the
metal selected for the mixtures. A mild steel—or, as it has been called, a pure
iron—is the resultant, and it is capable of being worked, welded, and hammered
very much as in the case of the purest wrought irons; but it possesses generally
a much higher tensile resistance and a greater ductility.

In the Siemens-Martin or open-hearth process, a similar charge of pig-iron of
the desired quality —probably hematite pig—is put into the bed of a reverberatory
furnace of the regenerative system, and the necessary oxidation is produced by
adding to the molten mass iron ores, or oxides of iron in proportions ascertained by
experience, after which re-carbonisation is obtained by the addition of ferro-man-
ganese or Spiegel eisen as in the Bessemer process.

These processes have been the great factors in that reduction in the cost price,
and therefore in the extension of the use of such objects as steel tyres, axles, shafts,
rails, &c., to which I have already referred, and which is so striking an instance of
the results which our men of science can accomplish by their physical and experi-
mental researches into the means of supplying the wants of our work-a-day
world.

T will now draw attention to another product of the steel manufacture which
is of immense importance, and which could not have been obtained for ordinary

urposes but for the facilities of manufacture arising out of the inventions I have
just alluded to—I mean that of steel castings, ¢.e., castings obtained from the
crucible, precisely in the form in which they are to be used in the construction of
machinery, just as is the case in ordinary cast iron run from the cupola furnace.
This production of castings for engineering purposes is gaining an enormous and
rapid development ; and when it is considered thati n this metal we obtain castings

1879. KK ‘

498 REPORT—1879.

of a strength at least three to four times that of the strongest iron castings, the
importance of this experimental discovery can scarcely be over-rated,

Nor must I pass over the application of these processes to the production of
boiler plates, bridge girder plates, and ship plates, in which, as a result of the
greater tensile resistance of such plates (reaching for ordinary uses a figure of about
twenty-eight to thirty-four tons to the square inch), the engineer is not only enabled
to lighten his structure, but to expect from it greater durability—an expectation
not diminished by its greater capability of resisting corrosion, especially where
care is taken to exclude manganese from the mixture of the metals employed.

For specific purposes, and where price is not so much an element of consideration
as great tensile or percussive resistance, a more costly mode of manufacture has been
adopted by Sir Joseph Whitworth, whose attention was probably drawn to the
necessity for obtaining sueh a metal, during the construction of cannon and tor-
pedoes, but which has now been extended to objects of a very varied character.
The method of manufacture, which has been in use upwards of ten years, is by
casting ingots under very heavy hydraulic pressures, from very carefully selected
materials, the result being the production of a metal of enormous tensile resistance,
reaching in some instances the high figure of 100 tons per square inch, while at
the same time the bubbles and air vesicles which sometimes appear in metal pro-
duced in the ordinary methods are entirely or almost entirely got rid of, and the
consequent striations and imperfections of internal structure and external surface
disappear.

It is hoped that ere long we shall be able to procure in this way cylindrical
boiler plates rolled solid from the ingot, much after the fashion in which weldless
steel tyres are now obtained, and that the weakening of these plates by the existing
necessity for forming horizontal riveted joints may thus be avoided.

It is desirable before closing this, I fear, already somewhat long address, to call
attention to the most recent development of the steel manufacture as exhibited in
the processes of Messrs. Snellus, Gilchrist, & Thomas, by which iron containing a
considerable proportion of say 1:44 per cent. of phosphorus, may, in the course of
its manufacture into either Bessemer or Siemens-Martin steel, have this deleterious
matter entirely removed, or reduced to an inconsiderable proportion.

The method of carrying out this operation was exceedingly well described at
the recent meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute in London, and it was shown
that where such irons were melted in vessels lined with a slag having twenty per
cent. of silica and thirty per cent. of lime and magnesia, the phosphorus was
gradually and effectually absorbed by this lining, and a steel of good quality, com-
paratively free from phosphorus and silica, was produced.

The result to the community will naturally be that, as henceforth a much more
extended area of our iron fields both at home and abroad will become available for
the production of steel, the use of that metal will be still further extended and its
price reduced mainly by means of the methodical researches of our scientific me-
tallurgists, and entirely independently of those accidental combinations which have
in less scientific days led to the adoption of new and improved methods in the
production of metals required by the progress of mechanical and economic science.

Since writing the above address two other matters haye been brought before
me which may, I think, be interesting to this meeting.

One is the specification for the steel to be used in the construction of the great
railway bridge over the Forth, the plates for the main girders and braces of which
are to be of ‘mild steel, giving a tensile resistance of 26 tons per square inch of
section; while for the rivets, not only is the same tensile resistance to be given,
but the minimum of elasticity is to be 16 tons to the square inch, and the
elongation before breaking not less than 25 per cent.

The bars and rods, which are to be made from ‘high-class steel,’ are to have a —
tensile resistance of 40 tons per square inch, and a minimum of elasticity of 20
tons, while the elongation is to be 123 per cent. before breaking.

It will be seen from these figures that not only will the structure itself be
enormously lighter than if materials such as have been hitherto employed for such

em

aves

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 499

purposes had been adopted, but that a considerable increase of durability is
anticipated from the chemical and molecular constitution of the metals selected.

The other matter is the fact that a very large order for steel rails for America
has been taken by a house of the highest eminence in this country at the price of
4l. per ton delivered at the works—a price which is almost astounding to those
who have lived long enough to remember the high price at which any quality of
steel could be produced in former years, and when a Imife with real steel blades
was a prize valued because not always attained in the days of our childhood.

It seems to me that these two facts amply illustrate the position taken up at
‘the beginning of this address, as indicating the scientific energy and mechanical
enterprise brought to bear upon the production of steel—in the one case by the
lessening of its cost, and in the other by a most important extension of its
application,

The following Papers were read :—

1. Temperature of Town Water Supplies.
By Batpwin Laruay, C.H., MInst.0.H., F.G.S., F.MS, Sc.

The author, in this paper, drew attention to the fact that the temperature of
the water-supply of a town, as furnished by public waterworks, was totally inde-
pendent of the temperature of the water at its source of supply, and that invariably
the temperature of water was the temperature of the ground at any season of the
year at the depth at which the distributing mains were laid. The average tem-
peratures throughout the year, whatever the source or mode of supply, varied very
little, but there was great difference in the range of temperature, and that while
the temperature in the chalk wells at Croydon gave an average monthly range,
based upon daily observations, of 0:64°, the same water, when supplied direct from
the mains, gave an average monthly range of 21°14°, or when stored in a cistern a
range of 28°05°; while water supplied from the Thames in Westminster gave an
average monthly range of 24°69°, but the average yearly difference of temperature
between the chalk water supplied at Croydon and the Thames water supplied in
Westminster was only 0°67°.

2. On the Quantitative Hlements of Hydrogeology.
By Josnrx Lucas, F.G.S., Hydrogeologist, late of H.M. Geological Survey.

§ PERCOLATION.

Divisions of the Rainfall Year—Among observers of percolation Mr. Evans
divides the year into the winter half, October 1 to March 31, and the summer half,
April 1 to September 30. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert take the harvest year from
September 1 to August 31. Mr. Greaves gives the amount for each quarter, and
for the year ending at each quarter—March, June, September, and October. Ehber-
mayer divides the year into four quarters—

Spring . : : March. April. May.
Summer . : : June. July. August.
Autumn . : : September. October. November,
Winter . . : December. January, February,

‘Giving his annual totals in respect of the twelve months, March—February.

In a paper’ read at the Meteorological Society, Mr. James Glaisher, F.R.S.,
supplies materials for comparing these various methods. He shows that the
rainfall year divides itself into two halves, commencing March 1 and September 1,
thereby proving the sagacity of Ebermayer.

Divisions of the Percolation Year.—The month of March contains the driest
ten-day, fifteen-day, and thirty-day periods in the year, and the months of March
and April the driest sixty-day period. The effect of this is manifested in the

* ¢On the Fall of Rain on Every Day of the Year, from, Observations extending
from 1818 to 1869,— Proc. Met. Soc., vol. v. p. $7.

KK2

500 REPORT—1879.

complete cessation of percolation in April. There is no such uniformity in the
wettest periods of equal duration, and in consequence percolation does not recom-
mence till the close of the longer wettest periods of thirty, sixty, and ninety days.
Mr. Evans’s soil gauge frequently leaves off recording percolation a month earlier,
and begins to record it again a month later, than Mr. Greaves’s. Mr. Evans's
gauge is filled with a mixture of gravel, loam, and mould, and Mr, Greaves’s of
gravel, loam, and sand, which probably accounts for the difference in this respect.
Characters of the Soil.—The calibre of the constituent grains of the soil, and
the percentage of grains of various calibres in the natural admixture, should be
known for every soil on which percolation experiments are or have been carried
out. In a collection of grains of given calibre spheres will occupy more space than
any other shape, or the absorbent capacity is least when the grains are spherical.
The space occupied by any number of spheres, from one upwards, which exactly
lie in a cubic foot, is ‘5236 cubic feet as long as the arrangement is cubical, the
retentive power increasing with the fineness of the grains. The natural arrange-
ment is, however, pyramidal, in which one sphere rests in the hollow between four.
As more spheres will thus go into a cubic foot the space occupied is somewhat.
greater than °5236, and the absorbent capacity somewhat less than ‘4764. The
absorbent capacity (pyramidal) decreases with the diminishing calibre of the grains.

Diameter Absorbent Capacity Diameter Absorbent Capacity
Cubic inches | Cubic feet Cubic inches | Cubic feet

333 7146 “4135 “040 686°7 “B974
*300 709-92 *4108 ‘03125 686°18 +3970
*250 704°55 ‘4077 030 685°84 “3969
*200 700°38 4053 *020 684:96 *3963
125 696°64 “4031 015625 684°28 *3959
“100 691-92 “4004 ‘010 684:09 *3958
*0625 688-59 +3984: “005 683°66 +3956

“050 687°56 *B979 — — =

The absorbent capacity is the space available for holding water between the grains
of the soil. The retentive power, the quantity which the soil can hold by capil-
larity, increases with the fineness of the soil. The percolative capacity presents
three cases:—1. Natural percolation from rainfall. 2. The percolative capacity at
retentive point, 3. The percolative capacity under pressure.

Natural percolation depends upon the amount of and difference between the
absorbent and retentive power, and so upon the calibre of the soil and the shape of
the grains; the quantity of rain falling; the humidity of the soil at the time of
the fall; the temperature of the soil, the percolating rain, and the air; and the
humidity of the air.

Percolation commences when the degree of humidity of the soil just exceeds
the retentive point. The absorbent capacity of a cubic foot of sand of less than
‘035 in calibre was 730°8 cubic inches, or -422 cubic feet, which equals a depth of
5 inches of rain on the square foot; its retentive power 461 cubic inches, which
equals a depth of 3°208 inches of rain on the square foot. Such falls of rain in 24
hours are excessively rare, so that the soil is rarely or never saturated. It gene-
rally exists in a degree of humidity far below retentive point, so that only the
excess over this deposit can percolate. The percolative capacity at saturation point
requires to be determined experimentally ; also a degree of humidity corresponding
to the observed annual average natural percolation. Mr. Evans gives this as 8-227
inches for the 25 years, 1835-1860, which equals a daily transit of 3:24 cubic
inches through each ‘square foot. We do not know the average humidity represented
by this percolation. Even when the humidity exceeds retention point, percolation
sets in and a waterline is formed. The degree of percolation represents the mini-
mum waterline, and saturation point the maximum waterline. Therefore the
degree of humidity, the quantity percolating, and the height of the waterline can be
expressed in terms of each other.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 501

The determination of the percolative capacity at saturation point has a practical
bearing, as it is probable that the soil is capable of passing twice as much per
minute as the average percolation from rainfall ina day. Also, because irrigation
sewage works exist on gravel and other soils in which there are wells. The perco-
lative capacity under pressure bears on the yield of wells sunk in sands, &c., near’
to and remote from large bodies of water upon the surface.

Temperature of Percolation.—The temperature of percolation has not been
observed. Changes of temperature in the soil must act upon the contained mois-
ture in the same way as they do in the air above, thereby tending to cause evapora-
tion or to produce percolation. In an abstract of more than 100,000 observations
upon the temperature of the soil made in the Gardens of the Royal Botanic
Society, London, 1871-1876, Mr. G. J. Seymour, F.R.S., shows that the heat wave
commences in March, and spreads downward till the whole 4 feet of observation
is warmer than the air in September and October; the effect of the preceding cold
was disappearing at 4 feet by the end of August. In November the cold wave
commences and moves down till the whole 4 feet is colder than the air by the end
of February, when the heat wave begins again. This corresponds with the
division of Ebermayer on March 1 as regards the commencement of the heat wave
at the surface and the disappearance of the preceding heat wave at 4 feet; and on
September 1 as regards the disappearance of the preceding cold wave at 4 feet,
but not as regards the surface, the heat wave lasting till the end of October. These
heat divisions correspond with the ‘least rain’ periods of Glaisher which occur in
February and March, the last two months of the cold wave, and with the ‘heaviest
rain’ periods which end with the heat wave at 3 inches in October; with the
cessation of percolation in March (when the heat wave begins) and its recommence-
ment in November (when the cold wave begins).

i In reference to future observations on percolation, therefore, it is suggested
that :—

1. Artificial admixtures should be avoided.

2. The calibre of the constituent grains, and the percentage of grains of each
gauge in the natural admixture, should be experimentally ascertained.

3. The absolute capacity should be measured.

4. The retentive power should be proved.

5. The percolative capacity at saturation point, and as far as possible at less
degrees of humidity, should be measured.

6. The percolative capacities under pressure greater than that of saturation
‘should be proved.

7. Percolators should contain thermometers.

There should be a set of three cylinders—A, the saturated cylinder, filled with
saturated soil, closed top and bottom, and provided with a thermometer.

B a common Dalton gauge, provided with thermometer.

C the dry cylinder, filled with dry soil, closed top and bottom, and provided with
a thermometer.

The thermometers should be arranged back to back in the centre of each percolator
at depths of 1, 2, 3, and 4 feet, and one at 3 inches and at the surface close to
them. Presumably the thermometers in the Dalton gauge would agree with those
in the dry gauge when the soil was dry, and with those in the saturated gauge
when the soil was saturated, as their difference would be noted. We should then
have something more than wet-and-dry bulb thermometers in the soil and the
machinery for connecting observations on rainfall, temperature, and percolation, and
for comparing different series of observations at present wanting.

3. On Léon Francq’s Fireless Locomotive.
By Mons. Cuartes Burceron, C.L.

_ The fireless locomotive, described by Mons. Charles Bergeron, is an American
‘invention. It has been much improved by Mons. Léon Francq, civil engineer in
Paris, who studied the question of mechanical traction by means of steam engines

502 REPORT—1879.

without fire, that is to say, by means of hot water heated to a high temperature
by the injection of the steam into a body of water.

He made a very successful application of his system on the line of tramways:
between Rueil and Marly le Roi, near Paris, which is in a working order since:
the month of July of the last year, and never failed nor gave any reason of
complaint from the public.

The principal object, namely, the suppression of the furnace of the locomotive, is
obtained by the utilisation of the calorific capacity of water, by giving it a quantity
of heat sufficient for the production of the steam necessary for the working of
each machine during a good length of time. The means adopted consists in
causing to pass into a volume of water contained in a closed reservoir placed
on the locomotive, a current of steam at high pressure produced in a generator
fixed at the departure station, and which: gives up its heat in the ratio of its
mixture with the water.

The locomotive consists of a large cylindrical reservoir, surmounted by a
dome in which the steam is accumulated, and supported by a frame to which
are fixed all the mechanical movements similar to those of an ordinary loco+
motive.

The reservoir holds more than 700 gallons, about two tons of water, which,
introduced into the apparatus, should be heated to a very high temperature hefore
the locomotive is put in motion. By the aid of a fixed generator, it is capable of
producing steam at a pressure which may attain sixteen atmospheres (224 pounds
per square inch), at a temperature of 203° Centigrade.

The steam comes from the generator into the reservoir by a pipe forming
a branch with another horizontal pipe placed near the bottom of the reservoir
along all its length, closed at its two extremities, but pierced on its upper surface»
with two lines of small holes,

The steam rushing from the generator escapes through all the holes of that
tube and brings the water of the reservoir to the desired conditions of temperature.
and pressure.

The distribution of steam to the cylinders of the locomotive is not different:
from similar machines except in its mode of working. The escaped steam is not
used to increase the draught, as there is no fire; it forms no clouds of steam:
issuing from the chimney, and produces no noise in escaping.

The escape is made into an air condenser, formed by a close cylinder traversed
by more than 600 metallic tubes which are open at both ends, so that the air may
pass freely through them from end to end and keep them cool. The steam
after its working is condensed into that cylinder, and the water falls into a.
small tank placed under the foot-board of the driver.

The principal apparatus of the fireless engine invented by Mons. Francq is the
expansive regulator (détendeur), by which the steam is carried to the cylinders of
the locomotive regularly and at the same pressure.

That pressure may vary from three to eight atmospheres, according to the:
amount of resistance of the cars running on the tramways.

The spring of a balance, similar to those used for safety valves on boilers, is:
applied for opening more or less the valve of admission of the steam into the
exhaust regulator, and it acts so well that while the locomotive is in work the
valve of admission oscillates in almost precise correspondence with the pulsations
even of the motive pistons.

The traffic on Reuil and Marly Railway having been carried on by small
locomotives of the ordinary type previous to being worked by fireless engines,
affords an opportunity of making an exact comparison between them. In regard
to consumption of fuel, the account shows an important advantage in fayour of
the fireless engine. The boiler of a locomotive is much more expensive on account
of its brass tubes in construction and in maintenance.

The books of the company prove that the ordinary locomotive costs 41 frances:
39 cents, and the fireless engine only 22 francs 77 cents, nearly the half, for a run
of 102 kilometres every day.

The tubes in the boiler of the ordinary locomotive last six or seven years, and

a

TRANSA€TIONS OF SECTION G. 503

the boiler requires expensive repairs frequently ; the reservoir of a fireless engine
will last thirty years, and will require hardly any repair.

The fireless locomotive possesses all the elements of safety that can be required
in an engine intended to run in the streets of towns and along country roads.

Explosion is impossible ; there is no firebox to be damaged; no hot cinders can
be thrown into the fields. There is no firelight to alarm—no steam escaping from
valves, no whistle, nothing to frighten the most timid animal, as in ordinary
engines. There is no smoke ; neither the passengers nor the trayellers on the road
can be annoyed by the sulphurous fumes of burning coke, or smothered with coal
smoke. There is no soot to blacken the linen and clothes of passengers, nor to
soil the carriages inside or out. There is no flame rising from the smoke pipe, or
hot cinders or ashes to burn passengers’ clothes. There is no disagreeable smell of
burning coal or oil, and the traction is more easy and more pleasant than even that
of horses,

Fireless locomotives have worked the traffic on the Rueil and Marly Railway,
and are still working it now, with a perfect regularity, from the early part of
July 1878.

They never had any accident nor stoppage on the road, even during the
severe winter of this year. Their weight, when empty, is six tons; they contain
two tons of water when they start from Marly, where is the feeding boiler always
in fire. The steam in the reservoir is at a pressure of fifteen atmospheres at the
departure, and only four atmospheres at the return, after a run there and back of
fifteen kilometres, nearly ten miles. The weight of steam drawn from the
reservoir for working the engine is only 200 kilogrammes (;; of its first volume).

It requires about twenty minutes to replace those 200 kilogrammes by the same
weicht of steam drawn from the feeding boiler.

When the pressure in the reservoir of the locomotive is the same as in the fixed
boiler, the engine is fit for working, and may wait several hours without a sensible
loss in the pressure of its steam.

The engine can run with four or five tramway cars. The number of passengers
varies from 60 to 250 per train.

These fireless locomotives have worked the traffic of the Rueil and Marly Rail-
way for more than one year. They run regularly at half-hour intervals from 6 a.m,
to 12 at night. The service has given general satisfaction to the passengers, to the
inhabitants along the line, and to the railway company. It may be concluded
therefore that the fireless locomotive of Mons. Francq is not only an elegant and
simple engine, but it possesses incontestable advantages in point of economy, and
probably will solve the important problem of a mechanical power applied to the
working of short lines of railway along roads and of tramways in towns.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 22, 1879.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On Self-acting Intermittent Syphons and the Conditions which determine
the commencement of their Action. By Rogers Finup.—See Reports,
p. 223.

2. On recent advances in Electric Lighting.
By James N. Suootprep, B.A., Mem. Inst. C.E.

Twelve months ago electric lighting, in its application at least, was hardly
known in England, except in connection with a few lighthouses ; now there is
scarcely a large town in the United Kingdom where this light has not been

504 REPORT—1879.

publicly tried, in the illumination either of out-of-door spaces or streets, or of the
interior of public buildings or industrial works of various kinds. Since last year!
many improvements have taken place, both in the machines for the generation of
the electric current, and also in the burners for utilising it. The actual require-
ments of practice, and especially the improved gas illumination in London and in
Paris, showed that electric lights of a more moderate illuminating power were
needed than were those afforded by the single-light machines of Siemens and of
Gramme. To the subdivision of the electric current for the production of an
increased number of light-centres of moderate illuminating power, and to a more
economical form of burner, especially in the form of a ‘ candle’ instead of the more
eee and expensive ‘ regulator,’ has the attention of electricians been especially
directed.

In the type of ‘Gramme’ machine used so far with the Jablochkoff candles
both in France and in this country, two separate machines have been required; an
‘excitor’ to generate the current, to be passed on to the ‘light’ machine for sub-
division into several distinct circuits. In the new form, though these two parts
are still separate, they compose but one machine; which by a suitable arrangement
of the circuits may be made to support, with an expenditure of the same amount
of motive power, either the same number of lights as formerly, or, at will, the
number may be increased while luminosity of each is diminished, till the total
number of the light-centres is double that of the older machines; while the aggre-
gate of the illuminating power remains about the same throughout. Thus, within
the writer's personal experience, a machine of the new type, which contained the
same amount of copper and iron as the old four-light machines, and absorbing
about the same amount of motive power, viz. 44 horse-power (net), could be made
to produce either four lights of nearly 600 candles each, or ten lights of about 240
candles. A larger machine of similar construction could, it was understood, feed,
either eight of the large, or twenty of the small lights, with an absorption of
rather under 10 horse~power. With the large lights, and the older type of machine
in use on the Thames Embankment, twenty lights require a net expenditure of
nearly 20 horse-power.

With the Lontin machine an improvement in the same direction has taken
place; the six-light machine of last year now producing twenty-four lights, each
of illuminating power somewhat similar to the small-sized lights just referred to.
In the De Meritens machine a somewhat increased productive power is the result of
a considerable simplification, and consequent economy, in the form of the steel
magnets employed. ,

A new form of generator has entered the lists in the Thermo-electric pile of
M. Sudre, erroneously called by some the Clamond, from a former pile of this
name. The ‘Sudre’ pile is a cylindrical hot-air furnace placed vertically, having
on its outside two sets of small flues, formed in cast-iron chambers ; and outside of
these a series of electric chains hang vertically, and are composed of small cubes
of an alloy of zinc and antimony, connected with each other te strips of tin, while
exterior to the cubes, and radiating from them, are placed vertically, like the leaves
of an open book, thin sheets of copper. The hot air from the top of the furnace is
forced downwards through one set of chambers, and up again through the outer
set, heating in its passage the zinc cubes which are placed against the flue, a strip
of asbestos only intervening; while the copper plates act as the distributors of the
heat so acquired; the difference of temperature between the heated back of the
zine cubes and the outer edge of the copper plates being about 8 to 1. A double
pile of this construction, containing 3,000 zine cubes or elements in each half, in
use in Paris for some months back, has a total electro-motive force of 218 volts,
which is equivalent to 120 Bunsen cells, and has a total resistance of 31 ohms.
This pile works two Serrin lamps very steadily and noiselessly, each giving a fair
moderate-sized light. The fuel consumed with the pile is coke; about 13 hours
and 30 Ibs. of coke being required to raise it to the required temperature, after
which 20 lbs. is the hourly consumption.

’ See ‘Present State of Electric Lighting,’ in Minutes of Proceedings of the Bri-
zish Association, Dublin Meeting, 1878.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 505

In electric burners, Messrs. Siemens have lately brought out a ‘pendulum’
lamp, which differs very materially from their previous forms of regulator and
from others of the same class, by dispensing with a large amount of the clockwork.
In it the separation and approach of the carbons necessary for lighting is effected
by the in-and-out movement of a plunger within a solenoid; the motions of the
plunger being communicated by means of a hinged frame to the upper carbon
holder. When the motion of the plunger is not sufficient for the feed of the
carbons, the holder-rod, which has a rack on one face in its lower portion, becomes
detached from the frame, and continues its descent by gravity. The rate of
descent is, however, rendered regular by a pendulum fixed on the same shaft as the
toothed wheel fitting into the rack; thus the descent of each tooth of the carbon-
holder rack corresponds to a beat of the pendulum,

Mr. C. Heinricks has introduced a ‘regulator,’ which presents many points of
difference from. the other lamps distinguished by that name. A small case com-
farts encloses the entire of the controlling apparatus, which acts upon a shaft

eneath, but entirely outside of it; upon this shaft are placed the holders of the
two semi-circular carbons, which fall by gravity as required to a point immediately
beneath. By this arrangement the light is left free and unrestricted for projection
away from the lamp; while the cireular form of the carbon pencils permits of a
much greater duration of uninterrupted illumination than would be the case with
straight carbon-pencils, within the same space. The controlling mechanism
includes two distinct magnets and armatures; one for the feed, the other for the
separation of the carbons. By an ingenious arrangement the alternate action of
these two magnets is made to control the approach of the carbons, which becomes
a step-by-step movement, instead of an unchecked continuous one. To this last are
ascribed, by some, many of the interruptions in the light, as well as the subsequent
hissings which are found to occur with the ordinary forms of ‘ regulator.’

Much attention has of late been directed to the more economical form of burner
termed ‘candle,’ from the two carbon-rods being placed side by side, and both
being consumed at the same rate. The only type in use twelve months ago was
the Jablochkoff candle. In its original form it possessed the disadvantages of
having the carbons rigidly fixed, so preventing any self-adaptation to the variations
of the strength of the electric current, and without any power of relighting itself
if once extinguished. This last property has since been acquired by the intro-
duction of some zinc filings into the insulating substance: an improvement which
does not appear, however, to be much made use of.

The De Meritens candle dispenses altogether with the insulating substance, and
its inconvenience of manufacture; one, or even two, insulated carbon-rods taking
its place, and causing induced currents in them during the passage of the current
from one outside main carbon to the other. A form of ‘candle’ known as the
Wilde, but first devised by Rapieff, is superior to the preceding ones in simplicity,
efficiency, and economy. In it the carbons are placed in two separate holders, one
fixed and the other responding to the movements of the armature of a magnet,
through which the current passes. The Jamin candle, about the merits of which
much has heen said of late, has the two carbons fixed, without any insulating sub-
stance between them. The wire from one of the carbon holders, instead of passing
directly away, is before doing so wound vertically round the candle in the plane of
the two carbons, and at a distance of about 2 inch from each of them; about five
turns are taken, each insulated from the other, and all formed into a single coil.
Heinricks has a candle with two pairs of semi-circular carbons, at right angles to
each other, and with an electro-magnet above controlling them.

To these improvements in the electrical apparatus themselves must be added
those in the delicate automatic governing gear of the engine-motors, both steam
and gas, in order to insure that extreme regularity of motion which is requisite
for electric illumination. Of these, in steam engines, among the most successful
are those of Ransomes, Sims, and Head, of Duvergier (of Lyons), of Robey, &c.
While in gas engines, the most extensively used, so far, is the ‘ Otto’ of Crossley
Brothers; though L. Simon and Son, and also Clerk, have each more recently
introduced engines which present ingenious and novel features.

506 REPORT—1879.

3. On the Changes of Volume in Iron when passing from the Liquid to the
Solid State, and an Instrument for observing the same. By T. WRicHTSoN,
Memb. Inst. C.E., F.G.S.

That there are some considerable changes in the density of iron in passing from
the solid to the liquid state, is best illustrated by observing the behaviour of a piece
of cold iron when thrown into a ladle of molten iron. After being thrown in, it rises
to the surface, and as it becomes heated continues rising out of the metal until a
considerable portion of its bulk is raised above the molten surface. It then
appears for a time to remain without further change of volume until it reaches the
melting point, when it rapidly subsides into the general mass.

These phenomena appeared to the writer to be well worthy of examination ; the
more so because much has been written upon the apparent anomaly that, although
iron when cast in a mould contracts in all its lineal dimensions about one per cent.,
and should therefore, when cold, have a specific gravity higher than that of liquid
metal, it nevertheless floats on the surface when thrown into the molten iron.

All kinds of ingenious explanations have been hazarded to account for this, but
no one appears to have taken the precaution to ascertain whether the anomaly was
real or only apparent.

In order to exhibit the changes of specific gravity during the passage of the iron
from the solid to the liquid state, it occurred to the writer to submerge a ball of
cold iron in a vessel of molten iron to a certain depth, and to connect this ball
by means of a rod of refractory material to a spring balance; any expansion or con-
traction of the ball would cause a greater or lesser displacement of the liquid iron,.
and the variation of buoyancy produced by this could be read off in ounces on the
index of the spring balance.

A spring balance, with a circular dial plate, was accordingly suspended on a
wooden framing immediately above a large vessel of molten iron. A rigid rod
weighing two or three pounds was fastened to the moving slide of the balance, and
to the end of this rod was attached the cast iron ball to be experimented upon.
Before fixing the ball, the position of the index of the balance was marked in pencil
on a sheet of paper, surrounding but not covering the circular face of the dial. The
ball then being attached, another pencil mark, farther round the dial, indicated the:
whole weight of the ball and rod, and one indication subtracted from the other re-
presented the actual weight of the ball.

Now if the specific gravity of the cold ball were exactly the same as that of the
hot metal, there would be no tendency when the ball was lowered into the metal
either to sink or swim, and in that case the pointer would travel back exactly to
the mark, showing the weight of the rod alone. If the ball were of higher spe-
cifie gravity there would be a sinking effect which would prevent the pointer
arriving at this mark, the space it fell short representing this sinking effect. As the
ball expanded in volume it would displace more liquid metal, producing an upward
flotation equal to the difference between the weight of the ball and the weight of
the fluid displaced, and which, so long as the ball continues of the same weight and
is not allowed to rise to the surface, can be read off in ounces on the dial plate:
while the operation proceeds.

By carrying out this plan the author obtained an exact register of the succes-
sive alterations in volume taking place in the ball, though hidden from sight below
the surface of the metal.

Immediately the ball was immersed and held two inches below the surface,
an assistant called out intervals of seconds, while the writer marked on the paper
round the dial plate the corresponding positions as the movement of the pointer
took place. After obtaining indications of various sizes of ball, the results were
laid down graphically,

In the diagrams thus obtained we have a complete record of the changes in
volume and specific gravity from the cold solid to the commencement of the molten
state.

An examination of the results obtained shows that in all cases there is
a sinking effect when the ball is first submerged; in a few seconds this disappears

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 507

and gives way to a floating effect. From this it appears evident that cold cast
iron sinks when first put in a bath of molten iron, and that therefore its specific
gravity is higher than that of the liquid metal, and that its rapid expansion dis-
placing the liquid metal, and causing it so quickly to come to the surface, has led
to the widespread but erroneous belief in the anomaly described. This has been
proved by the writer in a more direct way, by making a number of spheres of cast
iron, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 inches in diameter. These when cold were lowered (not
thrown) into the molten iron by means of a bent iron fork, the ball resting freely
on the two prongs of the same.

In every case the ball went down with the fork, rested under the metal for a
few seconds, and then rose to the surface, the experiments being confirmatory of
the results obtained with the apparatus already described.

The diagrams also show that the line showing change of volume continues to
rise in a somewhat irregular curve until it reaches its maximum above the line
of equilibrium. The further increase of heat then appears to have little effect in
changing the volume of the ball, as the line of volume remains in its maximum
position until melting commences, when the ball rapidly subsides.

The table accompanying this shows the maximum variations of sinking or float-
ing effect in percentages of the actual weight of the balls, also the actual floating
or sinking effect in ounces avoirdupois.

Maximum sinking effect | Maximum floating effect

: Weighiin soins moar
Plameter ofall favoirdupes| Weight | erentase) weignt | Percent
avoirdupois weight avoirdupois weight
OZ. OZ. 0Z
3 inch, Ist Experiment 581 2 34 3 12°8
a Petang 598 28 4°6 1 88
cord... 132% Qn 1:7 13} 10-0
ay 4th, 182$ 4 1-2 133 5

From the above it will be seen that the volume of the ball in the first expe-
riment varies from 3:4 per cent. below, to 12°8 per cent. above the volume of
equilibrium, being a total change between the extremes of 16:2 per cent. This is
the highest result; for the lowest it will be found that the 43 inch ball (fourth
experiment) has a variation of 7°5 per cent. above, and 1:2 per cent. below, or a
total variation of 8:7 per cent.

The diagrams read the reverse way should furnish an indication of the change
in passing from the liquid to the solid; and the author describes phenomena
observed in the cooling of iron castings, which confirm this view.

The following conclusions may be inferred from these experiments:

That when in the solid state cast iron is at its greatest density.

. When in the plastic state, immediately before liquefaction, it is at its least:
ensity.

That the liquid state is intermediate in density, being much nearer in degree to
the solid than to the plastic condition.

The writer is now completing the construction of a more elaborate instrument
to effect the object he has in view. The index of the spring balance is made to
move vertically in a straight line. A pencil attached to the index presses on @
piece of paper coiled round a cylinder five inches in diameter, which revolves on a
vertical axis by means of clockwork, arranged so that the surface of the paper on
the cylinder moves at a uniform speed, while the pencil follows the change of
volume in the ball of metal under examination. .-A much more accurate diagram
should by this means be formed than has been possible by the means at first
adopted by the author.

Note.—For a more complete account of these experiments see a paper by the
same author on ‘Some Physical Changes in Iron and Steel at High Temperatures,
read before the Iron and Steel Institute at Liverpool, September 1879.

508 REPORT—1879. -

SATURDAY, AUGUST 23, 1879

The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, AUGUST 25, 1879.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships.
See Reports, p. 210.

2. Report of Committee on the Ordnance Datum.—See Reports, p. 219.

3. Report of Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel, Sc.
See Reports, p. 71.

4. Report of Committee on the Patent Laws.—See Reports, p. 223.

5. General Results of Experiments on Friction at High Velocities made in
Order to Ascertain the Effect of Brakes on Railway Trains. By
Doveias Gatton, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.

The experiments were made on the Brighton Railway, with the assistance of
Mr. George Westinghouse, with a special four-wheeled yan constructed for the
purpose ; it was attached to an engine, and was run at various speeds, during
which time various forces were measured by self-recording dynamometers. The
principle of these dynamometers is that the force to be measured acts on a piston
fitting in a cylinder full of water, and the pressure of the water is measured by a
Richards indicator connected by a pipe to the cylinder; thus, as the drum of the
indicator revolves, diagrams are obtained, giving the force acting on the piston.
The advantages of this method are obvious, because the indicator can be placed at
any convenient point, and the inertia of the water tends to make the pencil keep a
position corresponding to the mean force. A detailed description of the construc-
tion of the dynamometers was given to the Section last year, and on this occasion
the results arrived at alone will be stated.

In most of the experiments the tyres were of steel, and the brake-blocks of cast
iron. Some experiments were made with wrought iron blocks, but the results were
not uniform or satisfactory.

It will suffice here to give the general results arrived at.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 509

It is convenient in looking at the question of railway-brakes to consider first,
what is the operation of a brake P

A train, through the adhesion of the wheels of the locomotive acting on the
rails, slowly accumulates energy, and for each ton of weight in the train the
accumulated energy is equal to 120 foot-tons at 60 miles per hour, 53 foot-tons at
40 miles per hour, and 30 foot-tons at 20 miles per hour. Thus, for a train of
fifteen vehicles, weighing 200 tons, the energy at 60 miles per hour is equal to
24,000 tons falling a distance of one foot.

After a train has attained the desired speed, the reasons for stopping it may be
of two kinds: (1) at prearranged places for convenience; and (2) for the pre-
vention of accidents or for mitigating the consequences if accidents are unavoidable.

To stop a train for the first reason requires but a limited amount of force, which
may be applied in any crude manner.

For the prevention of accidents, however, there is required :—

: a, The instantaneous application of the greatest possible amount of retarding
orce.

b. The continuous action of this force until the momentum of the train is
destroyed.

perhour N°],
i erument N°? 17.

E . * .
Se ea ag
\

\

7 "ee A
Fa Liisa
\ \ :

%

\

oa
ne

J

j

!

Oo s wo 45 See.

The retarding force used in practice is that due to the friction resulting from
the forcible application of pieces of metals or wood (brake-blocks) to the tyres of
the wheels; this friction impedes the rotation of the wheels, and tends, through the
adhesion of the wheels to the rails, to destroy the energy stored in the train. The
yetarding force is therefore limited to the resistance obtainable between the wheels
and rails.

It was at first customary to attach to a train, for purposes of retardation, a
certain number of vehicles with extra weight, to which the brakes were applied;
but since the question of retardation has become better understood, brakes have
been applied to every vehicle, the means of applying these brakes being placed in
the hands of both the engine-driver and the guard. The reason for this is that the
maximum amount of retarding force can be obtained only by applying brake-blocks
to every wheel in the train, each block being pressed with sufficient force to pro-
duce a resistance to the rotation of the wheel just equal to the greatest possible
friction between the wheel and the rail. This greatest possible friction occurs
when the adhesion of the wheel to the rail is just about to be overcome by the
superior effort of the brake-blocks, which effort, if further increased, immediately
begins to stop the rotating movement of the wheel, and thus causes it to slide

510 REPORT—1879.

upon the rail. The experiments were made with the object of measuring the force
thus brought into action.

The first result of the experiment was to show conclusively that the retarding
effect of a wheel sliding upon a rail is much less than when braked with such a
force as would just allow it to continue to revolve.

The annexed copies of two sets of diagrams (No. 1 and No. 2) taken during
the experiments, show, more clearly than can be explained, the difference in the
retarding force, before the wheels begin to slide upon the rails, and after. These

two experiments were made with a single van slipped from the engine, the brakes
going on automatically when separation from the engine took place. s is a line
showing the speed of the van at each instant, the scale for which is at the left side.
P is the pressure against four blocks acting upon one pa of wheels; the vertical
‘height of p by the scale on the right hand, multiplied by 240, gives the total pres-
sure in pounds on the four blocks. ¥ is the line showing the retarding effect of
the four blocks upon the one pair of wheels before the wheels began to slide upon
the rails, and f shows the effect while the wheels were sliding upon the rails. The

if iam tnns o cia
Pd =
ra Eapervment NY? 19.~*~. *
P. E bie
ra gent Gradient rising lin 264 os
CA
is 9

Speed of Van

eK XK i eee eee OK RXR

vertical height of ¥F or f, according to scale B, multiplied by 60, gives the retarda-
tion in pounds. It will be seen that the stop was made in half the time with the
wheels braked but not skidded of that required when the wheels were skidded,
The accompanying diagram 38 shows in another way the comparative retarding
effect of the brakes when acting on the revolving wheels, and when applied with
sufficient force to skid the wheels.
An experiment was made by keeping the van ata uniform speed ona rising

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. Sil

gradient of 1 in 264—the strain on the draw-bar being also measured during the
experiment. In this case the strain on the draw-bar diminished in the same ratio
as the friction.

From this it is evident that the retardation which arises when the wheel is
sliding on the rail is far less than the retardation produced by the effect of the
brake-blocks when applied to the wheels so as to allow the wheels to continue
revolving.

In order to understand this it is necessary to consider the general action of
-railway brakes. When a train is moving ata given velocity the adhesion of the
wheels on the rails causes them to revolve; every point on the surface of the tyre
moves round at the same rate as that at which the train itself is moving forward ;
but every such point in relation to the forward movement of the train comes suc-
cessively to rest at the moment when it comes in contact with the rail. Now when
the brake is applied with a slight pressure only, the wheel continues to move round
at the same rate as that at which the train is moving, but it moves with more
difficulty, and this increased difficulty in moving is shown either by an increase
in the tractive force required to keep up the forward motion, or, in cases where the
accelerating force is not kept up, by the tendency of the moving mass to come to
rest in a shorter time than would otherwise be the case. But if the pressure

lds 150

<I

1.
o
pt N° 4,
10.
6

a

905

aot

70

as Bed <P
N

50 _

Miles

me
2
40

5

!
x
!
x
i
x
|
x
|
x
ia
|
|
|

TTP IT pType iy yy Prt x
ia hig? 2346 CI AIODNRBEYEEH GNWANBA SHA 2S woe
o

with which the brake is applied be increased, a point is reached when the friction
between the brake-block and the wheel first approaches, then equals, and finally
exceeds, the adhesion of the wheel on the rail. When this happens, the wheel
first begins to revolve more slowly, and then ceases to revolve and slides along the
rail, or, as it is usually termed, is skidded. The retardation is then no longer due to
the friction between the brake-block and the tyre of the wheel ; but the vehicle is
transformed for the time from a vehicle on wheels into a sledge, and the retarda-
tion is due to the excess of resistance which is produced by making the vehicle
slide along the rails over that produced by making the vehicle move forward on
wheels revolving freely.

The reason why the retardation caused by the brake-blocks applied to revolving
wheels exceeds that caused by the skidded wheels became obvious from the fact
next discovered, viz., that the coefficient of friction between the brake-blocks and
the wheels varied inversely according to the speed of the train, a higher propor-
tionate percentage of brake-block pressure being required to obtain a given amount
of friction at high speeds, and a lower pressure at lower speeds.

This is illustrated by the diagrams 4,5. In these diagrams P represents pres-
sure, F friction, and s speed, measured on the respective scales at the side, to be
corrected by the multiple before mentioned. It will be observed that the ratio of

Hil REPORT—-1879.

F to Pin diagram 4, with a speed of eleven miles per hour, is much larger than
that of F to P in diagram 5, with a speed of fifty-five miles per hour.

N°S.
tT
= _—

; TPT TTT TIT TTT
semriaro ee 345678 IW HIRI13 1815 1647.98 19D 222 23 25% 228 29.20

The following table shows the coefficient of friction obtained from these ex-
periments at varying speeds between cast-iron brake-blocks and steel tyres :—

Number of Velocity Coefficient of friction |
experiments
from which
aia Miles per hour | Feet per second Extremes observed Mean
Maximum Minimun
12 60 88 123 058 ‘074
67 55 81 136 “060 ‘111
55 50 73 153 050 ‘116
77 45 66 79 083 127
70 40 59 194 088 140
80 35 51 197, 087 142
94 30 44 "196 ‘098 164
70 25 363 205 108 166
69 20 29 240 133 192
78 15 22 280 131 223
54 10 143 “281 161 242
28 es 11 325 123 244
20 Under 5 Under 7 340 *156 273
— Just moving — — +330
Fleeming Jenkin. . { eaaeet | 337 365 ‘351
Static friction (Rennie)
180 Ibs. per square inch — = =) 300
336 lbs. per square inch | — -= — B47

Tf the position of the brake-blocks were always the same at the same speed,
some simple rule might be deduced which would give the pressure required at
each speed for obtaining a certain amount of retardation; but when the speed of
the yan was kept nearly uniform by the effort of the engine, the friction of the
blocks decreased; and this occurred, notwithstanding a continued increase of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 513

brake-block pressure, showing that, through some cause not yet fully determined,
the holding power of brake-blocks at all speeds is considerably less. after some
seconds of application than when first applied. This peculiarity is illustrated by
diagram 6, and is also apparent in diagram 5. Hence the question of the proper
amount of brake-force needed at each instant, during the time required to stop a

\

100. sc F \
: \

!

E \
Dy al eg nae et
4 i]

anh)
Seconds 0 7 2IF SE 78 IMM ZG WIS 16 17 13 19 2 21.2223 8 2526 eee
°

‘train, is still further complicated by this decrease which occurs in the coefficient
of friction after the brakes have been applied, and which results from the time
during which they are kept applied, irrespective of any change in speed, This de-
crease in the coefficient of friction is shown in the following table :—

Coefficient of Friction as affected by Time.

Speed. Coefficient at After After After After
Miles per hour|°°™™Mencement/ 5 seconds 10 seconds 15 seconds 20 seconds
of experiment
20 "182 *152 133 116 099
27 171 130 ‘119 ‘O81 ‘072
37 "152 ‘096 ‘083 ‘069 —
AT 132 080 ‘070 — =
60 072 063 “058 -— —

Diagram 7 shows the curves of this decrease obtained from a few of the ex-
periments. It would seem as if the coefficient of friction due to each speed be-
comes nearly uniform after a certain number of seconds have elapsed. The ex-
periments were, however, necessarily limited to something between twenty and
thirty seconds each, so that this point has not been fully determined.

The decrease in the coefficient of friction arising from time sometimes over-
comes the increase in the coefficient of friction arising from a decrease in speed ;
especially when, either from the stop being on a descending gradient or from a
small proportion of the train only being fitted with brake power, the train takes
considerable time in coming to rest. Therefore, a higher brake pressure is required
in such cases than when the stop is made in a short time.

The accompanying diagram (8) shows a uniform force of friction with a prac-
tically uniform speed, as obtained by means of an increasing brake-block pressure.
The line p shows the pressure, F the friction, and s the speed, which decreased
slightly during the experiment, and would have caused an increase in the coeff-
cient of friction had it not been counteracted by the element of time.

1879. rir

514 REPORT—1879.

There is nothing unnatural in the fact that friction decreases with speed.
Friction is mechanical work ; it requires a definite force to move a body which is
NNT
Petri of clon gaia ee OTe

age Sag
second (11S ANA SOTUONONOURANENONULOONONON C0
SUIT TT Th as0
HT tt
PUN TTT
wool CCRC
ptt Ds ET
| UT
| HT

ities

a
fb FT Si uw ae 2 ames
Seconds

in contact with another, and such movement causes a perceptible wear of the sur-
faces in contact. The manner in which this work is accomplished can be explained

TBs. 1.

age FP4SETEINIRBMIS UN BISWA BUWBWUMBIWwW

only by the fact that the surfaces in contact are not perfectly smooth, but irregular,

SP whee ee:

“our pes

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 515

although this irregularity may not be distinctly visible to the naked eye. These
surfaces, if examined under a sufficiently strong microscope, would be found to be
somewhat as represented in the accompanying diagram, No. 9,

If the upper body be moved in the direction of the arrow, s, by a force, Pp, the
point, a, of the upper surface would mount the incline, formed by the corresponding
portion of the lower body, until
it reached its summit at a’; from
this moment it would begin to
descend the next incline, from a
to 6; provided the force, P, acting
in the direction of the arrow, s,
would leave it time to doso. The
incline from 6 to ¢ would have to
be mounted next, causing a cer-
tain amount of resistance during
the time the body traversed the
distance dc. But if we increase
the speed in the direction of the
dart s, so that the body will re-
quire less time to traverse a’ d than
to fall through d 6, in such case a’ would not arrive at 6, but at some other point,
b’, and then only the portion of the incline 6’ c would have to be mounted, pre-
senting a smaller amount of resistance than in the former case. This illustrates
what occurs.

The fact that the coefficient of friction diminishes with speed sufficiently ex-
oo why a skidded wheel affords less resistance than one which still rotates,

ecause the resistance occasioned by the rotating wheel is only limited by the
adhesion of the wheel on the rail, and this, as already shown, is the same as static
friction, since the point of the wheel is stationary as regards the forward movement
of the train at the moment it touches the rail; whilst when the wheel is skidded
and slides, the friction is that due to the speed at which the wheel moves on the
rail, and is therefore less than the other.

Some special experiments were made with blocks of small area, The brake-
blocks generally used in these experiments were 12 inches long, by 3 inches wide,
giving a surface of 36 square inches; the small brake-blocks were made so as to
afford a surface of pressure against the wheel of only one-third of this amount, or 12
square inches, thus making the pressure per square inch three times as great as
before. The diminution of surface was obtained by casting projections upon the
face of the block. The author is not prepared to say that any greater coefficient
of friction was obtained by the extra pressure per square inch, although in one of
the experiments, at a velocity of sixty miles an hour, the rotation of the wheels
was arrested by these blocks, whilst this effect had not been produced at that speed
in other experiments. The experiments on this form of block were stopped because
the blocks were entirely worn down in the course of about twelve experiments.

Mr. Rennie showed ! that high pressures per square inch produced a greater co-
efficient of friction between surfaces either moving very slowly or nearly at rest ;
but it must be borne in mind that the author's experiments were made with high
velocities, whereby a serious element of disturbance is introduced, viz., the grinding
away of the surface; and it is, therefore, probable that the increase in the co-
efficient of friction due to increased pressure, may have been neutralised by the
lubricating effect of the fine particles ground off the surfaces.

While no certain opinion can be expressed as to the relation which the co-
efficient of friction bears to pressure, so far as these experiments are concerned, it
is quite clear that in proportion as the pressure is increased or diminished, so will
the actual friction obtained be increased or diminished. When the friction which
exists between the brake-blocks and the wheel reaches a certain point, the wheel
ceases to rotate, and becomes fixed. This point is reached when the frictional

+

1 Phil. Trans. for 1829, p. 159.
Lua

516 REPORT—1879.

resistance of the blocks exceeds the adhesion between the wheel and the rail if the
speed is kept up; or, if the speed is slackening, when it exceeds the adhesion
between the wheel and the rail, plus the effort required to retard the rotation of
the wheel equally with the retardation of the train; and the excess of resistance
then acts as an unbalanced force, tending to destroy the momentum of the wheel.

Usually there are in a train a certain number of vehicles braked and a certain
number unbraked. If the brakes acted on all the wheels, then the rotating momen-
tum of the wheels does not add to the distance in stopping a train, because that
momentum can be acted upon by the brakes directly, without in any way affecting
‘the adhesion of the wheels to the rails. It simply requires an additional amount of
brake-block pressure.

With the unbraked portion of a train the rotating momentum of the wheels is
an addition to the momentum due to the weight of the train (including therein the
actual weight of the wheels), which cannot be utilised for retardation; and it
is therefore important that there should be brakes on every wheel of a train.

As it is the adhesion which governs the retardation which the brake-blocks can
exert upon wheels, it is manifest that the pressure brought to act on the brake-
blocks should never give an amount of friction which exceeds the adhesion. At a
high speed, however, the pressure required to produce a degree of friction equal to
the adhesion is much greater than what is required at a low speed.

The following table gives approximately the proportion which the pressure to
be applied to the brake-blocks should bear to the weight upon the braked wheels,
with coefficients of adhesion between wheel and rail, varying from °30 to ‘15 of
the weight on the wheels:

Ratio of Brake-Block Pressure to Weight on Wheels.

Ratio of pressure on brake-blocks to weight on
Speed , braked wheels i
Feet per Miles per Coefficient of | Coefficient of | Coefficient of | Coefficient of
second hour adhesion 0°30 | adhesion 0°25 | adhesion 0°20 | adhesion 0°15
11 73 | 1:20 1:04 0°83 0°60
22 15 1:41 118 0°94 0°70
{29 20 1°64 1:37 1:09 0°82
44 30 1°83 1:53 1:22 0°92
59 40 2-07 1:73 1:38 1:04
73 50 2°48 2°07 1:65 1:24
88 60 4-14 3:47 277 2°08

It will be seen that, when the adhesion equals ‘80 of the weight, a pressure
equal to 1:2 of the weight would skid the wheel at 7} miles per hour, whilst a
pew equal to 4:14 times the weight would be required to do so at 60 miles per

our.

On the other hand, if the adhesion is only ‘15, the pressure required to skid
the wheel would be only ‘60 of the weight at 73 miles per hour, and 2°08 of the
weight at 60 miles per hour.

Thus the efficiency of a brake depends upon the pressure being proportioned to
the speed and to the adhesion. If the adhesion were always uniform, the rule
would be very simple ; but this is not the case.

The adhesion of the wheels to the rails varied according to the materials, that
is, whether the train was travelling upon iron or steel rails; and according to the
state of the rail, whether dry, wet, or sanded.

On dry rails it was found that the coefficient of adhesion of the wheels was
generally over ‘20. In some cases it rose to ‘25, or even higher. On wet or
greasy rails, without sand, it fell as low as -15 in one experiment, but averaged
about ‘18. With the use of sand on wet rails it was above ‘20 at all times; and
when the sand was applied at the moment of starting, so that the wind of the
rotating wheels did not blow it away, it rose up to 85, and even above ‘40, Con-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 517

sequently, the retarding effect of the brakes would be greatly increased, were means
devised fur placing sand under every wheel to which a brake is applied, during the
progress of a stop.

The effect in stopping a train is greatest when the friction between the brake-
blocks and the wheels amounts to a quantity just short of the resistance caused by
the adhesion, because as soon as the brake-block friction exceeds the adhesion, the
wheel becomes fixed and begins to slide. In order, however, to secure the best
results in stopping, it is obviously necessary that the brake-block pressure should be
regulated to give a friction about equal to the adhesion of the wheels at every
stage during the progress of a stop.

There is no reason why, in the progress of mechanical science, these conditions
should not be regulated by a self-acting arrangement.

As the adhesion varies it is necessary to consider what amount of adhesion for
purposes of retardation can be safely calculated upon.

The following table shows the distances required to stop a train on a level line
from a speed of fifty miles per hour, with a retarding force of from 5 to 30 per
cent. of the total weight of the train :—

Percentage of Yards run at fifty Percentage of Yards run at fifty
retardation miles per hour retardation | miles per hour
5 5552 18 1543
10 277% } 20 139

12 2314 25 111
15 185 30 92%

If the brakes act upon each wheel, then a retardation of 10 per cent. of the
load carried by each wheel—counting the rotating momentum as part of the weight
—will stop a train in 2772 yards.

If the brakes act upon only half of the weight of a train, a retardation of 20
per cent. would have to be exerted upon the braked half to produce the same
‘result. As pointed out, 20 per cent. adhesion is rather above the average obtain-
able, while 25 per cent. is the highest result obtained under the most favourable
circumstances at any considerable speed, or except when sand was applied to
wheels moving slowly.

The above table should be carefully noted, for it will be seen that, even if
brakes act upon all wheels, 25 per cent. retardation will only give twenty-eight
yards better result than 20 per cent., or if half of the train only be braked, it will
give fifty-nine yards advantage.

A consideration of this feature of the brake problem points out (1) that the
advantage to be gained by trying to obtain above 20 per cent. retardation on each
wheel is greatly overbalanced by the risk of ‘skidding;’ and (2) that it is far
easier and safer to make a stop in 250 yards from fifty miles per hour with the
whole train braked, than with brakes upon only half of the train.

The following diagram, No. 10, shows the advantage of applying brakes to every

uno tad sapiyyy

400° s00LaTAS 600

wheel of a train. The line AB shows the stop which a train would make from
fifty miles an hour with the retardation of ‘20 shown by the horizontal line OD if

518 REPORT—1879.

applied to every wheel of the train. The shaded area below CD shows the extra
retardation consumed to overcome the momentum of the braked wheels,

The diagonal line AE shows the stop with the same retardation applied to half
the wheels and half the weight of the train, as indicated by the line FG. The
shaded portion below the line FG shows the extra retardation caused in overcoming
the momentum of the braked wheels, and the shade below AE shows the extra
distance run by the train owing to the momentum of the unbraked wheels.

The diagonal AH shows the stop with the same retardation of :20 applied to
q-wheels and j-weight of train as indicated by JK. The thickness of line JK
and diagonal area shaded below AH show respectively the extra retardation con-
sumed in overcoming the momentum of the braked wheels, and the extra distance
run by the train in consequence of the momentum of the unbraked wheels,

From the experiments it was found that the best results were obtained in cases
where the pressure applied at first was from about 14 to twice the weight on the
wheels, and where the reduction of the pressure was effected with sufficient
rapidity towards the end of the stop to prevent the friction increasing at a sufficient
rate to skid the wheels,

The necessity for the instantaneous application of the maximum brake-block
pressure throughout the train is evident from the fact that, at a speed which is
frequently obtained, namely, sixty miles per hour, a train passes over 88 feet each
second; therefore the loss of two or three seconds in applying the brakes means
often the difference between safety and danger, and the rapidity of a stop largely
depends upon the rapidity with which all the brake-blocks can be brought to act
against the wheels of a train. :

This points to the advantage of being able to move the brake-blocks with great
rapidity from their position of inaction to that of contact with the wheels; because
it 1s essential to provide that the brake-blocks, when out of use, shall be removed
to a distance from the wheels sufficient to prevent the possibility of their dragging
against the wheels, and thus retard the progress of the train. The question of the
rapidity with which brakes can be applied in practice is thus one of much
importance.

Some experiments were made in October 1878, upon the North Eastern
Railway, on a train fitted with the vacuum brake, and one fitted with the Westing-
house brake, to ascertain the time which was required after moving the brake-
handle to set the brakes with various degrees of force in different parts of the train.
The following table shows the result arrived at :—

Vacuum brake Westinghouse automatic brake
|

Place of ex- |Commence- Three- Commence- ; Three-

perimental | ment of jraif on quarters |Fullon| ™ePt of | gaifon quarters |Full on

van from movement on movement oa

engine of blocks of blocks
secs. secs. secs. secs. secs. secs, secs. secs.

Ist vehicle 3 3 ie 11 + 4 3 14

(ineh 2 63 83 14 1 1 4 2 23
13th ,, 3} 74 93 14 12 23 33 33
PAT 53 Wy ; 30 — 3 4} 5 2

A long interval of time between brakes coming on at the front and rear of a
train may become a source of danger; and improvements have been introduced in
both the vacuum and Westinghouse apparatus since that date to reduce the interval
as shown by the experiments.

In the Westinghouse brake a simplified triple valve has been adopted, the
friction has been reduced by the use of an enlarged pipe and by the removal of
bends in the connections between the carriages ; by these alterations the interval
of time required to put on the brakes, as shown in the above table, has since been
reduced by nearly one-half, and an experiment recently made on the application of
the brake in rear of a train of twenty-four vehicles on the Western Railway of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 519

France showed that the pressure commenced to be brought on in one second at the
farthest carriage, and was fully one in two and a half seconds from the time of first
moving the brake lever.

The importance of simultaneous action of the brakes in every part of a train
arises from the fact that the train is not a rigid mass, but is made up of separate
vehicles connected by means of spring draw-bars and buffers. The length of the
train can thus be modified to a certain extent by the degree of compression of
these springs. In a recent experiment on the North-Eastern Railway the train
consisted of twenty-four carriages, and the whole extent to which the buffers could
be compressed amounted to 35 feet. A train travelling at sixty miles an hour
moves at 88 feet in a second. If the brakes act on the front part of the train
before they affect the hind part the speed of the front carriages may be diminished
by 10 to 15 feet in a second, whilst the hind part moves on with undiminished
speed ; thus the hind part may press against the front part with a force of from 10
to 15 foot-tons for every ton weight of the hind vehicles. The buffer springs
would be compressed by this force and remain so till the brakes acted equally on
all the wheels, when a reaction of the buffer springs would take place ; this reaction
creates the violent jerks often felt with continuous brakes, and occasionally results
in fractures of couplings and draw-bars. In a perfect brake the application would
be instantaneous, and simultaneous on all the wheels of a train.

It is beyond the scope of this paper to enter fully into the merits of different
kinds of brakes, but it may be convenient to sum up what seem to be the require-
ments of a perfect brake.

1. It should be fitted to act upon each wheel of the engine, tender, and every
other vehicle in a train of any length. The brake-blocks, when out of action,
must be kept a certain distance away from the wheels, in order to prevent any
liability to drag against the wheels; and this distance, after being once adjusted,
gradually increases by the wear of the blocks, and often exceeds three-quarters of
an inch; while the springing of the brake-gear under great strain also adds to the
extent of movement required in the brake force before the blocks are fully applied.
Hence the brake-gear should be so adjusted as to be capable of moving the brake-
blocks instantaneously through a space of one inch.

2. However brought into action, it should be capable of exerting upon the
blocks of each pair of wheels, within two seconds, a force of twice, or at the very
least one-and-three-quarter times, the load on those wheels.

3. The brake-block pressure acting on each wheel should be regulated so that
the friction between the brake-block and the wheel may always be limited so as
not to exceed the adhesion between the wheel and the rail; by which means it will
produce the maximum effect at each moment of its application.

4, The brake-block pressure should be capable of being applied by engine-driver
or by guards.

5. The engine, tender, and vehicles should each carry its own store of brake-
power, which should be independent of the brake-power on any other vehicle.

6. The brake-block pressure should be automatically applied to every vehicle
by the separation of the train into two or more parts, and it should also be applied
by the act of the wheels of any carriage leaving the rails.

7. The brake-block pressure should be automatically applied by such failure of
the connections or appliances as would render it afterwards incapable of application
until the failure had been remedied.

8. The brake-block pressure should be capable of application with any degree
of force up to the maximum, and it should be capable of continued action on
inclines, or of repeated applications at short intervals at junctions and stations.

_ In addition to these requirements, the questions of cost, durability, convenience
in oe and other essential points, will of course come under consideration.
he experiments which have been here described were made on trains travelling
under conditions which were necessarily continually varying, both in respect of the
condition of the rails and other matters; and they therefore contained many
elements beyond the reach of calculation. It is hoped that some opportunity may
arise, ere long, for resuming experiments on friction at high velocities under

520 REPORT—1879.

conditions from which these elements of disturbance may be eliminated. Meanwhile.
it is evident that a continuous brake, capable of being applied simultaneously to
every wheel of a train under the conditions which have been enumerated in this
memorandum, is a much more practical and scientific method of bringing a train to
rest than the old plan of concentrating the brake-power in two or three heavy
brake vans placed in different parts of the train, and leaving the rest of the wheels.
without brakes.

The advantage which thus evidently ensues from utilising the adhesion of every
wheel of a train for the purpose of stopping a train suggests the further con-
sideration as to whether it would not be a more scientific arrangement, as well as
more economical in regard to the permanent way of railways, to utilise the adhesion
of every wheel of a train for causing the train to move forward, instead of
depending for the moving force upon the adhesion of one heavy vehicle alone, viz.,
the locomotive. Experiments connected with the action of brakes on railway
trains require very delicate apparatus; the credit of the design of the apparatus
used in these experiments belongs to Mr. Westinghouse. ‘The efficiency of the
arrangements for making the experiments is due to the London, Brighton, and
South Coast Railway Company, as represented by Mr. Knight, their general
manager, who afforded every facility for the use of the line, and by Mr. Stroudley,.
the locomotive engineer of the Company.

6. Cowper's Writing Telegraph. By H. A. Cowrzr, 0.2.

The inventor described the details of the construction of his writing telegraph,
and the mode in which a pen at a distant station was made to write freely, as the
operator at the sending station wrote with a pencil at the sending instrument. He
explained the necessity that existed for causing the two currents of electricity that
conveyed the power to the distant station to increase or decrease steadily and
gradually, without any sudden large increase or decrease of resistance being
opposed to such currents; the construction of the necessary resistances being
practically that of one very long thin German silver wire, having 32 thin metal
plates soldered to it, at the proper intervals (varying greatly), such plates being
all brought very close together, with insulating sheets of paraflined paper
between them, so that a contact rod in connection with a battery, with a small
Imob or projection on it, could slide over the tops of the plates, and make contact
with each one in succession; making contact with one before it left another, so
that the small resistance due to the length of wire between two plates was all
that was added each time that the projection passed from one plate to another.
Then two such contact rods, jointed to the pencil of the operator, and placed at
right angles to one another, worked over the tops of two separate sets of contact
plates, each set affecting one line wire, so as to give (so to speak) latitude and
longitude of the pencil of the operator at all times.

The quick action or perfect response of the needles at the receiving instrument,
which directly controlled the writing pen, was obtained by using exceedingly thin
soft iron plates, both for the needles and for the magnets which affect the needles,
so as on the one hand to have the least possible amount of momentum and vis
tmertta in the needles, and the least possible residuary magnetism in the magnets.
The needles were slightly curved in their section to stiffen them, their thickness
being only ;4; inch, and were mounted on polished hard steel bearings, in the
manner adopted for the balance wheels of watches when jewelled, and were thus
exceedingly free and lively, asa very small amount of friction or weight in this
part of the instrument would be fatal to good writing. The power of the needles
was insured by fixed flat coils that surrounded them, brought into action by a local
battery, whilst the two line wires were coiled around the fixed magnets that
affected the needles, and attracted them more or less, as the strength of the
currents varied. Then the needles being at right angles to each other pulled the
pen in the two directions, vertically and horizontally, and also pulled against two

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 521

light springs, so that the pen took exactly the varying positions due to the varying
strength of the currents, which again depended upon the position of the pencil of
the operator.

The paper on which the operator wrote, and the paper on which the pen wrote
at the opposite end of the line, both moved along by clockwork, so as to write a
long continuous message or telegram.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 26, 1879.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Proposed Canal Across the Isthmus of Panama.
By Captain Beprorp Pim, R.N., MP.

The author said the whole world agreed that the accomplishment of inter-
oceanic canalisation of the Isthmus of Central America was only a question
of time. No one disputes the possibility of making such a canal, and it was
generally acknowledged that it might be made a paying concern. The congress
on inter-oceanic canalisation did not deal practically with the subject, and the
enthusiasm, which was so important an element in the greatness of the French
people, blinded those who took part in the congress to the magnitude and
the difficulties of the task, and to the fact that the work already done by M. Les-
seps bore about the same relation to the proposed Panama Canal that a small
tunnel on the northern of France would to that of the Mont Cenis. The physical
geography of the Bay of Panama was neyer taken into consideration, and he was
bound to say that the vote in favour of a canal parallel to the Panama Railway was
due rather to a personal feeling than to any capability possessed by the route selected.
In fact it was rumoured that the process known by our cousins across the Atlantic
as ‘lobbying’ was by no means neglected on this occasion; it was not therefore
surprising that the American representatives expressed their feelings in terms of
the strongest, and, not content with that, made anything but a favourable report
to their own Government. It was not alone the physical difficulty of the under-
taking, or even its cost, to which attention should be given. The choice of a
route depended upon far more important considerations than those—the terminal
ports or harbours for instance. A still more important feature was the physical
geography of the sea in the neighbourhood of the ports, for if sailing ships would

e able freely to enter and depart, the success of the undertaking was secured. At
least half of England’s 21,000 sailing ships would use the canal, but if nature
pee an irresistible barrier to the approach of those ships a deep shadow would

e cast upon the future outlook of the undertaking. Commodore Maury had said
‘that if nature, by one of her convulsions, should rend the Continent of America
in twain, and make a channel across the Isthmus of Panama or Darien as deep,
as wide, and as free as the Straits of Dover, it would never become a commercial
thoroughfare for sailing vessels,’ and he endorsed that opinion, for of all parts of
the world the calms in the Bay of Panama were the most vexatious and endur-

It therefore became the duty of a Central American canal projector to
avoid that locality, and, relying upon Commodore Maury, the route from the At-
lantic by way of the magnificent Nicaragua lakes to the harbour of Realejo seemed
that which was adapted for the required purpose, for it would be quite impossible
to exaggerate the money value of having a fair start and approach by means of
the little monsoons which blow on that coast. The great difficulty to be over-
come in the construction of a canal across Nicaragua was the making and main-
taining the harbour of Greytown on its Atlantic terminus, as a strong norther was

§22 REPORT— 1879.

sufficient to close it, while a high river would re-open an entrance. He thought
the cost of the enterprise would paralyse the enterprise, and he would suggest an
alternative route parallel to the river San Juan, with a canal of very different
dimensions, and cost to, that at present contemplated. Starting from Monkey
Point, now called Pim’s Bay, forty miles north of Gastown, he would cut a canal
from the inner part of that bay down to the Rama river, a distance of some nine
miles. The Rama river itself carried deep water some twenty miles into the in-
terior, and the remaining seventy miles to the lake of Nicaragua would traverse
land offering no particular difficulty. From San Miguelito on Lake Nicaragua by
way of Tipitapa to the northern shores of Lake Nicaragua there was nothing
which an engineer would consider a difficulty, and the remainder of the canal to
Port Realego could scarcely be said to afford any field for engineering skill. In
that scheme a deep water canal was not even contemplated. A depth of eight
feet would be amply sufficient, the vessels being transported on pontoons, such as
had been successfully used in the Victoria Dock for some years; whilst the
canal could always be deepened, if desirable, out of profits. Such a plan would
considerably reduce the cost, while other advantages would be gained, such as
cleaning the ship’s bottom while on the pontoon, which would effect a saving to
owners almost if not quite sufficient to pay the canal dues. The canal would not
cost more than ten millions. If England and America would join hands and each
guarantee 1} per cent. on that amount, there would be a joint guarantee of 3 per
cent., an inducement sufficient for English investors alone to take up the sum in less
than a week. What was 14 per cent. on ten millions? 150,000/. a year; a sum
annually wasted on any vote of the navy estimates exceeding one million. And
what did we get for our money? A consolidation of the friendly feeling between
this country and the United States far more lasting and binding than could be
effected by any treaty between the two nations merely guaranteeing the neutrality
of the route. The representative of the American Government at the Paris con-
gress left no room for doubt as to the line of canal preferred by his Government,
and clearly and unmistakably pointed to Nicaragua as the best. He (Captain Pim)
trusted the Government of this country would not for the sake of saving the
contribution of 150,000/. for a few years find themselves ultimately compelled to
purchase an interest in the new highway at any price which might then be de-
manded. He most earnestly hoped that the day would not be far distant when
we should see the completion of this great work of inter-oceanic canalisation
across Central America. He believed such an undertaking would give a beneficial
stimulus to the commerce of the United Kingdom, nay of the whole world, and
consequently could not fail to be a great and common boon to mankind.

2. Cowper’s Hot Blast Stoves. By E. A. Cowenr, C.L.

Mr. Cowper described the improvements introduced in recent years for heating the
blast for blowing blast furnaces by a more perfect application of the regenerative sys-
tem, by which the waste gases from the top of the blast furnace, when in a state of
perfect combustion in the hot blast stove (during the time of heating it) were dis-
tributed in a more perfect manner than heretofore, so that the hot products of com-
bustion were caused to heat the whole area of the regenerator in'an equal manner, the
result being a large increase in the power of the stove, as well as a saving of time
in the heating. By the improved combustion of the gases, a higher degree of
temperature was produced in practice and a higher temperature of blast was
realised, whilst the products of combustion finally left the stove at a lower.
temperature, so that economy of gas followed as a consequence. Upwards of 110
stoves were now at work in England, France, Switzerland, and America, giving
perfect satisfaction and realising an economy in fuel of 20 to 30 per cent., whilst

20 per cent. more iron was made from the same plant, of -furnace, blowing engine,
and boilers.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 523

3. On the details of an'Experiment made to Ascertain the Causes of the
difference between the Quantity of Heat in Fuel, and the Quantity which
is Utilised in the Work done by a Steam Engine. By Emerson
BatysripGe, Assoc. M.0.L.

The engines of H.M.S. Briton have been represented as types of the most econo-
mically worked steam engines of modern times, and the percentage of heat used
in doing work in the case of these engines, as recorded by Mr. Bramwell, was
111 per cent.; that is, the indicated power of the engines showed a utilisation of
111 per cent. of the units of heat contained in the fuel used, this being equivalent
to a consumption of 1°8 lbs. of coal per horse-power per hour. If this figure
represent the highest result obtained, it will be readily understood how much
lower the actual average of utilised power in steam engines constructed and worked
in the usual way will be. The difference between 11 per cent. as the proportion of
heat utilised which has been proved to be possible, and 5 per cent. which may
be, at the most, the average actual percentage utilised in the working of steam
engines, suggests a wide field for inquiry and improvement. But a more difficult
subject for examination is presented by the difference between such 11 per cent.
and the actual heat-power contained by fuel, which is, of course, represented by
the figure 100, and whilst a large proportion of the great loss represented by the
non-utilisation of such a difference can never be overcome, the importance of the
inquiry is evidenced by the fact that every one per cent. gained, means, over the
consumption of this country alone, a saving of several millions of tons of coal per
annum,

The result above referred to shows the percentage utilised as proved by the
indicating of the cylinders of engines, but does not give the percentage repre-
sented by the work done. In the case which the writer now records he has
endeavoured to work out the details of the distribution of the heat of fuel in
various stages, commencing at its combustion under a boiler, and ending at theactual
useful work done by the engine, worked out to units of heat.

Of the total annual output of coal in this country the quantity actually used
in the production of steam amounts to about 50 millions of tons, or about 37
- cent. of the whole output, and it is with this appropriation of fuel this paper

as specially to deal.

The experiment above referred to was made with the Winding engine and
boilers of a small Colliery, such plant being nearly thirty years old, and situated
about two miles from Sheffield. This pit is 458 feet deep, and the Coals &e,
are raised by a direct-acting Winding engine, to which steam is supplied from
two boilers.

During the time of observations, which extended from July 28 to August 2, in
all 184°5 hours, the following observations were carefully taken :—

A a quality of coal used was the same throughout, and was carefully
weil :

5. The amount of ash and clinker produced was observed.

3. The quantity of water passed into the boiler was ascertained by a tested
water-meter.

4, The total number of the revolutions of the engine during the whole period
was taken by a counter, the work done by the engine being in each case recorded.

5. Observations were taken of the temperature of the feed water.

6. Observations were taken of the temperature of the outside air.

7. Observations were taken of the temperature of the gases escaping to the
chimney.

8. Observations were taken of the temperature of the outside of the boiler

seeane;
_. 9. Observations were also taken of the temperature of the covering on the out-
side of the cylinders and steam pipes.

524 REPORT—1879.

10. Observations were taken of the quantity of air passing into the fireplaces,
which was recorded by an anemometer.

11. A record was taken as to the actual weight of Coal, dirt, men and water
lifted during the continuation of the experiments.

12. Diagrams (continuous and single) of the cylinders were taken to show the
power ‘Soap by the engine in raising Coal and water, and when working with
empty tubs.

The chief data as to the experiments are shown in the accompanying

statement.
Abstract of Experiments.
Duration of experiments . : : ; : 5 184:5 hrs,
Coal used 3 F ; ¥ 3 < 4 + 29,344 lbs.
Ash and clinker produced F 5 , 5 : 1,737 5,
Water used X ‘ , ¢ . 3 5 5 76,080 ,,
- » per lb. of coal . F F ; 5 5 2°59
Coal drawn . , E % ‘ ‘ : . 2,251,072 lbs.
Dirt, water, and men 5 ‘ . ‘ ‘ sit 2j068, 99D.) 55
Slack lifted by hoist . ‘ ; . ; ; : 805, 728 ,,
Total number of draws : 4 : 5 3 3 3,128 ,,
Average temperature of feed water . . : . 1802
> “ at damper 800° ,,

Although the experiments extended in all 184-5 hours, the time occupied by
the engine in actual work did not exceed nine hours per day.

: The most interesting results of the experiments may he briefly enumerated as
ollows :—

1. Only 20 per cent. of the fuel used was utilised in the evaporation of water,
and no less than 37 per cent. of the heat in such fuel is not accounted for.

2. Only 3 per cent. of the heat expended in evaporating water is utilised in
actual useful work done, and thus of the 15 per cent. which was available for
work, 4th (3 per cent.) was actually utilised in the cylinder of the engine.

3. Instead of 11:1 per cent. of heat employed being utilised, as found by indi-
cations from an engine of the best type, the utilised heat in the case referred to
only amounts to ‘69 per cent., or j-th of the result obtained in a first-class engine.

4, The fact that at least 41 per cent. of the total heat is found to have gone up
the chimney, when if the coal had been properly consumed, probably not more
than 20 per cent. would have been lost in this direction, illustrates the manner in
which a great loss may take place wken the ingress of air and the mode of fixing
the boiler are not properly looked to. i

5. The power exerted in moving the dead useless load upon the engine re-
presents 40’per cent. of the total power, as shown by the indicator diagrams.

It is to be feared that the results of the working of the engine and boilers in
question are typical of the conditions under which a large number of engines in
this country are worked; and although the remarkable waste shown by the
series of experiments recorded cannot but suggest the idea of badly arranged plant,
the anthor ventures to submit that the tests are of value in pointing out the
importance of such tests being made more frequently, and the extra worth they
have when they extend over so long a period (including working and idle time)
as 1845 hours. Had an experiment been made only for a few hours, there is no
doubt that a much better result would have been obtained, and this has been proved
by the author in this case. In making experiments of this description, the very
best form of instruments is required; and if such instruments were in the
hands of a careful observer for carrying out a series of tests on a more com-
plete scale than the anthor has been able to arrange, he would not fail to
render good service to engineering knowledge.

The author, however, thinks it right to add that in another arrangement of
plant at the Nunnery Oolliery, which is to be visited by the members on the
29th instant, very different results from those recorded have been arrived at
in tests made with well-arranged boilers, and he ventures, by way of comparison,
to refer to these tests.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 525

The distribution of the units of heat have, in this case, been carefully worked
out with the following results :—

Test made with double tubular boiler, with cross tubes, : |

Hyde’s & Bennett’s setting Units of heat | Per cent.

Units of heat utilised in evaporating . - : . | 31,198,374 89°28
3 » lost in chimney . : ; : ; : 2,655,528 7°60

= » by radiation : : as : 66,408 “20

- » by contact with cold air . - : : 60,054 ‘17

oy » insdot. ; - : : ; . 50,012 14

ae » inclinker and ashes . ; : A - 703,620 2°01

a »» unaccounted for : : : : : 210,004 “60
Total units of heatin the coal . . | 34,944,000 100-00

The water evaporated per lb. of coal in this test was 11°45 Ibs., or 12:15 Ibs,
from a temperature of 212°.

As an example of the comparison which exists between the mode of setting
boilers just referred to, and the old setting of the cylindrical boilers with which
the first test referred to was made, it may be stated that with the mode of setting
adopted for the double tubular boiler no less than 90 per cent. of the total outside
area of the boiler is exposed to the gases from the fires. In the case of the
cylindrical boiler, the gases impinged on only 32 per cent. of the total outside area,
such comparison being in the ratio of 3: 1.

The author ventures to enumerate below some of the chief improvements
which might be made in the construction, arranging, and working of plant of the
class described in this paper :—

1. The fixing of boilers of an improved description with a minimum thickness
of plates and a maximum area of heating surface, the latter and the mode of
carrying the gases being so arranged as to absorb as much as possible of the heat
passing from the fire.

2. Special attention should be paid to the manner in which air is admitted to
the fire and to the working of the damper.

3. The air admitted at the firegrate should be so intermingled with the gases
from the fire as to enable a minimum quantity of air to be used, care being taken
to prevent carbonic oxide passing off unconsumed.

4, The application of such form of firegrates, and such mode of firing as will
enable the cheapest quality of fuel to be used.

5. The complete covering of all exposed hot surfaces of the boiler, steam pipes,
&e.

6. Where water is scarce, the application of the best form of water-heater.

7. Where water is plentiful, the adoption of an approved form of condenser.

8, Steam jacketing of the cylinder, and careful attention to mechanical ac-
curacy in the construction of the engine and of all the moving parts.

9. The application of the principles of variable expansion when the work done
by the engine varies. At the Blackwell Colliery in Derbyshire, one of the wind-
ing engines is fitted up with Guinotte’s automatic variable expansion gear, and expe-
riments made with and without the gear at work showed the consumption of fuel to
be in proportion of 77°5: 100 in favour of the expansion gear.

10. In the case of winding engines, the adoption of drums of varying diameters
80 as to reduce the power which has to be expended during the first few strokes
in winding, the load upon the engine thus being equalised.

11. As a general principle the use of steam at a high temperature in order to
have the greatest possible difference in temperature between the steam when it
reaches the cylinder, and when it has done its work.

In the application of such improvements to ordinary steam engines the saying

526 REPORT—1879.

in working cost must of course be first considered, and in the adoption of all such
means of promoting economy as have been referred to it may be confidently as-
serted that the saving in working cost which will be effected by the economy of
fuel resulting from the adoption of such appliances as have been mentioned, will
as a rule wipe off the extra first cost incurred by such appliances in a very short
period, since the saving effected will probably vary from 50 to 150 per cent. per
annum on the first cost.

4, On the Law of the power required for different speeds of the same steam
vessel, illustrated, within the limits of experience, by a linear scale of
their relation. By Ropert Manset.

INDEX.

[An asterisk (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is gwen. |

BJECTS and rules of the Association,
xxi.

Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers from commencement, xxviii.

List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of the Sections, xxxv,

List of evening lectures, xlviii.

Lectures to the Operative Classes, 1.

Officers of Sectional Committees present
at Sheffield, li.

Treasurer’s account, liii.

Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, liv.

Officers and Council for 1879_80, lvi.

Report of the Council to the General
Committee at Sheffield, lvii; Appen-
dix I.; Correspondence with the Trea-
sury about the Natural History Col-
lections, Ix; Appendix II.: Report of
the Patent-Law Committee, Lxiii.

Recommendations adopted by the General
Committee at Sheffield: — Involving
grants of money, lxix; not involving
grants of money, lxxii; communica-
tions ordered to be printed in extenso,
lxxiv; resolution referred to the
Council by the General Committee,
Ixxiv.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, lxxy.

Places of meeting for 1880 and 1881,
lxxvi.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, Ixxvii.

General meetings, lxxxvi.

Address by the President, Professor G. J.
Allman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. & E.,
M.R.LA., Pres. L.S8., 1.

Abel (Prof.) on patent legislation, 223 ;
*on recent researches in explosive
agents, 293.

*Acetylene, liquid, and hydrochloric
acid, physical constants of, G. Ansdell
on, 309.

Ackroyd (W.) on a visual phenomenon
and its explanation, 419,

Adams (Dr. A. Leith) on excavations at

Portstewart and elsewhere in the North
of Ireland, 171.

Adams (Dr. A. Leith) and R. J. Ussher
on the discovery of a bone cave near
Cappagh, Co. Waterford, 338.

Adams (Prof. W. G.) on the progress of
the chief branches of mathematics and
physics, 37; on an instrument for
detecting fire-damp in mines, 131.

Afghan War :—W. Simpson on the Jellal-
abad region, 443; Capt. G. Martin on
the Kuram valley, 445; Capt. R.
Beavan on the country between Kan-
dahar and Girishk, 445; Lieut. St. G.
C. Gore on the Pishin valley, 446;
Major Campbell on the Shorawak val-
ley and Toba plateau, 447; Major
Rogers on surveys round Kandahar,
448,

Africa, a journey across, from Benguela
to Natal, by Major Serpa Pinto, 437.

, German explorations in, Prof. Er-
man on, 440.

——, High, as the centre of a white race,
Hyde Clarke on, 402.

Agricultural chemistry, some points in
connection with, Dr. J. H. Gilbert on,
315.

Agricultural statistics, tenure, and de-
pression, W. Botly on, 472.

Algebra of logic, the fundamental prin-
ciples of the, A. Macfarlane on, 262.
Alkaloids, report on the chemistry of
some of the lesser-known, especially

veratria and bebeerine, 133.

Allen (A. H.), a lecture experiment in
illustration of the Hollway process of
smelting sulphide ores, 300; on the
presence of nitrogen in steel, 302; on
petroleum spirit or ‘benzoline,’ 318.

Allen (A. J. C.) on some problems in the
conduction of electricity, 261.

*Aluminic compounds, the constitution
of, Prof. Odling on, 302.

American isthmus, the exploration of
the, and the interoceanic canal of
Panama, L. N. B. Wyse on, 454.

*Ammoniacal salts, the action of, on
metallic sulphides, M. De Clermont on,
309.

528

Ammonites and aptychi, C. Moore on,
341.

Anatomy and Physiology, Address by
Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith to the Department
of, 406.

Andrews (T.) on some curious concretion
balls derived from a colliery mineral
water, 312.

Anemometer for measuring the speed of
smoke or corrosive vapour, A. HE. Flet-
cher on an, 279.

Animal mounds in the Pyrenees, the
discovery of, Dr. Phené on, 396.

*Ansdell (G.), on physical constants of
liquid acetylene and hydrochloric acid,
309.

Ansted (Prof.) on underground tempera-
ture, 40.

Anthropology, Address by E. B. Tylor to
the Department of, 381.

Anthropometric Committee, report of
the, 175.

Antiquity of man, the geological evi-
dence as to the, Prof. W. Boyd Daw-
kins on, 399.

Apprenticeship schools in France, Prof.
§. P. Thompson on, 469.

Aptychi, ammonites and, C. Moore on,
341.

Arctic research, Commander L. A. Beau-
mont on, 451.

Arm, the comparative osteology of the,
Dr. T. P. Durand on, 405.

*Astronomical clocks, the question of
improvements in, report on, 131.

Atmospheric electricity at Madeira, re-
port of the Committee appointed to
obtain observations on, 63.

*Atomic weights of the elements, some
relations between the numbers ex-
pressing the, W. Weldon on, 293.

Australia, the Yarra and the languages
of, in comnection with those of the
Mozambique and Portuguese Africa,
Hyde Clarke on, 381.

Ayrton (W. E.) on an instrument for
detecting fire-damp in mines, 131.

Bagdad to Bushire, a journey by land
from, by W. 8. Blunt, 440.

Baily (W. H.) on the Tertiary (Miocene)
flora, &c., of the basalt of the North of
Treland, 162.

Bainbridge (H.) on the details of an
experiment made to ascertain the
causes of the difference between the
quantity of heat in fuel and the quan-
tity which is utilised in the work done
by a steam engine, 523.

Balfour (F. M.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 165.

Ball (V.) on the coal fields and coal pro-

duction of India, 334; on the forms |

INDEX.

and geographical distribution of an-
cient stone implements in India, 394.

Barnes-Lawrence (Rev. H. F.) on the
possibility of establishing a close time
for the protection of indigenous ani-
mals, 165.

Bate (C. Spence) on the possibility of
establishing a close time for the pro-
tection of indigenous animals, 165; on
the marine zoology of Devon and Corn-
wall, 165.

Beaumont (Commr. L. A.) on Arctic re-
search, 451.

Beavan (Capt. R.) on the country be-
tween Kandahar and Girishk, 445.

Bebeerine, report on the chemistry of,
133.

Beddoe (Dr.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 175.

Bell (H. §.) on the manufacture of cru-
cible steel, 293.

Bengal to Tibet, the trade routes from,
Lieut.-Col. T. H. Lewin on, 432.

‘Benzoline,’ petroleum spirit or, A. H.
Allen on, 318.

Bergeron (C.) on Léon Francq’s fireless
locomotive, 501.

Berthon (Rev. E. L.) on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 210.

Biological Section, Address by Prof. St.
G. Mivart to the, 354.

*Birds, the rarer, occurring in South and
West Yorkshire, T. Lister on, 378.

Black (C. E. D.) on the upper course of
the Brahmaputra river, 433.

Blair (M.) on the foundation of the town
hall, Paisley, with notes on the rocks
of Renfrewshire, 344.

Blair (T.) on the separation of iron and
phosphorus, specially with reference to
the manufacture of steel, 296.

Blake (J. F.) on geological episodes,
335; on the homologies of the Cepha-
lopoda, 376.

Blencowe (Rev. G.) on certain geological
facts observed in Natal and the border
countries during nineteen years’ resi-
dence, 349.

Blunt (W. S.) on proposed Indo-Medi-
terranean railways, with an account of
a journey by land from Bagdad to
Bushire, 440.

Bone cave near Cappagh, Co. Waterford,
the discovery of a, R, J. Ussher and
Prof. A. Leith Adams on, 338.

Bone caves of Derbyshire, Prof. W. Boyd
Dawkins on the, 337.

Borneo, certain caves in, report of the -
Committee for exploring, 149 ; second
report, by A. H. Everett, 149.

Botly (W.) on agricultural statistics,
tenure, and depression, 472.

Bottomley (J. T.) on the elasticity of
wires, 33.

INDEX.

Bourne (S8.) on the decay in the export
trade of the United Kingdom, 470.

Brabrook (Mr.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 175.

Braham (P.) on large crystals of mercury
sulphate, 293; description of a glass
burette for collecting, measuring, and
discharging gas over mercury, 325.

Brahmaputra river, the upper course of
the, C. E. D. Black on, 433.

*Brain-growth, the influence of domes-
tication on, W. F. C. Browne on, 404.

Brakes, the effect of, on railway trains,
general results of experiments on fric-
tion at high velocities made in order
to ascertain, by D. Galton, 508.

Bramwell (F. J.) on the elasticity of
wires, 33; on instruments for mea-
suring the speed of ships, 210; on
patent legislation, 223.

*Breary (F. W.) on flight and its imita-
tions, 292.

Brooke (C.) on observations of luminous
meteors during the year 1878-79, 76.
Brown (J. T.), a historical sketch of the
various vapour density methods, 304.
Brown (S.), three months in Cyprus, 450.
*Browne (W. F.C.) on the influence of
domestication on brain-growth, 404.
Brunel (H. M.) on instruments for mea-

suring the speed of ships, 210.

Burette, a glass, for collecting, measuring,
and discharging gas over mercury, de-
scription of, by P. Braham, 325.

Burton (F. M.) on the Keuper beds be-
tween Retford and Gainsborough, 336 ;
on a northerly extension of the Rhztic
beds at Gainsborough, 337.

Bushire, a journey by land from Bagdad
to, by W. S. Blunt, 440.

Busk (G.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 140; on the exploration of cer-
tain caves in Borneo, 149.

Buxton (D.) on the ‘German’ speech
and lip reading system of teaching
the deaf, 474.

Cagots, Dr. D. H. Tuke on the, 379.

Cameron (Commr. V. L.) on the manners
and customs of the people of Urua,
Central Africa, 392 ; *on the Euphrates
Valley railway, 440.

Campbell (Sir G.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 175.

Campbell (Major) on the Shorawak
valley and the Toba plateau, 447.

Candahar, new routes to, Capt. T. H.
Holdich on, 447.

Capacity of a certain condenser, O.
Hockin on the, and on the value of
V, 285.

Carbonate of lime, the deposit of, at
ae in Anatolia, Dr. Phené on,

1879.

529

Carboniferous polyzoa and paleocoryne,
G. R. Vine on, 350.

Carbutt (E. H.) on patent legislation, 223.

Carpenter (Dr.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 165.

Carpenter (P. H.) on the nomenclature
of the plates of the Crinoidal calyx,
333; on the nervous system of Coma-
tula, 418.

Cayley (Prof.) on the progress of the
chief branches of mathematics and
physics, 37; on mathematical tables,
46; on the calculation of tables of
the fundamental invariants of alge-
braic forms, 66. ‘

Celt, an elaborately finished, found on
the moors near Marsden, J. W. Davis
on, 395.

Cephalopoda, the homologies of the,
J. F. Blake on, 376.

Checking calculations, a method of,
W. H. Walenn on, 271.

*Chemical Section, Prof. J. Dewar’s
Address to the, 293.

Chico in Southern Patagonia, the dis-
covery of the sources of the, Don R.
Lista on, 436.

Chipped flints, the discovery of certain
pockets of, beneath the peat on the
Yorkshire moors, near Halifax, J. W.
Davis on, 395.

Circulation of the underground waters
in the Jurassic, New Red Sandstone,
and Permian formations of England,
and the quantity and character of the
waters supplied to various towns and
districts from these formations, fifth
report on the, 155.

Clarke (Hyde) on the Yarra and the
languages of Australia in connection
with those of the Mozambique and
Portuguese Africa, 381; on High
Africa as the centre of a white race,
402; on credit asanasset of a state, 469.

*Claypole (E. W.) on a fossil tree from
the Upper Silurian of Ohio, 343.

Clifton (Prof. R. B.) on the progress of
the chief branches of mathematics and
physics, 37. |

Close (Rev. M.) on the Tertiary (Miocene)
flora, &c., of the basalt of the North
of Ireland, 162. :

Close time for the protection of in-
digenous animals, report on the pos-
sibility of establishing a, 165.

‘Coal fields and coal production of India,

Y. Ball on the, 334.

Coccosteus, the occurrence of a fish
allied to the, in a bed of Devonian
limestone near Chudleigh, J. E. Lee on,
332.

Collins (J. H.) on the geological age of
the rocks of West Cornwall, 347.

MM

530

Colour tests for the estimation of sul-
phur and phosphorus in iron or steel,
303.

Comatula, the nervous system of, P. H.
Carpenter on, 418. yoo

Comets, the cause of bright lines in the
spectra of, G. J. Stoney on, 251.

, periodic, of short period, the direct
motion of, Prof. H. A. Newton on, 272.

Concretion balls, some curious, derived
from a colliery mineral water, T.
Andrews on, 312.

Condenser, the new, by G. 8. Hazlehurst,
320.

Constancy of capacity of certain accu-
mulators, Dr, A. Muirhead on the, 283.

Cooke (C. W.) on a galvanometer for de-
monstrating the internal current trans-
mitted through the liquid within a
voltaic cell, 280.

Cornwall, West, the geological age of the
rocks of, J. H. Collins on, 347.

Cowper (E. A.) on Cowper’s writing tele-
graph, 520; on Cowper’s hot blast
stove, 522.

Credit as an asset of astate, Hyde Clarke
on, 469.

Criminal code, the proposed, for England
and Ireland, on the feasibility and im-
portance of extending to Scotland, Dr.
W. N. Hancock on, 479.

Crinoidal calyx, the nomenclature of the
plates of the, P. H. Carpenter on, 333.
Crosskey (Rev. H. W.) on the erratic
blocks of, England, Wales, and Ireland,
135; on the circulation of underground

waters, 155.

Crucible steel, the manufacture of, H. S.
Bell on, 293.

‘Culm’ and ‘kulm,’ Prof. G. A. Lebour
on, 352.

Curtis (A. H.) on the condition which
must be fulfilled by any number of
forces directed towards fixed, or mov-
able, centres, in order that any given
curve shall be described freely by a
particle acted on by these forces simul-
taneously; and an analogous problem,
290.

Cyclops, M. M. Hartog on, 376,

Cyprus, three months in, by 8. Brown,
450.

Datum-level of the Ordnance Survey of
Great Britain, third report of the Com-
mittee appointed to consider the, with
a view to its establishment on a surer
foundation than hitherto, and to tabu-
late and compare other datum-marks,
219.

Davis (J. W.) on Ostracocanthus dila-
tatus, gen. et spec. nov., a fossil fish
from the coal-measures 8.E. of Halifax,
Yorkshire, 343; on the discovery of

INDEX.

certain pockets of chipped flints be-
neath the peat on the Yorkshire moors,
near Halifax, 395; on an elaborately
finished celt found on the moors near
Marsden, 395.

Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
135; on the exploration of Kent’s
cavern, 140; on the exploration of cer-
tain cavesin Borneo, 149; on the bone
caves of Derbyshire, 337 ; on the geolo-
gical evidence as to the antiquity of
man, 399.

Day (St. J. V.) on patent legislation,
223.

Deacon (G. F.) on underground tempera-
ture, 40; on the datum-level of the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain,
and the tabulation and comparison of
other datum-marks, 219.

Deaf, the ‘German’ speech and lip read-
ing system of teaching the, D. Buxton
on, 474.

Deane (Dr.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 135.

De Brazza (Comte 8.) on the native
races of Gaboon and Ogowé, 394; on
the basin of the Ogowé, 439.

*De Clermont (M.) on the action of am-
moniacal salts on metallic sulphides,
309.

De Rance (C. E.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 155.

Derbyshire, the bone caves of, Prof. W.
Boyd Dawkins on, 337.

Dewar (Prof.), *Address by, to the Chemi-

cal Section, 293; *on vapour densities, ©

293; *on the synthesis of hydrocyanic
acid, 317; *on the amount of nitrous
acid produced in electric illumination,
317; *on the kinoline bases, 317.

Dew-Smith (Mr.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
165.

Dickinson (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 40.

*Diphenyl propyl, the synthesis of, R. D.
Silva on, 293.

Dresser (H. E.) on the possibility of esta-
blishing a close time for the protection
of indigenous animals, 165.

Duncan (Prof. P. M.), Address by, to the
Geological Section, 326.

Dunn (J. T.) on experiments to deter-
mine the thermal conductivities of
certain rocks, 58.

Durand (Dr. T. P.) on the comparative
osteology of the arm, 405.

Dutch expedition to Central Sumatra,
Prof. P. J. Veth on the, 434.

Dynamo-electric machines, improvements
in, W. Ladd on, 258.

Earnshaw (Rev. 8.) on etherspheres as a

INDEX.

wera causa of natural philosophy, 248 ;
*on a theorem relating to the trans-
__ formation of series, 291.
Economic Science and Statistics, Ad-
' dress by G. Shaw Lefevre to the Sec-
tion of, 479.

Elasticity of wires, secular experiments
upon the, report of the Committee for
commencing, 33.

Electric illumination, the amount of ni-
trous acid produced in, Prof. Dewar
on, 317.

Electric lighting, recent advances in, J.
N. Shoolbred on, 503.

*Electrical gyrostat, Prof. G. Forbes on
an, 290.

Electricity, some problems in the con-
duction of, A. J. C. Allen on, 261.

“*Eilectrometer key, a new, Dr. O. J.
Lodge on, 258.

Elementary natural science in the board
schools of London, Dr. J. H. Gladstone
on, 475.

Elementary science, the system of in-
struction in, introduced by the Liver-
pool School Board into their schools,
some account of, by E. M. Hance,
477.

Elliptic functions, formule in, J. W. L.
Glaisher on, 269.

*Erman (Prof.) on German explorations
in Africa, 440,

Erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Ireland, seventh report on the, 135.

* Ether, the, in connection with Maxwell’s
theory of electricity, a hypothesis con-
cerning, Dr. O. J. Lodge on, 258.

Etherspheres as a vera causa of natural
philosophy, Rev. S. Earnshaw on, 248.

*Huphrates Valley railway, Commander
V. L. Cameron on the, 440.

Evans (J.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 140; on the exploration of
certain caves in Borneo, 149.

Everett (A. H.) on the exploration of
certain caves in Borneo, 149.

Everett (Prof. J. D.) on the progress of
the chief branches of mathematics and
physics, 37; on underground tempera-
ture, 40; on atmospheric electricity at
Madeira, 63; on some broad features
of underground temperature, 345.

Evidence of early historic events and
pre-historic customs by perpetuation
of design in art and manufactures in
later, and even in present, times, Dr.
Phené on, 397.

*Explosive agents recent researches in,
F. A. Abel on, 293.

Export trade of the United Kingdom,
the decay in the, 8. Bourne on, 470.

Farr (Dr.) on the work of the Anthropo-
metric Committee, 175.

531

Farrer (J. A.) on savage and civilised
warfare, 396.

Fellows (F.P.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 175.

Fetishism, the origin of, A. Lang on,
396.

Field (R.) on the datum-level of the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, and
the tabulation and comparison of other
datum-marks, 219; on self-acting in-
termittent siphons, and the conditions
which determine the commencement
of their action, 223.

Firearms, the bursting of, when the
muzzle is closed with snow, earth, &c.,
Prof. G. Forbes on, 283.

Fire-damp in mines, an instrument for
detecting, report of the Committee ‘ap-
pointed to improve, 131.

Fireless locomotive, Léon Francq’s, C.
Bergeron on, 501.

Fitzgerald (G. F.) on the tension of va-
pours near curved surfaces of their
liquids, 255.

Fletcher (A. E.) on instruments for mea-
suring the speed of ships, 210; on an
anemometer for measuring the speed
of smoke or corrosive vapour, 279.

*Flight and its imitations, F. W. Breary
on, 292.

Flight (W.) on observations of luminous
meteors during the year 1878-79,
76.

Flint implements from the valley of the
Bann, W. J. Knowles on, 389.

Flower (Prof.) on the steps taken for
investigating the natural history of
Socotra, 210.

Forbes (Prof. G.) on atmospheric electri-
city at Madeira, 63; on observations
of luminous meteors during the year
1878-79, 76; *on the question of im-
provements in astronomical clocks, 131;
on an instrument for detecting fire-
damp in mines, 131; *on an instru-
ment for determining the sensible
warmth of air, 277; on the bursting
of firearms when the muzzle is closed
with snow, .earth, &c., 283; *on an
electrical gyrostat, 290.

Forces directed towards fixed, or mov-
able, centres, the condition which must
be fulfilled by any number of, in order
that any given curveshould be described
freely by a particle acted on by these
forces simultaneously, A. H. Curtis on,
and an analogous problem, 290.

*Fossil tree from the Upper Silurian of
Ohio, E. W. Claypole on a, 343.

Fossils found in a bed of Devonian rocks
at Saltern Cove, in Torbay, and in a
quarry of the Old Red Sandstone, near
Caerleon, in Monmouthshire, J, E. Lee
on, 332.

MM 2

532

Foster (Dr. C. Le Neve) on underground
temperature, 40.

Foster (Prof. G. C.) on the progress of the
chief branches of mathematics and
physics, 37. ;

Foster (Dr. M.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Na-
ples, 165.

Fox (H. C.) on synchronism of mean
temperature and rainfall in the climate
of London, 277.

Fox (Major-Gen. Lane) on the explora-
tion of certain caves in Borneo, 149;
on excavations at Portstewart and else-
where in the North of Ireland, 171; on
the work of the Anthropometric Com-
mittee, 175.

Franeq’s (Léon) fireless locomotive, C.
Bergeron on, 501.

Franks (A. W.) on the exploration of
certain caves In Borneo, 149.

French (A.) on lead fume, with a de-
scription of a new process of fume con-
densing, 301.

Friction at high velocities, general results
of experiments on, made in order to
ascertain the effect of brakes on rail-
way trains, by D. Galton, 508.

Friction of water upon water at low ve-
locities, a short account of some expe-
riments made to determine the, by Rev.
S. Haughton, 275.

Frosts of 1860-1 and of 1878-9, compa-
rison of the effects of the, by E. J.
Lowe, 377.

Fruits and seeds, Sir J. Lubbock on,
370.

Fuller’s earth, a sample of, found in 2
fullonica recently excavated at Pom-
peii, W. Thomson on, 321.

Fundamental invariants of algebraic
forms, the calculation of tables of the,
report on, 66.

Gaboon and Ogowé, the native races of,
Comte 8. de Brazza on, 394.

*Galla country, the southern, Rey. J.
Wakefield on, 440.

Galloway (Mr.) on underground tempe-
rature, 40.

Galton (Capt. D.) on the phenomena of
the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the North
Atlantic Ocean, 71; on the circulation
of underground waters, 155; on the
datum-level of the Ordnance Survey of
Great Britain, and the tabulation and
comparison of other datum-marks, 219 ;
on patent legislation, 223; general
results of experiments on friction at
high velocities made in order to ascer-
tain the effect of brakes on railway
trains, 508.

INDEX.

Galton (F.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 175.

Galvanometer for demonstrating the in-
ternal current transmitted through the
liquid within a voltaic cell, C. W.
Cooke on a, 280.

Geikie (Prof.) on underground tempera-
ture, 40.

Generic images, W. C. Thomas on, 253.

Geographical Section, Address by C..R.
Markham to the, 420,

—— explorations, present Italian, Prof.
G. D. Vedova on, 436.

—— studies and works in Italy, Prof. G.
D. Vedova on, 456.

Geological age of the rocks of West.
Cornwall, J. H. Collins on the, 347.

episodes, J. F. Blake on, 335.

—— evidence as to the antiquity of man,
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins on the, 399.
—— facts observed in Natal and the
border countries, Rev. G. Blencowe on,

349.

Section, Prof. P. M. Duncan’s Ad-
dress to the, 326.

*German explorations in Africa, Prof..
Erman on, 440.

‘German ’ speech and lip reading system:
of teaching the deaf, D. Buxton on the,.
474.

Giglioli (Prof.) on Italian explorers in
New Guinea, 457.

Gilbert (Dr. J. H.) on some points in:

connection with agricultural chemistry,.

315.

*Gill (D.), on the question of improve--
ments in astronomical clocks, 131.

*Gimingham (C. H.) on the question of
improvements in astronomical clocks,
131.

Girishk, the country between Kandahar
and, Capt. R. Beavan on, 445.

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on elementary
natural science in the board schools of
London, 475.

*Gleocapsa, a spore-producing, from the-
great conservatory at Chatsworth,.

Prof. M. A. Lawson on, 377.

Glaisher (J.) on underground tempera--

ture, 40; on mathematical tables, 46 ;

on observations of luminous meteors.

during the year 1878-79, 76; on the
circulation of underground waters,
155.

Glaisher (J. W. L.) on mathematical ta-

bles, 46; on the enumerations of primes.

of the forms 42+1 and 4n+3, 268; on
formule in elliptic functions, 269 ;
summation of a class of trigonome-
trical series, 269.

Godwin-Austen (Col. H. H.) on the-
capreolus (of Lister) or the spermato-.
phore of some of the Indian species of
the Helicide, 377.

INDEX.

Godwin-Austen (R. A. C.)on some further
evidence as to the range of the Palzo-
zoic rocks beneath the south-east of
England, 227.

‘Gordon (J. E. H.) on some new instru-
ments recently constructed for the con-
tinuation of researches on specific in-
ductive capacity, 249; on secular
changes in the specific inductive
capacity of glass, 250.

“Gore (Lieut. St. G. C.) on the Pishin
valley, 446.

*Grabham (Dr.) on atmospheric electricity
at Madeira, 63.

‘Grainger (Rey. Dr.) on excavations at
Portstewart and elsewhere in the North
of Ireland, 171.

-Greeks, the profile of the ancient, J. P.
Harrison on, 399.

“Greenland, the interior of, Dr. H. Rink
on, 452.

*Greg (R. P.) on observations of luminous
meteors during the year 1878-79, 76.
‘*Grubb (H.) on the question of improve-

ments in astronomical clocks, 131.

*Gymnadina conopsea, the embryology of,

H. M. Ward on, 375.

**Haliphysema, a case of disputed identity,
Prof. Ray Lankester on, 372.

Hallett (P.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 175.

‘Hance (E. M.), some account of the sys-
tem of instruction in elementary science
introduced by the Liverpool School
Board into their schools, 477.

“Hancock (Dr. W. N.) on patent legis-
lation, 223; on the feasibility and
importance of extending to Scotland
‘the proposed criminal code for England
and Ireland, 479; on the assimilation
of the law in England, Scotland, and
Treland as to the care of lunatics and
their property, 493.

‘Harcourt (A. V.) on colour tests for the
estimation of sulphur and phosphorus
in iron or steel, 303 ; on the illumina-
tive value of a mixture of hydrogen
with some hydrocarbons, 319.

‘Harrison (J. P.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 175; on the

“profile of the ancient Greeks, 399.

‘Harting (J. E.) on the possibility of
‘establishing a close time for the pro-

‘tection of indigenous animals, 165.

Hartlaub (Dr. G.) on the steps taken for
investigating the natural history of
Socotra, 210.

Hartog (M. M.) on cyclops, 376; on
mimusopex, a section of the order
Sapotacez, 376.

Haughton (Rey. S.) on the calculation of
sun-heat coefficients, 66; a short ac-
«count of some experiments made to

533

determine the friction of water upon
water at low velocities, 275.

Hazlehurst (G. §.), the new condenser,
320.

*Heart, the batrachian, the automatic
mechanism of the, Prof. J. B. Sander-
son on, 404.

Heat, the conduction of, and the polari-
sation stress in gases, complete expan-
sions for the, G. J. Stoney on, 256.

, the mechanical equivalent of, fourth
report of the Committee appointed to
determine, 36.

—— in fuel, the causes of the difference
between the quantity of, and the quan-
tity which is utilised in the work done
by a steam engine, E, Bainbridge on,
523. -

Helicidz, the capreolus (of Lister) or the
spermatophore of some of the Indian
species of the, Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen on, 377.

Herschel (Prof. A. S.) on underground
temperature, 40; on experiments to
determine the thermal conductivities
of certain rocks, 58 ; on observations of
luminous meteors during the year 1878—
79, 76.

Heywood (J.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 175.

Hicks (Dr. H.) on the classification of
the British pre-Cambrian rocks, 351.
Hissarlik, a collection of organic remains
from the kitchen-middens of, Dr, E. L.

Moss on, 401.

Hime (T. W.) on the vital statistics of
Sheffield, 488.

Hobkirk (C. P.), recent additions to the
moss-flora of the West Riding, 375.
Hockin (C.) on the capacity of a certain

condenser, and on the value of V, 285.

Holdich (Capt. T. H.) on new routes to
Candahar, 447.

Hollway (J.), anew process in metallurgy,
298.

Hollway process of smelting sulphide
ores, a lecture experiment in illustra-
tion of the, by A. H. Allen, 300.

*Holmes (S.) on the isophotal binocular
microscope, 253.

Hooker (Sir J.) on the steps taken for
investigating the natural history of
Socotra, 210.

Hot blast stoves, Cowper’s, E. A. Cowper
on, 522.

Howell (H. H.) on the circulation of un-
derground waters, 155.

Hughes (Prof.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 135.

Hull (Prof. E.) on underground tempera-
ture, 40; on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 155.

Human mind, on certain inventions
illustrating the working of the, and on

534

the importance of the selection of types,
by A. Tylor, 396.

Humpidge (T. 8.) on the rare metals of
the Yttrium group, 316.

Hunter (Capt. F. M.) on the steps taken
for investigating the natural history of
Socotra, 210.

Huxley (Prof.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
165.

*Bydrochloric acid, physical constants of
liquid acetylene and, G. Ansdell on,
309.

*Hydrocyanic acid, the synthesis of, Prof,
Dewar on, 317.

Hydrogeology, the quantitative elements
of, B. Latham on, 499.

Hydrography, past and present, by Lieut.
G. T. Temple, 229.

Tluminative value of a mixture of hy-
drogen with some hydrocarbons, A. V.
Harcourt on the, 319,

India, the coal-fields and coal production
of, V. Ball on, 334.

——, the forms and geographical distri-
bution of ancient stone implements in,
V. Ball on, 394,

——, the imperial survey of, J. O. N.
James on, 449.

——, the orography of the North-western
frontier of, T. Saunders on, 449.

Indian marine surveys, C. R. Markham
on, 453.

Indo-Chinese and inter-Oceanie races
and languages, the relations of the, A.
H. Keane on, 391.

Indo-Mediterranean railways, proposed,
W. 5. Blunt on, 440.

Insects which injure books, Prof. West-
wood on the, 371.

Instruments for measuring the speed of
ships, report on, 210.

Inter-Oceanie and Indo-Chinese races
and languages, the relations of the, A.
H. Keane on, 391.

Tron, the changes of volume in, when
passing from the liquid to the solid
state, and an instrument for observing
the same, T. Wrightson on, 506.

and phosphorus, the separation of,
specially with reference to the manu-
facture of steel, T. Blair on, 296.

Isocyanopropionic acid, the constitution
of, J. A. Wanklyn on, 308.

*Isophotal binocular microscope, S.
Holmes on the, 253. .

Italian explorers in New Guinea, Prof.
Giglioli on, 457. =

geographical explorations, present,
G. D. Vedova on, 436.

Italy, geographical studies and works in,
Prof. G. D, Vedova, 456.

INDEX.

James (J. O. N.), on the imperial survey-

of India, 449.

Janssen (Dr. J.) sur le maximum d’in-
tensité du spectre photographique
solaire, 252; suite des recherches
sur la photographie solaire, 282; sur
V’application du révolver photogra-
phique a l’étude des eclipses partielles
et a celle des mouvements des animaux,
283.

Japan, the stone age in, Prof. J. Milne
on, 401.

Jeffery (H. M.) on plane class-cubies with
three single foci, 263.

Jeffreys (Dr. Gwyn) on the possibility
of establishing a close time for the
protection of indigenous animals, 165 ;
on the occupation of a table at the
zoological station at Naples, 165.

Jellalabad region, W. Simpson on the,.

443.
Joule (Dr.) on the mechanical equivalent
of heat, 36.

Kandahar, surveys round, Major Rogers
on, 448.

— and Girishk, the country between,
Capt. R. Beavan on, 445.

Keane (A. H.) on the relations of the

Indo-Chinese and inter-Oceanic races.

and languages, 391.

Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, fifteenth re--
port of the Committee for exploring,.

140.
Keuper beds between Retford and Gains-
borough, F. M. Burton on the, 336.
*Kinoline bases, Prof. Dewar on the, 317.

Knowles (W. J.) on excavations at Port-—

stewart and elsewhere in the North of
Treland, 171 ; on flint implements from
the valley of the Bann, 389; on some
curious leathern and wooden objects
from Tullyreagh bog, County Antrim,
395.

‘Kulm’ and ‘culm,’ Prof. G. A. Lebour
on, 352.

Kuram valley, Capt. G. Martin on the,.

445.

Ladd (W.) on improvements in dynamo--

electric machines, 258.

Lang (A.) on the origin of Fetishism, .

396.

Languages, a classification of, on the-
basis of ethnology, Dr. G. Oppert on,.

392.

— of Australia, the Yarra and the, in:
connection with those of the Mozam-.
bique and Portuguese Africa, Hyde:

Clarke on, 381.

Lankester (Prof. Ray) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 165; *on a case of disputed
identity, Haliphysema, 372.

INDEX.

Latham (B.), experiments on the influ-
ence of the angle of the lip of rain
gauges on the quantity of water col-
lected, 278; on the temperature of
town water supplies, 499.

Law of facility, a modification of the,
D. M‘Alister on, 267.

*___ of the power required for different
speeds of the same steam vessel, R.
Mansel on the, 526.

*Lawson (Prof. M. A.) on a spore-pro-
ducing gleocapsa, from the great con-
servatory at Chatsworth, 377.

Lead fume, A. French on, with a de-
scription of a new process of fume
condensing, 301.

Leathern and wooden objects, some
curious, from Tullyreagh bog, County
Antrim, W. J. Knowles on, 395.

Lebour (Prof. G. A.) on underground
temperature, 40; on experiments to
determine the thermal conductivities
of certain rocks, 58 ; on the circulation
of underground waters, 155 ; on ‘culm’
and ‘ kulm,’ 352.

Lee (J. BH.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 135; on
the exploration of Kent’s Cavern, 140;
on the occurrence of a fish allied to
the coccosteus in a bed of Devonian
Limestone near Chudleigh, 332; on fos-
sils found in a bed of Devonian rocks
at Saltern Cove, in Torbay, and ina
quarry of the Old Red Sandstone, near
Caerleon, in Monmouthshire, 332.

Lefevre (J. G. Shaw) on the possibility
of establishing a close time for the
protection of indigenous animals, 165;
Address by, to the Section of Economic
Science and Statistics, 479.

Leptodora hyalina, the occurrence of, in
England, Sir J. Lubbock on, 369.

Levi (Prof. L.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 175; on the
scientific societies in relation to the
advancement of science in the United
Kingdom, 458 ; on the savings of the
people as evidenced by the returns of
the trustees and Post Office savings
banks, 492.

Lewin (Lieut.-Col. T. H.) on the trade
routes from Bengal to Tibet, 432.

Life, a classification of the physical con-
ditions of, by C. Roberts, 381.

Lightning protectors for telegraphic ap-
paratus, W. H. Preece on, 259.

Limestone, the efflorescence of the, at
Les Baux, in Provence, Dr. Phené on,
344.

Linear differential equations, a theorem
in, W. H. L. Russell on, 263.

Liquid jets, the action of magnets on,
Prof. 8. P. Thompson on, 257.

Lista (Don R.) on the discovery of the

535

sources of the Chico in Southern Pata-
gonia, 436.

*Lister (T.) on the rarer birds occurring
in South and West Yorkshire, 378.

Lockyer (J. N.) on recent spectral obser-
vations, 317.

Lodge (Dr. O. J.) *on a hypothesis con-
cerning the ether in connection with
Maxwell’s theory of electricity, 258 ;
*on a new electrometer key, 258.

Logic, the algebra of, A. Macfarlane on
the fundamental principles of, 262.

London, the climate of, synchronism of
mean temperature and rainfall in, H.
C. Fox on, 277.

Lonsdale (N. L.) on an improved rain
gauge, 280. ;

Lowe (E.J.), comparison of the effects of
the frosts of 1860-1 and of 1878-9, 377.

Lubbock (Sir J.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 140; on the exploration
of certain caves in Borneo, 149; on the
occurrence of Leptodora hyalina in
England, 369; on fruits and seeds,
370.

Lucas, (J.) on the quantitative elements
of hydrogeology, 499.

Luff (A. P.) on the chemistry of some of
the lesser-known alkaloids, especially
veratria and bebeerine, 133.

Luminous meteors, report on observations
of, during the year 1878-79, 76.

Lunatics and their property, the care of,
the assimilation of the law of England,
Scotland, and Ireland as to, Dr. W. N.
Hancock on, 493.

Macadam (W. 1.) on the chemical com-
position of a nodule of ozokerite found
at _Kinghorn-ness, 309.

M‘Alister (D.) on a modification of the
law of facility, 267.

Macfarlane (A.) on the fundamental
principles of the algebra of logic, 262.

McIntosh (Dr. W. C.) on budding in the
Syllidian annelids, chiefly with refer-
ence toa branched form procured by
H.M.S. ‘ Challenger,’ 372.

Mackintosh (D.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Treland, 135.

Macrory (Mr.) on patent legislation, 223.

Madeira, atmospheric electricity at, re-
port of the Committee appointed to
obtain observations on, 63.

Magnets, the action of, on liquid jets,
Prof, 8. P, Thompson on, 257.

Man, the geological evidence as to the
antiquity of, Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins
on, 399.

*Mansel (R.) on the law of the power
required for different speeds of the
same steam vessel, illustrated, within
the limits of experience, by a linear
scale of their relation, 526,

536

Marine zoology of Devon and Cornwall,
report of the Committee for exploring
the, 165.

Markham (C. R.), Address by, to the
Geographical Section, 420; on Indian
marine surveys, 453.

Martin (Capt. G.) on the Kuram valley,
445.

Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad-
dress by G. J. Stoney to the, 243.

Mathematical tables, report on, 46.

Mathematics and physics, the progress of
the chief branches of, report of the
Committee for endeavouring to procure
reports on, 37.

Maxwell (Prof. J. Clerk) on. the elasti-
city of wires, 33; on the mechanical
equivalent of heat, 36 ; on the progress
of the chief branches of mathematics
and physics, 37; on underground tem-
perature, 40.

*Maxwell’s theory of electricity, a hy-
pothesis concerning the ether in con-
nection with, Dr. O. J. Lodge on, 258.

Mechanical Section, Address by J. Robin-
son to the, 495.

Mercury sulphate, large crystals of, P.
Braham on, 293.

Merrifield (C. W.) on instruments ‘for
measuring the speed of ships, 210; on
patent legislation, 223.

Merrifield (Dr.) on the phenomena of the
stationary tides in the English Channel
and the North Sea, and the value of
tidal observations in the North At-
lantic Ocean, 71.

*Metallic sulphides, the action of am-
moniacal salts on, M. De Clermont on,
309.

Metallurgy, a new process in, by J. Holl-
way, 298.

Miall (Prof. L. C.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 135;
*on solid-mounted preparations, 376.

*Microscope, the isophotal binocular, 8S,
Holmes on, 253.

Milk adulteration, the detection of, W.
H. Watson on, 322.

Milne (Prof. J.) on the stone age in
Japan, 401.

Mimusopez, a section of the order Sapo-
tacez, M, M. Hartog on, 376.

Mivart (Prof. St. G.), Address by, to the
Biological Section, 354.

Molyneux (W.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 135 ; on
the circulation of underground waters,
155,

Moore (C.) on ammonites and. aptychi,
341.

Morton (Mr.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 155.

Moss (Dr. E. L.) on a collection of or-
ganic remains from the kitchen-mid-

INDEX.

dens of Hissarlik, 401; experiments on
septic organisms in living tissues, 416.

Moss (J. F.) on science teaching in con-
nection with elementary schools, 476.

Moss-flora of the West Riding, recent
additions to the, by C. P. Hobkirk,
375.

Mott (F. T.) on reformatory punishment,
478.

Muirhead (Dr. A.) on the constancy of
capacity of certain accumulators, 283.

Murray (T.) and the Abbé A. Renard on
the volcanic products of the deep sea
of the Central Pacific with reference to
the ‘ Challenger ’ expedition, 340.

Napier (J. R.) on instruments for mea-
suring the speed of ships, 210; on
patent legislation, 223.

Natal, the physical aspects of Zululand
and, B. Tower on, 442.

—— and the border countries, geological
facts observed in, Rey. G. Blencowe on,
349.

Neolithic age, a new estimate of the date
of the, 8. B. J. Skertchly on, 380.

period, the survival of the, at Bran-
don, Suffolk, 5. B. J. Skertchly on,
400.

New Guinea, Italian explorers in, Prof.
Giglioli on, 457.

Newmarch (Mr.) on patent legislation,
223.

Newton (Prof.) on the possibility of
establishing a close time for the pro-
tection of indigenous animals, 165.

Newton (Prof. H. A.) on the direct motion
of periodic comets of short period,
272.

Nitrogen in steel, the presence of, A. H.
Allen on, 302.

*Nitrous acid, the amount of, produced
in electric illumination, Prof. Dewar
on, 317. ;

*Odling (Prof.) on the constitution of
aluminic compounds, 302.

Ogowé, the basin of the, 8. de Brazza on,
439,

—, the native races of Gaboon and,
Comte 8S. de Brazza on, 394.

Oppert (Dr. G.) on a classification of
languages on the basis of ethnology,
392.

*Ord (Dr. W. M.) on crystallisation of
urea in presence of a colloid, 418.

Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, third
report of the Committee appointed to
consider the datum-level of the, with
a view to its establishment on a surer
foundation than hitherto, and to tabu-
late and compare other datum-marks,
219.

_ Organic remains, a collection of, from

INDEX.

the kitchen-middens of Hissarlik, Dr.
E. L. Moss on, 401.

“Orography of the North-Western frontier
of India, T. Saunders on the, 449.

Osteology of the arm, the comparative,
Dr. T. P. Durand on, 405.

Ostracocanthus dilatatus, gen. et spec.
nov., a fossil fish from the coal-measures
§.E. of Halifax, Yorkshire, J. W. Davis
on, 343.

‘Ozokerite, the chemical composition of a
nodule of, found at Kinghorn-ness, W.
I. Macadam on, 309.

Paisley town hall, the foundation of, M.
Blair on, 344.

Palzolithic man, evidence of the existence
of, during the glacial period in Hast
Anglia, 8. B. J. Skertchly on, 379.

Paleozoic rocks beneath the South-East
of England, some further evidence as
to the range of the, R. A. C. Godwin-
Austen on, 227."

WPalmella cruenta, chemical researches on,
by Dr. T. L. Phipson, 322.

Panama, the inter-oceanic canal of, L. N.
B. Wyse on the exploration of the
American isthmus and, 454.

——, the Isthmus of, the proposed canal
across, Capt. B. Pim on, 521.

Patent legislation, second report of the
Committee appointed to watch and re-
‘port to the Council on, 223.

Pebbles, some remarkable, in the boulder-
clay of Cheshire and Lancashire, Dr.
C. Ricketts on, 339.

Pengelly (W.) on underground tempera-

‘ture, 40; on the erratic blocks of Eng-
land, Wales, and Ireland, 135; on the
‘exploration of Kent’s Cavern, 140;
on the exploration of certain caves in
Borneo, 149; on the circulation of
underground waters, 155,

Penine chain, the age of the, E. Wilson
on, 343.

Perry (Jas.) on the surface rocks of Syria,
(suggested by the quarries at Baalbek),
348.

Petroleum spirit or ‘benzoline,’ A, H.
Allen on, 318.

Phené (Dr.) on the deposit of carbonate
of lime at Hierapolis, in Anatolia, and
the efflorescence of the limestone at
Les Baux, in Provence, 344; on the
discovery of animal mounds in the
Pyrenees, 396; evidence of early his-
toric events and pre-historic customs
by perpetuation of design in art and
manufactures in later, and even in
present, times, 397.

Phipson (Dr. T. L.), chemical researches
on Palmella cruenta, 322.

Photographic screens, improved, J. H.
Starling on, 291.

537

Photographie solaire, suite des recherches
sur la, par Dr. J. Janssen, 282.

Physical Section, Address by G. J. Stoney
to the Mathematical and, 243.

Physics, mathematics and, the progress
of the chief branches of, report of the
Committee for endeavouring to procure
reports on, 37.

Physiology, Anatomy and, Address by
Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith to the Department
of, 406.

Pim (Capt. B.) on the proposed canal
across the Isthmus of Panama, 521.
Pinto (Major Serpa) on the native races
of the head-waters of the Zambesi,
393; journey across Africa from Ben-

guela to Natal, 437.

Pishin valley, Lieut. St. G. C. Gore on
the, 446.

Plane class-cubics with three single foci,
H. M. Jeffery on, 263.

Plant (J.) on the erratic blocks of Eng-
land, Wales, and Ireland, 135; on the
circulation of underground waters,
155.

Polarisation stress, the curve of, as deter-
mined by Mr. Crookes’s measures with
the radiometer, G. J. Stoney on, 256.

—— in gases, complete expansions for
the conduction of heat and the, G. J.
Stoney on, 256.

Polynesian race, C. 8. Wake on the,
390.

Portstewart, excavations at, and else-
where in the North of Ireland, report
on, 171.

Pre-Cambrian rocks, the British, Dr. H.
Hicks on the classification of, 351.

Preece (W. H.) on lightning protectors
for telegraphic apparatus, 259.

Prestwich (Prof.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 135; on
the circulation of underground waters,
155.

Primes of the forms 4n+1 and 4n+3,
the enumerations of, J. W. L. Glaisher
on, 268.

Pseudophone, Prof. §. P, Thompson on
the, 255.

Pye-Smith (Dr. P. H.), Address by, to
the Department of Anatomy and Phy-
siology, 406.

Rain gauge, an improved, N, L. Lonsdale
on, 280.

Rain gauges, the influence of the angle
of the lip of, on the quantity of water
collected,experiments on, by B. Latham,
278.

Ramsay (Prof.) on underground tempera-
ture, 40.

Rawson (Sir R.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 175.

Rayleigh (Lord) on the progress of the

538

chief branches of mathematics and
physics, 37.

Reade (M.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 155.

Reformatory punishment, F. T. Mott on,
478.

Renard (The Abbé A.) and T. Murray on
the volcanic products of the deep sea
of the Central Pacific with reference to
the ‘ Challenger ’ expedition, 340.

Renfrewshire, the rocks of, M. Blair on,
344.

Repulsion of wires influenced by electric
currents, W. H. L. Russell on the, 263.

Retinal activity, a law of, Prof. S. P.
Thompson on, 404.

Révolver photographique, l’application
du, a l’étude des eclipses partielles et
a celle des mouvements des animaux,
Dr. J. Janssen sur, 283.

Reynolds (Prof. O.) on the phenomena
of the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the North
Atlantic Ocean, 71.

Rheetic beds at Gainsborough, a northerly
extension of the, F. M. Burton on, 337.

Ricketts (Dr. C.) on some remarkable
pebbles in the boulder-clay of Cheshire
and Lancashire, 339.

Rink (Dr. H.) on the interior of Green-
land: the principal points of geogra-
phical interest connected with it, and
the recent expeditions for its explora-
tion, 452.

Roberts (C.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 175; a classifica-
tion of the physical conditions of life,
381.

Roberts (E.) on the datum-level of the
Ordance Survey of Great Britain, and
the tabulation and comparison of other
datum-marks, 219.

Roberts (I.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 155.

Roberts (W. C.) on the chemistry of some
of the lesser-known alkaloids, espe-
cially veratria and bebeerine, 133;
some experiments with the voltaic in-
duction balance, 303.

Robinson (J.), Address by, to the Mecha-
nical Section, 495.

Rogers (Major) on surveys round Kan-
dahar, 448,

Rolleston (Prof.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
165 ; on the work of the Anthropome-
tric Committee, 175.

Rowe (J. B.) on the marine zoology of
Devon and Cornwall, 165.

Russell (W. H. L.) on a theorem in linear
differential equations, 263 ; on the re-
pulsion of wires influenced by electric
currents, 263.

INDEX.

*Sanderson (Prof. J. B.) on the automatic:
mechanism of the batrachian heart,.
404. ‘

Sanford (W. A.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 140.

Saunders (T.) on the orography of
the North-Western frontier of India,.
449.

Savings of the people as evidenced by
the returns of the trustees and Post
Office savings banks, Prof. L. Levi on
the, 492.

Science teaching in connection with ele-
mentary schools, J. F. Moss on, 476.

Scientific societies, the, in relation to the
advancement of science in the United
Kingdom, Prof, L. Levi on, 458.

Sclater (Mr.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
165; on the steps taken for investi--
gating the natural history of Socotra,
210.

Seeds, fruits and, Sir J. Lubbock on,.
370.

Septic organisms in living tissues, expe-
riments on, by Dr. E. L. Moss, 416.

Sheffield, the vital statistics of, T. W..
Hime on, 488.

Shoolbred (J. N.) on the phenomena of
the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the North
Atlantic Ocean, 71; on instruments:
for measuring the speed of ships, 210;
on the datum-level of the Ordnance
Survey, and the tabulation and com-
parison of ‘other datum-marks, 219;
on recent advances in electric lightingy.
503.

Shorawak valley, Major Campbell on the,
447,

Siemens (Dr. C. W.) on the elasticity of
wires, 33; on instruments for measur-
ing the speed of ships, 210 ; on patent
legislation, 223.

Sigillariz, the Carboniferous, the botani--
cal affinities of, Prof. W. C. Williamson.
on, 346.

Siliceous skeletons, the replacement of,.
by carbonate of lime, W. J. Sollas on,,
350.

*Silva (R. D.) on the synthesis of di-
phenyl propyl, 293.

Simpson (W.) on the Jellalabad region,.
443.

Siphons, self-acting intermittent, and the:
conditions which determine the com-
mencement of their action, R. Field on,
223.

Skertchly (S. B. J.) on evidence of the
existence of palzolithic man during
the glacial period in Hast Anglia, 379;
on a new estimate of the date of the
neolithic age, 380; on the survival of

INDEX.

the neolithic period at Brandon, Suf-
folk, 400.

Sladen (W. P.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
167.

Smith (Prof. H. J. S.) on mathematical
tables, 46.

Socotra, the natural history of, report of
the Committee appointed to take steps
for the investigation of, 210.

*Solid-mounted preparations, L, C, Miall
on, 376.

Sollas (W. J.) on the replacement of
siliceous skeletons by carbonate of
lime, 350; *on a sponge from the
Norwegian coast, simulating a hydroid
polyp, 377.

Specific inductive capacity, some new
instruments recently constructed for
the continuation of researches on, J.
E. H. Gordon on, 249.

—— of glass, secular changes in the, J.
E. H. Gordon on, 250.

Spectra of comets, the cause of bright
lines in the, G. J. Stoney on, 251.

Spectral observations, recent, J. N.
Lockyer on, 317.

Spectre photographique solaire, le maxi-
mum d’intensité du, Dr. J. Janssen
sur, 252.

Spectroscope, a binocular, G. J. Stoney
on, 292.

Spectroscopes, scales of variable length
for the eye-pieces of, G. J. Stoney on,
292.

*Sponge from the Norwegian coast, simn-

_ lating a hydroid polyp, W. J. Sollas on
a, 377.

Spottiswoode (W.) on the progress of the
chief branches of mathematics and
physics, 37.

Starling (J. H.) on improved photogra-
phic screens, 291.

Stationary tides in the English Channel
and the North Sea, seeond report on the
phenomena of the, 71.

Statistics, Economic Science and, Ad-
dress by G. Shaw Lefevre to the Sec-
tion of, 479,

Steel, the manufacture of, the separation
of iron and phosphorus, specially with
‘reference to, T. Blair on, 296.

——, the presence of nitrogen in, A. H.
Allen on, 302.

—, crucible, the manufacture of, H. S.
Bell on, 293.

Stewart (Prof. B.) on the mechanical
equivalent of heat, 36; on the pro-
gress of the chief branches of mathe-
matics and physics, 37.

Stokes (Prof. G. G.) on the progress of
the chief branches of mathematics and

physics, 37; on mathematical tables,

46

J
3
~

539

Stone age in Japan, Prof. J. Milne on the,.
401.

Stone implements, ancient, in India, the
forms and geographical distribution of,.
V. Ball on, 394.

Stoney (G. J.), Address by, to the Mathe-
matical and Physical Section, 243; on
the cause of bright lines in the spectra
of comets, 251; on the curve of po-
larisation stress, as determined by Mr.
Crookes’s measures with the radio-
meter, 256; on complete expansions
for the conduction of heat and the
polarisation stress in gases, 256; on a
binocular spectroscope, 292; on asimple
two-prism automatic motion, 292; on
scales of variable length for the eye-
pieces of spectroscopes, 292.

Strachey (Major-Gen.) on the datum-
level of the Ordnance Survey of Great
Britain, and the tabulation and com-
parison of other datum-marks, 219.

Stroma of mammalian red blood cor-
puscles, L. C. Wooldridge on the, 418.

Sumatra, Central, the Dutch expedition
to, Prof. P. J. Veth on, 434.

Sun-heat coefficients, report of the Com--
mittee appointed for the calculation
of, 66.

Supersaturated solutions, an account of
some recent experiments on, by J. M.
Thomson, 317.

Surface rocks of Syria, Jas. Perry on the,
348,

Syllidian annelids, budding in the, chiefly
with reference to a branched form pro-
cured by H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ Dr. W,
C. McIntosh on, 372.

Sylvester (Prof.) on the calculation of
tables of the fundamental invariants
of algebraic forms, 66.

Symons (G. J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 40.

Syria, the surface rocks of, Jas, Perry on,.
348,

Tait (Prof.) on the elasticity of wires, 33 ;
on the mechanical equivalent of heat,
36; on the progress of the chief
branches of mathematics and physics,,.
37.

Telephone, the retardation of phase of
vibrations transmitted by the, Prof. 8.
P. Thompson on, 254.

Temperature of town water supplies, B.
Latham on the, 499.

——, underground, twelfth report on
the rate of increase of, downwards in
various localities of dryland and under
water, 40.

, some broad features of, Prof.
J. D. Everett on, 345.

Temple (Lieut. G. T.), hydrography, past
and present, 229.

_,

540

Tension of vapours near curved surfaces
of their liquids, G. F. Fitzgerald on
the, 255.

Tertiary (Miocene) flora, &c., of the basalt
of the North of Ireland, report on the,
162.

Thermal conductivities of certain rocks,
sixth report on experiments to deter-
mine the, showing especially the geo-
logical aspects of the investigation,
58

Thomas (W. C.) on generic images, 253.
‘Thompson (Prof. 8. P.) on the retardation
of phase of vibrations transmitted by

the telephone, 254; on the pseudo-—

phone, 255; on the action of magnets
on liquid jets, 257; on a law of retinal
activity, 404 ; on apprenticeship schools
in France, 469.

‘Thomson (Sir C. Wyville) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the zoological station
at Naples, 165.

Thomson (Prof. J.) on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 210.

Thomson (J. M.), an account of some
recent experiments on supersaturated
solutions, 317.

Thomson (Prof. Sir W.) on the elasticity
of wires, 33; on the mechanical equi-
valent of heat, 36; on underground
temperature, 40; on mathematical ta-
bles, 46; on atmospheric electricity at
Madeira, 63; on the phenomena of the
stationary tides in the English Chan-
nel and the North Sea, and the value
of tidal observations in the North
Atlantic Ocean, 71 ; on instruments for
measuring the speed of ships, 210; on
the datum-level of the Ordnance Survey
of Great Britain, and the tabulation
and comparison of other datum-marks,
219; on patent legislation, 223.

‘Thomson (W.) on a sample of Fuller’s
earth, found in a fullonica recently
excavated at Pompeii, 321.

Tibet, the trade routes from Bengal to,
Lieut.-Col. T. H. Lewin on, 432.

Tidal observations at Madeira or other
islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, on
the value of, 71.

Tiddeman (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 135.
Tides, stationary, in the English Channel
and the North Sea, report on the phe-

nomena of, 71.

Toba plateau, Major Campbell. on the,
447.

Tower (B.) on the physical aspects of
Zululand and Natal, 442.

Town water supplies, the temperature of,
B. Latham on, 499.

Trade routes from Bengal to Tibet,
Lieut.-Col. T. H. Lewin on the, 432.

*Transformation of series, a theorem

INDEX.

relating to the, Rev. 8. Earnshaw on,
291.

Trigonometrical series, summation of a
class of, by J. W. L. Glaisher, 269.

Tristram (Rev. Canon) on the possibility
of establishing a close time for the pro-
tection of indigenous animals, 165.

Tuke (Dr. D. H.) on the Cagots, 379.

Turcomans between the Caspian and the
Merv, Prof. A. Vambéry on the, 402.

Two-prism automatic motion, a simple,
G. J. Stoney on, 292.

Tylor (A.) on certain inventions illus-
trating the working of the human
mind, and on the importance of the
selection of types, 396.

Tylor (E. B.), Address by, to the Depart-
ment of Anthropology, 381.

Underground temperature, some broad
features of, Prof. J. D. Everett on, 345.

——., twelfth report onthe rate of increase
of, downwards in various localities of
dry land and under water, 40.

Underground waters inthe Jurassic, New
Red Sandstone, and Permian forma-
tions, fifth report on the circulation of
the, 155.

*Upper Silurian of Ohio, a fossil tree
from the, E. W. Claypole on, 343.

*Urea, crystallisation of, in presence of
a colloid, Dr. W. M. Ord on, 418.

Urua, Central Africa, the manners and
customs of the people of, Commander
Cameron on, 392.

Ussher (R. J.) and Prof. A. Leith Adams
on the discovery of a bone cave near
Cappagh, Co. Waterford, 338.

Vambéry (Prof. A.) on the Turcomans
between the Caspian and the Merv,
402.

*Vapour densities, Prof. Dewar on, 293.
of ferrous chloride and iodide of
potassium, J. A. Wanklyn on the, 308.
Vapour density methods, the various, a
historical sketch of, by J.T. Brown,

304.

Vedova (Prof. G.D.) on present Italian
geographical explorations, 436 ; on geo-
graphical studies and works in Italy,
456.

Veratria, report on the chemistry of, 133.

Veth (Prof. P. J.) on the Dutch expedi-
tion to Central Sumatra, 434.

Vibrations transmitted by the telephone,
the retardation of phase of, Prof. 8. P.
Thompson on, 254.

Vine (G. R.) on carboniferous polyzoa and
palzocoryne, 350.

Visual phenomenon, a, and its explana-
tion, W. Ackroyd on, 419.

Vital statistics of Sheffield, T. W. Hime
on the, 488.

INDEX.

Vivian (E.) on the exploration ef Kent’s
Cavern, 140.

Volcanic products of the deep sea of the
Central Pacific with reference to the
‘Challenger’ expedition, the Abbé A.
Renard and T. Murray on the, 340.

Voltaic induction balance, some expe-
riments with the, by W. C. Roberts,
303.

Wake (C. S.) on the Polynesian race,
390.

*Wakefield (Rev. J.) on the southern
Galla country, 440.

Walenn (W.H.) on a method of checking
calculations, 271.

Wanklyn (J. A.) on the vapour densities
of ferrous chloride and iodide of po-
tassium, 308; on the constitution of
isocyanopropionic acid, 308.

Ward (H. M.) on the embryology of
Gymnadina conopsea, 375.

Warfare, savage and civilised, J. A.
Farrer on, 396.

*Warmth of air, the sensible, an instru-
ment for determining, Prof. G. Forbes
-on, 277.

Water, the friction of, upon water, a
short account of some experiments
made to determine, by Rev. 8. Haugh-
ton, 275.

Watson (W. H.) on the detection of milk
adulteration, 322.

*Weldon (W.) on some relations between
the numbers expressing the atomic
weights of the elements, 293.

Westwood (Prof.) on the insects which
injure books, 371.

Whitaker (W.) on the circulation of un-
derground waters, 155.

Williamson (Dr. A. W.) on patent legis-
lation, 223.

541

Williamson (B.) on the calculation of
sun-heat coefficients, 66.

Williamson (Prof. W. C.) on the Tertiary
(Miocene) flora, &c., of the basalt of
the North of Ireland, 162 ; on the bota-
nical affinities of the Carboniferous
Sigillariz, 346.

Wilson (H.) on the age of the Penine
chain, 343.

Wood (H. T.) on patent legislation, 223.
Wooldridge (L. C.) on the stroma of
mammalian red blood corpuscles, 418.
Wright (Dr. C. R.A.) on the chemistry of
some of the lesser-known alkaloids,
especially veratria and bebeerine, 133.

Wrightson (T.) on the changes of volume
in iron when passing from the liquid
to the solid state, and an instrument
for observing the same, 506.

Writing telegraph, Cowper’s, E. A. Cowper-
on, 520.

Wynne (A. B.) on underground tempera-
ture, 40.

Wyse (L. N. B.) on the exploration of the
American isthmus and the inter-oceanic
canal of Panama, 454.

Yarra, the, and the languages of Aus-
tralia in connection with those of the
Mozambique and Portuguese Africa,
Hyde Clarke on, 381.

Yttrium group, the rare metals of the;
T. S. Humpidge on, 316.

Zambesi, the native races of the head-
waters of the, Major Serpa Pinto on, 393.

Zoological station at Naples, report of the
Committee appointed to arrange for
the occupation of a table at the, 165 ;
report on, by W. P. Sladen, 167.

Zululand and Natal, the physical aspects.
of, B. Tower on, 442.

Bae: > poe, Capea ys
fr on wor intlb i Soto out
etn rye fs tw itty Lankst

is Biyntatt fei
Bi arian ily cout e |

RI ee
9 # Oinies aa tata ap fy x

i ta ‘a Ade fe CARY srabeatoa tt
nae Ley en liaean

“6 tisha share dal hs: ed tee
eae etih ana ‘wate. |
gine $ ac By Soy t),.4bet Ey
teflamorede
Rhee siacnda’ 9d. A/C. area wy deh

inode 9
2hyic Lota eit wih ton acct. foes
eps anieyaclad ficts myn ie too irs '
Sen J aie astd ack (TY Aud yi ¥
oe an ieee os 4. dot at totticeks tig

ar hitiot! ail &e sot te: shihoe. ferge@bky rey

Temncctene NM P
16 eg to Fchadghiin ae 80

cn ete
ay ane a oct + witpedo Wh
wage ; Di dicemaahosgalttyts
43 : Meee 1) a)

as noes 1 % < > oaueeh
ay i u aay ies orurh

xt 20 ; yo belt Mb aly owe
‘a aii to adie \ sprigs:
grit eine theta asians tn (ede
* aha” CPRE
ich ton cogent sd} boa pilds arent £
ont caonaies: RE daa bi eam aif ah,
eoetey cena rh pee rs o)

vid b inte. shee a

%: 5 Ea Bo be

: , “si 3 ma

i ie te Bere’ ee sevetnt

BOR cr Ohi Lard appl whit Boerstere ©:

i Mosioy,, wih 3m donald:

ieacaag os F yah erie Tes Let)

er do. wldieh A serene obtee
anor, eed 1 tl Ae ‘

Ipoise ee AWG hun Sagal

subwnyt A og.

, # foot ois arte Mig
= orehial Facet:
ep. agiel, he

Nee aaa, ba

f (8 dia ayy eee af
stad ee ile
eg ietae b= | sree wal,
vl Se em )
¢e if * age inl
St eaten hilt ;
rae al aCe) SNR S

ak) Wee! ke
by es

ol une REA Maar .

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
‘the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
obtained on application at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices, viz.—Reports for
1849-78, at two-thirds of the Publication Price ; and, for the purpose of
completing their sets, any of the first seventeen volumes (of which more
than 100 copies remain) at one-third of the Publication Price. A few sets
from 1849-71 may also be obtained at one-half Publication Price.

Associates for the Meeting in 1879 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds
of the Publication Price.

PROCEEDINGS or tae FIRST ann SECOND MEETINGS, at York
and Oxford, 1831 and 1832, Published at 13s. 6d.

CoNTENTS :—Prof. Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the
‘Tides ;—Prof. Forbes, on the Present State of Meteorology ;—Prof. Powell, on the
Present State of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo-Electri-
‘city ;—Sir D. Brewster, on the Progress of Optics ;—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Present
State of Mineralogy ;—Rev. W. D. Conybeare, on the Recent Progress and Present
State of Geology ;—Dr. Pritchard’s Review of Philological and Physical Researches.

Together with Papers on Mathematics, Optics, Acoustics, Magnetism, Electricity,
Chemistry, Meteorology, Geography, Geology, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, Botany,
-and the Arts ; and an Exposition of the Objects and Plan of the Association, &c.

PROCEEDINGS or tas THIRD MEETING, at Cambridge, 1833,
Published at 12s. (Out of Print.)

ConTENTS:—Proceedings of the Meeting ;—John Taylor, on Mineral Veins ;—Dr.
Lindley, on the Philosophy of Botany ;—Dr. Henry, on the Physiology of the Nervous
System ;—P. Barlow, on the Strength of Materials ;—S. H. Christie, on the Magnetism
of the Earth ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics and Hy-
drodynamics ;—G, Rennie, on Hydraulics as a Branch of Engineering, Part I.;—Rev.
G. Peacock, on certain Branches of Analysis.

Together with Papers on Mathematics and Physics, Philosophical Instruments and
Mechanical Arts, Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, and History of Science.

544

PROCEEDINGS or tar FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834,
Published at 15s.

ConTENTS :—H. G. Rogers, on the Geology of North America ;—Dr. C. Henry, om
the Laws of Contagion ;—Prof. Clark, on Animal Physiology ;—Rev. L. Jenyns, on.
Zoology ;—Rev. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction ;—Prof. Lloyd, on Physical Optics;
—G. Rennie, on Hydraulics, Part II.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the-
Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or toe FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, Pub
lished at 13s. 6d. ,

CoNTENTS :—Reyv. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of
the Mathematical Theories of Electricity, Magnetism, and Heat ;—A. Quetelet,
Apercu de l’Etat actuel des Sciences Mathématiques chez les Belges ;—Capt. E.
Sabine, on the Phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, Pub-.
lished at 12s.
ConTENTS :—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect

to Mineral and Thermal Waters ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Direction and Intensity of
the Terrestrial Magnetic Force in Scotland ;—J. Richardson, on North American Zoo-

logy ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids;—J. T. Mackay, a.

Comparative View of the more remarkable Plants which characterize the neighbour-
hood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scotland, &c.;—J. T. Mackay,
Comparative Geographical Notices of the more remarkable Plants which characterize
Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section
on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Second Report of the Dublin Sub-Com-
mittee on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Report of the Dublin Committee
on the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous System ;—J. W. Lubbock, Account of
the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides;—Rev. B. Powell, on deter-
mining the Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in
various media ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on the Communication between the Arteries and Ab-
sorbents ;—Prof. Phillips, Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature ;:
—Prof. Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recently proposed by G. B. Jerrard,.
for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tos SEVENTH MERTING, at Liverpool, 1837,
Published at 16s. 6d.

CONTENTS :—Major E. Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity ob--
served at different points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rev. W. Taylor, on the various.
modes of Printing for the Use of the Blind ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Discussions of
Observations of the Tides ;—Prof. T. Thompson, on the Difference between the Com-
position of Cast Iron produced by the Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rev. T. R. Robinson, on
the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Greenwich Observations ;—
R. W. Fox, Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature of
Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British
Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the Organs.
producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for inquiring into the
Analysis of the Glands, &c.,of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London
Sub-Committee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Motions and
Sounds of the Heart ;—Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our Knowledge in re-
gard to Dimorphous Bodies ;—Lieut.-Col. Sykes, on the Statistics of the four Collec-
torates of Dukhun, under the British Government ;—E, Hodgkinson, on the relative:

:

pth An

545

‘Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold
Blast ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from
the Hot and Cold Blast ;—Sir J. Robinson and J. 8. Russell, Report of the Committee
-on Waves ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the Varia-
tions of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;
—ZJ. Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communica-
‘tion with the outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof, Traill’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or raz EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838,
Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the
Bristol Channel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt ;—Report on the Discussions of
Tides, prepared under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, Account
of the Progress and State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major
H. Sabine, on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands;
—Dr. Lardner, on the Determination of the Mean Numerical Values of Rail-
way Constants ;—R. Mallet, First Report upon Experiments upon the Action of Sea
sand River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;—R. Mallet, on the Action of a Heat
of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Organic Substances.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or raz NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839,
Published at 13s. 6d. (Out of Print.)

CONTENTS :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of
Refractive Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media;
Report on the Application of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rev. W.
Whewell, in a letter from T. G. Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, on some Galvanic
Experiments to determine the Existence or Non-Existence of Electrical Currents
samong Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Mountain Limestone formation,
constituting the Lead Measures of Alton Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster, Reports respecting
the Two Series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;—Report on
the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles;
—E. Forbes, Report on the Distribution of the Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British
Isles ;—W. 8. Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological
Register at Plymouth Dockyard.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Ad-
dress, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tar TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840,
Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)

CONTENTS :—Rev. B. Powell, Report on the Recent Progress of discovery relative
to Radiant Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in
‘the first volume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supplementary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Re-
port on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer, now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on
“The Motion and Sounds of the Heart,” by the London Committee of the British
Association, for 1839-40;—Prof. Schénbein, an Account of Researches in Electro-
‘Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought
Tron, and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tempe-
rature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837,
1838, 1839, and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical
Institution, Birmingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the Two Series of
‘Hourly Meteorological Observations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist,
veg heh Nov. 1st, 1839 ;—W. Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Verte-

9. NN

546

brata;—C. J.B. Williams, M.D., Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs
and Air-Tubes ;—Rev. J. 8. Henslow, Report of the Committee on the Preservatiom
of Animal and Vegetable Substances.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E..
Sabine’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or toe ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth,.
1841, Published at 13s. 6d.

CoNTENTS :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present State of our Theoretical and Expe--
rimental Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Re-
port on Poisons;—T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the
direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith-
Tide Observations, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. S. Harris,
upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth during the past year ;—
Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintending the scientific:
co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Observations in
Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to provide
Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of
a Committee appointed to superintend the Reduction of Meteorological Observations ;
—Report of a Committee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report of a.
Committee for obtaining Instruments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes
in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative
Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries into the Races of Man ;—Report of the
Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata in our knowledge of the Con-
dition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by means of Ascents
in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experiments, and
to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—-R. Owen, Report on
British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Rail-
way Constants ;—Dr. D. Lardner, Second and concluding Report on the Determi-
nation of the Mean Value of Railway Constants;—E. Woods, Report on Railway
Constants ;—Report of a Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for
Steam Engines.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof, Whewell’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tar TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,.
1842, Published at 10s, 6d.

CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of
the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological’
Observations ;—Dr. J. Richardson, Report on the present State of the Ichthyology
of New Zealand ;—W. S. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth ;—Second Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments
on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on
Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee for the Preservation of Animal and
Vegetable Substances;—Dr. Lyon Playfair, Abstract of Prof. Liebig’s Report on
Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;—R. Owen, Report on the
British Fossil Mammalia, Part I.;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of Light on
the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants;—L. Agassiz, Report on the
Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Appen-
dix to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earth-
quakes in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant
Indicator for Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston
of the Self-acting Engine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. S. Russell, Report of
a Committee on the Form of Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed “to consider
of the Rules by which the Nomenclature of Zoology may be established on a uniform
and permanent basis ;”-—Report of a Committee on the Vital Statistics of Large
Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches
entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address,.
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

547

PROCEEDINGS or tae THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
1843, Published at 12s.

CONTENTS :—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water,
whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron, and Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the Co-
operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and
Meteorological Observations ;—Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee
appointed for the Reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of the Com-
mittee appointed for Experiments on Steam-Engines ;—Report of the Committee ap-
pointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. 8. Russell, Report
of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of Forth and the East Coast of
Scotland ;—J. 8. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee on the Form of Ships;
—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering the
Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear
to them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Cap-
tive Balloons ;—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report;—Report of the Com-
mittee for the Translation and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W.
Peach, on the Habits of the Marine Testacea ;—H. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca
and Radiata of the Mgean Sea, and on their distribution, considered as bearing on
Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British Fossil Fishes, arranged in the
order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mam-
malia, Part II.;—H. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the junction of
the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W. Thomp-
son, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Rosse’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tar FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
Published at £1.

CoNTENTS :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder
and A. Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca;—R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth
of Plants ;—Report of a Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840,
for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology
of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report on some recent researches into the
Structure, Functions, and Economy of the Avaneidea made in Great Britain ;—Ear!
of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;— Rev. W. V. Harcourt,
Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other Applications of
High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering Earth-
quake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-
Engines ;—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human
Race ;—Fourth Report of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on
the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Preven-
tion of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British
Association at Kew;—Sixth Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the
Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical
and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence of Fucoidal
Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par-
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland,
Report on the Recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T, Oldham,
Report of Committee appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Tempera-
ture in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with
descriptions of certain Fossils indicative of the former existence in that continent
of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order Pachydermata;—W. S. Harris,
Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers at Plymouth, for the
years 1841, 1842, 1843;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—L. Agassiz,
Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J. 8.

NN2

548

Russell, Report on Waves;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special
Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Dean of Ely’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or rue FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,
1845, Published at 12s.

ConTENTS :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-opera-
tion of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and
Meteorological Observations ;—Lieut.-Col. Sabine, onsome Points in the Meteorology
of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von
Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843 ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof.
Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-
Electricity ;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self-registering Meteorological Instru-
ments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—W. R. Birt, Second Report on
Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Present Extent of Savings’
Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair, Report on the Gases
evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting of Iron ;—
Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;——
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals
and Vegetables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—
Appendix, &c.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or raz SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.

CoNTENTS :—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—
Sixth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds;—Dr. Schunck, on the
Colouring Matters of Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light
on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L. Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof.
Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on
the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829 ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress,
present Amount, and probable future Condition of the Iron Manufacture in Great
Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. Owen, Report on |
the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—J. Phillips, on
Anemometry ;—Dr. J. Percy, Report on the Crystalline Flags ;—Addenda to Mr.
Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tas SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s.

ConTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at
different degrees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Develop-
ment of Heat and the coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when
mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the
Growth of Plants;—R. Mallet, on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof.
Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia;—W. Hopkins, Report on the
Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes ;—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report
on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and Sir James C. Ross,
Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of completing
our Knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Report
of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and

549

recent progress of Ethnographical Philology;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various
methods of Research which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the
relations of that Science to other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on
the results of the recent Egyptian researches in reference to Asiatic and African
Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of
the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the Modern Celtic Dialects still
extant ;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the Aryan and Aboriginal
Languages of India ;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. W.
H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;
—A, Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tar EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.

CONTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—J. Glynn, on Water-pressure Engines;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and
Water of Towns ;—Hight Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—H. Schunck, on Colouring
Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the
Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works ;—R. Hunt, Report of progress in the
investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Plants allied to those
of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Temperature Tables
printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof. Dove on
his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them;
with an introductory Notice by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress
of the investigation on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J.
Phillips, Notice of further progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s
Letter to the Assistant-General Secretary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the
Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee relative to the expediency of recom-
mending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory
until December 1850.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or razr NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s.

CONTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—Earl of Rosse, Notice of Nebule lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;
—Prof. Daubeny, on the Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants,
especially of those allied to the Fossil Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr.
Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;—Report of the Committee on the
Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Ninth Report of
Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—F, Ronalds,
Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from Aug. 9,
1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations
at Kew.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rey. T. R. Robinson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tax TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)

ConTENTS:—R, Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena i
Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr, T. Williams, on the
Structure and History of the British Annelida ;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteoro-

4

550

logical Observations taken at St. Michael’s from the 1st of January, 1840, to the 31st
of December, 1849 ;—R. Hunt, on the present State of our Knowledge of the
Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth Report of Committee on Experi-
ments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen. Briggs, Report on the
Aboriginal Tribes of India ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the
British Association at Kew;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution
and Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts
of Spain, Portugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on
the Present State of our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of
the Periodical Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for
the Observation of the Total Eclipse of the Sun on July 28, 1851.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.

CONTENTS :—Rey. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
Eleventh Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of
Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the
Air and Water of Towns: Action of Porous Strata, Water, and Organic Matter ;—
Report of the Committee appointed to consider the probable Effects in an Econo-
mical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tropical Forests ;—A.
Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs in the
Higher Cryptogamous Plants ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Rey. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;
—Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida ;—R. Mallet, Second Report on
the Facts of Harthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on
the System of Meteorological Observations proposed to be established in the United
States ;—Col. Sabine, Report on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the
Performance of his three Magnetographs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew
Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British
Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31, 1851 ;—Ordnance Survey
of Scotland.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—
Twelfth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr.
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ;
—A Manual of Ethnological Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day,
and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Stations under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J.
D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the Conduction of Heat ;—R. Hunt, on
the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, on the Composition and
Economy of the Flax Plant ;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater Fishes of Ulster ;—
W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland ;—W. Wills, on the
Meteorology of Birmingham ;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water-Wheel;—J. B.
Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and
the Feeding of Animals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

551

__ PROCEEDINGS or tat TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hall,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.

CONTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1852-53 ;—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Old-
-ham, on the Rise, Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull ;—
William Fairbairn, Experimental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomo-
‘tive Boilers, and the causes which lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional
Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the
“Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition and Economy of the Flax
Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;
—Dr. John P. Bell, Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degrada-
‘tion of the Yorkshire Coast ;—First Report of Committee on the Physical Character
-of the Moon’s Surface, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional
Report on Earthquake Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments i
William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Metals as derived from repeated
Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of strength and the causes of deterioration ;
—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued).

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or raz TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.

CONTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena
(continued) ;—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of
Efficient Life-Boats ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our
Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel Sabine, on some of the results obtained at
the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—Colonel Portlock, Report of the
Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting Seismometers ;—Dr.
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants,
Part 2 ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;
—W. G. Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes
-and Dr. Gilbert, on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald
Smith, on the Deviations of the Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address,
-and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tut TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-
Mines and Revolving Storms ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radia-
tions on the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions,
Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the
present state of our knowledge on the Supply of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rey.
Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ;—Report of
Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those properties
of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance
to the durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical
Objects in Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-registering
Anemometer and Rain-Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports,

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address,
-and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

552

PROCEEDINGS or tar TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.

CONTENTS :—Report from the Committee appointed to inyestigate and report
upon the effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which
within the last fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim
Report on progress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—
Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 1856;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;-—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical
Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigonometry of the Parabola, and the
Geometrical Origin of Logarithms;—R. MacAndrew, Report on the Marine
Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and neighbouring Seas, and the
physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the
present state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of
North America ;—T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and
Oysters of the British Shores ;—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage, and Foliation in
Rocks, and on the Theoretical Explanations of these Phenomena, Part 1 ;—Dr. T..
Wright, on the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W.
Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various Temperatures ; —C.
Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. 8. Bowerbank, on the Vital
Powers of the Spongiadz ;—Report of a Committee upon the Experiments con-
ducted at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Pro-
visional Report on the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of
Minerals, Plants and Animals for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Pro--
gress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—R. Mallet, on
Observations with the Seismometer;—A. Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical
Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to consider the formation of a
Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tas TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s.

ConTENTs :—A. Cayley, Report on the recent progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;
—Sixteenth and Final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation
at Hull ;—Report of a Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measur-
ing and Registering the Tonnage of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and’
to frame more perfect rules, in order that a correct and uniform principle may be
adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities and Working-power of Steam:
Ships ;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of some Deep Mimes in Corn--
—a at + 1BH) + 1§¢/ + b

e+ Iyt +letil
a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme est exprimable
par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation a|+1désignant le produit des
facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &e....(a+¢--1) ;—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine
Zoology of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish
Channel ;—Charles Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the Extent to
which Mercantile Steam Transport Economy is effected by the Constructive Type of
Shipping, as respects the Proportions of Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. 8. Bower-
bank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spongiade ;—Dr. John P. Hodges, on
Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of
Great Britain ;—Rey. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the
passage of Railway Trains;—Prof. W. A. Miller, on Electro-Chemistry ;—John
Simpson, Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the Plover’s Wintering-
place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles
James Hargreave, on the Algebraic Couple ; and on the Equivalents of Indetermi-
nate Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and
Equatorial Mountings ;—Prof. James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots.

wall ;—Dr. G. Plarr, de quelques Transformations de la Somme 3!

——

553

in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William
Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of
the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the
Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspension Chains, and a Comparison
of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, to produce equal de-
flections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, Evidences of Lunar Influence on
Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into Liver-
pool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta-
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rey. H. Lloyd’s Address, andi
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or trun TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds,
September 1858, Published at 20s.

ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake
Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857,.
1858 ;—R. H. Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders,
especially on the internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report
of the Committee on the Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the Lead Mining Districts of
Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E.
Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, Report on the Marine Fauna of the South
and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Measurement
of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of
the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael Connel and
William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock,
and Port Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the.
Committee on Shipping Statistics ;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments.
employed in the Magnetic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results ;—Prof. J. R.
Kinahan, Report of Dublin Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R.
Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dublin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River
Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, with reference to the necessity for:
improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation on the Rivers of British
India ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Appendix:
to Mr. Vignoles’ Paper “On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the-
passage of Railway Trains ;’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society
and the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and
Meteorological Observatories ;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Ane-
mometer.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or raz TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen,,
September 1859, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and
Present State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of
Plants in the Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker,.
Report on Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of:
Manures essential to Cultivated Crops;—A. Thomson, of Banchory, Report on
the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ;—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahagow,.
Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Results obtained by the Mechanico-
Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to
determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for Railway Trains ;—
Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 1858-59 ;—
Rey. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 —
Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq.,
late Resident in Nepal, &c., &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn,
Report on the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—

554

G. C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 j;—James
Oldham, Continuation of Report of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull ;—
Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Transport Economy as affected by the Con-
sumption of Coals;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the present state of Celestial
Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil and Recent
Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request
of the British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The
Patent Laws: Report of Committee on the Patent Laws ;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar
Influence on the Temperature of the Air :—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Con-
struction of the Self-recording Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew
Observatory of the British Association ;—Professor H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on
the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance;
—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee of the British Association
appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan, Preliminary
Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or rue THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June
and July 1860, Published at 15s.

CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
185960 ;—J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J.
Anderson, Report on the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Prof. Buckman, Report on
the Experimental Plots in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester ;—Rey. R. Walker, Report of the Committee on Balloon Ascents ;—Prof.
W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to prepare a Self-recording Atmo-
spheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for observing Atmospheric
Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of Vibratory
Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P.
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to A.D. 1860;—Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part II. ;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the
Performance of Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its
Diameter and Pitch to the Form of the Vessel ;—Rey. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the
Effects of long-continued Heat, illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second
Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging
of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the British Marine Invertebrate Fauna.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or raz THIRTY-FIRST MEETIN G, at. Manches-
ter, September 1861, Published at £1.

CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors —
Dr. E. Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily
Functions of Prisoners, Part I. ;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Diffe-
rences in the Dynamic Properties of Steamships;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the
Progress of Celestial Photography since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the
Theory of Exchanges, and its recent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith,
and H. E. Roscoe, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of Manufacturing
Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;—Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ;
or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof, J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Gauging
of Water by Triangular Notches;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field Experiments
and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated
Crops ;—Prof, H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea ;—Dr. P. L. Sclater
and F. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds
of the Genus Apterya living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results
of Deep-sea Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new
to Science or to the British Isles ;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on

555

the Physical Aspect of the Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Phy-
sical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr. Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report
of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey and Dee ;—Third Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of
preventing the Ravages of Zeredo and other Animals in our Ships and Harbours ;—
R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to ascertain the Transit-
Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local Rock Formations ;
—T. Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859 ;—J. Old-
ham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Prof. G. Dickie, Brief
Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, on the
Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman
Islands, and on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel
Sykes, Report of the Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Re-
petition of the Magnetic Survey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for
Dredging on the North and East Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resist-
-ance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and the Force of Impact by Projectiles at
High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report to determine the effect of
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-Iron Girders ;
—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents ;—Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, Report on
the Theory of Numbers, Part III.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tar THIRTY-SECOND MEETING at Cam-
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1.

CoNTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861—
62 ;—-G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F.
J. Evans, Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report
on Tidal Observations on the Humber ;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles
adapted for Attacking Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observa-
tory at Kew, from a Report presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A.
de Souza ;—H. T. Mennell, Report on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast
and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood, Report upon the best means of ad-
vancing Science through the agency of the Mercantile Marine ;—Messrs. Williamson,
Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin, Provisional Report on Stan-
dards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for investiga-
ting the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Donegal ;—Prof.
H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in connec-
tion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—
Fleeming Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cay-
ley, Report on the Progress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of Dynamics;
—Prof. G. G. Stokes, Report on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee
‘on Steamship Performance ;—G. J. Symons, on the Fallof Rain in the British Isles
ain 1860 and 1861 ;—J. Ball, on Thermometric Observations in the Alps ;—J. G. Jef-
ifreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East Coasts of Scot-
‘land ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific Evidence in Courts of
Law ;—James Glaisher, Account of Hight Balloon Ascents in 1862;—Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. Prof. R. Willis’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or razr THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New-
castle-upon-Tyne, August and September 1863, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to War-
like Purposes ;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys ;—Report
of the Committee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of
Donegal, and on the Rocks associated withthem ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Com-
mittee appointed for Exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge ;—

556

G. D. Gibb, Report on the Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium;—C. K.
Aken, on the Transmutation of Spectral Rays, Part I. ;—Dr. Robinson, Report of the-
Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical
Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by the Indian Government on the Foods
used by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A. Gages, Synthetical Researches
on the Formation of Minerals, &c. ;—R. Mallet, Preliminary Report on the Experi-
mental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the Temperature,.
State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours;—Report of the
Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee-
on Steamship Performance ;-—G. J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Bal--
loon Ascents made in 1863 ;—P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present
State of our Knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North
America ;—Prof. Airy, Report on Steam Boiler Explosions ;—C. W. Siemens, Obser--
vations on the Electrical Resistance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials
under Pressures up to 300 Atmospheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron
Ships and the Progress of Iron Shipbuilding on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees ;—Messrs.
Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern
Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson, on the Local Manufacture of Lead,
Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c. ;—Messrs. Daglish and Forster, on the Magnesian Lime-
stone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron in connexion with the:
Northumberland and Durham .Coal-field ;—T. Spencer, on the Manufacture of Steel;
= the Northern District ;—Prof. H. J.S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers,.
art V.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address,.

and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. :

PROCEEDINGS or tus THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath,
September 1864, Published at 18s.

CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights
and Measures ;—T. S. Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development
and Migration of the Entozoa;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological
Action of Nitrite of Amyl;—J. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observa-
tions ;—G. 8. Brady, Report on Deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland
and Durham in 1864 ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863:
and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report on Shetland Dredgings ;—Report of the
Committee on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire
Coal-field ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—G. J.
Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and 1863;—W. Fairbairn,
eee investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the proposed Atlantic:

able.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, andi
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tas THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming-
ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s.

ConTENTS :—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F.
Buckland, Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;—
Report of the Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee:
on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains
of the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of
the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of
Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Report on Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeenshire ;—J. Glaisher, Account
of Three Balloon Ascents;—Interim Report on the Transmission of Sound under:
Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—W. Fairbairn, on the
Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships ;—
Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F, Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal
Variations in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and

557

Birmingham ;—B. W. Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of
‘certain of the Amyl Compounds ;—Report on further Researches in the Lingula-
flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of
the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Report of the Com-
‘mittee appointed to communicate with the Russian Government respecting Mag-
metical Observations at Tiflis ;—Appendix to Reporton the Distribution of the Verte-
brate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—H. Woodward, First Report
on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI. ;—Report on the best means of providing
for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science ;
—A. G. Findlay, on the Bed of the Ocean ;—Prof. A. W. Williamson, on the Com-
position of Gases evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Phillips’s Address, and Re-
‘commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting-
tham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s.

_ ConTENTS :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A. Matthiessen,
Preliminary Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations
of Luminous Meteors ;—W. 8S. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed ;—
Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Dr. Norris,
Report on Muscular Irritability ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Physiological
_Action of certain compounds of Amyl and Ethyl ;—H. Woodward, Second Report on
the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea;—Second Report on
the “ Menevian Group,” and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pembrokeshire ;
—J.G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides;—Rev. A, M. Norman,
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part Il. ;—J. Alder, Notices of some Inverte-
brata, in connexion with Mr. Jeffreys’s Report;—G. S. Brady, Report on the
Ostracoda dredged amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ;
—Report on the Transmission of Sound-Signals under Water ;—Report of the Lunar
‘Committee ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of
providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests
-of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Balloon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinct
Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report on the Penetration of Iron-clad Ships by
Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the Alcohols ;—Report on
‘Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A. L. Adams, Second Report on Maltese
‘Fossiliferous Caves, &c.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Grove’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dundee, September 1867, Published at £1 6s.

CoNTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—
‘Third Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—On the present State of the Manu-
facture of Iron in Great Britain ;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification
-of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Com-
pounds ;—Preliminary Report on the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Green-
land ;—Report of the Steamship Performance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of
Port Louis, in the Island of Mauritius ;—On the Construction and Works of the
Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of
Steel ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and
Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Mascarene
Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging
‘among the Shetland Isles ;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by
the Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained
in the Shetland Seas ;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the
best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference
to the interests of Science ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the
Association and its Committees.

558

PROCEEDINGS or ran THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nor-
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Fourth Report on Kent's:
Cavern, Devonshire ;—On Puddling Iron ;—Fourth Report on the Structure and
Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals ;—Report on
Spectroscopic Investigations of Animal Substances ;—Report of Steamship Perform-
ance Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis of the Heavenly Bodies ;—On Stellar Spectro-
metry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl and allied Compounds ;—
Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredg-
ing among the Shetland Isles ;—Reports on the Crustacea, &c., and on the Annelida.
and Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of
Cast Iron, Part I.;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships and their
Passengers ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report
on Mineral Veins containing Organic Remains ;—Report on the Desirability of
Explorations between India and China;—Report of Rainfall Committee ;—Re-
port on Synthetical Researches on Organic Acids ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights.
and Measures ;—Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Report of the
Committee on Underground Temperature ;—Changes of the Moon’s Surface ;—Re-
port on Polyatomic Cyanides.

. Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Hooker’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or raz THIRTY-NINTH MEETING, at Exeter,
August 1869, Published at £1 2s.

CONTENTS :—Report on the Plant-beds of North Greenland ;—Report on the
existing knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going qualities of Ships ;
—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Preliminary Report on the Determination
of the Gases existing in Solution in Well-waters;—The Pressure of Taxation on
Real Property ;—On the Chemical Reactions of Light discovered by Prof. Tyndall ;—
On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan Quarry, co. Kilkenny ;—Report of the Lunar Com-
mittee ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on the Marine Fauna
and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Report on the Practicability
of establishing “a Close Time ” for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Experi-
mental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of Steel ;—Second Report on
British Fossil Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared’
Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals for Photographing ;—Report on the Rate of
Increase of Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire ;—Report on the Connexion between Chemical Constitution and Physiological
Action ;—On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat ;—Report on
Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;
—Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Supplement to Second’
Report of the Steamship-Performance Committee ;—Report on Recent Progress in
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous
Limestone and their Organic Contents ;—Notes on the Foraminifera of MineraY
Veins and the Adjacent Strata ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Interim Re-
port on the Laws of the Flow and Action of Water containing Solid Matter in
Suspension ;—Interim Report on Agricultural Machinery ;—Report on the Physio-
logical Action of Methyl and Allied Series ;—On the Influence of Form considered’
in Relation to the Strength of Railway-axles and other portions of Machinery sub-
jected to Rapid Alterations of Strain;—On the Penetration of Armour-plates with
Long Shells of Large Capacity fired obliquely ;—Report on Standards of Electrical
Resistance,

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof, Stokes’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

559

PROCEEDINGS or taz FORTIETH MEETING, at Liverpool, Sep-
tember 1870, Published at 18s.

CoNTENTS :—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Report of the Committee on
the Hematite Iron-ores of Great Britain and Ireland ;—Report on the Sedimentary
Deposits of the River Onny ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Re-
port on the practicability of establishing a “Close Time” for the protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Sixth Report
on Kent’s Cavern ;—Third Report on Underground Temperature ;—Second Report of
the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain-Limestone
Corals ;—Second Report on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of
Ships ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the Treatment and Utili-
zation of Sewage ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1869-70 ;—Report
on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions;—Report on Tidal Ob-
servations ;—On a new Steam-power Meter ;—Report on the Action of the Methyl
and Allied Series;—Report of the Rainfall Committee;—Report on the Heat
generated in the Blood in the Process of Arterialization ;—Report on the best
means of providing for Uniformity of Weights and Measures.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Huxley’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or raz FORTY-FIRST MEETING, at Edinburgh,
August 1871, Published at 16s.

CONTENTS :—Seventh Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Fourth Report on Under-
ground Temperature ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71 ;—
Fifth Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report
of the Committee appointed for the purpose of urging on Her Majesty’s Government
the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the approaching Census
in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as to admit of
ready and effective comparison ;—Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose
of Superintending the Publication of Abstracts of Chemical Papers ;—Report of the
Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—
Second Provisional Report on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals ;—Report on
the Rainfall of the British Isles;—Third Report on the British Fossil Corals ;—
Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the Process of Arterialization ;
—Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of Physiological
Experimentation ;—Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical Com-
pounds ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of
Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Re-
port on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on promoting the Foun-
dation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Preliminary Report
on the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlorine ;— Report on the practi-
eability of establishing a “Close Time” for the protection of Indigenous
Animals ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the best means of pro-
viding for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on Tidal Observations.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Thomson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,

PROCEEDINGS or tar FORTY-SECOND MEETING, at Brighton,
August 1872, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS :—Report on the Gaussian Constants for the Year 1829 ;—Second Sup-
plementary Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report of the
Committee for Superintending the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of
Weights and Measures ;—Kighth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on promoting the
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Fourth Report
on the Fauna of South Devon ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee appointed to
Construct and Print Catalogues of Spectral Rays arranged upon a Scale of Wave-
numbers ;—Third Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Report on Observations of

560

Luminous Meteors, 1871-72 ;—Experiments on the Surface-friction experienced by
va Plane moving through Water ;—Report of the Committee on the Antagonism be-
tween the Action of Active Substances ;—Fifth Report on Underground Tempera-
ture ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee on Siemens’s Electrical-Resistance
Pyrometer ;—Fourth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Interim
Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and
Currents ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Report of the Committee
on a Geographical Exploration of the Country of Moab;—Sur Vélimination des
Fonctions Arbitraires ;—Report on the Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts
of the North-western Highlands ;—Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in
Scotland ;—Fourth Report on Carboniferous- Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com-
mittee to consider the mode in which new Inventions and Claims for Reward in
respect of adopted Inventions are examined and dealt with by the different Depart-
ments of Government ;—Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of
Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Report on the Mollusca of Europe ;—Report of
the Committee for investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties
of Essential Oils ;—Report on the practicability of establishing a “ Close Time ” for
the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;—Sixth Report on the Structure and Classi-
fication of Fossil Crustacea ;—Report of the Committee appointed to organize an Ex-
pedition for observing the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 12, 1871 ;—Preliminary Report of
.a Committee on Terato-embryological Inquiries ;—Report on Recent Progress in
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Tidal Observations ;—On the
Brighton Waterworks ;—On Amsler’s Planimeter.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Carpenter’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or raz FORTY-THIRD MEETING, at Bradford,
September 1873, Published at £1 5s.

CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables ;—Observations
-on the Application of Machinery to the Cutting of Coal in Mines ;—Concluding Re-
port on the Maltese Fossil Elephants ;—Report of the Committee for ascertaining
the Existence in different parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or
Boulders ;—Fourth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Ninth Report on Kent’s
‘Cavern ;—On the Flint and Chert Implements found in Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of
the Committee for Investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties
‘of Essential Oils ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ;
—Fifth Report on the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical
‘Units ;—Report of the Committee on the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-measures ;—
‘Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print Catalogues of Spectral
‘Rays ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves;—Sixth Report
on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Seventh
‘Report on Researches in Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic
and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on the desirability of establishing a “ Close
Time” for the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;
~-On the Visibility of the Dark Side of Venus ;—Report of the Committee for the
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Second Report of
the Committee for collecting Fossils from North-western Scotland ;—Fifth Report
on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report of the Committee on Monthly
Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—On the Bradford Waterworks ;—Report on
the possibility of Improving the Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;
—Interim Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of
‘Ships, &c.;—Report of the Committee for Determinating High Temperatures by
means of the Refrangibility of Light evolved by Fluid or Solid Substances ;—On a
-periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Fifth
Report on the Structure of Carboniferous-Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com-
‘mittee on preparing and publishing brief forms of Instructions for Travellers,
Ethnologists, &c. ;—Preliminary Note from the Committee on the Influence of Forests
on the Rainfall ;—Report of the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—Report of
the Committee on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the Roughness of the Sea
and Measurement of Waves near shore ;—Report on Science Lectures and Organi-
zation ;—Second Report on Science Lectures and Organization.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. A. W. Williamson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

561

PROCEEDINGS or toe FORTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Belfast,
August 1874, Published at £1 5s.

ConTENTS :—Tenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report for investigating the
Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils ;—Second Report of
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—On the Recent Progress and Present
State of Systematic Botany ;—Report of the Committee for investigating the Nature
of Intestinal Secretion ;—Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Physics in
Schools ;—Preliminary Report for investigating Isomeric Cresols and their Deriva-
tives ;—Third Report of the Committee for collecting Fossils from localities in
North-western Scotland ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—On the Bel-
fast Harbour ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ;—Report
of a Committee on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain
Rocks ;—Second Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves ;—On the Industrial
uses of the Upper Bann River ;—Report of the Committee on the Structure and
Classification of the Labyrinthodont ;—Second Report of the Committee for record-
ing the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the
Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c. ;—Sixth Report on the Treatment and
Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on the Anthropological Notes and Queries for the
use of Travellers ;—On Cyclone and Rainfall Periodicities ;—Fifth Report on Earth-
quakes in Scotland ;—Report of the Committee appointed to prepare and print
Tables of Wave-numbers ;—Report of the Committee for testing the new Pyrometer
of Mr. Siemens ;—Report to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty on Experi-
ments for the Determination of the Frictional Resistance of Water on a Surfacc,
&c. ;—Second Report for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Elee-
trical Units ;—On Instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships ;—Report of the
Committee on the possibility of establishing a “‘ Close Time ” for the Protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee to inquire into the economic effects
of Combinations of Labourers and Capitalists ;—Preliminary Report on Dredging on
the Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—Re-
port on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. John Tyndall’s Address, and’
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or toe FORTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Bristol,
August 1875, Published at £1 5s,

CoNnTENTS :—Eleventh Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Seventh Report on Under-
ground Temperature ;—Report on the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of a
Committee appointed to inquire into the Methods employed in the Estimation of
Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Products ;—Report on the present state
of our Knowledge of the Crustacea;—Second Report on the Thermal Conduc-
tivities of certain Rocks ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for extending the
Observations on the Specific Volumes of Liquids ;—Sixth Report on Earthquakes
in Scotland ;—Seventh Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Re-
port of the Committee for furthering the Palestine Explorations ;—Third Report of
the Committee for recording the position, height above the sea, lithological
characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c.;—
Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report of the Committee for investigating
Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives ;—Report of the Committee for investigating
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian
Formations of England ;—On the Steering of Screw-Steamers ;—Second Report of
the Committee on Combinations of Capital and Labour ;—Report on the Method of
making Gold-assays ;—Eighth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Tides in thé
River Mersey ;—Sixth Report of the Committee on the Structure of Carboniferous
Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves ;—On the
River Avon (Bristol), its Drainage-Area, &c.;—Report of the Committee on the
possibility of establishing a “Close Time” for the Protection of Indigenous
Animals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to superintend the Publication of
the.Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—Report on Dredging off the
Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire in 1874 ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—On
ag’ ia Forms called Trees ;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical

. 00

562

Tables ;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Notation and Printing ;—Second
Report of the Committee for investigating Intestinal Secretion ;—Third Report of
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir John Hawkshaw’s Address
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tus FORTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
September 1876, Published at £1 5s.

ConTENTS :—Twelfth Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Report on Improving the
Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;—Results of a Comparison of the
British-Association Units of Electrical Resistance ;—Third Report on the Thermal
Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report of the Committee on the practicability of
adopting a Common Measure of Value in the Assessment of Direct Taxation ;—
Report of the Committee for testing experimentally Ohm’s Law ;—Report of the
Committee on the possibility of establishing a ‘‘ Close Time ” for the Protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee on the Effect of Propellers on the
Steering of Vessels ;—On the Investigation of the Steering Qualities of Ships ;—
Seventh Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the present state of our
Knowledge of the Crustacea ;—Second Report of the Committee for investigating
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian
Formations of England ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Erratic Blocks of
England and Wales, &c.;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Exploration of
the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave) ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1875-76 ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles, 1875-76 ;—Ninth Report on
Underground Temperature ;—Nitrous Oxide in the Gaseous and Liquid States ;—
Eighth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Improved Investiga-
tions on the Flow of Water through Orifices, with Objections to the modes of treat-
ment commonly adopted ;—Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—On Cyclone
and Rainfall Periodicities in connexion with the Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Report of
the Committee for determining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the
Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Third Report of the Committee on the Condi-
tions of Intestinal Secretion and Movement ;—Report of the Committee for collect-
ing and suggesting subjects for Chemical Research.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. T. Andrews’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

PROCEEDINGS or tur FORTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Ply-
mouth, August 1877, Published at £1 4s.

ConTENTS :—Thirteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Second and Third Reports
on the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Com-
mercial Products ;—Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Crustacea
(Part III.) ;—Third Report on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New
Red Sandstone and Permian Formations of England ;—Fifth Report on the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Fourth Report on the Thermal Conducti-
vities of certain Rocks ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1876-77 ;—
Tenth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Effect of Propellers on
the Steering of Vessels ;—Report on the possibility of establishing a “ Close Time ”
for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;--Report on some Double Compounds of
Nickel and Cobalt ;—Fifth Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves (Victoria
Cave) ;—Report on the Datum Level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—
Report on the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of the Anthropometric Com-
mittee ;—Report on the Conditions under which Liquid Carbonic Acid exists in
Rocks and Minerals.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Allen Thomson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

563

PROCEEDINGS or toe FORTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Dublin,
August 1878, Published at £1 4s.

ConTENTS :—Catalogue of the Oscillation-Frequencies of Solar Rays ;—Report
on Mr. Babbage’s Analytical Machine ;—Third Report of the Committee for deter-
mining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the Committee for arrang-
ing for the taking of certain Observations in India, and Observations on Atmospheric
Electricity at Madeira ;—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments upon
the Elasticity of Wires ;—Report on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known
Alkaloids, especially Veratria and Bebeerine ;—Report on the best means for the
Development of Light from Coal-Gas ;—Fourteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—
Report on the Fossils in the North-west Highlands of Scotland ;—Fifth Report on
the Therma! Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report on the possibility of estab-
lishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on the
occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of the Anthro-
pometric Committee ;—Report on Patent Legislation ;—Report on the Use of Steel
for Structural Purposes ;—Report on the Geographical Distribution of the Chiro-
ptera ;—Recent Improvements in the Port of Dublin;—Report on Mathematical
Tables ;—Eleventh Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Explora-
tion of the Fermanagh Caves;—Sixth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland ;—Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Crus-
tacea (Part IV.) ;—Report on two Caves in the neighbourhood of Tenby ;—Report on
the Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in the North Sea, &c. ;—Second
Report on the Datum-level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—Report on
Instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships ;—Report of Investigations into a
Common Measure of Value in Direct Taxation ;—Report on Sunspots and Rainfall ;
—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Sixth Report on the Exploration
of the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave) ;—Report on the Kentish Boring Exploration ;—
Fourth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red
Sandstone, and Permian Formations, with an Appendix on the Filtration of Water
eo Triassic Sandstone ;—Report on the Effect of Propellers on the Steering of

essels.

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Spottiswoode’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR

THE. ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

LIST

OF
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,

CORRECTED TO OCTOBER 8, 1879.

~

es |
——
At
=

ou)
7 q
ee

oe,

pa ~ re ec.
ae ek eg = es ey —e

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1879-80.

PRESIDENT.
PROFESSOR G. J. ALLMAN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., M.R.I.A., Pres. L.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.
His Grace the Dux or Devonsuire, K.G., M.A.,) W. H. Brirram, Esq. (Master CUTLER).

LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.8. Professor T. H. HUXLEY, Ph.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S.,
The Right Hon. the Earn Firzwitir1aM, K.G., F.L.S., F.G.S.
F.R.G.S. Professor W. ODLING, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S,

The Right Hon, the Ean of WHARNCLIFFE,F.R.G.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
ANDREW CROMBIE RAMSAY, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., Director-General of the Geological
Survey of the United Kingdom.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
©. R. M. Tatzor, Esq., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S., Lord-} H. Hussry Vivian, Esq., M.P., F.G.S.

Lieutenant of Glamorganshire. L. Ll. DitLwyn, Esq., M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S.
The Mayor oF SWANSEA. J. Gwyn JErrreys, Hsq., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS.,
The. Hon. Sir W. R. Grove, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. Treas. G.S., F.R.G.S.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT SWANSEA.
W. Morean, Esq., Ph.D., F.C.S. JAMES STRICK, Esq.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT SWANSEA.
R. J. Lercuer, Esq.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ABEL, F. A., Esq., C.B., F.R.S. LEFEVRE, GEORGE SHAW, Esq., M.P.
ADAms, Professor W. G., F.R.S. MASKELYNR, Professor N. S., F.R.S.
Bartow, W. H., Esq., F.R.S. NEWMARKCH, W., Esq., F.R.S.

Cay ry, Professor, F.R.S. NEWTON, Professor A., F.R.S.

EAsTOoN, E., Esq., C.E. OMMANNEY, Admiral Sir E., C.B., F.R.S.
Evans, Captain, C.B., F.R.S. RAYLEIGH, Lord, F.R.S.

EVANS, J., Esq., F.R.S. ROLLESTON, Professor G., F.R.S.
Foster, Professor G. C., F.R.S. Roscoxk, Professor H. E., F.R.S.
GLAISHER, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S, RUSSELL, Dr. W. J., F.R.S.

HeEYW0OOD, J., Esq., F.R.S. SANDERSON, Prof. J. S. BURDON, F.R.S.
Hucers, W., Esq., F.R.S. SMYTH, WARINGTON W., Esq., F.R.S.
Hucues, Professor T. McK., M.A. Sorby, Dr. H. C., F.R.S.

JerFenrs, J. GWYN, Esq., E-B.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Capt. DoueLas GALTON, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, S.W,
Pune LUTLEY ScLATER, Esq., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., 11 Hanover Square, London, W.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Hlect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for tle
ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

General.Sir EDWARD SABIN#, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir PHmip DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Sir Joun Lupsock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS. :
The Duke of Devonshire. Sir W. G. Armstrong, O.B., LL.D. Dr. Carpenter, C.B., F.R.S.
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S. Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Sir G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, | The Duke of Buccleuch, K.G. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S.
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S.
The Earl of Harrowby. Prof. Stokes, M.A., D.C.L. Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., Sec. R.S. Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.
The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, D.C.L, W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.S.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. '
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. Gen. Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Dr. Michael Foster, F.R.S.
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S, W. Spottiswoode, Esgq., I'.R.S. George Griffith, Esq., M.A.
AUDITORS.

Warren De La Rue, Esq., F.R.S, | Professor W. H. Flower, F.R.S. | Arthur Grote, Esq,, F.L.S.

A2

¥ pl; Pine ’
cae eel
i ae yo Go ;
aA I pik ania NF ae oe

o®
i Azan TAO; oun
vat da Bo'be jase ae “Aaa
a : seein \mokyers t be Diag ‘x

‘44 ; ae ORF AK ec ars
AM Ano Pe ie oe ae

als oe bet Be oi arr sanl LBst|
het WKS is nase ae Bs ie Aes:

> ant?

PoeMAWeai Ta - kee 4

y BY * i i muha
if » A y | a “ J é \ 7 7 r . ni i ‘ a 7
ee | 1 es d ‘davies Ya woeTeeM Roa i ee ne
en ie ponaon ;
’ = :
th : PokVOR SAT RO eae
My ¥ ; toe a at eelnet & a af svient 1
| Habe M. Kh euart ne Ryeyane t
j roy ona 1
i Rr eo |
one Ade ;
¥ me \. Lore 2. Ae
ype “3 aicmee
} f ax oat ite aca
* bares
An)
ree i
reeves
eo
re)
re .
Bis oes ee Garter ya Aa Te Nes
iy \- im: ' coda ete oe aol Saeed lh heath. oh Po EE RA Aa goa 2 net ‘
ved . ¥ F : feet wegetees Ob AAI 12 oh th gett ane
ait tg SUNERS Wve mak Pee Rina. Ti ae
. > ony : 7 Fi ian pituatertedt, Ie an, 4 . ; a

aon a pee. ud (wat aren La va s.. é
c on i Y Pr Ue Aaa ee) Ol) & eer
ath ‘ thet bathed ooh hiv dean’ Fats ,

j ohn
a La hy aa ae ev AA, Bt dardnt oie Tc age
}

%

: a r ‘ yohivec’ ot it vusr*

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

1879.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
§§ indicates Annual Subscribers who will be entitled to the Report if
their Subscriptions are paid by December 31, 1879.
{ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not entitled
to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GHNERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS. y
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in ¢talics.

Notice of changes of Residence should be sent to the Assistant Secretary,
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.

Year of
Hlection.

Abbatt, Richard, F.R.A.S. Marlborough House, Burgess Hill,

Sussex.

1866. tAbbott, George J., United States Consul, Sheffield and Nottingham.

1863. *Asnt, Freprrick Aveusrus, O.B., F.R.S., F.C.8., Director of the
Chemical Establishment of the War Department, Royal Arsenal,
Woolwich.

1856. {Abercrombie, John, M.D. 13 Sufiolk-square, Cheltenham.

1863. “Abernethy, James. 4 Delahay-street, Westminster, London, 8.W.

1873. tAbernethy, James. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.

1860. {Abernethy, Robert. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.

1873. *Anwney, Captain W.de W.,R.E., F.RS., F.RAS., F.C.8. 3 St.
Alban’s-road, Kensington, London, W.

1854. {Abraham, John. 87 Bold-street, Liverpool.

1877. {Ace, Rev. Daniel, D.D. Laughton, near Gainsborough, Lincolnshire.

1873. {Ackroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.

1869. {Acland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter.

1877. *Acland, Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Oxford.

1873. *Acland, Rev. H. D. Loughton, Essex.

Actanp, Henry W. D., M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.GS.,

Radcliffe Librarian and Regius Professor of Medicine in the
University of Oxford. Broad-street, Oxford.

1877. “Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 13 Vincent-square, Westminster,

PtSEN WA

1860. tActann, Sir Tomas Dyn, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., MP. Sprydon-
cote, Exeter ; and Athenzeum Club, London, S.W.

6

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

. Election.

1872.

1876:

1871.
1879.
1877.
1869.

1873.
1879.

Adair, John. 13 Merrion-square North, Dublin.

tApams, A. Lurru, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., E.G.S., Professor of Zoology.
Royal College of Science for Ireland. 18 Clarendon-cardens,
Maida Hill, W.; and Junior United’ Service Club, Charles-
street, St. J ames’s, London, 8. W.

tAdams, James. 9 Royal-creseent West, Glasgow.

*Apams, JouHn Coven, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,.Director of
the Observatory and Lowndsean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridee. The Observatory,
Cambridge.

§Adams, John R. 3 College-gardens, Dulwich, Surrey, S.E.

§Adams, Rev. Thomas, M.A. Clifton Green House, York.

tApams, Writiam. 3 Sussex-terrace, Plymouth.

*Apams, WILLIAM GRYLIS, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.0.P.8., Professor
of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London.
43 Notting Hill-square, Londen, W.

tAdams-Acton, John. Margutta Mouse, 103 Marylebone-road,.
London, N. W.

§Adamson, Robert, M.A., Professor of Logic and Political Economy
in Owens College, Manchester.. 60 Parsonage-road, Withing-
ton, Manchester.

AppERLEY, The Right Hon. Sir Coartzs Bowrnr, M.P. Hams-
hall, Coleshill, Warwickshive.
Adelaide, The Right’Rey. Augustus Short, D.D., Bishop of. South
Australia.
* Adie, Patrick. Grove Cottage, Barnes, London, 8. W.

. *Adkins, Henry. Northfield, near Birmingham.
. *Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
. *Ainsworth, John Stizling. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

Ainsworth, Peter. Smithills Hall, Bolton.

842. *Ainsworth, Thomas, The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth,

1859.

1873.
1858.
L8o0.

1867.
1859.
1871.
1871.
1879,

. tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
. {Arrire, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T. Holly Lodge, Campden

Hill, London, W.; and Airlie Castle, Forfarshire.

Atry, Sir Grorcre Brppett, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal. The Ryoal Observatory, Green-
wich, 8.E.

. §Aitken, John; F.R.S.H. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B,

Akroyd, Edward. DBankfield, Halifax.

. tAtcoer, Sir Rutnerrorp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.GS. The Athe-

neeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.

. tAleock, Thomas, M.D. Side Brook, Salemoor, Manchester.
. *Alcock, Thomas, M.D. Oalifield, Ashton-on-Mersey, Manchester.

*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster.
ALpERSON, Sir Jamus, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Consulting Phy—
sician to St. Mary’s Hospital. 17 Berkeley-square, London, W-
tArnExAnpER, General Sir James Epwarp, K.0O.B, K.C.LS.,
F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Westerton, Bridge of Allan, N.B.
tAlexander, Reginald, M.D. 13 Hallfield-read, Bradford, Yorkshire.
TALEXANDER, Witiiam, M.D. Halifax.
tAlexander, Rev. William Lindsay, D.D., F.R.S.E. Pinkieburn, Mus-
selburgh, by Edinburgh.
tAlison, George L. C.. Dundee.
tAllan, Alexander. Scottish Central Railway, Perth.
tAllan, G., C.E. 17 ate London, E.C.
§ALLEN, ALFRED H., F.C.S. 1 Surrey-street, Sheffield.
*Allen, A. J. OL Peterhouse, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 7

Year of
Election.

1878.§§Allen, John Romilly. 5 Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1861. tAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.
Allen, William. 50 Henry-street, Dublin.

1852. *Atien, Witrram J. C., Secretary to the Royal Belfast Academical
Tustitution. Ulster Bank, Belfast.

1868. tAllhusen, O. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*ALLMAN, GEORGE J., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., M.R.LA., Pres.
L.S., Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University
of Edinburgh. (PREsIpENT.) Queen Anne’s Mansions, St.
James’s Park, London, 8.W.; and Parkstone, Dorset.

1875. *Atston, Epwarp R., F.L.S., F.Z.S. 224 Dorset-street, Portman- -
square, London, W.

1873. tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1876. tAnderson, Alexander. 1 St. James’s-place, Hillhead, Glasgow.

1878.§§Anderson, Beresford. Saint Ville, Killiney.

1850. tAnderson, Charles William. Oleadon, South Shields.

1850. tAnderson, John. 31 St. Bernard’s-crescent, Edinburgh.

1874. tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.

1876. tAnderson, Matthew. 137 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1859. {AnpERsoN, Patrick. 15 King-street, Dundee.

1875. tAnderson, Captain S., R.E. Junior United Service Club, Charles-
street, St. James's, London, 8. W.

1870. tAnderson, Thomas Darnley. West Dingle, Liverpool.

*Anprews, Toomas, M.D., LL.D., F.R.., Hon. F.R.S.E., M.R.L Ay,
F.C.S. Belfast.

1857. tAndrews, William. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

1877. §Angell, John. 81 Ducie-grove, Oxford-street, Manchester.

1859. tAngus, John. Town House, Aberdeen.

1878.§§Anson, Frederick H. 9 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

*AnstED, Davin THomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Prince’s-
street, Storey’s-gate, Westminster, 8.W.; and Melton, Suffolk.

Anthony, John, M.D. 6 Greenfield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

Aryoun, James, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.LA., Professor of
Mineralogy at Dublin University. South Hill, Blackrock, Co.
Dublin.

1868. {Appleby, C.J. Emerson-street, Bankside, Southwark, London, 8.E.

1870. {Areher, Francis, jun. 3 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.

1855. *AncueEr, Professor Toomas C., F.R.S.E., Director of the Museum
of Science and Art; Edinburgh. West Newington House; Edin-.
burgh.

1874. tArcher, William, F.R.S., M.R.LA.~ St. -Brendan’s,: Grosvenor-road
East, Rathmines, Dublin.

1851. {AreyxL, His Grace the Duke of, K.T.,D.C.L., F.R.S. L.&E., F.G.S.
Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W.; and Inverary, Argyle-
shire.

1865. tArnutage, J. W., M.D. 9 Huntriss-row, Scarborough.

1861. tArmitage, William. 95 Portland-street, Manchester.

1867. *Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B.

1879. *Armstrong, Sir Alexander, K.0.B., LL.D., F.R.S. The Albany,
London, W.

1873.§§Armstrong, Henry E., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. London Institution,
Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.

1878. tArmstrong, James. 284 Renfield-street, Glasgow.

1874. tArmstrong, Jumes T., F.CS. Plym Villa, Clifton-road, Tuebrook,
Liverpool.

Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.

8 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1857. *Arusrrone, Sir WitntAm Grorce, O.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
8 Great George-street, London, S.W.; and Jesmond Dene,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1871, {Arnot, William, F.C.S. St. Margaret’s, Kirkintilloch, N.B.
1870. {Arnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, London, N.W-~
1853. *Arthur, Rey. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, 8:W. _
1870. *Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Holeworthy, North Devon.
1874. tAshe, Isaae, M.B. District Asylum, Londonderry.
1873.§§Ashton, John. Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham..
1842. *Ashton, Thomas, M.D. 8 Royal Wells-terrace, Cheltenham.
“Ashton, Thomas. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.

1866. tAshwell, Henry. Mount-street, New Basford, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.

1861. {Aspland, Alfred. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.

1875, *Aspland, W. Gaskell. Aghadowey, near Ballymoney, Ireland.

1861. §Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.

1861. {Aston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lineoln’s Inn, London, W.C.

1872. §Atchison, Arthur T., M.A. 60 Warwick-road, Karl’s Court, London,
S.W

1873. {Atchison, D. G. Tyersall Hail, Yorkshire.

1858. {Atherton, Charles. Sandover, Isle of Wight.

1866. { Atherton, J. H., F.CS. Long-row, Nottingham.

1865. {Atkin, Alfred. Griffin’s Hil, Birmincham.

1861. {Atkin, Eli. Newton Heath, Manchester.

1865. ee Epmunsp, Ph.D., F.C.\S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,

urrey.

1863. *Atkinson, G. Clayton. 21 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1861. {Atkinson, Rey. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester.

1858.. *Atkinson, John Hastings. 12 East Parade, Leeds.

1842. *Atkinson, Joseph Beayington. Stratford House, 113 Abingdon-road,,
Kensington, London, W.

1858. Atkinson, William. Claremont, Southport,

1863, *ArrrIELD, Professor J., Ph.Di, POS. 17 Bloomsbury-square,
Londen, W.C.

1860. *Austin-Gourlay, Rev. William E. C., M.A. The Rectory, Stantom
St. John, near Oxford.

1865. *Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1867. tAyison, Thomas, F.8.A. Fulwood Park, Liverpool.

1878. *Aylmer, Sir Gerald George, Bart. Donadea Castle, Kileock, Co.
Kaldare.

1877. *Ayrion, W. E. 98 Palace-gardens-terrace, Kensington, London, W.

1853. *Ayrton, W.S., F.S.A. Clitiden, Saltburn-by-the-Sea. :

*BaBINGToN, CuaRies ©arpars, M.A.,.F.R.S,, F.LS., F.G.S8., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. & Brookside,
Cambridge.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
Backhouse, Thomas James. Sunderland.
1863. {Backhouse,T. W. West Hendon House,. Sunderland.
1877. {Badock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol.
1870:§§Bailey, Dr. F. J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.
1878.§§Bailey, John. 3 Blackhall-place, Dublin.
1865. {Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. The Peck, Walsall.
1855. {Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolyerhauzptom..
1866. {Baillon, Andrew. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.
1866. {Baillon, 1. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

Year of

Election.
187 . §
185

1873.
1865.

1858,
1858.
1866,
1865.
1861.
1865.
1849,
1865.
1875.
1875.
1871.

1871.
1875.§

1878.

1866.

1878.

1876.
1870.

1869.

1874.
1852.
1879.
1870.
1861.

1866.
1861,
1859.

1855.

1871.
1852.
1860.
1876.

§Baily, Walter. 176 Haverstock-hill, London, N.W.

7. {Barty, Witt1am Herrmr, F.L.S., EGS. ., Acting Paleeontologist to

the Geological Survey of Ireland. 14 Hume-street ; and Apsley
Lodge, 92. Rathgar-road, Dublin.

§Bain, Sir “James, 3 ‘Park-terrace, Glasgow.

tBatn, Rey. W. J. Glenlark Villa, Leamington.

*Bainbridge, Robert Walton. Middleton House, Middleton-in-Tees-
dale, by Darlington.

*Barnzs, Epwarp. Belgrave Mansions, Grosvenor-gardens, London,
S.W.;.and St. Ann’s Hill, Burley, Leeds.

{Baines, Frederick. Burley, near Leeds.

tBaines, T. Blackburn. ‘Mercury’ Office, Leeds.

tBaker, Francis B. Sherwood-street, Nottingham.

tBaker, James P. Wolverhampton.

*Baker, John. Gatley Hill, Cheadle, Manchester.

tBaker, Robert L. Barham House, Leamington.

*Baker, William. 63 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, London, W.

{Baker, William. 6 Taptonyville, Sheffield.

*Baker, W. Mills. Moorland House, Stoke Bishop, near Bristol.

{Baxer, W. Proctor. Brislington, Bristol.

*Batrour, Francis Marrianp, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.

tBalfour, G. W.-W hittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland.

§Balfour, Isaac Bayley, D. Se. 27 Inverleith-row, Edinburgh.

*Batrour, Joun Hurron, M.D., M.A., F.R.S. L. & E. , ELS. In-
verleith House, Edinburgh.

*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. 16 Great Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.

*Batt, Jonn, M.A., F.R.S., F:L.S., M.R.LA. 10 Southwell-gardens,
South Kensington, London, 8. W.

*Batt, Ropert StaweEtt, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Andrews
Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin, and Royal
Astronomer. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin.

§Batt, Vatentiye, M.A., F.G.S. Calcutta. (Care of Messrs. 8. H.
King & Co., Pall Mall, London, 8. W.)

Ball, William. Bruce-grove, Tottenham, London ; and Glen Rothay,
near Ambleside, Westmoreland.

{ Ballantyne, James. Southcroft, Rutherglen, Glasgow.

{Balmain, William H., F.C.S. Spring Cottage, Great St. Helen’s,
Lancashire.

{Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street,
Westminster, S. W.

*Bangay, Frederick Arthur. Cheadle, Cheshire.

tBangor, Viscount. Castleward, Co. Down, Ireland.

§Banham, H. French. Mount View, Glossop-road, Sheffield.

{Banisrer, Rev. Witt1am, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool.

tBannermann, James Alexander. Limefield House, Higher Broughton,
near Manchester.

tBarber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.

*Barbour, George. Bankhead, Broxton, Chester.

{Barbour, George F. 11 George-square, Edinburgh.

*Barbour, Robert. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

tBarclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.

Barclay, Charles, F.S.A. Bury Hill, Dorking.

tBarclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.

*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.

*Barclay, Robert. 21 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

10 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1868. *Barclay, W. L. 54 Lombard-street, London, EO.

1863. *Barford, James Gale, F.C.S. Wellington College, Wokingham,
Berkshire.

1860. *Barker, Rey. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory,
Nottingham.

1879. §Barker, Elliott. 2 High-street, Sheffield.

1857. {Barker, John, M.D., Curator of the Royal College of Surgeons of
Treland. 83 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

1879. *Barker, Rey. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Rotherham, Yorkshire,

1865. tBarker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1870. {Barxty, Sir Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 25 Queen’s-gate-
terrace, London, 8.W.

1873. {Barlow, Crawford, B.A. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, 8.W.

1878.§§ Barlow, John, M. D. The University, Glasgow.

Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of ¥F oot). & Great George-
street, Dublin.
Barlow, Peter. 10 Lower Mount-street, Dublin.

1857. {Bartow, Perer WIx1IAM, F.R.S., F.G.8. 26 Great George-street,
Westminster, 8. W.

1873.§§Bartow, W. H., C.E., F.R.S. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster,
S.W.

1861. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten-
ham.

1868.§§ Barnes, Richard H. (Care of Messrs. Collyer, 4 Bedford-row, London,
W.C.

Barnes, Thomas Addison. Grove Park, Wrexham.
*Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S. 3 Heath-terrace, Leamington.

1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.

1861. *Barr, William R., F.G.S. Fernside, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.

1860. {Barrett, T. B. High-street, Welshpool, Montgomery.

1872. *Barrert, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., F.C.S., Professor of Physics
in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1874. Barrington, R. M. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.

1874. §Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. 2 St. George’s Square, Worcester.

1866. {Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.

1858. {Barry, Rev, Canon; D.D., D.C.L., Principal of King’s College,
London, W.€.

1862. *Barry, Charles. 15 Pembridge-square, Bayswater, London, W.

1875. {Barry, John Wolfe. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

Barstow, Thomas. Garrow Hill, near York.

1858. *Bartholomew, Charles. Castle Hill House, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

1855. {Bartholomew, Hugh. New Gasworks, Glasgow.

1858. *Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House,Cumberland-road,
Headingley, Leeds.

1873.§§Bartley, George C. T. National Penny Bank, 270 Oxford-street,.
London, W.

1868, *Barton, Edward (27th Inniskillens). Clonelly, Ireland.

1857. {Barton, Folloit W. Clonelly, Co, Fermanagh.

1852. {Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.

1864. {Bartrum, John S. 41 Gay-street, Bath.

*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horn-

castle.

1876. {Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, London, W.

1876. {Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.

1866. *Bassert, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, London, N.

1866. {Bassett, Richard. Pelham-street, Nottingham.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 11

Election.

1869.

1871.

1848.
1873.
1868.

1842.

1864.

1852.
1851.

1869,

1863.
1861.
1867.
1867.
1867.
1868.
1851.

1866.
1854.

1875.
1876.
1860.
1872,
1870.

1859.
1864.

1860.

1866,
1870.

{Bastard, S.S. Summerland-place, Exeter.

tBasrran, H. Cuartron, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Pathological Anatomy at University College. 20 Queen Anne-
street, London, W.

{Barr, C. Spence, F.R.S., F.L.S. 8 Mulgrave-place, Plymouth.

*Bateman, Daniel. Low Moor, near Bradford, Yorkshire.

tBateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

Bateman, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.GS., F.L.S, 9 Hyde Park-

gate South, London, W.

*BAaTEMAN, JOHN Freperic, C.E., F.R.S., F:G.S., F.R.G.S. 16 Great
George-street, London, S.W.

{Barrs, Henry Watrter, Assist.-Sec. R.G.S., F.L.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W.

tBateson, Sir Robert, Bart. Belvoir Park, Belfast.

{Barn anp Wetts, The Right Rev. Lord ArrHur Hervey, Lord
Bishop of. The Palace, Wells, Somerset.

tBatten, John Winterbotham, 35 Palace-gardens-terrace, Kensing-
ton, London, W.

§BavERMAN, H., F.G.S. 41 Acre-lane, Brixton, London, 8. W.

TBaxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 108 Stock-street, Manchester.

Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.

{Baxter, John B. Craig Tay House, Dundee:

TBaxter, The Right Hon, William Edward, M.P. Ashcliffe, Dundee.

tBayes, William, M.D. 58 Brook-street, London, W.

*Bayley, George. 16 London-street, Fenchurch-street, London,
E.C

tBayley, Thomas. Lenton, Nottingham.
TBaylis, C. O., M.D. 22 Devonshire-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth.
*Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
*Baynes, Robert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
Bazley, Thomas Sebastian, M.A. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Glou-
cestershire,
*Buare, Lionet S., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathological Anatomy
in King’s College. 61 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
{Beanes, Edward, F.C.S. The White House, North Dulwich, Surrey,
E

S.E.

tBeard, Rev. Charles. 13 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liver-
pool.

*Beatson, William. Chemical Works, Rotherham.

. *Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.B.G.S.,.F.MS., F.S.8. 18 Picea-

dilly, London, W.

. “Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Chelmondiston Rectory, Ips-

wich.

. *Beazley, Major George G., F.R.G.S. 16 Holles-street, Cayendish-

square, London, W. ;
*Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 31 Cornhill, London, E.C.
§ Becker, Miss Lydia E. Whalley Range, Manchester.
}Broxres, Samvet H., F.R.S., F.G.S. 9 Grand-parade, St. Leonard’s-
on-Sea.
tBeddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham.
§Brppox, J oN, M.D., F.R.S. Clifton, Bristol.

1878.§§Bedson, P. Phillips, D.Sc. Oak Leigh, Marple, near Stockport.
1878. {Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-

1874.

shire.
tBelcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.

1873.§§Bell, A. P. Royal Exchange, Manchester.

12 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1871. §Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.
Bell, Frederick- John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.

1859." {Bell, George. Windsor-buildings, Dumbarton.

1860. tBell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.

1855. {Bell, Capt. Henry. Chalfont Lodge, Cheltenham.

1879, §Bell, Henry S. Kenwood Bank, Sharrow, Sheffield,

1862. *Brxi, Isaac Lowrutan, M.P., F, RS., F, O.S., M.LC.E. Rounton
Grange, Northallerton.

1875.§§Bell, James, F'.C.S. The Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
WC.

1871. *Bell, J. Carter, F.C.S. Kersal Clough, Higher Breughton, Man-
chester.
1853. {Bell, John Pearson, M.D. Waverley House, Hull.
1864. {Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.
1876. §Bell, R. Bruce. 2 Clifton-place, Glasgow.
Bett, THomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. The Wakes, Selborne, near
Alton, Hants.
1865. *Bell, Thomas. Crosby Court, Northallerton.
1867. {Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.
1875. {Bell, William. 36 Park-road, New Wandsworth, Surrey, 8. W.
1842. Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.
1854. t{Bellhouse, William Dawson. 1 Parke-street, Leeds,
Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Ireland.
1866. *BrLprr, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. 75
Eaton-square, London, 8. W. ; and Kingston Hall, Derby.
1864. *Bendyshe, T. 7 Belgrave-villas, Margate.
1870. {Bennerr, ALFRED W., M.A., B.Sc., “FLLS. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, NW.
1871. {Bennett, “FJ. 12 "Hillmar: ten-r oad, Camden-road, London, N.
1870. *Bennett, William. 109 Shaw-street, Liverpool.
1870. *Bennett, William, jun. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool.
1852. *Bennoch, Francis, S.A. 5 Tavistock-square, London, W.C
1857. {Benson, Charles. 11 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin.
Benson, Robert, jun. Fuirfield, Manchester.
1848. {Benson, Starling, F.G.S. Gloucester-place, Swansea.
1870. {Benson, W. Alresford, Hants.
1863. {Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1848. {BeytHam, GeoreE, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. 25 Wilton-place,
Knightsbridge, London, 8S. W.
1842. Bentley, John. 2 Portland-place, London, W.
1863.§§BEnttRY, Ropert, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College.
1 Trebovir-road, South Kensington, London, 8.W.
1875. {Beor, Henry R. Scientific Club, Savile-row, London, W.
1876. {Bergius, Walter C. 9 Loudon-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1868. { BERKELEY, Rey. M. J.. M.A., F.RS., F.L.S. Sibbertoft, Market
4 Harborough.
1863. {Berkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
1848. +Berrington, Arthur V. D. Woodlands Castle, near Swansea.
1870. {Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
1862. {Besant, William Henry, M.A., F.R.S. St. J ohn’s College, Cambridge.
1865. *BrsseMER, Sir Henry, F.R. S. Denmark Hill, Camberwell, London,
S.E.

1858. {Best, William. Leydon-terrace, Leeds.

Bethune, Admiral, C.B., F.R.G.S. Balfour, Fifeshire.
1876. *Bettany, G. T., B.A., B.Sc. Caius College, Cambridge,
1859. {Beveridge, Robert, M.B. 36 King-street, Aberdeen.
1874, *Beyington, James B. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 13

Year of
Election.

1863. tBewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.
*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. St. Mary's Vicarage, Leeds.
1870. {Bickerton, A.W., F.C.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton,
1863. tBigger, Benjamin. Gateshead, Durham.
1864. {Biegs, Robert. 16 Green Park, Bath.
1855. {Billings, Robert William. 4 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N:
Bilton, Rev. William, M.A., F.G.S. United University Club, Suffolk-
street, London, 8. W.
1877. {Binder, W. J., B.A. Barnsley.
1842. Ea Epwarp WrtiamM, F.C.8., F:G.S. Cheetham Hill, Man-
chester.
1873. {Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1879. §Binns, E. Knowles. 216 Heavygate-road, Sheffield:
Birchall, Edwin, F.L.8. Douglas, Isle of Man.
Birchall, Henry. College House, Bradford.
1866. *Birkin, Richard. Aspley Hall, near Nottingham.
*Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, M.A., Professor of Moral Philosophy in
the University of Cambridge. 6 Salisbury-villas, Cambridge.
1841. *Brrt, Wirtram Rapctirr, F.R.A.S. 3 Shrewsbury-villas, Water-
lane, Stratford, E.
1871. *BiscHor, Gustav.. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C.
1868. t{Bishop, John. Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
1866. tBishop, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham.
1877. {Biacurorp, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. Cornwood, Ivy-
bridge.
1869. {Blackall, Thomas. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.
1834. Blackburn, Bewicke. 14 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.
1876. tBlackburn, Hugh, M.A. The University, Glasgow.
Blackburne, Rey. John, M:A. Yarmouth, Isle of Wight.
Blackburne, Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip-
enham.
1877. {Blackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
1859. {Blackie, John Stewart, M.A., Professor of Greek in the University
of Edinburgh.
1876. {Blackie, Robert. 7 Great Western-terrace, Glasgow.
1855. *Brackiz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 17 Stanhope-street, Glascow.
1870. tBlackmore, W. Founder’s-court, Lothbury, London, E.C.
*BLACKWALL, Rev. Jomy, F.L.S. Hendre House, near Llanrwst,
Denbighshire.
1878. §Blair, Matthew. Oalshaw, Paisley.
1863. {Blake, C. Carter, D.Sc. Westminster Hospital School of Medi-
cine, Broad Sanctuary, Westminster, S.W.
1849, *Braxn, Henry Wottaston, M.A., F.R.S., F:R.G.S. 8 Devonshire
place, Portland-place, London, W.
1846. *Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.
1878. §Blakeney, Rev. Canon, M.A., D.D. The Vicarage, Sheffield.
1845. { Blakesley, Rev. J. W., B.D. Ware Vicarage, Hertfordshire.
1861.§§Blakiston, Matthew, F.R.G.S. 18 Wilton-crescent, London, S.W.
Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S. 140 Harley-street, London, W.
1868. {Blanc, Henry, M.D. 9 Bedford-street, Bedford-square, London, W.C.
1869. {Blanford, W. T., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S., Geological Survey of
India. Calcutta.
pee eaeLELD, Rey. Luonarp, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 19 Belmont,
Bath.
1878.§§ Blood, T. Lloyd.
Blore, Edward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.S.A. 4 Manchester-
square, London, W.

14 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1870, {Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire. ‘ ‘
1859. {Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex.
1859. {Blunt, Capt. Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.
Blyth, B. Hall. 155 George-street, Edinburgh.
1858. *Blythe, William. Holland Bank, Church, near Accrington.
1867. {Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.
1870. tBoardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich.
1866. §Bogg, Thomas Wemyss. 2 East Ascent, St. Leonard’s.
1876.§§ Bogue, David. 192 Piccadilly, London, W.
1859. *Bonn, Henry G., F.L.S., FLR.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.S.8. North End
House, Twickenham.
1871. tBohn, Mrs. North End House, Twickenham,
1859. {Bolster, Rev. Prebendary John A. Cork.
1876. {Bolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.
Bolton, R. L. Laurel Mount, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
1866. {Bond, Banks. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge.
1871. §Bonney, Rey. Thomas George, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. St.
John’s College, Cambridge.
1866. (Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.
1861. §Booth, James. Elmfield, Rochdale.
1861. *Booth, William. Hollybank, Cornbrook, Manchester.
1876. {Booth, William 1. Trinity College, Oxford.
1861. *Borchardt, Louis, M.D. Barton Arcade, Manchester.
1849, {Boreham, William W., F.R.A.S. The Mount, Haverhill, New-
market.
1876. *Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glaszow.
1863. [Borries, Theodore. Lovatine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1876. *Bosanquet, R. H. M., M.A., F.C.S., F.R.S.A. St. John’s College,
Oxford.
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
1867. §Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper
Norwood, London, S.E.
1858. {Botterill, John. Burley, near Leeds.
1872. {Bottle, Alexander. Dover.
1868. {Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.
1871. *Borromiry, JAMES THomson, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. The Univer-
sity, Glasgow.
Bottomley, William. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, London,
W.
1876.§§Bottomley, William, jun. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington,
London, W.
1850. {Bouch, Thomas, C.E, Oxford-terrace, Edinburgh.
1870. {Boult, Swinton. 1 Dale-street, Liverpool.
1868. {Boulton, W.S. Norwich.
1866. §Bournn, SterHen, F.S.8. Abberley, Wallington, Surrey.
1872. {Boyill, William Edward. 29 James-street, Buckingham-gate,
London, 8.W.
1870, {Bower, Anthony. Bowersdale, Seaforth, Liverpool.
1867. {Bower, Dr. John. Perth.
1856. *Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.

1863. {Bowmian, R. Benson. Neweastle-on-Tyne.

1869.
1865,

Bowman, William, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 5 Clifford-street, London,

W.
tBowring, Charles T. Elmsleigh, Prince’s-park, Liverpool.
tBowron, James. South Stockton-on-Tees.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 15

Year of
Election.

1863.§§Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham.

1871. tBoyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

1865. {BoyzE, Rey. G. D. Soho House, Handsworth, Birmingham.

1872. *Brasroox, E. W., F.S.A., Dir. A.I. 28 Abingdon-street, West-
minster, S,W.

1869. *Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.0.S. Cathcart House, Cathcart-road,

London, 8.W.
1870. tBrace, Edmund. 3 Spring-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Bracebridge, Charles Holt, F.R.G.S. The Hall, Atherstone, War-
wickshire.
1861. *Bradshaw, William. Slade House, Green-walk, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1842, *Brapy, Sir Anronio, J.P., F.G.S. Maryland Point, Stratford,
Essex, E.
1857, *Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.
Brady, Daniel F., M.D. 5 Gardiner’s-row, Dublin.

1863. {Brapy, Grorce 8., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in
the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 22 Faw-
cett-street, Sunderland.

1862.§§Brapy, Henry Bowman, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Hillfield, Gates-
head.

1875. {Bragge, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. Shirle Hill, Sheffield.

1864. §Braham, Philip, F.C.S. 6 George-street, Bath.

1870.§§Braidwood, Dr. Delemere-terrace, Birkenhead.

1864. §Braikenridge, Rev. George Weare, M.A., F.L.S. Clevedon, Somerset.

1879. §Bramley, Herbert. Claremont-crescent, Sheffield.

1865. §BramweELL, Freperick J., M.LC.E., F.R.S. 37 Great George-
street, London, S.W.

1872. {Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.

1867. tBrand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.

1861. *Brandreth, Rev. Henry. Dickleburgh Rectory, Scole, Norfolk.

1852. {Brazizr, James S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Marischal Col-
lege and University of Aberdeen.

1857. tBrazill, Thomas. 12 Holles-street, Dublin.

1869. *BREADALBANE, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Taymouth Castle,
N.B.; and Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.

1873. tBreffit, Edgar. Castleford, near Normanton.

1868. {Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.

1877. {Brent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.

1860. {Brett,G. Salford.

1866. {Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley.

1875.§§Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames.

1867. {Brmeman, WitttAm Kuncetey. 69 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

1870, *Bridson, Joseph R, Belle Isle, Windermere.

1870. {Brierley, Joseph, C.E. New Market-street, Blackburn.

1879. §Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.

1870. *Briee, Jonn. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1866. *Briggs, Arthur. Cragg Royd, Rawdon, near Leeds.

1866, {Briggs, Joseph. Barrow-in-Furness.

1863. *Brienr, Sir Cuartes Truston, C.E., F.G.8., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
20 Bolton-gardens, London, S.W.

1870. {Bright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash.

Bricur, The Right Hon. Jonny, M.P. Rochdale, Lancashire.
1868. {Brine, Commander Lindesay. Army and Navy Club, Pal! Mail,
London, S.W.

1879. §Brittain, Frederick. Taptonville-crescent, Sheffield.

1879. *Brirrain, W. H. Storth Oaks, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

1878.§§Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,

London, W.C.

16 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election,

1842. Broadbent, Thomas. Marsden-square, Manchester.

1859. *Bropuurst, BERNARD Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.S. 20 Grosvenor-
street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.

1847. tBropre, Sir Bensamin C., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Brockham Warren, Reigate.

1884. {Broprs, Rey. Jamus, F.G.S. Monimail, Fifeshire.

1865. {Bropre, Rey. Petar Bretreneer, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.

1853. {Bromby, J. H., M:A. The Charter House, Hull.

1878. *Brook, George, F.L.S. Huddersfield, Yorkshire.

1855. {Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.

1864, *Brooke, Rey. J. Ingham. Thornhill Rectory, Dewsbury.

1855. {Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.

1878.§§Brooke, Sir Victor, Bart., F.L.S. Colebrook, Brookeborough, Co.
Fermanagh.

1863.§ §Brooks, John Crosse. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1846. *Brooks, Thomas. Cranshaw Hall, Rawtenstall, Manchester.

Brooks, William. Ordfall Hill, Kast Retford, Nottinghamshire.
1874. tBroom, William. 20 Woodlands-terrace; Glasgow.
1847. {Broome, O. Edward, F.L.S. Elmhurst, Batheaston, near Bath.
*Broun, JoHN ALLAN, F.R.S. 9 Abercorn-place, St. John’s Wood,
London, N.W.

1863. *Brown, ALEXANDER Orvum, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.8., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8. Belgraye-
crescent, Ndinburgh.

1867. {Brown, Charles Gage, M.D. 88 Sloane-street, London,.S.W.

1855. {Brown, Oolin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.

1871.§§Brown, David. 93 Abbey-hill, Edinburgh.

1863, *Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.

1870. §Brown, Horace'T, The Bank, Burton-on-Trent.

Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.

1870. *Brown, J. Campsett, D:Se., F.C.S. Royal Infirmary School of
Medicine, Liverpool.

1876, tBrown, John. Edenderry House, Belfast.

1859. {Brown, Rev. John Crombie, LL.D., F.L.S. Berwick-on-Tweed.

1874. tBrown, John 8. Edenderry, Shaw’s Bridge, Belfast.

1863, {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

1871. tBrown, Ropert, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 26 Guildford-
road, Albert-square, London, S.W.

1868. {Brown, Samuel. Grafton House, Swindon, Wilts.

*Brown, Thomas. Evesham Lawn, Pittville, Cheltenham.
*Brown, William. 11 Maiden-terrace, Dartmouth Park, London, N.

1855. {Brown, William. 33 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.

1850. {Brown, William, F.R.S.E. 25 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.

1865. {Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.

1879. §Browne, J. Crichton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 7 Cumberland-terrace,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

1866. *Browne, Rey. J. H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham.

1862. *Browne, Robert Clayton, jun., B.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ive-
land.

1872. {Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Northside, St. John’s, Sevenoaks,
Kent.

1875. tBrowne, Walter R. Bridgwater.

1865. *Browne, William, M.D. ‘The Friary, Lichfield.

1865. {Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 111 Minories, London, E.

1855. {Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.

1853. {Brownlow, William B. Villa-place, Hull.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 17

Year of

Election.

1863. *Brunel, H. M. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
1863. {Brunel, J. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
1875.

1875.
1868

“Brunlees, James, C.l., F.G.S. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.

{Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Brounton, T. Lauper, M.D., F.R.S. 50 Welbeck-street, London,
W

1878.§§Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.

1877.
1875.
1875.
1861.
1859.
1867,
1871.

1867.

1871.
1864,

1865.
1848.

1869.
1851.

1848.

{Bryant, George. 82 Claverton-street, Pimlico, London, 8.W.
{Bryant, G. Squier. 15 White Ladies’-road, Clifton, Bristol.
tBryant, Miss 8. A. The Castle, Denbigh.

{Bryce, James. York-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

Bryce, Rev. R. J., LL.D., Principal of Belfast Academy. Belfast.

{Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen.

{Buccievcn AND QuEENSBERRY, His Grace the Duke of, K.G.,D.0.L. ;
E.RS. L, & E., F.L.S. Whitehall-gardens, London, S.W. ; and
Dalkeith House, Edinburgh.

§Bucuan, ALEXANDER, M.A., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish Meteorological
Society. 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.

tBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.

Bucuanan, Anpvrew, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine
in the University of Glasgow, 4 Ethol-place, Glasgow.

Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire.

Buchanan, D. C. Poulton-cum-Seacombe, Cheshire,

{Buchanan, John Young. 10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

§Bucxiz, Rev. Groner, M.A. The Rectory, Weston-super-
Mare.

“Buckley, Henry, 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*BuckMAN, Professor Jams, F.L.S., 7.G.8. Bradford Abbas, Sher-
borne, Dorsetshire.

{Bucknill, J. C., M.D., F.R.S. 39 Wimpole-street, London, W.

*Buckton, George Boworer, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.

*Bupp, James Parmer. Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea.

1875.§§Budgett, Samuel. Cotham House, Bristol.
1871.§§Bulloch, Matthew. 11 Park-circus, Glasgow.
1

845.
1865.
1863.

1842,
1875.
1869.
1874.
1872.
1876.
1859.
1877.
1860,
1877.
1874,
1866.
1879,
1864,

“Buysury, Sir Cuartes James Fox, Bart., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S._ Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds.

{Bunce, John Mackray. ‘Journal’ Office, New-street, Birming-
ham.

§Bunning, T. Wood. Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers,
Newcastle-on-Tyne,

*Burd, John. 5 Gower-street, London, W.C.

TBurder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.

{Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.

{Burdon, Henry, M.D. Clandeboye, Belfast.

“Burgess, Herbert. 62 High-street, Battle, Sussex.

{Burnet, John, 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

{Burnett, Newell. Belmont-street, Aberdeen.

tBurns, David, C.E. Alston, Carlisle.

{Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.

tBurt, J. Kendall. Kendal.

{Burt, Rey. J.T. Broadmoor, Berks.

“Burton, Freperick M., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.

§Bury, Percy B. Cambridge.

Bush, W. 7 Circus, Bath.

Bushell, Christopher. Royal Assurance-buildings, Liverpool.
B

18

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1855. *Busx, Gores, F.R.S., V.P.L.S., F.G.S. 52 Harley-street, Cayen-

dish-square, London, W.

1878.§§BurcuER, J.G., M.A. 22 Collingham-place, London, 8.W.

1872.
1870,
1868.
1872.
1854.

1852.
1875.

1858.
1863.
1858,

{Buxton, Charles Louis. Oromer, Norfolk.
{Buxton, David, Ph.D. 1 Nottingham-place, London, W.
Buxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
TBuxton, Sir T. Fowell, Bart. Warlies, Waltham Abbey, Essex.
{Byprzey, Isaac, F.L.S. Seacombe, Liverpool.
Byng, William Bateman. 2 Bank-street, Ipswich.
{Byrne, Very Rev. James. ~ Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh,
§Byrom, W. Ascroft, F.G.S. 27 King-street, Wigan.

§Cail, John. Stokesley, Yorkshire.

tCail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.

*Cuine, Rev. William, M.A. Christ Church Rectory, Denton, near
Manchester.

1876.§§Caird, Alexander M‘Neel. Genoch, Wigtownshire.

1863.

{Oaird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.

1876. {Caird, Edward B. 8 Scotland~street, Glasgow.
1861. *Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.

1855.
1875.
1877.
1868.
1868.
1857.

1858.
1876.
1857.
1870.
1857.

1874.

*Caird, James Tennant. Belleaire, Greenock.

tCaldicott, Rev. J. W., D.D. The Grammar School, Bristol.

tCaldwell, Miss. 2 Victoria-terrace, Portobello, Edinburgh.

TCaley, A. J. Norwich.

{tCaley, W. Norwich.

Tow Esk N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
ollege.

{Calver, Cay tain E. K., R.N., F.R.S. The Grange, Redhill, Surrey.

{Cameron, Shares, M.D., LL.D., M.P. 1 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.

{Campron, CuartEs A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

tCameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

Cane Dugald, F.C.S. 7 Quality-court, Chancery-lane, London,

*CAMPBELL, Sir Grores, K.O.S.1., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. 18 Corn-
wall-gardens, South Kensington, London, §.W.; and Eden-
wood, Cupar, Fife.

Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square,
Penden, W.; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwick-
shire.

1876. {Campbell, James A. 3 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

1872.

1859.
1871.

1876.
1862.
1868.
1873.

1877.
1876.

Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh.
tCampsett, Rey. J. R., D.D. 5 Eldon-place, Manningham-lane,
Bradford, Yorkshire.
tCampbell, William. Dunmore, Argyllshire.
tCampbell, William Hunter, LL.D. Georgetown, Demerara, British
Se (Messrs. Ridgway & Sons, 2 Waterloo-place, London,
NY s)
CAMPBELL-J OHNSTON, ALEXANDER Ropert, F.R.S. 84 St. George’s-
square, London, S.W.
§Campion, Frank, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. The Mount, Duffield-road, Derby.
*Campion, Rey. Dr. Wirt1am M. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
*Cann, William. 9 Southernhay, Exeter.
*Carbutt, Edward Hamer, C.E. St. Ann’s, Burley, Leeds, Yorkshire.
*Carew, William Henry Pole. Antony, Torpoint, Devonport.
tCarkeet, John, O.E. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.
}Carlile, Thomas. 5 St. James’s-terrace, Glasgow.
oe Right Rey. Harygy Goopwin, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
arlisle.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 19

Year of
Election.

1861. {Carlton, James. Mosley-street, Manchester.

1867. {Oarmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.

1867, {Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee.

Carmichael, John T. C. Messrs. Todd § Co., Cork.

1876. {Carmichael, Neil, M.D, 22 South Cumberland-street, Glasgow.

1871. {CarpenrEeR, Cartes. Brunswick-square, Brighton.

1871. *Carpenter, P. Herbert, M.A. Eton College, Windsor.

1854, {Carpenter, Rev. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.

1845, {CarPENTER, WILLIAM B., O.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Registrar of the University of London. 56 Regent’s Park-
road, London, N.W.

1872. §CARPENTER, WILLIAM Lant, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S. Winifred House,
Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1842. *Carr, William, M.D., F.L.S., F.R.C.S. Lee Grove, Blackheath,
London, 8.E.

1867.§§CarrutHers, WittiaM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. British Museum,
London, W.O. ;

1861. *Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.R.I.A. 18 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

1857. {Carrs, ALEXANDER, M.D. Royal Dublin Society, Dublin.

1868. {Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.

1866, {Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.

1855, {Carter, Richard, C.E., F.G.8. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

1870. {Carter, Dr. William. 62 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.

*CARTMELL, Rey. James, D.D., F.G.S., Master of Christ’s College.

Christ College Lodge, Cambridge.

1878. §Cartwright, H.8., LL.B. Magherafelt Manor, Co, Derry.

1870.§§Cartwright, Joshua, A.I.C.E., Borough Surveyor. Bury, Lancashire.

1862. {Carulla, Facundo, F.A.S.L. Care of Messrs. Daglish and Co., 8 Har-
rington-street, Liverpool.

1868. {Cary, Joseph Henry. Newmarket-road, Norwich.

1866. {Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S. 147 Holborn Bars, London, E.C.

1878.§§Casey, John, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Higher Mathe-
matics in the Catholic University of Ireland. 2 Iona-terrace,
South Circular-road, Dublin.

1871. {Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.

1873. *Cash, William, F.G.S. 88 Elmfield-terrace, Saville Park, Halifax.

Castle, Charles. Clifton, Bristol.

1874. {Caton, Richard, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpool
Medical School. 184 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

1853. tCator, John B., Commander R.N. 1 Adelaide-street, Hull.

1859. {Catto, Robert, 44 King-street, Aberdeen.

1873. *Cavendish, Lord Frederick, M.P. 21 Carlton House-terrace, London,

V

S.W.
1849, {Cawley, Charles Edward. The Heath, Kirsall, Manchester,
1860.§§Cayztey, ArtHur, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., Sadlerian Professor
of Mathemathics in the University of Cambridge. Garden
House, Cambridge.
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
1871. *Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.
1879. §Chadburn, Alfred. Brincliffe Rise, Sheffield.
1870. {Chadbum, C. H. Lord-street, Liverpool.
1858. *Chadwick, Charles, M.D. Lynncourt, Broadwater Down, Tunbridge
Wells.
1860. {Cuapwick, Davin, M.P. The Poplars, Herne Hill, London, 8.E.
1842. CHapwicx, Epwiy, C.B. Richmond, Surrey.
1859, {Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.
B2

20 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1861. {Chadwick, Thomas. Wilmslow Grange, Cheshire.

*CuHALLIs, Rey. Jamus, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian Professor of”

Astronomy in the University of Cambridge. 2 Trumpington-
street, Cambridge.
1859. {Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.
1865. {CHamBerRLAIN, J. H. Christ Church-buildings, Birmingham.
1868. {Chamberlain, Robert. Catton, Norwich.
1842. Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield.
1868. {Chambers, W.O. Lowestoft, Suffolk.
1877. *Champernowne, Arthur, M.A., F.G.S. Dartington Hall, Totnes,
Devon.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.
1865. tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. *Chance, James T, Four Oaks Park, Sutton Coldfield, Birmingham.
1865.§§Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1861. *Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Frewen Hall, Oxford.
1877.§§Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. Burghill, Hereford.
1866. {Chapman, William. The Park, Nottingham.

1871. anesaer William, F.S.A. Strafford Lodge, Oatlands Park, Wey--

ridge Station.
1874. {Charles, John James, M.A., M.D. 11 Fisherwick-place, Belfast.
1871. {Charles, T. C., M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.
1836. CHARLESwoRTH, Epwarp, F.G.S. 277 Strand, London, W.C.
1874. {Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.
1863. {Charlton, Edward, M.D. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1866. {CHarnock, Ricwarp SrepHEN, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Junior
Garrick Club, Adelphi-terrace, London, W.C.
Chatto, W. J. P. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, S.W.
1867. *Chatwood, Samuel. 5 Wentworth-place, Bolton.

1864, {CumapiE, W. B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum--

berland-gate, London, S.W.
1874, *Chermside, Lieutenant H.C., R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co.,
Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, S. W.
1879. *Chesterman, W. Broomserove-road, Sheffield. :
1879. §Cheyne, Commander J. P., R.N. 1 Westgate-terrace, West Bromp-
ton, London, 8.W.
1872.§§CuicHEster, The Right Hon. the Earl of, Stanmer House, Lewes.
CuicuEsTerR, The Right Rev. Rrcuarp Durnrorp, D.D., Lord
Bishop of. Chichester.
1865. *Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Cowley House, Oxford.
1842. *Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-groye, Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
1863. {Cholmeley, Rey. C. H. Dinton Rectory, Salisbury.
1859. {Christie, John, M.D. 46 School-hill, Aberdeen.
1861. {Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
Curistison, Sir Rozert, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Dietetics, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy in the University
of Edinburgh. Edinburgh.
1875. apes oa George, F.C.S. 8 Rectory-grove, Clapham, London,
W

1876. *Curystat, G., B.A., Professor of Mathematics. The University,
St. Andrews, N.B.

1870.§§Caurcu, A. H., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Agri-
cultural College, Cirencester.

1860. {Church, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London,
E.C

1857. tChurchill, F., M.D. Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Oo. Tyrone.
1868. {Clabburn, W. H. Thorpe, Norwich.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 23

Year of
‘Election.

1863. {Clapham, A. 3 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1863. {Clapham, Henry. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1855.§§OLapHAm, Roperr Catverr. Earsdon House, Earsdon, Newcastle-
on-T'yne.
1869.§§Clapp, Frederick. 44 Magdalen-street, Exeter.
1857. {Clarendon, Frederick Villiers. 1 Belvidere-place, Mountjoy-square,
Dublin.
1859. {Clark, David. Coupar Angus, Fifeshire.
1876. {Clark, David P. Glasgow.
1877. *Clark, F. J. 20 Bootham, York.
Clark, G.T. Bombay; and Athenzeum Club, London, 8. W.
1876. {Clark, George W. Glasgow.
1876. {Clark, Dr. John, 138 Bath-street, Glasgow.
1861. {Clark, Latimer. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street, London,
S.W.
1855. {Clark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
1865. {Clarke, Rev. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1875. {Clarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
Clarke, George. Mosley-street, Manchester.
1872. *CLaRkE, HypE. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
1875. {Crarxe, Joun Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
1861. *Clarke, John Hope. Lark Hill House, Edgeley, Stockport.
1877. {Clarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, Illinois.
1851. {Ciarxs, Josuua, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden.
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire.
1861. {Clay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester.
*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S. Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire.
1856, *Clay, Colonel William. The Slopes, Wallasea, Cheshire.
1866. {Clayden, P. W. 15 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.
1850. {CrecHorN, Hoven, M.D., F.L.S., late Conservator of Forests, Madras.
Stravithie, St. Andrews, Scotland.
1859. {Cleghorn, John. Wick.
1875. {Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucester-
shire.
1861. Sa ae Joun, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the Univer-
of Glasgow. 2 College, Glasgow.
1857. feieruenis Henry. _Dromin, Listowel, Treland.
{Clerk, Rev. D. M. ° Deverill, Warminster, Wiltshire.
1852. {Clibborn, Edward. Royal Trish Academy, Dublin.
1873. §Cliff, John, F.G.S. Halton, Runcorn.
1861. *Cxreron, R. Betiamy, M. A. , F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Portland
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford.
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
1854. {Close, The Very Rev. Francis, M.A. Carlisle.
1878.§§Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G. 8. 40 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
1866. §Ciosn, THomas, F.S.A. St. James’s-street, Nottingham.
1873. {Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.
1859. {Clouston, Rey. Charles. Sandwick, Orkney.
1861. *Clouston, Peter. 1 Park Terrace, Glasgow.
1863. *Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.
1868. {Coaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.
1855, *Coats, Sir Peter. Woodside, Paisley.
1855. *Coats, Thomas. Fergeslie House, Paisley.
Cobb, Edward. 138 Great Bedford-street, Bath.
1851. *Connorp, Joun CHEVALLIER. Holywells, Ipswich ; and Athenzeum
Club, London, 8. W.

22 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1864. {Cosponp, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany
and Helminthology in the Royal Veterinary College, London,
74 Portsdown-road, Maida Hill, London, W.

1864, *Cochrane, James Henry. Monmouth House, Wellington-terrace,
Clevedon, Somersetshire.

1861, *Coe, Rey. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Highfield, Manchester-road,
Bolton.

1865. {Coghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.

1876, tColbourn, E. Rushton. 5 Marchmont-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

1853. tColchester, William, F.G.S. Springfield House, Ipswich.

1868. {Colchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.

1879. §Cole, Skelton. 387 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

1876.§§Colebrooke, Sir T. E., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. 14 South-street, Park—
lane, London, W.; and Abington House, Abington, N.B.

1860. {Coleman, J. J., F.C.S. 69 St. George’s-place, Glaseow.

1878. §Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row,.
London, W.

1854, *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.

1857. {Colles, William, M.D, 21 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

1869. {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.

1854. {Cottinewoop, Curnpert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 4 Grove-terrace,.
Belvedere-road, Upper Norwood, Surrey, S.E.

1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. | Anthropological Institute, 4 St.
Martin’s-place, London, W.C.

1865. *Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1876. §Cottins, J. H., F.G.S. 57 Lemon-street, Truro, Cornwall.

1876. {Collins, William. 3 Park-terrace East, Glasgow.

Collis, Stephen Edward. Listowel, Ireland.

1868. *Cortman, J. J.,M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-
street, London, E.C.

1870. {Coltart, Robert. The Hollies, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.

Colthurst, John. Clifton, Bristol.
1874. {Combe, James. Ormiston House, Belfast.
“Compton, The Ven. Lord Atwyn. Castle Ashby, Northampton-

shire; and 145 Piccadilly, London, W.

1846. *Compton, Lord William. 145 Piccadilly, London, W.

1852. {Connal, Michael. 16 Lynedock-terrace, Glasgow.

1871. *Connor, Charles C. Hope House, College Park East, Belfast.

1876. {Cook, James. 162 North-street, Glasgow.

1876. *Cooxr, Conran W., C.E. 5 Westminster Chambers, London,
S.W,

1863. {Cooxn, Epwarp Witt1am, R.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S., F.G.S8.
Glen Andred, Groombridge, Sussex; and Athenzeum Club, Pall
Mall, London, 8. W.
1868. {Cooke, Rey. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.
Cooke, James R., M.A. 73 Blessington-street, Dublin.
Cooke, J. B. Cavyendish-road, Birkenhead.
1868. {Cooxx, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, London, N.
1878.§§Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.
Cooke, Rev. T. L., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
1859. *Cooke, William Henry, M.A., Q.C., F.S.A. "42 Wimpole-street,
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton.
1865. tCooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
1868. {Cookson, N. C. Benwell Tower, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1869. §Cooling, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Mile Ash, Derby.
1850. {Coorrr, Sir Henry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-street, Hull.
Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 28

Year of

' Election.

1879. §Cooper, Thomas. Rose Hill, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
1875. {Cooper, T. T., F.R.G.S. Care of Messrs. King & Co., Cornhill,
London, E.C.
1868. {Cooper, W. J. The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey.
1846. {Cooper, William White, F.R.C.S. 19 Berkeley-square, London, W.
1878.§§Cope, Rev. 5S. W. Bramley, Leeds.
1871. {Copeland, Ralph, Ph.D. Parsonstown, Ireland.
1868. t{Copeman, Edward, M.D. Upper King-street, Norwich.
1863. {Coppin, John. North Shields.
1842. Corbett, Edward. Ravenoak, Cheadle-hulme, Cheshire.
1855. {Corbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology
in Queen’s College, Cork.
1870. *Corrretp, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiéne and
Public Health in University College. 10 Bolton-row, Mayfair,
London, W.
Cory, Rev. Robert, B.D., F.C.P.S. Stanground, Peterborough.
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.
1857. {Cottam, Samuel. Brazenose-street, Manchester.
1855. {Cotterill, Rey. Henry, Bishop of Edinburgh. Edinburgh.
1874, *Cotterill, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics. Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
1879. §Cottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallett, Somerset.
1864, {Corron, General Freprerick C., R.E., C.S.I. 13 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, London, 8. W.
1869. {Corron, Witt1am. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
*Cotton, Rey. William Charles, M.A. Vicarage, Frodsham, Cheshire.
1876, {Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
1876, {Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
1874. {Courtauld, John M. Bocking Bridge, Braintree, Essex.
1865, {Courtauld, Samuel, F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, London, W.; and
Gosfield Hall, Essex.
1834. {Cowan, Charles. 38 West Register-street, Edinburgh.
1876. tCowan, J. B. 159 Bath-street, Glascow.
Oowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.
1863. {Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.
1863. {Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
1872, *Cowan, Thomas William. Comptons Lea, Horsham.
1873. *Cowans, John. Cranford, Middlesex.
Cowie, The Very Rey. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., B.D., Dean of Man-
chester. The Deanery, Manchester.
1871. {Cowper, C. E. 3 Great George-street, Westminster, S. W.
1860. {Cowper, Edward Alfred, M.I.C.E. 6 Great George-street, West-
minster, 8. W.
1867. *Cox, Edward. 18 Windsor-street, Dundee.
1867. *Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
1867. tCox, James. Clement Park, Lochee, Dundee.
1870. *Cox, James. 8 Falkner-square, Liverpool.
1867. *Cox, Thomas Hunter. Duncarse, Dundee.
1867. {Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.
1866. *Cox, William H. 50 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
1871. {Cox, William J. 2 Vanburgh-place, Leith.
Craig, J. T. Gibson, F.R.S.E, 24 York-place, Edinburgh.
1859. {Craig, S. The Wallands, Lewes, Sussex’.
1876. {Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B.
1857. poeseyton, ex siuan The Rectory, Florence Court,Co. Fermanagh,
reland.
1879. §Crampton, Thomas Russell. 13 Victoria-street, London, S.W.

24 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1858. {Cranage, Edward, Ph.D, The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.

1876. {Crawford, Chalmond, M.P. Ridemon, Giessen

1871. *Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. Hobart House, Eskbank, near
Edinburgh.

1871. {Crawshaw, Edward. Burnley, Lancashire.

1870. *Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cyfarthfa Castle, Merthyr Tydvil.

1879. §Creswick, Nathaniel. Handsworth Grange, near Sheffield.

1876, *Crewdson, Rev. George. St. George’s Vicarage, Kendal.

Creyke, The Venerable Archdeacon. Bolton Percy Rectory, Tad-

caster.

1858. {Crofts, John. Hillary-place, Leeds.

1878. §Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. The French College, Blackrock; and
79 Strand-road, Sandymount, Dublin.

1859, Croll, A. A. 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C.

1857. {Crolly, Rey. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.

1866. {Cronin, William. 4 Brunel-terrace, Nottingham.

1870. {Crookes, Joseph. Marlborough House, Brook Green, Hammersmith,
London, W.

1865. §CRooxzs, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Mornington-road, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.

1879. §Crookes, Mrs. 20 Mornington-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

1855. {Cropper, Rey. John. Wareham, Dorsetshire.

1870. {Crosfield, C. J. 16 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1870. {Crosfield, William, sen. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.

1870, *Crosfield, William, jun, 16 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liver-

ool.
1861. Cree Rey. John Edward, M.A. Appleby Vicarage, near Brigg.
1868. {Crosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1867. §§CrosskEy, Rey. H. W., F.G.S. 28 George-road, pence Bir-
mingham,
1858. {Crosskill, William, C.E. Beverley, Yorkshire.
1870. *Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax.
1871. {Crossley, Herbert. Broomfield, Halifax.
1866. *Crossley, Louis J., F.M.S. Moorside Obser vatory, near Halifax.
1861.§§Crowley, Henry. ” ‘Trafalgar-road, Birkdale Park, Southport.
1863. {Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1860. tCruickshank, John. City of Glasgow Bank, Aberdeen.
1859. tCruickshank, Provost. Macduff, Aberdeen,
1873, {Crust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.
Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
1878. §Oulverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.
1859. {Cumming, Sir A. P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre.
1874. {Cumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.
1861. *Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester.
1861. *Ounliffe, Peter Gibson. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester.
1877.§§Cunningham, D. J., M.D. University of Edinburgh.
1852. {Cunningham, John, Macedon, near Belfast.
1869. {CunnineHaM, Rosert O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural His-
tory in Queen’ s College, Belfast.
1855. {Cunningham, William A. 2 Broadwalk, Buxton.
1850, {Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.
1866. Cu John. 68 Oakley-square, Bedford New Town, London,

1867. “Outeotion Manockjee, F.R.G.S., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla,
Bombay.

1857. {Curtis, Professor ArTHuR Him, LL.D. Queen’s College,
Galway.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 25

Year of
Election.

1878. §Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.
1884, *Cuthbert, John Richmond. 40 Chapel-street, Liverpool.

1863. {Daglish, John. Hetton, Durham.
1854. {Daglish, Robert, C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
1863, tDale, J.B. South Shields.
1853. {Dale, Rev. P. Steele, M.A. Hollingfare, Warrington.
1865, {Dale, Rev. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.
1867. {Dalgleish, W. Dundee.
1870, {Dallinger, Rev. W. H. The Parsonage, Woolton, Liverpool.
Dalmahoy, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Forres-street, Edinburgh.
1859, {Dalrymple, Charles Elphinstone. West Hall, Aberdeenshire.
1859, {Dalrymple, Colonel. Troup, Scotland.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.S.A. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.
*Dalton, Rev. J. E., B.D. Seagrave, Loughborough.
Dalziel, John, M.D. Holm of Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfries-
shire.
1862, {Dansy, T. W. Downing College, Cambridge.
1859. {Dancer, J. B., F.R.A.S. Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester,
1873. {Danehill, F. H. Vale Hall, Horwich, Bolton, Lancashire.
1876, {Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.
1849, *Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.
1861, *DarsisuirE, Ropert DUKINFIELD, B.A.,F.G.S. 26 George-street,
Manchester.
1876, {Darling, G. Erskine. 247 West George-street, Glascow.
Darwin, Cuartes R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., Hon. F.R.S.E.
and M.R.IL.A. Down, near Bromley, Kent.
1878. §Darwin, Horace. Down, near Bromley, Kent.
1848, {DaSilva, Johnson. Burntwood, Wandsworth Common, London,
S.W

1878.§§D’Aulmay, G. 22 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin.
1872.§§Davenport, John T. 64 Marine Parade, Brighton.
Davey, Richard, F.G.S. Redruth, Cornwall.
1870. {Davidson, Alexander, M.D, 8 Peel-street, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
1859. {Davidson, Charles. Grove House, Auchmull, Aberdeen.
1871. {Davidson, James. Newbattle, Dalkeith, N.B.
1859, {Davidson, Patrick. Inchmarlo, near Aberdeen.
1872. {Davinson, Tuomas, F.R.S., F.G.S8. 3 Leopold-road, Brighton.
1875. {Davies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.
1870. {Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
1863. {Davies, Griffith. 17 Cloudesley-street, Islington, London, N.
1842, Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. Newton, near Chester.
1873. *Davis, Alfred. Sun Foundry, Leeds.
1870. *Dayvis, A.S. Mornington Villa, Leckhampton-road, Cheltenham,
1864, {Davis, Cuartes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Davis, Rey. David, B.A. Lancaster.
1873. *Davis, James W., F.G.S., F.S.A. Chevinedge, near Halifax.
1856, *Davis, Sir Jonn Francis, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Holly-
wood, near Compton, Bristol.
1859. {Davis, J. Barnard, M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. Shelton, Hanley, Staf-
fordshire.
1859. *Davis, Richard, F.L.S. 9 St. Helen’s-place, London, H.C,
1873. {Davis, William Samuel. 1 Cambridge Villas, Derby.
1864, *Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
1857. {Davy, ai W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin. :
1869, {Daw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.

26 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1869. {Daw, R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
1854. *Dawbarn, William. Elmswood, Aigburth, Liverpool.
Dawes, John Samuel, F.G.S. Lappel Lodge, Quinton, near Bir-
mingham.
1860. *Dawes, John T., jun. Llanferris, Mold, North Wales.
1864. {Dawxrys, W. Boyn, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Birchview, Nor-
man-road, Rusholme, Manchester.
Dawson, John. Barley House, Exeter.
1855. {Dawson, Joun W., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Principal of M‘Gill
College, Montreal, Canada.
1859. *Dawson, Captain William G. Plumstead Common-road, Kent,
S.E

1879. §Day, Francis. Kenilworth House, Cheltenham.

1871. tDay, Sv. Jomn Vincent, C.E., F.R.S.E. 166 Buchanan-street,
Glasgow.

1870. §Dracon, G. F., M.I.C.E. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.

1861. {Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.

1859. tDean, David. Banchory, Aberdeen.

1861. {Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.

1870. *Deane, Rev. George, B.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Spring Hill College,
Moseley, near Birmingham.

1866. {Drsvus, Heryricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., Lecturer on Chemistry
at Guy’s Hospital, London, 8.E.

1878. §Delany, Rey. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.

1854, *Dze La Run, Warren, M.A., D.C.L., Ph.D. F.RS., F.CS.,
F.R.A.S. 73 Portland-place, London, W.

1879. §De la Sala, Colonel. Sevilla House, Navarino-road, London, N.W.

1870. {De eee, Thomas, M.A., LL.D. 4 Hare-court, Temple, London,

Denchar, John. Morningside, Edinburgh.
1875, {Denny, William. Seven Ship-yard, Dumbarton.
Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.
1870. *Denton, J. Bailey. 22 Whitehall-place, London, 8.W.
1874, §De Rancz, Cuartes E., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.
1856. *DerBy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 23 St.
James’s-square, London, S.W.; and Knowsley, near Liver-.

ool.
1874, Ragin: Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. Henleaze Park, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol.
1878.§§De Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India.
De Saumarez, Rev. Havilland, M.A. St. Peter's Rectory, North-
ampton.
1868. tDessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 43 Kensington Gardens-square,
Bayswater, London, W.
Dr Tastzy, Grorer, Lord, F.Z.S. Tabley House, Knutsford,
Cheshire.
1869. tDnvon, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Powderham Castle,
near Exeter.
*DrvonsHirE, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S8., F.R.G.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
Devonshire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth,
Derbyshire.
1868, {Dewar, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Fullerian Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and Jacksonian
Professor of Natural Experimental Philosophy in the University
of Cambridge. Brookside, Cambridge.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 27

Election.

1872.
1873.
1852,
1864,

1863.
1867,

1862.

{Dewick, Rey. E.S. The College, Eastbourne, Sussex.

*Drew-SmirH, A.G. 7a Eaton-square, London, 8. W.

{Dicxre, Grorer, M.A., M.D., F.L.8., Professor of Botany in the
University of Aberdeen.

*Dickinson, F.H., F.G.S. Kineweston, Somerton, Taunton; and 121
St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.

{Dickinson, G. T. Claremont-place, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

{Dickson, ALEXANDER, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University
of Glasgow. 11 Royal-circus, Edinburgh.

*Diixr, Sir Cuartes WentwortH, Bart, M.P., F.R.G.S. 76
Sloane-street, London, S. W.

1877.§§Dillon, James, C.E. 46 Morehampton-road, Dublin.

1848,

1872.
1869.
1859.
1876.

1868,
1874.
18538.
1879.
1861.

1851.
1860.

1878.

1864,
1875.
1870.
1876.

1851.
1867,
1867.
1873.
1869.
1877.
1874.
1861.
1857.

1857.
1867.
1871.
1863.
1876.
1877.

{Driutwyy, Lewis Lrewntyn, M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S. Parkwerne,
near Swansea.

§Divnzes, Grorer. Woodside, Hersham, Walton-on-Thames.

{Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.

*Dingle, Rey. J. Lanchester Vicarage, Durham.

}Ditchfield, Arthur. 12 Taviton-street, Gordon-square, London,
W.C.

{Dittmar, W. Andersonian University, Glasgow.

*Dixon, A. EK. Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast.

{Dixon, Edward, M.I.C.E. Wilton House, Southampton.

§Dixon, Harold B. Balliol College, Oxford.

{Drxon, W. Hepwortn, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 6 St. James’s-terrace,
Regent’s Park, London, N. W.

*Dobbin, Leonard, M.R.I.A. 27 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin.

tDobbin, Orlando T., LL.D., M.R.I.A. Ballivor, Kells, Co. Meath.

*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne Park, London,
W

*Dosson, G. E., M.A., M.B., F.L.S. Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley,
Southampton.

*Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.

*Docwra, George, jun. Grosyenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

*Dodd, John. 6 Thomas-street, Liverpool.

{Dodds, J. M. 15 Sandyford-place, Glasgow.

*Dodsworth, Benjamin. Burton House, Scarborough.

*Dodsworth, George. The Mount, York.

Dolphin, John. Delvyes House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead.

tDomvile, William C., F.Z.S. Thorn Hill, Bray, Dublin.

{Don, John. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

{Don, William G. St. Margaret’s, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

{Donham, Thomas. Huddersfield.

tDonisthorpe,G. T, St. David’s Hill, Exeter.

*Donkin, Bryan, jun. May’s Hill, Shortlands, Kent.

{Donnell, Professor, M.A. 76 Stephen’s-green South, Dublin.

{Donnelly, Captain, R.E. South Kensington Museum, London, W.

*DonneELLY, WILLIAM, C.B., Registrar-General for Ireland. Charle-
mont House, Dublin. :

tDonoyan, M., M.R.I.A. Clare-street, Dublin.

{Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.

{Dougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glasgow.

*Doughty, Charles Montagu. iti cbarton Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk.

*Douglas, Rev. G.C. M. 10 Fitzroy-place, Glasgow.

*Douglass, James N., C.E. Trinity House, London, E.C,

1878.§§Douglass, William. 104 Baggot-street, Dublin.
1855. {Dove, Hector. Rose Cottage, Trinity, near Edinburgh.

1870,

{Dowie, J. M. Wetstones, West Kirby, Cheshire.

28 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876. §Dowie, Mrs. Muir, Wetstones, West Kirby, Cheshire.

1878.§§Dowling, Thomas, Claireville House, Terenure, Dublin.

1857, {Downrne, §., C.E., LL.D., Professor of Civil Engineering in the
University of Dublin. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin,

1878.§§Dowse, The Right Hon. Baron. 38 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

1872. *Dowson, Edward, M.D, 117 Park-street, London, W.

1865. *Dowson, E. Theodore. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.

1868, {DresseR, Henry E., F.Z.8. 6 Tenterden-street, Hanover-square,
London, W.

1873.§§Drew, Frederic, F.G.S., F.R.G.S._ Eton Colleze, Windsor.

1869, §Drew, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Weymouth.

1879. §Drew, Joseph, M.B. Foxgrove-road, Beckenham, Chapeltown,
Edinburgh.

1865. {Drew, Robert A. 6 Stanley-place, Duke-street, Broughton, Man-
chester.

1879. §Drew, Samuel, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Chapeltown, Edinburgh.

1872. *Druce, Frederick, 27 Oriental-place, Brighton.

1874. {Druitt, Charles. Hampden-terrace, Rugby-road, Belfast.

1859. {Drummond, Robert. 17 Stratton-street, London, W.

1866. *Dry, Thomas. 23 Gloucester-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

1870. §Drysdale, J. J., M.D. 36a Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1856, *Ductz, The Right. Hon. Henry Joun Reynotps Moreron, Earl
of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W. ; and Tort-
worth Court, Wotton-under-Edge.

1870, {Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Holmfield House, Grassendale,
Liverpool.

1867. *Durr, Mounzsruart Expainsrong Grant-, LL.B., M.P. York
House, Twickenham, Middlesex.

1852. {Dufferin and Clandeboye, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., K.C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S. Clandeboye, near Belfast, Ireland.

1877.§§Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

1875.§§Duffin, W. E. L’Estrange, C.E. Waterford.

1859. *Duncan, Alexander. 7 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.

1859. {Duncan, Charles. 52 Union-place, Aberdeen,

1866, *Duncan, James. 71 Cromwell-road, South Kensington, London,
W.

Duncan, J. F., M.D. 8 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
1871. {Duncan, James Matthew, M.D. 30 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.
1867. §Duncan, Peter Marri, M.B.,F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in King’s College, London. 4 St. George’s-terrace, Regent's
Park-road, London, N. W.
Dunlop, Alexander. Clober, Milngavie, near Glasgow.
1853. *Dunlop, William Henry. Annanhill, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire.
1865, {Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
1876, *Dunn, James. 64 Robertson-street, Glasgow.
1876, {Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
1878.§§Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logic in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.
Dunnington-Jefferson, Rev. Joseph, M.A., F.C.P.S. Thicket Hall,
York.
1859. {Duns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.
1866. {Duprey, Perry. Woodbury Down, Stoke Newington, London, N.
1869, {D’Urban, W. 8S. M., F.L.S. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford,
Exeter.
1860. {DurHamM, ArtHurR Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 29

Year of
Election.

Dykes, Robert. Kilmorie, Torquay, Devon.
1869. §Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn.

1868, {Eade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

1861. {Eadson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester.

1877. {Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.
*FaRNSHAW, Rey. SamwvuEL, M.A. 14 Broomfield, Sheffield.

1874.§§Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.

1871. *Easron, Epwarp, C.E. 7 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

1863.§§Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.

1876, {Easton, John,C.E. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh,

N.B

1870. §Eaton, Richard. Nuttall House, Nuttall, Nottinghamshire.
Ebden, Rev. James Collett, M.A., F.R.A.S. Great Stukeley Vicarage,
Huntingdonshire.
1861. tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
1858. *Eddison, Francis. Martinstown, Dorchester.
1870. *Eddison, Dr. John Edwin. 29 Park-square, Leeds.
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. Carleton Grange, Skipton.
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.
*Edgeworth, Michaed P., F.LS., F.R.AS. Mastrim House, Anerley,.
London, SE.
1855. {Edmiston, Robert. Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
1859. {Edmond, James. Cardens Haugh, Aberdeen.
1870. *Edmonds, F.B. 72 Portsdown-road, London, W.
1867. *Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
1867. {Edward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee.
1867. tEdward, James. Balruddery, Dundee.
1855. *Epwarps, Professor J. Baxur, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.
1867, {Edwards, William. 70 Princes-street, Dundee.
*EgErron, Sir Purire pr Matpas Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire.
1859. *Eisdale, David A., M.A. 38 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
1873. {Elcock, Charles. 39 Lyme-street, Shakspere-street, Ardwick, Man--
chester.
1876. {Elder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
1868. {Elger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. St. Mary, Bedford.
Ellacombe, Rev. H. T., F.S.A. Clyst St. George, Topsham, Devon.
1863. {Ellenberger, J. L. Worksop.
1855. §Hlliot, Robert, F.B.S.E. Wolfelee, Hawick, N.B.
1861. *Exrror, Sir Watter, K.C.S.1., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wolfelee, Hawick,
N.B

1864, {Elliott, E. B. Washington, United States.
1872. fElliott, Rev. E. B. 11 Sussex-square, Kemp Town, Brighton.
Elliott, John Foge. Elvet Hill, Durham.
1879. §Elliott, Joseph W. Knowsley-street, Preston.
1864, *Etxris, ALEXANDER Jonny, B.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. 25 Argyll-road,.
Kensington, London, W.
1877. tEllis, Arthur Devonshire. School of Mines, Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.; and Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
1875. *Ellis, H. D. Fair Park House, Exeter.
1864, *Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton.
1864, {Ellis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire.
*Ellis, Rey. Robert, A.M. The Institute, St. Saviour’s Gate, York.
1869. {Ellis, William Horton. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
Ellman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
1862. tElphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.S. Oadogan-place, London, 8. W.

30

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1863, {Embleton, Dennis, M.D, Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1863. {Emery, Rev. W., B.D. Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.

1858. tEmpson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.

1866, {Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

1866. {Enfield, William. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

1853.

1869.

1869.
1844,
1864,

1862
1878

1869

1870.
1865,
1872.
1876.

1869.
1861.

1876.
1865,
1875.
1866,
1865,
1871.
1868,

1863,
1874,
1874.
1859,

1876,
1871,
1846,
1866,

TEnglish, Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate,
Hull

}English, J.T. Stratton, Cornwall.

EnniskitLen, The Right Hon. Winu1am Waitovensy, Earl of,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., MRA. 65 Eaton-place,
London, 8.W.; and Florence Court, Fermanagh, Ireland.

*Enys, John Davis, Care of F. G, Enys, Esq., Enys, Penryn,
Cornwall.

tErichsen, John Eric, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Professor of Clinical Surgery
in University College, London. 6 Cavendish-place, London, W.

*Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.

. *Esson, Wiit1AM, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S. Merton College ;

and 1 Bradmoyre-road, Oxford.
.§§Estcourt, Charles, F.C.S. 8 St. J ames’s-square, John Dalton-street,
Manchester.
Estcourt, Rev. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury.

. fErnerrper, Rosert, F.R.S. L. & E., F.GS., Paleontologist to the

Geological Survey of Great Britain. Museum of Practical
Geology, Jermyn-street ; and 19 Halsey-street, Cadogan-place,
London, 8. W.
*Evans, Arthur John, F.S.A. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempsted.
*Evans, Rey. Cuartus, M.A. The Rectory, Solihull, Birmingham.
*Evans, Frederick J.,C.E. Clayponds, Brentford, Middlesex, W.
tEvans, Captain Freperick J. O., C.B., RN., F.RS., F.R.AS.,
F.R.G.S., Hydrographer to the Admiralty. 116 Victoria-street,
Westminster, S.W.

*Evans, H. Saville W. Wimbledon Park House, Wimbledon,
S.W.
*Evans, Jouy, D.C.L., LL.D., V.P.R.S., F.S.A.,, F.G.S. 65 Old

Bailey, London, E.C.; and Nash Mills, Hemel Hempsted.

{Evans; Mortimer, C.E. 97 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

fEvans, Szpasrran, M.A., LL.D. Highgate, near Birmingham.

fEvans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.

fEvans, Thomas, F.G.S. “Belper, Derbyshire.

*Evans, William. Ellerslie, Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

§Eve, H. W. Wellington College, Wokingham, Berkshire.

*Everert, J. D.,D.C.L., F.R.S, L. & E., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. Rushmere, Malone-road,

lfast.

*Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.

tEwart, William. Glenmachan, Belfast.

tEwart, W. Quartus. Glenmachan, Belfast.

*Ewing, Archibald Orr, M.P. Ballikinrain Castle, Killearn, Stirling-
shire.

*Ewing, James Alfred, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mechanical En-
gineering in the University of Tokio, Japan. 12 Laurel Bank,
Dundee.

*Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.

*Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., F.R.GS. 59 Lowndes-square,
London, 8.W.; and Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.

tEyre, Major-General Sir Vincent, F.R:G.S, Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8. W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. mt 31

Year of
Election.

Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.
1849, {Eyton, T. C. Eyton, near Wellington, Salop.

1842. Fairbairn, Thomas. Manchester.

1865. {Fairley, Thomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newington-grove, Leeds.

1876, {Fairlie, James M. Charing Cross Corner, Glasgow.

1870, {Fairlie, Robert, C.E. Woodlands, Clapham Common, London, 8.W.

1878. *Fairlie, Robert F, Palace-chambers, Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W

1864, {Falkner, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath.
1877. §Faraday, F.J.,F.S.S, College Chambers, 17 Brazenose-street, Man-
chester.
1879, *Farnworth, Ernest. Swindon, near Dudley.
1859. {Farquharson, Robert O. Houghton, Aberdeen.
1861. §Farr, Witt1AM, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Statis-
tical Department, General Register Office, London. Southlands,
Bickley, Kent.
1866, *Farrar, Rev. FrepErick Wixr1aM, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., Canon of
Westminster. St. Margaret’s Rectory, Westminster, S.W.
1857. {Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.
1869. *Faulding, Joseph. The Grange, Greenhill Park, New Barnet, Herts,
1869, {Faulding, W. F. Didsbury College, Manchester.
1859, *Fawcrrt, Henry, M.A., M.P., Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Cambridge. 51 The Lawn, South Lambeth-road,
London, 8.W.; and 8 Trumpington-street, Cambridge.
1863, {Fawcus, George. Alma-place, North Shields.
1873, *Fazakerley, Miss. The Castle, Denbigh.
1845, {Felkin, William, F.L.S. The Park, Nottingham.
Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire,
1864, *Frrtows, Frank P., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hampstead,
London, N. W.
1852. {Fenton,S.Greame. 9 College-square ; and Keswick, near Belfast.
1876, *Fergus, Andrew,M.D. 3 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
1876. {Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.
1859, {Ferguson, John. Cove, Nigg, Inverness.
1871, *Ferguson, John, M.A., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Glasgow.
1867. {Ferguson, Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
1857. Linge Samuel, LL.D., Q.C. 20 Great George’s-street North,
Dublin.
1854, {Ferguson, William, F.L.S., F.G.S. Kinmundy, near Mintlaw,
Aberdeenshire.
1867. *Fergusson, H. B. 138 Airlie-place, Dundee.
1863. *Frrniz, Jon. Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
1862. {FurRers, Rev. Norman MacLeop, M.A., F.R.S. Caius College,
- Cambridge.
1873. {Ferrier, David, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Forensic Medicine
in King’s College. 16 Upper Berkeley-street, London, W.
1875. {Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.
1868. {Field, Edward. Norwich.
1869, *Fietp, Rogers, B.A., C.E. 5 Cannon-row, Westminster, S.W.
1876, {Fielden, James. 2 Darnley-street, Pollokshields, near Glasgow.
Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
Finch, John, jun. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
1878. *Findlater, William. 2 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
1868, {Firth,G. W. W. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1879, §Firth, Alderman Mark. Oakbrook, Sheffield,

32 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

Firth, Thomas. Northwick.
1863. *Firth, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds.
1851. *Fiscuer, Wittram L. F., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. St. Andrews,

Scotland.

1858. {Fishbourne, Captain E. G., R.N. 6 Welamere-terrace, Paddington,
London, W.

1869, {FisuEr, Rey. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlston Rectory, near
Cambridge.

1873. §Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.

1879. §Fisher, William. Norton Grange, near Sheffield.

1875. *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 2 Park-crescent, Oxford.

1858. {Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.

1871. *Fison, Frederick W., F.C.S. Eastmoor, likley, Yorkshire.

1871. ee J. G., M.A. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
AV

1868. {Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich.

1878.§§Fitagerald, 0. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.

1878. §Fitzgerald, George Francis, Trinity College, Dublin.

1857. {Fitzgerald, The Right Hon, Lord Otho. 13 Dominick-street, Dublin.

1857. {Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D, 31 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

1865. {Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham.
Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart. Rossall Hall, Fleetwood,

Lancashire.
1850. {Fleming, Professor Alexander, M.D, 121 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
Fleming, Christopher, M.D. Merrion-square North, Dublin. .

1876. {Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow.
Fleming, John G., M.D. 155 Bath-street, Glasgow.

1876. tFleming, Sandford. Ottawa, Canada.

*Fremine, Wint1aM, M.D. Rowton Grange, near Chester.

1867. §FtercHEr, Atrrep E. 5 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

1870. {Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.

1869. {FLercnEr, Lavineton E., 0.E, 41 Corporation-street, Manchester.

Fletcher, T. B. E., M.D. 7 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

1862. {FLtowrr, Wittiam Henry, LL.D, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.B.0.S.,
Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy, and Conservator
of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Royal College
of Surgeons, Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.

1877. *Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S. 7 The Terrace, Putney, 8.W.

1867. {Foggie, William. Woodville, Maryfield, Dundee.

1879, §Foote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland.

1879. §Foote, Harry D’Oyley, M.D. Rotherham, Yorkshire.

1873. *Forbes, Professor George, M.A., F.R.S.E. Andersonian University,
Glasgow.

1855. {Forbes, Rey. John. Symington Manse, Biggar, Scotland.

1877. §Forbes, W. A. West Wickham, Kent.

Ford, H. R. Morecombe Lodge, Yealand Conyers, Lancashire.

1866. {Ford, William. Hartsdown Villa, Kensington Park-gardens East,.
London, W.

1875. *ForpHam, H. Gzorcz, F.G.S. Odsey, near Royston, Herts.

*Forrest, William Hutton. 1 Pitt-terrace, Stirling.

1867. {Forster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.

1858. *Forster, The Right Hon. Wiu1am Epwarp, M.P., F.R.S. 80
Eccleston-square, London, S.W.; and Wharfeside, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, Leeds.

1854. *Fort, Richard. Read Hall, Whalley, Lancashire.

1877. {Fortxscun, The Right Hon: the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.

1870. {Forwood, William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 33

Year of
Election,

1875. {Foster, A. Le Neve. East Hill, Wandsworth, Surrey, 8.W.

1865. {Foster, Balthazar, M.D., Professor of Medicine in Queen’s College,
Birmingham, 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.

1865. *Fostrr, Cremmunt Lr Neve, B.A., D.Sc, F.GS. Truro, Corn-
wall,

1857. *Fosrmr, Grorce Oarzy, B.A., F.RS., F.0.8., Professor of
Physics in University College, London. 12 Hilldrop-road,
London, N.

*Foster, Rev. John, M.A. The Oaks Vicarage, Loughborough,

1845. {Foster, John N. Sandy Place, Sandy, Bedfordshire,

1877. §Foster, Joseph B. 6 James-street, Plymouth.

1859. *Fosrer, Micuart, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.C.S. Trinity
College, and Great Shelford, near Cambridge.

1873. {Foster, Peter Le Neve.

1863. {Foster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1859. *Foster, S. Lloyd. Brundall Lodge, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

1873. *Foster, William. Harrowins House, Queensbury, Yorkshire.

1842. Fotheryill, Benjamin. 10 The Grove, Boltons, West Brompton,
London, S.W,

1870, {Foulger, Edward. 55 Kirkdale-road, Liverpool.

1866. {Fowler, George, M.I.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham,

1868. {Fowler, G.G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.

1876. *Fowler, John, 4 Kelvin Bank-terrace, Glasgow.

1870. *Fowler, Robert Nicholas, M.A., F.R.G.S.. 50 Cornhill, London,
E.C

1868. {Fox, Major-General A. H, Lane, F.B.S., F.G.S., FR, G.S., FSA,
Penywern-road, South Kensington, London, S.W.
*Fox, Rey. Edward, M.A. Upper Heyford, Banbury,
1876, {Fox, G.S. Lane. 9 Sussex-place, London, 8. W.
*Fox, Joseph Hayland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset.
1860. {Fox, Joseph John. Church-row, Stoke Newington, London, N.
1866. *Francis,G.B. Inglesby House, Stoke Newington-green, London, N.
Franots, Wint1aM, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, London, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond,
Surrey.

1846. ‘eee Epwarp, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.0.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal School of Mines, 14 Lancaster-gate,
London, W. =.

*Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles. Chowbent, near Manchester,

1859. {Fraser, George B. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee.

Fraser, James. 25 Westland-row, Dublin.
Fraser, James William. 84 Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W.

1865, *FRaser, Jonn, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton,

1871. {Frasrr, Tuomas R., M.D., F.RS.L. & E. 3 Grosvenor-street,
Edinburgh.

1859. *Frazer, Daniel. 113 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

1871. {Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.

1860. {Freeborn, Richard Fernandez. 38 Broad-street, Oxford.

1847, *Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester,
Sussex.

1877. §Freeman, Francis Ford. Blackfriars House, Plymouth,

1865. {Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

Frere, George Edward, F.R.S. Roydon Hall, Diss, Norfolk.

1869. {Frerx, The Right Hon. Sir H. Barrre E., Bart., G.O.S.L, G.C.B.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Governor of Cape Colony and Dependencies,
Government House, Cape Town.

1869, {Frere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bilton, near Bristol,

Cc

34

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1857.
1869.

1847.
1875.

1875.

1872,
1873.
1859.

1869.
1864,

1857.
1865.
1876.
1850.
1861.

1876.
1863.
1861.
1861,
1875.§

*Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E,, M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. 48 Summer-
hill, Dublin.
pod Sa 26 Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
don, W.C.
{Frost, William. Wentworth Lodge, Upper Tulse Hill, London, S.W.
{Fry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
Fry, Francis. Cotham, Bristol.
*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 2 Charlotte-street, Bristol.
Fry, Richard. Cotham Lawn, Bristol.
*Fuller, Rev. A. Pallant, Chichester.
{Fuller, Claude S., R.N. 44 Holland-road, Kensington, London, W.
{Furrer, Freperick, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni-
versity and King’s College, Aberdeen.
{Furier, Grores, C.E., Professor of Engineering in Queen’s College,
Belfast. 6 College-gardens, Belfast.
*Furneaux, Rev. Alan. St. German's Parsonage, Cornwall.

*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.
t{Gacus, AtpHonse, M.R.LA. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
*Gainsford, W. D. Richmond Hill, Sheffield.
tGairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire.
{Gairdner, Professor W. T., M.D. 225 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tGalbraith, Andrew. Glasgow.

Gatprarrn, Rey. J. A.. M.A., M.R.LA, Trinity College, Dublin.
tGale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Glasgow.
tGale, Samuel, F.C.S. 338 Oxford-street, London, W.
{Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
{Galloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
§Galloway, W., H.M. Inspector of Mines. Cardiff.

1860, *Gatron, Captain Doveras, O.B., D.O.L., F.RS., F.LS., F.GS.,

1860,
1869.

1870.
1870.
1872.

1877.
1868,

1862.
1865.
1842.
1878.
1874.

1870.
1870.
1847.
1842,
1862.

1875.

F.R.G.S. (GENERAL SECRETARY.) 12 Chester-street, Grosvenor-
place, London, 8. W.

*Gatron, Francis, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-
gate, Knightsbridge, London, 8. W.

t{Gauron, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S. 18 Margaret-street, Cavendish-
square, London, W.

§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.

t{Gamble, J. C. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.

*Gamble, John G., M.A. 10 Vyvyan-terrace, Clifton, Bristol; and
Albion House, Rottingdean, Brighton.

t{Gamble, William. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.

tGamern, AntauR, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in Owens College, Manchester. Fairview, Princes-road, Fal-
lowfield, Manchester.

§GaRNER, Rosert, F.L.S. Stoke-upon-Trent.

§Garner, Mrs. Robert. Stoke-upon-Trent.

Garnett, Jeremiah. Warren-street, Manchester.

¢{Garnham, John. 123 Bunhill-row, London, E.O.

*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL-B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

tGaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.

*Gaskeéll, Holbrook, jun. Mayfield-road, Grassendale, Liverpool.

*Gaskell, Samuel. Windham Club, St. James’s-square, London, 8. W.

Gaskell, Rev. William, M.A. Plymouth-grove, Manchester.

*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.8. Felbridge Park, Hast
Grinstead, Sussex.

§Gavey, J. 48 Stacey-road, Routh, Cardiff.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 35

Year of
Election.

1875.§§Gaye, Henry S. Newton Abbott, Devon.

1873. {Geach, R. G. Cragg Wood, Rawdon, Yorkshire.

1871. {Geddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1859, {Geddes in William D., M.A., Professor of Greek in King’s College,
Old Aberdeen.

1854, {Gee, Robert, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

1867. {Gurxiz, Arcursarp, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Vic-
toria-street, Edinburgh ; and Boroughfield, Edinburgh.

1871.§§Geikie, James, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S. 16 Duncan-terrace, New-
ington, Edinburgh.

1855. {Gemmell, Andrew. 38 Queen-street, Glasgow.

1875. *George, Rev. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.

1854. {Gerard, Henry. 84 Rumford-place, Liverpool.

1870. {Gerstl, R. University College, London, W.C.

1870. *Gervis, Walter S., M.D., F.R.G.S. Ashburton, Devonshire.

1856. *Gething, George Barkley. Springfield, Newport, Monmouthshire.

1865, {Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham,

1871. {Gtbson, Alexander. 10 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

1868. {Gibson, C. M. Bethel-street, Norwich.

1874, {Gibson, Edward, Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

1876. *Gibson, George Alexander, M.B., D.Sc, F.G.S. 10 Old-square,
Birmingham.

*Gibson, George Stacey. Saffron Walden, Essex.

1852. {Gibson, James, M.A., Q.C. 35 Mountjoy-square South, Dublin.

1870. {Gibson, Thomas. 51 Oxford-street, Liverpool.

1870. {Gibson, Thomas, jun. 10 Parkfield-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool,

1842. GutzeErt, Josep Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S8. Harpenden, near

St. Albans.
1857. {Gilbert, J. T., M.R.LA. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.
1859. *Gilchrist, James, M.D. Crichton House, Dumfries.
Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.

1878, §Giles, Oliver. 16 Bellevue-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.

Giles, Rev. William. Netherleigh House, near Chester.

1878.§§Gill, Rey. A.W. H. 44 Eaton-square, London, 8. W.

1871. *Grtt, Davin. The Observatory, Cape Town.

1868, tGill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, E.C.)

1864. {@int, Tuomas. 4 Sydney-place, Bath,

1861. *Gilroy, George. Hindley Hall, Wigan.

1867. {Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.

1876. §Gimingham, Charles H. 45 St. Augustine’s-road, Camden-square,
London, N.W.

1867.§§Ginspura, Rey. C. D., D.0.L., LL.D. Wokingham, Berkshire,

1869, }Girdlestone, Rev. Canon E.,M.A. Halberton Vicarage, Tiverton.

1874. *Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast.

1850. Mpices George, F.C.S., F.R.G.S. 31 Ventnor-villas, Cliftonville,
Brighton.

1849. *Guapsrone, Joun Hatt, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pembridge-
square, Hyde Park, London, W.

1861. * Gladstone, Murray. 35 Wilton-crescent, London, S.W.

1875. *Glaisher, Ernest Henry. 1 Dartmouth-place,. Blackheath, London,
S.E

1861. *Guatsuer, James, F.R.S., F.R.AS. 1 Dartmouth-place, Black-
heath, London, S.E.
1871. *Guaisner, J. W. L., MA., F.RS., F.R.AS. Trinity College,
Cambridge.
C2

36 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1853. {Gleadon, Thomas Ward. Moira-buildings, Hull.

1870. §Glen, David Corse, F.G.S. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow.

1859. Sige . S. Stuart. 6 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
Ww

1867. {Gloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, 8. W,
1874.§§Glover, George T. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast.
Glover, Thomas. Becley Old Hall, Rowsley, Bakewell.

1874. {Glover, Thomas. 77 Claverton-street, London, 8. W.

1870. {Glynn, Thomas R, 1 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1872. {GopparpD, RicHarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1878. *Godlee, J. Lister. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.

1852. {Godwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.

1846. {Gopwry-AvstEen, Ropert A. C., B.A., F.RS., F.G.8S. Shalford'
House, Guildford.

1876. {Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.

1877.§§Gorr, James. 11 Northumberland-road, Dublin.

1873. {Goldthorp, Miss R. F.C, Oleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire,

1878.§§Good, Rey. Thomas, B.D. 51 Wellington-road, Dublin.

1852. {Goodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.

1870. {Goodison, George William, C.E. Gateacre, Liverpool.

1842. *Goopman, Jonny, M.D. 8 Leicester-street, Southport.

1865. {Goodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham.

1869. {Goodmen, Neville. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

1870. *Goodwin, Rev. Henry Albert, M.A., F.R.A.S. Lambourne Rectory,
Romford.

1878. §Gorpon, J. E. H., B.A. (Assistant Secretary.) Holmwood
Cottage, Dorking.

1871. *Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. 20 King-street, St. James’s, London,
S.W.

1840. {Gordon, Lewis D, B. Totteridge, Whetstone, London, N.

1857. {Gordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.

1865. {Gore, George, LL.D., F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Bir--
mingham.

1870. {Gossage, William. Winwood, Woolton, Liverpool.

1875. *Gotch, Francis. Stokes Croft, Bristol.

*Gotch, Rev. Frederick William, LL.D. Stokes Croft, Bristol.
*Gotch, Thomas Henry. Kettering.

1873. §Gott, Charles, M.I.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

1849, {Gough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.

1857. tGouzh, The Right Hon. George 8., Viscount, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S.
St. Helen's s, Booterstown, Dublin.

1868. ¢{Gould, Rey. George. Unthank-road, Norwich. .

GouLp, Joun, F. R. S., F.L.S., F.R. GS. ,F.Z.8S. 26 Charlotte-street,

Bedford-square, ‘London, W.C.

1873. tGourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1867. {Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.

1876. §Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

Gowland, James. London-wall, London, E.C.

1875. §Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire,

1861. {Grafton, Frederick W. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester.

1867. *Granam, Ovrit, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Colonial Office, London, S.W.

1875. {GranameE, James. Auldhouse, Pollokshaws, near Glasgow.

1852. *Grainger, Rey. John, D.D., M.R. LA. Skerry and Rathcayan Rectory,
Broughshane, near Ballymena, Oo. Antrim.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 37

Year of
Election.

1871. {Grant, Sir ALEXANDER, Bart., M.A., Principal of the University of
Edinburgh. 21 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. {Grant, Colonel J. A., O.B., O.S.L, F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 19

Lots &. Upper Grosvenor-street, London, W.

1859, {Grant, Hon. James. Cluny Cottage, Forres.

1855, *Grant, Ropert, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Regius Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The Observatory,
Glasgow.

1854, {GrantHam, Ricwarp B., C.E., F.G.S. 22 Whitehall-place, London,
S.W.

1864, {Grantham, Richard F, 22 Whitehall-place, London, S.W.

1874, {Graves, Rev. James, B.A., M.R.LA. Inisnag Glebe, Stonyford, Co.
Kilkenny.

1864, *Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Worksop.

1865, tGray, Charles. Swan-bank, Bilston.

1870, {Gray, C. B, 5 Rumford-place, Liverpool.

1876, {Gray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.

1857. {Gray, Sir John, M.D. Rathgar, Dublin.

1864. {Gray, Jonathan. Summerhill House, Bath.

1859. {Gray, Rev. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire.

1870.§§Gray, J. Macfarlane. 127 Queen’s-road, Peckham, London, S.E.

1878.§§Gray, Matthew Hamilton. 14 St. John’s Park, Blackheath, London,
S.E

1878.§§Gray, Robert Kaye. 14 St. John’s Park, Blackheath, London, S.E.
1873. {Gray, William, M.R.I.A. 6 Mount Charles, Belfast.
*Gray, WILLIAM, F.G.S. Gray’s-court, Minster Yard, York.

*Gray, Colonel Witt1aM. Farley Hall, near Reading.

1854. *Grazebrook, Henry. Clent Grove, near Stourbridge, Worcester-
shire.

1866. §Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 101 Friar-gate, Derby.

1873, {Greaves, James H., C.E. Albert-buildings, Queen Victoria-street,
London, E.C.

1869. §Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.

1872.§§Greaves, William. 11 John-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.

1872. *Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.

1879. §Green, A. F. Leeds.

1858. *Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors.

1863. {Greenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.

1875. {Greenwood, Frederick. School of Medicine, Leeds.

1862. *Greenwood, Henry, 32 Castle-street, and the Woodlands, Anfield-
road, Anfield, Liverpool.

1877.§§Greenwood, Holmes, 78 King-street, Accrington.

1849. {Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.

1861, *Gree, Ropert Puiries, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.

1833. Gregg, T. H. 22 Ironmonger-lane, Cheapside, London, E.C.

1860. {GrEcoR, Rey. Watrer, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeen-
shire.

1868. 1Gregory, Charles Hutton, C.E. 1 Delahay-street, Westminster,

.W

1861. §Gregson, Samuel Leigh. Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
1875. {Grenfell, J. Granville, B.A., F.G.S. 5 Albert-villas, Clifton, Bristol.
*GRESWELL, Rey. Ricwarp, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 39 St. Giles’s-
street, Oxford.
1869, {Grey, Sir Gzorer, F.R.G.S. Belgrave-mansions, Grosvenor-
gardens, London, 8. W.
1875. {Grey, Mrs. Maria G. 18 Cadogan-place, London, S.W,

38

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1871.

1859.
1875.

1870.

*Grierson, Samuel, Medical Superintendent of the District Asylum,
Melrose, N.B.

t{Grrerson, Tuomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.

§Grieve, David, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Hobart House, Dalkeith, Edin-
burgh.

tGrieve, John, M.D. 21 Lynedock-street, Glasgow.

1878.§§ Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

1859.

1870.
1868,

1870.
1847.

1879.
1875.
1870.
1842.
1864.

1869.

1863.
1869.

1872.

1867.

1842.
1856.

1862.

Griffith, Rev. C. T., D.D. Elm, near Frome, Somerset.
*GriFFItH, GrorGE, M.A., F.C.S. Harrow.
Griffith, George R. Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
tGriffith, Rev. Henry, F.G.S. Barnet, Herts.
spares as Hi Rey. Jonny, M.A., D.C.L. Findon Rectory, Worthing,
ussex.
tGrifith, N. R. The Coppa, Mold, North Wales.
tGriffith, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham.

GrirritHs, Rey. Joun, M.A. Wadham College, Oxford.

§Griffiths, Thomas, F.C. 'S., F.S.S. Silverdale, Oxton, Birkenhead.

tGrignon, James, HM. Consul at Riga. Riga.

tGrimsdale, T. F,, M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

Grimshaw, Samuel, M.A. Errwod, Buxton.

tGroom-Naprer, Cuartes Orrtny, F.G.S. 18 Elgin-road, St.
Peter’s Park, London, N.W.

§Grote, Arthur, F.L.S., F.G.S. 20 Cork-street, Burlington-gardens,.
London, W.

Grove, The Hon. Sir Wrr1t1am Rosert, Knt., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.
115 Harley-street, London, W.

*Groves, THomas B., F.C.8. 80 St. Mary-street, Weymouth.

tGruss, Howarp, F.R.AS. 40 Leinster-square, Rathmines,
Dublin.

{Griineisen, Charles Lewis, F.R.G.S. 16 Surrey-street, Strand, Lon-
don, W.C.

Guest, Edwin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Master of Caius College, Cam-
bridge. Caius Lodge, Cambridge ; and Sandford Park, Oxford-
shire.

{Guild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee.

Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin.

Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.

*Gursr, Sir Wirtram Vernon, Bart., FG. ae F.L.S. Elmore Court,
near Gloucester.
tGum, John, M.A., F.G.S. Inrstedd Rectory, Norwich.

1877.§§Gunn, William, F.G.S. Barnard Castle, Darlington.

1866.

18€8.
1860,

1876.
1859.

1857.
1876.

1865.

tGunrner, Arsert OC. L.G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of
the Zoological Collections in the British Museum. British
Museum, London, W.C. .

*Gurney, John. Sprouston Hall, Norwich.

*GuRNEY, SAMvEL, F.L.S., F. R.G.S. 29 Hanover-terrace, Regent's.
Park, London, N.W.

*Gutch, John James. Holgate Lodge, York.

Guthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.

{Gururin, Freverick, B.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Physics in
the Royal School of Mines, Science Schools, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.

tGwynne, Rev. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.

tGwyther, R. F. Owens College, Manchester.

Hackett, Michael. Brooklawn, Chapelizod, Dublin.
tHackney, William. 9 Victoria~chambers, Victoria-street, London,
S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 39

Year of
Election.

1866. *Hadden, Frederick J. 3 Park-terrace, Nottingham.
1866. {Haddon, Henry. Lenton Field, Nottingham.
Haden, G. N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire.
1842. Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester.
1870. tHadivan, Isaac. 3 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1848. {Hadland, William Jenkins. Banbury, Oxfordshire.
1870. {Haigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Hailstone, Edward, F.S.A. Walton Hall, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
1879. §Hake, H. Wilson, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenswood College, Hants.
1869. {Hake, R. C. Grasmere Lodge, Addison-road, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
1875.§§Hale, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S, Eton College, Windsor.
1870, {Halhead, W. B. 7 Parktield-road, Liverpool.
Hatrrax, The Right Hon. Viscount. 10 Belgrave-square, London,
S.W.; and Hickleston Hall, Doncaster.
1872. {Hall, Dr. Alfred. 30 Old Steine, Brighton.
1879. *Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.
1854, *Hatt, HueH Ferrer, F.G.S. Greenheys, Wallasey, Birkenhead.
1859. {Hall, John Frederic. Ellerker House, Richmond, Surrey.
1872. *Hall, Captain Marshall. Scientific Club, Savile-row, London, W.
*Hall, Thomas B. Australia. (Care of J. P. Hall, Esq., Crane
House, Great Yarmouth.)
1866. *Hatzt, TownsHEnd M.,F.G.S. Pilton, Barnstaple.
1860.§§Hall, Walter. 11 Pier-road, Erith.
1873. *Hatxterr, T.G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.
1868, *Hatterr, Wi~t1am Henry, F.L.S. Buckingham House, Marine
Parade, Brighton.
Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
1858. *Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.8. The Leys, Barrow-on-
Soar, near Loughborough.
1866, §Hamrron, ArcurBALD, F.G.S. South Barrow, Bromley, Kent.
1865.§§Hamilton, Gilbert. Leicester House, Kenilworth-road, Leaming-
ton.
Hamitton, The Very Rev. Henry Parr, Dean of Salisbury, M.A.,
E.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Salisbury.
1869. {Hamilton, John, F.G.S. Fyne Court, Bridgewater.
1869. §Hamilton, Roland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
1851. {Hammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.
1878.§§Hanagan, Anthony. Luckington, Dalkey.
1878. §Hance, Edward M., LL.B. 24 Church-road, Wavertree, Liverpool.
1875. tHancock, C. F., jun., M.A. 36 Blandford-square, London, N.W.
1863. {Hancock, John. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1850. {Hancock, John, J.P. The Manor House, Lurgan, Co. Armagh.
1861. aoe. Walker. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, London,

1857. {Hancock, William J. 23 Synnot-place, Dublin.
1847. {Hancock, W. Nerson, LL.D., M.R.I.A. 64 Upper Gardiner-
street, Dublin.
1876.§§Hancock, Mrs. W. Neilson. 64 Upper Gardiner-street, Dublin,
1865. tHands, M. Coventry
Handyside, P. D., M.D., F.R.S.E. Edinburgh.
1867. t{Hannah, Rey. John, D.C.L. The Vicarage, Brighton.
1859. {Hannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.
1858. {Hansell, Thomas T. 2 Charlotte-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
A ia A. G. Vernon, MLA., F.R.S., F.C.8. Cowley Grange,
xford.

40 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election,

Harcourt, Egerton V. Vernon, M.A., F.G.S. Whitwell Hall, York-
shire.
1865. {Harding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.
1869, {Harding, Joseph. Millbrooke House, Exeter.
1877. §Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.
1869, {Harding, William D, Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.
1874. {Hardman, H. T., F.C.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1872. {Hardwicke, Mrs. 192 Piccadilly, London, W.
*Hare, Coartes Joun, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine in Uni-
versity College, London. 57 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
Harford, Summers. Haverfordwest.
1858. {Hargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.
1876. {Harker, Allen. 17 Southgate-street, Gloucester,
1878. *Harkness, H. W. Sacramento, California.
1871.§§Harkness, William. Laboratory, Somerset House, London, W.C.
1875. *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.
1877. *Harland, Henry Seaton. Brompton, Wykeham Station, York.
1862, *Hartey, Grores, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 25 Harley-street, London,
W.

*Harley, John. Ross Hall, near Shrewsbury.
1862. *Hartny, Rey. Ropert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Mill Hill School, Mid-
dlesex ; and Burton Bank, Mill Hill, Middlesex, N. W.
1861. { Harman, H. W., CE. 16 Booth-street, Manchester.
1868, *Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.
1872.§§Harpley, Rev. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clayhanger Rectory,
Tiverton.
*Harris, Alfred. Oxton Hall, Tadcaster.
*Harris, Alfred, jun. Lunefield, Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
1871, {Harris, Gzorex, F.S.A. Iselipps Manor, Northolt, Southall, Mid-
dlesex.
1878. *Harris, Herbert W. 124 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
1863, {Harris, T. W. Grange, Middlesbrough-on-Tees.
1873. tHarris, W. W. Oak-villas, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1860. {Harrison, Rey. Francis,M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.
1864, {Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.
1873. {Harrison, George, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.C.S. 14 St. James’s-row,
Sheffield.
1874, {Harrison, G. D. B. 38 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1858. *HARRISON, JAMES Park, M.A. 80 Westbourne Park-road, London,
WwW

1870. {Harrison, Reatnatp. 51 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1853. {Harrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.

1863, {Harrison, T. E. Engineers’ Office, Central Station, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

1858, *Harrison, William, F.S.A., F.G.8. Samlesbury Hall, near Preston,
Lancashire.

1849, {Harrowsy, The Right Hon. Duptzy Ryoer, Ear! of, K.G., D.C.L.,

.R.S., F.R.G.S. 389 Grosvenor-square, London, W.; and

Sandon Hall, Lichfield.

1859. *Hart, Charles. Harborne Hall, Birmingham.

1876. *Hart, Thomas. Bank View, 33 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

1875.§§Hart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

1856. { Hartland, F. Dixon, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. The Oaklands, near Chelten-
ham,

Hartley, James. Sunderland.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 4]

Year of
Election,

1871, {Hartley, Walter Noel, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
1854.§§Harrnup, Jonny, F.R.A.S. Liverpool Observatory, Bidston,
Birkenhead.
1850. {Harvey, Alexander. 4 South Wellington-place, Glasgow.
1870. {Harvey, Enoch. Riversdale-road, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Harvey, Joseph Charles. Knockrea, Douglas-road, Cork.
Harvey, J. R., M.D. St. Patrick’s-place, Cork.
1878.§§Harvey, R. J., M.D. 7 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
1862. *Harwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.
1875. {Hasting,G.W. Barnard’s Green House, Malvern.
Hastings, Rev. H. 8S. Martley Rectory, Worcester.
1837. {Hastings, W. Huddersfield.
1842, *Hatton, James. Richmond House, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
1857. {Haventon, Rey. Samuzt, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.R.1.A.,
F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the University of Dublin.
Trinity College, Dublin.
1874. {Hawkins, B. Waterhouse, F.G.S. Century Club, East Fifteenth-
street, New York.
1872. *Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 20 King-street, St. James’s, London,
S.W,

*“HawksHaw, Sir Jony, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Hollycombe,

Liphook, Petersfield ; and 33 Great George-street, London, S.W.

1864, *Hawkshaw, John Clarke, M.A., F.G.S. 25 Cornwall-gardens,
South Kensington, 8.W.; and 33 Great George-street, London,
S.W.

1868. {Hawxstey, Tuomas, C.E.,F.R.S., F.G.S. 380 Great George-street,
London, 8. W.

1863. {Hawthorn, William. The Cottage, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1859, {Hay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart. Rannes, Aberdeenshire.

1877.§§Hay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland.

1861. *Hay, Rear-Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., O.B.,
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, S.W.

1858. {Hay, Samuel. Albion-place, Leeds.

1867. {Hay, William. 21 Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.

1857. {Hayden, Thomas, M.D. 30 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

1878. *Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. 8 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.

1869. {Hayward, J. High-street, Exeter.

1858, *Hayrwarp, Roperr Barpwin, M.A., F.R.S. The Park, Harrow.

1879. §Hazlehurst, George S. The Elms, Runcorn,

1851. §Hean, Jeremran, O.E., F.C.S. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire.

1869, tHead, R. T. The Briars, Alphington, Exeter.

1869. {Head, W. R. Bedford-circus, Exeter.

1863. tHeald, Joseph. 22 Leazes-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1872. }Healey, C. E. H. Chadwyck. 8 Albert-mansions, Victoria-street,
London, 8. W.

1871. §Healey, George. Matson’s, Windermere.

1861. *Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, near Manchester.

1877. {Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.

1865, {Hearder, William. Rocombe, Torquay.

1877, {Hearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.

1866. {Heath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.

1863. {Heath, G. Y.,M.D. Westgate-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1861.§§Hzaturieip, W. E., F.C.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. 20 King-street,
St. James’s, London, S.W.

1865, {Heaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, near Birmingham,

1858, *Huaton, Jonny Draxiy, M.D., F.R.C.P. Claremont, Leeds.

42

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1865.
1833.
1855.

1867.

1869.
1863.
1857.

1867.
1845,

1873.
1874.
1876.
1875,
1856.

1857,
1878.

1874.

1870.
1855.
1855.

1871.
1856.

1866.
1871.

{ Heaton, Ralph. Harborne Lodge, near Birmingham. :

tHxavisrpr, Rev. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.

f{Hucror, James, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.8., Geological Survey
of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.

t{Heppre, M. Foster, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University
of St. Andrews, N.B.

tHedgeland, Rev. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter.

tHedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Hemans, George William, C.E., M.R.I.A., F.G.S. 1 Westminster-
chambers, Victoria-street, London, S.W.

tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.

{Henderson, Andrew. 120 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, Lon-
don, W.

*Henderson, A. L. 49 King William-street, London, E.C.

tHenderson, James Alexander. Norwood Tower, Belfast.

*Henderson, William. Williamfield, Irvine, N.B.

*Henprerson, W. D. 12 Victoria-street, Belfast.

}Hennessy, Hunry G., F.R.S., M.R.1A., Professor of Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics in the Royal College of Science
for Ireland. 3 Idrone-terrace, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

tHennessy, John Pope, Governor of the Bahamas. Government
House, Nassau.

*Henrici, Olaus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics
in University College, London. 21 South-villas, Camden-
square, London, N.W.

Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.

Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.

Henry, Mitchell, M.P. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
tHeyry, Rey. P. Sxutpam, D.D.,M.R.1LA., Belfast.

*Henry, Wirr1am Caries, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.C.8.
Haffield, near Ledbury, Herefordshire.

tHenty, William. 12 Medina-villas, Brighton.

*Hepburn, J..\Gotch, LL.B., F.C.8S. Sidceup-place, Sidcup, Kent.

tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W.

Hepburn, Thomas. Clapham, London, 8.W.
{ Hepburn, Thomas H. St. Mary’s Cray, Kent.
Hepworth, John Mason. Ackworth, Yorkshire.

tHepworth, Rev. Robert. 2 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham.

tHerrick, Perry. Bean Manor Park, Loughborough.

*HERSCHEL, Professor ALEXANDER S., B.A., F.R.A.S. College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1874.§§Herschel, Major John, R.E., F.R.S. Mussoorie, N. W. P. India.

1865.
1873.

1866.
1866.
1879.
1861.
1861.

1875.

Sage of Messrs. H. Robertson & Oo., 5 Crosby-square, London,
E.C.)
tHeslop, Dr. Birmingham.
tHeugh, John. Gaunt’s House, Wimborne, Dorset.
Hey, Rey. William, M.A., F.0.P.S. Olifton, York,
*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
tHeymann, L. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
§Heywood, A. Percival. Duffield Bank, Derby.
*Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.
*Heywoop, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G:S., F.8.8. 26 Ken-
sington Palace-gardens, London, W.
*Heywood, Oliver. Claremont, Manchester.
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.
— Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Heriot House, Hendon, Middlesex,
.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 43

Year of
Election.

1877.§§Hicks, W. M. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1864.
1854.
1861.

1866.
1875.

1871.

1854,

1861.
1870.

1872.

1857.

1871.
1864.
1876.
1863.
1871.
1858.

1870.

1865.
1863.
1861.
1858.
1861.

1856.
1870.

1864.
1864.
1864.
1879.
1879.
1866.

1877.

*Hrern, W. P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple.
*Higgin, Edward. Troston Lodge, near Bury St. Edmunds.
*Higgin, James. Lancaster-avenue, Fennel-street, Manchester.
Higginbotham, Samuel. 4 Springfield-court, Queen-street, Glas-
ow.
{Higsinbovtom, John, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Gill-street, Nottingham.
tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E. Alfred
House, Birkenhead.
tHieers, Crement, B.A., F.C.S. 103 Holland-road, Kensington,
London,
tHicerns, Rey. Henry H., M.A. The Asylum, Rainhill, Liver-
ool.
*Fligains, James. Stocks House, Cheetham, Manchester.
tHMigginson, Alfred. 44 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool. -
Hildyard, Rev. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.
Hill. Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, Middlesex.
§Hill, Charles, F.S.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathley, East Grin-
stead.
*Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.8. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.
§Hill, John, C.E., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. County Surveyor’s Office,
Ennis, Ireland.
THill, Lawrence. The Knowe, Greenock.
{Hil, William. Combe Hay, Bristol.
THill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.
tHills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, 8.E.
*Hills, Thomas Hyde. 3838 Oxtord-street, London, W.
tHincxs, Rey. THomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stancliff House, Clevedon,
Somerset.
tHinde, G. J. Buenos Ayres.
Hindley, Rev. H. J. Edlingion, Inncolnshare.
*Hindmarsh, Luke. Alnbank House, Alnwick.
{Hinds, James, M.D. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
f{Hinds, William, M.D. Parade, Birmingham.
*Hinmers, William. Cleveland House, Birkdale, Southport.
{Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
*Hirst, T. Arcuer, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, 8.E.; and Athenzum Club, Pall Mall, London,
S.W,

t{Mitch, Samuel, M.D. Sandywell Park, Gloucestershire.

tHitchman, William, M.D., LL.D., F.L.S. 29 Erskine-street,
Liverpool.

*Hoare, Rev. George Tooker. Godstone Rectory, Redhill.

Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.

tHobhouse, Arthur Fane. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W.

{Hobhouse, Charles Parry. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8. W.

tHobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8. W.

§Hobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. Huddersfield.

§Hobson, John. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.

tHocxrn, Onartes, M.D. 8 Avenue-road, St. John’s Wood, Lon-
don, N.W.

tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.

1877.§§Hodge, Rey. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.

1876.
1852.

tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.
tHodges, John F., M.D., F-.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen's
‘College, Belfast.

id

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1863.
1873.
1873.
1863.
1865.
1830.

1865.

1860.
1876.
1854.
1873.
1879.
1856,

1879.
1865.
1866.
1873.
1876.
1876,

1870.

1875.
1847.

1868,

*Hopexin, THomas. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tHodgson, James. Oakfield, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire,

tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.

tHodgson, R. W. North Dene, Gateshead.

tHodgson, W. B., LL.D., F.R.A.8., Professor of Commercial and
Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh.

*Hormann, Avcust WILHELM, M.D., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
10 Dorotheen Strasse, Berlin.

tHogan, Rev. A. R., M.A. Watlington Vicarage, Oxfordshire,

t Hogg, Robert. 54 Jane-street, Glasgow.

*Holcroft, George. Byron’s-court, St. Mary’s-gate, Manchester.

*Holden, Isaac. Oakworth House, near Keighley, Yorkshire.

§Holland, Calvert Bernard. Ashdell, Broomhill, Sheffield.

tHolland, Henry. Dumbleton, Evesham.

*Holland, Philip H. Home Office, London, S.W.

*Holland, Rev. F. W., M.A. Evesham.

tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham.

*Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby.

tHolmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford, Yorkshire.

*Holms, James. Hope Park, Partick, near Glasgow.

tHolms, Colonel William, M.P. 95 Cromwell-road, South Kensing-
ton, London, 8.W.

tHolt, William D. 23 Edge-lane, Liverpool.

*Hone, Nathaniel, M.A., M.R.I.A. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

*Hood, John. The Elms, Cotham Hill, Bristol.

tHooxer, Sir JosrpH Datron, K.C.S.1, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.LS., F.G.8S., F.R.G.S. Royal Gardens,
Kew, Surrey.

. “Hooper, John P. Coventry Park, Streatham, London, 8. W.
. *Hooper, Samuel F., B.A. Tamworth House, Mitcham Common,

Surrey.

. {Hooton, Jonathan. 80 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.

Hope, Thomas Arthur. Stanton, Bebington, Cheshire.

. [Hope, William, V.C. Parsloes, Barking, Essex.
. tHopkins, J. 8. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
. *Hopxinson, Joun, F.R.S. 78 Holland-road, Kensington, Lon-

don, W.

. §Horxmyson, Jonny, F.L.S., F.G.S. Wansford House, Watford.
. {Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.

Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.

. *Horne, Robert R. 150 Hope-street, Glaszow.

. *Horniman, F. J. Surrey House, Forest Hill, London, S8.E.
. {Horsfall, Thomas Berry. Bellamour Park, Rugeley.

. tHorsley, John H. 1 Ormond-terrace, Cheltenham.

. THotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.

Hoveuton, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
16 Upper Brook-street, London, W.

. tHounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract.

Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.

. [Howard, Captain John Henry, R.N. The Deanery, Lichfield.
. *Howard, D. South Frith Lodge, Tonbridge.
. {Howard, Philip Henry. Corby Castle, Carlisle.

tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

. {Howell, Henry H., F.G.S. Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn-

street, London, 8. W.
t{Howett, Rey. Canon Hinps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 45

Year of
Election.

1865. *Howzert, Rev. Freperick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.

1863. {Howorrn, H. H. Derby House, Eccles, Manchester.

1854. {Howson, The Very Rev. J. S., D.D., Dean of Chester. Chester.

1870. {Hubback, Joseph. 1 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.

1835, *Hupson, Henry, M.D., M.R.I.A. Glenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork.

1842. §Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S. Clapham Common, London,
S.W

1879. §Hudson, Robert 8., M.D. Redruth, Cornwall.
1867. {Hudson, William H.H., M.A. 19 Bennet’s-hill, Doctors’ Commons,
London, E.C. ; and St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1858. *Hueers, Wrr1am, D.O0.L. Oxon., LL.D. Oamb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, S.W.
1857. tHuggon, William. 30 Park-row, Leeds.
1871. *Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.
1870. *Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-court, Liverpool.
1876. *Hughes, Rev. Thomas Edward. Wallfield, Reigate.
1868.§§Huaues, T. M‘K., M.A., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology
in the University of Cambridge.
1863. {Hughes, T. W. 4 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1865. fHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham,
Birmingham.
1867.§§Hutt, Epwarp, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Ireland, and Professor of Geology in the Royal College
of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W
and Breamore House, Salisbury.
1861. t{Hume, Rev. Canon Asranam, D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A. All Souls’
Vicarage, Rupert-lane, Liverpool.
1878.§§Humphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.
1856. {Humphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham.
1862. *“Humpury, Grorce Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge.
1877. “Hunt, ArtHur Roopr, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.
1865. {Hunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.
1840. {Huwnz, Roserz, F.R.S., Keeper of the Mining Records. Museum of
Practical Geology, Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
1864, {Hunt, W. 72 Pulteney-street, Bath.
1875. *Hunt, William. The Woodlands, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.
Hunter, Andrew Galloway. Denholm, Hawick, N.B.
1868. {Hunter, Christopher. Alliance Insurance Office, North Shields,
1867. tHunter, David. Blackness, Dundee.
1869. as Rev. Robert, F.G.S.. 9 Mecklenburgh-street, London,
W.C.
1879. §Huntington, A. K. Abbeville House, Arkwright-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
1863. {Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.
1875. {Hurnard, James. Lexden, Colchester, Essex.
1869. {Hurst, George. Bedford.
1861. *Hurst, Hid John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,
Treland.
1870, {Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.
Husband, William Dalla. Coney-street, York.
1876. {Hutchinson, John. 22 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow.
1874. {Hutchinson, Thomas J., F.R.G.S. Chimoo Cottage, Mill Hill,
London, N. W.

"5

46

Year of
Election,

1876.
1868.
1863.

1864.

1857.
1861.
1852.

1871.
1879.

1873.
1861,
1858.
1876.§
1871.

1876,
1858.
1852.

1870.

1857.
1862.

1863.

1865.
1870.
1859.
1876.
1879.
1866.

1869,
1863,

1852.
1874,
1865.
1872.
1860.
1863.

1858.
1876.
1876.
1859.
1850.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

tHutchison, Peter. 28 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.

*Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E. 29 Chester-street, Edinburgh.

tHutt, The Right Hon. Six W., K.C.B. Guibside, Gateshead.

Hutton, Crompton. Putney Park, Surrey, S.W.

*Hutton, Darnton. (Care of Arthur Lupton, Esq., Headingley, near
Leeds.

Hutton, Homy. Edenfield, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

tHutton, Henry D. 10 Lower Mountjoy-street, Dublin.

*Horron, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin.

tHuxtzy, THomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.L.S., F.GS.,
Professor of Natural History in the Royal School of Mines.
4 Marlborough-place, London, N.W.

Hyde, Edward. Dukintield, near Manchester.

*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

§Ibbotson, H. J. 26 Collegiate-crescent, Sheffield.

Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.

§Ikin, J. I. 19 Park-place, Leeds,

tHles, Rev. J. H. Rectory, Wolverhampton.

tIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.

§Inglis, Anthony. Broomhill, Partick, Glascow.

fIverts, The Right Hon. Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord Justice General
of Scotland. Edinburgh.

{Inglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

*Ingram, Hugo Francis Meynell. Temple Newsam, Leeds.

fIveram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of Greek in the
University of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.

“Inman, William. Upton Manor, Liverpool.

Treland, R.S., M.D. 121 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

tIrvine, Hans, M.A., M.B. 1 Rutland-square, Dublin.

{Isetiy, J. F., M.A., F.G.8. South Kensington Museum, London,
S.W.

*Ivory, Thomas. 23 Walker-street, Edinburgh.

{tJabet, George. Wellington-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

tJack, James. 26 Abereromby-square, Liverpool.

{Jack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.

{Jack, William. 19 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill, London, W.

§Jackson, Arthur, F.R.O.S. Wilkinson-street, Sheffield.

fJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 15 The Terrace, High-road,
Lewisham, S.E.

§Jackson, Moses, The Vale, Ramsgate. 2

Jackson, Professor Thomas, LL.D. St. Andrew’s, Scotland.

*Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. H. Moonbeam Villa, The Grove, New Wim-
bledon, London, 8S. W.

tJacoss, Berner. 40 George-street, Hull.

*Jaffe, John. Cambridge Villa, Strandtown, near Belfast.

*Jaffray, John. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{James, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney Hill, London, E.C,

tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.

*Jamas, Sir Waxrer, Bart., F.G.S. 6 Whitehall-gardens, London,
S.W

tJames, William O. Woodside, Plymouth.

tJamieson, J. L. K. The Mansion House, Govan, Glasgow.
{Jamieson, Rey. Dr. R. 156 Randolph-terrace, Glasgow.
*Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.
{Jardine, Alexander. Jardine Hall, Lockerby, Dumffiesshire.

LIST OF .MEMBERS, 47

Year of
Election.

1870. {Jardine, Edward. Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
1853, *Jarratt, Rev. Canon J.. M.A. North Cave, near Brough, York-
shire,
Jarrett, Rev. Tomas, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the University
of Cambridge. Trunch, Norfolk.
1870.§§Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
1862. {Jeakes, Rev. James, M.A. 54 Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W.
Jebb, Rev. John. Peterstow Rectory, Ross, Herefordshire.
1868. tJecks, Charles. 26 Langham-place, Northampton.
1856. {Jeffery, Henry M., M.A. 488 High-street, Cheltenham.
1855. *Jeffray, John. Cardovwan House, Millerston, Glasgow.
1867, preys Howel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 5 Brick-court, Temple, London,
EC.

1861, *Jerrreys, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Treas, G.S., F.R.G.S.
Ware Priory, Herts.

1852, {Jetterr, Rev. Jonn H., B.D.,M.R.LA. 64 Lower Leeson-street,

; Dublin.

1862.§§Jmnxin, H. C. Freee, F.R.S., M.LC.E., Professor of Civil
Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Great Stuart-
street, Edinburgh.

1873. §Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 14 St. James’s-square, London,
S.W.

. Jennette, Matthew. 106 Conway-street, Birkenhead.

1852. {Jennings, Francis M., F.G.S.,M.R.I.A. Brown-street, Cork.

1872. {Jennings, W. Grand Hotel, Brighton.

1878.§§ Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary’s Office, The Castle, Dublin.

*Jerram, Rey. 8. John, M.A. Chobham Vicarage, near Bagshot,

Surrey.

1872, {Jesson, Thomas. 7 Upper Wimpole-street, Cavendish-square,
London, W.

Jessop, William, jun. Butterley Hall, Derbyshire.

1870, *Jnvons, W. Stantzy, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Political
Economy in University College, London. 2 The Chestnuts,
Branch Hill, Hampstead Heath, London, N.W.

1872. *Joad, George C. Oaktield, Wimbledon, Surrey, S.W.

1871. *Johnson, David, F.C0.S., F.G.S. Irvon Villa, Grosvenor-road,
Wrexham.

1865. *Johnson, G. J. 386 Waterloo-street, Birmingham. Byers)

1876, §Johnson, James Henry, F.G.S., F.S.A. 73 Albert-road, Southport.

1866. {Johnson, John. Knighton Fields, Leicester.

1866. {Johnson, John G. 18a Basinghall-street, London, E.C.

1872. {Johnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.

1861. {Johnson, Richard. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.

1870. §Johnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. Higher Bebington Hall, Birken-
head.

1863. tJohnson, R. 8. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.
*Johnson, Thomas. Bache Hurst, Liverpool-road, Chester.
1861. Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
1871. tJohnston, A. Keith, F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W.
1864, {Johnston, David. 18 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.
1859. {Johnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B.
1864, {Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London,
N.W

1876. {Johnston, John, M.D. Edinburgh.

*Johnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B.
1864. tJohnstone, John. 1 Barnard-villas, Bath.
1876, {Johnstone, William. 5 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

48 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1864, {Jolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.

1871.§§ Jolly, William (H.M. Inspector of Schools). Inverness, N.B.

1849. {Jones, Baynham. Selkirk Villa, Cheltenham.

1856. {Jones,C. W. 7 Grosvenor-place, Cheltenham.

1877. §Jones, Henry C., F.C.S. 166 Blackstock-road, London, N.

1865. {Jones, John. 49 Union-passage, Birmingham.

*Jones, Robert. 2 Castle-street, Liverpool.

1873. tJones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.

1860. {Jones, THomas Ruperr, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy, Royal Military and Staff Colleges, Sandhurst.
Fosse Bank, Camberley, Surrey.

1847. {Jonzs, THOMAS Rymer, F.R.S. 52 Cornwall-road, Westbourne
Park, London, W.

1864.§§J ee Sir WiiLovensy, Bart., F.R.G.S. Cranmer Hall, Fakenham,

orfolk,
1875. *Jose, J. EH. 3 Queen-square, Bristol.
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B. 28 Leicester-street, Southport, Lan-

cashire.

1842. *Jounn, James Prescorr, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 12 Wardle-road,
Sale, near Manchester.

1847. {Jowzxrt, "Rev. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University
of Oxford. Balliol College, Oxford.

1858. tJowett, John. Leeds.

1879. §Jowitt, A. Hawthorn Lodge, Clarkehouse-road, Sheffield.

1872. tJoy, Algernon, Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W.

1848. *Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield. Grove Parsonage, Wantage, Berkshire.
Joy, Rev. John Holmes, M.A. 38 Coloney-terrace, Tunbridge Wells.
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.
1870. {Judd, John Wesley, F.R.S., F.G.S. 6 Manor-view, Brixton, London,
S.W.
1863. {Jukes, Rev. Andrew. Spring Bank, Hull.

1868. *Kaines, Joseph, M.A.,D.Se. 13 Finsbury-place South, London, E.C,
Kang, Sir Ropert, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.C.S., Prin-
cipal of the Royal College of Cork. Fortland, Killiney, Co,
Dublin.
1857. {Kavanagh, James W. Grenville, Rathgar, Ireland.
1859. {Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington,
London, W.
Kay, John Gunliff. Fairfield Hall, near Skipton.
*Kay, John Robinson. Walmersley House, Bury, Lancashire.
Kay, Robert. Haugh Bank, Bolton-le-Moors.
1847. *Kay, Rev. William, D.D. Great Leghs Rectory, Chelmsford,
1872. {Keames, William M. 5 Lower Rock-gardens, Brighton.
1875. {Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.
1866. { Keene, Alfr ed, Eastnoor House, Leamington.
1878. *Kelland, William Henry. 110 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.; and
Grettans, Bow, North Devon.
1876. {Kelly, Andrew G. The Manse, Alloa, N.B.
1864. *Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.
1853. {Kemp, Rey. Henry William, B.A. The Charter House, Hull.
1875. {Kennepy, AtexanpER B. W., C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, London. ” 9 Bartholomew-road, London, N. W.
1876. {Kennedy, Hugh. Redclyffe, Partickhill, Glasgow.
1857. {Kennedy, Lieut.-Colonel John Pitt. 20 Torrington-square, Blooms-
bury, London, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 49

Year of
Election.

1865.

1857.
1857.
1857.
1855.
1876.
1868.
1869,
1869.
1861.
1876.
1876.
1865.

{Kenrick, Wilkam. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.

{Kent, William T., M.R.D.S. 51 Rutland-square, Dublin.

{ Kenworth, James Ryley. 7 Pembroke-place, Liverpool.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland,

*Ker, Robert.. Dougalston, Milngavie, N.B.

{Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

{Kerrison, Roger. Crown Bank, Norwich.

*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes, 1 Peter-street, Manchester,

*Keymer, John. FParker-street, Manchester.

{Kidston, J. B. West Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Kidston, William. Ferniegair, Helensburgh, N.B.

*Kinahan, Edward Hudson, M.R.I.A. 11 Merrion-square North,

Dublin.

1878.§§Kinahan, Edward Hudson, jun. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
1860, {Kiwawan, G. Henry, M.R.I.A., Geological Survey of Ireland. 14

1858.
1875.

1872,
1875.

1871.
1855.

Hume-street, Dublin.

{Kincaid, Henry Ellis, M.A. 8 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.

*Kinch, Edward, F.C.S. Agricultural College, Home Department,
Tokio, Japan. (Care of C. J. Kinch, Esq., Eaton Hasting,
Lechlade, Gloucestershire. )

*King, Mrs. E. M. 34 Cornwall-road, Westbourne Park, London,
W.

*Kine, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristvl.
*King, Herbert Poole. Theological College, Salisbury.
{King, James, Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.

1870.§§King, John Thomson, C.E. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.

1864.

1860.
1875.
1870.

1869.
1861.
1876.
1835,
1875.

1867.
1867.

1870.
1863.
1860.

1876.

1875.
1870.
1869,

King, Joseph. Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
§Kine, Kursurnn, M.D. 27 George-street, and Royal Institution,
Hull.

*King, Mervyn Kersteman. 16 Vyvyan-terrace, Clifton, Bristol,
*Kino, Perey L. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
{King, William. 13 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo, Liverpool.
King, William Poole, F.G.S. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol,
tKinedon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
{Kingsley, John. Ashfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
§Kingston, Thomas. Strawberry House, Chiswick, Middlesex.
Kingstone, A. John, M.A. Mosstown, Longford, Ireland.
§Kinezerr, CuariEs T., F.C.S, 12 Auriol-road, The Cedars, West
Kensington, London, W.
tKinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
*Kinnarrp, The Right Hon. Lord. 2 Pall Mall East, London,
S.W.; and Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire.
{Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
{Kirkaldy, David. 28 Bartholomew-road North, London, N.W,

{Kirxman, Rev. Tuomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near
Warrington.
Kirkpatrick, Rev. W. B., D.D. 48 North Great George-street,

Dublin.

*Kirkwood, Anderson, LL.D., F.R.S.E. 12 Windsor-terrace West,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

{Kirsop, John. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.

}Kitchener, Frank EK. Rugby.

{Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter,

1870.§§Kneeshaw, Henry. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
1836, Knipe, J. A. Botcherby, Carlisle.
D

50 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1872. *Knott, George, LL.B., F.R.A.S. Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath,
Sussex.

1873. *Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire.

1872. {Knowles, James. The Hollies, Clapham Common, 8. W.

1842. Knowles, John. The Lawn, Rugby.

1870. tKnowles, Rey. J. L. 103 EKarl’s Court-road, Kensington, London, W.

1874. §Knowles, William James. Cullybackey, Belfast, Ireland.

1876. {Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 8 Belgrave Terrace, Hillhead,
Glasgow.

*Knox, George James. 2 Coleshill-street, Eaton-square, London,

S.W

1835, Knox, Thomas Perry. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, W.C.
1875. *Knubley, Rev. E. P. Staveley Rectory, Boroughbridge, Yorkshire,
1870, {Kynaston, Josiah W. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.

1865. {Kynnersley, J.C. S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.

1858, §Lace, Francis John, Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds,
1859, §Ladd, William, F.R.A.S. 11 & 13 Beak-street, Regent-street, Lon-
don, W.

1870. {Laird, H.H. Birkenhead.

1870.§§Laird, John, jun. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.

1877.§§Lake, W.C., M.D. Teignmouth.

1859. {Lalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. 2 Longford-terrace, Monkstown, Co.

Dublin.

1846. *Laming, Richard. The Parade, Arundel, Sussex,

1870. {Zamport, Charles. Upper Norwood, Surrey, SE.

1871. {Lancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

1877. {Landon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 8 The Circus, Green-

wich, London, S.E.

1859. {Lang, Rey. John Marshall. Bank House, Morningside, Edinburgh.

1864.§§Lang, Robert. Langford Lodge, College-road, Clifton, Bristol,

1870, {Langton, Charles, Barkhill, Airburth, Liverpool.

*Langton, William. Docklands, Ingatestone, Essex.
1865, {LanxKEsTER, EK. Ray, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Ana-
tomy and Zoology in University College, London. Exeter
College, Oxford; and 11 Wellington Mansions, North Bank,
London, N.W.
Lanyon, Sir Charles. The Abbey, White Abbey, Belfast.
1878,.§§Lapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
*Larcom, Major-General Sir Tuomas Atskrew, Bart., K.C.B., R.E.,
F.R.S., M.R.ILA. Heathfield House, Fareham, Hants.
LassELL, Wit1iAM, LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E., FR.A.S. Ray Lodge,
Maidenhead.
1861, *Latham, Arthur G. Lower King-street, Manchester.
1870, *LatHam, Batpwin, C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers, West-
: minster, S.W,
1870, {Laughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Naval
College, Greenwich, 8.E.

1875. {Lavington, William F, 107 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1870, *Law, Channell. 5 Champion-park, Camberwell, London, 8.E.

1878,§§Law, Henry, C.E, 5 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, 8. W.

1857, tLaw, Hugh, Q.C. 4 Great Denmark-stteet, Dublin.

1862, {Law, Rev. James Edmund,M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.
Lawley, The Hon. Francis Charles. Escrick Park, near York.
Lawley, The Hon. Stephen Willoughby. Escrick Park, near

York.
1870, {Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 51

Year of
Election.

1875. {Lawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany.
Halifax, Nova Scotia.

1869. {ZLawson, Henry. 8 Nottingham-place, London, W.

1857. {Lawson, The Right Hon. James A., LL.D., M.R.LA. 27 Fitz-

william-street, Dublin.

1876. {Lawson, John. Cluny Hill, Forres, N.B.

1868. *Lawson, M. Arexanper, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the

. University of Oxford. Botanic Gardens, Oxford.

1863. {Lawton, Benjamin C. Neville Chambers, 44 Westgate-street,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1858. {Lawton, William. 6 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.

1865. {Lea, Henry. 35 Paradise-street, Birmingham.

1857. {Leach, Captain R. E. Mountjoy, Phcenix Park, Dublin.

1870, *Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Old Change, London,
E.C.; and Painshill, Cobham.

1847, *LeatHam, Epwarp AxpaM, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield ;

; and 46 Eaton-square, London, S. W.

1844, *Leather, John Towlerton, F.S.A. Leventhorpe Hall, near Leeds.

1858. {Leather, John W. Newton-green, Leeds.

1863. {Leavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.

1872. {Lezour, G. A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the College of
Physical Science, Neweastle-on-Tyne. Weedpark House, Dipton,
Lintz Green, Co. Durham.

1858, *Le Cappelain, John. Wood-lane, Highgate, London, N.

1858. {Ledgard, William. Potter Newton, near Leeds.

1861. {Lee, Henry. Irwell House, Lower Broughton, Manchester.

1853. *Lrr, Jonn Epwarp,F.G.8., F.S.A. Villa Syracusa, Torquay.

1859, {Lees, William. Link Vale Lodge, Viewforth, Edinburgh,

*Leese, Joseph. Glenfield, Altrincham, Manchester.
*Leeson, Henry B., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Maples, Bon-

church, Isle of Wight.

‘1872. {LErEvRE, G. Suaw, M.P., F.R.G.S. 18 Spring-gardens, London,
S.W.

*Lzrroy, Lieut.-General Sir Joun Huyry, C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 82 Queen’s-gate, London, 8. W.
*Legh, Lieut.-Colonel George Cornwall, M.P. High Legh Hall,
Cheshire ; and 45 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W.
1869. {Le Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
1868. {LxErcesteR, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Holkham, Norfolk.
1856. {LeicH, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square,
London, W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,
1861. *Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester.
1870. {Leighton, Andrew. 85 High-park-street, Liverpool.
1867.§§Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.
1870. {Leister, G. F. Gresbourn House, Liverpool.
1859. {Leith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.
1863. *Lenpy, Captain Aveusrr Freprric, F.L.S., F.G.8S. Sunbury
House, Sunbury, Middlesex.
1867. {Leng, John. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
1878.§§Lennon, Rey. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.
(1861. {Lennox, A.C. W. 7 Beaufort-gardens, Brompton, London, 8. W.
Lentaigne, John, C.B., M.D. Tallaght House, Co. Dublin; and
1 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.

Lentaigne, Joseph. 12 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
1871.§§Lzonarp, Huen, F.G.S., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.L Geological Survey
‘ of Ireland, 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

1874, {Lepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.
D2

52 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1861. {Leppoc, Henry Julius. Kersal Crag, near Manchester.
1872. {Lermit, Rev. Dr. School House, Dedham.
1871. {Leslie, Alexander, C.K. 72 George-street, Edinburgh.
1856. {Leslie, Colonel J. Forbes. Rothienorman, Aberdeenshire.
1852. {Lzstre, T. E. Cxrirre, LL.B., Professor of Jurisprudence and Political
Economy in Queen’s College, Belfast.
1876. {Zeveson, Edward John. Cluny, Sydenham Hill, SE.
1866. §Levi, Dr. Leonz, F.S.A., F.S.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Com-
mercial Law in King’s College, London. 5 Crown Office-row,,.
Temple, London, E.C.
1879, §Lewin, Lieut.-Colonel. Tanhurst, Dorking.
1870. t{Lewis, Atrrep Lionet. 151 Church-road, De Beauvoir Town,
London, N.
1853. {Liddell, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Hull.
1860. {LippELL, The Very Rev. H.G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford
1876. {Lietke, J.O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
1862. {Linrorp, The Right Hon. Lord, ¥'.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
amptonshire.
*Luwerick, The Right Rev. Coartes Graves, D.D., M.R.LA., Lord
Bishop of. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.
1878.§§Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
*Lindsay, Charles. Ridge Park, Lanark, N.B.
1871. *Linpsay, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P., F.R.S. 47 Brook-street,.
London, W.
1870. {Lindsay, Thomas, F.C.S. 288 Renfrew-street, Glasgow.
1871. {Lindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.
1842, *Lingard, John R., F.G.S. 12 Booth-street, Piccadilly, Manchester.
Lingwood, Robert M., M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 1 Derby-villas, Chel-
tenham.
1876. §Linn, James. Geological Survey Office, India-buildings, Edinburgh.
Lister, James. Liverpool Union Bank, Liverpool.
1873. *Lister, Samuel Cunliffe. Farfield Hall, Addingham, Leeds.
1870. §Lister, Thomas. Victoria-crescent, Barnsley, Yorkshire,
1876. {Little, Thomas Evelyn. 42 Brunswick-street, Dublin.
Littledale, Harold. Liscard Hall, Cheshire.
1861. *Lrverne, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.0.8., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Cambridge.
1876. *Liversidge, Archibald, F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney, N.S.W. (Care
of Messrs. Triibner & Co., Ludgate Hill, London, H.C.)
1864.§§Livesay, J.G. Cromarty House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
1860. tZivingstone, Rev. Thomas Gott, Minor Canon of Carlisle Cathedral,
Lloyd, Rev. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry.
Lloyd, Rev. C., M.A. Whittington, Oswestry.
1842. Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester.
1865. {Lloyd, G. B. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.
*Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S. Park Glass Works, Birmingham.
*Lioyp, Rev. Humparey, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L.& E., M.R.LA.,
Provost of Trinity College, Dublin.
1870. tLloyd, James. 16 Welfield-place, Liverpool.
1870. {Zloyd, J. H., M.D. Anglesey, North Wales.
1865, tLloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
Lloyd, Rev. Rees Lewis. Belper, Derbyshire.
1877, *Lloyd, Sampson Samuel, M.P. Moor Hall, Sutton Coldfield.
1865. *Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Myrod House, Wednesbury.
1854. *Losiey, James Logan, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 59 Clarendon-road, Ken-
sington Park, London, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 53

Year of
Election.

1853.
1867.
1872.
1863.

1875.

1868.
1862.
1876.
1872.
1871.

1851.

*Locke, John. 133 Leinster-road, Dublin.

*Locke, John. 83 Addison-road, Kensington, London, W.

tLocxs, Jony, M.P. 63 Eaton-place, London, 8. W.

{Locxyer, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 16 Penywern-road, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.

*Lopex, Otrver J., D.Sc. University College, London, W.C.; and
17 Parkhurst-road, London, N.

tLogin, Thomas, C.E., F.R.S.E. India.

tLong, Andrew, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

tLong, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.

tLong, Jeremiah. 50 Marine Parade, Brighton.

*Long, John Jex. 727 Duke-street, Glasgow.

tLone, William, F.G.S. Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk,

1866.§§Longdon, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.

1859,
1875,

1871.

1872,

1875.
1861.
1863.
1876,

1875.
1867.
1863,
1861.
1870.
1868,
1850.
1853.

1870,

Lonerietp, The Right Hon. Movnrrrorr, na D., M.R.LA., Regius
Professor of Feudal and English Law in the University of
Dublin. 47 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

tLongmuir, Rey. John, M.A., LL.D. 14 Silver-street, Aberdeen.

*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.B., F.C.S. Southfield Grange,
‘Wandsworth, 8. W.

§Longstaff, George Dixon, M.D., F.C.S. Southfields, Wandsworth,
8. W.; and 9 Upper Thames-street, London, E.C.

*Longstaff, Lieut.-Colonel Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Reform Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8.W.

§Lonsdale, N. Lowenthal. 4 Aberdeen-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

*Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.

tLosh, W. 8. Wreay Syke, Carlisle.

*Love, James, F.R.A.S. Talbot Lodge, Bickerton-road, Upper
Holloway, London, N.

*Lovett, W. J. 96 Lionel-street, Birmingham.

*Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.

*Lowe, Lieut.-Colonel Arthur 8. H., F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate,
London, W.

*Lowsz, Epwarp Josmpu, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.M.S.
Highfield House Observatory, near Nottingham.

tLowe, G. C. 67 Cecil-street, Greenheys, Manchester,

tLowe, John, M.D. King’s Lynn.

Ss a Shae Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-

urgh,

*Luspock, Sir Jonny, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.S. High Elms, Farnborough, Kent.

tLubbock, Montague. High Elms, Farnborough, Kent.

1878.§§Lucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, London, 8. W.

1849,
18

1873.
1866.
1873.
1850.
1853,
1858,
1864,
1874.
1864,

1866

1871,

*Luckcock, Howard. Oak-hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1875. §§Lucy, Ww. C., F.G.8. The ‘Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester,
67

*Luis, John Henry, Cidhmore, Dundee.

tLumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Lund, Charles. 48 Market-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Lund, Joseph. Dkley, Yorkshire,

*Lundie, Cornelius. Teviot Bank, Newport Road, Cardiff.
f{Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.
*Lupton, Arthur. Headingley, near Leeds.

*Lupton, Darnton. The Harehills, near Leeds.

*Lupton, Sydney. Harrow.

*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.

tLycerr, Sir Francis. 18 Highbury-grove, London, N.
tLyell, Leonard. 42 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W.

54

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1874.

tLynam, James, C.E. Ballinasloe, Ireland.

1857. {Lyons, Robert D., M.B., M.R.I.A. 8 Merrion-square West, Dublin.
1878.§§Lyte, Cecil Maxwell. Scientific Club, Savile-row, London, W.

1862.

1852.
1854.

1876.
1876.
1868.

1878.

1868.
1879.
1866.
1838.
1840.

1871.

1866.
1863.
1855.
1876.
1840.
1868.

1872,
1874.
1878,

1859.
1858.
1876,

1871.

*Lyte, F. Maxwell, F.C.S. Cotford, Oakhill-road, Putney, London,
S.W.

t{McAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast.

*MacapaM, Srrvenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House,

Portobello, by Edinburgh.

{M‘Adam, William. 30 St. Vincent-crescent, Glasgow.

*Macadam, William Ivison. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.
tMacaxisteR, ALEXANDER, M.D., Professor of Zoology in the Uni-

versity of Dublin. 13 Adelaide-road, Dublin.

§McAlister, een B.A., B.Sc. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, Lon-

don, E.C.

{M‘Allan. W. A. Norwich.

§MacAndrew, James J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, Sheffield.

*M‘Arthur, A., M.P. Raleigh Hall, Brixton Rise, London, 8.W.
Macaulay, Henry. 14 Clifton Bank, Rotherham, Yorkshire.

Macaulay, James A. M., M.D, 22 Cambridge-road, Kilburn, Lon-
don, N. W.
{M‘Bain, James, M.D., R.N. Logie Villa, York-road, Trinity, Edin-
burgh.
*MacBrayne, Robert. Messrs. Black and Wingate, 5 Exchange-
square, Glasgow.
tM‘Cattan, Rev. J. F., M.A. Basford, near Nottingham.

tM‘Calmont, Robert. Gatton Park, Reigate.

{M‘Cann, Rev. James, D.D.,F.G.S. 18 Shaftesbury-terrace, Glasgow.
*M‘CreLtanD, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
M‘CLELLAND, JamEs, F.S.S. 32 Pembridge-square, London, W.

{M‘Crintocx, Rear-Admiral Sir Francts L., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.GS.

United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.

*M‘Clure, J. H. Beaconsfield Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
{M‘Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart. Belmont, Belfast.

*M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

*M‘Connel, James. Moore-place, Esher, Surrey.

*M‘Connell, David C., EGS. 44 Manor-place, Edinburgh.
tM‘Connell, J. E. Woodlands, Great Missenden.

fM‘Culloch, Richard. 109 Douglas-street, Blythswood-square, Glas-

t

gow.
M‘Donald, William. Yokohama, Japan. (Care of R. K. Knevitt,
Esq., Sun-court, Cornhill, E.C.)

1878.§§McDonnell, Alexander. St. John’s, Island Bridge, Dublin.

MacDonnell, Hereules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.

1878.§§McDonnell, James. 32 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
1878.§§McDonnell, Robert, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A. 14 Lower Pembroke~

1859.
1871.
1855.
1879.
1854.
1867.
1855.
1872,

street, Dublin.

*M‘Ewan, John. 9 Melville-terrace, Stirling, N.B.
tMacfarlane, Alexander. 73 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.
{M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow.
*Macfarlane, Walter. 22 Park-circus, Glasgow.
§Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 22 Park-circus, Glasgow.

*Macfie, Robert Andrew. Dreghorn, Colinton, Edinburgh.
*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.

{MacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
{M‘George, Mungo. Nithsdale, Laurie Park, Sydenham, S.E.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 55

Year of
Election.

1873. {McGowen, William Thomas. Oak-avenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

1855. {M‘Gregor, Alexander Bennett. 19 Woodside-crescent, Glasgow.

1855. {MacGregor, James Watt. 2 Laurence-place, Partick, Glasgow.

1876. {M‘Grigor, Alexander B. 19 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

1859. {M‘ Hardy, David. 54 Netherkinkgate, Aberdeen.

1874.§§MaclIlwaine, Rev. Canon, D.D., M.R.I.A. Ulsterville, Belfast.

1876. {Macindoe, Patrick. 9 Somerset-place, Glasgow.

1859. tMacintosh, John. Middlefield House, Woodside, Aberdeen.

1867. *M‘Intosu, W. C., M.D., F B.S. L. & E., F.L.S. Murthly, Perthshire.

1854, *Maclver, Charles. 8 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

1871. {Mackay, Rev. A., LL.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hatton-place, Grange, Edin-
burgh.

1873. {McKzypricx, Joun G.,M.D., F.R.S.E. 2 Chester-street, ae

1865. {Mackeson, Henry B., EGS. Hythe, Kent.

1872. *Mackey, J. A. 24 Buckingham-place, Brighton.

1867. §Macxtz, SamvEn Josepy, O.E., F.G.S. 22 Eldon-road, Kensington,
London, W.

*Mackinlay, David. Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glascow.

1865. {Mackintosh, Daniel, F.G.S. 36 Derby-road, Higher Tranmere, Bir-
kenhead.

1850. {Macknight, Alexander. 12 London-street, Edinburgh.

1867, tMackson, H.G. 25 Cliff-road, Woodhouse, Leeds.

1872. *McLacutan, Rozzrt, F.R.S., RLS. 39 Limes-grove, Lewisham,
S.E

1873. t{McLandsborough, John, C.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.8. South Park Villa,
Harrogate, Yorkshire.
1860, {Maclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.
1864, {MacLarEn, Duncan, M.P. Newington House, Edinburgh.
1873. {MacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.
1876. {M‘Lean, Charles. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
1876. {M‘Lean, Mrs. Charles. 6 Claremont-terrace, “Glasgow.
1862. {Macleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Gampden-hill-road,
London, W.
1868. §M‘Lxop, Hersrrt, F.C.S. Indian Civil Engineering College,
Cooper’s Hill, Evham,
1875. {Macliver, D. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.
1875, {Macliver, P.S. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.
1861. *Maclure, John William. 2 Bond-street, Manchester.
1878, *M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Donnybrook, Ireland.
1862. {Macmillan, Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey, S.W.
1874, {MacMordie, Hans, M.A. & Donegall-street, Belfast.
1871. {M‘Nas, Wixt1am Ramsay, M.D., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin. 4 Vernon-parade, Clontarf, Dublin,
1870. {Macnaught, John, M. D. 74 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1867. §M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.
MacNettt, The Right Hon. Sir Jonny, G.C.B., F.R.S.E., F.R.GS.
Granton House, Edinburgh.
MAcNEILL, Sir Jonn, LL.D., F.RS., F.R.A.S., MR.LA. 17 The
Grove, South Kensington, London, S.W.
1878.§§Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.
1852. *Macrory, Adam John. Duncairn, Belfast.
*Macrory, Epmunp,M.A. 40 Leinster-square, Bayswater, London, W.
1876. *Mactear, James. 16 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
1855. {Macyicar, Rev. Jonn Grsson, D.D., LL.D. Moffat, N.B.
1868. {Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.
1875. *Magnus, Philip. 48 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London, W.

56 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1879. §Mahomed, F. A. 13 St. Thomas-street, London, 8.E.
ae §§Mahony, W. A. 34 College-green, Dublin.
1869, {Main, Robert. Admiralty, Whitehall, London, 8. W.
1866. {Masor, Ricnarp Henry, F.S.A., Sec.R.G.8. British Museum,
London, W.C.
*MatanipE, The Right Hon. Lord Tarzor nz, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
FE.G.S., F.S.A., M.R.LA. Malahide Castle, Co. Dublin.
*Malcolm, Frederick. Morden College, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
1870. *Malcolm, Sir James, Bart. 1 Cornwall-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
1874. {Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.
1863. tMaling, C. T. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1857. {Mallet, John William, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.0.8., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, U.S.
*Matzter, Ropert, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.L.A. Enmore, The
Grove, Clapham-road, Clapham, S.W.
1846, {Mansy, Cuarzes, F.R.S., F.G.S. 60 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde
Park, London, W.
1870. tManifold, W. H. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1866, §Mann, Roperr James, M.D., F.R.A.S. 5 Kingsdown-yillas, Wands-
worth Common, 8. W.
Manning, His Eminence Cardinal. Archbishop's House, West-
minster, S.W.
1866. {Manning, John. Waverley-street, Nottingham.
1878.§§Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.
1864. {Mansel, J.C. Long Thorns, Blandford.
1870. {Marcoartu, Senor Don Arturo de. Madrid,
1864, {Marxnam, Crements R., O.B., F.R.S., F.L.S., Sec.R.G.S., F.S.A.
21 Eccleston-square, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
1863. {Marley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.
*Marling, Samuel S., M.P. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucester-
shire,
1871. {Marrzco, A. Fripre-. College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
1857. {Marriott, William, F.C.S. Grafton-street, Huddersfield.
1842. Marsden, Richard. Norfolk-street, Manchester.
1870, {Marsh, John. Rann Lea, Rainhill, Liverpool.
1865. {Marsh, J. F. Hardwick House, Chepstow.
1864, {Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosvenor-place, Bath.
1852, {Marshall, James D. Holywood, Belfast.
1876. {Marshall, Peter. 6 Parkgrove-terrace, Glasgow.
1858. {Marshall, Reginald Dykes, Adel, near Leeds.
1849. *Marshall, William P.* 247 Monument-road, Birmingham.
1865. §MARTEN, Epwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.
1848. {Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.
1878.§§Martin, H. Newell. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
1871. pugs Rey. Hugh, M.A. Greenhill Cottage, ‘Tissot by Edin-
urgh.
1870. tMartin, Robert, M.D. 120 Upper Brook-street, Manchester.
1836, Martin, Studley. 177 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.
Meee Nicholas. Meadow Bank, Vanbrugh-fields, Blackheath,

*Martineau, Rev. James, LL.D., D.D. 5 Gordon-street, Gordon-
square, London, W.C.
1865. {Martineau, R. F. Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
1865. {Martineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham.
1875. {Martyn, Samuel, M.D. 8 Buckingham- villas, Clifton, Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 57

Year of
Elections

1878, §Masaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
, London, E.0
1847, {MAskeLynE, Nevin Srory, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the
Mineralogical Department, British Museum, and Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. 112 Gloucester-terrace,
Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
1861. *Mason, Hugh. Groby Lodge, Ashton-under-Lyne.
1879. §Mason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.
1868. {Mason, James Wood, F.G.S. The Indian Museum, Calcutta.
(Care of Messrs. Henry 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London,
‘E.C.)
1876.§§Mason, Robert. 6 Albion-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1876, {Mason, Stephen. 9 Rosslyn-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
Massey, Hugh, Lord. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co. Limerick.
1870. {Massey, Thomas. 5 Gray’s-Inn-square, London, W.C.
1870. {Massy, Frederick. 50 Grove-street, Liverpool.
1876, {Matheson, John, Lastfield, Rutherglen, Glasgow.
1865. *Mathews, G. 8. 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1861, *Marnews, Wiri1am, M.A., F.G.S. 49 Harborne-road, Birming-
ham.
1876, *Mathiesen, John, jun. Cordale, Renton, Glasgow.
1865. {Matthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
1858, {Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.
1860, {Matthews, Rev. Richard Brown. Shalford Vicarage, near Guild-
ford.
1863. {Maughan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1865. *Maw, Guorez, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Benthall Hall, Broseley,
Shropshire.
1876, {Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.
1864, *Maxwell, Francis. St. Germains, Longniddry, East Lothian.
*MAXWELL, JAMES Crerx, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of
Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. Glenlair,
Dalbeattie, N.B. ; and 11 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Groomsport. House, Belfast.
1868. {Mayall, J. E., F.0.S. Stork’s Nest, Lancing, Sussex.
1835. Mayne, Edward Ellis. Rocklands, Stillorgan, Ireland.
1878. *Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.
1863. {Mease, George D. Bylton Villa, South Shields.
1871. {Meikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.
1879. §Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. H.M. Dockyard, Chatham.
1867. {MEeLpRuM, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Port Louis, Mau-
ritius.
1879, *Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.
1866. {Mxrzto, Rey. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. St. Thomas's Rectory, Brampton,
Chesterfield.
1854, {Melly, Charles Pierre. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool.
1847. {Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College, Gal-

way.

1863. {Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.

1877. *Menabrea, Lieut.-General Count. 85 Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.

1862, {Meynett, Heyry J. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, E.0.

1879. §Merivale, John Herman. Nedderton R.S.O., Northumberland.

1879. §Merivale, Walter. Engineers’ Oftice, North-Eastern Railway, New-

castle-on-Tyne.

1868. §Murrirrep, Cuartes W., F.R.S. 20 Girdler’s-road, Brook Green,

London, W.

58 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election. P

1877. {Merrifield, John, Ph.D., F.R.A.S. Gascoigne-place, Plymouth
1871. {Merson, John. Northwmberland County Asylum, Morpeth.
1872. *Messent, John. 429 Strand, London, W.C.
1863. {Messent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
1869. {Mzatt, Lovuts C., F.G.S.,Professor of Biology in Yorkshire College,
Leeds.
1865. {Michie, Alexander. 26 Austin Friars, London, E.C.
1865. {Middlemore, William, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1876, *Middleton, Robert T. 197 West George-street, Glasgow.
1866. {Midgley, John. Colne, Lancashire.
1867. {Midgley, Robert. Colne, Lancashire.
1859, {Millar, John, J.P. Lisburn, Ireland.
1863. {Millar, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S8. Bethnal House, Cambridge-road,.
London, E.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.
1876, {Millar, William. Highfield House, Dennistoun, Glargow.
1876.§§Millar, W. J. 145 Hill-street, Garnethill, Glasgow.
1876. {Miller, Daniel. 258 St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
1875. {Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.
1865. tMiller, Rey. Canon J.C., D.D. The Vicarage, Greenwich, 8.E.
1861, *Miller, Robert. Poise House, Bosden, near Stockport.
1876, *Miller, Robert. 1 Lily Bank-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1876. {Miller, Thomas Paterson. Morriston House, Cambuslang, N.B.
Miter, Witt1am Hattows, M.A., LL.D., E.R.S., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge. 7 Scroope-
terrace, Cambridge.
1868. *Milligan, Joseph, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 6 Craven-
street, Strand, London, W.C.
1868, *Mizts, Epmunp J., D.Sc. F.R.S., F.C.S., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in Anderson’s University, Glasgow. 234
East George-street, Glasgow.
*Mills, John Robert. 11 Bootham, York.
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.C.B., F.R.S.E. 13 New-
street, Spring-gardens, London, S. W.
1867. {Milne, James. Murie House, Errol, by Dundee.
1867. *Mritnn-Homs, Davin, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 10 York-place,.
Edinburgh.
1864, *Minron, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.G.S. 17 Grosvenor-street,.
London, W.; and Wentworth, Yorkshire.
1865. {Minton, Samuel, F.G.S. Oakham House, near Dudley.
1855. {Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
1859. {Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.
1876, {Mitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
1863, {Mitchell, C. Walker. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1873. {Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1870. {Mitchell, John. York House, Clitheroe, Lancashire.
1868. {Mitchell, John, jun. Pole Park House, Dundee.
1879. §Mrvarz, Sr. Grorer, M.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.Z.S., Professor of
Biology in University College, Kensington. 71 Seymour-street,
London, W.
1855. *Moffat, John, C.E. Ardrossan, Scotland.
1854.§§Morrat, THomas, M.D., F.G.S8., F.R.A.S., F.M.S. Hawarden,
Chester.
1864. {Moge, John Rees. High Littleton House, near Bristol.
1866. {Moeeriper, Marruew,F.G.S. 8 Bina-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8S. W.
1855. {Moir, James. 174 Gallogate, Glascow.

tet tt ttt

LIST OF MEMBERS.’ 5o

Year of
Election.

1861. {MorEsworru, Rey. W. Nassau, M.A. Spotland, Rochdale.
Mollan, John, M.D. 8 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin.

1878. §Molloy, Constantine. 70 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin.

1877. *Molloy, Rey. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

1852. {Molony, William, LL.D. Carrickfergus.

1865, §Morynevx, WiiiAm, F.G.S. Branston Cottage, Burton-upon-

Trent.
1860, {Monk, Rey. William, M.A.,F.R.A.S. Wymington Rectory, Higham
Ferrers, Northamptonshire.
1853. {Monroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
1872.§§Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Edgware-road,
London, W.
1872. {Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
1859. {Moorz, Cuartzs, F.G.S. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Bath.
1857. {Moore, Rev. John, D.D. Clontarf, Dublin.
Moore, John. 2 Meridian-place, Clifton, Bristol.
*Moorz, Joun Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8. 113 Eaton-square,
London, S.W. ; and Corswall, Wigtonshire.
1866. ae Tuomas, F.L.S. Botanic Gardens, Chelsea, London,
W.

1854, {Moorr, Tuomas Jonn, Cor. M.Z.S. Free Public Museum, Liver-
pool.

1877.§§Moore, W. F. The Friary, Plymouth.

1857. *Moore, Rey. William Prior. The Royal School, Cavan, Ireland.

1877. {Moore, William Vanderkemp. 15 Princess-square, Plymouth.

1871. {Morn, AtuxanpER G., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 3 Botanic View, Glas-
neyin, Dublin.

1878. {Morgan, Edward Delmar. 15 Rowland-gardens, London, W.

1868. {Morgan, Thomas H. Oakhurst, Hastings.

18383. Morgan, William, D.C.L. Oxon. Uckfield, Sussex.

1878. §Morean, Wittram, Ph.D. Swansea.

1867. {Morison, William R. Dundee.

1863. luke SamvEL, M.P. 18 Wood-street, Cheapside, London,
E

1865, *Morrieson, Colonel Robert. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London,
W.

os ee Francis Orpen, B.A. Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton,
ork.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortyiew, Clontarf, near Dublin.
1876.§§Morris, Rey. 8. 8.0. The Grammar School, Dolgelly.
1874. {Morrison, G. J.,C.E. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
1871. *Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh.
1879. §Morrison, Dr. R. Milner. 13 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh,
1865. §Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.
1869. {Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
1857. §Morton, Grorer H., F.G.S. 122 London-road, Liverpool.
1858. *Morton, Hunry JosrpH. 4 Royal Crescent, Scarborough.
1871. {Morton, Hugh, Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.
1857. {Moses, Marcus. 4 Westmoreland-street, Dublin.
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L. JRolleston Hall, Burton-upon-
Trent, Staffordshire.
1878. §Moss, Edward Lawton, M.D., R.N. 48 Haddington-road, Dublin.
Moss, John. Ottersgool, near Liverpool.
1878. *Moss, Jon Francis. Ranmoor, Sheffield.
1870. {Moss, John Miles, M.A. 2 Esplanade, Waterloo, Liverpool.
1876.§§Moss, Ricwarp Jackson, F.0.8., M.R.LA. 66 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.

60° LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1873. *Mosse, George Staley. Cowley Hall, near Uxbridge.

1864. *Mosse, J. R. Public Works’ Department, Ceylon. (Care of Messrs.
H. 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London, E.C.)

1873. {Mossman, William. Woodhall, Calverley, Leeds.

1869. §Morr, AtserT J., F.G.S. Adsett Court, Westbury-on-Severn.

1865. {Mott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead. ‘

1866. §Mort, Freperick T., F.R.G.S. Birstall Hill, Leicester.

1862. *Movat, Freperick Joun, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 12
Durham-villas, Campden Hill, London, W.

1856. {Mould, Rey. J. G., B.D. Fulmodeston Rectory, Dereham, Norfolk.

1878. *Moulton, J. F. 74 Onslow-gardens, London, 8. W.

1863. {Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.

Mounsey, John. Sunderland.

1861. *Mountcastle, William Robert. Bridge Farm, Ellenbrook, near

Manchester.

1877. {Mount-Epecumser, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-

Edgcumbe, Devonport.

Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland.

1850. {Mowbray, John T. 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

1874.§§Muir, M. M. Pattison, F.R.S.E. Owens College, Manchester.

1876, *Muir, John. 6 Park-gardens, Glasgow.

1876.§§Muir, Thomas. High School, Glasgow.

1872, {Muirhead, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S. 29 Regency-street, West-
minster, S.W.

1871. *MurruEaD, Henry, M.D. Bushy Hill, Cambuslang, Lanarkshire.

1876, {Muirhead, R. F., B.Sc. Meikle Cloak, Lochwinnoch, Renfrewshire.

Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C.

1866. {Munpetra, A. J., M.P., F.R.G.S. The Park, Nottingham.

1876. §Munro, Donald, F.C.S. 97 Eglinton-street, Glasgow.

1860. *Munro, Major-General Witt1aM, C.B., F.L.S. United Service Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.

1872. *Munster, H. Sillwood Lodge, Brighton.

1871. *Munster, William Felix. 41 Brompton-square, London, W.

*

1864. {Murcu, Jrrom. Cranwells, Bath.
*Murchison, John Henry. Surbiton Hill, Kingston.
1864, *Murchison, K. R. Brokehurst, East Grinstead.
1876, {Murdoch, James. Altony Albany, Girvan, N.B.
1855. {Murdock, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow.
1852. {Murney, Henry, M.D. 10 Chichester-street, Belfast.
1852. {Murphy, Joseph John. * Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
1869, {Murray, Adam. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W.
1871. {Murray, Dr. Ivor, F.R.S.E. The Knowle, Brenchley, Staplehurst, Kent.
Murray, John, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. ;
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey.
1871.§§Murray, John. 3 Clarendon-crescent, Edinburgh.
1859, {Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.
*Murray, John, C.E. Downlands, Sutton, Surrey.
}Murray, Rev. John. Morton, near Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
1872. {Murray, J. Jardine. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.
1863. {Murray, William. 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1859, *Murton, James. Highfield, Silverdale, Carnforth, Lancaster.
Musgrave, The Venerable Charles, D.D., Archdeacon of Craven,
Halifax.
1874, §Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.
1861. {Musgrove, John, jun. Bolton.
1870. *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
1865. {| Myers, Rev. E., F.G.S. 3 Waterloo-road, Wolverhampton.

++

LIST OF MEMBERS. 61

Year of
Election.

1859. {Mytnr, Rosrrr Wii1iam, F\R.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. 21 Whitehall-
place, London, 8S. W.

1842, Nadin, Joseph. Manchester.
1855. *Narrer, Jans R., F.R.S. 22 Blythswood-square, Glasgow.
1876.§§Napier, James S. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
1876, {Napier, John. Saughfield House, Hillhead, Glasgow.
“Napier, Captain Johnstone, C.E. Laverstock House, Salisbury.
1839. *Narrer, The Right Hon. Sir Josuen, Bart., D.O.L., LL.D.
4 Merrion-square South, Dublin.
Napper, James William L. Loughcrew, Oldcastle, Co. Meath.
1872.§§Nares, Captain Sir G. S., K.0.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 23 St.
Philip’s-road, Surbiton.
1866. {Nash, Davyd W., F.S.A., F.L.S. 10 Imperial-square, Cheltenham,
1850. *Nasmyru, Jamxs. Penshurst, Tunbridge.
1864, {Natal, Rev. John William Colenso, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Natal.
1860. {Neate, Charles, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.
1873. {Neill, Alexander Renton. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1873. {Neill, Archibald. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1855. {Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow,
1865. {Neilson, W. Montgomerie. Glasgow.
1876. {Nelson, D. M. 48 Gordon-street, Glasgow,
Ness, John. Helmsley, near York.
1868. {Nevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.
1866. *Nevill, Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.LS., Bishop of Dunedin, New
Zealand.
1857. {Neville, John, C.E.,M.R.I.A. Roden-place, Dundalk, Ireland.
1852. {Neville, Parke, C.E., M.R.I.A. 58 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
1869, {Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1842, New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.
Newall, Henry, Hare Hill, Littleborough, Lancashire.
*Newall, Robert Stirling, F.R.S., F.R.AS. Ferndene, Gateshead-
upon-Tyne.
1879. §Newbould, John. Sharrow Bank, Sheffield.
1866. *Newdigate, Albert L. 25 Orayen-street, Charing Oross, London,
W.C.

1876. §Newhaus, Albert. 1 Prince’s-terrace, Glasgow.

1842. *Newman, Professor Francis Wittiam. 15 Arundel-crescent,
Weston-super-Mare.

1863. *Nrwmarcu, Witt1am, F.R.S. Beech Holme, Balham, London,
S.W

1866. *Newmarch, William Thomas. 1 Elms-road, Clapham Common,
London, 8.W.

1877.§§Newth, A. H., M.D. Hayward’s Heath, Sussex.

1860. *Nuwron, Atrrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalen College, Cambridge.

1872. {Newton, Rev. J. 125 Hastern-road, Brighton.

1865. {Newton, Thomas Henry Goodwin. Clopton House, near Stratford-
on-A yon.

1867, {Nicholl, Thomas, ex-Dean of Guild. Dundee,

1875. {Nicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol.

1866. {NicHorson, Sir CHartEs, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.

1838, *Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S., F.S.A. Ashleigh, Ventnor, Isle of

Wicht.
1861, *Nicholson, Edward. 88 Mosley-street, Manchester.

62 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1871.§§Nicholson, E. Chambers. Herne Hill, London, S.E.
1867. {NicHotson, Henry Atteynz, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of St. Andrews, N.B.
1867. {Nimmo, Dr. Matthew. Nethergate, Dundee.
1878.§§Niven, C. Queen’s College, Cork.
1877. {Niven, James, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
Niven, Ninian. Clonturk Lodge, Drumcondra, Dublin.
t{Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Green Island, Belfast.
1863. *Nospiz, Captain ANDREW, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick Works,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1879. §Noble, T. S., F.G.S. Lendal, York.
1870. {Nolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1860. *Nolloth, Rear-Admiral Matthew S., R.N., F.R.G.S. United Service
Club, 8.W.; and 13 North-terrace, Camberwell, London, 8.E.
1859. {Norfolk, Richard. Messrs. W. Rutherford and Co., 14 Canada
Dock, Liverpool.
1868. Norgate, William. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
1863.§§Norman, Rey. ALFRED Mertz, M.A. Burnmoor Rectory, Fence
House, Co. Durham.
Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork.
1865. {Norris Ricuarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.
1872. {Norris, Thomas George. Corphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
1866. {North, Thomas. Cinder-hill, Nottingham.
1869. {Norrucorg, The Right Hon. Sir Srarrorp H., Bart., C.B., M.P.,
F.R.S. Pynes, Exeter.
*Nortuwick, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 7 Park-street, Grosyenor-
square, London, W.
1868. {Norwich, The Hon. and Right Rev. J.T. Pelham, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. Norwich.
1861. {Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
1878.§§ Nugent, Edward, C.E. Seel’s-buildings, Liverpool.

1878. §O’Brien, Murrough. 1 Willow-terrace, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.

1878.§§O’Carroll, Joseph F. 78 Rathgar-road, Dublin.

1878.§§O’Connor Don, The, M.P. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.

Odgers, Rev. William James. Savile House, Fitzjohn’s-avenue,
Hampstead, London, N. W.

1858. *Opiine, WittiaM, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. The Museum, Ox-
ford.

1857. {O’Donnavan, William John. Portarlington, Ireland.

1870. O'Donnell, J.O,, M.D. 34 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1877. §Ogden, Joseph. 46 London-wall, London, E.C.

1876.§§Ogilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Lenton, Suffolk.

1859. tOgilvie, C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee.

1874.§§Ogilvie, Thomas Robertson. Bank Top, 3 Lyle-street, Greenock,
N.B

*Ocitvie-Forpes, GroreE, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of
Medicine in Marischal College, Aberdeen. Boyndlie, Fraser-
burgh, N.B.
1863. {Ogilvy, G. R. Inverquharity, N.B.
1863, {Ocinvy, Sir Jonn, Bart. Inverquharity, N.B.
*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.
1859. {Ogston, Francis, M.D. 18 Adelphi-court, Aberdeen.
1837, {O’Hagan, John, M.A.,Q.C.. 22 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 63

Year of
Biection.

1874,

1862.
1853.
1860.
1863.

1874.

1872.

1867.
1842,

1861.

1858.
1835.
1838.
1876.
1878.
1865.

1877.
1865.
1869.
1854.

1870,
1857.

1877.

1872.
1875.
1870.
1873.

{O’Hagan, The Right Hon. Lord, MR.LA. 34 Rutland-square
West, Dublin.

{O’Ketty, Josppu, M.A., M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

§OrpHAM, JAmEs, C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.

tO’ Leary, Professor Purcell, M.A. Queenstown.

{Oliver, Daniel, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in University College,
London. Royal Gardens, Kew, Surrey.

{O’Meara, Rev. Eugene. Newcastle Rectory, Hazlehatch, Ireland.

*Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
The Towers, Yarmouth, Isle of Wight. >

tOnslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W

tOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.
OrmeRop, Grorek Waretne, M.A., F.G.8. Brookbank, Teign-
mouth.
tOrmerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood-
land-terrace, Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
Orvren, Jonun H., LL.D., M.R.LA. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
tOrr, John B. Granville-terrace, Crosshill, Glasgow.
tOsborn, George. 47 Kingscross-street, Halifax.
{Osborne, E. C. Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Ostmr, A. Fortert, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Osler, Miss A. F. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Osler, Henry F. 50 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Osler, Sidney F. 1 Pownall-gardens, Hounslow, near London.
tOutram, Thomas. Greetland, near Halifax.

OVERSTONE, SAMUEL JonEs Lioyp, Lord, F.G.S. 2 Carlton-gardens,

London, S.W.; and Wickham Park, Bromley.
tOwen, Harold. The Brook Villa, Liverpool.
tOwen, JamesH. Park House, Sandymount, Co. Dublin.

Owen, Ricwarp, C.B.,M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., F.G.S.,
Hon. M.R.S.E., Director of the Natural-History Department,
British Museum. Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, S.W.

fOxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.

*Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham.
{Paine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*Palgrave, R. H. Inglis. 11 Britannia-terrace, Great Yarmouth.
tPalmer, George. The Acacias, Reading, Berks.

1866.§§Palmer, H. 76 Goldsmith-street, Nottingham.
1878. *Palmer, Joseph Edward. Lucan, Co. Dublin.
1866.§§Palmer, William. Iron Foundry, Canal-street, Nottingham.

1872.

1857.
1863,

1863.
1874.

1865.

1853,
1865.

*Palmer, W. R. 376 Coldharbour-lane, Stockwell, S.W.
Palmes, Rey. William Lindsay, M.A. Naburn Hall, York.
*Parker, Alexander, M.R.I.A. 59 William-street, Dublin.
tParker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Heese Rey. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-

yne.

tParker, Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
Parker, Joseph, F.G.S. Upton Chaney, Bitton, near Bristol.
Parker, Richard. Dunscombe, Cork.

*Parker, Walter Mantel. High-street, Alton, Hants.
Parker, Rey. William. Saham, Norfolk.

{Parker, William. Thorton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire.

*Parkes, Samuel Hickling, 6 St. Mary’s-row, Birmingham.

64 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1864, {Parkes, Witt1aM. 25 Abingdon-street, Westminster, S.W.

1859. {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. West View, Toller-lane, Bradford, York-
shire.

1862. *Parnell, John, M.A. 1 The Common, Upper Clapton, London, E.

Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E. Gattonside Villa, Melrose, N.B.

1877.§§Parson, T. Edgeumbe. 36 Torrington-place, Plymouth.

1865, *Parsons, Charles Thomas. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1878.§§Parsons, Hon. C. A. 10 Connaught-place, London, W.

1878.§§Parsons, Hon. R. C. 10 Connaught-place, London, W.

1875. {Pass, Alfred C. 16 Redland Park, Clifton, Bristol.

1855. { Paterson, Wiliam. 100 Brunswick-street, Glasgow.

1861. {Patterson, Andrew. Deaf and Dumb School, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

1871. *Patterson, A. Henry. 3 Old-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
W.C.

1863. {Patterson, H. L. Scott’s House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne,

1867. {Patterson, James. Kinnettles, Dundee.

1876.§§ Patterson, T.L. Belmont, Margaret-street, Greenock.

1874. {Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast.

1863. {Pattinson, John. 75 The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1863, {Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1867. pectin Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 50 Lombard-street, London,

1864, {Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburgh.

1879. *Patzer, F. R. Stoke-on-Trent.

1863. {PauL, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

1863, {Pavy, Frepertck Wit11AM, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Physiology
and Comparative Anatomy and Zoology at Guy’s Hospital. 85
Grosvenor-street, London, W.

1864, {Payne, Edward Turner. 3 Sydney-place, Bath.

1877.§§Payne, J. C. Charles. Botanic Avenue, Belfast.

1851. {Payne, Joseph. 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W.

1866, {Payne, Dr. Joseph F. 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W.

1876. {Peace,G. H. Morton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.

1879. §Peace, William K. Western Bank, Sheffield.

1847. {Pracu, Cuartes W., Pres. R.P.S. Edin., A.L.S. 30 Haddington-
place, Leith-walk, Edinburgh.

1875. {Peacock, Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London,
W.C

1876. {Pearce, W. Elmpark House, Govan, Glasgow.
*Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.S. Birkbeck Literary and Scientifie
Institution, Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, London, W.0.
1875, {Pearson, H. W. Tramore Villa, Nugent Hill, Cotham, Bristol.
1872. *Pearson, Joseph. Lern Side Works, Nottingham.
1870. {Pearson, Rev. Samuel. 48 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.
1863. §Pease, H. F. Brinkburn, Darlington.
1863. *Pease, Joseph W., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guisborough.
1863. {Pease, J. W. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1858. *Pease, Thomas, F.G.8. Cote Bank, Westbury-on-Trym, near
Bristol.
Peckitt, Henry. Oarlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
1855. *Peckover, Alexander, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Harecroft House, Wisbech,
Cambridgeshire.
*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S. Sibald’s Holme, Wisbech, Cam-
bridgeshire.
1878. *Peek, William. St. Clair, Hayward’s Heath, Sussex.
*Peel, George. Soho Iron Works, Manchester,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 65

Year of
Election.

1873. {Peel, Thomas. 9 Hampton-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1861. *Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.

1861. *Peiser, John. Barnfield House, 491 Oxford-street, Manchester.

1878.§§Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London,
W.C.

1865. {Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.

1861. *Pender, John, M.P. 18 Arlington-street; London, S.W.

1868. {Pendergast, Thomas. Lancefield, Cheltenham.

1856, §PuncELty, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay.

1875. {Pereival, Rev. J.. M.A., LL.D. President of Trinity College, Ox-
ford.

1845. {Pzrcy, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Metallurgy in the
Royal School of Mines. Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn-
street, S.W.; and 1 Gloucester-crescent, Hyde Park, London,
W.

*Perigal, Frederick. Thatched House Club, St. James’s-street,
London, 8. W.

1868. *Prrxin, Wii1am Henry, F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts, Sudbury,
Harrow.

1861. {Perkins, Rev. George. St. James's View, Dickenson-road, Rusholme,
near Manchester.

1877.§§ Perkins, Loftus. 140 Abbey-road, Kilburn, London, N.W.

Perkins, Rey. R. B., D.C.L. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucester-
shire:

1864, *Perkins, V. R. 54 Gloucester-street, London, 8. W.

1861. {Perring, John Shae. 104 King-street, Manchester.

Perry, The Right Rey. Charles, M.A., D.D: 32 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1879. §Perry, James. Roscommon.
1874, {Perry, Professor John. Scientific Club, Savile-row, London, W.
*Perry, Rey. 8. G. F., M.A. Tottington Vicarage, near Bury.

1870. *Prrry, Rey. S. J., F.RS., FR.AS., F.M.S. Stonyhurst College
Observatory, Whalley, Blackburn.

1861. *Petrie, John. South-street, Rochdale.

Peyton, Abel. Oakhurst, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1871. *Peyton, John KE. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 108 Marina, St. Leonard’s-

on-Sea.

1867. {Puayre, Lieut.-General Sir ArtHur, K.C.S.I., C.B., Governor of
Mauritius.

1863, *PHEnf£, Jonn Saunt, LL.D., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, London, S:W.

1870. {Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.

1855 *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

1853. *Philips, Herbert. 35 Chureh-street, Manchester.

*Philips, Mark. Welcombe, Stratford-on-A yon.
Philips, Robert N. The Park, Manchester.

1877. §Philips, T. Wishart. 20 New Morant Street, Poplar, London, E.

1863. {Philipson, Dr. 1 Savile-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1859. *Puitiies, Major-General Sir B. Travett. United Service Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.

1862. {Phillips, Rev. George, D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

1872. ee J. Artur. 18 Fopstone-road, Earl’s Court-road, London,

.W

1868. {Phipson, R. M., F.S.A. Surrey-street, Norwich.
1868. {Putrson, T. L., Ph.D. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey, S.W.
1864, {Pickering, William. Oak View, Clevedon.
1861. {Pickstone, William. Radcliff Bridge near Manchester.
E

66 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1870. Picton, J. Allanson, F.S.A. Sandyknowe, Wavertree, Liverpool.
1870. {Pigot, Rev. E. V. Malpas, Cheshire.
1871. {Pigot, Thomas F., C.E., M.R.I.A. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
*Pike, Ebenezer. Beshorouch, Cork.
1865. {Prx, L. OwEn. 25 Carlton-villas, Maida-vale, London, W.
1873.§§Pike, W. H. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
1857. {Pilkineton, Henry M., M.A.,Q.C. 45 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.
1863. *Pr, Captain Breprorp C. T., R.N., M.P., F.R.G.S. Leaside, Kings-
-wood-road, Upper Norwood, London, 8.E.
Pim, George, M.R.LA. Brenanstown , Cabinteely, Co. Duabiin.
Pim, Jonathan. Harold’s Cross, Dublin,
1877.§§Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
Pim, William H., M.R.JI.A. Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
1868. {Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.
1876. {Pirie, Rev. G. Queen’s College Cambridge.
1859. }Pirrie, William; M'D., LL.D. 238 Union-street West, Aberdeen.
1866. {Piteairn, David. Dudhope House, Dundee.
1875. {Pitman, John. Redeliff Hill, Bristol.
1864. Pitt, R. 65 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
1872. {Plant, Mrs. H. W. 28 Evineton-street, Leicester.
1869. §Ptant, JAMES, F.G.8. 40 West-terrace, West-street, Leicester.
1865. {Plant, Thomas L, Camp Hill, and 53 Union-street, Birmingham.
1842. Puayratr, The Right Hon. "Lyon, C.B., Ph.D., UL. D, MPS
PRS. L. & E., ECS. 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
1867. {PxLayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel R. L., H.M. Consul, Algeria, (Messrs. King
& Co., Pall Mall, London, 8. W.)
1°57. {Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.
1861. *Pocaty, Henry Davis, F.C.S. Bodnant Hall, near Conway.
1846, {Porz, Writtram, Mus. Doc., F.R.S., M.LC.E. Athenzeum Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.
Pollock, A. 52 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
1862. *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall,
1854. {Poole, Braithwaite. Birkenhead.
1868. {Pooley, Thomas A., B.Sc. South Side, Clapham Common, London,
S.W.

1868. {Portal, Wyndham 8. Malsanger, Basingstoke.

1874. {Porter, Rev. J. Leslie, D.D., LL. D. College Park, Belfast.

1866. §Porter, Robert. Beeston, Nottingham.

Porter, Rev. T. H., DD, M.R.I.A. Tullyhogue, Co. Tyrone.

1863, {Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Neweastle-on-Tyne.

*Porrer, Epmunp, F.R.S. Camfield-place, Hatfield, Herts.

1842. Potter, Thomas. George-street, Manchester.

1863. {Potts, James. 26 Sandhill, Newcastle-on- Tyne.

1857. *PounvEn, Captain LONSDALE, F.R.G.S. Junior United Service Club,
St. James 's-square, London, S.W.; and Brownswood House,
Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford.

1873. *Powell, Francis S. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire; and 1 Cambridge-
square, London, W.

1875 Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.

1857. {Power, Sir James, Bart. Edermine, Enniscorthy, Ireland.

1867. {Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.

1855. *Poynter, John E. Clyde Neuck, Uddingstone, Hamilton, Scotland.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 67

Year of
Election.

1869, *Prercr, Witt1am Henry. Gothie Lodge, Wimbledon Common,

London, S.W.
Prest, The Venerable Archdeacon Edward. The College, Durham.
*PrestwicH, JosEPH, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., Professor .of

Geology in the University of Oxford. 34 Broad-street, Oxford ;
and Shoreham, near Sevenoaks.

1871. {Price, Astley Paston. 47 Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, London, W.C.

1856. *Price, Rey. Barryotomew, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.AS., Sedleian
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford.
11 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

1872. {Price, David S., PhD. 26 Great George-street, Westminster,
S.W.

Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
1875. *Price, Rees. 54 Loftus-road, Shepherd’s Bush, London, W.
1870. *Price, Captain W. E., M.P., F.G.8. Tibberton Court, Gloucester.
1875. *Price, William Philip. Tibberton Court, Gloucester.
1876. {Priestley, John. Lloyd-street, Greenheys, Manchester.
1875. {Prince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1864. *Prior, R. C. A., M.D, 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1835. *Pritehard, Andrew, F.R.S.E. 87 St. Paul’s-road, Canonbury, Lon-
don, N.
1846, *Prircnarp, Rev. Cuarzes, M.A., E.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. 8 Keble-terrace,
Oxford.
1872. {Pritchard, Rev. W. Gee. Brignal Rectory, Barnard Castle, Co.
Durham.
1876. *PritcHarp, Ursan, M.D., F.R.C.S. 3 George-street, Hanover-
square, Londen, W.
1863, {Proctor, R.S. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Proctor, Thomas. Elmsdale House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
1858.§§Proctor, William, M.D., F.C.S8. 24 Petergate, York.
1865. *Prosser, Thomas. West Boldon, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
1863. {Proud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1879. *Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Westbourne House,
Shaftesbury-road, London, W.
1865. {Prowse, Albert P. Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth.
1872. *Pryor, M. Robert. Western Manor, Stevenage, Herts.
1871. *Puckle, Thomas John. Woodcote-grove, Carshalton, Surrey.
1873. {Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
1867. *Pullar, Robert. 6 St. Leonard Bank, Perth.
1842. *Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham.
Punnet, Rey. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. St. Earth, Cornwall.
1852. {Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.
1860. {PuRpy, FReperRIcK, F.8.8., Principal of the Statistical Department of
the Poor Law Board, Whitehall, London, Victoria-road, Ken-
sington, London, W.
1874. {PurseR, FrepERIcK, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.
1866. {PurRsER, Professor Jonn, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Belfast.
1878.§§Purser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.
1860. *Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.
1868. §Pyz-SmirH, P. H., M.D, 56 Harley-street, W.;.and Guy's Hos-
pital, London, 8.E.
1879, §Pye-Smith, R. J. 7 Surrey-street, Sheffield.
1861. *Pyne, Joseph John, St. German’s Villa, St. Lawrence-road, Not-
ting Hill, London, W.
E 2

68

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

of

Election.
1870. {Rabbits, W. T. Forest Hill, London, 8.E.
1860. {Rapciirre, CHARLES Branp, M.D. 25 Cavendish-square, London, W.

1870.

1877

tRadcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
. TRadford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.

1879. §Radford, R. Heber, M.1.C.E. Wood Bank, Pitsmoor, Sheffield.

1878.
1854.
1870.
1864.

1863.
1845,

1867.
1861.
1867.
1876.
1873.

1835.
1869.
1860.
1865.

1868.
1865.
1861,

1872.

1864.
1870.
1870,

*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.

§§Rae, John, M.D. 2 Addison-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
{Raflles, Thomas Stamford. 13 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
tRafies, William Winter. Sunnyside, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
{Rainey, James T. St. George’s Lodge, Bath.

Rake, Joseph. Chazlotte-street, Bristol.
Ramsay, ALEXANDER, F.G.S. Kilmorey Lodge, 6 Kent-gardens,
Ealing, W.
tRamsay, ANDREW Cromarp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director-
General of the Geological Survey of the United Kinedom and
of the Museum of Feonomic Geology. (Prestpent ELecr.)
Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
tRamsay, James, jun. Dundee.
tRamsay, John, M.P. Kildalton, Argyleshire.
*Ramsay, W. F., M.D: 61 Overstone-road, Hammersmith, London, W.
tRamsay, William, Ph.D. 11 Ashton-terrace, Glasgow.
*Ramsden, William. Bracken Hall, Great Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.
*Rance, Heury (Solicitor). Cambridge.
*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.M. 62 St. Andrew’s-street, Cambridge.
tRandall, Thomas. Grandepoint House, Oxford.
tRandel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham.
Ranelagh, The Right Hon. Lord. 7 New Burlington-street, Regent-
street, London, W.
*Ransom, Edwin, ¥.R.G.S. Kempstone Mill, Bedford.
§Ransom, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.
tRansome, Arthur, M.A. Bowdon, Manchester.
Ransome, Thomas. 34 Princess-street, Manchester..
*Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S. 25 Old-square, Lincoln's Inn,
London, W.C.
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent's Park, London.
KW

RarcrirF, Colonel CHarrzs, F.L.S.,F.G8., P.S.A.,P.R.GS. Wyd-
drington, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tRate, Rey. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire.
tRathbone, Benson. Exchange-buildings, Liverpool.
{Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1870.§§Rathbone, R. R. Beechwood House, Liverpool.

1863.
1874.

tRattray, W. St. Clement’s Chemical Works, Aberdeen.
tRavenstein, E. G., F.R.G.S. 10 Lorn-road, Brixton, Lendon, 8. W.
Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D. Bootham, York.

- {Rawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhall, Liverpool.

. *Rawxinson, Rey. Canon Goren, M.A., Camden Professor of An-
cient History in the University of Oxford. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.

. *Rawiinson, Major-General Sir Henry O:, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.

. §Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. Drayton
House, West Drayton, Middlesex.

. *Rayeren, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., F.R.S., F-R.G.S. 4 Carlton-

gardens, Pall Mall, London,S.W.; and Terling Place, Witham,.

Essex.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 69

Year of
Election.

1865. {Rayner, Henry. West View, Liverpool-road, Chesicr.
1870, {Rayner, Joseph (Town Clerk). Liverpool.

1852. {Read, Thomas, M.D. Donegal-square West, Belfast.
1865. {Read, William. Albion House, Epworth, Bawtry.

*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S. 12 Blake-street, York.
1870.§§RxEapDE, THomas Metiarp, C.E., F.G.8. Blundellsands, Liverpool.
1862. *Readwin, Thomas Allison, M.R.LA., F.G.S. 28 Bold-street, A‘ex~

andra-road, Manchester. ;
1852. *Reprery, Professor Puter, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
1863. {Redmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.
1863, {Redmayne, R. R. 12 Victoria-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.
1861. {ReEp, Epwarp J., ©.B., M.P., F.R.S. 74 Gloucester-road, South
Kensington, London, W.
1875. {Rees-Moge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.
1878. §Reichel, The Ven. Archdeacon, D.D. The Archdeaconry, Trim,
Ireland.
1876. {Reid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glascow.
1x74. {Reid, Robert, M.A. 35 Dublin-road, Belfast.
1850. {Reid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.
1875. §Reinold, A. W., M.A., Professor of Physical Science. Royal Naval
College, Greenwich, 8.E.
1863. §Renats, EK. ‘ Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.
1863. {Rendel, G. Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1867. {Renny, W. W. 8 Douelas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1871. {Rynoxps, Jams Emmrson, M.A., F.CS., M.R.LA., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Laboratory, Trinity
College, Dublin.
1870, *Ruynoitps, Osporne, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering in
Owens College, Manchester. Fallowfield, Manchester.
1858. §Reynoxps, Ricwagp, F.C.S. 18 Briggate, Leeds.
1858. *Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds.
-1877.§§Rhodes, John. 358 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.
1877. *Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Via
Stimmate, 15, Modena, Italy.
1868.§§RicHaRrps, Vice-Admiral Sir Groner H., C.B., E.RS., F.R.G.S.
The Atheneum Club, London, 8. W.
1863. {RicHarpson, Baysamin Warp, M.A., M.D., E.R.S. 12 Hinde-
street, Manchester-square, London, W.
1861. tRichardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.
1869. *Richardson, Charles. Albert Park, Abingdon, Berks.
1863. *Richardson, Edward. 6 Stanley-terrace, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
1868. *Richardson, George. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
1870. {Richardson, J. H. 3 Arundel-terrace, Cork.
1870. {Richardson, Ralph. 16 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
Richardson, Thomas, Montpelier-hill, Dublin.
1861. {Richardsen, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
1876. §Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
1861, tiichson, Rev. Canon, M.A. Shakespeare-street, Ardwick, Man-
chester.
1863. TRichter, Otto, Ph.D. 6 Derby-terrace, Glasgow
1870. {Rickards, Dr. 36 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
1868. §Rioxnrrs, CHartes, M.D., F.G.S. 22 Argyle-street, Birkenhead.
1877. {Ricketts, James, M.D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
*RippELL, Major-General CuArtus J. Boouanay, C.B., R.A., FR.S.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.

70

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1861.
1872.
1862.
1861.
1863. *R:
1873.
1873.

1860.

1867.
1855.
1867,
1869.
1854.
1869.

1878.
1859.
1859.
1870.
1857.
1879.
1879.
1879.
1868.

1866.

1859.
1876.
1867.
1871.
1870.
1876.
1866.
1861.
1852.
1859.

1878.
1861.
1863.

*Riddell, Henry B. Whitefield House, Rothbury, Morpeth.

tRidge, James. 98 Queen’s-road, Brighton.

tRideway, Henry Ackroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.

{Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N. W.

igby, Samuel. Bruche Hall, Warrington.

{Ripley, Edward. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.

{Ripley, H. W. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.

*Ripvon, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., D.O.L., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.R.G.S. 1 Carlton-gardens, London, S.W.

{Ritchie, George Robert. 4 Watkyn-terrace, Coldharbour-lane, Giun-
berwell, London, SE.

tRitchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee.

tRitchie, Robert, C.K. 14 Hill-street, Edinburgh.

{Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.

*Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.

tRobberds, Rev. John, B-A.. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham.

*Rosrins, JoHN, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale, Londan,
Ww

§ Roberts, Charles, F.R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W.

tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.

Roberts, Henry, F.S.A. Atbenzeum Club, London, S.W.

*Rozerts, Isaac, F.G.8. Kennessee, Machull, Lancashire..

tRoberts, Michael, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin.

§Roberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.

§Roberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.

§Roberts, Thomas, The Knowle, Park-lane, Sheftield:

§Roserts, W. CHanprme, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S. Royal Mint,
London, E.

} Robertson, Alister Stuart, M.D., F.R.GS. Horwich, Bolton, Lan-
cashire.

tRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.

{ Robertson, Andrew Carrick. Woodend House, Helensburgh, NB.

§Robertson, David. Union Grove, Dundee.

}Robertson, George, C.E., F.R.S.E. 47 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

*Robertson, John. Lyme View, Whalley Range, Manchester.

} Robertson, R. A, 9 Queen’s-square, Regent Park, Glasgow.

tRoperrson, Wiitiam Tinpat, M.D. Nottingham.

fRobinson, Enoeh. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.

{Robinson, Rey. George. Tartaragham Glebe, Loughgail, Ireland..

tRobinson, Hardy. 156 Union-street, Aberdeen,

*Robinson, H. Oliver. 34 Bishopsgate-street, London, E.C..

§Robinson, Hugh. 82 Donegall-street, Belfast.

{Roxrnson, Jonn. Atlas Works, Manchester.

{Robinson, J. H. Cumberland-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1878.§§Robinson, John L., C.K. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.

1876.
1875.
1860.

1863.

1870.
1870.
1876.
1855.

{Robinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.

*Robinson, Robert, C.E., F.G.S. 2 West-terrace, Darlington.

{Robinson, Admiral Sir Robert Spencer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 61 Eaton-
place, London, 8. W. j

Resryson, Rev. Tomas Romney, D:D., F.RS., F.R.AS.,
Hon. F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., Director of the Armagh Observatory.
Armagh.

{Robinson, T. Wow: Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.

{Robinson, William. 40 Smithdown-road, Liverpool.

*Robson, E.R. Al Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.

{tRobson, Hazleton R. 14 Royal-creseent West, Glasgow.

tRobson, Neil, C.E. 127 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 71

Wleotion.

1872. *Robson, William. Marchholm, Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edin-
burgh.

1872.§§Ropwrtt, Guorcz F., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Marlborough College,
Wiltshire.

1866. {Roe, Thomas. Grove-villas, Sitchurch.

1860. {RoeErs, James E. THorotp, Professor of Economie Science and
Statistics in King’s College, London. Beaumont-street, Ox-
ford.

1867. tRogers, James S. Rosemill, by Dundee.

1869. *Rogers, Nathaniel, M.D. 87 South-street, Hxeter.

1870. tRogers, T. L., M.D. Rainhill, Liverpool.

1859, {RottEston, Grora#, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Ana-
tomy and Physiology in the University of Oxford. The Park,
Oxford.

1876. §Rorziz, A. K.,B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S. Thwaite House, Cot-
tingham, East Yorkshire.

1866. {Rolph, George Frederick. War Office, Horse Guards, London,
S.W

1876. {Romanes, George John, M.A., F.B.S., F.L.8. 18 Cornwall-terrace,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.

1863. { Romilly, Edward. 14 Hyde Park-terrace, London, W.

1846. {Ronalds, Edmund, Ph.D. Stewartfield, Bonnington, Edinburgh.

1869. {Roper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.

1872. *Roper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S8. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.

1855. *Roscor, Hrnry Enrrerp, B.A., Ph.D., bL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.

1863. {Roseby, John. Haverholm House, Brigg, Lincolnshire.

1874. {Ross, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Toronto, Canada.

1857. {Ross, David, LL.D. 32 Nelson-street, Dublin.

1872. {Ross, James, M.D, Tentertield House, Waterfoot, near.Manchester.

1859. *Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Baldon Vicarage, Oxford.

1874. tRoss, Rev. William. Chapelhill Manse, Rothesay, Scotland.

1869. *Rossz, The Right Hon. the Earl of, B.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., M.R.LA. Birr-Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland; and 32
Lowndes-square, London, 8. W.

1865. *Rothera, George Bell. 17 Waverley-street, Nottingham.

1876. tRottenburegh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.

1861. {Routh, Edward J., M.A., F.RS., F.R.AS., F.G.S. St. Peter’s
College, Cambridge.

1872. *Row, A. V. Nursing Observatory, Daba-gardens, Vizagapatam,
ale (Care of Messrs, King & Co., 45 Pall Mall; London,

1861. {Rowan, Dovid. Elliot-street, Glaszow.

1876, {Rowan, David. 22 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

1877. §Rowe, J. Brooking, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Plymouth.

1865. §Rowe, Rey. John. Load Vicarage, Langport, Somerset.

1855, *Rownry, Tuomas H., Ph.D., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen's College Galway. Salerno, Salthill, Galway.

*Rowntree, Joseph. 12 Heslington-road, York.

1862. {Rowsell, Rev. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godal-
ming.

1876. {Roxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.

1861. *Royle, Peter, M.D., L.R.C.P., MR.CS. 27 Lever-street, Man-
chester.

1875. tRiicker, A. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Physics in the
Yorkshire College, Leeds.

72 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1869. §Rudler, F. W., F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.
1873. {Rushforth, Joseph. 43 Ash-grove, Horton-lane, Bradford, York-
shire.
1847. tRusxr1y, Joun, M.A., F.G.8., Slade Professor of Fine Arts in the
University of Oxford. Corpus Christi College, Oxford.
1857. {Russell, The Very Rev. C. W., D.D., M.R.LA. Maynooth College.
1875. *Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park,
Surrey.
1876. *Russell, George. 103 Blenheim-crescent, Notting Hill, London, W.
1865. tRussell, James, M.D. 91 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
Russell, John, 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
Russgih, Joun Scort, M.A., F.R.S.L.&E. Sydenham, §.E.; and
5 Westminster-chambers, London, 8.W.
1852. *Russell, Worman Scott. 5 Westminster-chambers, London, 8.W.
1876. §Russell, R., C-E., F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.
1862. §Russett, W. H. L., A.B, F-R.S. 5 The Grove, Highgate, Lon-
don, N.
1852. *Russeit, Witt1AM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 34 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W.
1875. {Rutherford, David Greig. Surrey House, Forest Hill, London, S.E.
1871. §RurHERFoRD, Wit1AM, M.D, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of the
Institutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
1879. §Ruxton, Captain Fitzherbert, R.N. 41 Cromwell-gardens, London,
W

‘

S.W.

1875. {Ryalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 3 Briek-court, Temple, “London,
E.C.

1874, §Rye, E.C., F.Z.8., Librarian R.G.S. 70 Charlewood-read, Putney,
S.W.

1865, “{Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.
‘1861.’*Rynanps, THomas GuazeBroox, F.LS., F.G.8. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington,

*Sapine, General Sir Epwarp, K.C.B., R.A., LL.D, B.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 13 Ashley-place, Westminster, 8. W.
1865. {Sabine, Robert. Auckland Howse, Willesden-lane, Loneon, N.W.
'1871.§§Sadler,Samuel Champernowne. Purton Court, Purton,near Swindon,
Wiltshire.
1866, *St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham.
Salkeld, Joseph. Penrith, Cumberland.
1857. {Sammon, Rev. Groren, D.D., D.C7L., F_R.S., Regius Professor of
Divinity in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
1873. *Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.
-2872. {Sanvry, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Brookland Avenue, Cam-
bridge.
‘1842. Sambrooke, T. G. 32 Eaton-place, London, 8. W.
1861. *Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.
1867. tSamuelson, Edward. Roby, near Laverpool.
‘1870. tSamuelson, James. St. Domingo-grove, Everton, Liverpool.
‘1861. *Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Tulloch, Perth.
1876.§§Sandeman, David. Woodlands, Lenzie, Glasgow.
1878.§§Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.
1857. tSanders, Gilbert. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
1872. {Sanders, Mrs. 8 Powis-square, Brighton.
1871. tSanders, William R., M.D. 11 Walker-street, Edinburgh.

=T
row)

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
lection.

1872. {Sanperson, J. S. Burpon, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
University College, London. 49 Queen Anne-street, London, W.
Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.
1864, {Sandford, William. 9 Springfield-place, Bath.
1854. {Sandon, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P. 39 Gloucester-square, London,
iW:

1873. {Sands, T. C. 24 Spring-gardens, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1865. {Sargant, W. L. Edmund-street, Birmingham.
1868. {Saunders, A.,C.E. King’s Lynn.
1846. {SaunpERs, TRELAwNEY W. India Office, London, S.W.
1864, {Saunders, T. W., Recorder of Bath. 1 Priory-place, Bath.
1860. *Saunders, William. 3 Gladstone-terrace, Brighton.
1871. §Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.
1863. {Savory, Valentine. Cleckheaton, near Leeds.
1872. *Sawyer, George David. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
1868. {Sawyer, John Robert. Grove-terrace, Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
1850. {Scarth, Pillans. .2 James’s-place, Leith.
1868. §Schacht, G. F. 7 Regent’s-place, Clifton, Bristol.
1879, *Schiter, E. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Assistant Professor of Physiology
in University College, London. Boreham-wood, Elstree, Herts.
*Schemmann, J. C. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt &
Sons, Birmingham.
1842. Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
1874.§§Scholetield, Henry. Windsor-crescent, Newcastle-on-l'yne.
*Scholes, T. Seddon. 10 Warwicl-place, Leamington.
1876. {Schuman, Sigismond. 7 Royal Bank-place, Glasgow.
Scnuncx, Epwarp, F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersall Moor, Man-
chester,
1873. *ScuustEr, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S. Sunnyside, Upper Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1861. *Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Ryecroft House, Cheetham Hill, Man-
chester.
1847, *Scrater, Purp Luriey, M.A., Ph.D., E.R.S., F.LS.. F.G.S., Sec.
Zool, Soc. (GENERAL SEcRErARY.) 11 Hanover-square, Lon-
don, W.
1867. {Scorr, ArpxanpER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
1878.§§Scott, Arthur William. St. David’s College, Lampeter.
1876. {Scott, Mr. Bailie. Glasgow.
1871. {Scott, Rev. C.G. 12 Pilrig-street, Edinburgh.
1876, {Scott, D. D. Glasgow.
1872. {Scott, Major-General H. Y. D., O.B., R.E., F.R.S. Sunnyside,
Faling, W.
1871. {Scott, James 8S. T. Monkrigg, Haddingtonshire.
1857. *Scorr, Ropert H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.M.S., Secretary to
the Council of the Meteorological Office. 116 Victoria-street,
London, 8. W.
1861. ss ad Rey. Robert Selkirk, D.D. 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill,
lasgow.
1874. tScott, Rev. Robinson, D.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
1864. {Scott, Wentworth Lascelles. Wolverhampton.
1858. {Scott, William. Holbeck, near Leeds.
1869. §Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
1859. {Seaton, John Love. Hull.
1877. {Seaton, Robert Cooper, B.A. Dulwich College, Dulwich, Surrey, SE.
1861. *Srrtny, Harry Govirr, F.R.S., F.L.8., F.G.8., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Geography in King’s College, London. 61 Adelaide-
road, South Hampstead, London, N.W.

74 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1855. {Seligman, H. L. 135 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
1879. §Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.
1873. {Semple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
1858. *Senior, George, F.S.S. Rosehill, Dodworth, near Barnsley.
1870. *Sephton, Rey. J. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1875. §Seville, Thomas. Elm House, Royton, near Manchester.
1873. {Sewell, Rev. E., M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Ilkley College, near Leeds.
1868. {Sewell, Philip KE. Catton, Norwich.
1861. *Seymour, Henry D. 209 Piccadilly, London, W.
1853. tShackles, G. L. 6 Albion-street, Hull.
*Shaen, William. 15 Upper Phillimore-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don,. W..
1871. *Shand, James. Fullbrooks, Worcester Park, Surrey.
1867.§§Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
1869. *Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. The Barnfield, Exeter.
1878.§§Sharp, David. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
Sharp, Rey. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.
1861. {SHarp, Samvst, F.G.S., F.S.A. Great Harrowden. Hall, near
Wellingborough.
*Skarp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.8. Horton House, Rugby.
Sharp, Rey. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-
shire,
Smarpery, Wit1raM, M.D., LE.D., F.R.S. L. & E.- 50. Torrington-
square, London, W.C.
1858. *Shaw, Bentley. Woodfield House, Huddersfield.
1854. *Shaw, Charles Wright. 3 Windsor-terrace, Douglas; Isle of Man.
1870, Shaw, Dunean. Cordova, Spain,
1865. tShaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.
1870. tShaw, John. 24 Great George-place, Liverpool.
1845, {Shaw, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.8S. Hop House, Boston, Lincoln-
shire.
1853. {Shaw, Norton, M.D. St. Croix, West Indies.
1878.§§Shelford, W., C.E. Great George-street, Westminster, S. W.
1839. Shepard, John. 4 Highfield-place, Manningham, Bradford, York-
shire.
1863. {Shepherd, A. B. 49 Seymour-street, Portman-square, London, W.
1870. §Shepherd, Joseph. 29 Everton-crescent, Liverpool.
Sheppard, Rev. Henry W., B.A. The Parsonage, Emsworth,
Hants.
1866. {Shilton, Samuel Richard Parr. Sneinton House, Nottingham.
1867. {Shinn, William C. Her Majesty’s Printing Office, near Fetter-lane,
London, E.C.
1870, *Suoorsrep, James N., C.E., 1 G.S. 3 Westminster-chambers,
London, S.W.
1875. tShore, Thomas W., F.C.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton.
1861. *Sidebotham, Joseph. The Beeches, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. The Beeches, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1873. {Sidgwick, R. H. The Raikes, Skipton.
1857. {Sidney, Frederick John, LL.D., M.R.L.A. 19 Herbert-street,
Dublin.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1873. *Siemens, Alexander. 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.
1856. *Sremens, C. WitttaMm, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.L.C.E. 12 Queen
Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S. W.
1878.§§Sigerson, Professor George, M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 3 Clare-street,
Dublin.

1859. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 75

Year of
Election.

1871. {Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.

1865, {Simkiss, T. M. Wolverhampton.

1862. {Simms, James. 138 Flest-street, London, E.0.

1874.§§Simms, William. The Linen Hall, Belfast.

1876. {Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, London, W.

1847. {Simon, John, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Medical Officer of the
Privy Council. 40 Kensington-square, London, W.

1866. {Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham.

1871. *Snupson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

1867. {Simpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

1859. {Simpson, John. Maykirk, Kincardineshire.

1863. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgetield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

1857. {Smrpson, Maxwett, M.D., LL.D:, F.RS., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.

1876. {Simpson, Robert. 14 Ibrox-terrace, Glasgow.

*Simpson, Rev. Samuel. Kingston House, Chester.
Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.

1876. {Sinclair, James. Titwood Bank, Pollockshields, near Glasgow.

1874. {Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast. -

1834, {Sinclair, Vetch, M.D. 48 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

1870. *Sinclair, W. P. 19 Devonshire-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1864, *Sircar, Mahendra Lal, M.D. 51 Sankaritola, Calcutta. (Care of
Messrs. 8. Harraden & Co., 3 Hill’s-place, Oxford-street, Lon-
don, W.)

1865. {Sissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull.

1870. §StapEN, Watrer Percy, F.G.S., F.L.S. Exley House; near Halifax.

1878. {Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.

1870. {Slater, W. B. 42 Clifton Park-avenue, Belfast.

1842. *Slater, William. Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

1853. {Sleddon, Francis. 2 Kingston-terrace, Hull.

1877.§§Sleeman, Rey. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S., F.R.M.S. Clifton, Bristol.

1849. {Sloper, George Elear. Devizes.

1849. {Sloper, Samuel W. Devizes.

4860.§§Sloper; 8. Elgar. Winterton, near Hythe, Southampton.

1872. {Smale, The: Hon. Sir John, Chief Justice of Hong Kong.

1867. {Small, David. Gray House, Dundee.

1858. {Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.

1876. {Smeiton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1876. {Smeiton, John G. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1867. {Smeiton, Thomas A. 55 Cowgate, Dundee.

1876.§§Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1877. {Smelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.

1857. {Smith, Aquilla, M.D., M.R.I.A. 121 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

1868. {Smith,Augustus. Northwood House, Church-road, Upper Norwood,
Surrey, 8.E.

1872. *Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, London, N.W.

1874, *Smith, Benjamin Leigh. 64 Gower-street, London, W.€.

1873. {Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.

1865. {Smrr, Davin, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham. -

1865, {Smith, Frederick, The Priory, Dudley.

1866. *Smith, F.C.,M.P. Bank, Nottingham.

1855. {Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow.

1876. {Smith, George. Glasgow.

1855. {Smith, George Cruickshank. 19 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.

76 } LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

*SmitH, Henry Joun SrePHEN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Savi-
lian Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford, and
Keeper of the University Museum. The Museum, Oxford.

1860. *Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 2 Portugal-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.

1876. {Smith, J. Glasgow.

1870. {Smith, James. 146 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.

1871. *Smith, John Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.E. 10 Palmerston-place, Edin-
burgh.

1876. *Smith,.J. Guthrie. 173 St. Vincent-street, Glascow.

1874. {Smith, John Haigh. Beech Hill, Halifax, Yorkshire.

Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, near Coalport, Shrop-
shire,

1871. {Smith, Professor J. William Robertson. Free Church College,
Aberdeen,

1870. {Smith, H. L. Crabwall! Hall, Cheshire.

*Smith, Philip, B.A. The Bays, Parktields, Putney, 8S. W.

1860, *Smith, Protherce, M.D. 42 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, Lon-
den, W.

1837. Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.

1847.§§Smitu, Roperr Anevs, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S8. 22 Devonshire-street,
Manchester.

*Smith, Robert Mackay. 4 Bellevue-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. tSmith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.

1866. {Smith, Samuel. 35 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C.

1875. {Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1867, {Smith, Thomas. Dundee,

1867. {Smith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.

1859. {Smith, Thomas James, F'.G.8., F.C.S. Hessle, near Hull.

1852. {Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glascow.

1875. *Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton, Bristol.

1876.§§Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

1878.§§Smithson, Joseph $8. Balnagowan, Rathmines, Co, Dublin.

1874. {Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.

1850, *Smyra, Caries Prazzt, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for
Scotland, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edin-
burgh, 15 Royal-terrace, Edinburgh.

1874. {Smyth, Henry, C.E. Downpatrick, Ireland.

1870. {Smyth, Colonel H. A., R.A. Barrackpore, near Calcutta.

1878. §Smyth, Mrs. Isabella. Wigmore Lodge, Cullenswood-ayenue, Dublin.

1857. *Suyra, Joun, jun, M.A., C.E., F.M.S. © Lenaderg, Banbridge,
Ireland.

1868. {Smyth, Rev.-J. D. Hurst. 13 Upper St. Gties's-street, Norwich.

1864, {Suyrn, Warrneton W., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S., F.R.GS., Lecturer
on Mining and Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, and
Inspector of the Mineral Property of the Crown. 5 Inverness-
terrace, Bayswater, London, W.

1854, {Smythe, Lieut-General W. J., R.A., F.R.S. Athenzeum Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8. W.

1878.§§Snell, H. Saxon. 3 Greville-place, Maida Hill, London, N.W.

Soden, John. Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
1879. §Sollas, W. J., M.A. 4 The Polygon, Clifton, Bristol.
*“Sotty, Epwarp, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.8S., F.S.A. . Park House,
Sutton, Surrey.
Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.
1859. *Sorsy, H. Crirron, LL.D.,F.R.S., Pres.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.
1879. “Sorby, Thomas W. 269 Western Bank, Sheffield.

=
“

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1865,
1859.
1856.
1863.
1863.
1879.
1859.

1869.
1854.
1861.
1861.
1865.

1875.
1871.
1864.

*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.

tSouthall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.

tSouthwood, Rey. T. A. Cheltenham College.

{Sowerby, John. Shipcote House, Gateshead, Durham.

*Spark, H. King. Starforth House, Barnard Castle.

§Spence, David. Brookfield House, Freyinghall, Yorkshire.

tSpence, Rev. James, D.D. 6 Clapton-square, London, N.L.

*Spence, Joseph. 60 Holgate Hill, York.

*Spence, J. Berger. Erlington House, Manchester.

§Spence, Peter, F.C.S. Erlington House, Seymour-grove, Manchester.

{Spencer, John Frederick. 28 Great George-street, London, 8. W.

*Spencer, Joseph. Springbank, Old Trafford, Manchester.

*Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne. Co.
Durham.

{Spencer, W.H. Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.

{Spicer, George. Broomfield, Halifax. :

*Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, Highbury,
London, N.

1864.§§Spicer, William R. 19 New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London, E.C:

1864.

*Spinuipr, Jon, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.

1878.§§Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 29 Ashley-place, London, S.W.

1846.

1864.
1854.
1853.

1877.

1879.
1858.

1865.
1837.

1866.
1876.

1873.
1857.
1870.
1865.

*SporriswoopE, WiLL1AM, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S. (Prestpent.) 41 Grosyenor-place, London, S.W.
*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh. 41 Grosvenor-place, London, 8.W.
*Spracur, THomss Bonn. 29 Buckingham-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Spratt, Joseph James. West Parade, Hull.
Square, Joseph Elliot, F.G.S. 24 Portland-place, Plymouth.
tSeuarE; WittiAM, F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Portland-square, Ply-—
mouth.
*Squire, Lovell. The Observatory, Falmouth.
§Stacye, Rey. John. The Hospital, Shrewsbury.
*Sramnton, Henry T., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. Mountsfield, Lewis-
ham, 8.E.
§SranrorD, Epwarp C: 6. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
Staniforth, Rev. Thomas. Storrs, Windermere.
Srantey, The Very Rey. ArrHur Pryruyy, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of
Westminster. The Deanery, Westminster, London, S.W.
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
{Starey, Thomas R. Daybrook House, Nottingham.
§Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. The Avenue, Erith, Kent.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.
*Stead, Charles. Saltaire, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Steale, William Edward, MD. 15, Hatch-street, Dublin.
{Stearn, C. H. 2 St. Paul’s-villas, Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
{Steele, Rev. Dr. 385 Sydney-buildings, Bath.

1873.§§Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1861.

1872.
1879.
_ 1861.
1865.
1876.
1870.
1861.

{Steinthal, H. M. Hollywood, Fallowfield, near Manchester.

SrenHouse, Jonny, LL.D, F.R.S., F.C.8. 17 Rodney-street, Pen-
tonville, London, N.

tStennett, Mrs. Eliza. 2 Olarendon-ferrace;, Brighton.

*SrepHENsON, Henry, J.P. Endclitfe Vale, Sheffield.

*Stern,S. J. Littlegrove, East Barnet, Herts:

{Sterriker, John. Driffield, Yorkshire.

tSteuart, Walter. City Bank, Pollockshaws, near Glasgow.

*Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. Belmont,, Devizes-road, Salisbury.

*Stevens, Henry, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Trafalgar-square, London,

78 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1868. {Stevenson, Henry, F.LS. Newmarket-road, Norwich.

1878.§§Stevenson, Rev. James, M.A. 21 Garville-avenue, Rathgar,
Dublin.

1863. *Srrvenson, JamEs C., M.P., F.C.S. Westoe, South Shields,

1876. *Stewart, Alexander B. Rawcliffe Lodge, Langside, Glasgow.

1855. {Srpwart, Batrour, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in Owens College, Manchester,

1864. {Srewart, CHArtEs, M.A., F.L.S. St. Thomas's Hospital, London,
S.E .

1856, *Stewart, Henry Hutchinson, M.D., M.R.LA. 75 Eccles-street,
Dublin.

1875. *Stewart, James, B.A. Mount Hope, Sneyd Park, near Bristol.

1847. tStewart, Robert, M.D. The Asylum, Belfast.

1876. {Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.

1867. {Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.

1868. {Stirling, Edward. 34 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London, W.

1876, {Stirling, William, M.D., D.Sc. The University, Edinburgh.

1867. *Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. 14 Atkinson-street, Deansgate, Manchester.

1865. *Stock, Joseph 8. 1 Chartham-terrace, Ramsgate.

1864. §Sropparr, WaittraAm Watrer, F.G.8., F.C.S. Grafton Lodge,
Sneyd Park, Bristol.

1854. {Stoess, Le Chevalier Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool.

*Stoxes, GEORGE GABRIEL, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Lueasian

Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge, Lens-
field Cottage, Cambridge.

1862. {Sronz, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the

Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.
1874.§§Stone, J. Harris, B.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 11 Sheffield-gardens, Ken-
sington, London, W.

1876. {Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. Springfield, Nuneaton.

1859. {Stone, Dr. William H. 14 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.

1857. {Sronny, Brypon B., C.E., M.R.1.A., Engineer of the Port of Dublin.
42 Wellington-road, Dublin.

1878. *Stoney, G. Gerald. 8 Palmerston Park, Dublin.

1861. *Sronry, GEorGE JoHnsTonE, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Secretary to
the Queen’s University, Ireland. 3 Palmerston Park, Dublin.

1876. §Stopes, Henry, F.G.S8. East Hill, Colchester.

1854. Store, George. Prospect House, Fairfield, Liverpool.

1873. {Storr, William. The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon-
don, E.C.

1867. SrorraR, Jonn, M.D. Heathview, Hampstead, London, N.W.

1859. §Story, Captain James. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W.

1874. §Stott, William. Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.

1871. *Srracuny, Lieut.-General Ricwarp, R.E., C.8.1., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.LS., F.G.8. Stowey House, Clapham Common, London,
S.W.

1876, {Strain, John, 145 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

1863. {Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham.

*Strickland, Charles. Loughglyn House, OCastlerea, Ireland.
1879, §Strickland, Sir Charles W., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.
Strickland, William. French Park, Roscommon, Ireland.

1859. {Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.

1867. {Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee.

1876, *Struthers, John, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Aberdeen.

1878.§§Strype, W. G., C.E. Wicklow.

1876. *Stuart, Charles Maddock. Sudbury Hill, Harrow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 79

Year of
Election.

1872. *Stuart, Rev. Edward A. 22 Bedford-street, Norwich.

1864, {Style, Sir Charles, Bart. 102 New Sydney-place, Bath.
1873.§§Style, Rev. George, M.A. Gigeleswick School, Yorkshire.

1879. *Styring, Robert. 3 Hartshead, Sheffield.

1857. {Suntivan, WitrraM K., Ph.D., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Cork.
1873. {Sutcliffe, J. W. Sprink Bank, Bradford, Yorkshire.

1873. {Sutclitfe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.

1863. {Sutherland, Benjamin John. 10 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1862. *SUTHERLAND, GroRGE GRANVILLE WuLL1AM, Duke of, K.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Stafford House, London, 8. W.

1863. {Surron, Francis, F'.C.8. Bank Plain, Norwich.

1876. {Swan, David, jun. Braeside, Maryhill, Glasgow.

1861. *Swan, Patrick Don 8S. Kirkcaldy, N.B.

1862. *Swan, Witriam, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of St. Andrews. Ardchapel, by Helensburgh,
N.B.

1862. *Swann, Rev. S. Kirke, F.R.A.S. Forest Hill Lodge, Warsop,
Mansfield, Nottinghamshire.

1879. §Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.

Sweetman, Walter, M.A., M.R.LA. 4 Mountjoy-square Nerth,

Dublin.

1870. *Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1863. {Swindell, J.S. EK. Summerhill, Kingswinford, Dudley.

1873. *Swinglehurst, Henry. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe.

1873.§§Sykes, Benjamin Olifford, M.D. Cleckheaton.

1847, {Sykes, H. P. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.

1862. {Sykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton, near Leeds.

1847. {Sykes, Captain W. H. F. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.

SyLvestER, JAMES JosEPH, M.A., LL.D,, F.R.S. Atheneum Club,

‘London, 8. W.

1870.§§Symus, Ricwarp Guascorr, A.B., F.G.S. Geological Survey of
Ireland, 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

1856. *Symonds, Frederick, M.A., F.R.C.S. 35 Beaumont-street, Oxford.

1859. {Symonds, Captain’ Thomas Edward, R.N. 10 Adam-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.

1860. {Symonps, Rey. W.S8., M.A., F.G.S. Pendock Rectory, Worcester-

shire.
1859.§§Symons, G. J., F.RS., Sec. M.S. 62 Camden-square, London,
N.W

1855. *Symons, Wiiu1aM, F.C.S. 26 Joy-street, Barnstaple.
Synge, Francis. Glanmore, Ashford,:Co. Wicklow.
1872. {Synge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. United
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8S. W.

1865. {Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B.

1877. *Tarr, Lawson, F.R.C.S._ 7 Great Charles-street, Birmingham.

1871. {Tarr, Perer Gururim, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.»

1867. {Tait, P. M., F.R.G.S. Oriental-Club, Hanover-square, London, W.

§$Talbot, William Hawkshead. Hartwood Hall, Chorley, Lancashire

1874. §Talmage, C. G., F.R.A.S. Leyton Observatory, Essex, E.

1866. {Tarbotton, Marrott Ogle, M.LC.E., F.G.8S. Newstead-grove, Not-
tingham.

1878.§§Tarpey, Hugh. Dublin.

1861. *Tarratt, Henry W. Mountfield, Grove Hill, Tunbridge Wells.

1856. {Tartt, William Macdonald, F.S.S. Sandford-place, Cheltenham.

1857. *Tate, Alexander, C.F, Lingwood, Whitehouse, Belfast.

80 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Elect.on.

1863. {Tate, John. Alnmouth, near Alnwick, Northumberland.

1870. tTate, Norman A. 7 Nivell-chambers, Fazackerley-street, Liver-

ool.

Pp
1858. *Tatham, George. Springfield Mount, Leeds.

1876.
1879.
1864.

tTatlock, Robert R. 26 Burnbank-eardens, Glasgow.
§Tattershall, William Edward. 15 North Church-street, Sheffield.
*Tawney, Epwarp B., F.G.S. Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge.

1878. *Taylor, A. Claude. Clinton House, The Park, Nottingham.
1874. {Taylor, Alexander O'Driscoll. 3 Upper-crescent, Belfast.
1867. [Taylor, Rey. Andrew. Dundee.

1874.
1879.

1861.
1873.
1865.

1876.

1878
1870.

1858

1869.

1876
1879
1863

1857.
1866.
1871.
1871.

1835.
1870,
1879.
1871.
1875.

1875.
1869.
1869.
1875.
1865..
1858,
1859.

1870..

1861.
1864,

Taylor, Frederick. Laurel Cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire.
{Taylor, G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.
§Taylor, John. Broomhall-place, Sheffield.
*Taytor, Jonny, F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street,
London, E.C.
*Taylor, John, jun. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street,
London, E.C.
{Taytor, Joum Extor, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. The Mount, Ipswich.
tTaylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.
*TayLor, Ricwarp, F.G.8. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-
street, London, E.C.
{Taylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.
.§§Taylor, Robert, J.P., LL.D. Corballis, Drogheda.
. {Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.
*Taylor, William Edward. Hesketh Park, Southport.
. {Teale, Thomas Pridgin, jun. 20 Park-row, Leeds.
{Teesdale, C.S. M. Whyke House, Chichester.
. {Temperley, Ernest. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
. §Temple, Lieutenant George T., R.N. The Nash, near Worcester.
. tTennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Taynant, James, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in
King’s College. 149 Strand, London, W.O.
{Tennison, Edward King. Kildare-street Club House, Dublin.
tThackeray, J. L. Arno Vale, Nottingham.
{Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.
{TaiseLton-Dyer, W. T., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.8. 10 Gloucester-road,
Kew.
Thom, John. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
{Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
*Thomas Arthur. Endcliffe House, Sheftield.
tThomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.
*THomAs, CuristopHeR JAMES. Drayton Lodge, Redland, Bristol.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.
tThomas, Herbert. 2 Great George-street, Bristol.
tThomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.
t{Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, F.C.
{Thompson, Artur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.
{Thompson, Rey. Francis. St. Giles’s, Durham.
*Thompson, Frederick. South-parade, Wakefield.
{Thompson, George, jun. Pidsmedden, Aberdeen.
Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, Yorkshire.
{THompson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, London, W.
Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York.
*Thompson, Joseph. Woodlands, Fulshaw, near Manchester.
{Tnompson, Rev. JosepH Hessererave, B.A. Cradley, near
Brierley Hill.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 81

Year of
Election.

Thompson, Leonard. Sheriff-Hutton Park, Yorkshire.
1873. {Thompson, M. W. Guiseley, Yorkshire.
1876. *Thompson, Richard. Park-street, The Mount, York.
1874.§§Thompson, Robert. Walton, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.
1876. §THompson, Sirvanus Puitiips, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Physics in University College, Bristol. 8 Carlton-place,
Clifton, Bristol.
1878.§§Thompson, T. D. Clare Hall, Raheny, Co. Dublin.
1863. {Thompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1867. {Thoms, William.. Magdalen-yard-roead, Dundee.
1855. {THomson, Atten, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. 66 Palace Gardens-
terrace, Kensington, London, W.
1850. {THomson, Sir Cuartes Wrvitrz. LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.GS.,
Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. 20 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.
1852. { Thomson, Gordon A. Bedeque House, Belfast.
Thomson, Guy. Oxford.
1850, *I'omson, Professor Jamzs, M.A., LL.D., C.E., F.R.S. L. & E.
Oakfield House, University Avenue, Glasgow.
1855. { Thompson, James. 82 West Nile-street, Glasgow.
1868. §THomson, James, F.G.S. 3 Abbotsford-place, Glasgow.
*Thomson, James Gibson. 14 York-place, Edinburgh.
1876. {Thomson, James R. Dalmuir House, Dalmuir, Glasgow.
1874. tThomson, John. Harbour Office, Belfast.
1871. *Tuomsoy, Jomn Mirxar, F.C.S. King’s College, London, W.C.
1871. {Thomson, Robert, LL.B. _ 12 Rutland-square, Edinburgh.
1865. {Thomson, R. W., C.E., F.R.S.E. 3 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
1847, *Tnomson, Sir Wittram, M.A., LL.D., DO.L., F.RS. L. &E.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow,
The University, Glaszow,
1877. *Thomson, Lady. The University, Glasgow.
1874, §THomson, Witt1aM, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.
1876, {Thomson, William. 6 Mansfield-place, Edinburgh.
1871. {Thomson, William Burnes, FE RS.E. 1 Ramsay-gardens, Edinburgh.
1871. {Thornburn, Rev. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.
1852, {Thornburn, Rey. William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.
*Thornton, Samuel, J.P. Oakfield, Moseley, near Birmingham.
1867. {Thornton, Thomas. Dundee.
1845. {Thorp, Dr. Disney. Lyppiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham.
1871. {Thorp, Henry. Briarleich, Sale, near Manchester.
1864. *TuHorp, WitirAM, B.Sc., F.C.S. 39 Sandringham-road, Kingsland,
London, E.
1871. {Tuorprz, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.L.& E., F.C.S., Professor of Che-
mistry in Yorkshire College, Leeds.
1868. {Thuillier, Lieut.-General Sir H. E. L., R.A.,O.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.GS.
South Bank Lodge, Stratford-road, Kensington, London, W.
1870. {Tichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., MR.LA. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.
1873. *Trppeman, R. HL, M.A.. F.G.S._ 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
1874, {Tilden, William A., D.Se., F.C.S. Clifton College, Bristol.
1873. {Tilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, United States.
1865. {Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Elvetham-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
Tinker, Ebenezer. Mealhill, near Huddersfield.
*Tinne, Joun A., F.R.G.S. Briarley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
1876. {Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, S.E.
F

82

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1861.
1857.

1856.

1864.
1865.

*Topnunter, Isaac, M.A., F.R.S., Principal Mathematical Lecturer
at St. John’s College, Cambridge. Brookside, Cambridge.

{Tombe, Rev. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.

tTomes, Robert Fisher. Welford, Stratford-on-A von.

*TomLInson, CHAR es, F.R.S., F.C.S. 3 Ridgmount-terrace, High-
gate, London, N.

tTone, John F. Jesmond-villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1865.§§Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-

shire.

. {Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.
3. *Toekey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,

London, 8. W.

. *Topham, John, M.I.C.E. High Elms, 265 Mare-street, Hackney,

London, E.

. *Torrey, Wiiiiam, F.G.S., A.I.C.E. -Geological Survey Office,

Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.

5. §Torr, Charles Hawley. Harrowby House, Park-row, Nottingham.
3. tTorrens, Colonel Sir R. R., K.C.M.G. .2 Gloucester-place, Hyde

Park,-London, W.

. {Torry, Very Rev. John, Dean of St. Andrews. Coupar Angus,
N.B

Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.

. t{Townend, W..H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
5. tTownsend, Charles. Avenue House, Cotham Park, Bristol.
. *TowaxsEnD, Rey. Ricwarp, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philo-

sophy in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.

. {Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
. {Towson, Joun Tuomas, F.R.G.S. 47 Upper Parliament-street,

Liverpool ; and Local Marine Board, Liverpool.

. §Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.
76. *Trail, J. W. H., M.A., M.B., F.L.S. King’s College, Old Aberdeen.
. {Tramp, Wittram A., M.R.I.A. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14

Hume-street, Dublin.

. {Trapnell, Caleb. Severnleigh, Stoke Bishop.
. {Traevarr, Ramsay H., M.D., Professor of Zoology. Museum of

Science and Art, Edinburgh.
Travers, Robert, M.B. Williamstown, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

. {Tyavers, William, F.R.C.S. 1 Bath-place, Kensington, London,
W.

Tregelles, Nathaniel. Liskeard, Cornwall.

38. {Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
. {Trehane, John, jun. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
. ¢Trench, Dr. Municipal Offices, Dale-street, Liverpool.

Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.

. {Trrpr, Atrred, F.C.S. 14 Denbigh-road, Bayswater, London, W.
9. §Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.

. {TRmen, Henry, M.B., F.L.S. British Museum, London, W.C.

. {Trrmen, Rowzanp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary's Office, Cape

Town, Cape of Good Hope.

. §TRistRaM, Rev. Henry Baxer, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Canon

of Durham. The College, Durham.

. {Troyte,C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon,
4, {Truell, Robert. Ballyhenry, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.

9. ¢Tucker, Charles. Marlands, Exeter.

. *Tuckett, Francis Fox. 10 Baldwin-street, Bristol.

Tuke, James H. Bank, Hitchen.

. {Tuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 83

Year of
Election.

1867.

{Tulloch, The Very Rev. Principal, D.D. St. Andrew’s, Fifeshire.

1854. {Turnevutt, James, M.D. 86 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1855.§§Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glasgow.

1856.
1871.
1873.

1875.
1863.

1842.
1847.

1865.
1858.

1861.
1876.
1872.

1876.
1859.

1866.

1863.

1854.
1868.

1865,
1870.
1869.
1875.
1849.

1873.

1866.

1854.

1879.
1864.
1868.
1875.

1856.

{Turnbull, Rev. J.C. 8 Bays-hill-villas, Cheltenham.
§Turnbull, William, F.R.S.E. 14 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.
“Turner, George. Horton Grange, Bradford, Yorkshire.

Turner, Thomas, M.D. 31 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W.
{Turner, Thomas, F.S.S. Ashley House, Kingsdown, Bristol.
“Turner, Wii11an, M.B., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Anatomy

in the University of Edinburgh. 16 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.

Twamley, Charles, F.G/S. Ryton-on-Dunsmore, Coventry.

{Twiss, Sir Travers, Q.C., D.C.L., F.RS., F.RGS. 8 Paper-
buildings, Temple, London, E.C.

{Tyztor, Epwarv Buryerz, D.C.L., F.R.S. Linden, Wellington,
Somerset.

*Txnpatt, Joun, D.O.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution. Royal Institu-
tion, Albemarle-street, London, W.

*Tysoe, John. 28 Seedley-road, Pendleton, near Manchester.

“Unwin, W. C., A.LC.E., Professor of Hydraulic Engineering.
Cooper’s Hill, Middlesex.

Upward, Alfred. 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, London,
S.W.

fUre, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

{Urquhart, W. Pollard. Oraigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,
Treland.

{Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

*Vance, Rev. Robert. 24 Blackhall-street, Dublin.
fVandoni, le Commandeur Comte de, Chargé d’Affaires de S. M.
Tunisienne, Geneva.
tVarley, Cromwell F., F.R.S. Cromwell House, Bexley Heath, Kent.
{Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N.
“Variny, 8S. ALFRED. Hatfield, Herts.
{Varley, Mrs. 8S. A. Hatfield, Herts.
{Varwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.
{Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.
*Vaux, Frederick. Central Telegraph Office, Adelaiile, South Aus-
tralia.
*VerveY, Captain Epwonp H., R.N., F.R.G.S. Rhianva, Bangor,
North Wales.
Verney, Sir Harry, Bart. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire,
{Vernon, Rey. E. H. Harcourt. Coterave Rectory, near Nottingham.
Vernon, George John, Lord. 32 Curzon-street, London, W.; and
Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire.
“VrRNoN, GroraE V., F.R.A.S. 1 Osborne-place, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
§Veth, D. D. Leiden, Holland.
“Vicary, WittaM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.
{Vincent, Rey. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.
{Vines, David, F.R.A.S. Observatory House, Somerset-street, Kings-
down, Bristol. :
{Vrvran, Epwarp, M.A. Woodfield, Torquay.
*Vivian, H. Hussey, M.P., F.G.S. Park Werne, Swansea; and 27
Belgrave-square, London, S.W.
F2

84 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

3856.§§Vortexer, J. Cu. Aveustus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 39
Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W.
1875, tVolckman, Mrs. E.G. 48 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.
1875. {Volekman, William. 43 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.
{Vose, Dr. James. Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

1875. t Wace, Rev. A. St. Paul's, Maidstone, Kent. ;
1860.§§ Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucester-
shire.
1859. t Waddington, John.. New Dock Works, Leeds.
1879. *Wake, Bernard. Abbeytield, Sheffield.
1870. §Waxke, CHARLES STANILAND. 70 Wright-street, Hull.
1855. *Waldegrave, The Hon. Granville. 26 Portland-place, London, W.
1878. {Wales, James. 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
#869. *Walford, Cornelius. 86 Belsize Park-gardens, London, N.W.
1849, §Watxker, Cuartzs V., I.R.S., FR.A.S. Fernside, Reigate Hill,
Reigate.
Walker, Six Edward S. Berry Hill, Mansfield.
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath.
1866. {Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
1855, tWalker, John. 1 Exchange-court, Glasgow.
1842, *Walker, John. Thornclitfe, Kenilworth-road, Leamington.
1866. *Watxsr, J. F., M.A. F.CO.P.S, F.C.8., F.GS., F.LS. 16 Gilly-
gate, York.
1867, *Walker, Peter G. 2 Aizlie-place, Dundee.
1866 {Walker, 8. D. 388 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
5869. *Walker, Thomas F. W., M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Cireus, Bath.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1869. | Walkey, J. B.C. High-street, Exeter.
1863. {Wattace, Atrrep RosszL, F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Waldron Edge,
Duppas Hill, Croydon.
1859, | Wattace, WILLIAM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Chemical Laboratory, 138 Bath-
street, Glasgow.
1857. {Waller, Edward. Lisenderry, Aughnacloy, Ireland.
1862. { Wallich, George Charles, M.D., F.R.GS., FLAS. Terrace House,
St. George's-terrace, Herne Bay.
3862. $Warrote, The Right Hon. Spenczr Horatio, M.A., D.C.L., M-P.,
F.R.S. Ealing, London, W.
1857. {Walsh, Albert Jasper, F.R.O.S.1. 89 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
Walsh, John (Prussian Consul). Dundrum Castle, Co. Dublin.
1863. Walters, Robert. Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Walton, Thomas Todd. Mortimer House, Clifton, Bristol.
1863. {Wanklyn, James Alfred. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.
1872. {Warburton, Benjamin. Leicester.
1874. §Ward, F.D. Fernleigh, Botanic-road, Belfast.
1879. §Ward, H. Marshall. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
1874. §Ward, John, F.R.G.S. Lenox Vale, Belfast.
1857. tWard, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
Ward, Rev. Richard, M.A. 12 Eaton~place, London, 8.W.
1863. {Ward, Robert. Dean-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Ward, William Sykes, F.C.S.. 12 Bank-street, and Denison Hall,,
Leeds.
1867. tWarden, Alexander J. Dundee:
1858. tWardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire..
1865. ieee John, M.D., F,L.S.. 49 Clifton-gardens, Maida Vale,
on, W.

[ea]
or

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1878. §Warington, Robert. Harpenden, St. Alban’s, Herts.
1872. *Warner, Thomas. 47 Sussex-square, Brightoi.
1856. {Warner, Thomas H. Lee. Tiberton Court, Hereford.
1875. {Warren, Algernon. Naseby House, Pembroke-road, Clifton,
Bristol.
1865. “Warren, Edward P. 13 Old-square, Birmingham.
Warwick, William Atkinson. Wyddrington House, Cheltenham.
1856. { Washbourne, Buehanan, M.D. Gloucester.
1876. {Waterhouse, A. Willenhall House, Barnet, Herts.
*“Warernouss, Jonny, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Wellhead, Halifax,
Yorkshire.
1875. “Waterhouse, Major J. Surveyor-General'’s Office, Caleutta. (Care
of Messrs. Triibner & Co., Ludgate-hill, London, 1.0.)
1854, { Waterhouse, Nicholas. 5 Rake-lane, Liverpool.
1870. { Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.
1875. § Waters, Arthur W., F.G.S., F.L.S. Weoodbrook, Alderley Edge,
near Manchester.
1875. {Watherston, Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bowdon, Cheshire.
1867. { Watson, Rey. Archibald, D.D. The Manse, Dundee.
1855. { Watson, Ebenezer. 16 Abercromby-place, Glasgow.
1867. { Watson, Frederick Edwin. Thickthorne House, Cringleford, Norwich.
*Wartson, Henzy Hoven, F.C.S. 227 The Folds, Bolton-le~Moors.
Wartson, Hewerr Corrrett. Thames Ditten, Surrey.
1873. *Watson, Sir James. Mailton-Lockhart, Carluke, N.B.
1859. {Warson, Joun Forezs, M.A., M.D. F.L.S, India Museum, Lon-
don, 8. W.
1863. { Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, near Gateshead-on-Tyne.
1863. {Watson, R.S. 101 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1867. { Watson, Thomas Bonald. 41 Cross-street, Finsbury, London, E.C.
1879. §Watson, William Henry, F.C.8. Braystones, near Whitehaven,
Cumberland.
1869. t Watt, Robert B. E., C.E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.
1861. {Watts, Sir James. Abney Hall, Cheadle, near Manchester.
1875. *Wartts, Joun, B.A., D.Se. 57 Baker-street, Portman-square,
Lenden, W.
1846.§§ Watts, John King, F.R.G.S. Market-place, St. Ives, Hunts.
1870. § Watts, William, F.G.S. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Pie-
thorn, near Roehdale.
1873. *Warrs, W. Marswatt, D.Se. Giggleswiek Grammar School, near
Settle.
Waud, Major E. Manston Hall, near Leeds.
Waud, Rey. S, W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S. Rettenden, near
Wickford, Essex.
1859. {Waugh, Edwin. Sagerstreet, Manchester.
1859. *Wavunry, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.S. 7 Audley-square,
London, W.
*“Wax, J. Tomas, F.C.S. 9 Russel-read, Kensingten, London, 8. W.
1869. t Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.
1871. {Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.
“Wasp, Rev. THomas WittraM, M.A., F.R.A.S. Hardwick Vicar-
age, Hay, South Wales.
1866. *Wexsz, Witti14mM Frepeeics, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham,
1859. { Webster, John. 42 King-street, Aberdeen.
1834. { Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, H.C.
1845. { Wedgewood, Hensleigh. 17 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.

86

LIST OF MEMBERS.

‘Year of

Election.

1854. {Weightman, William Henry. Farn Lea, Seaforth, Liverpool.

1865. Welch, Christopher, M.A. University Club, Pall Mall East,
London, 5. W.

1867. §Wetpon, Water, F.R.S.E. Rede Hall, Burstow, near Crawley,
Surrey.

1878.

1879.
1876.
1879.
1850.

1864.

1865.

1855.
1870.
1853.
1855.
1851.
1870.

1842.

1857.

1865.
1860.
1875.
1864,

1860,
1853.

1866,

1847,

1878.
1879.
1873.

1874.
1859,

1876,
1864,
1887.

1876.

§ Weldon, Mrs. Walter. Rede Hall, Burstow, near Crawley, Surrey.
§ Weldon, W. A. D. Rede Hall, Burstow, near Crawley, Surrey.
§ Weldon, W. F. Rk. Abbey Lodge, Merton, Surrey.
§ Wells, Charles A. Etna Iron Works, Lewes.
} Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D: St. Andrews, N.B.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.
*Were, Anthony Berwick. Whitehaven, Cumberland.
{Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlmgton
House, London, W.
{West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
{West, Captain E. W. Bombay.
{ West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
{West, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.
*Western, Sir T. B., Bart. Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex.
§Westgarth, William. 10 Bolton-gardens, South Kensington, Lon~
don, W.
Westhead, Edward. Chorlton-on-Medlock, near Manchester.
Westhead, John. Manchester.
*Westley, William. 24 Regent-street, London, 8. W.
t}Westmacott, Perey Whickham, Gateshead, Durham.
} Weston, James Woods. Belmont House, Pendleton, Manchester.
*Weston, Joseph D. Dorset House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
}Westrropp, W.H.S.,M.R.LA. Lisdoonvarna, Co. Clare.
tWerstwoop, Joun O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Oxford. Oxford.
{ Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
tWheatstone, Charles C. 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London,
N.

{ Wheeler, Edmund, F.R.A.S, 48 Tollington-road, Holloway, Lon-
don, N.

*Wheeler, W. H., C.E. Churchyard, Boston, Lincolnshire.

*Whidborne, George Ferris, M.A., F.G.S. Charante, Torquay.

tWhipple, George Matthew, B.Sc., F.R.A.S. Kew Observatory,
Richmond, Surrey.

§ Whitaker, Henry,M.D. 33 High-street, Belfast.

*WaitakeR, WILLIAM, B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28:
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.

tWhite, Angus. Easdale, Argyleshire.

{ White, Edmund. Victoria Villa, Batheaston, Bath.

{Wuuirs, James, F.G.S.. 8 Thurloe-square; South Kensington,
London, 8. W.

*White, James. Overtoun, Dumbarton:

1873.§§ White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.

1859,
1865.
1869.
1859.
1877.
1861.
1858.

White, John. 80- Wilson-street, Glasgow.
{Wuuirz, Joun Forses. 16 Bon Accord-square, Aberdeen.
{White, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham.
{ White, Laban. Blanford, Dorset.
tWhite, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.
*White, William. 365 Euston-road, London, N.W.
{Whitehead, James, M.D. 87 Mosley-street, Manchester.
tWhitehead, J. H. Southsyde, Saddleworth.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 87

Year of
Election.

1861.
1861.

1855.

1871.
1866.
1874.
1852.

1870.
1857.
1874.

1870.
1865.

*Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester.

*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod, C.E. Drood House;. Old Trafford,
Manchester.

*Whitehouse, Wildeman, W. O. 12 Thurlow-road, Hampstead, Lon-
don, N.W.

Whitehouse, William. 10 Queen’s-street, Rhyl.

t{Whitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow.

{ Whitfield, Samuel. Eversfield, Eastnor-grove, Leamington.

{ Whitford, William. 5 Claremont-street, Belfast.

tWhitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.

Whitley, Rev. Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington,

Morpeth.

§Whittem, James Sibley. Walgrave, near Coventry.

*Wnuirry, Rev. Jonn Irwiys, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 94 Baggot-
street, Dublin.

*Whitwell, Mark. Redland House, Bristol.

*Wuitwortn, Sir Josrpx, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S; The Firs,
Manchester; and Stancliffe Hall, Derbyshire.

{Wurrworru, Rev. W. Atren, M.A. 185 Islington, Liverpool.

{Wiggin, Henry. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham,

1878.§§ Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.

1855.
1857.
1879.
1859.
1872.
1869.

1859.
1872.
1870.

1861.
1861.

1875.
1857.
1870.
1875.
1879.

1869.

1877.
1865.
1850.

1857.
1876.
1863.
1876,

{Wilkie, John. Westburn, Helensburgh, N.B.

{Wilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin.

§ Wilkinson, Joseph, F.R.G.S. York.

§ Wilkinson, Robert. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hertfordshire.

t Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.

§ Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D. Stanbury, Torquay,

*Willert, Alderman Paul Ferdinand. Town Hall, Manchester.

{Willet, John, C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

¢Witerr, Hevry, F.G.S. Arnold House, Brighton.

{ William, G. F. Copely Mount, Springfield, Liverpool.

WittrMs, Cuartes James, B., M.D., F.R.S. 47 Upper Brook-

street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.

*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 47 Upper Brook-street,
Grosvenor-square, London,.W.

*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A, 28 John-street, Bedford-row, Lor
don, W.C.

*Williams, Herbert A., M.A. 91 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{ Williams, Rev. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead.

§ WittraMs, Jonn, F.C.S. 14 Buckingham-street, London, W.C.

*Williems, M. B. North Hill, Swansea.

§ Williams, Matthew W., F.C.S. 18 Kempsford-gardens, Earl’s
Court, London, 8.W.

Williams, Robert, M.A. Bridehead, Dorset.

{Wittrams, Rev. SrepHen. Stonyhurst College, Whalley, Black-
burn.

*Williams, W. Carleton, F.C.S. Owens College, Manchester.

{Williams, W.M. Belmont-road, Twickenham, near London.

*Witiiamsox, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., LL.D:, For. Sec. R.S.,
F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy, Professor
of Chemistry, and of Practical Chemistry, University College,
sr (GENERAL TREASURER.) University College, London,
Ww.

{ Williamson, Benjamin, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Dublin.
{ Williamson, Rev. F.J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.

t Williamson, John. South Shields.

{ Williamson, Stephen. 19 James-street, Liverpool.

88 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election

Wirtramson, Wittram C., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
Owens Oollege, Manchester. 4 Egerton-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
1865. *Willmott, Henry. Hatherley Lawn, Cheltenham.
1857. { Willock, Rev. W.N., D.D. Cleenish, Enniskillen, Ireland.
1859, *Wills, Alfred, Q.O. 12 King’s Bench-walk, Inner Temple, E.C.
1865. { Wills, Arthur W. Edgbaston, Birmingham,
Wits, W. R. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1878.§§ Wilson, Alexander S., M.A., B.Sc, 124 Bothwell-street, Glaszow.
1859.§§ Wilson, Alexander Stephen, C.E. North Kinmundy, Summerhill,
by Aberdeen.
1876. { Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.
1674.§§ Witson, Major OC. W., 0.B., R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Director of the
T.pographical and Statistical Department of the War Office.
‘Ordnance Survey Office, Dublin.
1850. { Wilson, Dr. Daniel. Toronto, Upper Canada.
1876. { Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
1865. tWilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
1847. *Wilson, Frederick. 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W.
1861. { Wilson, George Daniel. 24 Ardwich-green, Manchester.
1875.§§ Wilson, George Fergusson, F.R.S., F.C.8., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.
1874, *Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
1863. { Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.
1879, § Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.
1855. {Wilson, Hugh, 75 Glasford-street, Glasgow.
1857. { Wilson, James Moncrieff. Queen Insurance Company, Liverpool.
1865. {Wuson, Jamus M., M.A. Hillmorton-road, Rugby.
1858. *Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds.
Wuson, Jonn, F.G.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture in the
University of Edinburgh. The University, Edinburgh.
1876. {Wilson, J. G., M-D., F.R.S.E. 9 Woodside-vrescent, ‘Glasgow.
1879. § Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.
1876.§§ Wilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Chib, Westminster, S.W.
1847. *Wilson, Rev. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
1865. *Wilson, Thomas. Shotley Hall, Shotley Bridge, Northumberlard.
1861. { Wilson, Thomas Bright. 24 Ardwick-green, Manchester.
1867. { Wilson, Rey. William. Free St. Paul’s, Dundee.
1871. *Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland.
1870. { Wilson, William Henry. 31 Grove-park, Liverpool.
186], *Wittsnire, Rev. THomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S. 25 Gran-
ville-park, Lewisham, London, S.E.
18 77. {Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.
18 66. *Windley, W. Mapperley Plains, Nottingham.
*Winsor, F. A. 60 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.
1868. {Winter, C. J. W. 22 Bethel-street, Norwich.
1863. *Winwoop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S, 11 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.
18 63. *Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Bridge of Earn, N.B.
18 61. *Wood, Edward T, Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
*Wood, George B., M.D. 1117 Arch-street, Philadelphia, United
States.
1870. *Wood, George S. 20 Lord-street, Liverpool.
1875. *Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.
1856..* Woop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. Holwell Rectory, Sherborne,
Dorset,
1878. § Wood, H. Trueman, B.A. Society of Arts, John-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 89

Year of
Election.

1864
1861
1871

1850.

1865.
1861.
1872.

1863.

1870.
1850.

1865.

1871.
1872.
1869.

1866.
1870.

1877.
1856.
1872.

1874

. tWood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
-§§ Wood, Samuel, F.S.A. St. Mary’s Court, Shrewsbury.

- {Wood, Provost T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh.
tWood, Rey. Walter. Elie, Fife.
Wood, William. Kdge-lane, Liverpool.
“Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W.
{Wood, William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, near Manchester.
§Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.
*Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester.
*WoopaLL, Major Joun Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. St. Nicholas House,
Scarborough.
{ Woodburn, Thomas. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.

“Wovdd, Charles H. L.,F.G.S. Roslyn House, Hampstead, London,
N.W.

TWoodhill, J. C. Pakenham House, Charlotte-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

tWoodiwis, James. 61 Back George-street, Manchester.
tWoodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
tWoodman, William Robert, M.D. Ford House, Exeter.
*Woops, Epwarp, 'O.E. 3 Great George-street, Westminster,
London, 8. W.
Woops, Samvurt. 5 Austin Friars, Old Broad-street, London, E.C.
*Woopwarp, .C. J., B.Sc. 76 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
tWoopwarp, Henry, F.R.S., F.G.S. British Museum, London, W.C.
{ Woodward, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8S. W.
tWoolleombe, Robert W. 14 St. Jean d’Acre-terrace, Plymouth.
{Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.
{ Woolmer, Shirley. 6 Park-crescent, Brighton.
Worcester, The Right Rev. Henry Philpott, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
‘Worcester.

. [Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.

1878. §Wormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. 165 Loughborough-road, London,
S.W,

1863
1856

1856
1879
1871
1861

1857.

1866.
1876.
1874.
1865,

; *Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, ‘Clifton, Bristol.

. “Worthington, Rey, Alfred William, B.A. Old Meeting Parsonage,

Mansfield.
Worthington, Archibald. Whitchurch, Salop.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
Worthington, William. Brockhurst Hall, Northwich, Cheshire.
. [Worthy, George 8. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent, Hamp-
stead-road, London, N. W.
. §Wrentmore, Francis. 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London,
SeWce.

§§Wricut, C. R. A., D.Sc., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry in St.
Mary's Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W.

. “Wright, E. Abbot. Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire.

{Wrieut, E. Percevar, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor
of Botany, and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.

{Wright, G. H. Heanor Hall, near Derby.

tWright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.

t{Wright, Joseph. Cliftonville, Belfast.

tWright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham.

*Wricht, oD Francis, Hinton Blewett, Temple-Cloud, near
Bristol.

90 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1855. {Wrieut, THomas, M.D., F.RS.L.& E., F.G.S. St. Margaret’s-
terrace, Cheltenham.

Wright, T. G., M.D. Milnes House, Wakefield.

1876. {Wright, William. 101 Glassford-street, Glasgow.

1871. t Wrightson, Thomas. Norton Hall, Stockton-on-Tees.

1867. {Wtwnscu, Epwarp ALFRED. 146 West George-street, Glasgow.
Wyld, James, F.R.G.S. Charing Cross, London, W.C.

1863. *Wyley, Andrew. 21 Barker-street, Handsworth, Birmingham.

1867. { Wylie, Andrew. Pyinlaws, Fifeshire,

1871.§§ Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.

1862, {Wynnz, Arnraur Brrvor, F.G.8.,,of the Geological Survey of

. India. Bombay.

1875, tYabbicom, Thomas Henry, C.E. 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton,
Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster,
1865, {Yates; Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Yates, James. Carr House, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
1867. {Yeaman, James. Dundee.
1855. {Yeats, eee LL.D., F.R.G.8. Clayton-place, Peckham, London,
S.E

1879. Yeomans, John. Upperthorpe, Sheffield.
1877. §Yonge, Rev. Duke, Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.
1879. *York, His Grace the Archbishop of, D.D. The Palace, Bishops-
thor e, Yorkshire.
1870. {Youne, James, F.R.S.L.&E., F.C.S. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by
Greenock.
Young, John. Taunton, Somersetshire.
1876. }Youne, Joun, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1876. *Young, John, F.C.S. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by Greenock.
Younge, Robert, F.L.S. Greystones, near Sheffield,
1868. {Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.
1876. {Yuille, Andrew. 7 Sardinia-terrace, Hillhead, Glascow.
1871. {Yuzz, Colonel Henry, C.B. East India United Service Club, St.
James’s-square, London, 8. W.

1878.§ §Zerfi, G. G., Ph.D, 3 Warrington-gardens, Maida Hill, London, W.

91

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1871.
1870.
1872.
3861.

1868.
1864.

1861.
1864.
1855,
1871.
1873.
1870.
1876.
1872.
1874.
1866.
1862..

1872.
1870.

1876.
1848.
1861.
1874.
1872.
1856.
1842.
1866.
1861.
3870.
1876,

1852.
1866,
1871.

1876,
1862.

1872.
1864.
1877.
1868.
1872.

HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY tat EMPEROR or tHe BRAZILS.

Professor Van Beneden, LL.D: Louvain, Belgium.

Ch. Bergeron, C.E. 26 Rue des Penthievre, Paris.

Dr. Bergsma, Director of the: Magnetic Survey of the Indian Archi-
pelago. Utrecht, Holland.

Professor Broca. Paris.

Dr. H. D. Buys-Ballot, Superintendent of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht, Holland.

Dr. Carus. Leipzig.

M. Des Cloizeaux. Paris.

Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia.

Professor Dr. Colding. Copenhagen.

Signor Guido Cora. 17 Via Providenza, Turin.

J. M. Crafts, M.D.

Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome:

Professor M. Croullebois. 18 Rue Sorbonne, Paris.

M. Ch. D’Almeida. 31 Rue Bonaparte, Paris.

Dr. Geheimrath von Dechen. Bonn.

Wilhelm Delfts, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidel-
berg.

Professor G. Devalque. Liége, Belgium.

Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples.

Professor Dumas. Paris.

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence:

Professor Esmark. Christiania.

Professor A. Favre: Geneva.

Dr. W. Feddersen. Leipzig.

W. de Fonvielle. . Rue des Abbesses, Paris,

Professor EK. Frémy. Paris.

M. Frisiani.

Dr. Gaudry, Pres. Geol. Soc. of France. Paris.

Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden..-

Governor Gilpin. Colorado, United States.

Dr. Benjamin A. Gould, Director of the Argentine National Observa-
tory, Cordoba.

Professor Asa Gray. Cambridge, United States,

Professor’ Edward Grube, Ph.D. Breslau.

Dr, Paul Gussfeldt, of the University of Bonn. 33 Meckenheimer-
strasse, Bonn, Prussia.

Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Amsterdam. Lieden, Holland.

Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.

M. Hébert, Professor of Geology in the Sorbonne, Paris.

Professor H. L.. F. Helmholtz. Berlin.

A. Heynsius, Leyden.

J. E. Hilgard, Assist.-Supt. U.S. Coast Survey. Washington.

92

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1861.
1876.
1867.
1876.
1862.

1876.
1877.
1862.
1866.
1873.
1874.
1856,

1877.

1876. °
1872.
1877.

1846,
1557.
1871.
1871.
1869,
1867,
1867,

1862.
1846.
1848,
1855.
1877.
1864.
1856.

1875.
1866,

1864.
1869,
1874,
1848,
1856.
1861.
1857.
1870.
1868.

1866,

1872.
1873.

Dr. Hochstetter. Vienna.

Professor von Quintus Icilius. Hanover.

Dr. Janssen, LL.D. 21 Rue Labat (18° Arrondissement), Paris.

Dr. W. J. Janssen. The University, Leyden.

Charles Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Greifswald, and Lecturer of Natural History and Librarian
at the Royal Agricultural Academy, Eldena, Prussia.

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. Milan.

M. Akin Karoly. 5 Babenbergerstrasse, Vienna,

Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Ghent, Beleium.

Dr. Henry. Kiepert, Professor of Geography. Berlin.

Dr. Felix Klein, Munich, Bavaria. .

Dr. Knoblauch. Halle, Germany.

Professor A. K@élliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria.

Laurent-Guillaume De Koninck, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Palzeontology in the University of Liége, Beleium.

Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. 57 Sidonien-strasse,
Leipzig.

Professor von Lasaulx. Breslau.

Georges Lemoine. 19 Rue du Sommerard, Paris.

Dr. M. Lindeman, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society,
Bremen.

Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belcium. .

Professor Elias Loomis. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

Professor Jacob Liiroth. Carlsruhe, Baden.

Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.

Professor C. S. Lyman. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe, 11, Passy, Paris.

Professor Ch. Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plantes. Montpellier,
France.

Professor P. Merian. Baile, Switzerland.

Professor von Middendorff. St. Petersburg.

Professor J. Milne-Edwards. ° Paris.

M. Abbé Moigno. Paris. ,!

Professor V. L. Moissenet. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.

Dr. Arnold Moritz. St. Petersburg, Russia.

Edouard Morren, Professeur de Botanique & l'Université de Liége,
Belgium.

Dr. T. Nachtigal. Berlin.

Chevalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society,
Turin, Italy. .

Herr Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.

Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States.

M. A. Niaudet. 6 Rue du Seine, Paris.

Professor Nilsson. Lund, Sweden.

M. E. Peligot, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris.

Professor Benjamin Pierce. Washington, United States,

Gustav Plarr. 22 Hadlow-road, Tunbridge, Kent.

Professor Felix Plateau. Place du Casino, 15, Gand, Belgium.

Professor L, Radkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of

Munich.

M. de la Rive. Geneva.

F, Roemer, Ph.D., Professor of Geology and Palzontology in the
University of Breslau. Breslau, Prussia.

Professor Victor von Richter. St. Petersburg.

Baron von Richthofen, President of the Berlin Geographical Society.
71 Steglitzer-strasse, Berlin.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 93

Year of
Election.

1850.
1857.

1857.
1874.
1872.
1873.
1861.
1849,
1876.
1873.
1862.

1864,
1866.
1845,
1871.
1870,
1852.

1864,

1868.
1842.
1874.
1876.
1872.
1875.

Professor W. B. Rogers. Boston, United States.

Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski. Jaegersberg Castle,
near Forchheim, Bavaria.

Professor Robert Schlagintweit. Giessen.

Dr. G. Schweinfurth, Cairo.

Professor Carl Semper. Wurzburg, Bavaria.

Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague.

M. Werner Siemens. Berlin.

Dr. Siljestrom. Stockholm.

Professor R. D. Silva. Ecole Centrale, Paris.

Professor J. Lawrence Smith. Louisville, United States,

J. A. de Souza, Professor of Physics in the University of Coimbra,
Portugal.

Adolph Steen, Professor of Mathematics. Copenhagen.

Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.

Dr. Svanberg. Upsala.

Dr, Joseph Szabo. Pesth, Hungary.

Professor Tchebichef. Membre de l’Académie de St. Petersburg.

M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Corresponding Member of the Institute of
France. 1 Piazza degli Zuaai, Florence.

Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.

Professor Vogt. Geneva.

Professor Wartmann. Geneva.

Professor Wiedemann. Leipzig.

Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aix-la-Chapelle-.

Professor A. Wurtz. Paris.

Dr, E. L.Youmans. New York,

94

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Admiralty, Library of the.

Anthropological Institute.

Arts, Society of.

Asiatic Society (Royal).

Astronomical Society (Royal).

Belfast, Queen’s College.

Birmingham, Institute of Mechanical
Engineers.

Midland Institute.

Bristol Philosophical Institution.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Chemical Society.

Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.

Dublin, Royal Geological Society of
Ireland.

, Royal Jrish Academy.

— ., Royal Society of.

Fast India Library.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

Royal Medical Society of.

——., Scottish Society of Arts.

Enniskillen, Public Library.

Engineers, Institute of Civil.

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum,

Geographical Society (Royal).

Geological Society.

Geology, Museum of Practical.

Glasgow Philosophical Society.

, Institution of Engineers and Ship-
builders in Scotland.

Greenwich, Royal Obseryatory.

Kew Observatory.

Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.

——, Philosophical and Literary So-
ciety of.

Linnean Society.

Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.

, Royal Institution.

London Institution.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.

——., Mechanics’ Institute.

Meteorological Office.

Neweastle-upon-Tyne Literary and
Philosophical Society.

Nottingham, The Free Library.

Oxford, Ashmolean Society.

——, Radcliffe Observatory.

Plymouth Institution.

Physicians, Royal College of.

Royal Institution.

—— Society.

Salford Royal Museum and Library.
Statistical Society.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.
Surgeons, Royal College of.

United Service Institution.

War Office, Library of the.

Wales (South), Royal Institution of.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
Zoological Society.

EUROPE.

Alten, Lapland. Literary and Philoso-
phical Society.

Berlin). eecseee Der Kaiserlichen Aka-
_demie der Wissen-
schaften.

SA i brian Royal Academy of
Sciences.

Breslatw ...sssees Silesian Patriotic So-
ciety.

WBONN) Sescet sonore University Library.

Brussels ......... Royal Academy of
Sciences.

Charkow ........ University Library.

Copenhagen ...Royal Society of
Sciences.

Dorpat, Russia . University Library.

Frankfort ...... Natural History So-
ciety.

Geneva sscvsec. Natural History So-
ciety.

Gottingen ...... University Library.

Heidelberg ...... University Library.

Helsingfors ...... University Library.

Harlem cyceuscsare Société Hollandaise
des Sciences.

Kasan, Russia... University Library.

| ee Royal Observatory. Paris .iisseceee. School of Mines.
TG rece a esis asc University Library. Pultova .......0. Imperial Observatory.
Lausanne......... The Academy. Rome) ..tsass.000 Accademia dei Lyncei.
Leyden ......... University Library. ——ssbdensvaues Collegio Romano.
LOT) 3 ae Meee University Library. Ha saeactceatent The Italian Society of
ILTE| fy Soe eaeeoees Academia Real des Sciences.

Sciences, St. Petersburg . University Library.
LG a The Institute. ean secidsnc tease Imperial Observatory.
Modena ......... Royal Academy, Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists, | Turin ............ Royal Academy of

Pati assacececs University Library. Sciences.

Munich’ ........: University Library. Utrecht. ....5.... University Library.
PME Gis cs25c5.-- Royal Academy of | Vienna............ The Imperial Library,

Sciences, = | === saasecessacd Central Aunstalt fiir
Nicolaieff......... University Library. Meteorologie und
HEA ccissese cscs Geographical Society. Erdmagnetismus.

200 0S SARBODERE Geological Society. Zurich.........-./General Swiss Society.

eens cada seca ees Royal Academy of

Sciences.

ASIA.

POT caine uss 0s The College. Calcutta ......... Hindoo College,
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institu- | —— ............ Hoogly College.

tion. See Medical College.
===. OcBgCoeeee Grant Medical :Col- | Madras............ The Observatory.

Tepe. OB Bi My a en cdh vaiowceseus University Library.
Calonttea ........+/ Asiatic Society,

AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope . . The Observatory.
AMERIOA.

Albany .......... The Institute. Philadelphia ...American Philosophi-
ASTON... 62.25.0004 American Academy of cal Society.

Arts and Sciences. | Toronto ......... The Observatory.
Cambridge ......Harvard University | Washington ...Smithsonian Institu-

‘Library. tion.
New York ...... Lyceum of Natural | ——_............United States Geolo-

History. gical Survey of the
Philadelphia ...American Medical As- Territories,

sociation,

AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide . . The Colonial Government.

Victoria

« The Colonial Government,

£

Spottiswoode & Co., Printers, New-street Square, London,

“Dularw 4 «

50, ALBEMARLE STREET,
February, 1879.

Slr. Murray's List ot
Ne arks.

A POPULAR COMMENTARY.

The Student's Edition of the Speaker's
Commentary on the Holy Bible.

Abridged and Edited by JOHN M. FULLER, M.A.
Vicar of Bexley, formerly Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

To be completed in 6 Volumes. Vol. I, Crown 8vo. 75. 6d.

The Speaker's Commentary on the Bible has secured for itself a recognized place as the
foremost work of its class available for English readers. Numerous testimonies to the merits
of this work, and to the fact that it meets a real want in religious literature, have been
received from various countries and different schools of thought. America and Germany,
Churchmen and Nonconformists, clergymen and laymen, have alike found in its pages wise
and liberal views upon points of confessedly disputed interpretation, and a storehouse of
scholarship and research upon questions philosophical, archzeological, and historical.

The object of the present Abridgment is to give information sufficient to enable any reader
to understand the Holy Scriptures, to acquaint him with the conclusions of learned investiga-
tions, and to supply him with satisfactory answers to current misinterpretations.

——

The Bedouins of the Euphrates Valley.

By Lady ANNE BLUNT.
Edited, with a Preface and some Account of the Arabs and their Horses,
by W. S. B.
With Map and Iilustrations, 2 Vols. Crown 8vo.

“Lady Anne Blunt is entitled by descent to be an authoress, since she is the grand-daughter
of Lord Byron. Having previously explored the Sahara south of the Atlas range, she spent
last winter with her husband among the wandering Arabs of the Syrian desert. Admitted by
their hosts to the privileges, not only of hospitality but of sworn brotherhood, the travellers
lived with them in their tents, moved with their encampments, and were even spectators of
some of their feuds and strifes. Although the chief tribes were in arms, and war was raging
in the desert at the time, the English visitors were honoured as friends and admitted to all the
privacies of tent life.""—A theneum.

oo

Gleanings of Past Years, 1843-78.

By the Right Hon. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P.
6 Vols. Small 8vo. 2s. 6d. each.

Vou. I.—THE THRONE AND THE PRINCE CONSORT, THE CABINET, )

AND CONSTITUTION . : 3 . E - 7 Ready.
VoL, II.—PERSONAL AND LITERARY : 5 j
VoL. 1II.—HIsTORICAL AND SPECULATIVE = : c
Vou. 1V.—FOREIGN . : : : - - P c 5 ac In the Press.
Vois. V. AND VI.—ECCLESIASTICAL . : 7 : : ° .

2 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

DR. SMILES’ NEW WORKS.

Life of Thomas Edward, Shoemaker of

Banff, Scotch Naturalist. With Portrait and 30
Lllustrations. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d.

Life of Robert Dick, Baker of Thurso,
Geologist and Botanist. With Portrait and 50

Lllustrations. Crown 8vo. 12s.

“It was my gratification, a second time, to meet with a remarkable man in the town of
Thurso, named Robert Dick, a baker by trade. I am proud to call him my distinguished
friend. Here is a man who is earning his daily bread by hard work, who is obliged to read
and study by night ; and yet who is able to instruct the Director-General of the Geographical
Society."—S1rk RODERICK MURCHISON.

———_>————

fiistory of Eeypt under the Pharaohs.
Derived entirely from Monuments.

WITH A MEMOIR ON THE EXODUS OF THE ISRAELITES.

By HENRY BRUGSCH BEY.
Translated by He. DANBY SEYMOUR and PHILIP SMITH, B.A.
With Maps and Illustrations, 2 Vols. 8vo. 30s.

The History of Egypt now offered to the English reader is distinct from the long train of
able and interesting works which, in opening to the last and the present generations the life
and story of the Old Egyptians, as by a new revelation, have at the same time thrown a clear
and vivid light on many portions of Holy Scripture.

It embodies the Herculean task of weaving the testimony of the Egyptian records, whether
inscribed on the raonuments or written on the countless rolls of papyrus, into a consecutive
history, derived solely from these ancient and authentic sources, and free from all the
colouring of external traditions.

S2x Months in Ascension. An Unscientific
Account of a Scientific Expedition.

By Mrs. GILL.

PREFACED BY A BRIEF AND POPULAR HISTORY OF THE METHODS EMPLOYED
TO DISCOVER THE SUN’s DISTANCE FROM THE EARTH.

By DAVID GILL.
With Map. Crown 8vo. 9s. 5

A Scientific Expedition may be said to have two histories. The one treats of the special
objects of the Expedition, the other of the personal adventures of those concerned in it. It is
only the former which finds permanent record in the transactions of Scientific Societies ; the
latter too often remains unyritten.

This little work must be regarded as ome side of the history of ove step, and derives its
interest from its truthfulness as a record of an attempt to solve a great problem, viz., ‘Ae
Distance of the Earth from the Sun.

ie Tl

TS TS ee

ey es a

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 3

The Manners and Customs of the Ancient

Egyptians. Their Private Life, Government, Laws,
Arts, Manufactures, Religion, Agriculture, Early Flis-
tory, &c., derived from a Comparison of the Paintings,
Sculptures, and Monuments still existing, with the
Accounts of Ancient Authors.

By SIR J. GARDNER WILKINSON, F.R.S.
A New Ldition, with Additions by the late Author. Revised and Edited

By SAMUEL BIRCH, LL.D.
With Coloured Plates and 500 Illustrations. 3 Vols. Medium 8vo. 845.

“The present edition has been prepared from the notes and manuscript which the late Sir
Gardner Wilkinson left behind, with the addition of fresh matter contributed by the Editor.
Very little of the original text has been omitted, and only those statements and opinions which
the progress of science no longer regards as useful or correct ; while new views and facts
acquired by the progress of Egyptian research have been embodied in notes or inserted in
the text.

“The great merit of the acute observation of the Author, and the exhaustive illustrations of
Egyptian manners and customs as depicted by the monuments, have made the present work a
text-book on the subject, both for the general public and individual students ; its chief
excellence consists in the great trouble which the author took in explaining and comparing
Egyptian and Greek notions." —Zdétor's Preface.

ILLUSTRATED EDITION OF

The Wild Sports and Natural ffrstory
of the Highlands of Scotland.

By CHARLES ST. JOHN.

The Illustrations by \VHYMPER, CORBOULD, COLLINS, ELWES, avd HARRISON WEIR.
With 70 Woodcuts of Birds, Beasts, Views, &c. Crown 8vo. 155.

Though this work is admitted to take rank with White's ‘‘Selborne’’ and Walton's
“Angler,” no attempt has hitherto been made to illustrate the scenes, anecdotes, and /ere
nature so graphically described by Mr. St. John. ‘This want—to which attention has often
been called—it is the object of the present edition to supply. Great pains have been taken in
illustrating this edition, accurately to enter into the spirit, and, where possible, to depict the
actual scene of the events described in the text.

“To the naturalist who loves to know the habits of an animal in its native haunts, this
book must be a treasure. Every picture in the book is a masterpiece in its way." —JVature.

Researches into the Early flistory of
Mankind, and the Development of Civilization.

By E. B. TYLOR, F.R.S.
Third Edition, Revised. 8va 125.

“Tt would be impossible to give any idea of the interesting series of facts brought together
n an eminently suggestive manner in this valuable book.'— lVestmdnster Review,

4 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

Life of Fohn Wilson, D.D. (of Bombay):
fifty Years a Philanthropist and Scholar in

the Fast.
By GEORGE SMITH, LL.D.
With Portrait and Illustrations. 8vo. 18s.

“For 47 years, as a public man and a missionary, he worked, he wrote, he spoke, and in
countless ways he joyfully toiled for the people of India. While viceroys and governors,
scholars and travellers, officials and merchants, succeeded each other, and passed away all too
rapidly, he remained a permanent living force, a mediator between the natives and the
governing class, an interpreter of the various Asiatic races, creeds, and longings, to their
alien but benevolent rulers. From Central India to Central Africa, and from Cabul to
Comorin, there are thousands who call John Wilson blessed." —A uthor's Preface.

‘This volume displays a masterly knowledge of Indian affairs.""—Pal/ Mall Gazette.

>

Lhe Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria.

By GEORGE DENNIS.

A New EpiTIon. REVISED AND ENLARGED SO AS TO INCORPORATE ALL THE
MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES.

With Maps and 200 Tlustrations. 2 Vols. Medium 8vo. 42s.

“Since the publication of the former edition of this work in 1848, many important
discoveries have been made in Etruria; and the interest in such discoveries has so greatly
increased that museums have been established in not a few provincial towns, and private
collections have become numerous. I have had the gratification of learning that the former
edition of this work, apart from literary and antiquarian considerations, has received the
approval of not a few who have used it as a guide, on account of the conscientious accuracy
of its descriptions. I trust that the present issue will maintain its reputation in this respect,
for to ensure correctness has been my primary endeavour.""—Author's Preface.

‘* A very full and valuable book, which everyone interested in art and archzeology should
read." —Builder.

————

British Burma and tts People ; Sketches of
the Native Manners, Customs, and Religion.
By Capt. C. J. F. S. FORBES, F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S., &c.,

Officiating Deputy-Commissioner, British Burma.

Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d.

CONTENTS:

SUPERSTITIONS, FOLK-LORE, &c.

WILD TRIBES OF BRITISH BURMA,
BuRMAN BUDDHISM.

THE BURMAN PHOONGYEES OR MONKS,
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

THE RACES OF BRITISH BURMA,
SociAL LIFE AND MANNERS.
AGRICULTURE, TRADES, &c.
AMUSEMENTS.

FESTIVALS AND FEASTs.

“‘ A province which has within the last twenty years more than doubled its revenue and its
population, and more than trebled its commerce, we think deserves to be a little better known
to all classes." —Author's Preface.

‘“ We can confidently recommend a perusal of Captain Forbes’ book.’’—Fie/d.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 5

A Descriptive Catalogue of the Etched
Work of Rembrandt Von Rhyn ; preceded by
a Life and Genealogy.

By CHAS. H. MIDDLETON, B.A.
With 12 Plates. Medium 8vo. 315. 6d.

‘Having for five and twenty years been an earnest admirer of the works of the great
Dutch Master, and having acquainted myself with the well-known Catalogues, I have long
been of opinion that there is room for another which, while it presents an accurate account of
the various States in which these etched works exist, shall form an index to the large public
collections, and by a careful re-arrangement shall give a clearer view of Rembrandt's work as
A whole and convey an idea of the order in which the several works were executed." —A uthor's

reface.

i

Lectures on the Rise and Development of
Medieval Architecture. Delivered at the
Royal Academy.

By Sir G. GILBERT SCOTT, R.A.

CONTENTS:
THE CLAIMS OF MEDIAVAL ARCHITEC- | THE XIIITH CENTURY.
TURE UPON OUR STUDY. RATIONALE OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.

SKETCH OF THE RISE OF MEDIZVAL | A DIGRESSION CONCERNING WINDOWS.
ARCHITECTURE, THE PRACTICAL STUDY OF GOTHIC

THE TRANSITION. ARCHITECTURE. DOMES, &C.
With 450 Tlustrations, 2 Vols. Medium 8vo. 42s.

aa

The Witness of the Psalms to Christ
and Christianity.
THE BAMPTON LECTURES, 1876,

By WILLIAM ALEXANDER, D.D., D.C.L,,
Lorp BisHop OF DERRY AND RAPHOE.

Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. 8vo. 145.

‘'The Bishop has chosen a grand and noble subject; one which he is pre-eminently
qualified to deal with, and on which we have no hesitation in saying he has given us, not an
exhaustive—for when will the fountain of inspired song cease to flow ?—but a solid, instructive,
and a most charming book.” —Fohn Bull.

—————_> ———

The Temples of the Fews, and the other
Buildings in the Haram Area at Ferusalem.
By JAMES FERGUSSON, F.R.S.
With Plates and Woodcuts. 4l0. 42s.
‘Mr. Fergusson’s splendid volume, is unquestionably a work that has severely taxed his

thought and his time, and reflects great credit on the industry, enthusiasm and ability to
which it so amply testifies.” —J/orning Post.

6 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

Cyprus ; tts FIrstory, Art, and Antigueties.
A Narrative of Researches and Excavations
during Ten Years’ Residence in that Island.

By General LOUIS P. DI CESNOLA.

With Map and 400 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 50s.

‘‘ Incomparably the best English book on the subject."— Saturday Review.
‘The work is well written, and as diverting as it is instructive." —Z77es,

——_+—___

A SECOND SERIES OF

Classic Preachers of the Englsh Church.

LECTURES DELIVERED AT ST. JAMES’S, 1878.

CONTENTS:
BULL (The Primitive Preacher) 1.0... cc0ves000 Rev. W. WARBURTON, M.A.
HORSLEY (The Scholarly Preacher) ...... Lorp BisHop or ELy.
TAYLOR (The English Chrysostom)......+ CANON BARRY,

SANDERSON (The Fudicious Preacher)... LORD BISHOP OF DERRY AND RAPHOE.
TILLOTSON (the Practical Preacher)...... REV. W. G. Humpury, B.D.
ANDREWES (The Catholic Preacher)...... REV. H. J. Nortu, M.A.

Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

‘“This second series will not be less acceptable than the former, which, so deservedly, met
with large approval."— Scottish Guardian.

—____¢__

The Students Ftlements of Geology.

By SIR CHARLES LYELL, Bart.
Third Edition, thoroughly Revised. With 600 Illustrations. Post 8vo. 9s.

‘«The present edition has been revised and corrected throughout, receiving such additions
and corrections as the results of more recent investigations seemed to require. At the same
time care has been taken not to alter the original character of the book." —Zditor’s Preface.

‘Sir Charles Lyell has here done for the geological student what Sir John Herschel did for
the student of astronomy in his incomparable ‘ Outlines.’ Young beginners in natural science
had long wanted a short manual of geology at a reasonable price, which should yet contain a
full explanation of the leading facts and principles of the science. Now they have it." —Examiuner.

A Manual of Naval Architecture. For
the Use of Officers of the Royal Navy and Mercantile
Marine, Shipowners, Shipbuilders, and Vachtsmen.

By W. H. WHITE, Assistant-Consiructor, Royal Navy.
With 130 Lilustrations. 8vo. 24s.

““Mr. White’s manner is excellent, and as his work embraces in a concise and clear form
all that is at present known of naval science, it can conscientiously be recommended as a
trustworthy preceptor. All who take an interest in ships, whether they be war, merchant, or
Stes ships, such as yachts, will find in the ‘Manual’ all that science can teach them.”—
Field.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 7

DR. SCHLIEMANN’S WORKS.

Troy and its Remains. A Narratwe of
Discoveries and Researches made on the Site
of Ilium, and in the Trojan Plaim.

With 500 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 425.

Mycene and Tiryns. A Narratwe of
Researches and Discoveries on the Sites of
those Cities. The Preface by the Right Hon, W. E.
GLADSTONE, M.P.

With Maps and 500 [/lustrations. Medium 8vo. 505.

“Dr, Schliemann may fairly be called the creator of Homeric archzeology."—Z7mes,

4 ——

Old English Plate: Ecclesiastical, Deco-
vative and Domestic. Its Makers and Marks.
With Improved Tables of the Date Letters used in
England, Scotland, and Ireland.

By WILFRED JOSEPH CRIPPS, M.A., Barrister-at-Law.
With 80 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 21s.

‘« We may confidently say that ‘Cripps on Old English Plate’ will henceforth be found on
the shelves of every library worthy of the name, and be recognized for what it is—the best
work on its own subject.”—Pad/ Mall Gazette.

e

Pioneering in South Brazil. Three Years
of Forest and Prairie Life in the Province of
Parana.

By THOS. P. BIGG WITHER.
With Map and Illustrations, 2 Vols. Post 8vo, 245.

“Volumes of genuine and varied interest and much instruction. Mr. Wither is an
excellent observer, and his book abounds with information on the natives, the natural history
and physical geography of the region. He met with many adventures and suffered much
from heat and insects, but altogether he seems to have had a thoroughly enjoyable time of it.

He writes throughout in an attractive and simple style, and his work must be regarded as an
important contribution to a knowledge of the luxuriant region with which it deals.""—Vature.

8 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

HANDBOOKS FOR TRAVELLERS.

Eingland and Wales; Alphabetically arranged,
and forming a Companion Volume to Bradshaw's
Railway Tables. With Map. Post 8vo. 10s.

Zurkey an Asia, Constantinople, The Bosphorus,
Dardanelles, Pie of Troy, Brousa, Cyprus, Rhodes,
Smyrna, Ephesus, Coasts of the Black Sea, Armenia,
Euphrates Valley route to India, &c. New Edition.
Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. tos.

vt loeria and Tunis » Carthage, A lovers, Constan-
tine, Oran, the Atlas Range, Gc. New Edition.
Maps. Post 8vo. tos.

Northampton and Rutland ; Peterborough, Tow-
cester, Daventry, Market Harborough, Kettering,
Wellingborough, Thrapston, Stamford, Uppingham,
Oakham, &c. Map. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

L, veland , * Dublin, Belfast, Giant's Causeway, Donegal,

Galway, Wexford, Cork, Limerick, Waterford, Wick-
low, Killarney, Bantry, Glengarif, &c. Revised
Edition. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 10s.

Purity nm Musical Art.

By A. F. JUSTUS THIBAUT.
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN, WITH A PREFATORY MEMOIR,
By W. H. GLADSTONE, M.P.

Post 8vo. 75s. 6d.

‘The general aim of the volume is so high, and its whole tone so excellent, that it is well
worth reading. ‘The translation, which is dedicated to the Bach Choir, is exceedingly good.”
—Academy.

Titian. lis Life and Times, with some
Account of his Family, chiefly from Unpub-
lished Records.

By J. A. CROWE, and G. B. CAVALCASELLE.
Portrait and Illustrations. 2 Vols, 8vo. 425.
‘“No such gap has existed in the history of art as that which is filled by the present
volumes. Everything on the subject is now superseded. We cannot make an abstract of nine

hundred pages ; suffice it to repeat that the book is by far the most important cortribution
made in our time to the history of art.” —Atheneum,

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 9

The People of Turkey; a Twenty Years
Residence among the Bulgarians, Greeks,
Albanians, Turks, and Armenians.

By AN ENGLISH CONSUL’S WIFE.
Edited by STANLEY LANE POOLE.
2 Vols. Crown 8vo. 215%
“Tt is a real pleasure to come at last upon a work which bears the stamp of genuine

knowledge of the subject, and of serious endeavour to rise out of the false lights of party
doctrine and tell us simply what manner of men these people of Turkey are."”— 77mes.

Leaves from my Sketch Book. A Selection

Jrom Sketches made during many Tours. By
E. W. Cooks, R.A. 50 Plates. 2 Vols. Small folvo.
31s. 6a. each.

First SERIES :—Paris—Arles—Monaco—Nuremburg—Switzerland—Rome—Egypt, &c.
SECOND SERIES :—Venice—Naples—Pompeii—Pzestum—The Nile, &c.

“« An acceptable work. whether for the drawing-table of fashionable dé/ettante, or for study
by art tyros. The illustrations form, of course, the most important portion of the contents,

and the majority of these deserve high praise, both for correctness of drawing and clear
engraving.” —G/ode.

>—

Field Paths and Green Lanes ; an
Account of Rambles in Surrey, Sussex, and
Flervefordshire.

By LOUIS J. JENNINGS.
Second Edition. Illustrated by J. WW. WHYMPER. Jost 8v0. 10s. 6d.
«There is a breeziness and freshness abeut this pleasant volume which will commend it
equally to dwellers in town and country. Mr. Jennings writes simply and easily, with a

purpose and without a moral. In all places he finds something appropriate to say, something
fresh to point out, something worthy to describe.” —Zxaminer.

-

Scepticism iw Geology, and the Reasons

for it. An Assemblage of Facts from Nature com-
bining to invalidate and refute the Geological Theory
of “ Causes now in Action.”
By VERIFIER.
Second Edition Revised. With Woodcuts. Lost 8vo. 6s.
"tA sprightly little book called ‘Scepticism in Geology’ has recently shown that

‘orthodox’ geologists may possibly have misinterpreted scme of the most important texts
from which they preach their sermons on stones.''"—Specfator.

10 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

ST. JAMES’S LECTURES.

1.—1875-76.—Companions for the Devout
Life. With Preface by Rev. J. E. Kemps, M.A,
Rector of St. James's. Post 8vo. 6s.

‘A volume of more than ordinary interest. The books selected are well known, and
favourites with large numbers of readers. The lecturers have all treated their respective
subjects simply and practically, their aim having been to make these ‘Companions to the
Devout Life’ more companionable and useful than they have hitherto been." —Church Review.

I].—1877-78.—Classic Preachers of the
Linglish Church. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. each.

‘‘Masterly as these discourses are, it is not as sermons that we regard them. This
criticism apart—and it does not really touch the substantial merits of these volumes—there is
little but what we can unreservedly praise.""— Spectator.

ee

My Boyhood; a True Story of Country
Life and Adventures for the Old and Young.

By H. C. BARKLEY.
Author of ‘ Bulgaria North of the Balkans.”
With Lilustrations by CORBOULD. Post Sve. 6s.

‘« This is about as good a book of its kind as we have ever seen." — Sfectator.

“The adventures are so plainly real, and are told with such total absence of egotism
although personal, that boys will thoroughly appreciate them, It is the genuine biography of
a typical boy.” —Public Opinion.

fingland and Russia in the East. A
Sevies of Papers on the Political and Geo-

graphical Condition of Central Asia.
By Major-Gen. Sir HENRY RAWLINSON, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Member of the Council of India.
Second Edition. Map. 8vo. 12s.

"A valuable contribution to the modern history of Centrai Asia. There is ne single
chapter which does not merit careful study, and none from which the reader will rise without
a solution of some disputed point in geography, without a more distinct light thrown back on
Oriental tendencies and traditions, and withcut a more clear conception of the single-
mindedness, the persistence, and the adaptation of means to ends, displayed by Russian
autocrats of the field or Cabinet, in carrying out the policy of Peter the Great.”—Sa/urday
Review.

—_ >

A Treatise on the Augustinian Doctrine
of Predestination.

By the late J. B. MOZLEY, D.D., Canon of Christ Church.
New Edition. Crown 8vo. 9s.
“Mr. Mozley has contributed a volume which we believe will live. His plummet has

sounded the depths of controversies which have engaged the most luminous minds for ages,

and he comes to the only conclusion concerning them which it is in the province of the human
mind to form."”— The Press.

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 11

Masters n Linglsh Theology. The King’s
College Lectures, 1877. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

CONTENTS:

WHICHCOTE and Smiti, Canon Westcott.
JeREMY Taytor, Canon Farrar.
PEARSON, Professor Cheetham.

Hooker, Canon Barry.
ANDREWES, Dean of St. Paul’s.
CHILLINGWORTH, Professor Plumptre.

With an Introduction by ALFRED BARRY, D.D.

*«The whole series of lectures is most scholarly and able, and will do much to sharpen the
reader's appreciation of this interesting period of our Church history. The great men whose
names head these lectures are sketched for us by firm and skilful hands. ‘Masters in
Theology’ ought to take a noticeable place among our current theological literature." —
Literary Churchman.

—_— +> ———_

A Fiistory of the English Church. From
the Accession of Henry VIII. to the Silencing
of Convocation in the 18th Century.

By G. G. PERRY, M.A., Hon. Canon of Lincoln, and Rector of Waddington.
Post 8vo. 75. 6d.

“Canon Perry's ‘ History of the English Church,’ is, in brief, the best book of its kind that
we have ever read, and we strongly advise the adoption of it as a text book in theological
seminaries."—Literary Churchman.

———_ + —_—_

Lhe Laluud; Selected Extracts from tt,
chiefly wllustrating the Teaching of the Bible. With an
Introduction describing tts general Character.

By Rev. JOSEPH BARCLAY, LL.D.
Ltlustrations. S8vo. 145.

‘*Dr. Barclay has admirably performed the task which he assigned to himself, and as
the result, we have a deeply interesting volume, which will be sure to receive a cordial
welcome from Biblical students as a most valuable addition to standard works of reference.’ —
English Independent.

———_> ——__

A Manual of Ecclesiastical History
during the First Ten Centurtes; from its Foundation
to the Lull Establishment of the Holy Roman Empire
and the Papal Power.

By PHILIP SMITH, B.A.

Author of ‘ The Student’s Old and New Testament Histories.”
Ltlustrations. Post 8vo. 7s. Od.

‘We can recommend this as a very useful manual, by a painstaking and conscientious
writer." —School Guardian.

12 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

Nyassa. A Fournal of Occurrences in
Exploring the Lake, and Establishing the Missionary
and Commercial Settlement of “ Livingstonia.”

By E. D. YOUNG, R.N.
Edited by Rev. HORACE WALLER, F.R.G.S.
Second Edition. With Maps. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.

This Journal will serve many purposes rarely served by books of travel in that quarter of
the world. . . . One of the most gratifying features in the charming volume is the
evidence it affords abundantly of the affection and .honour with which the English are
welcomed in the heart of Africa,”—Standard.

——>———_

Notes on the Churches of Kent.

By the late SIR STEPHEN R. GLYNNE, Bart.
With a Preface by W. H. GLADSTONE, M.P.
With Illustrations. 8vo. 12s.

‘*A book which will be very valuable to the archzeologist, and we hope that the present
instalment will be so successful as to lead to a publication of the complete notes, which will
form a most acceptable contribution to the history of church architecture in England. In the
meantime the portion now published contains much in which dwellers in Kent will take
especial interest."— Fohkn Bull,

A Visit to the Sacred City of the Moors.
A Fourney from Tripoli in Barbary to the
ffoly City of Kairwan.

By EDWARD RAE,
Author of the “ Land of the North Wind.”
With Map and 6 Etchings. Crown 8vo. 125.

“Mr. Rae's pleasant and amusing narrative contains information which is of considerable
value to historical students. We can say of it with truth, what certainly cannot be said of the
great majority of modern books of travel, that its publication -is a distinct gain to our
literature.’’—Academy.

The Tower of London. Notices of Historie
Persons buried in the Chapel of the Tower of London.
With an Account of the Discovery of the supposed
Remains of Queen Anne Boleyn.

By DOYNE C. BELL, F.S.A.
With 24 Illustrations. 8vo. 145.

_ ‘This volume has been executed with industry and care, and is full of curious reading ; it
is one which we can heartily recommend,’ —Sfectator,

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 13

Notebook of Sir Fohn Northcote, M.P. a

the Long Parliament. Containing Memoranda of
Proceedings during its First Session, 1640. From
the MS. in the possession of Sir Stafford Northcote,
Bart.

Edited, with a Memoir, by A. H. A. HAMILTON.

Crown 8vo. 95.

“‘ This work opens up a subject of singular interest both to the student of history and the
more general reader. ..... We recommend it heartily.” —Standard.

—_—_—_@—_-———

freedom of Science in the Modern State.

By RUDOLPH VIRCHOW,

Professor of Pathology in the University of Berlin.
Second Edition. Frap. Sve. 2s.

‘This remarkable pamphlet is a speech by a scientific man in Germany, whose authority
no man of science in any country will dispute. The name of Professor Virchow is at the
present day, and must always remain, one of the most distinguished in the history of
pathological research. It was delivered at the annual gathering of German Natural Philo-
sophers and Physicians of Munich,""—Quarterly Review, January, 1878.

——_>

Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. Com-
prising the History, Institutions, and Antigutties of
the Christian Church, from the Time of the Apostles
to the Age of Charlemagne.

By Various WRITERS,
Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., & Rev. Professor CHEETHAM, M.A.
With Illustrations, (To be completed in 2 vols.) Vol. I, Medium 8vo, 315. 6d.

A Dutonary of Christian Biography,
Literature, Sects, and Doctrines. From the
Time of the Apostles to the Age of Charlemagne.

By VARIOUS WRITERS,
Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and Rev. Professor WACE, M.A.
(Zo be completed in 3 vols.) Vol. L. Medium 8vo. 315. 6d.

14 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.

Lhe Speaker's Commentary on the Bible.

Explanatory and Critical, with a Revision of
the Translation.

Edited by F. C. COOK, M.A., Canon of Exeter.

OLD, TESTAMENT,

Complete in 6 Vols. Medium 8vo. £6 15s.

Vout. I.—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Vot. 1V.—Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Eccle-
Numbers, Deuteronomy. 30s. siastes, Song of Solomon. 245.

Vout. V.—Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamenta-
Vots. II. and III.—Joshua, Judges, | ticns. 20s,

Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Vor Vio Rzekiel Daniell aihewViinos
Nehemiah, Esther. 36s. Prophets, 255. ‘ ‘

NEW “TESTAMENT.
To be completed in 4 Vols. Medium 8vo.

Vol. I.:—GENERAL INTRODUCTION, | Editor. St. MARK, The Editor. ST.
Wm. Thomson, D.D., Archbishop of | LuxE, W. Basil Jones, D.D., Bishop of
York. St. MatTHew, H. L. Mansel, | St. David’s, and The Editor. 18s.

D.D., late Dean of St. Paul’s, and The

ee eens

An Atlas of Ancient Geography. Bibhcal

and Classical. Intended to illustrate Smith's
Classical and Biblical Dictionaries, and the “ Speaker's
Commentary on the Bible.”

Compiled under the Superintendence of WM. SMITH, D.C.L.,
and GEORGE GROVE, F.R.G.S.

WITH DESCRIPTIVE TEXT, GIVING THE SOURCES AND
AUTHORITIES, INDICES, &c.

With 43 Maps. Folio, half-bound. £6 6s.

———— ee

Annals of Winchcombe and Sudeley.

By EMMA DENT.
With 120 Portraits, Plates, and Woodcuts. 4to. 42s.

‘This is a thoroughly pleasant book, delightful to read and beautiful to look upon, with
its large, clearly printed pages and variety of well-executed illustrations. One chief pleasure

of reading Mrs. Dent's book is the variety of social matters which are touched upon and
illustrated.” —A theneum.

50, ALBEMARLE STREET,
February, 1879.

MR. MURRAY'S LIST

OF

WORKS IN PREPARATION.

The

Life of Samuel Wilberforce, D.D.,

LORD BISHOP OF OXFORD AND WINCHESTER.

By REV. A. R. ASHWELL, M.A.,
Canon of the Cathedral and Principal of the Theological College, Chichester.

With Portraits, &c. To be completed in 3 vols. Vol. I. 8vo.

Adventures and Discoveries
among the Lakes and Mountains
of Eastern Africa.

From the Journals of the late CAPT. F. ELTON,

Late of the Prince of Wales's Regiment of Foot, and A. D. C. to Lord Strathnairn, and H.B.M. Consul
in Mozambique.

Edited and Completed by H. B. COTTERILL, F.R.G.S.
With 3 Maps and Illustrations from the Author’s sketches. $vo.

“Knowing that I have broken entirely new ground, I believe I have some acceptable
experiences of interest to relate, and therefore I invoke those kindly powers to my assistance
who enable mortal man to tell a story worth the hearing : who kindly show him where he is
to begin it and where he is to end it, what he is to put into it and what he is to leave out, how
- ait of it he is to cast into a shade and whereabouts he is to throw his light.’—CoNnsuL

LLTON.

16 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION.

Word, Work, and Will.

COLLECTED PAPERS
By the LORD ARCHBISHOP OF YORK.

Crown 8vo.

Memoir of Bishop Stanley.

WITH EXTRACTS FROM THE JOURNALS anp LETTERS oF His Wipow,
CATHERINE STANLEY.

By A. P. STANLEY, D.D.,

Dean of Westminster.

Reyised and Enlarged Edition. Crown Svo.

A History of Ancient Geography.
By E. H. BUNBURY, F.R.G:S.

2vols. 8yo,

A New Life of Albert Durer.

WITH A HISTORY OF HIS ART.

By MORITZ THAUSING,
Keeper of Archduke Albert's Art Collections at Vienna.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN WITH THE AUTHOR’S SANCTION,

With Portrait and Illustrations. 2 vols. Medium Svo.

The Cathedral:

Its Necessary Place in the Life and Work

of the Church.

By EDWARD WHITE BENSON, D.D., Lord Bishop of Truro.
Crown 8yo. 6s, (Ready.)

Life of St. Hugh of Avalon, Bishop
of Lincoln.

By GEO. G.PERRY, Hon. Canon of LINCOLN & Rector of Waddingtor,
and Author of ‘ History of the English Church,”
With Portrait. Crown 8vo,

let rt ee

MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION. 17

The Italian Principia. Part I.

A FIRST ITALIAN COURSE, CONTAINING A GRAMMAR, DELECTUS

EXERCISE BOOK, WITH VOCABULARIES, AND MATERIALS FOR
ITALIAN CONVERSATION.
ON THE PLAN oF Dr. WILLIAM SMITH’s PRINCIPIA LATINA.
By SIGNOR RICCI.
I2mo,

The iG reek Ve rb,

ITS STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT.

By PROFESSOR G. CURTIUS,
Of the University of Leipzig.
Translated into English, with the Author’s sanction,
By A. S. WILKINS, M.A., Professor of Latin and Comparative Philology, and
E. B. ENGLAND, M.A., Assistant Lecturer in Classics,
Owens College, Manchester.

8vo.

Medizval Latin-English Dictionary.

In IMITATION OF THE GREAT WorK OF DUCANGE,
Re-arranged and Edited in accordance with the Modern Science of Philology.

E. A. DAYMAN, B.D.,

Prebendary of Sarum, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford.

Assisted by J. H. HESSELS.
Small 4to.

Metallurgy.
THE ART OF EXTRACTING METALS FROM THEIR ORES,

AND ADAPTING THEM TO VARIOUS PURPOSES
OF MANUFACTURE.

Silver.
By JOHN PERCY, M.D., F.RB.S.,

Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Government School of Mines.
With numerous Illustrations. 8vo.

The Lex Salica;

THE TEN EMENDED TEXTS WITH THE GLOSSES.
EDITED (THE INTERPRETATION OF THE GLOSSES)
By Dr. H. KERN,

Professor of Sanscrit, University of Leyden.
THE TEXTS, NEWLY COLLATED, WITH GLOSSARY, INTRODUCTION, &c.,
By J. H. HESSELS,
Joint Editor of The New Ducange’s “‘ Medieval Latin-English Dictionary.’
4to.

18 MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION.

Dictionary of Christian Biography,
Literature, Sects, and Doctrines.

By VARrIous WRITERS,

Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and HENRY WACEH, M.A.
(To be completed in 3 vols.) Vol. 2. Medium 8vo.

In this volume the articles on Anglo-Saxon History have been contributed chiefly by
Professor Stubbs and Professor Bright, of Oxford, and by Canon Raine, of York. Dr.
Benson, the Bishop of Truro, has treated all names connected with St. Cyprian. ‘The
Dean of Canterbury has written on Ephraim Syrus. Professor Lightfoot contributes an
article on Eusebius the historian, Professor Lipsius, of Jena, has contributed articles on
Epiphanius, and the Apocryphal Gospels. Professor Swainson has written on the Rule
of Faith, the Incarnation, and some kindred subjects. Professor Salmon, of Dublin, has
treated Gnosticism and many important names connected with that subject. Professor
Bright contributes articles on the Alexandrian Fathers, and the Rev. % Barmby, of
Durham, on the Popes. Professor Bryce, of Oxford, has treated Justinian. Other
important articles are contributed by the Rev. ¥. Barmby of Durham, the Rev. C. IV.
Boase, of Exeter College, Oxford, 7. R. Buchanan, Esg., of All Souls’ College, the
Rev. Chancellor Cazenove, of Edinburgh, the Rev. F Llewellyn Davies, the Rev. Professor
Dickson, of Glasgow, the Rev. Canon Elliott, the Rev. E. .S. Ffoulkes, the Rev. Canon
Venables, the Hon. and Rev. W. H. Fremantle, the Rev. F. MW. Fuller, the Rev. Dr.
Ginsburg, the Rev. Dr. Edersheim, the Rev. H. S. Holland, Mrs. Humphrey Wart, the
kev. Professor Leathes, the Rev. Professor Milligan, of Aberdeen, the Rev. Dr. Plumptre,
the Rev. 7. Gregory Smith, the Rev. Professor Stewart, of Glasgow, the Rev. Fohn
Wordsworth, of Brasenose College, Oxford, the Rev. H. B. Swete, of Caius College,
Cambridge, the Rev. A. M. Mason, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and others.

Dictionary of Christian Antiquities.
COMPRISING THE HISTORY, INSTITUTIONS, AND ANTIQUITIES
OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, FROM THE TIME OF THE
APOSTLES TO THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.

By Various WRITERS.

Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., & Rev. Professor CHEETHAM, M.A.
With Illustrations. Vol. II. (completing the work). Medium 8vo.

The Moral Philosophy of Aristotle.

TRANSLATIONS OF THE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS, AND OF THE
PARAPHRASE OF ANDRONICUS,

TOGETHER WITH PHILOSOPHICAL Essays, INTRODUCTIONS AND ANALYSES.
Designed for the use of Students at the Universities.

By WALTER M. HATCH, M.A.,
Late Fellow of New College, Oxford.

2vols, 8vo.

7 oe =

MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION. 19

London; Past and Present.

By the late PETER CUNNINGHAM, F.S.A.

Tn this work will be found much antiquarian, historical, and entertaining information,
together with ample descriptions of all the streets and buildings of note now to be seen,
as well as those no longer existing ; and every place endeared to Englishmen by Ziz¢eres¢-
ing and Historical associations, including :—

REMARKABLE OLp INNS, COFFEE | PLACES REFERRED TO BY OLD WRITERS.

HOousEs, AND TAVERNS. WaArpDS OF LONDON.

Town Houses oF THE OLD Nopsitity. | THE Ciry ComMPANIEs.
PLACES OF PUBLIC ENTERTAINMENT. THE CLUBS.
ANCIENT THEATRES, AND OLD LONDON | CHURCHES AND CATHEDRALS.

SIGHTS. RESIDENCES OF MEMORABLE MEN.
ANCIENT CROSSES, AND CITY GATES. STREETS REMARKABLE FOR SOME EVENT.
THE HOSTELs OF CHURCH DIGNITARIES, BrrrH PLACES AND BURIAL PLACES OF
PRIVILEGED PLACES FOR DEBTORS. EMINENT INDIVIDUALS.

OLD LONDON PRISONS. &c., &c.

Revised and Edited by JAMES THORNE, F.S.A.,

Author of the ‘‘ Handbook to the Environs of London.”

New dition. 8vo.

New and Copious Dictionary of
the English Language.

FOR PRACTICAL REFERENCE, METHODICALLY ARRANGED, AND
BASED UPON THE BEST PHILOLOGICAL AUTHORITIES.

Medium 8yo.

A Glossary of Peculiar
Anglo-Indian Colloquial Words
and Phrases.

ETYMOLOGICAL, HISTORICAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL.
By HENRY YULE, C.B., and ARTHUR BURNELL, Ph.D.

8yo.

Handbook of Familiar Quotations
from English Authors.

Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged. Fecap. 8yvo.

209 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF WORKS IN PREPARATION.

The Speaker's Commentary on
the New Testament.

EXPLANATORY AND CRITICAL, WITH A REVISION OF THE
TRANSLATION,

By BISHOPS and CLERGY of the ANGLICAN CHURCH.
Edited by F. C. COOK, M.A.,

Canon of Exeter, Preacher at Lincoln’s Inn, and Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen.

To be completed in 4 Vols. Medium 8vo.

Vol. |. 18s. (Pudblished.)

GENERAL INTRODUC- Wm. TuHomson, D.D., Archbishop of York.

IEIONG cose Ricvee ta cncatse
8ST. MATTHEW and) H. LONGUEVILLE MANSEL, D.D., late Dean of St. Paul's,

ST AMAT vies csGease and The EDITOR.
15 U0 eg) saneemnactnee W. BasiL Jones, D.D., Bishop of St. David’s,

Vol. Il. (Nearly Ready.)

ST. JOHN B. F. Westcott, D.D., Canon of Peterborough, and Regius

aes ee ee ee ee Professor of Divinity at Cambridge.
PEER a GAOL catccSsoevancsts W. JAcosson, D.D., Bishop of Chester.

Vol. Ill.
E. H. Girrorp, D.D., Hon. Canon of Worcester, Rector

ROMANS. os. ccs.ccccc0 ee of Much Hadham, and Examining Chaplain to the

Bishop of London.
T. S. Evans, Canon of Durham, and Professor of Greek in
Durham University.

J. WarTeE, M.A., Vicar of Norham, Northumberland.
GALATIANS............... J. S. Howson, D.D., Dean of Chester.

PHILIPPIANS, EPHE- J. A. JEREMIE, D.D., late Dean of Lincoln.
SIANS, COLOSSIANS,

THESSALONIANS, Canon Westcott, D.D.

CORINTHIANS....... ....

and PHILEMON ...... Wo. ALEXANDER, D.D., Bishop of Derry and Raphoe.
PASTORAL EPISTLES. Joun Jackson, D.D., Bishop of London.
HEBREWG6S ............00. W. Kay, D.D.
Vol. IV.

EPISTLE of 81. JAMES Rosert Scott, D.D., Dean of Rochester.
EPISTLES of 81. JOHN Wm. ALEXANDER, D.D., Bishop of Derry and Raphoe.

J. B. Licutroot, D.D., Canon of St. Paul’s, and Margaret
ST. PETER & ST. JUDE Professor of Divinity at Cambridge.

J. R. Lumpy, B.D., Incumbent of St. Edward’s, Cambridge.
REVEL. é
JOHN oot | Wat, Lee, D.D., Archdeacon of Dublin,

BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS,

& Psst ese.
a: nhs mM

Lit, a | *

rales “pial
ptt this) ie?

=e 4 f aN J re
1 i phy (laa)
K ‘ed wire he

’ ad Uh yas
“ile yy
0 ne uy ‘ae
Bes ua fe

saat ee

| Wy
}