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MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY.

Received #4/ </o ^ / ri f

Accession No. ^ I

Given by

Place,

***No book op pamphlet is to be removed from the Lab-
oratory tuithout the permission of the Trustees.

UNITED STATES COMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

P JL H T ■ III
REPORT

OK

THE COMMISSIONEK

i OB

1873-4 AND 1874-5.

A— INQUIRY INTO THE DECREASE OF THE FOOD-FISHES.
B— THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD-FISHES IX THE WATERS

OF THE UNITED STATES.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

187G.

United States Commission of Fisn and Fisheries,

Washington, February 20, 1875.

Gentlemen: In compliance with the order of Congress, I transmit
herewith my report for 1873-74 and 1871-75 as United States Commis-
sioner of Fish and Fisheries, embracing: first, the result of inquiries into
the causes of the decrease of the food-fishes of the sea-coast and lakes of
the Uuited States; and, secondly, the history of the measures taken for
the propagation of food-fishes by stocking the rivers and lakes with
shad, salmon, and other valuable species.

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,

SPENCER F. BAIRD,

Commissioner.
Hon.. Henry Wilson,

President of the United States Senate; and
Hon. Jas. G. Blaine,

Speaker of the Ilousa of Representatives.

m

CONTENTS

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER.

A— INQUIRY INTO THE DECEEASE OF THE FOOD-FISHES.

Page.

l. Investigations of 1873 vn

Reason for selecting Portland, Me., as base of operations VII

Assistance rendered by the Navy Department vn

The steam-tug Blue Light vii

Associates in the inquiry vm

Numbers of living forms found in the waters of the region vnr

Mackerel, cod, and herring fisheries viii

Fish-food viii

Biological researches IX

Ph ysical researches IX

Collections for scientific museums IX

List of visitors at Peak's Island station ix

Apparatus used on the Blue Light ix

The region southeast from Cape Elizabeth .• x

The region at the upper end of Casco Bay x

Proof of climatic changes on the northern Atlantic coast x

Assistance rendered by the United States Coast Survey X

The steamer Bache x

Assistance rendered by the Treasury Department XI

The revenue steamer McCulloch XI

The revenue steamer Chase XI

Assistance rendered by the Quartermaster Department of the Army XI

2. Investigations in 1874 xi

Reasons for selecting Noank, Conn., as base of operations XI

Assistance rendered by the Navy Department XI

The steam-tug Blue Light xi

General character of work prosecuted xi

Experiments in propagating sea-bass XII

Visit to shad-hatching station at Holyoke, Mass XII

Experiments in inuring embryo shad to sea-water XII

Shipment of shad to Germany XII

Discoveries of specie3 before unknown to the coast •- XHI

Associates in the inquiry xm

List of visitors to the Noank station xm

Special report to be made on invertebrates xiv

Cold currents Xiv

Assistance rendered by United States Coast Survey Xiv

The steamer Bache xiv

Experiment with preservatives XV

B— THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD-FISHES.

3. Extent of the work xv

Regions benefited XV

The value of fish-propagation to China xvi

Reasons why the work cannot he left to State action xvi

The plan as regards the propagation of the shad xvi

Extent of the California-salmon work xvii

The possible resources of rivers xvn

The proposed introduction of the carp xvn

Former abundance of fishes XVII

V

VI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

4. The shad xvm

The hatching and distribution of 1874 xvni

The waters benefited in the United States xvni

The shipment to Germany t xvm

The hatching and distribution of 1875 : xvm

The Neuse River of North Carolina XIX

The Pamunkey River of Virginia XIX

The reconnaissance of the Potomac fisheries XIX

The stations and results on the Potomac . XIX

Distribution from Coeymans Landing, K. T., on the Hudson xix

Distribution from South Hadley Falls, Mass., on the Connecticut Kiver xix

Distribution from Point Pleasant, Pa., on the Delaware River xx

Review of the libors of the season .. XX

Experiments by Fred Mather and H. "W. "Welsher, with a view to transporting shad long

distances xxi

The shipment to Germany xxi

Experiments with a view to transporting shad in sea-water xxii

Experiments with a view to transporting shad of several inches length xxii

5. The California salmon xxii

Mr. Livingston Stone's operations in 1873 xxii

The final hatching of the eggs in eastern waters xxm

Mr. Livingston Stone's operations in 1874 xxm

Qualities of the California salmon xxiv

Observations of temperature in San Joaquin River xxv

Observations of temperature in McCloud River xxvi

Observations of temperature in Columbia River xxvi

Comparison of physical conditions of the rivers of the Atlantic elope and Gulf of Mexico

with Pacific streams xxvi

Distances which anadromoua species will travel inland xxvm

The great vigor of the California salmon xxix

The reasons for expectation of success in introducing California salmon in eastern waters. xxix

The great addition to the food resources xxx

6. The Atlantic salmon xxx

Mr. Atkins' operations in 1873-'74 and 1874-'75 xxx

The number of breeding salmon bought and manipulated xxxi

Marking the fish when released xxxi

Recapture of marked fish xxxi

7. The white fish xxxn

8. The caw of Eurofe xxxn

Its qualities and habits xxxn

Numerous domesticated varieties xxxm

The best varieties xxxv

Its artificial propagation xxxv

Localities in Europe where they are bred xxxv

Desirability of the carp for the United States XXXVI

9. The aquarium car xxxvii

The trip of 1873 xxxvn

The trip of 1874 XXXVII

10. Tables of distribution of food-fishes xxxvm

Tables of shad hatching and distribution xxxvm

Tables of California salmon distribution XL

Tables of Atlantic salmon distribution I xlv

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER.

The duties intrusted to the United States Commissioner of Fish .and
Fisheries, as established by joint resolution of the Senate and House of
Representatives of the United States the 9th of February, 1871, are two-
fold: first, an investigation into the cause of the decrease of the sea-
coast fishes and those of the rivers and lakes, with suggestions as to the
best methods of restoring the same; second, active measures looking
toward the propagation and multiplication of the useful food-fishes,
either by restocking depleted waters or by introducing desirable species
into new localities.

In tbe two reports already published will be found a history of the
measures adopted to accomplish these ends during the years 1871, 1872,
and the first half of 1873; and I now proceed to give the history of the
labors of the commission from July 1, 1S73, to July 1, 1875.*

A— INQUIRY INTO THE DECREASE OF FOOD FISHES.

1. — INVESTIGATIONS IN 1873.

The labors of tbe Commission commenced at Wood's Hole, Massachu-
setts, in 1871, while the season of 1S72 was passed at Eastport, in tbe
Bay of Fundy. For the purpose of more completely developing the
economical and natural history of the coast of Maine, the chief seat of
the herring and cod fisheries, Portland was selected as a secoud station
in that State from which to prosecute the inquiries of the Commission
in 1873. Quarters were accordingly secured at Peak's Island, about
three miles from the city, where a wharf, with buildings, and good anchor-
age near by, furnished the necessary facilities.

The law of Congress authorizing the Commission instructs the heads
of all the Government departments to render it such assistance as may
be in their power; and, in obedience to this requirement, the Secretary
of the Navy granted the use of a stanch vessel of about 100 feet in
length and nearly one hundred tons burden, then stationed at the Wash-
ington navy-yard, and not required at the time for other purposes — the
steam-tug Blue Light. Commander L. A. Beardslee, of the U. S. Navy,

* The printing of tbo reports for tbe years 1873-4 and 1374-5 was ordered separately
by Congress; but no provision baving been made for extras, and unavoidable delays
baving occurred in tbe printing, it lias been thought best to publish tbe two in a

single volume.

VII

VIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

was placed in charge of the vessel, and a suitable crew furnished from
the navy-yard.

Various alterations were made in the vessel to better adapt her for the
purposes to which she was to be applied. A pilot-house was erected on the
upper deck, the old one being converted into a laboratory, and a small
donkey-engine placed on the forward part of the deck to work the
dredge and trawl. Leaving Washington in charge of her commander
on the 28th of June, the Blue Light reported at Peak's Island for duty
on the 8th of July. She proved to be everything that could be desired
for her purposes ; her light draught (about 7 feet) enabling her to run
into the bays and harbors along the coast, and her seaworthiness to go
off considerable distances to the outer banks. As on previous occa-
sions, Professor Verrill, of Yale College, took the more immediate-
charge of the researches into the invertebrates, while numerous special-
ists were also members of the party for a greater or less length of time,
among whom were Prof. Sidney J. Smith, of New Haven ; Prof. J. E.
Todd, of Tabor College, Iowa ; Prof. E. T. Nelson, of Delaware Col-
lege, Ohio ; Prof. E. N. Rice, of the Wesleyan University, Middletown ;
Dr. P. P. Carpenter, of Montreal ; Dr. J. B. Holder, of the American
Museum, Central Park, New York; Mr. G. Brown Goode, curator of
the museum of the University of Middletown, Conn. ; Prof. Theodore
Gill and Dr. E. Palmer, of Washington ; Mr. J. E. Thacher, of New
Haven ; Mr. C. B. Puller, of Portland ; Mr. Spencer F. Biddle, of Phila-
delphia, and others.

The work of investigation into the general and economical histoiwof the
fishes and other marine animals was prosecuted with unremitting energy,
and resulted in the acquisition of many important collections and ob-
servations. According to a rough estimate, 62 species of fishes, 130 of
articulates, 145 of worms, 215 of mollusks, 34 of radiates, 50 of acalephs,
30 of sponges, and 50 of plants, or about 750 in all, were identified ;
while the number of minute crustaceans, and other diminutive objects, re-
quiring further investigation, will probably amount to nearly as many more.
The present history and statistics of the mackerel, cod, herring, alewives,
menhaden, &c, was well worked out as far as peculiar to the coast.
The contents of the stomachs of all the fishes taken, under different
circumstances, were examined and recorded, and important generaliza-
tions reached as to the relationships between the fish, their food, and
the differing regions of the sea-bottom. Among other collections made
by the Commission were numerous specimens of a species of flounder,
Pleuronectes glaber, known heretofore by only a single specimen de-
scribed by Storer in his great work on the " Pishes of Massachusetts."

The collection of invertebrates embraced very many extremely inter-

' esting species, some of them entirely new, and others found for the first

time on this coast. Among these may be mentioned a species of Hya-

lonema, Holtenia, and some other very remarkable siliceous sponges which

have lately attracted much attention from naturalists. Some very rare

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. IX

radiates weie also secured, among them Comatida, Ccriantlius, Schiz-
aster, Astrogonhim, &c.

The opportunity was of course embraced to study the habits and
structures of the animals collected during the season and kept in aqua-
ria ; and the artist of the expedition, Mr. J. H. Emerton, made over 300
drawings of these from life mostly of species never before figured, ex-
cepting, possibly, a few from shriveled alcoholic specimens.

In addition to the biological researches, attention was paid to ques-
tions connected with the physics of the deep seas, this branch of the
work being more particularly under the direction of Captain Beards-
lee, the commander of the steamer. These consisted of a determina-
tion of the temperature of the surface-, median-, and bottom-water, at
numerous localities, and a daily record at the anchorage of the steamer
off Peak's Island. Specimens of the water were also brought up from
various depths and secured in well-sealed bottles for examination as to
specific gravity, chemical composition, and gaseous constituents.

As on previous occasions, the occasion was made use of by some of
the associates of the Commission and its visitors, to secure specimens for
various public museums, principally those of colleges, among others an
extensive collection was gathered by Dr. Holder for the American Muse-
um of Natural History, Central Park, New York. After the collections
have been thoroughly worked up a distribution of duplicates will be
made from the stock reserved by the Commission.

Among the numerous visitors to the headquarters of the commission
during its sojourn at Peak's Island, some of them members of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, attending its
meeting at Portland, were Dr. J. W. Dawson, of Montreal; Messrs.
Stilwell and Stanley, fish-commissioners of Maine ; Mr. C. G. Atkins, of
Bucksport ; J. W. Milner, of Waukegau, 111. ; Professor Atwater, of Mid-
dletown, Conn. ; Prof. Joseph Henry ; Captain Walker, United States
Navy ; Mr. E. B. Elliot ; Dr. T. M. Brewer, of Boston ; J. W. Harper,
of New York, and many others. Mr. W. C. Wyckoff, of the New York
Tribune, spent much time on the island in making himself familiar with
the operations of the Commission, embodying the results of his inqui-
ries in a series of illustrated letters published by the Tribune in connec-
tion with the report of the proceedings of the American Association as
one of its " lecture extras."

The Secretary of the Navy also visited the station, and spent several
days in examining the operations of the Commission.

As already mentioned, the success of the operations of the season of
1873 was very greatly facilitated by the service of the Blue Light and her
force. Special assistance was found in the steam-windlass for hoisting
the dredges and trawls; besides saving labor, this permitted more fre-
quent hauls in each day's excursion.

All the known forms of apparatus for deep-sea research were tried by
the commission, including a full series of that used on the Porcupine

XII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

men, many of them specialists in marine zoology, and others haviug a
general interest in the objects of the Commission. Daring the season
the Blue Light was continuously occupied on her trips, losing but little
time for repairs or other purposes. The principal points visited by her,
in addition to the waters adjacent to Noank, were Block Island, Gardi-
ner's and Peconic Bay, Montauk Point, the mouth of the Connecticut,
&c, a range of from thirty to forty miles from the starting-point.

Noank possesses special advantages for fishery inquiries, the inhab-
itants being engaged almost entirely in fishing, and a large number of
smacks being owned at that place, some of which are employed in fishing
off the Florida coast during the winter ; but which in summer are all oc-
cupied in the vicinity, or in trips to the outer banks. Every day numer-
ous cargoes of fish which were brought in for shipment to New York and
elsewhere, furnished the means of studying the species in their varying
condition of age and season. A full series was obtained for the collections
of the Commission, either for photographing or modeling in plaster.

Experiments were made toward the end of July, by Mr. Fred Mather,
in regard to the possibility of the artificial propagation of sea-bass
{Centroprisies atrarius), and a considerable number of eggs were success-
fully impregnated and placed in hatching-boxes. Unfortunately, how-
ever, it was found impossible without more extensive precautions than
we were prepared to adopt to properly protect the boxes against the
weather, and a severe storm at the end of July emptied the boxes
and ended the experiment. The experiment, however, will be again
tried, as it is believed that the process of artificial propagation is as
available for the reproduction of many of the sea-fishes as for those of
fresh water. Among these may be especially mentioned the sea-bass,
the tautog, the striped bass, the scup, &c.

On the 22d of July, I visited the Holyoke shad-hatchiug station of
the Commission, in charge of Mr. Milner, and found great activity pre-
vailing, and a very successful effort in connection with the distribution
of the fish.

On the 15th of August, Mr. Milner reached JSToank, accompanied by
Mr. Griswold, one of his assistants, for the purpose of testing the effect
of the introduction of young shad into salt water, the details of which
experiment will be found under the subject of " shad," and also in Mr.
Milner's special report on the subject. It may, however, be here stated
in general terms, that in adding salt water to the fresh in which the
fish were kept, it was found that up to a certain percentage the fish
were about as vigorous as in entirely fresh water, although a sudden
transfer from fresh to salt water resulted in their speedy death.

With a view of ascertaining the length of time during which shad
could be carried safely from one point to another, it was determined to
try the experiment of forwarding a number of young fish to Europe,
this answering the purpose of a test of the possibilities in the case. If
the experiment met with success, the favor of the German government

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XIII

in presenting to the United States a quarter of a million of the salmon
of the Rhine could be reciprocated. Messrs. Fred Mather and A. A.
Anderson were detailed for the purpose, and visited Noank on the begin-
ning of August to receive instructions, the steamer leaving New York on
the 5th of August, Unfortunately the experiment was a failure, the fish
dying a few days after the vessel left, These gentlemen returned to
Noank on the 11th of September for the purpose of presenting their
report. Full reference to this subject will be found under the head of
the subject of " Propagation of shad for 1874," and in an appendix, and
further allusion to it here is necessary only to renew the reference to the
great liberality of the North German Lloyd in granting free passage
to the two gentlemen mentioned above, with their freight, to Bremen
and return.

The steamer Blue Light went out of commission on the 9th of Sep-
tember, and was laid up, under the direction of the Secretary of the
Navy, at New London ; after which the work of the Commission was
prosecuted almost entirely by means of sail and row boats.

Many interesting discoveries were made in the way of additions of
previously unrecorded species on the coast, and in extending the area of
the distribution of others. A general sketch of the results, so far as
tbe invertebrates are concerned, will be found in an article by Professor
Yerrill.

The labors of the Commission at Noank extended over the months ot
July, August, and September. Professor Verrill and his party left early
in September, but the other divisions were occupied until the beginning
of October. Eemaining a few days to settle up the business of the
Commission, I left for Washington on the 8th of October.

The working party of the Commission, for the most part, consisted of
the following gentlemen : Prof. A. E. Verrill, of Yale College, in charge
of the dredging operations, and of the department of marine zoology,
with the exception of the fishes, having as special assistants Prof. S.
J. Smith, Mr. S. F. Clark, Mr. Turnbull, of Yale College, and Prof. N.
S. Eice, of Wesleyan University, Middletown.

The department of the fishes was under the direction of Mr. G.
Brown Goode, of the Smithsonian Institution, assisted by Mr. C. W.
Schuermann and T. H. Bean of Washington, and Mr. H. C. Chester.

The algologists were Prof. D. C. Eaton, of Yale College, and Dr. W.
G. Farlow,of Cambridge, assisted by Messrs. Livingston and Klaburger.
Prof. A. Hyatt, of the Society of Natural History, Boston, with Mr.
Eichard Eathburn, and Mr. Saltonstall, of Boston, were also members
of the party.

Among the visitors who devote more or less of their time to natural
history investigations, and who availed themselves of the material pro-
vided by the Commission, or who desired to become acquainted with its
methods, may be mentioned Dr. Joseph Leidy, Prof. Henry Chapman,
and Dr. Horatio Allen, of Philadelphia; Prof. D. C. Jordan, of India-

XIV EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

napolis ; Prof. F. W. Putnam, of Salem ; General A. B. Eaton, Dr. Theo-
dore Gill, and Dr. E. Bessels, of Washington ; Mr. W. C. Wyckoff, and
Dr. J. B. Holder, of New York ; Mr. O. S. Westcott, of Chicago ; Prof.
J. Hammond Trumbull, and Dr. W. O. Ayres, of Hartford; Mr. W. T.
Parker, and M. W. Humphrey, of West Meriden, Conn.

The State fish commissioners, or persons specially interested in fish-cul-
ture, visiting the station during the summer, were Messrs. Alfred Eead,
jr., Newton Dexter, and J. Barden, of Rhode Island ; Dr. M. C. Ed-
munds, of Vermont ; Dr. W. W. Fletcher, of New Hampshire ; G. C.
Anderson, of New Jersey ; Mr. J. W. Milner, Fred Mather, A. A. An-
derson, and C. D. Griswold, of the United States Fish Commission.

The results of Professor Verrill's labors, and those of his associates
in the department of marine natural history and plants, will be fur-
nished in a special report; although it may be proper here to state that
over one hundred species of invertebrates, new to the fauna of New
England, were secured, most of them northern species, and many unde-
scribed.

The principal localities over which dredgings were made were Fish-
er's Island Sound ; Block Island Sound ; off Block Island and south of
Montauk Point; the eastern part of Long Island Sound; from Fisher's
Island and Gardiner's Island to the mouth of the Connecticut River;
the shallow waters in the harbors and estuaries near Noank ; Gardiner's
Bay, Long Island ; Great Peconic and Little Peconic Bays and Green-
port Harbor, Long Island. These latter localities showed temperatures
much higher than the others, and furnished correspondingly southern
types of animal life.

It was clearly shown by the investigations of the Commission that
there is a very decided flow of cold currents through Fisher's Island
Sound and Block Island Sound into Long Island Sound, and along the
deeper parts of the latter for a great distance, especially toward the
southern and deeper side. The influence of this cold current is very
apparent as far west as New Haven in the deeper parts of the sound.
According to Professor Verrill its flowing into Long Island Sound is
due largely to the influence of the tidal currents modified by the local
wind-currents. On the other hand, the much higher temperature of
such inclosed localities as the Peconic Bays may be safely attributed to
the direct heat of the sun over a broad expanse of shallow water, from
which the cold currents are excluded.

As in previous years assistance was rendered by the Coast Survey in
carrying on operations at distances remote from the coast, and which
the Blue Light was not suited to reach. A part of the month of Sep-
tember was occupied by the steamer Bache, under command of Captain
Piatt, in dredging operations off the coast of Maine. The scientific
work was in charge of Dr. A. S. Packard, assisted by Mr. C. Cook and
Mr. Robert Rathburu. Dredgings at about forty stations were made off
the coasts of Maine and New Hampshire, at various depths, down to

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XV

125 fathoms. The results of this investigation will also be found in
Professor Verrill's report.

The attention of Professor Verrill and his party, especially of Prof.
TV. N. Rice, was directed to investigations as to the best method of
preserving the invertebrates for museum purposes, and to improved
methods for killing in an expanded state such species as usually con-
tract when placed in alcohol. In regard to the preservation of Actinia
very satisfactory results were obtained by slowly adding a saturated
solution of picric acid to a small quantity of sea-water in which they
had been allowed to expand. When fairly dead they were transferred
to a pure saturated solution of the acid and allowed to remain from one
to three hours, according to size. They were then placed in alcohol of
about GO to 70 per cent, for permanent preservation. The alcohol should
be renewed after a day or two, and this repeated until the water is all
absorbed from the specimen.

It was found that hydroids and most kinds of jelly-fishes can be easily
and beautifully preserved in the same way, but of these the specimens
may usually be placed alive directly in the acid of full strength. The
success with osmic acid was not so marked, the specimens contracting
more, and finally becoming so darkly stained as to render them useless.
Various trials were made with different kinds of drugs for the purpose
of killing marine animals in an expanded state, but no better method
was discovered than that of allowing them to suffocate in stale sea-water

B— THE PROPAGATION OF FOOD-FISHES.
3. — EXTENT OF THE WORK.

The work of propagation and distribution of food-fishes has been en-
larged year by year. Applications have been received from all of the
States and from four Territories. This has necessitated a continual ex-
pansion of the plans for each season's work.

The work of the United States Fish Commission in multiplying use-
ful food-fishes was commenced in 1872, and has been prosecuted with
satisfactory results up to the present time.

The species to which special attention has been directed are the shad
(Alosa sapidissima,) fresh-water herring or alewive, (Pomolobus pseudo-
harengus,) striped bass or rock-fish (Boccus lineatus,) California salmon
(Salmo quinnat,) the salmon of Maine (Salmo salar,) land-locked salmon
(Salmo sebago,) white-fish (Coregonus albus,) and the carp (Cyprinus carpio
and var.,) each of these having special relations to certain portions of
the country, and promising in their anticipated aggregate an extremely
.important addition to the food-resources of the United States.

The States which have so far been the direct recipients of spawn and
young fish of more or less of these species are Maine, New Hampshire,
Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New
Jersey. Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, the District of Columbia,

XVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES

Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Lou-
isiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Texas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Illinois,
Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Utah, Nebraska, Colo-
rado, and California ; while other States, as Alabama and Arkansas,
which have not been the actual scene of the operations of the Coinniis-
sion, have been indirectly benefited by the introduction of fish into their
waters at points outside of the State limits, thrty-three States and two
Territories in all. The extension of the work to other States and its
amplification in all is only a question of time.

The operations of the Commission have, it is believed, given entire
satisfaction to the people at large, as shown by the general popularity
of the measures adopted, the great interest excited in the subject
throughout the country, and the appointmeut of State fish commissions
in nineteen States, in most instances for the purpose of directly co-oper-
ating with the United States Commission in its efforts to secure from
the waters their fullest yield of animal food. This has rightly been con-
sidered an object of the greatest importance in view of the rapidly-in-
creasing population of the United States and the almost corresponding
diminution in the average yield of vegetable food by the farming-lands,
and it is not considered exaggeration to say that the water can be made
to yield a larger percentage of nutriment, acre for acre, than the land.
A further evidence of the importance of this effort is shown by the
fact that China, with its enormous population, greater to the square
mile than that of any other part of the world, derives the largest por-
tion of its animal food from the interior waters of the empire, the meth-
ods of fish-cultivation there being conducted in a very efficient manner,
and every cubic yard of pond and stream thoroughly utilized.

It is well to bear in mind that the work prosecuted by the United
States Commission is in no case that which would be carried on by
State commissions or by private enterprise. The States of Iowa, Min-
nesota, Ohio, or Pennsylvania would not find their advantage in going
to any great expense in the way of stocking their streams in view of
the fact that the fish, when mature, would, on their return, enter the
mouth of the Mississippi and traverse all the intermediate States before
arriving within their borders, with the certainty that a large portion of
the catch would be secured by citizens of other States. On the other
hand, the young and immature fish, requiring the cold upper sources
of the streams as their home, will not find in the great waters of the
more Southern States the proper conditions for their preservation and
growth. Furthermore, the primary outlay for securing the eggs of such
species as the California salmon, &c, is greater than single States can
meet, while the cost of obtaining a supply for the entire country at a
siugle establishment is much less proportionately than the aggregate
cost of separate effort.

The plan as regards the propagation of shad is to establish hatch-
ing-camps in March on the southernmost streams on the Atlantic

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XVII

slope, there to hatch all the eggs that can be procured, and, placing a
portion of the young fish in the stream where they are procured, to
transmit the remainder to other waters now entirely unprovided. This
operation would be continued by removing the camps northward as the
season advanced until the Connecticut Kiver is reached, toward the end
of June, and from which the States along the Great Lakes, the Upper
Mississippi, and the Pacific coast would be supplied.

The California salmon is a species which can withstand the warmest
regions of the United States, and is extremely hardy and prolific, and
its multiplication is considered extremely important. Some idea of the
scale on which the work of the commission connected with this species
has been conducted can be formed from the fact that the eggs collected
during the season of 1875 at the United States establishment on the
Upper Sacramento numbered about 11,000,000, with a bulk of 80 bush-
els, and weighing, with the packing in which they were transported to
eastern establishments, nearly 10 tons.

In further illustration of the results that may be looked for from a
judicious and systematic prosecution of the work of propagating the
food-fishes, we may refer to the Potomac Biver, in which from six to ten
million pounds of shad and herring are taken during the spring months
alone. There is no reason why any stream in the United States having,
direct communication with the Gulf of Mexico, or either ocean, may
not be made to abound in an equal degree with these and other fishes,,
and in view of the aggregate of the animal food to be derived from a,
number of such streams, the importance of this work can hardly be
overestimated.*

Another fish to which it is proposed to devote the efforts of the Com-
mission is the European carp, a species eminently calculated for the
warmer waters of the country, especially the mill-ponds and sluggish,
rivers and ditches of the South. This fish has been domesticated, for
thousands of years, and is one of the species which furnish the prin-
cipal food of the Chinese. Living on vegetable matter instead of animal,,
it can be multiplied at very little expense in 'restricted) waters.

It is not alone to the introduction of suitable fishes into water pre-
viously uninhabited by them that the efforts of the Commission are
directed, but also toward restoring a full supply to streams where they
were formerly abundant. At one time all the rivers on the Atlantic

* Large, however, as is the present yield of " herring" and shad in the Potomac River
it is hut a mere fraction of that which prevailed less than fifty years ago. Martin's-
Gazetteer of Virginia and the District of Columhia, published in 1835, states that the
number of fisheries on the Potomac in the previous year was 150, and that in six
weeks' time 22,500,000 shad and 750,000,000 herring were taken in this river. Allow-
ing an average of three pounds for each of the shad and three-fourths of a pound
to the herring, we have the enormous aggregate of 630,000,000 pounds of food taken
in a single river in six weeks' time alone, not including the immense quantity of striped
bass or rock-fish, sturgeon, and other fish that doubtless belonged to the catch. These
statistics, large as they appear, are corroborated by the older fishermen of the Poto-
mac—S. F. B.
F — II

XVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

coast abounded in shad and furnished an enormous aggregate of food,
sufficient for several months' supply to the inhabitants, and allowing a
surplus for shipment, either fresh or salted. Now, however, this condi-
tion has become a matter of tradition in regard to nearly every stream
south of the Potomac, and nothing but artificial propagation will restore
the stock. When, however, we bear in mind that the eggs of a single
pair of shad, artificially treated, can be made to produce more young
fish than those of two hundred pairs of natural spawners, the impor-
tance of the measures adopted by the Commission will be readily appre-
ciated.

4. — THE SHAD.

The hatching and distribution of shad began rather late in 1874, as
the appropriation for the purpose was not available early enough for
work in southern rivers. In the last week of June Mr. Milner proceeded
with a force of men to the hatching-station of the New York commis-
sioners, at Coeymans Landing on the Hudson Eiver, from which point
the distribution to western waters was at once begun. Four hundred
thousand shad were placed in the tributaries of the Mississippi, in the
Brazos and Colorado Bivers of Texas, and the tributaries of the great
lakes. On the 3d of July the traveling parties moved to South Hadley
Falls, Mass., on the Connecticut Eiver. From this station over two
millions of shad were transferred to the tributaries of the Mississippi, of
the great lakes, Lake Champlain, and rivers of New England. Five
hundred and sixty-five thousand fry were carried above the clam and
placed in the Connecticut Eiver, for the most part above Bellows Falls,
Vermont. In all, three million and thirty-one thousand young shad
were planted in waters of the United States between June 25 and Au-
gust 15 of 1874.

Those in charge of the transfers were very successful in transporting
these fishes and in placing them, in a healthy condition, in the waters
for which they were destined.

The generous action of Germany in the gift to the United States, in
1873, of 250,000 salmon-eggs prompted an attempt to transport some
young shad to Germany, and the North German Lloyd Steamship
Company kindly offering free passage for both men and fish to Bremen
and back, the experiment was entered upon early in August. On the
5th of August Mr. Fred Mather and Mr. A. A. Anderson left by the
steamer Donau, captain Neiuaber, with 100,000 shad-embryos, a large
and convenient compartment was assigned for them, and the cans were
so arranged that the movement of the ship need not affect the shad, while
an abundance of Croton water was taken on board for their use. Un-
fortunately, after six days the fish showed signs of distress and in ten
days they were all dead.

A detailed account of the trip will be found in Mr. Mather's report.
Excepting in this instance every shipment was a complete success.

Shad-hatching in 1875 was commenced April 1. The first efforts

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XIX

were on the Neuse Eiver, Forth Carolina. A camp was established by
Mr. Milner at Kinstou, in the vicinity of three fisheries, which was con-
tinued until May 10. The river was exceedingly high during the whole
time. Continued fishing was not begun until April 14, when the water
had lowered sufficiently for seiue-hauling. The catch was very light,
and no spawners were found.

On the 12th of May a camp was made near Fish-Haul, on the Pamunky
Eiver, Virginia, and some fifty thousand eggs impregnated, but the ova
not thriving well the station was continued only ten days, with results
of no consequence.

On the 27th of April a reconnaissance of the fisheries of the Potomac
was made in the steam-tug Triana, United States Navy, Captain Cook,
kindly placed at my disposal by the Secretary of the Navy. Mr. Milner
directed the trip, the commissioners of Virginia and Maryland being
members of the party. The results secured by this reconnaissance were
an intimate knowledge of the fisheries, the selection of favorable hatch-
ing-stations, and thesecuring of a collection of the fishesof the river,while
the good will of the fishery proprietors was sought for the purpose of
facilitating the obtaining of eggs at the fisheries. A full report of the
expedition will be found in the appendix.

Stations were established on the Potomac at Free-Stone Point, Va., at
the Virginia end of Long Bridge, and, later, at Moxley Point, Md., and at
Ferry Landing, Va. The work lasted from May 15 to June 5, and about
4,885,000 shad were released in the Potomac Eiver. The season at the
fisheries was a poor one. The protracted cold weather of the spring
retarded the ripening of the ova, and the eggs did not thrive well in the
cold wraters after they were taken from the fish. In an ordinary season
a much larger number of young shad would have been placed in the
water as the result of such effort. Still this is to be considered as
very fair success if compared with the hatching of 1873, which yielded
only 1,370,400 shad for the Potomac, and 70,000 shipped to waters of
Virginia and West Virginia.

The season having closed in the region just referred to, traveling par-
ties proceeded to the Hudson Eiver, arriving on the 11th of June, when
the work of 'distribution began. Shipments were made from here. to
four important tributaries of the Mississippi, and to the Colorado Eiver
of Texas, of about 425,000 young shad.

On the 1st of July operations commenced at South Hadley Falls,
Mass. The first shipment was started on the 7th of July, between
which date and the 31st, transfers were made to waters in the Mississippi
Valley, Lake Champlain, to the Atlantic Slope rivers, and the rivers of
the Gulf States. As a general summary of the work at this station, it
may be stated that the waters of New England other than the Connecti-
cut Eiver received 320,000 shad ; there were carried westward and
southward, 590,000 ; carried above the Holyoke Dam to the Upper Con-
necticut, 1,205,000; hatched and put in below the dam, 4,500,000; sent
to Germany, 400,000. Total, about 7,000,000.

XX REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

From Point Pleasant, Pa., shipments were made of about 200,000 shad,
on July 8, to the headwaters of the Eoauoke, in Virginia, and to the
Pearl Eiver, of Mississippi and Louisiana.

The entire number of shad hatched out during the season was over
12,500,000. The accompanying tables give the facts pertaining to their
distribution. Preference was given this year to the Mississippi waters
and the rivers of the Atlantic and Gulf slopes. The only shipments to
the tributaries of the lakes were to those of Lake Champlain.

In reviewing the labors of the season, it may be remarked that no suc-
cess was had in southern waters, the stock of fishes being greatly re-
duced and the hauls small, and consequently ripe male and female fish
are rarely obtained at the same time. The Potomac, although the
season's catch was very much diminished, afforded a larger quantity of
eggs, but it would appear to be at a disadvantage when compared with
the Hudson or the Connecticut for obtaining spawn.

The head of the present migration of the shad in the Connecticut is
the Holyoke Dam. For a half mile below the dam, the water is shoal
and runs among projecting rocks. Just below the Holyoke Bridge is a
deep and wide area of the river, into which the shad congregate to
spawn. This is the seiuiug-ground, and offers probably the best facili-
ties for obtaining shad -ova of any locality in the United States.

In the Hudson the upper spawning-grouud is near Coeymaus Landing,
where a long projecting point shelters a large bayou or arm of the river.
About twenty miles above this is the Troy dam, which, until the fish-
way was erected, was an effectual obstruction to the fishes, but for
some reason few shad go above Coeymaus. So well recognized is this
habit, that the occasional shad found above the Coeyman's spawning-
ground are termed gipsies. This station of the New York commission
is established at the spawning-grounds, where plenty of ripe fish are to
be obtained during the season.

The Potomac has no extensive seiuing-ground above the end of Long
Bridge. Small seines, pound-nets, and skim-nets are used to the very
foot of the falls, but no hauls are made sufficiently large to warrant a
hatching station with the probability of takiug ripe males and females
at.each haul above the Jackson City fishery. In fact, the spawning-
ground does not concentrate at any one point, but is found along the
river at nearly all the shad seining grounds. This compels a multipli-
cation of stations, and the past season eggs were obtained from Free
Stone Point, Ferry Landing, and the end of Long Bridge, Virginia, aud
from Moxley Point, Maryland, and in fact it would be worth while to
test any fishery where there was sufficient shelter for the hatching-boxes
from the effect of wind and sea. The Ferry Landing fishery afforded
the largest number of eggs in, 1875, although the time occupied was
shorter than at some of the other localities.

Hoping to favorably solve the problem as to the possibility of carrying
young shad alive across the Atlantic Ocean, in which a failure was experi-

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXI

enced in 1874, a shipment was determined upon during 1875, and the
preliminary experiments were first begun at Washington under the care
of Mr. Fred Mather, who made the attempt the previous year. Among
the apparatus devised by this gentleman was a cylinder of tin hung
upon gimbals, as would be necessary at sea. Within the cylinder was
a screen a few inches from the bottom* A current of water flowed
through a rubber hose into an inlet in the bottom of the cylinder, and,
rising through the screen, overflowed at the top. No success, however,
was obtained with this contrivance, and Mr. Mather proceeded to Point
Pleasant, Pa., to renew his experiments at the shad-hatching station
near that point.

A new device, however, was finally hit upon, the suggestion of Mr.
Charles Bell, Mr. Mather's assistaut. Instead of a cylinder, a funnel-
shaped vessel was made, the bottom above the inlet being guarded by
a wire screen only 2 inches in diameter. The eggs were put into the fun-
nel, and the flow of the water up through the small end lifted them toward
the surface repeatedly as they fell back toward the bottom. Mr. Mather
reported his experiments with this arrangement as entirely satisfactory,
and recommended it for the Atlantic trip, as will be seen from his report
in the appendix.

At Coeymans Landing experiments for a similar purpose were begun
about June 15, by Mr. WTelsher, who, before they were completed, associ-
ated with him Mr. Monroe A. Green. In these the eggs were taken soon
after impregnation and put into a series of flannel screens, which were
adjusted in a case in the same manner as a case of drawers. In the
upper screen was a quantity of ice, the water from which dripped upon
the screens below. By this process the eggs were successfully retarded
about seven days, and then hatched out as vigorous fishes. Mr. Welsher
haviug auuouuced the success of his experiment in advance of Mr.
Mather's completing his, he was called upon^ to take charge of the trip
across the ocean.

About four hundred thousand eggs were taken and impregnated by Mr.
Monroe A.Green, on the night of the 10th of July. These were all se-
lected eggs, the lighter ones from each fish having been flowed out of the
impregnating pans and only the heavier superior ones retained. The
screens were filled, and the cases with a large quantity of broken ice
placed in contact with them, packed in turners' shavings. The ship-
ment started from New York on the steamer Mosel, Captain Neinaber,
the 17th of July. The purpose was to carry the eggs in the cases for
six or .seven days, and then remove them to tin vessels devised by Mr.
Green, when they were expected to hatch and the embryos to remain
until deposited in the Weser. This hatching-apparatus was a tin fun-
nel, quite similar in form to Messrs. Bell and Mather's ; but, instead of
the flow of water and movement of the eggs by a stream of water, air
was forced in from below ; the bubbles, forcing the water upward in a
current diverging along the outward sloping sides of the funnel, raised

XXII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

the eggs with a cloud of miuute bubbles of air. Nine of these funnels
were provided with rubber hose leading to an air-reservoir filled by an
air force-pump. Unfortunately, however, on opening the cases after
getting under way, the eggs were found to have suffered from railroad
jolting, and they all rapidly died before any were hatched or even the
eye-specks had begun to show.

At the end of the season at South Hadley Falls, Mass., Mr. Milner
arrived atlSoank, bringing with him about 45,000 shad, when experiments
were carefully made in attempting to accustom shad to small proportions
of sea- water. For this purpose, earthen jars with a capacity of about four
gallons were used. The object in view was to ascertain the effect of a
very gradual increase of sea- water. The jars received a continually- in-
creasing proportion of sea water, until, in two of the tests, it became all
sea-water. In the other two experiments, it was allowed to reach a cer-
tain proportion and so remain. Other jars were assigned for tests of the
effect of different temperatures upon the fish. It was found that shad
placed directly in sea-water die very rapidly, but that sea-water intro-
duced gradually and in small proportions has not a sensibly injurious
effect. The decision, however, was against its use, unless with extreme
caution and in very small quantities, wheu it is absolutely necessary for
purifying stale water. Later in the season, Mr. Chas. D. Griswold ex-
perimented with partially-grown shad taken at Holyoke, Mass. The re-
sults showed far less advantage in the transportation of the older shad;
the numbers that could be carried were but a minute fraction of the
large numbers of embryos usually transported, while in most instances
they did not survive as long as the younger fish.

5. — CALIFORNIA SALMON.

Mr. Livingston Stone arrived at the McCloud River station and began
operations August 6, 1873. A pen, or corral, was built in the river, but
it was found to be too small, the fish not retaining their vigor, while a
large proportion of those confined in the inclosure died. The seine was
again resorted to, aud sufficient salmon taken to make up the prescribed
quota of 2,000,000 eggs. The hatching establishment was moved to the
bank of the river, and the water raised by a bucket-wheel turned by the
current.

The eggs were packed in moss in boxes two feet square by one foot
deep, each containing 75,000 eggs. Two boxes were put into a crate,
with a space on all sides, which was packed with hay aud broken ice.
When ready for shipment, there were about 2,000,000 in good con-
dition. The first lot, 300,000, was shipped September 20, 1873 ; a second
lot, 500,000, on the 30th ; a third lot, 330,000, October 7th, and a fourth
lot, 250,000, on the 14th. A fifth lot, 20,000, was placed directly into
the McCloud River on the 19th of October, and 500,000 were left to
hatch. The total was 1,900,000 salmou-eggs.

The consignees who received the eggs and arranged for their care in

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXIII

the hatching-houses where they were carried forward until the young
fish were placed in the waters, with the number of eggs to each,
were as follows: J. H. Slack, Bloomsbury, N. J., 550,000; James
Duffy, Marietta, Pa., 170,000; Seth Green, Rochester, N. Y., 200,000;
B. G. Pike, Middletowu, Conn., 150,000; Livingston Stone, Charles-
town, N. H., 50,000; E. A. Brackett, Winchester, Mass., 50,000 ; Charles
G. Atkins, Bucksport, Me., 50,000 ; George H. Jerome, Niles, Mich.,
120,000 ; A. P. Bockwood, Salt Lake City, Utah, 40,000 ; Dr. W. A.
Newell, San Francisco, Cal., 20,000. The 500,000 for the Sacramento
waters were hatched at the station. Some of the cases of eggs arrived
in excellent condition, while many were fouud to have heated and fer-
mented, with but a small proportion of the eggs in a healthy condition.
The number of fishes reported by the State commissiouers as resulting
from the 1,900,000 eggs was 1,522,930, the distribution of which is given
in detail in the appended table.

Mr. Stone began operations at the McCloud station on the 5th of July,
1874. Modifications in the apparatus used were effected which resulted in
a great improvement of the condition of the eggs. The trays in the
hatching-boxes were quite deep, and the eggs put into them in twelve
layers; the water rising from below in the Williamson troughs buoyed
the eggs so that the lower layers did not suffer from the weight of those
above them. By this means space was economized and a very large
number of eggs cared for. The corral, or pen, of the previous year was
also improved upon. A substantial timber grating was built across
the stream somewhat in the style of that used by Professor Basch
in the fiords of Norway. Below the fence large corrals, or pens,
were erected, into which the salmon were gathered and retained until
their spawn was needed. The grating was an entire bar to the salmon,
no opening being left to permit their passing above it ; and the experi-
ment satisfied Mr. Stone that salmon which ascend the river to spawn
never return to the" sea. The number which had passed above the grat-
ing before it was finished, he estimated at hundreds of thousands, while
thousands crowded against its lower side when completed, vainly at-
tempting to pass. As to their return, he failed to discover a single live
salmon, though thousands of dead ones lodged against the upper side of
the grating.

The work of developing the eggs to the point of hardiness requisite
for their safe shipment, was continued until the 25th of September, when
the first shipment was made. On the 18th of October, the sixth and
last shipment was made. The whole number transmitted eastward
was 4,155,000, which with 850,000 hatched at the station for California
waters, make a total of 5,005,000. There were reported from these
2,908,710 fishes distributed, and 25,000 eggs remaining to be heard
from. November 30, the last of the fishes was placed in the waters of
the McCloud and the camp closed for the season. The details of the
distribution will be found in the accompanying table.

XXIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The California salmon, believed to be the same as the quinnat salmon
of the Columbia River (Salmo quiimat, Rich,) is one of the largest of this
family. Its average weight in the Sacramento River is 20 pounds, while
in overgrown individuals it is as high as 100 pounds. Its flavor when
fresh and properly cooked is scarcely inferior to that of the Atlantic
coast salmon {Salmo salar,) and in the markets of California and as
far eastward as New York it is sought as a luxury, and commands
a high price. Prepared in cans it finds a wide market throughout the
United States and in Australia.* It is by far the most prolific fish on
the Pacific coast. Of an anadromous habit, it swarms up the Colum-
bia, the Sacramento, and San Joaquin Rivers in vast shoals from March
to August, and thus becomes valuable not merely as an occasional article
of table luxury, but as a large commercial resource. Statistics pub-
lished in the weekly Astorian, Astoria, Oreg., for the season of 1875 on
the Columbia River, give 13,000,000 pounds as the»aggregate put up at
the different canning establishments, which sold at the average whole-
sale rate of eleven cents per pound, making a total money value of
$1,430,000. Besides the sale of the fish as food the manufacture of oil
from the heads has been begun, and this season a single fishing locality
produced 9,000 gallons.

Statistics procured from the books of the Central Pacific Railroad
Company show that 4,079,025 pounds of salmon were shipped from
points on the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers between November 1,
1874, and August 1, 1875. (See report of California commissioners,

P- HO

The species has proven itself thus far to be the best adapted of the

family to the methods of artificial propagation. When properly packed
and kept at a sufficiently low temperature the eggs endure transporta-
tion with inconsiderable loss. Once in the hatching-troughs the loss is
very small before hatching, while the young are. possessed of great
tenacity of life, and grow to be several months old with less loss than
hns been experienced with any other species; indeed, they are com-
mended by all the fish -culturists who have had to do with them for
their hardiness, activity, and good-feeding tendencies. In the mature
stage they are capable of adapting themselves to a variety of conditions.
They pass up the Sacramento when its waters are turbid from the great
quantities of sediment washed into them by the rains and the extensive

* Au item published in several of the newspapers of the United States hns a tendency
to excite prejudice against canned salmon as food. It appeared under the heading
"Poisoned by eating canned salmon," and stated that part of a can had been partaken
of by several persons who experienced no unpleasant results, but that after two days
the remainder of the contents of the can which had been set aside and exposed to the
air, being again eaten of by the same persons, purging and strong symptoms of poison-
ing resulted. The fact that such large quantities of the article are consumed through-
out the country with but a single instance of any ill effects suggests the possibility of
something else than the salmon as a cause for the sickness — the accidental mixture,
perhaps, of some deleterious article with the salmon before it was served.

KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXV

hydraulic mining operations along the banks of the river and its tribu-
taries; they go up through the warm valley of the San Joaquin River,
lying in the second hottest summer area of the United States, in
large shoals, ascending the numerous side tributaries to their spawning-
grouuds. The hottest temperature area for the months of June, July,
and August, as shown by the temperature charts for the United States,
lately compiled for the Smithsonian Institution, is the region of the
Gila and mouth of the Colorado Rivers in Arizona Territory. The mean
for these mouths is 88° Fahrenheit. The valley of the San Joaquin,
portions of Arizona, and the lower valley of the Rio Grande River have
a mean of 84°. No other portion of the United States has so high a
summer mean. During the mouths of August and September, 1875,
temperature observations were made at the railroad bridges of the Cen-
tral Pacific Railroad.* The maximum, minimum, and mean tempera-
tures for the months of August and September were as follows :

Maximum.

Minimum.

Mean.

Upper crossing

Air

o
107
84
83
93
82
81

0

82
74
73
73
72
71

0

98.7

Water at surface

79.7

Water at bottom

78.7

Lower crossing

Air

86.9

Water at surface

76.3

Water at bottom

76.3

As referred to by Mr. Milner in a communication to the commissioners
of fisheries at their meeting in New York, February 10, 1875, the Sac-
ramento salmon, and especially the colony entering the San Joaquin
River, spawn in latitudes farther south than any anadromous species of
the genus Salmo. t

In the report of the commissioners of fisheries of the State of Califor-
nia, for the years 1874 and 1875, the following statement is made with
reference to the Sacramento salmon : " Large numbers pass up the San
Joaquiu River for the purpose of spawning in July and August, swim-
ming for one hundred and fifty miles through the hottest valley in the
State, where the temperature of the air at noon is rarely less than 80°
Fah., and often as high as 105°, and where the average temperature of
the river at the bottom is 79° and at the surface 80°. The salmon of
the San Joaquin appear to be of the same variety as those in the Sac-
ramento, but average smaller in size." Leaving the bed of the San
Joaquin, they ascend the tributaries, the Merced, the Stanislaus, and
others, and find their spawning-grounds in the snow-fed sources of these

#A series of observations were made on the temperature of the San Joaquin River,
California, through the kindness of Mr. B. B. Redding, of Sacramento, commissioner
for fisheries of California.

t The trouts, Sahno fontinaJis, Mitch., in the Appalachian range, and Salmo pleuriticw,
Cope, of the headwaters of the Rio Grande River, extend their range to about the same
latitude, 37° N, as the San Joaquin salmon.

XXVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

streams. The mean temperature for the Sacramento for July, said to
be of ten years' observations, is given at 74°.G6.*

The temperature for the McCloud River was observed between the
Gth of July and the 12th of November, 1874, at 6 a. in., 3 p. m., and 6
p. m. by Mr. Livingston Stone, the maxima, minima, and means of which
will be found in the following table :

Temperature, air and water, at McCloud River hatching-station.

*** llg;

Aug-t \ii«*»i\

September... jgjg;

O^ober {|1 days;

November... J j^ays;

67 observations
73 observations

87 observations
86 observations
78 observations
77 observations

88 observations
91 observations
30 observations
28 observations

Air or
water.

Air .. .
Water
Air . . .
Water
Air...
Water
Air . . .
Water
Air . ..
Water

Maximum.

o

106
62
97
60

100
58
96
55
58
50

Minimum.

48
54
43
52
37.
49
35
42
35
42

Mean.

76.4

57

70.7

55. 9

67.8

51.1

56.56

49.8
48.4
46. 89

Observations of the temperatures of the Columbia River have beeu
kindly furnished by the firm of the Oregon Packing Company, J. W. &
!N. Cook, proprietors. These were made in the mouths of May, June,
July, and August, 1S75, at 7 a. m. and 12 m. The results are shown in
the following table :

Water.

May, 22 days ; 44 observations

June. 26 days ; 52 observations . . .
July, 27 days ; 54 observations - . .
August, 12 days ; 24 observations

Water
Water
Water
Water .

Maximum. Minimum

56
61

70
70

Mean.

o

o

50

46.2

55

58.3

60

66.2

65

66.8

By this series of temperatures, which exhibits the maxima, minima,
and means of the waters where the fish have their natural home, we are
enabled to judge as to the" degree of warmth they may be expected to
endure when transported to new waters. The testimony as to the
warmth of the San Joaquin water is the most important, reaching,
as it does, a maximum of 84°, and showiug a mean of nearly 80° daring
the two months the salmon are ascending in large numbers. But the
high temperature is not the only seeming trouble they encouuter. Ac-
cording to the observer at the San Joaquin bridge, the water was very
turbid at the time it was so warm, yet the salmon, passing up in large
numbers, appeared in the clear waters of the tributaries higher up in a
healthy, vigorous condition.

Taking into consideration the temperature, the turbidity, the volume,
the velocity, and the characters of the sources, as well as the other
physical conditions of the rivers inhabited by the California salmon, it
seems probable that a very large number of the rivers of the Eastern

* Proceeding of the Agassiz Institute, Sacrameuto, California. Annual address and
report on physics, &c, of Sacramento River, by Thomas M. Logan, M. D., president,
October 20, 1873.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXVII

United States are equally adapted for the production and growth of this
species.

On the Atlantic slope, there are few if any rivers as turbid as the Sac-
ramento ; few which have not spring sources iu the Appalachian range,
aud among their tributaries many rapids, pools, and eddies, in rocky and
gravelly places, suitable for spawning-grounds. Of the rivers of the
Gulf States, the Chattahoochee and the Alabama have their sources in
the southern slopes of the Blue Eidge, among cool, spring-fed brooks.
They rise among hills and rocks in a country full of large springs. The
Brazos and Colorado Bivers, of Ttxas, have their sources among the
springs of the southern hills and spurs of the Bocky Mountains, and the
Guadalupe and San Antonio Bivers are fed by large springs. Most of
the Texas streams are turbid, but not more so thau the Sacramento or
San Joaquin.

The suggestion that the salmon are not likely to find suitably cold
waters after descending to the sea, the following facts show to be
groundless.

The temperatures of the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico have been
recorded* through a series of lines extending from the lougitude of
the mouth of the Mississippi to the Tortugas and Key West, Fla., and
temperatures found equally as cold as those off the coast of Massachu-
setts aud New England. As low as 34° Fahrenheit has been observed
at a depth of 896 fathoms ; at depths of 421, 610, aud 790 fathoms, 35°
and 3G° were observed, while 40°, 41°, and 42° were common at from 400
to over 1,800 fathoms, and 50° to 60° between less than 100 to 400
fathoms and more.

The only peculiarity especially notable in the streams to which the
California salmon belong is that they are snow-fed during most of the
year. As, however, the Maine salmon, a species much more sensitive
to heat than that of California, inhabits rivers not snow-fed, and more-
over is kept in the Bucksport breeding-pond throughout the entire sum-
mer at a temperature of 70°, we have a sufficient guarantee that the
California fish will not be affected in its transfer; indeed, the whole
question is one relating to the rapidity of development of the eggs, rather
than to the conditions surrounding the fish ; the warmer the water the
more rapid and premature the birth of the embryo.

Thus far we have left entirely out of consideration the great system
of waters contributing to the Mississippi Biver. The main stream ex-
tends from latitude 47° 50' to 29°, and the northernmost tributary of
the Missouri as far north as 50°. Its greatest length is 2,616 miles,t
from its highest source to the Gulf. From the source of the Madison
Fork, the formerly-supposed head of the Missouri, (within the National
Yellowstone Park,) to the Gulf, it has a length of 4,194 miles.t

* Coast Survey reports.

t See measurements iu tables on page 91 of the Physics and Hydraulics of the Missis-
sippi River. Uuited States Engineer Bureau.

XXVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The Mississippi River, with its tributaries and subtributaries, as laid
down on the larger maps of the United States, exhibits over 120,000
miles of combined lengths,* which we know falls much within the extent
of waters available for food-fishes ; and, were the system of the Chinese
adopted, all waters would be considered down to the brooks, pouds, and
eveu ditches.

From this an idea may be formed of the vast work to be done in mak-
ing the waters of the United States afford their proper quota of the food-
resources of the future.

The physical conditions of the Mississippi River in contrast with the
rivers of the Atlantic coast which contain or have contained the Atlan-
lic salmon (Sahno salar) are very marked. Such streams as the Saint
John of New Brunswick, the Penobscot, the Kennebec, and the Andros-
coggin of Maine, the Merriinac of New Hampshire, and the Connecticut
of Western New England are, for their greater lengths, clear and with
rocky bottoms, with considerable fall, and with sources, in the longest,
not more than 500 miles from the sea.

The Lower Mississippi is a turbid, alluvial stream, with a fall of less
than 5 inches to the mile for eighteen hundred miles from the Gulf. The
nearest source, having an elevation of 3,000 feet, is near the head of the
Red River, about 1,500 miles from the delta. Fort Atkinson, Kansas, on
the Arkansas River, has an elevation of 2,331 feet, 1,750 miles from the
mouth of the Mississippi River.

The remoteness of the elevated cold sources of the Mississippi seems
to be its most unfavorable feature when viewed as to the adaptation
of salmon to its waters. The California salmon traverse the Sac-
ramento Valley to the headwaters of the Little Sacramento and the
McCloud Rivers, about four hundred miles, to the headwaters of the
San Joaquin, about two hundred and fifty miles. To Fort Boise, on the
Snake River, where the Salmo quinnat are said to have been taken from
the mouth of the Columbia River, is about seven hundred miles. There
is no hindrance to their ascent to the vicinity of the Shoshone Falls, one
hundred and fifty miles above Fort Boise, which would increase the
distance from the Pacific Ocean to about eight hundred and fifty miles.
The great Shoshone Falls of the Snake River, over two hundred feet
high, are of course an effectual barrier to their progress up the stream.
In the report of the commissioners of Iowa,t a correspondent writing
from Elko, Nev., says: "This stream is one of the many that form the
headwaters of the Columbia River, and to this point, eighteen hundred

miles from its mouth, the salt-water salmon come in myriads to spawn."

* —

* A rough approximation made by running a chartometer on the Land-Office map,

and correcting tbe error by comparison of lengtbs of seventeen rivers given in the

work just referred to.
t First Report of tbe State Fisb Commissioners of Iowa for tbe years 1874 and 1875.

Des Moines : R. P. Clarkson, State Printer, 1876, p. 17

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXIX

The large King salmon, or chowichee,* and the Red salmon, hoikoh,t
are, according to Mr. Dall, taken as far up the Yukon River as Fort
Yukon, fourteen hundred miles from the sea.

The shad of China, samlai (Alosa rtevesii, Rich.,) according to Mr. Salter,
extend their migrations up the Yang-tse-Idaug for over a thousand
miles; and, according to Dr. MacGowan, to a distance of three thou-
sand miles from its mouth.

A specimen of a shad (Alosa sapidissima) was received at the National
Museum from Mr. R. O. Sweeney, which was taken in the Mississippi
River at Saint Paul, Minn.

From these facts we may infer that the instinct of location is probably
sufficient to attract a colony of fishes as far inland as the headwaters of
the longest river, whenever their home has been once established there.

The vigorous strength and the energy exhibited by the California
salmon during its migrations up the Sacramento and Columbia Rivers,
afford the evidence that its capacity for a long migration from the sea to
its spawning-grounds, is unsurpassed by any species of fish known.

Wherever the California salmon, in the process of artificial propaga-
tion, has come under the hands of the fish-culturist, it is acknowledged,
as previously mentioned, to exceed all other species, which are propa-
gated, in hardiness, in tenacity of life, and in freedom from tendency
to disease. Although it will not compare with the catfishes (SiluridcB)
or the eels (Anguillidw,) or even the suckers (Catastomidw,) in retaiu-
iug life out of water, yet, unlike these, it does not owe its tenacity of life
to a low, sluggish action of the vital forces, that retain life when the
respiration has become almost entirely impeded, but rather to the posses-
sion of an excess of vitality, and which exhibits itself in all stages from
the egg to the mature fish. Mr. Charles Nordkoff, in an article on The
Columbia River and Puget Sound, in Harper's New Monthly Magazine,^
in describing the processes at the canneries, says : " A salmon
bleeds like a bull." Professor Agassiz thought he found evidence in
the structure of the salmon family that indicated " the highest rank
in the class of fishes,"§ and refers with enthusiasm "to their admirable
structure" and great vigor.|| In addition, we have the testimony of
Seth Green and other fish-culturists, that the eggs and young fishes are
hardy and enduring, the latter great feeders and very rapid growers.
In the ponds of different fish-culturists in the country, it is com-
mou to see a school of several thousand California salmon a year
old or more, which are said to have suffered no loss whatever in

* Oncorhynchus orientalis, Pall. (English) King salmon; (Russian) Chowicheo; Na-
tive K'hab. Alaska and its Resources. By William H. Dall, director of the scientific
corps of the late Western Union Telegraph Expedition. Boston : Lee & Shepard,
1870, p. 579.

t Oncorhynchus protens, Pall, f English) salmon ; (Russian) hoikoh. Op. cit.

t No. 285, February, 1874, p. 341.

§ Lake Superior. Boston : 1850, p. 25.

U Op. cit., pp. 327, 328.

XXX REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

numbers since they were placed in the pond. In the report of the
commissioners of fisheries of the State of New York for the year
1874-'7o, it is said of the California salmon : "These fish will endure
a much higher temperature of water, spawn at a different season,
are less exacting in the circumstances necessary to their well-
being." In view of these facts, as to their habits, endurance, and
general vigor and energy, have we not a right to hope for ultimate suc-
cess in stocking the Mississippi and other eastern rivers with this val-
uable species %

The stocking of a large number of rivers of the United States
with this food-fish to as great an extent as the Sacramento Eiver
or even the San Joaquin, is an enterprise well worthy great effort
and much pecuniary outlaj', and its successful achievement will prove
a blessing to the poorer classes of the country as well as another
evidence of the value of science in its application to the economic indus-
tries. If, however, our anticipations are only partially realized in a
moderate proportion to what we now have in the California and Oregon
rivers, the labor and cost of the experiment will not have been in vain,
and coming generations will have cause to thank the liberality and
statesmanship of our present law-givers.

G. — ATLANTIC SALMON.

During the seasons of 1873-'74 and 1874-'75 the collection of eggs of
Penobscot salmon has been conducted at Bucksport, by Mr. C. G. Atkins,
in the same manner as described in the report for 1872-'73.

The fixtures and apparatus employed have undergone considerable
enlargement and amendment, but the essential features of the system
remain the same as at first adopted. The salmon are caught in early
summer in pounds in the Penobscot Eiver, carried alive to a small fresh-
water pond, and kept there until the breeding-season, when they are
caught again and manipulated.

Duriug the first season the salmon had the range of a pond of GO
acres, and a large number escaped recapture at the spawning-season.
They have since been confined in an inclosure of about 10 acres, and
each year the inclosing banier has been made more secure. In 1873
and 1871 it was a strong net, and in spite of all exertions a number of
salmon each year escaped. In 1875 a fence composed of wooden racks
was substituted for the net, and proved an effectual means of confining
the salmon.

The means of catching the fish in the fall have been improved by
the introduction of additional pounds, nets, and other apparatus, so that
the waste of eggs by the fish laying them before they can be caught and
manipulated is reduced to a very small amount.

In the hatching-house since the first season the troughs have been
reduced to a uniform length of about 23 feet, and fitted with covers.

The use of tin boxes for packing eggs for transportation has been
mostly abandoned on account of its expense. Wooden trays, 3 inches

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXI

deep and from 1 to 2 feet in length and breadth, are now employed,
and make at once the most compact, convenient, and economical
package with which I am acquainted. The eggs are placed in these
trays in layers, alternating with layers of moss, from which they are
separated by pieces of thin fabric. When filled and put together in
stacks, the trays are encased in sawdust, which protects from freezing
during long winter journeys. In packages of 50,000 to 100,000 they
occupy about one cubic foot for 5,000 or 10,000 eggs.

The number of breeding-salmon bought and manipulated, their size,
the number of eggs obtained and distributed, and the number of young
salmon set free are exhibited by the following table :

Salmon bought.

Salmon recaptured at sp
season.

iwriing

Eggs.

Young

salmon
set tree.

Tear.

a

GO
OD

BQ

O

a

B
Eh

"la
o
srl

© •

® .

t 2°
.5 J

S3

O Jc (U

1873-'74

1874-'75

650
601

Pounds.
13.28
14.03

143

178

279
343

422
521

Pounds.
12. 28
12. 73

Inches.
32. 24
32. 19

2, 453, 638

3, 008, 356

2, 292, 675
2, 744, 877

2, 065, 445
1, 68C, 603

Total

1,251

321

622

943

5,401,994

5, 037, 552

3 752 113

The ratio of impregnation has been about 95 per cent.

Complete success has attended the incubation of the eggs, except in
the season of 1874-'75, when the eggs were all, or nearly all, affected by
a deficiency of strength in the outer shell. An average success was had
with those eggs that remained that season in the hatching-house at
Bucksport to hatch for the State of Maine ; but of those that were
packed for transportation large numbers were lost en route, or so greatly
injured that they died before hatching, or soon after. Mr. Atkins attrib-
uted this phenomenon to causes existing in the state of the water of the
pond and hatching-house, which remained, through prevalence of warm,
dry weather, in a low, foul state through the greater part of the spawn-
ing season. In 1873-'74 the water was renewed by copious rains, and
the eggs throughout incubation were in perfect health.

In 1872 and 1873, and again in 1875, all the fish handled at the
spawuing season were marked with metal tags and dismissed to the
river. The mode of tagging in 1872 was by affixing a stamped alu-
minum tag to a rubber baud passing around the tail. This was a de-
fective mode, and no results were obtained from it. In 1873 the alumi-
num tags were attached directly by a platinum wire to the rear margin
of the first dorsal fin. A reward was offered in the following spring for
the return of the marked salmon, and about twenty of them were sent
in, nearly all caught in the river, and more than half of them above
Bangor, 25 miles further up the river than Bucksport, where they were
set at liberty, showing that instinct did not impel these liberated fish to
return at once to their marine feeding-grounds. They were all poorer
than when set free in the fall. In 1874 the marking was omitted, but

XXXII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

the offered reward was renewed in the spring of 1875, and resulted in the
return of seven or eight of the marked salmon of 1873, now iu prime
order, weighing from 16£ to 24J pounds. Unfortunately the aluminum
tag had fallen off, and we could not trace the individual salmon, but
the wire remained to attest the date of their liberation and return. The
salmon set free in autumn of 1873 in poor condition returned in good
condition in 1875, and not before. Probably a much larger number of
these salmon were caught that were never reported, for the wire was fine
and not easily seen ; indeed, two marked salmon were placed in the
pond without discovering the mark till the spawning season.

The experiment has been renewed in 1875, with a change in the
material, platinum being substituted for aluminum in the tag.

7. — THE WHITE-FISH.

The white-fish (Coregonus albas, Les.,) of the Great Lakes is a fine table-
fish, and as it is produced in considerable numbers in favorable waters,
some attention has been given to its propagation. In 1872, arrange-
ments were made with Mr. K. W. Clark, of Clarkston, Mich., to hatch a
half million of eggs of this fish. About the middle of February, 216,000
were shipped to San Francisco, Cal., but being left to the care of the
express messenger, beyond Omaha, Nebr., they suffered from the changes
of temperature incident to a car with a fire in it, and arrived iu very
bad condition. On March 10, another shipment of 116,000 was made,
which arrived in good order. In 1873, 25,000 more were transmitted
and hatched, and the young fish placed in the waters of Clear Lake, from
which partly grown ones were afterward taken. Iu 1874 an additional
20,000 were sent by Mr. K W. Clark, late of Northville, Mich., which
were hatched at Berkeley, Cal., and put into Tulare Lake. On March
8, 1875, there were shipped to San Francisco, Cal., 100,000. and March
23, 100,000 were sent to the Lakes in the Indian Reservation at Keshena,
Wis. The States bordering on the Lakes and Canada have now begun
the propagation of this species, by which means they intend to keep up
the stock of the Great Lakes.

8. — THE CARP OF EUROPE.

After considerable inquiry and investigation we are disposed to be-
lieve that there are varieties of the European carp of superior value,
because of their table qualities, and that the idea entertained by many
that the carp is a very inferior food- fish has arisen from the testimony
of those who have been so unfortunate as to have eaten only those of
inferior quality.

Admitting its value as a table-fish, or even that it is of average excel-
lence, it should be considered a desirable acquisition to the waters of
the United States, for it has other characteristics which render it val-
uable, and which are not known to be possessed by any American
species, among which are its fecundity and adaptibility to the most

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXIII

varied waters, from deep cool lakes and rapid streams to the merest
puddles and ditches,* and to latitudes from St. Petersburg, Russia, to

Italy-t

Its diet is also varied ; unlike the great proportion of American food-
fishes it can be sustained on vegetable matter, being expecially fond of
water-cresses and similar succulent plants ; it also devours worms and
insect-larvae voraciously. Heckel speaks of its fondness for sheep-dung,
and of its becoming fat upon it. It has proved to be admirably well
adapted to the processes of artificial culture, and throughout Europe
the species has been kept in a semi-domesticated condition from time
immemorial in a very large number of hatching-ponds. It becomes
very tame after a time, and may be taught to eat from the hand, to
come to the side of the pond the culturist desires, and to follow him
along its edge.

Heckel and Kner}: speaking of it, remark that its capability of rapid
propagation, its tough constitution, and excellent table qualities have
induced its abundant cultivation from a very early time. It is believed
to have been introduced into Europe from temperate Asia, and has spread
from the Danube over the whole of Middle and part of Southern Europe.
It is said to attain to au average of from five to ten pounds and even
more, according to the waters inhabited, while Dr. Rudolph Hessel states
that in Lower Hungary he had seen specimens weighing thirty and forty
pounds. The species is of rapid growth, and, under favorable circum-
stances, may be made to attain a weight of three or four pounds in three
years. §

In its domesticated condition the carp has developed very many va-
rieties, some of which are improvements in quality over the original
type, while the contrary is true of others. These different forms falling
into their hands, naturalists have been led to name them as different
species, and later students in studying the carp in its numerous forms

* In Couch's British Fishes a quotation is made from Sir Roger North, as follows :

" Carp are sometimes fed, during the colder season, in a cellar. The fish is wrapped
up in a quantity of wet moss, laid on a piece of net, and then laid into a purse, but in
such manner, however, as to admit of the fish breathing; the net is then plunged into
water and hung to the ceiling of the cellar. The dipping must be first repeated every
three or four hours, but afterward it need be plunged into the water only once in sis
or seven hours. Bread soaked in milk is sometimes given him in small quantities; in
a short time the fish will bear more and grow fat by this treatment. Many have been
kept alive, breathing nothing but air, in this way several successive days."

A History of the Fishes of the British Islands, by Jonathan Couch, F. L. S., vol. iv,
containing seventy-three colored plates, from drawings by the author. (London :
Groombridge & Sous, 5 Paternoster Row. 1845. Carp, p. 4.)

t In winter they are said to bury themselves in the mud in large bodies, and to re-
main in a somewhat torpid condition and without food, but losing little or nothing in
flesh, until the following spring.

t Die Susswasserfische der ostreichischen Monarchie mit Rucksickt auf die angriin-
genden Lander bearbeitet von Jakob Heckel * * uud Dr. Rudolph Kner * * *
Leipzig, Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann, 1858, p. 57.

§Aigner, quoted by Heckel and Kner.

f— in

XXXIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

have been obliged to gather long lists of synonyms, each applying to
one or more of the varieties. Giinther's list of synonyms embraces
thirtj'-one binomial names, aud several common names. Beginning with
the Koizpivoq of Aristotle, his volume includes new ones to nearly the
date of its publication.* He finds the names applied to the normal
type, to " varieties of the integuments," to " varieties of form," to
" monstrosities," to the " eastern [Asiatic] specimens," and to a " variety
with the fins much prolonged." His material for study included Euro-
pean specimens from different parts of England, Holland, Hungary,
Switzerland, and Eussia, and Asiatic specimens from China, Formosa,
Japan, and Java, all which varieties he refers to the one species, Gypri-
nus carpio L.

Another species, the Crucian carp (Carassms vulgaris (Miss.) Nord.)
is found in temperate Asia aud Europe. This, too, has been domesti-
cated and has developed varieties principally in the particular of form.
An extensive list of names pertains to this species, also. The testimony
of writers agrees rather uniformly that the Crucian carp is inferior in
flavor to the common carp ; still, it is cultivated in portions of Europe.
Its present distribution appears to extend farther north than the com-
mon carp, as it is taken in Norway and Siberia. A variety is also found
as far south as Sicily.

To add to the confusion into which the existence of so many variable
forms has placed the question of species, it is known that two or more
hybrids exist between the Gyprinus carpio and other species. The best
known one is that which was identified by Heckel as Gyprinus Kollarii,
now believed to be a cross between Gyprinus carpio and Gyprinus caras-
sius L. ; it is said to be found wherever the two species are kept under
domestication. This hybrid is considered to be inferior to the common
carp. Another one is the cross between G. carpio L. and Garassius
auratus (L.) Bleeker, which is thought superior to the latter, though
much cannot be said in its favor. In a letter received from Dr. O.
Finseh, still another hybrid is referred to between C. carpio L. and
Gyprinus brama L.

Among all these variations of form and external characters, differing
as they do in proportions of body, in the size of the scales, in the partial
or complete absence of scales, in the form of the fins, and in the combi-
nations of the characters of two species in a hybrid, there is also a varia-
tion in their edible qualities, in their prolificness, some forms being en-
tirely sterile, and popularly believed to be neuter in gender, aud also
in their hardiness and adaptability to more or less unfavorable waters.

In referring to the sterile carps, Siebold remarks that many are found
in which ovaries or spermaries are never fully developed. In some they
are so little developed that the generative organs are found only with the

* Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, by Albert Giinther, M. A., M. D.,
Ph. D., F. R. S., F. Z. S., etc., etc. Volume seventh, Loudon : Printed by order of the

trustees, 1803.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXV

greatest difficulty, and they are considered by many as asexual. The
sterile carp is mentioned by Aristotle. They are generally well known
and can be distinguished by those accustomed to handle them. In
France the sterile form is the Carp Brehaigne and Carpeau. De La-
tourette states that the sterile carp has shorter and thicker lips, and that
the belly in the. vicinity of the anus is thin and shrunken.* The better
varieties seem to be the Spiegel-karpfen, mirror carp {Cyprinus specularis
Lacep), {Cyprinus rex-cyprinorum (Bloch), Cuv.,) and the naked carp
{Cyprinus nudus Bloch) or {Cyprinus alepidotus Ag.) and the sterile ones.
It is claimed by certain English writers that by a process of spaying or
castration, which can be performed on the carp, the flavor is much im-
proved.

The artificial propagation of the carp has been carried on successfully
in Europe for a number of years. Their annual deposit of eggs, how-
ever, is so large in numbers that artificial impregnation is seldom neces-
sary, though affording a larger percentage of increase over the natural.
The spawning season in Middle Europe is May and June, though, accord-
ing to Siebold, some spawn as late as August. The eggs are very adhe-
sive, and in a state of nature are found sticking to the leaves of plants
and the small twigs of brush which have fallen into or which grow
under the water. The eggs are thought to develop best when only one
or two inches from the surface, t The fish emerges from the egg after
about twenty days, leaviug the shell still attached to the plant or twig.
The artificial method is to express the eggs on light frames of netting,
©r on baskets made by wattling a wooden frame with boughs, the milt be-
ing scattered over them as they lie adherent to the nets and the leaves.
The netting frames are placed vertically in a floating box, which, in a
running stream, is afforded the necessary water circulation. The basket,
when covered with the impregnated eggs, is treated in like manner.
The boughs of the juniper (Juniperus) are said to be the best for making
the baskets. The pairs of ripe fish may be put into the basket and left
to themselves, a piece of netting being tied over the top to prevent
their escape. After the eggs have been deposited the fishes should be
removed.

Among the localities in Europe where, it is stated, they are bred, the
following are referred to, with, in some cases, the name of the proprietor
or superintendent of the ponds :

" The naked carp {C. nudus Bloch) is chiefly raised in North Germany;
the mirror carp {C. rex cyprinorum (Bloch) Cuv.) in South Germany; the
scaled genuine carp in North Germany (Mecklenburg, Holstein, &c),
in Bohemia and Silesia ; " fide Dr. O. Finsch. Casel, mirror carp, Mr,
Lewin Fischhof; Geirsdorf, Silesia scaled carp ; Wittengen, Hanover,
Mr. Link; Hameln, Fishermeister Schieber; Liebbinchen, Brandenburg;

*See Die Siisswasserfische vou Mittel-Europa^bearbeitet Von C. Th. E. v. Siebold.
Leipzig, Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann, 1863.
t Report 18?2-'73, p. 568.

XXXVI EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Drobriluyk, Brandenburgh, Traugott Mende; Wittengen, Bohemia,
Prince Schwarzenburg j Biddabausen, near Brunswick, naked carp7
Prince of Schonnburg-Lippe ; Wiesbaden, common carp, mirror carp,
and gold-orfe, nassauiscke Fisberei, Actiengesellscbaft ; Niirnburg, mirror
carp; Gunzenbausen, mirror carp; Lusatia, estate of Cottbus Peitzj
Upper Silesia, Baron Eotbscbild ; Brickaberg, naked carp ; Heesen, Mr.
Bodeman ; Hocbst,* near Frankfort, mirror carp, scaled carp, and gold-
orfe ; Oldenburg, bybrid, C. Kollarii Heck., Mr. Wagner.

Tbis list migbt be multiplied many times.

Tbe present distribution of tbe carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) in Europe
may be given as throughout tbe middle latitudes of Europe, extending
northward to Northern Germany and southward into Italy. The C.
carassius L. has a more northern range into Siberia and Norway, while
the variety C. humilis is fouud in Sicily.

The special advantage to be gained by the possession of the carp is in
its general adaptability to all waters, and that it thrives under conditions
unfavorable to many species. According to Heckel and Kner, it prefers
"water not too rapid and a boggy bottom.

As a fish for propagation in ponds and other sluggish waters both south
and north, it is believed the carp will excel all others. In Northern
Silesia, according to Mr. Von dem Borne,t on the estate of Baron von
Bothschild, puddles two or three feet deep in the villages are used for
raising two-year-old carps for stocking distant waters. From this re-
source, a single estate realized what would amount to about $55 per
American acre of pond-surface.

The following is a recapitulation of the good qualities of the carp :

1. Fecundity and adaptability to the processes of artificial propaga-
tion.

2. Living largely on a vegetable diet.

3. Hardiness in all stages of growth.

4. Adaptability to conditions unfavorable to any equally palatable
American fish and to very varied climates.

5. Kapid growth.

G. Harmlessness in its relations to other fishes.

7. Ability to populate waters to their greatest extent.

8. Good table qualities.

The food-fish indigenous to the United States, which has been the
most widely distributed in the smaller ponds and lakes, is the large-
mouthed black bass {Micropterus nigricans (Cuv.) Lacep.) This fish is
very carnivorous, preying upon almost all species in the same waters.
Even the pickerel is said to decrease rapidly when in contact with it.
The necessity for fish-food is always a bar to a great increase of numbers
among fishes, especially in small bodies of water. Species which feed

* Carp in ponds at Baltimore, Mel., obtained here by United States Commission
Fisheries.

t Circular No. 1, 1876, of the Deutsche Fisberei- Verein, see translation in appendix.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXVII

upon invertebrate and vegetable forms fill out the possible quota of the
waters with their own kind, while the carnivorous species require that
a large, generally the larger, proportion of the inferior species upon which
they feed inhabit the waters with them. An instance of the ability of
the carp to stock waters to their utmost occurred at Heidelberg, Ger-
many, where male pikes (Esox lucius L.) were introduced for the purpose
of reducing their numbers.

9. — AQUARIUM CAR.

During the winter of lS72-'73, Mr. Livingston Stone was employed
in an investigation of the fisheries of the Sacramento Eiver and some
of the inland lakes of California. In the spring of 1873, he came East
to prepare for a return to California with an aquarium-car loaded with
fishes for both the inland waters and sea-coast of California — an enter-
prise partly under the auspices of the State commissioners of California.
This car, originally built for the transportation of fruit, was furnished
by the Central Pacific .Railroad Company. It was fitted up with the
necessary tanks, ice-chests, and beds for attendants; the supply- reser-
voir was arranged so as to receive water from the spouts of the rail-
road tanks.

The stock of fishes and invertebrates taken on board consisted of
60 black bass (Micropterus salmoides); 11 wall-eyed pike (Stizostedium
Americanus) ; 190 yellow perch (Perca fiavescens) ; 12 bullheads
{Amiurus catus) ; 110 cat-fish from Earitan Eiver, Amiurus albidus f) ;
20 tautogs {Tautoga Americana)) 41,500 eels (Anguilla bostoniensis) ;
1,000 trout (Salmo fontinalis) j 20,000 shad (Alosa sapidissima) ; 162
lobsters (Homarus vulgaris) ; and one barrel of oysters from Massachu-
setts Bay (Oslrea virginica.) The start was made from Charlestown,
N. H., June 3, and everything resulted favorably until the 8th of June,
when, by the giving way of the trestle-work of a bridge at the Elkhorn
Eiver, Nebr., the aquarium-car was precipitated into the river, the car
was partially up-ended, and the tanks thrown into confusion. As the
lids were floated off from the tanks, it is probable that most of the
fishes escaped into the river. Many of the species, however, were well
adapted to the waters of the river, but of course not the tautogs, lob-
sters, or oysters.

In the year following, Mr. Stone left Charlestown, N. H., on June 4,
1874, under the auspices of the commissioner of fisheries of California.
He arrived at the Sacramento on the 12th of June, and at San Fran-
cisco the same day. A tabulated list of the results of this expedition
will be found in the appendix.

XXXVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

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CONTENTS.

Page.

REPORT OP THE COMMISSIONER. (Table of contents precedes report) I

APPENDIX A.— SEA FISHERIES AND THE FISHES AND INVERTEBRATES USED AS

POOD 1

I. Historical observations on the condition of the fisheries among the ancient Greekb

and Romans and their mode of salting and pickling fish. By J. K. Smidth 3

Introduction 3

Classified groups of fishes , 8

Caring processes 14

Lobsters 1?

Fish, oyster, and snail ponds 18

tj. Statistics of the most important fisheries of the North Atlantic. By Carl Dam-
beck 21

1. Norway • 21

2. Sweden 21

3. Denmark 22

4. Germany 22

5. Great Britain and Ireland 23

6. Fiance 24

7. North America 24

TTT. On the fisheries of Norway •. 25

IV. Statistical data regarding the Swedish fisheries 31

Y, Account of the fisheries and seal-hunting in the White Sea, the Arctic Ocean, and

the Caspian Sea. By Alexander Schultz 35

A- The fisheries of the White Sea and the Petshora 36

1. The herring 37

2. Thesalmon 40

3. Thenavaga (Qadtis navaga) and other salt-water fish *. 43

4. River and lake fish 44

B. Fisheries in the Arctic Ocean 44

1. Fisheries on the Mourman coast 44

2. Fisheries at Novaya-Zemlya 52

Q. Fishing and seal-hunting in the Caspian Sea 58

1. Fish found in the Caspian Sea 58

2. Spawning-season of the fish in the Caspian Sea 61

3. Wealth of fish in the Caspian Sea 62

4. Estimated value of the fisheries in the Caspian Sea 63

5. Fishing-basins of the Caspian Sea 64

6. Fishing-implements 72

7. Importance of a vataga (fishing-establishment) 80

8. Preparing the fish and its several parts 82

9. Market-price of fish and their products 90

10. Price of fish as fixed by agreement between the fisherman and the fishing-houses 91

11. Seal-hunting 92

12. Manufacture of seal-oil 95

VI. The Norwegian herring-fisheries. By A. I. Boeck and A. Feddersen 97

VII. Preliminary report for 1873-74 on the herring and the herring-fisheries on the

west coast of Sweden. By Axel Vilhelm Ljungnian 123

1. On different species of herring and small-herring 125

The spring-herring (Olupea majalis) 128

The sea-herring (hafslottsill) 130

The wandering-herring (Straksillen) 131

Herring-spawning in autumn 133

The large herring, or the so-called (ganila) herring, ( Olupea bohusica, Nilss) 133

2. Of the propagation and growth of the herring and small-herring 143

3. Of the herring's and small-herring's mode of life; its migrations, and the dependence of

these latter on meteorologic an d hydrographic circumstances . . 147

4. Of the herring-fisheries and thejr time and place............... „„..... j....^...... 150

XLYIII CONTENTS.

APPENDIX A- Continued. Page.

yil. Of THE HERRING AND HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE WEST COAST OF SWEDEN— Continued.

5. The smaL. herring fisheries, their time and place . 152

6. Of fishing implements, the manner in which they are used, and other matters connected

therewith 154

7. Scientific ol eervations and scientific as well as practical experiments necessary for con-

tinuing the i nvestigations and bringing them to a satisfactory end 365

8. Of the immediate continuation of the investigations and the sums required for this

purpose 167

VUI. The halibut-fisheries of the United States. By Lieut. P. de Broca 109

IX. The fishing-villages, Sxekkersteen and Skotterup, and the collection of fishing-

implements exhibited by them at Elbinore, Denmark, during the summer of 187a. . 173

X. On the herring, and its preparation as an article of trade. By Bjalniar Widegren .. 183

Introduction , 163

1. Preparation of common Baltic herring for consumption in Sweden and in, the German

ports of the Ealtic 189

2. Preparation of extra- fine herring for home consumption 192

3. Preparation of spiced herring (Kryddsill) 193

XL New contributions to the herrlng-question. The dispute between Axel Boeck and

OtsiAN Sars regarding the Norwegian summer-herring. Sars'u recent observa-
tions and HIS NEW THEORY ON THE MIGRATIONS OF THE HERRING 195

XII. Otf THE SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE COD-FISH. By Prof. G. O. Sars 213

XIII. The Norwegian lobster-fishery, and its history. By A.xel Boeck 223

Introduction ?~3

Implements for catching the lobsters, methods of catching them, and tho manner of ship-
ping them 228

The lobster-trade and the history of its legislation , 232

Draught of a law regarding the protection of lobsters 253

XIV. Transportation of lobsters to California 258

XV. ON THE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF THE LOBSTER 267

XVI. On the oyster-industries of the United States. By Lieut P. do Broca . 27 1

Letter to the minister of marine and colonial affairs 271

Chapter first —

Introduction , , 277

Chapter second —

Oysters of the United States ,»„ 2eG

Mode of obtaining the oysters 202

Culture of oysters 290

Laws concerning oyster-plantations 299

Chapter third —

The oyster-business in several cities of tho United States , 302

Chapter fourth —

General views upon the natural history of the market-clams. 313

Recommendations for introduction 318

APPENDIX B.— THE RIVER-FISHERIES 321

XVII. The propagation and distribution of the shad 323

A. Operations in the distribution of the shad in 1874. By James VV. Mil ner 323

Distribution from Coey mans, N. T 323

Distribution from South Hadley Falls, Mass 323

Table of distribution, 1874 326

B. Report on shad-hatching in New Jersey. By G. A. Anderson 327

C. Voyage to Bremerhaven, Germany, with shad. By Fred Mather 328

D. Living shad on their way to Weser. Translated by H. Jacobsen 330

E. Shad hatching and distributing operations of 1875 335

1. The Nouse River station 335

2. The Pamunkey River station 336

3. The Potomic River stations 336

4. The distribution of shad from the Hudson River 337

5. The Connecticut River station , 337

6. Experiments with a view to transporting shad to Germany 338

7. The trip to Germany 339

Tables of shad-hatching operations 340

XVTTL Report of the Triana trip. By J. W. Milner 351

XIX. On the transportation of shad for long distances 363

A. Experiments with a view to transporting shad in sea-water. By James "W. Milner 363

B. Experiments with a view to transporting shad a few months' old. By Charles D. Griswold 370-

CONTENTS. XLIX

APPENDIX B -Continned. Page.

XIX. On* tiie transportation of shad for long distances— Continued.

G. Apparatus for hatching shad-ov.i while en route to new waters. By Fred Mather 372

XX. Report of operations in California in 1873. By Livingston Stone 377

A. Clear Late 377

1. Field-work in the winter of 1872-'73 377

2. Character of Clear Lake 377

3. List of fishes inhabiting the lake 378

4. The condition of the fish in Clear Lake at different seasons 380

B. Sacramento River 382

1. Character of fishing on the Sacramento 382

C. California aquarium-car 385

D. Overland journey with live shad 390

1. Preparation for the trip 390

2. The start 390

3. The apparatus 391

4. The care of the fish 391

5. Journal of the trip 395

6. Experiments to ascertain the character of the water 400

7. Stations affording supplies of water 401

8. Temperature of the water in the cans 401

9. Conclusion 401

E. McCloud River station i 402

1. Catching the parent salmon 40:3

2. Confining the salmon 405

3. The Indian sentiment in regard to catching the salmon 408

4. Spawning the fish 410

5. The hatching-apparatus 4 1 1

6. Hatching the eggs 415

7. Packing and shipping the eggs 419

8. The method of packing discussed 420

9. Cost of the eggs 420

10. Journal of overland trip with salmon-eggs 421

11. Distribution of salmon-eggs 423

F. Catalogue of collections sent to the Smithsonian Institution in 1873 424

G. A list of McCloud Indian words, supplementary to a list contained in the report of

1872. By Livingston Stone 128

XXI. Hatching and distribution of California salmon 4ru

A. Report on California salmon-spawn hatched and distributed. By J. H. Slack, M. D 431

B. Hatching and distribution of California salmon in tributaries of Great Salt Lake. By A.

P. Rockwood 434

XXII. Report of operations during 1874 at the United States salmon-hatching estab-
lishment on the McCloud River, Cal. By Livingston Stono 437

Introduction 437

Table of consignment of salmon-eggs according to order of shipments 441

Cost of the eggs 443

Camp-buildings, &c 443

The hatching-apparatus 444

The fish and the fishing 445

The taking and ripening of the eggs 447

Packing the eggs 448

The overland journey of the eggs 44&

Life in camp 459

Our neighbors 466

Game 468

Extracts from journal . , 4t>8

Tables of temperature 471

Catalogue of collections sent to Smithsonian Institution, contributed in 1874 474

Second California aquarium-car 477

XXIII. Correspondence relatlng to the San Joaquin River and its fishes 479

XXIV. The Atlantic Salmon, (Salmo salar) 485

A. Report on the collection and distribution of Penobscot salmon in l£73-'74 and 1874-'75.

By C.G.Atkins 485

1. Methods 485

2. Purchase of breeding-salmon j 486

S. Development and distribution 488

IV F

L CONTENTS.

APPENDIX B— Continued. Page.

XXIV. The Atlantic salmon— Continued.

4. Marking salmon for future identification 490

5. Summaries 492

Tables 493

B. The salmon of Lake Charnplain and its tributaries. By. W. C. Watson 531

1. Abundance of the salmon in early times 531

2. The disappearance of the salmon, and its causes 534

3. Traits of the salmon 533

4. The Au Sable River 539

APPENDIX C— FISH-CULTURE RELATING MORE ESPECIALLY TO SPECIES OF

CYPRINID^ 541

XXV. Notes on pisciculture in Eiangsi. ByH.Kopsch 543

XXVI. ON THE CULTUKE OF THE CAKP 549

A. On carp-ponds 549

B. Carp-culture in East Prussia. ByR.Striivy 552

C. Carp-ponds -. 555

XXVII. The gold-orfe, (Cyvrinus orfus) 559

A. On the raising of the gold-orfo, ( Oyprinus orfus. ) By M. Eirsch 559

B. Correspondence relating to the gold-orfe. By Prof. C. Th. E. v. Siebold 561

XXVIII. Directions for using tables for recording the propagation and distribution of
FISH 563

APPENDIX D.— THE RESTORATION OF THE INLAND FISHERIES 569

XXIX. Fisheries and fish^rst-laws in Austria and of the world in general. By Carl

Pey rer 571

A. General considerations 571

1. Early protective measures 571

2. Improved appreciation of the interest - 572

3. The object of fishery-legislation 573

B. The fisheries 575

4. The former condition of the Austrian fisheries 575

5. The present condition of the fisheries and its causes 576

6. Artificial fish-breeding 580

7. Progress of foreign fisheries 585

8. Condition of pisciculture in Austria 589

9. Value of the products of the fisheries 598

10. Fishery statistics 601

11. Scienti^c investigations 603

C. Important fresh-water fisheries 605

12. Salmon family, (Salmonoid"i) 606

13. The pike family, (Esocini) 613

14. The catfish family, (SUuroidei) 613

15. The cod family, (Oadoidei) 613

16. The eels, (Murcenoidei) 614

17. The carp family, (Cyprinoidei) 614

18. The perch family, (Percoidei) 616

19. The sturgeon family (Ae>penserini) 616

20. The crawfish, (Astacus fluviatilis) 617

D. Protective legislation 618

21. The fishing-privileges 618

22. Foreign fishery -laws 619

23. Fishing-privileges and fishing-laws in Austria 643

24. The buying-off of fishing-privileges 665

25. International fishery-treaties 6G9

26. Salt-water fisheries and the laws relating to them 674

E. Conclusion 077

XXX. How can our lakes and rivers be again stocked with fish in the shortest possible

time ? By Mr. Von dem Borne 681

APPENDIX E— NATURAL HISTORY 685

XXXI. Preliminary report on a series of dredgings made on the United States Coast
Survey Steamer Bache in the Gulf of Maine. By A. S. Packard, jr., M. D 687

XXXII. List of the marine algm of the United States. By TV. G. Farlow, M. D 691

Class Algae 691

List of the principal useful sea- weeds occurring on the United States coast 71G

Used as food 716

Used as fertilizers 716

CONTENTS. LI

m
APPENDIX E— Con tinned. Page.

XXXII. List of the marine alcje of the United SrATES— Continued.

Used for the manufacture of iodine 717

The great kelp of California 717

Alphabetical index 718

XXXIII. Lecture on the organs of reproduction and the fecundation of fishes and
especially of eels. By Dr. Syrski 719

Introduction 719

The organs of reproduction and fecundation in fish in general 720

The reproductive organs of the eel '. 725

The ovaries of the eel 730

The spermatic organs 732

XXXIV. The food and mode of livinc; of the salmon, the trout, and the shad. By D.
Barfurth 735

Prefatory note. By Theo. Gill 735

Introduction 737

1. The food of Trutta salar Siebold, (Salmo salar and hamulus Val.,) and Trutta trutta Sie-
bold (Fario argenteus Val.) in the river Bhine '. 738

2. The food of Trutta fario 753

3. The food of Alausa vulgaris while in the Khino 75?

Conclusion «•■ 759

APPENDIX A.

SEA FISHERIES

AND

THE FISHES AND INVERTEBRATES USED AS FOOD.

I.— HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONDITION OF THE
FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS,
AND ON THEIR MODE OF SALTING AND PICKLING FISH.

By J. K. Smidth.*

If it is interesting to follow the great and rapid progress which pis-
ciculture has made and is still making in our times, it is, on the other
hand, of no small importance to go back through the ages aud inquire
into the position which this sister of agriculture held in antiquity,
especially among those two great nations, the Greeks and Eomans
concerning which we have the most accurate and ample information in
the writings of their poets, historians, and scientists. Although this
rich aud almost perfect literature is known, at least in part, to many
persons through the study of the classical texts themselves, and by
means of more or less faithful translations of the same, but few, per-
haps, are aware of the fact that a large portion of these writings treats
of the life of the seas. They describe its inhabitants and their mode of
living, and inform us that in those times -fish were used as an article of
food, or put to medicinal and other uses. It would be a great mistake
to suppose that we would find a few obscure names only, as having dis-
cussed this subject ; on the contrary, they begin with Homer, and are
found throughout the entire wide range of classic literature.

If any one should ask for the reason of this ardent attachment of the
ancient writers for the sea and everything connected with it, the best
answer will be found in Buffon's Natural History of Fish, where this
famous natural historian says : " Fruitfulness, beauty, and long life are
essential characteristics of the inhabitants of the ocean." This is the
reason why Greek mythology, which, so far as regards the ultimate cause
of its imagery, was much better informed than we usually suppose, and
which produced ideals of undying beauty, placed the cradle of the god-
dess of love and beauty in the ocean, and represents her as springing
from the foaming waves surrounded by her sacred fish, glittering with
gold and azure. This allegory, as beautiful as it is instructive, is by no
means astonishing, for we find that the ancient Greeks had observed the

"Nogle historiske Bemserkningerom Fiskeriernes Tilstand paa Grsekernes og Romer-
nes Tid saint om de dengang brngte Tilberedelsesmaader af saltet og mariueret Fisk.
Af J. K. Smidth. < Tidsskrift for Fiskeri. Udgivet af H. V. Fiedler, og Arthur Fedder-
Ben.— lite Aargang. Kj^beuhavn. Jacob Erslovs Boghatulel. 1871. pp. 34-02.

4 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

habits of fish more closely than those of any other animals. They were
not only familiar with them, but they preferred them as food even to the
choicest poultry. The modern Greeks inherited from them this love of
the sea and its inhabitants, and still preserve it ; while the Romans*
weighed down beneath the most cruel despotism, the most fearful im-
morality, and the most insane luxury that ever disgraced a noble nation,
still clung to their love for the inhabitants of the deep. It is by no
means improbable that they inherited it from those ancient nations of
the East, among whom these characteristic traits may still be observed.*

The nearness of the coast, and the nature of the sea which surrounded
their country as it did on almost every side, naturally inspired them
with a love for ocean life ; and it may well be said, " that this circum-
stance is more closely connected with the progress of civilization than
is usually supposed. We find that it vanishes completely first in those
unfortunate portions of Europe and Asia where barbaric hordes of wild
huntsmen, issuing forth from their northern forests, succeeded by their
numbers and fierceness in changing the customs and ideas of the con-
quered nations."

These words of Buffon form the theme and starting-point for the fol-
lowing observations, which are partly taken from ancient Greek and
Roman authors themselves ; partly from more recent writers, such as
PaulJovius [Giovio], Aldrovaudi, Petrus Artedi, Gesner, Buffon, Sabin
Berthelot, and partly from the very able writings of Noel dela Moriniere,
of Rouen, on this subject.

The archetypes of our modern fishing implements, the net and the line,
have been known and used throughout the whole world from times im-
memorial. In Homer we find the fisheries in a flourishing condition,
and he frequently takes his similes from the art which, in all probability
not only the twin-sister of agriculture, but together with hunting, consti-
tuted the first mode of securing subsistence in the earliest days of the
human race. In the Odyssey, e. g., Penelope's sighing lovers are com-
pared to the fish gasping on the shore, where the fisherman's net has
been emptied. Hesiod places on the shield of Hercules a fisherman on
his lookout, ready to cast his net over some of the finny tribe which are
pursued by a dolphin.

The ancients knew as well as we that certain natural advantages,
•wisely managed, would open up new and remunerative lines of business.
Hence, the Greeks developed their fisheries to such a degree as to enlist
a large amount of physical and mental exertion, and they gradually
became one of the most remunerative of occupations. Large salt-

* During my stay in Paris, I had a long and interesting conversation with the
Chinese minister, and was astonished to hear how far advanced the Chinese are in pis-
ciculture, especially as regards the breeding and raising of fish. They also seem to
have a great many fishing implements which are unknown to us. He finally assured
me that M. Coste (the great French pisciculturist) himself might learn a good deal
by traveling to China, an opinion which was strongly corroborated by his secretary,
a Belgian.

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 5

ing-houses were established in favorable places, round which soon
rose a constantly increasing number of fishermen's huts. These again
attracted artisans and merchants, so that the village soon grew to a
city, of which the fisheries might be called the nucleus. Of such cities
there was a large number, Byzantium and Sinope being illustrious ex-
amples. It is well known that the wealth from fish gave to the sea
near the former city the name of the Golden Horn. " Proud and beau-
tiful Venice" is of later date, but of similar origin.* Many private in-
dividuals rapidly accumulated large fortunes by dealing in salt-fish, and
the ancient writers of comedies frequently make such a trader (Keriphi-
los by name) the object of their raillery. This man, it seems, had been
honored with the Athenian citizenship, but his son, by a life of dissipa-
tion, soon spent the fortune which his thrifty father had amassed.

We are acquainted with about four huudred different names of fishes,
which have been described by Greek authors. "This abundance of words,"
says Buffon, " this wealth of exhaustive and accurate terms, presupposes
the same abundance of ideas and knowledge. Is it not evident that
nations, who had fixed the names of many more objects than we, must
naturally have known a great many more f

From what Aristophanes and other dramatic writers tell usof themode
of living amons; the ancient Greeks we know that in their time fresh and
salt fish formed a very important article of trade. Athenaeus quotes about
two hundred passages of authors, whose works are now lost, in which
different ways of preparing and preserving fish are mentioned. Xeno-
crates, iEschylus, and Sophocles did not consider it beneath their dignity
to speak of very tempting bills of fare; and Archestratus, who assisted
Epicurus in seeking the qualification of the senses, seems to have de-
scribed a great many such in his poem, " Dipnologia," a most amusing
and excellent cook-book, whose lossis still deplored by modern gourmands.
In the city of Athens the government, in its paternal care, even went so
far as to make a law obliging fishermen as soon as they brought their fish
to the market to sound a gong, so that everybody might buy fresh fish.
We are also told that fishmongers, in order to sell their stock more rapidly,
were not allowed to sit down, but required to stand during the time fixed
for selling.t

That fish formed U favorite article of food in those times, is clear from
the fact that great importance was attached to their fisheries. But other
considerations also tended to increase their interest in the success of
the fisheries. Fleets, as is well known, played an important part in all
of the wars of those ages. It was often a matter of considerable difficulty

* Regarding the remarkable fish-colony, Commachio, compare the work by M. Coste,
"Voyage d'exploration sur le littoral de la France et de l'ltalie." Paris, 1861.

tThis law seems to have been known in Vienna in the fifteenth century. At any
rate, there has been fouud in the archives of that city an ancient decree ordering the
fishermen to sell their fish standing and bare-headed, exposed to the scorching rays of
eun and to storm and rain, thus forcing them to sell their fish speedily and at a reason-
able price.

6 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

to find sailors sufficient to mau theni, and especially experienced sailors.
It was, therefore, a matter of great importance to the governments of
Athens, Sparta, and other states, that the fisheries should be encour-
aged, especially the sea-fisheries, which, in our days also, are considered
the best nurseries of sailors for the navy.

We must also take into account the fact that the greatest wealth of
Greece grewoutof her colonies. To maintain an intimate connection with
these was of the utmost importance; and for this end, also, the fisheries
were especially useful, since along the coasts of these colonies all those
fish were caught which move in schools. These fish formed an impor-
tant article of trade, not alone for the colonies, but also for the mother-
country, so that the former were necessarily dependent upon the latter.
The article for which there was the greatest and most widely-spread
demand, was salt-fish. All historians of that period agree in laying
stress on the great importance which this article held in commerce,
even before the time of Alexander, and during the last centuries of the
independence of Greece.

But after wealth increased, and luxury and effeminacy took the place
of the original simplicity of life and manners, the fisheries developed an
inexhaustible supply of new articles of food, and the Black Sea (Pontus
Euximis) and the Sea of Azof (Palus Mceotis) became what the banks of
Newfoundland were to the maritime states of Europe during the first
centuries after their discovery. Besides fresh fish, dried and salt fish,
oil, glue, and a number of other articles, prepared in an ingenious man-
ner from the roe and the intestines of fish and of other animals living
in the water, as also a large number of peculiar kinds of medicine, pre-
pared from them, became the objects of large and extended mercantile
enterprises ; and all these were often sent, at an enormous expense, to
the most distant portions of the then known world. Hence it was that
the fisheries constantly increased in importance, so that thousands of
slaves became educated as sailors and fishermen.

But the fisheries of Greece could not save her from decay. There
arose in Italy a new nation whose fixed purpose was to subdue the
world, which it ultimately accomplished. Borne, nursed by a wolf, never
renounced its wolf-nature. First, it ravished its neighbor's daughters
in order to secure wives; then their sons, iu order to secure slaves ; and,
finally, it carried its eagles over the beautiful land of the Greeks. But
Borne was practical, and its rule proved an advantage to the fisheries.
The most important question was how to raise sailors for the fleet. The
number of fishermen was not sufficient, and the crews of the Boman
galleys consisted more of rowers than of sailors ; but the latter were in
great demand, as they were more familiar with the element where battles
were to be fought.

Not only politics, but religion also, proved advantageous to the fish-
eries, for the Licinian law decreed that on certain days of the year salt-
fish only could he eaten. The fishermen had also their special festival,
which was celebrated with great pomp on ihe 3d day of June.

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 7

The Romans, like the Greeks, carried on their fisheries partly along
the coasts and partly in the open sea. A large number of fishermen's
societies had been organized, which fitted out large vessels and sent them
on long cruises all over the Mediterranean, and even beyond the Pillars
of Hercules, up and down the coasts of North Africa, Spain, and Por-
tugal. They well knew how to make use of favorable weather, and were
familiar with the best hours for fishing by day and by night ; as, for ex-
ample, just before the rising of the sun and the moon, and just after
their setting.

The most ordinary fishing-implements were the harpoon, the line, and
different kinds of nets and seines. It will thus be seen that fishermen
in our time are not so very far in advance of their ancient brethren,
although of course these implements have been somewhat improved
during the progress of ages.

Noel de la Moriniere gives the following account of the method of fish-
ing with lines : " The lines were generally made of horsehair, single,
double, and plaited. The hair of horses was preferred to that of mares,
and black hair was not esteemed as highly as white. According to
iElianus, the hair was colored in different ways. The fishing-pole was
chosen with reference to the supposed weight of the fish to be caught
and the resistance it could offer. The hooks, which were of copper or
iron, covered with tin, were single, or composed of several branches,
and of different thickness. If fish were to be caught having sharp
teeth, and hence able to injure the line, it was surrounded just above
the hook with a covering of horn or some other hard substance, e. g.,
copper. For catching sharks, or similar fish, iron chains were employed.
Many details concerning these implements are found in the works of
the ancient writers." (Histoire generate des Peches, p. 188.)

Special care was taken in the selection of bait for line-fishing. The
most common bait was small fish, larva), worms, or insects ; some-
times, also, the lungs and liver of hogs and goats, shell-fish, and polyps ;
and even at times the entrails of animals which had been saturated
with an extract of myrtle and other odoriferous plants. Oppianus, and,
after him, Cassianus Bassus, as well as other writers in the time of the
emperors, have described a large number of different kinds of bait.
Tbey were prepared to . suit the tastes of the different fish. Thus the
" aurata" was caught with almonds and the sword-fish with mullets. Op-
pian says that the " lycostome " (a sort of herring) was the best bait
for catching the " sargus." As soon as a certain quantity had been
thrown into the water they came in large swarms to eat it, and the fish-
ermen then seized the opportunity to inclose them in their nets, and
thus frequently caught large numbers.*

* This use of bait in net-fishing reminds us of the sardine fisheries on the coast of
Brittany, as carried on in our own time. But here the roe of the cod-fish is used as a
bait for the sardines. To give an idea of the enormous quantity of roe used for sar-
dine-fishing, I will only mention that 30,000 kegs of roe are exported annually from

H REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The Romans also used artificial baits ; and the art of making flies of
feathers and other materials has, perhaps, never been carried further
in our time even in England itself. Fishing by torch-light was a favor-
ite amusement, and several ancient authors describe this mode.

There were peculiar methods of net-fishing, which we have only imi-
tated or somewhat developed. Hemp, flax, and Spanish reeds were used
for the manufacture of these nets, which were afterward tanned sev-
eral times in order to make them stronger. The fishermen set them
both along the coast and in the open sea. Drag-nets, which were first
used by the Greeks, served for inclosing the large schools of migratory
fish, and the stationary nets stopped them in their course. These latter
were very large, and were made of a kind of plaited work of Spanish
broom. Permanent nets of this kind were soon used at the mouth of the
Bosphorus, on the coasts of Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia, especially in the
Ligurian Sea, the Bay of Naples, the straits of Bonifacio and of Mes-
sina, at the entrance of the Adriatic, the straits of Cadiz, and along
the coasts of France and Spain. Strabo makes especial mention of the
large stationary nets on the coast of the island of Elba.

The four hundred names of fish spoken of by Greek authors are given
in alphabetical order in the work of Aldrovandi, who, also, gives alpha-
betical lists of fish in Latin, Italian, French, German, and English.
Similar lists are found in Gesner, Artedi, and other authors. Those
who desire further information on this subject are referred to the works
of those ichthyologists. But to enable the reader to form some idea of
the numbers and kind of fish known in those times, the following list is
given, in which those groups and families are mentioned which were
most numerous in the Greek and Latin seas. Each of these groups,
therefore, comprises a considerable number of important species, to
enumerate which would lead us too far from our special theme. In this
list Lutken's system has been followed :

FIRST ORDER.

a. Tlie perch group. — Red mullets (Muuus) ; breams \Sparus);
scisenoids (Scicena umbra); and white mullets [Mugil)\ besides quite
a number of labroids (e. g., the parrot-fish, Scarus, and other simi-
lar fish.)

b. The toad-fish group. — 1, gurnards (Trigla); 2, frog-fishes, e. g., the
angler (Lophius piscatorius) ; 3, gobies (Gobius); 4, blennies (Blennius);
the sea-wolf (Anarrhicas lupus); 5, codfishes (Gadus), and especially
the " Asellus;" 6, flounders (Pleuronectes); and among these the turbot
(Pleuronectes rhombus), plaice (Pleuronectes limanda), sole (Pleuronectes
solea,) <&c.

Norway to France. Each of these kegs contains ahout 140 kilograms, making a total
of about 4,500,000 kilograms, or about 9,000,000 of pounds, valued at about 3,000,000
francs. Several owners of large fisheries have assured me that the buying of this roe
deprives them of half the profits of their sardine-fisheries.

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 9

e. The mackerel group. — The mackerel {Scomber scombus); the tunny
(Scomber thynnus); the scad (Caranx trachurus), and the swordfish
(Xiphias).

d. The pipe-fish group. — The sea-horse (hippocampus).

SECOND ORDER.

a. The carp group. — The common carp (Cyprinus carpio); the tench
(Cyprinus tinea), and the loach (Cobitis).

b. The eel group. — The common kinds of eel and the sea-eel (Anguilla,
Conger).

c. The salmon group. — Nearly all kinds.

d. The herring group. — Especially the anchovy (Engraulis encras-
icholus).

THIRD ORDER.

a. Sharks (squalus). — The dog-fish (Scyllium canicula); the blue shark
(Galeus vulgaris); and others.

b. Rays (raja). — The saw-fish (Pristis); the cramp-fish (Torpedo).

FOURTH ORDER.

Lampreys (Petromyzon). — The river lamprey (Petromyzon fluvialis),
and the sea-lamprey (Petromyzon marinus).

Besides these fish, whales, dolphins, lobsters, crabs, oysters, various
kinds of shell-fish and other sea-animals, that came within the scope of
the fisheries, are mentioned, and ought therefore to be noticed in this
place. In the following pages some of the most important fish, as well
as the mode of fishing for them, &c, will be mentioned ; then the salt-
ing of fish ; and finally we will see what Pliny says about the artificial
fish ponds, which will naturally lead us to speak of lobsters, oysters,
shell-fish, &c.

THE MULLET.

The mullet (mullus) was a great favorite with the Romans. Horace
says, "You praise, O fool, a mullet of three pounds, which you are
obliged to cut into several pieces;" and Martial praises the mullet, say-
ing, " The mullet of four pounds, which you had bought, was the chief
attraction of your feast," (ccenw pompa caputque fuit).*

Noel de la Moriniere tells us in the following words to what length the
Eomans carried their passion for mullets :

"The mullet was one of those fish that were most sought for in
degenerate Eome, aud it was made the subject of the most refined
sensual enjoyment with the emperors and the aristocracy, who had
become thoroughly depraved by the extravagant use that was made
of the world's plunder. It is difficult for us to realize the enormous
value which the Romans placed upon this fish, for as it never reaches

*" Martial, Epigrams, s, 31.

10 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

any great size, they did not hesitate to pay its weight in gold if it
was unusually large. Seneca and Suetonius have given us, in their
writings, descriptions of the extravagant taste in the preparation of
the mullet for the table of the rich. We read there how each guest,
with the most refined cruelty, looked upon the mullet destined for
his own dish, die before him, in order to enjoy the rapid change
of brilliant hues which the fish then exhibited. The wildest fancies
that the most extravagant luxury could imagine were realized in pre-
paring it for the table. The freedmen who were intrusted with the
preparation of the mullet enjoyed the greatest privileges, and a good
cook was often better paid than a good general. Mullets were served
on dishes lavishly adorned with precious stones, and the most costly
spices were used in cooking them. During the reign of Heliogabalus,
extravagance reached such a height that this emperor, who had become
tired of mullets, although at that time they were growing scarce, ordered
(according to Lampridius) a dish to be prepared consisting of nothing
else but the mouth-fibers of mullets. It may well be imagined what an
enormous quantity was required to satisfy this morbid taste.

" Mullets from the straits of Gades (the straits of Gibraltar or the
straits of the Pillars of Hercules) enjoyed the greatest reputation.

Dat rhombos Sinuessa, Dicarchea littora pagros,
Herculese nmllum rupes ....

" Scarcely less famous were those from the sea around Sicily and Cor-
sica. According to Seneca, (epist. 95,) the Emperor Tiberius sold at
auction a mullet, weighing four pounds, to Apicius and Octavius jointly,
for the sum of 4,000 sesterces, ($156.) This fish, which can easily be
recognized, is very frequently represented on the fresco paintings which
have been dug out from the ruins of Herculaneum and Portici."

Though not exposed to the same cruelties as the mullet, there was
another fish which almost equaled it in costliness: —

THE SCARUS.

The scarus, a fish of the labroid family, was, according to Pliny, (Hist.
Nat., ix, 17; xxx, 10,) originally found only in the iEgean Sea. But
in the time of the emperors, when the simplicity of former days degen-
erated into extravagance and luxury, the wrasse was brought from
Greece to adorn the tables of the wealthy Eomans. One of the freed-
men of the Emperor Claudius, Elipertius Optatus, who commanded a
Eoman fleet in the Ionian Sea, brought a large quantity of these fish to
the coast of Italy, where they were put into the water near Ostia, at
the mouth of the Tiber. For five years all fishermen who caught such
fish in their nets were ordered to throw them into the sea again ; and
the consequence was, that that portion of the sea, aud even the Tiber
itself, as far' as the gates of Rome, swarmed with them. This attempt
to transplant fish proved so entirely successful, that these transplanted

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 11

scat* soon gained the reputation of excelling in richness of flavor
those of the Greek seas. In the time of Pliny, the scams was, without
doubt, considered one of the greatest dainties. Originally, the stur-
geon held this place, then the basse (lupus) and asellus, and at last
the scarus "came, saw, and conquered."

Ovid, in his book " Halieutikou," relates a remarkable trait in the
nature of this fish : when it has been caught in a net it does not swim
any further, as this would cause it to become fastened with its gills in
the meshes, but it swims backward, wagging its tail. As soon as
another scarus outside the net notices this movement, it comes to its
assistance, by seizing the tail of the captive, and thus draws it out of
the net. The relation of this remarkable phenomenon shows the accu-
racy of the observations of the ancients. Pliny tells us that the mullet
and the scarus when they find themselves pursued, act like partridges
and little children, hiuiug their heads at the bottom of the sea, and
imagining that the pursuer cannot see them, because they cannot see
him.

According to Suetonius, the " shield of Minerva," the famous monster-
dish which Vitellius brought into fashion, was garnished with scari
The part of this fish most esteemed was the liver.

THE MUR2ENA.

The mursena is described in the following manner by PauA oovius,
whose words are given in a literal translation to show at the same time
how natural history was written in the sixteenth century : " Murcenas
are found in great numbers in all parts of the sea, but those from the
coasts of Sicily are the largest and best. These are the kind which
Columella calls ' flutes.' They swim near the surface, and it therefore
sometimes happens that when the warm rays of the sun dry their skin,
thereby depriving them of their flexibility, they can no longer dip beneath
the water and can easily be caught with the hand. They are speckled, and
are said to have star-like figures on their sides, arranged in the shape of
the dipper, which, however, disappears immediately after death. They
possess great cunuiug, for when they find themselves caught they swallow
the hook, bite through the line with their teeth, and thus make their
escape. I am of opinion that the ancient Romans prized the inurcena more
on account of its long life than of its delicious flavor ; for the large num-
bers required for daily use could easily be kept in ponds prepared for this
purpose, while most other fish soon died, either through grief at having
lost their liberty or through the neglect of the pond-keepers. We know
from Pliny that C. Hirrius, at a banquet given to Ccesar as Dictator,
could place on the tables 6,000 inuraenas from his own ponds. MursB-
nas could easily be tamed, and taught to take their food out of a per-
son's hand. Crcssus, surnamed the wealthy, was so much attached to
a niuraena which he had raised himself, that when it died he shed tears,
and had it buried. We also read an account of an answer, which

12 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Croesus gave to L. Domitius, who laughingly expressed his astonishment
that any one could weep over a dead muraena; it might, perhaps, be
thought strange, he said, that he, Croesus, shed tears over a dead niurae-
na,but it was far more strange that he, Domitius, did not shed any tears
over his three dead wives. (Domitius had three wives, whom he is re-
ported to have poisoned in order to obtain their property.)

Certain ladies showed great affection for mursenas ; thus Antonia, the
daughter of Drusus, adorned a tame rnuraena with gold rings and brace-
lets.

Muraenas eat human flesh, and the cruelty of Vedius Pollio in this
respect seems well established. He placed those of his slaves who had
been condemned to death in his fish-pond, in such a manner that they
could not be eaten at once, but were gradually torn to pieces by the
teeth of the inursenas. It is said that the muraena breathes through its
tail, and therefore dies sooner when struck on the tail than when struck
on the head.

D. Ambrosias and several other ancient writers assert that snakes
mate with niuraenas, and that the latter entice the snakes to the seaside
by a certain peculiar whistling sound. Athenaeus does not believe this,
and in corroboration of his opinion quotes from a work on popular su-
perstitions, written by Andreas. Muraenas spawn all the year round, and
of this kind, the Mums, the largest and strongest is of a uniform color,
very much resembling that of the larch; so at least, Aristotle affirms:
Pliny calls this kind Myrinus. There is also a river Muraena, which is
much smaller and has only one point; and which according toDorianus
is the same that Athenaeus calls gallaria, and I think that Athenaeus
must have meant by this smaller kind what we call lamprey and not
the sea-fish. Iresius assures us that the flesh of the muraena is not less
nourishing than that of the eel, but on account of a certain hardness and
moisture it is very indigestible. It is, however, much prized on account
of its delicious entrails, with which, as Lampridius tells us in his history,
Heliogabalus, while far from any sea, regaled his court and the whole
rural population.

THE COD FAMILY.

Of the cod family, our northern codfish was certainly not known
to the ancients. The kind best known and most highly prized was the
Asellus, which, in all probability, is our Gadus merluccius. At all events,
Jovius tells us that the fish which the Ligurians call asellus was named by
the Romans squamus, or merluza. Pliny informs us how highly this fish
was prized. There were two kinds. The larger one is named, by Jovius,
banchus, and reaches a length of two feet. The smaller kind he calls
callarius. Pliny says that they have a small stone in their head, and
praises their delicate flavor. Galenus maintains that its flavor strongly
resembles that of the codfish. Aristotle relates that during the great
heat of summer they hide themselves, and he is unable to tell how often

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 13

they spawn. The asellus was also called Bacchus on account of the wine
color of its mouth, and this circumstance caused Ovid to exclaim " that
a fish with so many excellent qualities did not deserve so ugly a name
as asellus (i. e., little ass.)"

As an article of commerce the asellus was, for the most part, salted,
and in that shape sent all over tbe Eoman empire.

The Eomans did not confine themselves to these common fisheries,
but also ventured to attack the more dangerous animals of the sea;
and even whales, which came into the Mediterranean, often became a
prey to the fisherman.

According to Oppianus, this fishery, although only of casual occur-
rence, resembled very much our mode of catching whales before our
fishermen began to use explosive projectiles. There were attached to
the line, which the whale would drag under water while escaping,
two large leather bags filled with air, precisely like those which the
Greenlanders and the inhabitants of Kamschatka use. The description
of Oppianus is remarkable, as it contains many interesting details, and
seems to be entirely trustworthy. He says : " The moment the monster
is attacked, it dives down to the depths of the sea, and the fishermen
anxiously wait for its return. Their light boats plow the foaming
waves, and rapidly fly toward the battle-ground, where a combat is soon
to take place, on whose fortunate termination the keenest interest is
centered. The fishermen encourage each other by shouts, every one
strains his powers to the utmost, and the sea presents a scene of ani-
mated confusion. As soon as the whale shows himself again, it is at-
tacked with double-hooked spears. Its blood begins to flow, and colors
the sea for a great distance ; but like a staunch vessel, braving the
thunder and the lightning, the whale resists the furious attacks, some-
times with a single movement of its tail sweeping away the boats which
surround it, and mocking all the exertions of its assailants. But the
decisive moment approaches ; though mortally wounded, its tail still
throws a deluge of water over its enemies. But nothing can now re-
strain the zeal of the pursuers. The monster is overcome, and silent and
motionless it floats on the water like a conquered man-of-war after a san-
guinary battle. The victors then drag their prize ashore amid tumul-
tuous shouts of joy."

THE SWORD-FISH.

The ancient Eomans possessed many sword-fisheries throughout
the whole extent of the Mediterranean, from Byzantium to Gibraltar,
but they were of the greatest importance on the coasts of the Tyrrhen-
ian sea and in the great and shallow bay which forms the southern
boundary of France. The name of the promontory Xiphonion (called
so after the Latin name of this fish, i. e., xiphias) shows how valuable the
sword-fish was to the inhabitants of those coasts.

De la Moriniere says : u One of the most common modes of fishing was

14 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

to employ, as the Greeks do, boats built in the shape of a sword-fish,
with a long projecting point representing the sword of the fish's upper
jaw, and painted with a dark color like that peculiar to this fish. The
sword-fish, imagining he sees a comrade, confidingly approaches these
boats, when the fishermen, profiting by the mistake, plunge their spears
into its side. The animal, although surprised, nevertheless vigorously
defends itself, and by plunging its sword into the sides of the treacher-
ous boat often exposes it to imminent danger. This moment is seized
by the fishermen to cleave its head, and if possible to chop off its upper
jaw. After thus overcoming its resistance, they tie their victim to the
boat, and so drag it ashore.

Oppianus has preserved an amusing characteristic of this fish, which
seems to contradict the statement made concerning its courage. He
says that if accidentally, or in the too eager pursuit of mackerel or tun-
nies, it finds itself in a stationary net, it retreats, suspecting some snare,
although it could easily tear the net. This timidity, however, proves
disastrous, for, at last remaining quite still, the fishermen come, drag it
ashore in their nets, and kill it.

SALTING.

Tiiis branch of industry was carried on in the earliest times by the
Phenicians on the western coast of Spain, and was afterward continued
by the Greeks ; but it was reserved for the Roman empire to raise it to
the highest degree of perfection. It was applied to many different
kinds of fish. By the term " salt-fish," we must not understand exclu-
sively fish laid in brine, but also those that were pickled with spices
and odoriferous herbs. According to Koel de la Moriniere's learned re-
searches, fish were preserved both in a raw and in a cooked state, and
in the latter case they were prepared with precious herbs only. He
adds, that ii would really seem difficult to suppose that the Roman
Sybarites, who had the most costly fowl and fish brought from Persia,
Colchis, and India, at such great cost, could find in salted tunnies,
and mormyri anything to gratify their spoiled palates.

The art of preserving fish in different ways made rapid progress.
Care was taken not only to preserve such kinds as would retain a deli-
cate flavor, but, also, to bring new articles into the market, that thus a
brisk intercourse might be kept up between the cities of Italy and the
colonies on the coasts of the Mediterranean. In those days the mullet
was frequently salted, at which people in these times, at least with us,
would sneer ; and its roe formed a favorite dish with all classes. From
a passage in Athemeus, where he quotes Archestratus, we learn that
the sword-fish was then salted in exactly the same manner as is now
done on the coast of Sicily. " When yon c^me to Byzantium," he says,
" take a piece of salt sword-fish, and choose a slice of the back nearest
to the tail." Large fish were cut into pieces and underwent different

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 15

processes, both simple and complicated, according to which they were
differently named.

It would detain us too long to give a complete list of those fish which,
when salted, were held in great esteem. The following are some for
which there was the greatest demand : the sea-eel, from Siuope ; the
tunny, from Byzantium ; the mackerel, from Spain ; the tunny, from
Cadiz ; the sword-fish, from Sicily ; the mullet, from Exone; the scarus,
from Ephesns; the "pagrus? from Italy; the eel, from Strymon; themor-
myrus, from the Nile, &c. The names of all these fish of acknowledged
excellence served as recommendations for those cities or countries which
had gained fame by their manner of preparing them.

But most of these fish have lost in our days the reputation which they
formerly enjoyed. The mormyrus of the Nile, e. #., which Athenseus
described, and with which the learned Geoffroy St. Hilaire has made
us acquainted, is now scarcely known beyond the works of natural his-
torians. The same holds good of the tunny, which is now preserved in
oil, instead of being salted or dried as was the custom among the
ancients. The Komaus had learned from the Greeks a mode of pre-
serving it, which, with some modifications, is used even in our time
among the Italians and Spaniards ; it is called " escabeche." The fish
are first fried in oil with bay leaves, salt, and spices, and then boiling
vinegar is poured over them. This method was especially employed
with several kinds of mackerel, but likewise with other fish, such as the
" pagrus," the dorado, and even the larger kinds of perch.

The inhabitants of the Greek Archipelago were the first to preserve
the tunny. This fish was salted on the islands of Eubcea, Samos, and
on the coast of Icaria, which acquired the surname, " the coast rich in
fish." The ancient names, Cetaria domitiana, (near Orbitello and Santo
Stephano,) and Terra cetaria, (stretching from Segarte to the promon-
tory now called Santo Vito,) designate places where the Eomans had
large stationary nets, and they show the importance of these fisheries.

Tarentum, in the Tyrrhenian Sea, had gained a great reputation for
its salt fish, especially for its delicious tunny, which was exported to
remote districts. No less famous was the tunny from Sicily, especially
that kind salted in Cephalo.

The ancient Oetobriga, a Phoenician colony on the southern coast of
Lusitania, near the mouth of the Guadiaua, maintained its former great
importance under the Eomans on account of its stationary nets, and the
immense quantities of tunnies which were salted on that coast. Eesen-
dius, (Antiquitates Lusitanise, 210,) assures us that even in his time,
the ruins of the salting establishments of Cetobriga could be seen. The
new town, Neoeetobriga, which rose not far from the old one, and which
the Portuguese have called Setubal, (Saint Ybes,) continued to carry on
the trade in salt tunny, which had once enriched the Greek town.
Castro, the historian, fully corroborates the statements of Eesendius.
He says the name of the town is derived from " briga," which in the old

16 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Lusitanian language means " castle " or " fortified town," and from
" cete," i. e., " great fish" (tunny).

Malaga also owes its wealth and its name to the tunny fisheries, fbr,
in the Punic language, " Malach" means both "to salt," and the "salt-
ing place." Several other Spanish towns contended for the fame of
bringing the best articles into market. Gades (Cadiz) gained the
prize. The favorite parts for salting were the gristly portions of the
head ; but many portions of the body were also used for this purpose.
According to Galenus this fish was preferred in the salted state, because
it then seemed less hard and easier to be digested.

One of the most important fisheries in those times was a tunny-fish-
ery, which, during the Grecian period, brought great wealth to the
Carian and the Milesian colonies on the Black Sea. When these fish
in their periodical migrations came out of the sea of Azof, (Palus Mceotis,)
they followed the coast of Asia, and many were caught in nets near
Trapezon. Thence tbey went in company with other kinds of mackerel
to Sinope, whose inhabitants, according to Strabo, grew immensely
wealthy through this fishery. Amastris, Tejum, and Heraclea, located
on the same coast, likewise reaped a rich harvest. If we may believe
the author of " Storia philosophica e politica delle colonie degli antichi
nel mar ISTegro," the best harbors were Sinope and Galidon, on the
river Halys, near whose mouth great salting establishments were lo-
cated.

Notwithstanding the enormous quantities of tunny caught on the
coast of Thrace, the salt-fish from Sardinia were the most famous,
and those of the best quality were called Sardinians.

The fish known in France by the name of " auriolf (in Spanish " cav-
allay"1) is another kind of mackerel, great numbers of which were salted
by the Greeks. Athenoeus praises it in the most eloquent manner, and
its fame increased still more after the Eomans had conquered Spain,
and had learned how to extract from its entrails the far-famed u garum
sociorum," a fish sauce which was greatly prized. Although several
ancient authors have written the most glowing encomiums ou this secret
preparation, (for it seems to have enjoyed then as great a reputation
as the English fish-sauce in our times,) it is impossible to discover
what this ' garum sociorum ' really was. Pliny, the encyclopedist of the
ancients, says that this fluid matter was an extract from the entrails of
certain fish that had undergone the process of fermentation. " The
Greeks," he says, "in former times, prepared 'garum' from the fish
called by that name ; the best ' garum ' comes now from Carthage, in
Spain, (Carthagena,) and is called ' garum sociorum.' You can scarcely
buy two boxes (each containing about ten pounds) for a thousand
pieces of money. No fluid, except scented waters, sells for so high a
price, and it is in great demand by all classes of society. The fisher-
men of Mauritania, Betiea, and Carteja, prepare it from mackerel, fresh

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 17

from the oceau, which alone are fit for this purpose. The ' garum '
from Klazomene, Pompeii, and Liptes is also highly praised ; and the
prepared fish from Antipoles, Thurium, and Dalmatia are no less to be
recommended." (Pliny, Hist. Nat., XXXI, 8.) Paul Jovius tells us
that the best " garum " was obtained in Africa. This " garum socioruni"
was chiefly prepared by a certain society of mackerel fishermen, (hence
the term " sociorum,") which in those times seems to have played a part
similar to that of the " Maatjes Hariugeu," herring-society, in the Neth-
erlands.

Besides this prime article of " garum," other kinds formed an exten-
sive item of trade among the Eomans. Atkenaeus tells us, among other
things, of one kind prepared from the entrails of the u lykostome" a fish
which is closely related to the anchovy, and which is probably the same
as that still to be obtained at Antibes, although Martial ouly speaks of
" garum " prepared from tunnies. (Mart. Epigr. XII, 103.) A similar
preparation, called '• Incia," was frequently used in the time of Helio-
gabalus, for preserving fish.

The epicure, Apicius, offered a great prize to any one who would
invent a new sauce or paste of the livers of mullets. But the name of
the man who secured the prize has been lost to posterity ; for, as Pliny
remarks, " it is easier said than done."

We will only mention, in conclusion, that the Greeks preserved the
sea-eel iu salt and marjoram. They were the greatest masters in pickling
the dorado and iu preserving the scarus in brine. But the Eomans far
excelled them in the use of costly spices, and in pickled and preserved
fish, which still further increased the enormous prices paid for the rarest
fish brought at large expense from foreign countries.

LOBSTERS.

Of lobsters, Paul Jovius speaks thus in the fortieth chapter of his

book: "Among the shell-fish, the lobster enjoys the greatest reputation.

Theodoras thinks this is the animal which Aristotle calls the crab. But

Oppianus understands by the term * crab,' what is commonly known

as the 'lion,' and Theodoras calls this kind ' Commarus? For in the

passage where he describes so vividly the combat between the mursena

and the crab, he gives to the latter an indented pincer-like claw, with

which it bites the neck of the lamprey." It is certain, however, that both

the lobster and the crab were known to the ancients, besides some other

kinds, such as the craw-fish, and those which Oppianus and the rest of

the Greeks called ;' Karidce. " Paul Jovius does not show any great

knowledge of natural history, when he says that the lobster is red, and

yet certainly quite as much as the French Academy of Sciences in the

good city of Paris more than three hundred years later, since, not very

many years ago, one could read in the great dictionary of that academy

under the word " ecrevisse" the following remarkable definition : " animal

rouge qui marche en reculant," i. e., " a red animal which walks b.ick-
2 F

18 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

wards!'1 "The flesh of this animal was generally found to be very hard,
but its eggs were eaten prepared in different ways and were considered a
great delicacy. They were also put to various medicinal uses ; thus they
were recommended for hectic and feverish persons ; and Galenus's teacher,
JErkhirion, advises those who have been bitten by a mad dog, to roast
alive one of that kind of crawfish, which in Greek is called " KarJdnos,"
and to turn towards the constellation Canis, when the sun passes through
the sign of Leo," &c.

*

FISH, OYSTER, AND SNAIL PONDS.

As to these ponds, we give the information found in Pliny, Paul Jovius,
and the Frenchman Coste in his extremely interesting work, Voyage
d'exploration sur le littoral de la France et de lTtalie, &c, in that por-
tion of the book where he speaks of the raising of oysters in Lake Fusa-
ro, p. 97.

From the passage quoted from Pliny, we see that the Romans had fish-
ponds for various kind of fish, but that the muraena, on account of its
peculiar tenacity of life, was best suited for being thus kept. Several
such ponds are mentioned as belonging to noted persons. Spawning-
ponds, however, such as are now found in great numbers on the coast of
France, where the fish are raised and fattened till they are fit to be sent
away, seem to have been unknown. It would appear that persons were
satisfied with putting those fish in ponds that were caught in the sea, to
have them on hand, as it were, to fill an order at any time ; although
many circumstances seem to favor the opinion that, at least as far as
the muroenas were concerned, many of these fish were bred and raised
in these very ponds. Though there are not sufficient grounds to prove
that the Romans had a regular system of breeding and raising fish, we
know enough to conclude that the raising of oysters had reached such
a degree of perfection as to command our highest admiration.

Pliny tells us that the first inventor of oyster-ponds was a certain Ser-
gius Orata, who in the time of L. Crassus lived near JBajoe. What led
him to this invention was not gluttony, but a spirit of speculation. He
had made a good deal of money by his bathing establishment, and by
redecorating old country-houses so as to make them look like new ones,
when he conceived the project of speculating in oysters. At that time
the existence of oysters on the English coasts was not known, and Brun-
dusium, which had almost the exclusive privilege of supplying the whole
of Italy with the article, was so far from Roine, quite in the southeastern
part of the peninsula, that the oysters reached the capital in a very poor
condition, often completely spoiled. It is well known that oysters and
fish are of a better quality in some localities than in others. Thus the
best lupus or basse* is found in the river Tiber between the two bridges;
the best turbots in Ravenna; the best muraenas in Sicily, &c. Orata found
in Lake Lucrinus a place specially favorable for his undertaking. This

* Lupus of the aucieuts, or Lnbrax lupus of naturalists.

FISHERIES AMONG THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND ROMANS. 19

lake, which had a clear bottom and pure water, was connected both with
the salt water of the ocean and with fresh river- water, and in the hands
of Orata it soon became a gigantic oyster-pond, which could at all times
supply Rome with oysters of such an excellent flavor as soon to gain the
very highest reputation among all the dainty eaters in Italy; for they
ordered these oysters to be sent to them in wooden boxes filled with
water, even to places at a great distance from the sea. Athenseus tells us
that a noble sycophant, by the name of Apicius, sent fresh oysters care-
fully packed in jars to the Emperor Trajan, while he was waging war
against the Parthians in the interior of Asia.

The fullest information on this subject we gain from two ancient mon-
uments of the time of Nero, of which a short description is given in the
above-mentioned work by M. Coste. These remains consist of two
supulchral-urns of glass, one of which was discovered near Popularia, the
other near Borne. They resemble in shape our refrigerators of terra-
cotta, viz, a round vessel with a long, narrow neck. The outside of
these urns is covered with a sort of engraving, which, notwithstanding
its rudeness, shows us very distinctly an ancient oyster-pond. To con-
vince us still further, we fiod on one of them the following inscriptions
over the engraving: "Anima felix vivas," and "Stagnuni Pallatium,"
(the first containing a wish that the soul may live happy, the second be-
ing the name of a country-seat which the Emperor Nero possessed on
Lake Lucrinus ;) and immediately in the center of the engraving we
read the word " ostriaria," i. en oyster-pond. On the other urn we read
the following inscription, " Stagnum Neronis Ostriaria ; Stagnum Silva
Bajoe," which leads the thought to Bajoe's famous coast, where also
Nero had a villa. The most remarkable thing about these engravings is
that a great number of poles are seen rammed in the ground — placed in
circles — for this can only have been done with the same object for which
this is done in our days near Lake Fusaro, viz, to give to the young oys-
ter an object to which it may cling.

It is evident from this that the ancients not only kept a stock of oys-
ters in their ponds, but also let tbem breed there, and in various inge-
nious ways made their extraordinary fruitfulness a source of income.
We have here authoritative proof of a regularly organized system of
oyster-culture, which brought untold wealth to its inventor, Sergius
Orata, this " niagister luxuriorum," as Cicero calls him. His example
was followed, and soon many other oyster-ponds were established. Li-
cinius Murena was the first who had ponds for fish, especially for the
muraena, which he named after himself, and soon most of the rich and
noble Boman families possessed their own fish-ponds, such as Philippus,
Hortensius, r.nd Lncullus. The last mentioned, as Pliny tells us, had a
channel dug through a mountain, near Naples, at a greater expense
than it would have cost to build a magnificent country seat, and in this
manner brought the sea- water into his gardens.^ Pompey, from this cir-
cumstance, called him a " Xerxes in the toga."

Shortly before the outbreak of the civil war with Pompey, Fulvius

20 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Hirpiuus was the first in the Tarquiniaii district to establish snail-
ponds. He arranged them in separate divisions : one for the white
snails from Eeatiue, one for the Illyrian snails distinguished by their
great size, one for the African snails, which are very fruitful, and
another for the Solitanian snails, which are the finest of all. He even
invented a special kind of food for them, prepared of thick must, flour,
and other ingredients, and by means of this artificial diet they grew to
an enormous size.

Galenus says that, as a general thing, oysters, especially if eaten raw,
produce witty thoughts. Pliny attributes to them a purging property,
and advises people to use the burnt shells as a remedy for dysentery.

In addition to the above, a large number of mussels and garden-snails
were eaten, such as the blue mussel, "purpura?," " buccina," " aures,"
" digiti," " ungues," " patellar ; " and Horace says, " effeminate Taren-
tum boasts of her large scallops." The ancients knew how to prepare
even sea-urchins and star-fish as dainty dishes.

The above may serve to give some idea of the state of the fisheries
among the ancient Greeks and Eoinans, as well as the different branches
of trade and industry connected therewith ; and we certainly feel con-
strained to admit that they had attained to an astonishing degree of
perfection. The fall of the empire also brought about the decline of the
fisheries. Eude hordes of barbarians overran the empire in overwhelm-
ing numbers, and destroyed a refined, and, in many cases, effeminate,
but at the same time beautiful, product of the oldest civilization.

I close these remarks with the following words of the excellent Noel
de la Moriniere : " The conquest of so many countries which were forced
to accept laws made for them by the barbarians, sundered all commercial
ties, after having destroyed the industry and art which gave them life.
We therefore see the most important fishery of the Mediterranean, the
tunny-fishery, after being entirely destroyed, revived again after long ages.

" In the history of the later emperors, we hear no longer of those
costly fish which the luxury of ihe wealthy procure from distant coun-
tries, and which gave luster and the greatest enjoyment to their ban-
quets. The fish-ponds which once swallowed princely fortunes, stand
empty and deserted. The time of extravagance has passed, and strange
and morbid fancies have lost their sway. People can procure only with
great trouble the most common fisb, in order to fulfill the ritual of their
religion. Fishing is carried on only by the poor inhabitants of the
coasts, whose abject poverty is their best protection against the plunder-
ing invaders, or who only manage to carry on their miserable trade, un-
disturbed, by retiring to lonely nooks, such as the lagoons near Venice,
or the swamps of Narbonne, thus interposing large and almost impene-
trable morasses between themselves and their avaricious pursuers."

Public interest is now directed toward the North, and here we also
find fisheries springing up anew, which soon grew to an astonishing ex-
tent and won for themselves a new and grand commerce ; so that Sergius
Orata would still not be entirely out of place among us.

II -STATISTICS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT FISHERIES OF THE

NORTH ATLANTIC.

By Carl Dajibeck.

The following statistics show the yield of the fisheries of the most
important States on the North Atlantic Ocean :

1. — Norway.

During the twenty years from. 1850 to 1870, the average annual
amount of herring caught was 1,452,000,000 pounds, (avoirdupois,)
representing a value of upward of $2,200,000. The total export of
herring in 1870 was valued at $3,850,000. During the last few years
the herring have mostly gone to the province of Nordland. In the bay
of Malanger a comparatively large number of great herring were caught
in 1871. From August to November, 270,600,000 pounds were caught ;
and in 1872, as many as 1,210,000,000 pounds. The herring fisheries
south of the Stadt promontory have decreased. The cod-fisheries in
Sondmore were very considerable in 1871. Up to the 19th of March
four millions of cod were caught, representing a value of $330,000. The
yield of the spring cod-fisheries in 1873 was nineteen and a half millions
of fish, 110,000,000 pounds of liver, or at least 55,000,000 pounds of oil,
and 39,600,000 pounds of roe, or two millions of fish more than the year
before, or a half million more than the average annual yield of the last
fourteen years. The total values have probably been the largest ever
realized in the spring fisheries, and amounted to $1,870,000 ; while in
1872 it was only $1,386,000 5 and, on an average, $1,375,000 annually
during the period from 1859 to 1S72. The mackerel fisheries, of course,
did not yield so abundantly. In 1870 a million of mackerel, valued at
$14,300, were exported to England from Christiansand ; and in 1871,
1,813,860 were exported from the same place, valued at $63,202.70;
while 100,000 were sold in the city and neighborhood. The salmon
fishery in 1S71 was likewise very productive. During the first half of
the year, 177,685 pounds, valued at $29,729.70, were exported. The
yield of the Norwegian fisheries were larger in 1S70 than in any previous
year. The fish exported were valued at $10,833,909.90, or $1,268,300
more than in 1869, and $2,805,500 more than in 1866.

2.— Sweden.

According to the report of the superintendent of fisheries, Mr. von
Yhlen, the value of the fisheries in 1869 was only $894,947.90, while in

*Das Ausland, Stuttgart, 1374, No. 13. Translated by H. Jacobson, p. 363.

22 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

1870 it amounted to $917,079.90 ; for during the last years the herring
has again appeared on the coast of Bohuslan. Large quantities were
also caught in 1870 near Marstrand and Maltno, so that in Carlshamn
alone 19,146,600 pounds were salted, while in 1872 there were only
11,000,000 pounds. The mackerel fishery on the coast of Bohuslan,
which only continues one month, yielded in 1S71 an income of from
$8,100 to $11,200 in the district of Stromstadt alone. The salmon fish-
eries on the south coast near Carlscrona, adjacent to the Kullen promon-
tory, and those in the rivers Dal and Klara, were likewise very pro-
ductive. The export of fish from Gottenburg was very large in 1872.
No less than 135,905 pounds of salmon packed in ice, 349,8S2 pounds of
dried cod, and 5,500 pounds of anchovies were shipped.

3. — Denmark.

The Danish fisheries are not so extensive, because the abundance of
fish is not so great, and because the extent of coast is less. In 1869 the
fisheries in the Ljimfjord yielded the following : the 2,459 persons em-
ployed caught fish valued at $104,975, yielding a net income of $79,312,
and giving about $32.50 to each fisherman. This was less than in 186S,
when the total yield of fish was valued at $112,370. The number of
herring caught in the autumn of 1870, on the coasts of the island of
Funen, was so large that they did not all find a market. In the Great
Belt it was very small in 1872, twenty-eight boats from the town of
Korsor catching about a million, and valued at $6,415. In 1871 a large
number of cod were caught on the western and eastern coasts of Jut-
land, of which about 353,100 pounds, valued at $3,332.50, were ex-
ported.-

4. — Germany.

The German fisheries are not so remunerative, since the extent of
coast is small, and much of it consists of inland seas. The total net
annual income is valued at $1,500,000. Two fishing societies were or-
ganized in 1868, at Hamburg and Bremen, on the North Sea. The Ham-
burg North-Sea fishing society has worked with a capital of $120,000,
and their receipts during the first half of 1869 amounted to $23,380.61,
and during the same period in 1870 to only $19,713.26, or $3,667.38 less.
In consequence of the poor fishing season and the foundering of a vessel,
the society sustained a loss of $4,281.46, and was obliged to close its
office in 1871. The Bremen society met with similar disastrous experi-,
ences, and has also been dissolved. Great Britain exported to Germany,
in 1871, 962,533,000 of herring, valued at $3,436,837.50, which outlay
ought to have been avoided. If, however, this importation of foreign
fish is to be prevented, the fisheries must be carried on much more ener-
getically than they have yet been. In Emden, a new herring-fishing
society has been formed, which had every reason to be satisfied with its
success in 1872, for in twenty-one trips they realized $39,780. And if
it should combine fishing in deep water with fishing on the ocean, the

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC. 23

probability is that it will be more successful than its predecessors. The
fishermen operating from the mouth of the Elbe up to the boundary of
Jutland, catch, for the most part, bream, herring, and sturgeon. The
sturgeon fishing has been particularly good during the last few years. In
1871, however, it was not so good in the river Eider. In 1873, so many
plaice were caught that whole wagon-loads were sold for a trifle. The
number of cod and ray caught was likewise very large, while the herring-
fisheries on the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein were very poor. On the
Mecklenburg coast, especially near Warnemiinde, the herring-fishery has
been carried on for some years by societies. Warnemiinde possesses
four herring-nets. Of the three societies fishing east of that town, one
netted $750 in 1871, while another realized only half of that sum.
The fishermen on the coast of Pommerania are very poor, for the fisher-
ies yield but little. The fisheries on the coast of Eastern Prussia are
richer, salmon and bream being caught in considerable quantites. In
September of 18G0 about 3,500 salmon were caught at the village of
Euss, near Memel, the average weight of each being 33 pounds, while
some ranged in weight from 82^ pounds to 102 pounds.

5. — Great Britain and Ireland.

Great Britain, undoubtedly, has larger fisheries than any other coun-
try in Europe. Cod are caught near Newfoundland ; herring, pilchard,
and sprats, off the British coasts ; salmon, mackerel, plaice, and other fish
are caught in Scotland and Ireland. McCullogh estimates the annual
income of the British fisheries at $20,000,000 j others, at $60,000,000.
The increase of the cod-fisheries will be seen from the following figures :
In 1790, it was 72,100,000 pounds ; in 1811, 137,038,880 pounds, valued
at $12,458,080 ; in 1825, only 107,030,000 pounds ; and in 1835, only
78,320,000 pounds, valued at $1,780,000 ; while in 1848, it was again
110,000,000 pounds. The success of the mackerel fisheries in 1821 was
entirely unexpected. The value of fish caught by sixteen boats, near
Lowestoft, on June 30, was $26,200 ; and the total value of fish caught
on the coast of Suffolk amounted to about $70,000. In 1827, no less
than 10,521 persons were engaged in the pilchard fisheries on the coasts of
Cornwall and Devonshire, and the capital employed in these fisheries was
$2,20G,075. There are cases on record where 10,000 barrels were landed
in a single day at one port, each barrel containing 2,500 fish. During
.the winter of 1829-'30, the sprat fisheries were so successful that loads
of from 1,000 to 1,500 bushels — costing from 12 to 16 cents a bushel —
were brought to Maidstone to be used as manure for the hop-fields. The
herring fisheries are still more abundant, and were especially rich in
1S71 on the south coast. In Lowestoft alone, more than 50,000,000 of
fish were brought ashore in seven days. They sold, of course, at a very
small price. On the Scotch coast, the fisheries were not so successful.
Tho herring-fisheries in Stornoway proved a failure, and the result of
the fisheries on the east coast was not much better. Notwithstanding

24 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

this, Great Britain exported to Germany, in 1871, 902,533,000 pounds,
valued at $3,272,750. In 1872, the fisheries proved very successful.
The Fraserburg herring-fleet of six hundred boats caught in a single
night upward of 10,000,000 of herring, valued at from $75,000 to $S0,000.
This is the largest haul on record in those parts. In no country of the
world, in proportion to its size, are the salmon fisheries as valuable as
in Great Britain. They arc most extensive in Scotland, where from
10,000 to 12,000 salmon are caught annually. In 1820, 21,817 were
caught 5 and from 5,000 to 6,000 are caught every summer in the Tweed
alone. The Scotch salmon fisheries were particularly successful in 1870,
many large and beautiful fish being taken.

C. — France.

As this country is very rich in natural products, and as the extent of
its coast is small, the fisheries are not carried on to any great extent.
But notwithstanding this, they yield a large income, the annual sum
being estimated at no less than $8,200,000. Herring, pilchard, and sar-
dines are chiefly caught on the coasts and in the North Sea. Sardines
and tunnies are caught in the Mediterranean, and cod near Newfound-
land. In 1818, 110,000,000 pounds of cod were taken. The herring and
pilchard fisheries are even more productive. Single boats from Dun-
kirk, Calais, Dieppe, and Boulogne, have caught as many as 28,000 in
a single night. On the coasts of Provence and Languedoc, from 220,000
to 330,000 pounds of tunnies are frequently caught at a single haul.
The finest sardiens are found near Antibes, Frejus, and St. Tropez, and
they are brought to the fair at Beaucaire in enormous quantities.

7. — North America.

The following statistics will show sufficiently the importance of the
North American fisheries. The fisheries near Newfoundland have
yielded the following : Excluding those fish caught by the English and
French, the Americans, in 1829, caught 195,030,000 pounds of cod. St.
Johns, in 1812, exported cod-fish and oil valued at $1,176,315. The
Americans caught, in 1818, 165,000,000 pounds of cod. St. Johns also
exported, in 1S12, salmon valued at $68,390, and herring estimated at
$35,595. Montreal exported in 1811 fish valued at from $350,000 to $100,-
000, and fromGaspe there were shipped from 11,300,000 pounds to 16,500,-
000 pounds. The New Brunswick fisheries annually yield from $200,000 to
$300,000, and those of the United States in 1817 yielded $17,069,262. The
most important fisheries in the country last named, are the cod and
mackerel. Boston, alone, in 1819, exported about 231,856 barrels of
mackerel. The cod-fisheries of Greenland were also very successful in
187 .

III.— ON THE FISHERIES OF NORWAY;

Christiania, November, 1873.
To Dr. Spencer Baird,

President of the United States Commission

Fish and Fisheries, Washington, D. C. :

Of the Norwegian salt-water fisheries, the haddock-fisheries are the
most important, and next to them the herring-fisheries.

The largest haddock-fisheries are those of the Loffoden, (Islands,) in
the district of Nordland, carried on from the beginning of the year till
some time in April.

About the time that the fisheries cease near the Loffoden, another
important haddock-fishery commences, in East and West Finmarken,
whicli continues till about the 24th of June.

A third periodical haddock-fishery, which promises to become of con-
siderable importance, is carried on on the coast of the Eomsdal district,
and partly, also, further north, in the districts of Fosen and Namsdal,
about the same time that the Loffoden fisheries are in progress.

Of the herring-fisheries, that of the spring herring, which is conducted
in the districts of Stavanger, Southern and Northern Bergenhus, and
Eomsdal, during February and March, has, so far, been the most import-
ant. During late years this fishery has been somewhat irregular. While
it has partly abandoned the usual fishing-places, especially in the dis-
tricts of Stavenger and Southern Bergenhus, it has been confined, to
some extent, to places where fishing was formerly not very good. On
the whole, however, it has diminished considerably, and during the last
four years the number of fish caught has not been half of what it for-
merly was.

At the time that the spring-herring fisheries began to diminish another
large herring fishery was opened up in the northern part of the country,
especially in the district of Nordland, and partly, also, in that of Tromso.
The fisheries have generally continued from the middle of October till
some time after the beginning of the year. The number of fish caught
has been constantly on the increase, and last year it reached 700,000
<'tonder,r (2,156,000 bushels,) or as much as in former times was con-
sidered the result of a good spring-herring season. The species of her-
ring called great herring (stor sild,) has become an excellent article of
trade.

* Translation of a printed letter addressed to the United States Fish Commissioner by
the authorities of the Norwegian commission, in response to an application for docu-
ments relative to the fisheries of Norway and Sweden.

26 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Besides the periodical herring-fisheries mentioned, there may be reck-
oned scattered fisheries along the coast of the Bergen and Trondbjem
districts, all during the summer and autumn. Summer herring and fat
herring are caught here, and they constitute an article of food much
sought after.

Further information regarding the kinds, results, and methods of our
fisheries, is contained in a work on the Norwegian fisheries, published
iu 1804, by O. X. Loberg, in the official statistics of fisheries ; as, also,
in the annual reports of the various superintendents of fisheries.

These works will show that besides the fisheries referred to, other
regular fisheries are carried on during the year, each of which, consid-
ered separately, is not as important as those already mentioned; but
which, nevertheless, taken as a whole, play no inconsiderable part in
the economy of the country.

Scientific investigations concerning our fisheries have, as far as the her-
ring fisheries are concerned, been made by Mr. AxelBoeck. The results of
his investigations are published iu a work entitled "On Herring and
Herring Fisheries," only the first part of which, however, has been
printed. What connection there may be between the decrease of the
spring-herring fisheries and the development of the great herring fish-
eries, is yet an unsolved problem.

Similar investigations regarding the haddock fisheries on the Lofloden,
have been made by Mr. G. O. Sars, who has published several reports
on the investigations which have led to very valuable discoveries as re-
gards the development and the manner of living of the haddock.

There is no uniform law prescribed for our salt-water fisheries, but
there is a number of separate laws for the separate fisheries, or for the
various districts.

Attempts, however, have been made to secure some uniformity of
principle in these different laws, so that no greater discrepencies exist
between them than are necessarily found between different fisheries
and different localities. The old laws and regulations undertook to
exert an influence on the fisheries as well as on the preparing of the
fish, by various restrictions and prohibitions. The new fishing laws, on
the contrary, have been limited principally to regulations concerning
the maintenance of good order during the fishing season, especially by
appointing officers for this purpose; so that the fishermen are allowed,
to a great extent, to carry on their fishing operations in any way most
acceptable to themselves.

A sea-police has been organized by the law of May 23, 1857, for the
haddock fisheries on the Loflod Islands. This police exercises its func-
tions by means of small vessels called -'skates," (skoiter,) manned by
five or six men, and generally under the command of a naval officer.
As to the details of this organization we refer to a resolution of the gov-
ernment sanctioned by the king, October 27, 1S5S, and contained in the
official journal (Departement tidende)fov 1858, p. 781, sqq. The expenses

ON TIIE FISHERIES OF NORWAY. 27

of this police amount annually to about 7,000 Norwegian "specie dalers,"
($7,966).

A similar sea-police lias been organized for the spring-herring fish-
eries by the law of September 24, 1851, modified by the amendments of
August 28, 1854, March 21, 1SG0, June 22, 18G3, and March 27, 18G9.
The annual expenses of this police, which formerly amounted to 10,000
Norwegian " specie dalers," ($11,3S0,) have been reduced, during the
last few years, to 4,000 " specie dalers, ($4,552.)

It has also been found necessary to strengthen the local police for the
great-herring fisheries. There has not, however, been the same amount
of inspection for these as for the Loffoden and spring-herring fisheries.

Legislation with regard to the great-herring fisheries is comprised in
the laws of April 25, 18G3, as amended May 22, 1869, April 20, 1872,
and April 5, 1873. These laws apply generally to all herring fisheries,
except the spring-herring fisheries, since these are the only ones with
regard to which the law of Sexjtember 24, 1851, with its amendments, is
in force.

The Finmarken haddock fisheries are regulated by the law of Septem-
ber 13, 1830, some of whose provisions, however, were annulled by the
law of May 18, 18G0.

The law of 1830 is based on old and limited principles of fishing ;
and the question has been raised, since most of its provisions are con-
sidered antiquated, whether it would not be better to introduce regula-
tions for the Finmarken fisheries similar to those in force at the Loffo-
den fisheries.

As will be seen, however, from the report of the committee appointed
for this purpose, made August 12, 1868, (published as " Storthing," Par-
liamentary document No. 79, session lSGS-'69,) the committee thought
it advisable, in deference to public opinion in the district, not to make
any changes for the time being.

The above-mentioned law of May 18, 1SG0, contains some general pro-
visions for all the salt-water fisheries in the districts of Nordland and
Finmarken, in as far as these fisheries have not become the subject of
special legislation.

In addition to the laws already mentioned a law of February 20, 1869,
is in force, making some changes in the regulations concerning fines.

We must consider the law of July 26, 1781, concerning the preparing
of so-called " round-fish," (rund-fish,) in the districts of Komsdal and
Sondmore, as nearly antiquated ; also the law of December 21, 1792,
concerning the haddock fisheries in the district of Fosen ; the law of
August 21, 1821, concerning the fisheries near Skudesnoes, and the law
of the same date regarding the spring-haddock fisheries in the Borgen-
fjord (bay) of the Sondmore district.

"With special reference to those salt-water bays and inlets which in-
deed may be considered as inclosed basins, and whose abundance of
fish is supposed to be chiefly dependent on local increase, the law of

28 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

June 5, 1869, prohibits tbe use of any implements which, by catching
or destroying tbe young fish, would prove detrimental to the fisheries.

As to lobster-fishing, there is a law of June 29, 1848, still in force,
which, however, is destined, at no distant period, to undergo consider-
able alterations.

As regards tbe administration of justice at tbe fisheries it may be well
to notice tbe following ; it is a general rule that any differences arising
among the fishermen are not referred to any other judicial authorities
than those to which they naturally belong, and are treated in no other
manner than other matters in law, except that, as far as local circum-
stances make it necessary, the local police is strengthened, and the local
judge is himself either present at tbe fishing-stations, or sends a substi-
tute.

There are special regulations for maintaining order and for admiuis-
teriDg justice at two of the more important fisheries, viz, the spring-
herring fishery in the districts of Stavanger, Southern and Northern
Bergenhus and Eomsdal, and the spring-haddock fishery on the Loffo-
den Islands in the northern district.

A special sea-police has been organized for each fishery, as author-
ized by the laws which regulate these interests, consisting of from
three to four officers and a number of subordinates, all under the com-
mand of a naval officer. This police, which, as far as the naval officers
are concerned, belongs to tbe department of the interior and is com-
manded by the officer who superintends the whole fishery, is under the
immediate control of the respective local civil authorities. The higher
local authorities are empowered to appoint for each of the two fisheries
above mentioned one or, if necessary, several special judges, who, in-
stead of the ordinary judges, administer justice during the fishiog sea-
son in all matters relating to fishing in the fishing-districts.

This superintendence during the fishing-season consists in the exer-
cise of the usual police functions, and in seeing that the special fishing-
laws, the general commercial laws, and the liquor laws are properly
observed. In case of violations which can be punished by fines, the
superintendent imposes the fine. If this fine is paid, the matter is con-
sidered adjusted ; if not, it is referred to the judge. The superintending
authorities, i. c, the nearest officer present, with two men chosen by
him, must also arbitrate in cases of conflict between fishermen. (Law
of September, 1851, section 9, and law of May 23, 1857, section 33.)

The special judge must decide in cases wbere the fine imposed by the
superintending authorities is not paid, as well as in other cases of viol-
ation of the law which are punishable by heavier penalties than fines.
If, however, the case after having been heard by the judge cannot be
determined in accordance with existing regulations without the ordinary
authorities, (the government of the district,) it is then referred to them
to be disposed of in the usual manner. The special judge also arbitrates
in private differences arising in fishing or in the fishing trade. lie has

ON THE FISHERIES OF NORWAY. 29

also the power, in cases not strictly belonging to the fishing superinten-
dence, to select two men, who, in conjunction with the judge, have
power to make a decisiom.

The period of ofiice of the special judge is limited to the fishing sea-
son, and those cases which he cannot finish for want of time are referred
for further action to the ordinary judge of the district. The judge also
exercises this authority in cases belonging to his jurisdiction, which
otherwise belong to the bailiff, such as the carrying out of judgments,
arrest, confiscation, &c.

The superintending authorities have, as has been already intimated,
some small sailing-vessels at their disposal, on which the naval officers
live during the fishing-season ; and they sail round to the different fish-
ing-places, while the j udge is generally stationed on shore, where he
hears and acts upon the cases presented for decision.

As to the right of fishing in salt water, the following statements may
be made :

1. All kinds of fishing can be freely carried on in salt water by every
Norwegian citizen, whenever he may please to do so, in the sea or along
the coast. The state does not reserve to itself any rights in this re-
spect, except *he necessary police-regulations for maintaining order.
(Eegarding the privileges of landowners of the coast see 2.)

2. Free fishing in salt water is not confined to the sea, but also com-
prises fishing on the coast, except that as far as the coast itself is used
in fishing, e. g., for drawing fish on land or for fixing implements, this
rule is somewhat modified ; and in some places a different law has
grown up in course of time, as regards fishing for salmon and oysters.

Fishing from land is the exclusive right of the landowner, and he
alone has authority to place stationary fishing implements. Any one,
however, may make use of the land to draw his fish ashore, but with
this condition, that the landowner can claim a certain bonus, which, for
herring fishing, is fixed at 3, and in some cases at G per cent. (See law
of May 23, 1803, and law of September 24, 1851, § 36.)

The right to fish for salmon on the shore belongs, in many places, ex-
clusively to the landowner, even if fishing is not carried on with sta-
tionary fishing implements. Oyster fishing belongs as a rule to the
landowner. It may well happen that in some places a more exclusive
right of the landowner with regard to that portion of the sea adjoining
his property has grown up in course of time.

3. Besides the use of the coast for drawing fish ashore, which is guar-
anteed to every fisherman, some fisheries, carried on in the open sea
with boats, such as the haddock fisheries, require that the fisherman
shall have some place on shore for his boats, for his implements, and
for drying and preparing the fish. The old fishing laws contained
various regulations obliging the land-owners to allow the fisherman a
certain space on the coast, in return for a bonus fixed by law ; and even

30 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

now similar regulations are made in the Finrnarken fishing law of Sep-
tember 13, 1830, sections 2S-30.

Like regulations contained in the old laws regarding tbe most impor-
tant haddock-fisheries, viz, those of Loffoden, were annulled by the law
of May 23, 1857. By this law, this matter is left to a mutual arrange-
ment between the fisherman and the landowner, and the latter is in no
way obliged to grant tbe fisherman any space on bis land along the
coast.

It is but natural that among the fishermen themselves certain customs
and usages in fishing have arisen, which are strictly observed. Of such
usages, however, which are always taken into consideration by tbe
jndges in deciding a case, we are unable to give any further informa-
tion

Of Loberg's book " On tbe Fisheries of Norway," and of G. O. Sar's
last report, the Department of the Interior possesses no more copies.
We inclose the following : •

1. Statistics of Fisheries for 1870 and 1871.

2. Eeports on the Spring-Herring Fisheries for 1868-'09, 1869-'70,
1870-'71, lS71-'72, and 1872-'73.

3. Eeports on the Loffoden Fisheries for 1869, 1870, 1871, 1872, and
1S73.

4. On Herring and Herring-Fisheries, especially the Norwegian
Spring-Herring Fisheries, by Axel Boech, Part I.

5. Eeports of G. O. Sars, 1864-1869.

6. Department Journal, (Departementstidende,) 1858, No. 49.

7. Amendment of the Law regarding Spring-Herring Fisheries, March
27, 1869.

8. Amendments to the Law regarding Herring-Fisheries, May 22, 1869,
April 20, 1872, and April 5, 1873.

9. " Storthings," (Parliamentary,) Document, No. 79, session 186S-69.

10. Law regarding Changes m the Begulations for treating Judicial
cases arising under the Fisheries, February 20, 1869.

11. Law regarding the Limitations in the Use of Fishing-Implements
in Salt-water Inlets, June 5, 1869.

The other laws mentioned in this letter will be found in the Eeview
of Fishing Laws prepared by Mr. Thomas Boeck.

IV -STATISTICAL DATA REGARDING THE SWEDISH

FISHERIES.

BY IIjALMAIl WlDEGIiEX.

[Nordisk Tidskrift for Tiskcri, published at Copenhagen. New series, Part J, November, 1873. Trans-
lated by H. Jacobson.]

Sweden, extending from north to south through more than 12° of
latitude, is washed by the sea on about two-thirds of its circumference,
which forms, in many places, large inlets. The country itself is trav-
ersed by numerous streams, and possesses a very large number of lakes,
so that nearly one-tenth of its whole area is covered with water. The
natural conditions of the eastern and western coasts, as well as those
of the water-courses and lakes of northern and southern Sweden, are
different, so that, taken as a whole, the country possesses a very great
variety of fish. •

In such a country the fisheries must of course form a considerable
source of income ; and, it is well known, that next to agriculture, forest-
culture and mining, the fisheries are the most important source cf reve-
nue, giving employment and subsistance to a large portion of the popu-
lation.

The most important fisheries in Sweden are —

1. The lake- fisheries and the coast-fisheries in the numerous narrow
inlets.

2. The salmon- fisheries in the streams and inlets.

3. The herring-fisheries in the Baltic and along the coasts.

4. The fisheries in the Kattegat and the North Sea.

1. The lake and coast fisheries in the south of Sweden are chiefly pro-
ductive of perch, jjffte, bream, and fish of the carp species ; as also the
burbot and the eel ; while in the north of Sweden, they yield mainly fish
of the genus Coregonus, but also some of those just mentioned. The lake
and coast-fisheries are carried on partly as a means of living by the
fishermen residing near the lakes and coasts ,• and partly as a means by
which those farmers, peasants, mechanics, and soldiers, who either own
the right of fishing in certain places, or have temporarily secured it,
may earn some little money. Although statistics regarding the Swedish
fisheries have been collected for some years, it is not yet fully known
how many persons are annually engaged in them ; nor has the value of
the implements used, and of the fish caught been ascertained. From
what is known in this respect as to some of the provinces, it appears
that this branch of the Swedish fisheries is of considerable financial
value, in proof of which, we may mention, that in Kerike, one of the

32 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

smaller provinces of the kingdom, 489 persons are employed in them,
and that the value of the implements is $9,430.

In the other provinces, with the exception of Sk&ne and Blekinge, the
lake and coast fisheries are carried on by a much larger number of per-
sons. The money value of gwiniad, Coregonus albula, and char caught in
lake Wettern, amounts annually to $27,775. On the Calmar coast, the
fisheries are carried on by 182 persons as their exclusive source of in-
come, while 689 having some other employment in addition, are also
engaged in them. The value of the inrplements used is $29,385. The fish
caught in the lakes and on the coast are either sold fresh in the neigh-
borhood, or are used in the households of the fishermen. As these peo-
ple keep no account of their labors, it has been found impossible to
obtain any exact data regarding the money value of these fisheries. In
order to reach some approximate result, the number of men employed
and the value of the implements used have bee*u ascertained j and from
these figures a tolerably correct estimate may be made regarding their
great value.

2. The salmon fisheries. — These are carried on in the streams of the
northern provinces, from £he end of May till the beginning of Septem-
ber ; and in the western streams, ( Wiska, Atra, Nissa, Laga, and Quis-
trum,) from the beginning of April till the middle of July ; and on the
coasts of Blekinge and Skane, (in the south of Sweden,) during the
winter months as long as the ice does not interfere. The streams rich-
est in salmon, are tkeTornea, Lulea, Umea, Ljusne, and Angerman, in
the province of Norrland. !Next come the western streams, mentioned
above, whose salmon are more highly valued than those from the east
coast, and which are fully as good as the Scotch salmon. The most ex-
tensive salmon fisheries in Sweden are those of Elfkartlby, in Gestrik-
land, and of M-orrum, in Blekinge ; the former yielding an average an-
nual income of $11,110 ; and the latter, of $8,300.

At present, the salmon is mostly sold fresh in the country, or, packed
in ice, is exported from Gottenburg and Stockholm to England and
Germany, and especially to Berlin. The larger portion of the salmon
caught on the south coast of Sweden, during winter, is smoked and sent
to Germany and Denmark. According to the most recent statistics, the
annual yield of salmon from twenty-seven Swedish streams is valued at
$170,035. The salmon-fisheries on the coast of Skiine and Blekinge
yield an average annual income of $33,330.

3. The herring fisheries in the Baltic and along the Coasts. — These
fisheries, which are by far the most important in Sweden, are carried
along the whole coast from Kullen on the sound, to the farthest point of
the Gulf of Bothnia, exclusively with open boats, each manned by two
or three persons. The fishermen use both stationary and floating nets ;
and the best fishing is at different seasons along the northern and
southern coasts. On the southern coast, the herring-fishery is carried
on by a population living together in large fishing villages, and depend-

STATISTICAL DATA REGARDING THE SWEDISH FISHERIES. 33

ing entirely for subsistence on this fishery. On the coast of the inner
Baltic, along the northern line of the Gulf of Bothnia, and on the island
of Gotland, the herring-fishery is partly carried on by persons living in
the interior, who, during the fishing-season come to the coast, and
partly by fishermen living permanently on the coast or on the small
islands near it. The Baltic herring are partly sold fresh, or smoked in
the towns on the coast, partly salted, packed in casks, and sent all over
the country, and of late years even exported to Germany.

As salt herring constitutes the daily food of the Swedish peasants and
the lower classes in general, the amount secured in the country is not
sufficient, so that a considerable quantity must be imported from Nor-
way.

Along the coast of Sweden, from Kalmar to Malon near Haparanda,
the herring fishery is carried on with 3,275 boats, and the annual yield
is about 66,500 tons of salt herring. In Blekinge there were salted in
1868, 47,732 tons of herring ; and in the Melmo and Christianstad dis-
tricts, where the herring fishery is carried on with 685 boats, there were
salted during the same year 13,600 tons. The greater portion of the
herring caught in the two districts last mentioned are sold fresh to the
inhabitants. On the island of Gotland, 1,911 persons, with 606 boatSj
are engaged in the herring-fishery, and the yield in 1869 amounted to
30,070 tons.

It may be safely asssumed that on an average the total annual yield
of herring on the Swedish coasts of the Baltic amounts to 150,000 tons,
representing, according to last years' prices, a capital of $833,330.
Besides the herring fishery carried on in the Baltic, the Clupea harengus
and Clupea sprattus are caught during the autumn and winter in the
Kattegat near the coast of the province of Bohuslau. The Clupea sprat-
tus is partly used fresh and partly salted or pickled, as anchovies, of
which latter very large quantities have been Exported during late years.
The amount of herring caught near the coast of Bohuslau was, in
1871, valued at $24,680.

4. The fisheries in the Kattegat and North Sea. — These fisheries are
partly carried on near the coast with smaller boats and partly out on
the Kattegat and along the western coast of Norway with larger ves-
sels, of from 20 to 40 tons, and manned by twelve or fourteen persons.

The implement- used is the so-called " storbackan," a line with hooks
which is laid out ou the fishing-banks to the depth of 100 fathoms.
Muscles or pieces of fresh fish are used as bait. With this implement
they catch cod, ling, flounders, halibut, and other fish. Some of these
are sold fresh, but most of them having been salted either by Norwe-
gian or Bohuslau traders, are exported. Codliver oil is prepared from
tbe liver, and the roe is salted and exported to France to be used as
bait in fishing for sardines. In 1871 Bohuslan carried on the fishery in
the Kattegat and the North Sea with 126 boats, manned by 1,226 per-
sons. The amount of fish caught by them during the same year was
3 F

34 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

valued at $177,930. During that year 5,257 cwt. of salt-cod were
exported from Gottenburg to England. The fisheries on the coast of
Bohusliin, including mackerel-fisheries, employed 351 boats, manned by
1,378 persons. The income from this fishery in 1871 amounted to
$97,790.

The lobster-fishery in Bohusliin was valued in 1871 at $22,180, and
the oyster-fishery at $4,010.

The editor of the Scandinavian Piscicultural Journal adds to the above
article the following items of information : In Sweden, the following
officers are appointed to manage the fisheries : ■

A superintendent of the lake, river, and Baltic fisheries, with two assist-
ants, and one teacher of pisciculture. This superintendent is, at present,
Br. Ejalmer Widegren, and his assistants are Br. C. Bystrom and Mr.
V. Wehlburg; while the teacher's place is filled by Baron C. G. Ceder-
strom. Besides these government officials there are special superin-
tendents over certain sections of water in some of the provinces, whose
chief duty it is to see to the proper observance of the fishing-laws.
Some of these superintendents receive a small addition to the salary paid
them by the provinces, from the central government, while others are
paid entirely by the provinces, by fishing-companies, or by large-landed
proprietors. The superintendence of the open sea fisheries (Kattegat
and North Sea) is- intrusted to an official, who is responsible to the Bo-
huslan authorities. The present incumbent is Mr. G. von Yhlen.

The duties of the first-mentioned superintendent,* as defined by a let-
ter from his majesty, the king, dated February 12, 1864, and by a royal
proclamation, dated November, 1867, are as follows: 1, to inspect the
fisheries in the different parts of the country ; 2, to propose suitable
fishing-laws wherever needed, and to assist the local authorites in up-
holding these laws; 3, to collect and compile statistics of the fisheries;
4, to superintend the government Normal Institution of Pisciculture,
and all similar establishments throughout the country ; and, 5, to give
the necessary instructions to the other superintendents.

* Dr. Widegren.

V.-ACCOUNT OF THE FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING IN THE
WHITE SEA, THE ARCTIC OCEAN, AND THE CASPIAN SEA.

By Alexander Schultz.

The similarity ill many respects between the fish and fisheries of the
great lakes and the northeastern coast of the United States and those of
certain portions of Russia has induced me to print the very interesting
and important memoir of Mr. Schultz,* prepared to accouipany the Rus-
sian display of fishery-products, implements, &c, at the Vienna Expo-
sition. In regard to the conversion of the sturgeon, so abundant in the
United States, and until lately considered a refuse fish, into a valuable
article of trade, the memoir will be found replete with valuable informa-
tion. It also details novel modes of capturing and utilizing the cod, the
herring, the salmon, the seals, and the smaller cetaceans, (porpoises, &c.)
many of them perfectly available in the United States, and worthy of
introduction. — [S. F. Balrd.]

In the district of Archangel, large fishing-villages are found on the
coasts of the White Sea, especially near the mouths of rivers and
streams, such as the Dwina, the Onega, the Souma, the Kem, the Kovda,
the Niva, the Oumba, and the Varzoukha. A still larger portion of the
population of the cities of Archaugel, Onega, and Kem, as well as of the
town of Souma, devote themselves exclusively to fishing and trading in
fish. The coast of the Arctic Ocean which extends east of the White
Sea has a very sparse population. Only here and there, at a great dis-
tance from each other, are seen the wretched huts of fishermen, inhab-
ited only in the summer, and the felt tents of Samoyed families, who
also live by fishing. The inhabitants of the town of Mezene, and those
of the village of Poustozersk, at the mouth of the Petshora, are engaged
either in fishing Or hunting the seal or the walruss.

Not more than 3,000 fishermen live in the vast region of the Lower
Petshora, extending three hundred versts (about one hundred and ninety-
eight miles) along the shores of the sea, and four hundred versts (about
two hundred and sixty-eight miles) up the river. The Lapland coast,
with the exception of the Kola Peninsula, is entirely uninhabited as far
as the Norwegian frontier. Only nomadic Laplanders show themselves

*Ministere ties doruaines. Comite" special, charge" de la collection des produits des in-
dustries rurales et forestieres pour l'exposition universelle de Vienne. — Notice sur le
pickeries et la chasse aux phoques daus la Mer Blanche, FOc6an Glacial et la Mer Caa
pienue. Par Alexandre Schultz, conseillor d'etat actuel et president de l'adininistra-
tiou des pecheries d' Astrakhan. — St. Pe"tershourg, 1873. 8vo, 80 pp., 2 1.

36 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

here and there. This country, called the Mourman coast, possesses a
great number of large and small inlets, which form excellent anchoring-
places. Five thousand fishermen assemble there for the season, from
April till the middle of August. The majority of these come from the
coast-villages of the White Sea, located in the districts of Onega and
Kern, and they are known by the name of "Poinortsie" — inhabitants
of the sea-coast.

The average annual value of the fisheries in the White Sea, the Arctic
Ocean, and the rivers flowing into them is a million "roubles," (about
$700,000 gold.) Of this sum, the cod-fisheries on the Mourman coast
yield at least 400,000 "roubles," (about $280,000 gold,) and the herring-
fisheries in the White Sea 250,000 "roubles," (about $175,000 gold.)
The phocse-hunt yields annually about 80,000 "pouds" (2,880,000 pounds)
of oil, valued at 120,000 "roubles," (about $84,000 gold.)

The manner of fishing and of preparing the fish when caught is much
less perfect on the coasts of the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean than
that of the Astraehau fishermen. The fish are, in general, salted in an
imperfect and slovenly manner. The monks of the convent of Solovetsk
alone distinguish themselves by their manner of salting herring ; and an
exception must also be made with regard to the salting of the salmon of
the Dwiua and the Onega. The reason of this is, not that the fishermen
do not know the approved method of preparing fish, but that they shun
the trouble and expense, and content themselves with the old saying,
"We go on doing as our fathers and grandfathers have done before us."

A— THE FISHERIES IN THE WHITE SEA AND THE PET-

SHOKA.

In the White Sea and the rivers falling into it, such as the Petshora,
the following kinds of fish are found, of which I will first give the Rus-
sian names : " Okouue," (Perca fluviatilis,) perch ; " yorsche," (Acerina
vulgaris;) "revtsa," (Cottus quadricornis ;) " kertcha," (Cottus scorpio ;)
"zoubatka," (Anarhiclias lupus,) wolf-fish; "harass," (Cyprinus caras-
sius,) carp; " vyoune," (Tinea vulgaris,) tench; "pestousch," (Gobio
fluviatilis;) " yelets," (Leuciscus grislagine ;) in the Tsilma and Peza
Elvers: " yaz," (Leuciscus idus,) nerfling; " soroga," (Leuciscus rutilus ;)
"lestche," (Abramisbrama ;) "oukleika," (Aspius alburnus ;) "stchouka,"
(Esox lucius,) pike ; "siomga," (Salmo salar,) salmon; "coumja,"
(Salmo trutta,) sea-trout; " koriouchka," (Osmerus eperlanus,) smelt;
" kharyouss," (Thymallus vexillifer, Agassiz,) grayling; "sig," (Corego-
nus oxyrliynchus, Lin.,) long-snouted white-fish; " nelma," (Coregonus
leucichthys, Pall.;) " seld," (Clupea harengus,) herring; " treska," (Gadus
morrhua,) cod; " pertoua," (Gadus callarias ;) " navaga," (Gadus na-
vaga ;) " sai'da," (Gadus sa'ida ;) " nalim," (Lota vulgaris,) burbot;
" kambala," (Pleuronectes platessa,) flounder; " kambala," (Pleuronectes
fiesus ;) " sterliad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) sterlet; " minoga," (Petromy.
zon fiuviatilis,) lamprey; "petchorskoi sig," (Coregonus polkur,T?i\\\.,)

FISHEEIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 37

" peliad," (Coregonus peled. Pall.,) " tchir," (Coregonus nasutus, Pall.,)
" oinoul," (Coregonus omul,) and u saourei," (Coregonus vimba,) species
of white-fish.

Of all these kinds of fish, those forming the largest article of com-
merce are the herring, the salmon, aud the cod; then follow the
"navaga," the "sterliad," and the "minoga." The fish are exported
to the districts of Vologda, Viatka, Yaroslaw, Moscow, Olonets, St.
Petersburg, and to the several districts of the province of Archangel.

1. — THE HERRING.

The species Glupea liarengus is found in the White Sea only, and is
divided into a large and a small kind. The former is caught especially
on the southwest shore in the bay of Kaudalakcha, near the convent of
Solovetsk, and near the village of Pongama, and more rarely near the
city of Kem and on the northwest shore of the bay of Kaudalakcha.
The small herring usually attains the length ot from G to 7£ inches ;
and a thousand weigh about two " pouds1' and a half, (90 pounds.) These
herring come up in large numbers from the depth of the sea in the
beginning of November, and make for the bays, especially the bay of
Soroka, where the inhabitants of the coast villages always catch them
in great abundance.

Herrings leave the deep sea only during the spawning season, in
order to reach the more shallow bays, and the fishermen call them by
different names, according to the time when they make their appearance.
The herring of St. George (appearing about the time of that saint's day)
has perfectly matured roe, and spawns in April. Two hundred and
fifty of these fish weigh only one "pond," (36 pounds.) It requires, on the
other hand, only from 80 to 120 herring of St. John to make the same
weight, and these have most of the time roe and milt. The autumn
herring are the fattest, but have neither roe nor milt.

Organization of the herring-fisheries. — It is a rule very generally ob-
served that the interests of a whole community shall not be injured
by the preponderating influence of private individuals, and that the per-
sonal rights of every fisherman shall be protected. To insure this, vari-
ous measures are taken, varying according to local conditions. For in-
stance, in the villages of Kaudalakcha, Kovda, and Kniajno'i, the herring-
fishery is organized in the following manner : the places near these vil-
lages where the fisheries are most productive being known, the entire
community goes there, aud the result of the common labor is divided
among the fishermen in proportion to the number of male inhabitants
of each village.

This proportion is calculated in the following mauner : At first, the
number of fishermen is determined, aud then the number of inhabitants
obliged to furnish one fisherman. In counting one fisherman to three
inhabitants, a family composed of three members must furnish one ; a fam-
ily of six members, two ; aud so on. Families having only two members

38 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

associate themselves with others numbering four members, and thus
furnish two fishermen in common. Every one of these must furnish the
salt aud the necessary fishing-implements. When the fisheries have
come to an end, all the fish which have been caught are sold in a lump,
and the proceeds are divided among all the persons who havetaken a
part in the fishing. Families which, though taking a part in the com-
mon fisheries, wish to fish in other places, are authorized to do so with
their own means ; but, if the places where they desire to fish are particu-
larly rich, the community has the right to take possession of them as
common property.

On the northern coast of the White Sea, there is a large fishing-vil-
lage called Kauzomene, where, in the autumu, herring-fisheries are
carried on on a large scale near the mouth of the river. It is the cus-
tom in this village that the inhabitant of the village who first arrives at
the mouth of the river has the right to cast his nets first ; but after
having drawn them in, he must yield his place to the one who comes
second, and so on. The herring caught there spawn in May and disap-
pear entirely during the latter half of July.

Toward the end of the autumn and the beginning of the winter, great
herring-fisheries are going on in the bay of Soroka, where the inhab-
itants of the coast are joined by considerable numbers of Kareles, who
come from their villages, far away from the bay. Here every person
fishes for himself, every family enjoying its own gains. The fishing here
is always very productive, and it is not a rare case to find 100,000 her-
ring in the net and 70,000 in the sweep-net.

Implements for the her ring -fisheries. — The two wings of the net, when
spread out, have a total length of from 16 to 35 " sagenes," (112 to
245 feet;) their depth is from 2£ to 4 "sageues," (17£ to 28 feet;) the
meshes of the wings are from 1 to If of an inch square, and those of the
purse or bag § of an inch. The bag is 4 " sagenes" (28 feet) long, and
can contain 300 " pouds" (10,800 pounds) of fish. These nets are used
on the south coast of the White Sea, particularly in the bay of Soroka,
where usually 750 of them are employed at a time. The fisheries commence
in the middle of November and last till the end of February. Holes are
made in the ice in order to get the nets into the water, and they are
kept there by means of small sticks tied to the wings of the net by long
cords, and laid across the holes made in the ice.

For the autumn herring-fisheries, nets are used whose wings are gen-
erally 8 "sagenes" (56 feet) long, and every fisherman has such a net
in his boat. The boats always go out two by two. A cord with a run-
ning-knot tied to the prows of the two boats prevents their separating.
Every boat is manned by three fishermen, one of whom rows while the
second guides the helm, and the third continually sounds the sea by
means of a long pole, to ascertain the presence of a school of herring.
The moment the fishing ought to commence, the cord uniting the two
boats is pulled out; and the fishermen in each rowing rapidly, they

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 39

soon separate. Paring this time, one of the nets is cast, and the boats
keep in the same place till the whole net is in the water ; then the oars
are again put in motion, dragging the net a certain distance, when the
two boats again unite. The wings are tben drawn into the boats, the
bag is detached from them, tied up like a purse, and left in the water
till the second net has likewise been cast and drawn. After having
brought this double operation to an end, the herring are taken out of
the bag by means of hand-nets and crayfish-nets and put in the boats or
laid on the shore.

The largest nets, the so-called " eissauges," which are always hauled
on shore, are from 50 to 100 " sagenes" (350 to 700 feet) long, and have
a bag measuring 7 " sagenes," (49 feet.)

The total length of this implement is 8 " sagenes," (56 feet,) and
a cylindrical net is attached to its bag serving as a leap, 3 "ar-
sheens " (7 feet) iu length, and stretched over three small wooden
rings. The meshes of the cylindrical net and those of the bag
measure only half an inch, while those of the wings measure 1£ inches.
With nets of this kind, small herring scarcely two inches long
are caught under the ice ; of these small herring, 2,500 weigh one
" poud," (36 pounds.) This kind of fishing is chiefly carried on near the
mouths of the Dwiua, and cart-loads of these fish are taken to Arch-
angel, the price of one cart-load being generally 5 " roubles," ($3.50 gold.)

The sweep-nets have mostly ten hoops ; the first or foremost one, being
the largest, about 2£ " arsheens " (5 feet 10 inches) in diameter, while
the last or hindmost, being the smallest, measures only £ " arsheen," (1
foot 2 inches.) The hoops are placed at a distance of 1£ " arsheens" (3
feet 6 inches) from each other. The meshes are one inch square. Two
little necks, shaped like funnels, called "gorges" by the fishermen, are
attached to the inside of the nets ; and, through these openings, the fish
enter the net, where they become imprisoned. Each wing of the net
measures 10 " sagenes" (70 feet) iu length. These sweep-nets are placed
at a depth varying from 1 to 3 "sagenes," (7 to 21 feet,) chiefly during
the months of January and February.

Preparing the herring.- — The herring caught in the spring, summer,
and autumn, in the bay of Kandalakcha, at Pogama, at Solovetsk, and
other places, are always salted. The monks of Solovetsk know how to do
this admirably. They do not take out the entrails, but after having
washed the herring properly, they barrel them in layers with the greatest
precision, and put a thick covering of salt on every layer, after which
the barrels are placed in the ice- vaults.

In most of the villages, on the contrary, the herring are thrown pro-
miscuously into pine- barrels, which are so badly made that they scarce-
ly retain the brine ; then a quantity of salt is added, and the whole is
well shaken. Sometimes the large herring of St. John are dressed,
and then placed in layers iu the barrels, slightly salted. The barrels
are then left to stand a week and a half till the fish are completely im-

40 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

pregDated with the salt, and then finally closed. The barrels generally
used are 16 inches high and 9£ inches in diameter. Every barrel contains
usually from 70 to 100 herring of St. John, or from 200 to 250 of St.
George, and its weight varies between 34 and 42 pounds. To every bar-
rel the fishermen take 4 pounds of salt in the spring, and G pounds in
the autumn. The largest barrels, containing from 150 to 400 herring,
are one " arsheen" (2 feet 4 inches) high, and half an " arsheen" (1 foot
2 inches) in diameter. At Archangel, the price of such a barrel varies
from 30 to 50 " kopecks," (21 to 35 cents.) For salting, Spanish or Arch-
angel salt is used.

The herring are smoked in some villages of the district of Kem, at
Saroka, at Jisma, and at Saukho'i Navoloki, where there are 80 smoke-
houses. The village of Ouua, in the district of Onega, has 4 smoke-
houses. They are simple sheds covered by a slanting roof, with small
apertures to let the smoke pass out. Parallel to the walls, fifteen or
more poles are placed at a distance of 1£ " arsheens " (3 feet 6 inches)
from each other, supporting other poles, which are placed across the
former. On these poles small laths are placed, pointed at the end, and
on which the herring are spitted, after having been washed and salted.
After eight or nine days, the herring are thoroughly smoked. The whole
process usually takes twelve days. The smoked herring cost 90
"kopecks" (63 cents) a thousand, and sometimes even 1 "rouble" 25
"kopecks," (about 87 cents.) Not less than ten millions of herring are
smoked every year.

2. — THE SALMON.

They distinguish three kinds of salmon according to the time when
they show themselves in the rivers. The first makes its appearance im-
mediately after the breaking of the ice, toward the end of May or the
beginning of June. Its roe is almost matured. The salmon of this kind
is of medium size, and weighs about seven pounds. The second kind
appears toward the end of June and during July ; it is small, and weighs
only three pounds. At this time, male fish are found with the milt
almost matured. The third kind begins to ascend the rivers in August,
and stays there till the water is covered with a slight coating of ice.
Among them are found males as well as females ; but milt and roe are
so little developed that this salmon cannot spawn that same autumn.
This kind is the largest and fattest; some caught in the Dwina and
Onega weighing twenty pounds. The first two kinds named enter the
rivers to spawn during the autumn of the same year. After having
spawned, they spend the winter in the rivers, returning to the sea in
the spring. In the Petshora, the Mezene, the Dwina, the Onega, and the
Varzoukha, the salmon is caught in enormous quantities.

Implements for salmon- fishing. — The bars, which extend over the
entire breadth of the river or over a portion of the stream, consist of
stakes firmly driven in the ground, to which poles are attached support-

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 41

iug a sort of trellis made of boughs. These parks are arrange/ in zig-
zag shape, the outer angles having openings, where leaps ov wooden
boxes are placed. These bars are not used in the Petshora, tbe Mezene,
the Koulo'i, and the Dwina, but in all the other rivers falling into the
White Sea.

As soon as the rising of the river has subsided, people begiu to build
these bars, always leaving an opening of 3 "sagenes" (21 feet) to let
the fish and the boats pass. The bar of the river Ponoi consists of two
parallel rows of stakes on which transverse beams rest, surmounted by
long thick poles weighted down by stones. The stakes are driven in at
a distauce of 2 "sagenes" (14 feet) from each other. In the interven-
ing spaces, horizontal and vertical poles are fixed, furnished with a
trellis of thin branches, and here the apparatus for catching the fish
is placed, consisting of a large box whose opening is turned toward the
mouth of the river. This apparatus is called "ta'iuik" in Russian. A
funnel, 10 inches broad and 1£ "sagenes" (10£ feet) long, leads to this
box, open at the top and crossed by planks, on which the fisherman
stands ready to take out the captured salmon with a small net.

In the Onega, near the village of Podporojye, the bar has only one
row of wooden stakes, on which thick poles are placed, weighted down by
heavy stones. In the intervening spaces, poles driven in at a distance of
2 "arsheens" (4 feet 8 inches) from each other, support the trellis. As
raits of timber and planks float down the river, bars have been built 2
"sagenes" (14 feet) in front of the chief bar, in order to preserve them
against accidents. These last-mentioned bars are a sort of ramparts
formed by beams floating on the water and attached to trestles placed
there for the purpose. In the Onega, no boxes, but sweep-nets, are
placed on the bars. While the fishermen take up and examine the
sweep-nets, they are replaced by a net stretched on a wooden frame, so
as to prevent the fish from passing.

Near the town of Onega, they use, besides the sweep-nets, a bog-net
called "kourma." This is placed opposite the opening of the sweep-net,
and is intended to catch those salmon which may attempt to escape the
moment the leap is taken up.

At the bar of the river Kitcha, another sweep-net is used, which has the
shape of a truncated pyramid, and consists of a certain number of poles
fastened in a wooden frame. The foremost part of this pyramid is open
andis turned toward the opening in the bar. A funnel-shaped net, called
" gorge, " is attached to the frame, having the shape of a quadrangu-
lar, truncated pyramid. This apparatus is placed on a support by means
of a winch, and one of the fishermen slips inside to take the salmon*
The sweep-nets of the bar of the river Souina are called " merschi," and
consist of several wooden frames resembling the apparatus which has just
been described.

Skillful divers are kept at all the bars, who immediately repair any dam-
age done under the water. These bars are constructed and put in posi-

42 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

tion by special manufacturers, who inspect them during the fishing-sea-
son, and take them to pices at the end of the autumn.

In June and July, they fish for the salmon with seines 6 " sagenes "
long, (42 feet,) whose bag is 4 " sagenes" (28 feet) long and 3 " sagenes"
(21 feet) wide. The meshes of the bag are an inch square, and those of
the wings of the seine from 1£ to 2\ inches. These seines are also used
as stationary nets. The following is the method of fishing: One of the
fishermen remains on shore and holds the cord attached to the shortest
wing. The others gradually lower the net into the sea, standing at a
distance of several "sagenes" from each other. One-half of the net is
in a straight line from the shore, while the other half forms a large
semicircle, whose extremity approaches the portion under water in the
shape of a hook, in such a manner that there is a passage of 4
"sagenes" (28 feet) between the halves, which leads into the hook
above mentioned. As soon as one of the fishermen, who is on the out-
look in one of the boats, notices that a certain number of salmon have
entered the net, he detaches from the pole the cord keeping back that
end of the wiug of the net which forms the hook, and takes off the nip-
pers holding the bolt-ropes to the poles, so that the longer wing of the
net becomes free and can be hauled on shore by means of a winch. The
salmon which have been caught in the hook are in this manner forced
to enter the bag, which the fishermen afterward draw on shore.

In the Petshora River, seines are used measuring from 250 to 400
" sagenes" (1,750 to 2,800 feet) in length.

They first place a net on the shore in a perpendicular position and
fastened to poles, and then a second net is cast so as to form with the
first the letter T. At the ends, there are curtains of crescent or polygo-
nal shape, whose concave portion is turned toward what is called the
"wall," viz, the perpendicular net on the shore. The entrance is be-
tween two nets which join the stationary nets in a slanting direction. The
bottom of the apparatus where the fish are caught is likewise formed
by a net.

When the salmon approach the shore, they meet the " wall" and fol-
low it till they enter into the apparatus itself, from which they cannot
escape.

Other stationery nets, simple parts of nets, have only a single "wall,"
and are placed on the shore in a perpendicular position. At the mouth
of the Petshora, one of these "walls" extends as far as five and even
seven "rersts" from the shore, (two and two-thirds miles to four miles.)

Every net is from 40 to 50 "sagenes" (280 to 350 feet) long, with
meshes 3£ inches square, sixteen of which make the height of the net.
A certain number of these nets are tied together, the head bolt-ropes be-
ing fastened to poles driven in at a distance of 15 "sagenes" (105 feet)
from each other. The nets are examined at the time the tide is out, and
the salmon caught in the meshes are taken out. These nets are set dur-
ing the mouth of July, and taken up in September. They also use the

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 43

drag-net, which consist of two or three parallel nets, the inner part of
which has small meshes, while the two outer have large ones, or a sin-
gle large-meshed net.

The floating seines used in the Dwina are from 150 to 200 "sagenes"
(1,050 to 1,400 feet) long, seldom as long as 300 "sagenes," (2,100 feet.)
Those of the Petshora are usnsually 200 "sagenes" (1,400 feet) long,
and those of the other rivers from 80 to 100 "sagenes,'' (560 to 700 feet.)
The depth of the seine is from 28 to 32 meshes, each measuring from 2
to 2h square inches. Two boats, at some distance from each other, go
down the stream dragging the net ; they finally approach each other,
and the net is gradually drawn into one of the boats. This fishing is
carried on from the middle of July till the rivers are frozen.

Fishing is also carried on in these streams with floating nets in the
shape of a bag, measuring 2i "sagenes" in length, (17£ feet.)

In the dark autumn nights, the salmon, the pike, and the " lavaretus"
are caught with fish-gigs by torch-light. The fish-gig has the shape of
a fork with three or four prongs, each terminating in a barbed pike. A
fire is made ou a chafing-dish on the prow of the boat, so that the fish
at the bottom of the river can easily be seen and speared. They also
use fish-gigs composed of a whole bunch of prongs.

Preparing the salmon. — Salmon is mostly placed in the market salted,
rarely smoked. The salting is done in the following manner : The
head of the fish is cut off, the belly is opened, and the entrails are
taken out; then it is washed clean and filled with salt ; salt is also put
under the gills, and the scales are usually rubbed with it. They cal-
culate, generally, 17£ pounds of salt to 100 pounds of fish. The quan-
tity of salt to be used depends also on the season of the year and on the
quality of the fish. The best salmon comes from the Onega and the
Dwiua. That of the Petshora is larger and fatter, but it is salted so
little that it becomes worthless.

3. — THE " NAVAGA" (GADUS NAVAGA) AND OTHER SALT-WATER FISH.

The " uavaga " appears in large numbers at the mouths of rivers aud
near the sea-shore toward the end of the autumn. This fish, which is
very voracious, spawns in the autumn. It has an excellent flavor, and
is sent frozen, in enormous quantities, into the interior of Russia as far
as Astrachan, where fish is so plentiful.

In the villages located on the rivers falling into the White Sea,
flounders (Pleuronectes flcsus) and plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) are, when
caught, stuck on small poles, and are thus smoked ; while at Mezeue,
they are salted. In the bay of Kandalakcha, a small kind of cod-fish is
caught, which the fishermen salt exclusively for their own use.

Implements for catching these fish. — A line of twisted horse-hair is
attached to a stick or to a piece of lath, from which hangs a piece of
lead pierced by a strong wire. To the two ends of this wire, aud some-
times also in the middle, thin little horse-hair strings are tied, furnished

44 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

with small fish-hooks. The fisherman makes a hole in the ice, and places
the apparatus in the water, using small fish as baits. He draws it out
soon to plunge it in again, for this fishing is yery productive, a prac-
ticed fisherman often taking not less than 2,000 "navagas " in one short
winter's day.

To fishing-tackle measuring 40 "sageues" (280 feet) in leagth, copper
or wire hooks are attached by means of horse-hair strings 10 inches in
length. The hooks are placed at a distance of three-fourths of an "ar-
sheen" (1 foot 9 inches) from each other, and are baited with small pieces
of herring, or lavaretas, (Coregonus pollcur.) This apparatus is placed in
the spring near the shore.

4. — RIVER AND LAKE FISH.

Among the river-fish, the sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus) holds the first
rank. During the second decade of the present century, the sterlet first
commenced to show themselves in the Dwina; then, in 1848 and 1849, in
the Soukhona in large numbers. These precious fish seem to have come
to the Dwina from the Kama through the canals. This fishery is, how-
ever, so far, not very considerable. As regards fresh-water fish, great
quantities of "nalim," (Lota vulgaris;) of " koriouchka, " (Osmerus
eperlanus ;) of Coregonus and of " minoga, " (Petromyzon fluviatilis,) are
caught, these last mentioned chiefly in the Onega, while the "omoul"
(Coregonus omul) and the "nelma, " (Coregonus leucichthys,) the Siberian
salmon, are caught more frequently in the Petshora. Every year, about
100 "pouds" (3,600 pounds) of "minoga" (Petromyzon jluviatilis) are
exported from the town of Onega. Next to the salmon, the " omoul "
(Coregonus omul) finds the best market. They are salted in casks contain-
ing 12 " pouds " (832 pounds) each, reckoning about a pound and a half
of salt to each "poud," (36 pounds.)

The above-mentioned fish are either caught with lines, or with station-
ary nets having meshes from 1£ to 2 inches square. In the lakes, seines
froni60to 100 "sagenes" (420 to 700 feet) in length are used for catching
scaly fish. Unfortunately, the spawn is also taken, especially in the lake
of Koubino. For this purpose, hoop-nets are used with a bag measuring
4 " sagenes" (28 feet) in length. The meshes of the bag are so narrow
that a fly could not pass through. Nine of these meshes measure only
2^ inches, while seven meshes of the wing of the seine measure 2£ inches.
The roe of the " okoune, " (Perca fluviatilis,) and of the " yerschi, " (Acer-
ina vulgaris,) is dried in ovens specially constructed for this purpose,
and is used as a seasoning during Lent.

B— FISHERIES IN THE ARCTIC OCEAN.

1. — FISHERIES ON THE MOURMAN COAST.

The Mourman coast, in Russian Lapland, begins at the Cape of Saints,
the point of demarkatiou between the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean,

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 45

and extends as far as the Norwegian river Worgheina. On this coast-
line of eight hundred " versts," (about four hundred and sixty-one miles,)
there are fine bays offering the fisherman good and safe anchorage. There
are forty-one of these inlets into which rivers fall. At these points, the
fishermen have built huts and sheds and scaffolding of various kinds,
so that the shores of those bays which are frequented most look some-
what like large villages, busy with the excitement of fishing-life. The
fishermen meet there in the spring and remain till the middle of August.
Other auchoring-places, where the coast is almost barren, are frequented
only in June and July by those fishermen who come from the populous
auchoriug-places, or by others who come from Archangel on large boats,
manned by their masters, in order to catch a large number of fish in a
short time.

Species of fish found on the Mourman coast. — The fisheries of the
Mourman coast comprise especially the different varieties of " treska,"
(Gadus morrhua ;) the " kambala," (Pleuronectes fiesus ;) and the "kam-
bala," (Pleuronectes platessa ;) a good many salmon also are caught
near the mouths of the rivers.

Of the cod, the Gadus morrhua is caught most frequently. It spawns
in February and in March, and is caught with baited hooks. For
bait, the fishermen mostly use Mallotus arcticus*, or Ammodytes Ian-
cea, or, in case of necessity, Arenicola piscatorum, a sort of thick worm
dug out from the sand of the beach. The Mallotus arcticus and the
Ammodytes lancea resemble the Osmerus eperlanus, and are, like it, easily
distinguished by a peculiar odor resembling that of the cucumber.
Among the varieties of the cod, there are the Gadus ceglefinus, and the
Gadus virens, the latter called " sa'ida" by the Russians.

The Hippoglossus maximus, Cuv., which the Russians call " paltouss,"
usually weighs 2 " pouds," (72 pounds ;) but near the North Cape some
are caught weighing 15 "ponds," (540 pounds.) The small kinds of
plaice (Pleuronectes platessa, L.) and the Pleuronectes limanda have but
little value as articles of commerce, as likewise the Brosmius vulgaris, a
sort of cod; the Sebastes norvegicus, Cuv., called by the Russians " mors-
ko'i okoune;" and the Anarrhichas lupus, L.

The two kinds of sharks (Scymnus borealis and Selaclw maxima) are
caught only for the sake of their liver, which is used in the manufacture
of cod-liver oil.

Fishing-implements. — The " palangre" consists of a chief line as
thick as a man's finger, and from 33 to 42 " sagenes" (231 to 294 feet)
long, to which small lines of the thickness of a quill are attached at the
distance of If "arskeens" (4 feet 1 inch) from each other. These lines
have baited hooks. A succession of lines tied one to the other forms
what is called in Russian a " yarous," extending from 6 to 10 kilometers
in the sea. This "yarous," or train, is kept by three anchors a little
above the bottom of the sea. Every anchor is attached by a cord to a

*A fish similar to the capelin of the North Atlantic coast.

46 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

buoy, the location of which is indicated to the fishermen by a bunch of
sea- weeds placed vertically on a pole.

The fishermen of the Mourman coast use only English hooks, which
they buy from Norwegian merchants from the towns of Wardoe, Wadsoe,
Hammerfest, and Tromsoe. They cost 8 " roubles" ($5.60 gold) a thou-
sand. Every fishing-boat, called " sehniaka," uses not less than 5,000
hooks a year. These boats are open, and have only one mast, with a
large sail and six oars. They are from 28 to 40 feet long, their breadth
is from 6 to 9 feet, and their draught is 4| feet. Their capacity is from
150 to 250 "pouds," (5,400 to 9,000 pounds.) The price of one of these
boats, completely rigged, is 60 " roubles," ($42 gold.) The fishermen
will go thirty " versts" (upward of seventeen miles) out to sea in these
boats.

Before setting out for the cod fisheries, the fishermen provide themselves
with a quantity of bait for their hooks, to be used on the following day.
They begin to bait the hooks some hours before going to sea, and con-
tinue doing this till they reach the fishing-place. There a train, " yarous,"
is laid, and every six hours the captured fish are taken out. Eeturning
from the fishing-expedition, the nets are hung up to dry on scaffolds
erected for the purpose, after which boys of from nine to thirteen years
put the "palangres" again in order; i. e., disengage the hooks and the
entangled lines.

Strong threads each 1 " arsheen" (2 feet 4 inches) long, with steel hooks,
are suspended from the two ends of a slightly-curved iron rod. The
hooks are baited. A cord 2 " arsheens " (4 feet 8 inches) long, with a
piece of lead at the end, is attached to a ring at the middle of the rod.
Then the whole is tied to a cord 280 feet in length. This implement is
chiefly used by the Laplanders and by poor fishermen, who have no
means for buying nets.

A large iron hook is moved easily by means of an iron ring with a
pole, to which an iron chain of 4 "arsheens" (80 inches) is attached.
This chain is connected with a cable 200 to 300 "sagenes" (1,400 to
2,100 feet) long, to which a weight of 10 "pouds" (360 pounds) is
attached. Roasted phoca-fat is used for bait. In order to attract the
sharks, large pieces of fat are placed in the deep sea in perforated boxes.
The voracious shark rushes with avidity at the choice morsel of fat
which is baited on the hook, and he is caught. To bring the captured
shark to the surface of the water, a winch kept on the boat for the
purpose is employed. When brought up, he is killed; the belly is
opened, the liver is taken out, and he is then again thrown into the
water. But in order that the body may not sink to the bottom and
become the prey of other sharks, it is inflated with air by means of a
long tube passed into the inside of the fish. In summer, the shark is
caught at a depth varying between 100 and 300 " sagenes," (700 and
2,100 feet;) sometimes at 100 "versts," (about 57£ miles;) while in the
autumn he is caught near the coast. It often happens that during the

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 47

few hours of an autumn day four fishermen catch sharks enough to
yield as much as 100 "pouds" (3,G00 pounds) of liver. The inhabitants
of Kola catch the shark under the ice.

The small species of cod called Gadus virens is chiefly caught in July
and August, when it rises to the surface of the sea in enormous schools.
These small fish are caught like a large " carrelet," (a sort of square net
fixed on a pole,) or globe, which hangs down in the shape of a bag, sur-
rounded by a bolt-rope of the thickness of a finger. Every side of the
net is from 15 to 17 " sagenes," (105 to 119 feet) long, and the meshes are
an inch square. To the four ends long cords are attached, by means of
which the fishermen keep the globe up and extended.

For this operation, four boats are required, each manned by three fish-
ermen. As soon as a school of cod approaches, the fishermen cast the
net into the water, first by the side of the school, and then they manage
to get it underneath. To effect this, the cords attached to the four
corners must be stretched evenly by the four boats. As soon as the
net is placed horizontally beneath the school, the fish are frightened by
yelling, striking the water with the oars, and by throwing stones into
the sea, so that the fish, desiring to sink to the bottom of the sea,
become entangled in the net which is below them. When this has been
done, the four boats lift up the net by a regular movement. This fishery
is very productive, each boat often receiving as its share about 200
" pouds" (7,200 pounds) of cod.

The small fish mentioned above, which resemble the Osmerus cper-
lanus, and are used as a bait for cod-fishing, are caught with hoop-nets
30 " sagenes" (210 feet) long. The meshes of the bags of these nets are
so narrow that 44 of them make 7 square inches. When they have
caught with the hoop-net 6 "pouds" (216 pounds) of these fish, it is con-
sidered sufficient to bait about 3,000 hooks on the following day.

Preparing the various products of the fisheries. — Among the various
kinds of cod, the Gadus morrhua and the Gadus virens are salted or
dried, according to the season, while the Gadus ccglefiuus is almost
always salted. The Hippoglossus maximus and the Anarrhicas lupus are
only salted without cutting off the head, as is done with the different
kinds of cod.

The way to prepare the cod is as follows : The head of the fish is cut
off; then it is split open along the back, so that the vertebral column
adheres to one-half. Then the belly is opened, and the liver and entrails
are taken out j after which it is washed, and brought to the huts to be
salted or suspended on poles to dry.

In the huts, the halves of the fish are laid out in rows, the side
of the skin turned back, and every row is covered with a thick layer of
salt,

They generally reckon from 17 to 20 " pouds " (612 to 780 pounds) of
salt to 100 "pouds" (3,000 pounds) of cod-fish; and from 7 to 9 "pouds"
(252 to 324 pounds) of salt to 100 "pouds" (3,600 pounds) of "pilchoni,"

48 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

or Garfus cegUfinas. The same quantity of Hippoglossus maximus requires
25 " pouds" (900 pounds) of salt. On the Mournian coast, Spanish and
English salt are used, which can be imported duty-free. Wealthy fish-
ermen usually buy their stock of salt in Norway, and sell some of it
again to the poorer fishermen.

The cod salted in the spring are taken to Archangel in large sail-boats,
and are much sought after as being freshly salted. The cod salted in
the summer are carried in large boats, called in Eussian " ladya,"
which come from Archangel for this purpose. During the time of lad-
ing, and as long as the boats are at anchor near the fishing-places, the
fishermen continue to salt, on board their boats, the fish taken during
this time.

The cod is dried from the beginning of the fishing till the middle of
May. The Eussian fishermen do not take out the vertebral column as
the Norwegians do. They split the back of the fish and open the belly,
so that the two halves are connected only by the tail. The cod dried in
this manner is by the Eussians called " rochkirka," and by the Norwe-
gians " roskaer." In Norway, they also prepare "rondfish," which the
Eussians call " rountovka." For this purpose, the head of the fish is cut
off, and the belly is opened, but without flattening the opened fish.
They are then tied two and two by the tails and hung on poles to dry.
The Eussians do not prepare what the Norwegians call " klipfisk," that
is, codfish salted and then dried.

As soon as the drying is done, the fish are taken from the poles, and
heaped up like wood, placing on the top of each heap boards weighted
down by stones, in order to flatten those fish which, while drying, may
have become warped.

The dried cod is shipped from Archangel to St. Petersburg and to
the districts of Olonets and Vologda. About 30,000 « pouds " (1,080,000
pounds) of dried cod arrive every year at St. Petersburg, and scarcely
5,600 "pouds" (201,600 pounds) of salted cod. The chief market for
salt cod is the district of Archangel, especially the rural districts.

The heads of the cod-fish are generally thrown away, but sometimes
the largest are gathered and spread on rocks to dry. They are taken to
Archangel, where 50 " kopecks'7 (35 cents) are paid for a " poud," (36
pounds.) The chief buyers of this vile food are the peasants of the dis-
trict of Pinega, who live in the most wretched manner.

The tongues of the cod-fish are salted separately, 15 pounds of salt
being used to 100 pounds of tongues. These salted tongues are sold
at Archangel at 4 "kopecks" (2| cents) a kilogram. From April till
the middle of August, every boat can gather, if the fishing is good,
about 1,600 kilograms of cod-fish tongues.

The swimming-bladder of the cod also forms an article of trade in
the shape of fish-glue, after having been carefully washed, laid out, and
dried. Packed in parcels of from 6 to 10 pounds, this fish-glue usually
sells at Archangel for only 18 "kopecks" (12£ cents) a kilogram.

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 49

The liver of the cod-fish is gathered in tubs, and exposed to the heat of
the sun. After ten days, a coating of oil of amber-color is found swim-
ming at the top, which is skimmed and sold in casks containing from S
to 10 "ponds," (288 to 3G0 pounds.) Three '-pouds" (108 pounds) of
liver usually yield i " pond " (30 pounds) of oil. The cod-liver oil sells
at 2 "roubles" ($1.40 gold) a " poud," (30 pounds.) The residue is
cooked, and produces a dark brown oil, which costs less than the first-
mentioned kind. One " poud " (30 pounds) of this oil is usually obtained
from 2 " ponds" (72 pounds) of the residue. The dark and burned mat-
ter remaining at the bottom of the kettles is sold to the Norwegians,
who pay 1£ " roubles" ($1.05 gold) or a bottle of rum for a barrel, and
use it as grease.

Organization of the fisheries. — The financial condition of the fisher-
men, as regards both their mutual relations and their relations to their
masters, varies according as the fisheries on the Mourmau coast are
carried on by fishermen who have established themselves there perma-
nently, or by those who only stay there during the summer-months.

Among the permanent inhabitants of the Mourmau coast are the
inhabitants of the little town of Kola, and the Laplanders who live in
the neighborhood. Those fishermen who have their own boats and fish-
ing-implements buy on credit from the rich merchants of Kola all that
is required for their households, and pay in kind, i. e., by fish. The
price of the fish is fixed by the merchant himself, to whom the fishermen,
are bound to deliver the fish caught during the spring-fisheries, which
season is generally considered as continuing till the 29th of June. If'
their debts have been paid before this time, the merchant pays the fish-
ermen up to the 29th of June in cash, the price determined beforehand
for each fish delivered. After that time, the fishermen are at liberty to
sell their fish to whom they please, and can fix their own price. Tlie
principal buyers at this time are the fishermen who sail for Norway to
exchange fish, or those who come from there. In the autumn, the men.
lay iu fish for their own winter-provision ; but as soon as the frosts com-
mence, they again deliver the frozen fish to the merchants, who send,
them to St. Petersburg. Iu the middle of December, the fishing stops,
entirely, to recommence three months later.

The poor inhabitants of the town of Kola, and most of the Laplanders,
work as day -laborers with the merchants, and receive a certain share of
the f»sh delivered to the merchants. The merchants furnish them fish-
ing-implements and provisions, but they must generally pay for the boats
from their own funds. The merchants divide the proceeds of the fish-
eries with their laborers, and buy their share of fish from them at a price
fixed beforehand.

The organization of the fisheries of the " pomortsi," who only fish for

some months on the Mourmau coast, is entirely different. They form

fishing-associations, each member receiving a certain portion of the
4 F

50 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

whole number of fish caught, while the largest portion goes to the head
of the association, who defrays all the expenses.

Formerly, the inhabitants of Archangel andKholmogori likewise fished
on the Mourmau coast ; but at present the fisheries are almost exclusively
carried on by the fishermen of the district of Keme and Gn6ga. Those fish-
ermen who have the means to build small houses, depots, and sheds on
the coast, as well as large and small boats, and to provide fishing-imple-
ments and the necessary provisions, become independent master-fisher-
men, and form associations, of which they become the leaders, and which
are usually composed of four fishermen. The laborers hire themselves
out, and receive in return part of the fish which have been caught.

The head of the association engages his laborers in the autumn or the
beginning of the winter; gives them money to buy provisions for them-
selves and their families ; and defrays all their expenses. Every head
of an association has an anchoring-place in some bay on the Monrmau
coast. Thither he sends his laborers. These set out on their long and
difficult journey about the middle of March. According to an ancient
custom, the master (head of association) gives them a feast on the eve
of their departure, and presents each with a piece of cloth sufficient for
a pair of gloves. The pilot of the boat, and those laborers who have to
draw the net, receive two pairs of gloves.

They reach the village of Kandalachka with tolerable ease, for the
roads lead through well-known villages, where they are well received
and conveyed on sleighs. But from Kandalachka to Kola and the vil-
lage of Eazuavoloki, a distance of nine hundred "versts," (about five
hundred and eighteen miles,) they are obliged to perform the journey on
foot, dragging their clothes and provisions after them on little sleds.
From Raznavoloki to the fishing-places, they travel in sleighs drawn
by reindeer, at the expense of the master ; and from Kola on boats,
with wooden runners. They hoist the large sail, and the wind drives
them rapidly to the open sea. Having arrived at the place of their
destination, they immediately set to work. They have to remove the
masses of snow under which the huts and sheds are almost buried, to
repair the boats, to get the fishing-implements iuto working-order; and,
after all this has been done, they go to sea.

The money-value of the fishing is divided in the following manner : The
master first takes two-thirds, and the laborers divide the other third, so
that every laborer receives one-twelfth. If every one of them receives
100 " roubles" ($70 gold) as his share, the total sum realized by the fishing
has been 1,200 " roubles," ($840 gold.) The pilot, who has to lead tlie ex-
pedition, must keep order among the laborers, and watch over the inter-
ests of the master, for which he receives a certain pro rata of the eight-
twelfths which come to the master, and, moreover, a certain fee, which is
fixed beforehand, and which varies from 10 to 50 4i roubles," ($7 to $35.)
In this manner, the master's portion amounts to 20 forty-eighths, while
the combined portions of the four laborers amount to 19 forty-eighths, of

FISHEEIES AND SBAL-HUNTING. 51

the whole sum. At tirst sight, it might be thought that the masters make
a considerable profit, and that the laborers are working at a disadvan-
tage. This, however, is not the case ; for the sum which the laborers
receive is the actual pay for their labor, while the master must deduct
from his portion a large amount for the boats, fishing-implements, salt,
&c. These expenses are seldom less than 250 "roubles," ($175 gold,)
so that, as a general rule, the laborers work on favorable conditions.

The trade with Noncay. — The bartering-trade with Norway has been
going on since the second half of the last century, and is increasing from
year to year. The Russian vessels, laden with rye -flour, wheat-flour, mil-
let, and oat-meal, are obliged to put into one of the four Norwegian
ports of Wardoe, Wadsoe, Hammerfest, and Tromsoe, to declare their
cargoes and to pay the duty ; rye-flour, oat-meal, and building-materials
alone being free of duty. The Russian government, upon its part, au-
thorizes the citizens and peasauts inhabiting the coast of the White Sea
to export rye-flour and oat-meal to Norway, while the merchants of the
first guild have the right to trade in other articles. The Norwegian
authorities are very strict in their watch over the coast. As soon as
the Russian sailors have been authorized to commence their bartering-
trade, they sail for the different bays of the coast, where they have least
competition to fear, and there exchange their cargoes of rye-flour and
oat-meal for fish.

The Norwegian government allows the inhabitants of Finnmarken,
during six weeks, viz, from the 1st of July to the 15th of August, (new
style,) this bartering-trade with the Russian fishermeu, who are also
allowed to sell their goods for cash only to merchants. But when a
Russian vessel has been in Norwegian waters for six weeks, it can also
sell rye-flour to the inhabitants for cash, on condition that the regular
terms of the bartering-trade are not exceeded, and not less than three
bags to one buyer. The Russiau fishermen find it much to their advan-
tage to barter their cargoes for fish. They usually receive, for one
"poud" (30 pounds) of rye-flour, from three to five "pouds" (108 to
180 pounds) of cod-fish, or four to eight "pouds" (144 to 2S8 pounds)
of saida, (a small kind of cod-fish.) The Russian fishermen usually
exchange a portion of their rye-flour and their oat-meal for fish, and the
other portion for walrus- skins.

From 400 to 500 Russian ships, manned by more than 2,000 men,
devote themselves every year to this bartering-trade. It may be safely
asserted that they export annually from Norway about 700,000 " pouds"
(25,200,000 pounds) of fish. In 1800, the export amounted to a million
of " pouds," (30,000,000 pounds,) because the cod-fisheries, and especially
that of the " saida," had been particularly rich.

The average prices at Archangel during the years from 1852 to 1800
wTere as follows : Salt cod, GO to 75 " kopecks " (42 to 52 cents) per
"poud," (3G pounds ;) dried cod, 1 "rouble " to 1£ "roubles," (70 cents
to $1.05 gold ;) salted " saida," 20 to 30 " kopecks/(14 to 21 cents gold ;)

52 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

dried " saida," 1 " rouble" to 1 "rouble" 20 " kopecks," (70 cents to
84 cents gold ;) cod-liver oil, 2 " roubles " to 2 " roubles " 20 " kopecks,"
(81.40 to $1.54;) dried cod-fish heads, 10 " kopecks," (7 cents,)

2. — FISHERIES AT NOVAYA-ZEMLYA.

Between the years 1830 and 1840, Novaya-Zemlya was visited by con-
siderable numbers of " pomortsi," inhabitants of Mezene, and fishermen
from the Gulf of the Petshora, and every year large sailing-vessels
brought thence rich cargoes of salmon or trout, of seals and walruses.
After that, the product of the fisheries and of the chase diminished ;
the animals left their usual places of abode and removed to others less
accessible. The fishermen consequently ceased going to Novaya-Zemlya,
so that in 1850 and 1SG0 only five vessels sailed for that group of islands.

The northern island of JSTovaya-Zemlya is most frequented by fisher-
men, while those who have strong and well-equipped vessels venture
as far north as Matoschkine. The arrangements are made so as to ar-
rive toward the end of June at Novaya-Zemlya, where the fishermen
commence their work by hunting the seals and the walrus, and after-
ward devote themselves to fishing for the common trout, the variety
called Salmo alpinus, which the Eussians call "golets." This little fish,
which only weighs four pounds, enters the rivers in large numbers dur-
ing the spawning-season, when it is caught by means of small bars and
leaps. They are fished for in the sea with seines and stationary nets.
Every boat usually contains three seines aud six stationary nets. The
"golets" fishery is always productive; for during its stay in these lati-
tudes, every boat catches about 300 " ponds" (10,800 pounds) of this
fish. A " poud " (36 pounds) of salted " golets " costs 3 " roubles," ($2.10.)
In 1830, and during the three following years this fishery was so extraor-
dinarily abundant that the fishermen were obliged to throw a large
number of " golets " into the sea, because tbey had not salt enough. In
1852, the fisheries were also productive ; the stationary nets contained
on an average 20 " ponds " (720 pounds) of this fish, and one fisherman
caught 480 " pouds" (17,280 pounds) in a single day.

The u golets" fishery ceases in the middle of August, and the fisher-
men sail for the " Iron Gate," the narrow channel which separates the
northern island of Novaya-Zemlya from the island of Vaigatck, where
they hunt the walrus.

The fishermen always try to be at home again in September; most of
them dread the idea of spending the winter in Novaya-Zemlya, on account
of its severe and unhealthy climate, Some men, however, from the Gulf
of the Petshora, always spend the winter there.

The species sought. — Seven different kinds of animals living in the
sea are hunted on the northern coast of Eussia for their fat and their
skin. These are the "nerpa," (Phoca anneallta and Phoca vitulina, L,;)
the "zayats," (Phoca barbata, Nils.;) the "lysoune," (Phoca grcenlandica,
Mull. ;) the " tevyak," (Cystophora cristata, Nils.;) the " morje," (Trichccus

FISHERIES AND SBAL-HUNTING. 53

rosmarus;) and the li belouga," (Delphinapterus leucas, Pull.;) i. e., hve
kinds of seals, the walrus, and the white orca.

The walrus is caught on the coasts of Novaya-Zeinlya and the islands
of Vaigatch and Kalgouyew ; the "tevyak " on the Mourinau coast, very
rarely in the White Sea ; the orca is caught in the White Sea by ineaus
of nets; the small seals and the " zayats " are shot with guns from the
coast, or are killed with boat-hooks when they assemble in flocks on the
ice with the " lysounes."

b. Seal hunting. — On the eastern coast of the White Sea, the " Winter
Coast," as it is called, and in the bays of the Dwiua aud the Mezeue, and
on the coast of Kauine, they chiefly hunt the species of phoca called
Phoca groenlandica. This phoca is larger than the kiud found in the
Caspian Sea, and usually yields six "pouds" (210 pounds) of fat. It is
killed on the ice.

These animals live in the high regions of the Polar Seas from May
till September, and only a few occassionally show themselves in the
White Sea; but, later, they make their appearance in the gulfs and
bays of the Arctic Ocean, where the females give birth to their young,
and feed them. These animals pair in the beginning of February, on the
ice in the White Sea, aud especially in the Gulf of the Dwina.

At this time the hunting commences on the "Winter Coast" and lasts
till the end of March.

The huntsmen care fully observe from the eoast the movment of the float-
ing ice. High wooden towers are erected for this purpose all along the shore,
whence the observers watch the horizon with telescopes and when the have
discovered an encampment of phocse, they decide whether it is possible
to get to them, and whether it is worth while to give them chase. Small
hunting-sheds are also built along the coast, each of which can accom-
date as many as twenty huntsmen. As soon as the phocce show them-
selves at a short distance from the shore, the huntsmen venture on the
floating ice, drawing a small boat after them, and they kill the young phocae
by blow with their boat-hooks, and the old ones by gunshots. In order to
approach the phocae as near as possible, the hunters make use of the follow-
ing ruse : They make themselves, as it were, invisible by muffling up
in long and large and white shirts, aud by advancing slowly aud noise-
lessly on the snow. When the chase is over, the dead animals are at
once skinned aud dragged on shore. They usually kill only those which
they can take with them for the wind easily drives the ice far away,
and the booty would be lost to the huntsmen, who themselves are often
exposed to the greatest dangers.

This chase takes place on the "Winter Coast," extendiug over a space
of four hundred " versts," (two hundred and thirty miles ;) and numerous
huntsmen meet there from the districts of Archaugel, Pinega, and Me-
zene. The principal place of meeting, and at which generally two thou-
sand huntsmen assemble, is called Kedy, and is located twelve " versts "
(about seven miles) from Cape Voronov. The huntsmen have built at

54 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

this place about one hundred huts, where there is constant excitement
from February till the. end of March, while during the rest of the year
these huts are deserted.

About the middle of March, the young phocse are large enough to
leave the ice and swim toward the open sea, whither the old ones do not
follow them. They assemble in the Gulf of Mezene, where they rest on
the ice and pair. The pieces of ice in the gulf are sheltered from the
wind, and are not carried about by the waves, although they melt a
little, especially during the rainy periods.

Numerous societies of huntsmen assemble in the beginning of April
at the mouth of the river Koulo'i, in order to follow for several weeks
the chase of the phocse on the ice. They use sailing-vessels 22 feet
long, with an iron-plated bottom. Every vessel is manned by seven
huntsmen, is completely equipped, and furnished with provisions aud
fuel.

The huntsmen all leave the shore at the same time; and, having
reached the floating ice, they draw their vessels on the ice, and there
establish a vast encampment. The younger and more active huntsmen
are sent out to reconnoiter. Provided with snow-shoes, they hasten in
ail directions to search for the phocse. As soon as they observe a flock,
they advise the other huntsmen of the fact, and these all run toward
the spot, drawing their boats after them. Having arrived withiu gun-
shot distance, the most expert are placed in the front rank and com-
mence the chase; for every shot must kill, and not merely wound, lost
the cries of the wounded phocse frighten the whole flock and make them
speed away. The animals which are killed are then placed in the boats,
and the huntsmen return to the shore — sometimes on the ice, sometimes
on the open sea — to deposit there the result of the chase, and bring new
provisions to the comrades who had been left there.

The huntsmen usually receive from their master, provisions and cloth-
ing for the whole season, and must give him in return half or even two-
thirds of all the animals which have been killed. The more hardened
and expert a huntsman is, the larger is his share. Every society of
twenty huntsmen elects a " starosta," (the old one*) whose duty it is to
guard the coast and prepare the food, without receiving for this a larger
share than the other huntsmen.

On the western coast of the White Sea, (called the Terski coast,) the
phocse-chase is not as productive as on the eastern coast, because the
pieces of ice, driven toward the north, float along the shore. ScarceljT
more than 15,000 "pouds" (540,000 pounds) of phocse are caught there
every year.

In these latitudes, the principal meeting-place of the huntsmen is six-
teen " versts" (about nine miles) north of the river Pouoi, and is called
Deviataya. Huts are built here, and about five hundred huntsmen
assemble, who form themselves into societies. Every society is composed
of a master and three huntsmen. While one of the members of the

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 55

society remains on shore with his sleigh and his reindeer, the other three
venture on the pieces of ice to discover the phocse, which are sleeping
there. Every huntsman wears over his clothes a short cloak of reindeer-
skin, called " sovik," and has on his feet large boots lined with far. At
the end of a long strap passed over his shoulder he draws a small boat,
weighing 20 kilograms. A game-bag with provisions is attached to
his belt. Flis gun on his shoulder, and having in his hand a loug stick,
with an iron point, he rapidly and skillfully advances, by means of his
snow-shoes, over the vast fields of snow and ice. The hunter who leads
directs his course by a mariner's compass, and with his iron-pointed
stick constantly tries the firmness of the ice. He acts as guide, and
his two comrades follow him in single file, drawing their boat after
them. When they have arrived at an expanse of water where phocse
are swimming, two of the huntsmen fire, while the third pushes the
boat into the water in order to take up the dead animals, which he
hoists into the boat by means of a boat-hook.

The chase commences early in the morning, and the huntsmen do not
return to their hut till evening ; a flag hoisted on the shore indicating
to them its position.

b. The chase of the white orca. — The white orca, (Delphinapterus leacas,
Pall.,) in Eussian " belouga," (the fishers of the Caspian Sea also call
the great sturgeon " belouga,"] is found nearly all the time in the White
Sea in large numbers, but chiefly in June and July. The young orcse
begin to swim in May ; their color is a bluish-gray, while that of the old
ones is yellowish.

The orcse are caught in all the bays of the Polar Sea, especially on
the Kanine coast near Mezene ; in the White Sea ; and at the mouths
of the Petshora. The fishing-implements used are seines joined together
and fish-gigs.

In the summer, when the weather is calm and beautiful, large flocks
of orcse can be seen approaching the shallow places near the shore, or
between the numerous islands of the White Sea. Several fishermen
associate for hunting orcse, each one furnishing a boat, and a large seine
made of cords of the thickness of a finger, the meshes being 10i inches
square. The length of the net is 125 " sagenes," (875 feet,) and its
depth C " sagenes," (42 feet.) The upper bolt-rope is furnished with
wooden floats 1 "arsheen" (2 feet 4 inches) long, and placed at the dis-
tance of 2 "arsheens" (4 feet 8 inches) from each other; the lower bolt-
rope has no ballast. These nets weigh about 23 " pouds," (828 pounds,)
and cost 150 " roubles," ($105 gold.)

A society has usually eight boats, each being manned by four fisher-
men besides the master, to whom the boat and the seine belong. The
fishing commences at the end of Juue. The fishermen cast anchor near
a group of islands, and wait impatiently for the watchmen to give the
signal that a flock of orcse is approaching. As soon as the signal is
given, they row rapidly toward the place designated, taking good care,

5G REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

however, not to fish in deeper water than 5 " sagenes," (35 feet,) lest the
net, which is only 6 " sagenes " (42 feet) deep, as has been said before,
should prove useless.

At first, the boats row without order ; but as soon as they approach the
orcse, they place themselves in the following manner : the two middle
boats approach each other and remain in the rear, while the others ad-
vance to the right and left, keeping at a distance of 120 " sagenes " (81 0
feet) from each other, i. e., almost the length of the seine. In order that
the fishing should be successful, it is necessary that the boats should
advance, remaining always two and two, at the same depth ; afterward,
they must halt at some distance from the orcse, and cast all the nets at
the same time, after having tied them to each other. In this manner,
the orcse are surrounded, and endeavor in vain to break through. The
circle is constantly growing narrower, and the orcae are finally har-
pooned with fish-gigs having short handles, which are easily detached.
The iron of the fish-gig is not beyond the fisherman's control, as it is
ioined to the hand by a cord used for pulling up the instrument and
the pierced orca.

If the orcce enter iut j a small bay, their retreat is cut off by means of
large stationary seines, and they are easily captured.

Hunting the walrus and the polar bear. — About a dozen sailing-ves-
sels devote themselves habitually to hunting the walrus from Cape
Kanine to the mouth of the Kara. Every boat can carry 500 " pouds,"
(18,000 pounds,) and is manned by ten huntsmen, mostly inhabitants of
Mezene and the Petshora Basin ; sometimes, also, by well-to-do Samo-
yeds. The " Zyriauy " and the poor Samoyeds serve among the Rus-
sians as laborers for very small pay and food.

In order not to expose these badly-built and badly-rigged boats to the
dangers of the ocean, they are transported to the open sea, a distance
of at least three hundred "versts" (one hundred and seventy-three
miles) on sleighs drawn by reindeer. The expenses of this transporta-
tion, which are considerable, are repaid to the master, as he, besides
receiving his share for each boat, receives three more portions of the
whole product of the chase, which is divided into ten portions. The wal-
rus-chase, in general, is but slightly productive. Scarcely more than
six hundred of these animals are killed during a year. There are not
sufficient funds to equip boats and to pay skillful and experienced
huntsmen.

The polar bears live on the ice, on the islands, or on the coast. An
experienced huntsman lets the animal approach within ten paces before
he fires. If the bear is only wounded, the huntsman draws his huutiug-
kuif'e, avoids the attack of the furious animal by leaping aside, and the
moment he finds himself behind the bear he kills him. Nothing is more
curious than the guns with which these hardy huntsmen attack the
polar bears ; they are simply manufactured by the village-smith ! If
the gun is not discharged, and the bear escapes, the huntsman values

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 57

his loss at 15 "roubles," ($10.50;) but if the same accident happens with
a walrus, his loss amounts to 60 " roubles," ($42.) It is not necessary
to remark that the huntsman is often in danger of losing his life.

Preparing the oil. — From the fat of the animals which are hunted
or fished for in the sea, as well as from the blubber of the whales which
sometimes approach the coast of Lapland when the tide comes in, and
which remain on dry land when the tide goes out again, an oil is pre-
pared, which forms an important article of commerce.

In nearly all the coast- villages of the White Sea, there are oil-manu-
factories. The oil is prepared in the following manner : The fat, which
has been secured by scraping, is thrown into large tubs and well shaken ;
the tubs are then exposed for some days to the heat of the sun. After
this time, a layer of clear, limpid oil forms upon the surface, its color
being yellowish ; this is the first quality. The second quality is obtained
by melting the residue of the scraped fat with the pieces of cut fat in a
caldron containing a small quantity of water; this oil has a dark- brown
color. The caldrons used for this purpose generally hold from 30 to GO
"pouds" (1,080 to 2,100 pounds) of fat; but the Archangel merchants,
who send large quantities abroad, have in some villages caldrons holding
from SO to 120 " ponds " (2,880 to 4,320 pounds) of fat. In from ten to
twelve hours, the whole mass is melted, and the oil is poured into casks
holding from 20 to 32 "ponds," (720 to 1,152 pounds.) A " poud" of fat
of the white orca usually yields 32 pounds of oil, while a "poud"
of fat yields only 30. As regards the fat itself, the walrus, on an
average, yields from 10 to 28 " pouds," (300 to 1,028 pounds;) the white
orca, from 15 to 25 "pouds," (540 to 930 pounds;) and of the different
species of seal, the Oystophora cristata yields 9 "pouds," (324 pounds;)
the Phoca grcenlandica, from 4 to 0 "pouds," (114 to 210 pounds;) the
Phoca annellata, 3 "pouds," (108 pounds;) and young seal with white
fur, 1£ "pouds," (54 pounds.)

Preparing and cutting the skins. — The skins of the Phoca grcenlan-
dica are bought by some merchants of Archangel, who salt them down
in casks and send them abroad. These casks contain from 50 to 80 skins
each, and they usually reckon from 2£ to 4 pounds of salt to each skin.
Most of the skins of seals, orcse, and walruses are used in the vil-
lages themselves.

When the skins have remained in the water for some time, and have
lost all their hair, they are dried and tanned, and straps are made of
them.

The skin of a large orca is cut into four straps, two from the back and
two from the sides ; that of a small orca, into three, two from the
sides and one from the back. These straps are tanned and made into
soles of boots and shoes and into harness. The skin of an orca can be
made into from four to six pairs of reins and twelve pairs of soles.

From the skin of the Phoca grcenlandica 70 "sage^nes" (490 feet) can
be cut.

58 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The huntsmen derive the greatest profit, however, from the skins of
the walruses. The Russian fishermen, especially the "proniortsi," barter
rye-flour very advantageously in Norway for walrus-skins. They usually
get for 10 "pouds" (300 pounds) of flour two walrus-skins, which they
sell at Archangel for 10 "roubles" ($7 gold) apiece.

The monks of the convent of Solovetsk prepare the skin of the Phoca
annellata iu an admirable manner. The skins of polar bears cost 8
" roubles" ($5.00) apiece at Archangel. They are warm and durable,
but they are seldom tanned.

C— FISHING AND SEAL-HUNTING IN THE CASPIAN SEA.

The Caspian Sea, with an area of 147,000 square miles, furnishes,
perhaps, a greater quantity of fish than any other basin in Europe hav-
ing the same extent. This also applies to the rivers falling into it: the
Ural, the Volga, the Terek, the Koura, and the Sefid-Roud. It can be
proved that the amount of fish caught is constantly increasing. Not
less than 11,000,000 "pouds" (390,000,000 pounds) of fish are annually
caught in the waters of the Caspian Sea.

The cause of this great abundance of fish must be found in the
character of the water, which is but little salty, in the shallowness of
the sea, and iu the existence of numerous excellent spawning-places,
especially iu the immense delta of the Volga.

In the northern basin of the Caspian Sea, where the most important
fisheries are located, the sea is shallowest, the greatest depth being about
8 "sageues," (50 feet.) The southern and middle portions of this sea are,
however,- very deep; but no fishing is carried on there. In the northern
basin, the water is scarcely brackish, often entirely sweet, particularly
when there is a north wind, which carries the waters of the Ural and
the Volga far out into the sea. The rivers falling into the Caspian Sea
carry into it great masses of organic matter, which furnishes abundant
food for the fish.

The delta of the Volga forms a vast net-work of long, narrow, and
shallow lakes, called "limans," which are joined to each other, or to va-
rious branches of the Volga, by a large number of small watercourses ;
and here the fish find a peaceful retreat during the spawning-season.

1. — FISH FOUND IN THE CASPIAN SEA.

The cartilaginous fish or sturgeons are principally found in the Cas-
pian Sea and its tributaries, among which the Volga, with its immense
basin, is the most important. The Russian fishermen call these fish
"red fish." In the Caspian Sea and its tributaries, the following species
of fish are found, of which the Russian name is always given first.

1. "Belouga," (Acipenser huso,) with an average weight of 3 "pouds,"
(108 pounds,) but frequently weighing from 20 to 25 "pouds," (720 to
000 pounds,) and occasionally as much as from 40 to 00 "pouds," (1,440
to 2,100 pounds.) In the year 1709, a " belouga" was caught in a bay

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 59

not far from the mouth of the Ural, weighing 70 "pouds," (2,520 pounds,)
and containing 25 " pouds" (900 pounds) of roe. In 1S13, one was caught
in the Volga, near Saratow, weighing 80 "ponds," (2,880 pounds,) and
containing 10 " pouds" (376 pounds) of roe. In 1843, one of GO " pouds "
(2,160 pounds) was caught; and, in 1819, one of 40 "pouds," (1,440
pounds,) measuring 2 " sagenes" (14 feet) in length. In 1854, a sturgeon
was caught near Kazan and Nijni-Novgorod, weighing 60 "pouds,"
(2,160 pounds,) whose head alone weighed 17 "pouds," (612 pounds;)
and another weighing 53 "pouds," (1,908 pounds.) In 1871, a " belouga"
weighing 63 "pouds" (2,268 pounds) was caught near Derbent at a
depth of 130 " sagenes," (910 feet.)

2. "Osetre," (Acipenser Guldensicidtii.) Its average weight is 30
pounds ; but many are caught in the Volga measuring from 4 to 6 feet,
and weighing from 1 to 3 " pouds," (36 to 108 pounds,) sometimes weigh-
ing even 5 "pouds," (180 pounds,) and measuring from 6 to 9 feet in
length. This fish is exceedingly prolific. M. Baer, a member of the
academy, has found 600,000 eggs in one large-sized fish, and 200,000 in
a medium -sized one.

3. " Sevriouga," (Acipenser stellatus.) Average weight, 15 pounds.
It is caught in enormous quantities in the Koura, most of them weigh-
ing about 1 " poud," (36 pounds.)

4. "Chyp," (Acipenser Scliypa.) In the Ural. Weight, 1£ "pouds," (54
pounds.)

5. " Sterliad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) sterlet. Two feet long ; weight,
from 15 to 20 pounds.

6. "Som," (Silurus glanis,) Wels; sheat-fish. Length, from 3 to 6 feet;
weight, as much as 6 " pouds," (216 pounds.) It is very common in the
Koura, where it sometimes attains a weight of 8 "pouds," (2S8 pounds,)
and a length of 1£ "sagenes," (10J feet.)*

7. " Belorybitsa," the "nelnia" of the northern rivers, (Coregonus leu-
cicMliys, Giildenst.,) an excellent fish, also known as the white Siberian
salmon, is found in the Volga, rarely in the Ural, and not at all in the
Terek and Koura. It weighs from 12 to 17 pounds, sometimes as much
as 30 pounds, and measures 3 feet in length.

8. " Lososs," (Salmo solar,) salmon. Is common in the Terek and
the Koura, very rare in the Volga, and never found in the Ural.

9. " Chemaya," (Aspius clupeoides, Pall.) Is only found in the Koura
and the Terek.

10. " Saz&ne," {Cypnnus carpio, L.,) carp. In the Caspian Sea and
near the mouths of the Volga. Often from 3 to 4 feet long, and weigh-
ing from 40 to 50 pounds. Average weight, from 10 to 17 pounds.

11. "Karass," (Carassius vulgaris,) crucian carp. Common in the
Volga. The largest are one foot long, and weigh 5 pounds.

12. " Soudak," (Lucioperca sandra,) saudre. From 15 to 20 pounds.

*This is the European representation of tbe fresh-water catfish or bull-heads of the
United States.— S. F. B.

GO EEPOET OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHEEIES.

13. " Bersche," (Lucioperca volgensis.) Five pounds.

14. " Linn," {Tinea vulgaris,) tench. The largest measure 2 feet in
length, and weigh 7 pounds.

15. " Ousatche," (Barbus obtuslrostris, Yakovlew.) Bare in the Volga ;
common in the Koura.

16. "Piskar," {Gobio fluviatilis, Cuv.) Three inches long.

17. " Lestche," (Abramis brama.) From 8 to 10 pounds.

18. "Yersche," (Acerina cernua.) Usually 7 inches, but sometimes
reaching 10 inches.

19. "Okoune," {Perca fluviatilis,) perch. From 3 to 4 pounds.

20. " Sinetse," {Abramis ballerus, Cuv.) Found chiefly in the Volga ;
10 inches long, and weighing rarely more than half a pound.

21. " Sopa," {Abramis sopa, Pall.) Common in the Volga.

22. " Goustera," {Blicca bicerna.) Thirteen inches ; 2 pounds.

23. " Tck^khonne," {Pelecus cultratus, Agass.) Two feet; 2* pounds.

24. " Oukleika," {Albumus lucidus, Heck.) From 4 to 6 inches.

25. "Jerekk"and " che'vesper," (Aspiusrapax.) Length, 2^ feet; weight,
16 pounds.

26. " Taranne," {Scardinius erythrophthalmus, L.) Scarcely a foot
long ; common in the Volga. " Taranne" is the collective name of sev-
eral species of Leuciscus and Abramis; but, in the Don and the Azov Sea,
the name "Taranne" is only given to .Leuciscus Heckelii, Nordtn.

27. "Vobla," {Leuciscus rulilus,li.) Length, 1£ feet; weight from 2
to 3 pounds, and found in the Volga in vast numbers.

28. u Koutoume," "Wyrezoub," {Leuciscus Friesii, Nordm.) Common in
the Sefid-Boud, the Koura, and the Terek; very rare in the Volga, aud
never found in the Ural.

29. " Stchouka," {Esox lucius,) pike. From 30 to 40 pounds ; as much
as 3£ feet in length.

30. "Bescheuka," (Alosa pontica.)

31. "J61eznitsa," {Alosa caspica,) Astrachan herring.

These two last-mentioned species are known by the name of "Astra-
chan herring ; " usually from 2 to 2£ pounds, and sometimes 4. Length,
L} feet. They are very common in the Volga, which they ascend very
far. Some are caught even at Koliazino, in the district of Tver. They
are not found in the Ural, the Terek, the Koura, and the Sefid-Roud.
The Azov Sea, the Black Sea, and the Caspian Sea contain no species
of Clupea, Val.

32. "Podouste," (Chondrostoma nasus, Val.;) 1J pounds.

33. " Minoga," {Pctromyzon fluviatilis,) Lamprey. Found in large num-
bers in the Koura and the Terek ; common in the Volga below Astra-
chan; and, since 1870, very common near the towns of Yuotayeosk aud
TchornoiYar; and, since 1855, in immense masses in the district of
Saratow.

Of these fish, those which furnish the principal articles of trade are
the Acipeuser, the Silurus, and, of scaly fish, the Lucioperca, the Abramis,

FISHEEIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 61

the Alosa, the Leuciscus rutilus, and the Cyprinus carpio, L. The Core-
gonus Icucichthys and the Salmo salar are less important, and still less the
Esox lucius and other small scaly fish. Pickled lamprey (Petromyzon
fluviaUlis) might form a considerable article of commerce, but, on the
T6rek, it is entirely neglected, and, on the Koura, it is dried and used
as candles.

The first establishment for pickling lampreys was opened in the city
of Tsaritsyn, after the close of the year 1871; and up to February, 1873,
700 casks, containing about 1,200,000 lampreys, had arrived at St. Pe-
tersburg, weighing not less than 56 kilograms (about 123 pounds) to
the thousand, and being exceedingly well pickled ; they are sold from
12 to 14 "roubles" ($8.42 to $9.80 gold) a thousand.

2.— SPAWNING-SEASON OF THE FISH IN THE CASPIAN SEA.

At Astrachan, the Volga is usually free from ice from the beginning
of April, and the different kinds of fish arrive from the Caspian Sea
about that time. The first to arrive is the Scardinius erythroplithalmus,
L.; the "vobla," (Leuciscus rutilus,) chased there during its capricious
leaps from the water by the voracious "belouga"; this is followed by
the Esox lucius, pike; then by the Abramis, and by the Lucioperca,
sandre. From the 20th of April till the 5th of May, the Alosa, or so-
called herrings, appear in immense schools ; then the " sevriouga," (Aci-
penser stellatus,) sturgeon ; the Silurus glanis, Wels; the Cyprinus carpio,
L., carp ; and, finally, tbe Acipenser Guldenstddtii, sturgeon.

Most of the scaly fish spawn in April or in May, and for this purpose
seek the shallow water, where there is but little current, and where aquatic
plants are numerous, and where fishing is strictly prohibited from the 15th
of April till the 15th of May, in order that the spawning-process may not
be interrupted. The salmon and the "cleinaya," (Aspius clupeoides,)
which are caught in large numbers in the Terek and in tbe Koura, usu-
ally spawn in August and September, the first-mentioned on sandy bot-
toms.

The spawning-season of the sturgeon commences in the Volga in June
and lasts till the end of July ; in the Ural, it lasts from the middle of
April till the middle of June. They prefer a hard and stony bottom.
Only three hundred and eighty "versts"(two hundred and nineteen
miles) above Astrachan, near Sarepta, the bottom of the river is of this
character. In order to let the different kinds of sturgeon enjoy the rest
which they require, the fishing-regulations forbid fishing in the Volga,
as well in the river as in its branches, from the 15th of May till the 15th
of July. Nevertheless, fishing is permitted exceptionally, to supply the
local want, from the 15th of June till the 15th of July, between tbe Cas-
pian Sea and the town of Tchornoi-Yar, two hundred and twenty -five
"versts" (one hundred and twenty -nine miles) above Astrachan, with
floating nets 90 " sagenes" (G30 feet) long aud 1 " sagene" (7 feet) deep.

Careful observations have shown that during tbe time immediately

62 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

preceding the spawning-season, the sturgeons eat nothing, while after
spawning they are exceedingly voracious. In the rivers, the young stur-
geon feed on the larvae of insects and small shell-fish, and, in the sea, on
small crabs and shell-fish. The little " belouga " is an exception, feeding
on other fish. The common sturgeon, the " sevriouga," and the " ster-
liad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) also feed on shell-fish. When the sturgeons
are one year old, they leave the rivers and go into the sea, to return as
soon as they are able to spawn.

A very peculiar phenomenon in the Ural is the winter sleep of fish,
especially of the sturgeon. From the end of June, the different kinds
of sturgeon as well as scaly fish come to the Ural for the second time.
For some time they can be seen swimming and playing in the stream,
but as soon as the water grows cold this vivacity disappears ; they seek
the deep places, ("yatoves,'') in which the bed of the river abounds, and
hide there as soon as the surface is frozen. In their state of torpor, these
fish secrete a viscous matter, which formes a thin layer over their whole
body. The fishermen call this the " cloak " of the fish. This torpor, or
sleep, of the fish is caused by severe cold and want of air under the
water, and is therefore a consequence of the excessive weakening of the
respiration. The fish eat nothing during this state, for nothing is found
in their stomach but the viscous matter spoken of above. The great
sturgeon alone (Acipenser huso) seems to take food during his winter-
sleep, for some have been caught having scaly fish in their stomach.

The deep places, or " yatoves," of the Ural are from 7 to 8 " eagenes "
(252 to 278 feet) deep, and the fish there pile themselves upon each other
in thick layers. According to the account of experienced fishermen, stur-
geons there associate only with sturgeons, and scaly fish with their own
kind, never intermingling : the " sinetse " (Abramis ballerus) is the only
scaly fish which has been found among the sturgeons.

Watchmen posted near the " yatoves," every one of which has its own
name, notice exactly in what quantities the fish seek refuge there, and
of which kind the fishing will be most productive. These watchmen
develop a most astonishing sagacity in this respect.

3. — WEALTH OF FISH IN THE CASPIAN SEA.

Pallas, who visited the shores of the Caspian Sea in 1773, speaks of
the immense quantities of fish in this sea. He says, in addition to other
things, that, in the spring in the Koura, near the bar of Salyan, 15,000
sturgeons were frequently caught in one day ; and that when the fishing
was interrupted for one day only, the river, whose depth is 4 " arsheens,"
(80 inches,) was, at every bar, filled with a vast number of fish, piling
themselves one upon the other to such a degree that the topmost had
their backs out of the water. At that time, there was a bar at Gour-
yew, at the mouth of the Ural. It is related that at this place schools
of sturgeon rushed at the bar in countless numbers, and would have
upset it if the Cossacks had not driven them to flight by cannon-shots

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. Go

Similar stories are, it is true, not related in later times, but it is unde-
niable that the result of the fisheries during the years from 1820 to 1830
was perfectly enormous, and that this is not infrequently the case in our
time. Thus, in 182G, during 12 consecutive days, an average of 15,000
sturgeon a day were caught, mostly " sevriougas " and common stur-
geous, (Acipenser Giildenstadtii,) at the fishing establishment ("vataga")
of Provideuce, ("Bojii promysl,") on the Koura, fifteen " versts" (about
eight miles) from the mouth of this river. There were not hands enough
to carry on the work, so that an immense quantity of fish spoiled on the
spot, and 40,000 of them had to be cast into the water. This " vataga"
(fishing-establishment) was visited, in 1853, by the " Imperial commis-
sion for examining the fisheries of the Russian Empire." The commis-
sion was led by M. Baer, from the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St.
Petersburg, the statistical work being confided to M, Dauilevsky, while
I had charge of the technical part.

I observed many a time that ducks and other aquatic birds, which, in
the river Koura, swam on the surface of the water, fell victims to the
voracity of the Siluri. Whenever a bird killed by a shot from a hunts-
man fell into the water, it was immediately seized and devoured by these
enormous fish.

Every day from 3,000 to 5,000 " sevriougas" were brought to the " va-
taga," (fishing-establishment,) where the following quantities were
caught annually : about 15,000 "b61ougas;" 30,000 common sturgeon,
(Acipenser Giildenstadtii ;) 250,000 " sevriougas;" and 230,000 Siluri.

Large numbers of the different species of sturgeon are also caught in
the Ural, the Terek, and the Volga. The wealth of the northern basin
of the Caspian Sea in fish is almost inexhaustible. More than 100,000
nets and at least 15,000,000 of hooks are here employed for sturgeon-
fishing alone, and thousands of fishing-boats are continually engaged in
this occupation. Immense nets are in constant use in the Ural, the
Volga, and in the delta of this latter river; and it is no rare occurrence
that at one single haul 40,000 "lestche" (Abramis brama) are caught, or
150,000 "voblas," (Leuciscus rutilus, L.,) or 200,000 "jelezuitsa," (Alosa
caspica.)

4. — ESTIMATED VALUE OF THE FISHERIES IN THE CASPIAN SEA.

The quantity and value of the fish which are caught every year in
the Caspian Sea and its principal tributaries, as well as the number of
seals captured in this sea, can be estimated only approximately. This
estimate amounts annually to the following :

" B61ouga," (Acipenser Huso,) 475,000 "pouds," (17,100,000 pounds;)
value, 1,288,000 « roubles," ($901,600 gold.)

"Osetre" (Acipenser Giildenstadtii) and "Ohyp," (Acipenser Schypa,)
405,000 "pouds," (14,580,000 pounds;) value, 1,G20,000 "roubles,"
($1,134,000 gold.)

64 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

"Sevriouga," (Acipenser stellatas,) 65,000 "pouds," (2.340,000 pounds;)
value, 1,962,000 " roubles," ($1,373,400 gold.)

" Sterliad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) 50,750 " pouds," (1,827,000 pouuds ;)
value, 275,000 " roubles," ($192,500 gold.)

" Sazaue," (Cyprinus carpio, L.,) 200,000 "pouds," (7,200,000 pounds;)
value, 120,000 "roubles," ($84,000 gold.)

"Soudah" [Lncioperca sandra) and "Stchouka," (Esox lucius,) 2,650,000
"pouds," (95,400,000 pounds;) value, 2,450,000 "roubles," ($1,715,000
gold.)

" Lestche," (Abramis brama,) 1,375,000 "pouds," (49,500,000 pounds;)
value, 1,275,000 " roubles," ($892,500 gold.)

" Beschenka," (Alosa pontica,) and " jeleznitsa," (Alosa caspica,)
3,000,000 "pouds," (108,000,000 pounds;) value, 1,050,000 "roubles,"
($735,000 gold.)

"Vabla," (Leuciscus rutilus,) 600,000 "pouds," (21,600,000 pounds;)
" okoune," (Pcrcafluviatilis,) 760,000 " pouds," (27,360,000 pouuds ;) value,
500,000 " roubles," ($350,000 gold.)

"Som," (Silurus glanis,) 185,000 " pouds," (6,660,000 pounds;) value,
315,000 " roubles," ($220,500 gold.)

" Lososs," (Salmo salar,) 33,000 "pouds," (1,188,000 pounds;) value,
106,000 " roubles," ($74,200 gold.)

" Belorybitsa," {Goregonas leucichthys,) 32,000 "pouds," (1,152,000
pounds;) value, 103,000 " roubles," ($72,100 gold.)

" Beluga" bladder, 5,500 " pouds," (198,000 pounds ;) value, 600,000
" roubles," ($420,000 gold.)

" Veziga," 4,000 " pouds," (144,000 pounds;) value, 70,000 "roubles,"
($49,000 gold.)

Sturgeon caviar, 139,000 " pouds," (5,004,000 pounds;) value, 1,390,000
" roubles," ($973,000 gold.)

Caviar of Abramis brama and the two kinds of Lucioperca, 300,000
"pouds," (10,000,000 pounds;) value, 300,000 "roubles," ($210,000
gold.)

Fish-oil, 50,000 " pouds," (1,800,000 pounds ;) value, 150,000 " roubles,"
($105,000 gold.)

Seals, 100,000 " pouds," (3,600,000 pounds;) value, 150,000 " roubles,"
($105,000 gold.)

Seal-oil, 100,000 "pouds," (3,600,000 pounds;) value, 350,000 "rou-
bles," ($245,000 gold.)

The grand annual total is therefore 13,000,000 " pouds," (468,000,000
pounds,) representing a value of 15,000,000 "roubles," ($10,500,000
gold.)

5. — FISHING-BASINS OF THE CASPIAN SEA.

The Caspian Sea forms four fishing-basins : 1. The trans-Caucasian ;
2. The territory of the Terek Cossacks and the inhabitants of Mangy-
schlak ; 3. The territory of the Ural Cossacks ; 4. The basin of fisheries
belonging to the state.

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. G5

The trans- Caucasian fisheries. — Thisbasin containsfour fisheries; those
of Salyan aud of Kizil-Agatch being the most important. The fishery
of Salyan, to which the " vataga" (fishing-establishment) of Bojii-
Promysl or Providence belongs, extends from the month of the Konra
to the town of Salyan, where the river Akoncha leaves the Konra to
follow itsown course to the sea. At this point the fishery of Kizil-Agatch
is located. The fisheries extend fifty " versts " (about twenty-nine miles)
from the sea-coast. Above Salyan, on the Konra and on the Arape, the
fisheries of Mougaue, Chemakha, Elizabethpol, and Arase are found. The
waters of Bakou extend from the mouth of the Alatchai to Mount Akh
Syvir, comprising a fishing-ground in the sea as far as fifty " versts "
(about twenty-nine miles) from the shore, as well as the seal-hunting
in the islands. The fisheries of Kouba commence at the mouth of the
Samouch and extend to the district of Bakau.

The government always leases. out the trans-Caucasian fishing-basins
for a period of eight years 5 the contracts being made at Tiflis. From
1S1G to 1854, the amount of rent received by the government was only
180,000 " roubles," ($120,000 gold.) It then rose to 320,000 " roubles,"
($221,000 gold;) then to 385,000 " roubles," ($200,500 gold ;) and at the
present time it amounts to 390,000 " roubles," ($273,000 gold.) The per-
son who rents a fishery keeps Tartar and Russian laborers at a fixed
monthly salary, amounting, from 1816 to 1851, to 1£ "roubles," ($3.15
gold.) He also supplies the laborers with food, fishing-implements, and
boats. Besides their fixed monthly pay, 1% "kopecks" (not quite one
cent) is giveu for each sturgeon that is caught.

At the "vataga" (fishing-establishment) of Bojii-Promysl, fifteen
" versts " (eight aud a half miles) from the mouth of the Koura, and iu
the Akoucha, there are bars formed by poles and stakes driven into the
bed of the river, forming a curved liue from one shore to the other. In
every bar, openings are left 3 " sagenes" (21 feet) broad, called " gates," for
letting boats and fish pass. But, contrary to the regulations, these open-
ings are usually closed by means of stationary nets. Fishing is always
very good in all the space between the bar and the sea. People fish
here with hooks, stationary lines, " palangres," and with large and small
nets and seines. The lines, being furnished with pointed hooks, which
are not baited, are either held up by floats or are ballasted and arranged in
rows. The fish coming from the sea are caught on the numberless hooks,
and are taken up by the fishermen, who patrol all the rows of lines reg-
ularly. Besides these implements, stationary and floating nets are also
used. For catching the " som* (Silur us glanis,) the so-called "eissauge"
(very large nets) are employed. The " som " is only fished for in the
spring ; during the other mouths of the year it is entirely neglected, be-
cause a great deal of salt is required to preserve this extraordinarily fat
fish, and much fuel to extract the oil, both of which articles are scarce
and expensive. In the autumn, the "chemaya" (Aspius clwpeoides) is

caught by means of floating nets, the thick part of which is made of
5 F

66

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

silk. Seines are but rarely employed for catching scaly fish, and this
is only doDe in the Upper-Koura.

The person who rents a fishery is bound by his contract to fulfill the
following obligations : Fishing is prohibited from the 1st of June to the
1st of August. During this period, the gates of the bar must remain
open ; and it is forbidden to put any lines or nets there, in order that
the fish may be enabled to come up from the sea and reach their spawn-
ing-places. A fine is imposed for breaking this law, amounting to 1,000
" roubles" ($700 gold) the first time, 2,000 " roubles " ($1,400 gold) the
second time, and, if it occurs a third time, the contract is annulled. If
the lessee erects new bars of his own accord, he is punished by having
his building-material confiscated ; in case of a second offense, he pays a
fine of 2,000 " roubles" ($1,400 gold) the first time, and 4,000 " roubles"
($2,800 gold) the second time. If he receives permission to construct
fishing-parks, bars of stakes, or nets, he must leave two-thirds of the
breadth of the river open if he has any competitors farther up the river;
and, if this is not the case, only one-sixth part. In navigable rivers,
bars of any kind must not occupy more than one-fourth of the breadth
of the river. Moreover, it is forbidden to obstruct rivers, branches of
rivers, mouths of rivers, and lakes with apparatus of this kind.
Finally, to allow the fish to ascend the rivers easily, it is not allowed to
cast a second seine before the first one has been taken on shore.

The lessee procures the necessary salt for preserving fish and for pre-
paring caviar from the government salt-depots. In the district of
Bakou and in the region of the salt-lakes of Salyau, salt costs 12
" kopecks" (about 7 cents) a pound. The lessee cannot get more than
130,000 " pouds," (4,990,000 pounds;) but he has the right to buy salt
at Astrachan or other cities of the empire.

According to the exact statistics of M. Dauilevsky, the trans-Cauca-
sian fisheries yielded during the period from 1848 to 1855 the following:

Number of fi.sh caught.

Co

CO

00

g

CO

CO

s

m

a

3

e

•» -~.

.£•■•£

Co

§1
» ~

Sri

.2 °°

s

- <

a: ^

p4
>-.

s

boVh

r.-i

0"8

a
o

2

fe

.2

*-'§■

a ^

o

ffl

go

o

Sq

QQ

1848

734

52, 126

514, 923

14. 693

127, 663

208, 563

21, 778

46, 653

1849

M):U

27, 723

4:12, 452

14,751

79, 537

300, 094

91, 192

33, 764

1850

12,020

29, 601

558, 502

16, 906

88,444

98, 972

23, 636

69, 830

1851

12, 507

28, 576

464, 923

14, 975

64, 006

161,337

30, 594

31, 378

L852

12. 523

36, 363

556, 563

11, 170

116, 131

206, 755

24, 754

69, 498

1 .-;,;:

9, 527

35, 287

513, 132

13, 695

107, 413

191,501

22,371

41, 574

1854

6, 572

23, 256

436, 495

14,919

59, 499

70, 995

9,531

46, 362

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING.

G7

Caviar.

"B61ouga" bladder.

"Vezijra."

"Balyk."

©

"Pouds."

Pounds.

"Pouds."

Pounds.

"Pouds."

Pounds.

" Pouds."

Pounds.

1848

26, 522

952, 792

533

19. 183

724

26, 064

278, 786

10, 036, 296

1849

30, 095

1, 083, 420

567

20,412

770

27, 720

312, 036

11,233,2:16

1850

31,909

1, 150,784

657

23, 652

880

31 680

323, 207

11,635,452

I8.")l

28, 4^4

1,025,424

586

21,096

707

27,612

300, 593

10,821, 148

1853

34, 089

1,227,204

690

24, 840

850

30, 600

281, 833

10, 145, 983

1853

31,7^4

1, 144, 224

617

22 212

820

29, 520

264, 659

9, 527, 724

1854

24, 72 L

889, 956

531

19, 116

720

25, 920

304, 342

10, 956, 312

Fisheries in the territory of the Terek Cossack's and of the inhabitants
of Mangyschlak. — This basin comprises two districts, that of Tcbetcheue
and that of Bakhteinir. The former extends eleven " versts " (about
six miles) along the coast; the latter fourteen "versts" (about eight
miles) from the Gulf of Bakhteinir to the possessions of the Scham-
kal of Tarki. In the sea, the extreme limit of the two districts is
seventy-six " versts " (about forty-four miles) from the coast.

The right to fish in these waters belongs both to the Cossacks of the
Terek, and to those fishermen who, by paying a certain sum of money,
receive a permit from the military authorities.

The fishing-basin of the inhabitants of the Peninsula of Mangy-
schlak in the northeastern portion of the Caspian Sea extends from
Cape Tiouk Karagane twenty-five " versts" (fourteen miles) toward
the north, and the same distance toward the west. It has an area of
six hundred and twenty-five square "versts," (about two hundred and
seventy- three square miles.) Only the inhabitants have the right to
fish here.

Fisheries in the territory of the Ural Cossacks. — This exceedingly
rich basin comprises (a) the river Ural, to a length of six hundred
" versts" (about three hundred and forty-five miles) from its mouth to
one hundred "versts" (about fifty-seven and one-half miles) above the
city of Uralsk ; (b) part of the Caspian Sea from the mouth of the Ural
extending eighty-eight " versts" (about fifty and a half miles) to the
west, and seventy-eight " versts" (about forty-five miles) to the east,
and having a depth of 7 " sageues," (lb' feet 4 inches;) (e) all the rivers
and lakes in the interior of the territory ; (d) a great lake, called
Tcherkalskoe Mortso in the Kirghize steppe, which is connected with
the sea.

All these waters are the undisputed property of the army of Ural
Cossacks. The fishing-regulations are very old, and have, till the
present time, been kept up by tradition and custom. The military
authorities see to it that these regulations are strictly enforced. For
every kind of fishing-industry, the military authorities publish regula-
tions, stipulating the time of opening and closing the fisheries, the
different formalities, conditions, &o.

As soon as the Ural is free from iee, the spring-fisheries commence.
In the river, " sevriougas " (Acipenser stellatus) are caught with floating

68 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OP FISH AND FISHERIES.

nets; sturgeon are caught in tbe sea; and scaly fish in the Tcherkalskoe
Mortso. Fishing in the river is prohibited from the middle of Juue till
the middle of August. The sturgeon appear in great numbers in the
Ural in the month of July to seek refuge in the " yatoves," (deep places,)
to which they, however, do not retire till October. The autumn-fish-
eries commence about the middle of August, first with stationary nets,
then with floating nets and seines, and last till November. As soon as
the Ural is frozen, they begin to catch the sturgeon under the ice by
means of hooks and fish-gigs, (" bagrenie ;") and scaly fish with seines in
the river, and with stationary nets in the sea. Hook-fishing lasts till
the middle of January, while nets are used till the first of March.

In order to allow the fish to enter freely into the Ural, fishing in the
sea just at the mouths of the river is prohibited over an area eighty
" versts" (about forty-sis miles) long, and forty " versts" (about twenty,
three miles) broad. Outside of this area it is allowed to place " pa-
langres " perpendicularly on the shore for catching sturgeou. The num-
ber of " palangres" is fixed beforehand, and the most favorable locations
are distributed by casting the lot.

In autumn, they fish in the lower part of the Ural over an extent of
two hundred and eighty " versts," (about one hundred and sixty-one
miles;) and 8,000 Cossacks, with 3,000 boats, are engaged in this occu-
pation. The whole stretch is marked off into fifteen divisions. There
is always one seine, with wings, to every two boats. The boats at first
go slowly down the river iu regular order, then, as they approach the
"yatoves," (deep places,) wliere the fish congregate, all the boats use the
oars to their utmost capacity, in order to arrive first.

After the "yatoves" of one division have been exhausted, they pass
to another division, and so on in order. While the Cossacks go down
the river in their boats, the merchants follow them along the shore,
accompanied by wagons, on which the fish, which have been bought by
them, are placed. Salting is carried on on the spot, as well as the man-
ufacture of fish-glue (isinglass) and of caviar.

From the city of Uralsk to the Cossack village of Antonov, people
fish in the Ural under the ice with hooks and fish-gigs. This fishery is
also carried on by divisions appointed for every fishing-day. The hook,
called " bagor," is a fish-gig with a pointed steel hook attached to a
wooden handle. Fishing with hooks is the favorite occupation of the
Cossacks. Even the poorest among them can take a part iu it; for the
whole outlay consists of a hook, a sleigh drawn by a horse, and the
necessary food and fodder for one day. At this season of the year, the
price of fish is high, so that fishing becomes a very profitable occupa-
tion. Chance, however, has a good deal to do with success in this mode
of fishing.

The fishermen form associations (" artelles ") of from six to fifteen
members, and divide the fish among them.

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. GO

The value of these fisheries (by hook and by net) may be estimated
with certainty at 400,000 " roubles" ($280,000 gold) per annum.

The annual revenue of the fisheries of the army of Cossacks of the Ural
is 1,200,000 "roubles," ($840,000 gold.)

Fisheries of the government — The following localities belong to the vast
basin of government-fisheries: (a) the Volga, with its tributaries from the
city of Kamychine, in the district of Saratow, to the sea, which includes
an area of 15,900 square " versts," (about 7,000 square miles,) with 135
fishing-establishments, (" vatagas ";) (b) those portions of the sea in
which fishing is free, according to the imperial decree of May 25, 1865.
This part of the sea is divided into seven fisheries : 1. The southwest
fishery, from the northern frontier of the territory of the Terek Cossacks
to a point on the coast five " versts " (almost three miles) from the mouth
of the Talovka, with an areaof l,501f square " versts," (about G57 square
miles ;) 2. That of the buoys of the Terek, from the boundary of the pre-
ceding division to five " versts" (almost three miles) beyond the mouth
of the Prorva, with 1,252£ square " versts," (549 square miles;) 3. That
of the west from the boundary of the preceding division to the Island of
the Four Hills, with 4,206^ square "versts," (1,844 square miles;) 4.
That of the buoys of the Volga in front of the mouths of the river from
the Island of the Four Hills to the eastern extremity of the great gulf
of Siuoye Mortso, with 3,G55f square " versts," (1,720 square miles ;) 5.
That of the northeast from this gulf to the western limit of the waters of
the Ural, with 11,054 square " versts," (4,047 square miles;) 0. That of
the Emba, from the eastern limit of the waters of the Ural to the fish-
ing-basin of the inhabitants of Mangyschlak, with a surface of 60,596
square " versts," (22,667 square miles;) 7. The division of the high sea
and the waters that wash the eastern coast of the sea to the river A trek,
which forms the boundary-line of Persia; the extent of this division
has not been exactly measured.

All these divisions, not including the seventh, have an area of 82,267
square " versts," (32,286 square miles.) If one adds 15,914 square "versts"
(3,398 square miles) of river-fisheries, the fourth fishing-basin comprises
an area of 98,181 square "versts," (35,6S4 square miles.) It includes, at
least in part, the districts of Saratow, of Astrachau, of Orenburg, of
Stavropol, and of Daghestan. The administrative authorities have
their seat at Astrachau. They were constituted by an imperial decree
of the 25 tii of May, 1865, and are called "Administration of the fisheries
and of the seal hunt." This administration belongs to the ministry
of domains, and it has officers appointed to secure the strict observance
of the fishing-regulations. It also makes out the contracts and receives
the payments for fishing-permits.

ISTot only are the river-fisheries of private individuals subject to the
regulations, but also the fisheries of the cities, convents, and villages,
as also those of the Astrachau Cossacks.

The river-fisheries of the Terek are leased out by the chamber of do-

70 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

mains at Stavropol for the annual sum of 28,000 "roubles," ($19,600
gold.) The leases of the other fisheries yield the following sums : those of
Prince Dolgorouki, 7,000 " roubles," ($4,900 gold ;) of Count Kouchelew-
Bezborodko, 22,G26 "roubles," ($15,838.20 gold;) of the Astrachan Cos-
sacks, 29,574 "roubles," ($20,701.80 gold;) of the convent of Tchourki,
7,500 "roubles," ($5,250 gold ;) of the city of Astrachau, 1,803 "roubles,"
($1,301.10 gold.)

The government possesses in the Volga and its several branches, as
well as in the innumerable lagoons and small brooks, ("yiryks,") sixty-
three fisheries, which are leased separately. The lease is for seven
years; the price of the lease amounting to 218,S39 "roubles," 32 "ko-
pecks," ($174,187.51 gold.)

The administration of the fisheries issues special permits for fishing
in the sea. The price of these permits varies, and depends as much on
the season of the year as on the locality where people desire to fish.
Every boat must have its permit. In the spring, the permit costs 20
"roubles" ($14 gold) for fishing with stationary nets; in the autumn, 30
" roubles," ($21 gold;) and for the whole year, 50 " roubles," ($35 gold.)
For fishing with seines, a permit is required for each seine, which costs
100 "roubles" ($70 gold) a year, and 50 " roubles" ($35 gold) for half a
year. The seal-hunters pay for an annual permit G "roubles," ($4.20
gold,) and for a half-yearly permit 3 "roubles," ($2.10 gold.) A permit
for fishing in winter costs 25 "roubles," ($17.50 gold;) but those who
have already a permit for the whole year, or two permits for six months
each, receive the winter-permit gratis.

There are in these waters every year about 14,000 fishermen, with
3,000 large sail-boats.

Immediately in front of the mouths of the Volga, the limit of fishing
is indicated by twenty-two lines of buoys. These lines are formed by
beacons, or buoys, placed from 120 to 150 " sa genes " (840 to 1,050 feet)
apart, in the direction of 32 degrees southeast, and extend iuto the sea
fifty " versts," (twenty-eight miles,) with a depth of 3 " sagenes," (21
feet.) These lines are distant from two to six " versts" (about one and
one-fourth miles to three and one-third miles) from each other. The
two lines of buoys established before the mouth of the Terek follow
the direction of 45 degrees northeast, and go out into the sea sixty
" versts," (thirty-four and one-half miles,) with a depth of 4 " sagenes,"
(28 feet.) "Corridors," as they are called, from five to ten "versts"
wide, (about three to six and one-third miles,) form openings before the
mouths of the rivers to let those fish pass which are leaving the sea to
ascend the rivers. Fishing in these " corridors " is prohibited. In the
space between the lines, the fishermen can follow their vocation till the
sea reaches the depth of 1 " sagene," (7 feet,) which is the case at about
twelve " versts" (almost seven miles) out at sea, but only with " palan-
gres;" while farther out at sea, at a depth of 3 " sagenes," (21 feet,)
they can use " palangres " and stationary nets. In the first case, the

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING.

71

permit costs 30 " roubles " ($21 gold) in the spring ; 20 " roubles " ($14
gold) in the autumn ; and 50 " roubles" ($35 gold) for the whole year;
in the second case, 70, 50, and 100 "roubles," ($19, $35, and $70 gold.)
The fishing implements must be placed parallel with the lines of buoys.
The rows of "palangres" are 22£ " sagenes" (117 J feet) apart, while the
space between the rows of boats must be 135 " sagenes," (915 feet.) On
an average, there are 5,100 fishermen, with 1,700 boats, employed
annually in the fisheries among the buoys of the Volga.

Table of income from the government fisheries during the years 1867-1872.

Income from the sale of

Income from the
leases of river-
fisheries.

permits.

Taxes on seal-oil
and seal-skins
transported to
Astrachan.

Total.

Fisheries.

Seal-hunt-
ing.

Years.

50
IS

3

3
O

P5

o5

M
o

a>
a

o

M

American
gold, dol-
lars.

o5
0

3
0

American
gold, dol-
lars.

3

0

American
gold, dol-
lars.

en
0

3
0

50

_£
O

s

0"

American
gold, dol-
lars.

o5

O

3

5

_£

a,'
P.
o

P.-1
o —
*£ — r .

E - 00

£ c is

1867 . .

1868 ..

210, 801
229, 139

47
13

147, 603 03
160,397 39

209, 035
176, 350

146, 324 50
123, 445 00

1,479

1,068

1,035 30
747 60

40, 302
43, 795

58
46

28,211 80*
30, 656 82"

461, 577
450, 352

05

59

323, 103 93*
315.246 82"

1869 ..

229, 86H

13 160, 907 69

163, 930

141, 751 00

963

674 10 34,549

01

24, 184 30

429,310; 14

31.0,517 104,

1870 . .

229, 868

13^ 160, 907 69

183, 635

128, 544 50

1,131

791 70 33, 552

62

23, 486 82 448, 1861 75

313,730 71

1871 ..

248, 839

32 174, 187 52*183, 700

128, 590 00

999

699 30'24, 888

12

17,421 67 444, 983i 32

311,488 31

1872 . .

248, 839

32 174,187 524204,454

143, 117 80

663

464 10 43, 371

19

30, 359 84

497,327 51

348, 129 25

The taxes on seal oil are paid by persons who buy the seals from
the huntsmen as soon as these have returned from the sea to the
mouths of the Volga. The taxes are paid as soon as the huntsman has
sold his seals, or at the time when the buyer, after having notified the
fishing-administration, gets ready to ship the casks of seal-oil. The
tax is 30 " kopecks " (21 cents) for each " poud " (36 pounds) of seal-fat
or seal-skins ; and 40 "kopecks" (28 cents) for each "poud" (30 pounds)
of oil.

Table showing quantities of oil and slcins registered at the offices of the administration of

fisheries.

Years.

1867

1608
1869

1870
1871
1672

Oil.

Russian weight.

93, 395 " pouds " 15 pounds
104, 161 " ponds " 5 pounds
81, 979 " pouds " 30 pounds
76, 790 " pouds "15 pounds
59, 154 " pouds " 25 pounds
102,874 "pouds"

American
weight.

Pounds.
3, 362, 235
3, 749, 801
2, 951, 274

2, 836, 455
2, 129, 569

3, 703, 464

Skins.

Xumher.

131, 723
150, 947
128, 701
137, 030
90, 468
156, 759

Russian
weight.

American
weight.

'Pouds."
12, 667
14. 7rli
11,915

12, 674
8,454

13, 092

Pounds.
450, 012
532, 2110
428, 940
440, 204
304, 344
492, 912

Whoever introduces dead seals as contraband articles, or clandes-
tinely sells or buys them, pays a fine triple the amount of the tax on
seal-oil.

The fishing-regulations also imxiose fines for illicit fishing in the sea.

72 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Thus, for the use of floating nets there is a fine of 20 " roubles," ($14 gold,)
and the fishing-implements and the fish caught are confiscated. Any
person fishing in the " corridors," where fishing is prohibited, pays
double the amount of an annual permit, either 100 or 210 "roubles,
($70 or $L08 gold.) A person who is fined for the third time has not
only to pay the fine, but is deprived for ten years of the right of fishing
within the limits of the buoys. Persons using forged permits are
arraigned before the criminal court. When a permit has run out, it
must be delivered at the offices of the fishing-administration, and, if
this is neglected, a fine of 5 " kopecks" (3-J cents) must be paid for each
day of delay, till the maximum of 3 "roubles" ($2.10 gold) is reached.

The river-fisheries of the government are subdivided into a certain
number of small fisheries, which are leased. This, as well as the liberty
of fishing in the sea, the system of buoys, and the fixing of certain
periods when fishing is prohibited, has fully proved its beneficial influ-
ence and great usefulness. Formerly, there were at Astrachan only
seven houses which dealt in fish and fishing-products ; at present, there
are in that city about thirty large and small fishing-houses, which com-
pete with each other, not only in the preparation of fish and the different
articles prepared from them, but also in the sums they pay to their em-
ployes and laborers. Poor fishermen — and their number is very great —
who have commenced with but little, have been favored by fortune, and
many of them have become the independent proprietors of large fishing-
boats, on which numerous laborers earn a safe and good living. The
prices paid by the fishing-houses are just double that which they were
formerly. The system of buoys facilitates the passage of fish into the
innumerable currents which form the mouths of the Volga, so that they
cannot only reach the spawning-places, but ascend as high as the fisheries
located beyond Kamychiue in eight districts of the Volga basin. Special
officers watch zealously over the strict observance of the new fishiug-
regulations, and the important process of spawning cau now go on with-
out the slightest risk of being disturbed.

An improvement, which is very desirable, and which has not yet
been carried out, is the total abolition, or at least a great diminution,
of the tax on salt. If this were done, the fish would be better salted,
and certain kinds, which now, on account of the high price of salt, are
not salted at all, would become an eagerly sought-for article of com-
merce. The Astrachan fisheries use at present not less than 2,500,000
" pouds " (90,000,000 pounds) yearly. The duty on salt is 30 " kopecks "
(21 cents) on the " pond," (36 pounds.)

6. — FISHING-IMPLEMENTS.

The implements used by the fishermen of the Caspian Sea are various
kinds of nets, "paleugres," hooks, and fish-gigs, which generally resem-
ble those used in the Mediterranean, and are of ancient origin.

Stationary nets. — The nets that are in use are stationary nets float-

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 73

ing nets, seines, and cast-nets, (" eperviers.") Tbe fishermen and pro-
prietors of fisheries buy the material for tbe nets, viz, twine, thread,
small cords, cords, &c, from the Astraehan merchants, who get them
from Nijui-Novgorod, Kazan, and Saratow. They use for sturgeon-fish-
ing in the sea nets which are 12 " sagenes " (84 feet) long and 4 " ar-
sheens"(9 feet 4 inches) deep, made of five-ply or six ply thread, with
meshes oh to 4 inches square, and furnished with floats and leads.
These nets are laid as deep as 4 " sagenes," (28 feet.) Generally, from
20 to 40 are joined, and sometimes even as many as 80 or 100, so as to
form a straight line extending several " versts." The whole line of nets
is held up by bolt-ropes on a row of stakes, which are driven into the
bottom of the sea. Fishing with stationary nets coutinues from April
till the end of May, and from August till the beginning of October.
During the second part of the autumn and in the winter, they are but
rarely used.

For catching the great sturgeon, ("belouga,") especially in the winter,
large nets 12 " sagenes " (84 feet) long and G " arsheens " (14 feet) deep,
are used, with meshes 8 inches square.

In the lagoons, and in the narrow channels ("yeryke") connecting
them, as well as in the mouths of rivers, stationary nets are also set for
catching sturgeon and different kinds of scaly fish. According to the
regulations, these nets must be set in such a manner as to leave one-
third of the river unobstructed. The nets for catching scaly fish are
made of 3 and 4 ply threads; are likewise 12 "sagenes" (84 feet) long,
but not more than 2 "arsheens" (4 feet 8 inches) broad. The meshes
are of different sizes. For Lucioperca sandra and Lucioperca volgensis
and Abramis brama, they measure 2.} inches; for other small scaly fish,
1£ inches ; and for Coregonus leucichthys, 4 inches. In places that are not
very deep, these nets are attached to poles, while in deep places they
rest on stationary stakes.

Among the stationary nets must also be classed the sweep-nets made
of from four to seven osier hoops of different diameter, covered with a
net forming a sort of hood over them. The circle which forms the en-
trance, and to which the hood and the wings are attached, has a diam-
eter of from % to 1£ " sagenes," (5 feet 3 inches to 10 feet G inches.) The
other circles, whose diameterdimiuishes gradually, are! to 1.1 "arsheeus"
(1 foot 8 inches to 2 feet G inches) apart. The net extends li "arsheens"
(1 foot 8 inches) beyond the smallest circle forming the last bag; or,
ending in a leap between the first and third circle, there is another net
inside, in the shape of a funnel or truncated cone, called " straight en-
trance," (" goulet " in French,) whose inner opening, 4 inches broad,
allows the fish to pass into the leap or bag. This entrance is kept open
by means of cords. Each wing of the sweep-net is from li to 3 " sa-
genes*' (10 feet G inches to 21 feet) long, and the meshes are from l£to
2 inches square. The nets, which are fixed to poles, are placed in such
a manner that the opening, like an enormous mouth, faces the fish,

74 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

which are going up the river. Several sweep-nets are usually placed
side by side in such a manner that their wings form sharp angles. It
is strictly forbidden to obstruct the whole breadth of the river, or the
whole extent of a fishing-ground with a row of sweep-nets.

These nets are generally used in the winter ; while, in the summer,
small sweep-nets with one wing are used, chiefly for catching " som,"
(Hilurus giants.)

Floating nets. — The use of floating nets in the sea is strictly pro-
hibited, because during the summer- months immense schools of stur-
geon leave the sea to spawn in the rivers. It has sometimes happened
that sturgeon have been caught in this manner, aud for want of la-
borers and salt have been thrown into the sea after their roe aud their
swimming-bladder had been taken out. Whenever the officers of the
fisheries find a fisherman with floating nets in the sea, they confiscate
his nets and the fish he has caught, and make him pay a fine of 25
" roubles," ($17.50 gold.)

The floating nets are from 12 to 15 " sagenes" long, (84 to 105 feet,)
with meshes 4 inches square, of which 28 or 32 go to one net. The
floats consist of wooden blocks one "arsheen" (2 feet 4 inches) long,
cut iu the shape of a spatula, and attached to cords, which are tied to
the upper bolt-rope of the net, so that they can be lengthened or short-
ened at will, according as the school of fish keeps at a certain depth or
near the surface. These nets have no lower bolt-rope and no leads.
Two nets are generally tied together longitudinally, in order to double
the total depth of the leap to 5Q or 64 meshes. Every boat carries from
30 to 80 nets, which, bound together end to end, and thrown into the
sea, form a wall of meshes several "versts" in length; and this, at-
tached to one of the boards of the boats, is dragged along with the
boat, while the latter is driveu by the wind, till it extends facing the
school of the advancing fish. Frequently, two boats keep the nets
extended between them, and move with full sail to meet the school
of fish.

In the Volga and its various branches, as also in the Ural, floating
nets are used only for catching the several kinds of sturgeon. In the
Terek, the " chemaya" (Aspius clupeoides, Pall.) is caught with simple
floating nets, aud in the Koura with silk nets. Floating nets in the
shape of a bag are used in the Koura and the Volga for catching the
"som," (Silurus giants.)

The floating nets in the Volga have different names. For catching
the " belouga," (Acipenser huso,) they use the "pogona'ie" nets that are
150 "sagenes" (1,050 feet) long and from 7 to 11 "sagenes" (49 to 77
feet) broad, having meshes 0 inches square. For catch ug the sturgeon
and the " sevriouga," (Acipenser stellatus,) they use, immediately after the
ice has broken up, the " samoplavy ;" and from the end of May to the
middle of June, the " svintchatki ; " then, immediately after the rising of
bhe sea, which occurs iu July, the "rejaki." The first-mentioned nets

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 75

are 90 "sagenes" (030 feet) long and 33 meshes broad, each of which is
4£ inches square. They have no lower bolt-rope. The " svintchatky "
are from CO to 130 " sagenes" (420 to 910 feet) long, and have two leaps,
one of which, the outer, is woven with large meshes of G inches, and the
other, or inner, with meshes of an inch and a half. One of the ends of
the net has a float of reeds or of wood attached to the net by means of
a cord 2 "arsheens" (4 feet 8 inches) long, while the other end is at-
tached to the boat. The fisherman who is in the boat allows himself to
be driven by the current, and is careful to see that the net and the float
always follow in a straight line, and at an equal distance. The fish,
which throw themselves on the net, go through the great meshes of the
outer leap, and then find themselves caught in the inner one. The
" rejaki" are 90 " sagenes" (030 feet) long, 2 "arsheens" (4 feet 8 inches)
broad, and have meshes 3 J inches square, and a lower leaded bolt-rope.

In the Volga and its several branches, fishing is prohibited from May
15 to July 15, except with " palaugres," and a seine of 50 " sagenes,"
(350 feet,) which the fishermen drag to and fro, running about on foot
in the bed of the river in places which are not very deep, thus catching
small, scaly fish. The fishermen are, moreover, authorized to catch
sturgeon for their own use, between the city of Tcharnoi-Yar and the
sea, by means of floating-nets 90 "sagenes" (G30 feet) long and 1
"sageue" (7 feet) broad. This fishing is permitted from June 15 to
July 15.

The floating nets used in the Koura for catching the "chemaya"
(Asjjius clupeo'ides) have meshes lh inches square and are 12 "sageues"
(84 feet) long. Instead of floaters, the fishermen use hollow pumpkins.
The bag nets for catching the "som" (Silurus glanis) have meshes 2|
inches square. The bag itself is 12 "sageues" (84 feet) long and 5
" arsheens" (11 feet 8 inches) broad. In the Volga, these nets are used
for fishing only in the spring and fall, and in the Koura, in January and
February.

Seines with bags. — In the Volga and its tributaries, large seines
("eissaugues") are used, measuring from 300 to 400 "sagenes," (2,100 to
2,800 feet,) whose bag is from G to 12 "sagenes" (42 to 84 feet) long,
with meshes one inch square. The meshes of that part of the wings
which is nearest to the bag have the same dimensions, while those
farther removed from it are from 1% to 2J inches in size. The wings
are not of the same length. That which is cast first, the "coast-wing,"
as it is called, measures only 50 " sagenes," (350 feet,) while the other,
which is cast so as to form a crescent, measures from 250 to 350 " sagenes,"
(1,750 to 2,450 feet.) The seines are used for catching Lueioperca sand ra
and Lucio±)erca volgensis and Abramis brama. It is no rare occurrence
to take 30,000 to 40,000 fish at a single haul. From the middle of May
till the beginning of July, seines are not used, because the banks of the
river are overflowed and the current is exceedingly strong.

Two boats are absolutely required for this fishing; one of them, the

7G REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

"nevodnik," does nothing else but cast and haul in the nets; while the
other, the "rybnitsa," takes the fish which have been caught to the
fishing-establishment, ("vataga.") The "nevodnik" is manned by 8 or
12 fishermen, with a pilot, who directs the fishing, and has the general
superintendence of the whole. On board the " rybnitsa,'1 which has two
masts and is 30 feet long, there are 7 men, one of them being a pilot.
It can carry 1,000 "pouds" (30,000 pounds) of fish. A "rybnitsa"
costs- from 150 to 250 "roubles," ($105 to $175,) and a "nevodnik," from
100 to 200 "roubles," ($70 to $140.)

The places in the river where seine-fishing is to be carried on must
have a uniform and even bottom, so that the nets can be dragged with
an even movement, and may not be exposed to the danger of tearing.

According to the regulations, there can be only two seines in one and
the same place, while the number of fishermen is also limited; for there
must not be more than one fisherman to every 20 " sagenes " (110 feet) of
net. The fishing- places must moreover be one " verst " (3,500 feet) apart.
For catching the " Astrachau herring," (Alosa pontica and Alosa caspica,)
the number of nets is not limited; but, according to the regulations, the
meshes of the bag of the net must measure three-eighths of a " verschok,"
(little more than half an inch,) and those of the wing 1^ square inches.
From the 15th of April till the 15th of May, these schools of herring are
so numerous that the fishermen attach a second bag to the first, then
again a third one to that, and do not draw the net on shore, but take the
fish out with a hand-net and throw them into the " rybnitsa."

In tne sea, at a depth of from 5 to 7 feet, and especially in the spring and
autumn, seines are used measuring from 300 to 400 "sagenes, (2,100 to
2,800 feet,) and the fish caught are chiefly Lucioperca sandra, Lucioperca
volgensis, and Abramis brama, which at this time arrive in vast schools.
The wings of the seine are of equal lengths. As soon as the approach
of a school of fish is announced, the " rybnitsa" casts anchor, while the
" nevodnik " uses all its oars or sails going toward the school and grad-
ually casting the nets. On board the " nevodnik," there are a pilot, six
rowers, and two laborers. When the net has been cast, the " nevodnik"
joins the " rybnitsa," to which one of the ends of the seine is attached,
aud, all hands assisting, they begin to draw the net into the " nevodnik."
This last-mentioned boat is placed at a distance of one " arshecn " (2 feet
4 inches) from the " rybnitsa," to which it is joined by strong transverse
sticks. The net is drawn back underneath the hull of the " rybnitsa."
This must be done in an even manner, without any sudden jerks. In
order to deprive the fish of every means of escape, the net is drawn in
such a manner that the lower bolt-rope of the two wings slightly grazes
the outside of the boat. For this purpose an iron implement is used,
shaped like a heart, to the pointed end of which a loug cord is attached.
People fish only by daytime, and during the night the boats are drawn
on shore. It is very interesting to see the fishermen go out into the sea
to search for a school of fish. The experienced pilot who leads the ex-

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 77

pedition stands at the prow of the boat, constantly sounding the water
with a long pole, to ascertain the presence of a school, or to see whether
one is approaching. He also gives the sign ,as soon as he thinks the
moment has coaie for casting the nets. Generally, the whole school is
caught.

Gast net.) — These nets are chiefly used on the southwestern coast
of the Caspian Sea, at Lencoran, and in the bay of Enseli. They
are made of silk, and small scaly fish, and even roe, are caught with
them. The cast net is a round, conical net. If taken up in the middle,
it assumes the shape of a funnel, the lower opening having a diameter
of 5^ " arsheens," (12 feet 10 inches;) while in the middle of the net,
which forms the apex of the cone, there is a thin cord 8 "sagenes" (50
feet) long. A slack silk rope is attached to this, ending in a noose,
through which the hand can be easily passed. The opening is edged
with a strong bolt-rope of the thickness of a finder, which is ballasted
by small leaden tubes C inches long and 3 inches apart. In the spaces
between the leads, cords 10 inches long are attached, with one end to
the bolt-rope and the other to one of the meshes of the net above the
bolt-rope. Thereby, the lower portion of the net hangs in the shape of a
bag below each one of these cords, and the leads gradually approach
each other. This is the old cast-net with blouses, or pockets.

When the net is cast, it spreads at first like a disk at the bottom
of the water; then, as soon as the cord is drawn, the vertical cords are
brought nearer together, and close the opening like a purse. The net
thus forms folds, and the fish, which are underneath, get entangled in
the meshes. It requires a certain degree of skill to cast the net. It is
done in the following mauner: The fisherman puts his left wrist in the
noose, holds a portion of the net gathered in his left hand, and with his
teeth tykes hold of the cord with the leads. At the same time he gath-
ers on his right arm about one-third of the extent of the net forming its
opening, in such a manner as to let the end hang below the arm, while
the remainder hangs down in front of his body. In this position, he
seizes with his right hand the cord with the leads, describes a semicircle
toward the left to give force to his throw, then turns quickly to the right,
and, slackening the cord which he holds between his teeth, casts the net
into the water with all his strength. The cord, weighted down by the
leads, immediately siuks to the bottom, and the net, completely extended,
catches the fish which are below. In order to draw it back, the fish-
erman lifts the net gradually by means of the cord, whose end he has
not slackened, turniug alternately to the right and to the left in order
to bring the leads together more easily, and winds up by drawing in the
whole net as rapidly as possible.

In order to attract the fish, small glittering stones, or little clay -balls,
baited with worms, are thrown into the water. Fishing with the cast-net
is only carried on during the night, and an even bottom, without stones
or trunks of trees, is absolutely required.

78 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

" Palangres," cable-lines, (cablieres,) and bottom-lines. — The cords,
thread, and twine required for manufacturing the "palaugres " are made
in the villages and in sqnie cities of the districts of Nijui-Novgorod and
Saratow, whence they are sent to Astrachan. The hooks are made of
wire and are barbed. These hooks are only used for the different species
of sturgeon. A thousand of these hooks for fishing in the sea cost, if
they weigh 3 " pouds," (108 pounds,) 17 " roubles," ($11.90 gold;") those
weighing 2J "pouds" (90 pounds) to the thousand, cost 12 "roubles,"
($8.40 gold;) while the third kind, weighing l.J "pouds" (54 pounds) to
the thousand, generally cost only 7 "roubles," ($4.90 gold.) In the riv-
ers, hooks are used weighing lh " pouds," (54 pounds,) 1 "pond" 10
pounds, (46 pounds.) or 1 "poud,"(36 pounds,) to the thousand; costing,
respectively, 5 "roubles" 15 "kopecks," ($3.60£ gold;) 4 "roubles" GO
" kopecks," ($3.22 gold ;) and 4 " roubles" 40 " kopecks," ($3.08 gold.)

A " bottom-line" is Jf cord of the thickness of a finger and 20 " sagenes"
(140 feet) long, to which pieces of whip-cord are attached about as thick
as a quill, 12 inches apart, and furnished with hooks. The floats are of
wood, 5 inches long and 2 inches broad. They are attached to the line,
the distance between them being equal to that from the end to the fifth
or sixth piece of whip-cord, making from twelve to fifteen floats to a
line of 10 " sagenes," (70 feet.) From ten to fifteen of these lines are
usually tied together and placed at a depth of 3 "sagenes" (21 feet) or
more. They are kept in position by means of cords attached to station-
ary poles. In very deep places, anchors are substituted for the poles.
In the summer, they are only left in the water one week, while in the
other seasons they remain there two weeks. They are examined every
day, and the sturgeons that have been caught on the hooks are taken
off. They are placed in the sea in a straight line, and extend several
" versts." The sturgeons approach " these palangres," and, anxious
to pass through the free spaces between the pieces of whip-cord, are
caught by the hooks, and the more efforts they make to disengage
themselves the more do they bring the water in motion, and a larger
number of hooks enter their body.

The "bottom-line" used in the Volga for catching the "sterliad"
(Aeipenser ruthenus) has usually 200 hooks, attached to pieces of whip-
cord 11 inches long, and 15 inches apart, on the main line, which is GO
"sagenes" (420 feet) long. The hooks are made of wire, and a thou-
sand of them weigh only 5h pounds.

The "belouga" (Aeipenser huso) is caught in the sea with " palengres"
at a depth of from 70 to 100 " sagenes," (490 to 700 feet,) the line having a
diameter of half an inch and a length of 70 " sagenes." The hooks are at-
tached to piecesof whip-cord, 1J "sagenes " (10.V feet) long, and are much
larger, stronger, and thicker than those used for catching the common
sturgeon. A thousand of them weigh 3 " pouds, " (108 pounds.) These
hooks are baited with small, living, scaly fish, kuown by the name of " ta-
ranes," (a local name for bait fishes of several kinds of Alosa, Abramis,

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 79

Leuciscus, and Cyprinns,) which are caughtin the Volga immediately after
the ice breaks up. Iu order to keep these small fish alive, the fishing-boat,
which has sails, and is called "kouzovaya lodka," coutaius a large per-
forated box, which, by means of pumps, is constantly kept supplied with
fresh water. When the fishermen have exhausted their stock of bait,
they return to Astrachan. While the fishing is going on, the livers and
the caviar of the " belouga" are being prepared ou board the boat.

Spinning-lines and other implements with hooks. — The " belouga "
(Acipenser huso) is caught under the ice in the sea by means of large
perforated hooks of forged iron, baited with seal-fat. The hook is
attached to a thick cord 30 " sagenes" (210 feet) long, only half of which
is placed in the water, while the other half is rolled up at the edge of
a hole which has been made in the ice. The other end of the line is at-
tached to a strong piece of wood placed across the hole, and the middle
of this line is tied to it with a thin thread, which tears as soon as a
sturgeon has bitten, so that the remaining portion of the line unrolls
and glides under the ice.

For catching the Silurus giants in June aud July, hooks are likewise
used, baited with living frogs. The following is the method : The fish-
ing boat is manned by two men. One rows and the other throws the
line, which is attached to a rectangular wooden lever ; at the same time
he beats the water with a sort of shovel formed by a small piece of
plank, which is slightly concave, aud which is attached to a handle.
This plank produces a peculiar noise, which attracts the Silurus, and,
seeing the frog, it seizes it, and finds itself caught.

The Coregonus leucichthys is caught by means of the " blesna," which
consists of perforated hooks with a long shaft bearing a little tin fish,
or a fiat piece of tin shaped like a fish. Scales of the Cyprinus carpio,
whose sparkling attracts the fish, are pasted on the flat part of the
hook.

The Ural Cossacks use large steel hooks, sharply pointed aud barbed,
for catching the sturgeon under the ice. The line is attached to the thin
end of a rod, whose length is in proportion to the depth of the river.
Frequently, several poles are tied together; in order that the hook may
descend vertically into the water, and may not be carried away by the
current, leads are attached to the rod a little below the hook. Small
poles are held in the hand, but generally they are evenly balanced on
a tripod of wooden blocks or poles, at a convenient distance from the
hole in the ice. Near this hole, an arch of osiers is stuck in the ice, to
which the automatic apparatus is attached, by which, through a wooden
pin, the line is kept in the position which is required for this kind of
fishing — the thin end of the pole near the arch on the ice — and the hook
at the desired depth. Whenever a fish seizes the hook, the pin is pulled
out, the rod again becomes straight through the weight of its heavy part,
and so pulls the fish out. Camps, " sidebki," of from 100 to 1,000 of these
automatic arrangements may be seen every year on the ice of the Volga,

80 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The authorities of the Cossack army fix the time for opening the fish-
ing-season. On the appointed day, Cossacks with ice-breakers, long
poles, and hooks, meet with their sleighs at the place which has been
designated, usually near the deep places, " yatoves," where the stur-
geon are hiding for the winter. AVheu all have arrived, they place
their sleighs in a row, and wait for the signal in the most profound
silence. A cannon shot is heard, and all the Cossacks rush on to the
ice with the greatest emulation. Each one selects his place, rapidly
works a hole in the ice, and plunges his hooked rod in. The holes are
generally round, and have a diameter of half an " arsheen," (1 foot 2
inches.) The hooks are lowered to the bottom of the river, and they
are constantly taken up and baited. The sturgeons, some of which
remain entirely quiet in their " yatoves," while others are frightened at
being disturbed in their rest, soon become the prey of the fishermen,
who, over a space 1£ " versts " (almost a mile) long and 00 " sagenes " (41*0
feet) broad, frequently work no less than 10,000 rods armed with hooks.
As soon as a fisherman sees, by the strong movement of the water,
that a sturgeon approaches his hook, he raises it suddenly, draws it
back, and hauls the captured fish on the ice.

This fishing goes on over certain fixed areas. After a certain area
has been exhausted, the fishermen pass on to another, leaving the ice
pierced by innumerable holes, and covered with some inches of water
reddened by the blood of the fish.

Fishrgigs. — This fishing-implement consists of an iron fork with two
pointed and barbed prongs, which is attached to a pole. Cyprinus car-
pio and Sllurus glanis are caught with the fish-gig among the reeds and
water-plants. This fishing takes place in the spring.

7. — IMPORTANCE OF A " VATAGA," (FTSHING-ESTABLISHMENT.)

By a " vataga " must be understood an entire fishing-establishment,
such as are found on the banks of the Volga and its several branches.
The " vataga" comprises dwelling-houses for the proprietors of the es-
tablishment, and for the inspectors and laborers, and warehouses and
sheds for keeping the fishing-implements ; also salt-warehouses, provi-
sion-warehouses, buildings for dressing and salting fish, and for manu-
facturing isinglass, caviar, and fish-oil. The shore is covered with large
and small fishing-boats, and everywhere there is bustle and activity.

No such establishments are found on the banks of the Ural, where
the fish is generally cut and dressed in the open air, and where it is
salted in tubs protected by a roof of reed or plank.

The buildings in which the fish are dressed are constructed on piles,
rising several feet above the surface of the water, and these form vast
halls, which are floored and have a roof. In the walls, there are large
doors. The two doors on the water-side open on inclined planes, form-
ing a sort of plank-bridge over the water. Very large fish are hoisted
by means of winches on to this bridge from the boats, while the small

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 81

fish are thrown on to it with boat-books. An inspector receives, counts,
and registers all the fish which each fisherman delivers. The various
kinds of sturgeon — the "red fish," or the "fish proper," as it is called —
are measured from the middle of the eye to the caudal fin ; for the fish-
ermen receive more or less pay according to the different lengths of the
fish. The scale of prices, according to the length of the fish, is nearly
the same in all the " vatagas" of the Astrachan district.

Four different lengths are fixed for the "belouga," (Acipenser Huso,)
3 "arsheens," (7 feet,) and over; 1 "arsheen" 10 "vershocks" to 3
"arsheens," (3 feet 9£ inches to 7 feet;) 1 "arsheen" 4 "vershocks" to
1 "arsheen" 10 "vershocks," (2 feet 11 inches to 3 feet 9£ inches;) and
1 "arsheen" to 1 "arsheen" 4 "vershocks," (2 feet 4 inches to 2 feet 11
inches.)

The common sturgeon should measure 1 "arsheen" to 1 "arsheen "6
"vershocks," (2 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 2\ inches;) the "sevriouga,"
(Acipenser stellatus,) and the " chyp," (Acipenser tSchypa,) from f "ar-
sheen" to 1 "arsheen" 1 " vershock,"(l footO inches to 2 feet 5f inches;)
the "sterliad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) from 4 to 7 "vershocks," (7 inches
to 12^ inches;) the "som," (Siluvus glanis,) from 1 "arsheen" to 1J
" arsheens," (2 feet 4 inches to 2 feet 11 inches ;) and the " sazane," (Cy-
prinus carpio,) from 8 to 12 "vershocks," (1 foot 1^ inches to 1 foot .9
inches) and over.

The "soudak," (Lucioperca sandra ;) the "bersche," (Lucioperca rolge-
nis;) the "lestche," (Abramis brama;) the " besckenka," (Alosa pontica ;)
the " jeleznitsa," (Alosa caspica,) while other scaly fish are not measured,
but counted.

After the fish have been delivered, they are cut, and the entrails
taken out. For all this work, there are special laborers, who display an
almost incredible amount of skill and rapidity, and who receive wages
which are fixed beforehand by free contract.

The head and tail of the large sturgeons are cut off, and the belly is
removed from the pectoral air-bladder to the tail. The belly of the
smaller " belouga " and the common sturgeon is opened, and the head is
split as far as the nasal cartilage. The "sevriougas" (Acipenser stella-
tus) are split into two halves, and the entrails thrown away. The roe,
the swimming-bladder, and the dorsal cord, however, are carefully taken
out. These parts of the fish are handed to other laborers whose special
occupation is the manufacture of caviar and isinglass, which is carried
on in separate buildings. Laborers engaged in the manufacture of
caviar receive the highest annual wages.

A large number of young girls and women are occupied in cutting the

fish. They all wear a peculiar working-dress, consisting of breeches and

a jacket; their head and half their body being covered. A sharp knife

in one hand, and a little hook in the other, the working-woman begins

her labor. Crouched with crossed legs on a straight bench, she picks

up a fish with her hook, opens' its belly, takes out the entrails, and
6 F

82 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

throws the fish into a corner, where a large heap is soon piled up. Dur-
ing this time, other women are splitting and cutting the fish with no less
skill, and stringing them on threads made of the fiber of the bark of
the linden-tree, which they pass through the eyes of the fish by means
of a large needle. The skill and rapidity of these women are truly ad-
mirable. Enormous piles of fish which encumbered the floor disappear
in a few hours, and pass to another building to be salted. A skillful
woman can dress as many as 2,000 Lucioperca during a siugle day.

The building in which the scaly fish are salted has a long shape,
usually several doors, and contains tubs and wooden boxes of different
sizes. A box 3 " arsheens " (7 feet ) deep 4 " arsheens " (9 feet 6 inches)
broad, and 8 "arsheens" (18 feet 8 inches) long, can hold 100,000 Alosa
or 45,000 Abramis or 30,000 Lucioperca or 2,000 "pouds" (72,000 pounds)
of sturgeon of different kiuds. The tubs have generally a diameter of
4J "arsheens," (10 feet 6 inches,) and a depth of 31 "arsheens," (8 feet 2
inches,) and can hold 45,000 Alosa or 20,000 Abramis. The numberof tubs
and boxes varies according to the locality. Thus, the "vataga" (fishing-
establishment) of Petropovlovsk, fifty "versts" (about twenty-seven
miles) above Astrachan, on the banks of the Volga, has four large cel-
lars, each holding from 30 to 40 large boxes, destined chiefly for salting
the various kinds of Alosa.

The so-called " cold cellars" are particularly grand; here blocks of ice
are piled up behind a wooden lattice, leaving a space of 1^ " sagenes "
(10 feet G inches) free along the walls of the cellar. Entering a salting-
cellar through the large door, one sees first the rooms where salt is pul-
verized by machines ; then the cellar itself, in which there is a long
floored corridor, running between high and strong wooden pillars. To
the right and left of this " corridor," the boxes are ranged side by side.
The roof, which rests on numerous pillars, has sky-lights which give
sufficient light for the whole cellar. In the roof, there is also a large
opening, from which an inclined plane, made of planks, leads into the
cellar. On this inclined plane, the " belougas" and large sturgeons are
easily let down into the cellar. Several ventilators keep the air con-
stantly pure.

8. — PREPARING THE FISH AND ITS SEVERAL PARTS.

Salting. — After having been dressed, the fish are, under the super-
intendence of, the Salter, placed in layers in the boxes above mentioned
in such a manner that the heads and tails alternate. The Salter then
throws, with a shovel, the necessary quantity of salt on every layer of
fish; the quantity of salt varying according to the kind of fish, and ac-
cording to the season. In the Astrachan " vatagas," (fishing-establish-
ments,) it is customary to take from 27 to 30 "pouds" (972 to 1,080
pounds) of salt in the spring, and from 18 to 20 "pouds" (048 to 720
pounds) in the autumn to every 1,000 Lucioperca; from 7 to 9 " pouds "
(252 to 324 pounds) in the spring, and from 4 to 0 " pouds " (144 to 21 G

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 83

pounds) in the autumn, to every 1,000 Abramis, Perca fluviatilis, and As-
pins rapax; and, on an average, 10 " ponds," (360 pounds,) to 1,000 Alosa.
A thousand small Cyprinus carpio, L., require from 15 to 18 " ponds" (540
to 618 pounds) of salt.

A thousand fresh fish have the following average weight: Cyprinus
carpio. L., 120 " ponds," (4,320 pounds ;) Lucioperca sandra and Esox In-
dus, 100 "ponds," (3,600 pounds;) Lucioperca volgensis, 55 " pouds,"
(1,980 pounds;) Abramis brama and Aspius rapax, 50 "pouds," (1,800
pounds;) Perca fluviatilis, 35 "pouds," (1,290 pounds;) Scardinius ery-
throphthahnus, L., 32 " pouds," (1,152 pounds;) and the various kinds of
Alosa, from 20 to 25 " pouds," (720 to 900 pounds.)

The differents kinds of sturgeon and the Silurus require from 12 to 13
pounds of salt to every " pond " (30 pounds) of fish ; and the large Cy-
prinus carpio, L., the Salmo salar, and the Coreyonus leucichhys, Giildeust.,
12£ pounds to every " poud " of fish, (36 pounds.)

In the autumn, the back, and not the belly, of the scaly fish is split
open, so as to let the salt saturate more thoroughly.

The fish remain a longer or shorter time in the box according to the
different species : Lucioperca, one month ; Cyprinus carpio, L., 6 days ;
Silurus, till autumn ; Abramis, 12 days; the i different kinds of Alosa till
the month of June. The brine of the Lucioperca is again used for salt-
ing the Abramis or the Leuciscus rutilus, while the brine of the other
scaly fish is thrown away.

In the spring, the fish are taken from the boxes, washed, and dried
on poles. This is done particularly with the Lucioperca, the Abramis,
and the Leuciscus rutilus, L. ; while the Cyprinus carpio is dried on hur-
dles made of reeds. The drying process being completed, the fish are
taken from the poles, or from the hurdles, laid up in warehouses, and in
July shipped by steamer toNijni-Novgorod. In September, large boats
arrive at the " vatagas," (fishing-establishments,) where they buy the
fish on the spot, being salted before they are shipped.

The so-called herring, Alosa caspica, is not dressed, but is salted as it is.
Up to the years 1854 and 1855, the Astrachan herriug were only used for
extracting the oil from them. Even poor people, frightened by its name,
" beschenka," (the furious fish,) hesitated to use it for food. It is owing
to the efforts of the committee appointed for examining the fisheries under
the direction of Mr. Baer that several lessees of the fisheries finally con-
sented to salt the " beschenka " and the "jeleznitsa" under the name
of " herring." From that time, the Astrachan herring, as a salt fish, has
become more and more an artisle of commerce, while the extraction of
oil from it has diminished in proportion. Thus, there were salted in the
river-waters of Astrachan, in 1858, 43,000,000 of this fish, while the num-
ber rose to 140,000,000 in 1871, and to 160,000,000 in 1872 ; while during
the same year, 1872, only 30.000 herring were used in the manufacture
of oil.

The " belouga," (Acipenser huso,) and the " sevriouga," (Acipenser

84 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

stcllatus,) taken in the spring, remain for six mouths in the boxes, till
the salting and hardening process is complete. Afterward they are
taken out, dried superficially, and packed in casks.

Those kinds of sturgeon which are caught from spring till the mid-
dle of July are transported, during September and October, on wagons
to the Saratov fair; while the fish of this kiud caught between the 8th
of July and the 15th of August are shipped the following spring to
Nijui-Novgorod on large boats, which are towed by steamers.

The sturgeon caught in the district of Emba, the northeastern basin
of the sea, are salted on board of large fishing-boats called " koujovaya."

The fish, having been dressed, are usually laid in brine for two days,
and then they are placed in layers at the bottom of the boat, each layer
being covered with salt.

The fishermen return from their fishing-expeditions on the sea to As-
trachan at the end of June, and keep the fish they have caught in ware-
houses till a transport starts for Nijui-Novgorod.

The sturgeons caught from the 15th of August till the first frost are
preserved in the wells (boxes in the hold of the vessel filled with fresh
water and used for keeping fish) in order to be shipped at a later time.

Manufacture of caviar. — Two sorts of caviar are manufactured, fresh
or grained caviar, and hard or pressed caviar. In both cases, the
roe of the several kinds of sturgeon is spread out on a net with narrow
meshes forming a sieve, and stretched over a wooden frame ; then the
grains are passed through the meshes by slightly pressing the whole
mass till nothing remains on the sieve but the cellular tissue, the fat,
and the muscle. The grains, which are black or brown, fall through the
sieve into a wooden receptacle placed underneath. For manufacturing
grained caviar, the roe is sprinkled with very clean and fine salt, and
the whole mass is stirred with a wooden fork having eight or ten prongs.
The quantity of salt required varies, according to the season, from 5
to If pounds ; in August they take from 3 to 5 pounds of salt to 1
"poud" (36 pounds) of roe, and from 2£ to If in winter. The less the
fresh caviar is salted the more it is esteemed. The roe mixed with the
salt presents at first a doughy appearance when it is stirred ; but when
every grain has been impregnated with salt, the whole mass swells, and
in stirring it a slight noise is perceptible like that of stirring small
grains of glass. This noise is the sign that the caviar is ready. Then
it is packed in casks made of lindenwood, which does not impart any
bad flavor to it, while this is not the case with casks made of other
wood.

For manufacturing pressed caviar, a tub half filled with brine is placed
under the sieve ; the brine being stronger or weaker, according to the
temperature and the season. To impregnate the grains evenly with
brine, the whole mass is stirred with a wooden fork, always turning it
from the same side ; then the grains are taken out with line sieves, and
after the whole briue has been drained, 3 "pouds'' (108 pounds) of

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 85

grains are put in a sack made of the bark of the linden, which is placed
under the press in order to get all the brine out of the caviar, and to
transform it to a solid mass. In thus pressing the caviar, a large number
of grains are crushed, and a portion of their contents flows out with the
brine, so that on every " poud " (30 pounds) there is a loss of from 10 to
12 pounds. After having taken the pressed caviar from the sacks, it is
packed in casks containing 30 "pouds" (1,080 pounds) each, the inside
of which is covered with napkin-linen, this being the reason why the
caviar is also called "napkin -caviar," (caviar a la serviette.)

The finest quality of pressed caviar, that which has been least pressed
and salted, is placed in straight linen bags of a cylindrical shape, and
is then called " sack-caviar," (caviar a sac.) Caviar is also shipped in
tin boxes hermetically closed and soldered.

Fresh caviar is always preferred to pressed caviar, and also costs more.
At Astrachan, fresh caviar costs from 30 to 35 " roubles" ($21 to .$21.50
gold) the "poud," (3G pounds,) while the pressed caviar only costs 21
" roubles," ($10.80 gold.) It is infinitely more advantageous to manu-
facture grained caviar than hard caviar, because the former pays better,
requires less salt and less trouble, and there is scarcely any loss on it.

Every year about 11,000 " pouds" (300,000 pounds) of caviar are sent
abroad from Astrachan, especially to Berlin, to Dresden, aud to Vienna.
This caviar is bought by contract from the proprietors of the fisheries,
who either get it from their own fisheries or from fishermen hired by
them for this purpose, aud who prepare the caviar on their own boats
while fishing on the sea. There are in the " vatagas" (fishing-establish-
ments) special laborers for manufacturing caviar, who receive an auuual
salary of 300, 400, and even GOO "roubles," ($210, $280, to $120 gold,)
besides board, lodging, fuel, and light.

In trade, the caviar of the " belouga " (Acipenser huso) is esteemed
more highly than that of the common sturgeon, (Acipenser Guhlenstadtii,)
or of the " sevriouga," (Acipenser stellatus,) because its grains are larger
and better looking. The most savory of all caviars is the small grained
caviar of the " sterliad," (Acipenser ruthenus,) but it does not form an
article of commerce.

All the different kinds of sturgeon have not equally fat roe. This de-
pends both on the good quality of the fish and on the season when it has
been caught. The fattest caviar is that made, during the hot season, from
the roe of those kinds of sturgeons which are caught in the sea between
the 8th of July and the 15th of August. This roe is left only a few
hours in the brine, and then taken out aud packed, without being
pressed, in casks holding from 5 to 10 "pouds" (180 to 3G0 pounds) each.
If the roe is tender to the touch in the ovaries, and is already spoiled,
roe and ovaries are thrown into the brine till they are tuoroughly im-
pregnated with salt. This is then caviar of the worst quality, and
is shipped in casks holding from 27 to 30 " pouds," (972 to 1,080 pounds.)
This quality is worth only from 3 to 4 "roubles" ($2.10 to $2.80 gold)

86 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

the " poud," (36 pounds.) The kind called "summer-caviar," however,
sells at from 6 to 9 "roubles," ($4.20 to $0.30 gold.)

The milt of the " belouga"( Acipenser huso) aud of the common stur-
geon (Acipenser Guldenstadtii) is left from three to four days in the
brine, and then shipped in barrels. The milt of a"belouga" of medium
size often weighs 27 pounds, and that of the common sturgeon 12 pounds.

The roe of the "lestche," (Abraniis brama,) of the " soudak," (Lucio-
perca sandra,) and of the " vobla," (Leuciscus rutilus, L.,) is also used for
making a kind of caviar which is chiefly sent to Constantinople and to
Greece. Greek merchants come to Astrachan, buy the roe of these fish
at the " vatagas " (fishing-establishments,) and there prepare the caviar
themselves. They draw from the body of the fish the little bags which
contain the roe, throw them together promiscuously, and cover each
layer with a certain quantity of salt. They then press the whole be-
tween boards weighted down by heavy stones. This caviar remains thus
for a month, after which the Greeks put it in casks aud ship it. Caviar
which has been thus prepared is cut in slices shaped like disks, and is
much sought after in Greece.

Manufacture of isinglass. — The bladder of fish, which is known in
trade by the name of "feuille d'esturgeon" in French, "Hauseublase" in
German, and "isinglass" in English, is extracted from the inner side
of the swimming-bladder, not only of the " belouga," but also of other
kinds of sturgeon, as likewise of the Silurus glanis and of the Cyprinus
carpio. It is true that the large sturgeon yields the greatest quantity of
bladder, but the best is that of the common sturgeon, (Acipenser Gulden-
stddlii,) while the most inferior quality is that which comes from the
Silurus. Good isinglass must be pure, white, shining, half- transparent,
dry, and horny, without taste, but not without some perfume. Good
fish-bladder dissolves in water heated to 30 or 40 degrees Eeaumur
(about 100 to 122 degrees Fahrenheit) without leaving any residue, and
when it grows cold it becomes a transparent aud almost colorless gelatine.

The fish-bladder is mostly prepared by young boys, superintended by
experienced laborers. First, the swimming bladder of the fish is thrown
into the water, where it is left for several days ; the water being fre-
quently changed, in order to detach all the fatty aud bloody particles
from the bladder. The hotter the water the quicker is this done. The
bladders are then taken out, and cut lengthwise into strips, which are
exposed to the sun and air. These strips, or leaves, are usually spread
out, in order to dry them, with their outer side on small boards of
lindenwood ; the inner side is formed by leaves [lamellae) of pure
isinglass, which, after having been well dried, are carefully detached
from the outer side. The leaves of isinglass thus obtained are laid
between pieces of linen, to preserve them from the flies and from dust;
then they are placed under a press, so that they may not become
warped, but may form smooth cakes. It is only after all these different
operations have been performed that the laborer proceeds to pick the

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 87

leaves and tie them in bundles. These bundles of isinglass, produced
from the large sturgeon, are usually composed of from ten to fifteen
leaves, and weigh 1^ pounds each; while those of the common sturgeon,
or of the "sevriouga," contain twenty-five leaves, and weigh one pound
each. Generally, eighty of these bundles are sewed up in a linen bag;
they are also made up into small bales, covered with rush mats or with
liuen, and are then shipped, after being securely headed.

The " poud" (36 pounds) of " sturgeon-leaf" costs in Astrachau from
120 to 180 " roubles," ($84 to $126 gold.)

The swimming-bladder, deprived of its inner skin, that is, of the inner
shining cuticle of which isinglass is made, as described above, still con-
tains a certain quantity of glue, which is moistened with water, and then
removed by scraping it with a knife; this is also moistened with water,
and then kneaded. This mass is molded into small round tablets of
the size of a dollar, which are dried. This kind of fish-glue is shipped in
sacks, and costs less than the isinglass in leaves.

The leaves of the glue from the Silurus are arranged in book-form,
and are dried on thin cords. They are shipped in bags containing 4
" pouds" (144 pounds) each. The glue gained from the Cyprinus carpio
is also in leaves, arrauged in packages of 30 each.

Some persons at Astrachau have manufactured good fish-glue from
the scales of fish. Even at this day there lives iu the Cossack village of
Samyani, 60 " versts " (about 34£ miles) above Astrachau, a surgeon
named Sokologorski, who, from the scales of the Alosa, extracts glue in
thin and transparent leaves. According to his account, two pounds of
this glue are as good as one " poud " (30 pounds) of sturgeon-glue.
Unfortunately, he has not the necessary means to enable him to place
any considerable quantity of his manufactures in the market.

Formerly, the shining cuticle of the swimming-bladder was dried, and
cut into long, straight strips, which were tied alternately together, one
by the side of the other and one on the top of the other. These strips
thus tied were then laid in water to become soft, and afterward pressed
to let the water run off. This matter was then molded into different
figures, such as horseshoes, lyres, hearts, cylinders, &c. Small wooden
bolts kept these figures in their original shape till they were completely
dry. The Ural Cossacks, even to this day, make " glue hearts," which
they put up in. packages of 42. It requires 1,500 ki glue lyres " to make
one " poud," (36 pounds,) and from 7,000 to 10,000 "glue horseshoes"
to make the same weight.

Isinglass is used for clarifying various liquids, for making fine glue-
colors, for giving a gloss and finish to textile fabrics, for making plas-
ters, for taking the impress of coins, and finally in the kitchen for
making jellies.

Manufacture of u veziga.v — "Veziga" is the name given to the dried
dorsal cord of various kinds of sturgeon. After the entrails, the roe,
and the swimming-bladder have been taken out of the fish, a small

88 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

iucisiou is made in the flesh, and, the finger being inserted, the dorsal
cord is drawu out. This cord has the shape of a long and straight rib-
bon. It is carefully washed, and pressed, so that the soft matter which
it contains oozes out, after which it is dried during from three to eight
days, according to the season. When the "veziga" is entirely dry, it is
put up in packages, fifty of which form a bale weighing one "pond,"
(30 pounds.) A package of " veziga" of the " belouga" (Acipenser huso)
contains twelve dried dorsal cords, while there are twenty in a package
of "veziga" of the Acipenser GuldenstadtU, the Acipenser stellatus, and
the Acipenser schypa. A thousand "belougas" of medium size gen-
erally produce 5 " pouds" (180 pounds) of "veziga;" but the same num-
ber of common sturgeon, (Acipenser GuldenstadtU,) and of Acipenser stel-
latus, yield only 1 "poud," (30 pounds.) When the "veziga" is boiled, it
rises, and in this condition it is cut into small pieces, which form an im-
portant ingredient in excellent little fish-pies. The "veziga" is not used
for anything else. It costs from 15 to 20 "roubles" ($10.50 to $14 gold)
a "poud," (30 pounds.)

Manufacture of u balyk." — The Tartar word "balyk" means "fish,"
and is used in Russian for the backs of sturgeons which have been
slightly salted and then dried in the sun. For making good "balyk,"
a large and tolerably fat fish is selected, whose head, tail, sides, and
belly are taken off. That which remains, the dorsal part, has to undergo
a special salting, while the other parts are salted in the usual manner.
The back of the common sturgeon (Acipenser GuldenstadtU) and of the
"sevriouga" (Acipenser stellatus) remain entire, while those of the large
sturgeon (Acipenser Huso) are cut, either lengthwise only, or else both
lengthwise and crosswise. The pieces are placed in a tub so as not to
touch each other nor the sides of the tub; and they are left thus after
having been covered with a thick layer of salt from nine to twelve
days, and even fifteen days when the pieces are large and the weather
is hot. The salt is mixed with a little saltpeter, to give to the " balyk "
a reddish color, (2 pounds of saltpeter to 50 "pouds" (1,800 pounds)
of " balyk.") Allspice, cloves, and bay -leaves are frequently put into
the brine. When the salting is finished, the " balyk" is put into water
for a day or two, in order to detach all particles of the brine from it.
Thereupon it is dried, first in the sun and then in the shade, on roofed
scaffoldings, which are erected for the purpose. This last-mentioned
operation requires from four to six weeks, and is considered finished
when the " balyk " begins to cover with a slight mold, the absence of
which shows that it has been salted too much.

Good "balyk" must be as soft and tender as smoked salmon ; must
have a reddish or orange-brown color ; and must have an odor something
like that of the cucumber; it must also be transparent, show no traces
of putrefaction, nor have a bitter taste ; and, finally, it must not be too
salty. There are very few manufacturers who can prepare "balyk"
that has all these qualities. A " poud" (30 pounds) of good " balyk"

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 89

costs at the manufactory at least 18 "roubles," ($12.60 gold,) and at
retail it can seldom be bought for less than 1 "rouble" (70 cents gold)
a pound. The " balyk " made in March is considered the best.

On the banks of the Koura, and in the trans-Caucasian waters, where
the " sevriouga " (Acipenser stcllatus) is caught in large numbers,
" balyk " is made of at least 300,000 of these fish every year. This
" balyk," commonly called " djirim," is not of the first quality. It is
dry, very salty, and is much sought after by the inhabitants of Kache-
tia, because it produces thirst and gives them occasion to quench it
with the excellent production of their vineyards.

A large sturgeon of 20 "ponds " (720 pounds) yields 5 "ponds" (180
pounds) of "balyk;" a very large "sevriouga," 15 pounds; a common-
sized " sevriouga," 4 pounds ; and the common sturgeon, from 8 to 12
pounds.

Manufacture of oil. — Oil is extracted either from the fat which in-
closes the entrails of the sturgeon and the Lucioperca, or from the
whole body of the Astrachan herring, (Alosa pontica and Alosa caspica.)
In the first case, the fat is taken out, washed, and cut into pieces, which
are thrown into a tub, with from 10 to 15 pounds of salt for the whole
mass. The whole is then well shaken in a caldron, and placed on the
fire ; this caldron being put inside a larger copper caldron, in which
the water is boiled, thus causing the fat in the inner caldron to melt.
When the oil swims on the surface, it is skimmed off and poured into
oakwood barrels. This oil is pure and has a light-yellow color. It is
used for cooking-purposes, and for softening caviar when it has become
too dry.

Oil was made from x\strachan herring on a very large scale till the
year 1854, when people commenced to salt this fish. Other scaly fish,
even the " sterliad," [Acipenser ruthenns,) were used for making oil.
The period from April 15 to May 5, fixed for this manufacture, was
scarcely ever observed. This period is still considered the legal period
for the " vatagas" (fishing-establishments) located below Astrachan ;
while for those above this city, the time for making oil is between April
20 and May 10. Any person taken in the manufacture of oil before or
after this period has to pay a fine of 25 "roubles" ($17.50 gold) for
every day beyond the legal period.

The manufacture of oil is carried on in the open air. The Alosa are
piled up in casks and tubs, and are constantly moistened with boiling
water till the oil separates and swims on the surface. The oil is poured
into barrels, and sold at from 2 "roubles" 75 "kopecks" ($1.92£ gold)
to 3 " roubles" 25 " kopecks" ($2.27£ gold) a " poud," (3G pounds.) It
is used in soap-factories and in tanneries ; it is also burned in lamps
and used in making oil varnish.

The residue must be buried in the ground, and it is strictly forbidden
to throw it into the water. Any violation of this regulation is punished
with a fine of 100 " roubles," ($70 gold.)

90

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Since the year 1870, people have commenced, although it is properly
not allowed, to make oil of lampreys, (Petromyzon fluviatilis,) which, in
December and January, appear in great numbers in the Volga above
Astrachau. These fish yield no less than 8 pounds of oil per thousand
fish; and this oil, which costs 3 "roubles" ($2.10) a " poud," (36 pounds,)
is pure and clear, although containiug a good deal of glue. It is not
probable that this industry will develop much; for several " vatagas"
(fishing-establishments) have already begun to pickle the lamprey,
which forms iu this shape a very savory dish. Thus, in October last,
a merchant of Tchoruoi-Yar, Sabourow by name, sent to St. Petersburg
for experienced laborers to pickle 3,000 "pouds" (108,000 pounds) of
lamprey. A thousand lampreys weigh not less than 140 pounds.

9. — MARKET-PRICE OF FISH AND THEIR PRODUCTS.
Tabic of the marlcet-prices since the year 1868, when fishing in the sea was declared perfectly free.

PEIi "POUD," 36 POUNDS.

Acipenser huso

Acipenser Guldenstcidtii of
3' 6"

Of 2' 4"

Acipenser stellatus of 2' 4".

Less than 2' 4"

Acipenser sc.hypa

Siiurus glanis of 3' 0"

Of 2' 4"

Coregonus leucichthys

A cipenser ruthenus

Cyprinus carpio, dried

Salt

Tinea vulgaris and Perca

fluviatilis

Esox lucius, salt

Heads of Acipenser huso,

salt

Belly of Acipenser Imso . . .
Caviar, pressed

Made iu summer

Inferior quality

Fresh caviar of Acipenser
huso

Of Acipenser Gulden-

stddtii

Milt of sturgeon

Oil

Abramis brama

Lucioperca volyensis

Seals

$1 33 toll 574 $1 47 to§l 50A $1 01

From July 1,
1806, to July
1, 1867.

From July 1,
ltG7, to July
1, 18G8.

From July 1,
1868, to July
1, 1869.

574

014.

29§

734

33

12

63

22*

70
35

28
804

70
45
75

55
80

11 40

8 92J
35
1 75

56
244.
1 33

2 06 i
1 54
1 82
98
1 57*

84

2 80
12 60

17 50
12 60

1 57*

1 47
1 29i
91 .
1 47

12

63

40
8?4
77
03

454

77
45
75
20
35

11 20

03

50J
68"
084
50j

59A

2 80
12 60

17 50
11 20

8 92J

70
1 47 1 96

56 59*

244.

84

Si 01 to 1 92A §2 38

574 to 82 03

01 i
29J

08^

504.

12

63

70

154

28
384

77
2 80
8 05
4 20
2 35

11 40

1 50}

1 75

14 00

From July 1,
1809, to July
1, 1870.

From July 1,
1870, to July
1, 1871.

38

10

92J

714

784.

26

70

75

75

94i

5-4

35

84

1 05

2 80
9 80
6 30

3 15

18 20 11 20

9 80

8 40
1 05
1 47 1 68

63

24*

91

45

31

03

82

89J

68

98

80

05
594.

3 08
2 67
2 73
2 5"2
2 38
1 26 to$l 54

63
75
75
05
49

35

91

1 221
3 321 3 15

15 40" 10 50
5 60

2 75

19 60

11 20
1 05
1 54 2 17

77
24J
1 40

11 90

7 70
1 05

1 92}
91
35

2 33

84
2 45

59*

3 85
15 40

19 60
11 20

2 274

PEK THOUSAND.

Alosa

Abramis brama, salt, large

Salt, small

Aspiu< rapax

"Sertes"

Leuciscus rutilus

Perca fluviatilis

7 52^
16 10

8 05
4 37J
2 10

70
2 10

18 90

9 45

4 55

1 75

2 80

7 524
10 80

8 40
4 20
3 30

1 26

2 80

4 20

18 90 16 80

9 45 j 8 40

4 444

4 55

2 27ft

4 20
4 20

1 05

2 45

6 30

19 6.1

9 80

4 721

19 00
9 80
3 50
3 50
1 40
3 15

6 30

23 20

12 60

4 90

4 90

3 15

4 20

27
40
20
90
90
10
90

7 70
25 20
12 00
7 CO
7 00
4 55

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING.

91

10. — PR10E OF FISH AS FIXED BY AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE FISHER-
MEN AND THE FISHING-HOUSES.

The fishing-houses pay to the fishermen whom they hire either an
annual salary, or a fixed price, determined by agreement for every kind
offish and the articles manufactured from hsh. The fishermen have no
fishing-implements, and receive these from the fishing-houses. They
are principally engaged for seine-fishing, serve as rowers, or work at
the "vatagas," (fishing-establishmeuts.) Russians very seldom hire
themselves out by the year, while the Kalmyks do this exclusively.
The annual salary is in proportion to their skill, experience, and dili-
gence.

Those fishermen who are paid according to the number of fish caught
nearly all owu a little house, horses or cattle, boats, or other property,
which assure them credit at the fishing-houses, and serve as a guar-
antee for the payment of indemnities in case they do not fulfill the con-
ditions to which they have bound themselves by agreement. They
receive the earnest-money in advance to buy fishing-implements and
equip their boats. This subsidy is much more considerable for those
who fish in the sea than for those who fish in the river; for the former
must have a spacious, safe, and solidly-built sail-boat, and also a larger
number of workmen. Moreover, they are exposed to all kinds of priva-
tions and dangers.-

Contracts are made in July. The fishing-year commences July 1. If
the year has been favorable, the fisherman, after paying back the
earnest-money, has a considerable sum left ; if, on the other hand, it
has been unfavorable, the fisherman finds it difficult to meet all his
expenses, and he is obliged to contract debts, which he is never able to
pay.

Tabic showing the beneficial influence which the liberty of fishing in the sea has had on the

wages of fishermen.

Acipcnser huso

(December 1 to February 15) .
Acipcnser Gulden stddtii, (3' 6")

(December 1 to February 15).

(2' 4") :

(December 1 to February 15)
Acipcnser stellatus, (2' 4")

(1'9")

(December 1 to February 15).

Adpenser Schypa

• (December I to February 15) .
Heada of Acipenter huso ....

The flshermeu have received the following prices
per " poud," (36 pounds.)

£»

a •>
° S

Eh

$0 5G
1 CI

91
1 61

63
1 61

91

63
1 61

52.'

21

i— T*-*

o o
Eh

SO 56

26
91
26
63
26
77
63
26
521

£0

o o

$0 70
1 26

96
1 26

63
1 26

84

63
1 26

24i i 24 i

"3 >>

o o

Eh

§1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

111

75
40
75
75
75
40
05
75

ty

75

36*

5 o
u ■**
Eh

f 1 26
2 10

47
10
0SA
10

47

1 76J

in
26
10
36$

p o
Eh

$1 54
2 10

1 75

2 10

1 22£

2 10
1 75

1 22J

2 10

1 54

2 10
52J

92 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Tabic showing the beneficial influence, $'C. — Continued.

Caviar of Acipe nser huso.

(July 1 to September 1)

(September 1 to December 1)

(December 1 to February 15)

Caviar of second quality, made iu summor

Caviar of inferior quality7

Caviar of Acipenscr Guldenstcidtii and of Acipenser
stellatus :

(.July 1 to December 1 )

(December 1 to February 15) ,

(February 15 to July 1)

Silurus qlanis, (3' 6'') . . .'

(2' 4")

Corcgonus leuchichthys

Seals in spring

In autumn

Acipenser ruthenus

Cyprinus carpio. L.:

(1' 9" ami more, in spring)

(1' 55" to 1'9", in spring)

(1' 9" and more, in autumn)

(1/ 5$" to V 9", in autumn)

(1' 2" to 1' 5}", salt) ,

Salting Lucioperca sandra at the " vataga "

Salting Lucioperca sandra on the boat

Salting Esoxlucius in spring

In autumn

Salting large-sized Abramis brama, strongly

Slightly

Large-sized Abramis brama, salted and dried
Salting medium-sized Abramis brama strongly
Salting medium-sized Abramis brama slightly.
Medium-sized Abramis brama salted and dried .

Salting Aspius rapax

Suiting Lucioperca volgensis strongly

Slightly

Alosa

Salting Leuciscus rutilus

Salting and drying

Salting Scardinius erythrophthelmus

Slightly I.

Salting and drying

The fishermen have received tbo following prices
per " poud," (36 pounds.)

^ 3

S

$4 27

6 37

7 91
2 10

70

27
37
27
35

21

21
35

10 50

11 20
5 00

3 50

4 90

3 50
'3" 50

1 40

1 05
1 05

52*
07"
21
70

1 40

.=.<=

o o

$4 27

6 37

8 12

2 10

70

27
12
27
35
17J
21'
21
35

£2

3 >>

^3

o o

$4 90

7 70

8 40
2 10

70

90

in

55

35

17i

21

21

35

s >>

O O

87 00

11 90

11 90

2 10

70

6 30

6 30

6 30

35

17*
.21
35
05

o

o o

$7 35

12 25

12 60

2 10

70

65

65

55

49

-li

21

35

70

PEIi THOUSAND.

10 50

11 20
5 CO

3 50

4 90

3 50
350

9 10
1 40

5 95
1 05
1 05

52i

07

21

70

1 40

10 50

11 20
5 60

17 50
8 75

3 50

4 90

3 50

3 50

9 10
1 40

5 95
1 05
1 05

52.
07
70

70

1 75

10 50

11 20

5 60

17 50

8 75

3 50

4 90

3 50
"350

9 10

1 40

5 95
1 05
1 05

52J
07
1 05

70

2 45

21 00

11

5
17
8
3
5
7
4
4

4 20

07'
05
70

2 45

. XJ

5 >•

^3

c o

§8 40

13 30

12 60

2 10

70

7 70

7 70
7 70
70
49
24*
35
70
21

21 00

11 20

5 60
28 00
10 50

3 50
7 70

28 00

4 20
28 00

5 60
. 8 75

10 50
2 80

75
65
05

1 05

2 80
52*
07

1 05

1 05

2 80
2 80

11. — SEAL-HUNTING.

The seal, which is very common in the Caspian Sea, (Phoca caspica-,)
is from 3 to 6 feet long, weighs from 2 to 4 "pouds," (72 to 141 pounds,)
and has a variegated fur, the back grayish-brown with yellowish stripes.

These seals gather in large herds, and, plungiug continually into the
water, chase scaly fish, of which they eat only the breast, leaving the
remainder of the body, with the entrails, to the sea-birds, which are
constantly hovering above them. Endowed with a very acute sense of
smell, the seals at times escape the vigilance of their enemies, the fish-

of the young, which, inexperi-

ermen, with the exception, however

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 93

enced as they are, follow the fishing-boats for long distances, and seem to
take special pleasure in hearing the fishermen whistle or sing. It is an
interesting spectacle to see the young seals lying on their back, sleep-
ing peaceably while being rocked by the waves, and throwing up from
time to time small jets of water by breathing.

The seals love the cold; and, in the summer, they seek the deep sea,
leaving it in the autumn for their favorite place of abode, the north-
eastern basin of the Caspian Sea, which is the portion first covered with
ice, and where the ice breaks up latest. Numerous herds of seals gather
on pieces of floating ice, to rest or to pair. The pairing-season lasts
from the end of December till January 10. The female every year gives
birth to one young one, seldom to two. The young have a shining
white, silky fur ; but after ten days it becomes coarse and turns gray.
Then the tender solicitude of the mother ceases ; for the little one has
to go into the water and swim. Seals that are one year old have gray
fur speckled with black spots.

The seal is hunted also on the western coast of the Caspian Sea, at
the mouths of the Volga and the Ural, and in its southern part, espe-
cially on the islands of the Gulf of Apchdron.

The principal meeting-places of seal-hunters are on the seven islands sit-
uated north of the Peninsula of Mangyshlak, called the " Seals' Islands,"
on account of the large number of these animals found there. Other
islands also abound in phocse. Thus there have been years when about
40,000 seals were killed on the island of Peshnoi, before the mouths of
the Ural ; and, in 1846, 1,300 were killed in one night.

The seals are hunted in three different ways : they are killed with
clubs on the islands where they gather ; or they are shot with guns ; or
they are caught iu nets.

The first-mentioned way is the graudest, and yields the best results.

The great meeting-place of the huntsmen is Koulali, the largest of
the seal islands, having a length of thirty-five "versts," (about twenty
miles,) and a breadth of three "versts," (about one and two-thirds miles.)
The hunters, who winter there every year, have built wooden houses,
huts, and sheds on this island. The fishing-authorities at Astrachan
send every year one of their officers to Koulali to superintend the chase
and the hunters, where he remains from October till the middle of May.
On account of the bustle and noise, the seals have deserted this island
for a number of years, and selected, for their place of gathering, the
islands of Sviato'i and Podgorno'i.

In the spring and autumn, the seals seek the shore to rest in the sun,
one herd arriving after the other. Scarcely has the first settled, when
a second comes yelling and showing their teeth to drive it away, followed
soon by a third, to which it in turn has to yield its place ; so that the
last herd arriving always drives the first farther back on the coast. The
invasion terminates by the arrival of some isolated stragglers.

Now is the time for the hunters to commence the chase. They care-

94 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

fully observe in what place, and, approximately, in what numbers, the
seals have gathered ; aud then elect as their chief the most experien-
ced and skillful among them. They approach the rookery in boats,
either at dusk or during the night, always goiug against the wind, to
conceal their approach.

After their arrival on shore, the hunters disembark noiselessly, form
a Hue in order to cut off the retreat of the seals, and thus, creeping,
advance quite near to the herd, which is sleeping and suspects no danger.
On a signal from the chief, the hunters all rise at once and pitilessly
attack their unfortunate victims, killing them by a single blow on the
snout with the club. The bodies are piled up by means of gaffs, and
after a few minutes form a rampart, depriving the survivors of every
chance of regaining the sea. The seals howl, groan, bite, and defend
themselves; but the hunters, eager for gain, go on killing them without
mercy, and soon the whole herd is massacred. It is no infrequent
occurrence to see 15,000 dead seals cover the battle-field of a single
night.

After the killing, the dressing of the seals commences, usually about
daybreak.

The head is cut off, the belly is opened, and the skin is taken off with
the thick layer of fat adhering to it. These skins are piled up on the
boats, which take them to large sailing-vessels, anchored some "versts"
from the shore, on which they are heaped up, each layer being covered
with salt. These vessels sail with their cargo to Astrachan, while the
hunters return to the coast to carefully clean the battle-field. They
bury the bodies and entrails, at some distance, deep in the ground, or
throw them into the sea, far from the shore, and carefully obliterate
every trace of blood, so that, when another herd of seals arrives, these
animals do not see any marks of the slaughter which has taken place;
for experience has shown that they never select for their rookery a
place from which every trace of the slaughter has not been carefully
removed.

Two hundred seal-hunters, employed by wealthy merchants or fish-
ermen, usually winter on the island of Koulali. Numerous boats, be-
sides, go there every year to participate in the chase. The masters of
these boats secure permits from the fishing-authorities and give them
to their workmen, who receive their wages in money. The pilot gener-
ally gets from 175 to 300 " roubles," ($122.50 to $210 gold,) and the
workmen from 85 to 125 " roubles," ($59.50 to $87.50 gold.) They are fed
at the expense of the master.

Another way of hunting the seals is to take them with nets. Im-
mense nets are stretched out, into which the hunters endeavor to
chase them by yelling and making a noise. This way of hunting is
chiefly employed in the maritime district of the Ural Cossacks and in
the Gulf of Sineye Mortso, from October till the sea is covered with ice.

FISHERIES AND SEAL-HUNTING. 95

The nets, called "okkani," are 6 "sageues" (42 feet) deep, and have
meshes of 7£ inches.

The following is the manner of proceeding: Forty boats join together
and elect a chief and an assistant chief. Then the boats sail out to sea
with a fair wind, or use their oars, going in a line, thus forming a sort
of chain. In every boat, there are three nets. The chief, followed by
twenty boats, is on the lookout for a herd of seals, which he endeavors
to cut off, while his assistant remains with the other half of the fleet at
some distance from the shore. When the chief thinks that the time for
action has come, he gives the signal by throwing into the sea a bale, to
which a flag is fastened. At this signal, the boats simultaneously cast
their nets, which are all tied together so as to form a wall of meshes, by
which the seals are soon completely surrounded. Then the hunters
begin to yell and to strike the water with their oars, in order to
frighten them. These seek to avoid the danger by plunging, but they
rush against the barrier of nets, and are caught in the meshes, so that
they can be killed without difficulty. This way of hunting is prohibited
in those parts of the sea where it injures the fishing or obstructs the first-
mentioned manner of hunting. The chase on the ice is fraught with
many dangers, and is, therefore, at present prohibited. The hunters,
sitting on little sledges drawn by strong and hardy horses, and provided
with food, continue on for several weeks to shoot old seals, and kill
young ones while they still have their white and silk-like fur. These
hunters brave all dangers; and it has sometimes happened that the
south or southwest wind, having detached large masses of ice from the
shore, has driven them out into the open sea, where they have floated
in all directions, with the adventurous huntsmen on them. These un-
fortunate hunters usually perish from cold and hunger on these masses
of ice, or find their death in the waves.

12. — MANUFACTURE OF SEAL-OIL.

The fat adhering to the skin of the seal is detached from it, cut
into pieces, and melted in caldrons, after which the oil is poured in
barrels. This is the simplest way of making seal-oil, aud the hunters
often employ it. But oil is also manufactured by steam in establish-
ments built for this purpose on the left bank of the Volga, opposite As-
trachan, by some rich merchants. Thirty-five " versts " (about twenty
miles) below Astrachan, the Sapojnikow Brothers have built a steam oil-
factory at the "vataga" (flshiug-establishment) of Ikriannaya. This
factory is particularly busy in the spring, when whole cargoes of seal-
fat arrive, which is either boiled immediately in order to extract the
oil, or is safely stored away in cellars. These cellars are long, floored,
and furnished with four ventilators and several windows. Large oak-
wood tubs, plated with lead on the inside, and capable of holding 700
" pouds " (25,200 pounds) of oil each, are placed at intervals in holes
dug in the ground. The oil which runs out from the seal-fat piled up
in layers flows into these tubs by way of an inclined plane. The oil is

96 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

then poured into barrels. In order that the skins, from which the fat
has not yet been removed, may not spoil, they are salted again, just as
it had been done on board the vessels ; 150 " pouds " (5,490 pounds) of
salt being generally used for salting a thousand skins, and only 70
" pouds " (2,520 pounds) per thousand for the final salting, before the
skins are stored in the cellars. Kalmyks are employed ckieily to detach
the fat from the skins. They spread the skin, with the fur down, on an
inclined plank, which they lean against their breast, in order to have
the free use of both their hands. Then, armed with a two-handled
knife, they scrape the fat from the skin. The oil, which is pure and
clear, running down during this operation, flows into a reservoir let into
the ground, holding 400 " pouds," (14,400 pounds,) and forming a cube,
each side of which measures one " sagene," (7 feet.) This work is
extremely fatiguing. A strong and experienced Kalmyk can, how-
ever, clean 500 or even 700 skins in a single day. The workmen form
associations, sharing their labor and their gain.

The fat is then melted in large tubs, where it is exposed to the action
of steam. The oil flows through a funnel-shaped apparatus, and, finally,
through pipes into immense oak-wood reservoirs. There are three such
reservoirs connected by pipes, and let into the ground, so that the oil
from the first flows into the second, and then into the third, from whence,
through cocks, it passes into casks, which can be shipped as soon as
filled. Each one of these reservoirs has a diameter of 3 " sagenes," (21
feet,) a depth of 1 "sagene," (7 feet,) and can hold 4,S00 "pouds"
(172,000 pounds) of oil.

The oil thus extracted forms the first quality. The second quality is
obtained by melting the residue in caldrons, and by pressing it. The
color of this oil is dark-brown. Before the residue is put into the cal-
drons, (capable of holding 200 "pouds" (7,200 pounds) each, it is thrown
into a receptacle with an inclined bottom, and the whole mass is stirred
violently by means of wooden shovels. This is done in the sunlight, so
that the heat may help to melt the mass. This receptacle is joined
to the caldron by a large gutter, which is walled up in the furnace.
Through this gutter, the residue is led into the caldron, there to melt,
which done, the mass is taken out with dippers and cast into a box,
which is then pressed. By means of this last operation, all the remain-
ing oil contaiued in the residue is extracted.

The oil-factory of the Sapojnikow Brothers formerly manufactured
about 100,000 " pouds " (3,000,000 pounds) of seal-oil, which was sent
to Moscow, where it was chiefly used in leather-factories ; but during
the last fifteen years, this establishment has gone down considerably,
and other wealthy Astrachan merchants, among them Messrs. Vlasow,
Smoline, and Orekhow, have established several factories for making
the oil.

The skins of the seals are used for making knapsacks and for cover-
ing valises.

VI.— THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES.*

Bv A. I. Boeck and A. Feddersex.

Mr. A. Boeck, who for several years bad conducted scientific re-
searches for the Norwegian government in regard to the herring-fish-
eries, was invited, on his return from the districts of Nordland and
Troinso, in February, 1872, to deliver some lectures in Bergen on the
spring-herring fisheries. Although the season was far advanced, the
southern herring had not yet made its appearance, and fishermen and
salters were in great doubt as to what they should do. Boeck's lectures
were therefore received with special attention, and as they contain a
great deal of valuable information, we preseut here copious extracts
from them, following the account given in the "Bergcns Adrcsseavis,1'
(Bergen Advertiser,) and " Bergenposten," (Bergen Post,) for February,
referring our readers at the same time to an article by A. Boeck, u Ac-
count of the Herring on the Coast of Noricay and Bohusliin,"\ (a province
of Sweden,) published in the fifth annual volume of our journal, pp. 123,
et. seq. We also refer to A. Boeck's work uOn the Herring and the Her-
ring -Fisheries, I especially on the Norwegian Spring-Herring."

The herring is found, in Europe, from &pitzbergen to the west coast
of France, and is caught in large numbers on the coasts of Scandinavia,
Great Britain, Ireland, Holland, and France. On the other side of the
Atlantic, they are caught from Greenland to the eastern coast of Amer-
ica. In all those places where herring are found in large quantities,
and where people have become rich through these fisheries, the number
caught has, at times, been exceedingly small, and for long periods the
herring have disappeared entirely. This has not only been the case on
the coast of Norwaj7, but also in Bohuslan, (western coast of Sweden,)
Scotland, Ireland, and France, and people have been reduced to want
in consequence of the failure of the fisheries.

In the present century, when science has made such rapid progress,
and has, in manifold ways, become tributary to the comforts of life, and
when many of the greatest inventions of modern times have sprung
from the quiet and unostentatious researches of scientists, it was be-

* DetNorske Sildefiske. Efter Referaterne af Stipendiat A. Boecks Foredrag i Bergen
red A. Feddersen; in Tidsskrift for Fiskeri. Udgivet af H. V. Fiedler og Arthur Fed-
dersen. 7de Aargang. (Kjobenkavn. Jacob Erslers Boghandel. 1872.) pp. 1-40.
Translated from the Danish by O. Jacobson.

t Beretning ora Sildefisket ved den norske ogbohuslensko Kyst.

{ Oui Silden og Sildefiskerierne, navnlig om dot norsko Voarsildlisko.
7 F

98 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

lieved that important results in regard to the herring-fisheries might
also be secured by scientific investigation, and many problems be solved
which had hitherto been doubtful. It was questionable, however, how
far practical results could be hoped for, and how far the causes of the her-
ring's disappearance could be ascertained and means be found to prevent
it. Yarrell, the English scientist, lately deceased, said that the herring
was a whimsical fish, which had no definite place in wbbh it could be ex-
pected with certainty. The famous Danish ichthyologist Kroyer, who had
for some time made scientific researches iu this direction, in his great
work, "The Fish of Denmark ,"* makes use of these words : " How desir-
able it is to gain more insight into the natural history of fish is strik-
ingly illustrated by the herring, as many points iu its mode of living are
still unexplained, and many fabulous accounts are transmitted from one
generatiou to another." The zoologist Yan der Hoeven also dissuaded
Boeck from occupying himself with these studies, as they would be pro-
ductive neither of profit nor of honor.

Several scientists have, however, opened the way for such researches.
The French zoologists, Audouiu and Milne-Edwards, traveled for sev-
eral years on the coasts of France for the purpose of examiuing the
fisheries scientifically ; the only result of their researches, however,
being a volume published iu 1830 and containing chiefly statistics. The
investigations made in Bohusliin, (western coast of Sweden,) by Profes-
sor Nilsson, of the University of Lund, are of greater value. The her-
ring had disappeared from that coast iu 1S08, after having been exceed-
ingly plentiful for more than fifty years. Large sums of money had
been employed iu establishing salting-houses and oil-refineries, and the
government had specially favored emigration to the coast of Bohusliin,
Avhere the herring-fisheries for a long time formed a fruitful source of
income. No herring were found near the coast; the merchants were
idle; and fishermen and salters led a miserable life. Still, people hoped
year after year for the return of the herring, and rumors were current
that enormous quantities of fish were immediately outside the coast in
the so called " Stor rende," (Great Channel.) The government assisted
the fishermen, and 50,000 rigsdalers (about $25,000 gold) were spent iu
attempts to secure fish from this locality, (the " Stor rende.") Although
all these efforts failed, it was still hoped that the herring would return,
as scientists had expressed the opiuion that only unfavorable circum-
stances prevented their approach. The fish, however, did not return,
and the former extensive fisheries were almost entirely abandoned.
The local press zealously advocated new investigations, and Professor
Nilsson began iu Lund, in 1825, a series of researches. It is to be re-
gretted that Nilsson could not begin this labor until eighteen years after
the disappearance of the herring, and that he entered upon these inves-
tigations with his opinions firmly fixed. He, therefore, met with much
opposition. He renewed his investigations during the years 182S-32,

* Daninarks Fiske.

THE NORAVEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 99

and visited the Norwegian herring-fisheries, in order to compare them
with the Swedish. He endeavors to prove, in his reports, that the her-
ring does not come from the Polar Sea to the coasts of different coun-
tries, but, as the well-known zoologist Bloch has remarked, has its per-
manent place of abode near those coasts where it comes to spawn. He,
therefore, thought that the Botmsliin herring never left the Skagerak,
and bad nothing to do with the Norwegian spring-herring, which was a
totally different variety, and that the Bohuslan herring had, therefore,
not emigrated to Norway. On the other band, he at first thought,
although he was not quite certain about it, that it had been completely
exhausted by the fisheries. At a later date, he abandoned this opinion
and supposed that the herring had only been driven away from the
coast by the noise of singing and dancing in the fishing-huts, and
remained at the bottom of the ocean ; and, finally, he came to the con-
clusion that it was killed by the impurities of fish-oil which were thrown
into the sea. He was also of the opinion that the herring would return,
if the seines, by which all the young were caught, could be laid aside.
As his opinions did not meet with general favor, a committee was
appointed, consisting of Ccunt Bosen, Professor Nilssou, and others,
which traveled along the whole coast of Bohuslan from Gottenburg to
Stromstad, nnd made numerous inquiries among the fishermen of the dif-
ferent districts. Nilsson's reports, as well as the report of the commit-
tee, and two memorials regarding the same matter by Professors Sunde-
vall and Loven, who concurred in Nilsson's opinion, were printed and
distributed in large numbers. We shall have occasion, in the course of
this article, to refer to these reports and memorials.

The Dutch government commissioned Lieutenant Kraft to make exten-
sive observations during several years, on the temperature during the
season of the herring-fisheries, by means of which it was ascertained at
what degree of warmth the greatest quantity of fish was caught. He
then prepared a map showing where, at different times, the largest
quantity and the best quality of herring were caught. This map was
exhibited at the fishing-exposition held in Bergen in 18G5.

Observations have been made in England for some time by zoologists
and scientists, mostly for the purpose of ascertaining whether the sup-
position that the fishing-implements had anything to do in driving away
the herring was correct or not, and they finally arrived at the conclusion
that the great number of old laws which embarrassed the herring-fish-
eries ought to be rescinded.

In Denmark, Professor Kroyer has made a number of observations,
only some of which, however, have been published in his work "Msh of
Denmark."

Professor Miinter, at Greifswalde, (province of Pomerania, Prussia,}
has also made observations concerning the various species of Pomeraniau
herring, their food, and the temperature most favorable for spawning.

These are the most important practical and scientific investigation?

100 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

of the herring-fisheries which had been made up to the yearlSGO, when
the Storting-, (the Norwegian parliament,) appropriated a sum for similar
investigations on the coasts of Norway. Besides these, two investiga-
tions of the fisheries have been commenced on a large scale, the one by
the imperial German government under the direction of Professor
Mobius, for which a very considerable sum has been appropriated, and
the other by the Government of the United States under the direction
of Prof. Spencer P. Baird, LL.D., who, with several younger scientists,
is to examine the fisheries along the entire coast of the United States,
for which purpose some Government steamers have been placed at his
disposal.

"When Mr. Boeck was commissioned to examine the Norwegian herring-
fisheries, he could, at first, only follow the same plan in his investiga-
tions as other scientists before him had done; but he soon found that
these investigations ought to be made on a very different scale, and in
other directions, because he discovered that there were other natural
phenomena which might influence the migrations of the herring. After
having made himself acquainted with these natural phenomena, his atten-
tion was naturally led to circumstances which had hitherto not been
considered of any importance. The essential point in all such investi-
gations is to gather as much material as possible in the shape of indis-
putable facts. As these facts could not properly be gathered in a hurried
manner, and as it was desirable at the same time to secure some result as
soon as possible, Boeck proposed to adopt a provisional theory adapted
to such facts as could be ascertained. He saw that two plans might be
followed : one was to examine the migrations of fish in relation to
meteorological changes, by exact historical data regarding the older
fisheries from 1807 to 1852, when the government inspection commenced
its reports; the other, to gather facts from old and experienced fisher-
men. Although the latter plan might seem to be of doubtful value, he
soon found that such experience was by no means to be despised. Fish-
ermen are more observant than many suppose. They think, see, and
hear a great deal, and although their opinions are sometimes very fan-
ciful, the true can readily be distinguished from the false, and so be
made useful. Both plans, however, require to be corrected by scientific
investigation. Boeck has adopted the following mode of procedure,
endeavoring to accomplish his purpose both by observations and by
historical researches :

1. To' make observations during the fishing-season on the currents
and the temperature of the sea, the nature and form of the bottom, the
migrations of the schools of herring, and the influence of these circum-
stances on the time of their approaching the spawning-places.

2. To collect the most accurate information possible on the migration
of the herring, and on the meteorological changes which seem to have
influenced it from its beginning, in 1807, until the government inspec-
tion commenced.

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 101

3. To endeavor to find out, by historical data, the migration of the
herring -fisheries at large ; how the mass of herring at one time ap-
proached one part of the coast of Norway, and then another ; or how
disappeared entirely ; and then to compare these facts with those gath-
ered from other couutries, and thus to ascertain if there be any connec-
tion between the different herring:fisheries in Norway and other coun-
tries ; and also to compare the fisheries of former times with those of
the present, in order to ascertain if any satisfactory results could be
reached with regard to their future condition.

In accordance with this plan, Boeck has, during his sojourn of five
years at the fishing-stations of Norway, made personal observations, and
has also collected material from archives and libraries. He was greatly
assisted in his observations by two citizens of Bergen, the consul Carl
Kouow, and the banker N. Nicolaysen, who permitted him to use two
collections of carefully kept diaries regarding the herring-fisheries from
the year 1835, which facts he partly supplemented by notes from Ben
bergenslce MerJeur, (the Bergen Mercury,) and from Stiftstidenden, (the
County Journal.) He finally obtained, through the firms of Kjellaud &
Son and Ploug & Suudt, in Stavanger, a series of observations made on
the fisheries previous to the year 1835, which he likewise supplemented
by a large amount of written and oral information derived from persons
iu Stavanger, Skudesnres, Kopervik, and Haugesund. From all this
material there may be compiled a more or less complete account of the
fisheries from 1808 down to 1852.

Boeck has draughted, on a large scale, a map of the southern coast
of Norway, from Sognefjord to Gottenburg, and the northern part of
Jutland. The depth of the sea along the coast is marked by lines in
accordance with the information which he had received. Another map,
on a much larger scale, embraces the coast from Espevser to Tuugenoes.
On this there are marked the channels and depths, together with sev-
eral fishing-banks, to within a mile of the outer coast, which are not
usually indicated on the coast maps, and which were carefully pointed
out to Boeck by an old fisherman, Henrik Roevar, as well as by other
fishermen from Syre and Utsire. The localities indicated on the map
last mentioned are the ones to which he devoted special attention. He
has chosen this locality, partly because at that time the fisheries were
particularly productive in those places, the northern fishery having
ouly just then begun to be of any importance, and the Sondmor fishery
being still in its infancy; and partly, because it has always been one of
the chief places for catching spring herring. He has also contiuued his
observations there in order to make them the more satisfactory.

When Boeck first went to the fishing-grounds, he determined to follow
the advice of the government inspector, which was to go out with the
fishing-boats, and also to frequently visit the stations for salting. A
fisherman, whose advice he followed, often spoke of putting the nets in
the channels, and he found on inquiry, and by observations with the

102 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

sounding line, that these channels are valleys at the bottom of the sea,
running toward the coast in different directions. Having continued
these observations for some time, he was able to corroborate the fisher-
man's statement that at different times the herring follow certain chan-
nels when they approach the coast for the purpose of spawning. It
would require too much time to describe the location of these channels
in detail, and we hope that Boeck will, at some future day, publish
these maps. In one of his lectures he mentioned a circumstance which
fortunately was among the first to come under his observation, and
which showed conclusively that, during the spawning time, the herring
follow these channels; and this he found to be the case invariably. He
had made a great inany soundings in the channel, extending between
Eoser and Feed and stretching toward Hauskeskcer, and had placed a
chain of nets across it. A large number of fish were caught all along
this chain, while another chain, the greater part of whose nets stood on
the rocks, with only one end reaching the channel, only caught fish in
that portion which touched the channel. He also found it of the
utmost importance, for the success of the herring-fisheries, to ascertain
which channel the great school of herring follows when it comes in to
spawn ; for several times he was able to designate with certainty the
place where the fish would be on the following day, by knowing where
large numbers were caught the preceding day. This, however, he could
only do when storm or cold did not interfere with his calculations. He
also convinced himself that if several nets are set in such a channel
they do not interfere with each other, but that the herring push forward
along the channel over and into the nets.

Boeck finally drew attention to the so-called " flak," i. e., large level
places at the bottom of the sea covered with rough gravel, which iu
calm weather are the herring's favorite spawning places. He raised
with the dredge large lumps of roe and gravel intermixed. In these
places the largest number of herring is invariably caught.

The influence of wind on the fisheries was observed long ago, and the
Swedish zoologist Ekstrom, and after him Nilsson, attach some im-
portance to it; but iu estimating the information obtained from fisher-
men, they are not sure which wind is favorable for fishing, the one blow-
ing from the coast or the one blowing toward it. The Dutch zoologists
have not been able to discover that the direction of the wind has any
special influence on the fisheries, except that a violent gale precludes
all possibility of fishing. On the coast of Norway opinions are likewise
very much divided on this point, some maintaining one thing, others
another. By examining, however, all the annual observations made by
the government inspector and by himself, Boeck found, that when the
herring is out in the open sea a wind blowing toward the coast favors
its approach, while when the herring are near to the coast its formation
has to be taken into consideration. If, e. #., the herring occupy an area
like the one opposite the southern part of Karmo, between Syre and

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 103

Skude, and strong southwesterly gales rage for any length of time, they
are prevented from reaching their usual spawning places, and remain a
long time outside the channel for some more favorable opportunity. If,
however, the storm continues, the herring generally pass into that part
of the channel which, stretching by Skude, runs on into the sound of
Karm. Fishing may then be carried on up to Salkus and to the end of
the Forresfjord. Of this there are many instances as far back as 1815.
From the accounts of the government inspector, it will be seen that
this was the case in 1857, and most of us will recollect the great fish-
eries of 1803. A southeasterly wind on this coast will have the same
effect, but to a less degree. If the herring keep more toward the south
near the Hvidiug Islands and Roth, both strong southwest and north-
west winds will prevent their approach to these islands. In that case
the whole school passes by Tunge, and there may be good fishing
directly up to Stavanger, as was the case in 1825. Similar facts will
become apparent if we advance farther north and inquire into the like
circumstances.

If the coast is exposed to strong winds blowing toward it, the herring
do not approach it, and the fisheries, if they have commenced, are inter-
rupted. Thus, rich fisheries far in the Bommelfjord beyond Tittelsnres,
and even far beyond Nyleden, will be a consequence of continual storms,
when the herring have been previously outside of Sletten or south of
Espevser. Of this there are many instances. Hence it will be seen
that the point on which the question turns, is not whether the winds
blow toward or from the coast, but what kind of wind prevails at the
respective fishing-places, since a wind blowing toicard the coast may in
one place have the same effect as a wind blowing from the coast in
another.

The temperature of the air also exercises great influence on tbe fish-
eries ; and this influence has never been underrated, but has always
been taken into accouut, although certain phenomena observed in the
fisheries can not yet sufficiently be explained by it. Boeck drew atten-
tion to the influence of temperature in his first report of 18G1. It has
been observed from time immemorial, that the fisheries are not as
abundant in cold weather as when the bottom of the sea is disturbed by
southerly winds. This has been proved by the experience of several
centuries, but only recently have attempts been made to investigate
this whole matter thoroughly and scientifically. Even Cuvier and Val-
enciennes in their great work on fish, in which the herring is discussed
at much length, do not enter upon this question. Dutch scientists were
the first to devote more attention to temperature, by making a series
of observations, with the view of ascertaining during what degrees of
temperature the herring-fishery is most prosperous. They found that
more fish were caught at a temperature of from 12° to 14° Celsius, than
at any other time. The Dutch herring-boats are therefore always sup-
plied with a thermometer, which enables them to place the net at a

104 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHEPJES. .

proper depth. Professor Miiuter discovered also that the higher the
temperature of the water the deeper the herringkeep during the spawning-
time, for which reason the nets on the coasts of Pouierania are set deeper
in summer than in spring. Dming his stay on the west coast of Norway,
Boeck constantly noticed the temperature, and noted down a large number
of observations during different years. In his report for 1SG2 he showed
the influence of cold on the herring-fishery. In that year he examined
the temperature at different depths. The weather had been calm, but
a severe coid had prevailed for some time, by which the temperature of
the sea at a depth of 10 fathoms had been brought as low as li° or 2°
Reaumur, while at a depth of 30 fathoms it was from 3° to 4°. He no-
ticed that same year, while present at the rich herring-fisheries near
Rovser and Skaareholmene, that some fishing-implements, which were
placed at a depth of about 10 fathoms below the surface, and were held
there by means of buoys, caught but few fish ; while others, placed at
the bottom in a depth of from 50 to GO fathoms, caught a very large
number. Seine-fishing was also very unproductive during that year,
although the schools of herring came in in enormous numbers. The
same was the case in 18G4, and similar observations might be quoted
indefinitely. If we examine these accounts we find frequent references
to the fact that the cold prevented the herring from approaching. Thus
it was extraordinarily cold in 1855, lilfe wise iu 1800; and in 1853 the
eold was so severe that the bays and inlets on the outer coast were
frozen over, which happens but very rarely, and presupposes a long pe-
riod of very low temperature. The cold was so severe that the fisher-
men were obliged, after emptying their nets, to lay them in the water
to prevent their freezing quite stiff, and iu order that they might have
thern ready for use again in the evening. The herring -fishery was, not-
withstanding this, successful, although the herring for quite a longtime
remained out in the deep sea and would not approach the coast. A
great many instances might also be quoted from observations made in
former years and collected by Boeck. It will suffice to mention a few
years, such as 1825, 1826, 1828, 1829, 1836, 1840, 1841, and 1844. In sev-
eral of these vears the cold was so severe that nearlv all the bavs were
covered with ice, and iu some years even the Bay of Bergen was so
much obstructed that all communication was interrupted. Still the
fisheries were good, and iu some years even unusually so, although the
sea had grown cool at a far greater depth and to a greater degree than
during the preceding year ; for then the cold was not particularly se-
vere, and the temperature, according to the observation of the govern-
ment inspector, was 1° at a depth of 10 fathoms. Boeck thinks, there-
fore, that the failure of the fisheries the year before cannot at all be
ascribed to the cold. He found that in calm weather the herring seldom
approaches the coast except iu small numbers when chased by the had-
dock, while the chief fishery always commences when a southwesterly or
northwesterly wind has stirred up the sea and mingled the lower and

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 105

warmer water with the upper and colder. Of this, Boeck gives many
examples, partly from his own observations and partly from those of
the government inspector. It is important to keep this in mind when-
ever the influence of the cold is spoken of.

From all this it will be seen that neither the character of tbe bottom
of the sea, nor the direction or force of the wind, nor the temperature of
the air and sea by themselves, exercise an influence on the fisheries suffi-
ciently great to cause their cessation," but that these various influences
only modify the time and place of the fisheries. The schools of herring
that come in from the ocean, seek the coast notwithstanding these influ-
ences.

The question, '"' Where does the spring-herring keep itself, when it is
not uear the coast V ' has been discussed from the earliest times. Shortly
before the fisheries commence, the herring may be seen approaching the
coast, followed by whales, and the sea then frequently appears quite
green from the large masses of fish seen near the surface. After the
herring has spawned and gone out into the sea, it disappears. In very
early times it was supposed that the Polar Sea was the true home of the
herring. The Dutch fishermen on the Shetland Islands noticed that it
came from the north. It also approached the coasts of Scotland from
the north. The Irish saw the herring pass their coasts from north to
south, and the same was observed on the coasts of Norway. It is there-
fore not at all astonishing that its home was supposed to be in the north,
and that the Polar Sea, which, according to the strange fancies of those
times, hid so many wonders, was the place from which the herring emi-
grated every year. The English writer, Dodd, in a book entitled "Atlas
Maritimus et Commercialism* published in 1728, started the theory that
the herring emigrates from the Polar Sea. But this theory is brought
out in a clearer and more attractive manner in a work by Johann Ander-
son, burgomaster of Hamburg, and well known for his learning, entitled
*' .Wachrichten von Island, Grbnlandf1 &c, Hamburg, 174G, {Account of Ice-
land, Greenland, <£c.,) which appeared in a Danish translation in the jear
1781. He first remarks that several well-known persons had seen her-
ring and the bones of herring lying on the rocks of the coast of Green-
land. He then shows that the whale, the seal, and the porpoise, whose
favorite food is the herring, have their home in those Arctic seas, and
that, therefore, the herring must be found there. Far up toward the
North Pole, under the broad, icy plain, which never melts, the herring
was supposed to live quietly, because neither whales, sharks, nor men
could pursue it there ; there it also spawned and increased in such num-
bers that the Polar Sea became too narrow for them, and thence colonies,
compelled by actual necessity, emigrated toward the south, just as bees
swarm in summer. When such a school of herring issues forth from its
icy home, it is immediately attacked by its enemies, who pursue it dur-

* See, also, Dodd (J. S.) Essay towards a Natural History of the Herring. Loudon*
1752.— Ed.

10G REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISII AND FISHERIES.

iug its passage to the south, and finally drive it into the bays and inlets
where it is caught. During its passage southward, it dispatches two
flank divisions, the right flank toward the coast of Iceland, of whose
fate Anderson does not speak in his book, while he does state that the
great mass of the herring, when near the coast of Norway, divides into
two columns, one of which goes toward the coasts of Scotland and En-
gland, where it is for the greater part captured by the fishermen of those
countries ; while some are driven partly along the eastern coast of En-
gland, and partly along the coast of Ireland, till they finally meet in the
English Channel, where they are caught by the French fishermen. That
school, which, it was conjectured, passed toward Norway, continued its
journey along the coast of that country. Some pass through the sound
and belts into the Baltic, where the Swedes and Prussians are ready
to receive them ; another portion of the school follows the coasts of Den-
mark, Germauj', and Holland, while the remainder reach the Atlantic,
where they disappear.

This theory became so popular that it has been handed down from
one writer to another, even to our time, and has intrenched itself even
in text-books on natural history. It met, however, with some opposi-
tion, and Bloch, who published in 1782 his book entitled -; Ockonomische
NaturgescMchte der Fische Deutschlands," {Economical Natural History
of the Fish of Germany,) a work very remarkable for its time, raises
many weighty objections to it. He first showed that the herring is not
so common in the northern countries as was generally supposed, and
that it was impossible for it to travel so many thousands of mdes in
the short period between spring and autumn. Besides, the herring is
found at all times of the year in the Baltic and on the coasts of Nor-
way, and the Dutch continue their herring-fisheries even throughout
the entire winter until spring. It would also be very remarkable if just
the smallest herring should make the longest journey far down to the
Baltic. But as Bloclfs books were not popular, being only intended
for scientists, his opinions did not become widely known. An Amer-
ican by the name of. Gilpin,* went even beyond Anderson in promul-
gating another fanciful migration theory. He showed that 'herring
were also caught in America, and that here it first approached the
coast of Florida, and then, passing along Virginia, went as far as New-
foundland, moving, therefore, from south to north, and thus differing
from its direction in Europe. The American herring must, therefore,
come from schools out of the English Channel ; and his theory was that
the herring, in the course of a year, described in his migration an ellipse
of not less than forty-seven degrees of latitude, crossing the Atlantic
twice a year, the first time to escape the strong heat in the south, and

* Gilpin, John, " Oil the Annual Passage of Herrings," Transactions Amer. Phil. Soc.,
II, (1786,) p. 236-239.

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 107

the second time the severe cold in the north.* Kroyer thinks that if there
wereauy probability in this theory, the herring might justly be compared
to the Wandering Jew, who travels unceasingly without finding rest.
This theory, however, has not found many advocates outside of Amer-
ica,t aud is of no value since it has been proved that the American her-
ring is a species different from ours.

Anderson's theory was violently attacked by Nilsson in 182G and 1828,
who, like Block, proved that the herring could not possible live deep
under the ice in the Polar Sea, and much less spawn, as the roe
would there miss the most essential conditions for its development, viz,
light aud warmth. Although the herring was seen to come from the
north, it need not necessarily come from the Polar Sea, as it could not
possibly travel the long distance of more than a thousand miles, as An-
derson maintained that it did. He showed, besides, that on the coasts
of Sweden there was found a great number of varieties, which never
leave that part of the sea where they are born, (such as the " Striim-
miug," which is found in the Gulf of Bothnia,) while farther toward the
south other varieties of the herring are found, those from the western
coast being easily distinguished from those of the southern. On the
coast of Norway, also, different species of herring are found, which
again differ from the Scotch and Dutch herring. Nilsson, therefore,
thought it beyond a doubt that the herring does not come from one
great common tribe, but that every race has its home outside that
coast where it goes to spawn; and that it has its regular dwelling-place
in the open sea near such coast. He thus thinks that the Gottenburg
herring, which came into the inlets of Bohuslau in such extraordinary
large numbers prior to the year 1808, aud of which, e. g., in the year 1870,
more than one and a half million tons were caught, (which, by the way,
was only a very insignificant portion of the whole mass of herring which
had gathered there,) has its permanent home in the Skagcrak, which is
neither very deep nor of very great extent. Ouvier and Valenciennes,
also, showed that on the northern coast of France, aud not far apart,
there were two such tribes of herring, each of which had its separate
home in certain basins of the open sea, and that these tribes never in-
termingled. Hunter is also able to show that there is on the coast of
Pomerania one tribe of herring which spawns in the autumn, and an-
other which spawns in the spring, differing greatly from each other,
although the basins of the sea near the coast where they live are
scarcely more than a mile apart. Another proof of the theory that
every race of herring has its special dwelling-place in the sea, which
it does not leave, except when it approaches the coast for the purpose

* This " theory " was the result of a confusion of two very different fishes under the
same name — Culjpca harengus and Pomolohus pscudoharengus — one of which is the true
sea-herring, and the other an anadromous species whose ascent of the rivers coincides
with the advancing temperature of the new year, and therefore with the latitude —
S. F. B.

t The only avowed advocate of the "theory" in America was the originator. — Ed.

108 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

of spawning, is the fact that the kerriug is not able to swim very far,
since neither the structure of its muscles nor fins is adapted for this
purpose. Immediately outside the coast there are small banks on which
the fishermen catch cod and other fish, and from these banks the bot-
tom often shelves off with great abruptness to a depth of sea which in
some places reaches from four to five hundred fathoms, and which, in
the shape of a deep channel, varying in breadth from fifteen to twenty
miles, stretches from Soguefjord in a southerly direction along the coast
of Norway, making a sharp turn at Lindesnaes, and extending from that
point to the mouth of the bay of Ohristiauia. In some places its depth
is from four to five hundred fathoms, and deep channels branch of from
it toward the mouths of the great bays and inlets on the coast of Nor-
way. In the Skagerak this deep channel is much narrower, and reaches
its greatest depth in the neighborhood of Arendal, while higher banks
stretch along as far as the northern point of Jutland. It is found near
Fedge that, at a distance of twenty miles from land, the bottom of the
sea rises up to 70 fathoms, and immediately afterward to between GO
and 50, and all sailors know well how the North Sea rises toward the
coasts of England.

North of a line drawn from the mouth of the Sagnefjord to the Shet-
land Islands, the deep sea extends from the coasts of Norway as far as
Iceland and Greenland, and only north of Stat are banks again found
outside the coast. It will thus be seen that the herring may very well
live in that great and deep sea when they do not linger near the coast.
That they live there, may also be argued from the fact that Nilson has
found large quantities of herring in the stomachs of haddock caught out
in the deep sea. Boeck has likewise found proofs that the herring
lives in very deep water, when not near the coast. He has repeatedly
examined the stomachs of herring, and, though he fouud but few
remains of food, there were, among these, fragments of crustaceous ani-
mals living in the great deep. By means of the dredge he has caught
the animals at various depths, from the surface to a point three hundred
fathoms below it, and has specially examined those species which serve as
food for fish. Through investigations continued during several years,
he fouud that certain species of crustaceous animals (copcpods) always
keep at a certain depth, and iu such a manner that those living near
the surface are never found at a depth of fifty or sixty fathoms ; and
that those which live in the deep are never found near the surface. The
euchseta kind forms the favorite food of the spring herring, when it is
not near the coast of Norway ; and this is never found at a depth of
less than two or three hundred fathoms. The herring must, therefore,
in Boeck's opinion, live at that depth, which is not very far from the
coast. He was several times informed by fishermen, especially in 1801,
18G1, and 1SGG, that they, when at a distance from the coast, varying
between Hyg and twenty English miles, and in different places, such as
to the northwest of Utsire and Sartoro, had sailed through great masses

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 109

of herring, which, as they thought, had risen from the bottom of tbe
sea in order to move toward the coast. Some fishermen also showed
him herring which had been cast on deck by the waves. Boeck is dis-
posed to concur in Nilson's opinion that the herring never makes long
journeys, but that that school, which, during the time of the southern
herring-fishery seeks the coast of Norway, keeps out in the deep near
that coast. Cuvierand Valenciennes are of the same opinion, for they
have, as already mentioned, proved that on the northern coast of France,
two species of herring are found not very far aparr, which are easily
distinguished from each other in the Paris fish-market. These herring
are brought to Paris from two villages on the coast adjacent to each
other, and they are never mistaken for each other. Their abodes are
two different basins near the coast.

Bceck then proceeds to speak of tbe causes which impel the herring
to approach the shore. It is well known that it comes there to spawn ;
and daring the spring-fisheries the largest number caught are herring
about to spawn. The stomach of the herring is empty during this whole
period, so that it evidently cannot be its intention to seek food at that
time. Its desire to propagate dominates for the time being over all other
desires, and it seeks places against which it can press its abdomen, and
thus make the spawn flow more readily. • It does not at all avoid the
nets, but seems rather to seek them, of which fact interesting proofs may
frequently be seen, such as, that the herring will squeeze itself into the
meshes of the net if they are too small to receive it easily. The entire
herring-fishery of Norway is limited to catching the herring when about
to spawn, which is in marked contrast with the fact that in almost every
other country it is supposed that catching fish during the spawning sea-
son ruins the fishery. In every roe-herring which is caught CS,000 eggs
are preveuted from developing, aud it may easily be imagined that enor-
mous numbers of unborn fish are destroyed by the spriug-fisheries. If
the sea did not contain such incredible numbers of them, one years
fishery would entirely destroy the whole species. The empty herring
never approach the nets, and are caught only occasionally, since they no
longer feel the need of pressing against anything.

In the opinion of several scientists, such as Professors Sundevall and
Loven, every herring is instinctively led to returp to the place where it
was born, although it be only an island of the smallest dimensions ; and
that it seeks another place for spawning only when driven away. This
opinion is chiefly based on observations of the same habitin the salmon,
which always seeks the identical place of its birth.

A writer in the u2Iorgenbladct,v (The Morning Journal,) some years
ago, endeavored to prove that those herring which, six years before,
were born in a certain spot, returned to it, and that the fishery would
always be abundant in the same place after the above-mentioned period,
and cited as evidence some extracts from the government inspectors'
accounts. This proved a very interesting subject for investigation to

110 REPORT CF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Boeck, and be determined to make it very thorough and extend it over
a great many localities. He soon arrived at another result, by using,
first, the accounts of the government inspectors ; and, secondly, the
very minute information regarding the fisheries which he bad collected
prior to 1852. By thus marking all the places where herring-fisheries
had been carried on, and by noting every year where the herring had
approached the coast, he found that there were so many exceptions to
these six-year periods, that in several places their number by far ex-
ceeded the rule ; and the same was the case in any period selected at
random from one to seven years. Boeck can, therefore, see no law of
nature in this, and thinks that the herring does not return to the places
from which it came with the same certainty as the salmon does. The
approach of the herring, in his opinion, depends on the three conditions
mentioued above, viz, the channels, the wind, and the temperature. The
age of the herring when it approaches the coast to spawn for the first
time, belongs to that line of investigations which Boeck has not been
able to complete. Nowhere, as yet, has this been accurately ascertained.
Some have maintained, but without being able to furnish proof, that
the age of the herring, when it spawns for the first time on the
coast, varies between one-half and seven years. Boeck is in doubt,
whether the herring when fully capable of spawning is exactly six years
of age; but he has likewise no means of establishing his own opinion
that it is only between three and four years old. He merely remarks
that too little attention has been given to the fact that the herring when
it spawns has by no means reached its full size, and he has found her-
ring eight inches long which contained roe and milk.

Boeck also spoke of the so-called "signs? which in earlier times were
closely observed, but to which, at present, little importance is attached.
In those early days fishermen thought that all the phenomena which
they observed in the sky and the sea must necessarily have some con-
nection with their most important occupation; and we find that there
were autumn, winter, and spring signs. Some of these signs for the
autumn and winter consisted in the color of the sea, the redness of the
sky, the kind of lower animals with which the sea swarmed, and even
the roaring of the whales, and the rising of the salmon in the mountain-
streams. The well-kuown Norwegian clergyman, Be v. 0. Hertzberg,
has, in the "Budstilcken" (the Messenger) for 1821, written an essay on
this subject, entitled "0» the Spring-herring and the Signs of its Coming."
At present, however, people have lost all trust in most of these signs,
and rely only on appearances furnished by the whale, by certain birds,
and by the codfish, which, in many respects, furnish important tokens
of the herring's approach. When the time of the herring fishery is near,
different kinds of sea-gulls gather in larger numbers than usual ; but it
is not until the herring comes near the shore and near the surface of the
water that these birds can find food among them, and thereby indicate,
with greater accuracy, the locality of the fish. The case is different

THE NOEWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. Ill

with the whale and the codfish, whose element is the sea, and who can
follow the herring far helow the surface. These therefore give more
trustworthy signs of the herring's whereabouts than the birds; but, in
pursuing the schools of herring, there is also a difference between the
whale and the codfish which it may be interesting to notice. The whale
can easily be distinguished, even when far out in the sea, as it is obliged
to come frequently to the surface for the purpose of breathing, while the
codfish always keeps below the surface, and can only be seen when caught.
Both of these, while following the "herring mountain," for the purpose
of obtaining food, may, however, furnish useful signs forjudging of the
probable condition of the herring fishery. The whale invariably keeps
outside the great schools of herring, along the edges, never attempting
to penetrate auy farther. It is, therefore, an auspicious sign for the
fishermen when they see whales in a wide circle, round some well-known
fishing-place. They then know that the herring are approaching the
shore in dense masses, and they may justly expect a rich harvest. In
the year 1862, Boeck saw whales, in a long and imposing line, stretch
from the northwest of Rovrer as far as Utsire, and on the following day
the fisheries commenced near Rovajr and along the entire coast. If,
on the other hand, the whales are seen to spread over a large area, or
in small numbers, it: is safe to predict that the herring will not approach
certain places in large masses, but that they will be scattered, and thus
the schools be smaller. If, after the fishery has been going on for some
time, the whales are seen near the coast in the spawning places, it is
absolutely certain that the herring are leaving the coast, although on
that day fishing may be very good. In the same year,! 1862, remarkable
examples of the truthfulness of these phenomena were witnessed. The
codfish does not exercise the same influence on the masses of herring
that the whale does. Being a very greedy fish of prey, it plunges into
the school of herring, scatters them, if possible, surrounds the fright-
ened fish on all sides, pursues them fiercely, and often drives them to-
ward the shore loug before the chief mass of the school reaches there.
The approach of such smaller scattered schools, before the fisheries
commence, are termed, by the Norwegian fishermen, "sejejag," (codfish-
chase.) When the school approaches the shore, the codfish is found
not only on its edge, but in the middle of it; and if codfish are caught
having herring in their stomachs, it is a sign that the herring fishery is
near at hand. Of the greediuess of the codfish, and its power to scatter
the herring-schools, amusing illustrations may frequently be seen in the
full seines. This sight is, however, more amusing to the spectator than
to the owner of the seine, as it frequently happens that the scared her-
ring press the seine down so heavily as to allow them to escape. Seine-
fishermen are, therefore, afraid of the codfish. If fche schools are already
scattered before coming near the shore, the codfish is found mixed with
the herring during the whole fishing season; and it is not a sign of

112 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

favorable fishing -when, in the beginning of the season, codfish are
caught with the herring.

The herring may also be observed spawning within the nets ; and,
when it is free, it spawns in inlets and on the large flat places at the
bottom of the sea, which are covered with rough gravel, (" flak,") where
the roe sometimes lies in such enormous quantities as to fill the dredge en-
tirely, when cast in such places. This roe does not, however, lie loose,
but is firmly pasted to the bottom by a peculiar glutinous substance
which hardens in the course of half an hour, and which, with the rough
gravel, forms large cakes. It may happen that violent storms disturb
the bottom to such a degree as to tear off the masses of roe, and Boeck
relates a very interesting case of this kind. One year such an enor-
mous mass of herring-roe was driven by storms up the Jteder Bay that
cart-loads of it were taken away to be used as a fertilizer for the fields,
and hogs also fed on it for many days. In these masses of roe the eggs
have a certain invariable position, with an opening in the shell of the
egg, and the so-called " micropyle" turned upward, so that the fructi-
fying male semen can enter easily. The male fish pour their milt (se-
men) over the masses of roe which have been deposited by the females,
and it is therefore evident that in their approach the females precede
the males. In the commencement of the fisheries more females will be
caught, and toward the end more males. This was the case near
Skaareholmene, and may be a fact of practical value. After there had
been very good fishing for some time, one day the greater part of the
herring brought to the salting-houses were found to be male fish. Boeck
was therefore of the opinion that the approach of the herring had
ceased. This was really the case, and it was not at all necessary to
explain this circumstance, as was attempted at the time, by a steamer
having scared away the herring by the noise of its machinery.

Boeck did not undertake to describe minutely the development of the
embryo in all its stages, although it forms a subject for exceedingly in-
teresting investigation, to observe how it is formed from the egg', how
the organs by degrees grow together ; how the heart begins to beat and
the blood to flow. But as all this could not throw any more light on
the main question, viz, " whether the spring fisheries are to disappear
from the southern fishing-places," Boeck passed over it very briefly.
He did say, however, that when the herring emerges from the egg it
differs so much in its shape from the grown herring that it resembles
rather an eel; and even after it is a month old its shape is not at all
like that of the mature herring. In fact, the difference between the
young and the old fish is even much greater than that existing between
different species of herring.

Boeck also referred- to a few species of herriug, concerning which
opinions have been divided, viz, the great herring and the spring her-
ring, lie exhibited a drawing of a great herring from Laugenoes,
and another of a large spring-herring from Brono. With regard to

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES- 113

the shape of the great herring, it will be found that the upper out-
line from the end of the head to the beginning of the back fin ^
curved, while in the spring-herring it is straight. Its greatest height
also is, in proportion to its length, more than that of the spring-herring;
and if two equally large specimens are compared, it will be seen that in
the great herring the back immediately in front of the back finis much
broader than that of the spring-herriDg, and that the outline of the
belly in the latter is less curved. Boeck has not been able, except in
these respects, to discover any difference, although he was told that,
according to popular opinion, there was a great difference between these
two kinds of herring. Several years ago he was offered an opportunity
in Haugesund to examine and compare both kinds with great minute-
ness. A merchant from Nordland brought a quantity of great herring
to Haugesund to be exported. The government officials demanded the
usual spring-herring tax on these fish, which the merchant refused to
pay, as they were not spring-herring, and as he had already paid tax
on them in Nordland. The government officials wished in this case that
Boeck would furnish some sure and easily marked characteristics by
which the great herring could be distinguished from the spring-herring.
He found this at the time to be impracticable, although he examined a
great number of both kinds. But when he heard that several persons
considered themselves capable of determining in what the difference
consisted, he had an interview with them, at which one said that one
important difference was, that the membrane of the belly is white in the
great herring, but black in the spring-herring. This, however, was
found to be Only partially the case in some pressed and salted great
herring, while with all the others not the least difference could be dis-
covered. Another said there was a difference in the scales, but the cause
of this was that the great herring, by a less careful treatment, were de-
prived of its scales, while they were found in the spring-herring. There
was therefore not a single point by means of which these two kinds of
herring could be absolutely distinguished, with the exception of the cir-
cumstances mentioned above, and these were due simply to the superior
fatness of the great herring. Some time after this, however, a charac-
istic was mentioned by which both kinds it was thought could easily be
discriminated. It was affirmed that the great herring was destitute, it
was said, of certain bones in the back, which the spring-herring had.
Boeck, on hearing this, thought it highly improbable, as the structural
forms of the different kinds of herring had been carefully examined, and
the conclusion reached that they are entirely the same in most kinds
inhabiting the northern hemisphere ; while only a few exceptions are
found in those of the southern hemisphere. The "procesus spiwsus
superior" is double in the herring, which is not the case, for example,
with the haddock. On the sides of this bone there are seen „ two fine
bones, and the argument turns on the question whether these are found or
not. If we examine, however, a great herring minutely, these bones

114 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

are found just as in the spring-herring; but they are frequently over-
looked, because the flesh of the great herring is much fatter and looser,
and in cutting through its back the knife will easily pass through these
soft bones; while in the spring-herring, whose flesh is less fat and there-
fore apparently coarser and harder, the knife will not pass through so
readily, but will glide along the bone when it meets it. In carefully
cutting open the flsh, the two bones above mentioned will easily be found
in both kinds.

Of all the assumed distinguishing marks, then, between the great
herring and the spring-herring, only the greater fatness of the former
remains. It might be thought that this fatness is caused by the better
food which the great herring finds at the greater depth of its abode ;
but this cannot be the sole reason. Indeed, there is another and more
important cause of this phenomenon. In seeing the great herring lying
in the boat after it has been caught, one is immediately struck by its
smooth and beautiful appearance ; while the spring-herring, under the
same circumstances, is frequently covered with a filthy slime, a mixture
of roe and milk, and in pressing the belly of a spring-herring a stream
either of roe or milk flows out, which is not at ail the case with the great
herring. In opening both, one finds that in the female spring-herring
the roe-bags are coarse-grained and soft ; while in the female great her-
ring they are fine-grained and hard. It might be supposed that this is
a specific difference between them, which, however, is not the case, since
it is only caused by the roe-bags being more developed in the spring-
herring than in the great herring. In taking the roe-bag of the spring-
herring, especially that of a salted one, as its structure can be more easily
distinguished, one will find, on opening it with a fine pin, that the roe-
bags are not what one would suppose them to be — bags filled with eggs —
but that their structure is more complicated. With the aid of the pin,
one will easily be able to lay open and follow up certain fine vessels in
which the eggs seem to lie, and this is actually the case. The whole roe-
bag consists of an infinite number of fine tubes, which, perhaps, can
best be compared to greatly-elongated fingered gloves lying exceedingly
close to each other and connected by the so-called "binding texure,'
which is sometimes hard and stiff and sometimes soft. Where, to con-
tinue the figure, the fingers of the glove would join that space which is
occupied by the hand, a channel leads the eggs out along the whole
length of the roe-bag, and its continuation is another channel which
opens in front of the dorsal fin. In the finger-shaped channels, the eggs
develop from small cells which gradually grow larger. In the great
herring, the egg-cells are very small, and the egg-tubes are connected
with each other by a thick layer of binding texture filled with fine blood-
vessels. In the spring-herring the egg-cells are more than four times
as large ; the egg-tubes are very thin and fine, and there is scarcely any
binding texture. In breaking the roe-bag of the great herring in the
middle, it seems to consist only of a somewhat brittle-grained mass ;

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 115

while in the spring-herring, it is softer and tougher. There is, therefore,
no other difference between the roe-bags of the great herring and those
of the spring-herriug, than that the roe-bag of the former is less de-
veloped than that of the latter. In the early part of the fisheries, the
roe-bag of the great herring is least developed", while toward the end, cer-
tainly in those caught near Selsovik, it is much more developed and
softer, and we even find herring among them which are ready to spawn.
The first herring is, on the other hand, much fatter than this last from
Selsovik, from which it is evident that the fatness decreases in propor-
tion as the sexual organs develop. When the herring comes in from
the sea in order to spawn, it, like the haddock, takes no food during the
spawning time, and must, therefore, secure the material which is neces-
sary for the development of the roe-bags from its own body ; it there-
fore grows thin in proportion as the sexual organs develop.

Boeck met with a beautiful illustration of this in a great herring from
Skarsfjord, six miles north of Tromso. Among the great herring which
he had occasion to examine there, he saw one that was much fatter than
the other, and which, on account of its size and beauty, he determined
to take home and preserve in alcohol, but he finally opened it to ascer-
tain the cause of its excessive fatness. He found that the herring was
a male, and that the right milt was well developed, while, on the left
side, only small traces of milt were found. He then observed that an
intestinal worm had taken up its abode in the left milt, and had hin-
dered its development. On the same side were found large stripes of
fat twisted around the digestive channels ; and as this herring had thus
not been able to develop its whole milt, it was not obliged to use all
the fat in its body, so that some of it lay on that side where there was
room for it. Hence it is clear that in this respect there is no difference
between the great herring and the spring-herring. He was told by old
seine-fishermen that during the first year of the spring-herring fisheries
this herring did not approach the coast in a condition ready for spawning,
but that it became so only toward the end of the fishery, and that then
the herring was much fatter than it is now. Perhaps there is a similar
change in store for the great-herring fisheries, so that after some years
the great herring will also come near the coast better prepared for spawn-
ing, and will consequently be less fat.

Boeck then gave his opinion on the probable future of the spring-
herring fisheries in the so-called southern fishing-places, where he had
made a number of observations. In what he said he did not wish to
assume the character of a prophet ; he would only give facts, both for
and against, and he would, as he had done before, leave it to each one
of his hearers to draw from these facts the conclusions that seemed to
him most correct. Four years ago, when the fishery was still good, he
had warned people not to put too much faith in its continued success,
and not to expend too large sums in the erection of new salting-houses,
or the extension of old ones. At that time his warnings were received

11G REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

unfavorably, as the practical fishermen entertained different opinions,
and thought that scientific investigations were of no use as regards the
spring-herring fisheries. Many also thought that care should be taken
not to say anything which would alarm people in prosecuting their
labors. Boeck, nevertheless, deemed it his duty, first privately, and
tbeu publicly, in his work " On Hie Herring and the Herring-Fisheries," to
make known the results of his investigations, which he thought were of
great importance to the fishermen. If the spring-herring disappeared,
and his predictions thus became true, he deserved the thanks of all for
having given timely warning of the evil impending ; and if his advice
had been heeded, thousands of dollars might have been saved, which
otherwise must be lost in a trade that was doomed to disappear. People
ought not to rely too confidently on the spring-herring fishery as a con-
stant source of income. In examining the history of the fisheries, it
would be seen that at times they had been very productive, and then,
again, had dwindled down to almost nothing. The fisheries had been
abundant during the reigns of Hakon Adelsten and Olaf Trygvason ;
also, from 1217 to 1340, during which period the spring-herring fishery
was of such importance that the law of Magnus Lagaboter contains sev-
eral paragraphs in reference to them ; then again, from 1559 to 1572 ;
from 1640 to 1688 ; from 1698 to 1784; and finally our period, from 1807
till the present time. It will thus be seen that the herring can disap-
pear, and that the fisheries can decrease. But now comes the important
question, " What can be the cause of this?" Two classes of causes were
assigned. The mass of herring has either decreased by being caught in
too profuse a manner, by being devoured by fish of prey, or by being-
destroyed in some other manner, or else the schools of herring have wan-
dered to other places. Professor Nilsson seemed, in the beginning, favor-
able to the causes first named, but later, he has decided against them,
chiefly on the ground of better information. Government Inspector
Widegren, however, still clings to them. Boeck himself does not believe
that the mass of spring-herring has decreased, but thinks that they no
longer approach the shore.

Wherever the herring-fisheries have disappeared the fishermen have
been left in great want and the merchants have lost an important
source of income. In consequence of the cessation of the fisheries the
country has suffered directly and indirectly, and it is therefore not to
be wondered at that people in ail classes of society have thought over
the matter and have tried to discover the cause of the decay. Many
reasons were assigned, but none seemed to be plausible. What was
given as the cause of the herring's disappearance in one place was
found not to be the cause in another. Laws have thus been based on
very vague suppositions, and large sums have been expended for carry-
ing on the fishery according to new and hitherto unknown methods ;
such as by stationary nets in the deep sea, or by drag-nets, but all in
vain. The promises of learned men proved futile, and hope alone kept

. THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 117

ui) the courage of the fishermen and merchants. In earlier times, wheu
people did not seek the cause of various phenomena in nature, but
judged things by their appearances, it was thought that God had
blighted the herriug-fishery, because men had become ungrateful and
abused his gifts. Sometimes special causes were assigned for the
Divine wrath, and Absalon Pedersen Beyer thought that the herring-
fishery disappeared because Cristopher Walkendorpk had taken tithes
away from the clergy and used them for building purposes. Even in
our own days, (1835,) we see something similar to this, in the fact that
several members of the British Parliament declared in the House of
Commons that the herring had disappeared from a place on the coast
of Ireland because a priest had demanded tithes of his parishioners.
Casper Seatus tells us, that in the year 1830 the herring left Heligoland,
where at that time about two thousand people gained their living from
the fisheries, because some young men, in mere wantonness, had cruelly
abused a herring. In Stavanger, according to the account of Professor
Kroyer, the fishermen, in the year 1830, did not allow a wealthy citizen
to hold a masked ball in his own house, for they thought tbat this would
vex the Deity, and that as a punishment He would cause the herring
to leave the place.

When this superstitious belief yielded to the better suggestions of
the understanding, the decay of the herring-fisheries was sought for
in natural causes. In former times it was believed that noise could
drive the herring away, and, in 1580, to shoot on board ships was pro-
hibited at Bohuslan. This belief was common even in later daj'S. Thus
it was thought that the herring left Bohuslan in 1697 in consequence
of the discharge of the guns during a naval engagement, (in the war
between the Swedes and Danes ;) and the disappearance of the herring
from Dynekilur (a gulf on the coast of Sweden) was generally ascribed to
the guns of Tordcnskjold's (a Danish admiral) fleet. When the herring
returned in 1750 a law of 1756 fixed a penalty of 500 rigsdalers ($250
gold) for discharging a gun from any fortress on the coast, on men-of-
war, and on merchant-vessels during the period when the herring was
approaching; and as late as 1808 the thunder of guns (in the war
between Denmark and England) was considered the cause of the herring's
disappearance. Even now the herring fishermen do not like the noise
of the steamers, and in 1862 they were not permitted to cross the Silde-
fjord near Karmo. In Ramsdalen steamers were not considered so obnox-
ious, and during the great-herring fisheries no instance is on record of
the herring having been driven away by the constant passing and re-
passing of steamers. In Scotland careful observations have shown that
the herring has disappeared from bays which have never been touched
by a steamer, and have remained in some portions of the sea where
steamers pass daily. Professor Nilsson considers all noise detrimental
to the herring-fisheries, and to show how easily the herring can be
frightened, he relates that, in 1756, when the fisheries near Eikfjord

118 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

were very abundant, the herring left when eight men-of-war anchored
there, and this only because the ship-bells were rang every evening, all
shooting having been forbidden. He adds that the cause of the her-
ring's disappearance in 1808 was the constant noise in the salting-houses,
produced by the manufacture of barrels, and by other work, all the harbor
being full of ships and boats waiting for their cargoes of herring, the
whole coast and all the islands swarming with people of every age and
sex, who had gathered there for the sake of earning money. In the
evening there was music and dancing in the fishing-places, and therefore
Nilsson says it was no wonder that the herring left.

In Norway the herring does not seem to be so much disturbed by
noise, but other causes of its disappearance are given. In Flaekkefjord
people thought the cause of the herring's departure in 1S59 was the
strong glare of the List light-house. In other places, however, there was
no objection to light-houses ; while in Utsire it was even thought that
the fisheries began to be very abundant just about the time when the
light-houses were erected, the herring, as they supposed, being attracted
by the light. The opinion that light-houses have any influence on the
herring's appearance or disappearance has now been entirely abandoned.
Formerly many supposed that the bad odor spreading over the sea from
the burning of sea-weeds caused the herring to leave, and in many
places laws were demanded forbidding the act. The burners of sea-
weed, however, were of a different opinion, as well as the owners of
glass-houses, who used the burnt sea- weed. Professor Eathke was com-
missioned to examine this matter, and he found that the herring had
left places where sea-weeds had never been burned, and continued in
others where sea-weeds were burned constantly. It has also been said
that the cuttle-fish was a cause of the herring's disappearance, but
Boeck has never found a single cuttle-fish in the southern fisheries,
while he saw large numbers of them near Langences, and many instances
were related how the cuttle-fish loved to pursue the herring; but in no
instance could it be proved that it had ever driven away even the small-
est school.

At one time it was supposed that impurities at the bottom of the sea
had an influence on the herring- fisheries, and that the herring avoided
those places where many impurities were found, because they were unfa-
vorable to the development of the spawn. Such impurities were gen-
erally produced by employing imperfect fishing-implements, which left
greater or less masses of herring at the bottom, and also by various
kinds of refuse being thrown into the sea, which might make it unfit
for spawning. On the coast of Norway the former opinion was quite
prevalent, it being maintained that in seine-fishing great quantities of
dead herring were left in the water. Boeck, during his first stay at the
fishing-stations, had his attention directed to this. He also saw that
the nets with narrow meshes, which the fishermen have recently begun
to use, did not permit larger herring to put the whole head through the

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 119

meshes, but that only the front portion entered, so that the fish died at
last in endeavoring to push through the meshes, as it never moves back-
ward. When the net is hauled in, these larger herring fall off and re-
main at the bottom of the sea. He had several times examined such
places after the fishing was over, but had never found any large quan-
tity of dead herring at the bottom, even when he used the dredge after
particularly rich fishing-seasons. With the water-telescope he could
not penetrate to such a depth, but he thinks that the account of great
masses of herring lying there is very much exaggerated. On another
occasion he saw a large quantity of dead herring lying at the bottom of
the sea, but he felt convinced that this could not possibly influence the
fisheries, and experience has shown that he was right. When the cur-
rent is very violent, nets set in exposed places will be driven together
and become entangled, so that it is impossible to separate them. He
thus witnessed at Bjorkevser the sinking of such a mass of entangled
nets which had been cut off from the buoys, in order to save something.
It was important for him to examine the place where this was done, and
he went there about two months after this occurrence. The nets were
then so much decayed that only small pieces could be recovered, whilo
of the herring only bones and gristly parts were found. But the frag-
ments of the nets and herring were everywhere covered with carrion-
eating animals, which had gathered in great numbers. Many other ani-
mals were also found. When, later in the same year, he requested some
one to procure for him specimens of some of these animals, it was dis-
covered that there was not a trace left of nets, herring, or animals ; so
that about four months after the close of the fisheries the bottom was
quite clean again.

It is, therefore, evident that dead herring could not make the bottom
so impure that a year after it should be unfit for the herring to spawn
in ; and experience has also shown that this is not the case. On the
other hand, reports from Sweden, Scotland, and other countries, affirm
that seines may be very detrimental to the fisheries, by leaving a great
many dead herring at the bottom, and many instances of this are men-
tioned, such as the well-known fishery near Golten, where, after a great
many herring had died during one night, the fisheries were never again
successful. Boeck also discovered, several times after seine-fishing, by
examining the bottom with the water-telescope, a considerable number
of dead herring ; but he thinks that the injurious influence is very much
exaggerated. Where seine-fishing is carried on in open places the cur-
rent, sea-animals, &c, will very soon purify the bottom, and only where
very large masses of fish have died in deep and narrow inlets will some
remains be found the following year. The cause of the herring not re-
turning to such places might rather be occasioned by its irregular habits
than by dead fish. In order to adduce more substantial proof of this
he caused, according to the government inspector's account, to be marked
on a map all those places where seine-fishing had been carried on since
1853, and he found that in some there had been considerable seine-fish-

120 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

ing year after year. It was, therefore, beyond a doubt that seine-fishing
was by no means so detrimental to the fisheries as was generally sup-
posed. That the seines brought up all the young herring, was entirely
unfounded, or, at any rate, but rarely the case ; and the small herring,
which are frequently caught toward the close of the fisheries, often con-
tain roe which has not been fully developed. He was informed at the
great-herring fisheries, and also saw for himself several localities, where
large masses of dead herring were said to be, at Selsovik, where, at the
bottom of the deep and narrow Gjeres inlet, between 10,000 and 15,000
tons were lying. The following year would show whether they had
decayed or not.

In Sweden, the disappearance of the herring had been chiefly attrib-
uted to refuse of fish -oil which had been throwu into the sea. This had
formed a theme of discussion as far back as the middle of the last cen-
tury, and Professor Xilson had clearly stated the reasons which favor
this opinion. It will be seen that with regard to Bohuslan, his opinion
has met with much opposition, while just as many instances are given
tending to show that the refuse of fish-oil has no such injurious results.
Boeck has not been able to find that these heaps of refuse are so near
each other that the herring could find no suitable spawning-places
between them. Even if the refuse of fish-oil were the cause of the her-
ring's departure, this could not have been the case in former times, when
the herring disappeared from Bohuslan, as at that time there were no oil-
refineries either in Norway or in the Liinfjord, (in the north of Jutland.)

Boeck's investigations therefore prove that all these causes, which have
been mentioned as being instrumental in driving the herring away at
different times from different places, either amount to nothing, or
have not held good in all cases. He endeavored himself to find causes
of the herring's disappearance which would better stand the test of
science, but for a long time sought in vain, till at last he thinks that,
through the study of history of the herring-fisheries, he has found reasons
that will hold good in all cases. During the first year of his stay at the
fishing-stations it occurred to him that the herring-fisheries, which formerly
had commenced much earlier in the season, sometimes even before
Christmas, had more recently beguu later in the year, and he was un-
able to find any special reasons for this. He also noticed that the herring-
fisheries were very unproductive near Skudesnres, where formerly they
had been very abundant, and that this could not be ascribed to storms
or to any other ordinary cause. In the following year the fisheries com-
menced still later, and in carefully examining this whole matter he found
that at the commencement of the fisheries in 1808 the herring approached
the coast in February, while during the following years it came earlier
every year, tillrecently it again came later and later in the season, until this
year it came at the end of February. In his work, " On the herring and her-
ring-fisheries,''- he has given the exact date for every year when the herring
approached the coast. From these dates it is seen that there is a certain
regularity in the time of the herring's approach, which is but slightly

THE NORWEGIAN HERRING-FISHERIES. 121

modified by storm and cold. In examining the localities where the
herring fisheries are carried on, it will be seen that there is likewise a
certain regularity in them. From 1808 and 1819 Skudesnses was the
chief seat of the fisheries on the southern coast, while north of Karma
and Espevaer only few herring were caught, not counting, however, the
so-called Bergen fisheries from Selbjornfjord to Feio. From the year 1819
the herring also began to appear in large masses near the Hviding Islands,
Tananger, and Eoth, and in 1825 it passed south of Jeeder. From 1824 to
183S we notice a constant tendency in the herring to move south , the schools
in that direction increasing every year, so that rich fisheries began to spring
up, first near Egersund, then near Sagndal, Basgefjord, and Hoekkefjord,
while at the same time the fisheries near Skudesnses gradually grew
less abundant. From that time, the herring began again to retreat, and
soon disappeared completely south of the J seder, and more recently from
the Hviding Islands and Skudesna3s ; while, on the other hand, the
fisheries became very important near Bovser. During the last year the
fishing has shifted north of Espevser. If this regularity in the change
of time and place of the herring movements could only be proved with
regard to the southern spring-herring fisheries, it would be an impor-
tant fact, yet not important enough to allow us to deduce laws that
would be applicable in all cases. Boeck, however, found that such was
really the case. In examining the information scattered in merchants'
account-books, and letters which he was permitted to use in Stavanger,
he found that this same law applied in former as well as in later times,
and that there was the same regularity in the change of time and place
of the herring-fisheries. He has treated this subject at length in his
work, " On the herring and the herring-fisheries." Even in examining
the dates regarding the herring-fishery in the year 1575, given by
Absalon Pedersen Beyer, we find that the fisheries in the beginning of
that period commenced toward the end of February. This law is there-
fore found to apply to three different periods. The same phenomena
were observed not only here, but also in other places. This can be
shown most conclusively in the Bohuslen fisheries. Boeck found that
this regularity was very apparent there in the great fisheries which
closed in 1808. In 175G the fisheries commenced near Styrso and
Bifofjord, south of Gottenburg ; from there the herring went constantly
northward, and in 1773 herring were caught near Stroinstad, and, in
177S, near the Hval Islands. As regards the time of its appearance,
the herring in 1750 came in October, and from that time always a little
earlier, till 1702, when it came on the lGth of August; then again
gradually later. For example, in 1780, toward the end of October ;
1790, in the middle of November ; 1S00, about Christmas, and toward
the end of that period (about 180S) in February. The same was also
the case during the great fishing period, from 1556 to 1590. It will
thus be seen that the same law has held good for several centuries and
in-two different places.

In 1868, when the fisheries were still very abundant, Boeck thought

122 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

that he was fully justified in predicting that a change of the fisheries
was near at hand ; and although in the beginning he met with violent
opposition, he saw his predictions verified from year to year. He
finally mentioned some other facts. It has been a wide-spread opinion
that the herring-fisheries change alternately between the coast of Nor-
way and that of Bohusliin, and that the herring moved between these
two places, an opinion which was strengthened by the fact that when,
about 1808, the schools of herring left Bohusliin, they made their
appearance on the coast of Norway. But Nilsson had already shown
that the Bohuslen herring is a totally different species from the Nor-
wegian, and Boeck has proved conclusively that this difference has
existed from time immemorial. He has furthermore proved that these
two species also differ in the circumstance that they spawn at differ-
ent seasons of the year, the spring-herring spawning in the spring, and
the Bohusliiu herring in the autumn. He has also been able to prove
by historical researches that, from the very earliest times, both these
herring-fisheries have been carried on at the same season, and that
only during the last fishing period there was any difference in time.
Nor has he found any connection existing between the Norwegian,
Dutch, and Danish fisheries. Such a connection may possibly have
existed between the Bohusliin fishery and the Dutch-Scotch fisheries, as
some data seem to point in that direction.

If the herring should leave the coast of Norway, it will, in all prob-
ability, be obliged to seek the other channel, (" Bende,") which Boeck
has marked on his map. At a distance of from ten to fifteen miles from
the coast of Norway, large banks are found, that have their roots in the
North Sea, where the depth of water varies only between 70 and 50
fathoms, a depth which is very favorable to the development of the
spawn. Boeck thinks that if the herring disappears from the southern
coast of Norway, the fishermen and merchants will suffer in the begin-
ning, but not as much as in former times. The cod-fisheries which
have recently commenced, and which he always found to come after a
period of herring-fishing, would probably replace the herring-fisheries,
after people had become accustomed to them, and had supplied them-
selves with the necessary implements. Besides, since the intercourse
by steamers has become so common, and is even increasing, fishing-
places that were formerly considered too remote will be used just as
well as those which are near, and herring-fishing will assuredly be
carried on at all times on the long coast-line of Norway. The periods
during which the herring has disappeared have been neither as long
nor as exclusive as is generally supposed ; for although we know that
the herring left Skudesnres in 1784, it was caught near Bergen in 1787,
and returned there in 1S08, while it did not return to Skudesuses till
1808. Nor has it remained entirely away during the intervening period,
since in 1803 there might have been considerable fishing, if people had
been prepared for it, for during that year the herring approached the
shore in vast numbers.

VII -PRELIMINARY REPORT FOR 1873-74 ON THE HERRING
AND THE HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE WEST COAST OF
SWEDEN.

By Axel Vilhelm Ljungman.'

To the committee appointed to investigate the herring -fisheries an the west

coast of Siceden :

Having been informed, on the 3d Jane, last year, by the secretary of
the Eoyal Academy of Sciences, that, by a letter of His Majesty the
King, dated March the 28th, I had, at the suggestion of the Eoyal
Academy, been intrusted with the continued prosecution of the investi-
gations regarding the herring and the herring-fisheries on the west coast
of Sweden, I went to Stockholm in accordance with the wish of the
committee, as expressed by their letter of the 13th of June, and remained
there till the end of the month to gather all the necessary information
and make every necessary preparation.

In the course of the summer, I visited the most important fishing-
stations on the coast of Bohus-lan to secure information and to make
the necessary arrangements for investigating the fisheries which com-
mence in the autumn. I left for Stockholm on the 23d of September
to consult with the members of the committee, and to make myself
acquainted with the literature of the subject in the library of the Eoyal
Academy of Sciences. In consequence of sickness, I was compelled to
remain in Stockholm till near the end of October, so that I was pre-
vented from making any observations at the beginning of the fisheries.
During the months of November and December, I visited all the more
important fishing-stations on the central and northern coast,2 where the
fishing for small herring was carried on.

As soon as I received information, about the beginning of the year,
that herring were coming in in great quantities, I went immediately to

vestkust anstallda undersokuingaraa. Af Axel Villi. Ljungrnan. (Tryckt sasom hands-
krift.) Upsala, Ed. Berliug, 1874. [8vo,2 p. 1.74, pp. 1 1.] Translated from the Swedish
by H. Jacobson. Original " printed as manuscript " by the author, [i. e., not for gen-
eral circulation,] Upsala, 1874.

2 By the southern coast, I understand the coast from Salofjord toTistlarne, (Reports on
Herring-Fisheries, p. 86 fr. 8 ;) by the central coast, the coast from Salofjord to Soteskar,
(counted to the northern coast by the old fishermen ; see Act Concerning Blubber-Refin-
eries, pp. 120, 134;) and by the northern coast, the coast from Soteskar to the boundary
of Norway. A somewhat different division of the coast has been made by Dubb, (Re-
ports of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, p. 34.)

124 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF TISH AND FISHERIES.

Gottenburg, where I had au excellent opportunity for observing the her.
ring-fishermen assembled together from all the neighboring coast. On
the 24th of January, I went to Stockholm to consult with the committee,
and to inform myself of the financial arrangements made for the obser-
vations. From the end of February till the beginning of June, I visited
various localities on the coast of Bohus-liin, to make observations and
gather whatever information I could.

I went to Stockholm again on the 7th of June, at the express desire of
the committee, to report on the progress and result of my observations.

Although I had some knowledge of the coast of Bohuslan and its
fisheries, much time was, nevertheless, lost by my being unacquainted
with many peculiar circumstances of importance for carrying on obser-
vations in the easiest and quickest manner. This knowledge can be
acquired only by several years' intercourse with the fishermen. All the
investigations, which were chiefly of a practical character, were on that
very account entirely new to me, and, therefore, necessarily retarded my
progress. My investigations were, moreover, impeded by the unusually
stormy weather during the autumn and winter, by sickness, and by want
of funds and apparatus.1 Much time has also been consumed in col-
lecting all that has been said on the subject in the very rich herring-
literature, which, as far as possible, I endeavored to obtain.

I need scarcely say that the distrust and opposition with which the
investigations were met, not only by nearly the whole population en-
gaged in fishing, but even by those from whom assistance might reason-
ably have been expected, exercised a depressing influence, and will
continue to do so in the future, though not, perhaps, to so great an
extent. The rigid observance of section 22 of the fishing-law, and the
milder ordinance of July 19, 1872, regarding the use of nets with narrow
meshes,2 increased the excited feelings of the coast-population, especially
in the beginning of the year, when the herring came in in great numbers.

The almost uninterrupted journeys, which were especially troublesome
in winter, on account of the apparatus which had to be carried along,
and the brief stay made in each place, did not permit any thorough
anatomical or microscopical observations, since these require a quieter
sojourn in a suitable place, where all the necessary apparatus may easily
be brought. As I did not consider it desirable and of practical use
for the advancement of science to report on the special investigations
which have been begun, but have not yet led to any definite result, the
cause of the incompleteness of this first report will easily be understood ;
while this incompleteness was still further enhanced by the fact that the
investigations were carried on uninterruptedly till the end of the year,
thus leaving but little time for putting my notes into suitable shape.

In conclusion, I must draw attention to the fact that, as the investi-
gations continue and more information is collected, much in this report,

1 See Chapter VIII.

■ New Reports on the Herring- Fisheries, p. 3, 58, 59.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 125

will probably have to be modified in future ones. I also hope tbat I
shall tben be able to make my report much more complete by means of
observations made on the coast of Norway, in the Kattegat, and in the
southern portion of the Baltic.

I. — ON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF HERRING AND SMALL-HERRING.

Even in olden times different races of herring were recognized, or at
least names were given to them designating different kinds, as the
idea of a variety or race was scarcely known to the traders and
fishermen, who by those different names only wished to distinguish one
article of trade from some other which was obtained at another place
or time, or was considered to have a different value.

Among our Scandinavian naturalists, Linne was the first who de-
scribed a kind of herring called in Swedish "Stromming," [a sort of
small-herring,] as a separate species, under the name of Clupea liarengus
/? membra s.1

From Dr. P. DuWs observations on the herring -fishery of Bohus-Lan,2
we learn that the Bohus-Lan fishermen, during the last great fishery,
distinguished the so-called " old" herring, (" gamla" sill,) as it is called
at present, as a " real sea-herring" ("rigtig hafssill") from the spring-
herring, which is peculiar to the coast, and belongs to it exclusively.
This last-mentioned herring was said to have a smaller head, to be
thicker and shorter, and to resemble the Kattegat herring. To judge
from an expression of 0. N. Loberg's,3 the Norwegian herring-fishers
likewise make a distinction between the " sea-herring" (" Havsikl") and
the " fiord-herring," (" Fjordsteing.")

Professor Nilsson, in the year 1832, distinguished, besides the " Strom-
ming," a large number of different races of herring from the southern and
western coasts of Sweden and Norway, all of which, however, he
grouped under two heads, viz : sea-herring (Hafssill) and coast-herring,
(Skargardssill.)4 This division, which was somewhat modified by him

1 Fauna Svecica. Ed. alt., p. 128.

2 Kgl. Vet. Akad. Handl. f. 1817, p. 35, 44.

8 Norges Fiskerier. Kristiania, 1864, p. 89, 90.

4 Prodronius ichthyologies Scandinavian, p. 23, 24. As this work is very scarce,
and as the quotation is of special importance, it is given in full :

Clupea liarengus Auctorurn. Svecis Sill.

Suh hoc nomine latent plures species, vel, si mavis, varietates locales constantes,
quae in duas formas aptius aheunt :

1-mo Forma oceanica (sea-herring) : capite, oculis et rictu minorihus ; orbita £-0 — ^
longit. corp.; ventralibus sub anteriori £ pinnae dorsalis ; distantia arostro ad piunas
pectorales intervallum ajquante ventralium et ani, seu initii pinna? analis :

1. oeresundica, Nostratibus Rabosill ( boundary-herring).

2. schelderensis, Nostratibus Kullasill.

3. mojalis, Nostratibus Grcissill (grass-herring).

4. oalmsica, Nostratibus Aflingssill I. Storsill (great-herring).

5. hiemalis, Nostratibus Norsk vintersill (Norwegian winter-herring).

6. autumnalis, Nostratibus, Norsk liostsill (Norwegian fall-herring).

126 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

subsequently,1 seems to have beeu adopted by all tbe Swedish ichthy-
ologists, but has been questioned by Professor Kroycr, who says, in his
great work on the fish of Denmark, that he is not convinced of the
correctness of Professor Nilsso)i>s distinction of different species of
herring from the southern Baltic, the Kattegat, and Norway.2

From the. western portion of the North Sea, Yarrcll has described two
analogous forms of herring as different species: Clupea leachii and
Clupea alba,* the latter of which, however, is only a herring in an earlier
stage of its development.4

In the year 1833, in testimony before a committee of inquiry ordered
by His Majesty, the Bohus-liiu fishermen distinguished the following
kinds of herring: 1. The so-called old (" gamla") herring, (which for-
merly came in every year from the North Sea ; 2, the half-grown
" ToUsil," (so called from the Swedish word " lott," a kind of net,) found
both toward the end of the last fishing-period and later, and whichneither
propagated nor was to be seen in its full-grown state near the coast ;
and, 3, the "spring-herring," or " grass-herring," belonging to the coast,
and caught during the old fisheries as well as since. The distinctive
marks assigned by the fishermen were very nearly the same as those
■which are generally employed by JSTilsson and other professional ichthy-
ologists in distinguishing the various species of herrings, viz, the size
of the head, height of body, length of dorsal and ventral fins, size of
scales, and time of spawning. The opinion of the fishermen was at-
tacked by Professor Nilsson as being unreasonable, and all the Swedish
naturalists adopted his views.5

Obs. Pulli omnium barum varietatum sub nomine Smdsill — small-berring — (et adbuc
minores Ansjovis — ancbovies — ) venditantur. Nomen vero Smasill etiam imponitur
varietatibus minoribus formse insequentis.

2: do Forma tceniensis (coast-herring), capite, oculis et rictu majoribus; orbita ^ — ,J7
longit. corp.; veutralibus fere sub medio pinnse dorsalis; distantia a rostro ad pinnas
pectorales multo longiore quam a ventralibus ad anum, et ajquaute distantiam a
ventralibus ad mediam analem :

1. Clupea Cimbrica. Sv. Kivik-Sill vel Cimbrishamns-Sill. In parte meridionali
maris baltbici.

2. Clupea membras. Sv. Strumming. In parte superiori maris baltbici.

1 Skandinavisk Fauna. IV, p. 492-493.

2 Danmarks Fiske. Ill, p. Ii5-156.
» British Fishes, 3 ed., I, pp. Ill, 121.

4 The Clupea alba (subsequently called by Valenciennes Eogenia alba) was estab-
lished by Yarrellfor the celebrated "Whitebait" of English gourmands, but has been
satisfactorily demonstrated to be nothing more than the young of the herring. — S. F. B.

5 It does not, however, seem at all unreasonable to suppose that during the old
Bohus-Lan fisheries the great herring came from the North Sea, and that its descend-
ants, the young herring, visited the coast of Norway, (see Boeclc, Om Silden, p. 130 ;
Trangrumsacten, p. 173,) presuming that the small herring (lotsill) coming to the coact
of Bohus-Lan from tbe sea, was descended, e. g., from the Kattegat herring, spawning
in autumn, or from the Limfiord herring, spawning iu spring. G. 0. Sars'a investiga-
tions regarding the young or so-called summer-herring caught in Norway, are very
instructive in this respect, as they point to very similar results.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 127

Axel Boccl; who, in May, 1S70, visited the coast of Bohus-Liin for the
purpose of investigating the herring-fishery on that coast, maintains
that the herring which spawns there is " certainly only a coast-herring,"1
which, moreover, is distinguished from the "old herring'7 by spawning
in spring, the latter spawning in autumn, and that it must be supposed
to have come from the North Sea, and possibly had some connection
with the Scotch-Dutch herring.2

G. von Yhlen, who, during five years' fishing, had abundant opportu-
nity for making observations on the matter, has, in his memorial of No-
vember 1G, 1870,3 addressed to the royal governors of Goteborgs-lan and
Bohus-lan, given the result of his own experience in the following two
assertions, viz : 1. That " that in none of those years had there been in
the schools of herring coming in from the sea any mature herring capa-
ble of propagating; that therefore they could not be herring spawning
in autumn like the so-called 'old herring;' and that ' the great mass of
herrings have not remained till the beginning of the spring-spawning
season ;" 2. " That the herring of one year differ in shape and size from
those of another," which observation is said to be "indisputable" and
" valuable." Von Yhlen thinks that he is able to verify by his observa-
tions the testimony of the fishermen made before the committee in 1833,
that the so-called sea-herring does not spawn on the coast of Bohus-Liin
and is not of the same breed as either th« coast-herring or the "old"
herring, as well as the assertions made by himself that the sea-herring
are not of the same breed each year, and do not come from the same
place, and that " they possibly may be young herring from various parts
of the Kattegat and Skagerack, which are drifted along by marine cur-
rents till those able to spawn go to their various spawning-places."4 In
his report of 1870 on the salt-water fish of Bohus-lan, he says, further-
more, that as " herring have nowhere been found to spawn on the outer
coast," it would appear from this circumstance " that those herring
which in autumn showed themselves in such enormous numbers on the
outer coast, do not come from the small schools which are annually
found spawning in the fiords."5 In his report for the preceding year he
supposes that the large number of sea-herring caught during that year
(90,800 bushels) came from yonng herring which migrated from the
fiords in September, 1867. 5

. The fishermen of Bohus-lan, as was shown in the report on the herring-
fisheries, published in 1843, have distinguished several races of herring
by different names, most of which, however, only indicated differences

1 Om Silclen og Sildefiskerierne. Ckristiania 1871, p, 126.

2 Tidskrift for Fiskeri. V, p. 21-54. — Goteborgs oeh Bobus-liins Husballnings-Salls-
kaps Qvartalsskrift. October, 1870, p. 123-160. — Oni Silden og Sildefiskerierne, p. 121,
122, 126.

3 Nya Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 11-17.
<Nya Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 12.

5 Goteborgs ocb Bobus-liins Hushallnings-Siillskaps Qvartalsskrift, July, 1870, p. 16.

128 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

of age, or size, or a greater development of the sexual organs in one and
the same kind, or such as are found at the different seasons when the
herring are caught, and -which the fishermen themselves by no means
always understand. The more experienced among them, however, gen-
erally make a distinction between — 1, the spring or grass herring; 2, the
sea-herring, (lottsill;) and, 3, the wandering-herring, (straksill,) which last
is by some thought to be only a full-grown sea-herring. Concerning the
three races thus recognized, and which have not been admitted from
interested views, I shall give whatever I have been able to gather from
the literature on the subject as well as from conversations with the most
experienced and reliable fishermen, reserving for a future report all the
facts I could gather from personal observation. I shall make it a specia
object to enter into a fuller examination than has been hitherto done of
the various assertions made before the committee of inquiry in 1833, as
these are viewed from such different stand-points, and are urged by the
partisans of conflicting opinions.

THE SPRING-HERRING (u Y&rsilV).

(Clupea majalis, Kilss.)

This coast-herring, which is found in the Skagerack, along the coast
from Holland Point to Cape Lindesnces, is distinguished by its com-
paratively small head and plump shape, and by its spawning on the
coast in March, April, and May. Whether the Limfiord-herriug, which
likewise spawns in spring, belongs to the same race, I have not been
able to ascertain.1 The spring-herring is chiefly found near the mouths
of the large rivers flowing into the Skagerack, where it is also caught
with stationary nets. This race, which is distinguished from the larger
one that has sometimes visited Bohus-Lan in enormous numbers and has
caused the famous "great" fisheries, is either entirely overlooked or
considered incorrectly as the former "old" herring's insignificant de-
scendant. It is chiefly caught in spring, during the spawning-sea-
son, but likewise, though in smaller numbers, at the end of summer
and in the autumn and winter, while its young are caught at all sea-
sons of the year, though rarely in any great number.

The spring-herring was during the old fishery, and even some time
afterward, known by the collective name of " lottsill,"3 but began to
be gradually distinguished from it as a separate race.3 The most com-
mon and oldest name for this race is spring-herring, (Varsill.4) Accord-
ing to Nilsson5 and Ekstrom6 it is said, after having finished spawning,

1 See Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 107 fr. 24.

s Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 88 fr. 23, p. 89 fr. 30, p. 100 fr. 13, 14, p. 102 fr. 25, p. 119 fr. 9,
p. 127 fr. 19.

3 See Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 107 fr. 24.

4 Dubb, Kgl. Vet. Akad. Handl. f. 1817, p. 34. Handl. ror. Sillf, p. 90 fr. 31.
6 Handl. ror. Sillf, p. 63 fr. 136.

6 Praktisk afhandling, p. 10.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 129

to lose some of its scales, and appear of a more greenish-color, and be-
come inferior in quality, at which time ft is called grass-herring, (Gras-
sill.) -This name was generally understood by the fishermen at the in-
quest'of 1833 ;l this is still the case, as they always understand thereby
a herring which frequents and is caught on grassy bottoms, although at
present this name is perhaps more generally used in another sense. On
the northern coast of Sweden, as well as in the neighboring portions of
Norway, the young of more than one year of the coast-herring are
called by this name. By May-herring we understand smaller, but often
very fat specimens of the spring-herring, which toward the end of
spring are caught in the same places where formerly the great spring-
herring was caught. It is often filled with insects, and therefore be-
comes easily damaged, which circumstance no doubt accounts for Nils-
son's report as to its poor quality.2 It is called summer -herring when
caught toward the end of summer.3 By autumn-herring4, they under-
stand on the northern coast the same herring, if caught during the be-
ginning of autumn. Some see in this herring a different race from the
spring-herring, although they can mention no other difference than that
the autumn-herring is somewhat larger and probably spawns somewhat
earlier (in February.) Autumn-herring seems to be only a more recent
name, which has replaced that of "summer herring." By uganesillV5
the same fish as the summer or autumn herring is understood. The
name "Istersill "6 — lard-herring — is synonymous with "summer-herring,"
although other herring are sometimes called by that name. uKnub-
sill" — plump-herring — is a name given to the coast-herring, on account
of the short and plump form of its body. uFetsiW'' — fat-herring — the
coast-herring is called when it has fully-developed sexual organs,7 a
reminiscence of the old fisheries, when the full-grown herring was fat-
test and most valuable, on which account it also, toward the end of the
fishing period, got the name "YaljesilV — select herring.8 "AJUngssiW'9
means the same as " fat- herring." iiHoljesill,,,l° or, as the Norwegians
call it, "Fiordstoing"11 — fiord-herring — is another name given to the
coast-herring, because it sometimes frequents the deep fiords. By the

1 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 119 fr. 9, 10, 16, p. 126 fr. 16, 17, 18, 22, 23.

2 Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 131, 136.

3 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 107 fr. 25, p. 127 fr. 19. Ekstrom, Ofvers. af Kgl. Vet.
Akad:s Forhandl. f. 1846, p. 20.

4 It seems that formerly the sea-herring or so-called "old-herring" was sold under
this name. See Diibb, Kgl. Vet. Akad:s Handl. f. 1817, pp. 35, 44.

6 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 89 fr. 30, p. 119 fr. 9, pp. 45, 136.
e Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 127 fr. 19, pp. 131, 136.

7 Ekstrom, Praktisk af handling, p. 11.

8 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 98 fr. 5, p. 112 fr. 17. There seems, therefore, not to have been
any fishing of " May-herrings " — so-called " maatjes " — during the old fishery, and the
word "fat-herring" has therefore in Bohus-Liin got quite a different meaning than in
Norway and other countries. Ekstrom, Praktisk afhandling, pp. 10, 11.

*Xilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 16, 45, 46, 62, 70, 134.

10Thlen, G. von, Goteb. o. Boh. liins Hush. Siillsk. Qvartalsskr., July, 1867, p. 51 ; 1873,
p. 205.

uLdberg, Norges Fiskerier, p. 89.
<J F

130 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

name " Tjogsill," or score-herring, (in Norway "Sne&esild?) all herrings
of such a size as can be sold by the score are understood.1

The young of the coast-herring are called uSillogon,V2 (herring-eyes,)
"Sillmdrj" or "Sillmyr?* (tender-herring,) and "Sillstagg,"4'5 — in the
neighboring portion of Norway "Sildemaur," OT°llSildegnu}n6 — till they
are one year old, when they are called "Grassill? (grass-herring,)
"Sm&sill" (small-herring,)7 and "Smdlodda"8 (small "lodda,") till at the
age of two years they reach a. length of five to six inches, when they
begin to be caught in the large nets, and are known by the general
name of "Lottsill,"9 or "Hal/sill," (half-herring.)10 The coast-herring is
said to be fatter and plumper than the sea-herring, from which, accord-
ing to some, it is known by the same characteristics which distinguish
the mature spring-herring from the sea-herring of the same size.

THE SEA-HERRING ("hctfslottsill").

The kind of herring called " sea-herring," which during winter comes
in great numbers to the coast of Bohus-liin — more regularty, however,
on the southern coast and the southern portion of the central coast — is
distinguished by its comparatively large head, its more elongated shape,
and the great size ; all of which characteristics are, however, only dis-
tinctly discernible in the larger specimens, (called " storlodda? I. e.,
11 great lodda,") which are found in small numbers among the medium-
sized, two-year-old herring, in respect to whose relation to the other
herring, however, opinions are divided.11

It is by some supposed to spawn at the beginning of autumn, (like
the " old" herring of former times,) because the larger specimens which
have been caught were usually empty, and would, consequently, when
it comes to the coast of Bohus-liin, be nearly half a year older than the
* coast-herring. At the meetings held by the committee of inquiry in
1833, the fishermen of the Bohus-liin coast unanimously declared that
the "sea-herring" (ulottsillv) " goes away from the coast" before it
gets mature ;12 and some of them were, therefore, of opinion that it

1Easch, H. fy Bcrg,B. M. Betaeukning og Indstilling afgiven af den til Fiskeriernes
Unders^gelse i Christiania — og Langesundsfjorden ved Kongel. Resol. af 23 de Mai
1852, nedsatte Commission, p. 32.

2Ekstrom, Praktisk afhandling, p. 9.

3Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 45, 70.

Ekstrom, Praktisk afhandling, p. 10.

*Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 63, 70, 134.

Ekstrom, Praktisk afhandling, p. 10.

6 These and some of the following names are merely differences of dialect, and there
fore almost untranslatable. — Translator's note.

6Basch $• Berg, Betaenkning og Indstilling, p. 32.

•>Mlsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 46.

sNilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 137.

sMlsson, Handl. ror., Sillf. pp. 70, 63, 66.

i°Mlsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 46.

11 See what is Baid regarding the " Strdksill " — the " wandering-herring."

12 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 102 fr. 24, p. 112 fr. 15, p. 117 fr. 14, p. 129 fr. 33. Nihson,
Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 47.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 131

spawned " out in the sea," whither it went on leaving the coast,1 while
others maintained that it was a small kind of herring which never got
any larger2 and never propagated its race, but was a " direct produc-
tion of the water;"3 views which are still held by some people.4 Its
spawning-places, the parts of the sea whence it comes and whither it
goes, are thus not known ; bat if it should really come from another
race of herring than that belonging to the Skagerack, it could not come
from any other place but the North Sea, the Limfjord, or the Kattegat.
The fact discovered by G. 0. Sars that the young herring descended
from the Western Norwegian winter-herring stays generally much far-
ther toward the north, near the northwestern coast of Norway,5 fur-
nishes an example of a young herring or sea-herring, like that found on
the coast of Bohus-Iiin, paying regular visits to a coast where it is not
born and where it does not spawn.

The Swedish word " lottsill" is supposed to be derived from the old
fisheries, and originally meant a smaller kind of herring, or one of uneven
size, not suitable for an article of trade,6 in contradistinction to the more
even-sized herring, which was sold to the salting-establishments or her-
ring traders. " Lottsill " was consequently a collective name, and meant
not only half-grown herring, but also larger herring of another kind
than the good herring,7 and therefore, following the example of others,
I have used the term to distinguish it from the other races of herring,
although it ought in course of time to be exchanged for a better one,
since it has not become popular, and is perhaps even based on false
premises. Nowadays, since the "old" herring has been forgotten, the
term " lottsill" is often used by the fishermen to distinguish a kind of
herring different from the spring herring.8 It is even called halfsill,
(half-herring,)9 and the few large ones found among them " storlodda,"
(great lott-herriug.) 10

THE WANDERING-HERRING, (" Strdksill.")

A large, but thin species of herring, which is found in small numbers
late in autumn and in winter, and which is distinguished from the

1 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. Ill fr. 10.

* Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 91 fr. 38, p. 92, p. 95, p. 106 fr. 21, p. 107 fr. 26, p. 112 fr. 15.

3 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 103 fr. 33.— Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 37.— Wright, W. von,
Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 168.

4 Quite a different opinion, viz, that the "lottsill" "was descended from our coast-
herring, seems to have heen quite common on the coast of Bohus-Liin. See Lundbeck,
O., Anteckningar rorande Bohusliiuska Fiskerierna, i synnerhet Sillnsket. Gotheb.
1822, p. 27. — Eosen, A. von, Anforande i Commerce Collegii underd. Forslag till nyt,
Reglemente for Fiskerierne of d. 17 Aug., 1840. — Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 95,

6 Indberetning for 1873, p. 54.

6 Xilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 63.

* Haudl. ror. Sillf., p. 88 fr. 19, 23, p. 100 fr. 12, p. 119 fr. 9, p. 127 fr. 19, &c. Tho
" Lottsill " is still called " lottsill " when it becomes larger than about seven inches, as is
erroneously thought. Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 135. Nya Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 65.

« See Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 107 fr. 24.'

9 Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 46.

10 Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 137.

132 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

spring-herring by the same marks as the sea-herring, and which is said
to resemble in its appearance the Norwegian herring. On the coast
of Bohus-Lan it is never found with fully-developed sexual organs, but
is by some considered to be full-grown sea-herring. Ekstrdm thought
that they were barren spring-herring ; l and this opinion was shared
by von Yhlen.2 Some years ago this kind of herring came to the
northern coast in much larger numbers than usual,3 and according to some
reports they are said to have staid till the end of May, when they got
fat; but this last-mentioned kind, caught in May,4 is said by others to have
been mostly autumn-herring, a race which is supposed to be distinct from
the wandering- herring. The wandering-herring is not liked by the fisher-
men, because it is almost valueless, and is believed, if appearing in larger
numbers, to chase away the other herring and eat up the young ones,5
so that its arrival often indicates the close of the herring-fisheries. On
the Stroinstad coast one occasionally hears the opinion expressed that
the wandering-herring is of the same kind as the " old n herring, or at
least resembles it. The wandering-herring is not spoken of in the re-
ports of the " old " fisheries, so that in this respect they seem to be dif-
ferent from the fisheries on the west coast of Norway, which generally
commenced with the fishing of wandering-herring.

The name StrdJcsill (wandering-herring) seems to have been given on
account of its wandering about the coast in comparative loneliness,
without occurring in regular schools and producing any fisheries. On
the northernmost coast it is called Bensill, (bone-herring,) because it is
thought to have more numerous and larger bones than any other her-
ring.6 In the neighboring portion of Norway it used formerly to be
called Jernsvensk sill (Iron Swedish herring.7) Its proper Norwegian
name, however, is Straalsild, (ray-herring,) JStraaksild, (wandering-
herring,) Solkovedsild, (sun-head herring,)8 as well as Blodsild (blood-
herring.9) This last-mentioned name seems to indicate that even in
Norway the fishermen consider the wandering-herring to have more
blood than any other herring.

1 Ofvers. af Kgl. Vet. Akad : a Forhandl. f. 1844, p. 26.— Praktisk af handling, p. 8 —
Later, however, he came to the conviction that the wandering-herring was identical
with the Norwegian herring. — Ofvers. af Kgl. Vet. Akad : s Forhandl. f. 1840, p. 20.

2Goteborgs och Bohusliins Hushallings Sailskaps Quartalsskrift, Jnly, 1873,.p. 50;
1873, p. 205.

0 Sars, G. 0., Iudheretning. Morgenhladet f. 1871, n:o.

4 Handl. ror Sillf., p. 90 fr. 31.

6Handl. ror Sillf., p. 88 fr. 21.— Ekstroin, Ofvers. af Kgl. Vet. Akadrs Forhandl, f.
1846, p. 20.

6 Boeclc, A., Tidskrift for Fiskeri, VII, p. 26.

7 Yhlen, G. von, Goteborgs och Bohusliins llushallnings Sailskaps Qvartalsskrift,

1873, p. 205.

8 Lfybcrg, Norges Fiskerier, pp. 23, 24. — Boeclc, Om Silden, pp. 23, 24, 48.

9 Sars, G. O., Indberetning til Departernentet for det Indre om de af ham i Aarene,
1864-1873, anstillede, praktisk videnskabligo Uuders^gelser. Christiania, 1869 and

1874. Indberetuiug for 1873, p. 59.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN 133

HERRING SPAWNING IN AUTUMN.

Herring spawning in autumn are said to have been caught sometimes
near Tjorn, where, some years ago, small quantities of this same fish
were caught at the end of summer or in the beginning of autumn. G.
von Yklen thinks that this herring is related to the Dutch herring.1

THE LARGE HERRING, OR THE SO-CALLED "OLD " (GAMLA) HERRING.

' (Clupea uahusica, Nilss.)

It is frequently maintained, though not as often now as formerly,
both by old men who remember the old fisheries, and by young per-
sons, that herring of the same kind as the "old" herring, or at least
resembling it very much, are caught among the other herring, or are
observed in the open sea. I therefore feel it my duty to contribute my
share toward ascertaining the truth of this assertion, and to increase
our knowledge of this remarkable kind of herring by gathering all the
information on the subject scattered in books and reports, giving a re-
view of the different opinions regarding its appearance and disappear-
ance on the coast of Bohus-lan.

The " old " herring (" gamla" sill) was, during the period it visited
tbe coast of Bohus-lan, generally called " samsill"'3 in order to distin-
guish it from a smaller and less valuable kind. It was also called "stor-
sill," (great-herring,)3 by which name people, as they do in Norway at
the present day, intended to distinguish a kind of herring excelling the
others in size,4 and u vadsill," 5 (net-herring,) signifying a herring too
large to stick in the meshes of a net, as well as " hostsill," (autumn-her-
ring.)6

As there are no specimens of the "old" herring in any of our muse-
ums, it was necessary, in order to get some idea of its nature, to collate
accurately the different accounts regarding it obtained from the fishing
period when it was caught, or from the time near its close, when every-
thing was still fresh in the memory of men.

If we examine the answers which were given to the committee of 1833
by the fishermen, we find that they unanimously declared that7 the her-
ring which spawned in spring and which was peculiar to the coast was

1 Goteborgs och Bokusliius Husballnings Siillskaps Qvartalsskrift, July, 1867, p. 51. —
Here, as well as in A. Boeck's report, (Goteb. ocb Bob. lans Husb. Siillsk. Qvartalskr.
Oktob., 1870, p. 28 ; Tidskrift for Fiskeri, V, p. 131,) and bis more extensive work, " Om
Silden og Sildefiskerierne," (p. 122,) tbe word Holliindska" (Dutcb) sbould be substi-
tuted instead of " Hallilndska."

2 Wright, TV. von, Haudl. ror. Sillf., p. 171. — Efcstrom, Praktisk afbaudling, p. 11.

3 Xihson, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 45, 46, 62, 70, 134

4 Handl. ror. Sillf. p. 88 fr. 23, p. 90 fr. 33.
sNilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 16, 62.
*Dubb, K. Vet. Akad:s Handl. f. 1817, p. 35.

7 Only two salters, of wbom one, bowever, could only remember tbo great fishery
from bis cbildbood, were of a different opinion. Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 112 fr. 16, p. 127
fr. 17.

134 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

certainly different from the "old" herring, and stated that it differed
from it partly by variation in form,1 and partly by staying near the coast
" all the year round," (while the " old " herring came near the coast only
for a short time,)2 and by having (in the beginning of the year and in
spring) roe and milt,3 (which during that period was not generally the
case with the " old " herring,)4 by being not as large when full grown,5
by a smaller head and higher body,6 by the relative position of the
fins,7 by a different flavor,8 and finally by resembling the Kattegat-
herring.9 As a characteristic distinction, it was mentioned that the
herring coming in from the sea had a larger head, and was thinner and
smaller, than the " old " herring, and had a different flavor :10 which as-
sertions, however, have been utterly and indisputably refuted by Professor
Nilsson.11 Even from that kind of herring which is now generally called
lottsill, (wandering-herring,) and which in size occasionally exceeds the
" old " herring,12 it is said to differ somewhat, as the lottsill was said to
resemble more closely the Norwegian grabensill, (gray-bone herring,) or
have smaller scales and proportions slenderer.13 The " old" herring was
furthermore of a different race from the Norwegian grabensill, (gray-bone
herring,)14 and the Southern Kattegat and Limfjord-herring.18 If we
now consider everything that is alleged in the reports on the herring-
fisheries regarding this matter, we find that the " old " herring, accord-
ing to the account of the fishermen, differed from the " skiirgardsill,''
(coast-herring,) from the " str&ksill," (wandering-herring,) and — though
not quite so much — from the " hafslottsill," (sea-herring,) and, finally, also
from the herring caught on the western coast of Norway, in the Katte-
gat, and in the Limfjord, but that it nevertheless bore some resemblance
to the " straksill,"16 and even to the older and larger "varsill," (spring-

1 Hand!, rdr. Sillf., p. 88 fr. 23, p. 89 fr. 30, p. 90 fr. 31, pp. 95, 102, fr. 25. Also see
Lundbeck, O., Antekningar, p. 27. — Edenhielm, G. Utlatande till Commerce Collegium at
d. 2 Mars 1840.

2 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 95.

3 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 90 fr. 31, p. 120 fr. 16, p. 127 fr. 17.

4 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 89 fr. 25, p. 98 fr. 5, p. 120 fr. 12, p. 125 fr. 6.

5 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 120 fr. 13, p. 127 fr. 17 and 23.— See also Dubb, K. Vet. Akacks
Handl. f. 1817, pp. 35, 44. — Lundbeck, Antekningar, p. 27.

e Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 100 fr. 14 and 15, p. 107 fr. 24, p. 120 fr. 10, p. 127 fr. 23.
Dubb, K. Vet. Akad:s. Handl. f. 1817, p. 44. — Lundbeck, Antekningar, p. 27.
i Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 112 fr. 16.

8 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 120 fr. 10, p. 127 fr. 17 .—Lundbeck, Antekningar, p. 27.

9 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 100 fr. 15, p. 107 fr.24.— See also Dubb, K. Vet. Akad:s. Handl.
f. 1817, pp. 35, 44.

10 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 88 fr. 23, pp. 87-88 fr. 19, pp. 92, 108 fr. 32, p. 119 fr. 6, p. 126
fr. 10.

11 Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 133-135.

12 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 90 fr. 33.

"Handl. ror. Sillf* p. 88 fr. 23, p. 90 fr. 33, p. 119 fr. 7.
" Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 90 fr. 34, pp. 95, 107 fr. 25, p. 121 fr. 20— See also p. 121 fr.

21 and p. 100 fr. 16.

" Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 100 fr. 15, p. 121 fr. 20.

!6 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 119 fr. 7, p. 128,fr. 25 and 26.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 135

herring,) as " its head was smaller, the rest of the body fatter, and the
fish, when salted, of a better flavor."1

Begarding the spawning-season of the "old" herring, we know (see
"Kandlingarnetill R. St. FisJceri- Deputation dr. 1764 ")2 that the herring
" was full of roe in the beginning of the fishing-season, but empty in
November," and that "another herring, full of roe and milt, came late in
autumn and spawned later," which chiefly took place then in September
and October, though herring were also caught which spawned later in
autumn ; a circumstance which reminds one of the spring-herring.3 In
the " TrangrumsacV it is said, as is well known, " on the first arrival of
the herring, especially when it comes early to the coast, it is full of roe
and milt, while toward the end of the fishing-season it is thin, empty,
and has no roe ; "4 also, " the usual spawning-season of the herring is
on its first arrival, when it is always wild,"5 and this, if compared with
the accounts of the early history of the herring-fisheries,6 points to their
spawning in autumn, which seems to have continued thus during the
remaining portion of the fishing period, whenever the herring which
was caught toward the end of the year is mentioned as having done
spawning ;7 and the inconsiderable quantity of fish with roe which were
caught must have been got at the beginning of the fishing-season, in
November and December.8 In the " Trangrumsact " it is mentioned
that " in January, 1774, three great boat-loads of herring were caught
in the Ellosfiord, near Morlanda, which in size and thickness, with milt
and roe, exceeded all the herring which had been caught on the coast of
Bohus-Lan during the previous autumn ; " 9 but I know of no reliable
account that the " old " herring should, toward the end of the fishing-
period, have delayed spawning till far in spring, and nothing similar
is known from Western Norway, (where the great fishery was very sim-
ilar to that of Bohus-Lan,) or from any other place where herring-fish-
eries are carried on.

As regards the place where the " old " herring staid when not an ob-
ject of fishery on the coast of Bohus-Lan, opinions are much divided,
which is quite natural, as there was very little personal observation to

1 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 88 fr. 19, p. 92, p. 123 fr. 30.

2 Sundevall, C. J., Stockholuis liins Kgl. Hushallnings-Siillskaps Handlingar. VI, Stock-
holm, 1855, p. 153. — Cederstrom, G. C, Fishkodling ock Sveriges Fiskerier. Stockholm,
18G7, p. 130 och 22G anm.

3 See chapter II of this report.
4Trangruinsacten, p. 163.

6 Trangrumsacten, p. 183.

« Trangrumsacten, pp. 129, 130, 133, 134, 139, 146, 147, 150.

7 Svensson, Beriittelse om Sillfisket i Bohusliin, Gotheb. 1822, p. 18. — Handl. ror Sillf.
p. 140. — Nilsson, Handl. ror Sillf., pp. 41, 42. — Sundevall, Handl. ror Sillf., p. 158.

8 Even during the last period of the "old" fishery did fishing commence about a
month before Christmas, and herrings were often observed long before this, although
they could not be taken with nets. (See Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 104 fr. 3, p. 119 fr. 4. —
Cederstrom, Fiskodling och Sveriges Fiskerier, pp. 208-214.)

9 Trangrumsacten, p. 146.

136 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

serve as a guide, but simply more or less well-founded suppositions. In
Doctor Fagrcsus's work, " Anmdrlcningar rorande sillJisJce och tranlcolceri,"
which is embodied in the " Trangrwmact," x it is supposed, (as Bodd
and Anderson first suggested, and after them Pennant and others,) that
the herring had a common place of sojourn near the north pole, from
whence large schools emigrated every year to those places where herring-
fisheries were carried on.2 This supposition was eagerly taken up by the
oil-refiners and other comparatively educated persons on the coast of Bo-
hus-Lau,3 but did not coincide with the opinion of the uneducated fisher-
men. These latter, who distinguished the " old " herring as a " regular
sea-herring "4 from the kind of herring peculiar to the Skagerack, seem
to have considered the North Sea as its proper home ; 5 an opinion which
Professor Nilsson considered so entirely without foundation, that he did
not think it worth refuting.6 This opinion of the Bohus-liin fishermen
has been taken up by Norwegian naturalists, who had made a specialty
of the study of the herring and the herring-fisheries.7 Professor Nilsson,
on the other hand, and those who unconditionally followed him, sup-
posed that it only went a short distance from the west coast of Sweden,
" and certainly never went beyond the Skagerack."8 This opinion of
Professor Nilsson was'based on the supposition that the herring, when
not an object of fishery on the coast, lived at the bottom of the deep-
sea valleys or basins* outside the coast; and he maintained his view
chiefly by the fact that herring are often found in the stomach of the
codfish.9 Even Axel Boeclc approved of this last-mentioned opin-
ion,10 against which subsequently well-founded objections have been
raised by G. 0. Sars11 and G. C. Cederstrom,12 which, doubtless, will lead
to an entirely different view regarding this most important point in the
question of the herring-fisheries.

Closely connected with this is the question regarding the fate of the
old herring after abandoning the spawning-places on the coast of Bohus-
lan. Thirty or forty years ago our most prominent zoologists sup-
posed that the whole race of herrings, with the exception of the young
left on the coast from last year's spawning, were probably scattered

1 Trangrumsacten, pp. 95-150.

2 Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 24-28.

3 Trangrumsacten, pp. 162, 163.— Dubb, K. Vet. Akad:s Handl. f. 1817, pp. 43.
*Dubb, K. Vet.Akad:s Handl. f. 1817, p. 44.

6 See Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 53,57.
e Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 68.

7 Boeclc, A., Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne, pp. 37, 45, 46.— Sars, G. O., Indberetuing f.
1873, p. 58.

e Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 8, 68.— Nya Handl. ror. Sillf., p. x.

9 Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 7, 8, 42, 43.— Skandinav. Fauna, iv, pp. 503-508.

i°Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne, p. 47.— Tidakrift for Fiskeri. VII, pp. 18, 19.

1J Indberetning f. 1869, pp. 60-61 ; f. 1873, pp. 46-51.

"Naturkistoriska betraktelser och iaktagelser innefattande bfinvisniugar till lampliga
siitt att forska for att kuuua tilltbrlitligt utreda sillfiskarnes tillhall ocb vaudringar.
Stockholm, 1871. Tillagg, pp. 1-3.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 137

or destroyed in the sea,1 or perished in the depth of the ocean, or in an
unsuitable climate,2 though there have not been wanting suppositions
regarding spawning-places which it was said to visit afterward. Thus
Professor Mlsson, in his report of November 11, 1826, seemed inclined
to suppose that the herring, in consequence of the injudicious treatment
which it experienced among us, turned toward Jutland and Loeso;3 and
AxelBoeclc thiuks there was a connection between the Bohus-lilii and the
Scotch-Dutch fisheries.4 Oscar Andersen mentions a supposition of 0.
N. Lobcrg, according to which "the northern great herring would be of
the same kind as the old Bohus-Liin herring,'' and would therefore, at a
later period, "have turned toward the north."3 Among the professional
men, the opinion seems at first to have been common that the herring,
at least in the beginning, had gone to the southeastern part of the North
Sea;6 and afterward the opinion seems to have gained ground that
there was some intimate connection between the Norwegian spring
herring- fisheries and the Bohus-lan autumn herring-fisheries.7

As regards the causes of the re-appearance of the old herring on the
coast of Bohus-Lan in 1747, after a long absence, there has scarcely been
any dispute, although the solution of this problem would be of great
importance.8 Professor Nilsson and his followers suppose, according to
the views expressed in Handliugar rorande SillfisJcet, that those herring
which had remained over from the last great fisheries on the coast of
Bohus-lan staid undisturbed near the coast, " which, through war and
pestilence, had become depopulated," and increased gradually, unnoticed,
so that when they were " suddenly" discovered, they produced an ex-
tremely rich fishery, lasting sixty years.9 Those who suppose that the
large kind of herring are possessed of an innate desire for roaming
about, see of course in this the ouly cause of its coming to the coast
and leaving it again.10 Among the fishermen on the coast of Bohus-lan
the opinion seems to have been very common, at the beginning of the
former fishery -period, that the herring were attracted by the large num-
ber of marine articulates, which, as is well known, they prefer to any

1NUsson, Haudl. ror. Sillf., p. 66.

^Sundevall, Haudl. ror. Sillf., p. 156.

3 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 16.

4Beretuing oin Fiskeri-Udstillingen i Aalesuuu, 1664, p. 34. — Oiu Silden og Sildefiske-
rierne, p. 129.

5 Andersen, O., Bobuslens Fiskerier. Frederiksbald, 1869, pp. 10, 11.

tiLundbeck, O., Antekuingar rorande Bobuslauska Fiskerierna, i synnerbet sillfisket.
CDtlieb., 1632, p. 35.

7 Haudl. ror. Sillf., p. 85, p. 101 fr. 22, p. 141.— Nya Haudl. ror. Sillf., p. XXVIII.

8Boeck, Out Silden og Sildefiskerierue, p. 83.

^Nilsson Fornyad underdanig berattelse om fiskerierna i Bobus Liln. Stockholm, 1828,
b p. 28, anm.

l0Dubb tbougbt a periodicity iu meteorological aud bydrograpbic events was tbe cause.
— K. Vet. Akad:s Haudl. f. 1817, p. 46.

138 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

other food ;! an opinion which has recently been more fully developed
by G. 0. Sars.2

Begarding the causes of the "old" herring's disappearance from the
coast of Bohus-lan there has been a great variety of opinion, and the
dispute has often waxed hot. At a very early period of the "old"
fisheries it was expected that they would some time come to an end,3
and people, therefore, discussed the question of the possible causes of
such an event, and the means which should be used to prevent such a
national calamity, and laws were passed with a view to such a contin-
gency.4 Passing over the more mythical causes of the disappear-
ance of the herring, which were given from time to time, and which,
doubtless, found the greatest favor among the common people, the fol-
lowing may be assigned as the chief causes of such an event:

1. That tJie herrings were gradually destroyed, so that the schools be-
came smaller and smaller toward the end of the fishing-period 5 — by
" excessive fishing ;"6 by catching the young herring in nets with narrow
meshes j7 by preventing the herring from reaching the most conven-
ient spawning-places ;8 and by the consequent destruction of the roe ;9
and by unfavorable weather, " an unusual appearance of fish of prey,
birds of prey," " want of food," &c, &c; " and other influences inju-
rious to the roe, the young, and the full-grown fish." 10

2. Tliat the lierrings were "slowly and persistently driven away ;"n — by
noise;13 by the excessive number of fishermen ; 13 'by the use of injurious

JR. St. Fiskeri-Deputations Handlingar, 1760-1772. — Enl. Cedersirom, Fiskodling ock
Sveriges Fiskerier, p. 141.
2Indberetning for Aaret, 1873, p. 58.

3 R. St. Fiskeri-Deputations beriittel.se om fiskeriernas tillstand i Riket gifven vid
Riksdagen d. 18Maj 1772. — Eul. Cedersirom., Fiskodling ock Sveriges Fiskerier, p. 192.

4 Trangramsacten, pp. 151, 152, 108.
6 HandL ror. Sillf., p. 98, fr. 8.

6 Nilsson, Fornyad rmderdanig beriittelse om Fiskerierna i Bonus Liin. Stockholm,
1828, pp.22, 29.— Handl. ror.Sillf., p. 47.— Skandinavisk Fauna, iv, pp.505, 514.— Widegrcn,
Handlingar ock upplysningar rorande Sveriges Fiskerier, i, p. 51 ; iv, pp. 12, 36. — Nya
Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 32, 33, 38, 39.

7 Nilsson, Skaudinav. Fauna, iv, pp. 507,514. — Wright, TV. von, Handl. ror. Sillf., p.
174. See also, Krfyyer, H., Danmarks Fiske, iii, p. 164.

8 Nilsson, Fornyad underdanig beriittelse om Fiskerierna i Bohus Liin. Stockholm,
1328, p. 30.

9 Trangramsacten, pp. 163-164, 171. — Nilsson, Skandinav. Fauna, iv, p. 515. — For-
nyad underd. beriittelse. Stockh. 1828, p. 30.

10 Cederstrb'm, G. C, Fiskodling och Sveriges Fiskerier, pp. 208, 213, anm., 216.—
Krcpyer, Danmarks Fiske, iii, pp. 162, 163.

"Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 17, 73-74, 138.— Sundevall, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 152,
154. — Love'n, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 163.

liNiUson, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 17, 18,41, 138.— Skandinav. Fauna, iv, p. 505. — Lund-
beck, Antekningar, pp. 34-38.— Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 87 fr. 16, p. 99 fr. 10.— Sundevall,
Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 152.— Wright, TV. von, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 172.

13 Nilsson, Fornyad underd. beriittelse, Stockh. 1828, p. 23, anm— Handl. ror. Sillf.,
p. 17.— Skandinav. Fauna, iv, p. 505.— Widegren, Nya Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 33.— Boeclc,
Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne, p. 85.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 139

fishing-implements;1 by interfering with the spawning-process f- by in-
terfering with the spaioning -places generally,3 and particularly by drag-
nets,4 or by throwing offal in the water;5 by leaving dead ■ herring at the
bottom of the sea ;6 by throwing the guth and gills of fish into the water f
by polluting the water through offal of blubber and similar matter;8 by
the increasing number of the enemies of the herring.9

3. That the herrings left the coast from an innate desire of roaming. w

4. That the herrings were obliged to leave, because there was no longer a
sufficient supply of food.11

The validity of these causes has been disputed almost immediately
after they had been put forward, and even now there is not one of them
which has been unanimously recognized as the probable cause of the
repeated disappearance of the great Bohus-lan fisheries.12 It was thus,
c. g., denied at the inquest of 1833 that the herring was destroyed
through too much fishing,13 and that it was driven away by noise,u offal
of blubber,15 &c.

A more extensive and valuable criticism of these supposed causes
has been given by Kroyer,16 0. N. Ldberg,17 Axel Boeclc,13 and others.

I Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 17, 138.— Skandinav. Fauna, iv, pp. 501, 505. — Widegren,
Nya Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 33.

- Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 51, n. b. — Loven, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 161. Nya Handl. ror.
•Sillf., p. 04.

3 Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 51, n. b. — Sundevall, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 153. — Widegren,
Nya Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 33.

4 Loven, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 161, 162. — Ekstrom, Praktisk af handling, pp. 7, 19.
Nilsson, Skandinav. Fauna, iv, pp. 514-515. — Widegren, Nya Handl. ror. Sillf., ]). 33.

6 Trangrumsacten, pp. 158, 161, 163,164, 167, 186-187. — Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 41.—
Skandinavisk Fauna, iv,p. 514. — Sundevall, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 152, 153. — Loven, Handl.
ror. Sillf., p. 161. — Elcstrom, Praktisk af handling, pp. 7-8.

« Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 99 fr. 10.— Lundbeck, Autekuingar, pp. 32-33.— Wright, W. von,
Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 174. — Sars, G. 0., Indberetuiug f. 1873, p. 45. Trangrumsacten, pp.
177, 182.

7 Loven, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 161.

s Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 41, 138.— Skandinav. Fauna, iv, pp. 505, blA.—Lundlecl:,
Autekuingar, p. 31. — Lov6n, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 161. — Wright, W. von, Handl. ror. Sillf.,
pp. 172-174. — Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 94, p. 116 fr. 9. — Trangrumsacten, pp. 153, 154, 155, 165,
172, 176, 183, 185, 186, 188.

^ Dull, K., Vet. Akad:s Handl. f. 1817, p. 45.

io Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 94, p. 99 fr. 9, p. Ill fr. 7, p. 115 fr. 7, p. 128 fr. 24.— Yarrell,
British Fishes, 3 ed., i, p. 101. — Boeclc, Om Sildeu og Sildefiskerierne, p. 85.

II Sars, G. O., Indberetuiug f. 1873, p. 58. — Cedcrstrbm, Fiskodling och Sveriges Fiske-
xier, p. 213 anm., 216. Trangrumsacten, pp. 164, 167. — Lundleclc, Antekningar, p. 26. —
Mosen, A. von, Yttrande till Commerce-Collegium d. 8 Juli 1829.

12 Boeclc, Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne, p. 85.

13 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 87 fr. 15 p. 98 fr. 8, p. 110 fr. 4, p. 122 fr. 23, p. 128 fr. 24.— Nils-
son, Handl. ror. Sillf., pp. 137-138.

" Handl. ror, Sillf., p. 92, 95, 99 fr. 10, p. 115 fr. 8, p. 122 fr. 23, p. 128 fr. 24.
» Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 99 fr. 10, p. 105 fr. 13, p. 110 fr. 5, p. 115 fr. 9, p. 121 fr. 23, p.
128 fr. 24.

16Danmarks Fiske., iii, pp. 164-167.

17 Norges Fiskerier, pp. 8, 9.

I80m Silden og Sildefiskerierne, pp. 86-102, 119.

140 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The enormous masses in which the herrings appear must doubtlessr
if they select a narrow bay as their spawning-place, produce quite a
change in the nature of the coast, both by their becoming with their
roe and young ones the food of numerous marine animals, and by the
food which they and their young ones eat, which change may finally
assume such dimensions that the coast becomes unsuitable as a spawn-
ing-place. On the coast of Bohus-lan unfavorable weather has contrib-
uted not a little toward bringing about such a change. Because a tem-
perature of + 3° C. has no destructive effect, it cannot be maintained
that a still lower temperature, with its consequent formation of bottom-
ice, will not prove injurious.1 Not sufficient attention seems to have
been paid to the very destructive effect which several severe winters,
.'ollowing close one upon the other, must have had on the spawning-
places of the herring, especially on the outer coast.

Another question which is closely related to that of the disappear-
ance of the " old" herring is, why, during the fishing-period, the herrings
came to the coast at different seasons of the year. Already during the
first half of the last fishing-period, it was observed in Bohus-lan that
the herrings commenced to come later, and people began to fear " that
the herrings, as had happened repeatedly in former times, to the irrep-
arable injury of the province and the whole kingdom, would leave the
coasts of Sweden."2 People began to inquire into the possible causes
of such an event, and attempts were made through various laws and
regulations to prevent so dire a calamity.3 After the herring-fisheries
had ceased in the year 1808, people thought that in this circumstance
they had a proof that the herring had been driven away by the coast-
population, and the same causes were given for it as were supposed to
have brought about the stoppage of the fisheries. By Axel BoecWs in-
vestigations this whole question entered upon a new phase. He showed
that there always had existed, in this respect, a very remarkable simi-
larity between the great Bohus-liiu fisheries and the Norwegian spring-
herring-fisheries,4 a circumstance which gives increased weight to the
point in question, and possibly contains the key to the question of the
periodicity of the great Scandinavian herring-fisheries. Bocclc has not,
however, attempted to assign any cause for the later arrival of the herring
during the fishing-period, but this has recently been done by G. 0. Sars.6
Regarding the appearance of the herring on different places of the
coast during the fishing-period, Boeck seems to have pointed out the

lBoeck, A., Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne, p. 119.— Widegren, Nya Handl. ror Sillf„
p. 38. — Cederstrom, Fiskodling och Sveriges Fiskerier, p. 216.— Edlund, Ofvers. .if kgl.
Vet. Akad:s Forhandl. f. 1883, p. 372 ; f. 1865, p. 209.

2 R. St. Fiskeri-Deputations beriittelse orn fiskeriornas tillstand i Rikct afgifvcn vid
Riksdagen d. 18 Maj. 1772.— Enl. Cederstrom, Fiskodling ock Sveriges Fiskerier, p. 192.

3 Trangrumsacten, pp. 151-154, 158, 1G6.
4Om Silden og Sildefiskerierne, pp. 102-110.
6 Indberetning for Aaret 1S73, pp. 55-5G.

HEKRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 141

similarities to the Norwegian spring-herring-fishery, and passed by the
differences. With regard to the Bohus-liin fishery, this fact may be
explained by well-known meteorological and hydrographic conditions.
It is also evident, that if fishing, as is done near the coasts of Scotland,
had been carried on with floating nets, the above-mentioned facts
would not have become prominent as they are now in consequence of
fishing with stationary nets.

Nothing remains now, in conclusion, but to account for the assertion
that herring "resembling" the " old" herring had been caught near the
coast of Bohus-liin, or in the open sea near that coast, and to examine
this assertion a little more closely.

At the meetings held by the committee of inquiry in 1833, the opinion
of the fishermen that "herring resembling the old" herring had been
caught among the other herring was upheld by a majority of those pres-
ent only at two places, viz, in Stromstad1 and in Kladesholinen.2 If
we compare the reports given by the fishermen at the former of these
places with those given on the same occasion by Mr. JSForberg, a whole-
sale dealer, we find that the coast-herring, although distinctly different
from the " old " herring, was still thought to resemble it in some cases,3
and thatthelarger herring, which was otherwise caught, was the so-called
straksill, (wandering herring,)4 which latter race is still declared to be
the same as the "old" herring, or, at least, is said to resemble it very
much, by old men in Stromstad. It does not, therefore, seem improb-
able that either of these species of herring was meant by the answers
given to the nineteenth question put by the committee. If we further
compare the latter of the above-mentioned answers with those received
in the same place to the seventh question, it also appears that another
kind of herring was thought to resemble the " old " herring. The answer
to the thirtieth question,5 however, undoubtedly implies the coast-her-
ring.6 As the answers given by the salters Schiller and Mjoberg7 were
disputed by all the fishermen present, and as the former of these men
had only witnessed the " old " fisheries when very young, and both evi-
dently meant the coast-herring, these answers may chiefly have been
called forth by the couviction — discarded at a later time — of the cor-
rectness of Professor Niteson's views. Mjoberg was the only person who,
at the inquest of 1833, positively asserted that herring was constantly being
caught on the coast of.Bokus-lan which not only resembled the " old" her-
ring, but was of the same kind. If we compare the answers received at

1 Handl. r6r. Sillf., p. 87-88 fr. 19.

2 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 123 fr. 30.

3 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 92.

4 Handl. rcir. Sillf., p. 95.

• Handl. ror. Sillf, p. 123.

6 See Norlerg's, Schiller's, and Mjoberg's similar answers: Handl. ror. Sillf, p. 92, p
112 fr. 16, p. 127 fr. 17.— Elcstrom, 6fvers. af Kgl. Vet. Akad:s Forhandl. f 1848, p. 84
■> Handl. rik\ Sillf, p. 112 fr. 16, p. 127 fr. 17, p. 123 fr. 28.

142 EEPOET OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHEPJES.

Fjellbacka and Gullkoliaen regarding herring " resembling " the " old 'r
herring, which were taken from the stomachs of cod-fish,1 with the an-
swers received at Grebbestad, where herring found under the same cir-
cumstances were described in such a manner as to leave no doubt that
coast-herring were meant,2 (which is also confirmed by W. von Wright's
report on the herring-fisheries in Bohus-liin during the winter 1842-'43,3)
and with the answers received at Kiiidesholmen and Kalfsund, (where
herriug obtained under such circumstances were declared to have been
of different size4 or altogether sea-herring,5) and if we take into consid-
eration the fact that it is always more or less difficult to ascertain to
what kiud of herring a badly-preserved specimen belongs, such accounts
can scarcely be considered as of any great importance. Still less weight
can be attached to the accounts received at Fjellbacka, that herring re-
sembling the " old " herring had been seen in the Kattegat,6 as the fish-
ermen on the northern coast, neither at that time nor later, have carried
on any great fisheries, and as entirely different accounts were received
from the central and southern coasts,7 where such fisheries were carried
on. It must also be remembered that although the correctness of the
minutes of these meetings was certified, still there might have been
expressions used which might have been misunderstood by a clerk not
entirely familiar with the coast population, a case which seems still
more probable, as the questions were, perhaps, not always propounded
in a form most intelligible to the fishermen. During the more produc-
tive sea-herring-fisheries it happens not unfrequently that some old per-
son who either remembered the " great n fisheries, or has, in his youth,
heard some lively traditions regarding them — and who, consequently,
is considered more knowing in such questions than other persons —
asserts that herring of the old kind have been caught,8 which joyful
news then goes the round of the papers, awakening anew among a por-
tion of the coast-population the hope that another great herring-fishery
is near at hand.9 Thus it happened last winter that an old woman, who
could well remember the former fisheries, declared most emphatically
that she recognized " great " herring among the larger herring caught
with the sea-herring. The mackerel-fishers occasionally observe schools

1 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 107 fr. 22, p. 108 fr. 31, p. 117 fr. 13.
3 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 100 fr. 15.

3 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 106.

4 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 119 fr. 8.— Nilsson, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 46.
6 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 126 fr. 15.

6 Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 107 fr. 22, p. 108 fr. 31.

* Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 116 fr. 13, p. 119 fr. 8, p. 126 fr. 15.

8 Wright, W. von, Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 172.— Ekstrom, Ofvers. af Kgl. Vet. Akad:s F6r-
handl. f. 1848, p. 84.

9 Lundbeck, Antekningar, p. 24, 25. — Edenhielm, G., Utlatande till Commerce-Collegium
af d. 2 Mars 1840.— Ekstrom, Ofvers. af Kgl. Vet. Akadrs Forhandl. f. 1844, p. 26.—
Yhlen, G. von : Goteborgs. ocli Bohusliins. Husuallnings-Sullskaps. Qvartalskrift Juli
1870, p. 16.— Nya Handl. ror. Sillf., p. 11.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 143

of large sea-herring, but I have been unable to obtain any account
regarding it, which would not have been the case if such fish really were
found in any considerable numbers in the Skagerak.1

Among the small herring different kinds are also distinguished, and
the eminent ichthyologist Kroiier has described one of these as a sepa-
rate species under the name of Clupea Schoneveldi.2 Professor Nilsson
has distinguished " a longer and small northern, variety " from the south-
ern, to which the Clupea Schoneveldi Kr. belongs.3 Von Yhlen has, on
tke.Bohus-lan coast, distinguished •"small herring coming from the sea"
and " small herring belonging to the coast," without, however, asserting
that they are two different species.4

My. personal observations have not yet enabled me to explain fully
whether the different herrings and small herrings are in reality different
species or not. From what has been said it will be seen that this whole
question can only be answered satisfactorily after the most careful ob-
servations have been carried on for years, and by a critical comparison
of specimens of every age obtained at different seasons of the year. At
the first superficial glance the difference of species- seems easily decided,
but on a closer examination one difficulty after the other presents itself.
And still, if the question of the herring-fisheries is to be answered satis-
factorily and practically, these difficulties must be so completely over-
come, that a sufficient knowledge is obtained of the period when each of
these species is generally caught on the coast, and of the quantities
which are caught.

II. — OF THE PROPAGATION AND GROWTH OF THE HERRING AND

SMALL-HERRIN G.

The spawning of the spring-herring goes on during the months of
March, April, and May,5 in suitable places on the coast, of which
only a few are generally known, because the fishing with stationary
nets, which are the most convenient for catching spawning-herring,6
is not common in Bohuslan ; and also because drag-nets can be
used only in exceptional cases in those places where the herrings
spawn. A bottom free from stones and rocks, and perfectly even,
is very seldom found on the coast of Bohuslan, since, over a hilly bot-
tom, which offers the best places for spawning, the drag-nets cannot gen-
erally be drawn. It seems that the herring also often spawns on a
clayey bottom, overgrown with aquatic plants. Of well-known spawning-

1 Sars, G. 0., Indberetning f. 1873, p. 54.

3 Dantnarks Fiske, iii, p. 138.

3 Skandinavisk Fauna, iv, p. 518-520.

4Goteborgs och Bohuslilns Hushallnings-Siillskaps Qvartalsskrift, Juli 1871, p. 52;
Juli 1872, p. 50-51.

6 It is supposed, bowever, tbat tbe larger spring-berring spawns somewhat earlier on
the northern and central coasts, beginning even in February ; Dubb, however, main-
tains that the herring on the southern coast continues to spawn till some time in June.
(Reports of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, pp. 35, 44.)

6 See Journal of Pisciculture, VII, p. 20.

144 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

places, there maybe mentioned Bjornsund, in Dyne'kilen, where the herring
spawns on a hilly bottom, and is caught in stationary nets ; Ozevik, and
other places in the sound between Bolccniis and Orost,1 Ulkehdlet,2 and
Hummer nund3 and several localities near Tjorn, as well as the farms of
Hiistevik, Andal, Ardal, and Gdsesundf on the Hisingen coast, &c.5 The
herrings which spawn in March and April are generally larger than
those spawning in May ? the latter being considered the younger, and
spawning for the first time.6 This so-called May herring is often found
among those two years old, sometimes even with those one year old, and
sometimes with still younger herring. After mild winters and in favor-
able weather, the spawning begins somewhat earlier than otherwise/
though the spawning-time of the spring-herring seems to have been
invariably the same, if we may judge from what can be inferred with
any degree of certainty from the more or less clear accounts concerning
the fishing for spring-herring and its spawning, found in the "Trangrums
AcV* concerning the blubber-refineries, in DubVs report on the herring-
fisheries in Bohuslan,9 in the reports on the herring-fisheries,10 and in
Ekstroirfs reports.11 -

The young herring generally begins to make its appearance in the
early part of May, and grows so rapidly that toward the end of
the year it has reached a length of from 2 J to 3£ inches.12 Hav-
ing measured a large number of herring which were caught during
the latter half of May, I found the most of them can be divided
into three groups, according to their size, viz, those measuring about
4 inches in length, which must be considered as one year's fish ; those
of from 5 \ to 6 inches, probably two years'" fish; and those of about 6|
inches, which were supposed to be three years old, and had completely
developed sexual organs. Some fish were occasionally found with flow-
ing spawn, measuring only about 2£ inches ; and some measuring some-
what more, but not yet ripe for spawning the same year. Larger fish,

1 Wright, W. von, Reports on Herring-Fisheries, p. 166.

2 Wright, TV. von, Reports on Herring-Fisheries, p. 166. Ekstrom, Review of the Reports
of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1844, pp. 26, 82.

3 Nilsson, Scandinavian Fauna, IV, p. 509.

4 Bubo, Reports of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, pp. 35, 44.

6 Compare, also, G. von Yhlen,' Quarterly Journal of the Gottenburg and Bohusliin
Economical Society, July, 1871, p. 51.

6 This, possibly, was also the case with the " old " herring during the former great
fisheries. Compare " Reports to the Royal Fishing Deputation for the Year 1764 ;" also,
Sundevall, Reports of the Royal Economical Society of Stockholm, Liin VI, p. 153; and
Cederstrom, The Propagation of Fish and the Swedish Fisheries, pp. 130, 226.

7 Ekstrom, Reports of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1844, p. 120. Practical Essay,
p. 8.

8 Trangrums Ad, pp. 76, 77, 78.

9 Reports of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, pp. 35, 44.

10 Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 64, 66, 90, fr. 31 ; p. 117, fr. 16, 17 ; p. 120, fr. 11,
16 ; p. 126, fr. 27. New Reports Concerning the Herring-Fisheries, pp. ix, x.

11 Reports of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1844, p. 120. Practical Essay, p. 8.

12 Counting from the point of the lower jaw to the root of the caudal fin.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 145

measuring about 8 inches, are probably four years old. The spring-
herring sometimes reach a length of more than 12 inches, but even spec-
imens of 9| inches are rare. The Bohuslan herring seems, therefore,
to spawn as early as at the age of three, although I do not wish to con-
vey the idea that all the herring sprung from the same year's spawn
begin to spawn at that age ; but it seems rather as if one portion did not
reach their maturity till their fourth year. The circumstances that the
herring spawns during three whole nionths, and that therefore there is
a considerable difference in the ages of those that are produced first
and those produced last, that some have better chances for securing
food than others, taken in connection with other more or less accidental
circumstances, explain the fact that fish of all possible sizes are fre-
quently taken from the same net.

As to the age at which the herring spawns for the first time, opinions
have been much divided, both among Scandinavian naturalists and
those persons who have devoted their life to the herring-fisheries. Pro-
fessor Nilsson, from information received from " trustworthy fishermen,"
assumes that u no fish spawns in the second year," and that " the her-
ring does not spawn till the fifth or sixth year."1 Dean EJcstrom con-
siders those herring which measure 6 inches (counted from the point of
the nose to the anal fin) to be two years old ; those measuring from 10
to 13 inches, from four to five years old ; and adds that " the herring
found in Bohuslan does not spawn till it measures from 7 to 8 inches,
counting the whole length."2 Prof. G. J. Sundevall, who has made ob-
servations on the growth of the herring on the coast near Stockholm,
thinks that it becomes capable of spawning when it is from three to
four years old.3 Mr. Widegren, superintendent of fisheries, thinks that
the herring is fit to spawn when it is " about three years old."4 Axel
Boeck was inclined to think " that the youngest herring when spawn-
ing is scarcely less than three years old, and certainly not more than
four," although he could not give any sufficient reason for this view,"5
•but at the same time said that persons who had been long employed in
fishing had told him that the herring, when able to spawn, must be from
six to eight years old.6 G. 0. Sars, also, seems to have been of the

1 Report on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 45, 47, 51, 59,

2 Practical Essay, pp. 10, 11.

3 Reports of the Royal Economical Society of the Stockholm District, vol. VI, pp. 105,
151.

4 Some Remarks on the Herring and its proper Preparation for an Article of Com-
merce, Stockholm, 1871, p. 4.

6 On Herring and Herring-Fisheries, pp. 36, 37. Piscicultural Journal, VII, p. 20.

6 On Herring and Herring-Fisheries, p. 36. Piscicultural Journal, VII, pp. 20, 21.
In the Morning Journal, of November, 1872, Boeck gives a fuller account of similar in-
formation given him by a professional man, Dahl, regarding the six years' development
of the herring. According to this, it is called on the west coast of Norway "musse,"
when it is one year old; "leaf-herring," when two years; "Christiania-herring," when
three years ; " middle herring," when four years ; " merchants' herring," when five
years; and "spring-herring," when six years old; all which terms seem to be very old
in Norway.
10 F

146 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

same opinion as Professor Nilsson, and at first thought that the herring
became capable of spawning at the age of five years, but afterward as-
signed the age of six years.1

Fishermen generally assume that the small-herring has roe and milt
during the spring and early summer, and some of them have observed
the young of the small-herring some time, after spawning. The spawn-
ing of the small-herring may, like that of the herring proper, be delayed
or hastened by the weather, but otherwise does' not seem to change as
to the time when it takes place. In the reports of Mr. P. Clancey, made
in his capacity of superintendent of herring-fisheries, to the Eoyai
Chamber of Commerce, it is said, e. g., that on the 11th March, 1811,
" herring and small-herring were caught having both roe and milt,"2
which implies that spawning would have taken place at most from
three to four months later. Hence we may conclude that one cannot
assume any advance in the spawning-time of the small-herring, in order
to explain Nilsson's, Wilhelm von Wright's, and Ekstrom's different views,
since these men take the autumn to be the spawning-season of the' small-
herring.3 Prof. C. J. Sundevall has found that the small-herring on the
coast of the Stockholm district spawns at the end of June and in July,4
and therefore about the same time as in Bohuslan. Kroger says of
the Clupea sprattus that " its spawning-season is mostly in August, but
that it begins as early as the latter half of June, and sometimes extends
to September,"5 and of the Clupea Schoneveldi that " in males caught
early in the spring the milt was found to be considerably developed,"6
which points to a somewhat earlier spawning-season for the last-named
variety.

The few observations which I have been able to make on this point
prove that the spawning of the small-herring on the central coast begins
at the end of May or the first of June. Its spawning-season may, pos-
sibly, begin somewhat earlier on the northern coast and a little later
on the southern coast.7 Small-herring caught in the autumn or winter
never have any roe or milt, a circumstance which could easily be ascer-
tained in the preparation of the so-called boneless anchovies ; and yet
they are not very thin either, which shows that they cannot have
spawned immediately before the commencement of the fisheries. The
small-herring which I had occasion to observe during the spring is

'Report for 1872, pp. 38, 39; Report for 1873, p. 44, note.

sCederstrom, Fish-Culture ami the Swedish Fisheries, p. 215.

*Nilson, Prodromus Ichthyologiae Scandinavicae, p. 22. Scaudinavisk Fauna, IV,
p. 521. Wright, W. von, Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 167, 175. Ekstrom, Prac-
tical Essay, pp. 9, 103 ; Review of the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
for 1844, p. 26.

* Reports of the Royal Economical Society for the District of Stockholm, VI, pp.
109, 185-187.

e Denmark's Fish, III, p. 191.

•Denmark's Fish, III, p. 201.

''Nilsson, Scaudinavisk Fauna, IV, p. 521.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 147'

smaller, and is more like the variety Schoneveldi Kr. than those which
I saw caught on the northern coast toward the end of last year.

It is said that the young of the small-herring begin to show them-
selves in the northernmost portion of the coast about midsummer, or in
the beginning of July. I cannot give auy information gathered from
other persons, as to how rapidly the small herring grows, and how old
it is when it spawns for the first time ; and the observations made by
myself are still too few and incomplete to draw from them any accurate
conclusion. But as I have, in the mean time, received from Kalfsund
small-herring, measuring not quite 100 millimeters, (96-97,) whose sex-
ual organs were considerably developed ; and as most of those which I
procured at Tjorn during May, and which were capable of spawning,
only measured from 100 to 110 millimeters, it seems to me not improb-
able that the small-herring can spawn for the first time when it is two
years old j although I believe that this is by no means the case with all
the fish born during the same season. The largest small herring which
I could get measured 149 millimeters, but even specimens measuring
140 millimeters are very rare.

III. — OF THE HERRING'S AND SMALL-HERRING'S MODE OF LIFE ; ITS MI-
GRATIONS, AND THE DEPENDENCE OF THESE LATTER ON METEOR-
OLOGIC AND HYDROGEAPHIC CIRCUMSTANCES.

As I was able to make but few personal observations on these points,
I endeavored to ascertain from experienced fishermen on the coast what
they had observed, and then compared their observations with all the
literature on the subject which was accessible to me, in order to find how
far discrepancies existed.

The herring and small-herring are usually found in separate schools
and do not intermingle. They seem not to get on well together, and
must be considered rather as enemies of each other. If, therefore, her-
ring are caught in auy considerable numbers during the small-herring
fisheries, it is considered an unfavorable omen. When the larger spring-
herring goes to its spawning-places in great schools, it is not generally
found consorting with any small-herring.1 The large herring is con-
sidered dangerous to the young-herring,2 and is said, when found in any
large numbers, to drive away all the other herring, and is therefore dis-
liked by fishermen on the northern coast.

In seine-fishing, the herring generally seems to be very much afraid
of the seine,3 and cannot often be caught in this manner. The differ-
ent degrees of clearness of the water plays an important part in this
operation, and seiue-fishiug by daytime can, at present, be carried on
only on the southern coast, where the more turbid water from the rivers*

1 Report on the Herring-Fisheries, p. Ill fr. 8.

*Ekstrdm, Review of Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1846, p. 20.

3 H. Easch and B. If. Berg, Memorial and Petition, pp. 10, 33.

4 F. Ekman, On the Sea-Water on the Coast of Bohusliin, p. 25.

148 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

prevents the herring from noticing the seine till it is too late. The
large herring is not near as bold a fish as the small-herring, and does
not make any serious attempts to escape ; while the latter, as soon as
the seine is hauled on land, boldly pushes against the meshes trying to
get out, resembling somewhat in this respect the pilchard.1

The chief food of the herring on the coast of Bohuslan consists of
small insects, (" Ganeskar,") which are found, especially during the
warm season,2 in great numbers.

The herring seems to like those gulfs into which some large river
empties ; and the Skagerack spring-herring is consequently found in very
great abundance near the mouths of the Gota Eiver and the Glommen,
(where it has been caught with stationary nets from time immemorial.)
This may arise from the facts that it finds more food there, and be-
cause the less salty and more turbid water offers a better protection,
especially upon the part of the young fish against enemies.3

In former times, the large herring often ascended the river as far as
Goteborg, and once it was found near Tingstad, a mile from Nya Elfs-
borg.*

The herring is found at a greater depth in cold than in warm weather;5
and when there is ice, it has sometimes been observed to pass under it.6
Near Kalfsuud, it has been found that there is frequently good herring-
fishing immediately after the breaking-up of the ice.7 This always im-
plies a change from land-wind and cool weather to sea- wind and milder
weather.

When the water grows warmer, the young herriug move to the shallow
places; but when cold weather sets in, they move to deep water. It
has been observed, near Hisingen, that during the summer the young-
herring like to come to the mouth of the river when there is an east
wind,8 but otherwise they follow the stream out on the coast. After
mild winters, and during particularly mild spring weather, the spring-
herring begin to spawn somewhat earlier, and the fisheries consequently
begin at an earlier period than otherwise.9

At the beginning of the u old" fisheries, when the herring still came
near the coast during the warm season, the land-wind was considered
most favorable to the fisheries; but since the herring have begun to

1 Yarrell, British Fishes, 3d ed., I, pp. 143-144.

2 Ekstrom, Review of the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1346, pp.
181-182.

3 Dubb, Reports of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1S17, pp. 35, 44. Nilsson, Re-
ports on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 57, 59, 64.

4 Act concerning Blubber-Refineries, p. 98. — Dubb, Reports of the Royal Academy of
Sciences for 1817, p. 35.

6 J. M. Mitchell, The Herring, its Natural History and National Importance, Edin-
burg, 1864, p. 28.

6 Ccdarstrom, Fish-Culture and the Swedish Fisheries, p. 211.

7 Reports on Herring-Fisheries, p. 129 fr. 28.
8Nilsson, Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 64.

9 Ekstrom, Review of the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1844,
p. 120.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 149

approach the coast during the cold season, this is no longer the case.1
This change has been attributed to the blubber-refining establishments.
An east wind increases the saltness and purity of the sea-water,2 but it
retards the current coming from the North Sea toward the gulfs, and
consequently lowers its temperature during the cold season, and favors
the formation of ice. As to the most favorable time for fishing, (which,
as is well known, is chiefly carried on during the warm season,) the old
saying holds good: "fine and steady iceather icith high water"3 is best.
A land-wind and low water are generally considered unfavorable ; 4 while
a change, indicated by rising water and falling weather, is considered
good.5 On the Fjellbacka coast, and in several other places, it has been
noticed that the herring goes out from the coast " to meet storm and
foul weather;"6 but that after the storm fishing is very good again.7

During the spring-herring fisheries near Hisingen, the herring are
said to move, during the land-wind, farther up toward the mouth of the
river, and there is then good fishing near Gasesund and Ardal, and near
Ny-Elfsborg j while during the west and south wind, the best fishing is
near Andal and Hastevik. Very mild winters, with continuing violent
sea- winds, are thought to drive the sea-herring to the coast.8

Although I think it proper not to increase the number of suppositions
regarding the herring and the herring-fisheries, (which, by the way, is
easy enough, even with only a very superficial knowledge of the her-
ring-literature,) I deem it best not to omit noticing in this place the
similarity between the approach of the so-called sea-herring to the coast
of Bohuslan, and the direction which the current of the sea takes
from the North Sea to the Skagerack. This current flows from Skagen
toward the Paternoster Eock, just outside of which it turns toward the
north, and then follows the coast.9 Fishing for those herring which
come from the sea usually commences near Tjorn and the Marstrand
Islands, from which the herring spread toward the south and north.10 In
this latter case, they follow the current of the sea, and as this leaves the

1 Act Concerning the Blubber-Refineries, pp. 176, 177.

2 Ekman, On the Sea- Water on the Coast of Bohuslan, p. 26.

3 Act Concerning the Blubber-Refineries, p. 84.

4Dubb, Reports of tiie Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, p. 46.
6 Mitchell, The Herring, p. 33.

6 Act Concerning the Blubber-Refineries, p. 73. Wright, W. von, Report concerning
the Herring-Fisheries, p. 167. Mitchell, The Herring, pp. 97-98.

7 Dubb, Reports of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, p. 46. Mitchell, The Her-
riag, p. 98.

8 Act Concerning Blubber-Refineries, p. 177. Report on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 86
fr. 11, p. 113 fr. 22, p. 128 fr. 27. Mitchell, The Herring, pp. 28, 33.

9 Klint, G. af, The Bohus Bay and the Kattegat, Stockholm, 1840, p. 89. Arwidsson, Th.
The Bohus Bay and the Kattegat, Stockholm, 1869, p. 3. Ekman, F., On the Sea- Water
near the Coast of Bohuslan, p. 23.

10 Reports of the Fishery-Commission, 1760-72. Cederstrom, Fish-Culture and the
Swedish Fisheries, p. 131. Act Concerning Blubber Refineries, p. 6. 2)<4&&rReports.of
the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, p. 34. Wright, TV. von, Report on the Herring-
Fisheries, p. 174.

150 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

coast north of Sotenas the sea-herring fisheries on the northern coast
hare been less certain and comparatively less productive than those
on the central and southern coasts.1 The reason why the " old " herring,
in the beginning of the fishing period, moved farther south, and toward
the end of the same period more toward the north, must be found, no
doubt, in the uneven temperature of the respective portions of the sea
toward the end of the summer and the beginning of autumn on toward
winter. It is possible that the so-called " deep trough," from which there
is a branch toward the Marstrand Bay, has likewise some influence on
the route which the herrings take when they approach the coast.

The current of the sea, which enters the Skagerack with considerable
violence, of course facilitates the movement of the herring, and by main-
taining a more even temperature has doubtless great influence on their
migrations.

IV. — OF THE HERRING-FISHERIES, THEIR TIME AND PLACE.

The common coast-herring fishery is, in Bohuslan, generally of but
little importance, and is carried on mostly for the every-day supply of
the inhabitants of the coast ; but, by the combination of several favora-
ble circumstances, it is sometimes more productive and even quite remu-
nerative. This fishery is carried on along the whole coast of Bohus.
Ian, although it is only important in the northern portion, and near
Hisingen. During the autumn, especially in October, small quantities
of the so-called " autumn herring " are caught between Hafstensund
and the Sacke Bay. A few fish of this kind have been caught occasion-
ally, even on the Fjellbacka coast. From the beginning of March on
through the spring, so-called spring-herring have been taken with sta-
tionary nets in Dynekilen, (a bay,) and in the Ide Bay, and such fish,
with loose roe and milt, have been sold during March in Stromstad for
12i cents a score. This herring-fishery, although of no great impor-
tance, is carried on even with small drag-nets, in several localities both
on the northern and central coasts, but chiefly on the latter, where, in
some places, e. g., Ulkaehalet and Hakeniis, both belonging to the district
of Tjorn, it has furnished an ample supply for the households of the
fishermen ; while, in other places, e. g., Hummersund and Stockeviken,
both situated on the southern side of the Tjorn Promontory, the fishiug
has been exceedingly poor. Fish for household-supply have also been
caught with stationary nets in some other places on this coast. Near
Hisingen, the spring-herring fisheries have, this year as well as during
previous years, been very good. This fishery commences about the
middle of March, and is generally continued till the middle of June.
The first herring caught, which are the proper spring-herring, are some-
what larger, and much less mixed with other herring than those caught
during May and the beginning of June, (these being called " May her-
ring,") and are generally fatter and better. Fishing is chiefly carried

1 Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 106.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 151

on here with so-called spring, or two-men's, nets, but also with station-
ary nets. Herring here sell from 25 cents to 28 cents a score, but when
they are very plentiful they only bring 12J cents. The two-men's nets
have, daring the last year, generally caught from $56 to $112 worth of
the fish, and one of them is said to have yielded its owner the sum of

•JjOOJ.

The one and two years' old young coast-herring are caught in smaller
numbers in the beginning of the autumn on the southern coast and on
some portions of the central coast, and are occasionally found among
the small herring when these are taken. During the winter and the
beginning of spring, some are likewise found among the so-called sea-
herring. The so-called May herring, which is caught toward the end of
the spring and the beginning of summer, is often mixed with similar
small-herring. From the end of April till the end of summer, more sea-
herring are caught during the small-herring fisheries north of Orost.
Quite young herring, which are sometimes found in enormous quantities,
are caught as bait for the eel-boxes l near Hisingen and some other
places on the coast with " dog-nets," (nets with very narrow meshes.)

Fishing for sea-herring, coming from the sea to the coast in large num-
bers, begins near Kladesholm between the New-Year and the 13th ot
January, and almost at the same time near Marstrand and Herinano.
On the southern coast, it begins somewhat later; on the Fjellbacka coast,
about the middle of January; and, near Strom stad, toward the end of
the same month, and is everywhere very productive. On the southern
coast, the fisheries continue, with short interruptions, till the middle
of March; and, on the northern coast near Fjellbacka, till near the end of
February ; but, near Stromstad, they continue one month longer. Near
Tjornekalf and on the southern coast, the great herring nets are taken
to pieces about Easter, as the fisheries during the latter half of March
are not very productive; but there have been years when fishing with the
large nets has been continued till the beginning of May. The sea-her-
ring caught during winter are generally of an excellent quality and bring
a good price, so that the fishermen earn a very good living. The largest
income from any single net was $2,520.

Herring, spawning in the autumn, have not, as far as my knowledge
extends, been caught anywhere during this year on the coast of Bohusliin.

Fishing for the herring proper is mostly carried on with nets of dif-
ferent description, and in some places with stationary nets. Other kinds
of nets are rarely used, although occasionally good hauls are made with
them by poor fishermen.

The sea-herring when tolerably small is occasionally made into ancho-
vies2 by less conscientious traders, although this has not happened this
year on the coast of Bohusliin. It scarcely pays to salt the spring-her-

1 This is also done in Norway. Basch and Berg, Memorial and Petition, p. 37. Sars,
G. 0., Report for 1872, p. 35.
*Ml880nt Scandinav. Fauna, IV, p. 522.

152 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

ring, and if it is done, it is only for home-consumption or when the her-
ring are so plentiful that the market is overstocked with fresh fish.
Even the fresh sea-herring brings so good a price that salting, for which
it is otherwise well suited, does not pay, and has therefore been done
only with small quantities. It is well adapted for smoking, although,
of course, but very few have been thus prepared.

V. — THE SMALL -HERRING- FISHERIES, THEIR TIME AND PLACE.

The autumn and winter fisheries. — Not many small-herring are caught
on the southern coast, and these during the autumn are mostly mixed
with the sea-herring, while but few small-herring are found among the
sea-herring when these are caught later in the season.

On the central coast, near Marstrand and south of Tjorn, good-sized
and fat small-herring were caught all through the autumn from October,
and these were almost entirely free from sea- herring, which but seldom
occurs on this coast; and some small-herring were caught later among
the sea- herring. Near Oxevik, at Brofjord, not far from Northern
Grundsund, as well as in many other places, fine and unmixed small-
herring have been caught during the entire autumn from October till
Christmas, when the fisheries ceased, and most of the nets were taken
to pieces. The same was also the case near Huunebo Strand, and in
the Battnafjord, where the small-herring fisheries are not very im-
portant.

On the Fjellbacka coast, the fisheries commenced in October and con-
tinued, with brief interruptions, till the end of the year, and the fish
caught were nearly all fine specimens and not mixed with other herring;
but in other years, it has happened that the fisheries commenced even as
early as September, and the small-herring were, on an average, of a less size.
The largest number caught at a single haul was about five hundred
bushels. By witnessing and examing numerous hauls, I conviuced my-
self that the fish were not at all mixed with young small-herring or sea-
herring. In a haul of from twenty-five to fifty bushels, scarcely a score
of sea-herring could be found, and small-herring, measuring less than
100 millimeters, could not be found at all. Some sea-herring are said
to have been found in the beginning of the fisheries, and toward the end
of the year they became more frequent. During the sea-herring fish-
eries, more or less small-herring were caught, occasionally in such num-
bers that it paid to pick them out and pickle them.

On the Stromstad coast, the small-herring fisheries commenced in
October and continued in very inconsiderable hauls till Christmas, when
the small-herring became more or less mixed with the sea-herring,
although even then an occasional haul was found to be entirely unmixed.
The month of January yields the largest quantity of small-herring on
this coast, although last year this was not the case.

In the Siicke Bay, the small-herring fishery proved almost an entire
failure ; but near the Hval Islands, Norwegian fishermen caught small-

HEEEING-FJSHEEIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 153

herring, which were mostly sent to Sponvigen and pickled there. The
fisheries this year, however, were by no means as productive in the
boundary- waters of Sweden and Norway as they usually are.

Small-herring were generally sold, during the autumn fisheries, for
from 56 cents to $1.40 a bushel.

As the sea-herring greatly predominate on the southern coast, so do
the small-herring on the northern coast, where a successful haul of sea-
herring is considered a rarity.1 Even among the largest hauls of sea-
herring on the northern coast, the small-herring were found in consider-
able numbers ; and, in 1843, the last year of the first half-century of the
great fisheries, (of which we possess without a doubt a faithful and reli-
able account,) it was estimated that about half the income from the fish-
eries came from the small-herring.2 Wilhelm von Wright deserves great
credit for having first drawn attention to the importance of the small-
herring and its common appearance on the northern coast.3 Professor
Nilsson, on the other hand, has so completely underestimated the im*
portance of the small-herring fisheries on the coast of Bohusliin that
he proposed, in order to prevent any sea-herring from being caught
among them, to forbid this fishery entirely,4 or at least with any other
nets than drag-nets or stationary nets;5 an opinion which, as is well
known, was shared by the Eoyal Academy of Sciences, and which, by
an ordinance of His Majesty of June 29, 1852, became a law.6

G. von Yhleri's opinion that those herring which have been caught in
good fish-years during the last sixty years, especially in 1812, 1817, 1831,
1840, and 1843, were, as far as he could ascertain, chiefly small-herring,
possibly mixed with some larger herring,7 does not seem to me correct,
either as regards researches made by myself among old acts or as re-
gards information gleaned from old fishermen, all of whom maintained
that the sea-herring were those which appeared in the largest numbers

1 Eeports on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 101, 106 fr. 17. Professor Nilsson's and others
supposition that it is different, (Eeports on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 55, 65 ; Ekstrom
Practical Essay, p. 29 ; note, New Eeports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. xiv,) and his
underestimate of the small-herring's importance and numbers created the belief on the
coast that our naturalists consider the small-herring to be only the young of the her-
riug proper.

2 W. von Wriglii, Eeport on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 169

3 Eeports on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 167, 168, 169.

4 Eeports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 18.

6 Ekstrom, Practical Essay, p. 112. Fdhrceus, 0. 1., Memorial regarding the Petition
of Several Fishermen in the Parish of Tanum to have the Eoyal Ordinance of June,
1852, changed ; presented November 9, 1853.

5 New Eeport on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. ix, xv, xx, xxi. 0. 1.F&hraeus. Memo-
rial regarding the Petition of Several Fishermen in the Parish of Tanum to have the
Eoyal Ordinance of June, 1852, changed ; presented November 9, 1853. Letter of His
Majesty the King, dated February 25, 1855, to the Governors of Goteborg and Bohus-
lan, regarding certain regulations for makiug the fisheries on the coast of Bohuslan
more productive. New Eeport on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 53, 59.

7 Quarterly Journal of the Goteborg and Bohuslan Agricultural Society, July,
1867, p. 52 ; April, 1863, pp. 43, 44. New Eeport on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 11, 12.

154 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

whenever they came near the coast.1 In the large fisheries which are
carried on in the boundary- waters between Sweden and Norway, and in
which the Swedes have taken a part only during the last twenty or
thirty years, the small-herring are said to have always predominated,
with the exception, perhaps, of the last weeks of* the fishing-season.

The spring and summer fisheries. — Near Ulkekalet, in the sound between
Mjorn and Tjorn, a few small-herring have been taken, which had fully-
developed sexual organs. At Orost, in the parish of Torp, small-her-
ring have usually been caught during the spring, which likewise had
fully-developed roe and milt.

During these fisheries, the small-herring have often been found mixed
with sea-herring, and so-called ** grass-herring," (herring one year old.)
During the last great fishing-period, the small-herring seem to have been
more numerous during the summer than is now the case.2

The small-herring fisheries on the coast of Bohuslan are carried on
entirely with nets, as all the other fishing-implements would yield too
little result. I know only one fisherman on the coast of Bohuslan who
fishes with a purse-net, and only one who fishes with stationary nets.

More than 5,000 tons of small-herring have been prepared during the
fishing-year as anchovies, especially at Stromstad, Fjellbacka, Grafvarue,
Lepekie, Uddevalla, Gullholmen, Nosund, Kyrkesund, and Marstrand.
The smaller kind are considered the best for making anchovies, because
they have a finer flavor and smaller bones. Young small-herring are, in
Norway, made into anchovies, and they are particularly well suited for
this purpose ; but, as in a fresh condition they cannot stand the long
journey to the salting-establishments, they are very seldom used for
this purpose by our manufacturers.

VI. — OF FISHING-IMPLEMENTS, THE MANNER IN WHICH THEY ARE
USED, AND OTHER MATTERS CONNECTED THEREWITH.

Nets properly so called. — Large herring-nets. — These nets, which, at
least on the southern coast, are used for catching the herring coming
in from the sea, and which are very much like the nets used lor catch-
ing herring during the "old" fisheries, are now almost confined exclu-
sively to the southern coast, only a few being found on the central and
northern coasts.3 These nets are generally 120 fathoms long and 12
fathoms deep. On the southern coast, they have usually 18 inesfies to
the yard ; but, on the central and northern coasts, they have 22 meshes.
On the southern coast, all the meshes are equally fine ; but, on the north-

1 Iu the Report on the Salt-Water Fish of Bohuslan for 18G9, von YMen mentions
the frequent occurreuce of "fjord herring." See Quarterly Journal of the Goteborg
and Bohusliiu Agricultural Society, July, 1870, p. 16., which may he compared with
the July number, 1871, p. 52, of the same journal.

2 Act Concerning Blubber-Refineries, pp. 73, 75.

3 The nets used in the northern portion of the central and northern coasts corre-
spond both in their construction and the manner in which they are used more with tho
middle-sized nets used tor fishing for small-herring.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 155

era coast, the outer ends (wings) have larger meshes. For each wing,
they have 500 fathoms of line on the southern coast 5 while, on the cen-
tral and northern coasts, they have shorter lines. On the southern coast,
the line is hauled in by a winch, and the stone weights are likewise
brought up in this manner. On the southern coast, twenty men usually
belong to a net, while, on the northern coast, only fourteen. Before the
Det is cast, the current is examined, but no search is made for the her-
ring. The nets can only be hauled on land in a few places on the coast
of Oekero, e. g., (where these places are most numerous, from 12 to 15
only, in number,) where there is deep water close up to the coast. The
net while being dragged moves along the bottom, and its position is in-
dicated by floats, which are fastened to long ropes. Fishing is carried
on in about the same manner as Ekstiom has described it.1

Middle-sized nets. — On the whole central coast and on the northern
coast, with the exception of its northernmost portion, these nets, which
are mainly intended for the small-herring fisheries, are in common use.
They are from 50 to 100 fathoms long, and from 21 to 29 yards deep,
having from 20 to 21 meshes to the yard. Generally, however, there
are 22 meshes to the yard. They are hauled in with winches, and their
lines vary in length from 100 to 300 fathoms. On the Fjellbacka coast,
they are usually brought on land in boats.

Small herring-nets. — On the southern portion of the central coast —
e. g., near Tjorn — these nets are much used for catching spring-herring,
sea-herring, small-herring, mackerel, and other fish to be used either for
bait or in the household. They are from 35 to 40 fathoms long and
from 12 to 1G yards deep. Their meshes are fine, generally from 18 to
22 to a yard. In hauling them in, a winch is used, employing generally
four men. As to their nature and the manner in which they are used,
they seem to correspond with the "mackerel-nets" mentioned in several
places in the "Act Concerning Blubber-Refineries."2 On the northern
coast north of Hafstensund, similar nets are used, and are called in
Swedish "Bolke" nets. They are generally 40 fathoms long, and from
4 to 0 1 a thorns deep. Four men haul them in, and no winch is employed.

Half-nets. — This kind of net is, as far as I am informed, used only near
Hisingen, where there are said to be four such nets, chiefly used for
catching sea-herring. They are about 100 fathoms long and 9 fathoms
deep, and their meshes have the same size as the large herring-nets.

Nets for small-herring. — These nets, chiefly intended for catching
small-herring, were introduced twenty or thirty years ago from Sponvi-
geu, in Norway, where they have been in use for a long time.3 In the
neighboring portions of Norway, they were formerly called "herring-

— ■ ■■ ■ . . . _ ... , ., — .... . . .. . . . . , . . - ■

1 Practical Essayj pp. 21-24. Dubb, Reports of the Royal Academy of Sciences for
1817, pp. 36-39.

2 Act Concerniug Blubber-Refineries, pp. 73, 77, 79-81.

3Ekstwm) Practical Essay, p. 29, note. Basch and Berg, Memorial and Petition,
p. 33.

156 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

nets," to distinguish them from the large nets; and this name they have
kept both there and on the coast of Bohusliin. These nets are gen-
erally from 40 to 45 fathoms long, and from 8 to 10 fathoms deep, and
they have 30 meshes to the yard. They are only slightly weighted down
with stones, so that they are easily buoyed up by the floats when lowered
to a great depth. The lines to each wing measure about 100 fathoms.
They are, properly speaking, intended for fishing in the deep Sacke Bay,
with its steep shores, where other nets could not well be used.

Two-men's or spring nets. — These are used on the southern coast for
catching spring-herring, from the middle of March till near midsummer.
Besides herring, other fish, such as cod, salmon, &c, are caught with
them. They are from 65 to 80 fathoms long and 12 yards deep, (only 7
at the end of the wings.) A wooden pole is fastened, by means of two
lines, some distance from the wing; and to the middle of this pole is
attached the line for hauling in, measuring about 100 fathoms in length.
The meshes in these nets are generally very fine.

So-called "dog-nets." — These nets, which are small and have very fine
meshes, are used on the southern coast for catching very young herring
for bait, but also for catching salmon and other fish. They are used
during the spring and summer.

On the northern coast, north of Hafstensund, a similar but somewhat
deeper net is used, generally from 25 to 30 fathoms long and 4 fathoms
deep in the middle and tapering off toward the wings. With these nets,
three or four men have made from twenty to forty successful hauls during
the night. As the use of these nets has been for some years prohibited
in the above-mentioned portion of the northern coast,1 many of them
have been altered into nets resembling the small-herring nets,2 but even
these were forbidden by a royal ordinance of July 19, 1872.3

Stationary nets. — These nets, which have been used on the coast of
Bokuslan from time immemorial,4 are well known to the fishermen in
those parts, although they are not much in use now, since they prove
remunerative only in exceptional cases. On the southern coast of Hisin-
gen, near Ny-Elf'sborg, about 200 such nets are said to be in use, each
yard having about 14 meshes. Herring-fishing is likewise carried on
with such nets outside the mouth of the Northern River. On the Oekerd
coast, fishing for autumn-herring5 with these nets seems of late years
to have ceased altogether. Excepting the few stationary nets here and
there on the coast, there is no fishing with these nets worth mentioning
north of the Northern River, as far as Dynekilen and the Idefjord,
where, however, such nets are used in the spring for catching spring-her-
ring.

*New Report on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 7, 16.
s New Report on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 52.
3 New Report on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 3, 58.

4 All the great Bohusliin herring-fisheries, with the exception of this last-mentioned
one, have been carried on exclusively with such nets.
6 See New Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 10-11, 43.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 157

Small herring are, so far as I am aware, caught with these nets by
one fisherman only on*the coast of Bohusliin.

Drag-nets. — At the expense of a Goteborg merchant, Aron Anderson,
experiments have been made with such nets which were brought from
Blekiuge, Skane, and Norway, aud taken out by a mackerel-boat from
Koster. ; but these experiment have, I believe, been unsuccessful.

Purse-nets are used in some portions of Norway for catching herring
and small-herring.1 In Sweden, they are, as far as I am aware, only
used near Stromstad, where they have been in use for a long time for
catching salmon, and occasionally during May and June for catching
small -herring.

Other fishing-implements are but rarely employed in catching her-
ring.

As it has been stated that the large nets now in use in Bohuslan
have much finer meshes than those used thirty or forty years ago,2
and that the nets used during the great fishing-periods have meshes
measuring from 1 to 1^ inches ; 3 aud as this is of great importance in
answering the question how a suitable net should be constructed, I deem
it necessary to adduce some additional facts which I have gathered.

As to the nets used during the latter part of the last great fishing-
period, it is well known that these generally, at least on the southern
coast aud the southern portion of the central coast, had sixteen meshes
to the yard : i but at the beginning of this fishing-period, the fisheries
are said to have been carried on with mackerel-nets having wider meshes,5
according to information received during the year 1833, by the investi-
gating committee, from the northern coast. As there is, however, no
detailed iuformatipu regarding this matter, it is impossible to obtain an
accurate idea of the size of the meshes of these mackerel-nets. This
much only is certain, that these nets, on account of the great size of
their meshes, were considered useless iu fishing for the large herring,
(although they were not mixed with other herring) ; 6 that ma«kerel-nets
with meshes measuring more than one inch are unknown in Bohus-
liin ; that catching fine and fat mackerel presupposes meshes narrower
than these; and that these nets, both during the old fishing-period and
in later time, have had narrower meshes, at least in the southern por-
tion of the central coast, where they are continually used for catching
bait and other small fish.7 Even in the neighboring portions of Nor-
way, there are no mackerel-nets in use whose meshes measure more than

1 Basch and Berg, Memorial and Petition, p. 34.
. sNew Report on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 24, 66.

3 New Report on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 24, 63, 66.

*Ekstrom, Practical Essay, p. 20, note 2. Dubb, Reports of the Royal Academy of
Sciences for 1817, p. 36.

6 Report on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 86 fr. 9, p. 98 fr. 7. Nilsson, Reports on the
Herring-Fisheries, p. 12.

6 Nilson, Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 63.

7 Act Concerning Blubber-Refineries, pp. 73, 77, 79-81. Ekstrom, Practical Essay, p. 110.

158 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

seven-eighths of an inch, the general size being only one-halfof an inch.1
As the herring during the old fisheries were persecuted by fish of prey,
even in the inlets, smaller meshes were necessary to increase the strength
of the net and to prevent the herring from sticking fast in the meshes,
and this even when the fishing was going on during the daytime, and
help could easily be secured.

When Professor Nilsson, more than forty years ago, made his obser-
vations on the salt-water fish of the west coast of Scandinavia, the
nets on the southern coast had the same sized meshes as at present, i. e.,
18 meshes to the yard,2 and they were, therefore, about the same size as
that prescribed for the small-herring nets by the royal ordinance of July
19, 1872, while their meshes are somewhat narrower than those pre-
scribed by the law of December 29, 1857, for the fisheries in the Liin-
fjord, (Denmark.) In the nets used in the southern portion of the
central coast, where the small-herring begins to be of importance for
the fisheries, there were, thirty years ago, 20 meshes to the yard, and
this is still the case.3 On the northern coast, near Fjellbacka, where the
nets are chiefly adapted for catching small-herring, the meshes, in con-
sequence of a royal ordinance of 1833, are made very narrow, ''scarcely
an inch from knot to knot." * This does not mean, as has sometimes been
supposed, that the meshes scarcely measured an inch ; but that the dis-
tance from knot to knot, when stretched, was scarcely an inch. In
olden times, the word " mesh," when used in Bohusliin, always meant
the stretched mesh ; and this meaning has been retained by Ekstrom in his
often quoted "Practical Essay." The Fjellbacka nets are, therefore, not
any narrower than they were forty years ago, but they are now gener-
ally less deep and long. If the nets had had meshes measuring scarcely
an inch, herring from 3 to 6 inches long, as well as small-herring, could
not have been caught in them to any considerable extent ; 5 and the
complaint so often heard that the nets had meshes too narrow would
have been unfounded.6 The report made at the Stromstad meeting that
the meshes " are so large that the' thumb can scarcely be pushed
through," 7 proves that the herring-nets used in that portion of the north-
ern coast were not narrower than the Fjellbacka nets, nor had they
larger meshes than those used on the southern coast.

The method of using the nets in former times is supposed to be very

1 Fasch and Berg, Memorial and Petition, pp. 28, 29.
8 Niteson, Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 64.

3 EJestrom, Practical Essay, p. 20, note 2, p. 107. (The information that the nets
should be from 15 to 20 fathoms deep is based on a mistake of the printer.)

4 Report on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 107 fr. 28.

6 Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 18, 64-66, 69, 136, 157.

*Nils8on, Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 18, 64, 80, 143. Scandinavian Fauna,
IV, p. 507, 514. Sundevall, Reports on the Herring-Fisberies, p. 156. Wright, W. von,
Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 174.

7 Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 91 fr. 36.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 159

nearly the same as that in present use,1 except, perhaps, that during the
old fisheries the greater experience and the more unfavorable localities,
where fisuing was carried on,2 made the fishermen more practical and
venturesome, and taught them many a crafty ruse in placing and man-
aging them, which is now forgotten. In this respect, the inhabitants of
the northern portion of Bohuslan gained great fame.3 During the
great fishing-periods of the oldeu time, fishing was mostly carried on by
daytime, which at present is only possible on the southern coast, where
the water, at least near the surface, is less transparent.4 The use of so-
called "locks" is, at present, not known in Bohuslan.

As the large and deep nets cannot be hauled on land except on a steep
coast, and cannot be dragged along if the bottom is not perfectly even
and the water comparatively deep, it will readily be seen that these
nets cannot injure the spawning-places of the herring on the coast of
Bohuslan. These spawning-places consist either of a stony bottom
overgrown with algcc, or of a clayey bottom overgrown with zostera,6
over none of which can the nets be dragged. Neither do these nets
bring up any large quantity of algae and sea-weeds, and for reasons
which can easily be understood, the fishermen are very particular in using
them and in keeping them in repair. The places where they can be used
are comparatively few in number, and at the present time, at least, it
may be said that the portion of the coast over which they may be safely
dragged is exceedingly small. In consequence of this fact, the igno-
rance of the fishermen concerning the spawning-places of the herring is
very great, and has often been mentioned in the reports on the herring-
fisheries. On the other hand, smaller and shallower nets can be used
everywhere on an even bottom overgrown with sea- weeds, or merely
covered with sand ; and even these nets bring up sea-weeds and small
fish, especially during the summer. In the spring, when the herrings
spawn, the sea- weeds are shorter and adhere more firmly to the ground,
so that the light spring-nets do not do much injury to the grassy bot-
toms. As to the injury which they may possibly inflict by disturbing
the spawn, I have not sufficient information. The number of places
where they can be hauled on land is also very limited.

It is not necessary to say anything more with regard to the so-called
11 dog-nets," (the fish caught in them being mostly used for bait,6) since
these, as well as the small nets and two-men's nets, have become law-
ful for the coast of Bohuslan, by a royal ordinance of February 23,
1855.

1Dubb, Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, pp. 36-39. Eh'
strom, Practical Essay, pp. 21-24.

2 Act Concerning +he Blubber-Refineries, p. 176.

3 Dubb, Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, p. 36.
*Dubb, Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, p. 39.
6 Dubb, Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, p. 33.

6 Dubb, Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1817, pp. 45, 54.

160 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

With regard to the use of other fishing-implements, and the harm which
they may possibly do, as well as all other matters pertaining to this sub-
ject, I respectfully refer to the memorial of Rasch and Berg treating of
the fisheries on the coast of Norway, from the Swedish boundary-line to
Langesund, which, on account of the similarity of the localities to the
coast of Bohuslan, I consider to be of special value.1

So far as Baron UgglcCs proposition is concerned, that, for the. small-
herring fisheries, nets of the same size should be used as for the herring-
fisheries,2 experience has sufficiently proved how disadvantageous, not
to say impracticable, such nets must often be, the use of which would
only seem to be required when extraordinarily large schools of herring
come in, the small-herring caught being prepared anchovies; and this
same opinion would hold good with regard to Counselor 0. 1 Fdhraeus's
proposition that small-herring should be fished for with drag-nets and
stationary nets.3

The size of the meshes prescribed by a royal ordinance of July 19,
1872, for the small-herring nets to be used on the coast of Bohuslan
(about 18 meshes to the yard) has called forth several petitions from the
fishermen on the central and northern coasts,4 asking for delay in carry-
ing out this ordinance, and setting forth numerous reasons for retaining
the present size of the meshes. As this question is doubtless of consid-
erable importance, I thought it my duty to gather as much information
as possible on this point from the most experienced and best informed
fishermen, and to report what I heard.

"With meshes measuring one-half an inch, the smaller kind of small-
herring; which are mostly used for anchovies, cannot, it is said, be
caught, as they, unless hindered by larger small-herring clinging in the
meshes, can easily escape through meshes of the above-mentioned size ;
while the larger herring remain in the meshes, which, in particularly rich
hauls, produces several inconvenience, such as —

1. That the herring which are fast in the meshes hinder, through
their weight, the hauling-in of the net. On the southern coast, where
the large herring-nets have meshes of very nearly the prescribed size,
the small-herring frequently remain in the meshes in such numbers that
the net looks like a silvery fur when it is drawn out of the water; and
as a net, of course, weighs much heavier when so many fish are con-

1 H. Rasch and JB. M. Berg, Memorial and Petition drawn up by the Commission ap-
pointed by Royal Ordinance of May 28, 1852, for Investigating the Fisheries in the Bay
of Christiania and in Langesund ; Christiania, December 31, 1853.

sNew Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 43.

3 Royal Reply to the Petition of some Fishermen in the Parish of Tanum with regard
to the change of section 22 of the fishery-ordinance concerning the implements to be
used in the herring fisheries. Ekstrom, Practical Essay, pp. 103, 112.

4 As long as twenty years ago, a similar petition was sent to the king by the fisher-
men of the Tanum parish, asking to be allowed the use of other nets than those men-
tioned in the royal ordinance for catching small-herring. At the suggestion of the
governor of Goteborg and Bohuslan, this petition was not granted.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 161

fined in the meshes, it is maintained that the introduction of the pre-
scribed size of meshes obliges the fishing-companies on the northern
and central coasts to employ more men for each net than is now the case,
and thereby diminishes their income, which, in poor or even in tolerably
good years, is small enough ; as, e. g., an income of $84 from one net
near Stroinstad presupposes that it has caught $336 worth of fish; an
equal income from one net near Kalfsund presupposes that it has caught
$1,CS0 worth. An increase of the number of men employed on one net
from fourteen men (which is considered sufficient near Fjellbacka) to
twenty (which is the number required at Kalfsund) of course diminishes
the income considerably ; aud with the small-herring nets used in the
Siickefjord this is said to be even more noticeable. As on the Fjell-
backa coast the nets are seldom taken up on the shore, but in tbe boats,
the inconvenience becomes still greater, as there is not room enough for
several men to work ; and, furthermore, because the winch cannot be
used for hauling in the net unless the boats are very much larger and
consequently more expensive.

2. That the net, weighed down by the herring clinging to the meshes,
drags too much along the bottom while it is being hauled on land, and,
becoming filled with mud and sea- weeds, is found to be unusually heavy
aud difficult to manage.1

3. That the herring in the meshes cause the net to sink by their weight,
and allow some of the fish to escape. Near Kalfsund, this difficulty is
obviated by the great care taken to have enough men employed to man-
age the nets.

4. That it requires much labor to withdraw the herring from the meshes
and therefore delays the fisheries to a considerable degree.

5. That the larger-sized small-herring, which are stronger than the
others and first rush to the meshes, by remaining in them, hinder other
useless fish from escaping.

It is also said that the small-herring when plucked from the meshes are
of scarcely any value, because they have been in most cases considera-
bly damaged. They do not keep fresh so long in this condition, nor do
they present so good an appearance.

It is further maintained that when the meshes are large, any opening
occasioned by tearing becomes still larger, and that on^ the whole the
strength and durability of any net is considerably increased by having
finer meshes.

It is quite possible that several of these reasons adduced by the fish-
ermen for proving the necessity of finer meshes are based on prejudices,
and on selfish desires to obtain a larger number of fish ; but, on the other
hand, it is also clear that it is very difficult to root out such old aud deep-
seated prejudices, and that the only way to do this with any hope of suc-
cess would be to prove the superiority of nets with wider meshes by a
long series of experiments. The large herring-nets used on the southern

1 Ekstrom, Practical Essay, p. 101).
11 F

162 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

coast have meshes of the same size, or only a very little smaller than
those prescribed for the small-herring nets by the royal ordinance of
July 19, 1872, but these nets are intended for catching the larger herring,
and could scarcely be as advantageously employed for catching small-
herring as the nets used at Fjellbacka and Sackefjord, although during
the autumn a considerable number of small-herring was caught on the
southern coast.1 Near Fjellbacka I had the opportunity of seeing how
small-herring, measuring 100 millimeters, and some even larger, squeezed
through the meshes, and that only very few small-herring measuring
less than 100 millimeters could be found among the large number of fish
in the nets.

In the Limfjord, (Denmark,) where people have had such a long
experience in making laws concerning the use of the various fishing-
implements, the meshes in that portion of the net where the fish are
gathered measure only 0.55 of an inch, even in nets destined for catch-
ing herring, to be in keeping with which the meshes in the Swedish
small-herring nets should measure only 0.05 of an inch.

Even when the old fisheries on the coast of Bohusliin were in their
most flourishing condition, when fishermen only now and then caught
the immature herring, as it was considered unfit for use by salters and
oil-refiners,2 nets with nearlv as narrow meshes as those in use at
present were employed,3 partly in order that the herring should no
remain fixed in the meshes and so make the net heavier, and partly in
order to give the necessary strength to the nets.

Wherever net-fishing is carried on on a large scale, the fishermen
seem to maintain the opinion that the size of the meshes does not
necessarily imply that any considerable number of fish should remain
in tbe meshes;4 and Mitchell relates that sometimes during the great
herring-fisheries in the North Sea the nets become so crowded with her-
ring that they have to be abandoned; 5 and it is said to be no unusual
occurrence in those parts that nets sink down on account of the large
number of fish in them.

A question, intimately connected with that of limiting the use of
fishing-implements, is that of supplying the demand for bait. The
greater importance which the so-called winter-fisheries on the southern
and central coasts have gained during the last twenty years, on account

1 It is a very different question whether an implement can be used, or whether it can,
under certain given conditions in a certain place, be used with the sure hope of gain.
If an implement is very practical in its mechanical application, it by no means follows
that its use will pay, and an implement which is suited to one place may be entirely
unsuited to another.

sNilsson, Reports on the Herring- Fisheries, p. 63.

sDulb, Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1617, p. 36. Ekstrom,
Practical Essay, p. 20. Wright, W. von, Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 169.

4 Mitchell, The Herring, p. 105. De la Blanche™, La Peche et les Poissons, Paris,
1868, p. 725.

fiThe Herring, p. 39.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 1G3

of the rise in the price of fish and the greatly-increased means of com-
munication, has enlarged this demand very much,1 which, even twenty
years ago, called forth, at the request of the fishermen, a limitation of
section 22 2 of the royal fishing-ordiuauce, in consequence of which nets
with narrow meshes continued to he used.3

The larger portion of the demand for bait 4 is supplied by the large
herring-nets, from which bait can usually be obtained all through the
winter. When the great herring-nets are laid up, bait-herring are
obtained from the two-men's nets, and from other small nets used for
catching spring-herring. During the summer, when the demand for
bait is less, since most of the fishermen are employed in the mackerel-
fisheries, sea-needles, which can be obtained in great quantities from
the island of Lreso, mackerel, and small Crustacea (as long as these can
be secured) are used as bait. In the autumn, some bait-herring are pro-
cured on the southern coast from the "half-nets;" and on the central
coast small-herring can then usually be obtained. It is most difficult to
obtain bait at the end of summer and the beginning of winter, and there
is then occasionally an actual scarcity of it.

The supply of Crustacea can only fill a small portion of the demand
for bait, since a great many are used, and because their favorite places,
near the mouth of the Gota River, have been much disturbed by dredg-
ing-machines; and, also, because the severe winters destroy many of
them. If these animals were more protected, their number could cer-
tainly be increased. This, however, is scarcely to be expected, in con-
sequence of the changes wrought in the fisheries (at least as far as Bo
huslau is concerned) by the recent fishing laws.

Stationary nets can be used in Bohuslan with advantage only for
catching spring-herring,5 while they spawn, (as also ia the beginning of.

1 The oft-repeated saying of the fishermen that they would not he able to make a
living if they could not catch herring, contains, therefore, much more truth than people
are -willing to acknowledge ; and the strict carrying into effect of section 22 of the
royal fishing-ordinance, and of the royal ordinance of February 23, 1355, would have
beeu a severe blow to the inhabitants of the coast. See 0. 1. I&hrceus, Memorial of De-
cember 22, 1854, regarding the Promotion of the Fisheries on the Coast of Bohusliin.

2 Ordinance of February 23, 1855, for the Better Management of the Fisheries on
the Coast of Bohuslan.

"E. J. E. Uggla, Report on the Salt-Water Fish of Bohuslan for 1859, p. 14; 1860,
p. 49; 1861, p. 56; 1862, p. 7; 1864, p. 110; 1865, p. 5. New Reports on the Herring-
Fisheries, pp. 40, 41. G. von YMen, Report of the Meeting of Fishermen at Lysekil,
Goteborg, 1859, pp. 20, 59. 0. Andersen, The Fisheries of Bohuslan, Frederikskald,
1869, p. 14.

4 Baron Uggla's proposition (New Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 43) is, there-
lore, not practicable, because, under present circumstances, the demand for bait can be
tilled by the proposed small nets only in exceptional cases, and at a very exorbitant
price.

5 The assertion which, during the first half of the present century, was often made,
that it was difficult or impossible to make the use of stationary nets on the coast of
Bohusliin general, is proved to be incorrect, among other things by the circumstance
that all the great Bohusliin herring- fisheries, with the exception of the last, have been
carried on with such nets.

164 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

autumn ;) and this only in those places where they are found in large
numbers, and where, being sold fresh, they can command a higher price.
Stationary nets, moreover, cannot compete with the other nets used
during this period, either in cheapness or in the variety of ways in which
they can be used ;- for, with the other nets, mackerel, codfish, salmon,
and other fish are caught in addition to herring and small-herring ; and
they can also be used during those seasons when herring are not
caught. Oft-repeated experiments with stationary nets, which have
been made from time to time, e. g., on the coast near Kalfsund, have
not been able to extend their use, as they have been too little remuner-
ative to warrant the fishermen in using them. It is said that at pres-
ent scarcely any herring can be caught on the coast of Bohuslau with
stationary nets having meshes of the size proposed by Professor Nil-
son,1 (1£ of an inch,) because the herring on that coast reach only in
exceptional cases, a size which prevents them from slipping through the
meshes. As regards the oft-repeated assertion that, by introducing sta-
tionary nets, the herring-fisheries are improved, it must be said that this
kind of net is supposed to have a much more injurious influence on the
herring-fisheries on a comparatively shallow coast like that of Bohus-
lau than the large herring-nets, a fact which has also been directly ac-
knowledged by several persons who recommended the exclusive use of
the stationary nets.

Ever since Bohusliin became a province of Sweden, it has been re-
peatedly said that the inhabitants of that province ought, like the
Dutch and the Scotch, to carry on their herring-fisheries in the open
sea with floating nets ; and several attempts, even with very favorable
privileges or contributions from the king, have been made in this direc-
. tion, without, however, having led to any satisfactory result. The best
managed attempts of this kind were, doubtless, those which were made
with boats and nets brought from Holland. Less fortunate, and showing
want of knowledge of the subject in hand, is a proposition made in
1774 in the journal " Hvad XyaW (What News) to catch herring with Ble-
king (another province in the south of Sweden) nets, three or four miles
out in the open sea.2 Rev. Elcstrom, who is so well versed in everything
pertaining to fisheries, has recently, in his excellent book and in a very
practical manner, made propositions in this direction, pointing out the
best way for carrying on the open sea fisheries,3 which could be done
without any great outlay.

For carrying on fishing with floating nets off the coast of Bohuslau,
boats and nets of the same kind as those used in Scotland would, doubt-
less, be required. It has been found in that country that the better
covered and more seaworthy the boats are, the greater protection they
offer to the fishermen, and all the safer and more productive will be the

Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, pp. 81, 8

2 Act Concerning Blubber-Refineries, p. 139.

3 Practical Essay, pp. 16, 93, 98, 99.

"HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 165

fisheries.1 Weak and uncovered boats, and incomplete nets or other
implements, used in the open-sea fisheries, show that the fishing is yet
in a somewhat primitive condition.2 It must also be mentioned that, in
the Skagerak, during the dark season of the year, there are far greater
meteorological and hydrographical impediments to net-fishing than in
any other, sea of Northern Europe where, such fisheries are carried on.
To make such fishing-methods pay, it is necessary thot, during the
milder season, a considerable number of larger herring should be found
near the coast, which, however, does not seem to be the case.3 If the
herring are to he caught farther out, no other method seems more prac-
ticable than the Dutch method ; but this, as is well known, requires a
great outlay of money, special experience, and good nautical knowledge.

yil. — SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATIONS AND SCIENTIFIC AS WELL AS PRAC-
TICAL EXPERIMENTS NECESSARY FOR CONTINUING THE INVESTIGA-
TIONS AND BRINGING TIIE3I TO A SATISFACTORY END.

In order to carry on the investigations which have been begun to the
extent mentioned in the " Transactions of the Eoyal Academy of Sci-
ences," March 12, 1873, the cooperation of several men* is doubtless
required, and has been expressly insisted upon, for one person cannot, with
sufficient accuracy, follow the course of the fisheries on the different
fishing-stations, much less carry on the necessary hydrographical, mor-
phological, physiological, and biological experiments, &c, which must
be made.

The Skagerak and Kattegat are, from a hydrographical point of view,
almost unknown, and in order to attain this knowledge, it would be
necessary (if it is to be at all exhaustive) in a work of such dimensions
and importance, to have a separate investigation by men specially
selected for the purpose, and much time in which to do the work. In
order to compare the hydrographical and meteorological facts with the
course of the herring-fisheries and the migrations of the schools of her-
ring, a very complete series of simultaneous observations would be
required on these three fields, which a single person constantly traveling
from one place to another could not possibly make, even if he had some
assistance.5

'Thus, some of the larger boats in Scotland realized during the year 1872 an annua
income of from £100 to £550 per boat ; -while the smaller, uncovered boats, made only
from £60 to £160.

" The mackerel net-fisheries, 'which at present are carried on in the Skagerak by
Swedes and Norwegians, must be considered, as regards the seaworthiness of the boats,
the excellence of the nets, and the result of the fisheries, the best in the whole of
Scandinavia.

3 Practical Essay, p. 32. Nilsson has never proposed that any such net-fisheries should
be carried on near the coast. See New Report, Stockholm, 1828, p. 31.

4 New Reports on the Herring-Fisheries, p. 73.

5In Norway, the investigations of the herring-fisheries have been very much aided by
the overseers of fisheries, and by information given in the journals, while this has not
been the case with us.

16G REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AXD FISHERIES.

Accurate anatomical observations on the development of the sexual
organs, and their condition at different ages and periods, require, in
order to satisfy the claims of scientific accuracy, uninterrupted opportu-
nity, a constant supply of fresh material, and all the necessary scientific
apparatus. Well- arranged aquaria would also be of the greatest value
for some of these investigations.

While occupied with the observations which I had been commissioned
to make, I soon became satisfied that, in order to obtain an entirely
satisfactory and decisive result, it would be necessary to establish
a complete station for scientific observations of the ocean in some
convenient place on the coast ; which station ought to be furnished
with the required meteorological, hydrographical, botanical, and zoolog-
ical working force, and with a full set of scientific apparatus. That
such a station would, moreover, contribute much new and valuable infor-
mation to this branch of natural science, and would also become really
indispensable in this respect, is just as evident as that its observations
would and ought to extend far beyond the range of the present investi-
gations.

As the so-called " great old " fishing-period has, during the whole dis-
cussion regarding the best method of carrying on the fisheries inBohus-
liin, been presented as an interesting and instructive example, and as
being intimately connected with the present fisheries, a complete and
accurate history of this period would be of great importance, and this
the more so as the facts we possess concerning it are too few, and have
been collected mostly from sources dating after the end of this period.
Even those works and public reports from 1809 to 1855 which treat of
the present Bohuslan herring-fisheries and other subjects connected
with them, ought to be searched much more carefully than has yet been
done, in order to furnish a complete epitome of their contents.1

In order to observe satisfactorily the migrations, mode of life, and
place of sojourn of the herring during the fishing-season, as well as
their course in the water under different temperatures, &c, experiments
with floating and stationary nets, having different-sized meshes, should be
made at all seasons of the year, both near the coast and in the open sea ;
for the use of one sort of nets furnishes data unlike those yielded by
the use of another kind.

It is furthermore necessary that continued experiments with floating
nets should be made for a considerable time, in a seaworthy boat fur-
nished with all the required implements, so as definitely to answer the
question whether the " old " herring have altogether left the coast of
Bohuslan, (as is maintained by many,) or whether they continue to
spawn on the outer coast, which would, of course, make fishing in the
open sea a remunerative occupation.

1 Professor Nilsson has drawn attention to the fragmentary condition in which these
reports have been published, (Scandinav. Fauna, IV, p. 501, note 1,) and there is no
doubt that a new aud complete edition of these reports would be of the greatest im-
portance to all who wish to study this subject.

HERRING-FISHERIES ON THE COAST OF SWEDEN. 167

VIII. — OF THE IMMEDIATE CONTINUATION OF THE INVESTIGATIONS
AND THE SUMS REQUIRED FOR THIS PURPOSE.

My time during the coming year might be most advantageously em-
ployed in correcting and completing the information thus far gathered-
and in extending my observations to the herring and small-herring fish-
eries of the South Baltic, the Kattegat, and Southern Norway ; although
it would certainly be a great advantage if, before any fishing-experi-
ments were made, the observations which are independent of the fish-
eries were more advanced than they now are or can be. Nevertheless,
these experiments ought not to be delayed too long, even if in the begin-
ning they must be made on a less extensive scale and in a shorter time.

I dare not renew the request which I made last year that I might
receive scientific assistance for the carrying-on of these investigations,
as long as the members of the committee do not express a desire to have
these investigations made on a larger scale, and with greater dispatch
,than heretofore. But as the apparatus for carrying on these investiga-
tions, and which I furnished from my own means, has proved entirely
insufficient,1 and as the sums which were at my disposal have been ex-
pended in buying the necessary books, I feel justified, from my experi-
ence of last year, in making a request for the following sums, both for
buying apparatus and for meeting other expenses incurred during the
course of these investigations :

&«

1. For glass vessels and alcohol $224

2. For scientific apparatus 84

3. For buying and hiring nets and paying the fishermen, suppos-

ing that these observations can begin next year 420

4. For paying assistants, who are to take notes on the fisheries

in the most important fishiug-statious 392

Total 1, 120

AXEL VILRELM LJUNGMAN.
Tjorn, June 4, 1874.

1 The want of suitable vessels for keeping the herring of different seasons, locatiozrf,
ages, and sizes separate has been particularly felt.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page.

Introduction 123

I. Of the Different Species of Herring and Small Herring 125

II. Of the Propagation and Growth of the Herring and Small Herring 143

III. Of the Herring's Mode of Life, its Migrations and their Dependence on Me-

teorologic and Hydrographic Conditions 147

IV. Of the Herring-Fisheries, their Time and Place 150

V. Of the Small-Herring Fisheries, their Time and Place 1j2

VI. Of the Implements used in the Herring-Fisheries, the Manner in which they

are used, and other matters pertaining thereto 154

VII. Of the Scientific Researches and Experiments, and the Practical Fishing-
Experiments necessary for continuing these investigations wnd bringing

them to a satisfactory end 165

VIII. Of the Immediate Continuation of these Experiments and the Sums re-
quired for this purpose 1G7

VIII -THE HALIBUT-FISHERY OF THE UNITED" STATES.

By Lieut. P. de Bkoca

Oat of the most frequently observed fish in the markets of the seaboard
towns of the United States is the halibut, (abundant in the northern
seas,) which the fishermen of Newfoundland consider of little value, in
consequence of a prejudice cherished by them as absurd as that of the
English iu regard to the skate. The flesh of the halibut possesses every
quality which can make it desirable to the consumer, being white, firm,
and delicate. It may, perhaps, lack flavor ; but it makes up for this de-
ficiency by entering readily into the most varied culinary combinations,
and, when smoked, it rivals, in my opinion, the best preparations possi-
ble. Under whatever form it appears, it is so highly appreciated in the
United States, that it has become the object of an important industry.
This fishery is generally combined with that of the cod, when it is car-
ried on along the shores of the open sea.

The halibut is found in abundance along the coast of New England
and of the British Possessions, as well as on the banks of Saint George,
of Sable Island, and of Newfoundland.! The giant representative of
the family of Pleuronectids, it attains such dimensions that among the
edible fishes of the sea it may be considered as analogous to the ox
among the animals of the slaughter-house. It is often caught weighing
a hundred pounds, and in many instances it has been taken weighing
even more than this. A few years ago one appeared in the market of
Boston which weighed 400 pounds ; and in 1807 one was caught at New
Ledge, sixty miles to the southeast of Portland, that weighed over 600
pounds. It is truly astonishing that fish which contain so great an
amount of alimentary substance have not long since attracted the atten-
tion of the French fishermen of Newfoundland or those of Iceland, and
suggested to them the thought of their great commercial value.

During the warm season halibut are caught in shallow water, only a
few miles from the shore ; but as the weather grows colder, they migrate
toward the banks of the open sea, where they must be followed to be

*£tude sur L'industrie huitriere des Etats-Unis, [pp. 139-224:—] Deuxieme partie.
Apercus divers sur la peche cotiere, [pp. 141-148 :— ] Chapitre premier Peche du Fle"tan.

iThe halibut inhabits also all the seas of the north of Europe, and is the object of an
important fishery, especially among the Icelanders and Norwegians. The English and
the Dutch consume large quantities.

170 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

captured. A part of those taken on the coast, as well as upon the
banks of Saint George and of Sable Island, are carried fresh to the mar-
kets. The methods of preservation used are those generally employed
in such cases. Those of smaller size are thrown into tanks, while the
very large ones are placed in the ice-houses of the fishing establishments.
The most important fishing is done by schooners of from 70 to 120 tons
burden, owned by the States of Maine, Massachusetts, Ehode Island,
and Connecticut. They take on board during the summer from 20 to 25
tons of ice on each expedition.

In consequence of the great popularity of the halibut with consumers,
this fishery has become so profitable that, in certain localities where
mackerel have become scarce, the latter fishery has been almost entirely
abandoned for the former, since it is much more certain. The harbor
of New London is a case in point.

Besides the large vessels I have just mentioned, many smaller ones
are also employed, but these never go beyond fifty miles from port.

The fishermen off the Grand Bank of Newfoundland, who combine
halibut fishing with that of the cod, cut the fish into longitudinal strips,
in order to salt it more easily ; and, on their return, deliver it to certain
establishments, where it is smoked after the manner of salmon.

During the year 1858, 444,920 pounds of fresh halibut were sold in the
market of Gloucester, Mass. The total amount brought in by the fish-
ing-boats of the harbor of New London is now estimated to be about
3,300,900 pounds. In 1S61, the halibut taken by the fishermen of
Gloucester was valued at $120,000. From these examples, which might
be multiplied indefinitely, since the entire coast of New England is
engaged in this fishery, we may readily estimate the amount of suste-
nance annually furnished for public use by this single fish.

It is evident that our Newfoundland fishermen can never bring fresh
halibut to France, but nothing prevents them from salting it, as the
Americans do. Notwithstanding their prejudice against it, I have no
doubt that the flesh of this fish would be received with favor by our
population, especially as it could be sold to them as low as 7 or 8 cents
per pound, the ordinary price of it in Boston.

Americans are surprised at our want of forethought in this matter,
and one of them said to me, on more than one occasion, that, if the
French government would allow him to fish in the grounds of New-
foundland, reserved for our nation, he would engage to take only hali-
but, and to dispose at Saint Peter's of all the codfish he might capture.
The French consul at Boston has several times received overtures of
the same kind.

The unreasonable prejudice of our fishermen should be overcome by
the single fact that this want of interest in the fishery is the cause of a
serious loss in the supply of articles of food. Besides, it is not to be
supposed that a fish which is used by the wealthier classes of a country
as rich as the United States is in every kind of product, is essentially

THE HALIBUT FISHERY OF THE UNITED STATES. 171

uu palatable, and that our countrymen could not become accustomed to
the taste of it. For my part, I would find it difficult to determine
which I preferred, salmon of smoked halibut.

Before my visit to the United States, I was acquainted with the hali-
but only through the descriptions of naturalists. I did not know that it
constituted a fishery of such importance. But since I have had the
opportunity of observing the large amount of food it furnishes to all
classes of the American people, I consider it great folly on the part of
our fishermen to neglect such a source of profit and of food.

The best way of elevating the French fisherman from his condition of
pecuniary distress is to have him understand that he ought to make his
arrows out of every kind of wood, and not to disdain, without good rea-
son, riches which lie at his very door.

When a nation has, as ours, a large population to nourish, it amounts
almost to a crime to deprive it of an element of food both economical
and agreeable. In many cases, too, fishing for halibut would become a
useful auxiliary to that of the cod, and would increase its value.

Without dwelling further upon this subject, I think that an attempt,
at least, should be made to put the question to a practical test, on the
fishing-grounds of Newfoundland or Iceland. The bait used in catch-
ing the halibut, whose gluttony is proverbial, is composed of salted fish
of the herring order, of very little value in America on account of their
abundance and inferior quality. They are the same as those used for
catching mackerel, and for manuring fields of Indian corn. A barrel of
bait, all prepared, sells at the rate of $1 or $1.50. It would be a very
easy matter to obtain it, and the French consul at Boston could send
it to Saint Peter's, if to do so were deemed advisable.*

Many persons may object, that if this subject were really as import-
ant as I suppose it to be, it would not have remained so long unnoticed.
But the truth is too evident to be affected by such reasoning. I do not
claim the merit of having discovered what might have been proved a
thousand times better by our consuls, or by any other competent per-
son ; but I have seen, I have handled, I have tasted, the flesh of the
halibut, and found it superior to that of very many fish which appear
in our markets; and, not being able to doubt the evidence of my senses,
I consider it a duty to publish the fact.

*It is unnecessary, however, to agitate the question of bait, since that used by the
Icelandic and Norwegian fishermen could be employed.

IX.— THE FISHING-VILLAGES, SNEKKERSTEEN AND SKOTTERUP,
AND THE COLLECTION OF FISHING-IMPLEMENTS EXHIB-
ITED BY THEM AT ELSINORE, DENMARK, DURING THE
SUMMER OF 1872 *

The fishing- villages, Snekkersteen and Skotterup, are situated not far
from the town of Elsinore, on the Danish island of Zealand, where the
soundjs narrowest. The inhabitants are, with few exceptions all fisher-
men and entirely dependent on the sea for their living. The circuni-
stances. under which they are obliged to gain their livelihood are some-
what peculiar, for, while the location of their villages offers in some
respects, great advantages for fishing, on the other hand it presents dif-
ficulties which the greatest energy of the fishermen can scarcely over-
come. The most important field for their operations is the narrowest
part of the sound where it widens on both sides like a funnel; and they
have consequently both the advantages and disadvantages of being in
the very spout of the funnel, where everything that is poured into it
must pass through. All the schools of fishes pass close by them, but
the powerful current, which, flowing sometimes this way, and sometimes
that, according to the wind, while it brings the fish to them, frequently
drives them just as rapidly away. Hence, here more than in many other
places the fishermen must understand how to seize the right moment for
their work. The large number of ships sailing by or riding at anchor t
proves useful to the fishermen, as they are by this ineaus often enabled
to sell their fish at a very high price. Yet their nets are often destroyed
by the ships or entirely carried away by anchors or oars. The peculi-
arity of the location makes stationary fish migratory, and vice versa.
The haddock and flounder are thus obliged to migrate, and though their
migrations do not extend far, they occur all the more frequently ; while
the hornfish and other migratory fish are often compelled to remain in
those waters much longer than is good for them. Thus many different
things are to be considered by the fisherman in order that he may not
come too soon or too late with his nets. The more accurately he can
calculate the probabilities, and the more completely he is provided with
suitable nets for catching the numerous kinds of fish that pass the coast,
the more remunerative will be his labor.

It has not been possible to exhibit all the implements " in natural
hence the boats and great casting-nets are only shown in models.

1. Model of a transport-boat. — The boat of which it is a model was

*From Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fiekeri.

t On an average, 21,000 per annum. — [ Translator's note.']

174 EEPOET OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

7 years ago, and has brought millions of genuine Snekkersteen haddock,
plaice, and eels to Copenhagen. From 5 to 6 such boats are continually
plying between Snekkersteen and the capital, and their numbers will
soon be increased by one or two more. During the winter of 1866-'67,
one of these boats made 36 trips, aud brought to Copenhagen 10,142
pounds of eel, 49,655 haddock, and 2,995 plaice, which sold for a total
sum of 4,264 Danish rigsdalers, (one rigsdaler = about 50 cents, gold.)

These boats must be good sailers and must be built very solidly, of a
tonnage of not more than four tons, and their price, completely rigged,
is about 1,000 Danish rigsdalers.

2, 3. Models ofjishing-boats. — These are models of fishing-boats used by
the fishermen of Snekkersteen and Skotterup. The two villages possess,
at present, 122 of these boats, and their number is constantly increasing-
All these boats were formerly built in Sweden and Norway, but now
they are built in the villages themselves, and are even exported from
there to Sweden. These boats are constructed for fast sailing, and are
of all sizes. One of the largest size, built of oak, costs, with sail and
rigging, 300 Danish rigsdalers; while one of the smallest size, but just
as fast a sailer, can be bought for 70 rigsdalers. No family has less
than two of these boats, while some own as many as six, the use of so
many different kinds of nets requiring that large number.

4. Model of a casting-net. — This is the largest net used by the fisher-
men, and the original is from 80 to 200 fathoms long.

5, 6, 7. Prices of a casting-net. — As such a net must be adapted to the
place where it is set, and as it must be placed in such a manner that the
upper edge may reach the surface of the water, while the lower touches
the bottom, the nets are naturally of different length and depth. The
cost of such a net is about 700 rigsdalers. It is tarred yearly, and in
spite of this and the solidity of the work, it scarcely ever lasts longer
than 4 years, and even then it must frequently be repaired. There are
in Snekkersteen and Skotterup, 11 such nets, but they are seldom all
used at the same time. The number of fish caught in these nets varies,
of course, in different years. Thus, two such nets caught, in the fall of
1871, 459£ rigsdalers' worth of fish, while two nets caught, in 1861, 1,544§
rigsdalers' worth. TThe casting-net can be used only near the land, but
here all those fish are caught that travel along the coast. The eels
often manage to slip through the meshes, but for other fish, such as
herring, mackerel, hornfish, haddock, &c, this net proves a sure trap.

8. An eel-trap or boic-net for catching eel. — Notwithstanding the eel's
nimbleness, it is caught in large numbers in this trap, hundreds of which
are set, one row alongside of an other, from the shore to an extent of 7
fathoms. Every fall an immense school of eels passes through the sound
from the south. From the middle of September till November, the eels
travel during star-light nights ; when wind and current are favorable,
but when there is no moon, and the traps are carefully cleaned of all
sea- weed, the fishermen may calculate on a rich booty. Great care is

FISHING-VILLAGES AND FISHING-IMPLEMENTS IN DENMAKK. 175

required, however, for the eel is very sly, and a few sea- weeds or a little
white stone at the entrance of the trap is sufficient to drive it away ;
and if only one mesh be broken, or if it be a little larger than the others,
we may be sure that the eel which has been caught will find the weak
place, and tail foremost, work his way out. Three kinds of eel pass
through the sound, and, strange to say, of two of these not one can ever
be seen by day at the bottom of the sea, while the third is occasionally
seen among the seaweeds.

9. Apparatus for holding the eel-trap, (boiv-net.J — The eel-trap or bow-
net is an old invention, and is known and used throughout the greater
part of Europe. But, so far as we are aware, it is nowhere else placed as
it is here, owing, of course, to the peculiar locality. While, in many other
places, a pole is fixed at the bottom, to which the trap is fastened, they
have on the coast of the sound a special apparatus for this purpose
called " vager," which is laid before the traps are put in position, and
which remains at the bottom of the sea when they are taken out to be
dried. This apparatus is not in the way of ships, as a pole might be; is
strong enough to resist any current ; aud enables the fishermen easily to
take the trap out and again place it in its exact position.

10. An eel-trap on its "vager," as placed at the bottom of the sea. — This
exceedingly practical arrangement dates from a very ancient period,
perhaps a thousand years back, as is proven by the technical terms
applied to its different parts, Danish words entirely out of use now, but
common at that distant period. Snekkersteen owns 6S0, and Skotterup
240 of these bow-nets. Like the casting-nets, they are never all used at
the same time, about one-fourth being kept as a reserve. Such a bow-net
complete costs from 17 to 20 rigsdalers, and lasts from 4 to 6 years.
They are made either of flax or of cotton, and their manufacture is a
favorite employment of the fisher-families during the long winter even-
ings. The places where these bow-nets are set are sold by the govern-
ment to the fishermen at a high price. The profits, of course, vary very
much. A fisherman, who kept an exact account, says, that in 1861, he
caught 352 rigsdalers' work of eels in 21 bow-nets; in 1862, 216 rigs-
dalers' worth in 30 nets ; and in 1871, 197 rigsdalers' worth in 19 nets.

11. Bow -net for catching sJvrimps. — The location is not favorable for
shrimps, aud they are but rarely caught here as an article of food; they
chiefly serve as a bait for the haddock.

12. " TJlhen" a sort of net for catching shrimps. — This is dragged after
the boat, in order to catch the shrimps, which are so deep in the water
among the sea-weeds that the fisherman cannot wade in and catch them
with —

13. The uhoven,v an implement which he pushes before him. To this
branch of fishing belong also —

14 and 15, two different hinds of nets or uhoven" for catching shrimps. —
In winter the shrimps go into deeper water, (from 3 to 4 fathoms,) and
live among the masses of sea- weeds torn off by the currents and the

176 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

storms. A sort of hook is thrown out, by means of which large quanti-
ties of these sea-weeds are brought up, and the shrimps are shaken out
of the net into —

16. A little fish-trunk or can/, (the shrimp-box,) where they are kept
alive till used for bait.

17. A pole called "stampe" is used for stirring up the bottom of the
sea in order to bring out the sand- worms which are also used for bait ;
these are then caught with a sort of comb or catcher —

18. Called, in Danish, " krillen," the curl.

19. Trap for catching snails, also used for bait.

20. Herring-catcher, for catching herring for bait.

One may see, on any winter morning, numerous boats, each manned
by one or two fishermen and provided with all the different kinds of
bait, leave the two villages for catching haddock. The fish, when
caught, are thrown into a tub filled with water, which must be con-
stantly renewed, or into a sack-like net hanging outside the boat, for it
is of the greatest importance to keep the fish alive. In its endeavors
to swallow the bait, the hook easily pierces the inner part of the gullet
and produces a fatal wound. In order to prevent this, the hook is fur-
nished with a piece of tin soldered to it, often in the shape of a little
fish. This makes it heavy, and the fish can scarcely get it further down
than the gristly parts of the mouth.

The fishermen encounter more difficulties in striving to keep the fish
alive than in catching them. During severe winters, when the sound is
covered with ice, the Danish fishermen do not put on skates as the
Swedes do, but merely wooden shoes with small spikes in the soles to
prevent slipping. Thus shod they start out dragging behind them a
sledge furnished with the fishing-impleinents, their temporary house,
and its furniture. The house consists merely of a large sail and some
poles, and to put this up is the fisherman's first work. He makes him-
self as comfortable in this tent as possible. He cuts two holes in the
ice, one for his fishing-line and one for the sack into which the fish are
to be put. The sledge serves as his chair, the basket containing his
food and the tub containing the bait being so placed that he can reach
them without moving from his seat. Thus he sits quietly for hours, and
returns home in the evening drawing the sledge, whose load is now
increased by the tub full of water containing the fish.

21. A fishing line with the so-called " tin-fish" attached.

22. A line for catching whiting.

23. A line for catching mackerel.

It is interesting to watch from the terrace of the ancient castle of
Kronborg, commanding a magnificent view of the sound, the catching,
in the spring, of hornfish, which then pass through the sound in large
numbers on their way to the Baltic. Two boats always go together,
each manned by four men, and a large net stretched out between the
boats. Everything, apparently, is quiet; most of the fishermen seem to

FISHING-VILLAGES AND FISHING-IMPLEMENTS IN DENMARK. 177

be asleep with the exception of the two standing on a board stretched
across the boat to keep a lookout. Everything, however, is prepared ;
the oars are in their places, and the stones are prepared, which are
thrown into the water for the purpose of chasing the fish into the net.
The two uien stand on the board motionless as statues, straining their
eyes to see in the distance the faint and indistinct shadow appearing
on the surface of the sea, occasioned by the approach of a school of fish.
For hours they may be observed standing thus, unmindful of wind and
weather. Suddenly one of the men raises his arm, and immediately,
but silently, every man is at his post. He hurls a stone a great dis-
tance, then another, constantly nearer in order to drive the school
toward the net. Now7 the fish are inside the bay forformed by
the net "How!" is the order given, and the oars dip into the water.
The former silence is now changed to a scene so wild and picturesque
that one would scarcely believe that all this commotion is only produced
by some hornfish. All are on the alert, and every order given by the
commander is executed with the greatest swiftness and precision.
When the boats have approached each other, and the fish are conse-
quently entirely surrounded, but by no means caught as yet, the net is
carefully drawn together, so that the inner space becomes smaller and
smaller. The fish now try to slip out beneath the boats, but the fisher-
men are at their post, and by shouting and splashing they chase the
frightened fish back. After such unsuccessful attempts to escape, the
whole school frequently turns the other way, pushing with all their might
against the net. This is the moment for which the commander has been
eagerly waiting. "Draw together !" he shouts, and with a desperate
pull the net is entirely closed, heavy with the splashing fish, and is soon
drawn up into the boats.

There is, of course, the greatest difference in the number of fish con-
tained in different schools. Sometimes there are only a few, and, at
otLer times, one school will more than fill two boats. In this latter case
the contest becomes more animated, and to a person who sees it for the
first time it looks like a desperate combat between the crews of the
different boats, never failing to attract a large number of spectators.
The most animated spectacle is presented when the fishermen make
the so called " Hage-stretch," i. c, when they are forced by the current
past the promontory called " LTage," in order to catch the fish which
are just being driven back from the south. The boats shoot through
the foaming waves with fearful rapidity, and it requires a great amount
of skill, strength, and courage to obtain a favorable result. One little
mistake, an order given or executed too soon or too late, is sufficient to
frustrate the whole scheme. To make this stretch is therefore consid-
ered the crucial test for all fishermen on the coas% and unless oue has
accomplished this feat he is not esteemed very highly by his comrades.
Affairs become still more complicated when there are two schools com-
ing on at the same time, for if one turns to the right, the other is sure
12 F

178 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

to turu to the left, and it requires the utmost attention of the fishermen
to make sure of either.

24. A net for catching liornfisli. — It costs, when new, from GO to 80
rigsdalers, and can be used for five or six years if kept in careful re-
pair.

25. A model of the preceding net, showing in what manner it is placed
in the water.

Toward fall the hornfish returns from the Baltic and travels through
the sound toward the North Sea. They can then no longer be caught
in the same place and in the same mauner as described above, for they
are spread at this season of the year over the whole sound. The whole
coast of Zealand, south of Kronborg, is now closely packed with large
nets, and the fish are not chased by men alone, for a large number of
porpoises are all day long busy in securing their share of the booty.
These porpoises appear in August, and chase the hornfish with the
greatest zeal. They are not at all shy, and they pursue the fish close up
to the boat, so that they can easily be caught. Their flesh, however,
cannot be eaten, but they prove useful, inasmuch as they actually assist
the fishermen in the chase for the fish. Special nets, called in Danish
"nedgarn," are used for this kind of fishing.

26. One of the above-mentioned nets, («' nedgarns.v) — At night the fish
will enter this net very readily, but by day they are very careful to avoid
it, and now comes the porpoise in its useful capacity of hound. But
for these animals the fish would remain at the bottom of the sea below
the nets. The fisherman rows toward the place where the porpoises are
seen and where the hornfish leap out of the water. Here he casts his
net and lies in ambush like a spider. Suddenly a rushing sound is
heard; it is a school of hornfish jumping toward the net on the surface
of the water. Behind them is the porpoise chasing them, now shooting
along under the surface with incredible swiftness, now leaping out of
the water, and not infrequently casting up some fish or holding one in
its mouth. Sometimes it turns a somersault, but, for the most part, its
large body falls straight back into the sea, splashing the water in all
directions. The school of fish turns directly into the net, and only those
that leap over it manage to escape and the fisherman gathers the fish
caught in the net and makes it ready to receive another school. When
the weather is favorable and the porpoises are lively, this chase is very
amusing. Porpoises, like trained dogs, never touch a fish that is caught
in the meshes, and with the most admirable dexterity they avoid tear-
ing the net in their bold leaps. The porpoise is often seen swimming
patiently alongside of the net waiting for a fish to fall off; but should
it be ever so hungry it would never think of plucking off one by itself.
It is therefore considered as a friend by the fishermen, and none of them
would ever venture to injure one of these animals.

27 and 28. Nets for catching herring. — These nets are of different
depth, but all equally long. They are twice as long as the common nets,

FISHING-VILLAGES AND FISHING-IMPLEMENTS IN DENMARK. 179

and can be divided into two parts. Snekkersteen owns 140 such nets,
and Skotterup 40. They cost from 10 to 20 rigsdalers each. A horu-
fish-uet costs from 12 to 1G rigsdalers, and the two fishing villages own
about 50 of them. Of mackerel-nets Snekkersteen own 130 and Skot-
terup 54, the price of these being from 10 to 16 rigsdalers each.

2dand30. Mackerel Nets.— The so-called "sinallnets" play an important
part in the fishery on this coast, and they are consequently manufactured
of many different sizes to suit all circumstances. They are twice the
usual length, and can be separated into two parts. While the poorer
fishermen do not possess any casting-nets or bow-nets, there is not one
of them who does not own several " small nets." They are used all the
year round for haddock, flounders, turbots, dabs, &c. Salmon or stur-
geon are sometimes caught in them, and occasionally a lobster or crab
finds his way into them ; perhaps a mackerel, and even wild ducks ; and
more rarely yet a porpoise, which becomes strangled iu the meshes from
want of air.

31 to 41. "Small-nets" of different sizes. — These cost about 8 rigsdalers
each. Snekkersteen owns about a thousand of them, and Skotterup
two hundred and fifty.

During the summer the fishermen cast their nets for plaice in the
neighborhood of the island of Llveen, (about the middle of the sound.)
The fish caught there are of a very superior quality, and often very large.
Some have been caught weighing 10^ Danish pounds, (1 Danish pound
is equal to 1.101 pounds avoirdupois;) and fish weighing from 4 to 6
pounds are frequently caught. Turbots are also often taken here, the
largest, as far as known, weighing 30 Danish pounds. These fish are
sold almost exclusively in the Elsinore market or to the ships lying at
anchor there. The fisherman rises very early in summer-time, mostly
between 1 and 2 o'clock, a. m. He first observes the weather, and if it
be favorable he hurriedly dresses and hastens down to his boat, for the
fish must be in the Elsinore market as early as G o'clock. He is soon
in his boat, and speeds swiftly toward the place where the nets have
been cast the previous day. "While one of the fishermen plies both oars,
the other draws in the nets. Others are cast out irumediatel}', and, row-
ing rapidly, the boat soon approaches the coast again. There his wife
and children meet him, help him to draw the net on land, and to take
out the fish and sort them. In a few minutes they are packed on a
wheelbarrow and one of the fisherman's children or his wife wheels them
to the market, and at 7 o'clock a. m., not a fish is to be had.

As soon as the nets are dry they are mended, stretched out on poles,
and loaded down with stones, to prevent the wind from carrying them
away, so as to be ready for the next day's work. All this keeps the
fisherman and his family busy during the day. Every now and then
the nets are boiled in lye or tree-bark, with an addition of soda or pot-
ash.

42. The so-called " livistelcjvcppcf a sort of switch or broom, is a very

180 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

practical implement for freeing tbe nets of rubbish, which they invaria-
bly bring up with them from the water. It requires some skill and
practice to use this tool, but it cleans the nets much better than any
other used for that purpose. Strange enough, this useful implement
is scarcely known outside of Snekkersteeu and Skotterup.

43. A net for catching porpoises. — This is but seldom used, and there is
only one such in the two fishing villages. Most fishes of the flounder
kind are caught in " small nets," but the halibut proves too large for
these. This fish is therefore caught with special halibut-hooks, (called
" bagger" in Danish,) or with lines. All along the sound, nearer the
Swedish than the Danish coast, there is found a very considerable de-
pression of the bottom of the sea. From Ueliugsborg, the Swedish town
opposite Elsinore, the fishermen call this great deep " Skraepperne.7*
This seems to be the favorite resort of the halibut. In summer one may
also find there large haddocks and skates. The fishing in tbese waters
pays very well, and most of the fish caught here are brought to the Co-
penhagen market.

44. A number of halibut-lwolcs.

45. A halibut-line.

40. Different specimens of haddoclc catchers, (Danish, " torskepillc?) — In
fishing in the " Skraepperne" the fishermen are often obliged to make
use of this instrument for want of bait, but it is not a favorite with
them.

47. A flounder-net, ready to be cast out, or, as the Danish techuical
term has it, to be " stoned." By holding the split peg with one hand,
and throwing out the stones with tbe other, the net is laid without much
trouble, and, sinking to the bottom, places itself in position.

48. A buoy; a so-called herring-buoy.

49. A grapple, or anchor.

50. A claw. — These are of many different sizes, and are sometimes
used as anchors, but more frequently to search the bottom of the sea
for nets and other objects that have been lost.

51. A fisher-buoy. — In the sound, where the shipping, the current, and
large masses of seaweeds all prove injurious to the buoys, this kind,
simple as it looks, has proved the most effectual in diminishing all these
causes of injury.

52. A net-trough.

53. A hundred claws, " baggers," ready for being cast out.

54. A hundred cleft claws, hung up for drying. Of these the two fish-
ing villages possess an endless number.

55. An eel-iron. — A sort of spear for spearing eel, which, however, is
but seldom used.

50, 57, and 58. Different hinds ofcaufs.
59. Tools for man ufacturing nets.
GO. Apparatus for iccighing eels.
61. A catcher.

FISHING-VILLAGES AND FISHING-IMPLBMENTS IN DENMARK. 181

Nearly all these implements are made by the fishermen themselves.
The women spin and the meu bind them ; small children even assisting
in the work.

The amount of material, however, is so large, and requires so much
repairing-, that the fishermen and their families cauuot do all the work
alone, so that there is enough work left for the poor and old folks of
the villages. The considerable expense required for the material and
its repairing, consumes, of course, a large portion of the fishermen's
annual income, so that they can not save much money. Still they suffer
no want, and are enabled to keep up with the age, being decidedly bet-
ter housed, fed, and clothed, than their ancestors.

Local influences have tended to make the fishermen of Snekkersteen
and Skotterup better educated than fishermen generally are. Living
close by the sound, the great European highway, they have learned
much from the many foreigners of all nations, with whom they come in
constant contact. They are enlightened and liberal in their views and
possessed of a strong feeling of independence.

As far back as the year 1745 they established among themselves a
society for the relief of the sick and the burial of the dead. It is inter-
esting to see from the old account-books of this society, that the major-
ity of the members, who were only simple fishermen, could write and
cipher, some of them even very well, and this at a time when such
learning wras not often found among the poorer classes.

Much could be done to increase the value of the fisheries of Snek-
kersteen and Skotterup, both in the way of new methods and more
modern implements. But what is particularly wanted is a good harbor.
Such a harbor would cost from 6,000 to 8,000 rigsdalers. The ministry
of the interior has appropriated 1,000 rigsdalers for this undertaking,
the district council, 800 ; and many private individuals have made con-
tributions. The work was begun last spring, and there is every pros-
pect that these two flourishing villages will soon possess an excellent
boat-harbor, and have it free of debt.

X.-ON THE HERRING, AND ITS PREPARATION AS AN ARTICLE

OF TRADE.*

BV H.TALMAR WlDEGREN.

Contents.

Introduction.

I. Preparation of common Baltic herring for consumption in Sweden and in the Ger-
man ports on the Baltic.

II. Preparation of extra-fine herring for home consumption.

III. Preparation of spiced herring, (" Kryddsill.")

la the sea which surrounds the Scandinavian peninsula, several kinds
of herring are found differing in size and fatness. These are caught on
certain parts of the coast, and afterward brought into the market
under different names and prepared in various ways. Throughout the
whole of Sweden, there are found in the market Norwegian herring,
Graben herring, Ludd herring, fat herring, Goteborg or Bohusliiu her-
ring, Kulla herring, anchovies, small-herring, spiced herring, &c. All
these articles of trade are prepared from two kinds of fish, viz, the her-
ring properly so-called, (Clupea harengus, L.,) which in the Baltic is
named " stro mining," and the sprat or small-herring, (Clupea sprattus, L.)
The former, both in its natural state and as an article of trade, is found
in much larger quantities than the latter, which is caught only in com-
paratively small quantities, and prepared mostly as anchovies. As the
strommiug is nothing but a variety of the common herring, as will be
shown in the course of this article, the term " herring,'' or " common her-
ring," is used both for the herring of the Western Sea, (Atlantic and
Kattegat,) and the herring of the Baltic, i. e., the strommiug. The sprat
is at first sight distinguished from the herring by having a smaller
head and the lower fins placed more toward the front of the body. Its
belly is, moreover, sharper and furnished with serrated scales, which are
not found in the common herring.

The common herring, which on certain parts of the coast is eaten so
extensively, has its proper home in the North Sea and the Atlantic, but
is also found in the seas connected with them — the Kattegat and the
Baltic. Like other animals and fish, the common herring has un-
dergone, in course of time, iu the different parts of the sea and bays
where it lives, various changes as to size, fatness, &c, and which are

* Nagra ord om Sillfiske samt ora Sillens eller Strommigens riitta bercdning till han-
del svara : in Tidsskrift for Fiskeri. Udgivet af H. V. Fiedler, og Arthur Feddersen.
6te Aargang. (Kjobenhavn. Jacob Erslevs Boghandel. 1871.) pp. 63 — 80.

184 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

chiefly to be accounted for by tbe difference of food in the Atlantic,
the Kattegat, and the Baltic, differing even in different parts of tbe
Atlantic and tbe Baltic. We find, therefore, that every part of the sea,
and even different bays, have, so to speak'their own peculiar kind of
herring, which certainly do not belong to a different family, but which,
nevertheless, can easily be distinguished as belonging to a different
kind, by certain peculiarities due to the locality. Thus, there is found,
e. g., at certain seasons of the year, in some bays of tbe Baltic, a larger
kind of herring, which can easily be distinguished from that which lives
and spawns on the outer portion of the coast; and the herring found on
the coast of Bobuslau, (the west coast of Sweden,) and in the bay of
Christiania, differ greatly in size from those of the west coast of Nor-
way, &c, &c. While this circumstance has, to a certain extent, given
rise to the different ways of preparing and naming the herring as an
article of trade, it affords the means of forming conclusions as to the
herring's manner of living, and also as to the improvement of the her-
ring-fisheries iu the future. Many a fisherman, even in our days, be-
lieves what formerly, before science shed light upon the subject, was a
common opinion, that the herring only accidentally came from remote
portions of the sea to the coast where it is found, and therefore thinks he
acts wisely in making use of this accident for catching as many as pos-
sible ; or, in other words, to fish with implements however destructive
to the fish. Since experience, however, has shown that one can never
catch Norwegian herring on the Bohuslan coast, Kulla or malmo herring
on the Blekiug coast, (the south coast of Sweden,) and Gottlam herring
near Ostgota, &c, &c. ; and since the discovery has been made of the
time aud place where the herring spawns, and the mode and place of liv-
ing of the tender young, it will become evident that the herring, like the
salmon and other kinds of fish and animals, has certain distinct lim-
its to its migrations aud certain definite places which it frequents iu
larger numbers, for the purpose of spawning. Iu order to perpetuate
good herring-fisheries ou the coasts with some reasonable hope of suc-
cess, fishing must be conducted iu such a manner that only a portion of
the tribe which has its spawning-place in a certain bay be caught, and
that the young deposited on the coast or at the bottom of the sea be
spared.

In several places on the Baltic aud the Atlantic, people have suffered
severely for their recklessness iu conducting the herring-fishery, and
especially with regard to the preservation of the young. Thus, obser-
vations made during several years have shown that the dying out of
the fish has in no small degree contributed to the almost total decline
of the great herring fisheries in Bohuslan, which, I am sorry to say, have
not yet been revived, chiefty because, as soon as some younge.r herring
appear, they are caught with narrow-meshed nets. For many years the
herring were accustomed to approach Bredsund, iu Norway, but ceased
to appear as soon as people began to use nets. To take a nearer exam-

HERRING AS AN ARTICLE OF TRADE. 185

pie: not long ago the herring went into Braviken (a bay on the eastern
coast of Sweden) as far as the mouth of the Motala River, and nets were
placed near Lossingsskar and Botilshast, where considerable quantities
of fish were often caught. v The fishermen in the village of Quilliuge
then used the same large nets which are still employed by the inhab-
itants of Quarse, (both villages on the east coast of Sweden.) But by a
reckless use of the net during spawning-time, the whole tribe of herring
has been caught; the herring has ceased to appear there, and the fish-
ermen draw but empty nets. In many other inlets on the Baltic the
herring has entirely disappeared siuce excessive net-fishing has been
introduced.

With this trustworthy experience as a guide, it will be evident to
every one how important it is, if the very existence of the fisheries is
not to be destroyed, to follow certain rules based on the nature and
habits of the fish.

To enable the fisherman himself to decide, in cases of necessity, what
ought to be done for the improvement of the herring-fisheries, (beside
those regulations which possibly may be fixed by law,) some further
information must be given regarding the herring's nature and mode of
living.

The herring is a gregarious fish, mostly found in large schools, espe-
cially at the time when he approaches the coast, which he does regularly
at certain seasons of the year, partly for the purpose of spawning and
partly to seek food, or to " bathe" in calmer waters before and after
spawning.

During winter the herring is found in the deep sea outside the coast,
where he has spawning-places; but even during this period he visits
the deeper gulfs, and thus keeps moving as during summer. This is
proved by the fact that it can be caught in the Baltic during winter with
nets laid under the ice at a depth varying between 5 and 24 fathoms,
and even with seines laid in the fjords and bays at different depths.
During its migrations to and from the coasts, as well as during its stay
in the depths of the open sea, the herring keeps alternately near the
surface of the water and at the bottom. These changes, it is thought,
are occasioned by the temperature of the water, by the different cur-
rents, and by other like circumstances. Our experience in this respect
is as yet too limited to deduce safe conclusions as to the depth at which
the herring may be found at the different seasons of the year. The best
plan for the fishermen, therefore, is to ascertain this by experimenting
with nets at various depths.

The spawning-time of the herring occurs at different seasons in the
sea where this kind of fish is found. Even the different species of her-
ring, living in the same sea, have differeut spawning-times ; and of the
same species some spawn earlier and -some later in the season ; this lat-
ter circumstance being probably occasioned by difference of age, by the
slower or quicker development of some fish, &c.

186 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

la the Baltic, the herring spawns partly in the spring and partly in
the summer, and is therefore called spring-herring and summer-herring.
In the southern portion of the Baltic, the herring continues to spawn till
about the middle of October, while in the northern portion the spawning
season closes in August. The spawniug occurs partly outside the coast
on elevations of from three to fifteen fathoms from the bottom of the sea,
and partly in the fjords (gulfs) nearer to the main land, particularly in
places where the bottom of the sea is thickly covered with sea-weeds.
Tbe spawning process goes on very rapidly, as the school ouly keeps to-
gether at the bottom probably from five to six hours. The spawn is
dropped on sea-weeds, stones, sand, and similar objects, where it remains.
The development of the spawn takes a longer or shorter time, according
to the temperature of the water.

In May, when the water is cool, it takes from fourteen to eighteen
days for the spawn to develop, while in July and August, when the
water in the spawning-places usually has a temperature of from 14° to
15°, Reaumur, it requires only from six to eight days. The young her-
ring, which is smaller and more transparent than the young of most
other fish, (and on this accouut difficult to distinguish,) is a little more
than one-quarter of an inch long, and has, till about eight days after the
development, a residue of the yolk remaining obliquely across the belly,
which, at first, greatly impedes its movements. Only when the young
herring has lost this so-called " belly -bladder," does it begin to swim
around, to collect in schools, and seek food. It is difficult to determine
the growth and size of the young herring until it reaches a certain age,
especially as all the young ones have not the same ability to gather food,
on which circumstance the development of course depends.

Attempts have been made to raise young herring by having them
inclosed in small basins, but they have never lived longer than about five
weeks, at which time their length was about one-half of a decimal inch.
During the whole first year of its existence, the young herring is found
in its spawning place both outside the coast and inside the fjords. Young
herring about one common inch in length may be supposed to be about
two months old. At the age of three mouths, their length is about an
inch and a half. All the fins are fully developed, and the whole shape of
the body resembles that of the mature herring, so that it can easily be
recognized as the young of this fish, which before that time is somewhat
difficult. From comparisons made with the young herring found in the
spawning-places, it is safe to assume that those of about 3 inches in
length found in the spawning-places in spring are of the preceding
year's spawning, and, therefore, about one year old. Young herring from
5 to 6 inches in length, which are often caught iu nets, are probably
only two years old. In fish of this size the roe and the milk begin to be
tolerably developed, and when the fish has reached the length of 8 inches
and the age of about three years, it is capable of spawning.

The food of the young, as well as the grown herring, consists chiefly

HERRING AS AN ARTICLE OF TRADE. 187

of small crustaceous animals, invisible to the naked eye, which are found
iu enormous quantities in the sea, both in shallow and deep waters. In
passiug sea-water through a straining-cloth, great numbers of these
small animals will be found. Their quantity, however, varies at differ-
ent seasons, during a changeof temperature, and at different depths. This
might possibly explain, to some extent, the appearance of herring at dif-
ferent depths. In summer these crustaceous animals are found nearer
the surface of the water, and at this season the herring is also found to
swim comparatively higher. Like other fish, the herring abstains from
food some time before and after spawning, and its stomach is therefore
generally found to be empty at this time. But after spawning it begins
to eat again, and gradually regains the strength and fatness which it
seems to lose during that process. This explains the fact that at some
seasons of the year the herring is leaner than at others.

About two mouths before spawning, the herring may generally bo
considered the fattest and best. This fatness continues until spawning
is over, when the fish becomes lean and thin, and not fit to be caught.
The herring, after spawning, usually migrates to the deep sea to seek
food, and does not return till it has again gained in flesh and strength.
That the herring, like other kinds of fish, as soon as the spawning-time
approaches, again seeks the spot where it was born, is proved by the
circumstance, mentioned above, that certain easily recognizable tribes
or kinds of herring spawn every year at a certain time and at the same
place. That during one year it appears in larger numbers in one place
than during another, has doubtless its cause in the change of tempera-
ture, currents of the sea, and similar influences, which may even occa-
sion the entire absence of the herring from certain bays in some years.
Cold and inclement weather, during spawning-time, often destroys almost
the whole breed of one year, so that, naturally, for some years to come,
the kind of herring, in places where this has happened, will be very
poor. These, and other causes on which the development of herring
is dependent, are, however, as yet so little understood that nothing
definite can be said about them. But, on the other hand, it is well
known that man himself can destroy the herring in a bay of the sea
by catching the whole tribe, both old and young, in large nets, thereby
also destroying the spawning-places.

It has already been stated that certain kinds of herring, particularly
the larger ones, spawn nearer the land, on a bottom overgrown with
sea-weeds. If this bottom is made unfit for spawning, by taking up or
destroying the sea-weeds, either by nets or iu any other way, the her-
ring is, of course, obliged to seek other and more suitable places, and,
consequently, deserts those inlets where formerly it came regularly.

By experience gained in Bohusliin and other places it is proved that
the herring is extremely sensitive in this respect, and deserts old spawn-
ing-places entirely if their character is changed.

Every one, therefore, who desires to keep his herring-fishery in good

188 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

condition, ought to be very careful not to change the nature of the
spawning-places by disturbing the vegetation, or by casting refuse and
other matter into the water.

From wliat has been said concerning the herring's nature and mode
of living, it will be evident that, in order not to risk its annihilation,
destroy the young, and disturb the spawning places, it is best not to
catch the fish with nets during the spawning season, but to use the net
only during those portions of autumn and winter when the herring seeks
the deep water in the inlets ; while one can catch herring in seines with-
out danger at every season of the year. This mode of fishing is, in the
long run, the most advantageous in every respect.

If the herring fishery, however, is really to become remunerative, it
is necessary not only to find a good market for the fish, but also to pre-
pare the fish in the proper manner.

As it is frequently impossible for fishermen to sell the fish immedi-
ately on being caught, it is of the utmost importance for him to have a
knowledge of the best method of preparing it for the trade, particularly
in our time, when the vast improvements in the means of communica-
tion permit the acquisition of the necessaries of life from the most re-
mote localities, so that every one is obliged to strive, by a constantly
improved preparation of his products, to procure and maintain an ad-
vantageous market for them.

In consequence of more rapid communication, the herring of the Baltic
can be sold with profit not only at home, but also in those distant regions
to which, in former times, exportation was impossible. The preparation
of the herring must, of course, vary accordiug to the place where it
finds its market, as there is a demand for different kinds of herring in
different localities. The various methods in which the herring is pre-
pared, so as to secure the best market, are at present the following :

1. The common salt Baltic herring, to supply the demand at home,
and in the German ports on the Baltic.

2. The so called "delikatess" or extra-fine herring prepared in the
^Norwegian and Dutch manner for home consumption.

3. The so-called spiced herring, for home aud foreign consumption.
The choice of any one of these three methods is determined partly by

the fatness aud condition of the fish, partly by the ease or difficulty
with which buyers are found for one or the other kind, and partly by
other considerations. The fat herring, which is sometimes caught in
summer or autumn on certain coasts, is, of course, best suited for the
finer kinds of trade-herring, i. c, the extra fine herring or the spiced
herring, while the common herring is best suited for the common salt
herring, observing, however, in its preparation those rules which are
indispensable for obtaining a good article.

In the preparation of every kind of fish, the most important rule to
be observed is, to bring the fish, as soon as possible after caught, in
contact with the saltj and special care must be taken that the fish, be-

HERRING AS AN ARTICLE OF TRADE, 189

fore it is salted, is not too much exposed to the heat of the sun, for this
soon spoils it. In summer, therefore, every boat ought to be furnished
with sufficient tarpaulin to cover the fish while returning home. It is
also very useful to have in the boat a large tub or vessel with crushed
ice, in which tbe fish should be placed immediately after it is caught, as
this keeps it quite fresh until salt can be applied. Those fish which
have been brought to market fresh, and exposed for some time to the
sun, cannot be used for salt fish, since, as a general rule, the fish are
more or less injured while being transported to the market. Another
imporiant rule in preparing any kind of fish is to preserve the greatest
possible cleanliness. Care should be taken not to let fish-refuse or other
objectionable matter lie around in the salting-houses, or in the tubs or
vessels used for salting. Old biine, which is full of slime, blood, or other
little particles, must never be used for salting, as a foul, disagreeable
taste is apt to be thus imparted to the fish. Another very important
consideration in the preparation of fish is the quality of the salt used,
for it is not only necessary to have a loose, strong, and hard salt, which
is best suited for preserving different kinds of herring, but a prime arti-
cle must be used. Salt that has suffered from sea-water, or that contains
impurities, ought never to be used.

I. — PREPARATION OF COMMON BALTIC HERRING FOR CONSUMPTION IN
SWEDEN AND IN THE GERMAN PORTS ON THE BALTIC.

In the salting of herring, as at present carried on by the fishermen on
most parts of the coast, two mistakes are frequently made: first, salt-
ing the fish too much ; and secondly, pressing it too hard. It is very
important to prepare the fish in such a manner as to keep for a long
time without spoiling. It is likewise important for the merchants to
secure well-packed barrels. But both these advantages may be gained
without producing a fish entirely saturated with strong salt, or made
so thin by pressing as to lose all its natural fat aud only taste of salt.
In many places the fish are pressed so hard into the barrels that they
form a thick mass, from which the brine soon flows off, leaving the
fish dry aud rancid, and by no means pleasant to the taste. Even
if the fish are to be sold in one place, a precisely similar mode of pre-
paring them is by no means to be recommeuded. And although no
one can prescribe rules for preparing fish or producing an article which
will satisfy many different tastes, especially as one buyer cares little for
the flavor or fatness of the herring, but only for its weight, while with
auother the case is just the reverse, most buyers nowadays endeavor to
secure a well-flavored article, which is also carefully packed. The mode of
preparation given below has been tried for a number of years in the
best salting establishments in Gottland and on the southern coast of
Sweden, and fish preserved in this manner will never fail to find a ready
market.

In the preparation of the common herring, St. Yves, (Setubal,) Lis-

190 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

bon, and other strong kinds of salt ought to be used, but Cagliari salt,
and other looser kinds of English and French salts may also be em-
ployed, especially if the fish is intended for immediate consumption.
The salt must be somewhat crushed so that the larger crystals may
melt in the brine, and the salt thus come into contact with the meat of
the fish as much as possible.

As salt herring are mostly exported to distant places, and during
their transportation in ships are exposed to injury from contact with
heavy freight piled upon them ; and as, even on railroads and wagons,
they run the risk of being somewhat roughly handled, they ought to be
transported only in tight and strong barrels, firmly hooped, so that there
may be no danger of the brine escaping. It may be well to mention here,
that a leaky barrel of herring is not worth one-fourth the price of a sound
barrel. As soon as the herring are taken from the net, they ought to be
thrown into vessels filled with pure and clear brine. In no case ought
so many herring to be put into a vessel as to cause the upper layers to
press too heavily on the lower ones. If the number of fish caught is
very great, a larger number of vessels ought rather to be employed.
After the herring has thus been brought into immediate contact with
the salt, it is, after a while, taken out to be cleaned, in which process
care must be taken to remove the entrails and gills, but not the roe and
milk. Every fisherman knows how to do this. After the herring has
been cleaned, it is again placed in another vessel filled with pure brine.
When all the fish have been cleaned, or while the process is going on,
the cleaned herring are taken out of the brine and washed in fresh and
pure sea-water, and then placed in small baskets with wood-shavings at
the bottom, so that the water may drain off. The fish are then sprinkled
with salt in the following manner: They are placed loose in a barrel,
together with crushed salt, the proportion being 3 gallons (kappa) per
barrel, (tuuua,) of about 4 bushels. In every layer the fish and the salt
are stirred so as to mix properly. After twenty-four hours, the fish are
again taken out of the salt and placed in baskets, so that the briue may
run off. This process is finished in about an hour, and the fish are then
properly packed and salted in other barrels, arranged in layers, with
the back downward, and crushed salt placed between every layer, reck-
oning about 5 gallons to every tunua, (see above.) When the barrel is
full it is exposed to a slight pressure, so slight that the fish is kept
under the brine, but not so heavy as to cause the fat and juice to
exude from the fish into the brine, since this would injure their flavor.

The barrels are left standing open in this state for some time, (about
two or three days,) and as the mass of the fish siuks down, new layers
are placed on the top. When, after some days, the sinking of the fish
may be considered finished, the barrels are filled up and closed. Every
fourteenth day, at least, these barrels ought to be gently rolled about
and turned up and down, so that the brine may penetrate the whole

HERRING AS AN ARTICLE OF TRADE. 191

mass. Before the fish are to be shipped, the barrels must he examined
again, and if any further sinking is noticed, the barrels are filled up
with fish for the last time.

The brine, which during the filling of the barrels, flows over, as well
as that which is obtained during every salting, may be put into those
vessels in which the fish are placed immediately after being caught, and
where they are kept during the cleaning process. It is, however, im-
portant that such old brine be exchanged for new alter it has been
once used and has become filled with impurities.

To salt fish, as is done in the province of Ostergotland, with 9 gallons
of salt per tunna, is not advisable, because then the fish is pressed
too bard and salted too thoroughly. After it has been sprinkled with
salt all that is required is 25 gallons per tunna, and for this purpose the
fish ought to be placed immediately in the barrels and not be pressed
more than is absolutely necessary for the proper filling of them. In the
province of Norrland it is customary to let the herring lie uncleaned in
the brine for twenty-four hours ; and, moreover, to use brine which has
been often used for the same purpose. That this mode is objectionable,
and that the herring ought to be cleaned as soon as possible, will be
evident from what has been said above.

In Carlskrona, south coast of Sweden, it is customary to use only 1
gallon of salt per tunna for sprinkling the fish, and then to salt them
with 7 gallons per tunna. This method cannot be recommended, as
the fresh fish, if they have absorbed enough of the brine, do not require
as large a quantity of salt as 7 gallons per tunna.

The Baltic herring, prepared in the manuer explaiued above, fiud a
ready market, not only at home, but also in foreign ports on the Baltic.
The price paid for herring differs of course in different years, being
partly regulated by the quality of the fish and partly by the price of
Norwegian and other foreign herring. In some years, when the herring-
fishery both in Norway and Sweden has been good, the fishermen can
scarcely dispose of their fish at home at such a price as to fully remu-
nerate them. It is, therefore, advantageous to seek a foreign market,
and prepare the fish accordingly. German ports on the Baltic, especially
Stettin, Stralsund, and some others, afford, at certain seasons, a very
good market for the common salted herring. The most profitable season
for selling herring in these places is from midsummer to the beginning
of September. The fish inteuded for exportation to Germany are pre
pared in the above-mentioned manner, but ought to be very carefully
packed in good sound barrels, not in barrels ("tunna") of the same
size as in Sweden, but somewhat smaller, such as are used in Boruholm
and on the German coast. In Stettin, such barrels, if the fish are sound
and well packed, bring from 13 to 21 riksdalers, (1 riksdaler, silver=
about $L currency,) which is a very good price, considering the fact
that these barrels are much smaller than the Swedish ones.

192 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

II. — PREPARATION OF EXTRA-FINE HERRING FOR nOME CONSUMPTION.

It is well-kuown that Sweden annually imports a considerable quan-
tity of Dutch and Norwegian herring, which are partly sold in barrels,
(" tunna,") but mostly in smaller vessels (" fjerdingar,"*) for household
use among the better classes. Experiments have proved that the large
and fat Baltic herring, which are caught in several places on the Swed-
ish coast, can very easily be prepared in the same manner as in Holland
and Norway. In this way an article is produced which, although per-
haps not in every respect equal to the foreign herring, nevertheless
resembles it very closely, and therefore finds a ready market at a profit-
able price at home, and this all the more since the Swedish extra-fine
herring can be furnished at much less expense than the foreign.

The term " extra-fine herring" (" delikatess — sill '*) implies that it
is not an article for every-day use. It ought, therefore, to be put up iu
smaller kegs than the common herring, such as the "Ijerdingar," (see
above.) As a matter of CDurse the extra-fine herring must not be salted
nearlyas much as the common salt-herring, because the fine flavor which
ought to distinguish it would thus be lost. As a consequence it can-
not be kept as long as the common herring. In preparing the extra-fine
herring, looser kinds of salt ought to be used, those that are milder,
finer, and more easily dissolved, such as Liverpool salt, Liiueburg salt,
Cagliari salt, &c. ; the best on the whole being Liiueburg salt.

Preparation of extra-fine herring after the Norwegian manner. — The
fresh-caught herring are placed, during the cleaning-process, in pure
brine. Some, in cleaning the fish, take out only the entrails ; but it is,
in all cases, best to take out both the entrails and the gills. As soon as
they are cleaned they are placed iu layers in kegs, the back downward.
Between every layer salt is put, reckoning about six gallons to one
" tunna;" salt also being placed on the top of the uppermost layer. As
the layers gradually sink iu the keg, others are put in. After about six
days, an opening is made with a stick between the inass of herring and
the side of the keg, into which salt is poured, and the keg then closed.
Before shipping them, the kegs are all examined again and filled up, if
necessary, in the same manner as mentioned in the preparation of the
common salt-herriug. If sufficient brine has not formed, a small hole is
bored in the side of the keg, pure brine is poured in, and the hole closed.
It is well, too, frequently to roll and turn the kegs. Herring prepared
in this manner have kept quite good and fresh for six mouths.

Preparation of the Bailie herring after the Dutch manner. — Fresh and
fat Baltic herring are put, immediately on being taken out of the water,
into a keg in small quantities, and frequently stirred for at least an hour
with fine-crushed Liiueburg salt. Then the fish can be cleaned as de-
scribed above, or without being cleaned, placed iu kegs in layers, with
fine-crushed Liiueburg salt between every layer; reckoning about from

*1 "fjerdiug" = 2 pecks.

HERRING AS AN ARTICLE OF TRADE. 193

1 to li gallons of salt to every " fjerding." When a keg is full it is
closed, but also examined and filled up again, as before mentioned. The
uncleaned herring, which are called in foreign countries "round-salted
herring," do not keep near as long as the cleaned herring ; for, of the lat-
ter kind, I have seen some prepared at the Herta Salting Establishment,
on the island of Gottland, preserved fresh and good for over a year.
Baltic herring prepared after the Norwegian or Dutch manner find a
very ready and profitable market in Stockholm and other Swedish
cities.

III.— PREPARATION OF SPICED HERRING, (" KRYDDSILL ").

The so-called spiced herring is an article found here and there in the
market, kept like anchovies in small kegs or glass jars. It may be pre-
pared from any kind of herring, and it is much sought after in some
places in Sweden, but especially in North Germany. Its preparation,
however, cannot, as yet, be said to form any important branch of trade,
and must be considered rather as an experiment by housewives for the
purpose of introducing a little variety into their meals, especially for
the lunch-table. As there seems to be some demand for this article, par-
ticularly for the foreign market, the most approved method of preparing
it is given below.

The fresh-caught herring are immediately put into vinegar, with one-
fourth water, and some salt. After remaining in this mixture for twenty-
four hours, the herring are taken out and the vinegar drained off. The
fish are then placed in a keg with a mixture of the following spices,
reckoning these quantities for every (fourscore) 80 herrings:* 1 "skal-
pund" fine dry salt, "1 skalpund" pulverized sugar, 1 "lod" pepper, 1
"lod" bay-leaves, 1 "lod" saltpeter, £ "lod" sandal, £ "loci" ginger, £
"lod" Spanish hops, £ "lod" cloves.

Others use the following mixture: 1 "skalpund" salt, £ "skalpund."
sugar, 2 " lod" pepper, 2 "lod" allspice, 1 "lod" cloves, 1 "lod" Spanish
hops.

The herring must be left in this mixture for two months before it is
fit for use. Some put the herring immediately into vinegar, without
water and salt, from which it is taken, after twelve hours, and treated as
above described.

If the spiced herring, after some time, should not have sufficient brine,
good brine of Liineburg salt is poured over it, by means of which it will
keep for years.

* Swedish weights mentioned. — 1 "skalpund" of 32 "lod," = nearly 1 pound avoirdupois ;
1 " lod " of 4 " quintin," = nearly | ounce avoirdupois.

13 v

XI -NEW CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HERRING-QUESTION. -THE
DISPUTE BETWEEN AXEL BOECK AND OSSIAN SARS RE-
GARDING THE NORWEGIAN SUMMER-HERRING -SARS'S
RECENT OBSERVATIONS AND HIS NEW THEORY ON THE
MIGRATIONS OF THE HERRING-*

I.

In accordance with a proposal made by Mr. G. O. Sars, the " practical
and scientific observations on the Norwegian sea-fisheries" were, in
1872, combined with the soundings made by the Norwegian navy in the
sea outside the Jseder stream ; and as this portion of the sea is in
the immediate neighborhood of the spring-herring district, the " depart-
ment of the interior" commissioned Mr. Sars — we presume, in accordance
with his own suggestion — to throw, if possible, some new light on the
hitherto somewhat obscure question regarding the nature and the mi-
grations of the herring. Mr. Sars intended to direct his attention par-
ticularly to the so-called fat-herring or summcr-licrring, as he always sus-
pected that its true nature had not been properly understood by other
naturalists, and particularly by Mr. Axel Boeck. Mr. Sars's report was
noticed in the " Morgenhladet^ and was subsequently printed in full
in that journal (October 29, 1872f). It called forth some remarks
by Mr. Axel Boeck in a later number of that journal, (November 5,
1872,) and a discussion ensued between the two gentlemen, which, in
the beginning especially, was of a violent character, perhaps to some
extent excused by the circumstances, but in itself very deplorable.
It seems, however, that both of them during the subsequent discussion
(which elicited but little that was new) endeavored to treat the matter
in a calmer spirit. It is not our intention to judge between the per-
sons of these two gentlemen, or to revive a discussion which for one of
them bears the melancholy souvenir that his colleague and opponent — to
the great sorrow of all Scandinavian naturalists — did not long survive
it. All we desire in this article is to give a brief review of the data
which have been gained, by Mr. Sars's observations of the "summer-her-
ring," respecting the herring whose natural history is still enveloped in
so much obscurity. Every step toward throwing more light on the sub-

* " Nye Bidrag til Sildesp^rgsruaalet. Striden uiellem Axel Boeck og Ossian Sars an-
gaaendo den norske Sommersild. Sars's senere Unders^gelser og nans nye Theori om
SildensTrajk :" in Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fiskeri. New series. Aargang2. Part 2. 1S75.
pp. — , with map.

t Later it has been printed separately, (1874,) together with the reports of 1370, 1871,
and 1873.

196 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

ject is of unusual interest; for no one knows to what important discov-
eries it may lead. We will, therefore, in this place give an extract of
Mr. Sars's " Report," and in connection with it review the more impor-
tant remarks called forth by it on both sides.

On the 17th July, Mr. Sars began his sojourn in Stav anger, and from
that place made excursions in the neighboring fjords. In the city
itself he had an excellent opportunity of examining herring, which
about this time were brought to market from various places in large
quantities. He subsequently visited one of the fishing-stations on the
outer coast, where, during the wiuter, the so-called spring-herring fisheries
are carried on, partly for the purpose of obtaining information regard-
ing those fisheries, partly for the purpose of making personal observa-
tions. The place he visited was " Hvitingso," an island far out in the
sea, and an old and well-known spring-herring fishing-place. From
that point he made excursions in all directions, examining particularly
the bottom of the ocean in those places where the herring-fisheries are
carried on. Mr. Sars also collected much information regarding the
spring-herring fisheries from conversations with experienced fishermen.
He reports that at that season enormous numbers of young herring were
found in the more sheltered sounds and bays, which, on closer exami-
nation, turned out to be almost exclusively young spring-herring,*
and, as could be ascertained, of this year's spawning. The fishermen
know this herring-spawn very well, and call it "Aesja.v\ They use it
partly as bait, partly as food in eel-boxes, and take it as often ^ as re-
quired with fine nets in quiet, grass-grown inlets. In examining the
''Brisling," (Clupea sprattus,) brought to the Stavanger fish-market
from various places, it was frequently found mixed with a great number
of young spring-herring. The Hvitingso fishermen testified that dur-
ing that year the spring-herring was found in unusual quantities ; in
fact, they did not remember so good a spring-herring year since the old
extraordinarily rich spring-herring fisheries. Sars concludes from this
that during the previous winter a large number of spring-herring must
have remained near the coast and have spawned there; and that, there-
fore, the poor spring-fisheries of the previous year cannot have been
caused by any decrease in the number of herrings, nor by any change
of route in the migrations of the herrings, but only by the circumstance
that for some reason or other the great mass of the herrings did not
come as near the coast as formerly, but spawned farther out at sea. All
the fishermen agreed that large schools of herring approached the coast
at the usual time, which could be judged of from the unusual number

of whales and birds ; and for some time there was a prospect that the

•

* It seems that the author hy this term only 'wishes to convey the idea that they

•were the young of the genuine herring, (Clupea harengus,) in contradistinction from the

" Brisling," (Clupea sprattus,) not that they were the young of that variety of herring

■which is called " spring-herring ; " but as he does not seem to allow that there are several

varieties of herring on the coast of Norway, it amounts to the same thing.

t Danish : Aes, i. e., food.

•

NEW CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HERRING-QUESTION, ETC. 197

fisheries near Hvitingso would be very good; but people waited too
long, hoping that the herring would come in to the usual fishing-places,
and the consequence was that they quietly spawned in the outer deep,
and had already done spawning before attempts were made to take
them out at sea. That large numbers of herring spawned there is also
corroborated by the fact that soon after the close of the herring-fisheries
there were found in the outer' deep an unusual number of torsks, whose
stomachs were full of herring-roe, which must have entirely covered
the bottom of the sea. There is therefore reason to suppose that
the usual number of herring have also visited the coast in 1872, and
have deposited their roe in suitable places. It need not follow, however,
from the circumstance that the spring-herring in this and partly in the
preceding year, from some unknown reason, has spawned at a greater
distance from the coast than usual, that it will always do so, much less
that it will entirely leave the coast. Mr. Sars thinks that there are no
sure signs of such a sudden change in the migrations of the herring,
but that there is good reason to hope that, under more favorable cir-
cumstances, the herring-fisheries on the west coast of Norway will
again be carried on in the usual places ; of course, with more or less
variable results. He was confirmed in this view by his observations of
the so-called fat-herring, or summer-herring.

Eegarding this fish, the (according to Mr. Sars, erroneous) opinion has
formerly been prevalent that it was a different variety from the spring-
herring, or an entirely different species of herring, which was said to go to
different parts of the west coast of Norway, and not to belong to the
ocean proper, but to the islands and sounds. It was even said that it
had a special spawning-season of its own, viz, autumn, while the spring-
herring spawns in winter or early in spring. We cannot entirely agree
with Mr. Sars when he says, "if it were really the case that the summer-
herring spawned at an entirely different season of the year, it would,
in spite of its great zoological similarity, have to be considered not
only as a distinct variety, but as a separate species. There certainly
may be herring which spawn in autumn, and this is particularly the
case with the so-called 'Kulla'* herring, occurring on the Swedish coast
of the Kattegat, but this different spawning-season is caused by differ-
ent physical circumstances — by varying conditions of life." "On the
same coast, therefore, where herring are found which spawn in spring,
none can (!) occur which spawn in autumn, and vice versa." Natural
phenomena cannot unfortunately be so easily and with such certainty
deduced from simple premises; and Boeck did not find it difficult to
point out certain facts, which cannot be argued away, and which show
that two races of herring, one spawning in spring and the other spawn-
ing in autumn, occur on one and the same coast. Thus Miinter has
shown that on the east coast of Eiigen, on a space scarcely extending
four German miles, there are two varieties of herring — a southern,

* Kulla, a promontory on the western coast of Sweden.

198 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

spawning iu spring, and a northern, spawning in autumn. In connec-
tion with this we may mention Nilsson's and Ekstrom's report, that in
the Baltic there are two varieties of small herring, ("Stromming,") the
more slender of which spawns in May and the beginning of June, and
the stouter one in August and the first half of September. On the
other hand, in the present case, where the Norwegian summer-her-
ring is spoken of, Sars has given satisfactory proof that in general it
does not spawn in autumn. Its fat and general good quality are caused
by its having, as one says, "fat, instead of roe and milt." The roe and
milt are there, in the lowest part of the abdominal cavity, covered by
the fat, but in so undeveloped a condition, that it may be taken for
granted that they cannot possibly mature as early as autumn. The
Norwegian fishermen, therefore, do not know the autumn-spawning
herring. According to their short-sighted view, the summer-herring
does not spawn at all; and they are led to take this view because it has
neither roe nor milt, but only fat, quite forgetting that every variety or
species of fish must be able to propagate itself in order to exist. By
denying the power of propagation, (wbich of course is only correct in
so far a,s it does not spawn as summer-herring,) they actually deny it
all independence as a separate variety. When the "summer-herring"
finally spawns, it has ceased to be a summer-herring, or fat-herring, (the
distinguishing mark of the latter being that it is filled with fat and not
with roe or milt,) and has become a spring-herring; iu other words, it
is only the younger herring, not yet Jit to spawn, in different stages of its
life, but ends invariably by becoming at last a genuine spring-herring.
The reason why people have been so long blind to this very simple
state of facts, in Sars's opinion, Hows from the erroneous idea that the
summer-herring goes into the fjords and bays lor the same purpose as
the spring-herring, while, as every one acquainted with the nature of
the herring knows, in reality it does not go at all for the purpose of
spawning, but merely to feed.

If this theory is correct, the summer-herring must occur in different
forms, corresponding with the different stages of its life; and this is
actually the case. It is consequently brought into trade under different
names, which, on the whole, represent as many years or ages. In the
second year it is called Christiania herring; in the third, middle herring;
and in the fourth, merchants'' herring. Iu its fifth year, it has become a
genuine spring -her ring.* There is no essential difference between these
varieties except the size and the greater or less development of the sex-
ual organs ; but in all other points they are alike, even in the subdivis-
ions of these varieties, viz, small and large Christiania herring, small
and large middle herring, merchants' herring, &c. It must not be
imagined that these divisions in all cases agree exactly with the age; for
all fish do not reach the same size in the same period of time, and the

*A correction, where, instead of fivo years, the whole period of this development
embraces six years, is given below.

NEW CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HERRING-QUESTION, ETC. 199

spawning-season of the spring-herring, and the consequent development
of the young fish, extend over quite a portion of winter and spring.
Sars, however, supposes that a large number of the " merchants' her-
ring" (or, in other words, a large portion of the common herring) spawns
by the end of the fourth year. " It will then be found together with the
older or genuine spring-herring, and, as in that case it will have com-
pletely matured roe and milt like this one, no one will, as a general
rule, think of considering it as former fat-herring, but as young spring-
herring, (which it is in reality.) It is probable, however, that, on closer
examination, (especially when this youngherring is found in large num-
bers without being mixed with the older spring-herring,) some slight
differences will be found, chiefly caused by its not yet being familiar with
life far out at sea, to which the older spring-herring have become accus-
tomed, while it only commences that life now after having done spawning.
It is likewise possible tbat the spawning-season of this younger herring
does not occur exactly at the same time, but somewhat earlier." Sars,
therefore, supposed that the so-called Blandsild, mixed herring, (whose
occurrence has been looked upon as a precursor of the disappearance of
the spring-herring proper, but which he had no opportunity to exam-
ine,) according to the description given of it, which says that it is fatter
(and consequently better) than the spring-herring, but somewhat
smaller and spawns earlier, is not a previously unknown kind of her-
ring, which has shown itself only during the last few years on the coast
of Norway, but a summer-herring, in its transition period toward being a
" Graabeusild " (graybone herring ); in other words, the youngest spring-
herring, which, during the following year, will return as a genuine Graa-
beusild. (We shall later return to this subject.) The reason that it has
been formerly overlooked is that it was mixed with the Graabensild; but
during the last few years it has not been found so much mixed with it,
because, as has been said above, the great mass of the old herrings com-
ing in from the sea have spawned farther out at sea. " Just as the young
of the torsk spend the first years of their life near the coast, and only
go out in the open sea at a more advanced age, so do the young of the
spring-herring spend the first years of their life near the coast, and dur-
ing summer gather (under the name of fat-herrings) in large schools, to
feed in the inner fjords and bays." Since the summer-herring fisheries
on the heights of Stavanger were very productive in 1872, rather more
so than usual, Mr. Sars thinks there is no reason to fear any diminution
jn the schools of spring-herrings, or that they should begin to go to
other coasts ; if this were the case, the summer-herring fisheries must
have decreased iu the same proportion.

With regard to this, it must be said that nothing of the kind has ever
been supposed. Boeck himself has shown that if the spring-herring
fisheries are not successful, the reason is that the spawning herring does
not, as in other cases, go near the coast, where it could be easily caught,
but spawns farther out in deep water, where it cannot be caught so well,

200 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OP FISH AND FISHERIES.

at least not according to the usual method. What causes the herring
to remain so far from the coast has, up to this date, (1872,) not yet be-
come known. Mr. Sars could not say either what favorable circum-
stances should induce the hope that the herring-fisheries on the west
coast of Norway would again return to the old places, or what unfavor-
able circumstances kept the majority of the herring during the two pre-
ceding years away from the fishing-places. (We shall again return to
this question.) Mr. Boeck furthermore proves, what need not be men-
tioned here, as it has been spoken of in the " TidssJcriftfor Fislceri,v 7de
Aargang, p. 13, that under no circumstances has the cold anything to
do with it. He also protests against having advanced the opinion that
a herring-period (i. e., a period of successful herring-fisheries) should
now have come to an end as far as Norway is concerned. He has only,
from the sources accessible to him, cited a number of facts " which show
under what conditions the herring-fisheries came to an end in former
times and in different localities; how they again returned, and in what
manner the fisheries were carried on year after year. From these his-
toric facts, a certain law can be deduced regarding the movements of
the great masses of herring, which do not come and go irregularly
on certain parts of the coast, but whose movements occur with a
certain regularity." He lets every one from this draw his own con-
clusions, which he considers justified, and gives his opinion on the
whole with great reserve : " That even if it does not follow, from all which
has been said, that the spring-herring will leave our coasts, (the south-
ern spring-herring district,) all the appearances are not favorable to the
opposite opinion." We must agree with Mr. Sars that in so far as Mr.
Boeck has given any opinion on this question, it must be that the appear-
ances are not favorable for the nearest future of the Norwegian spring-
herring fisheries ; but whether or not Mr. Boeck will stand by this proph-
ecy, whose correctness only the future can show, it seems that the expe-
rience of last year will bear it out. The important question, why does
the herring during a certain period of years go to the inner spawning-
places, while during another period it remains outside, has so far (1872)
not been answered; just as little as the question, what may cause the
gradual change in the spawning-season, which, according to Boeck's
investigations, always seems to precede the end of the herring-fisheries.
Mr. Sars believes, as we shall see in another chapter, (1873,) that he has
found satisfactory answers to all these questions ; but we have not yet
reached this point.

Mr. Boeck says, in the "Kemarks" with which he accompanies Mr.
Sars's "'Beport" in the " Morgenbladet^ of November 5, that in his work
on the herring he has already hinted at the same view regarding the
relation of the summer-herring and the spring-herring which Mr. Sars
has advanced, and that the reason why he (Boeck) did not describe this
relation more fully was merely a want of opportunity to visit the sum-
mer-herring fisheries farther north — during the years in question there

NEW CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HERRING-QUESTION, ETC. 201

■was no, or at least a very inconsiderable, summer-herring fishery in the
southern district — and that he was prevented from visiting the northern
fisheries by Mr. Sars's using the greater portion of the appropriation
made for both of them for his journeys to the Lofoten Islands, or in
some other manner. However this may be, we cannot but side with
Mr. Boeck in his protest against the accusations that he systematically
maintained the Mstoric mode of investigation, in opposition to the scien-
tific mode. He also shows that the different years of the herring given
by Sars are nearly the same as those given some years ago by Mr.Dahl,
of Bergen,* with the difference only that the latter gave to the spring-
herring an age of six years instead of five, which opinion one often
hears expressed on the western coast, (and which, as will be seen from
Sars's report for 1873, he also shares.) Mr. Boeck, in this important
point — the relation between the summer-herring and the spring-her-
ring— does not express an essentially different view. He fully agrees
with Mr. Sars that the summer-herriug is nothing but the spring-herring
at a different age; but he does not think that this is the case with all
summer-herriug ; and he maintains that there are really peculiar coast-
races of herring on the coasts of Sweden and Norway,! and that they
may spawn at a later season than the spring-herring, viz, in April on
the coast of Norway, and in May on the Swedish coast of Bohuslen.
In the fact that toward the end of November, on the northern coast, he
had an opportunity of examining a " merchants' herring," which was
full of loose roe, he finds a proof that the autumn-herring (probably
when it remains in the fjords) can spawn before the herring's usual
spawning-time in spring, at which time Boeck is also inclined to think
the majority of the autumn-herring spawns; and this early-spawning
autumn-herring could then, if we understand Mr. Boeck correctly, also
be considered as a separate race of herrings.

Boeck further remarks that experience shows that if in a certain
place there is during one year a rich spring-herring fishery, such fact
does not justify the hope that the next winter or spring there will be
a rich spring-herring fishery in the same place. "If there should be

* Dahl's years, with which Sars now entirely agrees, were the following : First year,
Musse ; second year, Aesja ; third year, Christiania herring; fourth year, middle her-
ring ; fifth year, merchants' herring ; sixth year, spring-herring. It has, therefore,
also been supposed that the spring-herring fisheries occur in periods of six years, on the
idea that the herring, for the purpose of spawning, would return to the place where it
had been hatched ; and in many cases this idea has been correct.

t An article in the " Throndhjems Stiftsavis" for 1862 makes the following distinc-
tion between two varieties of the summer-herring : " The sea-herring," which during
summer comes in from the high sea, and " the fjord-herring ," which remains in the
fjords, and during the summer-herring fisheries mixes with the incoming sea-herring.
Boeck, however, supposes that such coast-races have originated, and still originate, by
more or less developed sea-herring going into the deeper and more secluded iulets, and
remaining there. Their young may possibly again become sea-herring, but more per-
manent varieties may also form in such places, e. g., the Hoxfjordherring, the Idefjord-
herring, &c.

202 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

rich spring-herring fisheries in the same places where, during the pre-
ceding summer, great masses of summer-herring have shown themselves,
we ought to have had for a long number of years steady and particu-
larly rich spring-herring fisheries on the coast north of Christians-
sund as far as the Tromso district, and even farther north ; but noth-
ing of the kind is known, no real spring-herring having been caught
along that coast during this century." Sars, in answer to this, says, if
we understand him correctly, that the northern "sea-herring," or "great
herring," is the same as the " spring-herring;" but Boeck draws atten-
tion to the fact that the " great herring" does not go farther south than
the boundary of the Nordland district, and that, from that point as far as
Christianssund, there is a long stretch of coast where large summer-her-
ring fisheries have taken place and still take place, and where no spring-
herring are caught. The " great-herring " fisheries did not commence
till 1861, and prior to that year there had not been any spring-fisheries
in that location for sixty, perhaps for eighty, years. During those years
when the spring-herring had left the heights of Stavanger entirely,
(17S4 to 1808,) there were rich summer-herring fisheries in the Stavan-
ger fjord, and in other places, and these fisheries were most successful
in the middle years of this period ; when the spring-herriug fisheries
again increased, the summer-herring disappeared altogether. Several
printed and manuscript reports particularly deplore the fact that the
valuable "summer-herring" has gone away, while the inferior " spring-
herring" has come again. Just as little is it known from experience that
where there have been rich spring-herring fisheries for a number of
years, great numbers of summer-herring could at the same time be
caught in the inlets along this coast. It appears, from the Stavanger
and Bergenshus districts' reports, published every five years, that, for
many years, when the spring-herring fisheries were successful, few or
no summer-herring were caught on the same coast. It is only during
the last few years that the summer-herring fisheries have been success-
ful in the Stavanger fjords, but during these very years the spring-
herring fishery has not amounted to anything. The hopes which have
been built on the great quantity of young fish coming in have also
but too often been disappointed, and no conclusion can be reached as to
the probable fate of the Norwegian spring-herring fisheries in the near
future. " When the spring-herring, in 1833, went past the cape (Lin-
desnaes) as far as Mandal, all the bays were later in the year full of
young herring. The inhabitants of that coast for that reason enter-
tained great hopes of contiuuing the fisheries during the following
years, especially when the young from that year would have grown up ;
but these hopes were not fulfilled, for later no herring appeared on that
side of the cape. During the year when the spring-herring left the
coast, it had spawned near Flekkeijord, and numerous young fish justi-
fied the hope of future rich fisheries, although the fishing during that
year had been poor, and the herring had kept in such deep water that

NEW CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HERRING-QUESTION, ETC. 203

some were taken at a depth of 80 fathoms ; but the joy was but short-
lived, for it only lasted till the time in the following year when the fish-
eries were to commence, when no herring appeared, nor have they
appeared since." Similar masses of young herring showed themselves
on the coast of Bohuslen (Sweden) in the year when the great-herring
fisheries on the coast ceased.

With regard to the objection raised by Mr. Boeck against the opinion
that the summer-herring is only a young spring-herring, viz, that the
greater or less success of the spring-herring fishery on the coast of
Stavanger is in no wise connected with the summer-herring fisheries on
the same coast, great spring-herring fisheries having occurred during
those years when the summer-herring fisheries did not amount to any-
thing, Mr. Sars says that the difficulty in solving this problem dis-
appears if one maintains the difference between "herring-fisheries" and
the " occurrence of herring." " The former is, of course, dependent on
many accidental circumstances, and may, therefore, although the num-
ber of herring is the same, be very different. This must especially be
supposed to be the case with the summer-herring fisheries. The summer-
herring may certainly be near the coast in very large masses without any
great fisheries being carried on. A rich summer-herring fishery depends
exclusively on the accidental occurrence of small crustaceans and their
entirely accidental accumulation in certain places which are favorable
to the fisheries, and to this, of course, no regard is had in the historical
report on the fisheries." This explanation of Mr. Sars of the fact that a
rich spring-herring fishery is not always followed by a rich summer-her-
ring fishery is doubtless correct, but it does argue away the experience
that, vice versa, a rich summer-herring fishery is not followed by a good
spring-herring fishery. Other causes must be found for this. He cer-
tainly answers the objection that on the coast from Christianssund to
Nordlaud no proper spring-herring fisheries are carried on, by saying
that the spring-herring may be there and spawn out in the deep water,
without any actual fishery being carried on; aud, moreover, that there
isnothing which tellsus that its offspring, the summer-herring, is entirely
stationary in those places where it is hatched, but it is probable that it
goes along the coast and gathers iu those places where the small crus-
taceans are chiefly found." We think, however, that in this case it is
Mr. Sars who does not distinguish between " herring-fisheries" and the
"occurrence of herring;" for of what use is it to the fisherman, as Mr.
Boeck remarks, that there are herring enough out in the sea, if they
won't come in and let themselves be caught iu those places where fishing-
can be carried on ? There is certainly, as has been said before, no doubt
that the herring stays outside the coast of Norway every winter and
spring during the spawming-season ; and whether it remains outside and
spawns there, or approaches the coast, the young will at any rate seek
shelter near it. There will, therefore, always be enough young herring,
(whether they flock together so that they can be caught to advantage ;

204 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

or not, which will depend on stream and wind collecting their food ;)
but from the circumstance that there are many " summer-herring," or
young herring, no conclusion can be drawn as to the probable result of
the spring-herring fisheries. It is in reality only the " occurrence of
herring" which Mr. Sars has been able to promise his countrymen, and
of this there was no reason to doubt; but so far it is not within any-
body's power to predict " herring-fisheries," because we know not the
causes — at any rate, not the proper causes which can form the subject of
observations and calculations — of the periodical changes in the spawn-
ing-season and coming in of the herring, but only know from experience
that whenever these changes take place there is reason to fear that the
spring-herring for a number of years will not come to its old spawning-
places on the coast in order to spawn there, but stay farther out, as is
partly also the case with the Nordlands-herring, or the " great-herring."

Mr. Sars, with regard to this, has raised the objection that the " sea-
herring" has been known long before 1861, but that it has not been
made an object of fishing, probably because formerly it did not come so
near the land as during the last years. The Lofoten fishermen took as
many of these fish as they used for their households by taking them out
of the sea in a very primitive manner — in buckets. Mr. Boeck quite
agrees with him in this point, but did not mean anything else than that
its "occurrence" before 1861 did not take place near the coast so that
it could have been fished with the common fishing-implements. Kegard-
ing the "great-herring," Mr. Boeck says, on this occasion, that it does
not differ from the spring-herring, but that its apparently different
shape is only caused by the greater amount of fat it contains, as on
approaching the coast it is not ready for spawning. Only at one place
did Boeck, toward the end of the fishery, in January, find " great-her-
ring" with loose roe and milt. As a general rule, it does not spawn
near the coast, but far out at sea, where large masses of herring have
every year been seen, both in this and the last century, from Hammers-
fest to Hitteren, from which cause a large number of young fish are
every year seen near the coast and in the fjords ; but in this century,
from some unknown reasons, they had not approached the coast so that
they could be caught, before 1SG1. As the great-herring, therefore, does
not approach the coast for the purpose of spawning, the great-herring
fisheries are always somewhat uncertain. As was said before, we do
not know the cause why this full-grown herring, which, however, is not
ready to spawn, approaches the coast in this manner; it is only sup-
posed that it has lost its way by following the large troughs of the sea
which lead to the coast.

Although there remain several obscure " herring-problems," it is evi-
dent that, by Mr. Sars's report of 1872 and by Mr. Boeck's comments
upon it, made during the same year, we have advanced some steps in
understanding the connection between the various phenomena, partic-
ularly by proving tbat the summer-herring only represents different

NEW CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HERRING-QUESTION, ETC. 205

stages in the life of the spring-herring; that it has no separate spawn-
ing-time; and that its movements are determined by its favorite food,
i. e., small crustaceans. Besides acknowledging the progress that
had been made, we thought that we owed it to the whole question, as
well as to the memory of Mr. Boeck, to save from oblivion what he had
written concerning it during the last days of his life, and which, on
account of its being contained in a daily journal, could only be accessi-
ble to a few, whose number would naturally decrease every day. Our
review of the state of the Norwegian herring-question at the end of the
year 1872 will at the same time serve as an introduction to a review of
the considerable progress which has been made by Mr. Sars's report for
1873, published in 1874, to which we will now turn.

II.

The above review of the discussion carried on in 1872 had long since
been written for insertion in tbis periodical, when we received Mr.
Sars's above-mentioned report for 1873, in which he gives in detail his
complete theory of the migrations of the Norwegian herring and the
causes which determine them. We likewise take the liberty to give, in
the following, a brief extract from this report.

Mr. Sars does not believe that the grown spring-herring, after having
spawned on the western coast of South Norway, (from Ohristianssuud
to Stavanger,) goes out to the nearest deep water due west — i. e., between
the coast and the ridge in the bottom of the sea running parallel with it
from north to south, at a distance of from ten to fifteen miles — and stays
there near the bottom of the sea during three-fourths of the year when
it is not near the coast. This portion of the bottom, which, as Mr. Sars
has found by former observations, possesses but little animal life, and
must, comparatively speaking, be called a desert, is but little suited for
these enormous masses of fish, and there is no reason to suppose that
the herring is a bottom fish ; it is, on the contrary, in harmony with its
form as well as its favorite food — the small fat and oily crustaceans of
the surface — a fish which has its home near the surface of the water.
We do not deny that the Baltic, the Kattegat, perhaps, also, the Ska-
gerak, and the North Sea, have each their race of herrings, which do not
go beyond the basin of the sea which, by nature and habit, has been
assigned to them ; but the Norwegian spring-herring comes from a greater
distance, from the open sea between Iceland, Scotland, and Norway, not
from the bottom of this sea, but from its surface. Here it has lived,
especially during summer, very much scattered, on its favorite food,
which is there found in great quantities, (more or less near the surface,
according to the rising or sinking of this food, caused by the time of day
and the weather) ; and from here it approaches the Norwegian coast, in
a southeasterly direction, toward the beginning of the spawning-season,
gathering in large and constantly-increasing schools, and following the
deep troughs, till at last they are quite near the coast, and form a so-called

20(3 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

" herring-mountain," — a high, deep, and closely-packed mass of herrings.
It has been found, by certain observations which have already been
communicated in Boeck's well-known work on the herring, (p. 47,) that
the herring always comes from the northwest. That it follows this direc-
tion is easily explained by the fact, settled by Professor Mohn's meteo-
rological observations, that the sea on this portion of the western coast
of Norway, during the winter-months, (December to February,) has a
higher average degree of warmth than near the coast farther south, or
on the coast a little to the north, a very uniform degree of warmth, (5°
to G° Eeaumur,) about the same as in the nearest portion of the sea-
basin from which the herring is supposed to come. If the herring would
go due east, therefore, to a more northerly portion of the coast, e. //., the
neighborhood of Throndhjem, it would come in contact with water whose
degree of warmth would decrease very rapidly toward the north, from
4° to 2° Eeaumur. Another school of herrings, the Nordland great-her-
ring, lives, in Sars's opinion, to the northwest of Nordland and Fin-
marken, but somewhat nearer the coast, because there the sea is richer
in small crustaceans than farther south, in the neighborhood of the
coast ; it, therefore, comes near the coast comparatively early in its
migration toward the southeast or south, being fatter, but less ready to
spawn.

Immediately after being hatched, the young herring, being born on
the bottom of the sea, naturally stays near it on the outer coast, where
the spring-herring loves to spawn. As soon as the umbilical bag has
been completely absorbed and the fins have become developed, it goes
near the surface of the water to snap for small living animals; but as
near the outer coast it is exposed to many dangers, (the current, heavy
waves, &c.,) and to the persecutions of birds and fishes, instinct has
taught it to go nearer to the land, in the more secluded sounds and bays,
where it often can be seen in enormous numbers. As soon as it has
reached the size of a few inches, it begins to rove about in constantly-
increasing schools, in fact to assume its — according to Sars — charac-
teristic roving mode of life, which is again dependent on its food,
viz, the small crustaceans of the surface, whose very irregular occur-
rence is again dependent on the current. It also depends on acci-
dental circumstances how far it goes from its birth-place during this
first period of its life, and to what extent it scatters over a larger
or smaller portion of the coast. During its first year, however, it
probably keeps near the coast; only gradually as it grows larger and
its desire for food increases will it be obliged to go farther out into
the sea, where the small crustaceans, as a general rule, are found in
great quantities, and thus, like the torsk, it gradually approaches those
portions of the sea where its ancestors came from. All this would
go on with the greatest regularity, if the small crustaceans were not
frequently packed together, by sudden changes in the weather and con-
sequent changes of the current, in large masses near the coast and its

NEW CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HERRING-QUESTION, ETC. 207

bays and fjords, drawing the schools of young herring — the so-called
" suiniuer-herring" — after them, and after awhile taking them out to sea
again when the current changes. In exceptional cases, schools of her-
ring remain in the deep fjords for a whole year and longer, and such
herrings will naturally assume a character of their own, so as to pass
for a special variety or coast-race. Although, as has been said before,
we know all the stages in the life of the herring near the coast of Nor-
way, and would, therefore, reasonably suppose that its whole youth, till
the period when it spawns for the first time, was spent near the coast,
Sars remarks expressly that, on the whole, the occurrence of the summer-
herring near the coast must be considered as altogether temporary. It
comes, like the older herring, (the spring-herring,) from the open sea, but
not from such a distance as this one. " Some time before the large masses
of summer-herring came to Espevaer, in 1873, the mackerel-fishers often
caught considerable quantities of large and fat summer-herrings in their
nets at a distance of from five to six miles from the coast, and schools
of large and small herrings could often be observed from the mackerel-
boats. Soon afterward the current, on account of a very sudden change
in the weather, turned with unusual violence toward the islands near
Espevaer, and carried with it enormous quantities of small crustaceans,
which were closely packed in all the neighboring bays and sounds ; then
the herrings began to come in from the sea, first the larger and then
the smaller ones." As during winter the small crustaceans are not
found near the coast in such large quantities, the migration of the young
herring toward the sea will, on the whole, be much less disturbed than
during summer, and there are no instances of the spring-herring having
returned to the coast to seek food after having spawned. As soon as
the herring has got farther away from the coast, cut in the open sea, it
will not be enticed so much toward the coast by the small crustaceans,
as the currents there are generally more regular than near the coast ;
consequently only young herring — at least the majority of them — which
have not yet got far enough from the coast, visit the coasts of Norway
during summer. Sars, however, does not consider it improbable that
among the large " merchants' herring" there may also be some which
formerly, as " spring-herring," have spawned near the coast. It is a
natural consequence of the temperature of the sea and the direction of
the current (which from Stat is chiefly northerly) that the distribution
of the young herring along the coast and its outward movement chiefly
take place in a northerly direction, and, as a consequence of this, the
summer-herring fisheries are generally richest along the Throndbjem
coast, although the spring-herring is not known to spawn anywhere out-
side that coast. The "fat-herring" caught along the coasts of Nord-
land and Finmarkeu bears the same relation to the Nordland "great-
herring" as the "summer-herring" does to the "spring-herring."

Among the phenomena which have been brought to light by the
historic studies or the regularities and irregularities in the course and

208 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

results of the herring-fishery, the most remarkable one is this, that the
spring-herring fishery has not at all times commenced at the same
period of the year, but that at times it has had a tendency to extend
farther and farther into spring, which became particularly evident
toward the end of the so-called " herring-periods." The difference in
the time of the spring-herring's arrival on the coast may be a month
and a half from some time before New Year till some time in February.
From these experiences, Boeck could also in a certain manner predict
the decrease of the spring-herring fisheries which has taken place now.
This circumstance has so far been entirely unexplained ; if the herring
had its proper home in the deep sea-basins near the coast, what should
cause it to leave these later and later every year, or to come early after
the lapse of many years ? It could, on the other hand, easily be under-
stood that its arrival caused a shorter stay, and a disinclination to go
near the coast, so that the result of the fisheries would naturally be less.

Sars supposes that on account of the varying strength and direction
of the currents in the open North Sea, which depend on the differences
of the weather, the distribution of small crustaceans in the sea will dif-
fer very much in the different years ; and, as the herring naturally stays
where it finds food, it will, when its migratory instinct awakens, be
nearer the coast, and consequently arrive sooner than in another where
it has been farther out and when its journey toward the coast required
longer time. As the movement toward the coast, in this case in a
southeasterly direction, will probably always occur about the same sea-
son of the year, (some time before the roe and milt, which likewise
develop at a certain season, are ready for spawning,) it follows of itself
that the spring-herring which comes in early is of a better quality, stays
longer near the coast, and will be able to go farther up the bays and
sounds ; in other words, that the fishery will yield a much better, richer,
and safer result than in the opposite case, when the herring only re-
mains for a season near the outermost coast, and is much thinner and
more exhausted, and when only occasionally a small school is chased
near the land by large fishes of prey. The herring-fishery may there-
fore yield a very different result, even if the same mass of herrings has
year after year been outside the coast and has produced the same quantity
of young ones. The final cause of the irregularity in the spring-herring
fisheries must therefore be sought in the changes of weather, cur-
rent, and temperature of the water in the outer sea, not so much during
the fishing-season as during the rest of the year, particularly during
the preceding autumn and summer.

Whether there is in this respect a periodicity which corresponds with
that of the herring-fishery will be more satisfactorily explained by fu-
ture observations than by the study of the past. For the present, it
cannot be denied that such a thing is possible. " It is a fact that the
occurrence of small crustaceans during summer on the western coast
of Norway differs very much in the different years. Some years the

NEW CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HERRING-QUESTION, ETC. 209

sea Dear tbe coast during the whole summer has been filled with great
masses of different crustaceans; in other years, they disappeared almost"
entirely, or were only accidentally driven to different points of the coast
by tbe current, soon to disappear again." One of the most convincing
evidences that the small pelagic animals, araoug them the genuine "her-
ring-crustacean," are in certain years driven near the coast by the cur-
rent, is the existence of salpae, which are as transparent as glass,
and which are found either singly or in long-connected chains resem-
bling pearl necklaces; out in the open sea they are found every year, but
near the coast many years may pass before one sees a single one; and all
of a sudden in a certain year they approach the coast in such enormous
masses that every bay and sound is filled with them. Tbe occasional
occurrence of these animals in large masses has attracted the attention of
the fishermen, and is counted among the "signs" which augur a good
spring-hen iug fishery during the coming winter, and it would seem
probably not without reason. During such a year, the herring will
already during summer have come tolerably near the coast, and will
consequently arrive early iu winter, &c.

The so-called " mixed herring," which of late years has appeared in
the spring-herring district, is described as an inferior kind of herring,
which formerly was not known, and in whose occurrence people believe
they see a sure warning that the spring-herring fisheries will soon come
to an end. It has been described in many different ways. It probably
consists chiefly of herring in different stages of life, which are not yet able
to spawn, and are driven toward the coast by the " spring-herring
mountains," which approach tbe coast from the sea ; e. r/., the barren
"Straalsild," (ray-herring,) or " Solhovedsild," (sunhead-herring,) which
are probably fishes that have been left behind from the spring-herring
school of the preceding year, have remained near the coast, and, on
account of the want of suitable food, have not become ripe for spawn-
ing during this year. The longer the route which the advancing
masses of the old spawning herring have to travel, the greater number
of these young herring, which have never yet approached the open sea
in their slow course, will they drive before them, and all the more
mixed will the different schools and ages of the herring be. They
drive before them first the older ones, which had got farthest out, then
the younger ones, which had not got so far, and mix them with the barren
Straalsild, (ray-herring,) which they always meet on their approach to
the coast, as well as with some stragglers from the great mass of herrings;
these latter, of course, being com mon spring-herring, which are nearly ready
to spawn. The bulk of the mixed herrings, viz, the young herring which
are not yet ready to spawn, are therefore in reality the same herrings
which earlier in the season were called summer-herring. Their occur-
rence in unusual numbers may, therefore, undoubtedly be a sign of a less
productive spring-herring fishery during that year, but does not augur
anything regarding the more distant future. As long as the young
14 F

210 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

herring are every year in largest cumbers in their accustomed places,
"there is no reason to suppose that the spring-herring fishery will come
to an end, although the fisheries may, on account of many accidental
circumstances, be more or less productive in the different years.

Professor Sars's theory will become clearer to the reader by casting a
glance at the accompanying map.* This theory must be plausible in a
high degree, and no serious objections to it can be raised, as it seems to
explain the most characteristic phenomena of the Norwegian herring-
fisheries in a satisfactory manner. The criticism of its details we will
leave to those who have made, or are going to make, the herring-fishery
and the natural history of the herring the subject of special studies. Its
weak points (if they may be termed such) can easily be pointed out :
first of all, to use a simile, so many and large drafts are issued on the
unknown, the unproved, and the unprovable. It will be difficult to at-
tack Professor Sars in the rear by proving to him that the herring is not
found in those places which he assigns it during three-fourths of the
year, or that the former relations of wind, current, and weather in the
North Sea do not show any periodicity which corresponds with that of
the herring-fishery. But, on the other hand, it must be remembered
that no proof has been given that all this is not so. Another weak point
in Sars's theory is that it cannot easily be applied to herring-fisheries
outside of Norway. At least, one cannot read Mr. Sars's application of
his theory to the Bohuslen (Sweden) fisheries with entire satisfaction:
"At a time when the small crustaceans, on account of the peculiar cur-
rents of the ocean, have filled the North Sea and the Skagerak to an
unusual degree, it can easily be imagined that a portion of the great
mass of herrings coming originally from the uorthwest have got so far
into this part of the sea that, on the approach of the spawning-season,
by following the usual southeasterly direction, they have come toward
the coast of Bohuslen, where they have spawned, and later, in obedience
to the instinct common to all fish, have returned to the same coast where
they have spawned once, thus gradually forming a race of herrings pecu-
liar to the Skagerak, whose disappearance must at any rate in part be
ascribed to the less bountiful supply of small crustaceans in this part of
the sea." These possible weaknesses of the theory do not, however, as
Professor Sars very justly remarks, reduce it to a mere play of ideas, or
detract from its merits as a satisfactory explanation of some of the most
important and most obscure points of the whole question, but leave it
as a combination of phenomena according with well-known facts, which
may form the basis of further investigations, carried on with a fixed plan
and in a thoughtful manner. Let us hope that out of the fiery ordeal to
which future investigations will put it, it will only come out stronger !
For the present we welcome it sincerely as an important step in advance.

0. L.

* The map referred to has not been reproduced.

NEW CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE HERRING-QUESTION, ETC. 211

p. s. — We learn that, at the suggestion of Professor Mohn, the director
of the Norwegian Meteorological Institute, an expedition will this sum- '
mer (1875) be fitted out for exploring the open North Sea between Nor-
way, Iceland, and the Farce Islands, to which Professor Sars will be
attached. We hope that this eminent naturalist will thus have a chance
to submit his theory to a test in that direction where we think that its
weakest point lies, viz, in the hitherto unknown. We heartily wish that
he may have the triumphant satisfaction to clear up every doubt, and
dissipate the last clouds of obscurity which envelop the natural history
of the Norwegian herring.

XII.— ON THE SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE

COD-FISH.*

By Professor G. O. Sars

Commissioned by the Norwegian government to examine our cod-
fisheries, in order to arrive at practical results that may be useful to our
fishermen, I have been enabled to observe the spawning and develop-
ment of the cod-fish, (Gadus morrhua,) and shall endeavor to present the
results of my observations. I have already, in my former reports to the
department, briefly spoken of the most important observations and
showed their practical bearing, so that in the following I shall refer
only to the scientific features of the subject. It is true that a subject
of such general physiological interest as the propagation and develop-
ment of the higher classes of animals has already been thoroughly
treated by many scientists, so that it would seem almost superfluous to
write a treatise on this subject ; but with regard to the propagation and
development of fishes there are but few works, and these comprise only
a few kinds, (all fresh-water fishes,) while the observations regarding
the numerous salt-water fishes are only scattered here and there in the
shape of incidental remarks. Thinking that for the sake of comparison
it might be interesting to secure a somewhat connected representation
of the spawning and development in one class of salt-water fishes, I
determined during my stay on the Lofoten Islands, in the year 1865, to
give particular attention to this point, especially as, duriug former visits
to these islands, I had already made very remarkable aud unexpected
observations of this kind.

Of all our cod-fisheries that which is carried on during the first four
months of the year along the Lofoten Islauds is the most important
aud the most profitable. The winter cod-fish at that season approaches
the coast in vast numbers for the purpose of spawning. The regularity
with which, from time immemorial, the cod-fish has at a certain season
come here to spawn, notwithstanding the many difficulties thrown in its
way, especially by nets, would lead us to the conclusion that it must find
spawning-places here which, on account of the nature of the bottom, are
particularly favorable, and where, by instinct, it was compelled to deposit
its roe. I was therefore much astonished to hear that this was not the
case, and that the cod-fish has no spawning-places which are determined
by the nature of the bottom, but that it drops its spawn free in the sea

* Om Vintertorskens, (Gadus morrhua.) Forplantning og Udvikling: in Forbandl.
Vid. Sslsk. Christiania, 18G8, pp. 237-249. Trauslated by H. Jacobson.

214 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

at a considerable distance from the bottom, and, what is all the more
remarkable, that the spawn does not sink to the bottom, but goes through
all the stages of its development swimming free in the sea quite near the
surface. Nothing like this has hitherto been observed in fishes or any
other class of animals, and even the fishermen, who every day for years
have had occasion to observe this phenomenon, have a very incorrect
idea of the actual facts. They have all observed that at the time when
the codfish spawns the sea was thick and opaque, as if it were muddy,
and all agreed that this must be caused by the spawn of the fish. Some
more inquisitive fishermen even tried to examine the matter more closely
by taking some of this water home with them. They then saw that the
water was swarming with very small transparent bodies looking like
pearls, but none of them would admit that this was the spawn of the
cod-fish. They thought it might be the empty shell of the spawn which,
after the young had crept out, came up from the bottom and floated
about on the surface of the sea. The circumstances are so peculiar that I
myself, the first time I met these but slightly developed and sporadically
occurring little bodies, transparent as a drop of water, was doubtful as
to their real nature. By microscopic observation, however, I very soon
became convinced of the actual facts. Some time later, when the spawn-
ing was going on, I also found these small bodies in great numbers and
in every stage of development, even urj to the young fish, with all its
most important organs clearly developed, lying in the egg ready to slip
out. By a study of this egg, from its impregnation till the time when
the young fish emerges, I sufficiently convinced myself that this spawn
floating about in the sea belonged to the cod-fish and to no other. But
as it has thus been proved that the spawning proceeds just as well in
the open sea as near the coast, what must, then, be assigned as the cause
of the cod-fish's seeking the coast with such eagerness1? Two reasons
may be assigned for this: the cod-fish does not originally seem to be a
gregarious fish, and while it lives in the open sea it, in all probability, is
found over a very large area. In order, now, that the spawn may come
into close contact — in other words, that the roe may become impreg-
nated— it is absolutely necessary for the cod-fish, which spawns free in
the sea, that the originally solitary living fishes should come together in
greater numbers, and this could scarcely be done unless they all moved
toward the same common rendezvous. Another reason may be the in-
stinctive care which they have for their tender offspring, as it is easier
to find food for it near the coast in this the first stage of its develop-
ment; for, at the same period, many smaller marine animals are just de-
veloping themselves. At this season, particularly, I have seen the sea
swarming with the small, peculiar-looking larvae of the balanus, which
might very well furnish a suitable food for the young cod-fish.

The approach of the cod-fish takes place early in the season, often
long before New Year, and occurs in schools, in such a manner that the
schools, which in the beginning are only small, gradually grow larger,

THE SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE COD-FISH. 215

till tlie time for spawning arrives, when they frequently assume such
enormous dimensions that the term '* fish-mountain," which is sometimes
applied to them, does not seem exaggerated. In all these schools, even
in those which come first, the male and female fishes are intermingled,
which but rarely occurs among other kinds of fish. Thus, as to the
herring, the female fishes always come first, and are followed by the
males, which pour their milt over the roe. This peculiarity in the cod-
fish is easily explained by the above-mentioned character of its roe ;
thus, in order that an impregnation may take place, the roe and the
milt must be poured out at the same time and mix in the sea. In those
fishes which arrive first, the roe and the milt, although tolerably devel-
oped, are as yet far from being matured. The roe is still so small-grained
that without the microscope the small eggs can scarcely be distinguished.
These eggs are of a light yellowish-red color, and show under the micro-
scope a very light outer ring, and an inner opaque fine-grained mass,
(yolk.) All the eggs in this stage are connected by a fine texture full
of blood-vessels, mostly in irregular, conical processes, all which con-
verge toward the center of the roe-bags. These encircle an inner hollow,
into which the eggs are received as soon as they are .matured, in order
to be carried out through the two longer channels, which start from the
inner side of the roe-bag, and which unite toward the back in one. In
their further development the eggs constantly increase in size, and, at
the same time, become more transparent, till they are almost colorless.
They are now almost mature, but still loosely connected by a thin texture,
and surrounded by a thin covering, in which the feeding blood-vessels
spread in a branch -like manner. Soon, however, this covering bursts,
and the mature egg is now cut off from its conuectiouwith the rest, and
falls into the inner hollow of the roe-bag, from which, by a gentle press-
ure on the fish's abdomen, it can be brought out through the sexual
opening (poms genitalis). The eggs are now as transparent as water,
about one millimeter in diameter, and appear to the eye like small pearls
of clear crystal. Placed in a glass with sea-water, they first sink to the
bottom, on account of the downward movements of the water, but rise
again, as soon as the water has become calm, to the surface, where they
form a closely -packed floating layer. Their specific weight is less than
that of the sea-water, and greater than that of fresh water, of which
fact one may easily be convinced by placing them in a glass of common
drinking-water, in which they rapidly sink to the bottom, without rising
again.* The yelk of those eggs which have but recently come out from
the ovarium appears, under the microscope, quite clear and transparent,

* Tins accurately-measured specific weight is of the greatest importance for the
development of the egg. If, for instance, it should storm and rain for several days,
there might easily be formed a thin layer of mixed sea and fresh water, which would
contain less brine ; so that if the specific weight of the roe floating in the sea were
only a small particle less, this circumstance would have a very injurious effect on its
development.

216 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

with a very faint yellowish tinge, almost completely filling the egg, and
leaving only an extremely narrow space between it and the outer cover,
filled with a colorless and utterly incongruous mass. The outer cover
or skin is tolerably firm and elastic, and consists, as I have couvinced
myself by dissecting it, of four different closely -joined layers. One can
discover, with the aid of a strong microscope, numerous small oil-bladders
of different sizes, and scattered irregularly over the whole surface of
the yelk. The egg has another peculiarity, which in the beginning I
overlooked, but which, after having had my attention drawn to it, I
found invariably in every egg. This is a small dark spot, only discerni-
ble through the microscope, which is found in the outer skin, and which
is always near that part of the egg that is turned downward. Its loca-
tion is not exactly the same in every egg, for sometimes it is quite close
to the lower part, and sometimes a little higher up on the side of the
egg; but among the many hundreds of eggs which I have examined I
did not find a single one where this dark spot was above the lower
quarter of the egg's diameter ; nor a siugle one where it occupied exactly
the lowest point of the egg. This spot is the so-called micropyle, which
answers a two-fold purpose, namely, to allow the spermatozoa to enter
the egg, and, also, during the various stages of development, to draw
iu water; in other words, it forms the channel of impregnation, and
serves as a respiratory organ. Through the most powerful microscope
this spot appears as a circular disk of yellow color, surrounded by a
somewhat raised edge, and looking as if it were polished. From this
spot a narrow channel passes through the skin of the egg, which ends in a
funnel-shaped opening. I have not been able to discover any distinct
opening iu the above-mentioned round disk. It is certain, therefore,
that it is not merely a hole iu the egg, but seems to be of a porous na-
ture and to possess a peculiar power of suction. But how can the sper-
matozoa get into the egg through this disk ? To the solution of this
problem I have devoted special attention by pouring a drop of milt to
the eggs, while under the microscope. I have frequently seen the sper-
matozoa, as often as they came in contact with this disk, remain hang-
ing there, and I could for a long time observe the movements of tae tail
outside, but I never could see them enter into the egg, although this is
so entirely transparent that one necessarily must have seen them if they
had entered the clear space filled with water between the skin and the
yolk. The most plausible explanation of this phenomenon seems to be
this, that the spermatozoa, which in reality are only cells, after having
been for some time in close contact with the micropyle, were ruptured
in consequence of the hitter's suction-power, and that their contents
only are absorbed by the egg, a view which, so far as I am aware, has
never before been expressed. The spermatozoa of the cod-fish are oval,
or rather pear-shaped bodies, to whose pointed end the tail is fastened.
The milt, like the roe, is of less specific weight than the sea-water, and
it therefore floats upon the surface as soon as it is poured out. This

THE SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OP THE COD-FISH. 217

circumstance may account for the fact that the male fish during the act
of spawning generally swims deeper than the female ; and likewise for
the fact that the micropyle is located uear the lower portion of the egg,
while with other fish which have heen observed this order of things is
reversed. After the egg has floated in the water for some time, it under-
goes a very striking change. At the lower end the yelk becomes
thicker, aud viewed from the side appears like a crescent-shaped edge,
of a deep yellow, and much more compact than the rest of the yelk.
This compact mass grows constantly more distinct, till at last it forms
a tolerably large semicircular projection. The yelk has thus secreted
those parts which are to serve in the formation of the young fish from
the remainder, which is to serve as its food. This portion, however,
has still to undergo considerable changes till it is fit to produce the
young. At the same time one cau observe how the oil-bladders, which
were originally scattered over the whole surface, gradually flow together
and form larger bladders, gathering in a close circle round the micro-
pyle, and so growing together form a transparent circle round it. These
changes take place both in the impregnated and in the uuimpregnated
egg. The first visible effect of the impregnation takes place after the
lapse of a few hours. In the middle of the disk a faint furrow is seen,
which gradually becomes deeper, till at last it divides the disk into two
symmetrical halves. After this furrow has become somewhat less
marked, another one appears in each of the halves, striking the first one
perpendicularly, by which process the disk is divided into four divisions
of a spherical shape. Each one of these is again divided, so that there
are eight divisions, and these again into sixteen, thirty-two, sixty-four,
&c„ divisions. Finally the disk becomes divided into so many divisions,
and these divisions become so small, that the surface of the disk seems
just as smooth as at first. With this process the first period in the devel-
opment of the egg terminates. It has continued about four days, (112
hours.) Nothing as yet can be seen of the foetus, and the disk has only
just been prepared to produce it.

The second period commences by the disk's upper side, which is turned
towards the yelk, and whicli till then has been quite flat, rising like a
watch glass in the direction of the yelk, so that it assumes the shape of
a strongly convex lens, one half of which stretches into the yelk, while
the other half is outside. In the middle it has a thin circular rim,
outside of which numerous small globular bodies can be discerned,
arranged like a wreath round it. These seem to be some of the small
particles produced by the last dividing process, which have been
loosened from the disk and are floating about in the clear oily border
surrounding it. When that part of the disk which is protruded into
the yelk has reached its greatest height, which is often much greater
than the outer part, it begins to collapse, but in such a manner that the
process is completed more rapidly on one side than on the other. At
this place it becomes more compact, and here it is that the foetus is

218 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

first seen. The disk, therefore, which orginally had a flat and then a
convex upper side, now begins to be considerably hollowed oat in the
middle, so that, at last, it presents the shape of a thin helinet-like cov-
ering round the lower part of the yelk. Seen from below, the egg now
shows the disk consisting of two leaves, (the vegetative and the animal,)
an inner lighter zone, and a more compact circular rim, which soon
appears on that side, where the above-mentioned thickening took place,
broader and more compact than on the other sides. During the further
development, the disk (statoblast) rapidly increases in size, encircling a
larger and larger portion of the yelk ; the outer rim produces a triangu-
lar continuation turned inside, which with its lower pointed end, gradu-
ally approaches the lower part of the egg, so that the inner lighter zone
of the disk assumes more and more the shape of a crescent. In this
continuation the incipient embryo can very soon be seen quite distinctly,
even before the disk has surrounded half of the yelk. First, a faint
longitudinal elevation is observed, thicker at the lower end, on the
sides of which two hemispherical projections can be seen indistinctly.
This longitudinal elevation is the spinal marrow of the embryo; the
lower and more compact portion is the head, or, properly cpeaking, the
brain ; and the two lateral projections are the beginning of the eyes.
During the eighth day after the impregnation, the disk may be seen
surrounding the whole of the yelk with the exception of a small portion
of the upper part, which appears like a ring-shaped opening surrounded
by a thicker edge. At the same time the triangular continuation has
become considerably elongated and has assumed the form of a narrow
ribbon, which stretches almost from one end of the egg to the other.
On the inside of this ribbon, but in the upper portion of it, the embryo
is now seen quite distinctly, the extremity of the tail being in immediate
connection with the disk, or rather with the ring encircling it.

The third period in the development of the egg may properly be placed
as the time when the disk or skin has completely enveloped the yelk.
This phenomenon is accompanied by other essential phases of fhe devel-
opment, as several organs of the embryo, which before this could not be
seen, now first begin to show themselves, such as the lens of the eye,
the chorda dorsalis, the ear-bladders, the liver, the breast-fins, and the
heart. The beginning of the heart is seen by a faint swelling in the
region of the neck back of the eyes, in which a small circular bladder
is perceived, which, however, as yet shows no sign of any movement.
This bladder soon changes into a hollow cone placed obliquely on the
embryo, and shows a few irregular contractions, till at last it commences
its peculiar rhythmical movements. At the same time may be noticed
the first movements of the embryo itself inside the egg. These, at first,
consist of a faint, almost imperceptible trembling, which at greater or
less intervals is repeated in a more energetic manner. The pigment
now begins to show itself distinctly on the iris of the eyes in the shape
of small dots, and on the rest of the body as irregular stripes. The

THE SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE COD-FISH. 219

young fish has meanwhile grown so niuch, that its body already shows
a complete circular bend following the outlines of the egg, so that the
tail-end, which is now surrounded by a membrane clearly perceived,
(the embryonal fin,) reaches to the mouth, and later, even somewhat
beyond it.

At the end of the sixteenth day, the young fish is ready to slip out of
the egg. Its movemeuts inside the egg have now become so powerful,
that it frequently assumes an entirely different position from that which
it had at first. The iris is completely colored and even shows traces of
that peculiar silvery gloss which is so prominent in the more developed
fish. It has a deep incision in its lower rim which only gradually dis-
appears. The pigment of the body is diffused in such a maimer that it
appears in larger quantities at the root of the breast-fins and along the
upper side of the entrails ; also on the back part of the body, where it
forms two dark ribbons, consisting of numerous star-shaped dots, which
remain unchanged long after the fish has left the egg. At last the skin of
theegg bursts, and the young fish slowly frees itself from the remnants still
clinging to it. At first the body has still the bent shape which it had while
inclosed in the egg, but finally it straightens, and the young fish moves
about with its special tremulous motions. It has now that peculiar un-
developed appearance so characteristic of all young fish, and so different
from that of the adult. This peculiar appearance is chiefly produced by
the large yelk-bag still clinging to it, and which is arranged so as to fur-
nish its only supply of food, till the mouth has opened and the intestinal
channels have formed themselves into a closed tube, connecting with
the mouth. The body is very thin and tender, and with the exception
of the above-mentioned pigment gatherings, almost entirely colorless,
showing distinctly in the middle the chorda dorsalis, and on both sides
of this the regularly-arranged muscles of the body. The front part of
the body still shows a faint downward bend, a reminiscence of the foetal
curve; the head projects sharply from the rest of the body, looks as if
it were swollen, and has a round shape, the mouth, or rather the region
of the forehead, projecting a little. On the upper side of the yelk bag
can be seen the intestinal channel. It is still almost entirely straightl
and terminates at about one-third part of the body, or in that place
where the back part of the yelk-bag is closed. At its foremost end,
which is bent somewhat to the right, a round finegrained mass is seen,
which is the liver; and immediately above this are, on each side, the
round breast-fins, turned upward, anil transparent as clear water. The
body is surrounded by a transparent membrane, which begins immedi-
ately above the mouth and stretches round the whole body as far as the
yelk-bag. Its foremost part is widened out to a sort of cap, while toward
the tail it is strongly compressed ; and while the auimal is in motion
this takes the place of those tins which are still wanting. The yelk-bag
now begins gradually to collapse, and at the same time begins the forma-
tion of the mouth by the lower jaw, which formerly was firmly joined to

220 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

the upper one, becoming gradually detached from it. When the yelk-
bag has become completely absorbed, which takes place about two weeks
after the slipping out of the young fish, the mouth is already distinctly
developed, but as yet of a shape very different from that of the grown
fish, as the lower jaw, as in the case of those deformed fishes called
" cod-fish kings," projects considerably beyond the upper one, which
rises quite straight. The young fish now already shows its peculiar
gulping movements, and eagerly snaps after microscopical animals and
algae. It is no longer so much exposed to the currents and the winds as
formerly, when the yelk-bag kept it up on the surface of the water, but
often makes short excursions to a considerable depth, in order to hunt
small animals, with which the sea at this time is swarming. The changes
that follow are chiefly in the inner organs ; thus the bile develops itself
distinctly; the blood, which at first was entirely colorless, assumes a
faint yellowish tinge, and can be seen circulating through the body in
regular courses; the intestinal channel has increased in length, and in or-
der to find room, must describe one or several convolutions; the shoulder
girdle is already distinctly developed, &c. In the most advanced stages
of development which I observed, and which took place in the beginning
of May, the body was less transparent, and showed, especially on the
head, a distinct yellow color. The distribution of the pigment was also
somewhat uneven, being most distinctly visible on the upper side of the
head and along the back and the belly. The intestinal channel, in which
a wider fore part, (the stomach,) and a thinner loop-shaped and bent
hind part, (the entrails,) could already be distinguished, showed yellow-
ish contents, changing into green in the hind part. In the region of the
heart, the blood had already a distinct red color. Near the hind part of
the body, on the lower side, some fine rays showed themselves in the
embryonal membrane, as the first sign of the tail-fin beginning to form
under the extremity of the chorda dorsalis.

My observations on the development of the cod-fish extend no further
than this; but I hope next year to be able to continue them through all
those interesting changes through which the young fish passes before it
becomes fully mature.

I must remark, in conclusion, that the above- mentioued peculiarity
in the roe of the cod-fish, viz, that it develops swimming free in the sea,
occurs also in the roe of other fish. During my last stay on the Lofo-
ten Islands, I caught, also, with the aid of a fine net, the roe of three
other different kinds of fish, entirely unknown to me, aud floating in the
sea in exactly the same manner. I am convinced, too, that this is also
the case with the roe of the haddock, (Gadus wglefinus,) which spawns
about the same time as the cod-fish. On the whole, this may indeed be
the case with a much larger number of salt-water fish than is generally
supposed. I consider ic, in all probability, applicable to the whole large
cod-fish family, and on closer investigation it may be found to extend
even much further than this.

THE SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF TIIE COD-FISH. 221

NOTE.

The following note, in continuation of the preceding investigation,
from Professor Sars to Professor Agassiz, was published by Mr. Theo-
dore Lyman, in the report of the Massachusetts commissioners of fish-
eries for 1871 :

" It was my intention to continue the investigation of the young of
the winter-cod, which I had pursued the previous year. I then showed
that the fish often considered as a separate species, and known on the
northwest coast of Norway by the names of smaagjed, tarefisk, and
griindfisk, is nothing but the young of the winter-cod. I further ob-
served that the great variations in color are only the effects of different
bottom and different food.

" It was my task this year to follow the further development of the
smaagied during the summer. The conditions were now quite different ;
for whereas during the winter I could, from a boat or from the beach,
easily study my objects, now the fish had retired to the deep water and
could only be got by hook and line — a difficult matter, by reason of the
scarcity of bait, for the muscle rocks had been ransacked by the winter
fishermen, and herring were not to be had. Beginning on the 20th of
May, at a place called Skraaveu, I set my line in 20 to 30 fathoms water,
in the sandy channels of the outer holms, but got only fish too large to
be yearlings. I then set in the ' sculls ' near the rocks, and took great
numbers of small cod, corresponding perfectly with the tarefisk, and
which were colored of a brownish-red by the tare or rock-weed, (Lamin-
aria.) These sculls are very dangerous to approach, especially in the
winter-time, and are characterized by a periodic ground-breaker. The
sea will appear perfectly tranquil for a time, when suddenly there will
arise gently, over the scull, a low, broad pyramid of water, which as
gently descends, and again the surface is unruffled. The wary fisher-
men mark well these upliftiugs, and keep the boat away from them.
Presently you observe that the pyramid has again risen, but with in-
creased size and with smoke curling from its apex; there is a sort of for-
ward pushing motion and a sullen roar, and in an instant the sea rises in
a vast, glittering, green bank, capped with devouring foam. With a
fearful crash it precipitates itself to the very bottom, leaving a great
circle of white froth. Your boat, safe in the offing, is lifted high on a
huge wave, and the distant thunder on the beach announces that the
great breaker has struck. The hapless boat that gets caught over one
of these sculls is dashed in a hundred pieces against the rock bottom.
These violent periodic ground-breakers are what attract the smaagjed,
for they wash out the small crabs from their hiding-places among the
sea-weed, and the young cod, dashing forward with the returning sea,
devour them greedily. I thought now I should get plenty of yearlings
on the sea-weed ground during the whole season, but I was mistaken.
Toward the end of June they almost wholly disappeared from that lo-

222 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

cality, and were captured only near sandy channels. Their color, too,
changed from the red- brown of the sea- weed to a fine greenish, with
silvery sides. In their stomachs were found quantities of siil, (Ammo-
dytes lancea — sand-eel,) which now were approaching the coast, and the
tarefisk had evidently left the crustucea to prey upon them. The siil,
less common and important in Southern Norway, is abundant on the
northwest coast, and is held in high esteem. Although too slender to
be captured in nets, it is taken by a large, coarsely woven cloth, worked
by several boats. This cloth is slipped under a school of siil, and the
corners being raised the catch is dumped into one of the boats and piled
in heaps on the shore. These heaps are left there without further care,
and the mass, half putrid, is accounted good food by the inhabitants, and
is also served to animals. The cod are more dainty, and will not touch
stale fish of any kind. Therefore, the siil for the fishery are got by dig-
ging in the sand where they have buried themselves, and where, at this
season, they deposit their spawn. I took in the sandy channels plenty
of cod, of one, two, and three years ; also some very large ' siiclod,' three
feet long, and these I saw were the same as the ' winter-cod,' except
that the spawn was but little developed. x\t this season, also, came the
sei, (Gadus carbonarhts — pollack.) It was a singular spectacle to watch
the sea-mews sitting in solemn lines and in perfect silence along the rock
ledges, their heads all at one angle. Suddenly, as if by common im-
pulse, they would spread their wings, and with a shrill cry hasten toward
a foamy surface on the sea. This was occasioned by the sei, which had
rushed to the surface in pursuit of a school of siil, and the birds were
coming to share the prey. Thither, too, came the fishermen and trolled
with artificial minnows, taking, strange to say, some cod with their other
fish, which shows that cod occasionally are attracted to the surface.
Later in the season, the cod refused siil, which seemed to be because
they were in pursuit of the young herrings, then abundant in Vest-
fjord."

XIII.— THE NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY.*

By Axel Boeck.

As is well known, of all fisheries those on the coasts of Norway are the
largest, and a great portion of the population of our extended coast is
dependent on them for their living. But while all the other great fish-
eries on the coast of Norway have been carried on from time immemo-
rial, their origin being so much enveloped in obscurity that our ances-
tors supposed that the gods themselves had taught men fishing, the
lobster-fishery, which in our days is of such great importance, has origi-
nated in a later historical time, and has since developed, till it is now
more extensive than all the other known lobster-fisheries, and supplies
not only Norway, but also the neighboring countries. Although we
will see, as 1 shall show later, that the lobster has been known in Nor-
way even iu olden times, it had during the Middle Ages scarcely ever been
used as an article of food in the northern countries. Lobster-fisheries
are not spoken of in the Sagas or in the Old Laws ; and even now, although
the lobster has been caught on our coast for several centuries, it is but
rarely, if ever, eaten by our fishermen, and only the higher classes seem
to like its flavor.

The scientific name of the loster is Homarus gammarus Linn., from
the Latin name gammarus, which again comes from the Greek word
xa;j.iJ.apoc;. The Italians call it Gambare di mare, and the Spaniards Craba-
jo, both of which names evidently come from the Latin. The lllyrians
call it Caranthola. It does not seem certain whether the Norwegian and
German name Hummer and the French name Homar can be derived from
gammarus, as our name is very old, and may have its root in the Old
Norse verb homa, which means to go backward. The English name
lobster is only a modification of the name longusta, applied to a closely-
related genus, which is specially found in the Mediterranean ; and the
Dutch name ZeeJcruft simply means a sea-crawfish. In our Sagas, espe-
cially iu their poetical portions, it is often mentioned. Iu Snorre's Ed-
da, in the song Skaldskaparsmal, (chapter 75 of the Copenhagen edi-
tion,) it is mentioned among fish and other marine animals. In Olaf den
Helliges Saga, it is mentioned in a song of Bjorn Heldoleka3inpe, where
the sea is poetically described as " the paths of the lobster." Iu a sim-
ilar poetical sense, the word is used in Olaf Trygveseus Saga, chapter
88, by the Skjald Thord Kolbeinsson, where he says that "the wave-

* Om det norske Hunimerfiske og dets Hsitorie. Af Axel Boeck : in " Tidsskrift for
Fiskeri," 3die Aargangs, Kjobenbavu, pp. 28-43, 1868 ; pp. 145-189, 1869.

224 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

horses run over the fields of the lobster," meaning the ships that sail on
the waves of the sea. In a song by Snigly Holle, in Harald Haardraa-
des Saga, chapter 105, the expression " to be at the bottom with the lob-
ster " is used for drowning. In the Selkolle Songs of Einar Gilson, in
Bishop Gudtnuuds Saga, the term " the light of the lobster," equiva-
lent to the fire of the sea, or gold, is used. In the same place, the expres-
sion " the horse of the lobster mountain," meaning the ship, is used.
Finally, there is found in the poem Liknar-braut, the expression " laud
lobster," meaning a serpent or dragon.

The lobster belongs to the class of crustaceans, and among them to
the highest section, the so-called order of decapods, which embrace short-
tailed (brachyura) and long-tailed (macrura) species. The lobster has
a great similarity to the common crawfish, (Asiacus fluviatilis,) living
in brooks and small rivers, but is distinguished from it by having the
last segment of the thorax united with the preceding one, while iu
Astacus it is separate. It was therefore considered by Milne-Edwards
to be the type of a new genus Homarus. Of this genus, the repre-
sentatives of which live exclusively in the sea, three species are known,
viz : Homarus americanus Say, i. e., the American lobster, which is con-
siderably larger than our common lobster, and is found on the coasts of
North America. From this the European Homarus gammarus is only
distinguished by having a narrower spine on its forehead, and teeth
only on its upper margin, while the former species has also teeth on
the lower margin. There is finally the little Homarus capensis, from the
Cape of Good Hope, which is not more than five inches loug. The
European lobster seems to have its central location on the southwestern
coast of Norway, and goes as far north as Finmarken, where, according
to Lem, in his description of the Finmarken Laplanders, 1707, it is found
north of Traeneu, where he ate very fine ones on the island of Rodo,
while formerly their northern limit was thought to be the island of
Brondo, but he also thinks that they would be found in Finmarken,
if people only searched for them. It is very rarely found on the
coasts of Iceland, where, according to Mohr's "Islandske Naturhistorie,"
it has been found by Dr. Poulseu in Grondevig,butit does not extend to
Greenland or Spitsbergen. It does not go into the Baltic, but is found
all over the Kattegat, especially near Anholt, Hirsholniene, Laeso, and
Hjelm, and, according to Mr. Fiedler's report, in the Great Belt as far
as Sprogo. On the coast of Bohuslen it is very common, and is said to
go into the Sound as far as the island of Hveen. On the west coast of
Jutland, it is found wherever the bottom is stony, and it is very com-
mon near Heligoland. It rarely goes into the inlets on our western
coasts, chiefly on account of their great depth. It is very rare in the
inner portion of the Bay of Christiania, and not very common in the
Limfiord. On the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, it is common
wherever there is a rocky bottom, especially near Montrose, Orkney,
Lewis, and Harris Island, and on the southern coast of England,

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 225

near Land's-end and the Scilly Islands. Near the Channel Islands,
it is common, as well as near several groups of islands on the French
coast. In the Mediterranean, it is not so common, although it is not
entirely wanting; but its substitute as an article of food is another
large species of crawfish, the Langusta (Palinurus). It is therefore not
spread over a very large extent of sea ; but it is found in its central lo-
cations iu very large numbers, and there becomes an important article
of food and trade.

Its general size is 8 to 10 inches from the point of the spine on the
forehead to the tip end of the tail.* It rarely exceeds this size where
large fisheries are carried on ; but now and then specimens of a much
greater size are found in places from which none are exported, and
where it consequently has time to grow before it is caught. Thus,
Pontoppidan, in his " Norges naturlige Historie," part ii, p. 279, says
that the very large lobsters are called "Storjer," and that near Utvaer,
on the Bay of Evien, a lobster had been seen which was so large and
ugly that nobody dared to attack it, and that it measured a full fathom
between the claws. This seems certainly to be somewhat exaggerated ;
but I myself have seen the claw of one which must have been about 18
inches long. Sir John Graham Dalyell says, in his work " The Powers of
the Creator," 1827, that he had seen a joint of the left claw of a lobster
that measured 9 inches in length. According to this, the whole claw
must have measured 18 to 24 inches, and the whole animal 3 to 4 feet.
As a general rule, those that are takeu in the fiords are larger than those
which are caught near the islands toward the sea. The color of the
animal when alive is generally a blackish green, with several blue spots;
but it may also be lighter, especially near the mouths of fiords, while
farther out toward the sea it becomes much darker. I may mention as
a curiosity that during this year (1868) I found a lobster near Hauge-
suud, one half of which was of a greenish black and the other of a light
orange color, there being a sharp and clearly-defined dividing line,
which ran lengthwise, and divided the lobster in two halves of equal
size.

The lobster lives close to the coast, where there is a rocky bottom,
among the large alga? ; but in winter, when the water grows cooler, it
descends as far down as 1G to 20 fathoms, while in spring, when the
temperature of the sea rises, it stays at a depth of from 1 to 4 fathoms.
It is altogether a coast-animal, which very rarely seems to go any dis-
tance from its birth-place, if it can readily find there a sufficient supply
of food. Sometimes, however, they have been seen in large masses
swimming toward the land from the sea, and they have then been
caught in nets, having been mistaken for a school of herrings ; but this
is only a consequence of local migrations, when it goes from the deeper
into the shallower waters. It is not able to make its way through the

* In the Kattegat, on the eastern coast of Jutland, it reaches a larger size than on
the western coast, generally 10 inches. — Ed.
15 F

226 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

sea for any length of time by swimming. Its structure certainly allows
it to make quick and definite movements, and it can swim freely about
in the sea, but this swimming never lasts long, as it cannot keep itself
afloat very long. Neither is it able, while swimming, to catch and
swallow its food ; but it seizes its prey only when it can hold on to
something. At the bottom of the sea it can chase its prey, if necessary,
with great rapidity, but while eating it remains quite still. The lobster
is a very greedy animal, and can swallow great quantities of food, which
it seems to find especially during the night by its scent, while during
the day it keeps quiet and digests. Its food consists chiefly of the roe
of fish and of dead fish, but likewise of small crustaceans and other
marine animals. When kept in confinement, it can live for a consider-
able time without food. The lobster seems to be 'able to propagate
when it is a little more than 6 inches long, (at least, roe is only found in
animals of this size;) but when the lobster reaches a length of 8 inches
it contains a great quantity of roe. A real act of copulation takes
place, the male lobster placiug its double male member into the outer
genital opening of the female ; aud the eggs are impregnated while they
are yet in the ovary. This pairing seems to take place from autumn
to spring or March and April, for it is highly probable that the roe is
emitted from the ovaries immediately after the copulation has taken
place, just as with other crustaceans; aud the emitted roe is found
entirely during winter. After impregnation, the eggs are emitted from
the outer genital openings of the female, which are found at the bases
of the third pair of feet, but do not fall into the water, as they are held in
a hollow which is formed by the bent tail, which, both at the end and on
the sides, has leaf-shaped fringes that inclose the space formed by the
bending of the tail. Under this tail, there is fastened a double row of
the so-called tail-feet, to which the eggs are strung by strong slimy
strings. The embryo now begins to develop in these eggs, which are
quite numerous, 2,000 to 3,000 in one female, according to the size, aud
occasionally as many as 10,000 to 12,000. The formation of the embryo
does not, however, seem to begin till the temperature of the water has
become milder in spring, even if the pairing should have taken
place in autumn or winter ; for, although loose roe is often found in
winter, it is never seen in any degree developed into an embryo. This
pairing and the development of the roe seem to take place at different
times on the differeut portions of the coast ; for the fishermen them-
selves, who have such an excellent opportunity of observing them, are
not agreed as to the actual time. The development of the embryo
seems to take at least fourteen days from the time of commencement,
aud it can easily be observed till the young break the shells of the eggs
and begin to lead an independent life. When the young lobster comes
out of the egg, it measures only a few lines in length, and does not at all
resemble the old lobster, but has a different structure. It does not
leave the hollow uuder its mother's tail immediately after being hatched,

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 227

but lives tbere for some time, and later frequently returns to it. It is
particularly distinguished by a less complete development of its feelers
and tail-feet, and by tbe feet being exceedingly small but furnished with
long brush-like branches, with which it swims vigorously on the surface
of the water. After having spent some time in this state, it changes its
skin several times and assumes the shape of its mother, when it goes
to the bottom. Its life from this moment till it reaches a size of 5 to 6
inches is entirely unknown ; for no young lobsters have been caught,
either by fishermen or scientists,* the smallest having been found in
the stomach of the torsk, so that it is probable that they spend this
portion of their life at a greater depth and live in a different manner
and on other food than at a later period. There can, therefore, not be
any artificial hatching of lobsters in the sense of artificial fish-hatching,
but all that can be done is to keep the lobster imprisoned during the
development of the eggs, and thus protect it from the dangers which
threaten it and its young. It is impossible to do anything for the tender
young, as they die very soon when confined. I see, however, that sev-
eral persons in France, and Mr. von Eris, in the lagoons of Triest, near
Grado, have hatched several millions of young lobsters by keeping
lobsters with ripe roe at the bottom of the sea in perforated boxes.

After the lobster has emitted its roe, and the young have left the
mother, she begins to shed. She, therefore, goes to safe places, and
does not seem to care much for food, while the old skin is being loos-
ened ; the shell finally opens in the back, and the animal goes into the
water naked. It then looks as if it was covered with velvet, on ac-
count of the considerable formation of cells which is going on all over
its surface. These cells afterward grow hard through small particles
of lime and form the new shell. This shedding of the shell goes on
from the middle of July till September, but not at the same time
all along the coast, being earlier in the southern and later in the north-
ern part. The lobster thus gets sick, as it is called, toward the end of
June near Sogudal, and the export must then cease, as the mortality
among them becomes too great, while near Karmo it is still in a healthy
condition till July 15. Farther north, the shedding of the shell begins
still later, and lobster may be caught all through July.

The greatest enemy of the lobster, and who sensibly diminishes its
numbers, is man. When swimming near the surface during its youth,
with a number of other small crustaceans, it becomes a welcome prey to
the herring and the mackerel. As the grown lobster keeps at no great
depth, and where large fish of prey are not commonly found, it is not
much exposed to them, but occasionally, when lying near the surface, it
is taken by large birds of prey. An interesting scene, may be witnessed
near Bukkeuo, north of Stavanger, where an Englishman haseonstruct-

* The development of the lobster has. since the original publication of this memoir,
been studied by Mr. S. I. Smith, of Yale College, and Prof. Japetus Steenstrup, of Co-
penhagen.— Ed.

228 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

ed a large pond, between some small islands, for keeping live lobsters.
Whenever the pond becomes too full of lobsters, so that they do not
find sufficient food, they leave the water, and crawl about seeking
to reach the sea ; but during their wanderings they fall an easy prey to
large numbers of crows hovering round, which take them in their claws,
fly high up, and let the unfortunate lobster drop down on the rocks,
where their shells are broken, so that the crows can eat them in comfort.
The crows are not easily scared away, but show a remarkable degree of
sense, only flying away when any one approaches with fire-arms, and
later they carry on their depredations in the early morning, when they
have less to fear.

IMPLEMENTS FOR CATCHING THE LOBSTERS, METHODS OF CATCHING
THEM, AND THE MANNER OF SHIPPING THEM.

Formerly, the lobster was caught on our sea-coasts exclusively with
tongs. These tongs were made of wood, and had about the same shape as
the common oyster-poles, being only somewhat longer, generally two
fathoms. Such an implement was exhibited at the Bergen Exposition
of 1865, and an illustration of it is given in the report. As these tongs
were not very long, lobsters could not be caught at any great depth —
only at a depth of little more than a fathom — and this sort of fishing
was carried on during the early morning hours. But as lobsters taken
with these tongs often got hurt, and died two to three days afterward,
because they cannot stand any pressure, this implement was not suited
for those that were to be exported ; and the Dutch, after the peace of
Westphalia, when the lobster- fisheries began to assume larger dimen-
sions, endeavored to induce the fishermeu to use other and better im-
plements. Although baskets, through the influence of the Dutch, had
thus become common in the neighborhood of Stavanger since 1717,
tongs have been frequently used even in our century, and are perhaps
in some places used to this day. Kryger, in his report on Ous, in the
"BudsUkken ?; (a periodical) for 1820, mentions that lobsters were caught
there with tongs for home-consumption. Farther north, tongs seem
to have been the common implements for catchiug lobsters at a much
later period ; for, in the quinquennial report of the governor of the Borns-
dal district for 1840-'44, it is said that "lobsters are taken with tongs,
baskets not being thought to auswer the purpose." Lobsters were
caught with tongs by small boys from ten to fourteen years of age,
early in the morning, in calm weather, and, if successful, one night might
yield an income of $2.25. Another very simple implement for catching
lobsters is spoken of in the " Bndstilxken" by Strom, who says that
lobsters are taken with a hook fastened to a pole, which hook is in-
serted in the belly, the softest part of the lobster. With this instiu-
ment, it cannot be taken at any great depth, and only when the sea is
calm so that the bottom can be seen. Lobsters caught in this manner
cannot be exported, as they could not stand the journey. The imple-

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 229

inents which I am going to at once describe, and which have almost
entirely supplanted the simpler ones, are used by enticing the lobster
with bait into a trap, out of which it cannot escape. The simplest
of these traps is seldom used with us, although, according to Oeiker, it
seems to be in common use near Heligoland. It consists of a very
thick iron ring, to which a net is fastened, so as to form a deep bag below
The bait is placed at the bottom of the bag, and it is lowered and taken
up by means of a long line, which, when the bag is at the bottom,
reaches up to the surface. To this line, a piece of wood is fastened, which
floats on the water, and shows the location of the trap. If this instru-
ment has been lying at the bottom for half an hour in a place where
lobsters are known to abound, a sudden jerk is given to the line, so as
to cause the lobster to fall in the bag, and it is rapidly pulled up. (The
most successful time of the day for catching lobsters is generally in the
morning or also between 11.30 a. m. and 3.30 p. m. With this instru-
ment, which the English call " plumpers," and the Germans "Fallenkor-
ber," lobsters are taken in deep places.) With us the commonest imple-
ments for catching lobsters are baskets (" Tejner"), It seems certain
that the Dutch first introduced them for catching lobsters ; but they
may have been used long before that, e.g., for eels, as the name is Scan-
dinavian, and is derived from " tun," i. e., the long and tough roots of the
juniper-tree. After 1713, a beginning was made in plaiting them of
willow branches. Where these materials could not be readily obtained,
they were, as Pontoppidan related in 1753, made of hoops, which were
kept apart by chips of wood. All round these, nets are fastened, and at
each end there is a long, narrow, trough-shaped entrance, out of which
the lobster cannot escape. On the one side, there is a trap-door, which
can be closed with a peg, and to another pin sticking in the basket the
bait is fastened, while under the basket there are large stones to make
it sink rapidly. To one of the uppermost chips of wood, a pair of tongs
is fastened, furnished at the end with a piece of wood to indicate the
location of the basket. Such are still in common use all along our
coast. Still earlier, in 1746, the famous naturalist, Carl Linne, described
similar baskets, which he saw in use on the coast of Bohuslen, in his
" West-Gbta Kesa," p. 191. These were two yards long, one yard broad,
and one yard high, resembling a half-cylinder, with entrances on both
sides ; such are still used and could be seen at the Bergen Exposition.
At this same exposition, a basket was exhibited, differing somewhat from
these in its shape ; it was plaited of branches, and was shaped like a
hemisphere, with an entrance at the top. An illustration of this basket
is given in the report on the exposition.

Lobster-fishing is carried on at different seasons on different parts of
the coast of Norway. It generally begins in spring, but iu some places,
e. g., near Christianssand, it continues all winter. Farther south the
spring fisheries begin earlier; thus, on the coast from Sireaa to Jredder in
the middle or toward the end of March, as the lobsters then begin to go

230 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

iuto shallower waters. From Karmo to Bspevser, the fisheries begin in
April, and farther north, near Straudsnud, in the beginning of May. Near
the Jaedder, which is farther south, but where the coast is not so flat and
convenient, the fisheries commence much later. The fisheries are con-
tinued through the following months, but cease iu the first-mentioued
district in the middle or toward the end of June, while in the others,
near Stavanger and the Southern Bergen district, they are continued
till the middle of June, and farther north till the first of August. When
the fisheries are to commence, the fishermen go to the outer islands near
the open sea, where the fisheries are richest, and live in sheds built for the
purpose, during the whole week from Monday on, returning with the
lobsters on Saturday, fishing thus going on for five days each week.
Two men generally club together and have thirty to fifty baskets. In
the evening, the baskets are furnished with bait, consisting of all sorts
of fish except herring and mackerel ; for they claim to have noticed that
lobsters caught with bait of the last-mentioned kind do not live long.
The baskets are then placed in the sea at a depth varying from 16 to 2
fathoms, according to the season of the year, and taken out before sun-
rise. The baskets can also be put in positiou when the tide comes in,
and be taken up when it goes out. As soon as the lobster is taken
from the basket, its claws are tied together with strong twine, and
it is placed either into a box perforated with many holes, or into a
larger basket, which is then sunk in the water near the coast. Here
the lobsters remain till Saturday morning, when they are taken out and
brought to the dealers, from whom the fishermen immediately receive
their pay. Ev7ery lobster which measures more than 8 inches from the
spine on its forehead to the tip end of its tail, and whose claws are perfect,
is called a " full man ;" but if it measures somewhat less, or if portions
of its claws are missing, it is called " half a man," and only fetches half
the price of the others. The dealers, who collect the lobsters on the coast,
pack them in large boats that can hold as many as 2,000, cover them up
with sea-weeds to protect them against the sun, and send them to the
chief depot, where they are immediately placed in special boxes.
These boxes differ somewhat among themselves; the best are about
3 yards long, 2£ yards broad, and 18 inches high, and perforated
by numerous holes, so as to constantly admit fresh water. These
boxes hold about 400 lobsters each. Formerly, they were not so
high, but then the mortality among them was greater, especially in bad
weather, when the rain adulterated the water in the box. In other places,
these boxes are perfectly square, measuring four yards each way, and
hold about 500 to 800 lobsters. After the lobsters have arrived at the
chief depot, they must always rest for some hours in the box, before
they are placed on board the vessels, as they are sick from the long
voyage in open boats without water. Every Saturday, an English lob-
ster-vessel comes to the depot, begins to take its cargo in the evening,
and gets through with this Sunday afternoon, whereupon it immediately

NORWEGIAN LOBSTEE-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 231

goes out to sea. In this manner, the fishery has been arranged for more
than one hundred and fifty years, as it seems, by the Dutch, of which more
will be said under the history of the fishery. Nowadays, the fisher-
men receive a far higher price for their lobsters than formerly, and as
a general rule they get in Stavanger and Bergen from 4 to 41 cents
apiece, but farther north they are cheaper. Formerly, when the price
in Stavanger was lower, about one-half cent extra was given for every
lobster caught before the middle of May, but this custom has been aban-
doned. The dealers who receive the lobsters from the fishermen receive
about GO cents as box-money for every thousand, and 20 to 25 cents for
every hundred they bring to the chief depot for every fall mile they
travel with them. The wholesale dealers receive the same box-money, but
besides $3 as weekly money. If they do not keep any boxes themselves,
but receive them from the lobster-company, the retail dealers get $3 for
every thousand, and the wholesale dealers $4.50 for every thousand,
but, in that case, no week-money. When the lobster- vessels go to sea,
they always go straight over to England, to Grimsby and Harwich,
while formerly they went to London, anchoring near Greenwich in the
evening, unloading the lobsters during the night, and taking them to
London, where they arrived in the Billingsgate market before sunrise.
Now the vessels, on arriving in one of the above-mentioned ports, go
into the dock, which is specially intended for them, and the lobsters are
unloaded into the fish-boxes belonging to the dock, which are rented out
for one English shilling a day. These fish-boxes are shaped like a boat,
are* 11 yards long and 5 feet broad, but have a flat bottom. They
are hoisted up so that the water runs off, and the lobsters are sent in
suitable baskets by railroad to Billingsgate. Sometimes they are sorted
in the ports, but this is mostly done in London. The largest lobsters
are picked out, and twenty are always packed in a basket, which gets a
black stroke as a mark. The smaller ones are packed forty in a basket,
and get two strokes as a mark, while the smallest are packed sixty in a
box, and get three strokes as a mark. The baskets with one stroke are
more valuable than those with two and three, although these latter con-
tain more lobsters. The wholesale dealers in the market get them from
the railroad and sort them, and they then pass over to the fishmongers.
These boil them, and send the finest to their best customers in the city
and the country, while the small ones are sold in the city to cheap res
taurants and private individuals.

In the Billingsgate ftarket, the lobsters meet their brethren from the
English, Scotch, and other coasts. From the south coast of England,
they come by the Southwestern Bail way, and by the Great Western
from Bristol, to which ports they have come from Guernsey and Jersey,
the Scilly Islands, aud Land's-Eud. From Scotland, the Orkney Islands,
and Lewis Island about 180,000 come every year, partly in steamers*
from Ireland, they come by way of Liverpool • while a smaller number
come from Sweden and Heligoland. All these are gathered in the

232 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Billingsgate market, and are thence distributed from March to August.
Not all are consumed iu England, but a portion are again sent away,
especially to France.

I have mentioned that the coast is divided into certain districts, and
that in these there are certain stations for the retail and wholesale
dealers, from which the lobsters are shipped, and where the government
custom-house officers are stationed, as great facilities are afforded to this
trade in the way of customs, &c, of which I shall speak more under
the history of the fisheries. Of these districts, the first, the most east-
erly one, extends from Faerder to Mardo, but from this district none
are at present exported to England. The same is partly the case in
the second district, which extends from Mardo to Cape Lindesnaes,
although some are placed dry in boxes and sent by steamer to Loudon
and Hamburg. In this manner, lobsters are also shipped from the next
district, which extends from Cape Lindesnaes to Suaekken, the chief
place from which they are exported in this district being Kirkehavn.
The lobsters are placed iu the boxes in several layers, the tail beiug
bent under the stomach. The boxes are then closed, and the lobsters
keep alive for a considerable time. Formerly, they were from these dis-
tricts also exported in barrels ; but this was discontinued twenty
years ago. The next district extends from Stavanger, near the river
Sire to Vig.

[A following half-page defines the exact location of the different dis-
tricts.— Transl.]

Nearly all the lobsters which are shipped from Norway are sent alive.
Pontoppidau relates that in his time — the middle of the last century —
some were salted just before being shipped, but this custom seems to
have been subsecpiently abandoned, as so many lobsters died during
the voyage. In this century, Mr. Jacob Morch, aChristiania merchant,
tried the plan of putting them up in hermetically-closed receptacles ;
but as all those which had been put up by him in this manner did not
get the red color of the fresh boiled lobsters, and therefore were not
liked so well, he took out a patent in 1840 for putting them up in such
a manner as to keep their beautiful red color. He dipped them in boil-
ing water containing salt till they got this color, and then made an
incision iu the soft part under the tail, thus letting the water which
injured them flow off, and then placed them in hermetically-sealed ves-
sels. Very few lobsters put up in this manner, *however, seem to have
been exported, and nothing more has been heard about it.

THE LOBSTER-TRADE AND THE HISTORY OF ITS LEGISLATION.

Although the lobster had been known to our ancestors from time
immemorial, it was, as has been said above, but little used as an article
of food, and foreigners have taught us to like its flavor. In Holland, the
lobster seems to have been highly prized, even in olden times ; and when
their lobster-fisheries were no longer able to supply the demand, the

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FiSHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 233

Dutch began to visit Norway as early as the seventeenth century, but it
seems that lobsters were not exported in any considerable quantity till the
middle of the century, especially from Flaikkefiord and from Karino.
The citizens of Zierikzee in Holland commenced this trade, and for a
long time carried it on exclusively. We read that lobsters were ex-
ported from Fisekkefiord in 1060. In 1674, that port was visited by ten
lobster-ships, and, in 1676, Hittero near Flcekkefiord, and Egvaag near
Farsuud, became the chief stations in the districts of Lister aud Mandal.
From 1690 thenceforward the Zierikzee boats visited Karmo regularly,
Skutesuoes and Buken being the first lobster-ports in that district. The
Dutch were so eager to further these fisheries that they gave presents
to the clergymen, consisting of cheese and cakes, and thereby induced
them to exhort the peasants in front of the church to catch and sell
lobsters. This succeeded so well near Lister that I find that a man on
July 7, 1699, had his ground solemnly consecrated so as to prevent
other people from catching lobsters there. The clergymen at Karmo
received presents till 1730, when the Dutch found that it had become an
unnecessary expense, the lobster-fisheries being by that time in a very
flourishing condition. Till 1713, however, these fisheries were not carried
on to any very great extent, as wars hindered the fishermen from follow-
ing their occupation aud made the export uncertain. People therefore
contented themselves with catching lobsters with tongs ; but, after the
peace of Utrecht in 1713, the export of lobsters was better regulated, aud
several ports were visited both in the Stavanger and in the South Ber-
gen districts. Then people began to make baskets, which the Dutch were
very anxious to introduce, as many of the lobsters caught with tongs
died. The Dutch, therefore, gave to those fishermen who used baskets
clay pipes, and twine to tie the claws of the lobster. By agreement,
common customs and regulations for loading the ships had been adopted,
so that the shipper who first came into port should be allowed to take his
full load before any of the others could buy any. The price had also
been fixed by the Dutch at about one cent for each lobster, ("full man,")
and about fifteen cents for every one hundred lobsters brought along-
side of the ship. In order to avoid competition among the buyers, every
port had a certain district assigned to it from which it was sup-
plied with lobsters, and every captain had a certain port to which his
ship must go. As loug as this trade was carried on exclusively by the
citizens of Zierikzee, this agreement was kept up, and both buyers
and sellers were contented. The following places were then gradually
designated as lobster-ports: Mandal, Flsekkefiord, Egersund, Tananger,
or perhaps Stavanger, Akre on the island of Karmo, and Leervig on the
island of Stordo. Outside of Lister, Stavanger, aud the southern part of
the Bergen district, it was not allowed to catch or sell lobsters on account
of the strange belief prevalent among the fishermen that lobster-fishing
would ruin the other fisheries. This can be seen from Governor Povel
Juel's memorial of 1717, which is fouud in the royal archives, where we

234 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

read : " It is thought that the lobster-fisheries are very injurious to all
the other important fisheries ; for experienced fishermen say that fish
mostly live where there are lobsters, and that they dive to the bottom
to get the roe of the lobster. It is well known all along the coast that
through lobster-fishing the cod and mackerel fisheries are neglected, and
it is desirable that this fishery should be entirely abandoned."

Thisbeliefin the injuriousness of the lobster-fisheries seems to have been
very common till the end of the last century ; for, in " Versuch einer Natur-
geschichte der Krabben und Krebse, " by Herbst, 1797, it says " that many
people think this trade is injurious to Norway, as the removal of large
quantities of lobsters makes the fisheries leave the coast of Norway." Gov-
ernor Holm, in his u Forsog til Beshrivelse over Lister og Mandate Amter i
Korge" likewise says: "It is difficult to say in how far lobster-fishing
hinders the other fisheries, as many fishermen stoutly maintain. Lobster-
fishing has been carried on, as now, in clden times, when the other fish-
eries were very considerable." The lobster-ships were to go to certain
ports specially designated, and, on leaving these ports, were to pay a
sum to the custom-house officers, who besides liked to take small pres-
ents, which abuse is complained of as early as 1717, as likewise
that the citizens sold to the lobster-ships brandy and lumber, receiviug
in exchange various goods which paid no duty. The lobster-ships gen-
erally came twice a year from Holland, late in autumn and early in
spring, and sailed along the coast to get their cargo in the ports des-
ignated for them. The English at that time received their lobsters
from their own coasts, from the North American islands, and from Heli-
goland ; 1^,000 having been exported to England from the latter place in
1713, aud 34,000 in 1714. But, as soon as the English demand grew
larger, English ships occasionally came to Norwegian ports, and bought
lobsters, paying a higher price than the Dutch. It seemed, also, as if,
through the introduction of baskets in Lister aud Karmo, by which lob-
sters were easier caught in greater numbers, and through the increased
export during the years of peace after 1713, the quantity of lobsters had
decreased, and the fishermen began to complain of the low price paid
by the Dutch. In 1716, the fishermen of Lister addressed a memorial
to Governor Povel Juel, saying "that they no longer could sell lobsters
according to the old regulations at a cent apiece, because the fisheries
decreased year by year, so that they had no reward for their trouble,
danger, and expense, but only less profit in their farming, which had to
be entirely neglected on account of these fisheries ; they, therefore, had
concluded to give up the above-mentioned fisheries entirely;" and,
therefore, they petitioned him to forbid the lobster-buyers to visit the
ports, or at least to raise the price to 2 cents apiece. The governor,
who always seems to have taken a deep interest in the welfare of his
district, consequently decreed, July 15, 1717, " partly in order to please
the farmers, and partly the lobster-buyers, who would quickly get their
cargo if all the men along the coast gave greater attention to the

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 235

fisheries, because they had the price raised, and had not to lie in port
eating up their provisions," that the lobster-buyers who, after this date,
came to the ports in his district '' should pay 2 cents for every lobster,
either living or dead, great or small, just as it might come; but, if
it only had oue claw, 1£ cents, and not give either a higher or a
lower price. Any one acting contrary to this decree should pay a
fine of about 30 cents for every lobster, half of which should go to the
informer, and half to the sick poor of the parish ; and the lobster which
had been either bought or sold should be confiscated." The old cus-
toms, that the ship coming into port first should first take its full cargo,
&c, should remain. He also induced the governor of Stavanger to
issue the same decree in his district, but the governor of the South
Bergen district would not do so. When the lobster-traders in Zierikzee
heard of these regulations, they resolved to oppose them unanimously,
and agreed iii writiug not to give more than oue cent for each lobster,
and also to send their ships on one and the same day to those places
where they were accustomed to get their cargo, so as to prevent any of the
shippers from abandoning the agreement entered into and paying more.
They thought that if all the shippers were unanimous not to pay more,
the poor fishermen would finally give in if they saw that the shippers
made preparations for sailing and no one else was there to buy. Their
commissioner in Stavanger, Lauritz Smith, made great exertions to
induce the peasants to return to the old price, by traveling in person to
Tananger, where he had great influence, and by urging the clergymen
to induce their parishioners to sell at the old price, promising them some
extra presents from the Dutch if they should prove successful in per-
suading the peasants. All the custom-house officers also assisted him,
because they were afraid of losing their fees and small presents which
they were in the habit of receiving from the Dutch. He was, however,
only successful in one parish in the Tananger district, while in all the
others and in the districts of Lister, Mandal, and Stavanger the peasants
immovably stuck to their new price. In the Bergen district, the gov-
ernor had issued no decrees, and Smith succeeded, with the assistance
of the custom-house officers in Leervig, in furnishing the Dutch several
cargoes at the old price. The wealthy peasants were the most eager to
uphold the new price, forcing the poorer ones not to sell, so that all the
exertions of the Dutch failed; the new price soon becoming universal
everywhere, and prevailing till near the end of the century, but only for
living lobsters measuring more than 8 inches in length, while for the
smaller ones or those having only one claw only one cent was paid.
Lauritz Smith also made complaints to the government in Copenhagen
regarding Governor Juel's decrees, and as Juel was not in favor with the
government, his decrees for the benefit of the peasants did not meet with
its approval. In his report to the king, Smith complained very strongly
that the governor had attempted to change old established customs
which to all intents and purposes related to foreigners. The report

236 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

suggested that all the fisheries should be rented out for the benefit of
the royal treasury. Governor Juel was that same year obliged to resign
and could do no more in this matter. The thought of reutiug them out
was again given up, as the new governor could not advise such a step; but
sometime afterward the question began to be asked whether the country's
own merchants might not derive some advantage from this trade, and
whether they might not reap the great profit which had hitherto fallen
to the share of the Dutch. The export of lobsters was quite considerable
at this time, as the district of Bergen was annually visited by eight ships,
and more than twenty took their cargoes in the districts of Lister, Manda,
and Stavauger. There is no information as to the size of these ships, or
how many lobtsers they took, but each took a cargo twice a year ; and
even if they were not as large as those mentioned about the middle of the
century which could hold 4,000 to 6,000 lobsters, the quantity of lobsters
exported was, nevertheless, very considerable, and the Dutch traders
must certainly have enjoyed a good income from this trade, as on every
occasion they showed themselves so eager to retain it. As lobster-fish-
ing had become much easier since the introduction of baskets, and
more profitable through the higher price which the peasants got, the
lauded proprietors wanted to have the exclusive right to fish near their
grounds and forbid all others to do so. This they thought could best
be done by haviug their grounds solemnly consecrated. I find such a
consecration of a farm near Lister, spoken of as early as 1689, but on
the island of Karrno not till 1720. In some places, such a consecration
was respected ; while in others this was not the case, the people haviug
an idea that fishing in the sea should be free to all. A law-suit in 1725
resulted in the confirmation of this ancient law of free fishing in the sea
by a royal decree, which also affected the lobster-fisheries. David Hal-
vorsen Vraa and Jacob Olsen Vidoen, of the village of Staengeland, on
the island of Karmo, in 1725, brought a law-suit against some fishermen,
who, in spite of the consecration of their ground, had placed some lob-
ster-baskets near some small islands belonging to them. Judge Leth
gave judgment on the 29th of August of the same year in favor of the
plaintiffs, on the ground that the law, book 5, chapter 11, article 2, con-
firmed by book 3, chapter 13, article 1, gave the owners the right to
use all the profits that might be derived from their property. After
this judgment had been passed, all the owners of islands began to forbid
the fishermen from catching lobsters not only on those portions of the
coast that were very near to their farms, but also on islands that lay at a
distance of three or four miles from the coast. The poor fishermen, who
at certain seasons of the year lived entirely off the lobster-fisheries, saw
themselves deprived of this means of making a living, and complained
bitterly to the highest authorities, maintaining " that the lobsterrfisher-
ies have never before been forbidden them, and that now they were de-
prived of their only way of making a living;" they pointed out that the
king's own sailors were especially hurt by this judgment. Through the

NORWEGIAN LOBSTEE-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 237

governor, their complaints were laid before the viceroy, Mr. Weber, who
had the matter examined by competent men, and thereupon sent a me-
morial to the king, in which he says, among other things: "The bless-
ings which tbe sea bestows will become useless, if the owner of the
ground has the power to take and keep everything pertaining to the
fisheries; fish are not in one place, but change from one to the other;
and the fishermen, who alone understand the fisheries and earn their
living thereby, must go after the fish. It is a general custom of the
country, and also in accordance with the law, that every one takes the
fish which the sea yields wherever he finds them, with the exception of
the salmon, which always goes to certain places that pay a special tax,
and where, therefore, none but the owner is allowed to fish. The law,
book 5, chapter 11, article 11, says that no one must hinder another per-
son in the fisheries he possesses from olden times, and article 2 of the same
chapter, on which the judge has based his argument, says: 'Every man
shall enjoy the water and the fisheries near his grounds which he has
possessed from olden times, unless he has been deprived of these privi-
leges by law ;' and book 3, chapter 13, article 1, says : 'A nobleman and
landed proprietor is, more than any stranger, privileged to use all the
advantages of his property.' Fierce law-suits would follow, if the owner
of such islands could forbid the fishermen to catch lobsters, as the bless-
ing of the sea would then remain useless, and the little that was de-
rived from it would not be properly treated, since the fishermen alone
have the greatest experience in this matter," &c. He therefore pro-
poses to the king to revoke the judgment given by Judge Leth, and
allow all and every one to fish lobsters. The result of this memorial was
a royal decree, dated April 23, 1728, to the effect that lobster-fishing
should be free to all.

After this decree had made the lobster-fisheries free, the export of
lobsters, concerning whose decrease complaints had been made to the
viceroy, rose again, so that in 1733 twenty-three large cargoes, contain-
ing 160,000 lobsters, went to Holland, and the rest to England in thirty-
two small English and nine Norwegian vessels. The Stavauger fish-
ermen had recently got six to eight lobster-vessels, after the question
whether the advantages of the lobster-trade might not just as well be
enjoyed by the king's own subjects as by the Dutch had been settled,
and certain privileges had been granted to the home traders, decreeing
" that in order not to let foreigners reap the chief profit, a Norwegian
ship should be admitted into every port before anything should be sold to
foreigners." English vessels likewise began from this time to visit the
coasts of Norway in greater numbers ; many of these had formerly taken
their cargoes near Heligoland, and had left that region because the
fisheries had decreased there. Several ports of export and custom-
houses were established on account of the increased fisheries ; six ports
being alone established in the Stavauger districts. On account of the
greater demand for lobsters, the fisheries were carried on to a great

238 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

extent, and complaints are made during the following years that the
number of lobsters on the coast was decreasing. Count Rantzau, who
was governor at the time, issued an order to his officers that they should
make suggestions as to what should be done to prevent the decrease of
this important fishery, which yielded so large an income to the king and
the nation. Judge Lorn, in Lister, in 1737 made a proposition that the
fishermen should be forbidden to sell any lobsters measuring less than
9 to 10 inches in length, under a fine of about CO cents for every smaller
lobster which is sold ; and as the lobster, as far as kuown to him, emits
its roe toward the end of June, fishing should cease from June 24 till
the end of February. This for those times very remarkable proposi-
tion was not supported by others, and was forgotten ; more than one
hundred years were to pass before the idea of protecting the lobster
during the season when it spawns and sheds its shell was destined to
become a reality, and a law passed concerning it. Peasants who had
farms near the sea where lobsters were caught, believed that the decrease
of these fisheries wTas chiefly caused by the freedom of fishing, and that
the lobsters would finally be exterminated. There was consequently great
dissatisfaction with the royal decree, which favored the small farmers at
the expense of the great ones. They likewise thought that as conse-
crating the ground had, with few exceptions, always been respected,
owners should also in the future be exclusively permitted to fish lobsters
on their gounds, it' these had been consecrated prior to the royal decree.
Many government officials seemed to have shared this view, especially
when the fisheries began to decrease very much and the peasants found
it very difficult to pay their taxes. The judge, in his answer to Gov-
ernor Eantzau's inquiry regarding the economical pressure, says ex-
pressly " that in assessing the taxes on each farm regard had been had
to the lobster-fisheries, which have become exceedingly profitable, for
which reason the Dutch and English lobster-vessels frequent our coast.
In these regions, mackerel and other important fisheries have belonged
to the farms lying near the sea; and as, in the district of Lister, these
fisheries have been so entirely destroyed that the inhabitants have not
had any use of them for many years, and had to lay aside their nets
and seines, which they had bought at a great expense, they now have
nothing else to fall back upon for earning a living and paying their
taxes but the lobster-fisheries near their ground, since the quantity of
grain and hay wdiich they harvest is but very small, and agriculture is,
in many places, connected with the greatest difficulties." He would,
therefore, propose "that, in order to preserve the fisheries, land-owners
may have the exclusive right of fishing on the coast near their grounds
and around all those islands, which were formerly used for agriculture,
as far as the deep water, but that all the remaining waters should be
free to every one." He, therefore, wished to bring back the condition
which existed before Judge Leth gave the two farmers mentioned above
the exclusive right to fish lobsters near their grounds, which right all

g

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 239

Land-owners, from foolish covetonsness, exercised so far as to forbid the
poor fishermen from catching lobsters on the outer coast as formerly, for
which reason the royal decree also made lobster-fishing entirely free.
The decree, however, remained in force, for the special reason that it
favored the enrolled sailors, to assist whom was in the interest of the
government.

The dissatisfaction with the existing state of affairs did not grow less
in course of time ; but every time that the political situation in
Europe favored or did not prevent the lobster-trade, the land-owners
endeavored to regain the exclusive right of fishing lobsters near their
grounds. In the district of Flrekkefiord, there were thus, in 1790,
serious quarrels between the fishermen and the land-owners, who tried
to prevent the fishermen from catching lobsters near their grounds,
forbidding them to live on their islands, or to set their baskets and
gather the lobsters. Mr. Schiouuing, a custom-house officer, January 13,
1770, made a proposition to the board of trade, containing more definite
regulations concerning the rights of both parties, in order to put an end
to the quarrels between the fishermen and the landowners. This propo-
sition was sent to the governor, at that time Mr. Teiste, who quietly
shelved it.

The Stavanger merchants, after the year 1730, had bought several
lobster-vessels for shipping lobsters to Holland, because they now
had a number of privileges with regard to the sale of lobsters. They
could not, however, derive from it the profit they desired, as the
Dutch sought in every way to hinder the sale of lobsters in Hol-
land from Norwegian vessels. Several Stavanger merchants, there-
fore, again sold their vessels to the Dutch, and became Dutch com-
missioners ; letting the trade, however, go on in their own name, so
as to retain for their ships the privilege of first buyers. Complaints
were made, and the Norwegian vessels seem somewhat later to have
lost this privilege of the first buyer. The last who owned lobster-
ships were the firms of Kjellaud & Son and Planz & Sunt, in Sta-
vanger, who became commissioners for English lobster-companies, which,
in the latter half of the eighteenth century, gradually took possession
of the lobster-trade, pushing the Dutch into the background. The priv-
ileges granted to Norwegian vessels greatly benefitted the commerce of
Norway, which at that time could not compete with the more powerful
commercial nations, in whose hands all our import and export trade had
hitherto been; but the government, nevertheless, endeavored at times
to encourage the export of the productions of the country in Norwegian
vessels, and for the prosecution of the lobster-trade several further priv-
ileges were granted to Norwegian vessels, without however being of
much benefit. Governor Holm therefore said toward the end of the last
century, in his " Forsog til Beskrivelse nf Lister og Mandate Amter.p that
<'the lobster-fishery would be more profitable to the country if it became
more common to carry it on in Norwegian ships instead of letting the

240 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Dutch take it aud reap the profits which Norway should enjoy." In
1753, the custom house at Leervig was abaudoned, and after that year
lobsters were chiefly shipped from Espeveer, a group of islands farther
out at sea, where the richest fisheries were carried on. Formerly, as has
been said, it was not allowed to fish or ship lobsters north of Leervig,
but later lobsters were also allowed to be exported from the southern and
northern Bergen districts, from which there had been constant com-
plaints regarding this prohibition. The export, however, was not con-
siderable north of the old lobster-ports ; for, according to Olrik, only
52,000 were exported in 1757 from the outer ports in the Bergen custom-
house district, the greater portion of which came from Sondtiordlaud.
Of these, only 1,000 wenttoEugland in English ships, the remainder going
to Hollaud. Toward the end of the eighteenth century, a great change
took place in the lobster-trade, as, after the war which broke out between
Holland and England in 1776, the Dutch lobster-trade was entirely
ruined, the English taking possession of it.

The lobster-fisheries on the inner coast, where they formerly had been
carried on almost exclusively, decreased very much, so that in the Sta-
vanger district the shipping-ports of Stjernero and Nordstrand were
given up, as well as the outer port of Skudesnoes; and toward the end
of the century the export of lobsters was chiefly carried on, besides
from the old ports in the Lister and Mandal districts, from Tananger,
Buken, and Akre, in the Stavanger district, and from Espevser, in the
South Bergen district, to which afterward came the more northerly
ports of Salthellern and Rognesund. These shipping-ports had been
established through the exertions of a Bergen merchant, Mr. Wallace.
He was commissioner for an English lobster-company, which controlled
all the trade from Bommel to Nordfiord. Braudosuud later took the
place of Salthellern as a shipping-port.

In order to encourage lobster-fishing and the lobster-trade to foreign
couutries, considerable changes were made in the custom-house arrange-
ments and the taxes to be paid for lobster-vessels. As it is of great
importance during the lobster-season to get the lobsters to the shipping
ports alive, every delay during the lading of the vessel, or every delay
in the time of sailing, will occasion the death of many lobsters. Special
custom house regulations had therefore to be made for the lobster-trade.
Such a special regulation from the end of the last century is here given,
omitting some unimportant points:

" Until further notice, it is allowed —

" 1. That both foreign and Norwegian lobster- vessels, when taking
lobsters in the ports of Salthellern and Espevser, may enter these ports
without going up to the custom-house, or without obliging the shipper
to go there with the papers of the ship, unless the ship has no certificate
of its gauge, in which case it must obtain one from the authorities in
Bergen.

"2. These ships are not required, either going out or coming in, to

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 241

call the custom-house officers on board in order to examine the ship and
exact the taxes on the lobsters which compose the cargo. The officers,
however, are at liberty to superintend the lading, if necessary.

"3. The lobster-commissioners of this firm (Wallace) must faithfully
give an account of all the goods which the incoming ships may bring,
and of the number of lobsters which are to be exported, so that the
dues may be paid, and must also give the carrying capacity of the vessel.

" 4. These ships are not exempt from the general custom-house super-
vision, but all the more, on account of the liberties accorded to them,
does it become a duty of the officers to keep strict surveillance ; and the
revenue-cutters have also to see to it that nothing unlawful is going on.

"5. With regard to proving the correct calculation of the custom-
dues, it is resolved that the commissioners, in everyplace where lobsters
are caught, shall annually, when the fisheries cease, obtain from the
fishermen the exact number of lobsters caught and the number of ships
employed in the trade, with their carrying capacity. These data are
communicated to the custom-house officers, and the dues are to be paid
accordingly.

" G. Ships exporting lobsters from Rognesuud are granted the same
privileges, only with the difference that on coming into port they must
come up to the custom-house, so that, consequently, the commissioner
alone becomes responsible for the correctness of the list of the lobsters
which have been exported.

" Given at the general custom-house office January 20, 1798."

The war between Holland and England injured the lobster-trade
somewhat, but it soon recovered and rose to considerable dimensions,
like our whale-trade, during the North American war which broke out
in 1775. In Farsund, the flourishing firm of Jochum Birch Lund had iu
178G commenced to export lobsters in vessels of their own. Several
years later, when the English attempted to get a foothold in their lob-
ster-district and pay higher prices, they petitioned the government to
order the fishermen to keep the conditions of the contract entered into
by them till its time was up ; but the government could in this case refer
them to the law. In 1790, they petitioned to obtain the exclusive right
to buy up all lobsters in the neighborhood of Farsund, agreeing to give
the same price as others. They referred to their heavy expenses for fit-
ting out vessels, and to all they had done to further the interests of Far-
sund, and maintained that their petition was in accordance with old
privileges granted to the Norwegian lobster-trade. They obtained this
exclusive right to buy lobsters on condition that this right should only
be enforced till their ships had got their full cargoes, and that they
should pay the same price as others. It was therefore not the same
privilege which had been granted to Norwegian lobster-vessels more
than half a century earlier, as these had only the right to let one of their
vessels take its cargo before foreigners could get any lobsters. Some
years later, they petitioned for the same privilege for all their vessels,

even beyond Cape Lindesuses. This, however, was not granted.
16 F

242 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

As the fisheries toward the end of the century declined very much,
Mr. Gjertsen, a Mandal merchant, in 171)0, proposed to the government
that it should forbid the fishermen to catch lobsters from July 1 till the
end of October, under a fine of $25. He drew attention to the constant
decrease in the number of lobsters, which he thought was solely owing
to the fact that they were caught during the season when they spawned
and sbed their shell. Although he did not seem to know anything of
Judge Lom's proposition of 1737, he had nevertheless arrived at the
same result, viz, that, if the numbers of the lobster are not to be dimin-
ished, they must be protected during the season when they spawn
and shed their shell. The government approved of this proposition
quite as little as of Lom's, thinking that such a prohibition of the fish-
eries at a certain season would reduce the income of the fishermen too
much, especially during poor years, and no one seems to have had an
idea that such a protection of the lobster would prove extremely useful.

The European events from the beginning of the French revolution
seem not to have had much influence on the lobster-trade, which was
now in the bauds of the greatest maritime power, England. Even their
attack on Copenhagen in 1801 had only a temporary influence.

The export, which had decreased very much toward the end of the cen-
tury, seems to have risen again somewhat during the first years of the
new century, so that from 1801 to 1S06 the annual average export was
315,000 ; 97,700 from the Bergen district, 174,300 from Stavanger and
Egerusund, 01,800 from the lobster-ports in the district of Lister and
Mandal, and a number from the district of Arendal, where people had
only begun to catch lobsters about this time. The increased number of
lobsters exported was owing more to the establishment of new lobster-
ports than to an increase of the number of lobsters in the old ones. On
account of the small number caught toward the end of the century, the
price of lobsters had risen, so that in 1804 about 2£ cents each were
paid for lobsters caught iu winter, and about 2 cents for those caught
in summer. The fishermen were now placed in a very favorable posi-
tion, and lobster-fishing was constantly extending beyond its old limits.
The year 1807, however, had a decided influence on this fishery and the
trade connected with it. After the attack of the English on Copenha-
gen and the consequent war, the export of lobsters ceased entirely,
and they were only caught to supply the home market, and partly to be
used as bait in the rich plaice fisheries, which at that time had been dis-
covered near Stavanger. These years of war for the country were years
of peace for the lobsters, and their number seems to have increased to*
such au extent that when the fisheries recommenced in 1815 they were
taken in enormous quantities, not only inside but even outside of the
baskets. The custom of the lobster-fishers getting from the traders not
only brandy, as well as twine to tie the claws of the lobsters so they
should not bite each other, but also clay pipes, which we find common
in the beginning of the eighteenth century, is also spoken of iu 1817 by

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 243

Oftedahl in his " Efterretninger om Raineso," where he says " that a
lot of clay pipes iii a house is a sure sign that the inhabitants have been
engaged in lobster-fishing." The price of lobsters was, according to him,
in the same year only a cent apiece, as the fisheries were still very pro-
ductive, but, nevertheless, the fishermen made a good living, the most
fortunate ones selling annually in the parish of Skndesnaes lobsters to
the amount of $150 to $175, (Krogs (EkonomisJc statistiske Efterret-
ninf/er om Skudesnaes Praestegjaeld, 1816, in the u Budstikken" for
1817;) and in the parish of Eenneso the average sum earned by each
fisher in 1817 was, according to Oftedahl, $166. From 1815 to 1818,
593,000 were on an average exported annually, so that the exports were
greater than before the war, although the district was much smaller.
On account of the low price of lobsters, caused by the rich fisheries, the
exports rose still more, and English companies not only bought lobsters
for their own country, but reshipped some of them to France.

The number of lobsters exported in 1821 and 1822 amounted to over
a million a year, and increased still more during the following years,
although it was not so large in 1823 and 1824 on account of the unfavor-
able weather. From 1825 to 1830, the average number of lobsters ex-
ported annually was 1,268,000, and in 1827 and 1828 the highest num-
ber was reached, viz, 1,500,000. These large numbers, however, were
caused not so much by the fisheries being just as productive or more so
in the old lobster-stations, but by the circumstance that new English
companies, seeing the great profit to be derived from this trade, com-
menced to export lobsters from places from which they never had b^en
exported before. Thus lobsters began to be exported in 1S28 from the
district of Tonsberg, and from Sondmor in 1826, and during the two fol-
lowing years from Molde and Christianssund. The exports from Sta-
vanger and Egernsund meanwhile decreased very much, having been
reduced to 67,000 per annum in the latter place in 1827 when the exports
from the whole of Norway amounted to 1,429,703. After 1830, the
exports began to decrease even in the new districts, so that the annual
average quantity of lobsters exported during the five years 1831-'35
was only 640,000. The only places that kept the lobster-trade alive
were the new districts, while all the old ones decreased rapidly, some
of them to such a degree that according to the governors' reports the
lobster-trade must be considered almost extinct in 1835.

All this export-trade was carried on by English vessels, except at
Farsnnd, from which Mr. Hans G. Lund shipped twenty-four cargoes in
1819, twenty-four in 1821, sixteen in 1824, and twelve in 1825, each of
them consisting of 4,000 lobsters, partly to London and partly to Hol-
land.

When the attention of the fishermen was directed to this decrease of
the lobsters in the old districts, people began to be afraid that the poor
fishermen would entirely lose this means of earning a living; and it
was supposed that the decrease was chiefly due to the fisheries being

244 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OP FISH AND FISHERIES.

carried on during the spawning-season of the lobster. In 1830, Mr. T.
Lundsgaard, member of the Storthing, (Norwegian Parliament,) therefore
made the motion to pass a law forbidding the catching or exporting
of lobsters from June 15 till October 1. The committee which had
this matter in charge proposed that the motion should be laid on
the table, because Mr. Lundsgaard had not produced any information
which might enable the committee to judge with certainty to what
extent this dreaded decrease of the fisheries really existed, and whether
the evil could be remedied by the measures that were proposed. The
committee likewise thought that such a measure would be too great
an encroachment on the rights of many places on the coast, taking
away from these regions their only source of income. The government,
however thought, that the matter was of great importance; and as
the report of the committee showed that only want of information had
prevented any action beiug taken, it requested those districts in which
the lobster-fisheries were carried on to have the matter examined by
the local officers and other competent men, and to send in a report,
stating whether it would be useful to pass a law on the subject; and,
if so, to state the objections to Mr. Lundsgaard's proposition. All the
reports which reached the government in answer to this request agreed
that the lobsters had decreased in size, but some supposed that the
great masses of spring-herring coming near the coast might have had
an influence on it, or that this decrease in the size of the lobster
might be caused by their young ones being disturbed by the cut-
ting of sea-weeds for manure; others advised not to pass any law
against exporting lobsters from June 15 till October 1, fearing that
the exports to England might thereby be hindered, as the companies
would naturally not consider the lobster-trade profitable unless it was
steady ; and the fishermen would lose their income during the time
when exportation was forbidden, or they would evade the law, continu-
ing to fish and keeping the lobsters till exportation was again permit-
ted. Others again raised objections based on their knowledge of the
natural history of the lobster, considering it doubtful whether the lob-
ster spawned and shed its shell during the time indicated, and even if it
were the case, that the time was too long.- Reports from other districts,
such as Stavanger, said that such a law was unnecessary, as no fishing
was, anyway, going on during that time. These objections to such a
protective law could not have much influence, especially those founded
on the natural history of the lobster, for they could not be proved. But
even the fear of an entire stoppage of the lobster-trade would be cause-
less, as such an event would be much more injurious to England, whose
inhabitants had accustomed themselves to this luxury, than to Norway,
which received but little money for her lobsters. From other sides it
was said, in favor of the law, that such a protection would be useful, as
the lobster very easily dies during the season when it spawns and sheds
its shell, although this seasou is not the same everywhere. Those who

NOEWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 245

might suffer from limiting- the fishing-season would be fully compensated
for this by the greater number of lobsters that would be taken during
the season when fishing was permitted; and the fishermen should, at any
rate, during summer devote their attention more to working their little
farms and to the herring-fisheries. The government found that the whole
matter was not yet sufficiently clear to say with certainty whether such a
prohibition of lobster-fishing during the season when the lobster spawns
and sheds its shell would prove generally useful. The districts where lob-
ster-fishing was carried on were therefore requested to have those fisheries
thoroughly examined for several years by competent men, and then again
send in reports as to whether such a prohibition would be useful. It was
likewise requested that an opinion should be given regarding a proposi-
tion made by some people in the district of Nedernees and Kaaby gdelagen,
to divide the coast into small districts, where lobster-fishing should be
alternately protected, so that if a district had enjoyed the privilege of
fishing for three years, fishing should there be forbidden during the
three following years. The reports coming in in answer to this request
contained a very extensive prohibitory law, recommended by the above-
mentioned district, suggesting that fishing should be prohibited from
March 1 till October 1, and advising that no lobsters measuring less than 8
inches should be caught ; the length of time when fishing was to be prohib-
ited should be three years rh each district. Another district only wanted
to have fishing prohibited from July 1 to November 1, but was not in favor
of alternating the time between the districts. The Stavanger district
reported that as fishing was going on there only in April, May, and
June, no law would be required, and none would be desirable, especially
if it were to forbid fishing during the month of June, when the weather
was favorable and the fishermen had most time for it. The lobster did
not spawn on that coast till August and September. It was also thought
that the number of lobsters had not diminished, but that they now stayed
deeper in the water, finding enough food in the roe left by the herrings;
alternating protection was not thought advisable. The report from
the South Bergen district was essentially the same; and the Romsdal
report said that lobsters were only caught from the end of May till the
end of July. As there were, moreover, many different opinions regard-
ing the time when the lobster spawns and sheds its shell, the govern-
ment resolved to get the opinion of scientists on this point, and requested
Professor Eathke, Professor C. Boeck, and Professor Sars (at that time a
clergyman) to make a report on the nature of the lobster. Professor
Eathke in his report said that in his opinion the pairing-season of the
lobster was over before midsummer, and that the shedding of the shell
took place later, but he thought at the same time that the mass of lob-
sters that came near the coast during the spawning-season was so large
that the comparatively inconsiderable number that were caught would
scarcely be noticed ; he also thought that it would be so difficult to
enforce the law that it would be more injurious than useful. Professor

246 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Sars thought that a thorough investigation of the spawning-process of
the lobster would be the ouly safe basis for any law ; but this process
was still very much enveloped in obscurity. He supposed, however,
that fishing could be carried ou till the eggs came out of the ovary, aud
were fasteued under the tail, which took place in June, and fishing
should consequently be prohibited from June 1 till September 15. He
did not think that the number of lobsters had decreased, but that it only
seemed so, because nowadays more people were engaged in fishing, and
fewer lobsters consequently fell to the share of each fisherman. He
thought, however, that the lobsters had diminished in size. In a later
report, he expressed his opinion that lobster-fishing should be x>rohibited
from June till the middle of September. Prof. C. Boeck gave in his
report, in the first place, a description of the lobster's mode of life, aud
a criticism of the reports on the condition of the lobster-fisheries, sent
by the governor. He showed from statistics that a decrease in the num-
ber of lobsters was both possible and probable on account of the in-
creased fisheries during the past years. The lobster is a coast-animal,
and ouly stays where it can easily get a sufficient supply of food, there-
fore near the coast, and only as far from it as sea-weeds are found,
between which it finds the animals that constitute its food. Even if it
wanders about, it does not go far, going, e. g., in winter into a greater
depth, and during summer into the shallow' water near the coast. It
then swims about on the surface of the water, but never goes very far,
its structure not being adapted for longer journeys. The fact of the mat-
ter is, therefore, that a certain number of lobsters belong to a certain
extent of coast, which, by propagating freely, may increase if they have
sufficient food, or decrease from a natural mortality or too much fishing;
and in this latter case the losses cannot easily be made up by lobsters
coming in from the adjoining districts. There can, consequently, be no
doubt that the lobster can, on a given stretch of coast, be exterminated
by continued persecutions, or its number, at least, be diminished to
such a degree as to make lobster-fishing unprofitable. Such an event
would occur all the sooner if the coast in question be not favorable to
its increase. From the reports which had come in, it seemed that cer-
tain places were less favorable to their propagation, or possible immi-
gration from adjoining districts, than others, and from such districts the
complaints concerning the decrease in the number of lobsters had come.
In other places, the bottom of the sea along the coast was a couveuient
place of sojourn for the lobsters, aud the number caught was but a small
part of those that lived aud were born there. In such places, the fish-
eries would be productive and steady. But even there, continued ex-
haustive fishing would diminish their number, especially if there should
be an unfavorable year for the growth aud development of the lobster.
Prof. C. Boeck considered it, therefore, not only desirable, but even
necessary for the even maintenance of the fisheries, that there should
be certain limitations, so that lobsters should not be caught to such a

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 247

degree as to make an entire stoppage of the fisheries for a period of
time necessary. He believed that the proposed law, in obedience to
which lobsters should only be caught at certain seasons of the year,
would not fully answer the purpose, especially as no fishing was going
on during the proposed time of prohibition in those districts from which
there were the loudest complaints of the decrease of the lobsters.
He thought, on the other hand, that a law prescribing that only lob-
sters of a given minimum size should be exported and sold would keep
the fisheries in an even condition. Regarding the size of the lobsters that
were to be offered for sale, sold, and exported, he thought, that even if
it could not be definitely settled at what age and what size a lobster was
capable of spawning, it could to some extent be ascertained from an
analogical comparison with the river-crawfish. This is supposed to be
sexually fully developed in its third year, when it is 4 inches long, but
it may attain an age of twenty years and a length of 6 inches. He
therefore supposed that the lobster becomes capable of spawning when
it is three years old and has reached a length of about 8 inches, while lob-
sters measuring less are seldom found to have any roe. In order, there-
fore, that the lobster before "being caught may not only reach the size
when it may be considered fully grown, but might also be supposed to
have contributed something toward the propagation of the species, a
minimum size of a little more than 8 inches should be agreed upon for
lobsters which might be caught and exported. Possibly 8 inches might
be sufficient, as the English generally do not buy any from the fishermen
as " full men " which do not have this size.

In consequence of this report, the ministry petitioned His Majesty to
recommend to the next Storthing the passage of a law forbidding tbe
offer for sale and the sale of lobsters that did not measure 8 inches in
length, inclusive of the head and tail.

The following royal proposition for a law limiting lobster-fishing was
thereupon published November 5, 1838:

"We Carl Johan, &c., make known, &c:

" § 1. That it shall be forbidden in this kingdom to offer for sale or
sell lobsters which do not have a minimum length of 8 inches, inclusive
of the head and tail. For every lobster offered for sale or sold which
shall not have this length, a fine of 24 cents shall be paid, half of which
shall go to the police or custom-house officer, or any other person denounc-
ing the offender, and the other half to the poor. All cases of this kind
are to be brought before the police courts.

" § 2. Lobsters which do not have the above-mentioned length shall not
be exported."

The Storthing committee which had to consider this matter hesitated
to recommend to the Storthing the passage of this law, basing their ob-
jections on several reports from the lobster-districts and on Professor
Rathke's report. Their chief objection, however, was that the fisher-
men would consider such a law as limiting their liberty, and, not being

248 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

able to understand its utility, would thereby only be encouraged to fol-
low the dictates of selfishness aud trausgress the law. It was, moreover,
thought that it would be difficult to exercise any sufficient control, and
that the trade would be injured thereby. The law was therefore not
passed. This was the fourth time that a moderate proposition had
been made to protect the lobster in order to avoid the total ruin of the
fisheries. In the first proposal, by Judge Lorn, it had been suggested
that the lobster should be protected at certain seasons of the year, when
it spawns or sheds its shell, and likewise that those lobsters should be
protected that had not reached a certain length. In the second, by Mr.
Gjertsen, only a certain annual season of protection was suggested ; as
was also done in the third, by Mr. Lundsgaard. The fourth, or govern-
ment proposal, only suggested that lobsters below a certain size should
not be caught.

It was not long before there were again numerous complaints of the
decrease in the number of lobsters, which, according to the testimony of
impartial men, was owing to lobsters being caught at a time when they
spawn and shed their shell. Before auythiug further was done in the
matter, a fishery-commission that had been appointed made a proposal
regarding the lobster-fisheries, which must be mentioned here. In 1840,
the government appointed a commission to revise the fishery-laws. The
following were members of this commission: Judge Landmark, Consul
Meltzer, Messrs. Tan gen and Moses, merchants, liev. (now Professor)
Sars, aud Chief Pilot Monsen. One passage of the law proposed by
this commission reads as follows : " On their own property, as far as ten
fathoms from the coast at low water, the owners shall have the exclusive
privilege to catch all small fish, lobsters, aud oysters, but any one may
catch lobsters outside of unimproved land bounding the sea without
regard to the distance from the coast."

In this proposition, which, however, never became a law, the old idea
is revived that the lobster-fisheries, properly speaking, belong to the
land-owners, which, in spite of the decree of 1728, had formed the sub-
ject of discussion all through the last century. Even if this proposition
had become a law, it would not have exercised any great influence on
the lobster-fisheries, which are almost exclusively carried on along
unimproved coasts which can scarcely ever be subjected to cultivation.
No new law regarding the protection of lobsters was introduced in the
next Storthing, but in 1845, when the Storthing had assembled, the de-
partment of finance and customs received a letter from the agent of
the English lobster-company in Stavanger that another English com-
pany intended to continue the lobster-fisheries, which, in that district,
usually cease toward the end of June, during July, August, and Sep-
tember, hoping thereby to gain over the lobster-fisheries, and thus to
destroy the trade of the other company. As this agent was afraid that
fishing during these mouths would ruin the lobster-fisheries in this dis-
trict for several years to come, he urged the department to iutroduce

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 249

the royal proposition of a law in the Storthing, forbidding lobster-fish-
ing from June 15 to October 15. The department requested the gov-
ernor to give his opinion on the subject. He stated, as he had done on
a former occasion, that such a law would be unnecessary, as the lobster
is not fit to eat during those months, and none could therefore be ex-
ported. During this and the following years lobsters were, nevertheless,
caught and exported during those months, as the two companies vied
with each other, each endeavoring to secure the trade. The price of
lobsters rose considerably, and all those that were caught were bought
up, even during the season when they spawn aud shed their shell,
although every one saw what injury was being done, and although the
mortality among the lobsters was great, and the consequent loss consid-
erable. All this soon bore its fruit, but few lobsters being caught in
1847 in those places where in 1815 fishing had been going on till the
end of August, while the fisheries were productive in those places where
they had ceased in July. All were now agreed that it was injurious to
catch lobsters during the season of the year when they spawn and shed
their shell, which, in the districts in question, was supposed to take
place in August and September, and it became evident that such con-
tinued fishing would in a short time drive the lobsters entirely from the
coast. To prevent such a misfortune, the governor at last resolved to
request the department to issue a provisional regulation, forbidding
lobster-fishing during the mouths of August and September. The de-
partment, however, again considered it necessary to get reports from
the lobster-districts and from the agents of the English lobster-compa-
nies. Some of these reports declared that lobster-fishing should be for-
bidden from the middle of July till the middle of October; others that
there should be no fishing during August and September. The agent
of an English lobster-company in Jarlsberg and Laurvig, however, ad-
vised against any prohibition of the lobster-fisheries, saying that such
a prohibition during the summer months would cause the English lob-
ster-companies to stop this trade, ice hindering the fisheries in winter
and spring, and storms those in the latter part of autumn, so that the
fisheries commenced gradually in May and lasted till the end of Septem-
ber. They are most productive in July, August, and September. The
decrease of the lobster-fisheries he ascribed not to the summer fisheries,
which were said to diminish the number of lobsters, but to the circum-
stance that the people of the district devote their attention more to the
profitable mackerel-fisheries. The governor was of the same opinion. A
totally different opinion, however, was entertained by other competent and
trustworthy persons in Laurvig and the neighborhood, who, from infor-
mation obtained of the lobster-fishers of that district, judged that such a
prohibition of fishing from the middle of July till the middle or end of
September would have a favorable influence on the preservation of the
lobsters. The governor of the Lister and Maudal districts showed iu
his report by examples from the years of war, that the more the lob-

250 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

sters are protected, the more will they increase in number; and their
decrease since 1830 was almost unanimously ascribed to the summer
fisheries, which are going on at a time when the lobsters spawn, although
the spawning does not take place at the same time in every place. Such
a prohibitory law would therefore be of great importance for the lob-
ster-fisheries. It was true that, on the other hand, the trade would be
somewhat iuconvenieuced by such a law, the prices would fall, and it
would be necessary to modify time when fishing should be prohibited,
according to different local circumstances. The reports which came in
from the other districts likewise favored the prohibition of fishing
during the months of July, August, and September, some even advising
an extension of this time from May till October. Another agent of an
English lobster-company, however, warned against any interference by
law with this trade, particularly on account of the fishermen, who would
not be able to earn their living during a great part of the year. The
decrease of the fisheries was, in his opinion, chiefly caused by the fact
that fewer men were employed in them, the increase of navigation and
the rich' herring and mackerel fisheries employing so many men. He
supposed, moreover, that a law prohibiting the catching of lobsters during
a certain period would not prove beneficial to the lobster-trade, but that
an undoubtedly more productive fishery during the months when fish-
ing would be allowed would have a very injurious effect on the market.
The Bergen Board of Trade were of opinion that such a prohibition, if
it did not extend to the months of May, June, and July, would not dis-
turb the fisheries in the Bergen district, which are chiefly carried on
during these months, but that it would not be advisable to forbid fish-
ing during these months. If it was absolutely necessary to pass some
law for the preservation of the lobster, they would advise the govern-
ment to take up the old proposition not to catch and sell lobsters meas-
uring less than 8 inches. The governor of the North Bergen district
considered it desirable that the lobsters should be protected from the
middle of July till the middle of September. In Romsdal, however, no
prohibition was desired from June 15 till September 15, since fishing
was going on during this very period. As so many different opinions had
come from the different parts of the country, and as it seemed desirable
o hear the opinion of several naturalists, Professor Rasch was requested
by the government to prepare a law for the preservation of the lobster,
giving the full reasons for such a law. In his report to the department,
he first of all gave his view regarding the pairing-season, and then
regarding the time which elapses between the pairing and the emission
of the eggs from the ovary. He found that the pairing-season of the
lobster extended over a long period of time, viz, from the time it first
sheds its shell in September till April or May, but that the embryo does
not develop till the heat of summer sets in, no matter whether the spawn-
ing has taken place in autumn, winter, or spring. Most of them have
their eggs hatched in July and August, and the young lobsters leave
their mother from the middle of August till the middle of September.

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 251

He had found, moreover, that the lobster was capable of propagating
before it had reached a length of 8 inches. He would therefore pro-
pose—

" § 1. His Majesty may take measures for protecting the lobsters during
a continuous period of two to three months annually in every district of
the kingdom, at the request of the respective governors.

"§ 2. The season of protection shall in every case embrace the whole
month of August.

" § 3. The protection may extend both to males and females, or only to
the latter.

" § 4. Whoever catches lobsters, or offers them for sale, during the
close season, in the district or districts where there is such a law, shall
pay a fine of 24 cents for every lobster which is caught or offered for
sale contrary to the law.

" § 5. In the district or districts where i>i'otection extends only to the
female lobsters, a fine of 24 cents apiece shall be paid by every one
who, during the season of protection, allows female lobsters to be caught
and offered for sale, or in any way trades in such.

"§ G. The same fine shall be imposed on lobster-dealers or their agents
if they receive and ship lobsters caught during the close season, in
accordance with the law in force in the district in which the lobster-
station is located.

" § 7. The sums realized by these fines go half to the person who
denounces the transgressor, and the other half to the poor-fund of the
respective district. All such cases must be brought before the police
court."

Professor Rasch has given his reasons for the provisions of the above
law as follows :

"Although there are frequent complaints that general game and fish-
ing laws are not suited to all the districts of this large country, where
the different degrees of latitude and local circumstances produce great
differences with regard to the pairing-season, the periodical arrival, &c,
of the same races of animals, he had in most cases found fewer differ-
ences than one in general might be led to suppose. He proposed § 1 so
that every district should have the season of protection best suited to
its circumstances."

Regarding § 2 he says :

"As in his opinion it seemed sufficiently proved that the most prolific
hatching-season occurs in the month of August, even in the most north-
erly portions of the country where lobster-fishing is carried on, he
thought that, in all cases, this month should be included in the season
of protection."

Regarding § 3, he thought that the strictness of the protection might
be relaxed a little in those districts where the summer fisheries, on
account of peculiar circumstances, cannot be entirely stopped without
immediate loss to the poor coast-population. He thought, moreover,

252 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

that by protecting only the female lobsters the purpose of the law with
regard to the preservation of the species will be just as fully answered
as by protecting both sexes during the same period of time. The objec-
tion may be raised that it will be difficult to distinguish between a
female without outside roe and a male ; but the difference of sex is so
great that a fisherman may be able to tell it at the first glance. Nor
would he only protect those lobsters which have outside roe, as this may
easily be scraped off. Irregularities of the normal sexual relations will
be of very little importance, as most of the females which have been
protected will be caught by the fishermen when the season of protection
is over, as they go but a short distance from the place where they stay.
The objection made to the law that it would force the fishermen to
return the products of the sea to it, he considers to be of great import-
ance ; but he hoped that they would see what a great risk they ran by
unlawful fishing, and be convinced that protection will in the long run
benefit their trade.

From the above it will be seen that, with the exception of the gov-
ernors of Jarlsberg and Laurvig and two of the lobster-agents, all local
authorities and competent men were in favor of the opinion that the
decrease in the number of lobsters noticed during the last few years
had been caused by too extensive fishing during that part of summer
when the lobster spawns, and had considered a law prohibiting lobster-
fishing duriug a certain period of summer and autumn as the only
effective means of protecting this important animal. But others, we
see, wished to have the protection extended from June or May till
October; others only from July to September; and others, again, only to
August and September. Both in Swedeu and Heligoland there are laws
prohibiting the catching and selling of lobsters from July 1 till Septem-
ber 15, and in Scotland it is forbidden, under a penalty of £5 each, to
catch lobsters from June 1 till September 1 ; and in England no lobster
is allowed to be sold which measures less than 8 inches. The govern-
ment also considered that protection during the season of the year when
the hatching is chiefly going on would answer the purpose, and that it
could be more easily maintained than a law prohibiting the fishing and
selling of lobsters below a certain size. As the young are chiefly hatched
during the month of August, but also during Juty and September, the
government thought that August should be included in every close
season, while it should be left to the local authorities, with royal
approbation, to extend this legal season of protection to July and Sep-
tember, in accordance with the local circumstances of every district.
By adopting these measures, the trade would not be restricted to any
serious extent. This was also granted by the commissioners of the
English lobster-companies, and, as far as the fishermen are affected, they
can easily find work in nearly every part of the kingdom during August,
while, on the other hand, the protection of lobsters during a certain
period will make the fisheries all the more productive during the months

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 253

when fishing is allowed. With regard to the other objections to limit-
ing the fisheries during the summer months, viz, that in the districts of
Eomsdal, Jarlsberg, and Laurvig they are only carried on from the
beginning of spring or summer till some time in fall, the government
remarked that this could scarcely be caused by any special arrangements
of the lobsters on these parts of the coast, but is a natural consequence
of the circumstance that the fishermen in the district of Eomsdal during
spring and autumn are employed in the great fisheries, while in the dis-
tricts of Jarlsberg and Laurvig this is caused by the natural hinderauces of
ice and storms during spriug and autumn. But especially in these dis-
tricts a law prohibiting fishing during the mouth of August could not
limit this trade very much, compared with the beneficial consequences
which such a law would have. The government thought that the pro-
hibition should extend both to male and female lobsters, which opinion
was finally also shared by Easch. The government also proposed that
the law forbidding the export of lobsters should extend the time when
export was not allowed eight days beyond the end of the close season,
so as to enable the fishermen to fish up to the very commencement of
the close season.

On January 26, 1848, the king signed the following proposition for a,
law for the protection of lobsters, to be laid before the Storthing during
its next session :

" We, Oscar, &c, make known :

"For some time complaints have been made that the number of lob-
sters on the coasts of the kingdom has decreased considerably, espe-
cially since the year 1830. Competent men have been consulted as to
the possible causes of this phenomenon, as likewise as to the means by
which the lobster might be preserved, and a royal proposition for a law
forbidding the catching or export of lobsters measuring less than 8
inches in length was laid before the Storthing, but was not passed. Ee-
newed complaints of the great decrease in the number of lobsters have
recently come from several parts of the country, petitions have been
sent in asking that the catching of lobsters at certain seasons of the
year might be forbidden, and from the information received on this
point it has been considered absolutely necessary, for the preservation
of the lobster, to fix by law a certain season of protection for this ma-
rine auimal.

" His Majesty would therefore invite the attention of the Storthing of
the kingdom of Norway to this subject, and ask them to pass a law re-
garding the protection of lobsters, in accordance with the accompanying
draft :

"DRAFT OF A LAW REGARDING THE PROTECTION OF LOBSTERS.

" 1. It shall be forbidden to catch or sell lobsters during the month
of August.

254 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

"2. In accordance with a request made by the respective local au-
thorities, the above-uieutioued period may be extended iu the different
districts by the king, but it shall in no place last longer than from July
1 to September 30.

"3. The fishing or selling of lobsters during a period when it is for-
bidden in accordance with § 1 and 2 is punished with a fine of 24 cents
for every lobster caught or offered for sale contrary to law.

" 4. All cases arising from transgressions of the regulations con-
tained iu § 1 and 2 must be brought before the police courts. If any one
is accused of such transgression, the chief of police in the district shall
get his declaration whether he is willing to pay the fines. If he is will-
ing and does not possess the necessary amount of money, it shall be
levied on his property. If, on the other baud, the accused denies his
guilt, or refuses to pay, the above-mentioned officer shall have the mat-
ter investigated and settled. The fines shall be divided between the
informer and the local poor-fund.

"5. During the period when in accordance with § 1 and 2 it is forbidden
to catch or offer for sale lobsters, as well as during eight days following
the end of this period, it shall likewise be forbidden to ship lobsters to
foreign parts. Attempted or actual transgression of this article shall
be punished in the same manner as provided in the law of September 20,
1845, regarding attempted or actual smuggling.

" 6. This law shall take effect January 1, 1849."

In the committee to which the royal proposition was assigned for con-
sideration, the first two articles were changed, so as to make the season
of protection stricter. In the royal proposition, the local authorities
could under special circumstances propose that the season of protection
be extended to the mouths before and after August; but the committee
were of the opinion that the law should be enforced during a longer
period, but in special cases the local authorities might propose that it
should be limited to the month of August, to such a degree had public
opinion changed in favor of such a protective law.

When the matter was discussed in the Storthing April 29, 1848, not a
voice was raised against a protective law, but the discussion was chiefly
as to whether the law should be adopted in its stricter form as recom-
mended by the committee, or as proposed by the government. The law
was finally adopted in the form recommended by the committee, modified
by an amendment that the season of protection should last from July 15
till the end of September. The first portion of § 5 was also changed so
as to read as follows: "Eight days after the beginning of the period
during which iu accordance with § 1 and 2 it is forbidden to catch lob-
sters or offer them for sale till eight days after the end of this period, it
shall be likewise forbidden to ship lobsters to foreign parts." As for the
rest, the law was passed in the shape recommended by the committee ;
a motion to change the above-mentioned eight days to twelve days or

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 255

three weeks being lost, as likewise another motion that the law should
not come iu force till January 1, 1850.

The law, which was adopted in the same shape by both houses of the
Storthing, and was sanctioned by the king, came to read as follows :

"1. It shall be forbidden to catch or offer for sale lobsters during the
period from July 15 till the end of September.

" 2. In accordance with a request from the respective local authorities,
this period may be limited in different districts by the king ; but the
season of prohibition must in every case embrace the whole month of
August."

3 and 4 are entirely as in the royal proposition.

"5. From eight days after the beginning of the period during which,
in accordance with 1 and 2, it is forbidden to catch lobsters or offer them
for sale, till eight days after the end of this period, it shall likewise be
forbidden to export lobsters to foreign parts.

"0. This law shall come into force January 1, 1849."

By this law, which forbids all fishing during two and a half months,
the yield of the fisheries was of course somewhat diminished duriug the
first years following its passage, till the protected young could reach the
necessary size. Thus fewer were exported in 1S49 and 1850 than during
the preceding years, so that, while from 1840 to 1848 about 600,000 were
exported, the number had sunk to 408,310 in 1849 and 427,000 iu 1850.
This decrease, however, is not merely owing to the circumstance,
that the number which were usually caught during the close months
remained in the sea, but likewise to the fact that the English joint-stock
company which carried on the exportation from the districts of Jarls-
berg and Laurvig began to pay a lower price for the lobsters, so that
the fishermeu resolved no longer to catch any even during those months
when they were permitted to do so. While from this district there
were from 1S46 to 181S on an average about 20,000 exported every year,
only 7,9G0 were exported in 1849, 1,604 in 1850, and none at all during
the following years ; but, in 1855, 14,470 were again exported, chiefly to
Copenhagen. Since 1850, the lobster-trade has steadily increased, and
the governors, iu their quinquennial reports on the economical condition
of their respective districts, state that protection seems to have pro-
duced this result.

In the district of Stavanger, the exports rose, from 1850, when they
amounted to 120,653, to 204,S03 in 1854 ; in the South Bergen district,
it is also stated that the fisheries have increased. Of the following
years, the least productive was 1S58, when the exports from the whole
kingdom only amounted to 553,238, on account of unfavorable weather
during the whole fishing-season ; but, in 1860, the number had again
risen to 1,333,037, and kept tolerably steady during the following years,
so that the exports during these years were about the same as during
the years 1825-'30, when they were at their highest, only to decrease
very rapidly during the following years. In I860, the exports rose to

256 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

1,000,000, and increased constantly, till in 1865 they very nearly readied
2,000,000, viz, 1,056,270.

The complaints regarding the protective law have now ceased, since
the government has in several districts limited it by royal decrees, and
in many places the people are rather inclined to extend the season of
protection than to limit it as, in the district of Stavanger, where
two years ago public opinion was in favor of prohibiting all fishing
during autumn and winter, as it was thought that thereby the spring
and summer fisheries would become all the more productive. As a
general rule, no lobsters are exported from there in autumn and winter,
except when some new English companies want to get into the lobster-
trade and therefore buy the lobsters at a higher price than is usually
paid, so as to ruin their rivals. Then all the lobsters that can be got
are generally bought during autumn, as was the case in 1845 and 1816,
and to some extent in 1861 and 1865. During the last-mentioned year,
such a large quantity of lobsters was caught on account of the unusually
calm weather, that the Englishman who had urged the fishermen to
fish could not take more than one-third of all that had been caught,
and the rest died, without being of use to any one. One reason why the
fishermen wish to see this autumn fishing forbidden by law is that even
if they were unanimous as to its injurious character, all of them would,
though unwillingly, take their part in it, if a small number of fishermen
moved by covetousness were to catch lobsters, and if there should be a
chance of selling them at that season, because they suppose that those
lobsters which they would otherwise get in spring would now be caught
by others in autumn, which would injure their trade very much.

As the privileges which at different times had been granted to the
lobster-shippers were not the same in every place, because the ports
for shipping lobsters were established as necessity arose, and on that
occasion got certain privileges, these must naturally differ a great deal
according to the views prevalent at the time when the ports were
established. Such regulations regarding the ports of Espevaer, Salt-
hellern, and Eognesuud from the year 1708, have already been com-
municated, and similar ones have existed in other ports. These regula-
tions were certainly modified a great deal in course of time ; but the
Danish-Norwegian government inclined to keep privileges that had
once been granted unchanged as far as was possible, and these privi-
leges could consequently not become uniform till our days. In order to
do this, the department of finance and customs issued a circular, dated
December 11, 1865, to the following effect:

"As the privileges which have been granted by decrees published
from time to time to the lobster-trade in different places of the kingdom
partly differ somewhat as to their character without there being suffi-
cient reason therefor, and are partly scattered in a manner which makes
supervision difficult, the department has thought proper to make the
following general regulations regarding the privileges that shall be in

NORWEGIAN LOBSTER-FISHERY AND ITS HISTORY. 257

force with regard to this trade, and which, with the exception of the
additional regulation regarding the calculation of ship-dues, agree
entirely with those which are for the time being in force in most of the
custom-stations on the southern coast : •

"1. Arriving lobster- vessels which intend to take lobsters in an outer
port, if they do not contain any goods subject to duty, but only ballast,
may be exempt from stopping at the custom-house to which the outer
port belongs, if the shipper immediately on his arrival reports himself
to the custom-house officer who may be stationed at that place, but if
there is no such custom-station there, at the nearest custom station,
where the custom-house officers may examine the vessel.

" 2. Such vessels as have arrived in the outer port are exempt from
making their declaration at the custom-house before they commence to
take their cargo of lobsters ; but, when they commence, thev shall be
obliged to mention the exact number of lobsters which they intend to
export.

" 3. Such vessels are permitted to make their declaration before the
custom-house at the same time with giving the quantity of lobsters about
to be exported.

" 4. Such vessels, after having thus obtained their custom-house
papers for a certain quantity of lobsters, if they cannot get the quantity
mentioned in the port where they take their cargo, may take the lob-
sters that are wanting to make up the quantity mentioned in the papers,
in another port, either in the same custom-house district or in another.
The following, however, must be observed :

"a. The custom-house officer stationed in the port shall mention in
the papers the exact number of lobsters that have been taken there, and
the custom-house officers in the port or ports which may be entered
afterward shall examine in how far the number of lobsters received
agrees with the number of lobsters specified in the papers.

" b. If the lobsters are shipped in places where there is no custom-
house, the company's commissioner, or, if there is none, the person who
sorts the lobsters, may mention in the papers what number of lobsters
have been taken, whereupon the vessel may sail; but a copy of the
papers made under oath must immediately be sent to the nearest custom-
house.

u c. The respective custom-house officer thereupon shall, in the case
mentioned under a, send a report regarding the insertion in the papers to
the custom-house to which he belongs, and shall, in the cases mentioned
under b, send the declaration of the persons who sorted the lobsters.

" d. If the lading is completed in a district belonging to another
custom-house than the one where the lobster- vessel has commenced to
lade, the reports and declarations mentioned under b and c shall be
immediately sent by the custom-house where they have been received
to that custom-house where the lading has commenced, so that the
officers belonging to the latter may be able to determine ill how far the
17 F

258 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

exports from all the ports correspond with the number of lobsters for
which duty has been paid. It is of course understood that the above-
mentioned reports and declarations must give the name of the vessel
and itfs captain, as well as the number and date of the custom-house
passport, and state by which custom-house thelatter has been issued.

"5. If the captains of lobster-vessels find occasion to take a larger num-
ber of lobsters than is mentioned in their papers, either in the same port
or other ports, this may be done without any hiuderance by the custom-
house officers, and in this case everything regarding the insertion in the
papers and the reports and declarations that are to be given is to be
done exactly as mentioned in No. 4. This is done, however, under the
condition that the shipper immediately pays the export-dues for the
extra number of lobsters taken, and that the custom-house officer in
the above-mentioned reports and declarations certifies that the vessel
has exported this extra number. In so far, however, as an arriving lob-
ster-vessel brings goods which have to pay duty, the regulations men-
tioned in Nos. 1 and 2, without regard to the quality and quantity of the
goods, cannot be applied to the vessel, but it must first get the required
permit to pass in, and therefore go up to the custom-house, and there
undergo the same treatment as other arriving vessels, whereupon it
may proceed to the place of lading. If it is found that exporters,
sorters, or shippers do not observe the conditions under which the above-
mentioned privileges have been given, these shall be revoked, according
to circumstances, either for a vessel, for a port, or for a certain part of
the coast. The custom-house officers shall see to it, as far as circum-
stances and the above-mentioned regulations allow, that no abuses creep
in, and that if there should be any, they are immediately made known
to the respective authorities.

"With regard to the ship-dues of such vessels as take in cargoes of
lobsters outside the custom-houses, in conformity with the privileges
granted to them, it has been found convenient, in order to have a uni-
form mode of proceeding, to calculate their dues in future always as
of vessels whose cargo exceeds one-fourth of the carrying capacity."

XIV.-TRANSPORTATION OF LOBSTERS TO CALIFORNIA.

The following is the report of M. L. Perrin, employed by Mr. Livingston Stone, for
the California Fish Commission, in the transportation of live lobsters upon the Cali-
fornia aquarium car, June, 1874. — [S. F. Baird.]

The lobsters were procured from Messrs. Johnson & Young's lobster-
house, Charlestown-street bridge, Boston, and pains were taken by
these gentlemen to give all the aid in their power toward the undertak-
ing. Upon a special car from Boston to Charlestown, 1ST. H., June 3,
were packed the 150 lobsters in seven pine boxes 3 J feet long, 15 inches
wide, and 15 inches deep. The boxes were divided iuto two compart-*
ments, an upper and a lower, by a partition, making two tiers, and 11
lobsters were placed in each tier, save one. On this trip to Charlestown
they were not packed with straw beneath them, but lay upon the wood,
with sponges over and around them. We were sorry at the time for
this mistake, but from experiments afterward I decided that they were
as well situated as if laid upon straw. Six casks of ocean-water, each
containing 149 gallons, were obtained that morning and loaded upon
the car. Most of the sea-water was put into the two salt-water tanks
in the aquarium-car. These tanks were made of hard wood and
smeared with a mixture of resin and tallow in order to be water-tight,
and during part of the overland journey salt-water fish were in these
tanks. One cask of sea-water was loaded, unopened, upon the aqua-
rium-car to be used for the lobsters during the last days of the trip,
that from the tanks being used for awhile. The sea-water was ob-
tained outside Boston Harbor, beyond the " Graves," in order that it
might be purer. That which had been got two days previously for the
same purpose was procured from Nahant, but the aquarium-car not
starting that day made it necessary to get some more so as to have it
fresh. We procured 35 pounds of sponges, most of which were used in
the beginning before many lobsters had died, but afterward were not
needed. The sponges were soaked with salt water, aud each lobster
was completely hidden by the wet sponges. Salt water was poured
upon all the lobsters, and all the sponges newly wetted once during the
trip to Cbarlestown. The lobsters were all alive when reaching Charles-
town.

At Charlestown, Thursday morning, June 4, the lobsters were taken
from the boxes in which they had been brought from Boston and re-
packed in boxes without covers, divided by partitions into twelve apart-
ments. The surface-extent of these apartments was just enough to ad-

260 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

mit one lobster lying within it — smaller than was well for them. The
depth of the apartments was about G inches, and the bottoms were bored
with an auger-hole to allow drainage. A handful of wet straw was put
in each apartment and a lobster laid upon it, theu sponges dripping
with salt water were placed above and around it until quite concealed
from sight and from dry air by this stratum of wet sponges.

There were twelve of these boxes, each containing twelve above-de-
scribed apartments, placed in the aquarium-car, one upon another, in
two piles of six boxes each, against the side of the car. In going over
the lobsters twice a day, the boxes were taken down and the sponges
were removed from the lobsters one at a time and squeezed over the
animal, which, if alive, will respond to it by blinking its eyes and
stretching its claws, perhaps moving its body a little. The sponges
were then dipped into a pailful of sea-water and wetted again, and were
carefully arranged as before about the lobster. Pieces of ice which an-
other person had been breaking up meanwhile were strewn over each
box, among the apartments and sponges, to keep cool the water in the
sponges and the moisture in the straw and around the lobster. It was
slow work, and the lobsters were too much exposed during the opera-
tions. Often, after the boxes were piled up again, pailsful of salt water
were poured over the whole. During the first two or three days only a
few were found dead when they were repacked.

At noon, Saturday, June 6, sixty lobsters were put into one of the
large salt-water tanks with the striped bass and some other salt-water
fish. Into this tank, as into all the others, air was continually forced
through hose from the air force-pumps, kept in motion by a band pass-
ing around the axle of a pair of the car-wheels. The lobsters in this
salt water, the next morning, at Chicago, appeared to be doing very
well ; but Sunday afternoon the lid of this tank was discovered to have
fallen, aud upon raising it all the lobsters were found dead. The fish
also in the tank were dead. Whether the falling of the lid was the
cause of their death, we could not quite decide ; but it seemed very
probable that it was because the air pumped into the tank after the lid
fell, having no means of escape at the top of the tank, exerted a great
pressure upon the water and in this way killed them, and also because
of the impure air which was confined inside for some time without being
replaced by purer. The fact that the fish died also shows that it was
some external calamity common to them both. The wooden tanks, the
mixture of resin and tallow, though but little, with which the tank was
smeared, the number in oue tank, aud the company with the fish, are
also variable quantities whose effects might be discussed relative to
this result and also to the result of the experiment which was thus
checked. Therefore this case should not be considered a fair experi-
ment and as deciding whether lobsters cannot be transported healthily,
in an open tank of salt water, into which air is continually forced,
without changing the salt water itself, and kept constantly at a low

TRANSPORTATION OF LOBSTERS TO CALIFORNIA. 261

temperature. I neglected to mention that upon the top of the tank
much ice had heen kept and stored ; in this way keeping the salt water
within the tank quite cold without freshening it and diluting it, which
would have been caused by ice put into the salt water to cool it. The
death of these sixty reduced the number of lobsters materially.

About this time on, the trip slats were laid upon the two piles of
lobster-boxes, and about 500 pounds of ice kept on them, when the
lobsters were not being attended to. Lobsters will live well until
the fourth or fifth day, but in the present case, if at any time of
repacking them I did not find from one-third to one-half of the residue
dead each time, I considered it very fortunate. I went over them
twice a day; so that if, at every time of repacking, one-third to one-half
were to be thrown away, the number of live lobsters would be rapidly
reduced, as was indeed the case. Monday, June 8, there were only
20 left alive. Nor is there any regularity in their dying; those treated
the most carefully and faithfully die as readily as the neglected ; and
those handled much live as well as the undisturbed. After the fifth
day crowds of lobsters take offense at something, and revenge them-
selves by dying. The reason of their death was wrapt in mystery.
Numerous experiments always failed to bring any regular results,
and nothing certain could be gleaned from them. Theorizing about
lobsters' chances of life is vain when applied iu practice. There
seems to be a wide diversity in their constitutions, though unseen and
imperceptible. Certain lobsters live well and persistently, while others
destined to die beforehand do so irregularly and for an unassignable
cause. It is easy to decide whether a lobster is dead. If so, its muscles
are all relaxed, and when lifted up, its claws, instead of remaining hori-
zontally out from the body, hang down. This is especially true of the
large front claws, but not always of the small ones, which sometimes
hang down when the lobster is alive, or are straightened when dead ;
the front claws, however, are decisive. If, on the other hand, the crea-
ture is alive, it will sometimes move its long feelers when the sponge
is lifted, and move its claws, and often its body; but the constant as
well as sure criterion is that when a sponge full of salt water
is squeezed over its head, it will always answer it by blinking or draw-
ing in its eyes, if alive. When lifted it will struggle; but it is a
bad plan to raise them, unless necessary, though this is better than to
molest and agitate too much, without lifting them, when arranging the
sponges or ice about them.

We were using a good deal of salt water, and Monday, the fifth day
from starting, it became evident that we had not enough on board for
the whole journey. We disliked to use the salt water from the tanks in
which fish were or had been ; and there was not much of that. There-
fore we opened the reserve cask of 149 gallons of unused salt water,
and telegraphed the same day to the commissioners of California to

262 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

send by freight some Pacific Ocean water to meet us on the route as
soon as possible.

Being afraid that the ice which I was in the habit of putting around
the sponges and among the apartments was, by its melting and the
resultant water, making too fresh the atmosphere with which the
lobsters were surrounded, inasmuch as it diluted the salt water, I tried
with some the effect of leaving off the ice for a few times. The results
were not satisfactory, and proved that omitting the ice was not a
good thing ; the lobsters would not do as well without it. The coldness
gained by using the ice was even more indispensable than the saltness
of the water, which of course must be quite necessary. It is not well to
use too small pieces of broken ice, because they melt more rapidly ; and
in order to exert the required influence in producing coldness, the
pieces of ice must be so near the lobsters that, in melting as fast as
small pieces do, the salt water in and around the sponges becomes
more fresliened than if larger pieces of ice were used. It is much better
that the ice, in either case, should not touch the sponges, if the requisite
coldness can be attained without, and if room is abundant; and still bet-
ter would it be if the ice could be so arranged that, while producing
the necessary low temperature, the water resulting from its melting
should not mingle with the salt water nor strike anything connected
with the lobsters. There can be no doubt but that having as low a
temperature as possible is one of the greatest desiderata in the care of
lobsters. A refrigerating apparatus would avoid the troubles with the
ice spoken of above and be much more effectual than the primitive method
followed on this trip. The protection which the ice rjrovided in this
case against currents of warm air was not thorough and complete, and
great harm was surely done at the places and times where the defense
was insufficient ; and still more grew out of the fickleness of its protec-
tion. Every time the car-doors were opened or the atmosphere around
the lobster-boxes disturbed, there inevitably rushed upon them a draught
of warm and dry but injurious air, fatal at once to a lobster in case
the current strikes it. There must be some medium, as a wide or at
least constant stratum of moist atmosphere, to guard the lobster against
this destructive air; and at the same time that it would prevent this
evil, it should produce the needed low temperature. A refrigerating
arrangement would naturally make the care of the lobsters much more
convenient as well as more successful. Sometimes when lobsters died
1 put ice in the apartments left by them instead of upon the sponges of
the live lobsters. The dripping of this ice upon the apartments below
was not good ; but when the lobsters were few in number, I arranged
them so that the ice apartments all came under each other, and their
dripping did not affect the lobsters. This plan seemed to work favor-
ably for the lobsters. I doubt if it was best to do as was done with
the boxes on this trip. Two small sticks were laid across the top of each
box before the next was placed upon it. In this way a 'circulation of

TRANSPORTATION OF LOBSTERS TO CALIFORNIA. 2G3

fresh air was secured, bat I suspect that other qualities iu the air coun-
terbalanced this, and did much harm.

Tuesday, Juue 9, 1 took the straw from beneath every living lobster,,
and packed them all entirely with sponges. Tbe rate of mortality de-
creased decidedly, and I am inclined to believe that without this
change none would have lived to the end. The best way undoubtedly
to pack a lobster is with sponges above, around, and beneath it, and
also a small one directly under its nose. The straw is quite bad for
them to lie upon, because their claws become entangled in it, and it re-
strains them. This is very bad for a lobster. They should suffer no
pressure or restraint. For this reason we were afterward glad that no
straw had been used (by mistake as we thought) iu their trip from
Boston to Charlestown. I also tore out the partitions of several boxes,
and found it much better; they were more active when opened, and
appeared more healthy. Tbe partitions offer a restraint to them, and
are consequently injurious. When in an apartment with partitions, they
never staid in the middle, but worked themselves over to one side, and
struggled against the wooden partition ; in this way tiring themselves
out, which is of course an evil. A lobster needs room to stretch all its
limbs, if it wants to do so. For this reason they are better in boxes
without partitions, provided they are not near enough together to bite
each other. Eubber bands around the claws are an extreme case of
restraint, and are extremely pernicious. Treated in this way, the ani-
mals live only a few days. Struggling is very detrimental to the vigor
of a lobster; therefore they should not be restrained ; for as surely as
they are they will struggle against it, and not violently, but slowly,
almost imperceptibly. There is a reacting impulse in the lobster against
confinement. Though they do not move much, they need freedom to
move, or there is an incentive to struggle. Therefore it would seem,
as is truly the case, that, other things being equal, unrestrained lob-
sters have the best chances for life.

Pressure is as injurious as restraint. Sponges exert but very little
pressure upon them, and they can easily move their claws among
them. Ice must not cause any pressure upon the animal, nor must
it freshen the water — another requirement met by a refrigerating ap-
paratus. To prevent this pressure on the trip, I laid the ice as much
as possible across the tops of the partitions and not above the lobsters.
Wednesday, June 10, at Ogden, Utah, we left one pair to be put into
Salt Lake. Two very healthy and active lobsters were chosen, to make
sure of this attempt, if possible. They were put into a box packed
entirely in sponges, and I gave instructions, and -some salt water, to
Mr. A. P. Eockwood, of Salt Lake City, Superintendent of Fisheries,
who was personally to take charge of them. When leaving Utah,
Wednesday night, we were reduced to eight lobsters and one pail-
ful of salt water. Extra salt water is needed, not only to prevent
the moisture in and around the sponges from becoming too fresh by

2G4 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

ft

melting of the ice, and other causes, but also to wet the sponges with
when they become dry. It is a good thing, and quite necessary, often to
pour salt water over the lobsters and sponges, without unpacking, in
order to give them a change of water. It is well to repack them twice
a day; but a liberal supply of new saltwater should be poured over
them at least once in three hours. The shell of the lobster must always
be wet. Not only should the lobster touch nothing else but wet sponge,
but it is indispensable also that it should be everywhere in contact with
a wet sponge. It must nowhere be bare and exposed to the air, for the
water upon its surface will quickly evaporate ; and should you see a lob-
ster with a dry spot on its back, you may be sure of its death shortly. A
current of warm dry air, if endured even for a moment, is the lobster's
worst enemy.

Thursday, June 11, near Beowawe, Nevada, a freight-train met us,
bringing from the Pacific Ocean four barrels and four tin tanks of salt
water. The water iu the tin tanks was of course useless, but the rest
was welcome and immediately used. The effect of an abundance of salt
water was evident in the appearance of the lobsters. Repacking as
often as three hours would be impossible for one person, if many lob-
sters were taken, and furthermore useless, and, what is a more import-
ant fact, which should be avoided ; it would disturb the lobster, and if
packed entirely in sponge, it would be necessary to lift the animal each
time. It is much better to prepare the boxes for thorough drainage,
and then pour on a good supply of salt water as -often as once in three
hours. The ideal condition of a lobster is, unrestrained, very cold,
(and evenly so,) constantly wet with salt water, which should not
become freshened by any agency, but often changed ; and when in as
good condition as possible, then disturb them just as little as possible.
Lobsters can easily be killed with care. •

Upon reaching San Francisco Bay, four lobsters were alive. These
were put into the sea at Oakland wharf, Friday afternoon,* June 12,
nine days after they had been taken from the Atlantic ocean. It would
have been better had the commissioners ordered them to be put farther
out to sea, where the water was not so warm, and more salty. The four
lobsters themselves probably did not live ; but two were very full of
spawn, and this probably matured. The death of a female lobster does not
kill the spawn attached, which may live quite awhile afterward ; and if, as
in the present case, the spawn reaches again the natural condition of
things (of the ocean) in safety, it matters not whether the parent lives.
The facts that these four lobsters were females, and that their spawn
lived and hatched, show that the eggs of the lobster are impregnated
before leaving the female, and not afterward, as is the case with fishes.
As a rule the females of lobsters are stronger and longer-lived, under
difficulties, than males ; and of females, spawning ones are the strongest.

Lobsters differ so much in constitution that, in order to succeed in
the transportation of say ten animals, one cannot take them and attend

TRANSPORTATION OF LOBSTERS TO CALIFORNIA. 2G5

to thein carefully, thus bringing the desired result, but many must be
taken in order to insure the chances for the safety and success of the
ten. It is like throwing a die to bring a certain number : it is ineffect-
ual and useless to throw once and more carefully that time, but many
throws must be bargained for to insure success once. In the same way
this difference in the constitution, original healthiness, and chances of
life, affect the certainty of experimenting.

In order to transport live lobsters, it is without question indispensa-
ble to have a special car for the purpose, or at least one which shall run
the whole journey. An excellent degree of coldness can more readily
be preserved in the undisturbed atmosphere of an aquarium-car than
in a constantly shifting express-car. The ice melts less, and the moist-
ure does not evaporate so fast. In an express-car there are no facili-
ties for soaking and drenching the lobsters and for changing the water
often upon them by pouring from pails or by means of many devices,
which can easily be arranged in a special car. In such a car the water
which flows off the lobsters can readily run out of the car or through
holes bored in the floor, and that which does not is in no danger of ruin-
ing any valuable express-matter. An excellent refrigerating arrange-
ment can be prepared, if to be stationary, and to go from beginning to
end with the lobsters. A great deal of room in which to work is very
necessary, and cannot be dependent upon the amount of express which
happens to be on board. Draughts of warm and dry air, which rush in
from the four doors of an express-car, when open to receive or deliver
goods at every station, and which, as we have seen, are extremely
injurious, are avoided by a special car. Lobsters cannot be packed so as
to be transferred at railroad junctions and changes of express compan-
ies. They cannot with success be portably arranged, but must be so
situated that they can easily be attended to. The impracticability of
interrupting the person in charge, when repacking the lot of lobsters
in order to prepare for a change of cars, determines at once as infeasi-
ble the plan of carrying live lobsters by express. The jarring and dis-
turbance which they would suffer in a few changes of cars would soon
end their existence. Furthermore, the transferring of the numerous
necessary tools, and especially the casks of salt water, would be a very
weighty item.

Though successful in the life of the innumerable spawn which lived
and have hatched since deposited in the bay of San Francisco, the effort
of this year was accompanied with many results which need not be con-
sidered as necessarily attendant upon the transportation of live lobsters ;
but in order to get a knowledge of these needless evils, and those which
are to be avoided, as well as of the means for promoting success, it is
necessary once to make the attempt and search them out by experience.

Eespectfully submitted.

MAESHALL L. PEEEIN".

XV.-Oft THE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF THE LOBSTER/

[Translated from the Danish.]

There is one point in the natural history of the common lobster
(Homarus vulgaris) which, till quite recently, has been but little known,
although the lobster is one of those crustaceans whose anatomy and physi-
ology have been studied most thoroughly, and that is the period of its
development from the time it begins to lead an independent life. The
roe which the female lobster carries under the back part of its body has
been repeatedly examined as far as that stage where the fully-developed
embryo is surrounded by the thin white of the egg ; in examiuing the
embryo it has been found that, as in other crustaceans, it is born as a
being unlike the grown lobster, and that during its later development it
undergoes metamorphoses.

Prof. G. O. Sars of Christiania has recently endeavored to throw more
light on this comparatively dark period in the life of the lobster, and
the results of his investigation are contained in his treatise uOm Rum-
merens postembryonale JJdmTding^ published in the Christiana " Yidenslcabs-
Selskalbs Forhandlinger " for 1874. He, as well as Prof. Sidney I. Smith in
New Haven, who about the same time examined the development
of the American lobster, (Early Stages of the American Lobster, with 5
plates, by Sidney I. Smith, from the Transactions of the Connecticut
Academy, vol. ii,) has shown three larvse-stages in the development of
the lobster, and found that the young lobster after it is hatched spends
the first portion of its life near the surface of the water, where it be-
comes an easy prey to its many enemies, as, especially during the period
when it changes from a larvse to its adult form-, it is but little skilled

in swimming.

While the investigations of two naturalists have thus yielded new
and valuable contributions to the natural history of the lobster, inter-
esting facts regarding the young lobster's mode of life have been dis-
covered by other men.

Along that part of the Norwegian coast where the lobster-fisheries
are carried on on a large scale, and where they become a source of con-
siderable income to the inhabitants, there are ample opportunities for
observing what an enormous number of young lobsters are destroyed
every year, partly by their natural enemies, and partly by the strong
wind from the sea which drives them on the coast, where they remaiu
on dry land when the tide has gone out. Several men in the district

*0in Forsog med kunstig Udklaekniug af Hummer, ny rcekke=new series, in "Nor-
disk Tidsskrift for Fiskeri," ny Rcekke of Tidsskrift for Fiskeri, 2en Aargang, pp.
184-188, 1875.

268 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

of Stavanger, viz, Mr. Lorange, a civil engineer, Mr. Olsen, a teacher,
and two merchants, Messrs. Andr. Hansen and H. Hansen, in 1873, united
with a view to making experiments whether it would not be possible to
protect the tender young of the lobster by hatching them in boxes or
small basins, where they could find a place of refuge till they were so
far developed as to take care of themselves. As these first experiments
seemed to augur well, they received, at their request, aid from the Eoyal
Society for the promotion of the Industries of Norway, (Kgl. Selskab
for Norges Vel.,) to enable them to continue their experiments iu 1874.

For this purpose, they inclosed a sheet of water by building a strong
wall at each end of a sound, between two small islands in the Veafjord,
not far from Kopervig. This sheet of water was about 300 feet long
and 30 feet broad; its bottom consisted partly of rough gravel and partly
of rocks stretching along one of the sides, and its average depth was
about 5 feet. Five hatching-boxes were then procured, of which one
was placed in the inclosed water, three at Aakrehavn, and one at
Kopervig. These boxes were made of cork, and were 5 feet long and 2
feet deep. Both at the bottom and at the sides, there was an opening
of oue-half inch between the boards, which was covered with strips of
fine wire-gauze. The boxes at Aakrehavn were, moreover, furnished
with a light roof, which, without excluding the light, prevented the
boxes from being filled with fresh water during heavy rains. Only one
of these three boxes was used for hatching ; the two other ones being
used for receiving the young ones as their number became too large for
the hatching-boxes, and for making experiments whether the young
lobster can be kept outside an inclosed sheet of water, which it might
be difficult to procure in some places. Twenty-two female lobsters, hav-
ing roe, were bought, of which three were placed in the inclosed sheet
of water, and nineteen in the boxes, not all at the same time, however,
but by degrees, just as it was possible to procure spawning lobsters.

Professor Easeh, president of the section for fisheries in the Eoyal
Society for Furthering the Industries of Norway, made a report to the
society on the hatching-experiments, accompanied by prepared speci-
mens, showing the development of the young lobster on each day of the
first week after the hatching, and during the fourth week. In this
report, he says, that, in his opinion, the experiments have been made
carefully and skillfully, and that thereby several facts regarding the
natural history of the lobster have been made known, which hitherto
were either entirely unknown or not sufficiently proved by experiments.
These facts are —

a. That the young lobsters swimming near the surface of the water are
killed by violent rain, which was successfully avoided by having the
above-mentioned light roofs over the boxes ;

b. That the older of the young lobsters, when their shears (claws) are
developed, in their boxes attack and eat the younger ones which stay
near the surface ; the possibility of doing this was diminished by hav-

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF THE LOBSTER. 2G9

ing holes in the sides of the boxes large euough to let the larger of the
young ones which stay deeper under the water slip out easily ;

c. That the female lobsters which have roe under the back part of
their body in June will have done hatching in September ;

d. That the hatching from beginning, to end occupies a period of
about three weeks ;

e. That the summer-hatching does not begin at the same time every
year, (in 1873 it began on the 4th July, and in 1874 between the 17th
and 2Gth of the same month,*) which undoubtedly depends on the higher
aud lower temperature of the water;

/. That the newly-hatched young of the lobster keep closely together
near the surface of the water, and because but little skilled in swim-
ming become an easy prey to their enemies; and,

g. That the young lobsters begin to go toward the bottom when about
three to four weeks old, and that there they soon assume their retro-
grade motion.

It was also shown that when the young lobsters have so far developed
as to seek the bottom, they can escape their enemies with comparative
ease, partly on account of their quicker motions and partly by hiding
between the stones.

These experiments have, therefore, not only thrown considerable light
on the natural history of the lobster, but they have also given practical
hints how it may be possible to further the lobster-fisheries by adopting
regulations for their protection, aud by establishing in suitable localities
hatching-places where the young can be protected during the first stages
of their development. To keep the young lobsters in inclosed sheets of
water till they are large euough to become salable will scarcely pay.

One of our largest exporters of lobsters on the western coast has
tried to keep large quantities of grown lobsters in an inclosed sheet of
Avater, feeding them and waiting for the time when it would be most
profitable to ship them ; but it soon became evident that the expenses
were too great.

These experiments will be continued during the present year with the
aid of the Royal Society for Furthering the Industries of Norway.

B.

XVI.-ON THE OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

By Lieut. P. de Broca.

[The great interest taken by the French in the subject of oyster-cul-
ture, in view of the threatened failure of this branch of industry on the
shores of France, induced the government to send Lieutenant de Broca
to the United States, in 1862, for the purpose of ascertaining its condi-
tion in this country. The report of that gentleman was first published
in the Revue Maritime et Coloniale, and afterward reprinted in separate
form, with some additions, under the title given below.*

As nothing so elaborate in reference to the oyster-culture and -indus-
try in the United States has been published elsewhere, I have caused
M. de Broca's report in the Revue to be translated, and present it here-
with, supplemented by some additions from the Etude. I hope to pre-
sent before long the present condition of the oyster-fisheries of the
country from an American point of view. — S. F. Bated.]

EEPORT.

To His Excellency the Minister of Marine and Colonial Affairs :

Honored Sir : At the end of the month of March, 1862, your excel-
lency, at the request of M. Coste, Member of the Institute, instructed me
to proceed to the United States, in order to study the Oyster-Fisheries of
that country, and to bring back specimens of two kinds of edible mol-
lusks, susceptible of acclimation on the shores of France.

Since my return to Havre, on the 2d of October, I have hastened to
forward to your excellency a summary report of my mission, to be fol-
lowed by a more detailed account, containin g all my investigations in
regard to the American coasts.

Leaving Boston on the 17th of September, in the steamer Asia, of the
Cunard line, I reached Liverpool on the 29th, after a passage of twelve
days of most delightful weather. I brought with me a number of mol-
lusks, principally of the Mya arenaria, of which, notwithstanding the
greatest care, I was able to save only a few specimens. I was more for-

* Questions niaritiiues et coloniales. — Peches maritimes. — Etude sur l'industrie bui-
triere des Etats-Unis, faite par ordre de S. E. M. le comte de Chasselonp Laubat, mi-
nistre de la marine et des colonies. Suivie de divers apercus sur l'industrie de la glace
en Arne'rique, les bateaux de pecbe pourvus de glacieres, les reserves flottantes a poisson,
la pecbe du inaquereau, etc. Par M. P. de Broca, lieutenant de vaisseau, directeur des
mouvements du port du Havre. — Nouvelle Edition, augmented de divers documents et
de notes.— Paris. Challamel alnd, dditeur, 1865, 12 mo., 2 p. 1., 266 pp.

272 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

tunate with the Venus mercenaria, and the oysters of Virginia, and suc-
ceeded in landing two thousand living representatives at Havre, from
which place they were sent immediately to the Hougue of Saint-Waast.

Your excellency will permit me, before entering into details concern-
ing my commission, to mention the circumstances which preceded it, as
the experience resulting from them is worthy of record.

About the end of the year 18G0 one of my cousins, M. de Ferussac,
spoke to me of the alimentary supplies afforded the people of the United
States from two species of marine mollusks, known in the country under
the names of the soft clam and the round clam. The information thus
given me having been confirmed by several American captains fre-
quenting the port of Havre, I hastened to communicate with M. Coste,
proposing, if he considered it advisable, to import some specimens of
the mollusks in question, by means of the transatlantic steamers, from
New York. This proposition was immediately accepted ; funds were
placed at my disposal by the College of France ; and in the month of
May, 1861, the reliable officer in charge of the Arago, who cheerfully
took the matter in charge, brought to Havre a number of round clams
( Venus mercenaria^ as well as oysters from Virginia, of a species entirely
different from those found on our shores.

Some time after this, the Emperor, whose attention is constantly
directed to everything that tends to increase our alimentary resources,
took himself the initiative in the general acclimation of American edible
mollusks. To facilitate this design of the Emperor, M. de Moutholon,
consul-general of France at New York, was invited to confer with the
celebrated Professor Agassiz, of the University of Cambridge, near Bos-
ton, in the United States.

M. Coste, Member of the Institute, was instructed by His Majesty to
take all necessary measures for the success of the enterprise in France

Mr. Burkardt, draughtsman of the Museum of Natural History at.
Cambridge, left Boston in the month of September, of the same year,
with some of each of the following species, collected through the kind-
ness of Professor Agassiz: (1.) Mya arenaria ; (2.) Venus mercenaria;
(3.) Pecten concentricus ; (4.) Momarus americanus ; (5.) Mactra solid issima ;
(6.) Mytilus edulis.* The voyage to Europe was accomplished under
such unfavorable circumstances that a large portion of these perished
during the passage ; and as the vessel did not arrive at Liverpool until
after the departure of the steamer for Havre, Mr. Burkardt was obliged
to convey the shell-fish, which were still alive, entirely across England,
in order to embark at Southampton. Of all the mollusks brought from
Boston only two hundred of the Venus survived to reach France j and
these were immediately placed in the parks of Saint- Waast, in accord-
ance with the instructions of M. Coste.

Such, your excellency, were the first attempts at acclimation; and if

*(1.) Soft clam ; (2.) Round or quahaug clam ; (3.) Scallop; (4.) Lobster; (5.) Hen
clam ; (G.) Mussel.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 273

I mention them here, it is not to detract in the least from what was then
accomplished. My sole purpose is to show that the probabilities in
favor of the successful acclimation of oysters and clams are very great,
since they have lived for seventeen months in the waters of the Mauche
quite as thriftily as if they were on their native beds.

By the close of the year 1861 these two important facts were satisfac-
torily established : first, that the mollusks in question can easily bear
transportation across the Atlantic; and, secondly, that our salt waters
do not appear to affect them unfavorably. The number of specimens
was not sufficient to warrant the planting of them in bays; beside, all
the species with which it was desirable to experiment had not survived
to reach Europe. These two reasons induced M. Coste to request your
excellency to send me to the United States, not only to bring back a
large number of mollusks, but also to examine into the conditions essen-
tial to their healthy growth ; to investigate the nature of the soil and
the character of the waters in which they live ; and, in short, to obtain
information upon every point which might insure the success of the
enterprise. I was also ordered to examine everything connected with
the oyster-industry; and, in compliance with these instructions, I sailed
from Liverpool, on the 29th of March, for New York, by the steamer
Asia.

Owing to circumstances beyond my control, my departure, which
ought to have taken place in February, had been delayed ; so that on
my arrival in America I was obliged (as my commission embraced but
two months) to arrange matters so as to return to Europe by the middle
of June, a season of the year when transportation is difficult on account
of the excessive heat. As I was in possession of very uncertain infor-
mation with regard to the best manner of treating the mollusks, I thought
it the wisest plan, in order to take them safely across the Atlantic, to
ask the advice of competent persons in the country ; and it may be well
to say that every one to whom I mentioned the subject predicted a fail-
ure if I made the attempt during warm weather.

In view of an opinion so decidedly expressed, and after consultation
with the consul-general of France, I concluded to dispatch immediately
a number of the mollusks, by the steamer Asia, whose captain, a very
intelligent gentleman, had offered me his co-operation.

On the 23d of April, I put on board the steamer 3,000 of the Venus
mercenaria, and 600 of Virginia oysters, gathered from beds in New
York Bay. Some time after this I sent 2,000 of the Venushy the Persia,
the fleetest vessel of the Cunard line. Your excellency will permit me
to observe in this connection, that the discontinuance of the transat-
lantic Havre line of steamers, the vessels of which were required by the
Federal Government for the exigencies of the war then in progress,
disarranged my plans, and forced me to send my collections by way of
England ; so that the probabilities of failure in the transportation of

the shell-fish were greatly increased.
18 F

274 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

After remaining two weeks in New York, during which time I com-
menced my investigations in regard to the shell-fisheries, I went to
Boston, in order to avail myself of the counsel and experience of Profes-
sor Agassiz, to whom M. Coste had given me a letter of introduction.

With the utmost readiness and kindness, (for which I tender him my
thanks,) the professor made me acquainted with the best means of pro-
moting the success of my undertaking. He pointed out to me those por-
tions of the coast of the Northern States which I ought especially to
study, and generously placed himself at my service to direct me in the
most fruitful path of investigation. Nevertheless, when he learned that
my stay in America cOuld not exceed a month, he did not hesitate to
express his opinion of the great difficulty attendant upon so limited a
period. In his judgment the investigations I had undertaken in regard
to the oyster fisheries alone would require much more time than had
been accorded to me ; for, in the United States, where there is no fiscal
import duty upon fish, as in France, it is difficult to ascertain the statis-
tics of amounts consumed ; and since each State is regulated by its own
laws, it is only by personal observation that exact knowledge could be
obtained.

The transportation of a large number of the mollusks in the month
of June, seemed to Professor Agassiz extremely hazardous, and he also
informed me that in consequence of the interest he felt in the success of
an enterprise which had been initiated by His Majesty himself, he
dreaded nothing so much as a failure, which without really proving
anything against the undertaking, might yet lead to its relinquishment.

It is evident that I could not but be impressed by such important
considerations, and deeming it to be my duty not to act without positive
orders from your excellency, I requested Professor Agassiz to write to
M. Coste, and explain the reasons why my departure from the United
States should be deferred.

On the 27th of April I received from Cambridge the following com-
munication :

" I have just forwarded to M. Coste a long letter, written in accord-
ance with the opinion I expressed to you in regard to the necessity of
prolonging your stay in the United States, in order to accomplish the
object of your commission. I consider it indispensable that you should
pass the warm season here, if you would become acquainted with all that
concerns the fishery and the preservation of our oysters, and that you
wait until autumn to transport with any chance of success the mollusks
which are to be acclimated on the shores of France, &c.

"Agassiz."

While awaiting a reply from your excellency, I began at Boston some
experiments with reference to the best mode of treating the mollusks
during their passage across the Atlantic. I bought for this purpose a
number of Virginia clams and oysters, which were placed in tubs or

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED SEATES. 275

vats npoii a bed of gravel, and supplied every morning and evening
with pure water from the sea, taken at some distance from the harbor ;
these vats being emptied after the water had remained about an hour
upon the shell-fish. These experiments gave the following results:
Shortly after the My as had been placed in the vats, they evidently began
to decline, and on the twelfth day there was not one alive. So far the
failure was almost complete. The Venus and the oysters, on the con-
trary, thrived so well, under this mode of treatment, that at the end of
a month they were in as good condition as on the first day, the mortality
among them having been insignificant and attributable to several ex-
traneous causes. During my absence Mr. Higgens, a planter and
dealer in oysters, cheerfully consented to continue these experiments,
and to keep me constantly informed of their results.

Success with the oysters and the Venus inspired me with such confi-
dence that, on the 28th of May, I sent ten baskets of them by the
steamer Europa, which sailed from Boston. .

Having been informed early in June, through a dispatch from the
admiral of the Konciere, that your excellency had extended the time of
my commission, I made arrangements for continuing the transportation.

On the 10th of June the captain of the vessel from Selva, in com-
mand of the frigate la Bellone, consented to take to France some oys-
ters and some of the Venus, as well as about forty fresh-water turtles,
which I sent to M. Coste as specimens of the American species. Having
been convinced by some new experiments, undertaken on the shore
of Long Island, that it was possible to keep Myas alive out of their
native element for twenty days, even in the warm season, I sent, on
the 18th of July, 800 of these mollusks by the Europa, with six baskets
of oysters, gathered in Delaware Bay. The Myas, buried in cases, filled
with sand, as in their natural beds, were supplied several times a day
during the passage with salt-water, and I have since learned that 400
of them reached Saint Waast alive.

On the 29th of July the Persia carried over 2,000 of the Venus ; and
on the 10th of August I put on board the Australia thirty fresh-water
turtles ; while, on the 3d and 10th of September, I dispatched by the
English steamers several thousand mollusks. I have learned, since my
return to Havre, that these various transportations were not equally sue-
cessful. Of thirty thousand shell-fish sent from America, including
those I brought with me, and others constantly arriving, we can only
count upon about a third. It is greatly to be regretted that so large a
number failed to survive the perils of the passage; but it is not surpris-
ing when we remember that I was obliged to confide them to the care
of persons having at the most only a moderate interest in their preser-
vation. I sent on board the vessels with each lot written instructions
as to their management; but I have every reason to believe that these
were not carefully observed by the subordinate agents intrusted with
their execution. As I have mentioned before to your excellency, nothing

276 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OP FISH AND FISHERIES.

could have been more unfortunate for the success of my commission thau
the suppression of the American line of steamers from Havre, since the
sending of the mollusks by the English vessels necessitated their reship-
nient at Liverpool, thus causing them to pass through a number of
hands, increasing the length of the passage and greatly multiplying the
causes of mortality.

The directors of the Cunard line at New York and Boston gave me,
however, their ready co-operation ; and as soon as they learned that the
mollusks were sent for purposes of public utility they declined receiviug
any remuneration for their transportation.

Yet, notwithstanding these unfavorable circumstances, we have now,
at Saint Waast, a sufficient number for the proposed attempt at acclima-
tion ; and, as a result of the arrangement which I have been enabled to
make, both in New York and Liverpool, with the directors of the Cunard
company, nothing is easier than to bring over new specimens during the
winter should it be deemed necessary.

During my sojourn in the United States I visited all those portions of
the northern coast where the oyster fisheries are in the most flourishing
condition. It is true that in consequence of the war I was unable to in-
vestigate the oyster-beds and plantations of Chesapeake Bay; but as
the mode of culture in all important points is the same throughout the
country, I should probably not have obtained auy additional information.

In the course of my investigations I found myself in constant contact
with men engaged in various coast fisheries, and I availed myself of the
opportunity offered to collect facts which might b© of value to similar
establishments in France. At New London, where I went to examine
the clam beds, I obtained the plans of several fishing vessels, constructed
by Mr. Beckwith, who is one of the best builders of this kind of boats.
I also brought away with me plans of a cutter furnished with a well,
of a schooner provided with an ice-house, and of another schooner hav-
ing both these appendages.

During my official sojourn in America I forwarded, from time to time,
to M. Coste, in accordance with the directions of your excellency, re-
ports upon various subjects, such as the ice- trade in the United States,
and its employment as a means of preserving fish ; the establishment
of wells and ice-houses on board fishing vessels ; the floating preserves
for fish introduced into the harbors ; the lobster fishery at Boston ; the
mackerel fisheries; and the halibut fisheries ; which it would be greatly
to the interest of our Newfoundland fishermen to combine with that of
the codfish.

These reports, rendered more complete by subsequent observation, I
shall have the honor to submit to your excellency.

In the course of my investigations I endeavored to take only a prac-
tical view of things, and to free my judgment as much as possible from
national prejudices. If a process appeared to me new, I examined it
with attention, and was careful not to condemn it merely because it

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 277

was not in use in France. On the other hand, I guarded myself against
a too ready acceptance of statements which at first sight were plausi-
ble, ami never accepted them without confirmation. In the United
States, more perhaps than anywhere else, statements should be ac-
cepted with allowance ; for, notwithstanding the coldness, seriousness,
and reserve of the people, they are singularly prone to exaggeration
in everything that relates to the commerce, manufactures, or greatness
of their country. This extreme self-esteem, which is to some extent
meritorious, is one of their most prominent characteristics. During my
investigations concerning the oyster-fisheries, I frequently received the
most conflicting and sometimes erroneous statements.

Notwithstanding the most presistent efforts, I failed to find in the
book-stores or libraries either in Boston, New York, or Philadelphia a
single treatise upon shell-fisheries. I could only obtain a few incom-
plete statistical documents and newspaper articles, and these discussed
the subject only in its commercial aspects.

As to the raising of the mollusks and their planting, my only mode
of obtaining information was to visit the establishments, and talk with
the fishermen ; and I ought not to omit to commend these sea-faring
people, for, their reserve once thrown aside, I found them uniformly
obliging, and ready to furnish me with the information I required.

In closing, your excellency, I would express my acknowledgments
for the kind aid extended to me by the French consuls at New York
and Boston, and also my sense of the great favor conferred upon me,
being intrusted with a commission which brought me into such close re-
lations with those eminent scientists, M. Coste and Professor Agassiz ;
a great privilege to any one desirous of instruction.

I have the honor to be, with the greatest respect, your obedient servant,

DE BEOCA,

Lieutenant of the Imperial Marine and Director of the Port of Havre.

Havre, October 12, 1862.

CHAPTER FIRST.
INTRODUCTION.

The aphorism of Brillat Savariu, " The discovery of a new dish does
more for the happiness of the human race than the discovery of a new
star," has never proved itself more true than in our time, when the con-
tinual increase of population adds each day to the importance of the ques-
tion of public alimentation. France, upon a comparatively limited ter-
ritory, nows numbers over forty millions of inhabitants j and, notwith.
standing the fertility of her soil, the perfection of her agriculture, and
the number of her flocks and herds, it cannot be denied that the rate
of her production is begiuning to be less than that of her consumption.

278 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

In seasons when the cereal harvests have fallen below the average, we
have been obliged to resort to foreign nations to supply the deficit j
and if the people have not recently suffered serious privation, it is be-
cause the provident solicitude of the government has taken in time the
necessary measures to prevent such a calamity. It would be fatal to
rest quietly in a state of false security, and far better to recognize the
existence of a permanent danger to which a remedy may be applied
than to be unprepared for some casualty (a war for instance) which
might be of such a nature as at any time to prevent the importation of
the necessaries which we require.

To insure food to the people by applying the discoveries of science to
the pursuits of agriculture, to encourage labor, repeople the impover-
ished streams, and make the most of the sea-coast ; in a word, to create
more abundant and cheaper resources of nourishment are motives which
ought to enlist the most intense co-operation of all who have at heart
the prosperity of the country.

Among the means which we have in our power for this desirable end,
one of the most effective is to acclimate in France the vegetables and
animals of other countries. How many instances of the acclimation of
vegetables might be mentioned ; and, if we would speak of any one in
particular, there is that modest plant, the potato.* Imported from
America in the sixteenth century, it produced such a revolution in pub-
lic economy that entire populations now depend upon it for subsistence.
Maize is another example of the same kind.

The acclimation of animals also has added greatly to the national
wealth. The Arabian horse, and the merino sheep from Spain, have
renewed our degenerate races. The turkey from America, the guinea-fowl
from Africa, the cock from China and India, the duck from Barbary,
as well as various kinds of pigeons, &c, are found on our farms in great
numbers, and by crossing them with indigenous species most savory
and important edible products have been furnished.

For several years the Imperial Society of Acclimation has made the
most laudable efforts to secure for France new resources of food and
trade, while similar societies iu the departments have concurred in this
eminently patriotic undertaking. Through their efforts the liemionus, or
wild ass, has been completely domesticated, and is about to become an
important element in the horse trade, of which it will form a most grace-
ful ornament. The Angora sheep is now reared in several parts of
France without perceptible degeneration ; while the young ostriches,
born and raised in the zoological gardens of Algiers and Marseilles,
give us ground to hope that the time is not far distant when the
flesh of these birds will rank among the choicest viands of the market.

* The potato was imported into Ireland in 1545, by Captain John Hawkins. It
was cultivated in Lancashire in 1084 ; in Saxe in 1717 ; in Scotland in 1728 ; and ten
years later it spread over Prussia. In France it was cultivated in several provinces dur-
ing the reign of Louis XV ; but it was Parmentier, who, at the close of the last century*
was the most active in its propagation inour country. LouiUct, (E:icyclor>t!die Moderni.)

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 279

Many similar experiments are in course of trial with every probability
of success.

How happens it that, among all these efforts, so few have had for their
objects the fish, the crustaceans and the mollusks ? With the exception
of the carp and the gold-fish from China, which may be considered
merely objects of luxury, and of no great utility, there have been very
few cases of acclimation, since the introduction of living fish into our
water-courses from localities at no great distance cannot be properly
considered such.* The attempt with the gourami of China, the most
delicious of fresh-water fish, has hitherto been without result, but it is
gratifying to record that it has become an article of commerce with
Europe, and that a great many specimens are now found in the island of
Mauritius. As to the edible mollusks, the very first effort at acclimation
is probably that now undertaken with the oysters of Virginia and the
Venus mercenaria.

Before the use of steamboats and railroads, those two great levers
of modern activity, the transportation of foreign marine or fresh-water
productions was attended with great difficulties. The slow progress of
navigation by sail constituted a very unfavorable condition, to which
should be added a want of knowledge of the proper management of the
animals. With perseverance, however, such transportation was not im-
possible, as is proved by the importation of the gourami into the Island
of Mauritius, and by similar instances recorded in history .t

M. Milbert, a traveler employed by the Museum of Natural History,
succeeded, in 1824, in bringing to Havre some fish from the United
States. Unfortunately they all perished on their arrival, through the
carelessness of the captain of the vessel, who left them upon the deck
during a heavy winter frost. Milbert was inconsolable in consequence
of the failure. We have another instance, in the case of an American
merchant, who, about twenty-five years ago, emptied into the roadstead of
Boston a cargo of sea-bass, taken in the bay of New York, and con-
veyed to their destination in a boat- well; from that time these fish, be-
fore unknown in the latitude of Boston, have multiplied to such an
extent that the fishermen capture them daily. If, at the time when sail-
ing-vessels were the only means of transportation, there were very few

* The carp was introduced in England in 1514, by Marshall ; and into Denmark in
1550, by Pierre Oxe. In our time, M. Coste has naturalized the grayling in our
waters. At the commencement of the century, Peron and Lesueur attempted in vain
to import the gourami into France, and a few years later Captain Philbert followed
their example with no better success. He, however, kept one fish alive until within
sight of the shores of France.

t In ancient times, the Romans, not content with having naturalized, in several of
the lakes of Italy, different kinds offish, such as the vulsinum and the ciminus ordinarily
found at the mouths of rivers, introduced into the Tuscan Sea the Scams onias of the
seas of Syria. This remarkable undertaking was accomplished under the reign of
Claudius, by one of his freedmen, Elipertius Optatus, who commanded the Roman
fleet. The scaria were imported in boat-wells, and for several years were carefully
thrown back into the sea when caught in the nets of the fishermen.

280 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

attempts made for the acclimation of fish and mollusks, there was in
fact no urgent necessity for it. Before the water-courses of France
were monoplized by commerce, they were filled with fish, and it is not
a great while since, in certain localities of Great Britain, servants, as
well as the Scotch peasants, were not content if they were obliged to
eat salmon more than three times a week.

The increase of crops, through a better knowledge of agriculture, the
raising and improvement of various breeds of cattle, &c, naturally
occupied the public mind, as a means of increasing alimentary resources,
mucli more than enterprises which at best were considered very pre-
carious. In our day it is very different. The rivers and streams, through
a deplorable mismanagement, yield only insignificant products. The
beds of oysters and edible mollusks are becoming day by day less
productive, and it is absolately necessary to have recourse to the fruit-
ful sciences of pisciculture and ostriculture to retrieve our losses.

On the other hand, at no period have circumstances been more favor-
able for the ultimate success of the projects for acclimation. The trans-
atlantic and other steamers have opened communication with the most
distant countries, while the completeness of their construction and their
rapidity of passage are about as perfect as we may ever expect to secure.*

Our means of transportation are now of the first order, without taking
into account the vessels of the imperial navy, which would assist in this
■work of public utility, and might, in certain cases, be intrusted with
particular installments, incompatible with the service of commercial
steamers.

It ought not to be forgotten that fish and mollusks possess great ad-
vantages over other animals, in the rapidity with which they multiply
when they are acclimated, and in the less expense of their introduction.
Of all the animals subservient to the use of man, they alone live in an
element in which they can provide nourishment for themselves. They
therefore make no demands upon our resources, which is not the case
with other kinds of game. With foreign quadrupeds years must elapse
before they can increase greatly in number, wjthout taking into account
the diseases which may attack them. How many disappointments has
the Society for Acclimation experienced in their attempts with the llama
and alpaca! Birds are somewhat more satisfactory, but their repro-
duction is also very slow; while fish and mollusks, as soon as they become
accustomed to the character of our waters, will increase in a few years
to millions. The astonishing reproductive power of the oyster and the
mussel is well known. Naturalists have numbered the eggs of the pike
by the hundred thousand ; of the carp and the mackerel by the half
million ; of the plaice by six millions, which satisfactorily accounts for

* To speak only of France : Marseilles, besides a line from the Mediterranean, has
recently established one from the extreme east. Bordeaux Las one from Brazil and
La Plata; Saint Nazaire one from the Antilles and the Gulf of Mexico; and certainly
before the middle of next year Havre will inaugurate a line from the United States.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 281

the prodigious increase of this fish in the ponds of eastern Friesland,
where it was introduced by the Dutch at the beginning of this cen-
tury. In the thick-lipped mullet, Professor Valenciennes has counted
not less than thirteen millions of eggs. These examples show how
rapidly they multiply, and how important it is to acclimate species with
such remarkable powers of reproduction.

The experiment with the gourami will, undoubtedly, soon be tried
again, by means of the steamers from Iudo-China and those of the line
from Alexandria.

During my sojourn in the United States, although my commission
related particularly to the acclimation of mollusks, I extended my
researches to other species useful for food. Among others, I would
mention the terrapin-turtle, found at the mouths of rivers and in salt
marshes, and which is a very delicious article of food ; the lobster,
larger, but less agreeable to the taste, than ours j and several exclu-
sively fresh- water tortoises, of which the red-belly is the most esteemed.
The learned director of the museum of Cambridge, Mass., has engaged
to send to France, next spring, a sufficient number of specimens of the
latter species to make an attempt at acclimation in the ponds in the
suburbs of Paris.

Among fresh-water fish, the large salmon-trout (Salmo amethystus)
and the white fish (Coregonus albus) would be great additions to
French ichthyology, if they could be transported to Europe. Professor
Agassiz,* whose opinion is authority in such matters, considers artificial
fecundation a certain means of success, as he himself informed the
Emperor, and which I had the honor to explain to His Majesty in an
interview accorded me at St. Cloud.

Whatever may be the future of these projects, mentioned only to show
how many valuable resources we may render available, I must now leave
them and turn my attention to the acclimation of the mollusks, the
object of my visit to America.

The shores of our two seas are singularly deficient in specimens of
edible mollusks, there being only a few scallops on the coast of Great
Britain ; some species of Venus, not at all abundant, in the bays of the
ocean and the Mediterranean ; a few cardiums, &c. Such is the extent
of our resources. America, on the contrary, whose Atlantic coast is
rich in shell-fish, is probably the most favored country in the world for
this kind of production.! The oysters, of which there are three species,

* The distinguished professor is of the opinion that the French government ought to
undertake the acclimation of the nandou, which is much more susceptible of naturali-
zation in France than the ostrich of Sahara, for the single reason that it is a native of
a temperate climate.

In 1860 1 pointed out the pearl mussel as capable of introduction upon the coast of
Algeria, and I even opened a correspondence upon the subject with a Greek merchant
of Alexandria, who was engaged in the pearl fisheries of the Red Sea.

Recently Mr. Lamiral has published in the Bulletin de la Societt Imp6riale d'Acclimata-
iion a very interesting article upon this subject.

tAs regards the fish commerce, the American coast presents a conformation entirely

282 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

form immense banks along the shores, and the fisheries furnish every
year, for the public consumption, a mass of alimentary matter of which
it is impossible to form any idea in Europe. There are, besides, in the
bays, inlets, straits, &c, numerous beds of mollusks, known under the gen-
eral name of clams, of which the most important are the soft clam and
the round clam, the Mya armaria and Venus mercenaria of naturalists.

The oysters, the Venus mercenaria, and the My as, to speak only of
these species, enter so largely into the public means of sustenance that
a failure of these products would be a material calamity.

In the city of New York, the most populous center of the United
States, the commerce in oysters is estimated at 35,000,000 francs, or
$5,000,000 ; and the trade of the whole country is valued at 100,000,000
francs, ($50,000,000,) although these high figures do not represent the
total amount of products, since along the coast and the rivers there is a
daily consumption which cannot be estimated.

The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Eeview, for 1850, esti-
mated the trade in oysters of the principal cities as follows :

Bushels.

Virginia, (State) 1, 050, 000

Baltimore 3, 500, 000

Philadelphia 2, 500, 000

New York 6, 950, 000

Fair Haven 2, 000, 000

Other cities, such as Boston and Providence 4, 000, 000

Total 20, 000, 000

Calculating two hundred oysters only as a bushel we have the enor-
mous amount of 4,000,000,000 mollusks consumed.

Mr. Meigs asserted, in the American Institute for the same year, that
in the city of New York more money is expended for oysters than for
meat. This delicious article of food has become so necessary with every
class of the population that scarcely a town in the whole country can
be found without its regular supply. By means of railroads and water-
channels, oysters in the shell, or out of the shell, preserved in ice, in
pickle, or canned, are carried even to the remotest parts of the United
States. The cities of Fair Haven, Boston, and Baltimore are at the
head of the interior trade, which, for six months in the year, gives
employment to a large number of persons.

unique. From Cape Fear to the extremity of Long Island sandy beaches are almost
universally interposed between the ocean and the main land, which run parallel with
1he shore at a distance of from one to several miles. These sometimes form islands,
varying in width from several yards to a half milo, and of great length. These sandy
formations make bays, sounds, lagunes, &c, in the most favorble condition for the
multiplication of fish and mollusks. Besides, as the openings communicating with the
sea are not very numerous, in places where rivers and streams empty, the water is
less salt than in the open sea, which still further increases the chances for the pro-
duction of certain kinds of fish and mollusks, particularly oysters.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 283

The soft clam, similar in every respect to the Mya of the sands which
inhabits the seas of the north of Europe, and especially of Scotland,
multiplies so rapidly on the coast of New England, that, although they
are in constant demand, they do not seem to decrease in number. Al-
though found in abundance in the State of New York, their real home
is farther north, where they are found even as far as the shores of New-
foundland ; but they are nowhere so numerous as on the coasts of the
counties of Essex and Barnstable, in Massachusetts. Doctor Gould, in
his Natural History of Invertebrata, published in 1841, estimated the
quantity of soft clams consumed in Massachusetts at more than ten
thousand bushels ; but this amount, based probably upon the sales by
professed fishermen alone, gives no idea of the real rate of consumption,
since the laws accord to each citizeu of the State the right to catch as
many of the inollusks as he may need for his family. Not even an
proximate calculation is possible. It is very certain that Boston con-
sumes enormous quantities of soft clams in the excellent soups which
the Americans so well appreciate. The Myas also form one of the best
baits for the codfish, and every year Massachusetts salts down thousands
of barrels for the use of the fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland.
Freshly caught, they are sold on the wharves of Boston for 75 cents a
bushel.

The round clam of large size is similar in taste to the Venus verru-
cosa, and, like it, is found in sheltered and shallow bays, where it buries
itself in the miry sand. As prolific as the Mya, it abounds upon that por-
tion of the coast of the United States lying south of Cape Cod, which
appears to be its most northern limit. It is met with, however, in the
vicinity of Cape Ann, but in that locality is not an article of commerce.

The most important fisheries that I visited are those of the suburbs of
New York, of the great bay south of Long Island, of the bay of New
Haven, and of Cape Cod. A large quantity of round clams is consumed
in New York and Philadelphia during the summer months, taking, at
that season, the place of oysters, which are then considered by some as
not fit for food. They are excellent, either cooked or raw.

Oysters from Virginia, Venus mercenaria, and Mya arenaria, are the
three species of bivalves which we are now endeavoring to acclimate
upon our shores, with the probability of complete success, at least with
the first two. It will probably be necessary to replace the third (of which
I imported only a few specimens) by a species inhabiting Scotland. It
will be quite easy to bring thence a sufficient number.

When I hadp ersonally investigated the resources afforded the people
of the United States by the inollusks in question, I came to the conclu-
sion that the oyster ought to claim the especial attention of the imperial
marine; not that I do not attach an equal importance to the acclimation of
the Mya, and the Venus mercenaria, but since these two species develop
slowly, as I have learned from an examination of specimens at different
ages, that several years must elapse before they would be sufficiently
numerous to be used for food. Tne oyster, on the contrary? as prolific as

284 REPOKT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

our own, develops so rapidly that according to reliable information
which I have received, one of these mollusks planted in April, and about
three inches in length, will increase by more than half that size before
the end of the following autumn.

I have myself seen oysters planted in the bay of New Haven increase
over a half inch in two months. In the course of my investigations, I
have eaten oysters from the most celebrated localities, and must say
that I have always found them somewhat insipid in taste, a marked
characteristic of the species. In Massachusetts, I found them much
saltier, which is due both to the peculiar nature of the water, and the
soil in which they are cultivated.*

When eaten raw, they will never probably be as highly esteemed by
the epicure as the indigenous species ; but, on the other hand, they will
be preferred when the mariner wishes to put them in store, or when
they are to be used for culinary purposes, which deprives them of none
of their nutritive properties. It would be impossible to find anything
more acceptable to the palate than certain preparations of oysters fur-
nished by the good restaurants of New York, such as Delmonico's.

In my opinion the acclimation of this species, susceptible of rapid
growth and richer in nutritive substance than ours, will, in one respect,
complete the oyster trade of France, bringing into it elements of true
alimentary support, while up to this time its contributions have been
considered merely as articles of luxury. But it will be necessary to
bring the price of the oyster within the limits of every purse, as is the
case in the United States, where it is considered one of the most com-
mon and cheap means of subsistence. In the public establishments of
New York a most excellent soup, made of these mollusca, can be ob-
tained for six cents.

It is only necessary to have assisted, as I have done in the course of my
investigations in the daily sale of several thousand oysters by the same
merchant, to have witnessed the opening of eight hundred bushels a
day in the establishments of Boston and Fair Haven, for the purpose of
sending the flesh, packed in ice, into the interior of the country ; it is
only necessary, I say, to have taken part in such scenes to become pro-
foundly convinced that the raising of shell-fish so prolific must become
in France, as in the United States, a most important element for the
support of life.t

I should, therefore, consider it a national blessing if we can obtain
their reproduction in France, a consummation which we have every rea-
son to hope will take place next spring, since the oysters deposited by
M. Coste in the basin of Arcachon have developed as rapidly as in the
best American plantations. As soon as reproduction allows them to be

* The oyster merchants divide these mollusks into " fresh " and " salt " oysters. The
latter come from submarine soil, where the sea is not mixed with fresh water.

tThe American oysters have the advantage of being able to endure the regimen
of the parks ; and although some localities suit them better than others, on account of
the richness of the soil, they prosper on almost all parts of the coast. Long experi-

OYSTER-INDUSTKIES OF THE UNITED SEATES. 285

brought into the market, I have not a doubt that their excellent quali-
ties will readily secure consumers.*

From whatever point of view we regard the shell-fisheries of the
United States, they present remarkable results. The food provided for
the people ; the resources furnished agriculture by use of the shells ;
the influence upon coast navigation, which is so greatly developed by
th.em 5 the work provided for the poorer classes, &c, all claim the earn-
est attention of political economists. Oysters and clams have now be-
come necessities of the first importance in North America, and show how
much the productions of the sea may add to the riches of a country,
whatever may be the means employed to obtain them in abundance.

Apart from the interesting question of acclimation, the exposition of
this industry is of service, in showing us the necessity of pursuing the
fruitful field opened by the perseverance of M. Coste. The marvelous
results obtained in a few years, on those parts of the coast where he has
experimented, no longer admit of a doubt as to the value of his ingen-
ious method of ostriculture. It will certainly be necessary to make a
more complete study of our shores in order to prevent mistakes, or
rather badly conceived enterprises ; but this work once accomplished,
there are few industries of France which offer as many probabilities of
success.

I have often heard it stated as a reproach to ostriculture, that it had not
produced in the bay of St. Brieuc all the results expected ; that although
the fascines immersed were covered with embryos during the breeding-
season, they had not prospered and formed new banks. Having never
been in circumstances to verify the truth of this assertion, I cannot say
how well it may be founded ; but, admitting it to be true, I cannot see
how it militates against ostriculture. It proves, at most, the utility of
transplanting the young generations attached to the collecting appara-
tus, thus putting in practice means employed with many products of the
soil. To expect of a science, which dates but avery few years back,
the unfailing success which belongs only to long experience, seems to
me to be very unreasonable.

Pisciculture, hirudiculture, ostriculture — in a word, all the industries
which relate to the domain and constitute the agriculture of the sea —
must necessarily pass through all the stages from infancy to maturity j
but in order that they may rapidly bring forth fruit, thoughtless pre-
judgment should not interfere with their progress.

The most prejudiced persons with whom I have conversed upon the
subject of ostriculture, admit that the embryos can be obtained in un-

ence has shown that those from the Chesapeake may be transplanted to all the North-
ern States without deteriorating in quality ; and it is remarkable how much they will
improve under certain hydrographic conditions. The salt-oysters of Massachusetts,
so highly esteemed in New York, originally come from Virginia and remain several
months in Boston Bay or that of Wellneet, (Cape Cod.)

* By a remarkable coincidence, the oyster from "Virginia, which we are endeavor-
ing to naturalize in the basin of Arcachon, is found in the fossil state in the neighbor-
hood of Bordeaux.

286 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

limited numbers ; but there, they think, all useful results end. Yet
experience in the United States, where the secret of the culture consists
in raising upon nutritive soil the mollusks removed from the places of
production, evidently shows the fallacy of this opinion.

As the example of the American planters proves, nothing is easier
than to remove the young oysters attached to the collecting apparatus,
and to plant them in hurdles or narrow stalls very well sheltered, the
bottom of which is firm enough to prevent their being smothered by the
mud. This can be doue at no great expense, and with no complicated
manipulation; and, in a few months, the mollusks will be strong enough
to defend themselves from ordinary causes of mortality.

It is an unfortunate error, prevalent among mariners, which supposes
that what appertains to the productions of the sea should not be modified
by the hand of man, and they consider it, to say the least, useless to at-
tempt to obtain these productions by artificial means. Such an idea, which
is equivalent to the negation of science, is as absurd as the fatalism
of the Orientals, who leave to Providence the care of all things, and so
excuse their own idleness and carelessness. We do not hesitate to say,
that it shows great want of a just appreciation of the mission of human-
ity thus to limit its intelligence and powers of investigation.

The exploration of the domain of the sea gains in public opinion every
day. The people of the coast instinctively feel that the sea is destined
to be to them a most fruitful source of prosperity, and to deliver them
from the miserable condition which has for a long time been their por
tion. In a few years, thanks to the light of science, profitable fisheries
will be established upon the coast, among which ostriculture will cer-
tainly be the most fruitful. While, on the one hand, by means of intel-
ligent regulation, based upon careful study of locality, myriads of young
fish will be protected from wanton destruction by ignorant fisher-
men, on the other measures will be taken to raise in reservoirs such
as can bear the regimen. Shell-fisheries will also be developed wherever
they can be established with success. The populace, attracted to the
coast by the hope of a better livelihood, will become acquainted with
the sea ; will learn to consider it the source of many blessings ; and
will finally greatly augment the elements of our maritime power.

P. DE BROOA,
Lieutenant, and Director of the Port of Havre.

CHAPTER SECOND.

OYSTERS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Naturalists divide the oysters of the eastern shores of North America
into three species, namely : the oyster of Virginia, (Ostrea virginiana);
the northern oyster, {Ostrea borealis); the Canadian oyster, {Ostrea
canadensis). Notwithstanding this classification, based upon details
of form, which in fact vary considerably, the mollusks in question,

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 287''

always found in the same latitudes, are so similar in taste that they
may be considered merely as varieties of the same species. Dr. Gould,
an American naturalist, admits this to be the case so far as the northern
and Canadian oysters are concerned. However the facts may be, the
difference between the American oyster and the European is so marked
that a superficial examination is sufficient to prove that they are of dis-
tinct species. The prominent points which distinguish those bivalves from
ours are the violet color of the muscular impression, and the greater
insipidity of taste, even when they are taken from banks situated on
the open coast, and in water entirely salt.

{While the form of the common oyster of Europe, growing freely, is
almost entirely round, that of the American is always more or less elon.
gated. In addition to this, its lower valve is more concave, and contains
a mollusc thicker, more tender, richer in nutritive elements, and having
also a less salty taste, which in some cases resembles that of the mussel.
When it attains its full development, which, according to fishermen,
requires twenty years, its dimensions are considerably greater than
those of ours. Its shell is thicker and heavier, and the interior enamel
rarely presents those soft parts from which fetid water escapes when
they are accidentally pierced.

The oyster of Virginia. — This, most common of the three species, has
a narrow shell, increasing gradually in size from the top and moderately
curved in the plane of the intersection of the valves when it is allowed
free development. The specimens taken from the natural banks" are
generally distorted, on account of certain conditions affecting their
growth ; but they nevertheless preserve all the most marked character-
istics of the species.

As in Europe, the oyster which is most regularly an article of com-
merce is that which has been improved by culture. The beak of the
Virginia oyster, very pointed when old, is somewhat bent, and the oppo-
site part of the shell is rounded. The upper valve, almost entirely flat,
is the smoother of the two, and the surface, when not worn by friction,
presents numerous laminae more regularly disposed than in the other
species. The muscular impression, very often central, is of a deep violet
color. The weakness of the muscle is a marked characteristic of Amer-
ican oysters generally, a fact which I have not seen noticed in any book
upon natural history.

Specimens are sometimes found measuring 15 English inches in length,
3£ in width. This species, known in the market under the name of the
Chesapeake oyster, is common all along the coast, especially in the
Southern States. In the North it is found in as high latitudes as Prince
Edward Island and the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River. Its most
essential characteristics are its great length, compared with its width,
and the pyramidal form of the beak.

The Northern oyster has a shell rounded, curved, ordinarily crooked,
and always less elongated than that of the preceding species. The upper

288 REPORT OP 'COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

valve is flat, and the beak short and bent over. The surface of the
shell is very irregular, and formed of laminae of a greenish color, dis-
posed without order. Its edges, more or less jagged and scalloped, are
calcareous in the lower valve, while in the upper they are flexible, and
seem to be membranous in nature. The muscular impression is of a
deep violet color, and the interior of the valves of a chalky white, or
light green. The lower valve is deeper than that of the Virginia
species. Some specimens are a foot in length, by six inches in
width. This oyster is commonly known as the New York oyster, as it
is found in considerable numbers in that bay. It is found all along the
coast, and even in the Chesapeake, were it is mixed with the principal
species. It is frequently taken in Buzzard's Bay, (Massachusetts.)

The Canadian oyster. — The Canadian oyster, also less elongated than
that of Virginia, is generally crooked, with the beak rounded. The
shell is wide, expanded, very white, and laminiferous. The upper valve
is slightly convex. It is common on the Canadian shore, at the mouth of
the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, as well as upon certain parts of the coast
of the United States, particularly in the latitude of New York.

The American oyster, without distinction of species, exists in such
profusion that it seems to be gathered as plenteously as manna was in
the exodus of Israel. From the British provinces to the Gulf of Mexico
it constitutes inexhaustible banks, which in certain localities, were it not
for the constant fisheries, would form reefs, modify currents, obstruct
channels — in a word, interfere greatly with navigation. Abundant on
every part of the coast, nevertheless some latitudes seem specially to
suit it. Such are the shores of New Jersey, of Long Island, of Con-
necticut, of Rhode Island, of the mouth of fehe Delaware, and, above all,
the magnificent bay of Chesapeake, a regular magazine of abundance,
where every year vessels are loaded with the precious mollusks, and
transported to all parts of the coast.

North Carolina, Albemarle, and Pamlico Sounds also produce excel-
lent oysters.*

The Americans, pre-eminently practical in all that concerns the ma-
terial interests of life, have not neglected this great source of wealth.
They realized, at a very early period, the great advantage which might
be derived from so much alimentary substance, obtained almost without
expense ; and the oyster-fisheries, with their culture, have been, with
them, fbr a long time, lucrative industries, becoming $5ch day more
extensive, in order to supply the demands of the ever-increasing number
of consumers.

Disregarding the methods of culture adopted in Europe, they have

* The enormous multiplication of this species has, for a long time, attracted the attenr
tion of philosophers and naturalists, many of whom, in view of this incessant produc-
tion of the mineral matter composing the shells, are of the opinion that most of the
calcareous deposits have no other origin. Like the polyps of the Indian Ocean, this
mollusk, if left to itself, would change the hydrography of coasts.

0YSTE1MNDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 289

•

chosen one which is very economical, and which yields excellent results,
as may be seen in the well-known "plantation system." Their mol-
lusks, like ours, require beds of miry sand, rich in animal production, and
sufficiently exposed to the open sea. The brackish water at the mouths
of certain rivers, into which the tide rises, constitutes one of the best
conditions for the success of this industry.*

Chesapeake Bay, from which is gathered a large proportion of the
oysters cultivated in America, is a magnificent basiu in which Provi-
dence seems to have accumulated every necessary condition for forming
an admirable locality for the fishery. Its entrance, between Capes
Charles and Henry, opens from the east to the west; but the bay soon
changes in direction, and extends toward the north for a distance of one
hundred and fifty miles, with a width of from twenty to thirty miles in
the southern part, and from ten to fifteen in the northern. It is access-
ible to the largest vessels. A number of rivers empty into it, of which
the most important are the Potomac, the Eappahannock, the York,
and the James. The amount of fresh water which flows into this bay
daily from these streams, the smallest of which admits the rising of the
tide, renders the water of the Chesapeake less salt than that of the
ocean, a circumstance which we have already mentioned is favorable to
the natural production of the oyster. The shores of the bay are indented
by a multitude of gulfs, creeks, small bays, &c, in which are numerous
islands. The extent of shore is thus greatly increased, and innumerable
places of shelter afforded for the multiplication of fish and mollusks.

The quantity of fish furnished by the fisheries is very great ; and
before the war the annual estimate at Baltimore was four hundred thou-
sand barrels of salt fish, principally herring and shad.t

The oyster-industry is still more important; and the production from
the banks in the bay, in 185S, was twenty millions of bushels. At that
time about ten thousand persons were employed in the fisheries and with
work on the plantations.

The oyster of the Chesapeake, in consequence of the favorable condi-
tions in which it lives, is in its natural condition so large, that, for the
most part, it does not need culture, but can enter the market immedi-
ately. At Fair Haven and at Boston, where, on account of the thick-
ness of the ice, it is impossible to secure a supply in winter, they are,
during that season, brought from Virginia in sufficient quantity to sup-
ply the needs of commerce. The schooners which transport them manage

* Pearls are found in many American oysters, but of very inferior quality. They are
of a chalky white, sometimes having a faint violet tint. It seems that upon the coast
of New Jersey a bank of oysters was found a few years ago furnishing beautiful pearls.
The country was in a great state of excitement ; the fishermen supposed they had mado
a valuable discovery, but after a short time it was found that tho hopes excited wero
quite fallacious.

t Chesapeake Bay abounds in fish of all kinds — mackerel, herring, perch, eels, red
mullet, cat-fish, shad of every variety, &c. In the Potomac, James, and other rivers
enormous sturgeon are taken, weighing from 150 to 200 pounds.

290 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

their voyages in such a manner that the merchants are regularly sup-
plied ; and the mollusks ordinarily remain in the hold of the vessels until
the cargo is sold. However cold it may be, they will live for several
days, provided the hatchway is not opened until the hour for removal.
They have been known to live in this way for a month.

With a few exceptions, we may say that a large part of the cultivated
oysters in the Northern States come from the Chesapeake and the
mouth of the Delaware, where the planters can procure them at so low
a price as to make it unnecessary to take part in the local fisheries.

The fishermen of Maryland and Virginia sell them at from 15 to 20
cents a bushel, containing from 200 to 250, according to the size of the
oyster. It must be acknowledged, however, that these oysters, although
they may be improved by culture, and in certain cases acquire a saltier
taste, are never quite equal to those of the coast of Connecticut, of
Rhode Island, of certain parts of Massachusetts, &c. The native oys-
ters are generally consumed in the neighborhood ; are sold at a much
higher price; and are never sent without their shells into the interior.
The most highly esteemed oysters come from the bays of New York,
New Haven, and Providence; from different parts of Long Island Sound,
and from the shores of New Jersey, (principally from Milk Pond and
Absecom Creek.) In my opinion those taken at Blue Point, in the great
bay south of Long Island, are the most delicate of all.

When not consumed raw, the oysters are prepared in a variety of
ways. They are pickled and preserved by the Appert process ; they are
eaten in the form of soup, or stewed, broiled, made into pat^s, &c, and
they serve, besides, as accessories to numerous culinary preparations.
The consumption is so extensive that in the towns along the coast dur-
ing the winter season it forms a part of the daily food of almost every
family in moderate circumstances.

In all the great centers of population there are large establishments
known under the name of oyster-houses, where the mollusks are sold,
prepared in every possible way. These are, in fact, restaurants, and
differ from the ordinary establishments of the kind, only in being espec-
ially intended for the sale of every variety of shell-fish. In New York
there are more than three hundred of these oyster-houses, some of which
are handsomely furnished, and situated in the finest portions of the
city. They are mainly frequented by the commercial class, who take a
meal here in the middle of the day. Oysters are also sold in small
shops, and even at stalls in the open street, where the working classes
supply themselves.*

Oyster-soup (stew) is the most favorite preparation of the mollusk with
Americans; and during the winter season it is an almost universal cus-
tom with them to call for it at the oyster-houses after leaving the the-
ater. It is so popular that it is even introduced as a refreshment at large

* During the summer tho oysters are preserved in the oyster-houses by placing them
upon a block of ice ; which lowers the temperature, so that they live for several days.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 291

parties and balls, invariably making its appearance toward morning, to
repair the exhausted forces of the dancers.

The American oyster, when cooked, is certainly superior to ours, and
as it preserves its nutritive properties better during the process, it is
highly regarded by physicians as an article of food for convalescent pa-
tients. Many persons eat them throughout the year without experienc-
ing any injurious effects. On this point I would hazard an observation,
which, it seems to me, has sufficient foundation. Fishing, during the
breeding season, is prohibited by law, so that all the oysters then sold
come from the plantations. Now, as these oysters were transported in
the month of April, a time when the process of generation commences
with them, it is very probable that this process was affected, and in
most cases arrested completely, by the fatigue of the voyage and the
change of medium. As under the circumstances they rarely become
spawn-bearers, they can hardly be injurious in the warm season, although
in their natural condition they would be positively unwholesome.

The price of oysters for consumption varies greatly. It depends upon
their size, quality, the reputation of the plantations in which they are
cultivated, and the importance of the establishments in which they are
sold. At wholesale, they are about $1 a bushel ; while in the markets,
oyster-houses, &c, the price is higher, and varies from 50 cents to $2.50
for the largest size used in choice preparations. The merchants, intel-
ligent in all that concerns their profession, make many distinctions in
the value of the oysters, in order to derive as much profit as possible
from them ; and they well know how to take advantage of the taste of
their customers. Fresh oysters can be procured either in or out of the
shell in all the markets. In the latter condition they are generally sold
to restaurants, hotel-keepers, and families who buy them for immediate
consumption.
For exportation and transportation into the interior they are sold —

1. In the natural condition

2. Out of the shell ;

3. Pickled;

4. Canned.

The oysters in shells are sent in great quantities into the interior
during the winter season. They are put in barrels about a quarter the
size of an ordinary flour-barrel, and tightly packed to prevent the open-
ing of their valves. These barrels have, at regular intervals, openings
for ventilation.

Naked oysters, intended for the most part to be eaten cooked, are
sent into the interior during the entire year, but chiefly in winter. As
I have said, the cities of Baltimore, Boston, and Fair Haven are the
principal centers of the trade, and form the most important branch of
the oyster-industry.*

Pickled oysters. — Pickled oysters are prepared, as in Europe, with an

* Some persons eat these oysters raw, seasoning them with salt, pepper, and vinegar.

292 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

addition of vinegar and spice to the water in which they have been
cooked. As the vinegar used is inferior to that employed in France
they are not equal in value to oars.

Canned oysters. — These are mostly prepared in Baltimore. The mol-
lusks are taken from the shell, slightly cooked, and then put into cylin-
drical tin boxes, or cases, with a circular hole at the upper end about
an inch and a quarter in diameter. When filled, the cans are closed by
soldering a small round piece of tin over the opening.

Use of the shells. — The shells of the oyster give rise to various indus-
tries, which are also very important. In agriculture they are used for
improving the soil when it has not a sufficient quantity of calcareous
matter. They are also used for macadamizing roads, and forming paths
in pleasure-grounds, which, by the use of this substance, become of a
dazzling white. Lastly, they are burned, and an excellent lime is ob-
tained, which is better as a fertilizer than ordinary lime, inasmuch as it
contains no magnesia. Generally the oyster- dealers give away the
shells gratuitously, upon condition that their establishments shall be
daily relieved of them.

It was estimated, in 1857, that the pecuniary profits derived from
the shells, from the various oyster-establishments in Baltimore alone,
amounted to more than $120,000. Before the war the lime-pits of Mr.
Barns, at Fair Haven, burned annually more than 250,000 bushels. At
the present time there are upon the coast of the United States a great
many mills employed in this branch of industry. A bushel of oyster-
shell lime sells at from 12 to 13 cents.

MJDE OF OBTAINING THE OYSTEES

Oysters are obtained in different ways, according as the beds are
more or less deeply situated in the water. The instruments employed
are the drag, the rake, and the tongs, which is a peculiar implement,
unlike anything we have in Europe.

The drag is very much like that in use in France, but as the weight
is not determined by law it is generally heavier. The part intended to
hold the oysters is sometimes made of rope and sometimes of iron net-
work.

The rake, similar in form to that employed by our fishermen, is about
14 inches wide, with iron teeth from 0 to 10 inches in length, and is pro-
vided with a net for the reception of the mollusk. Sometimes it is made
entirely of iron, with curved teeth, which will hold a certain number.
It is worked by hand, by means of a pole 15 or 20 feet in length, to
which it is fastened. It is frequently used during the winter season in
Bhode Island for gathering the mollusks from the ponds of Point Judith,
the surface of which is frozen sometimes for several weeks. Fishing is
then accomplished by thrusting the rakes through holes made in the ice.

The tongs, which I have never seen except in America, is an instru-
ment which ought to be introduced into France, as it would be of great

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 293

service to our shell-fisheries in general. It is, as its name indicates, an
immense pair of pincers, with rakes attached to its lower extremities,
the teeth of which interlock when the instrument is closed. These rakes
are about 14 inches in width, and the teeth, placed about 1£ inches
apart, are only 4 inches long. The handles are from 15 to 20 feet in
length, and the point of intersection is about a yard from the lower
extremity. To take the oysters with this instrument, the fisherman first
auchors his boat oyer the bed to be worked ; then seating himself at
the side, he takes the upper extremities of the two poles, one in each
hand, and opening and closing the instrument successively, endeavors,
as it were, to nibble the bank with the rakes and pick up the mollusks.
As soon as he feels that he has a sufficient number, he draws up the
instrument and deposits the captured oysters upon the deck. A large
part of the oysters furnished by Chesapeake Bay are taken in this
manner. The tongs is also used on the plantations and in fishing for
clams.

The boats used are generally of small tonnage. Most of those which
I saw in the bay of New York, and in the great bay south of Long
Island, were constructed with flat bottoms, in order to pass easily over
the banks, and provided with a sail, and three or four men constitute
their crew.

The working of the banks, by means of the tongs, is eminently pre-
servative, as there is no loss by the destruction of many of the mol-
lusks, as is the case with the drag. Undoubtedly, the use of this instru-
ment is impossible on many of the banks of the French coast, but in the
basin of Arcachon, in the salt ponds of the south, and those of Corsica,
it might be employed to advantage.

Local regulations. — Notwithstanding the extraordinary richness of the
oyster-production on their coast, the Americans have felt the necessity
of protective legislation to prevent the exhaustion of the banks, and for
this purpose the various seaboard States have established special laws
determining the time of the fisheries, and the mode in which they must
be worked.

A few years ago, on the shores of Maryland and Virginia, the oysters
were taken in such great quantities for consumption, for the manufac-
ture of lime, and for manure, that the danger of diminishing the value
of the fisheries was recognized, and very severe restrictive laws were
passed in these States. In general, however, the legislation which con-
trols the oyster-industry is very complicated, since, with great want of
uniformity, each State enacts its own laws without reference to those of
the neighboring States. Its objects may be enumerated thus :

1. To prevent the destruction of the natural bauks, by determining
the time and mode of the fisheries.

2. To protect the plantations from lawless depredations.

3. To reserve, with a few exceptions, for the residents of each State,
the right of local fishing.

294 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

4. To reserve, in certain cases, the fisheries to the inhabitants of the
circumscribed maritime districts in which they are situated.

I give in this article, and in the one which treats of the culture of oys-
ters, a summary of such laws as appear to me to be interesting.

Massachusetts. — In this State no one, in a maritime district defined
by law, can fish for oysters without a written permit from the mayor
or the selectmen* of the locality. This permit must give the length of
time of the fishing, the number of mollusks to be taken, and the pur-
pose for which they are to be used. Any resident of the place can
take oysters from the banks, for the use of his family, from the 1st
of September until the 1st of June. Trespassers are fined $2 a bushel
for oysters illegally obtained.

Rhode Island. — In this State, where legislation is most stringent, the
oyster-fisheries, reserved exclusively for the residents, are prohibited
for use from the 15th of May till the 15th of September, under a pen-
alty of $20 for every bushel taken. And, during the permitted season,
there are regulations controlling the quantity of mollusks to be taken
daily, which quantity varies with the locality, but must in no case ex-
ceed five bushels. To protect the fisheries as much as possible from
depredation, the law inflicts a fine of $500 on any person convicted ot
damaging the oyster-banks by any means whatever. Half of the fine
goes to the State and the other half to the person commencing the pros-
ecution or lodging information.

The fisheries are allowed only between the rising and the setting of
the sun, and it is required that all oysters not of marketable size shall
be thrown back into the water. The use of the drag is positively for-
bidden, and the boats using them are confiscated, with all that they con-
tain, while each of the crew is condemned to pay a fine of $300.

Connecticut. — According to the legislation now in force, every locality
in this State, containing oyster and clam fisheries, has a right to enact
laws for their control, and may impose a fine, not exceeding $14, for
every offense.

The fisheries are everywhere prohibited from the 1st of March till the
1st of November, under a penalty ranging from $7 to $50, or by impris-
onment not exceeding thirty days. In certain cases the delinquents
may be punished by both fine and imprisonment.

New York. — The ordinary fisheries in this State are prohibited during
the months of June, July, and August, under a penalty ranging from
$20 to $30, according to the locality. One-half of the fine goes to the
superintendent of the poor of the district in which the Offense occurred,
and the other half to the prosecutor.

To take oysters from the Hudson Biver, in order to transport them
out of the State, is prohibited under a penalty of $250. The use of the

* The selectmen are public officers, elected by tbe people, to administer justice in
localities where there is no mayor.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES 295

drag is forbidden in the county of Bichrnond, and several of the local
fisheries are reserved for the maritime district to which they belong.

Neic Jersey. — No fishing is allowed in this State from the 1st of May
till the 1st of September, under a penalty of $10. Any person convicted
of using a drag, or having one on board a vessel on which this instru-
ment is usually employed, is liable to a fine of $50. The same penalty
is imposed upon the owner of the boat.*

No one who has resided less than five months in a district can fish
for oysters and clams, under a penalty of $20, and the seizure of boat
and cargo. A boat-load thus condemned is sold, and half the proceeds
of the sale, after expenses have been deducted, are given to the informer
and half to the collector of the county in which the offense was com-
mitted.

By a law enacted in 1857 any fisherman convicted of dragging for
oysters in Dennis Creek (county of Cape May) was compelled to pay
a fine varying from $10 to $100, to have the boats on which the pio-
hibited instruments were found confiscated, and to be imprisoned from
ten to thirty days.

Delaware. — Fishing is prohibited in this State from the 1st of May till
the 1st of October, under a penalty of $10, and the same fine is inflicted
if the drag is used in any of the creeks, bays, or ponds of the State,
while the boats employed for the purpose are also confiscated.

During the regular fishing seasons the oysters must be sorted on the
spot, and those not marketable thrown back immediately into the water
under a penalty of $10.

No one not a citizen of the United States can fish in those portions of
Delaware Bay belonging to the State without a permit from the clerk of
the district. This permit, which is good for a year, can be used only by
the boat named in it. Its cost is $50, which is that much profit to the
State. Whoever violates this law is punished by a fine of $50, with
confiscation of the boat, and all it contains. Any vessel may fish for
oysters in the proper season if they are for its own consumption.

Maryland. — Fishing is interdicted from the 1st of May till the 1st of
October, and no one is permitted to engage in the business who has not
resided in the State at least twelve months, under a penalty of $100.
The fishing-instruments allowed are the rake and the tongs ; the drag,
with a very few exceptions, being rigorously prohibited, under a penalty
of $100 and the confiscation of the boat.

The laws also require the prosecution of fishermen who use the seine
upon the oyster-banks, as the nets dragged over the beds either carry
off a number of mollusks or bury them in the mud.

A law of 1835 forbids fishing for oysters for the mere purpose of
procuring a fertilizer, under a fine ranging from $10 to $50. Finally,
no one who is not a resident of the State can fish at less than two miles
from the shore, and the punishment for this offense is a fine of from $5

* Those who reside on the shores of Delaware Bay are exempt from this regulation.

206 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

to $50 and the confiscation of the boat. No prosecution, however, can
be undertaken without a special order from a justice of the peace, given
upon the affirmation, under oath, of a resident of the State. The county
sheriff, the constable, and civil and military officers are expected to
assist in the execution of these laws.

Virginia. — Fishing for oysters in waters belonging to this State
during the months of June, July, and August is prohibited under a fine
of $50.

On the shores of rivers and in bays the only instrument allowed by
law is the tongs, excepting always localities where the water is deep.
In the sounds of Tangier and Pocomoke, for instance, the use of the
drag is permitted, but never in the mouths of rivers, in the interior of
the bays, or where the water is less than twenty feet in depth.

The legislature of Virginia, in order still better to protect an industry
which is a great source of wealth to the State, passed a law in 1856 by
which each county, when it is considered necessary, can appoint inspect-
ors, whose duty it is to arrest persons and boats suspected of having
violated the laws. These inspectors are sworn into office, and receive
the half of the fines imposed upon the delinquents whom they bring to
justice. With a very few exceptions, which are mentioned in the laws,
the taking of oysters from the banks for enriching the soil, or for the
manufacture of lime, is punished with a fine of $500.

CULTURE OF OYSTERS.

The methods adopted by the Americans for the culture, or rather for
the improvement, of oysters obtained from the coast fisheries are in no
respect similar to the complicated and expensive processes in operation
at Marennes, Ostend, Courcelles, or other such localities where these
moilusks are reared. The "pen," in the exact sense of the word as we
use it in France, is unknown in the United States ; for the ponds or
reservoirs for oysters, formed in certain places by closing the mouths of
small creeks, with sluice-dams, can hardly be so called. Establish-
ments of this kind are, moreover, very rare, and I had not an oppor-
tunity of visiting one.

American ostriculture, more simple than ours in all its details, con-
sists in planting the moilusks on those parts of the coast where the sub-
marine soil is best fitted by its nature to fatten them and promote their
growth. The process is very much the same as that adopted at Saint
Waast and Oancale ; and in the United States the results are so satis-
factory that it would be worse than useless to have recourse to more
complicated methods, which, without increasing the profit, would add
greatly to the expense.

The success of this branch of the oyster industry depends upon the
hydrographical configuration of the locality chosen for planting the
oysters, upon the nature of the submarine soil, and upon the saltness
of the water.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 297

The American oysters, like our own, do not prosper on every kind of
soil indiscriminately. In pure sand they do not fatten, and grow very
little ; in mud they contract an unpleasant taste, and also run the risk
of being smothered ; but in mixed soils of sand and mud they develop
to an astonishing degree, especially when the water is slightly salt.*

These artificial deposits, called oyster-beds, are necessarily formed in
accordance with circumstances which vary with the locality. Some-
times ground is used which is constantly -under water. Sometimes,
on the contrary, as at Boston, Wellfleet, and New Haven, the beds are
exposed for several hours each day, and only covered at high-tide.

The most favorable places are those situated in bays, creeks, and the
mouths of rivers in which the tide rises, but the bottoms of which are
not shifting; in estuaries or arms of the sea; in salt ponds; in short,
in all places so sheltered that there is no fear that the waves of the ocean
will wash away the deposits. The action of currents, if not too strong,
is not considered injurious. The maximum depth at which the oysters
are planted is from twelve to fifteen feet at low tide; but more commonly
the beds are only four or five feet below the surface of the water, which
is preferable, as the oysters can be taken up more readily.

The most important plantations are in the vicinity of the large centers
of population ; but with the facilities for transportation which exist in
the United States they are found on all parts of the coast.t

Whatever may be the locality chosen by the planters, they can in no
case pursue their industry on the natural banks of oysters,! the common
property of the people, or in any way interfere with the free exercise of
navigation. These conditions complied with, every facility is generally
afforded them by law ; but in some States, before commencing opera-
tions, a license must be obtained from the civil authorities of the mari-
time district in which they are to be located.

The limits of plantations are marked by slender poles inserted in the

* Oysters planted, iu tidal rivers, or in ponds of brackish water, fatten and grow
very rapidly, but are characterized by a more insipid taste than those cultivated in
purely salt water.

tin the vicinity of New York the principal plantations are upon the shores of Staten
Island, particularly at Prince Bay, in the East River; in the Harlem River and Shrews-
bury inlet, &c. At New Haven they are numerous in the bay, and at the mouth of
the Quinipiac. At Boston the most celebrated are established upon the projecting
shores of Bird Island and Hog Island, as well as in certain parts of the Saint Charles
and Mystic Rivers.

t By a natural bank, we mean a conglomeration of mollusca presenting a character
of continuity, constituting what is usually called an oyster-bed. The natural bank
may be single or formed of several small banks, separated by greater or less spaces, but
always sufficiently connected to be considered parts of one whole. As to places where,
through accidental circumstances, isolated oysters have developed, they are not classed
among the natural beds, since, if this were the case, the largest part of the submarine
soil of the coast would be under interdiction and oyster culture would bo impossible.
However protective the American laws may be in what concerns public property, they
are careful not to interfere with private enterprise by a too rigorous interpretation of
the term public property.

298 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

soil so long that the extremities, garnished with small branches, are two
feet at least above the level of the highest tide. Similar poles divide
the entire ground into squares of from twelve to fifteen yards at the
side. These divisions, obligatory in most of the States, serve to indi-
cate the exact position of the plantations, facilitate their surveillance
by the police or coast-guard, and accelerate the labor of gathering. The
poles are so flexible that they do not endanger vessels which may acci-
dentally run against them.

The oysters are planted annually, from the 1st of March until the 1st
of May, when the work generally ends. The vessels which bring them
from the Chesapeake, the Delaware, or any other place of production,
are, for the most part, schooners of 100 or 150 tons burden, which carry
from 3,000 to G,000 bushels of mollusks. When they reach their desti-
nation the oysters are delivered to the planters, who carry them to the
beds, and distribute them as regularly as possible. The latter operation
is of great importance, since if planted too closely together the mollusks
will interfere with each other. The planting is done in the following
manner : The men intrusted MTith the work load the oysters into long
flat-boats, and carry them at high tide to the plantations. They station
the boat over the center of each of the squares mentioned above in turn,
and by means of a large shovel, or pitch-fork having twelve teeth, throw
the oysters around them by a circular movement, very much like that
of the farmer in sowing wheat. This is probably the origin of the term
"planting" or "sowing" oysters. When the cargo of oysters is ex-
hausted, the mollusks are regularly distributed at the bottom of the
sea, in order that they may not injure each other. This part of the
work, which is accomplished by rakes, is much more easily effected on
ground which is sometimes exposed by the receding tide than in places
always covered by the water.*

As I have already said, the oysters fatten and greatly increase in size
in good plantations, and even change considerably in taste. No longer
impeded in their development, the shells become more regular, spread,
and have a more rounded form. In places where they are always cov-
ered by water, and there is no fear of their being frozen, they are fre-
quently allowed to grow for several years, in order to obtain very large
specimens. In localities, on the contrary, where the severity of winter
would be sure to destroy them, on the exposed ground where they are
cultivated, they are allowed to remain only during the warm season,
and are taken up before cold weather commences. In any case they
remain at least three months on the ground before they are used, other-
wise the benefit of culture would be lost. About fifty bushels of mol-

* The position of the oyster upon the ground is of no importance, provided the deeper
valve is uppermost. I have observed several times in the bay of New Haven a curi-
ous phenomenon. When the oyster happened to rest upon this valve, the growth was
affected in such a manner that the edges of the shell turned upward toward the sur-
face of the water, as it" the animal thus endeavored to obviate the danger arising from
its abnormal position.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 299

lusks are generally sown upon each of the square divisions of the plan-
tation. When the harvest season approaches the oysters are collected
daily at low tide when the bed is exposed, or otherwise by rakes.

There is a very prevalent opinion in the United States and in England
that oysters may be fattened by pouring Indian meal into the water
which covers them, It is said that certain planters in New Jersey adopt
this method in small ponds; but it is very probable the meal has no effect
whatever upon the oysters, their stomachs being too delicate to digest
such nourishment. Many persons reject this opinion as a mere prejudice
without foundation.

The culture of oysters in the United States is a source of certain rev-
enue, since it is an industry in which failure is unknown ; and the sur-
vey of those parts of the coast where they can best be established is
now so complete, that every probability of success is secured to the
planter. A few years ago the profit upon capital engaged amounted to
50 per cent. ; but as consumption became more extended, and the num-
ber of people employed in the commerce increased, profits, although still
large, were reduced to a more ordinary rate. The war which desolated
the country also interfered with the fisheries, since they were forbidden
on a part of the coast of Virginia by the Federal authorities, lest the
fishermen might establish communication with the enemy.

The effect produced upon navigation by the culture of oysters is very
important. According to the information furnished me, the plantations
of the bay of New York and of that vicinity employ one hundred ves-
sels, and those of Boston and Cape Cod from thirty-five to forty.
Before the war, from one hundred and fifty to two hundred schooners
were employed during six months in the year, either in transporting
oysters for plantations or in supplying the merchants of Fair Uaven
during the winter.

LAWS CONCERNING OYSTER-PLANTATIONS.

The oyster-planters are subject to laws peculiar to the different States,
but which in every case are sufficiently stringent to protect the industry
from the depredations of evil-disposed persons. This is very necessary,
for as the plantations are for the most part in isolated places, sometimes
at a distance from the shore, only very rigorous legislation can insure
their safety. Misdemeanors are tried by the public officers, such as
constables, sheriffs, harbor-masters, police, and coast-guards, and any
person cognizant of an offense is requested to report the same to the
authorities.

The following are some of the principal laws in force in the Northern
States :

Maine. — Persons wishing to cultivate oysters on the banks of rivers,
bays, or creeks belonging to the State must first obtain a permit from
the local authorities. The only exception is in favor of plantations
situated in the interior of bays and gulfs. In no case must navigation
be impeded.

300 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Massachusetts. — In Massachusetts the mayor and selectmen of each
maritime locality may grant a written permit, to any inhabitant of the
place, to plant oysters and to cultivate them, at any time during the
year, in the waters of their district, provided the natural banks are re-
spected. This permit, which is good for twenty years, indicates exactly
the limits and character of the ground, and must be registered by the
county clerk before it can be used. The magistrate who has granted it
receives $2 as his fee, and the clerk 50 cents. This proceeding insures
to the planter, and to his heirs in case of his death, the right to the ground
conceded, and he can prosecute any one who trespasses upon it j while
the offender is also punished by the law with a fine of $20 for each
trespass.

Rhode Island. — In the Providence Eiyer the commissioners of the
shell-fisheries can, upon their own responsibility, rent, for the good of
the State, to any citizen of the State, any ground covered by water
where there are no natural banks, for the establishment of plantations.
These grants, given for five years, have a tax imposed upon them which
is to be paid into the general treasury of the State.

When a citizen applies for a permit, the commissioners, before grant-
ing it, must give public notice of the day, the hour, and the place where
the matter will be arranged. This notice, containing an exact descrip-
tion of the ground solicited, is published, at the expense of the solicitor,
in one of the daily papers of Providence, at least two weeks before the
day of settlement, in order that the transaction may be generally known,
and the citizens have an opportunity of bringing before the commis-
sioners any objections they may have to the issuing of the permit.

In no case can more than one acre be assigned to any one person, and
only one acre a head to members of a company. The ground granted for
the formation of oyster-beds cannot be rerented during the continuation
of the grant.

A double copy is made of the lease, one for the solicitor, the other for
the general treasurer, and if the commissioners consider it worth while,
before signing it, a sketch may be made of the reservation granted.

The boundaries of plantations thus assigned must be determined
exactly by landmarks on the adjacent shore, and by poles or boughs
placed about eleven yards from each other, in the water; being so ar-
ranged as not to interfere with navigation. The landmarks, and poles
or boughs, are renewed whenever the commissioners consider it neces-
sary, and these officers of the government are also authorized to appoint
a special guard, provided with a boat, for the protection of the planta-
tions of Providence Iiiver known under the name of the Great Bed.

When the conditions specified in the leases are not complied with, or
when the rent is not paid regularly, the grant may be revoked.

The regulations forbid the taking of oysters upon the plantations
before the rising and after the setting of the sun, under a penalty of
$20 and the confiscation of the boat.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 301

Whoever robs a plantation of oysters is liable to a fine of from $20 to
$100, and, in default of payment, may be imprisoned for a term not
exceeding a year.

When a planter is found guilty of having taken oysters from a neigh-
boring plantation his grant is withdrawn, and all the products confis-
cated to the State, while he is also subject to the ordinary punishment
for theft. The right of fishing for oysters in waters belonging to the
State is withdrawn for three years from persons twice convicted of
transgressing the laws concerning plantations.

Connecticut. — In Connecticut each district has the right, in a special
meeting of the inhabitants, to nominate a committee of five members at
the most, who shall designate the places in the navigable waters where
oysters may be cultivated without infringing upon the rights of citizens,
and without detriment to navigation. Persons wishing to establish a
plantation must address a written petition to the committee, clearly
indicating the parts of the sea or river which they wish to occupy. If
nothing asked for in this petition is contrary to the public interest, the
committee may issue a grant, defining the situation and the limits of
the plantation, and the time it may be held.

The extent of ground occupied by any one person must not exceed
two acres, and before taking effect the grant must be registered by the
clerk of the district. Plantations must be surrounded by poles, two
feet at least above the highest water mark.

The owner of land on which there is a small creek or estuary may,
with the permission of the selectmen, close it with a sluice-dike, in order
to form a depot for oysters, where they may be fattened. He must pre-
sent his request to the selectmen of the district, and if, in their opinion,
the dam will not interfere with the privileges of the public, or be an
obstacle to navigation, these officers will represent the case at the next
annual meeting, and, if approved, the party interested may construct
the dam in question.

Any person convicted of taking oysters from a plantation without
permission, or of removing or injuring in any way the boundary-marks,
is punished, for the first offense, by a fine not exceeding $7, and an
imprisonment of not more than thirty days ; for the second offense, by
a fine of from $7 to $10, and an imprisonment of from one to three
months ; and for every subsequent repetition of the offense, by a fine
of $50, and imprisonment for six months. The guilty party is also
liable to punishment by the State authorities.

Any one who establishes a plantation upon a bank of natural oysters,
without permission, is liable to a fine of from $5 to $50, one-half of
which goes to the treasurer of the district in which the offense was com-
mitted, and the other half to the informant.

New YorTc. — In the State of New York, all land-holders on the banks
of the Harlem Eiver, have the right to plant oysters in the bed of the
river, in front of their property, provided that a sign-board, with the

O

02 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

name of the owner plainly inscribed upon it, marks the spot as private
property. If this condition is fulfilled, no one but the proprietor or his
agents can take the oysters from the plantation, under a penalty of $50,
in additiou to the value of the oysters stolen.

In Jamaica Bay, Queens County, land-owners on the shores of the
bay and its tributaries, may plant oysters in front of their property,
starting from the line of low tide and extending the beds about 6G feet.
No person, or association of persons, is allowed to occupy more than a
quarter of a mile along the shore. In this locality robbery of the
plantations is punished by a fine of $25.

New Jersey. — In certain parts of this State the proprietors of tidal
ground, in which are ponds, creeks, coves, &c, of salt water, which are
not required for any public purpose, may use these for the culture or
preservation of oysters by inclosing them with a dam.

Persons who, without permission, take oysters from the plantations,
are punished with a fine of $20, without taking into account the action
the owner may take for his damaged property.

Delaware. — According to the legislation of this State any citizen can
establish in public waters a plantation, not exceeding one acre in ex-
tent, provided it is not on a natural bank of oysters, and that it does
not interfere with navigation. It is necessary to inclose the plantation
with poles or stakes, and to mark the ownership distinctly; and then
any person who commits a depredation upon it is punished by a fine of
$20. A person not a citizen of the State cannot, under any pretext
whatever, deposit oysters in the bays, creeks, or rivers, under a penalty
of $20 and confiscation of the mollusks.

Maryland. — Every citizen of Maryland may appropriate in the rivers,
creeks, bays, &c, of the State, an extent of maritime ground, not ex-
ceeding one acre, for depositing and cultivating oysters, either for his
own personal use, or for commercial purposes ; provided he opposes no
obstacle to navigation, and does not iuterfere with the rights of land-
owners on the shore. A written description of the plantation and its
limits, given under oath, must be registered by the clerk of the dis-
trict.

In all cases the land-owners on the shore have a right of priority
over one acre of ground, extending from the ordinary low-water mark.
The plantations should be, as nearly as possible, rectangular.

Landholders having upon their property creek3 or inlets, with mouths
not over 100 yards wide, may use them for oyster plantations.

CHAPTER THIRD.
THE OYSTER-BUSINESS IN SEVERAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

A complete work upon the American oyster-fisheries ought, properly,
to include all the localities in which they are carried on to any extent ;
but the length of time such an extended exposition of the subject would

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 303

require, owing to the difficulty of obtaining precise information, as well as
the constant repetition of similar statements, would make the subject very
tedious to the reader. I have therefore preferred to confine my remarks
to those cities of the Northern States in which this industry has reached
its greatest importance, as a sufficiently approximate estimate can thus
be obtained of its valuable addition to the resources of public alimenta-
tion. These cities, which I have had occasion to mention several times
in the course of this treatise, are New York, Fair Haven, Boston, and
Baltimore. They alone monopolize, in consumption and transportation
into the interior, more than half the entire commerce in oysters of the
entire United States.

New York. — New York, the rich and populous commercial metropolis
of the United States, contains to-day more than a million of inhabitants,
including the city of Brooklyn, which may be considered only one of its
suburbs. Nowhere in America is the consumption of oysters so great
as in this city. As I have already stated, the Merchants' Magazine esti-
mated it at 6,950,000 bushels annually; that is to say, 19,000 bushels a
day, on an average.

The culture of the oyster is carried on to a great extent in the vicinity
of New York, partly on account of the excellent grounds afforded by the
bay and neighboring waters, and partly from the necessity the dealers
experience of having large depots for these mollusks near at hand, to
supply the daily needs of the inhabitants.

The most celebrated plantations are situated, on the one hand, on the
shores of Staten Island and New Jersey, and, on the other, on the coast
of Long Island and in the arm of the sea known as East Eiver, in which
there are innumerable small bays and creeks in a most favorable condi-
tion for such purposes.

The two most important markets for the wholesale trade in these
mollusks are Catharine Market, on the East Eiver, and another at the
foot of Spring street, on the Hudson Eiver. As to the retail sales, they
are made in all the markets of the city indiscriminately, in the oyster-
houses, and in markets intended especially for the sale of fish.

The establishments at Catharine Market and at the foot of Spring
street are floating houses, constructed on rafts, generally one story, but
sometimes two, in height, and ornamented more or less elaborately.
These houses are generally moored together, and kept in communica-
tion with the wharf by means of a swing bridge, which rises and falls
with the tide. They are usually about 15 yards long by 10 wide, and
are divided into three distinct compartments.

1. The part entered from the bridge, which constitutes the only room
in the house.

2. That which I will call the cellar, which is under water, and extends
from the platform of the room to the bottom of the raft.

3d. The attic, which is formed at the top of the house by a ceiling
about two yards and a half above the floor of the room.

304 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

These establishments, called oyster-boats in New York, are eleven in
number at Catharine Market, and twenty-three in number at the foot of
Spriug street. They are generally furnished with two doors, one com-
municating with the wharf, the other opposite the first, and opening
upon a small platform at the back of the house. This arrangement is
for the convenience of the fishermen, who are thus enabled to discharge
their cargoes immediately into the oyster-boat, labor as well as time be-
ing thus saved.

These floating houses possess one great advantage, which is, that the
oysters can be preserved in them alive for several days during the
winter season, however low the temperature may be ; and also in sum-
mer during the greatest heat, since the part under water is always cool.

The oysters, or clams, placed in baskets containing about a bushel,
are stored in the cellar and attic of the oyster-boat. In the room are
placed only specimens of the different qualities for sale, from which

samples purchasers make their choice. Here, too, all the packing
which the necessities of the trade require is done.

Although there are always a great many oysters in these establish-
ments, they never remain more than a few days, and arrangements are
made with the plantations for constant and regular supplies. The num-
ber of boats of all kinds employed by the merchants and the planters
of the bay, including those engaged in fishing for the oysters and clams7
is estimated at 15,000.

Oyster-boats are obliged to pay rent for the place they occupy along
the wharves.

The principal places for the retail sale of the mollusk are Fulton Mar-
ket and Washington Market.

Fulton Market, on the East River, from which it is separated only by
the width of the wharf, is a large, ungainly establishment, where all
the various branches of the trade in comestibles are united. There is
some regularity in the disposition of stalls, but nothing else that can
compare with the well-ordered arrangements of the large markets of
Paris, or other cities of France. The Americans are a free and easy
people, but their love of liberty sometimes degenerates into lawless-
ness.

There are several persons in Fulton Market engaged in selling shell-
fish, who, notwithstanding their contracted quarters, keep a kind of
restaurant, which it is very interesting to visit about noon, when mer-
chants and workmen come from all quarters for their dinner. They are
popular establishments in every sense of the word, and oysters, cooked
in various ways, constitute almost the entire repast.

In front of the counters of these traders are large sheet-iron furnaces,
usually rectangular, about six feet long, six feet high, and three feet wide.
The upper part serving as areceptable for smoke is terminated by a pipe,
which communicates with the outer air. The lower part, lined with bricks,
holds a large quantity of coal, by means of which a hot fire is sustained.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 305

Upon the fire, and touching it, a gridiron is placed, and on this the
mollusks are cooked, particularly the roasted oysters, for which Ameri-
cans have a special predilection.

I do not intend to enter into details in regard to the preparations sold
at these restaurants, but I must say a word about the roasted oyster, as
it is peculiar to the United States.

The mollusks used for this purpose are of large size, and generally
come from New Jersey or the East Biver. They are placed upon the
gridiron, the deeper valve below, and when sufficiently cooked in their
own juice they are withdrawn from the fire and served to the customers.
Large oysters prepared in this way are excellent, especially when seasoned
with a little pepper and a few drops of lemon-juice.

There is no better way to obtain an idea of the habits of the American
people than to visit their restaurants, where at the same table are found pro-
miscuously representatives from all classes of society. There is a number
of them at Fulton Market, and their business is very profitable, some of
them selling as many as 10,000 shell-fish a day in the winter season.
At Washington Market the stalls are not as comfortable as those nn
Fulton Market, and although the trade in oysters is considerable there
are no restaurants, for the name can hardly be applied to the small
establishments where soup is sold.

The mollusks are sold in the market both with and without the shells,
and a certain number of men are employed by all the dealers to open
the shells and take out the oysters. Each man has before him a kind of
small anvil several inches long, and upon this he breaks the edge of the
shell with the assistance of a fiat piece of iron called a knife, one end of
which serves as a hammer ; he then turns the instrument round in his
hand and inserts the other end, formed into a blade, between the valves,
takes out the oyster with it, and throws it into a dish half full of water
The work proceeds in this way very rapidly, and the men earn from $8
to $10 a week, according to their dexterity. Some earn as high as $15,
but these are generally men in whom the proprietors place great confi-
dence, and who are also intrusted with the sale of the mollusks.

New Raven and Fair Raven. — New Haven, the capital of Connecticut,
ranks next to Boston in importance, in the oyster-trade. The business
is divided into two distinct branches, the culture of oysters and the
various occupations connected with their transportation tothe towns of
the interior.

The principal plantations are situated in the bay. Commencing at a
short distance from the head of the greatpier, they extend over adistance
of about three miles, almost without interruption ; on the one hand to
the southern part of the sandy point, and on the other to Morris Creek,
always leaving free the channels of navigation leading to the harbor.

The maritime ground on which they are established is partially ex-
posed at low tide. In some cases, however, the plantations are con-
stantly submerged, and are at a depth varying from one to six feet,
20 F

306 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

when the water is lowest. The soil is formed of sand and mud, mingled
with sea-weed, and the stratum of mud, upon which the oysters rest, is
about three inches thick.

The spectacle presented on entering the harbor is most curious. As
far as the eye can see, the bay is covered with myriads of branches,
waving in the wind, or swayed by the force of the currents. It looks
as if a forest were submerged, the tops of the trees only rising above
the surface of the water.*

At certain distances on the plantations, large boats are anchored or
moored to posts, having a small house built upon them for the accom-
modation of the men appointed to watch the grounds. They are four
in number. The wages of these guardians of the property amount to
about $30 a month, and are paid by the association of planters. This
system of surveillance is indispensable, since most of the plantations
are at a distance from the harbor, and might be invaded with impunity,
especially at night.

The oysters cultivated in the bay remain, for the most part, upon the
ground until autumn, when the work of transporting them proceeds on
a grand scale. They are also consumed at that time in great numbers
by the planters, so that when frost commences there is not a single one
left upon the banks. This course is necessitated by the severity of the
winter weather, and also by the little depth at which the oysters are

cultivated^

About five hundred men are employed in planting oysters in the
spring, and in gathering them in the proper season to supply the neces-
sities of commerce.

As the fishermen must visit the banks at all states of the tide, they
have boats of very peculiar construction, called " sharps," which draw
only a few inches of water, and yet are very swift. Entirely fiat on the
bottom, the prow is sharply pointed and the stern greatly inclined.
They have a rudder and can carry a sail. These sails are extremely
simple, consisting of one or two triangular pieces fastened to a mast,
the top of which is somewhat flexible and terminates in a point. Light
poles, arranged as with the shoulder-of-mutton sail, serve to extend the
sails of the " sharp," so that they are entirely flat. The result is that
when the boat, sailing too near the wind, is thrown upon its side, the
wind glides over the sail, and the boat rights itself. This system of

* As in most places ■where oysters are cultivated, the plantations here, also, are indi-
cated by poles or branches, dividing the ground into regular portions. Although very
slight, these poles are fastened so firmly in the ground that they cannot be readily
displaced ; and they are so flexible that they are not easily broken. When I visited
the plantations, the boat which carried mo was in full sail, and pressed upon them, first
on one side, then on the other, and yet not one was injured. The boat, I ought to Bay,
however, was managed with great skill in passing these obstacles.

tAlthough many of these oysters come from a warm climate, they could probably be
preserved during the winter in the bay of New Haven, if they were planted at a
greater depth.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 307

arranging the sails seems the best suited to the purpose, ami has been
generally adopted.

The "sharps" generally hold from seventy to eighty bushels of oys-
ters.*

The New Haven banks have a very high reputation, and the number
of bushels planted annually is estimated at 250,000.

The establishments engaged in the transportation business are mostly
at Fair Haven, a charming village, beautifully situated.! Divided into
two parts by the Quinipiac River, they have been connected by means of
a viaduct or railroad bridge.!

The establishments of the dealers are on both sides of the river, and
many of them are built partly in the water, in order that the fishermen
may discharge their cargoes with greater ease.

The operation of taking the oysters from the shell is performed ex-
clusively by women, chiefly Irish, and the process is very nearly the
same as in New York. Seated before a stand, loaded with a quantity
of oysters, each one is supplied with a small hammer, with which she
breaks the edge of the shells upon a blade of iron inserted in the stand.
She then opens the oysters with a thin knife and throws the fish into a
wooden pail placed at her right side. These women receive 8 cents a gal-
lon, including the juice. They can earn at this price, if skillful, $2 a
day in the winter season, when the work lasts throughout the day ; but
ordinarily they do not make more than a dollar and a half. About
seven or eight hundred women earn their living in this way and some of
the dealers employ sixty of them at a time.

As soon as a woman has finished a measure, the inspector of the
establishment sets it down to her account, and empties it immediately
into a tin trough, pierced with holes and placed under the spigot of a
water-tank. The oysters are then well washed, in a full stream of water,
and moved about with the hands, in order that any small -pieces of the
shell may be carried off by the ourreut. They are then thrown into a
cask.

The dealers send raw oysters away in small wooden barrels, called
kegs, or in tin cans, containing about a quarter of a gallon.

During the winter, wooden barrels are considered a sufficient pro-
tection; but in warm weather, and when the mollusks are to be sent to
a distance, tin boxes are used exclusively.

The work of packing is accomplished in the same building where the

* These boats, which are quite graceful in form, might be used with advantage in
France, in bays, rivers, ponds, &c, where the water is not rough.

+ Some of these establishments are at Oyster Point, on the western part of the bay.

t At Fair Haven the Quinipiac is about a mile and a half wide, and is protected
from the winds on the south and east by a chain of wooded hills, lying parallel with
its course. It forms a beautiful smooth sheet of water, until its entrance into the bay,
where the currents are very strong, but not sufficiently so to disturb the plantations
established in the bed of the river. Some of the dealers, before using the oysters,
deposit them for two or three days in the Quinipiac, the saltish water giving the flesh
a better appearance.

308 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

oysters are shelled, or in one near at hand; and whatever may be the
receptacle used, it must contain only a quarter of its capacity of juice.*

A tinner is employed in each establishment to close the cases, by
soldering a small round piece of tin over the opening. The cases are
then placed in a refrigerator, where they remain until sent to the rail-
road.

When dispatched to distant cities, those of the West for instance,
the cases are inclosed in a box of pine wood containing about a dozen.
These are tightly packed, and a space is left in the middle of the
box for the reception of a piece of ice, which preserves the oysters
until they reach their destination.!

The number of barrels and boxes or cases required annually, at Fair
Haven, is so great that two large manufactories have been established
for the manufacture of these articles, and they employ about one hun-
dred and fifty persons. That for the making of kegs uses steam as a
motive-power. Everything in the establishment is done by machinery.
One machine cuts out the staves, a second the bottom ; others pierce
the holes, and form the plugs. The kegs at wholesale bring the follow-
ing prices : Kegs containing a gallon, 81.08 a dozen ; kegs containing a
half-gallon, 94 cents a dozen. J Tin cases are worth $5.50 a hundred.

Oysters without the shell are divided into two classes — those of large
size selling for twenty cents a gallon more than the others. They sell
at the rate of $3 for half a dozen cases, each of which contains from sev-
enty to one hundred mollusks.

In 1858 the number of oysters used by the establishments of Fair
Haven amounted to 2,000,000 bushels.

It has long been known that few occupations in America are more
profitable than the packing and transportation of oysters. In 1856, the
Journal of Commerce reported that a single house at Fair Haven had
made $100,000 in the last four years. In that very year the Levi Eowe
house, which has agencies at Buffalo, Detroit, Cleveland, &c, alone
transported 150,000 gallons. Twenty vessels were in its employ, and
from seventy-five to one hundred young women were engaged in its
workshops during the winter. Twenty-five or thirty houses engross the
largest share of the business, some of them transporting as many as
1,500 bushels mollusks a day.

The oysters planted in the bay of New Haven and in the Quinipiao
are all disposed of before winter, and during that season the establish-
ments of Fair Haven are regularly provided with mollusks from the

*In the State of New York, dealers found guilty of selling oysters in barrels or boxes
containing more than a quarter of their capacity of liquor, are liable to a fine of $20.

tWhen sent only a short distance the dealers adopt a more economical method. The
oysters, mingled with pieces of ice, are put into a kind of scuttle-cask, provided with
a cover, and thus are sent to Hartford, Syracuse, Utica, and to places even more dis-
tant.

tThe kegs are made to contain two gallons, one, three-fourths, one-half, or one-fourth
of a gallon, according to size.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 309

Chesapeake and the Delaware. On the arrival of the schooners which
bring them, they are either landed in the store-houses immediately, or
remain in the hold of the vessels, until negotiations concerning them are
complete.

A few years ago the commerce of New Haven was much more impor-
tant than at present, especially with the West. It has in part been
supplanted in the market of Saint Louis by that of Baltimore, which has
greater facilities of communications with that city.

In 1857 from two hundred to two hundred and fifty schooners were
employed, for six months in the year, in supplying the establishments of
Connecticut ; now the number does not exceed one hundred.

Boston. — Massachusetts, although one of the smallest States, is, nev-
ertheless, one of the most influential. Through its commerce, the prac-
tical intelligence and enterprising spirit of its inhabitants, &c, it takes
the lead in all the industrial movements of the country, and it is unri-
valed in the importance of its literary and scientific institutions. Situ-
ated upon the Atlantic Coast, in a most favorable position for maritime
interests in general, both its great and. its small fisheries have enjoyed
remarkable prosperity. The shores of Nantucket, of Cape Cod, of Ply-
mouth, and of Cape Ann nourish enormous quantities of lobsters, and
abound with edible bivalves, while immense shoals of migratory fish, va-
rying with the season, such as cod, flounders, mackerel, shad, and her-
ring, every year bring wealth to its hardy fishermen.

Of the whole tonnage of American fisheries in general, Massachusetts
counts more than half. Boston, the capital of the State, naturally en-
ters largely into this industrial and maritime movement ; and to speak
of the oyster-fisheries alone, this city plays the same part in supplying
the Northern States as Baltimore and Fair Haven do for the Central
and the Western. Built upon ground which is almost an island, at the
head of a bay, and protected from the open sea by a chain of small
islands, it is almost entirely surrounded with vast sheets of salt water, in
which are found united the best conditions for the culture of the oyster
according to the American method. Four rivers, of which the most im-
portant are the Charles and the Mystic, empty into the bay, and increase
facilities for the fisheries.*

Ten principal merchants conduct the different branches of the oyster
commerce. One of them, Mr. Higgins, senior, furnished me with much
of the information which I received, and supplied me with most of the
mollusks which I sent to France. At once dealer, planter, and pro-
prietor of an oyster-house, no one could be better fitted to furnish me
accurate information as to all the details of the business. His estab-
lishment, like those of his fellow-merchants, is situated upon the wharf

*The oyster-plantations are numerous in the bay, upon the shores of Bird Island and
Hog Island. They are also to be found in the Saint Charles and the Mystic Rivers ;
but as they only partially supply the demands of commerce, the deficiency is made up
by the plantations of Cape Cod, from which the markets of Boston are mostly pro-
visioned. Tlie quantity of oysters plauted in the different localities in the spring
amounts to about one hundred thousaud bushels.

310 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

of the City Wharf, a part of the harbor specially reserved as a depot for
fishing- boats. It is a building consisting of but one room, about twelve
yards wide and ten deep, and the interior arranged with reference to the
utmost economy of space. All round the apartment is a horizontal
stand, breast-high, and almost two yards wide, on which the oysters are
placed. At regular intervals a small square of wood, about an inch
thick, is nailed to the stand, which separates the places of the workmen,
and also serves as a convenient support for opening the oysters. The
men stand side by side, but not so close as to interfere with each other's
movements. They use a peculiar knife, consisting of a thin blade of
steel, with a very sharp point and a round wooden handle. When a
workman opens an oyster he takes it in his left hand, places it upon the
small square of wood, the part opposite to the hinge facing him, pierces
the edge of the shell with the sharp point of the knife, so that he can
introduce the blade between the valves, then cuts the muscle, takes out
the flesh, and throws it into a tin measure at his side.

A skillful workman can open eighteen oysters in a minute. I have
nowhere seen work executed so rapidly ; and as the edge of the shell is
not broken, there is very little debris mingled with the oysters. As the
supplies of oysters diminish upon the stand they are renewed by persons
detailed for the purpose. As to the shells, each man throws them into
a cask placed at his right hand, which, when filled, he carries to the
door of the apartment, and empties on the public road.

Wages are 10 cents a gallon for the oysters without the shells. In
winter, skillful workmen can earn as much as $3 a day when the oysters
are of medium size; the small ones require much more time.* Six or
seven hundred men are employed auuually, and most of them are also
engaged upon the plantations of the bay.

The work of packing, of closing the barrels and tin cases, and of re-
packing in boxes, with a receptacle for ice, &c, is carried on in every
respect as at Fair Haven.t

Mr. Higgins keeps the oysters until the time for packing in double
cases of zinc, containing from 50 to 60 gallons, and pieces of ice are
mixed with them. In winter the establishments for transportation are
supplied as at Fair Haven.

Baltimore. — Baltimore is the most important of all the cities engaged
in the oyster-trade, as far as regards interior and foreign transporta-
tion. In fact, no other city of the Union is as advantageously situated
for the business. In consequence of its position, on a navigable river

*The principal markets are in the cities of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont,
and Canada, especially Quebec and Montreal.

tFor short distances, during the warm season, it is customary to use tin vessels
somewhat like our milk- cans. The oysters are placed in these, mixed with pieces of
ice, which keep them fresh until they reach their destination. The merchants of Bos-
ton are in constant communication with the merchants of the neighboring cities, from
whom they receive daily cans marked with the names and address of their owners,
and they are immediately returned, filled with oysters. When they arrive the oysters
are again pat upon ice, and must be consumed within three days.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 311

emptying into Chesapeake Bay, the expense of receiving the oysters is
not great, and they can be easily dispatched to their various destinations,
by means of the railroads which diverge in various directions from the
city.

For about thirty years, Annapolis, the capital of Maryland, has been
the principal market from which the cities of the West have been sup-
plied with this article of food which every year has become more popular.
Yet, strange to say, it is only within the last few years that public atten-
tion has been turned to the commerce, or any mention made of it in the
statistics of the State. The only satisfactory document I could procure
upon the subject dates only back to 1856, when a summary article ap-
peared in the Baltimore American.

" During the civil war all business matters were more or less deranged,
so that the information contained in this treatise relates only to the
condition of the oyster fisheries or trade as it was two years ago.
The facts given are, for the most part, taken from an excellent publica-
tion printed in New York, called the " Merchants' and Commercial Ee-
view."

Besides the oysters consumed in the city, the transportation-houses
send into the interior oysters in the natural state, without shells, or
in cans, employing exactly the same processes as have been already
described.*

Oysters in the shell, as well as out of the shell, are sent Jo the West
and Northwest. Canned and pickled oysters go for the most part in the
same direction ; while the others are sent to California, Australia, the
Antilles, and to a few markets in Europe, where the first of these prep-
arations are highly esteemed.

The city of Saint Louis, Mo., is the center of the western commerce
for transportation into the interior.

According to the official documents of the State of Maryland, for
1840, the oysters consumed by the trade at that time amounted to 710,-
000 bushels.

During the years 1856 and 1857, September to May, inclusive, the sta-
tistics of the oyster-trade were as follows :

Oysters in the sJiell :

Bushels.

To Cincinnati and Chicago 400, 000

To other cities 400, 000

Consumption in Baltimore „ 150, 000

Total 950,000

*Tke oysters required by the trade are obtained directly from the banks, or from
plantations on tho shores of Maryland and Virginia. Within the last few years they
have been brought in great numbers from the vicinity of Norfolk, and these are very
highly esteemed both for their size and their quality. The most important plantations
in Maryland are in the counties of Saint Mary's, Dorchester, Talbot, and Somerset :
in Virginia, in the counties of Northampton, Accomack, York, Gloucester, Norfolk,
Lancaster, and Middlesex.

312 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Oysters out of the shell, raw or canned :

Bushels.

To California 200, 000

To Saint Louis 150, 000

To other cities 310, 000

To foreign ports 50, 000

Total 1, G60, 000

The season from 1859 to 1860 was an excellent one for the business,
which began and continued with great activity. In the month of Sep-
tember the demand for raw oysters, put up in ice, was very great, as
the oysters were superior to those of preceding years, particularly those
of large size, taken from banks far out in tbe bay.* The price of the
oysters continued good, and the principal merchants were busy night
and day. As to the canned article, prepared for foreign exportation, it
was also in great demand, and sold at a reasonable price, although
oysters in the shell had advanced in price. During this season, the
oysters consumed by the trade amounted to 25,000 bushels a day.

One-half of the principal transportation dealers were specially occu-
pied with the sale of raw oysters and the other with that of the canned.
The number of vessels employed in supplying the market of Baltimore
was estimated at from 800 to l,200.t

In the season of 1860 and 1861, notwithstanding the general prostrate
condition of commerce, the oyster dealers did a good business, espe-
cially during the first months. From the 1st of September to the 15th
of June, 3,000,000 of bushels were consumed ; that is to say, 10,000
bushels a day on the average. About two-thirds were sent to the West,
in a raw condition, packed in ice.

The commercial statistics of that season were as follows:

Number of the principal houses of transportation 30

Quantity of oysters sold in the market of Baltimore, (bushels) 3, 000, 000
Amount of the reselling of the oysters at $1.35 a bushel. . . $1, 050, 000

Number of vessels employed in the transportation 500

Number of persons employed in the various labors connected

with the transportation trade 3, 000

Capital engaged $1, 800, 000

Commercial value of the canned oysters $3, 000, 000

To avoid repetition, I will not speak of the manner in which the va-
rious operations of the transportation trade are conducted, since it is
much the same as at Fair Haven. The oysters are generally opened by
colored persons, of both sexes ; while the white workmen are employed

"These were taken from the great banks of the Chesapeake Bay, which, as they are
worked less than the others, yield oysters of larger size.

tSome of the boats used in the bay for transporting oysters to Baltimore are called
"pungies." They are a kind of schooner peculiar to the Chesapeake, moving with
great rapidity, and holding from 300 to 600 bushels of oysters.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 31

n

in putting them in boxes, in canning them, repacking them, &c. It is
a custom in Baltimore to pack cases of raw oysters in boxes three feet
and a half long by seventeen inches in width and only eight in depth.
The cases are handled with great ease, and a space is left vacant in the
middle for ice.

Mr. Maltby, a dealer who has made a fortune in the oyster-trade,
informed me that, during the warm season, the boxes were placed in ice-
wagons, so arranged that a current of cold air might pass continually
over them.

The packing of raw oysters, taken from the shell and canned, forms
one of the most lucrative industries of Baltimore. No other branch of
commerce has a more substantial basis, since the demand for the article
is constant, and the sales are ordinarily for cash. The importance of
the business, upon which I cannot dwell too strongly, is one of the most
convincing proofs of the influence that ostriculture, conducted on a grand
scale, may have upon the wealth of a nation. Two or three thousand
sailors man the boats, which provide the establishments with oysters;
two thousand persons of both sexes are employed in opening the oys-
ters; two hundred men in packing and closing the cans and in making
the outside boxes; while three hundred tinners are required for the man-
ufacture of the cans. It is probable that the value of the tin and solder
used annually amounts to $150,000, while the number of feet of pine
wood used for boxes must be nearly a million.

CHAPTER FOUETH.

GENERAL VIEWS UPON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MARKET-CLAMS.

Soft clam (Mya arenaria.) — The soft clam is, next to the oyster, the
most important bivalve of the American coast, whether we view it as a
means of public sustenance, or as an addition to the fishing industry of
the country. Its great abundance on the coasts where it is found, the
good market it commands, the ease with which it can be obtained from
the banks at low tide, all render it a most valuable source of sustenance
for the poorer classes.*

Its principal characteristics are the following: the shell is oval, equi-
valve, almost equilateral, thin, open at both ends, and especially at the
posterior part, which can never be closed on account of the conformation
of the valves. The exterior surface is rugose, and marked in places by
the raised lines of growth. Its general color is a chalky white, some-
times a blue black, more or less deep. The left valve has a cardinal
tooth, as broad as it is long. There are two muscular impressions, and
the ligament which unites the two valves is internal. In specimens of
large size the siphons are nearly two inches long.

* In some places this inollusk has retained its ancient Indian name of Maninose.

314 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

As I have said in the introduction, soft clams form upon the coast of
New England immense banks, upon which constant demands are made
by the people, without any apparent diminution in the products. The
places where the mollusks are found in the greatest abundance are the
emergent sloping beaches of the counties of Barnstable and Essex, in
Massachusetts. Farther south they are more rare, and if the information
given me is correct, they are not found below the latitude of the mouth
of the Delaware. They are so numerous in Boston Harbor, that I have
myself seen more than a hundred of different sizes taken from a single
square foot of ground, on the shores of Governor's Island.

The soil which suits them best is sandy, with a large proportion of
mud, in which they can bury themselves to a greater or less depth,
according to the season. In pure sand, or in too compact gravel, they
do not develop as well, and attain a size of only about two inches and a
half in length ; while in mud they generally grow full three inches and
a half long. Dr. Gould had a specimen which measured five inches and
a half in length.

The color and thickness of the shells vary greatly, according to the
surroundings of the animal. In sand, they are almost white. If gravel
predominates, they are more yellowish ; while in mud, on the contrary,
they take a bluish tint, more or less deep.

Soft clams are, in the full acceptation of the word, inhabitants of the
beach, living as Solans, Tellinas, and Donaces, in banks which are un-
covered at low tide. In certain localities they are found only a few feet
from the point reached by the waves at the highest tide. The conse-
quence is, that during the great heat of summer they are exposed for a
part of the day to a very high temperature. During the winter, when
the shores of New England are often covered with ice for several weeks,
the fishermen say that the clams leave the higher banks, and move
nearer the sea. I was not in possession of the data by which I could
refute this statement, but I am inclined to think that the clams, instead
of changing their locality, only bury themselves more deeply in the
sand during the continuance of the cold weather. A fact strongly con-
firmatory of this is, that they can be obtained during the winter season,
if the ice is broken. Whatever may be the truth in regard to their
moving away in cold weather, it is certain that they can bear a very
low temperature, since Professor Agassiz has frequently found in the
shells of these mollusks icicles, which did not seem to incommode them
in the least.

The spawning season occurs, according to the fishermen, during the
months of June and July. How much time they require to attain full
size is not known, the American naturalists not having studied the
subject. Judging from the almost imperceptible difference there is be-
tween specimens differing considerably in age, their development must
be very slow.

Clam-beds are generally found in sheltered parts of the coast, or at

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 315

least in places where the action of the waves is not sufficiently strong
to change the character of the banks. This fact I observed several
times at Nahant, the summer residence of a portion of the wealthy in-
habitants of Boston. On all the eastern shore of this quasi-island,
washed by the open sea, not a single soft-clam is to be found;
while on the western, where the water is comparatively calm, they ex-
ist in great numbers. They are taken by means of a spade, at low- tide,
when the banks are left uncovered. Their hiding-place is betrayed by
a number of small holes, through which they eject a stream of water
when the sand is pressed down upon them, or shaken by the spade.
This habit has won for them a very descriptive, although not very poet-
ical name. On some parts of Long Island Sound hogs go down upon
the banks at low water to hunt for clams, of which they are very fond.
They manifest great sagacity in finding them, and know exactly when
to leave, so as not to be caught by the returning tide.

The consumption of these mollusks is considerable during every sea-
son, but especially in summer, along the entire coast of the Northern
States, from New York to Maine; but nowhere is it so great as at Boston.

In most places .regular fishermen sell the clams in their natural con-
dition ; but in some localities, like New York, they are generally taken
from the shell and sent to market in packages of twenty-five, which are
sold, on an average, at 75 cents a huudred.

The merchants mix pieces of ice with the clams in summer to keep
them fresh ; in winter, of course, this precaution is unnecessary.

The extent of the fisheries throughout the year depends upon the rate
of consumption.

The people of the United States use clams in a variety of culinary
preparations, the most popular of which is, undoubtedly, a kind of soup
especially esteemed in Boston.*

*In Rhode Island and Massachusetts clams serve as a pretext for fetes of a very pe-
culiar kind, called clam-bakes. The following description is taken from a work on
natural history published in the United States :

"The clam-bakes which take place every year near Bristol, as well as in several other
localities of Rhode Island and Massachusetts, have their origin in an old Indian cus-
tom.

" The aborigines of these States were accustomed to assemble in great numbers every
year for a feast consisting of clams and green corn cooked together with sea-weed*
The modern clam-bake is an improvement on the old one. A circular hearth or bed
is first made in the sand, with large flat stones, upon which a fire is kept up until they
are red hot. A layer of sea-weed is then placed upon them, and upon the sea-weed a
layer of clams about three inches thick covered by more sea-weed ; then follows a
layer of green corn in the husk, intermixed with potatoes and other vegetables ;
then a layer of poultry cooked and seasoned ; then more sea-weed ; then fish and
lobsters, again covered by sea-weed. This arrangement is continued according to the
number of persons to take part in tho feast, and when the pile is complete it is covered
with a linen cloth to prevent the steam from escaping. When the whole is cooked
each one helps himself without ceremony. These feasts are delicious beyond descrip-
tion, and it is said no one is ever made ill by them. In former times the most renowned
warriors came from afar to take part in them, and now they are attended by persons
of the highest social standing, sometimes to the number of several hundreds.

816 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Whatever may be the value of soft clams as a means of sustenance
for the people along the coasts, they are still more important to the
fisheries of the country. The Americans have for a long time been aware
of the marked predilection which many fish, particularly those of the
cod species, manifest for the flesh of clams, under whatever form pre-
sented to them. Before this fact was proved by experiment the sea.
men of the banks of Newfoundland and Saint George had frequently
observed that cod-fish relied to a great degree for their nourishment
upon bivalves similar to the coast clam, called in natural history Mya
truncata, and which is frequently found in the stomachs of these fish.

Clams are used for bait, either alive or salted, according as the fishery
is on the coast or out at sea. In the first instance they are enveloped
in pieces of net, and kept in the wells with which the coasting-vessels
are generally provided. When they do not possess this convenience,
they can still be preserved for several days by keeping them in a cool
place. In the second instance, after they are taken from the shell, they
are salted and then carefully packed in barrels, and are sold to the own-
ers of vessels engaged in the cod-fisheries off the banks of Newfound-
land and Sable Island.

Dr. Gould estimated that in 1840, 40,000 bushels of clams were con-
sumed in the preparation of salt bait, in addition to large quantities
used in a natural condition by the coast fisheries.

Salted clams are also used with success in the mackerel-fisheries, in
which they are employed like the roe of the animal to attract the fish.

Bound clam (Venus mercenaria.)* — The round clam is a species of
edible Venus, almost as abundant upon the coast as the Mya armaria,
and rivals that mollusk as an article of food, although it is of far less
importance as bait for the fisheries.

In some i>laces it has retained its ancient name of quahog, by which
it was known to the aborigines of North America. The Indians man-
ufactured out of the violet part of the shell colored beads called wam-
pum, which served them as money. The mollusks which they used
came for the most part from Long Island, called, in the picturesque lan-
guage of the Mohicans, " tbe Island of Shells."

The round clam has a regular, thick shell, very convex, with crenu-
lated margins, and three cardinal teeth in each valve. The exterior sur-
face presents numerous concentric lines, and a few more prominent ones.
The part near the umbones is always more or less worn. The ligament,
of a brown color, is large and very apparent ; the lunule is oval ; the ex-
terior surface is ordinarily of a dirty white color, and sometimes bluish,
according to the nature of the ground inhabited by the animal. There
are two muscular impressions, and the interior edges of the valves are

*The " round clam, " or simply " clam," as it is called along the coast of the Middle
and Southern States, differs in several important characters, especially the armature
of the hinge, from the typical species of Venus, and iB therefore now generally regarded
as the representative of a distinct genus, and accordingly called Mercenaria vioJacea.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 317

of a violet color, more or less deep in proportion to the age of the animal.
These mollusks, when fully grown, are commonly three inches and a half
long, two inches and a half wide, and three inches thick.

The Venus notata is a species of clam very nearly allied to the one
just mentioned, and is probably only one of its varieties.

Round clams exist in great abundance on the American coast, from
Cape Cod almost to the extremity of Florida.* They are generally
found on the shores of gulfs, of bays, and of the mouths of large rivers,
which are less exposed to tbe action of the waves than the open coast.
Their beds are at a depth varying from 6 to 25 feet below the surface of
the water at low tide. Like all the mollusks of that family, they prefer
a large proportion of mud with the sand in which they live. They bury
themselves only a few iuches deep, with the siphons directed upward.
During my stay on Long Island, I frequently saw clams caught, the
shells of which were covered with sea-weed, a convincing proof of the
shallow depth at which they are buried in the soil.

Clams are caught by means of the tongs and the rake, the fishermen
stationing their boats over the beds at the proper state of the tide.
The tongs in use is exactly like that employed in taking oysters. As to
the rake it is entirely of iron, about two feet wide, with semicircular
teeth, the curvature of which answers the same purpose as the net-pouch
in the ordinary rake. The teeth are separated about a quarter of an
inch, and are about two feet long. The rake has a light pole for a han-
dle, from 20 to 25 feet in length, according to the depth of the water
over the bottom to be explored.

I would repeat here what I before said in connection with the taking
of oysters, that these instruments are exceedingly well adapted for use
upon small beds. They not only do not destroy a large number of mol-
lusks to no purpose, as is the case with heavier implements, but, on
account of the space between the teeth, small specimens are rarely
taken, and the banks are consequently not depopulated.

I have imported from the United States models of the tongs and the
rake for the fishery-bureau, since I am satisfied that if they were
brought into common use upon our shores they would be of great serv-
ice to our fishermen. Besides, I have no doubt that, with their aid,
beds of mollusks, hitherto unknown, may be found in bays of the ocean
or in the Mediterranean. It must be admitted that our present knowl-
edge of the extent of our wealth in shell-fish is still very imperfect, on
accouut of the restraints imposed by the ancient regulations which yet
control the ordinary fisheries. The use of the instruments in question
does not, however, interfere with the multiplication of fish in the water

*Clams are nowhere so abundant as in Long Island Sound ; in the great bay south
of this island ; in the bay off Sandy Hook ; upon the shores of Jersey, and at the mouth
of the Delaware. They are also taken in great quantities in Chesapeake Bay, and in
Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds.

318 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

•when employed to explore the bottom of the sea, if the statements of
the American fishermen are to be relied upon.

Eouud clams are the object of an especial industry designed to im-
prove them and to promote the rapidity of their growth. Like the
" pa'ires doubles " [ Venus verrucosa] or clams of the Mediterranean, they
are never as delicate in flavor as when freshly caught. Still, in many
places depots are formed for these mollusks in sheltered coves or
creeks, in order to be ready to supply the exigencies of commerce.*

The fishermen generally supply the dealer directly from the banks,
taking care to proportion the supply, as nearly as possible, to the de-
maud. Clams are so hardy, however, that they will at any season live
for several days out of the water if placed in the shade. In cool weather
they will survive for as many as fifteen days, and may be sent by rail
to distant localities in the interior of the continent.

In summer, the consumption of clams in the cities of New Yorkt and
Philadelphia is very considerable, much greater than that of the Mya
arenaria. Like the latter, sold in their natural condition, or out of the
shell, they furnish many excellent dishes, the most esteemed of which
is clam chowder. Many persons eat the smaller specimens raw, and
when flavored with a few drops of lemon-juice they seem to me as palat-
able as the clovisses [Tapes virginea and Tapes decussata,] and the pa'ires
doubles, [ Venus verrucosa,] which are the especial favorites of the people
of Marseilles.

The acclimation of round clams upon the shores of France offers, I
believe, as many chances of success as that of the oysters from Virginia,
of which the specimens I brought to France, numbering five or six
thousand, are now living on our coast, without appearing to suffer in
the least from the change of their native beds. It may be laid down as
a principle, that wherever the "pa'ires doubles" [Venus verrucosa], the
cockles [Cardium edule], or the "palourds"or hen-clams [Tapes decus-
sata] are found, the Venus mercenaria will be equally sure to prosper;
success will be only a question of time.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INTRODUCTION.

Before closing this exposition of the shell-fisheries of the United
States, I must insist upon the utility of propagating the Mya arenaria
on our sea-coasts. Since my return from the United States, M. Four-
nier, commissioner of maritime inscription at Dunkirk, has furnished
me with some valuable information regarding the same species found
in the northern seas, bearing upon this question. This bivalve is

— ■■ ' ■ ■ — - - - i

*At New London the ship-merchants build, in addition to their establishments, upon
piles at the edge of the sea, special structures for the preservation of round clama.
These consist sometimes of floating tanks, which contain several thousands ; some-
times of wooden paddocks or pens, shaded from the sun and placed between the piles in
6uch a way as to be covered by the tide several hours every day. The mollusks live
for a long time in these reservations, provided too many are not crowded into them.

t At the Wasbington and Fulton markets, in New York, clams sell for $3.50 a thousand.

OYSTER-INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 319

found in abundance on the shores of Dunkirk, especially in the fish
preserves. To determine the question whether it and those of America
were the same, M. Burkardt and myself endeavored to import some
from the United States, but without success. I sent for several dozen
of them by the captain of one of the steamers which ply between Havre
and Dunkirk.

The specimens sent me on the 30th of June, 1863, were of all sizes,
and one of them measured a little over three inches in length by two in
width. I recognized at a glance the soft clams of New England. There
were the shells separated at the ends, with the same twisted conforma-
tion, through the upper opening of which the animal projected a long
muscular siphon, which it could contract so as to draw it entirely within
the valves ; the same form and size of the cardinal tooth, the exterior
color of the shells, of a dun white, in some parts bluish j in short, these
shell-fish were, in every respect, identical with those of the United
States. Carrying my examination still further, I ate the Myas of Dunkirk
in a raw condition, as well as cooked in various ways, and found them
excellent. As they came from a basin where the sea-water was not
sufficiently renewed, they were somewhat less delicate than those of the
banks in the bay of Boston ; but if transplanted into a more favorable
medium, they would undoubtedly rival the latter.

The importance of the fact that the soft clam of North America lives
in the latitude of Dunkirk is evident, as it shows the possibility, I may
say the certainty, of realizing Professor Agassiz's programme. Once
propagated in several localities on the coast, this mollusk will furnish
a bait without rival for the coast fisheries; and when salted, it might
be used for the cod-fishery of Iceland and Newfoundland. "We know that
at certain periods of the year the fishermen along the coast find it dif-
ficult to obtain bait ; for instance, the fishermen of Havre, who, at the
season of fishing for " gross-yeux," sometimes pay five centimes apiece
for small cuttle-fishes, and cannot always obtain enough even at that
price. The Mya arenaria would supply this want.

.To plant the exposed sands of Britain and Normandy with these shell-
fish would be truly a benefit to the maritime population. If not found
there, it is probably owing to the shifting nature of the banks on the
shores of Dunkirk, and also the rapidity of the currents. In short, the
hydrographic conditions are such that, left to themselves, the Mya
arenaria is not able to traverse the spaces which separate it from
other portions of the coast, where, if transplanted by the hand of man,
it would thrive wonderfully well.

The experiment might at least be tried j nor would it cost much, as,
the locality once chosen, it would require only a few days to transport
a sufficient number of niollusks. One of the steamers guarding the
fisheries of the first maritime district might be employed for the
purpose.

APPENDIX B.

THE RIVER FISHERIES.

321

21 f

XVII -THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHAD.

A— OPERATIONS IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF SHAD IN 1874.

By James W. Milxer.
DISTRIBUTION FROM COEYMANS, N. T.

The work of shad-distribution began the last week of June; the
delay in the control of available funds preventing any possibility of
propagation in the Potomac or rivers to the southward.

The services of experts were obtained at once for the season, and four
traveling parties organized at Coeymans, N. T., the station of the New
York State commissioners.

The first shipment was made from this point on the 24th of June.
Between this date and July 9, seven shipments were made to streams in
the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Texas. In all four hundred
thousand shad were placed in tributaries of the great lakes, the Missis-
sippi, and in the Brazos and Colorado Rivers of Texas.

DISTRIBUTION FROM SOUTH HADLEY FALLS, MASS.

The work of the New York commissioners ceased about the 3d of
July, and the traveling parties moved to South Hadley Falls, Mass.,
the station of the Connecticut commissioners. Mr. Monroe A. Green
had the direction of the work at its commencement here and during my
absence of a fortnight in Texas and elsewhere.

Part of the plan at this station was to move a portion of the shad into
the Connecticut above the fish-way. The generally accepted fact in the
habits of anadromous fishes that they are disposed to return to almost
the exact locality where they passed their embryonic and earlier stages
of growth indicated a necessity for establishing a colony above the
Holyoke dam.

There is a large amount of evidence to establish the fact of this habit
in the salmon and alewife, and many fresh-water fishes seem to have
as strong an instinct for locality as have the birds and mammals. It
is tolerably evident that the shad possesses the same disposition to find
its way back to familiar waters.

Observation of the shad brought to the large markets shows consid-
erable difference in the physiognomy and general contour of those from
different rivers. The. suggestion is natural that* they are distinct and
separate colonies of the same species, and thus slight characteristics are
perpetuated because they breed in-and-in and do not mix with those of

324 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

other rivers. If they have the instinct of locality to the degree that the
salmon and alewife have, there would be likely to be little disposition in
the shad of the Lower Connecticut to ascend the Holyoke dam. The
Holyoke dam was erected in 1849. The present colony of shad in the
Connecticut River can therefore have little of either inherited or devel-
oped instinct to extend their migrations above the foot of the dam.

As yet, no fish- way has proved to any large extent successful for
shad. Their exceeding timidity is supposed to be the chief reason why
they will not enter a fish- way. Even if this be the reason, no thorough
test can be made until a colony has been established above the dam,
because of the evidence there exists that they have no disposition to
ascend higher than their familiar spawning-ground.

The proof of the success of a fish-way as a means 'of ascent for the shad
to the upper waters of the rivers of the United States was regarded as a
matter of considerable importance. A test at this well-constructed fish-
way will probably afford all the evidence as to their desirability and their
merits in deserving outlay where their purpose is principally for the
ascent of shad. About 565,000 were placed above the dam, about one-
half million being moved above Bellows Falls, in the State of Vermont.
From this station, over two millions of young shad were seut to rivers in
New England, the tributaries of the great lakes, Lake Champlain, and
the Mississippi.

The German government during 1871 sent out Dr. Otto Finsch to
examine into the fisheries and food-fishes of our waters, with reference,
if possible, to a better development of the resources of their own waters.
On his return he had strongly recommended the shad as above all other
fishes the most important acquisition to Germany. This country is trav-
ersed by long rivers like the Ehine, the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, and
the Vistula. He was desirous, as a first experiment, that they should
be introduced into the Weser.

The North German Lloyd Steamship Company, through their agents,
Messrs. Oelrichs & Company, offered to transport the fish and attend-
ants to Bremen, and return the attendants to New York, without
charge. The friendly action of the German government in 1873 in their
gift of 250,000 salmon-eggs prompted a ready compliance to this generous
proposal, and 100,000 fish in charge of Fred Mather and A. A. Ander-
son were seut from Holyoke, Mass., and left on board of the steamer
Donau, for Bremen, on the 5th of August. The steamer provided for
the welfare of the fish a large clean tank containing an ample supply of
Croton water. A convenient compartment on the deck contained the
cans of fish swung in such a way that they were not endangered by the
movements of the vessel.

Mr. Mather reports that continual care was given them and they re-
mained in vigorous condition until the sixth day out, when they began to
suffer.* A fog settling down over the surface of the sea increased the

*See Mather's reuort.

THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHAD. 325

temperature until the mercury stood at 73° in the atmosphere. This
seemed to lessen the vitality of the fish very fast, and at ten days out
from land and within three days of the end of the voyage the last fish
was dead.

An apparatus wasxlevised by Mr. Mather with the intention of taking
a* quantity of partly-developed eggs, which would hatch when a few days
out from land, and thereby limit the period of time the living fish would
have to remain in the cans.

This apparatus was a large can, with a capacity of about twenty-five
gallons; within it a cylinder having a wire-cloth bottom and a tight lid
was adjusted, and within the cylinder the eggs were to be put. The
cylinder had four arms soldered to it near the top, and the same number
near the bottom. The ends of these arms had a solid rubber ball in-
serted. The ends of the arms with the rubber surface rested against
the inside of the can, the friction sustaining the cylinder at any height
in the can desired.

The plan was to fill the can to a convenient height with water, and it
was thought the jolting of the railway-trains and possibly the roll of the
steamer would be sufficient to give the eggs the necessary motion.

When leaving the river a quantity of eggs was put into the cylinder,
but the wire-cloth used proved to be too coarse, and by the time the two
miles between the river and the depot had been traversed the eggs had
all worked through the meshes of the wire-cloth and were in the can
below. It was, of course, useless to take the can farther.

It is due to those who had the experiment in charge to say that they
were called on for the undertaking suddenly and unexpectedly, and
that no time for experiment was afforded them before the start.

Omitting the shipment to Europe, I am able to report a very general
success in the transfers of live shad.

The longest trip, that to Texas, suffered a loss in the quantity started
with of 15 per cent. In most of the shipments the loss was very slight,
not more than one or two per cent. A slightly larger loss was reported
once or twice by men who had had little experience.

A very general appreciation of the effort was displayed in the regions
benefited, and considerable enthusiasm shown wherever the people
were at all informed in the matter of fish culture.

Tables are herewith appended showing the distribution of shad in 1874.

326 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

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THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHAD. 327

B— REPORT ON SHAD-HATCHING IN NEW JERSEY.

By G. A. Anderson.

I have the honor to submit the following report of shad-hatching
Operations on the Delaware for the year 1874, compiled from memoranda
left by the late Dr. J. H. Slack, deputy commissioner.

In response to your telegram of June 23, Dr. Slack took the evening
train to New York, and on the 24th called on you and received instruc-
tions. He left New York in the afternoon and reached Point Pleasant,
Pa., (where the work was to be done,) on the 25th. His messenger from
Troutdale met him with apparatus and the work was at once begun.

Owing to the very great drought prevailing at the time, the water in
the river was very low, and the run of shad was small.

Dr. Slack remained at his post until the afternoon of July 2, when
he returned to Troutdale, and on the following day was prostrated by a
sudden attack of pleuro-pneumouia from which he never rallied, and
which terminated fatally on the 27th of August. There is no doubt
that exposure on the river at night, in the prosecution of his work, in-
duced the disorder.

After Dr. Slack went away, the work was carried on by his assistant,
William H. Swartz, who continued it until the 13th July, when he was
ordered to cease operations. The number of spawn taken appears by
the abstract hereto attached. It is proper to say that the water in the
river was lower than had been known for many years, and that this
interfered materially with the work. There appeared to be at all times
a scarcity of male fish, and this fact prevented his increasing the num-
ber of spawn reported. It is probable that had Dr. Slack lived to con-
tinue the work this difficulty would have been overcome by keeping
alive a few hours some of the males taken through the day.* An ac-
count of expenditures will be forwarded herewith. In conlusion, I will
say that the importance of the work you have undertaken is beginning
to be understood and appreciated by our people, and it is hoped you may
be able to continue it.

All of which is respectfully submitted.

'Attempts to keep males confined for a few iiours have usually resulted in their death.

328 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Abstract showing spaivn of shad taken by and under direclion of the late Dr. J. H. Slack,
deputy United States commissioner of fish and fisheries, on the Delaware River, at Point
Pleasant, Pa., commencing June 25 and ending July 12, 1874.

Jane 25,
June 26,
June 27,
Jane 28,
June 29,
June 30,

July
July-
July
July
July
July

July

July
July
July
July 11,
July 12,

1874..
1874..
1874..
1874..
1874..
1874..
1874. .
1874*.
1874..
1874..
1874..
1874..
1874..
1874..
1874..
1874..
1874..
1674 1.

Total.

Time.

8
10

8.30
8.30
1.30

9
5

8
4
7
5
6
7
6
5
5
5

p.m.
p. m.
p. m.
p. m.
p. m.
p.m.
a. m.
p. m.
p. m.
p. m.
p. m.
p. m.
p. m.
p. m.
p. m.
p. m.
p. m.
p.m.

Air.

77
77

83

97*

83

80

85

72J

84

70J

77

73

80

82

83

72

75

Water.

74
72i

72*
75

76

74

81

79

79

74

79

78£

80

81

80

79

74

Spawn taken.

35, 000
75, 000
85,000

(Sunday.)

60, 000

No males taken.
90, COO

No spawn.

20, 000
20, 000
65, 000
40, 000

No spawn.

No spawn.

No males.

No fishing.

No spawn.

40, 000

530, 000

* Eecord from July 2, kept by W. H. Swartz. t Ordered to stop by telegram from Dr. Slack.

Prof. Spencer F. Baird,

United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries.
Bloomsbury, October 24, 1874.

C— VOYAGE TO BREMERHAVEN, GERMANY, WITH SHAD.

By Fred Mather.

Oil the morning of Tuesday, August 4, 1874, 1 left Holyoke, Mass., for
New York to make preparations to receive the fish on board the steamer
Bonau, advertised to sail the next day. At midnight the fish arrived at
the Grand Central depot, in charge of two men of the commission. There
were ten cans, each containing 10,000 fry, hatched the morning before.
The cans were ordinary milk-cans, capable of holding twelve gallons;
two extra cans for water, and a double set of siphons, strainer-tubes,
and dippers were also brought. An express- wagon conveyed them to
the steamer's wharf at Hoboken, where they were taken on board the
ship. On the morning of the 5th I was joined by Mr. A. Anderson,
who was selected to assist in taking care of the fish on the passage.
The cans were placed in a room 15 feet by 8. This room was a pas-
sage-way, between the gangways of the lower or cabin deck ; it had also
a stair leading to the upper deck ; a door at each gangway and at the
top of the stairs, which when closed made it a tight room. The steamer
had two tanks filled with Croton water, expressly for our use ; these
were in the lower hold, and were of cast iron, lined with cement.

Mr. Anderson and myself divided our watches into six hours each,

THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHAD. 329

and gave the fish fresh water every hour for the first six clays, and
every half-hour the four remaining ones that they lived. Our manner
of giving it was this : about two gallons would be drawn from each
can, and a dipper-full added each hour. In addition, on each watch
the cans were drawn down half way, and the water aerated by pouring
from one pail to another, and then replaced.

To keep the water in the cans sweet and wholesome, the dead were
drawn off every morning ; this was accomplished by swirling the water
with a dipper, which caused all dead fish to collect in the center of the
can ; a siphon was then filled with water, and kept closed until it rested
on this mass, when it was allowed to flow until all dead fish and sedi-
ment were removed.

The following is a table of temperatures and casualties :

Date.

Aug. 5
6

7

S

9

10

Jl

12
13
14

Temperature in cans.

G a. m.

70
66
64
64
62
64
69

62
63
64

Noon.

68
66
62
62
62
(55
66

64
62
59

6 p. m.

66
67
63
64
64
67
64

64
62
60

Mid-
night.

66
64
64
64
64
73
64

63
62
61

Remarks.

Gave water every hour

Emptied each can and cleaned it

Fog at night and hot

Gave water every half-hour as the fish were get
ting weak

Tried to feed them

All dead at noon but 1,000, which died at night. . .

Loss.

500
200

1,000

20

100

3,000

500

1,200
5,000

The fish, in my opinion, died from starvation ; hatched on the morn-
ing of the 4th, they were probably looking for food about the third or
fourth day after, but appeared strong until the morning of the 12th,
when we first noticed signs of weakness by a slow motion, and many
alive resting on the bottom of the can.

On the morning of the 13th I procured a piece of raw beef, and washed
it in water. I could see many particles in it, and it would have been
good food for any of the salinonidee, but the shad did not appear to
notice it. I very much doubt, if the fish had been turned into a river
full of their natural food at this time, that they would have lived, for
they were past the point of reviving. It is doubtful if the Croton water
that we had on board the ship contained the minute forms of animal
life upon which the shad-fry feed. It was confined in tanks below three
decks in the dark.

We now know the extreme-limit of their endurance without food.
They have been taken from the Hudson River to California in seven
days, and have lived and will probably breed. Ours died of exhaustion
in a trifle over ten days.

From this, and the reports in the "Forest and Stream," of the experi-
ments by Comdr. L. A. Beardslee, at Noank, I do not regard the trans-
portation of shad-fry as at all practicable on a journey occupying over

330 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

eight days, unless we can discover some method of feeding them. This
seems at present difficult, and I have hope of a better result from taking
the eggs and hatching the fry upon the passage. This seems to me to
be the most practicable and easiest method; and in the connection I
would refer to the hatching-can which I invented and have given to your
commission. This was done too late for trial this season, and although
intended for use on railroad-cars may be of service on shipboard.

The deputy commissioner, Mr. J. W. Milner, who had the charge of
the shad-distribution, intended to have this can tried on our voyage, and
when the fish were put up he had several thousand eggs put in the can ;
but on arriving at the railroad- station it was found that the wire cloth
was of too large mesh ; and that from the jolting of the wagon in which
the can was brought to the depot the eggs had passed through to the
bottom of the outer can.

If, by experiment, we find that we can hatch the eggs at sea, and, by
the use of water at a temperature of 60° to 62°, delay the hatching
until the fifth or sixth day out, then we may reasonably hope for success.
The passage from New York to Bremerhaven occupied twelve days, and
as two days should be allowed for distribution from that port, it will be
a comparatively easy matter to get them through in eight days after
hatching.

D— LIVING SHAD ON THEIR WAY TO THE WESER,*

Translated by H. Jacobson.

As has previously been mentioned, the German Fishing Society at
Berlin was notified in June by Mr. Roosevelt, the commissioner of fish-
eries for the State of New York, that a number of live shad would be
sent, which, however, never arrived in Germany, as, on account of the
unusual heat, all the fish had died before they reached New York.
Although we must acknowledge the earnest endeavors of Mr. Roosevelt,
this first attempt must be conceded to have been a failure ; and it is
chiefly owing to the great interest which Prof. Spencer F. Baird, United
States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, has taken in this matter,
that another attempt has been made during this year. The circumstance
that this year the migration-period of the shad in the Connecticut River,
which generally lasts from April until the middle of July, was prolonged
til' near the end of July, made another attempt possible. With his
peculiar energy Professor Baird knew how to make use of this circum-
stance, and in spite of the short time, made all the necessary arrange-
ments in a manner which augured well for the success of the undertaking.

As early as the 7th August, Dr. Finsch received a cable telegram
from Messrs. Oelrichs & Co., agents of the North German Lloyd in New
York, announcing the shipping of a large quantity of live shad by

*From the " Weser-Zeituug," August 28, 1874.

THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHAD. 331

the steamer Donau, Captain Neiuaber, which left New York on the 5th
August. The German Fishing Society thereupon intrusted Dr. Finsch,
its corresponding member, with the care of placing the fish in the Weser,
who was in this matter most willingly assisted by the practical advice
of Mr. C. Schieber, the experienced fishing superintendent of the city
of Hamelu, who, fully appreciating the importance of the undertaking,
personally placed himself at Dr. Finsch's disposal. Although no de-
tailed information had been received from America regarding the num-
ber and age of the fish, or the manner of transporting them, all the
necessary preparations were made for receiving the rare finny guests,
the first which had ever crossed the ocean to be domiciled with us. All
the details must of course depend on the condition of the fish at their
arrival ; and, in order to be informed of this in good time, Dr. Finsch
asked Messrs. Keller, Wallis & Postlethwaite, agents of the Lloyd in
Southampton, to telegraph immediately on the arrival of the fish regard-
ing their condition. These gentlemen sent a telegram on the 15th,
which arrived here on the 16th, saying that unfortunately the whole
number of 100,000 fish had died on the day previous. A letter from
Professor Baird, which Consul Schwab, in New York, had dispatched
by the Prussian closed mail, announced the same day the arrival of
Messrs. Frederic Mather and A. A. Anderson, in whose charge the fish
had been placed. Dr. Finsch therefore went to Bremerhaven on the
17th August, and got from the above-mentioned gentlemen all the desired
information and all the details, from which it is evident, beyond a doubt,
that, in spite of the failure of this first attempt, the successful trans-
portation of young shad is possible.

To understand the whole matter, we must speak of the particular diffi-
culties attending the transportation of fish of the Alosa kind in a live
state, which are much greater than with any representative of the
Salmonidce. Mr. Schieber was not able to keep our European Alosa,
the Alosa vulgaris, alive more thau twelve hours; and the American
representative of this family, the shad, (Alosa prcestabilis,) seems to
be more tender, for, as Mr. Mather assured us, the attempt to put the
mature shad in a vessel would prove fatal. The idea of transporting
grown or half-grown shad can therefore not be entertained, just as little
as that of spawn, as in this respect likewise the Alosa is subject to con-
ditions of life differing entirely from those of the salmon. While in
some varieties of these last-mentioned fish the eggs frequently require
weeks for their development, which, moreover, can be retarded artifi-
cially by lowering the temperature — a circumstances of the utmost im-
portance for transportation — this cannot be done with shad-eggs. These
develop as early as the third or fourth day, and perish if the tempera-
ture is less than 72° to 80°, (Fahrenheit.) Another circumstance which
facilitates the transportation of young salmon is this, that they keep the
umbilical bag, which gives food to the young during the first period of
their existence, from one to six weeks, while in the young shad this bag

332 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

is very small and is lost on the fourth clay. In spite of all these pecu-
liar difficulties, the transportation of young shad has been successfully
carried on in America. Seth Green made a successful introduction of
shad into California in 1871, and later Livingston Stone in 1873. The
first grown shad was during this year caught in the Sacramento River,
and the lucky fisherman received the State premium of $25 for it.

As the American pisciculturists are well acquainted with the difficul-
ties attending the transportation of young shad, it was to be expected
that Professor Baird would commission competent and experienced men
to convey the first shad to Germany, and Messrs. Mather and Anderson
have certainly done everything in their power to justify the confidence
placed in them. It must here be mentioned that both these gentlemen are
experienced pisciculturists, the former possessing a piscicultural estab-
lishment of his own for brook-trout, (Salmo fonlinalis,) near Honeoye
Falls, on the Honeoye Creek, a tributary of the Genesee River, fourteen
miles south of Rochester, in the State of New York ; while Mr. Ander-
son is successfully raising black bass (Grystes nigricans) and salmon-
trout (Salmo confinis) at Groton, near New London, Conn. Both these
gentlemen are several months during the year engaged by the United
States Department of Fisheries to transplant young fish, and possess an
experience of many years, especially regarding the transportation of
shad.

Mr. William Clift, in July, 1872, succeeded in transporting a large num-
ber of shad to the Platte River, in Colorado, and, though of course losing
quite a number, in planting the majority near Denver; and Mr. Mather,
before undertaking the journey to Germany, had just returned from Des
Moines, Iowa, where he had planted 90,000 shad for stocking the Mis-
sissippi. During the railroad journey of seventy-two hours, only 200
out of this large number had died. Both these gentlemen received their
commission by letter from Professor Baird, and had just enough time to
hasten to New York to receive the fish at the Grand Central depot and
to take them over to Hoboken on board the Douau by express.

These fish came from the piscicultural establishment for raising shad
which the State of Massachusetts established some years ago near
Holyoke, on the Connecticut River, and which has been instrumental in
re-stocking that river with shad in the most astonishing manner. This
requires no expensive buildings, but only very simple appliances, which
consist in 200 wooden boxes, 2 feet long and 1£ feet broad, open at the
top and having a wire-net at the bottom, being placed in the river.
These boxes receive the impregnated eggs and protect the young fish
till they lose their umbilical bag. The shad-raising establishments of
the State of New York, on the Hudson, ten miles below Albany, and that
on the Potomac near Washington, are similarly orgauized. The young
fish scarcely two to three hours old were shipped by railroad from Holy-
oke on the 1th August, at 2.30 p. m., and arrived in New York at mid-
night, via Hartford and New Haven Railroad, in a healthy condition, in

THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHAD. 333

the same milk-cans in which they were to continue their journey across the
ocean. These cans, which in America are very generally used for trans-
porting milk on a large scale, are made of tin, round and about 2^ feet
high, have been successfully employed in transporting fish. Such a can
holds 10 gallons and affords ample room for 10,000 young fish, which will
seem quite plausible if we inform the reader that the young shad on
emerging from the eggs scarcely measure more than f of an inch in
length. The whole number of fish, 100,000, could therefore easily be dis-
tributed in 12 cans, which, through the kindness of Captain Neinaber,had
an excellent place on board the steamer where they were protected both
agaiust too violent movements and against the influence of the weather,
as fresh air could constantly be admitted by means of a door, which
could be closed when the temperature was too low. There was likewise
a sufficient quantity of fresh water, which was brought by a small steamer
from Oroton Eiver, and which filled two iron tanks, cemented on the
inside, holding 1,500 gallons of water, destined for the exclusive use of
the fish. The Croton water-works furnishes 60,000,000 gallons per day
of water for the city of New York.

It must be said that both Messrs. Oelrichs & Co. and Captain Neinaber,
with a zeal worthy of the cause, willingly did everything in their power
to assist the fish-commissioners in their difficult task, and we express
the sentiments of the American gentlemen, if we herewith publicly
express their thanks to the above-mentioned representatives of the
Lloyd.

As soon as the fish had been placed on board the Donau, which left
Hoboken on the 5th August, Messrs. Mather and Anderson took them
in charge. Their care for them consisted in the first place in filling in
fresh water and introducing oxygen into the stale water. In trans-
porting large fish this is done by means of bellows eonuected with the
tank, and the so-called Freiburg transportation-kegs are built on this
plan. Experience, however, has taught the Americans, who are well
acquainted with this method, that it cannot be applied to young fish,
and the only effectual remedy so far is the filling up of fresh water.
This, of course, requires incessant activity by day and by night. Messrs.
Mather and Anderson therefore relieved each other every six hours with
a seaman-like regularity, which did not even suffer any interruption by
slight attacks of sea-sickness. The business of filling up the water was
attended to with the same regularity. By means of a tin cylinder and
a rubber tube two gallons of water were carefully taken out every hour,
and during the last part of the voyage even every half-hour. This water
was supplied with new oxygen by pouring it continually from one vessel
into another, the milky foam of the water indicating that the process had
been finished. This water was then carefully filled in again by quarts,
which for two gallons required several hours. Every three hours each can
was up to one-third of its contents emptied by means of a siphon and
filled with fresh water from the tanks. Dead fish had to be removed as

334 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

soon as possible, and the temperature had to be kept quite even. On
the third day of the voyage the fish lost their sacs, which could be seen
by the differeuce of their movements. While before this they had
quietly moved round in a circle, they now made rapid jerking move-
ments from one side of the can to the other, as if they were in search of
food. Two days after losing their sacs, 9th August, the fish were thriv-
ing; but from this time they gradually fell off, their bodies became
thinner, more thread-like and transparent, whereby the large head
seemingly increased in size. On the 13th August the young fish were
very much exhausted, their movements grew slow, and the gentlemen
prepared themselves for a total loss, which took place during the night
from the 13th to the 14th August, in the English Channel, a short time
before the arrival of the vessel in Southampton, after the little fish had
been kept alive two hundred and fifty hours in all. According to Mr.
Mather's diary the daily list of losses was as follows : 5th August, no
losses; 6th August, 200 lost; 7th, 1,000; 8th, 20; 9th, 100; 10th, 3,000; 11th,
500; 12th, 1,200; 13th, 5,000; the 14th, all the remainder, almost 90,000.
It need not be said how painful it was for the two American gentlemen,
when they had to throw overboard the object of their incessant care dur-
ing ten days ; for this deprived them of th$ great triumph of having been
the first to transport live fish across the ocean, the prize for which they had
gone to so much trouble. But in spite of their failure these gentlemen may
feel proud of the result of their undertaking, for while young shad had
hitherto only been transported alive one hundred and eighty-four and
a half hours, they succeeded in keeping them alive two hundred and
fifty hours. The practical experience gained is likewise of great im-
portance, and every pisciculturist will agree with us in assuming that
the possibility of success can no longer be considered doubtful. Messrs.
Mather and Anderson shared this view, and we rejoice to hear that so
experienced a pisciculturist as Mr. Schieber, of Hameln, entirely agrees
with them. Mather and Anderson felt convinced that nothing but want
of food was the cause of the total loss; but unfortunately they had to
see the fish die without being able to save them, as so far but very little
is known regarding the food of young shad. Very small, almost micro-
scopic animals will certainly form their food during the first days, but
it proved impossible to supply their place by meat ; and blood, which
has in similar cases been successfully employed, was of no use. It is
well known that the grown shad lives on various crustaceans, and that,
like the salmon, it takes no food during the period of its migration in
fresh . water, but as regards the food of the young shad, we are so far
entirely in the dark. Messrs. Mather and Anderson are, going to make
extensive experiments during next year, and will doubtless be in every
possible way assisted by Professor Baird in his influential position as
United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, as the introduction of
the shad into Europe is one of the pet plans of this eminent naturalist.
To his energy and influence we owe in the first place this attempt, the ex-

THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHAD. 335

pertses of which, as far as the fish and their attendants are concerned,
were borne by the United States Fishery Commission, while the directors
of the North-German Lloyd afforded a free passage, in order to give also
some German support to an undertaking which promises to prove of
incalculable benefit to our country.*

Convinced that the interest in this important matter will not decrease
in America, we hope to be able to meet the two experienced piscicul-
turists, Mather and Anderson, again next year on the Weser, and wish
them a final success in their endeavor to transport live young shad
across the ocean.

E— SHAD HATCHING AND DISTRIBUTING OPERATIONS OF

1875.

1. — THE NEUSE RIVES, STATION.

The shad work of 1875 began on the Neuse River of North Carolina
about the 1st day of April. A few days were spent in a reconnaissance
of the river, in order to find the best point for a hatching-station, and
the fishing was delayed a number of days by the very high stage of
water. Between the 9th and the 12th, the river rose 26 inches ; after
this date it began to fall. On the 13th of April, a camp was established
a few miles below Kinston. Seine hauling began on the 14th. The water
continued to fall until the 23d, falling in all 5 feet and li inches, an
average of 5.5 inches a day ; but owing to the continual rains in the region
of the upper waters, the fall was very irregular, and varied from f of an
inch to as much as 13£ inches in one day.

On the 23d, the gauge showed a rise at 6 p. m. of J inch, and
the water continued to rise from 2£ to 7£ inches a day until the 27th,
when it had gone up 23 inches. The morning of the 28th it had
fallen 1£ inches, and continued to fall, in all 30£ inches, until the end of
the month. The fall on the 29th was 15 inches. May 1 it again
began to rise, and on May 5 had risen 23 inches, when it began to
fall, and on the 7th had again fallen 12 inches. The camp was broken
up on the 10th, and no records kept after the 7th. The extent of oscil-
lation in the twenty-nine days of observation was about 5.7 feet. The
variations of temperature were in the air between 32° and 80°; in the
water 53° and 05°.

The fisheries were watched continually, and the examination of over
600 shad failed to find any ripe ones, with the exception of 14 males,
soon after the camp was established. No eggs were obtained. Short
excursions to different fisheries a few miles farther down the river were
attended with no better success. The camp moved from this point to
the Potomac.

* This effort on Professor Baird's part was mainly prompted by his desire to make
a suitable return for the liberality of the German government in presenting the United
States Fish Commission with 250,000 impregnated eggs of the salmon of the Ehine.

336 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
2.— THE PAMTJNKEY RIVER STATION.

In the mean time, a reconnaissance was made of the James, York, and
Pamunkey Rivers, Virginia, and a point on the latter near the historic
White House, was selected for the hatching-station. Mr. Fred Mather
was appointed to take charge of this, and arrived on the 11th of May,
and continued until the 20th, taking a few shad-spawn, which did not
seem to be healthy, and from which no fish resulted.

3. — THE POTOMAC RIVER STATIONS.

The work on the Potomac began on the 14th of May. Previous to
this time, a general reconnaissance of the fisheries had been made on the
steamer Triana, and points determined upon for the hatching-stations.*

The first station, placed in charge of Mr. Jonathan Mason, was estab-
lished at Free Stone Point, Va., tbe property of Mr. J. W. Fairfax. Mr.
J. D. Faunce had the fishery, and was quite willing and obliging in
all our relations with him, affording the fishes from each haul, and
furnishing assistance when it was needed. Ripe fish were obtained
from the time we arrived here until the fishing stopped.

The temperature of the river, owing to the cold season, was quite low
and at first the development of the eggs was very slow. On the 15th,
the temperature did not rise above 64°, and this was the highest water
temperature until the 20th, when a gradual rise began. The young
fish also seemed to suffer a degree of torpidity in the cold waters. The
first fish were turned loose on the 21st, five days after the eggs were
impregnated. The seine in use at this station was a large one, and
the large expenses attending the fishing with the poor returns did not
permit its continuance later than the 21st.

There were hatched altogether at this station and turned into the
river 1,156,750 shad. Mr. Mason's camp was removed to Moxley Point,
Md., at J. D. Skidmore's fishery on the 25th.

In the mean time, on the 18th of May, a station was established at the
end of Long Bridge, opposite Washington, D. C, and put into the hands
of Mr. H. W. Welsher. This was continued until June 5, and 1,072,800
shad were turned into the river at this point.

While this station was in progress, Mr. Welsher also carried on opera-
tions at Ferry Landing, Va., near Mount Vernon. This station pro-
duced the largest results of any one established on the river, as it was
begun on May 21 and closed on May 29, and in only nine days
1,473,500 young shad were turned into the waters.

The Moxley Point (Md.) station continued from May 26 to June 7,
and 1,182,500 shad were turned into the water.

The entire number hatched and put into the Potomac River was
4,885,550.t

The spawning-season in the river continues longer than the large
seines find it profitable to fish. The height of the spawning-season
begins about the 22d of May and lasts during the first week of June.

* See report on the Triana trip on subsequent page. t See tables on subsequent
page.

THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHAD. 337

The earliest spawners may be taken during the latter half of 'April. At
this time, ripe males are abundant and become rather scarce late in the
season. The large seines "cut out" at the fisheries about the 14th of
June, and the fishing is continued by the small seines, pound-nets, and
drift-nets until late in the summer.

4. — THE DISTRIBUTION OF SHAD FROM THE HUDSON RIVER.

The different camps were broken up entirely about June 7, and by the
10th the men were all off to the Hudson. From this point, the first ship-
ment was made on the 11th of June, Messrs. Frank 1ST. Clark and H. E.
Quinn starting on the 11th for the White River of Indiana with 100,000
shad.

Shipments were made from here to the Wliite, the Muskingum, the

Scioto, the Des Moines, and to the Colorado of Texas ; in all about

four hundred and twenty-five thousand shad were distributed from this

point.* r

5. — THE CONNECTICUT RIVER STATION.

On the 1st of July, the parties moved to Holyoke, and shipments were
begun to the South and West. The fishery below Holyoke was visited,
and a couple of seine-hauls made for the purpose of judging of its
advantages as a hatching-station. A small catch was obtained, and the
fact of the availability of another hatching-location pretty well estab-
lished, if it ever should be found necessary to use a second one.

Commissioner Brackett, of Massachusetts, and Commissioner Mud-
son, of Connecticut, canle to Holyoke, and with them the general plan
of the work was discussed.

It was decided that one-half of all fishes hatched should be returned
to the Connecticut ; and the proposal on the part of the United States
was made to place one-fourth of the fish above the dam, in order that a
colony might become established there which would be likely to have
the desire for returning to this portion of the river when they had
become mature fishes. A few shad of 8 to 12 inches in length, taken in
the. fishway, were thought to be from the stock placed above the darn at
Bellows Falls, Vt., during the two previous years.

There were distributed in waters of New England, other than the
Connecticut, 320,000 shad ; distributed in waters of the United States in
the Mississippi Valley and tributary to the Gulf of Mexico, 590,000;
carried to the Upper Connecticut, 1,205,000; hatched and put in below
the dam, 4,500,000; sent to Germany, 400,000— about 7,000,000 in all.

Two hundred thousand were sent from the Delaware, one-half to the
Stanton River, headwaters of the Roanoke, and one-half to the Pearl
River of Mississippi and Louisiana. The total of fish hatched and
turned into the waters of the rivers which afforded the ripe fish and eggs
and those sent away to distant waters was 12,500,000.

*See Tables.
22 F

338 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

6. — EXPERIMENTS WITH A VIEW TO TRANSPORTING SHAD TO GERMANY.

The failure of the German expedition the previous year induced a
careful series of experiments with reference to the conditions most favor-
able to sustaining shad-eggs or embryo-fish for a prolonged period in
transportation-vessels. The experiments made at Noank, Conn., the
previous summer, proved that there would be no hope in attempting to
inure the shad to sea- water so as to depend on fresh supplies of water
from the ocean after the steamer was under way.

The first experiment begun this year was at Washington, D. C. Mr.
Fred Mather, who was one of the attendants on the shipment of shad
in the first German trip, was given charge of the work. He devised a
can holding about eight gallons, and having the form of a cylinder for
about two-thirds of its upper portion ; below this, the remaining third
had the form of a funnel. This was hung in gimbals, as it was intended
it should be on shipboard. The water-supply entered at the bottom
coming from a reservoir at a higher level, and flowed upward through a
screen of wire-cloth, which rested upon the line at the bottom of the cylin-
der and top of the funnel. Upon this were placed about 20,000 shad-eggs.

For a day or two, they seemed to survive well, but soon an increasing
mortality was evident, and after four days the last one was dead. Mr.
Mather left Washington on June 11, and went to Point Pleasant, Pa.,
on the Delaware Eiver, and began an experiment with a similar though
smaller apparatus, and with little success.

An apparatus differing in being entirely of a funnel form and having
only the inlet-tube covered with wire-cloth,* w"as the suggestion of Mr.
Mather's assistant, Mr. Charles Bell, t This worked admirably, and
young shad were produced seemingly with all the success and facility
of the floating shad-boxes.

In the meanwhile an experiment was begun by Mr. H. W. Welsher,
at the New York shad-hatching station on the Hudson River. His
attempt was to retard the development of the eggs in a case of flan-
nel screens, upon which they were placed. The screens, fitted with light
covers of the same material, slid into the case like drawers, one above
the other, in a series of ten or twelve. One of the sides of the case was
fitted on hinges as a door. Lumps of ice were placed in the upper
screen, the drippings from which supplied the necessary moisture to the
eggs. The temperature was moderated by means of the door. The de-
velopment of the eggs was retarded by a low temperature, so as to
hatch after six days and even ten, and seemed, when put into the
water, just before the release of the fish, to be in a healthy condi-
tion, and the fish when hatched seemed vigorous.

Mr. Monroe A. Green was associated with Mr. Welsher just before it
was decided to make the attempt of a trip to Germany ; the announce-
ment of their readiness to attempt the work arriving in advance of that
from Mr. Mather, who was at the time experimenting on the Delaware.

* See Apparatus for batching shad-ova while enroute to new waters, t Since deceased.

THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHAD. 339

Mr. Green now arranged a can made in similar form to that which
Mr. Bell had devised, but instead of agitating the water and eggs by
an inflow of water he applied a current of air from an air force-pump,
the bubbles and force of the air rising from the bottom of the can carry-
ing upward a current of water and the eggs, which slowly fell back
toward the bottom, to again be carried upward by the in-rushing air.

The purpose of the can was to receive the eggs when they had under-
gone their slow development in the screens to the point when they were
nearly ready to break the shell and release the young shad into the water.

Mr. Welsher and Mr. Green were quite confident of the efficiency of
their apparatus, and expected to make a success of the trip.

7. — THE TRIP TO GERMANY.

On the nights of the 15th and 16th July, Mr. Green took a large
quantity of shad-eggs at the station at South Hadley Falls, Mass., on
the Connecticut River. Those chosen for the voyage were very carefully
selected, all light eggs floating to the surface were allowed to float out of
the pan, and the manipulation in the impregnation of the eggs was very
carefully managed, and the ripe fish critically examined before eggs
or milt were taken.

About 400,000 impregnated eggs were placed in the cases ; large boxes
were obtained in which the cases of eggs were packed. The method of
packing was to lay a bottom thickness of four or five inches of turners'
shavings, upon which the case rested. The same thickness was tamped
in around the side, and over the top was put a heavy layer of the shav-
ings and lumps of ice.

The boxes were put into the baggage-car on the morning of the 17th
and arrived at New York on same day. They were moved to the
steamer Donau in a light-spring wagon, and put on board about 1 p. m»

The place afforded by the officers of the steamer was the middle hatch-
way, which had been fitted up between decks into a commodious room.
Timber-posts had been put in strengthening the hatch-cover overhead,
and nine of the cans arranged by Mr. Green, each of about ten gallons'
capacity, were suspended by chains. A rubber hose led from each of
these to an air-chamber, into which the air was forced by an air force-
pump, and through the hose distributed to each of the cans.

The cases of eggs were placed on the floor and the ice kept near by
in a small ice- chest.

The steamer left on the 17th. After getting under way, Mr. Welsher
and Mr. Green opened the cases of eggs, and, to their dismay, perceived
that they had been injured during the transportation from the Connec-
ticut River to the steamer.

No development seemed to take place at all in the eggs, and no fish
were hatched. The jolting of the baggage-car between Holyoke, Mass.,
and New York had evidently entirely destroyed the vitality of the eggs.

The following tables exhibit the physical observations, the number of
fish taken, and the number of fish put into the river at the different
stations.

340 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

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THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHAD. 341

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XVIII.— *REPORT OF THE TRIANA TRIP.

By J. W. Milner.

Dear Sir : I have the honor to report, with reference to the expedi-
tion among the fisheries of the Potomac and Patuxent Rivers, that we
went on board the steam-tug Triana at 10 a. m. Tuesday, April 27. Our
party consisted of Mr. T. B. Ferguson, commissioner of Maryland ; Dr.
W. B.Robertson and Mr. Alexander Moseley, commissioners of the State
of Virginia; Dr. Pearson Chapman, of Baltimore, whose intimate
knowledge of the fisheries of the Potomac afforded us valuable aid; and
Mr. G. Brown Goode, of the Smithsonian Institution. The three latter
gentlemen left the steamer on the second day out, at Quantico, Va.

We visited two localities on the Potomac River the first day; Gut
Landing, Md., fished by W. M. Elliott, being the first. This gentle-
man complained severely of the decrease of fish, and attributed it
largely to the drift-nets which have thronged the river for seasons past.
He said that the season was unusual in the marked decrease of herring.
We remained at this fishery an hour or more, conversing with the pro-
prietor and examining the species of fishes taken in the net. Very many
male Rock-fish (Roccus lineatus), measuring from 12 to IS inches, were
found to be ripe, but no ripe females were obtained.

We next proceeded to Chapman's Point Fishery, Md., where a seine
haul was made during a rain-storm. Besides shad and the two kinds of
herring, constituting the bulk of the food-fishes there, we found, in the
net, Rock-fish, White perch (2[orone Americana); Yellow perch (Pcrcsi
flavescens); Sun-fish (Pomotis aureus); the Gizzard shad (Dorosoma
cepedianum); the Catfish (Amiurus albidus); the Bull-head (Amiurus
atrarius); the Mullet sucker (Ptychostomus aureolus); and in addition
twelve species, of forms too small to be marketable, and of which we

* The work of shad-propagation for the Potomac, inaugurated iu 1673, was only
moderately successful that year, as the station at Jackson City, Va., was the only one
employed. Iu view of the proposed increase in the number of hatching-stations, it
became necessary to obtain a more intimate knowledge of the fishing-grounds, and by
the kindness of the Secretary of the Navy the steam-tug Triana was placed at my dis-
posal for a trip down the river under the direction of Mr. Milner. The commissioners
of Virginia and Maryland were invited to be of the party, as being directly interested
in the results; Dr. Pearson Chapman, of Baltimore, because of his knowledge of the
fishery-interests of the river and their history ; and Mr. G. Brown Goode, of the Smith-
sonian Institution, because of his familiarity with the species inhabiting the river*
and brackish waters of the Atlantic coast both south and north. — S. F. Baird.

352 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

obtained a supply of specimens and preserved them in alcohol. We were
hospitably entertained for the night at Mr. Chapman's house.

We went again on board in the morning and proceeded down the
river to Stony Point, Va., before landing. The large seine, belonging to
the Gibson heirs, is worked here. This is over 1,G00 fathoms, or 9,600
feet, in length, and the linear extent of seine and lines is nearly five
miles. A steam-engine is employed at either end, one of fourteen horse-
power and one of eight. But two hauls are made in twenty-four hours,
one on each ebb of tide. The haul wkich should have come on shore
while we were there was prevented by the stubborn churlishness of the
captain of a little vessel, who anchored within the circuit of the seine
while it was being laid down, and refused to move his vessel out of the
way, though Gibson proposed to send his men on board to lift the anchor.
Calculating the time lost by eighty men, the lost trip of the tug char-
tered for the season, and the sustenance of the men during the lost
time, which is by no means the whole outlay, the amount would be
about $83.

Mr. Ferguson and I crossed over to High Point, Va., one of the larger
fisheries, where we found the ordinary 1,000 fathoms seine managed
with one eight horse-power engine. Proceeding to the Occoquan-Bay
side of the point, we examined the shores, hoping to find a locality, shel-
tered from the winds and sea, that might answer as a shad-hatching
station, We found a cove, landlocked from all points save southwest.
Prom this direction the wind had a sweep of the entire width of the
Potomac for' fifteen miles, and the bars near by, that might cut off the
action of the waves, were not shoal enough to prevent a sea sufficient to
affect our hatching-boxes.

We returned to the steamer with additions to our collections, and
steamed for Quantico, Va. Mr. Goode, Mr. Moseley, and Dr. Chapman
left us at this point. We came to anchor for the night off Blackistone
Island.

On the morning of the 29th we were early under way, and entered
Chesapeake Bay, keeping close along the west shore. The Maryland
State steamer "Lela" was seen near the mouth. At Mr. Ferguson's
request, the captain consented that we should obtain a pilot for the
Patuxent from the oyster police boat, a short distance up the river.

We found the State oyster- boat at Drum Point, some distance up the
Patuxent Bay, and took on board Captain Forrest, who was to pilot us
to the head of navigation at Bristol, if the draught of our steamer would
permit her to ascend so far.

At the lower end of the river, numerous oyster-dredging schooners
were seen, occasionally of considerable size. They were all busily en-
gaged, as it was near the end of the season. The law prohibiting taking
oysters after April 30, the entire fleet had to make their cargoes by the
next night, when they would all set sail for market.

As we got higher up the river, no dredgers were seen, the tongs- men

MILNER EEPORT OF THE TKIANA TRIP. 353

in small boats replacing theni on the oyster-beds. An eastern schooner
was buying their cargoes at one point, and a large fleet of the " tongs-
men" had gathered around her, some of them alongside, transferring
' their stock of oysters to her hold, and others lying anchored near by
awaiting their turn.

Our pilot carried us through the narrow passage of the Benedict
Shoals without stopping. The channel at this point has 13 feet of
water, but is very narrow and flanked on each side by a shoal with
only 7 feet soundings. Opposite" Northampton we ran aground in the
mud, but soon got off. The lead was thrown continually during the
afternoon. The navigation was difficult for a steamer drawing nearly
10 feet, and we were aground several times, and at last gave up the
attempt to reach Bristol, and tied up to a fishing-dock on the west shore
known as " Half Pone."

Seine-fishing shores were seen at numerous points along the river,
but we learned that fishing was stopped as soon as hot weather set in.
No communication by railroad is available for the shores, and the use
of ice for shipping by steamer has not been introduced.

The boat was lowered and Mr. Ferguson and 1 started for Bristol.
The men raised a sail, as the wind was fair, but even with a small boat
we soon ran aground. We reached Bristol after a half-hour's sail. Mr.
Oren Chase, with an assistant, was there in charge of the Maryland shad-
hatching station, just organized by Mr. Ferguson. About 50,000 shad-
eggs were in the boxes, but the temperature was 48° and the eggs were
in bad condition. A seine-haul was made before we left, but no ripe
fish were taken. But little success was looked for until the water be-
came warmer.

It was very dark, and blowing hard, when we started to return, and
we were soon lost in the shoals and mud-lumps; and the men pulled
back and forth for two hours before we reached the steamer. We were
early on our way on the 30th, and passed the shoals quite successfully
on our return, though we were aground once. We steamed into the Po-
tomac and came to anchor for the night at Nanjemoy Stores.

At Freestone Landing, Va., May 1, a little after 8 a. m., Captain
Cook, Dr. Robertson, Mr. Ferguson, Mr. Gee, and I landed at the
fishery. On the southwest side of the peninsula on which the lauding
is we selected a site for a station. A cove formed by an arm of land
extending into Powell's Creek was sheltered from nearlytall directions ;
it was sufficiently near the fishery to take advantage of all the hauls,
and the proprietors expressed their willingness to afford us spawners, as
iu fact did many of the fishery-proprietors at other points.

Another locality which would be quite favorable is the vicinity of
Fort Washington, where the Piscataway Creek flows into the Potomac.
Gunsen Cove and Doag Creek, on the Virginia side, also afford shel-
tered places for stations.

At Alexandria Dr. Robertson returned to Richmond bv rail.
23 F J

354 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The Triana reached the navy-yard a little after 4 p. m., having been
away about four days and six hours.

Throughout the Potomac waters, although examining the shad con-
tinually, no ripe ones were found. The Patuxent-shad eggs which had
been obtained at Bristol were suffering from the low temperature of
the water, and will fail to come to maturity ; so that it is evident that
it would be premature to begin shad-hatching operations at present,
though a week may make a change in the aspect of things.

We gathered a good deal of valuable information with reference to the
fisheries. A list of the fishing-shores, from Point Lookout northward, is
given herewith, and the seines in operation this season.

The quantity of shad and alewives (herring, as they are called here,
Pomolobus pseudoharengus), is said to be far below that of any preceding
year. The larger seine-proprietors insist that they are losing money
daily, which is probably the case as their outlay is very large.

The early abundance of fishes in the river is fresh in the memory of
the older residents on the Potomac, and is but the repetition of the
history of the early times on many of the Atlantic rivers.

Mr. Chapman recollects the time when the seine-hauls on the shore
piled the herring up from the water's edge 12 or 15 feet landward.
The men walked or waded knee-deep among them, thrusting in their
arms to find and select out the shad, and allowed the herring to float
off. at high tide. In Mr. Chapman's words, "This reckless, destructive
policy has brought its results, and this year the fishery-owners have to
bewail the scarcity of herring," which they would be very glad to have
in abundance.

In the *Gazetteer of Virginia, published in 1835, is the statement,
referring to " the immense fisheries of the Potomac," that " the num-
ber of shad frequently obtained at a haul is 4,000 and upward, and of
herrings from 100,000 to 300,000. In the spring of 1832 there were
taken in one seine, at one draught, a few more than 950,000, accurately
counted." * * * * " The lowest prices at which these fish sell when
just taken are 25 cents per thousand for herrings, and $1.50 per hundred
for shad, but they generally bring higher prices, often $1.50 per
thousand for the former, and from $3 to $4 per hundred for the latter.
In the height of the season, a single shad, weighing from 6 to 8 pounds,
is sold in the markets of the District for 6 cents. Herrings, however,
are sometimes -taken so plentifully that they are given away or hauled
on the land as manure for want of purchasers. Some idea may be
formed of the importance of these fisheries from the following statement:

Number of fisheries on the Potomac, about 150

Number of laborers required at the landing 6, 500

Number of vessels employed 450

* A New and Comprehensive Gazetteer of Virginia and the District of Columbia,
containing, &c. * * * By Joseph Martin. To which is added, &c. * * *
Charlottesville. Published by Joseph Martin. Moseley & Tompkins, Printers, 1835.
p. 480

MILNER REPORT OF THE TRIANA TRIP. 355

Number of men to navigate these vessels . 1, 350

Number of shad taken in good season, which lasts only

about six weeks 22,500,000

Number of herrings under similar circumstances 750, 000, 000

Quantity of salt required to cure the fish, bushels 995, 000

Number of barrels to contain the fish 995, 000

" The Potomac Kiver can boast of the largest shad-fisheries in the
United States. The advantages of the herring-fisheries she divides
with some other rivers of the South, but it is equaled by none unless it
be the Susquehanna."

The abundance of the rock-fish and its large size are also referred to.
The record of a seine-haul is given at Sycamore Landing about 1827,
where 450 were taken, averaging 60 pounds each.

The same writer refers also to the sturgeon abounding in the Potomac
as far up as the foot of the first falls. A peculiar form of tackle thought
to be used only on this river for taking sturgeon is described.

In Fleet's Journal, first printed in 1871, the following entry was made,
under date of June 25, 1632 : " We came to an anchor two leagues short
of the falls, [falls of the Potomac] This place without all question is
the most pleasant and healthful place in all this country, and most con-
venient for habitation ; the air temperate in summer, and not violent in
winter. It abounds with all manner of fish. The Indian in one night
commonly will catch thirty sturgeons in a place where the river is not
twelve fathoms broad."

The statistics for the years 1874 and 1875 will afford an interesting
comparison with the foregoing. The seine-fisheries of the Potomac,
from Matthias Point northward, numbered about thirty-three seines dur-
ing the shad-season of 1874. Since the time the Gazetteer was compiled,
however, the drift-nets have come into the river and capture a great
many shad which would otherwise find their way to the seines. A few
pound-nets also have been established, and come in for a small share of
the fish. Still, withal, the fishing enterprise must be considered as much
diminished since the record given in the Gazetteer.

The nets in operation during shad-fishing of 1874 were at the follow-
ing shores :

Virginia : Caywood's, Windmill Point, Tumps, Gum, Arkendale, Clif-
ton, Freestone Point, Stony Point, High Point, White House, Ferry
Landing, Jackson City.

Maryland : Maryland Point, Budd's Ferry, Stump Neck, Chapman's
Point, Pamunkey, Gut Landing, Greenway, Bryant's Point, Moxley
Point, Kent, Stick Landing.

The total for the Alexandria, Washington, and Georgetown markets
for Potomac fish, as taken from the report of Mr. C. Ludington, inspect-
or of marine products for the Washington board of hearth, is 1,051,587
shad; 15,006,940 herring ; 340,387 hickory -jacks (Pomolobus mediocris) ;
616,791 bunches fish ; and 1,650 sturgeon.

356 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

In 1875 there were seine-fisheries at —

Virginia : White Point ; Cay wood's or Foulk's Shore, fished by Joseph
Cay wood ; Windmill Point, fished by Conrad Faunce ; Tump's, by a man
from Baltimore; Gum Bar, fished by Jerry Bobbs; Arkendale, fished by
Joseph Besley ; Clifton, fished by Withers Waller & Montacure ; Free-
stone Point, fished by Jacob Faunce ; Deep Hole, fished by McCuing
& Ticer ; Sandy Point, fished by D. G. Henderson ; High Point, fished
by John Gibson heirs; Stony Point, fished by same; Ccate's Point,
fished by Tucker & Hall ; Cornfield or Barn Landing, fished by J.
Haiser; Gunzton Hall or Tick Landing, fished by Jackson Haiser;
Ferry Landing, (formerly owned by General Washington,) William
Knight ; Dangerfield Island, (a small seine ;) Jackson City, fished by
John Gibson heirs. Total, 18.

Maryland : Maryland Point, fished by Price Green ; Budd's Ferry,
by Cunningham ; Stumpneck, by same ; Rum Point, small seine; Chap-
man's Point, John H. Chapman, esq.; Pamunkey Point, S. H. Barrow;
Government Landing, William H. Elliott; Green Ways, Moore, Smith
& Co.; Bryan's Point, Conrad Faunce ; Moxley's Point, J. H. Skidmore ;
Meadow Bars, a small seine; Tent Landing, James Guy; Sandy Bar,
Jerry Bobbs. Total, 13.

District of Columbia: Berry's Landing, McKewen; Stick Landing,
Miller; Giesboro, Luckett. Total, 3.

Of pound-nets there were :

Nanjemoy Beach, 2 pound-nets, Bainer; season, two months in spring,
three months in fall : 4 pound-nets, Lomax; season, two months in spring,
three months in fall.

Curriomen, Va., 2 pound-nets, Beed ; season, two months in spring,
three months iu fall.

Freestone Point, Va., 2 pound-nets, Stewart; season, two months;
taken up before season was over.

Georgetown Channel, 1 pound-net, Frost; season, two monthsin spring.

Georgetown Channel, 1 pound-net, Jenkins ; season, two months in
spring.

Total, 12.

It is difficult to get at the number of drift-nets * and boats accurately.
Many of them fish regularly and continually, and many others are very
irregular and transient in their work, fishing when a little ready money
is needed, when a few fish are wanted for the table, or from caprice.

On the 27th, between Washington and Pohick Bay, Mr. Goode
counted 33 boats fishing. As it was during a continual cold rain it did
not represent at all what would ordinarily have been engaged.

The total of the shad-season fishing on the Potomac for 1875 is 33
seines, 12 pound-nets, and a large number of drift or gill nets not
counted.

* Mr. O. N. Bryan, of Charles County, Maryland, estimates the number of gill-net
boats for the whole State of Maryland at 2,000.— (Marlboro Gazette, Port Tobacco, Md.,
November, 1875.)

MILNER REPORT OF THE TRIANA TRIP. 357

The following comparative table of inspections for the Washington
markets during the years 1873, 1874, and 1875, is taken from Mr. C. Lud-
ington's comparative statement of the inspection of marine products for
these years :

Comparative table of inspections of food-fishes* in the Washington market for the years 1373,,

1874, and 1875.

Inspections.

Condemnations.

Years.

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1873

852, 900
628, 037
464, 215

3, 789, 800
6, 567, 240
1, 674, 465

326, 200
89, 841
56, 430

553, 761
567, 291
557, 203

496

919

1,204

8, 548, 851

10, 827, 967

7, 002, 049

270

149

60

52, .600

140

2,125

158

5,153

6,087
8,315

1874

16

1875

18

It is probable that the Potomac has the largest seines in use in the
United States; the only ones at all approaching them in size are the large
menhaden seines t of Long Island Sound and the Atlantic coasts of
Massachusetts and New Jersey. The ordinary 1,000-fathom seines in
use at the present time are very much the same in dimensions as those
of former years ; so that it is possible to obtain quite a correct compara-
tive estimate of the fisheries of former times and the present.

A large number of the seines referred to above are of 1,000 fathoms
length. The one at Stony Point, owned by the Gibson heirs, is 1,600
fathoms long,J and lines and seine together measure four and two-

* In explanation of the names and terms used in the table, the shad is the ordinary
Alosa sapidissima ; the herring, the Alewife of the north (Pomolobus pseudoharengus) ;
the Tailor, sometimes called Hickory-shad (Pomolobus mediocris); the Sturgeon, the
ordinary Acipenser brevirostris ; the bunches offish include white perch (Morone Ameri-
cana); yellow perch (Perca flavescens) ; the bull-heads (Amiurus atrarius) ; the catfish
(Amiurus albidus) ; the pickerel (Esox reticulatus) ; and several species of Cenirarchidas,
Catoslomidai, &c.

t The menhaden seines in present use are generally " purse-seines."

t Description of Stony Point Seine. — Wings: 140 meshes deep, 3-inch meshes. Back,
100 fathoms long, 225 meshes deep, 2£-inch meshes. Entire length of seine, 1,600
fathoms. Lines: Land-end, 7 coils rope (150 fathoms to a coil.) Boat-end, 11 coils
rope. An auxiliary line extends to the under side of the bag known as the "quarter-
line." As the bag approaches shore it is from time to time drawn upon to relieve the
strain upon the wings. No leads are used, the heavy bottom line (3-inch rope) keep-
ing the net down sufficiently, and even this is sometimes supplied with block-runners
to keep it from sinking into the mud. Cork line, 2-inch rope, 4 corks to a fathom on the
wings ; 6 corks to a fathom on the back. Boat, 65 feet long ; 11 feet beam ; round-bot-
tomed ; 30 oars.

Engine at land end, 8 horse-power ; engine at boat end, 14 horse-power. The boat-
line is shifted from time to time to sheaves set in the beach as the brails are drawn
together, or the current drifts the seine down stream.

Men : Two seine captains, 5 assistants, 2 engineers, 4 net-menders, (white) ; 60 seine-
haulers, 3 cooks, (negroes.)

One lighter scow, 30 tons burden. A tug, chartered for the season, tows two lighters
and a schooner. A third lighter is necessary, as an empty one is left wheruthe loaded
one is taken away. The yearly expenditure is from $12,000 to $15,000 on this fishery.

358 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

thirds miles. In each haul of the seine over 1,200 acres of bottom are
swept by the bottom line and the larger portion of the fishes in this area
dragged on shore. Two hauls are made each day of twenty-four hours;
one on each ebb-tide.

In 1873, while on a visit to some of the larger fisheries, I saw 2,316
shad and about 25,000 herring taken at one haul. I was told at the time
that 4,000 shad were taken two years before.

Nearly all of the seine fishermen stated that this season they were
losing more and more money the longer they fished. Instead of counting
the shad by thousands, 200 was quite above the average haul for the
large seines. It was apprehended that some of the proprietors would
become bankrupt.

The decrease of fishing by seines is made evident by the desertion
of many of the once most famous shores of the river. Opossum Nose,
Cockwit Point, Marshall Hall, White House, Urban's, Scone's Gut,
Smith's Point, Indian Head, Craney Island, and others, have been aban-
doned within fifteen years.

The abandonment of fishery-shores is to be attributed to the failures
to make profitable captures for a period of years. These have arisen
from a reduction of the numbers of the fishes, primarily; and, also, from
variation in the run- ways of the fishes because of changes in the bed of
the river (as at Craney Island) and of the obstacles to their ascent,
principally the drift-nets and the pound-net leaders. The large rental
which certain owners have demanded has also left certain shores idle.

The cause of the dearth of fish must be largely owing to over-fishing ;
the immense exhausting sweeps of the great seines j the continual drift-
ing of the gill-nets, almost invisible to the fishes in the roily water, yet
reachiug across the channels often three-quarters of a mile and from the
surface to the bed of the river; and of late years the pound-nets, fencing
off long stretches of the run- ways of the fishes, until it is scarcely an
exaggeration to say that not a gallon of the water of the river flows into
Chesapeake Bay without being strained through the meshes of some net.
The skim-nets used in the vicinity of the Great Falls are of small con-
sequence in the reduction, as the total of their catch is inconsiderable.
It is the custom, without exception, in all fishing-localities to hear
the different net interests attribute the decrease of fishes to the abuses
of nets different from their own. The Potomac is not unlike other
regions in this particular.

The drift-netters accuse the large seines, and the seine-owners inveigh
against the drift-nets and pound-nets, and ask for laws and regulations
to coutrol and prohibit them.

A special point of complaint, is the incursion of " foreign fishermen"
upon the fishing-grounds. During the last two seasons a considerable
number of drift-netters have come upon the Potomac during the shad
season, from Pennsylvania and farther north. The presence of these
men seems to the resident fishermen and proprietors to be an intrusion
and an outrage, and their strongest desire is for a law removing them.

MJLNEE BEPOET OF THE TRIANA TRIP. 359

On the sea-coast and the great lakes, fishermen migrate from point
to point during ti;e season wherever fish are to be found, regardless of
teoiindary-lines within the United States, and no interference with them
is thought of except with regard to shores held in deed or lease. On
the Atlantic- const rivers the disposition has been to reserve the waters
more exclusively for the people of the State.

A strong feeling has at once arisen against the pound-nets. It is
very curious to observe the entire coincidence there is in the history of
the introduction of nets, and the rivalry of interest in different locali-
ties. From Lake Champlain, the several great lakes, and the larger rivers
we have pretty complete reports of the history of their fisheries.

In all of these localities, in their first settlement, there is evidence of a
seemingly inexhaustible abundance of the fishes; the nets necessary
for the capture of large quantities being small and easily contrived.
As the country became populated an increased demand for the fish,
grew up, and professional fishermen introduced large nets, and great
quantities were taken and sold at low prices, and frequently used for
manure. After a few years the supply became diminished, and resort
was then had to legislation. The laws enacted were usually good ones,
but were rarely enforced.

The history of Jefferson County, Lake Ontario, by F. B. Hough, M. D.,
affords an example of the rivalry of nets.

At Chaumont Bay the first net-fishing began in 1808. Scoop-nets or
scaff-nets were first used. These were flat nets 12 feet square, stretched
by two long bows, the ends of which were attached to the corners of the
net, and, arched up high above it, crossed each other at the middle. At
the point of intersection of the bows, the end of a pole was fastened and
reached up to a long pole or sweep, which was balanced over a crotched
stick either set into the bank, or a slight pier built out into the water. Later
the same contrivance was used from the deck of a scow. The mode of
fishing was to force the net down into the water until it lay upon the
bottom, and when the fish swam over it to suddenly raise it, the bal-
ancing-pole relieving the fisherman from the weight of the net and fish.
Mr. LTough, from records which he had seen, stated that as many as 300
fish were taken in a single night.

Seines were soon after introduced, from the Hudson Biver, and the
fish being plentiful no opposition was made. They were from twenty
to one hundred rods long. The products of a haul were said to be as
high as 75 barrels of white-fish, and the average 6 or 7 barrels. With
the multiplication of seines there was a sufficient reduction of the fish,
to arouse the animosity of the people against the gill-nets when they
were introduced several years later. In time, however, they came
to be an accepted thing, and when, about fourteen or fifteen years ago,
pound-nets were introduced, the whole feeling of the people was brought
to bear against them.

360 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Throughout the great lakes, where the gill-net interest and pound-net
interest are nearly divided, each inveighs against the other, and shows
the advantages pertaining to its own system in relation to preserving
the stock of fish in the waters, and in most instances (there have been
favorable exceptions, however) a move for legislation for fishery laws,
emanating from fishermen, will be found to bear unjustly on a certain
class of nets, while the rival interest is not interfered with.

These facts are given to show that the complaints coming from the
net interests are calculated to misguide, and that efficient, just, and en-
lightened legislation should base its conclusions on a more impartial,
disinterested investigation of the matter.

There is little doubt that the great occasion for decrease in the Poto-
mac is over-fishing, and in this all kinds of nets are more or less involved.
Added to this, impurities carried into the river from drainage have
some minor influence,* the disturbance of the fish, especially the shad
from its well-known timidity, by the plashing of steamer-wheels; and
the continual obstructions it encounters from the nets.

In those causes are the true reasons for decrease. The remedies are
what shall influence these by way of restriction or prohibition. The
latter has not usually worked to good advantage, as it has occasioned
too strong an opposition and is rather un-American in spirit.

The true policy in a law would be to strike at abuses in all nets, and
nothing can be more to the purpose in the protection of anadromous
fishes, such as the salmon, shad, and alewife, than a " close-season " law
prohibiting all fishing during a portion of each week — from Friday
night to Monday morning, or such other time as may be considered
necessary. Eegulations of the length of nets and the size of mesh are
also valuable measures.

The great reason for failure in the effect of fishery-laws has not been
their character, but the fact that they were not enforced. This has
been the almost universal history of the laws except in Canada, Scan-
dinavia, and portions of Russia. It has been notably so throughout
the United States.

A suggestion which has impressed me strongly with relation to the
fisheries of the Potomac I hesitate to propose, as it is so opposed to
the judgment of all who have taken fishery -laws under consideration,
and among these I recognize many whose opinions I have reason to
treat with great respect, as they have studied this question with earnest-
ness and fairness, and have arrived at their conclusions from a consid-
erable range of observation and thought.

The proposition I desire to make must be premised by the condition
that suitable laws be enacted and efficient means be provided for theii

*It is quite possible that the abundance of the shad in the Georgetown channel has
been lessened because of the drainage from the gas-works at G street, although the
amount of drainage into so large a stream as the Potomac is soon dissipated, and doos
not influence very far down the stream.

MILNER REPORT OF THE TRIANA TRIP. 361

enforcement. How this may be done I will discuss further on. A care-
ful consideration of the subject of the Potomac fisheries as we may
anticipate it through years to come induces me to recommend that
pound-nets be encouraged in preference to all others. There are a few
important reasons why, under proper control, they will work more
advantageously for the welfare of the fisheries than seines or gill-nets.

A purpose that must not be lost sight of in the ardor for the con-
servation of the stocks of fishes in the waters is the productiveness of
the fisheries. They are one of the resources of income in the industries
and productions of a State favored with a water area or coast, and should
be made to produce to whatever extent they can without endangering
future supplies.

In manufacturing industries and agriculture a great deal of attention
is paid to the reduction of cost of production and improvement in ma-
chinery, and the same thing should be applied to the fisheries.

The pound-net, where it has been employed on the lakes in white-fish
and lake-herring fisheries ; on the coast in the scup; blue-fish, sea-bass,
squeteague, and tautog fisheries ; on the Atlantic rivers and bays in
the salmon and theshad fisheries, more especially of the Connecticut River
and Bay, has been found to cost very much less, in its current expenses,
than the seine. The items in which it saves expenditure are its great
reduction of the labor-force, its saving of the time lost between hauls
by the seine, and the great saving of wear and tear that a stationary net
has when compared with hauling seines.

The Stony Point seine investment * would establish at least 30 first-
class pound-nets fully equipped for work, and instead of two steam-
engines and crew of 75 men, 30 men would be an ample force to
attend them and work fewer hours than the seine-crews have to. The
twine of these large seines. would not have to be thrown away, but
would nearly all come into use in making up the pounds.

That many pound-nets properly placed and efficiently attended should
certainly yield much more than the seine.t

The pound-net has also the advantage that the fish remain alive until
it is desirable to take them out and move them to the market, and come
upon the stalls in the freshest, best condition. In either seine or gill-net
this is not the case.

Some advantage might also be claimed that the eggs of a spawning-
fish would be preserved, and with the light specific gravity of theshad-

* I have estimated the investment for the steam-engines, the lines and twine of this
seine at $25,000, which is well within the original cost ; estimating a good ordinary
pound-net at $800, 30 of them could he erected for this amount.

t The fishermen of the Potomac at present have but little confidence in the pound-net
as a means of capture for the shad. In the bay and lower end of the Connecticut
River they are constructed so as to capture shad very successfully ; in fact, quite too
much so in the estimation of the people of the upper portion of the river. There is no
reason to believe the Potomac shad should differ from the Connecticut ones in the par-
ticular of entering a pound-net.

362 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

eggs, would float out of the net and have some chance for development
and the production of young fish.

Another important advantage would be that as a stationary net the
only portion of the bottom on which eggs might be deposited that would
be disturbed, would be the 30 feet square of the bottom of the movable
pot, and even this would be slight. A contrast very favorable to the
pound-net is with the 1,200 or more acres swept by the seine referred
to, twice in twenty-four hours, and the continual trailing of the drift-
nets over miles of the bottom of the river.

The objections that have been advanced against the pound-nets on the
lakes and sea-coast are the following : First, that by extending the
leaders for long distances, often for miles, they fence off the run-ways of
the fishes and guide entire shoals of fishes into the pot or trap portion ;
second, that by employing small meshes in the pot or trap, young and
immature fishes are captured in large numbers, and the stock of fishes
in the lakes thereby reduced uselessly and in an anticipatory manner, as
the future stocks of fishes which depend on the progeny of these are of
course prevented. These are the objections to pound-nets, and they are
final and sufficient to condemn them for all waters if these features are
necessarily attendant with their use.

The abuses, it will be seen, are the extension of the leader to unrea-
sonable lengths, and the use of a mesh so small that immature fishes are
destroyed in large numbers.

The Potomac has the advantage of the old pound-net regions' in that
the interest is as yet very small, and a good code of laws for their regu-
lation can be enacted by the States interested without the opposition of
a wealthy and determined body of net-proprietors, as has been the case
on the sea-coast, Connecticut River, and the lakes. For the enforcement
of laws after they have been established, no better system could be em-
ployed than that which controls the oyster-fisheries of Maryland. The
extension of the duties of a fishing-police force, with properly-equipped
vessels, to the oyster-dredgings, fisheries, and the nets, would place the
whole matter under efficient control, and whatever regulations as to
close-season, size of mesh, length of nets, and even number and charac-
ter of fisheries, if there should be legislation in this particular, could be
efficiently controlled.

I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to my companions during
the trip for many suggestions and ideas developed in our conferences
on board of the Triana.

Admiral Goldsborough, of the navy-yard, placed all facilities pos-
sible for the success of our trip, in equipping the steamer, and Captain
Cook, commanding the Triana, rendered us every advantage possible to
facilitate our inquiries.

I am, yours, respectfully,

JAMES W. MILNEE,
Prof. S. F. Baird,

United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries.

XIX -OK THE TRANSPORTATION OF SHAD FOR LONG DISTANCES.

-EXPERIMENTS WITH A VIEW TO TRANSPORTING SHAD

IN SEA- WATER.*

By James W. Milner.

In order to discover the best methods for transporting shad by sea-
going steamers, a series of experiments was made at Noank, Conn., at
the close of the spawning season.

Twelve glazed earthen-jars, with a capacity of little more than four
gallons each, were provided to contain a certain number of shad, and a
formula for the treatment of each jar written out.

The tests thought to be desirable were the endurance of young shad
in sea- water, in mixtures of fresh water and sea- water, and in fresh water
at different temperatures, and with fresh supplies at varying prolonged
intervals.

The young fish used were the very last of the season's hatchings.
The fish began to make their appearance freed from the eggs on the
morning of the 14th of August. Early on the morning of the 15th, about
45,000 were put into five cans. Tbe train left Holyoke, Mass., at 0.23
a. m. The water on the fish was 71°. Fresh- water supplies were given
them at 7.30, at 9.30, and 11.30 a. m., and at 1.30, at 3.30, and 6 p. m.

On arriving at Noank, Conn., on Fisher's Island Sound, a small building
was fitted with shelves, at a convenient height, and the twelve jars were
arranged on two sides of the room. Jars Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 were to be
devoted to experiments with definite mixtures of fresh and sea-water,
the latter gradually increased ; Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8 to experiments on
temperature ; Nos. 9 and 10 to experiments as to the effect of ordinary
changes of temperature ; No. 11 to pure sea- water; and No. 12 to sur-
face-water from the bay at low ebb of tide, in which was a mingling of
the fresh water from the drainage of the land.

At 9 p. m. the series of experiments was begun, the jars having been
supplied with a rather full quantity of fishes; by estimate, in accordance
with our usual judgment from their thickness in the water, about 4,000 to
each jar, Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10 having somewhat less. The temperature of the
water in the jars was 70°. It required about one-half hour to apply the

" Having been called away from these experiments soon after inaugurating them, I
have to thank Mr. C. D. Griswold, Commander L. A. Beardslee, United States Navy, and
Mr. G. Brown Goode, for their interest in carrying them through to their results. — J. W.
Milner.

364 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

varying treatment to the series of jars, but as it was always begun
with No. 1, and carried through with the same order, the interval for each
jar was always the same, and in recording, the hours of 9, 12, 3, and 6 were
used for convenience sake, though strictly they would apply only to
No. 1.

The purpose of. the tests with 1, 2, 3, and 4 was to try if gradually
increasing proportions of sea- water would enable the young shad to be-
come accustomed in time to supplies of pure or nearly pure sea- water
without diminishing their vigor and vitality.

No. 1, at 9 p. m. August 15, had 128 gills of fresh water at a tempera-
ture of 71° Fahrenheit. Two quarts of the water were drawn off, and
this was replaced by two quarts of a mixture, 15 gills of which were fresh
water and 1 gill was sea-water. Three hours later, at 12 midnight,
two quarts were again removed from jar No. 1 and two quarts of a mix-
ture of 14 gills fresh water and 2 gills sea- water poured in. At 3 a. m.
of the 16th two quarts were again removed and a mixture supplied of
13 gills of fresh water and 3 of sea- water.

This supply of a mixture amounting to one-eighth the contents of the
jar, with a continually increasing proportion of sea-water, was afforded
every three hours. At the end of 45 hours the two quarts of supply,
having the sea-water proportion increased one gill each time, would be
all sea-water. After the 45 hours, at 6 p. in. on the 17th, or the fifteenth
supply of water to the jar, two quarts of sea-water were afforded every
3 hours, a like quantity being at the same time removed. At this
rate the water upon the fish at the end of 24 hours, or 9 p. in. of the
16th, would be about 25.6 per centum sea-water.

At the end of 48 hours, or 9 p. m. of the 17th, the jar would contain
a mixture with 66.2 per centum sea-water. At the end of 72 hours, or
9 p. m. the 18th, the mixture would become 88i per centum sea-water.

The temperature remained very even until noon of the 17th, when
it fell to about 67°, 3° less than at 9 a. m. The 18th, at 6 p. m., it had
again risen 4°.

The shad seemed to retain vigor and health until the 18th. They
showed weakness in the morning, the per centum of sea-water having
reached 80J, and at 6 p. m. they were all lying on the bottom of the jar,
the per centum of sea-water being 86.8. A few of these were taken out
and put into a glass jar which contained a mixture of one quart fresh
water and one quart sea- water ; in this the most of them revived and
lived from 6 p. m. August 18 to 6 p. m. August 22 — 96 hours longer than
those left in the jar.

In the jar No. 1 they were soon after all dead. They were about 102
hours old, and had been kept about 17 hours in the hatching boxes, about
16 hours in the cans, and 69 hours in the jars with the sea-water mixtures.
Those revived in the glass jar were 19S hours or eight and one-fourth
days from the egg at the time of death.

The treatment of No. 2 began at near the same hour as No. 1, the

ON THE TRANSPORTATION OF SHAD. 365

temperature being the same. In this jar the one-eighth supply of mix-
ture every three hours had a more slowly-increasing proportion of sea-
water. The first supply at 9 p. m., August 15, was \ gill of sea-water
and 15£ gills of fresh water. At 12, midnight, the mixture was one gill
of sea-water and 15 gills of fresh water, and at 3 a. m. of the 16th it
was 1\ gills sea-water and 144 gills fresh water. At this rate of increase
the supplies would become all sea- water after 93 hours.

In this much more gradual increase of sea- water the young shad
began to show weakness on the 19th, the contents of the jar having
reached a per centum of about 75 sea- water. At 9 p.m. of that date, three
hours after the first supply of all sea- water, they were observed to be
dying. At this time the sea- water was 81 per centum of the whole con-
tents. At 6 a. m. of the 20th, there were considered to be one-half of
them dead, and on the 22d, at 9 a. m., the last of them died. The jar
contained a solution of sea-water, 98.8 per centum sea-water and 1.2
fresh water.

The temperature had varied from C8° to 78°. The latter, occurring
on the 20th, no doubt had some effect in reducing their vigor. They
were, at the time the last of ttiem succumbed, 189 hours from the egg,
and had been in the jar 156 hours.

The iucreasing proportion of sea-water in the supplies to No. 3 was at
the same rate as No. 2. It was continued until the mixture became
half sea- water and half fresh, and the supplies from that time, the
17th at 6 p. m., forward, were in this proportion. The fish began dying
at 9 a. m. of the 22d, the per centum of sea- water being 49.80, and at 3
a. m. of the 23d all were dead, the last ones being about 207 hours old,
and having been in the jar 174 hours. The water had become 49.93 sea-
water.

Jar No. 4 proved the most enduring of any of the experiments with
sea-water. Beginning approximately at the same time, and with tem-
perature the same as the others, in this jar the addition of sea- water
to the supplies was at the same rate as in that of Nos. 2 and 3. The addi-
tion of £ gill of sea-water at each interval of three hours to the mixture,
with a corresponding decrease of fresh water, made the proportions of
fresh and salt water in the supply, at the end of 30 hours, about one-
third of the latter and two-thirds of the former. This proportion was
thereafter retained. The fish began dying at 6 a. m. of the 23d, when
the per centum of sea-water was 34.35. At 6 p. m. of the 23d about
seven-eighths were dead, the water having attained a per centum of
34.30 sea-water. At 7 p. m. of the 25th the last one died having at-
tained the age of 271 hours, and having been in the mixture about 238
hours. The sea- water had reached the percentage of 34.37.

These were all the experiments made with proportions of sea-water.
Others were made with pure sea- water and with surface-water from the
bay in which the fresh-water drainage had more or less diluted the salt.

A jar was filled with sea-water several times and a quantity of shad
placed in it. They invariably died within three hours.

366 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Jar No. 12 was filled with surface-water from the bay ; the recent rains
had diluted this to a considerable extent. The treatment of the jar was
to afford a supply of this water every three hours. At 8 a. m. of the
16th they were put in the jar, and at noon of the 21st they were all dead,
having been in the jar 124 hours.

An experiment was made by removing fish, nearly exhausted in sea-
water, to fresh spring-water. The fish survived those left in the jar
about 28 hours.

Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 were experiments to test the effect of differ-
ent temperatures, and 70°, 65°, 60°, 55°, and 50° were prescribed for
these jars. The temperatures were not, however, controlled with the
facilities at hand. No. 5 was intended to retain a temperature of 65°,
which it did quite regularly for about 175 hours. The last of the
fish were dead at 3 a. m. of the 23d, being then 207 hours old and 174
hours in the jar.

The record for No. 6 was almost identical with No. 5.

No. 7, with a temperature of 64°, kept the fish alive until they were
225 hours old, 192 hours in the jar. This is the longest period of life
among them ; the No. 4 sea- water test, however, exceeded it some 13
hours. It had slightly fewer fish than Nos. 5 and 6, which was of
course an advantage.

In Nos. 9 and 10 the water remained at the temperatures of the room
without any care to decrease or regulate them in any way. The waters
varied from 66° to 78°. The fish retained life 219 hours, 186 hours in
the jar.

No. 8 it was intended to keep at 50°, but, instead, it remained for
the most of the time at 64°. It was placed about the time the fish were
six days old in the refrigerator, which reduced the temperature to 48°,
at which the fish died rather rapidly. They were seven hours in the
ioe-chest, and were dead within three hours after the mercury stood at 50°.

It will be at once seen, by those who have followed the published ex-
periences of men who have carried young shad long distances, that the
longest periods recorded for transportation of shad by rail (as in Seth
Green's trip with shad to California in 1871, 184 hours,) or by steamer
(as in Mather's and Anderson's trip to Bremen, 240 hours,) are not much
different from the longest period in which shad endured the treatment
with sea-water, (as in No. 4, 238 hours,) or a low temperature, (as in
No. 7, 192 hours.)

The movement of the car or steamer in producing a moderate agita-
tion in the water is known by all who have carried shad to be a very
large advantage in favor of the life of the fish. With this advantage
the fishes in the jars would undoubtedly have prolonged their existence
considerably, as the use of water from the same source continually is
an advantage not at command when traveling, and the facilities for
cleansing the jars and keeping the temperature regular are also much
greater.

ON THE TRANSPORTATION OF SHAD. 367

In the fresh-water temperature tests, the fish did not endure as long
as in the sea-water test, No. 4.

There is ample evidence in the experiences in the treatment of shad
that they are in need of food when about six or seven days old, and if
not supplied will starve to death in from 70 to 80 hours, so that it is not
possible to say that the presence of the sea- water in the last test killed
the shad. No practicable methods for feeding embryo-shad and white-
fish (Coregonus albus) have been discovered, though river-water seems
to afford them some supplies of nourishment.* The intestines of many
of the embryo-shad from the jars, when examined under the microscope,
failed to discover auy food.

The problem of the transportation of embryo-fishes like those of the
shad and white-fish (Coregonus albus) long distances, which occupy a
period of time longer than a week, requires study and experiment. The
probability is that the great need is some method for feeding them
en route.

To devise a method for feeding them will require the services of a
microscopist familiar with the lower forms of invertebrates and the eggs
and larvae of higher groups, which are the principal minute organic
forms available as food in the waters where the fish breed naturally.
The only investigations which I am aware of are the observations of
Mr. S. A. Briggs, of Chicago, published on page 57 of the report of
1872-3, and those observations just referred to in these experiments.

The experiment may also be carried out empirically by trying young
fishes with the different forms of the groups just referred to. If food
can be found among these forms, experiments as to the feasibility of
breeding them en route will be in order. Many of them have been de-
veloped in numbers by naturalists for purposes of study, and with some
it is very easily accomplished.

Another, and probably the most feasible method to obviate starva-
tion, is, in the case of the shad, to retard the eggs by cold, and devise a
process of hatching en route. If this can be accomplished so that the
fish can emerge from the egg when six days out from land, they will be
likely to arrive at their destination with vigor and strength.

These facts and experiences in regard to keeping shad alive seem to indi-
cate that the application of sea-water with a very gradual increase and
in small proportions has not a sensibly injurious effect. Where fresh
water has been used, no greater periods of life have been attained when
the fish were confined in small vessels. Still, the series of experiments
indicates that in proportion as the quantity of sea-water increases the
endurance of the fish diminishes; and, inversely, the less and more
gradually the sea-water is applied, the longer the fish endure. A paral-
lel instance would be that a little overplus of oxygen in the atmosphere

"See report of United States Commissioner of Fisheries, 1872-73, p. 57; and fourth
annual report of commissioners of New York, 1872. p. 20.

368 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

of a room exhilarates and even benefits a man, while a greater increase
rapidly becomes injurious and fatal.

Pure sea-water, in repeated experiments, proved fatal iu 3 hours. A
rapid increase of the salt, in which the supplies became all sea-water in
45 hours, (jar No. 1,) and the contents of the jar became S0£ per centum
sea- water in 60 hours, the fish showed distress and weakness, and in
69 hours all were dead or dying at the bottom of the jar, the water
having become 86.8 per centum sea-water.

In a more slowly increasing proportion, iu which the supply became
all sea-water in 93 hours, (jar No. 2,) after 96 hours the water having
become 81£ per centum sea-water, the fish began dying. After 156
hours all were dead, the sea- water being .9S|- of the whole.

In a mixture where the supply was one-half sea-water after 45 hours,
(jar No. 3,) and retained at that, the fish began dying when the water
had become 49J sea-water, or in 156 hours. In 174 hours they were
all dead, the mixture having become one-half (49.9 per centum) sea-
water.

In the most slowly increasing proportion the supply became one-third
sea-water after 30 hours, (jar No. 4,) and was retained at that. The
fish did not begin dyiug until 177 hours, the contents of the jar being
one-third sea-water. After 189 hours all were dead, the per centum of
sea-water being 34.3.

There seems to be sufficient in the results of these experiments to
deter any one from attempting to move shad across the ocean, depend-
ing upon the use of sea-water for large proportion of supplies; though
small quantities could be cautiously used for improving the stale fresh
water.

The temperature experiments were not very satisfactory, as the
intended reductions were not readily reached and controlled with the
appliances at hand. In the case of No. 8, it was produced by placing
the jar in a refrigerator and reducing it very rapidly. The fish were
already six days old, and probably somewhat reduced in strength. They
succumbed at once to the rapid reduction of temperature, though to
have completed the experiment an effort should have been made to
revive them by gradually raising the temperature.

No. 7 had the advantage of having fewer fish in the jar, the advan-
tage of a larger supply of water sustaining them beyond the expiration
of 5 and 6, which had about the same temperature. The indications in
the temperature tests are scarcely worth determining, as the devices
and facilities for the necessary reductions of temperatures according
to the plan laid down were not available, and the rapid reduction of
No. 8 in the refrigerator would not afford a fair comparison of endur-
ance of low temperatures with Nos. 5, 6, 7, 9, and 10.

The main purpose of the series of experiments, that of testing the
value of sea- water, was well carried through, and I believe will be a
final decision against its use, except perhaps in the slight quantity
indicated.

ON THE TRANSPORTATION OF SHAD.

369

s w

No. 4. — The proportion of sea-water in
supply increased one-half gill each
time until one-third sea-water, and
retained at that.

m
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Treatment begins.
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sea-wator.

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All die.

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370 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

B— EXPERIMENTS WITH A VIEW TO TRANSPORTING SHAD

A FEW MONTHS OLD.

By Chakles D. Griswold.

After returning from Noauk, Conn., at the close of the experiments
with embryo-shad, I began an experiment with fish of greater age and
development. The shad were obtained from the Connecticut River
with a fine-mesh seine. The experiments were made with a view of
testing the endurance of fish of a larger growth than the newly-hatched
embryos which we had before tried.

Great care was taken in their capture to prevent their injuring them-
selves before they were placed in the jars. They were dipped from the
water, before the net was drawn entirely out, with a tin dipper and
immediately put into pails of fresh water, with but few in each pail.

There was some difference observed in the color of the young shad,
the pale, lighter-tinted ones proving generally the weaker, and endur-
ing much less than the others.

The shad procured measured from 1£ inches to 4 incbes in length ;
those of about 2£ inches being rather more numerous. They were taken
in the evening, the net-hauls in the early part of the day taking
nothing. They were kept in the transportation-cans, in stone jars, with
and without gravel in the bottom, and with river and spring water.

The first experiment was made on September 5. The shad were
put in a twelve-gallon tin can. Supplies of fresh water were afforded
every two hours, the supply being about one-eighth the contents of
the can or jar in which the fish were placed. The air temperature was
65° and the water (spring- water) 64° at the beginning of the experiment,
and the variation from this was very slight. The last was dead after six
Lours.

The second experiment was made September 7. On this date two
day-time hauls resulted in no captures. In the evening better success
attended the effort. The shad were put into the twelve-gallon cans. The
temperature of the water was 64°, the air 65°, at 5 p. m. At 11 p. m.
the water showed a temperature of 00°, and in one hour afterward they
were all dead, having lived seven hours.

The 8th of September shad were put into the cans at 6 p. m. The
spring-water supplies were made less frequently. The temperature at
10 p. m. was for the air 6G°, for the water CG°. At 1 a. m. the air
was 55°, the water 60°. At 4 a. m., air 52°, water 59°, and the fish
rapidly died. They lived ten hours.

On September 11 a number of shad were again taken and placed in a
four-gallon stone jar. The temperature of the air was (56°, of the
water G4°. They were supplied every two hours with river-water fresh
from the river each time. The water grew colder in the night. Three
died after seven hours, a few lived about thirteen, and one died after
twenty-one hours.

ON THE TRANSPORTATION OF SHAD. 371'

On the 14th, a cloudy day, the smallest shad during the season were
obtained. Their length varied from 1£ inches to 2 inches. A compara-
tive experiment was made with spring and river water. Four shad
were put into the jar with the river-water. The water of the river at
the time of capture was 70°. A supply of one-eighth was afforded every
two hours until the 17th, when the time was increased to three hours,
but a larger supply of water afforded. The temperature remained quite
even, the variation being between 67° and 70°.

Of the four fish put in the jar with the river- water, two died at 12
p. m., having lived about seven hours; the remaining two lived forty-
nine hours.

In the spring- water test the fish were placed in the jar after the river-
water fish had all died, or after sixty hours. Three had died in the can
the first day. Two more died after one hundred and thirty-six hours.
One of those remaining died after one hundred and fifty-seven hours,
and one after one hundred and sixty-eight hours. The air-temperatures
ranged from 62° to 70°, and the water from 64° to G7°.

The next capture of shad was made on the 17th of September, at 5
p. in. Four were put into a four-gallon jar, and three put into a three-
gallon jar. The former were supplied with spring-water, the latter with
river-water. After sixty-one hours one was dead in the spring- water
and two in the river- water. The temperature at this time for air and
water both had varied between 59° and 66°.

The subsequent variation was greater. The air ranged from 46° to
89° and the water from 50° to 65°. The high temperatures of the air
were during short periods of the day, so that the water did not attain
the high degrees of heat which the atmosphere did. The fluctuations
in one day, however, amounted to from 50° to 65°. After 136 hours
there had been one death more in each. After 1G0 hours there was
another death in the spring-water, and one lived 253 hours, or 10 daya
and 13 hours.

An experiment was made in keeping five or six fish at a time in the
hatching-boxes, where the current kept a good change of water contin-
ually. The fish lived from two to three days.

A dozen fish were put in a forty-gallon can, and the water was renewed
from a hose continually. They varied in size from 2 to 3£ inches. The
temperature remained quite eveuly at 60°. A few lived three days.

On the 28th an experiment was made with shad, the water-supply
being afforded every three hours. Nine fish were put into the forty-gal-
lon can. The temperatures ranged from, for the air, 46° to 66°, and the
water, 50° to 60°. Six fish died after 33 hours, one after 51 hours, one
after 66 hours, and one after 87 hours.

The use of gravel in the bottom of the jars evidently provided food

to some extent. Shad retained in a jar until quite weak worked busily

awhile among it, and revived so as to outlive the others about 15 hours.

In the stomach of a shad about 2 J inches long I took fourteen small

black flies. The contents of other stomachs were of a reddish hue.

372 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER - OF FISH AND -FISHERIES.

These are the results of the series of experiments which, I think, show
less advantage in an attempt to transport shad of these sizes, from 1A to
4 inches, than in the littlethree-eighths-of-an-inch-longembryos. Besides
the longer endurance of artificial confinement of the embroy-shad in a
mass of thousands instead of four or five, as in these experiments, the
larger shad have the disadvantage of not being obtainable in anything
near the same numbers, and also that the proportion of fish to the quan-
tity of water used in transportation must be very many times less.
There may be something of value in the fact that our experience proved
the glazed-stone jars better for the fishes than tin; and the observation
that the lighter-tinted pale fishes invariably succumb first, proves that
in each year's stock of shad there is a considerable variation of vigor
and constitution in different individuals.

C— APPARATUS FOR HATCHING SHAD-OVA WHILE EN

ROUTE TO NEW WATERS.

By Fred Mather.

Honeoye Falls, N. Y., September 16, 1875.
I send report of shad-hatching at Point Pleasant. I also send you a
drawing of the improved hatcher.

I believe, notwithstanding that the second German expedition has
failed, that I can get fry across, and that running water is superior to
the use of an air-pump. I cannot conceive of a more perfect approach
to the river-boxes than this can, and was glad to show you its perfect
working at Holyoke this summer, (July 20 to 25.) Simple as it seems, it
took some time to get it to its present perfection. The original idea as
tried at the Smithsonian worked well on paper ; but this one will bear
trial and favorable comparison with anything of the kind.
Very truly, yours,

FRED MATHER.
Mr. James W. Milner,
Smithsonian Institution.

According to instructions, I went to Point Pleasant, Bucks County,
Pennsylvania, to observe the development of shad-eggs in the hatching-
can, which I suggested after my failure to transport live fish to Ger-
many last year.

I had one made with a diameter of 15 inches, containing a screen or
tray of 13 inches diameter ; and after searching for-something better for
reservoirs, we obtained three oak whisky-barrels which had been used
once, and, taking out one head, thoroughly charred the inside by burn-
ing straw in them ; after this, they were soaked in water twenty-four
hours, when they still had an odor of alcohol.

ON THE TRANSPORTATION OF SHAD.

373

I had used whisky-barrels similarly treated for the transportation of
fish, and once carried a quantity of adult grayling on a journey of
thirty-four hours in them with but trifling loss, none of which seemed to
be due to the slight trace of alcohol perceptible to the sense of smell.

Therefore, with a slight misgiving that so delicate a creature as an
embryo shad might possibly be affected by the homoeopathic amount of
alcohol still present, I set up my apparatus on the shaded piazza of the
hotel. One barrel was used for ice-water and the other two as reser-
voir and receiver.

The first trial was made with 3,000 eggs, which were taken from the
fish at 10 p. m. June 20, and were put in the river-boxes, where the
water was from 76° to 80°. On the following day, at 4 p. m., they were
brought to the hotel, and the temperature gradually lowered to 68° by
8 p. m., when they were placed in the hatching-can, and the spigot set
to flow twenty gallons per hour. The following table gives the temper-
atures and results :

+z

t— •

Date.

5

n

a

'a

a

.

o

.

rt

as

o

&

CO

fc

CO

S

%

o

o

0

o

o

June 20

80
04

80
66

21

68

22

62

72

74

74

70.5

23

74

74

70

78

75.5

24

70

7fi

76

Average mean...

73.6

Time 86

hou

'8.

Remarks.

Water tastes of whisky.

Gave an entire change of water.

Fish visible in tho eggs ; motion at daybreak ; fungns on dead eggs.

First fish hatched at 8 a. m. ; 1,000 at noon ; they appeared very

weak, and there was no deposit of pigment in the eye ; put them

in box in the river and cleaned tho barrels.

In this experiment, nearly the same results were attained as in one
that I conducted in the Smithsonian Institution some two weeks before,
viz, the fish hatched, without any perceptible color in the eye, and had
little vitality.

In the former trial referred to, this lack of vital power was attributed
to the bad air in the basement where the hatcher was located, arising
from the absorption of gases from a portion of a whale that had just
arrived in bad condition. This theory, whether correct or not, was the
only one that presented itself to account for the fact that the fish lived
but a few hours after hatching, as it was the opinion of several experts
that, as the flow of water was sufficient to supply all the oxygen required,
and that a movement of the egg was not necessary, therefore when I
attained the same result in the open air I concluded that a flavor of
whisky in the water produced the same effects as the deleterious gases
before referred to, or that a lack of motion was the cause.

To test the latter point, I had a new can made, with a diameter of six
inches, and screen of five, which, with sixty gallons of water per hour
flowing through it, gave a slight movement to the eggs. TVhile this trial
was in progress, the weather was very hot, at midday on several occa-

374 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

sions reaching 96° in the shade, causing a great consumption of ice.
The following table gives the results :

-*^

*c

Date.

£

a

S

*E

a

to

O

o

fa

ft

r—

§

s

o

0

o

0

o

June 25

....

—

—

82

82

26

80

65

71

72

27

70

CO

CO

64

65

2b

63

63

63

70.5

Time 92

houi

'8.

Remarks.

Eggs taken from fish 10 p. m. on the 25th ; put 2,000 in hatcher at
10 a. ni. ; water in river 85°.

Motion at daybreak.

Fish livelier than any former ones; still no color in the eyes;
turned into the river at noon, 28th.

As the increase in vitality could only be attributed to the increased
motion due to flowing three times the quantity of water through a
screen of less diameter than on the former trials, it appeared evident
that the failure of previous experiments was due to lack of motion, and
as all water had to be dipped from the receiving- barrel standing on the
floor into the reservoir-cask standing on the table, with a pail, that it
would require too much labor for one man to handle double the quantity,
and so would require at least four men to attend it, running night and
day, and another objection was the limited capacity of this small can.

Here a valuable suggestion was made by my assistant, Mr. Charles
Bell, and a hatcher was made after his plan, which did its work per-
fectly. (See illustration.) It was in the shape of a funnel, with a tube
below like the others to connect the rubber supply-pipe. It had a depth
of ten inches and a diameter of twelve at the top, to which was soldered
a riin of wire-cloth one inch and a half high ; outside of this rim was a
flange with a tin rim, which had an outlet-pipe on one side.

Near the bottom, where the cone was two inches in diameter, a screen
of tine brass wire was fastened. This passed all the water through a
screen of two inches, on which an egg could not rest. They were sent
up with a gentle motion in the center of the can, and separating equally
in all directions toward the wire rim, through which the flow was so
gentle that the eggs began to drop before they reached it, and, falling
on the sloping sides, gently settled toward the center, to be again lifted
before reaching the bottom.

We exchanged our whisky-barrels for old casks that had been used
for catching rain-water, and moved from the hot piazza into the cellar,
where the temperature of the air averaged about 70°, making the experi-
ment without the use of ice, the temperature variation being very slight.

ON THE TRANSPORTATION OF SHAD.
The following table exhibits the results:

375

Date.

July 1
2

64
65

68
63

a

o
o

66

65
66

68
•30

65

66
66
68
72

a

64

65

68
70

Average mean ,

Time 120 hoars (5 days).

65

65

66.25
68.5
70

66.95

Remarks.

Eggs from fish at 9 p. m. ; put in hatcher at 10 a. ra. ; water
in river 82° ; found a flow of twenty gallons per hour suffi-
cient.

Eyes showed black at midnight ; fish lively in egg.

A few hatched at noon, and swimming at night.

About half hatched at noon ; all batched at 9 p.m.; very

strong and lively ; put them in the river next morning

(7th).

These trials have, I think, proved two things : first, that a flow of
water that does not give motion to the egg sufficient to hold it in sus-
pension will not hatch strong shad ; and, secondly, that it is possible to
hatch them in transit with a limited supply of water. The same water
was used two to three days, and was well aerated in its fall from the
hatcher into the barrel and by pouring from a pail from there into the
reservoir.

As I found in my attempt to carry young shad already hatched to
Germany for the Commission last year that the thermometer varied little
from 62°, I think it possible that at that temperature the hatching will
be delayed from six to seven days, and the fry delivered on the other
side before they have suffered much, if any, from lack of food.

In order to test the endurance of shad-eggs, I made the following trial
of 4,000 spawn with the same flow of water as before, using ice.

'8

Date.

a

a

a

4

Remarks.

O

to

P.
to

§

9

0

o

0

o

O

July 8

70

65

60

65

Spawn from fish at 9 p. m. 7th ; water in river 82° at 8 a. m.
8th.

9

58

58

58

56

57.5

10

55

56

58

60

57.25

Motion in morning.

11

58

56

54

54

55.5

Eyes visible, but embryo small.

12

54

54

58

60

56.5

No ice from noon till 6 p. m. ; fish not lively.

13

58

59

60

62

59.75

Am afraid that when hatched, they will not have vitality
enough to live ; let temperature go up to see if possible to
revive them.

14

61

62

65

66

63.5

All dead at 6 a. m.

Average
Time 7 <

59.52

lays 9

hours.

I do not consider the average mean temperature to be a fair test in
this trial, as it was probably the lowest point that did the damage ; and
if the temperature of the river for the twelve hours they were in it had
been figured in, the mean would have been much higher. As it is, the
mean was only about 5£° below the former trial, which was so successful,

376

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

and in my opinion a steady temperature of 59° to 60° would have given
far different results.

Mather and Bell's apparatus.

The above tables are accurately copied from the record-sheet, and it is
proper to add a word about the thermometers used. In the first two trials
made upon the piazza, we had a small pocket-thermometer, only gradu-
ated to two degrees, and which registers two degrees higher than the
one used in the cellar in the two last trials ; but having no opportunity
to correct the instruments, I give the record as it appeared at the time;
but if the pocket-instrument was correct, then the records of the last
two trials should read two degrees lower than shown in the tables.

In conclusion I will say, I believe that shad-fry can be taken across
the Atlantic by hatching the eggs in transit in the can last described ;
and as the record of my trip last season showed the temperature of the
water in the cans at sea without ice to be about 62°, that would seem,
according to the above tables, to be about the proper point. It could
probably be kept from 60° to 64° without the use of much, if any, ice,
by opening or closing the hatches.

XX -REPORT OF OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873.

By Livixgstox Stone.

A— CLEAR LAKE.

1. — FIELD-WORK IN THE WINTER OF 1872-73.

On the 1st of January, 1873, at which date my last report closes, I
was at San Francisco, making observations in regard to the fish and
fishing of the Sacramento, and intending, in a few days, to go to Oregon
to look for a suitable location on the Columbia Eiver for obtaining a
supply of eggs of the salmon of that river.

A succession of storms on the Pacific coast deferred my departure
from San Francisco for this purpose, and, while waiting for fair weather
and an outward-bound steamer, advices were received by telegraph,
stating that a large number of white-fish eggs were on their way to
California from the great lakes.

At the same time, Mr. S. E. Throckmorton, the chairman of the Cali-
fornia fish-commission, requested me to assist Mr. John G. Woodbury,
then in the employ of the State commission, in selecting a favorable site
for hatching the white-fish eggs on their arrival, and for depositing the
young fish when hatched.

In compliance with the requirements of this new turn of affairs, I
abandoned my plan of going to the Columbia, and, on the 10th of Janu-
ary, took the cars for Clear Lake, Lake County, California, one hundred
and twenty miles north of San Francisco, having in view the objects
just mentioned.

2. — CHARACTER OF CLEAR LAKE.

After two or three days spent in examination of various waters, it
was decided, on the 15th of January, to locate the hatching-works for
the white-fish eggs at Kelsey Mills.

These mills are situated on Kelsey Creek, a tributary of Clear Lake,
and are three miles above Kelseyville, Lake County, and six miles from
the outlet of Kelsey Creek into Clear Lake.

The water-supply was taken by a pipe from the flume of the mill, and
was ample. The hatching- works were in every way satisfactory.

Owing to the difficulty of obtaining moss in the Eastern States in
midwinter, the first lot of white-fish eggs forwarded from the East
were packed in sponges.

378 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

This kind of packing, though suitable for short trips, was not ade-
quate to the requirements of the long journey across the continent, and
the eggs were all dead when they arrived at Clear Lake. A second
lot, sent on afterward, to take the place of those which were lost, arrived
in good condition, and from them 25,000 white-fish were hatched under
the charge of Mr. J. G. Woodbury. About the time of the absorption
of the yolk-sac, the young fish were placed in various portions of Cleai
Lake. This was the first introduction of the white-fish (Coregonus altos)
into the waters of the Pacific slope.

While stopping at Clear Lake, I gathered the following items in
regard to its waters and the fishes that inhabit them.

It is a singular fact, illustrating the inaptness with which names are
often given to natural objects, that the water of Clear Lake is never
clear. It is so cloudy, to use a mild word, that you cannot see three
feet below the surface. The color of the water is a yellowish brown,
varying indefinitely with the varying light. The water has an earthy
taste, like swamp- water, and is suggestive of moss and water-plants. In
fact, the bottom of the lake, except in deep places, is covered with a
deep, dense moss, which sometimes rises to the surface, and often to
such an extent in summer as to seriously obstruct the passage of boats
through the water.

There are large soda-springs boiling up at various points in the bed
of the lake, which discharge into it vast quantities of soda-water daily.
A reddish-brown, frothy substance is produced in such abundance by
the natural evaporation of the soda-water that the lake in places seems
to be full of it.

In winter, the water is cool and not disagreeable, in spite of its earthy
taste ; but, in summer, it grows warm, the swampy flavor becomes intensi-
fied, the frothy substance from the soda-water increases, the plants and
moss from the bottom float in great quantities in the water, and it
becomes unfit to drink.

These conditions would seem to be unfavorable to fish-life in the lake j
but, by another of those numerous contradictions for which California is
noted, this lake seems to be particularly adapted to fish, and the water
teems with them. In the spring, when they run up Kelsey Creek, Cold
Creek, and other tributaries, to spawn, they swarm in these streams by
millions, forming an almost solid mass, so that it is even difficult to cross
the fords with a horse on account of them.

3. — LIST OF FISHES INHABITING THE LAKE.

The local names of the fish are as follows :

1. Perch. 5. Chy. 9. Black-fish.

2. Shapaulle. 6. Eoach. 10. Trout.

3. Hitch. 7. Spotted sun-fish. 11. Bull-heads.

4. Suckers. S. Mud-fish, (mud-suckers.) 12. Viviparous perch.

OPEEATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 379

Perch, (Smithsonian Collection, No. 146.*) — The perch is very abun-
dant, indeed. It resembles in color and shape the white perch of the
Potomac, but is rather deeper and shorter. Those that I saw in Feb-
ruary were about six inches long by three inches in depth. Their flesh
is excellent, and they are highly prized as food both by white men and
Indians. The perch spawn in May around the margin of the lake.
Millions of young perch are seen in June.

Shapaulle, (Smithsonian collection, No. 152.) — This fish is a cyprinoid,
and is the same as the Sacramento pike, or the California white-fish, of
which several specimens have been forwarded to the Smithsonian Insti-
tution in my collections on the Sacramento and McCloud Eivers. It
averages in weight about five or six pounds, though some have been
caught as heavy as thirteen pounds. Their flesh is white, soft, and bony,
and they are only a medium table-fish. I was told that they spawn in the
sand and gravel in the creeks in May ; but, from the fact that they are
caught in great quantities during this month with the hook and line, I
am inclined to think they spawn earlier, perhaps as soon as the begin-
ning of March.

Mitch. — This is a small, light-colored, and slender fish, about a foot in
length, and very full of bones. The whites do not consider them fit to
eat. The Indians eat them, bones and all, and appear to like them.
They run up the streams in the spring to spawn in countless numbers.
It is not unusual to see one or two acres of ground covered with hitch,
which the Indians have dried for food.

Suckers, (Smithsonian collection, No. 152.) — These resemble the com-
mon suckers of other localities. They are poor food, except the large red-
finned suckers, which are esteemed tolerably good eating. They spawn
on the sand-beaches of the lake and also in the tributary streams. They
dig holes for their nests as large round as a bushel-basket and from six
to twelve inches in depth. They run up the creeks in March, and prob-
ably spawn about that time.

Chy, (Indian name;) silver sides, common name; (Smithsonian collec-
tion, No. 148.) — This fish is quite small, and is said to be all bones. They
run up the creeks to spawn in May and June in vast numbers. The
Indians eat them, but they are not valued by the whites.

Roach, spotted sunfish. — These fish are edible, and are seen in vast
quantities around the sand-beaches in May, when they probably spawn.
They are not of much account.

Mud-fish, or mud-sucker. — This fish is a short, thick fish, of a bluish
color. Its flesh is soft, and is of no value. It is supposed to spawn in
May around the beaches and among the tules.

Black-fish. — I could not obtain a specimen of this fish to examine,
but I heard different persons say that it was a very excellent fish for the
table. Some ranked it next to the trout, while others placed it below

* The numbers attached to the names of the fishes refer to my catalogue of the speci-
mens collected for the Smithsonian Institution.

380 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

the shapaulle. It grows to a considerable size, the full-grown fish
weighing three or four pounds. It is not abundant as a rule, although
large quantities of the black-fish collect in the tules in May, when many
are killed with clubs. This is undoubtedly their spawning-season.

Salmon-trout, (Smithsonian collection, No. 151.) — This is the local name
of a fine, large trout which inhabits the lake, and runs up the tributaries
to spawn in the latter part of the winter. It is highly prized for the
table. In summer, when the water is warm, the trout collect around
the cold springs of the lake, and seem to live there exclusively ; the
water of the rest of the lake probably being too warm for them. The
Indians fish them very regularly and steadily. These trout used to be
very abundant in the lake, but the whites have pursued them so unre-
lentingly on their spawning-grounds that they are rapidly diminishing.
It is difficult to find one now where hundreds used to come to spawn.
Those that I saw in February, 1873, were about eighteen inches long,
and averaged nearly two pounds in weight.

The common California trout is also abundant in the brooks and
streams in the vicinity of Clear Lake, but cannot properly be called one
of the fishes of the lake.

Bull-head. — I did not learn much about this fish, except that it likes
the mud and is an inferior fish. It is not the bull-head, (Pimelodus,) or
horn-pout, of the Eastern States.

Small perch, (see Nos. 244-250, Smithsonian collection ;) {viviparous
perch.) — This is a beautiful little fish, quite small, but very good eating.
It is the same as the viviparous perch of the Sacramento, specimens of
which are included in my Smithsonian collection of 1873. As its name
implies, it brings forth its young alive. It is quite abundant in Clear
Lake.

4. — THE CONDITION OF THE FISH IN CLEAR LAKE AT DIFFERENT

SEASONS.

January. — In January, the lake rises somewhat, the tributary streams
are full and high, and the trout of the lake run up the streams to spawn.
A few suckers are also found in the creeks when they are roiled by the
rains. It is said that black-fish are caught with the hook at this time,
but I did not hear of any being taken during my stay in January.
The Indians fish with a sweep-seine during this month, and catch vari-
ous kinds of fish. They also catch the lake-trout with hook and line,
and the perch with nets.

February. — In February, the shapaulle run up the streams, and are

caught in considerable quantities. The lake-trout return to the lake.

. Black-fish are caught this month. The tributary streams are very high.

March. — Suckers and shapaulle abound in the creeks. The shapaulle
bite somewhat in the lake. Black-fish are more abundant and more
easily caught.

April. — Hitch, chy, shapaulle, and suckers abound in the creeks.

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 381

This is the best month for catching shapanlle. Perch, shapaulle, hitch,
and chy are caught in the lake with hook and line this month. Black-
fish are abundant.

May. — The first of May is about the best time for catching perch. In
respect to the other fish, this month is very much like the last.

June. — The larger part of the fish which have gone up the creeks in
such vast numbers have returned to the lake by this time. They have
also left the sand-beaches and tules where they have been spawn-
ing, and have returned to deep water. Most kinds of the Clear Lake
fish can be caught in the lake during this month with hook and line j
more perch being caught, however, than any other species. The Indians
go this month to the cold feeding-springs of the lake to catch trout with
the nets.

July. — This mouth does not differ much from the last in respect to
the fishing ; but the water during this month becomes warm, and the
fish get soft, and are not good.

August. — The lake is not fished much this month, the water being warm
and the fish soft and inferior. The Indians, however, continue to fish
for trout around the cold springs which feed the lake. There is one spring
in particular fished by the Indians, two miles east of Morgan Young's,
which is forty feet in diameter, and which boils up so that one cannot row
a boat across it. This spring would make a small river if confined. It
is thought that it furnishes the chief water-supply of the lake in the
summer. It is, of course, cold all the year round.

A great number of dead black-fish are seen about the lake this month,
and some dead perch and roach around the shores and among the tules,
which, in many parts of the lake, line the edges densely to a depth of
twenty or thirty feet.

September. — Fish and fishing are about the same as in August. The
weather is a little warmer. No one fishes during this month except the
Indians, who still keep after the trout. The water this month is in its
worst condition. It is full of the frothy product of the soda-springs.
A green scum covers a large part of the surface, and it is not only
uncleanly to look at, but unfit to drink ; and yet, strangely enough, this
lake, which oue would think uninhabitable by fish, fairly teems and
swarms with them.

October. — In October the water begins to cool a little, but as yet there
have been no rains, and there is no other improvement in the water
except the cooling of it. There is no more fishing done this month than
in September.

November. — The water is colder this month. The wind and rain clear
off the stagnant scum which collects on the surface in the summer.
The fish are better, but there is no fishing done.

December. — The lake is clear again on the surface, and begins to rise
with the rains. The water continues to grow cooler, and the fish im-
prove 5 but there is no fishing of any consequence done before the new
year.

382 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

B— SACRAMENTO EIVEE.

After leaving Clear Lake, I went to the Sacramento River to procure a
collection of the fish caught at this season, (February.)

At Rio Vista and other points, I gathered the following fragmentary
notes, which I present here as supplementary to my report on the fish
of the Sacramento River for 1872.

1. — CHARACTER OF FISHING- ON THE SACRAMENTO.

The fishing on the Sacramento River is done in three ways : 1. By
drift-nets ; 2. By fyke-nets ; 3. By sweep-seines.

Drift-nets. — The drift-nets are used exclusively for catching salmon.
They have an 8^-inch mesh, are usually 40 meshes deep, and from 150
to 200 fathoms long. As nearly as I could learn, there were not far
from a hundred salmon-nets in operation on the Sacramento River in
1872. At the meeting of the salmon-fishermen of the Sacramento that
year, there were ninety-five boats represented.

These nets are worked by simply drifting them with the tide. The
salmon, which, of course, are heading against the tide, are gilled in the
meshes. The turn of the tide is the most favorable time for this sort
of fishing.

The nets are frequently drifted a mile before being hauled in. The
salmon-fishing is conducted entirely by white men ; no Chinamen being
allowed to participate in it. There is no law regulating the matterj
but public opinion is so strong in relation to it, and there is such a prej-
udice against the Chinese, that any attempt, on their part, to engage
in salmon-fishing would meet with a summary and probably fatal
retaliation.

The number of fresh salmon shipped from Rio Vista to San Francisco
in the year 1872 is as follows :

January 792

February 1, 581

March 1,945

April 3, 354

May 4, 408

June 1, 201

July 1,145

August 1, 496

September 2, 335

October 583

November 441

December 390

On one day in February, when I came down the Sacramento, there
were put on board the steamer, at Courtland, 7 fresh salmon ; at Rio
Vista, 32 fresh salmon ; at Sherman Island, 32 fresh salmon ; at Collins-
ville, 123 fresh salmon.

The number of fresh fish (salmon and sturgeon) brought down the
Sacramento River to San Francisco in 1872, by the steamers for the
Central Pacific Railroad Company, is as follows :

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 383

August 15, 677

September 14,706

October 3, 0S2

November 2, 367

December 3, 716

January 5, 514

February 5,799

March 11, 394

April 15, 563

May 27,394

June... 5,561

July 6,043 Total 105,796

The proportion of sturgeon and salmon in the various months are
estimated as follows :

January : 10 per cent, salmon ; 90 per cent, sturgeon.

February : 10 per cent, salmon ; 90 per cent, sturgeon.

March : 50 per cent, salmon ; 50 per cent, sturgeon.

April : mostly salmon.

May : all salmon.

June : all salmon.

July : all salmon.

August : all salmon.

September : all salmon.

October : 50 per cent, salmon ; 50 per cent, sturgeon.

November : 50 per cent, salmon ; 50 per cent, sturgeon.

December : 10 per cent, salmon ; 90 per cent, sturgeon.

Besides the salmon above mentioned, a large number are taken by
sailing-vessels and by the opposition-line of steamers and other con-
veyances to San Francisco and the larger towns.

The points from which salmon are shipped on the river- steamers are
Sacramento City, Courtland, Emmatown, Eio Vista, Collinsville, Anti-
och, Benicia, Martinez.

In the spring of 1872, about 25,000 salted salmon came from the Sac-
ramento River to San Francisco, and in the fall about 9,000.

The Rio Vista salmon-fishermen recommend the prohibition of fishing
from June 1 to October 1 or from June 15 to October 15.

Fyke-net fishing. — The fyke-nets have a mesh of 2£ inches. There
were, in the winter of 1872-'73, eighty-five fyke-nets on the Sacramento
at Rio Vista. They are stationary of course, and are examined every
twenty-four hours.

All the kinds of fish in the river are caught in these nets. Mr. John
D. Ingersoll, a prominent fyke-fisherman of Rio Vista, informed me that
the daily catch for twenty nets is now about seventy-five pounds of fish.
They include: chubs,* (Eos. 210-216, Smithsonian collection;) perch, (Eos.
217-231, Smithsonian collection ;) hardheads, (Eos. 231-236, Smithsonian
collection;) Sacramento pike, (Eos. 237-243, Smithsonian collection;)
viviparous perch, (Eos. 244-250, Smithsonian collection ;) split-tails, (Eos.
251-262, Smithsonian collection ;) suckers, (Eos. 263-264, Smithsonian
collection;) herrings, (Eos. 265-270, Smithsonian collection;) sturgeons,
(Eos. 271-273, Smithsonian collection ;) crabs, (Eo. 275, Smithsonian col-

* Numbers referable to catalogue forwarded with specimens.

384 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

lection.) Of these varieties, the perch, pike, and sturgeon are the best
food-fishes.

There has been a vast decrease in the returns of the fyke-nets during
the last twenty years.

In 1872 and 1873, they used to catch 700 or 800 pounds a day in one
fyke-net. An average of 250 pounds a day for one net, at Sacramento
City, was usually expected in those times. The present catch of 75
pounds a day in 20 nets certainly presents an alarming contrast.

The fyke-net fishing is conducted wholly by white men, I believe ; the
Chinese fishermen being ruled out by the force of public sentiment. The
fyke-nets are usually visited early in the morning of each day, and the
catch is sent down to San Francisco by the noon-boat. The fyke-net
fishing begins in November, and is continued till May. The best fishing
is when a rise in the water drives the fish inshore where the fyke-nets
are placed.

During the summer-months, the water is warm, the fish are poor, and
the fishing is discontinued.

On the 27th of February, 1873, I went the rounds of Mr. Ingersoll's
set of fyke-nets with him. We visited twenty nets j but, as some of them
had not been examined for over twenty-four hours, the yield was sup-
posed to be equivalent to one day's fishing for thirty nets. The nets
had four hoops each, and 14-foot wings. We took about 120 pounds of
fish in all. Hardheads were the most numerous, and the Sacramento
pike next. Mr. Ingersoll said that perch used to rank second in abun-
dance, the average for thirty nets being 200 or 300 pounds a day, but
on this day the perch were quite insignificant in numbers. We found
in the nets seven small viviparous perch and two small sturgeons. I
learned also that minks, beavers, and otters are sometimes caught in the
nets. In 1872, Mr. Ingersoll caught eight minks, two beavers, and one
otter in his fyke-nets.

Sweep-seine fishing. — The sweep-seine fishing is given over to the
Chinese, who are not allowed by public sentiment to engage in either
of the other two kinds of fishing just described. What they are not
permitted to do by the prohibited methods, they make ample amends
for by their own methods. They are, I should say, the most persistent
and industrious fishermen on the Sacramento. They fish all the year
round; they use fine-mesh nets, with which they sweep every part of the
river, especially the partially stagnant fresh-water lagoons, or " slews?
as they are called in California, where the fish collect in myriads to
spawn. With these nets, they catch vast quantities of fish of all sizes;
and so destructive has their fishing been on the Sacramento that all
the fish except salmon are disappearing from that river with unexampled
rapidity. It is owing to this kind of fishing that the returns of the
fyke-nets have diminished so alarmingly the last few years. The Chinese
have been at it for seven or eight years ; and, if they keep on three or
four years more at this rate, the small fish of the Sacramento will be

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 385

practically exterminated. I have no means of ascertaining with, any
exactness how many Chinese fishermen there were on the river, but
there are a large number, and Mr. Ingersoll said that they were increas-
ing every year. Most of their fish they send to the San Francisco
market as soon as caught ; but they also dry great quantities of them
on bars and floors prepared for the purpose. These are partly eaten
by themselves, and the balance are sent packed in barrels to the Chinese
market in San Francisco. While at Eio Vista, in February, 1873, 1 visited
a Chinese fishing-station on the Sacramento Eiver. It was located about
eighty rods above the Eio Vista steamboat-lauding, and consisted of a
nest of Chinese fishiug-boats, numbering' seven small boats and three
large ones. There were also on the shore, just across the road, two old
tumble-down buildings, with drying bars and floors near by, in the open
air, where some of the fishermen lived, and attended to the drying of the
fish. The small boats were common flat-bottomed dories, square at the
stern, sharp at the bow, about fifteen feet long, and strongly built. The
large boats were also strongly built, but narrow and pointed at both
ends, and constructed after the Chinese fashion. Two of these large
boats had one mast, and the other one had two masts, considerably
raking, with Chinese sails, which were not like any sails used in this
country. Nearly amidships, but a little nearer one end than the other,
was a tent iu which the Chinamen lived. There was also considerable
space in the hold of this really Chinese junk, which added a good deal
to their house-room. The whole air and look of these crafts was
decidedly foreign, and I might say oriental. If I understand their method
rightly, the small boats are to visit the " slews" and various fishing-points
with, when they go out to draw the seine, and the large boats are really
only movable dwelling and store houses, where they live and receive the
fish that are brought in by the small boats, and which, of course, they
move from place to place on the river as the exigencies of the changing
fishing-seasons may require.

C— CALIFQBNIA AQUAEIUM CAE.

After leaving the Sacramento Eiver, I went to San Francisco, and
immediately began making preparations forgoing East to procure a car-
load of live fish, under the auspices of the California commissioners ; but
as the United States contributed toward defraying the expenses of this
expedition, I will introduce the following account of it here. I left San
Francisco on the 17th of March, 1873, and arrived in Boston on the 28th
of March, having made a short stop at Sacrameuto to arrange for the
transportation of the car, and also at Salt Lake City to provide for the
reception and hatching of a consignment of shad and salmon which
Professor Baird proposed to send to Great Salt Lake, Utah.

I quote the following account of the aquarium-car trip from my report
to the California commission of that expedition :

"My plan of operations for the whole undertaking was, first, to

386 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

collect the fish at some favorable point at the East, where they could
be kept alive until everything was ready for the journey ; secondly, to
fit up a car with the apparatus most suitable for transporting living fish :
and, thirdly, to take this car when loaded to California in the least pos-
sible time, and without any transfer of its contents. This plan was
successfully carried into practice up to the time of the accident just
beyond Omaha.

"The first installment of living fish intended for the California car
arrived at Charlestown, N. H., the point of rendezvous, on the 7th of
May. It consisted of eighty-two black bass, (Grystes fasciatus;) glass-
eyed perch, (Lucioperca;) and bull-heads, (Pimelodus;) and about 300,000
eggs of the Perca fiavescens and the Lucioperca.

" These fish were collected at Lake Champlain, and at the Missisquoi
River in Vermont, and were taken a journey of thirty hours by rail,
before reaching Charlestown. They, nevertheless, bore their trip admi-
rably, and arrived at their destination in first-rate order.

" The next two weeks were spent in fitting up the car, which had
arrived at Charlestown, N. H., and making other preparations for the
difficult undertaking in prospect. Arrangements had been previously
made, at the suggestion of Hon. Spencer F. Baird, United States Com-
missioner of Fisheries, with Mr. Monroe Green, at Castleton, on the
Hudson, for a supply of young shad and fresh-water eels j and also,
with Capt. Viual Edwards, of Wood's Hole, Mass., for young lobsters
and other salt-water fish. The eastern trout (Salmo fontlnalis) were to
be taken from the Cold Spring trout-ponds at Charlestown ; the large
lobsters were to come from Johnson & Young's establishment at Bos-
ton ; and Mr. Myron Green was dispatched to the Baritan Biver for cat-
fish.

" The equipment of the car having been completed, and everything
being ready, the 3d day of June, 1873, was set for our departure. At
midnight of June 2d, Mr. W. S. Perrin arrived from Boston with a
special car, having on board the lobsters, oysters, small lobsters, salt-
water eels, tautogs, and reserves of ocean-water. We began at daylight
the next morning filling the tanks in the car and loading in the fish, and
by 1 o'clock in the afternoon everything was ready, and at a quarter
past 2 on Tuesday, June 3, the California aquarium-car started on its
journey.

"The car was furnished by the Central Pacific Bailroad Company,
and was one of their fruit-cars, intended for quick trips across the con-
tinent. It was 27 feet long and 8 feet wide, and was provided with a
Westiughouse air-brake and Miller platform, which enabled us to take
it along with passenger-trains.

"At one end of the car was a stationary tank, built of 2-inch plank,
lined with zinc, and occupying the whole width of the car and 8 feet of
its length. This tank was 2 feet and 8 inches deep, and held, when full,
about five tons of water. At the other end of the car was a large ice-

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 387

box, the reserves of sea-water, six large cases of lobsters, and a barrel
of oysters. In the center of the car, and occupying nearly all the room
in it, were the other portable tanks for carrying the fish. Our beds were
on the top of the large stationary tank, which, of course, was covered.
The large tank was also arranged so that we could take on water on a
large scale from the water-works at the railroad-stations en route. This
proved to be a very great convenience, and was, in fact,, indispensable.

" When we left Charlestown, N. H., the car contained upward of 60
black bass, from Lake Ohamplain, (Grystes fasciatus :) 11 glass-eyed
perch, from Lake Champlain, {Lucioperca, Americana;) 110 yellow
perch, from Missisquoi .River, (Perca flavescens ;) 80 young yellow perch,
from Missisquoi Kiver, {Perca Jlavescens ;) 12 bull-heads, (horn-pouts,)
from Missisquoi River, (Pimelodus atrarius;) 110 cat-fish, from Raritan
River, (Pimeloclus ;) 20 tautogs, from near Martha's Vineyard, (Tautoga
Americana;) 1,500 salt-water eels, from Martha's Vineyard, (Anguilla
bostoniensis ;) 1,000 young trout, from Charlestown, X. H., (Salmo fonti-
nalis;) 162 lobsters, from Massachusetts Bay and Wood's Hole; 1 bar-
rel of oysters, from Massachusetts Bay ; supplies of minnows for feed-
fish.

"The black bass, bull-heads, cat-fish, and ftart of the lobsters were full-
grown and heavy with spawn.

" Besides the fish above enumerated, I took on at Albany 40,000 fresh-
water eels from the Hudson, and arranged tor 20,000 shad and shad-
eggs (Alosa prccstabilis) from the Hudson, to overtake us at Chicago.

" The receptacles for holding the fish consisted of 1 large stationary
tank, 8 feet/square and 2 feet 8 inches deep ; 1 round wooden 70-gallon
tank; 1 round 50-gailon tank; 3 round 30-gallon tanks; 3 conical-
shaped 30-gallon tanks: 6 conical 10-gallon tin cans; 1 conical 15-gal-
lon tin can ; 3 round 9-gallon tin cans 'p 2 35-gallon casks ; 6 large
cases, containing the lobsters ; the total capacity of the whole, exclud-
ing the lobster-cases, being about 16,000 pounds of water.

" Besides the vessels for holding the fish, the car contained the follow-
ing articles : 1 large 120-gallon cask, filled with ocean- water ; 1 00-gallon
cask, filled with ocean- water; 1 large ice-box ; £ barrel of live moss; £ bar-
rel of water-plants; curd and meal for feed; 1 bushel of salt for killing
parasites ; the aerating-apparatus referred to ; 1 alcohol-stove ; 1 set car-
penter's tools ; 2 lanterns ; 2 hammocks ; 2 spring-beds ; 2 mattresses
and pillow; 2 sets bedclothes; 1 broom; 1 lot green sod ; 2 thermometers;
pipes, spouts, and siphons, for taking in and letting off water ; 1 long-han-
dled dip-net ; 2 short-handled dip-nets ; movable steps to door of car ;
sundry barrels, pails, dippers, &c. ; maps, with stations marked where we
knew the water to be good or bad ; our trunks, valises, and private bag-
gage.

" When the car left Charlestown, there were four of us in it : Mr. W.
T.Perrin, of Grantville, Mass.; Mr. Myron Green, of Highgate, Vt. ; Mr.
Edward Osgood, of Charlestown, X. H. ; and myself. We arrived at
Albany at 11.30 p. m. the same eveniug, all the fish doing well, and the

388 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

"water in the tanks standing at 45° F. Here we took on the 40,000 eels
mentioned above and half a ton of ice. We also left Mr. Myron Green
here to go to the New York Shad-Hatching Works at Castleton, on the
Hudson, and get a supply of young shad.

" On my urgent application to the New York Central Eailroad au-
thorities, that road took us with their passenger-train, which was due to
leave Albany at 2.40 a. m. on the same night. We reached Suspen-
sion Bridge about noon, and left for Detroit with a passenger-train
on the Great Western Railroad. We took on ice and water at Ham-
ilton, Canada, and reached the boat at Detroit ferry about 11 p. m. the
same day, Wednesday, June 4 ; all the fish being in good order, except
the lobsters, which were dying in considerable numbers. The track on
the ferry-boat being just filled by the train, without the aquarium-car,
they left us east of the river all night, and, it being very warm, I spent
the rest of the night till daylight looking up ice, of which I at last
obtained about a ton and a half.

"Leaving Detroit that morning — Thursday, June 5 — we proceeded
directly to Niles, Mich., with a passenger-train, via the Michigan
Central Eailroad. We had now come all the way with passenger-
trains, and had we known this beforehand we need not have lost any
time in bringing on the shad; as it was, however, we expected to make
slow time on freight-trains from Albany to Chicago, and I hence
arranged to have the shad brought on by express from Albany two days
after we left that point. These two days we had now on our hands, and
it was very aggravating to be obliged to lose so much time when time
was so precious. There was no help for it, however; and as I thought
it would be better to wait part of the time on the road than to spend the
whole of the two days in Chicago, I had the car dropped at Niles, Mich.,
and we remained there till 6.10 the next morning — Friday, June G —
when we went on to Chicago, after taking on ice and water, and catch-
ing some minnows to feed the large fish with. We entered Chicago
about 10 o'clock on Friday morning, all the. fish doing well except the
lobsters and eels.

" The temperatures at which I aimed to keep the different varieties of

fish were as follows :

Degrees Fahrenheit.

" Cat-fish 50

u Fresh-water eels » . 45 to 50

"Tautogs 45

" Salt-water eels 45

" Black bass 42

" Yellow perch 42

"Bull-heads 42

" Glass-eyed perch 42

"Trout 3S

" Lobsters 24 to 36

"Oysters , 34 to 36

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 389

" From the experience which 1 have now had, however, I would ad-
vise a change with some of the fish, which would make the temperature

as follows:

Degrees Fahrenheit.

" Cat-fish 50

" Fresh-water eels ~ 50

" Bull-heads 48

" Glass-eyed perch 48

" Yellow perch 45 to 48

" Black bass 42 to 45

"Salt-water eels 42 to 45

" Tautogs ~ 40

" Trout 36 to 38

" Lobsters 34 to 36

"Oysters « 34 to 36

" Mr. Myron Green rejoined us with the shad the next morning, Sat-
urday, June 7th, and at 10.15 a. m. the same day, after having taken on
three tons of ice and three tons of Lake Michigan water, we left Chi-
cago for Omaha, via the Chicago and Northwestern Eailroad.

" We took on water again at Cedar Rapids, Iowa, and arrived at
Omaha at 11 o'clock on the morning of Sunday, June 8th. Through
the courtesy of Mr. C. B. Havens, the train-dispatcher of the Union Pa-
cific Eailroad, who detailed an engine to take our car Jto the ice-house
at the Union Pacific shops, we were enabled to take on a ton and
a half of ice, and about 1 o'clock we started westward again. We
were now on our sixth day out, and everything was promising well.
All the dead eels had been removed, and we had 20,000 or 30,000 left.
The mortality of the lobsters was on the decrease, and we still had
over forty alive and in good condition. All the other fish were in
splendid order. We had ice and water enough on board to take us,
if necessary, to the Sierra Nevada — certainly with what supplies we
could get in the Wahsatch Mountains, where the water is good. The
circumstance of the fish having lived so well up to this time gave us a
good deal of confidence, and we were encouraged- to hope that they
would continue to do well to the end of their journey.

"After leaving Omaha, we stowed away as well as we could the im-
mense amount of ice we had on the car; and, having regulated the tem-
perature of all the tanks, and aerated the water all round, we made our
tea and were sitting down to diuner, when suddenly there came a terri-
ble crash, and tanks, ice, and everything in the car seemed to strike us
in every direction. We were, every one of us, at once wedged in by the
heavy weights upon us, so that we could not move or stir. A moment after
the car began to fill rapidly with water, the heavy weights upon us be-
gan to loosen, and, in some unaccountable way, we were washed out into
the river. Swimming around our car, we climbed up on one end of it,
which was still out of water, and looked around to see where we were.

390 REPORT CF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

We found our car detached from the train, and nearly all under water,
both couplings having parted. The tender was out of sight, and the
upper end of our car resting on it. The engine was three-fourths under
water, and one man in the engine-cab crushed to death. Two, men wero
floating down the swift current in a drowning condition, and the balance
of the train still stood ou the track, with the forward car within a very-
few inches of the water's edge. The Westinghouse air-brake had saved
the train. If we had been without it, the destruction would have been
fearful.

" One look was sufficient to show that the contents of the aquarium-
car were a total loss. No care or labor had been spared in bringing the
fish to this point, and now, almost on the verge of success, everything
was lost.

u I immediately telegraphed the state of affairs to Mr. S. R. Throck-
morton, chairman of the California fish-commissioners, and to Hon.
Spencer F. Baird, the head of the United States Fish-Commission at
Washington. 1 received instructions, by telegraph, from Washington
the next morning, to return east immediately, with my assistants, and
take on a shipment of young shad to California under the auspices of the
United States Fish-Commission."

D— OVERLAND JOURNEY WITH LIVE SHAD.

1. — PREPARATION FOR TEE TRIP.

As soon as was practicable after the accident to the first California
aquarium-car, I reported to Professor Baird at Washington, reaching
that city on the morning of June 15th.

Having received here more explicit instructions in regard to the trip
with shad, I made immediate preparations for undertaking this journey,
and arrived at Castleton, on the Hudson, with my men, on the 25th day
of June. The New York State shad-hatching works, under the immedi-
ate charge of Mr. Monroe Green, are located here, and it was at this
point that I was to procure my consignment of shad for California.

2. — THE START.

At G o'clock in the afternoon of the same day, Wednesday, June 25,
I left the shad-hatching camp, with 40,000 young shad. They were
packed in eight 10-gallon cans, each can containing 5,000 fish. They
had been just taken from the shad-hatching boxes in the river by Mr.
Green, and appeared very healthy and lively ; but they looked so frail
and delicate that it seemed almost a hopeless task to undertake to carry
them. alive 3,000 miles, and deposit them in a river at the other
extremity of the continent, and I certainly despaired of getting them
there safely.

There were four of us in all at the start : Mr. H. W. Welsher ; Mr.
W. T. Perrin ; Mr. Myron Green ; and myself. Mr. Welsher accom-

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 391

parried us as far as Omaha, and the success of the expedition is largely
owing to his skill and experience. The remaining three went through
,to California with the shad.

3, — THE APPARATUS.

Our outfit was very simple, consisting merely of the eight cans con-
taining the fish, one similar can tilled with water for a reserve, two or
tbree pails and dippers, a thermometer, and the apparatus for changing
the water. This apparatus and its use demand a few words of explana-
tion.

The requirements demanded for keeping young shad alive in trausit
are radically different from those involved in carrying any other fish, 1
believe, that have yet been experimented with. They require changes
of water, of course, like any other fish ; but they always scatter indis-
criminately tbrough all portions of the water containing them, instead
of dropping to the bottom of their can, and remaining quietly there, as
is the custom with very young trout and salmon. In consequence of this,
the water cannot be dipped out and thrown away to make room for
fresh supplies without dipping out and tbrowingthe fish away with it.

It becomes necessary, therefore, to separate the fish from the water
before renewing it. To accomplish this, the apparatus in question is in-
tended. It consists of a cylinder 2 inches in diameter, made of very fine
copper-wire netting, and about as long as the can is deep. The bottom
is closed with the same netting. The top is open. In connection with
this is used a piece of £-inch rubber tubing 6 feet long. To change the
water, the wire cylinder is thrust into the can to any desirable depth ;
the water immediately enters the cylinder through the wire net- work,
which also keeps the fish out. One end of the rubber hose is now dropped
into the cylinder, the other end being placed in the pail or can intended
for the waste water. The water being started in the hose by applying
suction at the lower end in the pail, it acts at once as a siphon, and
begins to draw the water out of the cylinder. As the fish cannot get
into the cylinder, the water is drawn off without drawing off the fish.
When a sufficient quantity has been removed, the cylinder and siphon
are taken out, and the spare room in the can replaced by putting in
fresh reserves of water very carefully with a dipper. Thus the chang-
ing of the water is safely accomplished. This very simple, ingenious,
and effective method is the invention of Seth Green.

4. — THE CARE OF THE FISH.

The points about carrying living young shad safely are such as to
make it very delicate and critical work. They are substantially as fol-
lows :

1. To make constant changes of water.

2. To keep the temperature of the water within specified limits.

392 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

3. To avoid sudden changes of temperature in the cans containing the
fish.

4. To avoid any agitation of the water in the cans.

5. To furnish constant supplies of water containing minute natural
food.

C. To guard vigilantly against the use of water in the least degree
unwholesome.

Any failure to supply the above conditions will be immediately followed
by fatal results.

Changes of water. — To make constant changes of water, experience
has shown to be one of the important secrets about keeping the young
fish in good condition. A change is usually made once in two hours.
Any temporary neglect of this precaution soon shows its effect in the
weakening of the fish, and prolonged neglect is fatal.

A spare can containing a reserve of fresh water is usually carried along
with the other cans, and is filled as may be required at railroad-stations.
The changes in the cans are made as just described under the head of
apparatus for changing the water. In our case, the water was changed
every two hours, night and day, for the first half of the trip, and almost
every hour for the last half. As we had eight cans of fish, and were seven
days and nights on the way, we made almost a thousand changes of
water. The labor, of course, was almost incessant. It was like walking
a thousand miles in a thousand hours.

Temperature of the icater. — It has been ascertained that a lower degree
of temperature than G2° Fahrenheit or a higher degree than 75° Fah-
renheit is unfavorable to young shad. It becomes necessary therefore
to keep the water in the cans between these two points, viz, 62° and 75°.
This is done by cooling the water used for changing with ice when too
warm, or heating it with artificial heat when too cold.

It is not usually a very difficult matter to obtain water of the right
degree for changing with, because most trips with shad are made in
warm weather, and in a warm climate, and the main difficulty is to get
the water cool enough, which can easily be done with ice. On our over-
laud journey, however, we passed through a very cold climate in cross-
ing the high ridges of the continent. Indeed, at one point on the Eocky
Mountains, it snowed in the day-time, although almost the 1st of July;
and at these high altitudes the nights were always very cold. To keep
the temperature of the water up to a safe point under these conditions,
in a cold car, with no fire in it, and with reserves of water which them-
selves were cold, was no easy matter, as will appear in the account of
the journey. Indeed, at one time there seemed to be no possible chance
of saving the fish, though, through the untiring labor and perseverance
of Mr. Perrin and Mr. Green, it was accomplished.

Sudden changes. — Sudden changes of temperature are very injurious,
and often fatal, to shad. So important is the precaution thought to be of
guarding against this danger that an alteration of more than two degrees

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 393

in the cans when changing the water is avoided if possible. This end is
accomplished by preparing the reserve water in a pail or can beforehand,
and having it within two or three degrees of the temperature of the shad-
water when the change is made. This can usually be done, but it
adds very much to the labor and care. If we could simply have put a
piece of ice in the shad-cans, or have poured in some warm water when
it became necessary to depress or raise the temperature, the work of
keeping it right would have been comparatively simple"; but to be
obliged to grade it by this slow process of preparing the water before-
hand, and then to affect the temperature of the cans only two degrees
at each change, was a complicated work, and required constant care and
vigilance, as is evident from the consideration that if the temperature of
the shad-cans took to rising or falling rapidly, it would get the advan-
tage of us, so that we could not change the temperature fast enough,
at the rate of two degrees at a time, to keep up with it, and to restrain
it within the required limits.

Still another complication comes in passing through cold climates,
which is that the character of hot water that is obtained cannot be tested,
( and it therefore cannot be safely used on the fish, even when reduced to
the right temperature, and can only be employed as a warm bath to place
the vessels containing the reserve water in. This is not all. The only
way, at times, on the overland journey that we could get hot water was to
heat bars of iron in the engine-furnace, and thrust them, when heated,
into a vessel of water, the train, of course, being all the time in motion.

Under these circumstances, then, five steps became necessary in order
to regulate the temperature of the shad-cans: (a) to heat the irons in the
engine-furnace ; (b) to heat water with these irons ; (c) to warm the re-
serve water used for a change by placing a vessel of it in the water heated
by the irons ; (d) to make the change with the prepared reserve; (e) to
continue altering the temperature in this way two degrees at a time
until the desired point was reached.

To work all night at this, in a moving railway- car, in a cold climate,
with the temperature of the water falling faster than you can possibly
raise it two degrees at a time by the most active exertions, while all the
time the lives of the fish and the success of the whole expedition are
hanging in the balance, is no child's play. It was like the ancient pun-
ishment of being fastened to a pump up to one's chin in water which
rose as fast as the most vigorous pumping could keep it down.

Agitation of the ivater. — Contrary to the requirements of young trout
and salmon, agitation of the water, which is to the utmost degree beneficial
to them, is equally injurious to shad. To avoid this injurious agitation,
shad are carried in tall and (comparatively) slender cans, instead of in broad
and shallow vessels. These cans, which have rather a narrow neck, are
tilled up to the narrowest point. By these precautions, the motion of
the trains is almost entirely prevented from agitating the water. In
putting in the fresh reserves, care is taken to place the water in gently,

394 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AKD FISHERIES.

and never to pour it in hard, with the same object of avoiding a violent
disturbance of the water. As our cans were properly made, having
been prepared under the direction of Mr. James W. Milner, the very-
efficient assistant of Professor Baird, we had no trouble from the motion
of the train agitating the water.

Supply of minute forms of life as food to the fish. — To furnish the fish
with constant supplies of water containing minute natural food, is obvi-
ously necessary to do after the fish are two or three days old, and the
yolk-sac absorbed ; for then they are ready to feed. Nearly all creatures,
as is well known, require, with great frequency when first born, supplies
of nourishment to replace the waste produced by the vital processes ;
but with fish this is particularly true, and especially so with young shad.

To supply this nourishment is usually not difficult, all but very cold
water containing more or less of it. The main precaution to be observed
is to take on sufficient reserves of (relatively) warm water when oppor-
tunity offers. The warmer the water, other things being equal, the
greater is the amount of nutriment in it. We had no particular trouble
on our journey on this score.

Unwholesome water. — To avoid the use of water in the least degree
unwholesome is a precaution the necessity for which is apparent. Un-
wholesome water will kill any fish even when not confined, and espe-
cially so highly-organized a fish as a young shad. And if this is
important with fish in their free state, it is obvious how much more so
it must be with fish confined by thousands in small cans, where all the
conditions, to begin with, are unfavorable to life, and where only a
slight addition to the increase of the evils of their situation is sufficient
to turn the scale the wrong way and destroy them.

To guard against unwholesome water in traveling with live shad,
various precautions are employed. Passengers and railroad-employes on
the train are consulted as to the character of the water ahead. This usu-
ally helps somewhat in a great many cases ; though great caution must
be exercised in accepting the information so obtained. On arriving at
any given water-station, further inquiries are made; and if all accounts
agree that the water is lime or alkaline water, or otherwise unsuitable, it
is given up; but if nothing is learned against it, it is then tasted, and,
if this first tasting is favorable, a supply is taken on board. It is then
more carefully and deliberately tasted, and, if traces of lime or alkali are
discovered, it is thrown away; if not, a few fish are placed in a tumbler
full of it, and their movements watched. If it is very unwholesome,
they will show it at once by their actions. If they do not seem uneasy
in it, the tumbler may be set aside for an hour or two, and if, at the end
of that time, the fish appear to be doing well, it is considered safe to use
the water. I may add here that it is surprising how sensitive and
accurate one's taste will become after a few days' practice in detecting
traces of lime or alkali in the water. The improvement in this respect
during the journey in the case of our party astonished us. Our palates
seemed to become as quick and positive in their actions as the most sen-

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 395

sitive chemical tests. I believe at the end of the journey we could have
detected almost the slightest traces of alkaline mixture in the water, by
the taste.

It was always a matter of great anxiety with us, at every change of
water, lest we should get unwholesome water into the cans, and so
destroy in a moment the fruits of all our pains and care. It was particu-
larly so at first before we had acquired confidence in our judgment of the .
qualities of different waters, and the thought that one mistake in all the
thousand changes oficater to come would be fatal to the enterprise was appall-
ing. It seemed as if it would be a miracle if we should safely run the
gauntlet of this thousand changes in passing through a country the water
of which for two thousand miles held lime or alkali, and for a thousand
miles was frequently so bad that cattle could not drink it.

We went through it all, however, safely ; and, though we exercised all
the caution we could bring to bear on the subject, I think we owed it as
much to good luck as to our own care that we escaped the danger of
using bad water.

I forwarded to you at Washington a list of the places en route where
we found good water, so that hereafter, with this for a guide, there need
not be much danger of going wrong.

5. — JOURNAL OF THE TRIP.

As before meutioned, we left the shad-hatching works at Castleton, on
the Hudson, for the Castleton railroad-station at 6 o'clock on the after-
noon of Wednesday, June 25, with forty thousand young shad packed
in eight cans of water, each holding ten gallons.

On arriving at the Castleton station, we changed the water once, and
left Castleton for Albany at 9.15 p. m., the water in the cans standing
at 70°. At Albany, we made two changes, and took the westward-bound
train for Sacramento at 11.30 p. m. We took on water at Utica, Syra-
cuse, Rochester, Buffalo, Dunkirk, Erie, Painesville, Cleveland, Illyria,
(well-water, doubtful,) Edgerton, Elkhart, South Bend, (lime-water,
bad,) and Chicago, keeping the temperature of the cans very near to 70°,
and arriving at Chicago on Friday morning, July 27, with the fish in
good order. It was exceedingly hot at Chicago, the mercury standing
at 100° in the shade, and it was only with the utmost difficulty, and by
constant changes of water, that we succeeded in keeping the water down
to a safe point. As it was, the heat made the temperature of the cans
rise to 74°.

On leaving Chicago, the air grew cooler, and by night we had
brought the temperature down to 6S°; but approaching Omaha the next
morning, it went up again to 70° ; and while waiting at Omaha, which
we reached on Saturday noon, July 26, it rose to 73°, though we tried
hard to keep it down. Between Chicago and Omaha, we took on water
at La Salle, Bellows station, Bureau, Tiskilwa, Eock Island, Davenport,

396 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Kellogg, Casey, and Avoca. Mr. Welsher left us at Omaha, and re-
turned to Bochester.

"We left Omaha on the Union Pacific road at 3 o'clock on Saturday,
with the fish in excellent order. Through the courtesy of Mr. C. B.
Havens, the Union Pacific train-dispatcher, I was permitted to stop the
train at the Elkhorn Biver, where the aquarium-car accident happened,
to take on a reserve of river-water at that point ; the little experience I
had had in it leading me to think that it would be good for the shad.

The country west of Omaha for fifteen hundred miles is, as is well known,
very poorly supplied with good water. It therefore seemed necessary
to have a larger reserve of water on board than the 10 gallons which
served our purpose east of this point. I accordingly took on at Omaha
a 30-gallon tank, which had been rescued from the aquarium-car wreck,
which, with our pails and spare can, gave our reserves a capacity of 50
gallons.

On arriving at the Elkhorn Biver, the train stopped, and we took on a
full reserve of 50 gallons of the river-water. The river was somewhat
roily, and the temperature was 84° to 85°, but the water tasted good
and soft ; and, by a singular coincidence, it proved to be the best for the
shad that we found on the road.

The river that had swallowed up so unsparingly the car-load of Cali-
fornia fish, thus contributed more than any other toward assisting the
shad across safely to that State.

After taking on the Elkhorn water, we placed a few shad in two turn-
biers of it, and observed their movements. They seemed highly pleased
and entirely at home in it. Being satisfied from their movements that
the water was good, we immediately reduced its temperature with ice,
and began making changes with it. The afternoon being very warm,
however, we could not get the temperature below 72° till night. It
grew cooler after dark, and by 1 o'clock, Sunday morning, we had the
temperature of the cans down to 69° and 70°, the air in the car being
at 09°. We took on ice Saturday night at Grand Island, Nebraska, one
hundred and fifty-four miles beyond Omaha, and water at daylight on
Sunday morning, at Big Springs, Nebraska, three hundred and sixty-one
miles from Omaha. The water at Big Springs was clear and very good,
with a temperature of 58°. The shad placed in a tumbler of it seemed
to like it. At 10 o'clock on Sunday, June 29, the temperature of the
cans was at 67° to 69°. We were now gradually climbing up the eastern
slope of the continent. The air was cool and pleasant, and we had no
difficulty in keeping the water at about 68° all day. At 6 o'clock p. m.,
on Sunday afternoon, we reached Laramie, Wyoming Territory, and took
on 50 gallons of Laramie Biver water ; temperature 62° and good water.
We were now at an altitude of over 7,000 feet, and as soon as the sun
set the air grew very cold. In spite of our best efforts, the water in the
cans dropped to 65°. This I considered too rapid a decrease from the
72° of Saturday afternoon, so we built a fire in the stove of the express-

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. - 397

car in which the cans of fish were carried, and heated our reserves, but
only succeeded, with difficulty, in raising the temperature of the cans a
degree or two, to 66° and G7°.

Monday morning-, June 30, opened with a warm, bright sun, and the
promise of a warm day, and we let the fire in the stove go down ; but
before noon it became very cold again, with a squall of snow at Bryan,
Wyoming Territory. There was also snow on the side of the track.
We built up another fire in the stove, and kept the water in the cans
at GOo.

We arrived at Evanstown, Utah, about 2 o'clock p. in., on Monday,
and took on a reserve of river-water. It was clear and comparatively
good, with a temperature of 57°. As we descended Weber Canon, to-
ward Great Salt Lake, the weather grew warmer, and we descended
to Ogden without mishap, reaching this point at half past five, Monday
afternoon, with the fish all in first-rate order. Here I left 5,000 of the
shad, as fresh and lively as when they were taken from the Hudson, in
the care of Mr. Rockwood, of Salt Lake City, who deposited them in the
Jordan River, a few miles above its outlet into Great Salt Lake. We
also took on here 50 gallons of water from the Weber River, and started
westward again on the Central Pacific Railroad, 15 minutes earlier than
we arrived, according to the Central Pacific Railroad time, but really
about two hours later.

Everything now looked exceedingly favorable and encouraging. We
had passed through more than a thousand miles of the dangerous
country without loss ; the shad appeared as lively and healthy as when
we started ; we had 50 gallons of good water on board, and only four
hundred and sixty miles to run to the beginning of good water again,
at Humboldt, and only three hundred and fourteen miles more from
there to Sacramento. We thought we had reason to feel encouraged.
Our spirits rose accordingly. The terrible strain of the past five days
of anxiety began to slacken. We did not know what was coming
that very night, or we should not have felt so well over it, for the next
night was the most alarming and critical of the whole journey.

The temperature of the cans was standing at 65°, or within 3° of tlxa
limit of danger ; our reserves of water stood at 60°, or 2° below the
limit. The night came on extremely cold ; there was no stove or place for
a fire in the car ; and the temperature of the cans was falling every
moment. In the day-time, hot water could have been obtained by tele-
graphing ahead; but at night this was quite impracticable. The situa-
tion was exceedingly alarming.

Through Mr. Perrin's foresight, however, at Ogden we made a favor-
able beginning of the night. While I was busy arranging for the trans-
fer of the shad for Salt Lake, and attending to indispensable matters
which absorbed all my time at the Ogden depot, Mr. Perrin, on dis-
covering that there was no stove in the Central Pacific express-car,
with admirable foresight went into the kitchen of the depot-restaurant,

398 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

and procured permission to heat some water on the stove, by which we
obtained eight gallons of hot water and got a good start.

I also took the first opportunity to go forward into the postal car and
obtain permission to heat water on the mail-car stove during the night,
The danger was now apparently averted, and, it being my night for sleep,
I, having been up the greater part of the night previous, retired, leav-
ing Mr. Green to remain on duty till midnight, and Mr. Perrin from mid-
night till daylight, when I was to go on again.

Mr. Perrin and Mr. Green deserve the entire credit of taking the
shad through the critical night that followed, and for an account of it
I will quote from Mr. Perriu's journal :

"As we left Ogden on Monday evening, it became evident that we
should need hot water during the night; for the water which we took on
at Ogden was, I think, about 60°, and the temperature of the air prom-
ised to be no higher, while it was necessary to keep the temperature of
the cans above 62°. Accordingly, Mr. Stone made arrangements to heat
water, if necessary, in the postal car, where there was a stove, but after
he went back to the sleeping-car, the man in charge of the mail-car came
to us and said that they were very busy and did not see how they could
have a fire in the car. So Mr. Green went into the engine-cab and per-
suaded the engineer to heat some iron couplings in the furnace of the
engine, and then to put them when red hot into our pails filled with
water. This water was, of course, dirty and unfit for use in many other
respects ; so Mr. Green took the larger tin pail, and filled it with warm
water, and set into it a smaller one with good water in it, but too cold
In this way, he heated a sufficient quantity for immediate use. When
he woke me up at 12 o'clock, the air in the car was cold, and growing
colder, and it was apparent that work must be done to keep the temper-
ature up to the right point. At the first stopping-place, I went forward
to the engine, but found that at that place they changed engines and
also engineers.

" The new engineer hardly understood the case, and was at first un-
willing to do what I desired. The conductor, too, seemed averse to any
delay, and was not very pliable ; but after a statement of our necessities
they both consented, and I was to go forward for hot water at the next
stop. This I did, and obtained hot water heated in the way I have de-
scribed. The engineer remarked that he could heat no more till he
reached Toano, about 4 o'clock a. in., when he could give me all I wanted.
But at 2.30 a. m. the temperature of the car was about 52°, and the
water in the cans about 63°, and, of course, going down. I was getting
a little nervous, for before 4 o'clock the water would surely get too cold
unless something was done. The train stopped, and I ran forward, and
after the engineer heard my case, he told me that they were going to
stop for water in about 20 minutes, and then he would let me have
another supply of warm water. About 3 a. m. the train stopped, and I
went forward, and the engineer took out the hot irons and heated the

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 399

water, and I was enabled to keep the water up to the right temperature
until we reached Toano, where I got another supply. At Wells, I think
it was, another engineer drew off boiling-hot water from the engine.
This took some time, for the water ran very slowly, as it was mostly
steam that came out. I could not have gotten enough hot water in this
way had not; the train made a stop of 15 or 20 minutes for breakfast.

" In this way I got through the night without letting the temperature
fall below G2° j of course, it kept me almost constantly at work."

On Monday, at daylight, I joined the car again, and was quite appalled
to hear of the dangers that had been passed the night before.

The water in the cans now stood at G3° ; we were on a descending
grade ; the sun was quite warm ; and by 10 o'clock, at Carlin, Nev.,
we had the water up to GG°. The sun and air grew warmer, and by noon
the temperature in the cans rose to 70°. We had now descended 1,600
feet, and it was so warm that we began to use ice again to cool the water.
I did not allow myself, however, to be deceived by appearances, but
telegraphed ahead to Humboldt for hot water. I also telegraphed to Mr.
Throckmorton, of the California fish-commission, for a supply of ice
and river- water at Sacramento, on the arrival of the train.

We reached Humboldt at half past G the same day, Tuesday, July 1,
and took on 8 gallons of hot water and 30 gallons of cold water. The
water, which was from a spring, was very good indeed, and had a tem-
perature of G5°. In three hours more, to our great consolation, we began
climbing the Sierra Nevada, with all the bad water left behind us and
only good water before us. We were also now only fourteen hours from
Sacramento City. We had both hot water and ice on board, and the fish
were in splendid condition. We therefore had great hopes of bringing
them through safely.

The rest of the journey was comparatively free from anxiety or danger,
or any marked events. About sunrise on the morning of Wednesday,
July 2, our last day, we crossed the summit of the Sierra Nevada, and
began descending the Pacific slope into California ; the water in the cans
now standing at 65° to G6°. At 9 o'clock we took on 20 gallons of good
water, with a temperature of 60°, at Alta, Cal., and arrived at Sacra-
mento City at half past 1 Wednesday afternoon, with the shad as fresh
and lively as when they left the Hudson Eiver a week before. It seemed

like a miracle !

At Sacramento, we met Mr. Throckmorton, and took on the ice and

water which he had provided at the depot.

At 20 minutes past 2 we took the California and Oregon cars up the
Sacramento River, in company with Mr. John G. Woodbury, the Cal-
ifornia State fish-warden, and, after several changes of water and no mis-
haps, arrived at Tehama, Tehama County, California, about 9 o'clock in
the evening. In a few minutes we were at the river-side, and just at 10
minutes past 9 on the evening of Wednesday, July 2, 1873, in the pres-
ence of Mr. Woodbury, Mr. Green, Mr. Perrin, and several others, cit«

400 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

izens of Tehama, the 35,000 shad from the Hudson River, New York,
were deposited safely and in good order in the Sacramento River, at
Tehama, Cal.; and we turned away from the river toward our hotel,
feeling as if a load of incalculable weight had been lifted from us.
I ought to add here that, at Ggden and various other places on the
road,, we removed the sediment and dead fish from the water by placing
the can-end of the rubber siphon close to the bottom of the cans, and
starting the stream through the siphon without using the protecting
cylinder. The live shad not resting on the bottom at all, this simple
method will clean up every particle of impurity that has settled in the
water without drawing off the live fish. This device serves a double
purpose; for it not only removes all the dirt, but it draws off all the dead
fish, where they can be seen and counted. In this way we arrived at a
very near estimate of the loss en route, which we placed at about 400
fish, or only 1 per cent, of the whole.

In regard to Mr. Perrin and Mr. Green, and their. work on the car, I
must say that two better men for the undertaking could not have been
found. Faithful, untiring, and nerved by the most resolute determina-
tion to succeed, tbey did all, and more than could be asked of them, and
the extraordinary success of the expedition is, without doubt, greatly
due to their efforts.

6. — EXPERIMENTS TO ASCERTAIN THE CHARACTER OF THE WATER.

The temperature of the water used in the experiments given below
was approximated to that of the water in the cans at the time the experi-
ments were tried.

Elkliorn River (Nebraska) water. — Soft, but roily. Saturday, June 28,
put one shad in tumbler, containing three tablespoonfuls, at 4 p. m.
He appeared to like it ; was alive and doing well at midnight ; showed
signs of distress toward morning ; at sunrise was just alive ; at 7 a. m.,
on Sunday, was dead.

Big Spring (Nebraska) ivater. — Clear but a little hard. Put one shad in
tumbler containing three tablespoonfuls of water, at 8 o'clock a. m.,
Sunday morning; showed signs of distress at noon ; was alive at 2 p. m.;
died soon after.

Laramie River ( Wyoming Territory) ivater. — Not quite clear. Put sev-
eral shad in a tumbler full, at 7 p. m., on Sunday ; appeared to like it
at first, but afterward to suffer some ; at midnight were in considera-
ble distress ; at 1 a. m., Monday morning, they began to die ; at 4 a. in.,
nearly all dead ; at sunrise, all dead.

River-icater, Evanstown, Utah. — Somewhat roily. Put two shad in a
tumbler full, at 3 p. in., Monday, June 30; did well in it.

Humboldt Spring (Humboldt, Nev.,) water. — Put several shad in tumbler
at 5 p. m., on Tuesday, July 1 ; seemed to like it ; appeared well most of
the night; in a good deal of distress at daylight ; died in the forenoon.

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 401

7. — STATIONS AFFORDING SUPPLIES OF WATER.

West of Humboldt all the water is good, and it is not necessary to

test it.

We took on water east of Omaha at Albany, Utica, Syracuse, Roches-
ter, Buffalo, Dunkirk, Erie, Painesville, Cleveland, Illyria, (well-water,
doubtful,) Edgerton, Elkhart, South Bend, (bad lime-water,) Chicago,
(Rock Island Railroad depot,) La Salle, Bellows station, Bureau, (rain-
water,) Tiskilwa, (spring-water,) Rock Island, (good,) Davenport, (from
Mississippi River,) Kellogg, Casey, and Avoca.

West of Omaha, we took on water at Elkborn River, 50 gallons, 81°
F., roily ;* Big Springs, 10 gallons, 58° F., clear ; Laramie River, 50
gallons, G2° F., clear ; Evaustown, (spring-water,) 10 gallons, 57° F.,
clear; Ogden, (Weber River,) 50 gallons, 00° F., roily; Humboldt sta-
tion, (spring- water,) 50 gallons, 65° F., clear ; Alta, 20 gallons, 60° F.,
clear ; Sacramento, 20 gallons, warm, muddy.

8. — TEMPERATURE OF WATER IN THE CANS.

The temperature of the water in tbe cans was as follows : Hudson
River water, 70° ; Albany to Chicago, 70° to 74° ; Chicago to Omaha,
74° to GSc : Omaha to Laramie, 73°, 67° ; Laramie to Ogden, 67°, 65°,
G7°, 6G°; Ogden to Humboldt, 0G°, 02°, 70°; Humboldt to Sacramento,
70°, 06°, 67° ; Sacramento to Tehama, 07°, 70° ; Sacramento River water
at Tehama, 74°.

9. — CONCLUSION.

I will close this account of the overland journey with the shad by say-
ing that, considering all the liabilities to accident and delays which are
incident to railway-travel, especially when encumbered as we were with
a dozen cans and pails, weighing in the aggregate half a ton, I think we
were surprisingly fortunate in getting along as well as we did. We
made numerous changes of cars and transfers of our freight from one
train to another, often in the greatest confusion and hurry, with trunks
flying about our heads and feet, and railroad-employes pushing and
thrusting us and our cans out of their way. We were often ordered
away by baggage-masters and express-agents, though we could not, with
safety, leave our charge for a moment ; and at times, especially at the
junctions of the great lines of railways, where we were hardly left a
place to stand, and where at the same time in all the confusion and
crowding we felt obliged to take on water and even to change the wrater
in the cans, it seemed as if some disaster must certainly come — either
that the fish would be injured, or that the cans would be upset, or left
behind, or that some of us would be left, or enter the wrong train,
or something of the sort happen.

* I do not consider roily water at ail objectionable, but the reverse. I chink it much
better to take on large reserves at a few places than small reserves at many places,
because every change of water involves a risk.
20 F

402 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Yet, though it seems almost incredible, not an accident, or delay, or
drawback of any kind happened. We did not lose a fish from any con-
tingencies of any sort, nor meet with a moment's delay, but entered
Sacramento City with all our fish alive, just on the moment that we
were due to reach it by the 11.30 p. m. train which we took from
Albany on Wednesday the week before.

E— THE McCLOUD EIVEE STATION.

The next evening, after depositing the shad at Tehama, I took the
train for Eedding, and the stage thence for the McCloud Eiver, arriving
at the river at daylight of the following day, July 5, 1874. My object
in making this journey was to see in what condition our camp of last
year on the McCloud might be, and to make some examinations of the
river itself, with special reference to using the river-water this year for
maturing the salmon-eggs for shipment. I confess I was somewhat sur-
prised, considering the unsettled condition of the country and the pres-
ence of Indians, to find the house and belongings exactly as we had left
them. Nothing had been molested, and nothing apparently touched, ex-
cept some spare lumber which an agent of the California and Oregon Stage
Company had borrowed in an emergency, and which was immediately
settled for. An examination of the river seemed to indicate that water
for the hatching-house could be obtained by carrying it in a ditch from
a point about fifty rods above the site selected for the hatching- works.

These hasty examinations having been concluded, I went to Shasta
City to engage the services of two fishermen who had assisted us the
year before, and thence I proceeded to San Francisco. Having secured
supplies and men for the season's campaign, I left this San Francisco
city again for the McCloud Eiver on the oth of August, arriving at camp
the next morning at daylight.

The year before, the idea of using the McCloud Eiver water not hav-
ing suggested itself, I had been obliged to locate the camp and hatching-
works at a considerable distance from the river, in order to obtain
brook- water for maturing the eggs. The inconvenience of this arrange-
ment, which placed the fishing-grounds and the hatching-works a mile
apart, is apparent. In fact, the constant necessity for crossing and
carrying materials from one point to the other, frequently in a tem-
perature of 110° in the shade, became so intolerable before the season
was over, with its consequent labor, risk, and loss of time, that I had
resolved if possible, the next season, to bring the camp, hatching- works,
fishing-grounds, and stage-communication together at one place. This
I was fortunately enabled to do by using the river-water for hatching
at a point where the California and Oregon stage-road touches the west
bank of the McCloud. The first plan for conveying the water from a
higher part of the river to the hatching- works was not successful on
account of there not being sufficient fall for a satisfactory hatching-
apparatus, and for other reasons. This plan was therefore abandoned,

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 18/3. 403

and the attempt was made to raise water from the river by a wheel
placed in the current. This method, which worked to our entire satis-
faction, will be more particularly described hereafter.

Previous to my arrival, I had dispatched my foreman, Mr. Woodbury,
together with Mr. Green and Mr. Anderson, to the McCloud, with in-
structions to move the camp and hatching-works to the river-bank, and
to make preparations for using the river-water for hatching.

When I arrived, on the 6th day of August, I found things in a very
satisfactory condition. The house had been moved in good order, and
was now placed just at the water's edge a few rods from the junction of
the stage-road with the river. The large hatching-tent had been erected,
a considerable number of salmon had been caught and corraled, and every-
thing promised well. I was soon after waited upon by a deputation of
the McCloud tribe of Indians, who, at the time of their visit, expressed
themselves friendly and well-disposed.

Our camp now consisted of John G. Woodbury, foreman; Myron
Green, head-fisherman; Oliver Anderson, man of all work; George
Allen, carpenter ; Benjamin Eaton, steward ; A. Leschinsky, fisherman;
J. Leschinsky, fisherman; Livingston Stone, in charge; Indians, Lame
Ben, Uncle John, One-eyed Jim, and others.

The eggs in the parent salmon at this time showed an advanced state
of development, indicating that the spawning-season was not far dis-
tant. As there was a great deal yet to be done to get ready for the two
million salmon-eggs which I hoped to take, no time was lost in pushing
the preparatory work to completion ; and we were so well prospered in
our labors that by the evening of the 19th of August we had the water
running through the hatching-troughs, and were ready for the first
installment of eggs.

1.— CATCHING THE PARENT SALMON.

I will now leave the chronological order of events, and will speak of
some of the branches of our work, beginning with the capture of the
parent fishes and confining the parent salmon. I was very undecided
whether to capture the salmon this year with a seine, or to construct a
large trap in the river which would take advantage of their instinct to
ascend the stream. As the result proved, I think it would have been
easier and cheaper to build the trap, but I decided to use the seine, and
continued to use it, and nothing else, through the season. My reasons
for doing this were —

1. I had tried the seine-fishing, and knew it could be depended upon.

2. I had not tried a trap on any extensive scale, such as would be
necessary in this instance, and was not certain that it could be relied
upon.

3. The building of the trap would be an expensive undertaking, and
the means at my command were such as rendered economy a primary
consideration.

404 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

4. I had all the implements for seine-fishing on hand, and no expense
for an outfit would be incurred in using the seine.

Had we been able to keep alive all the fish we caught till we had taken
their eggs, the seining-method would have been the best and cheapest;
but, as will be seen farther on, the parent salmon in our inclosures died
so fast and in such numbers that I had to keep up the seine-fishing far
beyond the expected time, which made it very expensive and probably
less economical in the end than the trap-project would have been.

Our seine was a short one, of about 20 fathoms, and of a mesh small
enough to catch half-pound grilse and trout. At the beginning of the
fishing in July and first part of August, wre caught a good many trout,
but, in the latter part of the fishing in September, very rarely one. We
drew the seine at first in still places, where the river had formed a large,
broad, and deep basin, but we found subsequently that we caught more
fish by carrying the seine up the river-channel a few rods, and sweep-
ing the channel as well as the basin. In fact, our experience seemed to
show that there were more salmon in the narrower channel above the
deep holes than in the holes themselves. Later in the season, while
the fish were spawning, we had the best success in the rapids below the
holes, or, I should say, as near the rapids as we could go with the boats
and seine; the rapids themselves being too swift water either to haul a
^eine or to row a boat in.

At times, the salmon caught would be mostly males ; at other times,
mostly females; and at other times, nearly all grilse, which seemed to
indicate that there were separate runs of males and females and grilse,
respectively. "We usually began fishing at dark, and fished till mid-
night or daylight, according to circumstances. Mr. Myron Green had
charge of the fishing most of the time, and performed his part very

creditably and faithfully.

•

Table shoicing the character of the fishing at different intervals.

Date.

Number of
tish caught,

Remarks.

An*, 13

18

9 females.

14

80

60 females.

15...

31

Chiefly females.

16

62

Chiefly females.

Sept, 3

4

120

Nearly all males and grilse.

32

Equal number of males and females.
Equal number of males and females.

5

60

6

10

8

120

20 females; the rest males and grilse.

Many males and grilse besides.

Many males and grilse besides.

7 had spawned. 8 had eggs.

6 had eggs. 3 had spawned. Last day of fishing.

9

10

19

22

20 females

15 females

9 females....

We caught about 1,000 salmon altogether during the summer's fish-

ing.

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 405

The weight of the salmon caught (including grilse) varied from less
than a half a pound to 29 pounds. The smallest and the largest were
males. The largest male was caught on the 14th of September, and
weighed 29 pounds. He measured 41 inches in length, and was 22
inches round just in front of the dorsal fin. (See No. 313 of my collec-
tion for the Smithsonian Institution.) We caught the smallest salmon, a
grilse, of course, and a male, on the 16th of September. He was thin
and worn, but full of very ripe milt. He weighed less than half a pound.
(See No. 314c.) The largest female which was weighed was caught on the
2Sth of July. She weighed 22 pounds, (see No. 192c;) girth just in front
of dorsal fin, 22£ inches. I think, however, that later in the season
larger females were caught, which were not weighed. The smallest
female was caught on the 17th of September, and weighed 6 pounds
after being spawned ; girth, 12i inches. She yielded nearly 3,000 eggs.
(See No. 315c.)

The first ripe male was caught on the 17th of August. The milt was
ripe and good. He seemed to be in a healthy condition, but was dark
and slimy. Weight, 26 pounds; girth, 23 inches. (See No. 280.)

The first female caught ripe in the net was taken on the night of the
29th of August. Two ripe ones were taken that night, but the weight
was not observed. The two together yielded 13,000 eggs.

We found ripe females in the corrals three days before this. It
might be inferred at first sight from this fact that confinement hastened
the ripening of the spawn ; but this does not necessarily follow, because
the fish were, when caught, on their way to a higher point on the river,
where the spawning-season naturally comes on earlier than it does lower
down, so that the fish previously caught and now confined in the cor-
rals were really earlier-spawning fish than those caught on the spot
with ripe spawn in them.

The comparative weight of the spawn in the female fish, contrasted
with the fish itself, may be inferred from the following specimen caught
August 14 :

Female salmon; spawn nearly ripe ; weight, 19 pounds; length, 33 £
inches; girth, 20£ inches; weight of spawn, 2^ pounds. (See No. 206.)

On the 18th of August we caught with a hook a trout that had a very
peculiar appearance, on account of the unmistakable marks of old age
which it presented. It was very thin and lank. Its fins and tail were
a good deal worn. Its eyes were sunken, and its whole appearence cor-
responded to that of an old dog or horse. It was the most aged-look-
ing fish I ever saw.* (See No. 282.)

2.— CONFINING THE SALMON.

The corral. — The confinement of the parent salmon in suitable inclo-

* For a description of the appearance of the salmon of the McCloud River, and the
changes which they undergo at the approach and during the progress of the spawn-
ing-season, see my report of operations' on the McCloud River printed in the United
States Fisheries Report for 1872.

406 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

sores, though it seems so simple a matter, was a very trying and diffi-
cult problem to solve, and gave us no end of trouble. To show the
character of this difficulty, I will give my experience in the order in
which it came.

We began building our inclosures by staking down a small circular
fence of stakes in a shallow place in the river near the shore. The
stakes were driven down one by one very firmly, and then firmly bound
together and held in their place by withes. The main objection at first
to this was that it was on too small a scale. "We then built other inclosures
on the same plan, but larger and deeper. This gave the fish more scope
for jumping, and, although the top of the stakes was several feet above
the surface of the water in the inclosure, the salmon easily jumped over
them and escaped into the river. We then put a covering, or roof, over
the corral on a level with the top of the fence. The salmon now,
although they could not escape by jumping out, were no less persistent
in their attempts to do so, and literally wore and lashed themselves to
death in their frantic and ceaseless efforts to escape. I then built a
large covered wooden box, 16 feet long and about 4 feet deep, and 5
feet broad, with wide seams between the boards to let the water
through, and anchored it in the current. As the box when soaked sank
nearly its depth in the water, the salmon had no chance to jump and
lash themselves as in the staked inclosure, and we flattered ourselves
we had found the solution of this troublesome problem of providing a
suitable place of confinement ; but what was our surprise and disap
pointnient when, on examining the salmon in the box a few days after,
we found them all dead. The close confinement of the box had really
prevented them from injuring themselves as before by jumping, but at
the same time had acted so unfavorably in other ways as to cause their
death.

The prospect now looked very discouraging. We could catch salmon
enough for our purpose, but we could not keep them alive. They
were, in fact, dying as fast as we caught them. It now occurred to
us that an open pond, supplied by a good stream of river- water, would
obviate the difficulties presented, as then the fish, having nothing but
dry land to jump on to, would give up jumping and remain quiet. I
accordingly put on a force of Indians at once, and in a few days had a
pond of considerable size ready, and supplied by a stream of water
taken from the flume which conveyed the river-water from the wheel to
the hatchiug-house. A large number of salmon were then put in here,
and we felt decidedly encouraged. But now a new difficulty presented
itself: the fish would not ripen in the pond. Whether it was that the
roiling of the pond by their movements when frightened prevented the
eggs and milt from maturing, or whether the friction produced by their
incessant jumping is one of the necessary conditions of their ripening,
I do not know, but it is certain that neither eggs nor milt matured in
the pond, and I think we did not take a single ripe egg or any first-rate

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 407

milt from one of the fish there confined. My next move was to build a
close board floor over the staked inclosures in the river, almost touching
the surface of the water. This prevented the fish from wearing them-
selves out by jumping, and did not seem to interfere with their
ripening, but it did not keep them wholly from dying. At last I
became convinced, and am still of the opinion, that the Sacramento
spawning-salmon cannot be kept alive in any inclosure on a small
scale. There seemed now to be but one alternative left, and that was
to let those die that were confined, and to keep on fishing and catch
what were needed as we went along. This we did ; and fortunately there
were so many fish running in the river that we were able, even after
this, to obtain enough to furnish the requisite supply of eggs.

Our experience this year has shown one thing, and that is that if a seine
is used exclusively in future for taking the parent salmon, the true way will
be to begin fishing only j ust before the spawning-season commences, for all
the spawn that we took from fish caught and confined at that time
amounted to very few indeed, while, on the other hand, there was no dif-
ficulty in catching enough salmon alter the season commenced to yield
our quota of two million eggs.

The best way, however, lor catching the salmon on the McCloud is, I
think, to extend, if practicable, some impassable barrier across the river
obliquely, say at an angle of 45° with the course of the current, and to
have the upper end lead into a large inclosure, or pound, where the fish
can be conveniently taken out for spawning.

This method, though involving a good deal of labor at first, will
compel all the fish ascending the river to enter the pound, and will,
of course, obviate the constant labor and expense of drawing the seine,
which is no inconsiderable item when kept up for a long time.

The current and volume of the McCloud River are so formidable that
it may be impossible to construct such a barrier ; but if operations are
continued on that river another year, I propose to make the attempt to
dispense entirely with drawing the seine. The pound will, of course, be
arranged so that the fish not required for our purposes can be allowed
to pass up the river to spawn. This, in fact, would be necessary for an-
other reason ; for, if the salmon were entirely cut off from ascending the
river, the Indians above us would be sure to make trouble.

Moving the parent salmon. — The moving of the living parent salmon
across the river, being quite an important feature of our work, deserves
a few words here.

Theriverat the place of crossing was aboutsixty yards wide, with swift
water part of the way, and rapids just below. On account of the rapid
current, no very heavy load could be towed across in safety. Our first plan
for conveying the fish across was to bring them in a large box placed on
the stern of the boat. This answered very well for a small quantity,
but was on too small a scale for the carrying of large numbers. Our
next plan was to tow them over in the seine, but this was not only la-

408 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

borious work, but it gave the fish a chance to injure themselves. The
next plan, and the one we finally adopted, was as follows :

We took the large box containing about 2,000 gallons of water, which
was first used to keep the parent salmon in, and afterward abandoned,
and placed it close to the corral where the salmon were confined ; we
then lifted the salmon out from the inelosure with a net and deposited
them in the box. The box was so large that it would always hold all
we had to carry across, and a great many more. The salmon being all
in, the cover was fastened down, and the box was ready for transport-
ing. The 2,000 gallons of water in the box weighed about ten tons, so
that towing it through the current with the boat was not to be thought
of, and we had not a strong line long enough to reach across the river.
We accordingly attached one end of what rope we had to the box, and
made the other end fast to a rock as high up above the box on the same
side of the river as it would reach. Then the box being ready, the boat-
man unfastened the upper end of the rope, and started across the river
at the same time that others pushed the box out into the current. By
quick rowing he could cross with the boat-end of the rope before the box
had become unmanageable in the current. The boat-end of the rope was
then made fast on this side of the river, and the box, with some help
from the boat, gradually swung across to where it was wanted. This
little maneuver, though so simple as to seem hardly worth mentioning,
really had to be conducted quite dexterously to be successful in our rapid
and dangerous river, and on that account assumed more importance than
it may seem to possess.

3. — THE INDIAN SENTIMENT IN REGARD TO CATCHING THE SALMON.

Our attempt to locate a camp on the river-bank was received by the
Indians with furious and threatening demonstrations. They had until
this time succeeded in keeping white men from their river, with the
exception of one settler, a Mr. Crooks, whom they murdered a few weeks
after I arrived. Their success thus far in keeping white men off had
given them a good deal of assurance, and they evidently entertained the
belief that they should continue, like their ancestors before them, to keep
the McCloud Eiver from being desecrated by the presence of the white
man. Their resentment was consequently very violent when they saw
us bringing our house and tents and camp-belongings to the edge of
the river, and taking possession of the land which they claimed as their
own, and settling down on it. They assembled in force, with their bows
and arrows, on the opposite bank of the river, and spent the whole day
in resentful demonstrations, or, as Mr. Woodbury expressed it, in trying
to drive us off. Had they thought they could succeed in driving us
off with impunity to themselves, they undoubtedly would have done so,
and have hesitated at nothing to accomplish their object ; but the ter-
rible punishments which they have suffered from the hands of the
whites for past misdeeds are too vivid in their memories to allow them

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 409

to attempt any open or punishable violence. So, at night, they went
off', and seemed subsequently to accept in general the situation. Indi-
viduals frequently said to me afterward, however, that I was stealing
their salmon and occupying their land ; but it was more as a protest
against existing facts than as an endeavor to make any change in the
situation. Once, when I was walking alone in the woods on the other
side of the river, an Indian with a very forbidding aspect met me, and
said in the Indian dialect that he wanted to talk with me. I expressed my
gratification at having an interview with him, and we sat down on
the rocks, and the talk began. He was very much excited and very
wrathful. He told me that this was his land, and that his fathers
had always lived there, and that I had no right to be there. He said
the salmon were his, too ; that they belonged to his tribe, and that I
was stealing his salmon. He ended by saying that the white men had
lands and fish in other places, that the Indians did not go there and
steal their lands and salmon, and that white men ought not to come
here and take what belonged to the Indians. There is room enough in
the world for the white men, he said, without taking this river from the
Indians to live on.

I confess that his arguments seemed sound. The whole panorama of
the Indian's wrongs and sufferings, as the history of this country por-
trays it, with the encroachments and injustice of the white man, and
the gradual but certain disappearance of the red man before the advance
of civilization, seemed to come up before my mind, and I felt that though
I was the representative of a powerful and enlightened nation, I could
not answer this poor, ignorant, indignant savage before me. I did not
try to answer him, but I told him I was his friend ; that I did not mean
to take his land or his salmon ; that I should go away in a few months ;
that I only wanted the spawn of the salmon ; and that the Indians
might have all the salmon as soon as I had taken the eggs. He was
not satisfied or appeased, however, and left me in the same disappointed
and indignant spirit with which he met me. This spirit continued to
prevail among the tribe until we began to take spawn and to give them
the salmon. Then, when they saw that they received only kind treat-
ment from us always, and food and medicine occasionally, and that we
gave them all the salmon to eat, securing only the spawn for ourselves,
they seemed to see things in a new light. The public sentiment, I
think, became entirely changed, and was pretty correctly expressed in
what an Indian said to me, about that time : " I understand," said he,
"you give Indian salmon ; you only want spawn ; that all right!"

I had one man in my employ who had fished on theMcCloud the pre-
vious season for salmon on his own account ; and, having taken some
pains to clear away a fishing-ground for drawing the seine on the river-
bank, he claimed the fishing as his private property. I allowed his
claim at first, and paid him a considerable sum for the use of his ground,
as he called it ; but, after making inquiries, and taking legal advice

410 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

upon the point, I made up my mind that if any one had rights on the
river, it was the United States Government, to whom it belonged and
whom I represented. The demands of the man having become ex-
orbitant, and it being illegal for him to sell his salmon if he caught any,
I told him that, after a certain time, I should fish there on my own
responsibility without paying any toll. He was exasperated beyond
measure at hearing this, and when he found that I was in earnest, and
meant what I said, he became dangerous, and attempted violence, which
would certainly have been followed by fatal results, if it had not been
for the vigilance and presence of mind of Mr. Myron Green, who had
charge of him for nearly three hours, part of which time he acted like
a raving maniac. I fished there, however, as I had announced, and the
man acquiesced at last, though under protest. A more thorough investi-
gation of the facts showed conclusively that I was entirely correct in
assuming the right to fish on the grounds in question ; no one under the
circumstances having exclusive rights to fish there.

This circumstance led me to think that it might be desirable for the
United States to reserve to themselves the right to fish in a certain portion
of the McCloud, so that, under no circumstances, could its representa-
tives be prevented from obtaining spawning-fish for breeding-purposes.

4. — SPAWNING THE FISH.

The first spawn was taken on the 2Gth of August, neither the males
nor females being very ripe. At first, we thought it required three men
to spawn the fish : one at the head, one at the tail, and one to take the
eggs. Afterward, we found that two could manage it ; and Mr. Green
finally brought the work down to its greatest simplicity by putting the
salmon's head between his knees, holding the tail with one hand, and
taking the spawn with the other. As we did not undertake to save the
salmon alive, this one-man method proved perfectly satisfactory, ex-
cept with very large fish, and, of course, saved employing so much extra
labor.

At first, also, all the eggs that we took came from the salmon confined
in the corral ; but, as the season advanced, we took more and more in
the net, till at last most of the eggs were taken from the fish as soon as
they were caught in the seine. The parent salmon were then thrown
on shore for the Indians, and, of course, not confined at all.

Below will be found a daily list of the eggs taken during the season.

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873.

411

Daily list of salmon-eggs taken at the United States salmon-breeding estab-
lishment, McCloud River, California, during the season of 1S73.

August 26 .
August 29 .

Date uurecorded

September 6. .
September 7 . .
Septembers..
September 9 . .
September 10 .
September 11.
September 12 .
September 13.
September 14.
September 15.
September 16.
September 17.
September 19.
September 21 .
September 22.

Date.

23, 000

58, 000

38, 000

45, 000

95, 000

60, 000

48, 000

80, 000

110,000

93, 000

30, 000

120, 000

140, 000

55, 000

195, 000

70,000

100,000

100, 000

40, 000

100, 000

110,000

60, 000

70, 000

130, 000

30, 000

p S
<s ©

-
o

23, 000

81,000

119,000

164, 000

259, 000

319, 000

367,000

447, 000

557,000

650, 000

680, 000

800,000

940, 000

995, 000

1,190,000

1,260,000

1,360,000

1, 460, 000

1, 500, 000
1, 600, 000
1,710,000
1, 770, 000
1, 840, 000
1,970,000

2, 000, 000

5. — THE HATCHING-APPAKATUS.

The water-supply. — In the season of 1872, I used water for hatching
from a spring-brook which emptied into the McCloud a short distance
above the site of our present camp, and which had its sources about a
mile to the west of the river. This brook gave us no end of trouble on
accountof its unsuitableness to its purpose. Its average ilowiu the morn-
ing was a little over 1,000 gallons an hour, but at night, after a very hot
day, it would shrink to 250 gallons. It would also heat up some days to a
very dangerous temperature ; then, again, the hogs, which run in the woods
in a semi-wild state, would wallow in it and make it so roily that all
attempts to filter it clean were fruitless ; and, last but not least, there
was present in the water all the time a vegetable growth, resembling
our eastern Conferva, yet somewhat dissimilar to it, that no device of
ours could cleanse the water of. It seemed to be ubiquitous, and gave
a great deal of trouble.

These combined disadvantages of the water-supply of 1872 decided
me to abandon it this season, and to look elsewhere for water. But here
a new difficulty arose. There was no other spring or brook of any mag-
nitude within several miles. To go that distance to locate would either

412 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

destroy onr stage-communication or take us away from the river. There
was but one alternative left, and that was to take the water-supply from
the McCloud. To accomplish this, a ditch was commenced from a point
about fifty rods above the new hatching-house site, and was continued
for about two hundred feet, when it was abandoned ; the obstacles in
the way of its successful prosecution making it practically useless.

We were now left without any water-supply whatever. There were
salmon in abundance at our very feet, but no water to hatch the eggs
with.

The wheel-pump. — In this emergency, the idea of raising the water from
the river itself by a wheel was suggested, and immediately put into
practice. From this time till it was finished, the wheel was the central
object of interest at the camp. So much depended upon it and its suc-
cessful working, and the project was so novel and unprecedented, that
the progress of the work on it was watched with the greatest solicitude ;
and, at last, when it was completed, and actually revolved and lifted its
G,G0O gallons of water an hour higher than our heads, and poured it
down the flume into the hatching-troughs, our relief and enthusiasm
were unbounded. I celebrated the occasion by raising at sunset a large
American flag over the camp.

I consider this device for raising water for hatching-purposes one of
considerable importance, as by this method a water-supply can be ob-
tained on any similar salmon or trout stream when all other resources-
fail, and in regionswhere no other water-supply is available. On account,
therefore, of its possible value to future operations, I will be more ex-
plicit in describing the wheel than might otherwise be thought appro-
priate. The wheel was placed in the rapids, just below the hatching-
house, on our side of the river ; the shore-pier resting on the river-bank.
The other pier was built at the required distance out in the water, and
was constructed by fastening heavy timbers together in the shape of ai
triangle, and filling the inclosed space with large rocks ; the timbers form:
ing the triangle being 12 feet long on the hypotenuse, and those on the
sides being 8 feet long. The shaft was 11 feet long and 9 inches in
diameter. The journals were 9 inches long and 7 inches in diameter.
The journals were of pine and the boxes were of oak. The wheel was
12 feet in diameter, 8 feet wide, and had 16 paddles, each 15 inches wide.
The buckets, containing between 4 and 5 gallons each, were arranged
around the circumference of the wheel, on the shore-side of it, and were,
of course, so constructed as to fill at every revolution, and discharge their
contents just at the right moment.

A margin of several inches was allowed for raising and lowering the
wheel in the water, so as to regulate its power at pleasure. The velocity
of the current in which it was placed was such that, with my utmost
exertions, I could just hold our fishing-boat against it with a good pair
of oars.

At last, after many trials and discomfitures, and renewed efforts in

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 413

constructing the wheel, it was finally pronounced complete, and our
whole camp assembled to see it lowered into the water. To say that we
were breathless with excitement was no exaggeration. Our suspense
cannot be overdrawn. The situation, as it presented itself to ourminds,
was simply this: if the wheel worked well, our efforts to obtain salmon-
eggs would be a success ; if the wheel did not work, our whole expedition
would be a failure. No wonder we watched the lowering of the wheel
with absorbing interest. Our disappointment and dismay can hardly
be exaggerated, then, when we perceived the wheel, having reached its
resting-place, give a convulsive start, revolve perhaps a third of the
way around its axis, utter a groan, and stop entirely. There was not
power enough to lift the buckets of water. We then went to work to
throw out a wing-dam on the river-side of the wheel, about 30 feet in
length and at an angle of nearly 45° with the river-current. This was
built by "making fast one end of a large log to the outer pier and the
other end to a point on the shore above by means of a cable, and filling
in underneath the log with rocks and brush. To obtain the log was at
first quite a problem, for the dam required one that our whole force
could not move. We overcame this difficulty by going half a mile
or so up the river and felling a large tree into the current. This
as it lay in the river, we sawed into the requisite length, and then, with
a good deal of labor and no little excitement and danger, towed down
through the intervening rapids to the wheel. This dam increased
the force of the water against the paddles very materially To gain still
more power, we cleared out the channel below the wheel by exploding
giant-powder in the obstructing rocks.

Everything being again ready, the wheel was once more lowered
A more vigorous start, a somewhat longer revolution, another groan,
and another entire stoppage was the result. Not a drop of water was
raised up to the flume.

We were, however, very near the fulfillment of our hopes. We now
had a bucket at every paddle, making sixteen in all. The wheel was
required, therefore, to raise 16 buckets : 1G times 4£ gallons, or 72
gallons (720 pounds) at every revolution. There was evidently not
power enough for that amount of work. So, to obviate this difficulty,
v/e knocked off every other bucket, leaving eight only. The next time
the wheel was lowered it creaked and groaned as the buckets filled, but
revolved entirely around, and continued to do so without interruption,
with a motion that seemed to our gratified eyes really majestic. Our
watches showed that it made three revolutions a minute, raising 108
gallons in that time, or 6,480 gallons an hour. The problem of obtain-
ing hatching-water was solved, and our minds were relieved of a great
suspense and anxiety. The working of the wheel was from this time to
the end a perfect success. The river was fed by the steadily-melting
snows of Mount Shasta, so that it never fell, and, as no rains occur at
that season in California, it never rose. The wheel revolved regularly,

414 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

without interruption or change, until the eggs were matured and sent to
their destinations.

The work that this simple contrivance accomplished really seems sur-
prising. It raised 1,080 pounds 10 feet, or 10,800 foot-pounds every
minute. This was 648,000 foot-pounds an hour, or 15,552,000 every day.

Our water-supply was now guaranteed, and the rest of the hatching-
preparations were comparatively simple.

The flume. — They consisted of a flume from the wheel to the filtering-
apparatus, the filtering-apparatus, and the hatching-troughs. The
flume was a simple structure of wood, about fifty yards long, supported
by trestle-work.

The filtering-boxes. — The filtering-boxes were made unusually large.
This was rendered necessary by the spawning of the salmon in the river.
In building and covering up their nests, they filled the water with par-
ticles of earth and vegetable growth, which, at that season, it required
a great deal of filtering to keep out. I used three filtering-boxes, one
large one, which first received the water, and two smaller ones, which
received the water from the larger one. The larger box contained one
screen of two thicknesses of mosquito-bar, and four screens of flannel,
each measuring 3 J by 3 feet, yielding, in all, 63 square feet of filtering-
surface. The smaller boxes contained one screen of three thicknesses
of mosquito-bar, and seven flannel screens, having each about 2 square
feet of filtering-surface.

The water of the McCloud River. — The water of the McCloud at the
spawning-season is peculiar. It is not roily in the common sense of the
word, or in the least approaching to being muddy,* but the impurities
in it, which have been stirred up from the bottom of the river by the
working of the parent fish while spawning, can be distinctly seen, me-
chanically held in the water, which, with the exception of the presence
of these foreign particles, seems very clear and pure. It has at this
season more the appearance of water in which fine sand has been stirred
up than what is generally considered turbid or roily water.

The distributing-spout. — The filtering-tanks conveyed the water into
the distributing-spout, and the distributing-spout discharged it into the
hatching-troughs.

The hatching-troughs. — The hatching-troughs were placed parallel with
each other, and at right angles with the distributing-spout, as is the
usual custom in hatching-houses. There were teu rows of troughs
placed in pairs, with a passage-way between each pair, and in each row
were three troughs, each sixteen feet long, placed end to end, one below
the other, so as to give a fall from the first to the second, and from the
second to the third, of a few inches. The troughs were on an average
about breast-high, and were furnished with covers made by stretching
white cotton cloth on a light frame of wood. Most of the eggs rested
on the charcoal bottom of the troughs • but I used trays to a consider-
able extent formed of iron- wire netting, coated with asphaltum, and

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 415

found thesn satisfactory for maturing eggs in for shipment, though I do
not think fish hatched in the asphaltum troughs are as healthy as those
hatched in charcoal troughs.

Seth Green's shad-box. — I also used, by way of experiment and with
Seth Green's permission, half a dozen of his shad-hatching boxes, anchor-
ing them in the river-current. They worked so well that I have no
doubt that, in a river of a warm- winter temperature like that of the
Sacramento, salmon-eggs could be hatched in them with perfectly satis-
factory results, which adds another merit to this very simple but won-
derfully effective invention. The only difficulty which we experienced
with the boxes was the inconvenience of getting at them to pick out the
dead eggs. On account of this inconvenience, I would prefer the station-
ary hatching-troughs if I had my choice, but should feel perfectly confi-
dent of hatching successfully any number of salmon-eggs with nothing
but the shad-boxes.

The tent. — The whole hatching apparatus (excluding, of course, the
flume and wheel) was covered in as before mentioned by a large and
substantial tent 60 feet by 30 feet. The hatching-house, or, more prop-
erly speaking, hatching-tent, contained our work-bench and tools, and
was the place where all the mechanical work was done.

0.— HATCHING THE EGGS.

Considering that the eggs were matured under so many entirely new
conditions, and where eastern experience in hatching salmon-eggs fur-
nished in many points no precedent for a guide, I think the hatching
succeeded remarkably well.

There were losses, however, the causes of which may be classed chiefly
under six heads :

1. Loss by suffocation.

2. Loss from direct rays of the sun.

3. Loss from diffused light of the sun.

4. Loss from inherent causes.

5. Loss from excessive agitation.

6. Loss from want of impregnation.

Death of eggs by suffocation. — The loss that resulted from this cause
was very trifling. At the lower end of one of the lower troughs con-
taining some of the most advanced eggs, one of the division-cleats
separating the compartments had been made so high as to impede the
circulation of the water just above it, in consequence of which some of
the eggs in the water had an insufficient supply of air, and were suffo-
cated. I may add here that I have noticed that a vast amount more of
circulation in the hatching- water is demanded by trout and salmon eggs
at a late period of their development than at the earlier stages. When
these eggs are first taken, they can be literally piled together in heaps,
in water having a very slight movement, without danger ; but after the
embryo has shown itself distinctly in the egg, great caution must be

416 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

exercised in regard to crowding them or placing one tier above another,
and an abundant circulation must be provided to prevent suffocation. In
the case in question, the eggs were two tiers deep ; the circulation about
the eggs of the lower tier was insufficient, and loss ensued. The mis-
chief, however, was almost immediately discovered, and the causes
removed, so that the loss did not exceed 900 eggs.

Loss from direct rays of the sun. — The lower end of the hatching-
troughs extended almost to the eastern end of the tent, so that the
morning sun, unless the canvas covering of that end of the tent
was carefully kept down, shone directly into the open end of the
hatching-troughs. As the tent was made a thoroughfare by the In-
dians, and by our own household also, there was constant passing
through it, and the folds of the canvas were sometimes left carelessly
raised at night, so as to expose the eggs of the lowest compartments of
the troughs to the direct rays of the early morning sun. The conse-
quence, of course, was the loss of all the eggs so exposed. This accident
happened with what might have justly been called an unpardonable
frequency had we not all of us had our hands too full otherwise to look
after this source of mischief. The mortality from this cause during the
whole season, including both before and after we discovered the cause,
amounted to perhaps 30,000 eggs.

Loss from the diffused light of the sun. — This was the main cause of
mortality among the eggs this season ; and it was all the more destruc-
tive because I was not aware before then that sunlight distributed and
diffused through a barrier of canvas was fatal to the life of the eggs.
This proved to be the fact, however. The fact was even worse than
this ; for the light, after passing through the canvas covering of the
tent, and also through the cloth covering of the troughs, destroyed the
eggs. This was so unexpected, and, I think, so unprecedented, that we
were a long time discovering the cause of the trouble. Some simple
experiments, however, revealed the fact that the diffused light of the
tent was killing the eggs. The obvious remedy, of course, was covers.
To provide board covers was out of the question, for it would take a
week, certainly, and perhaps two weeks, to get the lumber ; so I sent to
the nearest town for some cotton cloth, and made covers from it by
stretching the cloth on tight wooden frames. These were placed on the
troughs. The sunlight had now the tent-canvas and the cloth covers
to pass through, and I felt safe. But they were insufficient, and the
cause being of so extended a nature, and being accompanied by conse-
quences of a correspondingly extensive character, a great many eggs
were lost. Even in the few troughs to which we could afford board
covers, the diffused light through the cracks, reflected from the inner
surface of the sides of the troughs, destroyed a considerable number of
eggs.

It should not be inferred from this that the total number of eggs
obtained in the end was reduced any by these losses. The effect of the

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 417

losses was not to diminish the total number of eggs, but simply to make
us more work ; for the fact was that salmon-eggs were so abundant that
any loss could be replaced at once, and was actually so replaced as fast
as the loss occurred. By referring to the daily table of eggs taken, it
will be seen how easily this was done. For instance, from the 10th day
of September to the 13th, inclusive, we took 465,000, which was more
than enough to cover all losses to the impregnated eggs from all causes
combined.

Loss from inherent causes. — I include under this head losses that
occurred with eggs that were already injured when they left the fish,
and which could not live under any circumstances, as, for instance,
eggs taken from dead fish, (chiefly by way of experiment,) and eggs
already dead when in the fish. This loss — if to be deprived of anything
which never had any value in the beginning may be considered a loss —
may be set at 30,000.

Loss from excessive agitation. — This loss occurred, of course, in the ear-
lier stages of the embryo; agitation, though very fatal at first, being
harmless in the later stages of the eggs' development. The agitation
was caused (a) by the action of the supply-stream on eggs placed too
near the point where the stream falls into the hatching-troughs ; (b) by
carelessness of our Indian assistants in feathering the eggs when pick-
ing them over ; (c) by the action of the river-current on the eggs which
were placed in Seth Green's shad-hatching boxes.

The first two causes need no comment. In regard to the third, I will
say that in experimenting with the shad-hatching boxes, we placed
some of them at first in too active a current, which gave the eggs so
much agitation that they became addled, and died. After a little expe-
rience, we learned what force of current they needed, and subsequently
had capital success with them.

Mr. Woodbury informed me tbat after my departure he succeeded in
finding just what degree of movement in the water was required for the
salmon-eggs, so that his later experiments were attended with as good
success as we met with in the hatching-troughs.

The losses from all causes of agitation combined I estimated at 100,000.

Loss from want of impregnation. — The mortality from other causes was
not distinguishable from that resulting from want of impregnation, so
that it is impossible to ascertain what the loss from this cause was this
season. I should say, however, that the unimpregnated eggs numbered
less than 100,000, or 5 per cent, of the whole. This would place the
percentage of impregnated eggs at 95 per cent. I may add here that
on account of the abundance of salmon-eggs on the one hand, and the
scarcity of time on the other, it was often more of an object to save
time than to get a very high rate of impregnation. For instance, sup-
posing that, in taking 100,000 eggs, an hour should be consumed in tak-
ing pains to save 2 per cent, in the impregnation, the gain would be 2,000

eggs. The same amount of time spent in catching additional salmon and

27 F

418 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

spawning them rapidly would have yielded, say 6 female salmon, or
30,000 eggs, of which 28,000 would be impregnated. This, it will be
seen, is fourteen times the number gained in the same time by careful
impregnation, which shows that the time spent in getting eggs is better
rewarded than that consumed in laboring to obtain high percentages of
impregnation.

To resume now the chronological order of events, I will repeat that
by the 19th of August we turned the water through the hatching-house,
and had the pleasure of seeing what I had long looked forward to, a
successful hatching-apparatus in perfect working-order in the salmon-
breeding regions of the Pacific slope. There seemed to be something in
the very sound of the rippling and plashing water to exhilarate our
spirits as it leaped through the troughs for the first time. I celebrated
the day by collecting our whole force of whites and Indians at sunset
and raising a large American flag over the camp.

We continued to catch more salmon and to build more corrals for
them, and to extend the preparations for hatching the eggs. The female
salmon now began to show every sign of being nearly ready to spawn, and
we were daily expecting to find some ripe eggs. We remained, however,
in this not unpleasant state of excitement and anticipation until the
26th of August, when we took the first ripe salmon-eggs of the season,
numbering 23,000.

Now came a new and unexpected drawback. The salmon, confined
in the corrals, had been literally wearing themselves out in their frantic
endeavors to ascend the river. Every moment, day and night, impelled
by their irrepressible instinct, they kept jumping and lashing themselves
against the sides of the inclosures, and now, comparatively exhausted
by their efforts and bruises, they were beginning to die from the effect
of them. Fortunately, there were enough more in the river to get eggs
from, for had we depended on our stock on hand when the first eggs
were taken we should have obtained a very meager supply. As it was,
I kept on fishing and replacing the dead salmon with live ones, so that
we had no lack of eggs, and obtained in the end the full two millions,
at which number I had set my limit.

Nothing further occurred to interrupt our steady progress. We con-
tinued to take eggs every twenty-four hours, both night and day, and
the number in the troughs increased rapidly.

On the 10th of September, at noon, we had a million eggs laid downjv
on the 14th of September, at daylight, we had a million and a half; and
on the 22d, at daylight, the quota of two millions was complete. On the
12th of September, the first eye-spots were visible in the eggs taken on the
26th of August, making sixteen days for the interval between the extru-
sion of the eggs and the appearance of the eye-spots, (the formation of
the choroid pigment.) The water in the river had a temperature of 53°
at sunrise when the first eggs were taken ; but it always rose in the hatch-
ing-troughs during the day, sometimes to 58°, and sometimes as high as

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 419

G4°, so that the exact average temperature of the water for the whole
time cannot be stated.

On the 20th of September, I sent 300,000 eggs to t'he Atlantic coast ;
and on the 30th of September, I went east myself with 000,000 more,
leaving the camp in charge of Mr. Woodbury.

On the Gth of October, Mr. Myron Green left camp with a third lot of
a quarter of a million ; and about a week later, Mr. Woodbury forwarded
by express the balance of the eggs, amounting to another quarter of a
million, or more.

7. — PACKING AND SHIPPING THE EGGS.

The taking of the eggs and the maturing of them for shipment was a
marked success. Indeed, I have never seen a finer lot of salmon-eggs
than we had in the hatching- troughs under the mammoth tent at the
McCloud. Nothing could be wished for more happy and prosperous
than our progress up to the point of shipping the eggs ; but here came
a formidable and threatening difficulty.

Between our camp and the waters which were awaiting the eggs, there
lay a long stretch of three thousand miles of land, which must be crossed
by the young embryos before they could be made available for the
service for which they were intended. It was enough to make the most
confident enthusiast falter.

We all looked forward to this dangerous journey of the eggs with
dread. When we packed them in the moss, and screwed down the cov-
ers, it seemed like burying them alive ; and when we saw the crates con-
taining them loaded into the wagons, and sent off to the railroad-station,
and thought of the almost interminable journey before them, and the
ten thousand chances of injury that these frail creatures would be ex-
posed to on the way, it seemed nothing less than infatuation to expect
that they would survive them all and ever see the light again alive.

They must go, however, and we packed them as well as we could, and
sent them off. The boxes in which they were packed were all two feet
square and a foot deep. The eggs were packed as usual, with first a
layer of moss at the bottom of the box, and then a layer of eggs, then
another layer of moss, and so on to the top. Midway in the interior of
each box, there was a thin wooden partition, to break the force of the
superincumbent mass of moss and eggs. We packed about 75,000 in a
box. When the box was filled, the cover was screwed down, and it was
packed with another one of the same size in a crate, which was three
inches and a half larger on all sides than the combined bulk of the two
boxes inclosed ; this intervening space being filled with hay to protect
the eggs from sudden changes of temperature. On the top of the crates
was a rack for ice. The nearest and only suitable moss that we could
hear of was seventy miles away, at the sources of the Sacramento River.
I accordingly dispatched Mr. Woodbury to Mount Shasta to procure a

420 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

supply. He returned in a few days with thirty-five bushels of moss, all
of which we used in packing.

The manner of the packing has been a matter of considerable criti-
cism. Ou this point, I will only say that I had but one precedent to be
guided by, viz, the shipment of salmon-eggs from the same place the
last year. It was reported concerning this consignment that the eggs
which did not hatch on the way arrived in excellent order. In a criti-
cal and difficult undertaking like this in question, there seemed to be
no choice between adopting a method which had succeeded and others
which had never been tried, so I adhered to the plan of the last year's
shipment, and packed these eggs in precisely the same way.

8. — THE METHOD OF PACKING DISCUSSED.

To give the pros and cons of this method of packing would lead to a
long discussion, which would, perhaps, be out of place here ; so I will
simply say that the packing was no hap-hazard affair, but the result of
careful thought, and the exercise of as much foresight in regard to the
journey as we could bring to bear upon the subject j and even now,
after plenty of leisure for reflection, I do not know of any other practi-
cable method of packing salmon-eggs which are to be sent this over-
land journey, without an attendant, which secures as many favorable
combinations, or which is not open to quite as many objections, as the
one adopted. Indeed, I think the results were a decided vindication of
the merits of the packing. The first lot, forwarded in September, was
undoubtedly destroyed by the heat ; the second lot arrived in as good
order as could be expected 5 the third lot was reported to arrive in ex-
cellent condition ; and the fourth and last lot came the best of all. Of
those sent to Great Salt Lake, distant a thousand miles, only 3 per
cent, were lost. What more could be asked of the packing ? A method
that will carry salmon-eggs a thousand miles with a loss of only 3
per ceut. cannot be a very bad one. Seth Green reports a loss on the
200,000 eggs consigned to him of only 11 per cent, both in transpor-
tation and in hatching. This certaiuly does not seem to reflect any dis-
credit on the packing of the eggs; and when we remember that they
came from a climate where the mercury stood at 110° in the shade, and
that they were conveyed twenty-two miles in a wagon, to begin with,
over a very rough mountain-road, and after that three thousand miles
by rail, I think it is rather creditable to the packing than otherwise.
I am open to conviction, however ; and if there is any better way of
packing the salmon-eggs for their overland journey, I should like to
know it, and should be thankful for any light on the subject.

9. — COST OF THE EGGS.

The cost of getting the ova and preparing them for transportation
was about $4,000. There were very nearly 1,500,000 impregnated eggs
in good condition for shipment. This makes the cost of the eggs at the

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 421

hatching-works $2.G6 a thousand. I think in future, with the experi-
ence that has been acquired and with the work that has already been,
accomplished, that' it is highly probable that the eggs can be got out at
a still less expense ;■ and I should not be surprised, in the event of the
undertaking being repeated on the McCloud Eiver another year, if
5,000,000 eggs could be secured at a cost of $5,000, gold, or at the rate
of $1 a thousand,.

10.— JOURNAL OF OVERLAND TRIP WITH SALMON-EGGS.

Below will be found an account of an overland trip with one lot of
California-salmon eggs :

At 4 o'clock on Tuesday afternoon, September 30, 1873, all the eggs
for one shipment, to the number of 600,000, having been packed in three
large crates, we began moving them to the wagon which was to carry
them to the railroad-station at Eedding, Cal. The crates containing
the eggs averaged in weight about 300 pounds apiece, and it was a.
difficult job, in the burning sun, to get them up the long, steep hill to?
the stage-road where the wagon was waiting. With the help of half a
dozen Indians, it was accomplished at last, however, and at about 5
o'clock I started for Eedding, distant twenty-two miles. So rough and
difficult is the road that we did not reach our destination till 1 o'clock
in the morning. I had previously arranged to have 200 pounds of ice
provided at Eedding, which I distributed on the crates.

The eggs were consigued as follows: To Seth Green, Eochester,
N. Y., 3 boxes, 200,000; E. G. Pike, Middletown, Conn., 2 boxes,
150,000 ; F. W. Webber, Cold Spring trout-ponds, Charlestown, K H.,
1 box, 50,000; E. A. Brackett, Winchester, Mass., 1 box, 50,000; C. G.
Atkins, Bucksport, Me., 1 box, 50,000.

The train left Eedding at 3 o'clock a. in., on Wednesday, October 1, for
Sacramento City, which I reached safely at 1 p. m., the crates apparently in
good order. I left Sacramento on the Central Pacific Eailroad on the
train going east at 2 p. m. the same day ; the eggs being in Wells &
Fargo's express-car. The morning was warm ; the night had been quite
cool. The next morning, Thursday, October 2, I telegraphed for ice at
Carlin, which was furnished when the train reached that point, and
which I broke up and put on the crates.

On Friday morning, October 3, at 7 a. m., we reached Ogden, and the
crates were transferred to the express-car of the Union Pacific Eailroad
train, which connects here withthe Central Pacific Eailroad. During the
afternoon of Friday I opened one of the crates, and examined the top
layer of eggs. They were in perfect order, and looked precisely as well
as when they were first packed. I put on more ice and left them till
morning. On Saturday morning, October 4, 1 got up early, and went to
the express-car to examine the crates. The night had been cool, but
the express-messenger had kept a hot coal-fire iu the car and it was very
hot. I procured a lot of ice at Cheyenne, Wyo., which I used at once,

422 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

and telegraphed ahead to Laramie for more. The day was comfortably
warm. No mishaps occurred except the iteating-up of the car the night
before.

On Sunday, October 5, at 1 p. in., we reached Omaha, crossed the Mis-
souri Eiver, and left Council Bluffs at 3 p. m., on the Chicago, Burling-
ton and Quincy Bailroad. That night was quite cool.

On Monday, October C, at 3 p. in., we reached Chicago. The last
night was cold and favorable for the eggs. Left Chicago on the Michi-
gan Central at 5.15 p. m., with the eggs apparently in good order. Up
to this time I had kept constantly replenishing the crates with ice.

On Tuesday morning, October 7, at 4 o'clock, we entered Cauada on
the Great Western Bailroad, aud the Union Pacific express-car, which
still accompanied the train, was sealed up by the custom-house officers,
so that I could not enter it till we left Suspension Bridge that afternoon
at 2 o'clock. The crates had been well provided with ice, however, the
night was frosty, and the day was cool, so I did not feel uneasy about
the eggs. The car which contained them had a large amount of gold
and silver coin and bullion in it, and the messengers had instructions
to keep every one out of the car. Their instructions are so imperative
in this particular that they will not even listen to any explanations. I
had fortunately provided myself with a letter from Mr. Tracy, of Sac-
ramento, one of the head managers of Wells & Fargo's express, aud by
means of it managed to get aboard the express-car and attend to the
crates. Without the letter, there would have been no chance whatever
of getting at the eggs. Even with such a letter a man insisting on en-
tering the car runs a risk of being injured by the messenger's revolver.
We arrived at Rochester about 5 p. m., Tuesday, October 7. Here I
left the three boxes (a crate and a half) for Seth Green.

Tuesday night, at 2 a. m., the train reached Albauy with the crates
in good order. I went to bed supposing that the express-car would go
on with the train to Boston, but in point of fact it is the custom to
leave it at Albauy.

On Wednesday morning, October 8, at about 8 o'clock, the train arrived
at Boston. To my great surprise and dismay I could not find the salmon-
eggs for Mr. Atkins and Mr. Brackett, and now learned for the first time
that they had been left with the car at Albany. I was the more chagrined
at this because I had been so very careful to keep with them. I might
almost say I had hardly let them go out of my sight, and now at the
end of this long and exceedingly anxious journey, just as I thought my
care had been rewarded with success and was at an end, there came this
disappointment and new anxiety. I could not get track of these eggs
again or learn for some time what delayed them; and it was three days
before Mr. Brackett got his and four days before Mr. Atkins received
his. It was very provoking, when time was so precious, to reflect that
the eggs were one-half as long going from Albany to Winchester, two
hundred miles, as from our camp to Albany, three thousand two hundred
miles. As the weather was very warm during these intervening days,

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 423

it is surprising that the eggs were not entirely lost. Mr. Brackett,
however, saved one-half of his, and Mr. Atkins one-tenth of his
consignment. The eggs for Mr. Pike and for the Cold Spring trout-
ponds were put off at Springfield, Mass. The latter arrived in good
condition, but there was a large loss in the former lot. I learned sub-
sequently from Seth Geen that his lot of 200,000 arrived in excellent
order, and that only 11 per cent, of the eggs were lost, both in trans-
portation and in hatching.

11. — DISTRIBUTION OF SALMON-EGGS.

The following table shows how the eggs were shipped and dis-
tributed .

First lot was shipped September 20, 1873 300, 000

Second lot was shipped September 30, 1873 500, 000

Third lot was shipped October 7, 1873 330, 000

Fourth lot was shipped October 14, 1873 250, 000

Fifth lot was shipped October 19, 1873 « 20, 000

1, 400, 000
The various shipments were distributed as follows:

First shipment, September 20, 1873 :

To J. H. Slack, Bloomsbury, N. J 150, 000

To James Duffy, Marietta, Pa. 150, 000

Total 300, 000

Second shipment, September 30, 1873 :

To Seth Green, Eochester, N. Y 200, 000

To R. G. Pike, Middletown, Conn 150, 000

To F. W. Webber, for United States Fishing-Com-
mission, Cold Spring trout-ponds, Charlestowu,

N. H - 50, 000

To E. A. Brackett, Winchester, Mass 50, 000

To Charles J. Atkins, Bucksport, Me 50, 000

Total 500, 000

Third shipment, October 7, 1873 :

To A. P. Eockwood, Salt Lake City, Utah . 40, 000

To George H. Jerome, Niles, Mich 120, 000

To James Duffy, Marietta, Pa 20, 000

To J. H. Slack, Bloomsbury, N. J 150, 000

Total , 330, 000

Fourth shipment, October 14, 1873 :
To J. H. Slack, Bloomsbury, N. J 250,000

Fifth shipment :
To Dr. W. A. Newell, San Francisco, Cal 20, 000

Total 1, 400, 000

424 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

F— CATALOGUE OF COLLECTIONS SENT TO THE SMITH-
SONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1873.

190. First male salmon taken ; caught with a hook ; weight, 8 pounds ;

girth, 14 inches ; McCloud Eiver, California, July 27, 1873.

191. Male salmon ; weight, 5 pounds ; girth, 13 inches ; McCloud Eiver,

July 27, 1873.

192. Salmon caught in seine; weight, 22 pounds ; girth, 22 inches; fe-

male ; July 28, 1873.
193.
194.

195. Six small trout, McCloud Eiver, California, August 6, 1873.

196. Two heads of small male salmon, McCloud Eiver, August 6, 1873.

197. Female salmon ; weight, 21 pounds ; girth, 21 inches ; caught with

seine and kept some time in pen ; fins and tail partly destroyed
by fungus and abrasion ; McCloud Eiver, California, August 6,
1873.

198. Trout, McCloud Eiver, August 8, 1S73.
199.

200. Trout, McCloud Eiver, August 8, 1873.

201. Jar of trout, McCloud Eiver, August 7, 1873.

202. Four small trout, McCloud Eiver, August 7, 1873.

203. Skin and head of female salmon ; weight, 10 pbunds ; full of spawn,

not separated, but nearly ripe ; meat, dark salmon-color ; skin
now quite dark, slimy, and scales nearly absorbed ; August 8,
1873.

204. Female salmon ; weight, 12 pounds ; girth, 17 inches ; August 13,

1873 ; McCloud Eiver.

205. Male salmon ; weight, 4 pounds ; girth, 11 inches ; McCloud Eiver,

California, August 13, 1873.

206. Female salmon; very slimy and dark; weight, 19 pounds ; girth,

20^ inches ; length, 33£ ; spawn weighed 2^ pounds and was nearly
ripe ; August 14, McCloud Eiver, California, 1873.

207. Pyloric appendages and roe of 206.

208. Male salmon ; weight, 6 pounds ; girth, 13 inches ; August 3, 1873,

McCloud Eiver, California,

209. Male salmou ; weight, 5 pounds ; girth, 12£ inches ; McCloud Eiver,

California, July 29, 1873.

210. Female salmon; weight, 21 pounds; girth, 21 inches; McCloud

Eiver, California, August 6, 1873.

211. Male salmon; weight, 24 pounds; girth, 21 inches; McCloud Eiver,

California, July 30, 1873.

212. Female salmon; weight, 20 pounds; girth, 18 inches; McCloud

Eiver, California, July 25, 1873.
213.

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 425

277. Female salmon; weight, 19 pounds; girth, 19£ inches ; full of eggs

nearly ripe ; McCloud River, California, August 15, 1873 ; very
slimy, but not in bad condition.

278. Female salmon ; weight, 8 pounds; girth, 14 inches ; McCloud

River, California, August 15, 1873; full of eggs nearly ripe.

279. Grilse ; McCloud River, California, August 15, 1873.

280. Large male salmon ; milt ripe and good ; weight, 26 pounds; girth,

23 inches ; McCloud River, California, August 17, 1873 ; in good
condition, but dark and slimy ; first ripe male taken.

281. Pyloric appendages of 280, (in jar.)

282. Trout, (see drawing;) probably an aged individual; fins and tail

worn considerably ; thin and slab-sided ; weight, 4 pounds ; girth,
11 inches; caught with a hook; McCloud River, California,
August 18, 1873.

283. Lizard, (local name "salamander";) McCloud River, California,

August 18, 1873.

284. Stomach of No. 282.

285. Male salmon, (see drawing ;) weight, 28 pounds ; girth, 23 inches ;

scales all absorbed; one of the largest caught this season;

McCloud River, California, August 20, 1873.
280.
287.

288. Trout, Utah Lake.

289. Snub-nosed trout, San Andres Lake ; spawning-season.

290. Fish from Utah Lake.

291. Fish from Utah Lake. ,

292. Trout from Utah Lake.

293. Trout from Utah Lake.

294. Fish from Utah Lake.

295. Trout from Utah Lake.
29G. Trout from Utah Lake.

297. Trout from McCloud River, July, 1873.

298. Salmon-skin, McCloud River, August, 1873.

299. Trout, McCloud River, August, 1873.

300. Trout, McCloud River, August, 1873.

301. Split-tail, (herring,) same as Sacramento split-tail, McCloud River,

August 23, 1873.

302. Grilse, McCloud, August 26, 1873.

303. Grilse, McCloud, August 26, 1873.

304. Male salmon ; weight, 28 pounds; girth, 22 inches; McCloud River,

September 1 , 1873.

305. Male salmon ; weight, 20 pounds; girth, 21 inches; McCloud River,

September 2, 1873.

306. Jar of young trout and salmon, McCloud River, September 2, 1873.

307. Trout, McCloud River, California, September 3, 1873.

308. Trout, September 3, 1873, McCloud River.

426 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

309. Trout, McCloud River, California, September 3, 1873.

310. Head of male salmon, McCloud River, California.

311. Very small grilse, McCloud River, September 9, 1873.

312. Female-salmon skin after spawning, September 9, 1873.

313. Very large male salmon; weight, 29 pounds; girth, 22 inches;

length, 3 feet 5 inches; McCloud River, California, September 14,
1873.

314. The smallest grilse caught this season, thin and worn, but full of

milt and very ripe, McCloud River, California.

315. Smallest female caught this season ; weight, after spawning, 6

pounds; girth, 12£ inches; contained about 2,500 eggs ; McCloud
River, California, September 17, 1873.

316. Salmon-trout, McCloud River, September 19, 1873.

317. Trout, McCloud River, California, September 19, 1873.

318. Trout, McCloud River, California, September 19, 1873.

319. Trout, McCloud River, California, September 21, 1873.

320. Trout-skin, McCloud River, California, September 22, 1873

321. Trout-skin, McCloud River, California, September 22, 1873.

322. Skin of female salmon ; weight, 13 pounds; girth, 17 inches; Mc-

Cloud River, California, September 26, 1S73.

323. Skin of female salmon ; weight, 13 pounds ; girth, 17 inches ; Mc-

Cloud River, California, September 20, 1873.

324. Coarse tule matting, Clear Lake Indians, Lake County, California,

February, 1873.

325. Fine tule matting, Clear Lake Indians, Lake County, California,

February, 1873.

326. Material from which Indian baskets are made, Clear Lake, Lake

County, California, February 10, 1873.

327. Trout, McCloud River, California, September, 1873.

328. Trout, McCloud River, California, September, 1873.

329. Trout, McCloud River, California, August, 1873.

330. Trout, McCloud River, California, August, 1873.

331. Trout, McCloud River, California, August, 1873.

332. Trout, McCloud River, California, August, 1873.

333. Trout-spawn, McCloud River, California, September, 1873.

334. Jar containing 56 small trout (or salmon) and three packages of

pyloric appendages, McCloud River, California, August and Sep-
tember, 1873.

335. Jar containing small trout (or salmon) McCloud River, California,

August and September, 1873.

336. Lizards, (local name "salamander,") McCloud River, California, Au-

gust, 1873.

337. Unknown quadruped, McCloud River, California, August, 1873.

338. Bottle of exceptionally large salmon-eggs, McCloud River, Califor-

nia, September, 1873.

339. Jar containing three California lizards, also large salmon eggs, Mc-

Cloud River. California, September, 1873.

OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA IN 1873. 427

340. Sacramento salmon, artificially hatched at Cold Spring trout-ponds,

Charlestown, IS. H., December, 1873.

341. Hat (or basket) of McOloud Indians, McCloud Eiver, California,

September, 1873. (See 326.)

342. Spear-points, made of ankle-bone of deer, used by McCloud Indians

for spearing salmon, October, 1873, McCloud River, Shasta County,
California.

343. Indian girdle, badge of honor, McCloud Indians, McCloud Eiver,

California, September, 1873.

344. Indian rope, made from plant which grows on Little Sacramento

River, McCloud Indians, California, September, 1873.

345. Hat, (or basket,) McCloud Indians, McCloud River, California, Sep-

tember, 1873. (See 326.)

346. Manzanita-berries, and flour made from berries by McCloud Indians,

McCloud River, California, September, 1873.

347. Soaproot, used by McCloud River Indians for soap, and to make

brushes, McCloud River, California, 1873.

348. Omitted.

349. Insect supposed to make noise at night, McCloud River, Cali-

fornia, September 10, 1873. (Contributed by B. B. Redding.)

350. Moth from Summit station, Central Pacific Railroad, Sierra Nevada,

California, December 22, 1873. (Contributed by B. B. Redding.)

351. Plume of the McCloud Indians, McCloud River, California, Sep-

tember, 1873.

352. Plume of McCloud Indians, McCloud River, California, September,

1873.

353. Plume worn by Indian Dick, who murdered Mr. Crooks, a white

settler on the McCloud River, California, September 24, 1873.

354. TVater -ouzel's nest, headwaters of Little Sacramento River, Siski-

you County, California, September, 1873.

G— A LIST OF M'CLOUD INDIAN WORDS SUPPLEMENTARY
TO A LIST CONTAINED IN THE REPORT OF 1872.

By Livingston Stone.

All-ale, Up, world of good spirits.
Ar-Jcal, Gone, used up.
Ar-nouka, I don't care to.
Attle-nas, Tattooing.
Bar-widder, Come and eat.
Barla, Irony, a joke (or) a falsehood.
- beeda, To be in want of.
Bew-wy, To be the matter with.
• bim, (an intensifier,) Yery.
Boolock too mah, Not big enough.
Chaw-awl, Cooked, done.
Chee-oomay, To bury.
Che-hammis, Ax.
Chil-chilch, Bird,
Chilluk, Provoked.
Chinny, To take.
Chin-ou-lebarda, I'll take it by and

by.

Chippeicinncm, Midnight.

Chocky, Near by.

Choohay, To gamble.

Choreic, Wooden.

Chuna, Dance.

ClarboorucJc, Quartz.

Col, Lips.

Colclia, Pleasant weather.

Cou-yarda, It hurts me.

Bar-Mai, Burned.

Barnal, Get out!

•de, (a pronoun referring to the

speaker.)
De.e-ee, Yes, (very emphatic.)
JDokliy, Chin.
Doompcha, To bathe.
Bllo-de-Jiestarmin, Nothing is the

matter with me.

Elponna, Come in.

E-icear, I don't know how.

Furbiss, New.

Hareimar, To carry away.

Harlisspenarda, I don't want to go.

Harpa, Father.

Harrardar, Good-by.

Hebarlcy, I guess so.

Hestarm, What's the matter ?

He-wyhy, More.

Hissarm, How much.

Hissart, How many.

Hornda, A long time; (also,) al-
ways.

Hoo-roochook, Needle.

Kaiser, Quick.

Kar, Cloudy.

Kar-Jiar, A great wind.

KharJ:, Insane, crazy.

Khra-ma, Finished.

Kellar, Straight.

Ken, Down.

Kentparna, To rise up.

Kettewintoon, Twenty ; (i. e., one
Indian, all his fingers and toes.)

Khal-lokh, Plume.

Khec-yay, Uncle.

Khlark, Rattlesnake.

Klarmet, To give.

Klaw-ma, To kill.

Kleetich-liss-penarda, I don't want
to work.

Koorcha, Pig.

Khlesh, Soul, spirit.

Ktcee-yer, Sick.

Len-darda, Long time ago.

LIST OF M'CLOUD INDIAN WORDS.

423

Lcepida, (used only with mame;

mameleepida, I am thirsty.)
Lor-e-ke, Over that way.
Ma-art, Ear.

Man, Any one, (like the German.)
Markh-us, Leg.
Ml-ee, Foot.
-minner, Cannot.
JUooty, To understand.
Neechi, Nephew.
Nick-el, Skin.

Mss, Me, (objective case of nett.)
Xoic-oicse, Cloth.
Xun-narma, True.
Oh-my, Enough.
Oo-koo, Yonder.
Oosa, Almost.

Oose-lenda, Day before yesterday.
Oose-poppil, Last year.
Oo-yool, Grapes.
Pahn-eetus, Handkerchief.
Park, Body.
Pee-echa, To make.
Pice, Manzanita.
Poilam, Little while ago.
Po mmissim a, "Winter.
Pom-kenta, Down, world of bad

spirits.
Pooly, There.
Poo-re-icar, Dark.
Poo-tar, Grandmother.
Poppil, Year.
Po-Po-oppil, This year.
Poppum-Po-poppil, Next year.
Sawny-winnem, Noon.
JSee-ee, Teeth.
Seeokoos, To brush.
See-icy, WritiDg, letters, &c.

Shonn, Stone.

Shono, Nose.

Shoohoo, Dog.

Shookoo, Horse.

Soo-hama, Will you please ?

Sukey, To stand.

Tabar, Gambling-stick.

Tar-kee, Hat.

Tay-rucli, Tanned buckskin.

Tee-chellis, Squirrel.

Tilteeta, To go visiting.

■tole, In, (or) on, (or) among; e. g.,

meetole, in a tree.
Toon-makh, Bosom.
Toon-oo, Back.
Too-too, Mother.
Tulich, To swim.
Wawtcha, To cry.
Way-ee-icorry, Come again.
Weh! Come here!
Werry-werry, Hurry up!
Wilner, To get up, (from bed.)
Win ! Look I

Winne-harra, To go in search of.
Winnem, Middle.
W inne-squeea, I want to see.
Wittelly, Quickly.
Wohar, Cow.
Woor-ous, Fish-spawn.
Ya-mutta, Trail.
Yar-loo, Quit!
Yaw-lar, Snow.
Yay-lo-cou-da, Move away !
Yet-u-nas, Name.
Yilkh-mar, Heavy.
Yolie, Now.

Yolie-poppum, Pretty soon.
Yorkos, Gold.

XXI -HATCHING AND DISTRIBUTION OF CALIFORNIA SALMON.

A— EEPORT ON CALIFORNIA SALMON SPAWN HATCHED

AND DISTPvlBUTED.

By J. H. Slack, M. D.

Sir: The first consignment of spawn from California arrived on the
evening of September 30, 1873. The weather for the previous few days
had been warm, the thermometer ranging from 70° to 75° at noon.
The spawn was contained in two packing-boxes inclosed in an open
crate, the spaces between the boxes and crate being filled with hay.
This hay was rotten, and the boxes exhaled a peculiar and, alas, too
well-known odor, showing that a portion at least of the spawn was not
only dead, but decomposed. The boxes were at once removed to the
hatching-house and opened. Temperature of the air, 62°; interior of
upper box, 74°; lower box, 84°. The temperature of the water being
50°, it was feared that if at once unpacked, the sudden change would
be fatal. Water was therefore warmed to 70° and allowed slowly to
percolate through the boxes, the temperature being gently lowered.
About twelve hours elapsed before the temperature of 50° was obtained.
The work of unpacking then commenced. Many of the spawn were
completely rotten; others had burst, and long vermiform masses of
albumen had been ejected; these, I afterward ascertained, were re-
garded by some as maggots. From the entire mass of spawn, said to
number 150,000, only about 25,000 were saved, and about three days
labor of two persons was required for the unpacking. The living spawn
were all taken from the upper layers of the upper box; the entire con-
tents of the lower box appeared putrid. However, they were emptied
into a pond, and from careful examination of the water a few weeks
subsequently, a number of living fishes were found. The good eggs
were placed upon grilles, and in less than a week all were hatched.
The mortality among the young was very slight.

The second lot of spawn arrived October 15, at 8 p. in., accompanied
by Mr. Myron Green. On inspection, they appeared much shrunken,
but otherwise in good order. Temperature of interior of boxes, 54°,
56°; air, 52°. A gentle current of water at 50° was allowed to pass
through the boxes for fourteen hours ; at the end of which period the
eggs were found to be pluini) and the embryos lively. Two days were
employed in unpacking them, and for a few days all seemed well, the

432 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

percentage of loss being very small. But, to my surprise, on entering
the hatching-house on the morning of October 21, an immense number
were found to be dead. Every precaution had been taken, the water-
supply was perfect, and the troughs had been carefully and tightly
covered, yet for some days the loss was immense. However, in a few
days the mortality ceased, and but little trouble was afterward expe-
rienced. This lot of eggs was said to number 175,000, of which it is
estimated 130,000 were hatched.

The last lot, said to number 250,000, arrived October 23. These were
treated similarly to the previous invoice, with the exception that, fearing
they might have suffered from rough handling at the hands of my as-
sistants, every egg was unpacked by my own hands. The result was
very satisfactory, about 200,000 spawn being safely hatched. It was
noticed that though the lots No. 1 and No. 2 were all hatched within a
few days after their arrival, lot No. 3 did not commence to hatch until
about two weeks after their arrival.

The after-treatment of the young fishes presented no peculiar points
of interest. The loss of young was very small, and confined almost ex-
clusively to the crooked fishes. A full set of specimens illustrative of
the growth of these fishes will accompany this report.

The method of packing the spawn was probably the best that could
have been devised under the circumstances. I would, however, propose
that in the next shipment the eggs be laid between folds of mosquito-
netting. This would greatly facilitate the operation of unpacking, which
with the simple moss is very tedious and severe.

The following table will show at a glance the details of reception and
number of fishes hatched :

Date.

No. spawn

sent.

No. fishea
hatched.

Percentage
saved.

Temperature
on arrival.

September 30

150, 000
175,000
250, 000

25, 000
130, 000
200, 000

16.6
74.2

80.0

74° @ 82°

October 15

54° @ 5ti°

October 23

52° @ 54°

Total

575, 000

355, 000

CI. 7

By January 1, 1874, it was found that the number far exceeded the
estimate which I had previously made, and that though ample accommo-
dations for the hatching of fishes had been prepared, that the nursery-
troughs were entirely too small for the proper rearing of them. An ad-
dition of 20 feet was therefore made to my hatching-house, at a cost of
about $100. As this was done exclusively for the accommodation of
the California salmon, it is hoped that the Government will be willing
to defray at least a portion of this expense.

HATCHING AND DISTRIBUTION OF CALIFORNIA SALMON. 433

The following table will show, at a glance, the number of fishes dis-
tributed, and the streams in which they were placed :

Date.

Number
placed.

Stream.

Main river.

State.

Placed by-

1373.
Dec. 2

8

10, 000
10,000
10, 000

10, 000

12, 000
10, 000

13, 000
30, 000
30, 000
25, 000
20, 000
10, 000
30, 000
35, 000

* 50, 000
50, 000

Yellow Breeches..

Conecogeaguo

Makontougo

Musconetkong

Pattenbnrg Creek .

Pohatkong

Musconetkong ....

Susquehanna .

Pennsylvania .

Pennsylvania commissioners.
Self, per Downs.
Pennsylvania commissioners.

Self.
Do.

23

Susquehanna .
Delaware

. ...do

1874.

Jan. 1
3

New Jersey . . .
....do. ........

10

Delaware

do

Do.

14

...do

....do

Do.

16
23

Cedar Creek

South Side Club. .

Potomac

Virginia

New York

New Jersey...

Pennsylvania .

do

Self, per Downs.
Self.

26
27
30

Musconetkong

Bald Eagle

Delaware

Susquehanna .
.do

Do.

Pennsylvania commissioners.
Do.

Pel). 6

7

Musconetkong

Pattenbnrg Creek

Musconetkong

Pond

Delaware

Raritan

New Jersev...
....do :...

Self.
Do.

14

Delaware

do

Do.

16

On hand.

355, 000

Recapitulation.

Given to Pennsylvania commissioners 50, 000

Placed in tributaries of Potomac ' 40, 000

Placed in Long Island streams 30, 000

Placed in tributaries of Karitan 47, 000

Placed in tributaries of Delaware 13S, 000

Still on hand in ponds 50, 000

355, 000

In choosing locations for planting fishes the greatest care was exer-
cised. Streams were selected as near as possible the spring-heads, and
containing no other fishes. Most of these small streams having no
names, the name of the nearest named stream is given in the table.
The small streams selected were admirably suited for the purpose, the
temperature ranging from 48° to 52°, and every stone and particle of
aquatic plants being covered with minute insects or crustaceans, the
latter, of which I send specimens, (Gammarusf), being very abundant.

On February 21 a careful examination was made of the Musconet-
kong. I found large numbers of salmon beneath projecting roots and
rocks, especially at the points where small streams empty into the
creek. The salmon were of comparatively enormous size, and might be
readily divided, from their size, into three classes; the largest fish taken
being over 2£ inches in length. It is very probable that these largest
fishes are from spawn thrown out from the first invoice, as mentioned.

The rapid growth of these fishes is a strong argument in favor of turn-
ing them loose in the streams which they are destined to inhabit at an
early age, in fact as soon as the yolk-sac is absorbed.

28 f

434 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

In conclusion, I would state that I consider this attempt at trans-
porting the spawn and planting the young of the Salmo quinnat in our
eastern waters a perfect success. With the exception of lot No. 1, which
were literally cooked by the high temperature to which they were ex-
posed, fully 75 per cent, were hatched and reared, a proportion rarely
exceeded, if the truth be told, by our most successful fish-culturists,
with spawn of their own impregnation. From experiments with various
kinds of fishes, I would place their relative vitality as follows:

1st. Salmo quinnat.

2d. Salmo cov finis.
1 3d. Salmo salar.

4th. Salmo fontinalis.

I might state that the number of fishes on hand was at first very
much underestimated. As an example ; one trough, containing 24 square
feet of surface, was supposed to contain about 20,000 fishes. When
placed in cans for transportation, the number was found to be more
than double the estimate.

The method of counting was as follows : Fifty fishes were repeatedly
counted and placed in a very small gauze net until the eye was familiar
with their aggregate bulk ; netfuls were then taken and counted ; this
was repeated until the number taken could be accurately estimated ; in
fact, it is believed that the total is rather below than above the true
number.

All of which is respectfully submitted.

Prof. S. F. Baird,

United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries.

B— HATCHING AND DISTRIBUTION OF CALIFORNIA SAL-
MON IN TRIBUTARIES OF GREAT SALT LAKE.

By A. P. Rockwood, Superintendent of Fisheries in Utah Territory.

Sir : I have this day received communication from Mr. Webber,
superintendent of your fish-ponds in Charlestown, N. H., dated Novem-
ber 19, 1873. He purports to write at the request of Professor Baird,
asking statistics in regard to salmon-eggs forwarded me from Cali-
fornia. I received them at the junction of the Utah Central and Cen-
tral Pacific Railways, on the 12th of October ; placed them in my hatch-
ing-troughs the same evening ; they were, generally, in good order. I
found about twelve hundred bad eggs out of the forty thousand. Each
day, for three weeks, the eggs were examined, and the bad ones thrown
out, which amounted to .about seventy-five per day on an average ; on
the third day I found two dead and the first fish hatched ; on the seventh
day several more were hatched ; at the expiration of twenty days most
of the hatching was through with. My hatching-troughs were only cal-
culated for 30,000 ; the putting-in of 40,000 covered the" nests so thick
that the bottom could not be seen.

HATCHING AND DISTRIBUTION OF CALIFORNIA SALMON. 435

The umbilical sac was absorbed in from twenty to thirty days after
hatching. The hatching-troughs and nursery-boxes were so crowded
that I tried the experiment of removing some of them to the nursery-
ponds before the umbilical sac was absorbed. My nursery-ponds are
from 10 to 15 feet square, with an average depth of 12 inches of water,
each fed by a spring at the head of respective ponds ; the flow of water
in each is from 25 to 30 gallons per minute, and about 3° colder than the
water from which 1 removed them ; for this, or for some other cause,
they all settled to the bottom, and remained in an apparently dormant
state for about an hour when they then began to revive, and in less than
an hour they were all bright and active. Seeing this result, I immediately
placed about four thousand more in the same pond, and about the same
number in two more ponds that were in readiness. Very few that have
been thus removed have died, whereas those that were left in the
hatching- troughs have died in a much greater ratio. A portion of this
mortality may be attributed to the fact that the cripples were left in the
troughs as they lay near the bottom, and were not taken up in the dip-
net used in removing.

I feed them on boiled grated liver. They are thriving well, and are
much larger than the medium- sized ones of the same age referred to in
"American Fish-Culture."

The young fry are now about thirty days old, and the umbilical sac
is nearly all absorbed. The fry are from one to one and one-half inches
long, and are not so full and plump as the fish of this age are repre-
sented to be in the work just referred to.

The shad fry which I received from you about the 1st of August were
placed in the Jordan River, about fifteen miles from the mouth. This
river is the outlet of Mato Lake and empties into Salt Lake. I have
not heard of any of them being seen since they were put in. I presume
they will be like the " bread cast upon the waters to be gathered after
many days."

Any suggestions or recommendations you will please furnish me will
be thankfully received.

Please to make me a passing call at your convenience.

My respects to Professor Baird for the interest he has taken in fish-
culture in Utah.

Mr. Livingston Stone,

Charlestoicn, N. H.

Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, December 2, 1873.

XXII.— REPORT OF OPERATIONS DURING 1874 AT THE UNITED

STATES SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT ON

THE M'CLOUD RIVER, CALIFORNIA.

By Livingston Stone.

Charlestown, K. H., April 5, 1875.
Hon. Spencer F. Baird :

I beg leave to report as follows: I arrived at San Francisco with the
second California aquarium-car on the 12th day of June, 1874, with the
intention of resuming operations at the United States salmon-breeding
station on the McCloud Eiver, California, as soon as possible. Congress,
however, did not pass the required appropriation for the purpose until
the latter part of June. As soon as notice of this appropriation reached
me, I proceeded to procure supplies, and on the morning of the 4th
of July I left San Francisco, and arrived at the United States camp
on the McCloud Eiver on the morning of July 5. The rest of our force
arrived on Tuesday, July 7. We then numbered nine white men in all
J. G. Woodbury, San Francisco, Cal., foreman ; Eichard D. Hubbard
Charlestown, N. H., assistant; E. C. Forbes, Clinton, Mass., assistant
Waldo F. Hubbard, Gharlestown, N. H., assistant ; Oliver A. Anderson
Eed Bluff, Cal., assistant; Myron Green, High gate, Vt., head fisherman
E. Conklin, New York City, photographer; Marshall L. Perrin, Grant
ville, Mass., secretary ; Livingston Stone, United States Fish Commis
sion, in charge.

Our force was occasionally increased by an additional man, but was not
diminished till the first shipment of eggs was forwarded east. I brought
up from San Francisco a Chinese cook, Ah Sing by name, and employed
more or less Indians throughout the whole season, the largest number
working on any one day being fourteen. At the close of the last sea-
son, 1873, it became necessary to remove the hatching- troughs and water-
wheel to higher ground, to put them out of the way of the winter fresh-
ets, which sometimes raise the water fifteen feet above the summer
level. The dwelling-house, although not above high-water mark, was
firmly shored up with timbers. This we found standing and in good
order. Our first work was to erect the hatching-tanks and replace the
wheel. This being done, we proceeded to build an addition to the dwell-
ing-house to accommodate the increased force of this year, and when
this was finished we went to work on the hatching-apparatus and the
fence across the river. The hatching-apparatus consisted of the troughs
used last year, with some additional ones, in both of which were placed

i

438 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

hatching-trays for the reception of the eggs. The trays employed were
made of the usual wire-netting coated with asphaltum. At first, we
employed trays ten inches wide by twenty inches in length, and very
shallow, placing three tiers one above the other in each compartment
of troughs. As the number of eggs increased, the moving of the trays
every day for the purpose of inspecting the eggs became a great annoy-
ance, and in place of the shallow trays we substituted deeper ones for
the remainder of the eggs. The deeper trays answered their purpose
to perfection. The water, entering from the bottom and finding its exit
from above the eggs, necessarily permeated all of them continually. It
also kept the eggs to a certain degree suspended in the water, so that the
underlying tiers were partly relieved of the weight of those above them.
At first, we placed the eggs in these trays eight layers deep ; but as the
season progressed, the deep trays worked so well that the layers were
increased to twelve, and, as far as could be learned, without detriment
to the eggs.

I am free to say that this combination of deep wire-netting trays with
the Williamson plan of hatching-troughs is the best apparatus for ma-
turing salmon-eggs for shipment that I have yet seen. It is simple,
compact, and effective. By means of it, we hatched eighteen thousand
eggs to the superficial foot of hatching-troughs without the least diffi-
culty ; so that in one length of our hatching-troughs, or eighty feet, we
matured one million and a half of salmon-eggs.

The fence across the river, to which allusion has been made, was a
peculiar feature of this year's operations. Last year, we depended
wholly on the seine for securing parent fish. The largest number which
could be secured in this way being inadequate to the supply of eggs
which was desired this year, I adopted the method of building a salmon-
proof fence and bridge across the McCloud River. This had a double
effect. It enabled us to capture the salmon in the corrals, or traps, con-
nected with the bridge, and also to stop all the salmon from ascending
the river, in consequence of which vast numbers accumulated in the
holes just below the bridge.

With the time and men at my command, the construction of the bridge
and dam was an undertaking of no small magnitude. The point selected
for the purpose was just below the hatching-tents, where the river be-
gins to break over a series of rapids. It was necessary to do the work
here, or at some similar place, in order to avoid the deep holes and irreg-
ularities of the river-bed, which prevailed everywhere in the channel.
This necessity, however, involved the disadvantage of having very swift
water to work in — so swift, indeed, that a boat could not be held for a
moment along the whole line of the bridge without being made fast to
the shore. This disadvantage was the more serious because the snow-
water which forms the river is so cold that the men working in it, as
they were obliged to, a great deal of the time up to their waists and
often up to their necks, could not endure it long without severe suffer-
ing. Fortunately, I had with me a force of loyal and resolute men, who

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 439

were daunted at nothing, and through their courage and resolution these
and all other obstacles were overcome. The space to be bridged over
was one hundred and five feet, or, with the corral-extension, one hundred
and fifty feet. The line was made across the river at nearly right
angles with the current. The water was from four to eight feet deep
and running with tremendous force. The river-bed was of loose, detached
rocks, varying from a pound to half a ton in weight. We began
the work by felling logs in the woods, cutting them into twelve-
feet lengths, and hewing off the ends square. Three of these
lengths were then laid together horizontally and in the form of a
triangle, and the ends firmly pinned together with wooden pins.
Another similar triangle was then made and rested on the first, then
another, and so on till the structure reached the required height
to support the bridge at a suitable distance above the surface of
the water. When this was finished, the men waded out with it, with
great labor, to its place in the river, wjth one angle up stream, of course,
and fastened it there with cables till it was banked up with rocks, and
the hollow space inside was also filled with rocks. When it was done,
we had a solid stone pier, resting on the bottom of the river, which the
current was unable to move. Another similar pier was then built and
placed, and then another and another, at suitable intervals, till the other
side was reached. The tops of the piers were then connected with logs,
hewed square, and pinned to the piers with strong, wooden pins. This
completed the bridge. When it is remembered that we had neither
horses nor derricks, but relied entirely on our physical strength to do all
the work, it will be seen that it was no trifling undertaking. JS"othing
was yet accomplished, however, in arresting the passage of the salmon,
as the space below the bridge was, of course, except at the piers, en-
tirely open to them. It, therefore, now remained to dam the rapid and
powerful current, so that the salmon could not pass. After some delib-
eration, it was decided to make this dam of- poles, about two inches in
diameter, placed perpendicularly in the river, with the upper ends rest-
ing on the side of the bridge, and the lower ends against the bottom of
the river. To facilitate the work of placing the poles, we concluded to
make a regular fence of them, laying poles side by side, about one inch
and a half apart, and inserting both ends of each pole into a strong
cross-piece of hewed timber, running at right angles with the poles.
This having been decided on, the next thing was to get the poles. We
required a thousand. The nearest that could be found iu any quantity
were iu a forest four miles off, over a rough mountain-trail. I imme-
diately fitted out an expedition, with axes, blankets, and provisions for
four days. The thermometer was ranging at that time between 100°
and 110° in the shade. In the sun, it was hot enough to cook eggs. This
made the work of lumbering rather severe ; but at the end of the four
days the expedition returned, having procured several hundred poles.

These they packed on their shoulders to the nearest point on the stage-
road, whence they were brought to camp by the mule-teams returning

440 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

from Oregon. I continued sending to this spot for poles until they re-
ported the stock exhausted. We then scoured the woods in the imme-
diate neighborhood of the camp, and gathered in all the scattering ones
that could be found till these were gone. There were still many more
needed, which were obtained from various quarters, and packed into
camp on the shoulders of the men employed.

The poles having been secured, the fence forming the dam was con-
structed on shore in sections, which, when completed, were taken to the
bridge, and dropped into the water at an angle of perhaps thirty degrees
with the perpendicular of the bridge. The upper side of each section
being now firmly spiked to the timbers of the bridge, the current, strik-
ing it at the angle mentioned, forced the bottom of the fence very
tightly against the river-bed. All the sections being thus placed, rocks
were then piled up around the bottom of the fence and thrust into any
crevices which the salmon might get through, and, this work having
been extended entirely across the river, the bridge and dam were ren-
dered complete.

The next thing was to build the corrals. These were constructed on
the plan of the dam. Two of them, one opening into the other, formed
an inclosure of about 50 by 20 feet. They were built on the east
side of the river, and communicated, by a mouse-trap gate or opening,
with the main stream, so that the salmon could run up into the corral,
but could not return. The other corral was constructed on the same
plan, about the middle of the river. As an illustration of the work
performed on the bridge, I will say that two thousand 2-inch auger-
holes were bored under the scorching sun, and no less than two hundred
tons of rocks were used in the construction of the dam and corrals, all
of which were taken, one by one, and put in their place by hand.

About four o'clock in the afternoon, a few days after the passage
of the salmon was obstructed, and before the corrals were made, it was
announced that the salmon were making their first assault upon the
dam. The whole camp collected on the bridge to witness the attack.
It was a sight never to be forgotten. Eor several rods below the bridge
the salmon formed one black, writhing mass of life. Piled together one
above another, they charged in solid columns against the bridge and
dam, which trembled and shook continually under their blows. Not
daunted by their repeated failures, they led attack after attack upon
the fence, one column succeeding as another fell back. Encouraged by
their numbers, and urged on by their irrepressible instinct, they entirely
disregarded the observers on the bridge, and struggled at their very
best to pass the unwonted obstruction. Finding the fence impassable,
many fell back a little and tried to jump the bridge. This several suc-
ceeded in doing, sometimes violently striking the men on the bridge in
their leaps, and sometimes actually jumping between their feet.

For an hour and a half this fierce assault continued, when, ex-
hausted by their efforts and discouraged by many failures, they fell
back to the deep hole just below the rapids, arrested, for the first time

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 441

since the McCloud formed its channel, in their progress up the river.
The Indians, who were watching their movements, were wild with excite-
ment over this scene, which, even after a residence of centuries on the
river, was new to them, and they begged for permission to spear the
salmon. This, however, I did not give, as I felt obliged to save all the
fish for their spawn.

The bridge and dam were completed, and the river rendered impas-
sable to the salmon, on the 10th of August. From that time to the
beginning of the spawning-season, all hands were busy about the prepa-
rations for taking and hatching the spawn, which were barely ready
when it was announced that the first ripe salmon had been taken. This
was the 26th day of August. From this time to the end of September,
all hands were kept busy in gathering and taking care of the eggs and
extending the preparations for receiving them.

From the end of September till the 18th of October, there was no
work done in taking spawn, but the time was occupied in caring for
what had been taken, and shipping the eggs to their eastern destinations.

Table of consignments of salmon-eggs, according to order of shipments.

1871.

FIRST SHIPMENT.

Sept. 25. Sent by Wells-Fargo's Express, in charge of Mr. E.
Conklin, to —

A. P. Eockwood, Salt Lake City, Utah 150, 000

B. F. Shaw, Anamosa, Iowa 150, 000

David Day, Saint Paul, Minn 150, 000

George H. Jerome, Niles, Mich 300, 000

W. A. Newell, for New Zealand 25, 000

775, 000

SECOND SHIPMENT.

Oct. 6. Sent by express, in charge of Mr. E. C. Forbes, to —

George H. Jerome, Niles, Mich » 300, 000

Seth Green, Eochester, N. Y 150, 000

B. F. Shaw, Anamosa, Iowa 150, 000

David Day, Saint Paul, Minn., forward to Seth

Green, Eochester, N. Y 125,000

725, 000

THIRD SHIPMENT.

Oct. 9. Sent by express, without an attendant, to —

W. W. Clark, Michigan 150,000

George H. Jerome, Niles, Mich 150, 000

A. Palmer, Boscobel, Wis. 80, 000

Seth Green,. Eochester, N. Y 150, 000

530, 000

442 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

FOURTH SHIPMENT.

Oct. 11. Sent by express, in charge of Mr. Clinton Johnson,
to—

E. G. Pike, Middletown, Conn 150, 000

Mrs. J. H. Slack, Bloomsbury, N. J 225, 000

James Duffy, Marietta, Pa 150, 000

Alexander Kent, Baltimore, Md 225, 000

750, 000
FIFTH SHIPMENT.

Oct. 13. Sent by express, in charge of Mr. M. L. Perrin, to —

E. G. Pike, Middletown, Conn 150, 000

James Duffy, Marietta, Pa 150, 000

Alexander Kent, Baltimore, Md 150, 000

J. B. Thompson, New Hope, Pa 150, 000

Alfred A. Eeed, Providence, E. 1 100, 000

Samuel Wilmot, Newcastle, Ontario, Canada. . . 25, 000
H. H. Thomas, Eandolph, Cattaraugus County,

N. Y., afterward forwarded to Seth Green. . . 25, 000

750, 000

SIXTH SHIPMENT.

Oct. IS. Sent by express, without an attendant, to —

E. M. Stillwell, Bangor, Me 150, 000

E. A. Bracket, Winchester, Mass 200, 000

Seth Green, Eochester, K Y 150, 000

William H. Cushmau, Georgetown, Col 25, 000

Jos. E. Andrews, Eockford, 111 50, 000

W. B. Eobertson, Lynchburgh, Va 50, 000

625, 000

SUMMARY.

First shipment 775, 000

Second shipment , ., 725, 000

Third shipment 530, 000

Fourth shipment 750, 000

Fifth shipment 750, 000

Sixth shipment 625, 000

Total 4, 155, 000

Distribution of the eggs.

A. P. Eockwood, Salt Lake City, Utah 150, 000

B. F. Shaw, Anamosa, Iowa 300,000

David Day, Saint Paul, Minn r 150,000

George H. Jerome, Niles, Mich 750, 000

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 443

Seth Green, Eochester, N. Y 575, 000

E. G. Pike, Middletown, Conn 300, 000

James Duffy, Marietta, Pa 300, 000

Alexander Kent, Baltimore, Md 375, 000

J. B. Thompson, New Hope, Penn 150, 000

Alfred A. Eeed, Providence, E. 1 100, 000

Samuel Wilmot, Newcastle, Ontario, Canada 25, 000

H. H. Thomas, Eandolph, N. Y 25, 000

E. M. Stillwell, Bangor, Me 150,000

E. A. Bracket, Winchester, Mass «. . 200, 000

W. H. Cushman, Georgetown, Col 25, 000

J. E. Andrews, Eockford, 111 50, 000

W. B. Eobertson, Lynchburgh, Va 50, 000

W. W. Clark, Niles, Mich , 150,000

A. Palmer, Boscobel, Minn 80, 000

Mrs. J. H. Slack 225, 000

W. A. Newell, for New Zealand 25,000

Total number of eggs sent out of California 4, 155, 000

Hatched and placed in the McCloud Eiver, California 850, 000

Total number of impregnated eggs taken 5, 005, 000

Not impregnated, and lost from other causes 747, 500

Total number of eggs taken 5, 752, 500

From the 18th of October till the camp was closed up, November 30,
the time was taken up with hatching the eggs that were left, amounting
to 850,000, and placing them in the McCloud Eiver ; in consideration of
which, the California commissioners of fisheries contributed a thousand
dollars toward the expenses of the campaign.

COST OF THE EGGS.

It is so difficult to separate the expenses of shipping the eggs from
the general expenses of the season that the exact cost of the eggs when
ready for consignment can only be approximated. The expenses of this
season's operations were very much augmented by the addition of per-
manent improvements, as, for instance, a large tent and several hundred
hatching-trays. These improvements ran up the expense of procuring
the eggs this season to about $9,000, including the cost of hatching the
eggs for the Sacramento, for which the California commissioners paid
$1,000. There were five million impregnated eggs obtained, which
makes the cost per thousand at the McCloud Eiver, $1.80.

CAMP-BUILDINGS, ETC.

The general plan of the camp this year was the same as that of last,
with some improvements and extensions added. The point lowest down

444 EEPOKT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

on the river that we occupied was, as before, the lower fishing- ground.
Here was the main fishery; the other, from its coming above the damr
being practically abandoned. There were here two or three corrals for
salmon, and two or three little wooden structures forming a rude camp
for the fishermen. Some distance above this point, and about a hun-
dred yards from the house, were the bridge and upper corrals. The
main corrals were on the opposite side of the river, and extended about
50 feet down to the farther end of the bridge. The bridge reached 106
feet across the river to the wheel which raised the water for the hatch-
ing-works. A flume connected the wheel with the filtering-tanks at the
upper end of the hatching- tents. Next came the distributing-spout, and
then the hatching-apparatus proper, which extended 80 feet farther to
the end of the hatching-tents. Just at this point was a fishing-ground
for trout and " Wyedar deckets;" and a little farther up the stream was
a set of hatching-boxes, with wire sides and bottom, floating horizon-
tally in the current. Only a few steps farther up the river came the
house in which we lived. Behind was the United States flag on a 50-
feet flag-staff, and a little farther on two smaller tents and a brush-camp.
About ten rods up the river from this point was an inclosure, or pound,
in which the young salmon for the State of California were put before
they were old enough to wholly shift for themselves. This terminated
our series of works in this direction.

It will be seen by comparison with last year's report, that the ar-
rangement of the camp was similar to that of 1873 ; the river-corrals
and bridge being new, however, as has been mentioned. The hatching-
troughs were also extended 40 feet farther in length, involving the use
of an additional tent 40 feet by 30 feet. This made the hatching-tents
this year 100 feet long. The addition to the dwelling-house nearly
doubled its size, making it 28 feet by 26 feet, and giving us three new
rooms, one of which was employed for a bed-room, one for a store-room,
and one for the photographer's use. The brush-camp north of the
dwelling-house was quite a valuable addition of this year. It was very
rudely built, after the fashion of the aborigines, but it ^ras located in a
shady spot, at the water's edge, and proved to be an extremely conven-
ient place to transfer my office to during the warmer portions of the day,
when my room in the house often became intolerably hot. The only
other new feature at the station this year were the inclosures, or pounds,
for receiving the young salmon intended for the McCloud River. These
were built of rocks and covered with brush, and when the salmon were
approaching the period of the absorption of the yolk-sac, they were
transferred from the hatching-troughs to these corrals, where they had
ample space to move about.

THE HATCHING-APPARATUS.

This was on a much larger scale as well as on a different plan from
that of last year. The wheel and flume were the same, but owing to

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 445

the greater pressure of water against the wheel caused by the erection
of the dam, it raised three or four times as much water, or about twenty
thousand gallons an hour. If necessary, the wheel could be made
to pump up enough water to hatch a hundred million salmon-
eggs. The filtering-tanks consisted this year of two tanks brought out
in the second California aquarium-car. They were splendid tanks,
made of eastern pine, iron-bound, and holding a thousand gallons each.
Tbe hatching-troughs this year were all made on the Williamson plan,
which obliges the water to run from the bottom to the top of each com-
partment, as seen in the diagram. There were eight rows of hatchiug-
troughs this year, each eighty feet long. In some of the troughs, the
shallow trays were used three deep, with one layer of eggs in each tray.
In others, one deep tray was substituted for the three tiers of shallow
trays, and the eggs placed eight or ten layers deep instead of one. This
new application of the Williamson troughs was suggested by my fore-
man, Mr. Woodbury, and is, I believe, the best and simplest method
yet discovered for maturing salmon-eggs for shipment. By means of it,
we could mature forty thousand eggs in each compartment, a quarter of
a million in each trough, and one million and a quarter in each line of
troughs. As there were eight lines of troughs laid down, our hatching-
capacity this year was just ten millions ; but it can be increased indefi-
nitely. All the troughs were excluded from the light by covers formed
by stretching black cloth over slight wooden frames. All the' troughs,
trays, covers, as well as the wheel, bridge, dam, and everything else
about the place, were made by ourselves on the spot.

THE FISH AND THE FISHING.

The upper fishing-ground, being above the dam, was practically aban-
doned this year, and almost all the seining was done at the lower
ground, where the fishing was good enough to satisfy any one. When
the salmon had made an unsuccessful assault upon the dam, they fell
back into the hole at the foot of the rapids, which formed the lower
fishing-ground. Here they were practically in as secure confinement as
if they had been caught and placed in a pound ; for the dam prevented
them from going up the stream, and their irrepressible instinct to ascend
the river prevented them from going down. Every foot of this hole was
swept by the seine. No better corral or inclosure for confining the fish
could be constructed. Here they had their natural habitat and sur-
roundings, the whole volume of the McCloud Eiver for a water-supply,
and nothing whatever to prevent them from keeping healthy and in
first-rate condition. It was the best possible kind of a pound for them.
Last year, they lashed themselves to pieces, trying to escape from the
artificial pens. This year, they kept as fresh and well as could be
wished. They accumulated in this hole by thousands. When any were
wanted, it was only necessary to extend the net around them and haul
them in. Once or twice no less than fifteen thousand pounds of salmon

446 REPORT CF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

must have been inclosed in the net. They formed a solid mass reaching
several yards from the shore, and filling the net two or three feet deep.
If I should say twenty thousand pounds, I do not think it would be
exaggerating. For some reason or other, my method of confining and
capturing the salmon has been spoken of disparagingly ; but if anything
more simple, more natural, or more effective can be devised, or anything
contrived on a larger scale, I can only say I should like to see it.

The seining for spawning-fish was usually done at night, and what
fish were needed for the next day were thrown into small corrals intended
for their temporary confinement. The spawning was done under a little
brush-camp erected just where the seine is hauled ashore. The salmon
were very abundant in the McCloud Eiver this year, apparently more
so than last year, although our conjectures on this point could not of
course be verified. Young salmon a few inches long were very plenti-
ful, as also were trout of all sizes. There was a large mixture of grilse
among the older salmon. These were found very good eating, even up
to the time of spawning. Occasionally, we captured a fresh river sal-
mon, having a bright silvery surface, and scales looking exactly as if he
had just left the sea. These fish were all very large, and all males.
They were very rare, perhaps one in a thousand. One much-disputed
point about the McCloud Eiver salmon was settled this year by the
presence of the dam. The vexed question has been whether the salmon
ascending the McCloud River to spawn ever returned to the sea. Both
sides of the question have been warmly advocated ; the strongest point
urged by the affirmative side being that the yearly run of salmon could
not be kept up if all the spawning-fish died at the spawning-grounds,
and none went to the sea to return the following year. Whatever may
be the merits of the arguments advanced on either side, the fact has
been proved this year that the spawning-salmon do not return to the
sea. The proof is this : Our dam formed an impassable barrier to the
return of the salmon which had ascended the river to spawn. Tens of
thousands, not to say hundreds of thousands, which would perhaps be
nearer the truth, passed the line of our barricade before it was com-
pleted. Not one of these salmon repassed that point on their return to
the sea. If their habit had been to return seaward after spawning, they
would have crowded up to the upper side of the barricade, as the
ascending salmon did to the lower side of it two months previous ; but,
instead of this, not one was observed to even show the least disposition
to pass it, although thousands floated down dead against the dam.

What, then, must be said of their disposition to return to the sea ?

The only conclusion that we can come to is that they have no such
disposition ; that they are not accustomed to do so, and that they all
die in the upper waters, which serve for their breeding-grounds; which
last statement is confirmed by the fact that at the end of October a live
salmon can hardly be found in the whole length of the McCloud River
anywhere.

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 447

THE TAKING AND RIPENING OF THE EGGS.

The eggs were taken from the salmon, as before mentioned, close to
the spot where the se'ine was hauled in, and where a small brush camp
was erected for the purpose. The spawning was usually done in the
forenoon, and was performed very rapidly. The fish, when spawned,
"were usually given to the Indians, who were always in waiting, like fish-
hawks around their prey, to receive them.

.The Russian or dry method of taking the eggs was adopted exclu-
sively this season, and the rate of impregnation obtained was very good.
The largest number taken in any one day was 457,000. The first eggs
were taken on the 31st of August, and the last on the 29th of Septem-
ber. The total number taken was 5,75-2,500. Below will be found the
daily record of eggs taken.

Daily list of salmon-eggs, taken at the United States salmon-breeding estab
iishment on the McCloud River, Bedding, (Jal., 1874.

Date.

Eggs taken
each day.

Total.

Date.

Eggs taken
each day.

Total.

1874.

1874.

Aug. 31

82, 000

82, 000

Sept. 15

457, 000

3, 276, 000

Sept. 1

25, 800

108, 000

16

390, 000

3, 666, 000

2

120, 900

228, 900

17

364, 000

4,030,000

3

102, 500

331,400

18

252, 000

4,282,000

4

331,400

19

290, 000

4, 572, 000

293, 400

629, 800

20

217, 000

4, 789, 000

6

234, GOO

864, 400

21

126, 000

4, 915, 000

7

864, 400

22

172, 000

5, 087, 000

. 8

453, 000

1,317,400

23

126, 000

5, 213, 000

9

252, 600

1,570,000

24

126, 000

5, 339, 500

10

304, 000

1,874,000

25

5, 339, 500

11

170, 000

2, 044, 000

26

210, 000

5, 549, 500

12

234, 500

2, 278, 500

27

126, 000

5, 675, 500

13

218,500

2,497 000

23

5, 675, 500

14

322, 000

2, 819, 000

29

77, 000

5, 752, 500

After three or four million eggs had been placed in the troughs, the
work of daily inspection became quite a task. I employed chiefly In-
dians to pick out the dead eggs, and they did it extremely well, their del-
icate fingers and native dexterity making them quite apt and expert for
the work. The shallow trays did very well, although it was a great trouble
to lift out the upper ones so constantly, in order to get at the lower ones.
This was all obviated when we came to use the deep trays, in praise of
which too much cannot be said. With these, it was only necessary, in
picking out the white eggs, to raise the tray a little ways out of the water,
and then gently immerse it again. The upward pressure of the water
would throw the dead eggs to the surface, where they could be picked
out without even the touch of a feather. With these trays the hands
are never wet, the trays are never changed from their places, the eggs
never flow over the top, and the feather becomes unnecessary. In addi-

448 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

f

tion to these advantages, all sediment accumulating about the eggs can
be easily run off by gently moving the tray up and down a few times in
the water. Besides the tray for hatching the eggs jn the troughs, I used
floating wire-boxes, placed in the river-current, with very good success.
These, unlike the famous shad-hatching boxes, rested horizontally in the
water. We had remarkably good lack this season; not a single mishap
occurring to any of the vast number of eggs, either in the taking or the
ripening of them.

PACKING THE EGGS.

The eggs were packed for shipment this year on the same general plan
that was adopted last year. The packing-boxes were made two feet
square and one foot deep. At the bottom of the box was placed a thick
layer of moss, then came one thickness of mosquito-bar, then a layer of
eggs, then mosquito-bar again, then other successive layers of moss, net-
ting, eggs, netting, and so on to the middle of the box. Here a firm wood-
en partition was fastened in, and the packing renewed above the parti-
tion in the same manner as below. The cover was then screwed on the
top and another box packed. When two boxes were ready, they were
placed on wooden crates made large enough to allow a space of three
inches on all sides of the boxes. This space was filled with hay to
protect the eggs against changes of temperature. The cover being put
on the crate and the marking done, the eggs were ready to ship.

This plan of packing, in spite of many severe criticisms that have
been made upon it, seems to work remarkably well. Of those sent to
Great Salt Lake in 1873, distant a thousand miles, only 3 per cent, were
lost. Seth Green reports a loss on the 200,000 eggs consigned to him in
1S73, of only 11 per cent, in both the transportation and hatching. Mr.
James Thompson, of New Hope, Pa., writes as follows of the eggs sent
him this season: "The 150,000 salmon-eggs shipped from Califor-
nia arrived in splendid order." The entire loss on this lot in transpor-
tation and hatching was only 6 per cent.

These facts seem to show that the packing is all right. The trouble
with those who found fault with it is that they do not understand what
it is that kills the eggs in the lots that do not go well. The mischief is
not in the packing, but in the high temperature to which the eggs are
exposed in transit. I will agree to take any of these lots of eggs to New
York and back to California in this packing without serious loss, if I
can have entire control of the temperature of the crates. But what can
be expected of eggs that are packed in a hot climate, to begin with ; are
compelled to travel a whole day in a temperature often much above
100°, and then for several days either where the weather keeps them
warm naturally or where the car containing them is artificially heated
to an excessive degree, as is the case with the express-cars which con-
vey them ; and when, in addition to all this, they are delayed by negli-
gent express-agents several days beyond the regular time % I challenge
any one, whatever may be his ingenuity or skill, to pack salmon-eggs so

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 449

that they will make the overland journey safely under these circum-
stances. If the eggs were not destroyed in any other way with those
conditions, they would hatch out on the road from the heat, and so per-
ish. I admit that sawdust would be much better than hay for the out-
side packing*, but we should have to haul the sawdust sixty miles in
order to get it at all. I propose, however, to use it next year, whatever
may be the expense of procuring it.

It should be remembered that the following points must be combined
in any method of packing the salmon-eggs that is adopted for the over-
land trip :

1. They should be compactly arranged, in order to reduce the express-
charges, which are enormous at best.

2. The packages should be large and heavy, so that they cannot be
knocked about the express-car.

3. The eggs and moss should be massed together in considerable quan-
tities, to retain the moisture in the eggs, and also to be better protected
from change of temperature.

4. The method that is adopted should be one that facilitates rapidity
of packing, as the first boxes packed suffer while the others are being
made ready.

5. General economy in regard to expense should be studied, as, with
such a large number of eggs, even a small additional expense per thou-
sand makes a large bill in the aggregate.

C. No method that I have been made aware of combines these advan-
tages better than the one actually employed this season in packing the
California eggs.

Many of the incidental causes of loss after the eggs left the McCloud
Eiver are shown in the appended report on the various consignments;
as also in Mr. Perrin's account, just following, of his journey across the
continent with various lots of salmon-eggs.

THE OVERLAND JOURNEY OF THE EGGS.

The very full account of my secretary, Mr. Marshall L. Perrin, of his
journey with some of the California salmon-eggs, makes it unnecessary
for me to present anything on this subject besides his report ; which I
give .here with pleasure :

" Report of Marshall L. Perrin, employed by Mr. Livingston Stone for the
United States Fish Commission, to accompany the fourth lot of salmon-
eggs transported from the United States salmon-breeding establishment
upon the McCloud Eiver, California, to various States on the eastern
coast, during the season of 1874.

"The fourth lot of salmon-eggs left McCloud Eiver camp Tuesday
afternoon, October 13, 1874. It consisted of seven crates, not of uni-
form size, but varying according to the number of eggs within, as fol-
lows, together with the names of the consignees, which were marked

upon the respective crates :
29 f

450 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

"II. G. Pike, Middletown, Conn., 150,000 salmon-eggs.
" James Duffy, Marietta, Pa., 150,000 salinou-eggs.
uAlex. Kent, Baltimore, Md., 150,000 salmon-eggs.
"James B. Thompson, New Hope, Bucks County, Pa., 150,000 salmon-
eggs.
" Alfred A. Keed, jr., Providence, R. I., 100,000 salmon-eggs.
" Samuel Wilinot, Newcastle, Ontario, Canada, 25,000 salmon-eggs.
"H. H. Thomas, Randolph, Cattaraugus County, N. Y., 25,000 salmon-

errors

" In all, seven hundred and fifty thousand salmon-eggs. They were
packed essentially the same as the former lots had been, in alternate
layers, with moss gathered from Mount Shasta, and having mosquito-net-
ting above and below each layer of eggs, so that they could be more
easily gathered from out of the moss. Two boxes filled in this way,
containing 75,000 eggs each, were placed in a crate slightly larger than
the sum of the two boxes, and the space between the crates and the
boxes was stuffed with straw. The boxes were bored on all sides with
auger-holes, so that water poured from outside the crate upon the straw
inside, and also water coming from the melting of ice, which was to be
kept on the top of the crates, would enter the boxes and moisten the
moss in which the eggs were placed.

"It was especially necessary to keep this lot of eggs cold, inasmuch as
it was a later lot and the eggs were more nearly ready to hatch. There-
fore I was to try to keep them as nearly torpid, and hence as cold, as
possible, in order to prevent their breaking through the shell; in which
case, of course, they would begin motion and animal life, and would
need a medium of water, and inevitably perish for the want of it. Mr.
Stone also wished me to try the experiment of packing hunks of ice, in
place of the straw, inside of the crates, as soon as I should arrive with
the eggs upon the Central Pacific Railroad to regions where ice was
more abundant and obtainable, and keep it up for the rest of the
journey.

"The crates were thoroughly soaked for a while before they were loaded
upon the large team with which they were conveyed to Bedding, 23
miles distant. We left camp at about 4 o'clock p. m., and reached Bed-
ding at about 21 o'clock a. m. The load was very heavy and the road
mountainous. During the trip it rained quite heavily, which gave the
crates a further soaking with which to begin their long journey. At
Bedding were ready 250 pounds of ice, which had been ordered, and I
put this in pieces upon the crates after they were loaded in the Wells,
Fargo & Co.'s express-car. The train started at about half past 3
o'clock a. in., Wednesday morning, October 14. The morning was cold,
and the forenoon cool, fortunately, for the car was quite small, and the
crates had to be placed one upon another ; consequently, ice could be
upon only the upper ones, except so far as the under ones jutted out.
Therefore I changed their positions twice, and often poured water over

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, m'CLOUD KIVER, CAL. 451

them on the way down to Sacramento, which we reached at 2 o'clock p.
in., running- into the city and not being left for connections at the junc-
tion.

" I found my time here (half an hour) very short in which to accomplish
the necessary details, and so had to hurry in order to soak the crates
with ice-water 5 to attend to transferring and icing them with 300 pounds
of ice, for which I had telegraphed; to go to Wells, Fargo & Co.'s
office to see the agent, Mr. Tracy, about expressing and rebilling the
crates, and to obtain from him a letter for admittance to express-cars,
which I never used ; to buy pail, dipper, and thermometer, besides attend-
ing to my personal baggage, tickets, &c.

" The afternoon was hot ; and when we left Sacramento the tempera-
tures of the crates were varying from 60° to 63° ; but they were loaded
upon the coolest part of the car, and I iced them well during the after-,
noon and soaked them. Soon the temperatures were from 56° to 62°.
At evening, the messenger telegraphed for ice at Summit, Cal., which
we should reach in the night, and for a slight recompense he consented
to be without "a fire over night, though it was a cold night and he had
started one. Upon arriving at Summit, he found that no ice (strangely)
could be obtained there, and obtained a quantity at Boca, a station be-
yond. On the morning of Thursday, October 15, the temperatures were
from 50° to 56°. I turned the crates upside down, which was done
every day, so that the eggs should not settle down in one direction,
causing in this way too much pressure upon them. We moved them to
a rack in the car through which the water would run ; and, while the
travelers breakfasted at Humboldt, Nev., the engineer backed the train so
that we could bring a hydrant-hose into the car and give the crates a
thorough drenching. We also got about 400 pounds of ice from a trap-
hole in the station-platform. At Humboldt the messengers changed.

"Having a good supply of ice, I commenced the experiment of taking
out the straw with which the boxes of eggs and moss were packed into
the crates, and substituting pieces of ice, pounded so as to fit its place,
in the intervening space between the boxes and the crates. The tem-
peratures at noon were 5-1° to 60°. At Carlin, Nev., Gil pounds of ice
were procured and cut up for the purpose stated above. Finding some
of the boxes had no holes in them, at Elko I got an auger and bored
some. From Wells onward, the rest of the day, at every station, I ob-
tained a pail of water, and, after cooling it with ice, poured it over the
crates in turn. As was also one of my motives in giving them so much
water at Humboldt and at Ogden the next morning, I wished to give
them all the water possible this day, for the water, especially beyond
Ogden through a long region of country, would be very doubtful in
quality, and I should hesitate about using it.

" The temperatures that night when I left them were between 3S° and
50° ', and the next morning, Friday, October 16th, the}7 were from 52°
to 54°. Early in the forenoon we changed cars at Ogden, Utah, and ^yhile

452 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

the other express was being transferred, I gave the crates a heavy soak-
ing by means of a hose. No ice could be obtained at Ogden, but there
was enough to last easily till reaching Evanston. On the whole I think
it is better to procure ice at unimportant towns or stations en route, if
possible, than at large cities and railroad junctions; for the quality of
the ice is surely just as good, and other details, as necessary as they are
numerous, will use the time at the large places. The trouble of trans-
ferring ice does not compare with that of procuring a new lot. Fur-
thermore, the new messenger more willingly takes it from the previous
messenger than when it is freshly imposed upon him, for certainly it is
very disagreeable to them to have their car loaded with melting ice.

"The Wells-Fargo agent at Ogden informed me that Mr. Tracy, at
Sacramento, had erroneously billed the crates, and they could not go
, over the routes which I said it was necessary for them to take beyond
Omaha. He was in a hurry and unpleasant; as was also the messenger
(from Ogden onward) at first, upon seeing seven big, heavy, dripping
crates come into his car. It is not so great an evil that the crates of
salmon-eggs come under the care of strangers as the fact that they are
handled by constantly-changing strangers. There is a need of some one
who will be a permanent friend to them, stand by them, and look out
for their welfare in emergencies, and when the express messenger on
one route or section changes for the uninitiated one who takes his place.
There is, then, a need of some person who shall get this new messenger
interested in the cause, and willing to put up with extra and unusual
arrangements. The presence of a man in charge of the shipment is not
merely better, but I think it is absolutely indispensable, judging from
the dealings which I have had with express-messengers and railroad
employes; who, when rightly dealt with, are a very obliging class of
men. The gentlemanly and obliging manner in which I was treated
during the whole trip deserves commendation.

" Toward noon, Friday, October 16, I got some ice at Evanston, Utah,
and proceeded for the rest of the day to unpack straw from more crates,
.and put in the abundant ice and refilled the crates where the ice which
I had previously put in had melted. The temperatures at noon were 53°
to 50° ; and at night were 42° to 50°. As I should have stated before, the
way in which I took the temperatures, three times a day, was by thrust-
ing a thermometer between the slats of the crates into the straw which
surrounded the boxes. This, of course, does not precisely indicate the
temperature of the eggs inside the boxes ; they may be warmer or they
may be cooler. If not attended to, and left to grow warm, the eggs
must either increase in heat from the center outwards, or heat from the
outside, the center remaining coolest. Now, when care is taken of the
eggs, the stratum of cold, damp straw, in not allowing hot air from out-
side to touch the boxes, prevents the eggs from heating from the out-
side. Hence, when properly attended to, they will heat only from the
center outward. This happens by the spoiling of the eggs in the mid-

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD EIVER, CAL. 453

die; the fungus, attaching itself to the next egg, spreads outward after
the manner of a warm, damp mold. This suggests two improvements :
First, that the eggs might be packed in smaller boxes, so that the cen-
ter eggs might not be so far away from the ice ; and secondly, that some
method might be devised for removing the decaying eggs during the
journey. However, if the crates are attended to in a thorough man-
ner, the present plan of packing does not much demand the proposed
improvements; and as to removing the decayed eggs, the loss is not of
a greater per cent, under the present system than would inevitably be
caused by the disturbance produced by any method of removing the
diseased eggs.

"Friday night was a very cold night, and the messenger seemed to be
of that opinion the next morning, having walked back and forth, unable
to sleep during the night, in the icy car, which they are not allowed to
leave. Saturday morniug, October 17, the crates were in temperature
from 440 to 47°. They were turned over, and we moved them to the
coolest part of the car, out of the sunlight. At Laramie, Wyoming, I
procured a large quantity of ice, and watered the crates with ice-water,
and repacked them with ice, as well as laid large pieces on the top of
them.

"After having once removed the straw, it kept me almost constantly
busy to keep the crates packed with ice. The intervening spaces between
the boxes and the crates were very narrow, not large enough to admit
pieces of ice larger than an apple, and the slats were too near together
to crowd ice between them. To pack any side of a crate, therefore, it
was necessary to tear off the slats of the crate each time, and nail them
up again ; which of course weakened the crates, and their structure
would not allow any of the slats to be left off. This method of packing
with ice consumes a large quantity of that article, and in the present
case it was slow work to break it up into pieces of requisite size. Fur-
thermore, the pieces were necessarily so small that they rapidly melted,
and the finishing one round of filling the crates with ice was but the sig-
nal to begin again with the first on another round. Inasmuch as this
method of packing with ice was a primitive experiment, and also not de-
cided upon in time to construct the crates otherwise, many of these in-
conveniences were present in this case which need not be considered as
necessarily accompanying the packing with ice. From the effects of my
trial, I consider that the packing the crates with ice is a very plausible
and practical method, and a decided improvement, if the crates are prop-
erly constructed, and if some one is constantly ready to renew the ice
when it becomes melted to even a slight degree, so that a warm draught
of air may not be allowed to strike the boxes at any point. The water
from the melting ice permeates the boxes containing the moss and eggs,
through the auger-holes, which is an additional item of advantage.

"The temperatures Saturday noon were 41° to 47°. When the
express messengers changed at Cheyenne, Wyo., we conjectured that the

454 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

■wrong billing of the crates could be rectified at Omaha, but matters were
worse from that point onward. The condition of things was as follows :
There were seven crates ; two of them (for Newcastle, Canada, and for
Bandolph, N. Y.,) I was to send from Chicago by northern routes
direct to their destination; the others, for Marietta, Penn., New Hope,
Penn., Baltimore, Md., Middletown, Conn., and Providence, E. I., I was
to take with me over more southern routes from Chicago, and send the
Baltimore and Marietta crates to Harrisburg, Penn., the New Hope
crate from Philadelphia, and go on with the Middletown and Providence
crates to New York, from whence I should send them to their respective
cities. This was the only plan which could be carried out with success.
Mr. Tracy, the Wells, Fargo & Co's. agent at Sacramento, billed some
of the crates locally, i. e., to be rebilled at every change of railroad or
express company, and some he billed through to New York City. The
billing, though he emphatically assured me it was right, was apparently
indiscriminate. One of those which I wished to send from Chicago was
locally, and one through billed ; three of those which were to go over
the southern routes were through, and two of them locally billed. Those
through-billed must all go to New York City by northern routes, and then
come around to Baltimore and their other destinations. This is because
the southern routes from Chicago are run by the Adams Express Com-
pany, and the northern by the United States and American Express Com-
panies ; as the Adams runs only from Chicago, the other two receive the
express at Omaha, and carry it by their own northern routes. I must, in
some way, have all together with me, that I might attend to them. They
could not all go by the northern routes, because the Baltimore, New
Hope, and Marietta eggs would surely perish before getting to New York
City over northern routes and around again to Maryland and Pennsyl-
vania. There was only one way to do : they must all go the south-
ern route from Chicago, billed or unbilled ! The route from Omaha to
Chicago was also quite doubtful. The United States and the American
Express Companies both run into Omaha, and receive, from the Union
Pacific, express alternately, one receiving the locally and the other the
through-billed express."

"The temperatures of the crates Saturday evening were 42° to 50°.
The night was going to be very cold and I had much ice in the car. The
messenger was willing kindly to go without a fire for me, using my blank-
ets in addition to his own. An accident late at night delayed us five
and a half hours near Sidney, Neb., at which I had some thought of
telegraphing to Mr. Tracy, at Sacramento. Sunday morning, October
18th, the temperatures of the crates were between 40° and 4S°.

" The crates were now kept full of broken ice. As this broken ice
rapidly melted, and the crates needed to be replenished often, I decided
that should the crates be obliged to leave me in divisions, it would be
much better for them to be packed with hay. The hay would keep them
much cooler and more moist, and hold the moisture from the meltiug

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, m'cLOUD RIVER,, CAL. 455

ice on the top ; whereas, if no hay was around the boxes they would be
directly exposed to the warm, dry air, unless the crates were kept con-
stantly full of ice. Therefore, I procured 75 pounds of hay at Grand
Island, Neb., together with 400 pounds of ice, and during the day
packed up the crates with hay, which, of course, was dry, and watered
them with ice-water at every station until they were very wet and cold.
The temperatures Sunday noon were between 48° and 57°. An accident
delayed us until we were almost seven hours late.

" Eeaching Omaha the circumstances were anything but propitious for
arranging matters. It was quite dark ; it was Sunday night, conse-
quently not many authorities could be found ; the only agent who was
at the station, having any power at all, was intoxicated. There is always
hurry and confusion about the transfer across the Missouri, and espe-
cially as the train was so many hours late. It would be better to have
the crates go to Chicago by the United States Express Company, as they
were then more likely to go on well from Chicago. It being Sunday
night, however, only the working employes were around, and their
orders were such that I could get only the locally-billed to go by the
United States Express, the others going by the American Express over
another route. Therefore, at Chicago I must persuade the authorities
of both express companies to give up their crates to the Adams Express,
which runs over the southern routes from Chicago, by which the crates
must be carried. While making the transfer across the Missouri Eiver
I found it could be possible to have all go to Chicago by the American
Express. Hence, in Chicago I would have only one party to deal with ;
so all the crates unitedly, and myself, went to Chicago by that route.
This outline of express troubles, filled in with a numerous amount of
stubborn details and minutiae, which were hard to overcome, caused me
incessant anxiety concerning the preservation and final safety of the
eggs; and, indeed, the express difficulties with this lot only began at
Omaha, to continue onward to the end of the trip : but in this report it
will be needless to particularize them.

;'xVt Dunlap, Iowa, though very late, I procured 400 pounds of ice
which I fixed over the crates ; before which, however, I removed the
slats from several crates and opened the boxes containing the eggs to
examine them. They seemed to be in excellent order, at which I was
very much encouraged. The temperature of the crates was warmer
than usual, being 53° to 56° ; but I was not afraid that it would rise, for
the night was to be quite cool. The next morning, Monday, October 19,
the temperatures were 50° to 50£. I obtained some ice at Clinton, Iowa,
in the forenoon. The day was warm, and a good deal was used. At
noon the temperatures were from 51° to 52°. Very fortunately, indeed,
just before entering the city of Chicago, the superintendent of the Amer-
ican Express Company, (the company writh which the crates then were,)
came into the express-car. He was the person whom I could influence
to the best advantage, and his was just the authority I was in need of.

456 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

It was through his intervention only that the agent at Chicago would be
or was willing to do what I desired ; and the eggs were not to be delayed
longer than necessary. We rode with all the crates to the Michigan
Central depot, where the two crates for Newcastle, Canada, and Ran-
dolph, N. Y., were left, and with plenty of ice. I saw the agent and left a
note for the superintendent, and instructions were also given to all the
messengers en route. The five remaining crates were carried to the
office of the Adams Express, into whose hands they were really deliv-
ered and rightly bound. It was dark and cool, so they did not suffer by
being on the sidewalk while waiting for the outward express. Leaving
them in charge of a policeman, I telegraphed to the following four con-
signees of the salmon-eggs : — H. H. Thomas, Eaudolph, Cattaraugus
County, N. Y.; Samuel Wilmot, Newcastle, Ontario, Canada; Alex.
Kent, Baltimore, Md. ; James Duffy, Marietta, Pa. ; — stating that their
crates of salmon-eggs were leaving Chicago that night by certain trains,
which I specified.

" Soon the crates were loaded into the express-car at the depot of the
Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Eailroad ; 400 pounds of ice were
obtained, so that they kept finely through the night. The messenger
made a great ado, and, though the night was not cold, he thought it
dreadful to go without a fire. The eastern men on medium nights were
miich more appalled at going without a fire than were those upon the
western roads, across the plains and mountains, during those intensely
cold nights. Nevertheless, all hands went without a fire for me, and
the crates were not in the presence of one during the journey across the
continent. The temperatures of the crates at time of starting from
Chicago were 46° to 50°. Being very tired I did not rise early the next
morning, and the messenger neglected to get any ice at Crestline, Ohio,
but it made not much difference; as there was enough to last to Alliance,
Ohio, where I procured 250 pounds. The temperatures of the crates
Tuesday morning, October 20, were 41° to 43°, and at noon were 42° to 47°.
When not packed with ice it is much harder to keep them down to such
an excellent degree of coldness, but I managed to attain this end by
means of often wetting them with ice-water. In the afternoon I looked
into the eggs again and they appeared very satisfactorily and well,
showing a much less mortality than I had feared would take place
through so many changes. Only a small per cent, appeared to have
perished or to be unhealthy. The temperatures at night were 49° to 50°.

"Every change of cars had brought new troubles; and especially were
large cities to be dreaded, because there would be so much more hurry
and business going on. Therefore I was anxious riding into Pittsburgh.
The train which connected at Pittsburgh for New York with our train
never takes any express, and made very close connection, and it was im-
possible to arrange for the crates with that train. As it was, the ex-
press-men at Pittsburgh said they could not make special arrangements,
the rules and customs were inflexible, and that crates bound for New

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 457

Yoik (Middletown and Providence) must go the next morning, and the
Marietta, New Hope, and Baltimore crates the next noon. It was then
about S£ o'clock in the evening. This proposed delay was out of the
question, and must not be permitted, if I could possibly avoid it. As at
Omaha, it was night, and only employes about. Finally I found one
who appeared to have more authority than the others. He agreed that
if the night-man should say it was practicable, he would authorize him
to put a car of the New York Pacific Express upon the night-train at
2.50 a. in., though in doing so it would be stepping a good way beyond
his official power.

"In this car the crates were put, and I procured two or three hundred
pounds of ice and arranged the crates. There was no messenger to go
with the car, and the strict rules of the express company require that in
such case a car must be locked and sealed, therefore I was unable to
take the temperatures the next day regularly. All the crates went
together, as the agent at Pittsburgh telegraphed to Harrisburg to
have the seal broken and the three crates for Baltimore, Marietta, and
New Hope taken out, and also to have 400 pounds of ice ready. He
also telegraphed to the agent at New York to forward the other two
crates quickly upon their reception. After this I telegraphed to the
following five consignees of salmon-eggs : James Duffy, Marietta, Penu. ;
Alex. Kent, Baltimore, Md. ; James B. Thompson, New Hope, Bucks
County, Penu.; Alfred A. Reed, jr., Providence, E. I.; and E. G. Pike,
Middletown, Conn. ; stating by what route and train their crates left
Pittsburgh that night.

" At Harrisburg, which we reached at noon, the telegram had been
received, and a team took the three crates to the office, where they
would remain cooler than at the station waiting for their respective
trains. The night and forenoon had been cool, and the crates had been
by themselves in the closed car in an undisturbed atmosphere, with so
much ice that they were very cold, being about 37°, and the ice had
melted but little. Hence the ice ordered by the telegram was not
needed, and I put most of it on the crates which were to leave me. Also,
I gave explicit instructions about the care of these crates, and fastened
upon them notes to the messengers in charge till at their destinations.
These were the Marietta, New Hope, and Baltimore crates. The other
two for Middletown and Providence were again shut up in the car and
it was sealed until it should reach New York.

"We arrived in New York at about 7 o'clock p. m. The car had not
come with us farther than Philadelphia; the train out of that city does
not take express. This I did not know, but it was just as well, because
in the cold closed car, alone, and with ice through the night, they would
be in a better situation than if they had come to New York and waited
till morning in the warmer office of the Adams Express. They came
up from Philadelphia early the next morning.

"The admirable manner in which the crates of eggs kept, and the fine

458 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

condition in which they remained during their 30 hours in the closed
car is very noteworthy and suggestive. The ice melted but little ; the
moisture and water evaporated but slightly from the straw; there were
no currents of warm or of dry air to strike the boxes;, and the crates pre-
served a remarkably low degree of temperature, colder than I had known
them to be at any other time, being 37° when I noted it at Harrisburg.
I think they could have remained in such circumstances for a much
longer time than they did, without needing much care, and have con-
tinued in excellent order. The methods and irregular times and inter-
vals at which the salmon-eggs are taken from the parent-fish and ma-
tured, make the lots to be in different stages of advancement at a given
time. If, however, some way could be devised so that several lots or a
larger number of crates could make the trip at one time, it seems to me
that it would be very proper to provide a car to run across the United
States, containing only crates of salmon-eggs. It would not only make
it decidedly more convenient to take care of the crates, but it would im-
prove greatly the means for the preservation and safety of the eggs.
Beside the advantages mentioned above, of the ice not melting, the
moisture not evaporating, and the excellent degree of coldness pre-
served in an undisturbed atmosphere, others suggest themselves.
Judging from the fact that the eggs at all other times are placed in
running water, it seems probable that it would be well not only to keep
them wet and in wet moss, during transportation, but also allow them
more changes of water, by drenching and soaking, than can be done
easily in express-cars. Many modes of watering and soaking could
readily be devised ; there would be place and room to harbor a large
quantity of ice for use, to carry the requisite tools, and to have plenty of
room to work in ; the strong draughts of warm, dry air which rush in upon
the crates from all the four doors of au express-car when opened at every
station would be avoided ; some refrigerating-apparatus might be
prepared which would preserve a regularly low temperature; the eggs
might be carried in such a way so that they could be picked over on
the journey ; for if better otherwise, they need not be packed in a port-
able manner, since not to be transferred so often ; the eggs would be
entirely freed from the jarring and banging which is injurious to them,
and which they receive when changing cars ; and the express difficul-
ties and troubles arising from the billing, transferring, separating, and
losing the crates would be entirely done away with. This special car,
though not quite so necessary in this case, would be of the same nature,
and have similar advantages, as those which, in the transportation of
live fish and lobsters, the aquarium-car possesses over the inadequate
facilities of the express-car.

" The sealed car, as I have said, reached New York Thursday morning,
October 22, and the crates were carried to the Adams Express office,
where more ice was immediately put upon them. I saw the Middletown
crate off by the forenoon train from New York, and the Providence one

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, m'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 459

by the boat; also I saw the messengers who were to accompany them,
and instructed them, and ordered them to so instruct the messengers
who should take their place, if there was a change before the crates
reached their destinations.

" I learned afterward that the Providence crate was several days before
reaching its destination, from New York, through some carelessness or
oversight on the part of those having charge of the express between the
two cities. Hence this crate of salmon-eggs suffered so much loss, some
30 per cent., I believe, that it was not as successful as the rest of the
lot. This incites me to repeat that it seems, not only better, but very
necessary to have some one accompanying the crates from the beginning
to the end. There are many minute details also which will be overlooked,
carelessly or otherwise, by the messengers; and it is so indispensable,
in order to insure the healthiness of the eggs, that all these details
should be performed, that if anything is to be done, the person accom-
panying the salmon-eggs must attend to it himself, or superintend it per-
sonally.

"Respectfully submitted.

"MARSHALL L. PEREIN."

LIFE IN CAMP.

Owing to the remoteness of the situation and the peculiar nature of
our surroundings, a few words about our life in camp may possibly not
be out of place.

The time passed very pleasantly with us all through the season. The
work of the campaign was of course the main feature of the life here,
and in this all seemed equally interested and bent on success. There
was one peculiarity about the work : it was always driving us, even to
working Sundays and nights, while we, on the other hand, were always
looking forward to a time of comparative rest. This time of rest never
came. At first we had to rush the work with all our might to get the
house built and the two hatching-tents put up in season. Then came
the cutting of the poles and felling of the logs for the bridge, and then
the building of the bridge itself. No time was to be lost in this work,
for the spawning-season was coming on rapidly, and, if the dam was
not completed in good season, before the salmon stopped running, it
would do no good. The bridge was no sooner finished than all hands
had to go to work with a will on the hatching-trays and hatching-appa-
ratus, in order to get them done in time for the eggs. This seemed
almost an endless job, so many hundred wire trays had to be made and
so much surface covered with asphaltum.

The hatching-apparatus was hardly ready when the eggs began to
come on. Then the camp was busier than ever, and, when this work of
ripening the eggs was at its height, the earlier lots had become ready
for shipment.

Probably no one inexperienced in packing the eggs of fishes realizes

4G0 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

how much work there is in packing a half a million eggs ; hut if he will
undertake to pack 5,000, and then reflect that this must be repeated one
hundred times to make a half a million, he will get some idea of it. In
the first place, preparatory to the packing, the moss is to be obtained.
Mr. Woodbury had charge of the expedition for the moss. They went
sixty-five miles for it, and returned in twelve days with a hundred
bushels. This moss had to be all carefully washed, picked over, and
separated. Theu the sixty packing-boxes were to be made, and thirty
crates to send the eggs off in.

This preparatory work being done, and the time being come for
making a shipment, all hands took hold of the work of placing the eggs
in the boxes. We usually allowed two days to pack, box up, and mark
a lot of 750,000, but on one occasion we packed the whole 750,000 in
one day. Now that the fishing, spawning, ripening, and packing of the
eggs was all going on at once, it can be easily seen that we had no time
to rest. The first lull in our work came when the fishing was stopped
and the seine hauled up for the season. This relieved the night-gang;
and the reduction which had been caused, by various shipments, in the
number of the eggs to be looked after, gave us a slight breathing-space,
which I employed in making slight improvements about the ranch, such
as putting an open fire-place in the house, for the nights had now become
very cold, and in bringing up incidental work that had fallen behind in
the hurry of the previous month. From this time, although the work
did not drive us as it did in the summer, we had plenty to do. There
were still two or three million eggs in the troughs, nearly a million of
which were to be hatched for the McCloud Eiver. The hatching-troughs,
bridge, wheel, flume, dam, and tents were to be taken down and packed
away, out of reach of the winter floods, and all the thousand little things
to be attended to that are connected with the closing up of a place like
this. Still, this work seemed light, compared to what we had been
through. It was not a little ludicrous to reflect, afterwards, that when
we considered our work all done, we had still nearly a million of eggs
to hatch, a task that, under other circumstances, would seem quite for-
midable ; but so strong was the contrast between it and the larger work
which had been accomplished, that it seemed almost like nothing at all.

I have dwelt longer than perhaps appears to be necessary on the char-
acter of the work done at this station this season, because I am aware
that to some it may appear quite incomprehensible what we had to do
with so many men for so long a time. I can assure them, however, that
there was enough to do every moment, and such things as idleness or
loafing were not known in the camp. I think I ought to mention par-
ticularly here the services rendered by Eichard and Waldo Hubbard,
grandsons of Governor Hubbard, formerly United States Senator from
Xew Hampshire. These two young men were always found equal to
any occasion, whether it was to fell trees all day under the scorching
California sun, or to work for hours immersed in the icy water of the

c

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD EIVER, CAL. 4.G1

McCloud ; they never once flinched at the severity of their work or hesi-
tated to do anything that was required of them. Tall, stalwart, and
muscular, they added a good deal to our reputation with the aborigines
of the McCloud by throwing their champion wrestlers, while their
strength, at the same time, when turned, as, indeed, it always was with
undauntable resolution and energy, to the work of the camp, rendered
their services invaluable.

By singling out these two, I do not mean to disparage the others, for
all worked well, and the Hubbard boys typified rather than contrasted
with the work that was done by*all. As an illustration, I will quote
the following paragraph from the Sacramanto Record of August 29,
1874:

" They (the party at the McCloud canip) have demonstrated that, for
rapidity of action, endurance, hard labor, and practical accomplish-
ments, their physical training is of a high order. Sleeping upon the
rough planks of the living-room ; draped in coarse woolen shirts and
heavy pantaloons; with bare feet, or in jack-boots or moccasins; arms
and breasts bared ; tanned brown ; muscles wrought up like iron, and
all grim with the marks of labor, Mr. Stone has a party about him of
both brain and muscle, proving that hard and serious labor can be
evoked from students' arms, and that cultured intelligence and horny
hands may meet in harmony. Look about the camp ; every artificial
thing is their handiwork; they are at once plumbers, fitters, carpenters,
tailors, fishermen, geologists, chemists, artists, blacksmiths, lumbermen,
loggers, and so on."

At the busiest part of the season the work was distributed somewhat
as follows :

September 28. — Total number of hands employed, 24.

Picking over moss 4

In the hatching-house 7

In kitchen and about buildings 3

Hauling seine « 5

Spawning salmon u 3

In office and superintending , 2

24

The nature of our labors did not cut us off wholly from recreations,
for which all found some time on summer evenings and on Sundays.
There being no church within fifty miles, the time on Sundays was usu-
ally taken up with excursions to neighboring points of interest. Some-
times we went to Copper City, a settlement of two houses and five men,
about fourteen miles from the McCloud River. Sometimes we went to the
iron mountain, two miles distant, where a vast deposit of iron-ore has
been recently discovered. Sometimes we went up the river to hunt for
game, or climbed the steep-pinnacled rocks of Mount Persephone, just
opposite the camp. The summit of these extremely interesting lime-

462 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

stone rocks we ascertained by the aneroid barometer to be 3,400 feet
above the level of the sea, or 2,600 above the McOloud River.

In these limestone mountains we found two caves. One was an almost
circular cavity in the side of the mountain, about 30 feet in diameter and
109 feet in length, with a floor nearly level, forming a magnificent cham-
ber, with .fresh green maiden's hair growing in large clusters downward
from the roof. This cave is at an altitude of about 2,000 feet and is
very difficult of access.

The other cave is similar and more easily reached, but has in addition
a dark narrow passage-way leading fhrough the interior of the moun-
tain to a deep perpendicular abyss with re-entrant sides, from the bot-
tom of which nothing, having once fallen in, could ever escape without
wings or help from the outside. It is a place of such peculiar terror
that I will describe our exploration of it. Having resolved to visit the
cave, and having secured a guide in the person of Dr. Silverthorne, an
old resident of this locality, we finished work at 5 o'clock on Saturday
afternoon, and taking our blankets and necessary provisions, together
with candles, lanterns, axes, ropes, &c, we proceeded to the foot of the
mountain that evening, and, having cooked our supper, camped there
over night. In the morning, after an early breakfast, we started for the
cave.

Entering the main opening, we proceeded about 50 feet to a smaller
opening in the right-hand wall of the cave and about ten feet from the
floor. Climbing up into this we kept on through a narrow passage-way
to a point about 30 feet from the entrance, where the passage dwindled
into a small hole just large enough to admit a man's body. Here we all
hesitated for an instant. Horrible visions of rattlesnakes and tarantulas
and bottomless pits rose up before us and kept us back, but only for an
instant. I happened to be the first through on the other side, and found
this low archway led to another passage similar to the one we had left.
On we went, turning several corners, but along a floor which kept nearly
level until we came to a second archway, supported by round crystal-
line limestone pillars on either side. Here the level line of the floor
became depressed to an angle of perhaps 30 degrees. The very black-
ness of darkness prevailed, which the candle we had with us seemed to
only make visible. So intense was the darkness that the candle rays
did not enable us to see six feet before us. Every one stopped involun-
tarily. No one wanted to begin the descent before us, and it is fortu-
nate no one did, as the sequel will show. Presently some one proposed
to throw a stone down the incline and listen to its descent. We did so.
There was a breathless silence. The stone rolled along the incline, then
bounded off and struck again far below, then again, and again, the
sound reverberating as if it came from the depths of the earth. We
were appalled. Two steps farther in the dark passage-way before us
would have been instant death. Eopes were now brought and more
lights, and before long we had a rope-ladder constructed, about 20 feet

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 463

in length. It was lowered down the abyss, but did not reach the bottom.
A strong line was fastened to it and it was again lowered. After pay-
ing out 30 feet of the rope the lower end of the ladder rested on some-
thing solid. A lantern attached to a 60-foot rope was then lowered
down, and though its very feeble light was wholly inadequate to the
requirements of the situation, we could see that there was a landing-
place of some sort at the foot of the ladder, though whether it was at
the edge of another abyss or not, or whether there was any substantial
foothold there, could not be discovered. The place might be full of
rattlesnakes or tarantulas, or it might be a bear-cave with other open-
ings on its own level, for all we knew. I confess I had no disposition to
swing off and slide down the dangling rope into the impenetrable dark-
ness, without any assurance of foothold at the end of it. But not so
with the brave fellows who were with me. They even coutended among
themselves as to who should be first to make the descent, and as soon
as the word was given they sprang eagerly to the rope and swung them-
selves off without a faltering motion. Imagine a rope dangling loosely
from a church-tower fifty feet in height, in the middle of a dark night,
and a man without any special experience in that sort of thing swinging
himself out on it for a descent, without knowing what was at the lower
end of it. The case in question was worse if anything, for here there
were all the grim surroundings and mysterious associations of a dark,
forbidding, and unexplored cavern.

Dick (Richard Hubbard) begged earnestly to be the first to descend,
but the lot had fallen to Green, (Myron Green,) and in a moment more
he was seen on the rope dangling in mid-air, and in the next he became
lost entirely to the sight of those above.

It seemed an age before he called out that he had reached the ladder.
This hung so loosely that it was hardly better than the single rope, ex-
cept that it gave a chance to rest. Another long silence, at the end of
which he shouted that he had reached the bottom, when Dick sprang
to the rope and swung off. Just at this moment the lantern which had
been lowered to Green fell over and went out, and he was left in the
impenetrable darkness. With perfect presence of mind, however, he
felt for it, found it, and lighted it again, and reported a foothold at the
bottom sufficiently large at least for a landing-place. Waldo Hubbard
immediately followed Dick, and soon all three were at the bottom ready
to proceed with further explorations. The opportunity was now afforded
to the rest to make the descent, but no one came forward, and it soon
became evident that Dick, Waldo, and Green would be the onty ones
that day to explore the abyss. This having been announced to those
below, the exploration began, the result of which was as follows :

A chamber was found, 150 feet long and 40 feet wide, with a floor
sloping slightly downward from the point of entrance, The chamber
was, of course^ the depth of the descent, or from 50 to GO feet. Stalac-
tites and stalagmites of beautiful crystalline structures, as is common in

464 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

limestone formations, were found, and all the usual curiosities of a lime-
stone cave ; but what surprised all of us most was the discovery of sev-
eral bones, partly coated with a limstone petrifaction. Whether they
were human bones or otherwise we could not tell, but no one could
help reflecting on the awful death that the creature, whether man or
beast, to whom the bones belonged, must have endured, under the com-
bined horrors of solitude, darkness, thirst, and starvation ; nor could
we help indulging in curious, though profitless, speculations as to the
circumstances which led this hapless creature on to its terrible end.
After spending about an hour and a half in exploring the cave, without
finding an outlet, the explorers cut the letters U. S. F. 0. in the rock, and
filled a sack with the curiosities they had collected, which was fastened to
the end of a rope, and pulled up by those outside. Then commenced the
difficult and dangerous ascent. All three reached the top safely, though
nearly exhausted ; and, after retracing our steps to where we could once
more see the welcome light of day, the party cheered the explorers,
fired a salute, and returned to the camp.

The recreations in summer evenings usually consisted in boxing,
wrestling, running, jumping, bathing, and target-shooting with rifles,
revolvers, or Indian bows and arrows, and other similar outdoor amuse-
ments. Occasionally a gold-fever would strike the camp, and parties
would hunt for gold around the house, but never with any paying re-
turns, though considerable gold-dust was collected altogether.

Our table this year was well supplied. Possibly relying upon the
general protection afforded by the presence of so many white men at our
camp, one of the neighboring ranchmen did what had never been at-
tempted before on the McCloud, namely, to drive a flock of sheep into the
Indian country on the east side of the river. Hitherto this land had
always been given up to the Indians for pasture for their horses, and
when the sheep came, destroying every blade of grass, and leaving a
desolate waste for their horses, the Indians resented it, as well they
might. It certainly seemed cruel in the extreme, but, agreeably to the
maxim that there is no great loss without some small gain, our camp
was kept in capital mutton (it has not its superior in the world) from
the sheep which brought such calamity upon the original owners of the
soil. Besides the mutton, which was regarded as the principal luxury
of our table, we had for fresh meats, venison, and occasionally, but not
often, beef; and for cured meat, ham and bacon. Salmon and trout,
of course, we had in abundance, and they were, each in its season, ex-
cellent. Of fresh vegetables, we had potatoes, onions, and tomatoes in
abundance, with some turnips, green corn, and string beans. Baked
beans were on the table at every meal.

The camp was kept well supplied with fruit, especially grapes, apples,
and peaches, through the kindness of one of our neighbors, Mr. Clinton
Johnson, who would take no return for his generous supplies, except

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, MvCLOUD KIVER, CAL 465

an occasional present of salmon. The grapes in magnificent bunches
■were especially delicious.

Ak-Siu, our Chinaman, was a good cook, he made excellent bread,
and always succeeded in giving us a very palatable meal.

The weather was of course pleasant till the end of the dry-season.
Once we bad a shower in the air, as it migbt be called, for it really did
not wet the ground, and on a few days there were clouds in the sky;
but with these exceptions the days were perfectly cloudless.

This summer was an unusually cool one, and there were but very few
occasions when the weather was uncomfortably hot, although on one
day the thermometer rose to 157° in the sand near the house; and we
actually cooked an egg in the heated sand.

The nights were very cold, as is usual in this mountain region, the
difference between the temperature at 3 p. in. and 7 a. m. of the same
day usually being as much as 40°, and sometimes 50°; e.g., July 9, July
20, September 3, as will be seen by the table of temperatures. (See p. .)

The heat of the sun in the middle of the day was, of course, severe,
and extremely so on the exceptionally hot days. The wonder is that the
young men from New England were able to endure it as they did.

The rainy season came on about the middle of October, two or three
weeks earlier than was expected. From that time till our camp broke
up, in the latter part of November, it rained, with an occasionally pleas-
ant day now and then almost all the time. One morning early it
snowed, though no snow remained on the ground ; one of the rains was
terrific.

It did not seem possible that the clouds could pour down such a
deluge of water in so short a time. The rain fell in sheets and columns.
The dry gulches about the camp became, in ten minutes, river channels,
which would float a boat. The McCloud rose six inches in half an
hour, and became apparently as turbid as the Sacramento. The gutters
to the roof overflowed; the water poured down the chimney, and extin-
guished the fires ; the swollen current of the river snapped the bridge
in two in the middle, and carried one of the 20-ton stone piers a rod
down the stream. It was literally a deluge while it lasted; then suddenly
it stopped raining, the clouds vanished, the sun came out, and as lovely
a day followed as ever was seen.

Two wind storms visited the McCloud Valley while we were there.
The first lifted the large tent like a feather, and brought it to the ground
with a collapse as sudden as it was unexpected to those working inside.
The second was equally severe, and would have done the same mischief,
had we not taken the precaution to wire the tent down with coarse iron
wires.

Our quarters were tolerably comfortable. They consisted of a one-
story building 24 feet by 26 feet, containing six rooms. They were the
bunk-room, 12 feet square, containing 8 bunks, a fire-place, and nothing
else; a store-room, 6 feet by 8 feet, where the supplies were kept, with

the bunk for the Chinese cook ; a front room, 12 feet by 14 feet, with:
30 F

46 6 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

four bunks ; a kitchen. 12 feet by 6 feet ; Mr. Woodbury's room, 6 feet
by 12 feet, with two bunks; and my own room, of the same size, with
one bunk.

These quarters would be considered rather small in New England
for our large force, but in this climate people really live out of doors,
and most of our Indians slept outside, either in the small tents or under
the open sky.

Through the dry season we dined, and, indeed, had all our meals on
the large piazza in front of the house, which was protected from the
sun's rays by means of an awning. During the fishing season, the fish-
ermen slept at the camp at the lower fishing-ground.

Of the natural surroundings of our camp, an idea can be obtained
from the following paragraph taken from an article by Mr. William M.
Turner in the Overland Monthly of January, 1875 :

" This stream has been selected with good judgment. Fed by the
eternal streams of Shasta, some seventy miles from its mouth, its waters
are icy cold, and, as yet, undisturbed by the miner's pick, as clear as
the sunlight that pierces its azure pools and whirling eddies. No dams
or other artificial obstacles obstruct its course, and it is now the most
prolific and favorite spawning ground of the Pacific. A point on the
river about twenty miles from Eeading, the present terminus of the
Oregon and California Eailroad, and about three miles from its junction
with the Pit River, one of the largest tributaries of the Sacramento, has
been selected for the hatching works, and, among all the beautiful spots
in California, none more lovely nor more grandly picturesque than this
could have been chosen.

" The grade of the California stage-road curves over the hill a few hun-
dred feet above the fishery, and from this point the view is magnificent.
Eastward Mount Persephone, an immense wall of granite, shoots up
athwart the sky, rising abruptly over 2,000 feet from the water's edge,
seamed and scarred by the by-gone ages, and frowning down sullenly, as
if jealous of the innovations below. Pound the base of 'Big Mountain,'
the beautiful river sweeps like a blue ribbon, flecked and sparkling here
and there with bits of silver spray that bubble up from its ever-chang-
ing, restless current. Willows and water plants fringe the banks wilh
their graceful drapery ; wild flowers of brilliant hue light up the rugged
hdlsides ; the bright, airy green of the manzanita shimmers on ridge and
mountain crest; and the great moss-covered oaks, swinging their
gnarled branches amid the music of the waters, lend a charm to the
scene of peaceful beauty."

OUR NEIGHBORS.

Our neighbors were Mr. George Allen and wife, who kept the stage
station a mile and a half west of the camp; the ferryman at Pitt Eiver
Crossing, four miles down the river, Mr. O'Conuer, commonly called
" Old Jack," who lived alone, four miles up the stage-road ; Dr.
Silverthorne, who lived with an Indian wife, seven miles from camp on

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 467'

Cow Creek, and Mr. Campbell, eight miles up the river, -who also has an
Indian wife. We had no other white neighbors within twelve or four-
teen miles.

We were surrounded by Indians, of course, this being an Indian
country.

Concholooloo, the head-chief of the tribe, lived very near us on the
bank of the river. " Jim Mitchell," the other chief, has a rancherie and
" porum boss," (council-house or theatre,) in the forest a mile and a half
from the camp.

There was a marked improvement this year in the disposition of the
Indians towards our party. The first two years, 1872 and 1873, they
regarded us with more or less dislike and suspicion. This year there
was an entire change in them. They seemed to have learned that we
were their friends, that we had a genuine consideration for their welfare
and were opposed to anything like tyranny or oppression, and when I
passed over to them the thousands of salmon which we caught and bad
used for spawning, their hearts were entirely won over, and I think
that we now have as individuals the confidence and friendship of the
tribe.

They express their sense of the difference between us whom they call
"the far-off white men," and the whites they have been accustomed to,
by a saying they often use: Cbocky yapitoo chipkalla ; kelail yapitoo
challa. " Tbe white men near here, bod ; the far-off white men, good."
At all events I thought I noticed this year an entire change for the
better in their disposition toward us, though it should be remembered,
that all the time in the depth of their hearts they wish that the whole
race of white intruders were cleared out of the country, and if this much-
desired consummation conld be accomplished with impunity all personal
considerations for us would be sacrificed to the common good.

Near our camp is the graveyard of their chiefs and magnates, where
good Indians of the McCloud have been buried for centuries. The living
members of the tribe are in constant fear lest we should dig up these
graves for relics. This fear, caused without doubt by the casual re-
marks of our party on the subject, is well illustrated by the following
unique petition brought to me one day, with great formality and serious-
ness. The Indian woman who brought it had employed some white
friend to draw it up for her. It reads thus :

"Shasta, September 11, 1874.
" This is to certify that Mrs. Matilda Charles Empire, one of the old
settlers of Shasta County, is now on a pilgrimage to the graves of their
ancestors, and she prays Commissioner Stone not to disturb any of her
friends and relatives who have gone the way of all flesh, and thus they
will ever pray ; by

"Her husband,

"EMPIRE CHARLEY.

"MATILDA CHARLEY.

"Their sister, KATE CHARLEY."

468 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

GAME.

The large game, I regret to say, is disappearing from this locality,
owing, without doubt, to the approach of the railroad and the increasing
facilities which it affords for hunting in this vicinity. I noticed a marked
change even in the two years of my experience here. In 1S72 it was a
common thing to get a deer in the immediate vicinity of the camp : now
it is a rare thing. During our stay on the McCloud fresh bear-tracks
were continually seen, and several bears were killed : this year I have
not heard of the killing of a single bear, and their tracks are not abun-
dant. Only a few years ago grizzly bears used to occupy, almost undis-
turbed, a wild, rocky canon not two miles from the site of our camp:
now the grizzlies have all retired for several miles.

Smaller game, as quails and water-fowl, still remain, however; and
there are minks and wild-cats enough left to make it very unsafe for
poultry.

EXTRACTS FROM JOURNAL.

1874.

July 5. — Eeached camp at 3£ a. m. All hands set to work on the
fishing-ground.

July G. — Made a corral for the cow. First haul of the seine. Visit
from a Warm Spring Iudiau engaged in the Modoc wax last year.

July 7. — Mr. Woodbury arrived with Ah Sin, the cook.

July 8. — Mr. Myron Green caught a salmon with a fly. Supplies
arrived at noon. A busy afternoon.

July 9. — Visit from Conchoolooloo, the Indian chief. Mercury in ther-
mometer, in the sun, 159° — in the sand near the house. Chinaman very
sick.

July 1.0. — Mr. Woodbury killed a rattlesnake, making seven that have
been killed in the neighborhood this summer. Launched the boat to-
day. Target-shooting in the evening.

July 11. — The Chinaman went out in the boat and was carried over
the rapids but not injured.

Sunday, July 12. — A party of us made the very steep ascent of the
lower summit of Mount Persephone. Unpleasantness between the Chi-
naman and Indians. United States flag raised to-day.

July 13. — First photographs taken. All hands went to an Indian
dance in the evening. Comet seen to-night for the last time in the
evening here.

July 15. — Timber came to-day and we laid the floor of the new house.

July 16. — Bought cow and calf.

July 20. — Moved headquarters to-day to Brush Camp, out of doors.
Felled several large trees for the bridge.

July 21. — Rattlesnake was killed opposite the house. Twenty minutes'
exposure to the rays of the sun this afternoon cooked an egg.

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL 469

July 22. — Blew up rocks in the river-channel, below the wheel, with
giant powder.

July 23. — Thunder was heard to-day; there was a slight rain in the
afternoon.

Jtdy 24. — Water from a strong sulphur-spring near by is used quite
extensively in camp, and with beneficial results. The second pier in the
bridge was placed to-day.

July 25. — After the day's work was done, a party started in search of
a cave in Mount Persephone.

July 26. — A large limestone cave, forming a very handsome grotto,
was found in the mountain. Two rattlesnakes were encountered.

July 27. — A little gold-digging was done to-day, and some gold found.
A camping expedition was sent out to-day in search of poles.

July 30. — Camping expedition returned, having felled five hundred
trees.

July 31. — Bridge across the McCloud was completed to-day. Quails
very abundant around the house.

August 1. — A load of lumber having come yesterday, additional bunks
were constructed, and other improvements were made.

August 2. — Nearly all the camp turned out to-day, it being Sunday, in
search of another cave in the mountain, of which we had heard rumors.
The cave was found after some difficulty, and extended through a long,
winding passage-way, which ended in a chamber 50 feet high, 150 feet
long, and 40 feet wide.

August 5. — An unusual number of Indians about the camp to-day.
Took a photograph of Conchoolooloo, the chief of the tribe.

August 7. — Several minks were seen playing in the water, just in front
of the house. One hundred and forty-seven salmon, weighing about a
ton, were caught in one haul to-night.

August 10. — The dam across the McCloud River, obstructing the ascent
of the salmon, was completed to day.

August 13. — All hands at work to-day in the tent on the hatching-
apparatus. The Indians fish a good deal in the river about this time,
at night, diving, themselves, for the salmon with a hand-net, which they
use in the water with wonderful skill.

August 16. — Made the ascent of the summit of Mount Persephone.
Height found by aneroid barometer to be 4,100 feet above the level of
the sea.

August 18. — An Indian woman came to the camp for protection, being
pursued by an Indian, whose brother she had killed.

August 19. — The Indian in pursuit arrived in camp this morning,
armed with a six-shooter. Danger of another murder. The Indian, after
some flourishing of his revolver, was peremptorily ordered to leave the
camp, which he did.

August 20. — Quails very abundant around the camp.

470 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

August 23. — Our poultry has been nearly all killed by niinks aud wild-
cats.

August 25. — A thunder- shower at night.

August 26. — First ripe pair of salmon. About two hundred salmon
caught at one haul of the seine.

August 27. — Water below the bridge is black with salmon, trying to
pass it.

August 29. — Wild plutns ripe and abundant.

August 30. — Another rattlesnake killed.

September 1. — A wiud-storui blew down the large tent.

September 3. — Indians hold a large council in an immense underground
council-house.

September 4. — The seine was caught on a rock in the rapids, and torn
in pieces.

September 5. — A large salmon, fresh from the sea, was caught.

September 10. — Expedition for moss left today for Mount Shasta.

September 13. — A party of Indians, on a pilgrimage to the graves of
their ancestors, arrived to-day, and presented a petition, requesting us
not to disturb the bones of the buried forefathers.

September 15. — Large trout very abundant in the river, where the
white salmon-eggs had been thrown.

September 19. — Water in the river getting too cold to bathe in, its
temperature being at 50° in the morning.

September 20. — The eye-spots of the eggs taken the first part of this
month are now very distinctly seen.

September 25. — The first shipment of the eggs was made to-day.

September 28. — Grand festival of the McCloud Indians at their under-
ground council-house.

October 1. — Very violent and copious rain ; the McCloud River rose a
foot, and carried away a section of the bridge. Sent a second expedi-
tion after moss.

October 5. — Packed 750,000 eggs to-day.

October 6. — Sent second lot of salmon-eggs.

October 7. — Hear coyotes howling at night. Found some excellent
raisins to-day, formed from grapes which had been accidentally left in
the sun.

October 9. — Sent third lot of eggs by express.

October 10. — Another violent rain last night.

October 11. — Fourth lot of salmon-eggs sent off to-day.

October 12. — Very violent wind-storm this afternoon. The rainy sea-
sou seems to have set in, although it is not expected till three weeks
later.

October 13.— Fifth lot of eggs sent off.

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M7CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 471

Record of temperature at the United States fishery, McCloud Biver, California.

TEMPERATURE OF AIR.

Date.

6 a. m.

3 p. m.,
shade.

3 p. m.,

suu.

6 p. m.

Date.

6 a. m.

3 p. ra.,
stride.

3 p. ra.,
sun.

6 p. ra.

1874.
July 8

o
55
54
68
58
64
57
60
56
58
49
51i

0

100
106
100
102

97
100
100

98

95

93

91

96

98
101
100

72

99

93

90

82

87

92

94
§92

90

90

89J

87

o

126
*138-9
123
112
112
120
110
128
107
113
113
115
120
130J
129
t72
119
106
116
100

98
120
114
106
112
102
100

96

o
75
73
74
82
74

74
73
80
80
74
70
72
80
70-}
J70
76

72
69
68
711

72"

73

73

68

68

76

67

68

72

73

66

74

74

73

71

07}

69

74

74

74

69*

69"

69

74

74

74*

79"

78

74

74

1874.
Sept. 9

Q

37*

38

54

46

46

64

46

65

30

64

48

68

48

43

43

44

45

o

86

76

77

88

96

98

92

93

90

90

92

90

86

84

80

84

o '

90

98

99
100
103
116
112
113
100
110
108
110
104
100
101
104

o
65

9

10

11

60

10

65

11 .

12

69

12

13

(ill}

13

14

66

14

15

78

15

16

65

16

17

70

17

18

70

18

19

63

19

20 •

21

22

63

20

21

48
60
58
58
67
62

66

67

oo

23

68

23

24

64

24

25

50

25

29

90
82
64
61
78
81
80
79
96
94
80
78
83
72

110
Cloudy.
Rainy.

102J

100"

96

99

110

115

91

92

100

96

58

26

30

49
40
41
52
50
55
48
50
53
54
50
52
51

61*
59

27

Oct. 1

23

62

53

63

51

50

48}

48*

48i

52

47*

47*

50"

50

50

48

50

53

59

48

51

50

52

50

46

43

43'

o

3

4

50

29

30

59
60

31

5

6

58

56

o

7

60

3

8

9

68

4

64

5

10

60

6

93

88

88

90

91J

86

81

85

85

84

99

94

96

90

84

87

884

88

84

93

95

93

97

95

104
102
100
110
103

95

95
100
100

98J
1101
118
117}
100
105
103

99
100
106
114
115
102
116
115

11

60

12

53

g

13

GO

9..

14

47
65
51
51
56
57
52
53
53
51
47
32
40
41
38
35
35
35

82

80}

84

73

53

59

66

100
100
95
82
58
59
82

63

10

11

15

16

17

63
63

12

61

13

18

54

14

19

51

15

20

55

16

21

58

17

22

51

56

37
42

63
56

37

42

56

18

23

53

19

24

46

20

25

26

37

21

40

Ol

27

43

23

23

52
50
57
57

74
87*
90"
90

43

24

50
52

58
56
58
52

29

• 43J

25

30

42

26

31

42

27

Nov 1

45

o

35
38
50
53
33
42
46
50
50
53
52

48

29

3

53}

30

4

51

50

54
52

52

31

44
64
67
48
52
52
40
44
52

93

89

93

100

115
108
118
122

74
73
68
73
73
74
08
03
67

5

6

45

Sept 1

47

2

7

45
50*
54"
53

53

45

51
54
53
62

45

3

8

51

4

9

52

5

84

83
79
70

100

100

92

86

10

53

6

11

50

7

12

49

8

*In sand, 157°.

J Thunder, with rain, all the afternoon.

t Cloudy.
§ 5 a. m.

472 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Record of temperature of McCloud River at the United States fishery, California.

Date.

6 a.m.

12 m.

7 p. m.

Date.

6 a. m.

3 p. in.

7 p. ni.

o
54
56

56
56
56
56
57
56
56
56
56
56
58

o
58
58

0

58
58

Sept. 3

o

52

52

52

56

52*

52J

51

49

49J

50

50

50

52

52

51

511

50

52

57

50

50

50

50

•o
57

57
57
57
59
55
54
54
54
55
56
57
56
56
56
56
56
56
53
55
55

o

7

4

56

5

56

3 p. m.

6 p. m.

6

7

8

9

56
56
56J

60

60

60

62

62

62

62

61

61

61

60

60

60

62

62

58*

61"

62

61
60
58J
59*
59
f59
60
59J
59J

58}

58*

58

58

58

58

58

58

59

59

58

60

59

59*

59*

58J

57*

57

58

58

58*

52"

58*

60

59

58
58
58
60
61

61
61

61
60
59
50
58
60
60
58
CO
(*)

55

8

10

11..

54

9

54

10

12

54

11

13..

55

12

14 .

56

13

15

56

14

16 .,

56

15

17

56

1C

18

56

17

19

56

18

20

56

19

21

54

20

56
55
56
56
56
56

22

54}
55

21

23

22

24

54

23

25

24

29 .

55
55
53
54
53
55
54
55
55
54
54
55
55
54
53
53
51
54
51
50
51
49
49
50
50

431
43

m

47

46}

40

53

25

30

50
50
49
50
50
50
51
50
50
51
51
51
50
48
48
49
48
48
49
49
48
58
48
49
48
44
42
43
44
44
44
42

53J
51*
50
52

Oct. 1

7 p. m.

2....

3

4

54

60

58

57*

58*

58

58}

58*

58"

58

57*

57}

57*

57*

57*

57

57

57

57

58

58

57*

58

58

58

58

56

57

56

57

57*

58

58

58

58

5

53

26

6

53

27

7

53

28

55
55

55
54
54

8

53

29

9

10..

53

30

54

31

11

53

12..

51

AUg" .2 ".'.

13

51

3

54
54*
53*
53|

53*

54

53*,

53}

53

54

54

53}

53

54

54

54

53}

53

52

14

52

4

15

16

51

5

52

6

17

51

7

18

49

8

19

50

9

20

49

10

21

50

11

22

49

12

23

49

13

24

25

49

14

45

15

26

43

10

27

45

17

28

47

18

29

47

19

30

46

20

31

45

21

46

22

2

42
44

47
48

48
48

45

23

3

47

24

53

53}

54

54

54

54

4

5

47

25

48

20

6

47

27

7

44
44
47
48
49
49

45
47
49
48
50

45

28

8

46

29

9

47

30

10

48

31

52J
52J
53

58}
57*

58"

58

571

56

11

50

Sept. l

2

12

* Thunder, with rain all the afternoon ; rain during night.

t 5 a. m.

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, m'CLOUD KIVER, CAL 473
Temperature of water in hatching-troughs.

Date.

7a

m.

3p

m.

Vp

in.

Inlet.

Outlet.

Inlet.

Outlet.

Inlet.

Outlet.

Sept. 10

o

49
49
49
50
50
51
52
51
51*
50
52
51
50
50
50
50

o

48

49

49

50

50

50

52

51

51*

50"

52

51

50

50

50

50

0

54*.

56

56

57

57

58

561

50*

56J

56

56

56

55

55

54

0

56

50*.

56*

58

60

59

58

57

58

5G£

561

56

56

56

55

o

54

54

55

56

56

57

56

56

56

56

57

54

54j

55

54

o
59

11

54

12

55

13

56

14

58

15

57*
56

16

17

56

18

19

56
56

20

56

21

54

22

55

23

55

24

54

25

29

54

54
53
53
52
55
54
54
55
54
54
55
55
53

55*

55

54

56

52

55

55

55

56

55

55

55*

56

54

53

53

52

50

52

54

53

54

53

53

53

54

53

51

51

52

51

51

51

49

49*.

49"

50

49

49

49

45

43

45

47

45

46

45

45

45

47

48

48

53

30

50

50

49*

48"

50

50

51

50

50

51

51

51

50

50
50
50
48
50
51
51
50
50
51
51
51
50

54

Oct. 1

53

2

52

3

53

4

54

5

54

6

54

7

54

8

53

9

53

10

541
54

11

12

51

13

53

14

47
49
48
48
49
49
48
48
49
49
48
44
42
43
44
44
44
42
42
42
44
47
48

47
49
49
48
49
49
48
48
49
49
48
44
42
43
44
44
44
42
42
42
44
47
48

53

52
52
51
50
50
49£

54
52
52
51

50
50

49*.

52

15

51

16

51

17

51

18

19

49
49

20

49

21

50

22

50
50

50
50

49

23

49

24

49

25

431
43

43*

43"

45

26

43

27

45

28

47
46
47
40

47
46
47
40

47

29

45

30

31

46
45

Nov. 1 .

45

o

45

3

47

4

48
48

48
48

48

5

48

474 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Temperature of the Sacramento River, taken at Teliama bridge, for the month of May., 1874,

at 3 p. m.

Date.

May 7

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

»H

tw

<*H

O

O

O

CD

to

©

n

0

a ©

f3

Q) S3

© -

So

Pi

.a

3* ^

a

g.,3

a

<S

o

CO

H

H

H

0

o

o

64

54

54

74

57

54

70

56

56

76

53

58

79

59

59

86

CO

60

85

60

60

90

60

60

SO

61

61

92

62

62

68

62

62

88

63

63

80

62

62

Date.

May 20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

«w

=i-i

O

o

©

©

i- .•

£> •

-fa ©

fe'S

© —

a

a

©

V

H

H

o

o

82

61

88

62

72

60

82

60

84

62

SO

60

78

60

72

60

73

60

86

60

92

62

86

64

<t->
o

c g

a

o
61
62
(0
60
C2
10
60
60
CO
CO
62
C4

Temperature of the Sacramento River, taken at Sacramento City, for the months of April and

May, 1874, at 3 p. to.

Date.

April 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

May 1
o

3

4
5

■H

5H

o

©

©

© ©
t. ©

£3

T3

p.<3

C o

c3

p

A

^

« S

« a

CO

f- 5

<- 2

a

Ph ©

P. o

h

-5

S3
© ■*-'

£3

<

<

H

H

o

0

0

o

74

80

50

54

54

54

53

C2

68

54

53

56

53

53

52

CO

53

52

62

81

53

52

02

85

54

53

66

73

54

53

07

81

55

54

70

55

55

70

75

56

55

66

74

57

57

68

84

57

57

70

84

57

57

78

86

57

57

74

78

58

57

68

74

57

57

69

96

53

57

76

81

58

57

78

98

59

58

69

59

57

64

66

57

56

65

87

57

56

75

73

56

55

76

97

57

56

64

70

57

56

59

No sun.

57

56

Date.

May 6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

«H

O

©

© ©
>- ©

"3

a

p

-£- """•

A

a

ca zt

'H

CO

<* ?

a

a

P<o

a ~

<

<

H

0

o

0

CO

66

57

58

91

57

73

78

57

73

77

57

75

97

58*

76

93

61

83.

110

62

77

85

62

81

95

62

86

100

63

87

107

03*

87

90

63

84

94

63

70

85

62$

80

No snn.

C3

82

85

C3J

72

No sun.

62i

82

106

C4

81

85

63$

82

88

03

75

83

63i

57

No sun.

63

73

88

64

78

91

64

83

102

64

77

83

C4A

o
© ~

5 3

V~
t°

©-=
P.©

B-3

57

57

56J

57

58

CI

62

61

61

61

62

62

62

61

61

61

61

G2

62

61 J

62

63

62

63

63

63

Catalogue of Collection to Smithsonian Institution, contributed in 1874.

35G. Wyedardeeket. McCloud Camp. July 2, 1874.

357. Trout. McCloud Camp. July 15, 1874.

35S. Wyedardeeket. July 8, 1874.

359. Catfish. Elklioru River, Nebraska. June 8, 1874.

300. Wyedardeeket, McCloud Camp. July 5, 1874.

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 475

361. Trout. Lake Tahoe, California. June 11, 1874.

362. Wyedardeeket McCloud Camp. July 1, 1874.

363. Wyedardeeket. McCloud Camp. July 4, 1874.
364.

365. Trout. McCloud Camp. July 10, 1874.

367. Trout. McCloud Camp. August, 1873.

368. Male salmon. McCloud Camp. July 12, 1874.

369. Wyedardeeket. McCloud Camp. July 2, 1874.

370. Fish, (sp?) San Francisco. June 20, 1874.

371. Trout. McCloud Camp. August, 1873.

372. Trout. McCloud Camp. August, 1873.

373. Trout. McCloud Camp. August, 1873.

374. Salmon. McCloud Camp. July 12, 1874.

375. Trout. Lake Tahoe. June 11, 1874.

376. Bass. Elkhorn River, Nebraska. June 8, 1874.

377. Catfish. Elkhorn Eiver. June 8, 1874.

378. Female trout, caught with hook. McCloud Camp. July 16, 1874.

379. Female trout, caught with hook. McCloud Camp. July 16, 1874.
"Weight 1^ pounds, girth 9f inches.

380. Catfish. Elkhorn Eiver. June 8, 1874.

381. Catfish. Elkhorn River. June 8, 1874.

382. Female salmon. McCloud Eiver. July 14, 1874. Weight 13
pounds, girth 15 inches.

383. Wyedardeeket. United States Salmon Camp. Caught with hook.
July 16, 1874.

384. Catfish. Elkhorn Eiver.

385. Salmon milt. July 8, 1874. McCloud Camp.

386. Catfish. Elkhorn Eiver, Nebraska. June 8, 1874.

387. Skin of female salmon, taken same day as 382. Eggs were much
less developed than 382. Skin has a marked reddish tinge. Weight 22
pounds, girth 17 inches. McCloud Eiver. July 14, 1874.

389. Trout. McCloud Eiver. July 15, 1874.

390. Catfish. Elkhorn Eiver, Nebraska. June 8, 1874.

391. Trout. McCloud Camp. July 15, 1874.

393. Bass. Elkhorn Eiver, Nebraska; June 8, 18*74.

394. Female trout. McCloud Camp. July 10, 1874.

395. Trout, McCloud Camp. July 10, 1874.

396. Bass. Elkhorn Eiver, Nebraska, July 12, 1874.

397. Catfish. Elkhorn Eiver. June 8, 1874.

398. Crawfish. Santa Barbara, Cal. June 19, 1874.

399. Trout. McCloud Eiver, California. July 16, 1874.

401. Wyedardeeket. McCloud Camp. July 4, 1874.

402. Trout. Independence Lake, headwaters of little Truckee Eiver.
Spawn and milt, ripe. July 3, 1874.

403. Trout. Independence Lake. These fish were spawning; there
was snow about the lakes.

476 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

404. Trout; male. McCloud River. Handsome fish; weight, 2 pounds;
girth, 2\ inches. July 17, 1874.

405. Salmon; male. July 18, 1874. McCloud Camp. Length, 27
inches ; girth, 14 inches ; weight, 6 pounds.

406. Salinou; male. July 18, 1874. McCloud Camp. Length, 30
inches ; girth, 10 inches ; weight, 8 pounds.

407. Young grilse. McCloud Camp. July 18, 1874.

408. Grilse. July 18, 1874. Length, 20 inches; girth, 11 inches;
weight, 2 \ pounds.

409. Small trout. July 18, 1874. McCloud Camp.

410. Small trout. July 18, 1874. McCloud Camp.

411. Alcohol bottle of salmonidse. McCloud Camp. July 18, 1874.
412-416. Heads of salmon, all male, taken August 1, 1874, and packed

in strong salt brine.

417. Male salmon. McCloud River. August 28, 1874.

418. Female salmon. McCloud River. August 28, 1874.

410. Male salmon head, taken at spawning time, September 3. Mc-
Cloud River.

420. Female salmon head, taken at spawning time, September 3.
McCloud River.

421. Male salmon, taken after ripe season partly over. Girth, 1 foot
3 inches ; weight, 10 pounds ; length, 30 inches; dark-colored skin. Sep-
tember 4, 1874. McCloud River.

422. Female salmon, partly spawned, taken September 4. McCloud
River fishery. Girth, 1 foot 5 inches ; weight, 12 pounds ; length, 13
inches ; beautiful spotted tawny skin ; and unusually long for the size.

423. Head of a very large male salmon. Girth, little over 2 feet;
length, about 40 inches. Caught in McCloud River, September 5, 1874.
Looked as if it had come directly from the sea, the scales not being yet
absorbed into the skin, as is the common rule among other fish taken
here.

424. Large male salmon, from the sea, with scales upon him. Girth,
1 foot 9 inches ; length, 3 feet ; weight, 19 pounds ; eyes very small ; sil-
very, very thin and greasy skin.

425. Young trout. McCloud River. September 22, 1874. Very hand-
some, and with silvery scales.

426. Youug trout. McCloud River. September 24, 1874.

427. Very large, fierce male salmon. McCloud River. September 26,
1874. Girth, 23 inches; weight, 30 pounds ; length 42 iuches.

*428. Young trout. McCloud River. September 27, 1874.

429. Youug trout, McCloud River. September 27, 1874.

430. Young trout. McCloud River. September 25, 1874.

431. Youug trout. McCloud River. September 25, 1874.

432. Young trout. McCloud River. September 25, 1874.

433. Young trout. McCloud River. September 25, 1874.
434-435. Wyedardeeket. McCloud River. September 18. 1874.

SALMON-HATCHING ESTABLISHMENT, M'CLOUD RIVER, CAL. 477

430. Specimens of young salmonidse. McCloud Eiver, California.
From September 1 to October 1, 1874.

437. Jar of various specimeus from McCloud River Camp. Lizards,
Poison lizard, (local name,) tree-toad, beetle, snails.

438. Trout. Soda Creek, Siskiyou County, California. September
12, 1874. Contributed by R. D. Hubbard.

439. Wyedardeeket skin and bead. McCloud River, California. Eggs
very little developed.

440. Wyedardeeket. McCloud River, California. United States
fishery. Very large for this locality.

441. Water ouzel. (Sourciuny, Indian name.) McCloud River. United
States fishery, California. October 17, 1874.

SECOND CALIFORNIA AQUARIUM CAR.

Under the auspices of the California fish commission, I left Charles-
town, N. H., on the 4th of June, 1874, with a car-load of living eastern
fish, and arrived in California on the 12th of June, after a journey of
eight days.

Below will be found a tabulated statement of the results of the expe-
dition.

SECOND CALIFORNIA AQUARIUM CAR, 1874.

List of fishes which arrived alive at their destinations, and the waters into which they were

introduced.

Numbers started with..

FRESH-WATER FISH.

75 full-srown black bass, (Micropterus

salmoides.)

24 small black bass, (Micropterus sal-
moides.)

18 full-grown glass-eyed pike, (Stizoste-
diou.)

76 large Schuylkill catfish

Mississippi catfish

71 horn-pouts, ( Amiurus)

4 cans small silver-eels, ( Anguilla)

450 small Peuobscot salmon, (Salmo salar)

6 f ull-growu rock bass

SALT-WATER FISH.

24 small tautogs, (Tautoga onitis)

2 cans small salt-water eels, (Anguilla)

150 full-grown spawning lobsters

1 barrel of oysters

"Where procured.

Lake Champlain, Vermont

Saint Joseph's Eiver, Michigan

Missisquoi Eiver, Vermont . . .

Earitan Eiver, New Jersey

Elkhorn Eiver, Nebraska'

Lake Champlain, Vermont

Hudson Eiver, New York.
Penobscot Eiver, Maine. ..

Missisquoi Eiver, Vermont . . .

Wood's Hole, Massachusetts .
New York Harbor

Massachusetts Bay-
Massachusetts Bay

73

12
10

74

70

1 can,
305

23

1 can,

2

4

lbbl.

Place of deposit.

Napa Creek.

Alameda Creek.

Sacramento Eiver.

San Joaquin Eiver.
San Joaquin Eiver.
Ponds or sloughsnear

Sacramento.
Sacramento Eiver.
Sicrainento Eiver,

near Beading.
Napa Creek.

Bay of San Francisco.
BayofSan Francisco.
Great Salt Lake.
BayofSan Francisco.
Great Salt Lake.

Times of starting and arrival of the second aquarium car.

Car left Charlestowu, IS". H., June 4, 1874.

Reached Albany, N. Y., Thursday, June 4, at 12 p. m.

Reached Rochester, X. Y., Friday, June 5, at 10.30 a. m.

478 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Beached Suspension Bridge, N. Y., Friday, June 5, at 2 p. m.
Beached Niles, Mich., Saturday, June 6, at 4.20 p. in.
Arrived at Chicago, 111., Saturday, June 6, at 8.30 p. m.
Left Chicago, 111., Sunday, June 7, at 10.15 a. in.
Left Cedar Bapids, Sunday, June 7, at 8 p. m.
Arrived at Omaha, Nebr., Monday, June 8, at 10.30 a. m.
Left Omaha, Nebr., Monday, June 8, at 1 p. m.
Arrived at Elkhorn Biver, Nebraska, Monday, June 8, at 2.30 p. m.
Arrived at Grand Island, Nebraska, Monday, June 8, at 9.15 p. m.
Arrived at Big Springs, Nebr., Tuesday, June 9, at 8.15 a. m.
Arrived at Sidney, Nebr., Tuesday, June 9, at 11.30 a. m.
Arrived at Laramie, Wyo., Tuesday, June 9, at 7.10 p. m.
Arrived at Green Biver, Wyo., "Wednesday, June 10, at 8.30 a. m.
Arrived at Evanston, Utah, Wednesday, June 10, at 3.20 p. m.
Arrived at Ogden, Utah, Wednesday, June 10, at 6 p. m.
Arrived at Elko, Nev., Thursday, June 11, at 8.45 a. m.
Arrived at Carlin, Nev., Thursday, June 11, at 10.15 a. m.
Arrived at Humboldt, Nev., Thursday, June 11, at 6.15 p. m.
Arrived at Wadsworth, Nev., Thursday, June 11, at midnight.
Arrived at Truckee, Cak, Friday, June 12, at 4.55 a. m.
Arrived at Sacramento, Cak, Friday, June 12, at 1.30 p. m.
Arrived at San Francisco, Cak, Friday, June 12, at 8.15 p. m.

XXIII— CORRESPONDENCE RELATING TO 'I HE SAN JOAQUIN

RIVER AND ITS FISHES.

San Francisco, Cal., April 14, 1875.

Dear Sir : Your letter 39419, addressed to Dr. Thomas M. Logan,
has been handed to ine.

I have made the request of Mr. S. S. Montague, chief engineer, and
he has issued the orders for the temperature of the San Joaquin River
to be taken at the railroad-crossing from this on. It will be taken aud
returned to you as it has been in the case of the Sacramento River.

I have not much information as to the run of salmon in the San Joa-
quin. Some salmon go up the San Joaquin, and, it is said, spawn in the
headwaters of the main stream, and some in the Merced, near the
Yosemite Valley. This is not from personal knowledge, but report.

Formerly there was considerable work done in the catching of salmon
in the San Joaquin, but of late years it has been abandoned, as it has
been partially in the Sacramento, above Sacramento City. The fisher-
men here have found by experience, what had been previously ascer-
tained in Scotland, that the fish, after they come in from the ocean,
remain for a time, and run back and forth from fresh and salt water,
probably to get rid of parasites, and then start for the spawning-
grounds ; therefore, they fish for them with more profit in the vicinity
of where the fresh and salt water meet, than they do above in the fresh
water, where they do not remain, but continue as rapidly as possible on
their journey to the spawning-grounds.

I suppose that the fish are still going up the San Joaquin to spawn,
but, if taken at all, are only now takeu by Indians on the Merced, the
Chowchiila, the Fresno, and the other branches of the San Joaquin, and
I have no doubt they continue to do so. Many branches of the San
Joaquin take their rise in the highest mountains of the continent, and
as the streams are unvexed by miners, they are admirably adapted for
spawning purposes.

Our commission will probably, in another year, put some McCloud
River salmon into the Kern River, which empties into Kern Lake and
Buena Vista slough, and, so on, into Tulare Lake. We may also put
some salmon into the main San Joaquin and its branches.

I will attempt to obtain positive and definite information as to the
present condition of the salmon in the San Joaquin and its branches. ]
think that the evidence, when obtained, will show that the San Joaquin
is very much warmer than the Sacramento, for if you will look at the

480 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

map you will see that although it drams a higher range of mountains,
yet, that it runs one hundred fifty and miles, at least, through the
center of an almost tropical valley.
Very respectfully, &c,

B. B. BEDDING.
Prof. Spencer F. Baird,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, JJ. C.

P. S. — We hatched out about 20,000 white-fish of those you so kindly

forwarded, and on the 28th ultimo I turned them out in Tulare Lake. I

have no doubt they will thrive, as there is abundance of food. Tulare

is a peculiar lake. On its entire eastern shore its bottom has a descent

of only about a foot in a mile; it is quite deep on the western shore;

the evaporation is so great on the eastern shore that the water becomes

slightly alkaline, and is always warm, while in the center and on the

western shore it is cold and pure. For two miles or more wide and thirty

miles long, the water on the eastern shore is filled with minute animal

life. Its fish are as yet, I believe, uudescribed. I have seen a perch and

some very coarse-scaled suckers {Catostomus.) There is a fine large

white-fleshed fish, about 2 feet 6 inches long, which the people call "lake

trout." It is not a "salmon." It is excellent food, quite abundant, and

in constant demand. It looks to me to be a carp, and of finer flavor

than any 1 ate in Europe.

B. B. R.

Fresno, April 25, 1875.

Dear Sir : In regard to catching fish and the different kinds that
are in the San Joaquin River, as far as 1 have been able to find out, is
as follows :

During the summer there is no fish of any consequence, except a large
kind of what is called sucker, but in the fall the salmon and salmon-
trout find their way up here in large quantities. Last fall I helped to
spear quite a number, as tbat is about the only way of fishing in this
part of the country ; but below the San Joaquin bridge I understand
they were trapped in a wire corral by ranchers and fed to hogs ; they
were so plentiful. Besides the two kinds mentioned there are small
rock-bass, and I have seen something resembling black bass, but in
rather scant numbers.

If I can furnish you with any more information on this subject, please

let me know.

Yours,

WALTER NETHEROLIFT.
Mr. B. B. Redding.

San Francisco, Cal., May 11, 1875.
Dear Sir : Your letter of April 29 just received. I am making
inquiries and gathering information relative to the salmon in the San

THE SAN JOAQUIN KIVER AND ITS FISHES. 481

Joaquin, and as the general result of this information, am satisfied they
make their annual immigrations to the headwaters for spawning in
large quantities. A few years since, they spawned near the Yosemite
Valley. A dam built for mining purposes, some four or five years since,
prevented them from reaching this spawning-ground. Last year the
dam was removed and the hsh have again free access to the headwa-
ters of the Merced, but whether they have returned to tbeir former
spawning-grounds on this river, which is a branch of the San Joaquin,
I have not learned. I will write to Millerton, near the headwaters of
the San Joaquin, so as to have information as soon as they reach that
point this spring, and I will again communicate with you.

I thiuk it would be advisable for you to instruct Mr. Stone to send
one or more of his assistants to the San Joaquin for the purpose of ob-
serving the salmon on their way to the spawning-ground and having
some caught and forwarded to you. I think, from all I can learn, that
they differ somewhat from the McCloud River salmon, and that they
remain for weeks and months in the rivers, in a climate much warmer
than Florida or Mississippi. In fact I have no doubt that you will hud
in the San Joaquin a salmon which might be successfully introduced
into rivers emptying into the Gulf of Mexico.

I will try and procure for you some of the carp brought by Mr. Poppy
from Hamburg, and which he is now successfully raising in Sonoma
County, and sending to market here.

We have done nothing about introducing the Gourami from China.
We find it very difficult to make business connection with people in
China in relation to these matters. All Americans in business in that
country appear to be entirely absorbed in other matters, and have no
knowledge or take no interest in fish-culture, or of obtaining new vari-
eties of fish.

I g-ave Mr. Stone a letter of introduction to United States Minister
Avery, who formerly resided here. He is a man of culture, and alive
to every interest that would benefit the United States or, especially, this
State. When Mr. Stone shall have received a reply, I Mill then open a
correspondence with Minister Avery a-ud see what we can do in relation
to this matter. By-the-bye, Ex-United States Minister F. F. Low in-
forms me that there are in the rivers of China a much larger and
finer-flavored shad* than that of the Atlantic States. It is largely con-
sumed in China, and it is considered a great delicacy. He is convinced
that it would be a valuable acquisition. I also learn that there is on
the coast of Japan a shrimp, averaging from four to six inches long,
and very delicate in flavor, but how we are to get either the shad from
China or the shrimp from Japan here, I do not know.

I will send you by express soon a box containing two of the Idaho
red-fish, which you will see are a new variety of lake-trout, or laud-
locked salmon, as yet undescribed.

'Probably the Sain lai (Alosa Rcevesii, Rich.)
31 F

482 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH !' AND FISHERIES.

V

The gentleman from whom I procured them writes me that when
alive in the water they are all of a beautiful vermilion, very nearly the
color of gold-fish, and that they are considered excellent eating. I would
be pleased, if after their receipt and examination, you will give me your
views in relation to these fish. Unfortunately, instead of being placed
in alcohol, they were packed in a box of salt, but still I think they are
not so shrunk but that you can determine their class.

I trust that when your carp come from Germany we may receive a
few for propagation. We have any quantity of lakes, surrounded by
tule and other vegetable growth, admirably adapted to carp, filled now
with only very poor and coarse suckers and chubs, except in the case of
Tulare Lake, where there is a large, fine fish, locally called lake-trout,
but which I believe to be of the carp kind. I will try and procure one
of them and forward to you.

Very respectfully, &c, B. B. BEDDING,

Secretary California Fish Commission.

Prof. S. F. Baird,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

San Francisco, Cal., August 25, 1875.

Sir : I have received some further information relative to salmon in
the San Joaquin Fiver. Mr. O'Neil, who has charge of the railroad-
bridge crossing the San Joaquin Riser, in latitude 36° 30' north and
longitude 120° west, writes me, on the 13th August, that the salmon
have commenced running up and are passing by the bridge in quanti-
ties. He states that they do not appear to be any different from the
Sacramento salmon.

The run of salmon in this river, at this particular season of the year,
seems somewhat extraordinary, from the fact that it is in the midst of
the summer, and to reach this point they have passed for one hundred
and fifty miles through the San Joaquin Valley, where the temperature of
the air at noon is, at this season of the year, never less than 80°, and is
often as high as 110°.

The record of temperature of air and water is kept at that point and
forwarded regularly to you. I find, on examination, that the mean from
the 16th to the 31st, was, for the air, 104f°, water at the surface, 80°,
water at the bottom, 79°, mean of the depth of the river, 4 feet 7f iuches.
The record, when received, will show that the mean of both air and water
in July was higher.

It seems very extraordinary to me that there should be a run of sal-
mon at this season of the year come in from the ocean for the purpose
of spawning, and passing up a river for more than one hundred and
fifty miles, where the temperature of the air and water are so high as
these figures show. It but confirms Mr. Livingston Stone's theory, in
his report to you, that somewhere in California the salmon are spawn-

THE SAN JOAQUIN RIVER AND ITS FISHES. 483

ing about every month in the year, bat until the receipt of this report
from O'Neil, I did not suppose that there were any salmon that pass
through the hottest portion of the State for the purpose of spawning
during the hottest season of the year. It appears to me that these sal-
mon might be introduced into any of the southern rivers of the United
States and possibly into the Bio Grande.

Should I receive further information I will forward it to you.
• I would like to know if you received the box, containing two red-fish,
from Idaho, packed in salt and sent to your address, at the Smithso-
nian Institute.

Very respectfully, &c,

B. B. BEDDING.
Prof. S. F. Baird,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. CJ.

XXIV.-THE ATLANTIC SALMON (SALMO SALAH).

A— REPORT ON THE COLLECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF
PENOBSCOT SALMON IN 1873-74 AND lS74-'75.

By Charles G. Atkins,
1. — METHODS.

The modes employed in the collection of salmon-eggs at Bucksport
iu 1873 and 1874, and in their development and distribution, have been
so closely like those of 1872-?73, fully described in the report for that
season, that it will be simply necessary to specify the changes and new
features introduced.

No changes were made in the mode of collecting breeding-fish from
the weirs, save the larger use of boxes in bringing them together from
the several weirs where they were caught to the boat wherein they were
to be brought to Bucksport, and some improvement in the fittings of
the tran sporting-boats and in the materials of the dipping-bags. The
latter were at first made of cotton- duck, pierced by brass grommet-
holes. Hemp was found to be superior to cotton, having greater flexi-
bility, strength, and durability, but the brass grommets are still used.

At the pond, a much larger inclosure was made than in 1872, embrac-
ing about twelve acres at time of high water, and probably nine acres
at low water, with an area of at least six acres 5 to 9 feet deep at the
lowest stage. The 650 salmon inclosed in 1873 had therefore very
nearly a square rod of deep water for each. For the brush-hedge,
which proved so ineffectual iu 1872, there was substituted a strong net,
its top suspended on stakes and its lower edge held down by a heavy
chain. Owing to the favorable natural contour of the pond, this large
inclosure required a net only 640 feet long and about 18 feet deep.
Within this inclosure, the arrangements for catching the salmon at the
breeding-season were the same, with some extension, as before, and
in 1874 nets were stretched along all the inclosed shores with the view of
shutting them off from gravel to spawn on, that they might be more
certain to enter the brook or the pounds and thus come within reach.

In the brook itself there was built a board sluice about 20 inches
wide, rising and falling with the water, to lead the salmon directly from

485

486 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

\

the outlet-gate to the pens at the spawning-shed. This contrivance, for
which we are indebted to Mr. Alfred Swazey, effected a great saving in
the labor of collecting the fish, and in the eggs, of which a good many
were formerly lost here when the fish had access to the gravelly bottom
of the brook.

The arrangement of the hatching-house and apparatus has remained
as shown in the cuts of the previous report.

In the mode of packing eggs for transportation, some change has
been made. The apparatus which received the p'reference the former
season consisted of tin boxes 5 or 6 inches in diameter and the same in
depth, in which the eggs were placed in alternate layers with damp
meadowt-moss, disks of mosquito-net or similar material being placed
above and beneath each layer of eggs to separate them from the moss
and facilitate unpacking, the tins to be inclosed in boxes of sawdust to
protect against frost. These tins have latterly been superseded by
wooden trays, which afford a more expeditious and economical mode of
packing. The trays mostly used have been 3 inches deep, and in
length and breadth either 24 inches by 18 or 18 by 12. The larger
size was found to be objectionable because it afforded room for the eggs
to get out of place by the slidiug of the mass of eggs and moss from
side to side, when, as is often the case in transport, the boxes are care-
lessly allowed to ride upon their sides. This was remedied by dividing
the trays by a partition in the middle ; and in the smaller trays no
serious trouble of that sort was experienced. The depth adopted was
found to be sufficient to admit three or four layers of eggs in moss,
separated, as before, by mosquito-net. "When filled, the trays were
placed in stacks, four or five deep, and secured together by strips of
wood tacked on the sides, making a rectangular package easily fitted
with an outside case and an intermediate space for sawdust. This
package, when all complete, ready for shipment, holds from 5,000 to
10,000 eggs per cubic foot, and is at once the cheapest and most com-
pact consistent with the safety of the eggs.

2. — PURCHASE OF BREEDING-SALMON.

The run of salmon in the Penobscot in 1873 was better than average,
though hardly so good as that of 1872. The weather prevailing in
June was very favorable, and the catch of the weirs from which I was
buying salmon was so large that the requisite number of breeders was
secured in a very short time. The work of collection began June 7
and closed June 21 ; in the intervening sixteen working-days, 650 sal-
mon were collected, being something over 40 per day. The best day's
work was on the 10th, when 105 salmon were received and placed in
the pond.

In 1874, however, the weather and the supply of salmon were both
against us, and we were engaged from June 9 to July 21, including

THE ATLANTIC SALMON.

487

thirty-seven working-days, in collecting 601 salmon. In quality, how-
ever, the salmon of 1874 were superior to any received since the estab-
lishment was founded, being uncommonly stout and fat. This was
more noticeable among those of the smaller class, which may be held to
include all those uuder 15 pounds in weight. Among this class, the
most common weights are, in ordinary seasons, 10 aud 11 pounds, a few
exceeding 12 or falling below 10 pounds. This year a very large num-
ber weighed 13 or 14 pounds apiece; while of 10-pouud salmon and
smaller there were far fewer than usual. This superiority in weight
was also characteristic in a less degree of the salmon of 1873. The
general average weight for thyee years was as follows :

Size of salmon.

Year.

When

bought.

When used in
spawning.

Weight,

Weight.

Length.

1872

PoiliUli.

12.3
13. 28
14.03

Pounds.

Inches.

1873

12. as

12. 73

32 24

1874

32 19

The weight at time of purchase was estimated; in the fall, it was
obtained by weighing. It will be seen that the results correspond.

The extension of the period of collecting salmon to so late a date as
July 24 was not from choice but from necessity. It was thought that
there was a larger proportion of males among the salmon in the later
than in the earlier part of the season ; and since, at the best, we should
have a surplus of that sex, it was considered very undesirable to increase
their proportion. The result of the examination at the spawning-sea-
son, however, dispelled all fears on that score. The ratio of male fish
was no larger than usual. Thus we had —

Males, per cent.

Females, per cent

In 1872

36. G

63.4

In 1873

33.9

66.1

In 1874

34.2

65.8

The mortality of salmon during and after transportation has become
less each season. This is to be attributed largely to improved apparatus
and modes of handling and greater care and skill on the part of the
fishermen. As in the first season, the deaths of salmon occurred almost
wholly immediately on arrival at the pond or within ten days there-
after. There is no evidence that the extreme heat of the water in the
pond has had an injurious effect, though the observations show a much
higher temperature than has been considered compatible with the

488 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

healthy existence of salmon. Between the 28th day of June and the
13th day. of August, 1873, there were only five days when the water at
the bottom of the pond stood below 70° Fahrenheit, and on one occa-
sion, July 31, it rose as high as 76° Fahrenheit. Not only did no sal-
mon die during this heated term, but at the succeeding spawning-sea-
son they came out in perfect condition, and yielded eggs of the highest
degree of health and vigor.

The weather has been less favorable to spawning-operations than in
1872. There was less rain, and the water in the pond and brook was at
a lower stage in 1873 and still lower in 1874. One of the results was
that the salmon found the descent into the brook more difficult, a^d
were more reluctant to try it. We were therefore compelled to resort
more to pounds and seines for catching them. These were so far suc-
cessful that a larger proportion of the salmon were caught than the first
season. In 1873, the number unaccounted for was 111, quite a serious
loss; but, in 1874, this number was reduced to 40, which is a very satis-
factory result.

The process of spawning was conducted in the usual way, the dry
method of impregnation being exclusively employed with the usual suc-
cess. In 1873, a careful examination of the eggs showed the rate of
impregnation to be 97 per cent. The following year the examination
was less thorough, but indicated about the same rate. There was no
material variation in the season. Spawning began in 1873 on the 27th
of October, and in 1874 on the 31st of October. Each year the most of
the eggs were taken before November 20, but small lots as late as the
first week in December.

3. — DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION.

In the winter of 1873 and 1874, the development of the eggs proceeded in:
a manner highly satisfactory. Up to the time of distribution, there were
taken out, by count, 160,903 white eggs, or about G£ per cent, of the
entire stock. Since the unimpregnated eggs amounted to only 3 per cent.,
or 73,000, and some remained among those that were sent away, it is
probable that about 100,000 of the white eggs had been impregnated.
The cause of this death of impregnated eggs is not well understood.
Rough handling will cause it, but when handled in the most careful man-
ner there is still a percentage of white eggs. The shipment of the eggs
was commenced February 11, and closed March 30. Including those
retained at Eueksport to be hatched for the State of Maine, there were
distributed 1,300,000 eggs on account of the United States Commission,
and 991,G75 on account of the several States interested, making a total
of 2,291,075. If to this sum we add the total of the bad eggs rejected,
160,903, we find the original number to have been 2,453,038. At the
time of taking them, however, they were estimated at only 2,321,934.

In 1874 and 1875, the eggs gave no si gn of any defect until packing

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 489

for shipment was began. It was then discovered that they did not
resist the action of the atmosphere as well as usual. In a few hours
after being taken from the water, even though enveloped in very damp
moss, the outer shell was found to have shrunken. Some of the recip-
ients of the packages remarked that the eggs were shrunken like raisins.
In many cases, even on short journeys, a good many of the eggs burst
open prematurely, and even of those that held together many were so
injured that they died before hatching or soon after.* Nearly all the
lots of eggs that were sent away suffered severely, and in the end so
many of the young fish perished that the number set free in the rivers
was but 56 percent, of the number of eggs taken. Those that remained
in the house at Bucksport until hatched succeeded much better than
those sent away. About 260,000 eggs were left there, and 234,000 healthy
young fish obtained from them; and the loss would have been smaller
still had not there been among the eggs a few thousand that had been
packed for shipment and afterward returned to the troughs.

So generally were the eggs affected that the malady cannot be attrib-
uted to any local cause in the hatching-house. The cause must have
been one that operated on all the eggs this season and not at all in other
seasons. Our observations show that the water used in the hatching-
house, in which all the eggs developed, was, in November of this year,
in an unusually low and turbid condition, — turbid with microscopic veg-
etation and saturated with solutions from the muddy bottom and shores
of the pond, — was, in short, entirely unlike the clear new water that the
autuinu rains usually bring in before the cl.ose.of October. In the action
of this water on the eggs, either after spawning or before it had left the
ovaries of the mother fish, it seems most reasonable to look for an expla-
nation of the imperfect condition of the shells, t In all other respects,
so far as known, these eggs had the same treatment as those of other
years when they turned out healthy.

Means were taken to guard against a similar misfortune the next
season, by preparations for the development of the eggs in another
place, commanding a supply of better water, should circumstances de-
mand it ; but fortunately the water was renewed by the wonted rains,
and at the time of this writing it is late enough to say that the eggs
and young fry of 1875 and 1876 were perfectly healthy.

The eggs taken in 1874 were estimated, when they were measured into
the troughs, at 3,056,500; but the measurement at time of distribution
showed 2,842,977 divided among the subscribers, and previous to that

*In examining some of these weak eggs that had been standing at rest, I discovered
that the weakest place in the shell was in each case just over the eyes of the embryo,
and at that point the shell gave way on application of pressure. I do not know how
to explain this phenomenon, unless it be that the shell of the egg is in normal cases
softened by some secretion of the embryo at the proper time for birth, and that in the
defective specimens the secretion was simply exuded prematurely.

tit is to be noted that the parent fish showed no signs of disease at anytime, being in
the fall remarkably fine.

490 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

division there had been picked out 203,479 bad eggs, which would make
the original number 3,106,456. I am inclined to think the former esti-
mate is nearest to the truth; but as the latter has been used by all the
recipients of eggs in estimating their balances, I have used it in the
statement of hatching and distribution, to be given below.

4. — MARKING SALMON FOR FUTURE IDENTIFICATION.

At your suggestion, I undertook, iu 1872, to mark the salmon that
had been used as breeders and set free again in the river, so that some-
thing might be ascertained in relation to the length of their absence
from the river, their rate of growth, &c.

The first mode adopted was the use of an aluminum tag about half
an inch long and a quarter of an inch wide, stamped with a number
wbicb corresponded with a record showing the sex, length, and weight
of the fish, and the date of liberation. This tag was at first attached
to a rubber band that slipped on over the tail of the fish. This mode
was quite defective, and led to no favorable results. Those bauds that
were loose probably slipped off, and those that were tight enough to stay
on cut through the skin of the fish, and produced a wound that probably
resulted in death. "When the impracticability of this mode became
manifest, it was abandoned, and the tag was attached to the rear margin
of the first dorsal fin, where it would least interfere with the motion of
the fish, and where the action of the latter in swimming would give it
the least lateral motion, and it would therefore be least likely to wear
out of its place. The attachment was by means of a piece of fine
platinum wire passed through a hole in the tag, and by means of a
needle through the edge of the fin, the ends being carefully twisted
together and trimmed with scissors. This mode was exclusively em-
ployed in 1873, and was partially successful. The tags, to be sure, did
not stay so long as was desired. Five or six months after the liberation
of the salmon in the river, a good many specimens were taken with the
tag still adherent, but of those that were taken a year and a half after-
ward not one was found with the tag on. Probably it was attacked by
some destructive acid in the water and so softened that the wire on
which it swung cut its way out and let it fall off. Some of the tags on
salmon turned into the fresh pond were found after a while to be in a
soft and brittle condition. The wire, however, remained in a good many
cases, and the kind of wire and mode of attachment served to identify
a number of salmon afterward caught as of the number marked and
liberated in 1873.

The first marking was. as stated above, in 1872. In the spring of
1873, a reward was offered and thoroughly advertised among the fish-
ermen, for the return of any tagged salmon, with statements of the time
and place of capture. Not one was brought. In 1874, the offer was
repeated, and was so far successful that twenty of the salmon turned out
the preceding autumn were returned to me between the first of Janu-

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 491

ary and the first of June, mostly in April and May. These were, with-
out exception, poorer than when turned out. They had evidently not
been to their feeding-grounds, and had not even left the river. Twelve
of them were caught above Bucksport, and nine of them at Veazie,
above Bangor, 25 miles above Bucksport, at the head of the tide, and at
the foot of the first dam, which alone, it seems, had prevented their
ascending the river still higher. Only four out of the twenty had lost
the tags, and these retained the wire. Of nine that were weighed, one
had lost only eight ounces since November ; the others had lost from one
to two pounds. The males still retained the hook on the lower jaw, but it
was smaller than in the autumn ; the red spots on their sides, and the
oculated spots on their backs were a good deal faded, but still distinctly
visible; in their spermaries appeared to be the remains of last year's
milt. The females were almost as bright and silvery as when in prime
condition ; in almost every case, they carried in their abdomens a few
remaining eggs of the last litter, and in their ovaries appeared the germs
of the next litter already well established, though exceedingly small.
No food could be found in the stomachs of either sex.

In the autumn of 1S74, no salmon were marked. In the spring of 1875,
the offers of reward for the return of marked salmon were renewed.
Any that could be returned at this time would have been absent for a
year and a half. We were partially successful. Eight salmon were
brought in and examined. They weighed from 16 to 24^ pounds, and
were from 34i to 40J inches long. There were four females, two males,
and two not determined. All were in prime condition. One of the fe-
males was placed alive in the pond, and yielded in the fall about 11,500
eggs. As explained above, the tag itself had fallen off, so that we could
not trace the individual salmon back to the record of liberation, but the
wire was still there, and proved beyond doubt that these were the sal-
mon liberated in November, 1873. In addition to these eight, there was
a large male, weighing 24 pounds, found among the salmon in the pond
at the spawning-season, making the whole number known to have been
caught nine. There were reports of others having been taken and sent
to market; and from the fact that a very close scrutiny was necessary
to detect the presence of the wire, I am quite confident that a good
many more were actually taken and escaped notice. However, enough
were caught to establish the fact of their return this season, the second
season since their liberation ; and as none did return in prime condition
or in breeding condition the first season, we may consider it pretty well
established that the Penobscot salmon enter the river to breed only
once in two years.

This experiment will be renewed with the substitution of a platinum
tag for that of aluminum.

492 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

5.— SUMMARIES.

The following statement shows the number of salmon bought for
breeding stock, and the number brought to hand in the spawning-season,
for three years past :

Year.

Salmon
bought.

Salmon brought to hand at
spa w n i n g- season.

Males.

Females.

Total.

1872

692
650
601

130
143

178

225
279
343

np-j*

1873

422

1874

521

1,943

451

847

1, 298

The following exhibits the number of salmon-eggs taken, lost, and
distributed at Bucksport, and the number of young set free as the
result of their hatching, for three years :

Eggs taken.

Young sal-
mon set
free.

Year.

First esti-
mate.**

Second es-
timate."

Eggs lost
by count.

Eggs dis-
tributed.

1872

1,560,044
2, 321, 934
3, 056, 500

1.241,800

876, 000

1873

"2, 453, 638
3, 106, 479

160, 963
263, 479

2, 291, 175
2, 842. 977

2, 064, 445

1874

1,726,668

Sv.ms -.. ..

6, 938, 478

6, 375, 952

4, 667, 113

* The first estimate -was obtained by measurement of the egga at the time they -were taken and
placed in the hatching-troughs. The second estimate is obtained by adding the number known to have
been thrown ont to the number distributed among the subscribers. The discrepancy between the two
estimates is, in 1873, nearly G per cent, of the original estimate ; in 1&74, less than 2 per cent.

THE ATLANTIC SALMON.

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498 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Table III. — Statement of salmon examined and eggs obtained in October, November, and

December, 1873.

Salmon can

ght.

Condition of females.

Eggs

obtained.

Date.

8

a

a

o
H

o

.5*
p

o5

4^

as

— a

c 5

3
'3

Approximate
number.

1873.
Oct,. 20

4
4

5

8

9
12

ibs. oz.

21

27

8
1

5
4
3

9

19

6

8
8
7
8
2
65

2

13
4
3
9

20
6
8
8

1

8

2

67

4 14
17 0

9 3
35 2
59 9

29 3
26 154

30 84
19 5
25 134

5 13
214 0i

. 41,000

28

1

1
5
,15
0
3
0
0
1
4

28
2
1
1
4

36
5
1

4

3

9

20

0

8

8

7

8

5

64

5

8

10

21

34

9

6

5

4

14

35
12

11

8

7

9

9

92

7

9

11

25

70

14

7

45,300

29

27, 000

30

101. 500

31

174, 400

Nov. 1

84,600

3 .

80, 600

4

84,200

5

56,700

6

74,800

7

16, 500

8

603, 300

9

10

11
8
19
27
14
4

1

2
4
3
1

12
8
21
31
17
5

43 3

23 14

58 2
85 7i
39 144
13 6
2

17 7
8 12

24 04

2 0

3 2
10 34

3 13
H

118,900

11

71,400

12

158, 000

13

243, 200

14

109, 000

15

37,800

17

400

18

5

10
1
2
2
1
0

7
9
4
2
2

5
o

12
19
5
4
4
6
2

5
2
10
1
1
2
1

2

o
2

7
2
10
1
3
2
3

46,000

19

24, 700

20 .

70, 000

22

5,300

25

9,500

26

28, 000

Dec. 3

10,600

4

234

Sums

143

279

422

9

249

19

277

820 154

% 321, 934

THE ATLANTIC SALMON.

499

Table IV. — Statement of salmon examined and eggs obtained in October, November, and

December, 1874.

Salmon caught.

Condition of females.

Eggs obtained.

Date.

CD

**-

to

a

»

"as

45

o
H

a
P

e

Pi
'J2

— a

~ i

'3

Approximate
number.

1874.

Oct. 31

.Nov. 2

44
37

8
32

7

4
11

8
10
10

1
1

0

80
51
18
42
12
12
31
21
12
17
16
11
1

124

88

26

74

19

16

42

29

22

27

17

12

1

1

1

3

1

3

4

3

4

1

1

1

1

28
9
1

52
42
17
42
12
12
31
21
12
J6
15
11
1

1
1

80
51
18
42
12
12
31
21
12
17
16
11
1

Lbs. oz.
157 6
128 3
64 4
122 8i
145 lj
47 11
110 3
87 13
55 0i
66 2i
21 7
78 9

431,700
342, 000
170, 000
3r>l 000

3

4

5

375, 000
126 000

6

7

9

10

282, 000
228, 000
150 000

11

189, 300
59 0JO

12

13

196 000

14

15

! J::::::

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0 ' 1

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2 2

16

17

3
1
2
4
3
2
1
1
1

3
1
2
4
3
2
1
1
1

15 2

38,000

18

19

20

10 1

24 500

21

22

23

0
0

0
0

1
1
1
1

26 4
3 14
2 10

60 500

25

9 IJ00

28

7 000

Dec. 1

2

1

1

4 6i
2 0

12 000

8

5 500

178

343

521

38

303

2

343

1, 147 10J

3 056 500

500

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

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Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, from June 1, 1873, to May 31, 1875,

inclusive.

Temperature.

Wind.

Air at H. H.

Water at pond.

Date.

a

Surface.

Bottom.

Remarks.

a
p.

I—*

a

a

i.

1873.
June 1
2
3

48
50
46
50
50
52
49
55
52
54
51
62
58
52
52
62
65
54
58
56
58
57
54
54
62
62
66
65
70
60

75
88
60
49
64
72
56
66
68
77
68
68
70
68
66
80
66
69
77
86
77
71
80
78
83
88
86
84
84
70

Clear.

do

Do.

Do.

4

Rain.

5

Cloudy.

g

Easterly

do

Rain.

Do.

g

Clear.

f\

Do.

10

do

Do.

Rain a. m. ; clear p. m.

12

Clear.

13

Southwesterly

Westerly

Do.

14

Do.

15

Northerly

Do.

16

Southwest

Do.

17

Do.

18

Do.

19

Do.

20

Do.

21
22
23
24

68
66
67
68
69
70
71
71
73
72

70
70
70
68
72
71
72
75
74
72

68
66
66
66
67
68
69
69
70
70

68
68
66
66
67
68
68
70
71
70

do '.

Partly clear.
Clear.

Do.

Do.

do ■

Do.

26

27
28
29
30

Southerly, light

Westerly, light

do ' ... I

Do.
Do.
Cloudy and showery.

Southwest, light

Southerly, light

Clear.

Cloudy ; showery a. m.

•Sums ...

1684

2194

695

714

679

682

Means . .

56.13

73.13

69.5

71.4

67.9

68.2

i

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 5(^7

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Buclcsport, §-c. — Continued.

Date.

1873.
July 1

7
8
9

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Sums . .

Means .

Temperature.

Air at H. R

a

63
63

66

68
63

68

58
57
60

70
57
59
59
60
70
60
60
60

55
58
57
61
66
72
68
68
63
63
61
62
70

1950

62.9

a
p.

69
89

86

87
80

80

77
76
82

82
76
74

80
88
89
75

78
77

2462
80.06

"Water at pond.

Surface. Bottom.

t-

72
70

72

73
74

73
72
72

73
72
72
72
70
73
72
71
70

52

69

69

78

67

70

84

68

71

84

69

74

92

71

77

84

72

75

81

73

72

82

73

73

67

72

,73

84

73

80

72

74

74

87

72

74

90

75

80

2225
71.77

a

ft

71

78

73

74
76

77

78
74
74

74
74
73
71
72
75
73
74
72

2295
74.03

03

71
70

70

72
72

72

71

71

71
71
70
70
70
72
72
70
70

69
67
67
68
69
70
72
71
72
72
73
72
74

2193

70.74

a

Wind.

71
71

71

72
73

74

75

72

72
72

72
70
70
74
72
72
70

68
68
69
70
70
73
70
71
72
73
73
72
76

2220

71.61

Southeast, light

Easterly a. ui. ; west-
erly p. in.

Southeast a. m.; south-
west p. in.

Southwest

Southerly

Northerly, strong
breeze.

Northerly, light

Southwest, strong

Southerly, light

do

Southwest

Northerly, strong

Southwest, fresh

Southwest, light

Northerly .

do

Northerly, light

Easterly a. m. j south-
erly p. m.

Southeast

Northerly, light

do.....

do

Westerly

Northerly

Southerly, fresh

Southerly, strong

Southeast

Westerly

Southerly, light

do -'

Northerly

Remarks.

Rain most of day.
Cloudy a. m. ; clear

p. ni.

Do.

Clear.

Foggy in a, m. ;

p. m.
Clear.

partly clear

Do.
Partly clear ; cloudy p. m.
Cloudy a. m. ; partly clear

p. m.
Clear.

Foggy a. m. ; clear p. m.
Clear.

Partly clear.

Partly clear ; showery p. m.
Clear.

Do.
Clear and cloudy p. m.
Cloudy and partly clear.

Rain all day.
Mostly clear.
Cloudy part of day.
Clear.

Do.

Do.
Partly clear.
Clear.

Rain most of day.
Clear.

Foggy all day.

Foggy9a.m. ; clear afterwaii.
Clear.

508 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
Table IX. — Observations on temperature at BucJcsport, $c. — Continued.

•

Temperature.

Wind.

Air at H. H.

"Water at pond.

Date.

a

a

Surface.

Bottom.

Bemarks.

a

a

a

a

a
a

1873.
Aug. 1

2

3

61
71

62
65
57
55
63
63
62
60
57
58
52
55
64
57
64
57
58
62
58
58
59
56
52
52
52
46
49
58
63

66

83

86
76
73

85

76

83

84"

78

75

80

80

80

67

75

77

82

67

73

80

72

84

60

65

66

71

78

82

77

80

75
73

73
74
74
73
72
72
72
71
70
70
70
70
69
68
68
69
69
68
68
68
68
66
60
62
62
63
64
64
66

74
77

75
75
75
76
72
76
74
72
72
76
71
70
69
70
70
70
70
70
76
68
70
60
62
63
65
69
■ 66
66
70

74
73

72
73
73
73
72
71
72
71
70
70
69
68
69
68
68
69
68
68
68
68
68
66
58
62
62
63
63
63
64

74

74

74
74
74
73
72
72
73
71
71
70
68
68
69
68
69
68
68
68
68
68
68
66
61
62
64
65
63
64
66

Southerly, light

Northeast a. m.; south-
west p. m.
Southerly

Foggy.

Cloudy a. m.; clear p. m.

Clear ; showery p. m.
Clear.

Do.
Clear ; cloudy p. m.
Clear.

4
3
6

7

Northerly, fresh

Northerly, light

Southerly, light

do

8

9

10

11

Northerly, light

Northerly, light

do

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

12
13
14

Northwest, light

Southerly, light

do

Do.

Do.
Cloudy.
Bain.

15

Easterly

1G
17

Southerly, fresh

Northerly

Clear.
Do.

18

Northwest

Do.

19

Easterly

Bain ; cloudy p. m.
Cloudy.

Cloudy.

Clear ; showery p. m.

Cloudy.

Clear.

Mostly cloudy.

Clear.

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

Easterly, light

Southerly, light

Southwest, light

Northeast, very strong

Northerly, fresh

Easterly^ light

Northerly

28
29
30

Southwest, light

do

Do.
Do.

Mostly clear.
Showery in p. m.

31

Variable

Snms .. .

1606

2361

2131

2195

2116

2133

Means . .

58. 26

76.16

68.74

70.8

68.26

68.8

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 509

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, <Jf'c. — Continued.

Date.

1873.
Sept.

1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
lfi
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Sums . . .
Means . .

Temperature.

Air at H. H.

53

60
56
51
CO
54
44
57

43

46
52
51
55
52
40
57
42
37
56
48
45
37
46
52
43
52
43
57
58
48

1495
49.83

a

70
77
70
59
75
65
65
59

66
67
63
69
69
49
53
57
57
64
64
57
58
61
55
57
62
69
67
84
70
56

"Water at pond.

1919
63.97

Surface. Bottom

66
64
64
64
63
64
63
63

62
62
62
62
63
64
60
60
58
58
53
53
57
56
56
57
56
57
53
59
59
59

1812
CO. 4

66
66
66
64
65
66
66
63

62
63
65
64
64
62
64
60
60
58
59
59
58
58
57
57
CO
59
59
53
62
60

65
64
64
63
6S
63
63
C2

C2
CO
61
62
62
62
60
59
57
58
53
53
57
57
57
57
56
57
58
59
59
59

1350 180

61.67

60.07

£
P.

65

65

64
6i
64
64
63
63

63

62
62
62
63
62
61
59
58
57
59
59
57
57
57
57
57
57
58
61
61
60

1820
60.67

Wind.

Southerly, light

Variable

Northerly, fresh

Southerly, light

Southerly, fresh

Northerly, fresh

Southerly

Southerly a. m. ; north
erly p. m.

Southerly, light

do

Southwest

Southerly, light

Southwest, fresh

Northeast

Southerly, light

Southerly, fresh

Northerly, light

Southerly, fresh

do

Northerly, fresh

Southerly, light

do

do

do

Northerly, light

Southwest, light

do

Southwest, fresh

Northerly ,

Remarks.

Rain 4 p. m.

Showery.

Clear.

Rainy.

Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. m.

Clear.'

Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.

Rainy a. m. ; clear p. m.

Clear.

Do:

Foggv a. m. ; clear p. m.

Do.
Clear.
Rarny.
Clear.

Cloudy ; showery in p m.
Mostly clear.
Mostly cloudy.
Cloudy a. m. ; rain at 4 p. m.
Mostly clear.
Clear.

Do.
Rainy.

Rainy in a. m. ; clear iu p. tu
Mostly clear.

Do.
Clear.

Do.
Foagv a. m. ; clear p. m.
Clear.

510 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Buclcsport, <|c. — Continued.

•

Temperature.

"Wind.

Air at H. H.

Water at pond.

Date.

a

*

a

Surface.

Bottom.

Remarks.

a

ci
t-

a

Pi

a

03

a

Pi

1873.
Oct, 1

2
3

4
5

31
37
39
34
56
57
44
39
39
36
34
49
46
40
35
32
42
27
52
59
55
38
46
48
42
30
49
33
32
30
36

52
58
57
50
57
69
44
54
52
60
65
64
50
58
53
55
49
52
62
67
57
54
54
61
52
49
56
53
45
40
42

58
57
56
54
54
54
56
52
46
51
51
53
54
52
52
52
52
50
5!
52
54
54
54
53
52
50
51
50
49
47
47

59
59
57
54
54
56
55
53
52
57
56
57
54
54
53
52
52
51
51
54
54
56
56
54
53
52
52
51
50
48
47

57

57

56

54

54

54

54

52

51

50

50

52

53

52

52

51

51

50

51

53

54

54

54

52

52

51

50

50

48

47

47

57
57
56
54
54
55
55
52
52
52
52
54
53
53
52
53
52
50
51
54
55
54
54
53
52
51
52
49
49
48
47

Southerly, light

Southerly, light

Southerly, fresh

do

Clear.

Do.
Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. m.
Cloudy.
Rainy.

6

7

a
9

Southwest, light

Northeast, light

Northerly, fresh

do

Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. m.
Rainy.
Mostly clear.
C lear .

10

n

Northerly, light

do

Do.
Do.

12

do

Wind southerly in p. m.
Mostly clear.
Partly clear.
Clear.

Do.

Do.
Cloudy in a. m. ; clear in p. m.
Cloudy.
Partly clear.
Rainy.
Clear.

Do.
Cloudy in a. m. ; clear in p. in.
Clear.

Mostly cloudy.
Rainy.

Mostly cloudy.

Cloudy in a. m. ; clear in p. m.
Clear/
Rainy.

13

14

Northerly, fresh

Variable

15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Northerly, light

Southwest, fresh

Nor ti east, fresh

Southwest, i resh

Southerly, light

Southerly, fresh

do

22
23
24

Southerly, light

do

25

26

Northerly, light

Variable

27
28
29
30
31

Southerly, fresh

Southerly, light

Southwest, fresh

Northerly, light

Easterly, light

Stints . ..

1267

1G91

1618

1663

1613

1632

Means ..

40.87

54. 54 | 52. 19

53.65

52.03

52. 65

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 511

Table IX. — Observations on temjwature at Bucksport, $c. — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

Air at H. H.

Water at pond.

Water at
H. H.

Date.

a

CO

a

Surface.

Bottom.

a

a*
p.

— H

Remarks.

a

s

p.

a

a

1873.
Nov. 1

o
3

4

5

1)

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

39

33
46

22
38
21
17
38
37
28
20
28

31

15
17
14
21
31
26
18
12
14
5

16

20

17

—2.5

2

—1

3

45

46

48

41
34
31
32
40
45
31
28
36

37

24
26
24
30
38
32
28
27
31
23

23
30

22
22

20
15
12

40

44
44

42
42
39
38
38
38
38
37
34

32

32
32
32
32
32
32

46

45
44

42
42
40
38
38
38
38
36
35

34

34
32
32
32
32

46

44
•44

42
42
39
39
38
38
38
37
36

36

44

44
44

42
42
39
38
38
38
38
36
36

36.5

47

45
45

42
43
40
38
40
39
37
35
36

36

35

34

35J

34

34*

35

35

35*

36"

35

35
35£
36
35

33
33
33

48

48

48

45
45
42
41
40
41
38
37
37

37

36
36
36
35
35
35
36
37
36
36

35
36*
35
34

34
33

33*

Westerly, light . . .

Southerly, light...
Westerly, fresh. . .

Westerly, light . . .
Northerly, fresh. . .
Northerly, light. . .
Westerly, light . ..

Easterly, light

Northerly, light . . .
Northeast, fresh . .
Northerly, tight. . .
Easterly, light

....do

Showery a. m.j clear

p. m.
Clear.
Showery a. m.; clear

p. m.
Clear.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Rainy.

Mostly cloudy.
Cloudy ; snow p. ni.
Clear."
Snow a. m. ; rain p.

m.
Clear a. m. ; clovdv

14

Northerly, light . . .
Northwest, light ..

p. m.

Clear.

15

Do.

16

Snow.

17

Northeast

Northeast, light. ..
Northwest, light ..
Northerly, light. ..
Westerly, light

Cloudy.

18

Rainy.

19

" Clear.

20

Do.

21

Do.

22

Mostly clear.
Snow a. m. ; clear p,

m.
Snow.

23

....do

24

Easterly, light

do

25

Cloudy.
Clear.

20

Northwest, light..
Southeast, light. . .

Northerly, light . . .
do

27

Cloudy a. ni. ; snow

28

p. m.
Clear.

29

Do.

30

Northerly, fresh ..

Do.

Sums . ..

025k

921

704

678

519

515*

1113

11451

Means . .

20.85

30.7

37.05

3T. 66

39. 92

3". 65

37.1

38. IS

512 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Buelsport, $-c. — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

Date.

Air at H. H.

Water at H. H.

Remarks.

7 a. m.

1 p. m.

7 a. m.

1 p.m.

1873.

Dec. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

— 7

— 22
22
42
33
20
12

6
36
28

6
30
26
15
12
12

4
30
24
23

4
18

— 10

4
27

5
12
18
20
13
13

6
8
38
44
37
24
23
26
38
23
24
34
22
22
13
33
30
33
35
29
17
31
28
22
31
16
18
20
32
27
31

33

33

33

34

34

33*

33*

34"

344

34

34

35

34*

33"

34

34

34

34

34

34

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33*

33"

34

34

34

34

34

34

34*

34

34

35

34

34

34

34

34

34

34

34

33*

34

33

33

33

33

33

32*

33*

33"

33

Northerly, light

Easterly, light

Southerly, fresh

Southerly, light

Northerly, light

Northwest, light

South wes t, light

Southerly, fresh

Northerly, fresh

Southwest, light

do

Clear.

Cloudy ; snow 5 r>. m.

Foggy.

Fog, a. m. ; rain in p. m.

Mostly cloudy.

Clear.

Do.

Do.
Cloudy a. m. ; rainy in p. m.
Clear.

Mostly cloudy ; snow at 3 p. m.
Cloudy.

Snowing all day.
Clear.

Do.
Mostly clear.

13

14
15
16

Northeast, light

Northerly, light

South west, light

do

\l

Westerly, light

Calm

Do.

Foggy.
Do.

19

do

20
21
22
23
24

Northeast, light

Northwest, light

Westerly, light

do

..do

Snow.
Clear.

Partly cloudy.
Clear.
Do.

25
26

Northerly, light

do

Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. m.

Cloudy.

Cloudy, some snow.

Snow all day.

Cloudy with snow.

Mostlj' clear.

Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.

27
28
29
30
31

Northeast, light

Northerly, fresh

Southwest, light

Westerly, light

Southerly, light

Sums . ..

461

820

1040

1044*

Means ..

15.52

26.45

33.54

33.69

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 513

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at BucJcsport, <fc. — Continued

Temperature.

"Wind.

Date.

Air at H. H.

Water at H. H.

Remarks.

7 a.m.

1p.m.

7 a. m.

lp. m.

1874.
Jan. 1

2

10
30$
17
36
45
14
31
41
30
30
24
20
6
12

— 4
3
0

— 9
34
16

— 4
25
38
19
16

—13

—12

6

8

2i

—12"

31
35
34
40
32
16
34
50
39
38
34
24
16
15
13

9
16
31
40
16
14
26
40
24

9
—13

4
14
20

1

2

33

33

33

33

34

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33$

33

33

33$

34

33$

33$

33

33J

33i

33

33$

33$

33$

33$

33

34

34

33

33

34

34

34

34

34

33

33

33$

33$

33

33

34

33

33

34

34

34

33*

33*

34"

34

34

34

33i

Southerly, light

do

Mostly clear.
Snow at 10 a. ni.

3
4

do

do

Foggy.
Do.

5
6

**

8
9
10
11
12
13

Northerly, light

Northeast, light

Southerly, light

Southerly, fresh

Southwest, light

Southerly, light

Southwest, light

Northwest, light

do

Cloudy a. m. ; rain and enow p. ni.
Rain most of the day.

Do.
Rain all day.
Clear.

Clear a. m. ; rainy p. m.
Clear.

Do.

Do.

14
15
16
17

Northeast, light

Northerly, light

Northwest, light

do

Snow.
Clear.

Do.

Do.

18
IS
20
21
22
23

Southwest, light

Southerly, light

Northerly, fresh

do

Do.
Rain.
Clear.

Cloudy a. m. ; snow p. m.
Foggy.

Do.

24
25

2(5

Northerly, fresh

do

Clear.
Do.
Do.

27

28

Northeast, light

do....

Snow.

Cloudy, with snow and rain.

Cleanna.m.; cloudyaudsnowp.m.

Clear.

Snow.

29
30
31

Northwest, light

Northerly, fresh

Northeast, light

Sums ...

460

704

1029

1041$

Means . .

14.84

22.71

33.19

33.59

33 F

514. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, Jjc. — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

Dato.

AiratH.H.

Water at H. H.

Eemarks.

1
7 a.m.

1 p. m.

2
— 2
16
28
7
9
10
19
30
30J
22
21
39
45
31
33
29
23
34
37
38
34
33
28
27
27
32
22

7 a. m.

1 p. m.

1874.
Fob. 1

— 7
—21

Zi

22

— H

— 6

— 8
3
C
8

16

5

2

41
13
24
22
~9
0
32
24
31
27
22

— 2
12
18

5

34

33

334

33

33

32*

33

33£

33

33

33

334

33

34

34

334

334

334

334

34

34

34

34

34

334

33

334

33

34

33

33

33J

33

33

33

33

334

34

34

34

34

34

344

34

34

34

344

344

344

344

34

34

34

34

34

34

. .do

Clear.
Do.

3

4
5

c

Northeast, fresh

Northerly, light

do

Snowing all day.
Snowy a. m. ; cloudy p. m
Clear.
Do.

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Westerly, light

Northerly, fresh

Nort herly , light

Northeast, light

Northerly, fresh

Westerly, light

Southerly, light

Westerly, light

Variable

Do.
Do.
Do.

Cloudy.

Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. m.

Clear.

Cloudy ; rain at 5 p. m.

Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. m.

Clear.

Cloudy ; snow in a. m.

Clear.

Do.
Clear a. m.

Eain a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Snow and rain.

17
18
19
20

Northwest, fresh

Southerly, light

do

21

do

22
23
24
25

26
27

28

Northerly, light

Northwest, light

Southwest, light

Cloudy.

Snow and rain.

Clear in a. m. ; cloudy in p. m.

Cloudy.

Mostly clear.

Partly clear.

Clear.

Sums . . .

285

704 i

936

9474-

Means . .

10.54

25.16

33.43

33.83

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 515

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, <fc. — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

Date.

Air at H. H.

Water at H. H.

Remark a.

7a.m.

1 p.m.

7 a. m.

1 p.m.

1874.

Mar. 1
o

2
32
31

40
19

9
12
25

7
22
14

8

8
20
15
20
27
37
37
36
30
30

24

18
35
27
25
20
16
23

30
46
44
42
28
25
30
27
44
30
30
26
25
31
32
40
40
42
44
36
41
36

30}

12

37

41

30

36

24

39

25

33

334

33*

334

33

33

33

34

33

33

33

33

0-2

33

34

34

34

34

34

34

34

34

34

334

34

34

34

34

34*

34"

35

34

344

344

34

334

334

334

34

34

334

34

34

334

34

36

36

354

35

35

36

36

36

35

36

35

36

36

36

37

364

37*

do ■

Clear a. m.; cloudy p. m.
Clear.

3
4
5
6

Southwest, fresh

Southerly, fresh

Northerly, fresh

do

Partially clear.
Rain.
Clear.
Do.

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Southerly, light

Northeast, light

Southerly, light

Northeast, light

Northerly, light

Westerly, light

Northerly, fresh

Northerly, light

Calm

Mostly clear.

Snow all day.

Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.

Snowing all day.

Clear.

Cloudy.

Partially clear.

Clear.

Do.

Do.

17
18

Southerly, light

. do

Clear a.m.; cloudy and rain p.m.
Rain most of the day.
Foggy ; thunder-shower.
Clear.

Do.
Snow a. m. ; squalls from north

p. m.
Snow a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Clear.

Cloudy a. m. , clear p. m.
Cloudy a. m.; rainy p. m.
Clear.

A little snow a. m.; clear p. m.
Clear.

Do.

Do.

19

. . do

20
21
22

23

Westerly, fresh

Southwest, fresh

Variable

24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Westerly, fresh . .'.

Southerly, light

Northwest, fresh

Easterly

Northwest, fresh

Westerly, fresh

Northwest, fresh

Sums ..

670

1043. 5

1043

1035

Meaus . .

21.61

33.36

33.64

35

516 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
Table IX.— Observations on temperature at Buclcsport, fa — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

Remarks.

Date.

Air at H. H.

Water at H. H.

7 a. m.

1 p. m.

7 a. m.

1 p. m.

1?74.
April 1
2
3

4

r>

0

7
8

5

17
30,

17

20

34
31
3-2
29
22
15
2fi
31
40

38J

30

33

36

33

34

33

33

35

29

30

32

32*

351

33J

21
33
36

27
32

40

39
35
36
31
36
23
34
46
53

42

37

42

45

46

39

47

43

45

47

34

44*

47

35

36

34i
35"
35J

35J
36

35A

36^

36A

36"

354

35

35

35

35

31J

35
35
344

344

35A

35A

36"

36

36i

36*

36"

34

36

37i-

36i

37
38
36 i

36*
39

38

33

37

37

35J

37

38

38

38

37i

3?J

36

38J

39

38

37

39i

39"

39

42

36

38

41

37i

39"

1139

Westerly, light

Southwest, light

Southerly a. m„ west-
erly p. in., light.

Northerly, fresh

Northerly a. m., south-
erly p. m.

Southeast a. m., south-
west p. in.

Southerly, light

do

Clear.

Do.
A little snow a. m. ; clear p

Clear.
Do.

Snow a. m. j clear p. m.

Cloudy.

Do.

Do.
Snowing all day.
Cloudy a.m. ; snow p. m.
Clear.

Mostly clear.
Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Rain 9 a. m. ; afterward

cloudy.
Clear.

Cloudy ; snow at 4 p. m.
Clear.

Do.
Cloudy ; snow at 5 p. m.
Cloudy.
Clear.
Mostly cloudy.

Do.
Clear a. m.
Snowing all day.
Clear.

Do.
Raining all day.
Snow a. m. ; cioudy p. m.

. m.

p
10
11
12
13
14
15

Northeast, light

Northeast, fresh

Southerly, light

Northerly, fresh

Variable, li<*ht

Southerly, light

do

mostly

10
17
18
19
20
21
23
23
21

Northerly, fresh

Variable^ light

Southerly, light

Southerly, fresh

Southerly, light

Northerly, fresh

Southerly, light

do

23

do

26
2T
2^

Northeast, fresh

Northerly, light

do

29
30

Easterly, light

Westerly, fresh

Sums ...

877.5

1151.5

1066

Meats ..

21.25

38.38

35.53

37.97

THE ATLANTIC SALMON.

517

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, <f c. — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

Air at H. H.

Water at
H. H.

Water at
pomi.

Date.

9 a. m.

Remarks.

a

t-

351
34|
40
42
38
35
38
37
38$
43"
41
42
44
55
46
45
48
52i
47
42
52
44
45
48
48
52
56
52
61
56
• 62

a
p.

a

a

A

1-1

a

3
W

a

o

O

n

1874.
May 1
2

44

42

48

60

52

53

51

51

44

47

58

65$

64

74

60

44

64

66

55

61

59$

55

62$

66

621

66

74i

67

69

76

66

38

37$

38

40

43

44$

44

45

45

46

47$

48

43$

52

54

54

52

54

57

55$

55

55

57

56

57

56

58

59

62

62$

61

39

39$

41

44

47

461

49"

48

46$

48

51$

51

53

57

56

54$

55

57

57

58

58

57$

60

61

57

58

62

62

64

64$

63

Northerly, light

Northeast, light

Northerly, light

..do

Cloudy.

Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. ni.

Clear

3

4

41

43$

46

45

47

47

47

48

50$

52

54

56

55

54

56

57

57

57*

56$

56$

58

58

57

59$

60$

62

66

63

40

42$

44

44

46

46

46$

47

46*

484

49

52

52

52

53

53

53

53

524

55$

56$

56

55$

56

56$

58

58

56$

Do.

5
6
7

8
9

Northeast, fresh

Southwest, fresh

Variable, light

do

Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.

Do.
Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. in.
Cloudy.
Cloudy and rainv.

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

Northeast, light

do

Southerly, light

Northerly, fresh

Southerly, fresh

Southeast, light

Southwest, light

Southerly, light

do

Cloudy ; rain at 3 p. m.
Clear.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Rainy.
Cloudy.
Clear.
Rain.

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Southerly, fresh

Southerly, light

Variable, light

Northerly, fresh

Variable, light

Southerly, light

Southwest, light

Northerly, light

Southerly, light

Southerly, li ght

Southerly, fresh

Clear.

Clear a. m. ; rain 4 p. m.

Rain a. in. ; cloudy p. ni.

Clear.

Do.
Rain all day.
Clear.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Clear a. m. ; thunder shower
p. ni.

Sums ..

1420

1827. 5

1582

1765. 5

1510. 5

1431

Means . .

45.81

58.94

51. 03

53.38

53.95

51.11

518 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, $-c. — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

Air at H. H.

Water at
H.H.

"Water at
pond:

Date.

9 a.m.

Remarks.

a

J-

a

a

a
p.

u
72

a

o

"o

1874.
June 1
2
3
4
5

52

45

50

47

54*.

57

63

54

54

474

46

46

48

60

56

66

54

54

48*.

48

52

60

57

57

54 i

64"

54

59

64

58

56

60

67

56

70

64

64

74

64

57*.

64*

45

64

72

74

78

55

59*

47

50

64

79

84

64

72

77*

82

79

74

75

61

59*.

60

59

60

62

63

61

63*

62"

60*.

60*

59£

60

62

64

59

59

56

56

56

59*

60*

62"

58

62

63*

62

66

62$

63*

63"

63

60*

62

64

64

65*

67

63

67

60

63*

66

69

65

60

62

59

57

59

63*

64*

67*

6 *

70*

74"

71

70

72J

62
61|

62

61

62

63

64

62*

64

63*.

62

61

611

62

64

68

63

61

59*

57"

57

63

64

64

62J

64

67

67

69

67

58

60

60

60

60

60

60

60*

60|

60

61

60

59*

59

59*

59

59

60

59*.

57

57

58*.

59

61

61

62

62

63

62

62

Northeast, light

Southerly, fresh

Southerly, light

do

Cloudy.
Clear.

Do.
Rain a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Foggy and clear.
Rain most of day.
Rain and fog.
Foggy and clear.
Mostly clear.
Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Clear.
Rain.

Mostly clear.
Clear a. m. ; showery p. m.
Clear.

Mostly cloudy.
Rainy.

Do.

Do.
Clondy a. m. ; rain p. m.
Mostly clear.
Clear.

Mostly clear.
Clear.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Shower a. m; cloudy p. m.
Clear.

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Easterly, light

Southerly, light

Variable, light

Northeast , ligli t

Variable, light

Northerly, light

Easterly', light

Northerly, light

Southwest, light

Northerly, light

Southerly, light

do

18
19
20

Northeast, fresh

Easterly, fresh

do

21
22
23

Northeast, light

Southerly, light

do

24
25
26
27

28
29

Northerly, fresh

Northwest, fresh

Northwest, light

Southwest, light

Southerly, light

Variable

30

Variable, light

Sums . . .

1630

1992

1819.5

1945

1889

1800

Means..

54.33

66.4

60.65

64.83

62.97

60

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 519

* i

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Buclcsport, fyc. — Continued.

Date.

Air at H. H.

1874,
July

1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

11
12
13
14
15
16

17

18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Sums . .
Means .

Temperature.

i-

57
57
50
54
52
55
51
61
66
64

66
62
56
64
64
67

68i

62}

64

60

63

58,|

57

60

652,

68

61

62

62V

64

60

1882^

60.73

s

7H

69

52

70

56

74

62

78J

80*

81

80

59

694

84

69:

89}

77

80

76J

69

75

73

78

79J

77

70

72

81

73

71

76

2279

73.52

Water at
U.K.

66

67

62

62

62

62

60J

62

654

68

67
68
64

64
694

970
64.67

S

70

68J

63

65

63

68

64

67

74

72

71
69
68

75
70*

1031
68.73

Water at
pond.

9 a. m.

3
02

674

67

64

63

63

65

62

64

68

71

70
70
68
69
72
73

72

75

73

70

70

70J

72

71*

72

71

70

70

70

70

72

2145. 5

09.21

•a

o

-4->
O

M

64

64

64

63

63

63

60J

62J

634

64

63i

64

64

64

64

64

66
66
66

654

68

70

69

69

684

70

69i

69i

69"

69

694

2039. 5

65.73

Wind.

Northeast, light..
Southerly, light . ,

do

Variable, light...
Easterly, light . . .
Variable, light. ..
Southerly, fresh.,
Southwest, light
Northerly, light. ,
Southerly, light.

do

Easterly, light . .
Southerly, light.
Westerly, light .
Southerly, fresh.
Variable, light . .

Northerly, light. .
Southerly, light . .
Southerly, fresh .
Southerly, light .
Northerly, light..

do

Southwest, light .
Southerly, light. .
Southwest, fresh .
Southerly, fresh..

do

Southerly, light. .
Southerly, fresh . .
Northerly, light. .
Southwest, fresh

Kemarks.

Mostly clear.

Cloudy a. ra. ; rain p. m.

Kain all day.

Mostly cloudy.

Rainy.

Clear.

Cloudy.

Clear.

Do.
Clear a. m. ; cloudy p.

rain at 5 p. m.
Mostly cloudy.
Eain all day.
Cloudy.
Clear.

Do.
Cloudy a.
showers
Clear.

Do.
Clear a. m.
Cloudy.
Cloudy a. m.
Clear.

Do.
Foggy and clear.
Clear.

Foggy a. m. ; clear p. m.
Cloudy most of day.

Do.
Cloudy a. m. ; rain p. m.
Partly clear.

Do.

m. ; clouds
p. m.

cloudy p. m.
clear p m.

with

520

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

»

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, $c. — Continued.

Temperature.

"Wind.

Air at H. H.

Water at pond.

Date.

a

0

A

.-I

9 a. in.

Remarks.

o
a
J8

g

a
m

a

o
"o

pa

1874.
Aug. 1
2
3

63

60

56

52i

58

60

59

58

61

65

63

m

64 1

57

57*

55.J

54J

57

55

57

63

56

41

51

48

48

48

50

55

64

57

71

82

63

69

72

69£-

76

60

67

71i

79

72

66

56

69

72

70

74

721

72

75*

66

72

66J

71

68

72

74J

74

74

77

70J

70

69£

f8

68

68

71

68

65

64

66

67

69

66

64J

65

65*

66

68

67

67

68

67

66

67

66

66

66

68

69

68

68*.

69

68

68

68

68

69

66

62

62

62*.

62*.

64

62J

64

64

64

64*.

66J

66

66

67

66

64*

65*

r.ij

64

64*
64j
65
641.

Southerly, light

Westerly, light

Northerly fresh

Rainy a. m. ; shower at 4 p. m.
Clear a. m. j showery p. m.
Clear.

4

Variable, light

Do.

5
6

7

Northerly, light

Northeast, light

Westerly, light

Do.
Partly clear.
Clear.

8
9

Southerly, light

Southeast, light

Rain all day.
Do.

10

11
12
13
14

Northeast, fresh

Southerly, light

Southwest, light

Northeast, light

do

Cloudy and rainy a. m. ; partly

cloudy p. in.
Clear.

Foggy and clear.
Rainy all day.
Cloudy a. m. ; Rainy p. m.

Do.
Clear.

Do.
Hazy.
Clear.

15
16
17
18
19

Northerly, light

Southwest, fresh

Southerly, light

20

Southeast, light

Rain p. m. ; Clear p. m.

Partly cloudy.

Clear.

Clear a. m.; cloudy p.m.

Clear.

21
22
23

Northeast, light

Northerly, light

Variable, light

24

Westerly, light

25
26
27

Northerly, light

Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Clear.
Do.

28

..do

Clear a. m . ; hazy p. m.

Hazy.

Clear.

Foggy and clear.

29

Variable, light

30
31

Southwest, light

Sums ..

1760

2199

2084

2025

Means .

56.84

70.94

67.23

65.32

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 521

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, §c. — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

Air at H. H.

Water at pond.

Date.

8

A
r-

a

Pi

9 a. m.

Remarks.

o
a

u

a

a

o
o

w

1874.
Sept. 1
2

56

56

52

45

50

57

58

59J

58

56J

54

44

48J

52

57A

60

56

50

54

69

6Si

704

64

63

65

72

68

694

81J

684

60

69

66

65

71

58

53J

59

67

66

66

64J

64J

64*

64

641

65

65J

654

64

66

64

63

U\

64

61 b

60

65

66

65J

634

634

634

63J

64

64

64

64

64

64

63

63

634

64

604

60

Northerly, fresh

Northerly, light

Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.

Partly cloudy.

Hazy a.m.; rain at 5 p. m.

Clear.

Do.
Cloudy.
Mostly clear.

Cloudy a. m. ; showery p. m.
Cloudy and clear.

3

4
5

6

Southwest, fresh

Northerly, light

Southwest, fresh

Southerly, light

7
8

Northerly, light

do

9

Variable, light

10

do

11
12
13

14

Northerly, fresh

Northeast, fresh

Southwest, light

Southerly, light .........

Do.

Do.

Do.
Clear a. m. ; hazy p. m.
Cloudy.

Do.

15

16

Southerly, fresh

Southerly, light

17

Northeast, light .

Do.

18

do

Cloudy a. m. ; rain p. m.

19

Easterly, light

20

..do

21

22
23

56£

42

40

47

54

53*

52$

48|

61

60

62

58

60

65

64

60

56

62

59i

60

604

60

60

61

60

60

594

59J

60*

60

60
59J

58J
58J

W

58i

5ei

59*
60

Northerly, light

Northwest, light

Southerly, light

Cloudy a. m. ; clear p.m.
Clear.
Do.

24

do

Do.

25

do

Cloudy.
Do. -

26

Calm

27

Southerly, light

Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. m.
Cloudy ; rain at 4 p. ni.
Cloudy a. m. ; rainy p. m.
Cloudy and rain a. in.; clear p. m.

28
29

Northeast, light

Southerly, light

30

Southerly ana westerly,
light.

Sams . .

1530

1867. 5

1825

1799

Means .

5X07

64.38

62.93

62.04

522

EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, $c. — Continued.

Temperature.

"Wind.

Air at H. H.

Water at pond.

Date.

a

c!

a*
p.

9 a.m.

Kemarks.

a

<2
u
3
W

a

"o

n

1874.

Oct. 1

2

3

4

40

45

43

34 V

42

45

3?4

411

48

45

50

41
40

40*

33 1

38

33

50

34J

36

40V

33j

28

30

44

38

48

49

37

52

42

1262

51

554

534

50

54J

60

57

59

56

59

60

57

50

49

52J

584

57"

52

47

52

48

58

47J

52

57J

57 V

53d

58

50

52

50

59

57

56

54

534

54

54

54

53i

54

54

534

52

51

50

50

50

50

48

47

47J

48

48

48

48

49

484

50

50

50

50

58

56

55*

54

534

53!

53

53

53

53V

53A

52*

52"

51

50

50

49*

Northwest, fresh

Southerly, fresh

Northerly, light

do

Clear a. m.

Cloudy and rainy.

Cloudy.

Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.

Mostly clear.

Mostly cloudy.

Hazy.

Foggy and clear.

Rainy a.m. ; cloudy p. in.

Foggy and rain at 4 p. m.

Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.

Showers.
Clear.

Mostly clear.
Clear.

5

do

6

do

7

8

9

10

11

12

13
14

Southwest, light

Westerly, light

do

Northwest and varia-
ble, light.

Westerly, light

Northerly, light

do

15

do

16

17

Southwest, light

do

Do.
Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Rainy a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Clear.

Do.
Hazy a. m. ; clear p. m.
Clear.

Do.

Do.
Foggy and clear.
Clear.

Foggy all day.
Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. m.
Mostly cloudy.
Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. m.
Mostly clear.

18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

50

47*

46

47

48

48

47*

47*

48"

48

49

50

50

50

Variable, light

Northerly, fresh

Variable, light

Northwest, light

Southwest, light

do

Calm

26
517

Southwest, light

do

28
2!)
30
31

Northerly, light

Variable," light

do

Sums . ..

16744

1591. 5

1578

Means ..

40.71

54.02

51.34

50.90

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 523

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, ijc. — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

AiratH.H.

Water at
H.H.

Water at
pond.

Date.

9 a. m.

Remarks.

5

d
t-

a

A

a

eg

a

A

93
O

a

o

43
O

w

1874.

36
23
25
29
42
43
41
28
42
36
29
25
25
26
16
29
19
41
16
9
29
13
11
36
29
19
14
27
49
20

41
42
46
48
50
50
42
45
43
44
47
34
31
30
31
34
34
47
22
23
35
17
28
39
33
23
36
41
50
22

50
48
47
46
46
46
45
44
45
44
44
41
40
37
34

49

48

46J

45i

45J

45*

45

44

44*

43J

43J

414
40
38
37J

Southwest, light

Northeast, light

Southwest, fresh

Southerly, light

Southerly, fresh

do

Cloudy.
Mostly cloudy.
Clear.

Do.
Hazy.

Rain a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Cloudy.

Do.
Cloudy ; rain at 4 p. m.
Clear.

Mostly clear.
Clear.

Mostly cloudy.
Clear.
Cloudy.

1)0.

o

3

4
5
6

42
42
43
43
43
39
43
41
40
33
37
34
34
35
34
36
33
34
35
34
34
34
34
34
34
35
3G
35

45*

45

47

46

44

42

43

44

44

41

38

37

36

36

36

38

35

35

35

35

35

35

31

35

35

37

37

35

7

8

9
10
11
12'
13
14.
15
16

Northerly, fresh

Southerly, light

Easterly, light

Northerl v, fresh

Northerly, light

Northerly, fresh

Northeast, light

Northerly, fresh

Southwest, light

17

Do.

18

Northwest, light

Northerly, fresh

Variable, light

Northwest, Iresh

Southeast, light

Southwest, fresh

Westerly, light

do

Cloudy till 9 a.m.; then clear.
Cloudy in a. m. ; clear p. in.
Cloudy ; snow p. m.
Snow in ii. in ; clear p. m.
Clear.

19

20

21

22

23 '

Snow all day.

Partly clear.

Clear a. ni. ; cloudy p. m.

24

25

26

27

Southwest, light

Sout herly, light

Southerly, fresh

Westerly, light

Partly clear.
Clear.

28

29

Rain all day.
Clear.

30

Sums . ..

832 1113

1033

1085. r,

657

657.5

Means ..

27.73

37. 27

37.07

33. 7J

43.8

43.83

524 EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Buclcsport, $c. — Continued.

Date.

1874.

Dec. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

II

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

»o

23
24
25
26
27
28
29

30
31

Sums ...

Means . .

Temperature.

Air at H. H. Water at H. H.

7a.m.

4

18

37

33

10

15

33

28

13

25

29
3
8i

15"
-11

- 8
12
20
18
10

3

- 8
35
31i
26
It
14
34i
34

1

- 6

488.5
15.76

1 p. m.

16
30
44
30
26
32
34
33
29
30J
33J
15
19
9

w

14

26
14
34J;
34£
8
26
42
38
30
29
32
30|
39

12

4

805
25.97

7 a. m.

35

35

35

35

35

35

36

36

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

34J

34J

35

35

35

35

35

35

36

35
35

1037

35.06

1 p. m.

36

36

37

36

35

36

36

36

36

36

36

35j

35

34J

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

36

35J

35£

35£

35

36

36

35J
35£

1101.5

35.53

Wind.

Remarks.

Variable, light

Southwest, light

do

Northerly, fresh

Southwest, light

Easterly, light

do

Northeast, light -

Southerly, light

Northwest, light

Southerly, light ,

Northwest, light ,

Northerly, light

Northeast, fresh

Northerly, fresh

Northwest, light

Easterly, light

Northerly, fresh

Westerly, light

Southerly, light

Northerly, fresh

Southerly, light

do

do

Northerly, fresh

Southwest, light

do

Southerly, light

Southerly a. in., north-
erly p. m., light.

Northwest, fresh

do

Clear.
Hazy.
Cloudy.
Clear.
Hazy.
Cloudy.

Cloudy and snow-
Cloudy.

Do.
Clear.
Snow.
Clear.

Do.
Snow all day
Clear.

Do.
Cloudy a. m. ; snow p. m.
Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. rn.
Mostly cloudy.
Cloudy.
Clear.
Cloudy.
Cloudy mostly.

Cloudy a. ni.; suow and rain in p. in.
Clear.

Mostly cloudy.
Cloudy.

Commenced raining at 10 a. m.
Squalls.

Clear.

Do.

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 525

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, §-c. — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

Date.

Air at H. H.

Water at H. H.

Remarks.

7 a. m.

1 p. m.

7 a.m.

1 p.m.

1875.

Jan. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

2
10
18

o

2

—16

"i

13

6

— 1
—18
—22

4
15

— 1
0

— 2

— 71
—13*
—28
—14

8
6

— 3
17

1

— li
1

28

11

1

171

19

24 i

30

23

18

22

20

22*

7
15*
15
16
211

2
15

7

3*
14

8*

9
19
17
181
33
11*
13
23
321
22
31

35

36

36

35*

351

35

35*

35|

35J

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

35

34*

344

35

35

35

361

37

37

37

37

36J

36

351

351

35

351

351

351

351

351

35J

35

35

35

35

35

35

351

35

351

35

35

35

35

34}

35

Northwest, fresh

Easterly, light

Northerly, fresh

Southerly, light

Easterly, light

Southwest.light

Easterly, light

Easterly, light

Northwest, fresh

Westerly, light

Northwest, light

Easterly, light

Northwest, fresh

Northerly, fresh

Northerly, light

Northerly, fresh

Northerly, light

do

Hazy.

Cloudy a. m. ; snow p. m.

Clear.

Cloudy.

("loudy in a. m. ; snow in p. m.

Clear in a. m. ; hazy in p. m.

Snow all day.

Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. m.

Snow.

Clear.

Clouds till 9 a. m. ; then clear.

Clear.

Cloudy ; snow at 4 p. m.

Clear.

Do.
Hazy.
Clear.
Hazy.
Clear.

20

do

Do.

21
22
23
24
25
.26

do

Easterly, light

Nort hwest, fresh

Northerly, light

do

Mostly cloudy.
Snowing all day.
Clear.

Clear a. m. ; hazy p. m.
Clear.
Do.

27
28
29
30

Northwest, fresh

Southwest, light

Northeast, light

do

Do.
Clear a. m. ; hazy in p. m.
Mostly cloudy.
Cloudy.
Hazy.

31

Southwest, light

Sums ...

31

550.5

1088.5

1101.5

Means . .

1

17.76

35.11

35.53

526 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
Table IX. — Observations on temperature at BucJcsport, §-c. — Continued.

Temperature.

"Wind.

Date.

Air at H. H.

Water at H. H.

Remarks.

7 a. m.

1 p. m.

7 a. m.

1 p. m.

1875.
Feb. 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

20
14
20

2'i

— 1
10

— 12

— 6

— 16J

— 3
9

10J

— 18

— 17

- 34

- 64

- 12*

l"

314-

27

4

314

35

33

25

13

12

224

25

28

38*

24"

14

19

- 4

1

4

11

30

13

9

94
4

14
18
11
26
39
29
224
414
43
41
29J
27
13

580.5

35
35
35
34

344

344

34

34

33J

34

34

34

34

334

33<

334

334

33*

334

334

334

334

33i

34

34

34

34

334

344

344

35

35

35

35

35

34

34

34J

34

34

34

334

334

34

34

34

34

34

34

34

344

344

35

35

34

334

Northeast, light

Southwest, light

Southerly, light

Northwest, light

Northwest, tresh

Westerly, fresh

Northwest, fresh

Northerly, fresh

Northerly, light

do

Mostly clear.

Hazy.

Cloudy a. m. ; rain p. m.

Mostly clear.

Clear.'

Do.

Do.
Snowing all day.
Clear.

Do.

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

Southerly, fresh

]>' ortberl v, fresh

Northwest, fresh

Northerly, light

Northerly, fi esh

Northerly, light

Sout beast, li ght

Northeast, litjht

Northwest, fresh

Westerly, light

Southerly, light

do

Westony, fresh

Northerly, light

Northerly, fresh

Snowiug all day.
Clear

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Cloudy a. m. ; snow p. m.
Clear.
Cloudy.

Cloudy a. m. ; rain p. m.
Clear.

Do.
Mostly cloudy.
Rain a. m.
Kain 10 a. m.
Clear.
Cloudy.
Clear.

Sums . . .

950

960

Means . .

8

20.73

33.93

34.29

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 527

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at BucJcsport, $c. — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

Date.

Air at H. H.

Water at H. H.

Remarks.

7 a. m.

1 p. m.

7 a. m.

1 p.m.

1875.

Mar. 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

— 2
19

2
9}

— 3
27
33
22
1(54
274
33
33
27
11
31^
33
334
15
12J
12
H

Hi

10
4
29J
17J
35
31
84
17
28

17

20

214

194

32

40

40

31

374

34

41

39i

41"

41

424

374

394

21

25

18

28

18

22

32

314

39

47

37

41

43

41

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

324

324

324

324

324

324

324

324

324

324

33

324

324

324

33

33

334

33

334

334

334

33

33

334

33

334

33i

334

34

334

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

334

334

334

334

334

34

Westerly, li<rht

Northeast, light

Easterly, light

Easterly, fresh

Easterly, light

Southerly, light

Southwest, light

Southwest, light

Southerly, light

Nortlieast, light

Southerly, light

Northeast, light

Variable, light

Easterly, light

. .do

Mostly cloudy.

Cloudy.

Clear a. m.; cloudy p. m.

Snow.

Mostly cloudy.

Cloudy ; snow in p. m.

Cloudy.

Mostly cloudy.

Cloudy ; snow at 4 p. m.

Snowing all day.

Mostly clear.

Snow a. m.; cloudy p. m.

Clear.

Do.
Cloudy.

Do.

Southwest, light

Northwest, fresh.

..do

Clear.
Do.
Do.

Easterly, light

Northerly, light

Cloudy a. m. ; snow p. m.
Clear.
Do.

do

Do.

Southerly, fresh

Northeast, fresh

Southwest, light

do

Clear till 10 a. m. ; snow in p. m.
Snowing all day.
Clear a. m. ; hazy p. m.
Clear.

Southerly, light

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

Sums . . .

569

1018

1016. 5

1032

•

Means . .

19.23

32.84

32. 79

33.29

528 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FJSH AND FISHERIES.
Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, <fe. — Continued.

Temperature.

Wind.

Date.

Air at H. H.

Water at H. H.

Remarks.

7 a. m.

1p.m.

7a.m.

1 p.m.

1S75.
April 1
2
3

35
35
40
35

344

284

22J

25

264

38

41J

29

304

284

31

404

434

27

25

19

21

314

39

41

42

41

33

31

29

38

374

47

43

38

35

36

35

46

43

48

39

38

35

40

45

44

414

37i

37

29

334

45

55

60

564

49

48

47

52

484

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33

33*

334

334

334

334

334

334

334

35

36

36

364

38

39

384

334

34

34

33

33

33

334

334

344

34

34

344

34

34

344

34i

344

35

354

354

35

39

41

411

42

40

424

44

44

43

Southerly, fresh

Southerly, light

do

Cloudy.

Cloudy a. m. ; mostly cloudy p. m.

Cloudy and rain.

4
5

6

7

8

9

10

Northeast, light

Northerly, fresh

Northerly, light

do

Rain a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Snow a. m. ; partly clear p. m.
Clear.

Do.
Clear a. in. ; cloudy p. m.
Clear.

Mostly clear.
Squalls.
Clear.
Cloudy.
Partly clear.
Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Cloudy.

Rain a. m. ; mostly cloudy p. m.
Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Clear.

11
12

13
14
15
10

17

Northerly, light

Easterly, light

Northeast, light

Southwest, light

Southeast, light

do

13
19

Northerly, light

do

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Northerly, fresh

Northeast, light

Northerly, light

Northwest, light

Westerly, light . . ...

Northerly, fresh

Northeast, light

Northwest, fresh

Northeast, light

Southwest, light

Southerly, fresh

Cloudy a. m. ; snow p. m.
Snow a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Clear.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Cloudy a. m. ; clear p. m.
Clear.

Clear a. m. ; hazy p. m.
Clear.
Mostly clouds.

Sums . . .

982

1289

1022

1094

Means . .

32.73

42.97

34.07

36.47

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 529

Table IX. — Observations on temperature at Bucksport, $& — Continued.

Temperature.

AiratH.H.

WateratH.H.

Water at
pond.

Date.

a

a

a

a

7 a. in.

a

o

a

&

rt

Ch

~

t-

^H

1-

r*

m

M

1875.

May 1

40

52

38*

43

39

39

o

37*

39*

39

39

39

:!!i

3

36

47

38*

41

39

39

4

41

52*

39

42*

39

39

5

39

53

39

43*

40

40

6

43*

58

41

45

42

41*

7

44

61

42*

50

44

43

8

44*

54*

45

48*

46

45

9

39

41.',

45

46

46*

45

10

42

50

45*

47

47

46

11

42

61

46

54

47

46

13

46

57.1-

49

51

49*

48

13

46

61

49

57

50

49

14

45

671

51*

59

53

49*

IS

48

49

52

53

53

50

ic>

46

45

52

52

53

50

17

42

57

51

56

51

51

18

41

59*

51*

57

53

51*

19

43

49

51

53

51*

51*

20

45

46

51

53

514

51*

21

4!)

66

51

57.(

51*

51*

22

50J

69

53

58*

54

52

23

55

63*

55*

09

55*

54*

24

51

64

56*

61

57*

54

25

58

75

57

64

58*

57

26

61*

74

61*

69

62

57*

27

54

0*

61

67

61*

00

28

54

68*

60

67

61*

61

29

58*

67*

61

67

62

61

30

50

62

59*

63

61

60*

31

55

63

59*

65*

61

60*

Sums . . .

1447

1802

1552. 5

1699

1580

1544

Means . .

40.68

58.13

49. 74

54.80

50. 97

50.13

Northerly, light.
Southeast, light.
Westerly, fresh .
Northerly, light.
Variable, light . .
Southerly, light .
Variable, light ..
Southerly, light.

...do ....

...do

Southwest, fresh

...do

Northwest, fresh
Southwest, light
Southeast, light.
Northeast, light.
Northerly, fresh
Northeast, fresh
Easterly, light ..
Southerly, fresh.
Northerly, fresh
Southwest, light
Northerly, light.
Southwest, fresh
Southwest, light
Northwest, fresh
Northerly, fresh

...do

Variable, fresh..
Southerly, light.
Variable, light ..

Remarks.

Partly cloudy.

Rainy.

Mostly cloudy.

Mostly clear a. m.; cloudy p.m.

Clear a. m. ; cloudy p. m.

Partly clear a.m.; cloudy p.m.

Clear.

Ilazj- a. m. ; cloudy p. m.

Raiiiing all day.

Cloudy.

Clear.

Mostly cloudy.

Clear.

Po.
Rainy from 9 a. m.
Rainy a. m. ; cloudy p. m.
Clear.
Hazy.
Rainy.

Cloudy a. m. ; rain p. m.
Clear.

Do.

Do.
Clear.
Hazy.
Clear.

Do.
Clear.
Cloudy.

Do.
Mostly clear.

>4 v

530

EEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

1

a
o

ft

a

43

43

«

u
a

43
CS

Bottom.

•ntrc

co i- oo co t- -j

co to noff;

r

•xbj^;

— co -r co r- co
l- r- i- co co tr

o

•ni -d i

afi8. 2
71.61
08.8
60. 07
52. 05

c39. 05

rH

d

i.O

■ia -Bi

■* to t- m o»

CT. 1* 51 O O n

r- d oo d oi en
'w {^ a co r. w

*4-i

1

•njre

C0l-030fl
CO to to CO -r 00

cs

CO

•xbk

co or*oci to

C- X i- CO co -r

CO

•tn -d x

co r- j- -3

"T O 00 CO 3 3

— 1" o —° oo' (-"

53 *co

•m -u i

r- -r ac» io
CO r- t~ -cc — co

ci — " x' d oi <-

'3 t— 3 3 CO CO

t-

cs

d

LO

a

o

■hjh

o t-

-1* CO

O OI CD to lo-
co CO CO -o 00

43
O

H

•sere

Tj OO to ~ to 00 —
CO to i~ CO CO ICO -v

CD

■aire j

^ i- oi -t- tr. i- -r

-r ico co to co -tc oo

•xbk

to tr. ico — i- cr. o

3 w t- 1- to CO CO

•tno4|oa:

51. 11
00.

65. 73
65. 32

-f CO

to ~

CO

ou

oi co

co ct:

•aoBjing

co c ' oo oo -^

~ COO 01 CO! Oi 00 00

oo" oi —'. i -" oi .-i co

CO to to to to CO T
ft

•

:

CD
03

O
o

43

oj

33

«
U
<D

Is

•a;n:

1 Hfcl -<

.oo-i coo

" CO 00 00 c

NH5' Hd r*l
! Ct -0- i~ to =)

00 00 00 CO to

H
-4

CO -I

:o o-

• -a- oo oi oo <

) 00 00 00 oo o-

1

•XBJt

^<«C-** r+tl

oo ico -v ^ t- o> t -cr i.o
-TOO CO 00 oo t to r- t-

r- f- t- io tft a

•tn -d x

0CC1 OOOOl-OOOOOO
^O LC0 00 O CI 00 00 t-

cc oo co' oo ico r^ oo -T od

0000 COOOCOOOLCOCOCO

to 00 00 COt. 31 t- o
i-- CO LO 0'! CM -3" 00

' 00 CO lO -T oc to 1>

00 oo to 0CJ 00 00 LO

*->

•ta-B i

-r =t oo tr oo oo c-

HLO H^CDOOOcO

i- oo co oo od id —^ td -T-

00 00 CO 00 00 00 lO 3 3

•Oi

/37. 07

35. 00

oo; at t— -i
oc c- to t-

o- 01 — to

: oo oo oo 1

6

CO

s

M

a

o

a

43

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THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 531

B— THE SALMON OF LAKE CHAMPLALN AND ITS TRIBU-

T ARIES.

By W. C. Watson.

Sir: I take great pleasure in complying with' your request "to pre-
pare a paper on the salmon of Lake Champlain and its tributaries". I
fear, however, that I shall not succeed in furnishing anything novel or
interesting, or add essentially to the views I have already published.

1. — ABUNDANCE OF THE SALMON IN EARLY TIMES.

Since the receipt of your favor, I have sedulously tried to trace old
residents, from whom 1 might derive some new facts or incidents, illus-
trating the prevalence of the salmon at the early stages of the settle-
ment of the region, or for observations disclosing fresh or unfamiliar
traits in their habits. My efforts have been attended with only trifling
success. When I first engaged in the investigation of this interesting
subject, nearly a quarter of a century ago, I secured information from
many persons, whose recollections extended almost to the period when
the fisheries of the country were in their normal condition, or of those
who had received traditions of the salmon from their immediate ancestors,
which imparted much valuable intelligence. I garnered up from such
sources many important facts; but now, when I attempt to renew
these inquiries, I find that few of that class of persons remain, and that
the field of research is very limited.

One fact, which is fully established in the traditions of the salmon-fish-
eries, has, I conceive, important bearing on the scheme in which you are
so deeply and efficiently interested, and presents most favorable auguries
of the success of the undertaking. I refer to the wonderful exuberance
of this fish when the country was first occupied. I base the opinion
upon the idea that this exuberance indicates that the locality was conge-
nial to their habits, and that they were attracted to these haunts by
peculiar causes. I will venture to suggest a few speculations on the sub-
ject, although they may appear crude and unphilosophical to your great
experience and attainments.

I believe tbat no other waters, not even the tributaries of the Onion,*
ever exhibited so extraordinary a copiousness of these fish — and certainly
they could not have exceeded it — as they appeared to the occupants of
the Champlain Valley in the latter part of the last century and early in
the nineteenth. The natural causes are very obvious which produced this
result, and among them a few circumstances may be indicated. Lake
Champlain was readily accessible to the salmon from the ocean by the way
of the Saint Lawrence and Sorelle or Richelieu Rivers, and was also com-
paratively contiguous to the cold northern seas. The streams emptying
into the lake have generally a short course, and usually with long reaches

* Now called Wiuooski River.

532 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

of gravelly bottoms, are rapid iu their currents, and start from cool lakes
and ponds, and in their passages at that time were largely fed by cold
springs, and shielded in their whole progress by the canopying of heavy
umbrageous trees and bushes, which effectually shielded them from the
influence of the sun's rays and the warm air. A coolness of the water not
exceeding probably 45°, a temperature so delightful to the salmon, was
thus maintained. Each of these qualities of the streams, impetuosity
of the current, a gravelly bottom, a low temperature, to which may be
added great purity, is a condition of nature eminently attractive to the
salmon. They enjoyed repose and impunity amid the utter silence and
seclusion they loved. They were not hunted by the ruthless sportsman,
or even disturbed by the spears and nets of the Indian. They had easy
and safe access to their favorite breeding-grounds. When Champlaiu
entered the lake iu 1G09, he found its shores unpeopled and silent. The
smoke of not a single wigwam arose in the atmosphere on either shore.
The bloody and perpetual incursions, along the common highway it
afforded, of the Mohawks and Algonquins in their reciprocal attacks,
had driven the savages that once inhabited the beautiful territory into
the recesses of the interior for security. The region bordering on the
lake was a scene of total desolation, and continued iu that condition to
the middle of the succeeding century, and was but sparsely occupied
until near its close. In the view I have embraced, this aspect of nature
rendered the lake and its affluents singularly adapted to the habits of
the salmon, and attracted them in the remarkable abundance which we
shall see did exist.

The fact of the exuberance of the salmon in these waters when the
environs were first occupied by civilized man is established by the most
ample and satisfactory testimony, and appears to me worthy of perpetua-
tion, as interesting in its relation to natural history, and as calculated
to aid and illustrate the future researches of the student of nature.

The first historic notice of the prevalence of salmon in the region, I
think, appears in the correspondence between William Gilliland, the
pioneer of the Champlaiu Valley, and Arnold, who was cruising on the
lake with the American flotilla iu the summer of 1776. His letter
states that on a single occasion Gilliland had presented seventy-five
salmon to a petty-officer of Arnold, and asked the services of the ship's
carpenters to repair his "salmon-crib and apparatus, which had been
carried away by a great flood ". He also affirms, in a memorial to Con-
gress in 1777, that he " had complimented the American Army with
fifteen hundred salmon in one year ". When the writer first became a
resident of the district in 1824, many of the original settlers of the
country were yet living, who were men of respectability and position,
and of undoubted veracity. Their tales of the abundance of the salmon
which prevailed at that time demanded lor their acceptance an exercise
of the strongest faith in the truthfulness of the narrators. Coming
from the unimpeachable sources they did, and corroborated by uniform

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 533

traditions and the current of universal testimony by actual observers or
participants of the incidents, there was no hesitation in receiving the
statements as authentic and true. I have heard the account from several
of these individuals that when they immigrated many streams were so
thronged by the salmon that it was unsafe at particular seasons to ride
a spirited horse into them, for the reason that the fish were so abundant
and bold that they would fearlessly approach the horse and strike him
with great force by the powerful muscular action of their bodies. It
was often represented that it was a common pastime, as well as a most
desirable means of obtaining food at that time, to drive a team into
some of the shallow tributaries of the river, and from the wagon spear
the salmon with pitchforks, and thus obtain in a few minutes all the fish
needed for consumption. Many of the salmon taken in this primitive
method would reach twenty pounds in weight.

Among the various persons from whom I have received interesting
information in aid of my inquiries, I am particularly indebted to Silas
Arnold, esq., of Eeeseville, for seveial facts which were communicated
to him by his father, Hon. Elisha Arnold. This gentleman was one of
the earliest prominent settlers, and subsequently attained high social
and political standing in the district. Among these incidents, Mr.
Arnold recalls the following circumstauce, which coming from so intel-
ligent and reliable an authority amply corroborates the almost incredible
traditions of the former copious prevalence of the salmon in these waters.
About the year 1800, or possibly a year or two previous, at any rate
it was at so early a period in the occupation of the country that the path-
way through the woods, leading from the residence of Judge Arnold,
situated near the center of the present town of Peru, to Plattsburgh,
was marked by a series of blazed trees. As he was proceeding to the
latter place, in fording the Little An Sable, a small shallow stream, near
itsmouth, the passage of his wagon was largely impeded by the throng of
salmon which was in the stream, and he readily caught and threw upon
the bank all he wished to take.

Mr. Arnold has called my attention to a familiar fact, which is ob-
served among all gregarious fishes, and is peculiarly characteristic of the
salmon family, and tends to relieve the marvelous tales of the early
exuberance in the Champlain region of the salmon from their incredible
aspect. He says that they ascended the streams in shoals, or schools,
which intermitted in their progress, and that the flow of the fishes was
not constant or continuous as might be inferred by the language of the
traditions ; that when encountered in the vast masses so often described,
they were passing a particular locality, consolidated in one of these
shoals, or schools.

Mr. Oscar F. Sheldon, formerly of Willsborough, Essex County, com-
municated to me a record, which he deems perfectly authentic, of five
hundred salmon being taken in a single afternoon early in the present
century, from the river Bouquet. The Bouquet is a tributary of Lake

534 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Champlain, and may be regarded almost as an estuary up to the falls,
a distance of about three miles, and is navigable to that point by ves-
sels of light draught. It was therefore peculiarly adapted to the habits
of the salmon, and beyond the falls I thiuk they could not penetrate.

The record of the circumstance of capturing fifteen hundred pounds of
salmon in the year 1823, at a single haul of the seine, near Port Kendall,
iu the town of Chesterfield, in the county of Essex, was said to have been
among the papers of Levi Highby, esq., in 1852. -lie was a man of high
character, and was, I understood, an actor iu the achievement. This fact
isnotonly memorable for the extraordinary quantity of the fish taken, but
it also illustrates the singularly erratic and inscrutable habits of the sal-
mon. Iu all my investigations on the subject, this is theonly instance that
I have learned of the salmon being taken in any great quantities except
from the rivers and their branches. The facts connected with this incident
seem to claim some attention, as calculated to throw a little light on the his-
tory of the fish. Between the Bouquet and Au Sable Rivers, no stream of
any magnitude enters the lake except the brook that debouches at Port
Kendall. This brook plunges over a sheer precipice of at least forty feet,
directly into the waters of the lake, without any or scarcely any space in-
tervening. The immense catch of salmon recorded could not therefore
have been taken while they were attempting to reach their spawning-
grounds, but were found near the shore, although in the open waters of
the lake. They must necessarily wander through the lake in schools;
but this is the only case which I have been able to trace where they have
been captured except in streams or in the act of entering into them.

These facts, which might, I think, be accumulated by a large cata-
logue of similar incidents, are sufficient, in my judgment, to sustain the
proposition that the waters and the tributaries of Lake Champlain were
teeming at a former epoch with salmon to an extraordinary, if not un-
exampled, extent.

2. — THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE SALMON, AND ITS CAUSES.

Unhappily, another fact, alike regretted by the sportsman and the
political economist, is equally clear — the total disappearance for many
past years of this prince of fishes from all the region. An event of such
importance has elicited much inquiry and speculation, but it still
remains a problem that will probably never receive a satisfactory
solution. Various theories iu regard to the agencies which have
caused this singular revolution have been suggested and may claim
investigation. If any physical condition of the country, or the waters, or
their channels, formed allurements that attracted the salmon, the decay
or removal of these conditions would necessarily dispel such attractions,
and tend to the abandonment of the region by the fish. I have referred
to the uncommon repose and seclusion, even in a wilderness region, that
marked the borders of the lake, as one explanation of the original
exuberance of salmon in these tranquil scenes. The first occupation of

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 535

the country began to disturb that repose ; and, as the population
increased, the solitude and quiet of the fish were more and more invaded,
until ultimately the clangor of machinery, the tumult of business, and,
with far greater effect than all the rest, the jarring of the engines of
steamboats and their fierce disturbance, expelled the salmon from their
ancient and loved haunts.

In regard to the effect of steamboats on the salmon-fishery, the Hon.
Thomas B. Watson, of Peru, Clinton County, communicates to me the
following statements, which he received from an aged man whose whole
life has been devoted to fishing. He says that the salmon run from the
lake into the rivers daring the night, and that he has frequently seen
them, when a steamer was merely crossing the mouth of a stream, so
excited by alarm and panic at the noise and agitation as to rush im-
petuously over a shallow bar into the deep water of the lake. The same
person informed Judge Watson that the opinion prevailed among old
fishermen, when the decadence of the salmon-supply first began to be
observed, that it was caused by their disturbance on the Richelieu River
from the steamboats ; and, in support of this idea, he said that he was
engaged in 1838 in capturing between fifty and sixty salmon in the Au
Sable River, and that no salmon had appeared in that stream for the
fifteen preceding years, and by a singular coincidence, which confirmed
in their minds this theory, the only steamer plying on the Richelieu had
been burned the same season. However correct may be this conclusion,
any impediment or disturbance which may have existed in that narrow
and shallow stream may be enumerated among the possible causes of
the expulsion of salmon from the lake. That all fishes (and the fact
may be exhibited especially in a family so sensitive and shy in its
nervous organization as the salmon) are frightened from their haunts by
noise and agitation has been sufficiently demonstrated on Lake Cham-
plain in the recent construction of the New York and Canada Railroad.
This work was attended by heavy explosions near the waters, which fish
had been accustomed to frequent in great copiousness. I have under-
stood that immediately afterward these resorts were generally, at least
for the time, abandoned by the fish. The quiet the salmon constitution-
ally delights in and its sense of security have been invaded, with con-
sequences still more effective, by another agency, which became aug-
mented by the increase of population. I refer to the persistent and
inexorable hunting that not only assailed them by the net and the jack-
light and spear, but pursued them to their gravelly beds and breeding-
grounds, and there not only ruthlessly slaughtered the mothers and
millions of the embryo, but drove innumerable multitudes in panic and
alarm from the waters, probably never to return to their former haunts.

Another reason may be assigned, and I conceive with much force, for
the salmon relinquishing localities which were once their favorite
reports. They love, as I have stated, to seek cool waters, and this grati-
fication they attained in the normal condition of the region ; but when

53 G REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

in the progress of improvement " the forests primeval"' that embowered
the streams, and aided in imparting a delightful coolness to the waters,
were removed, and the waters exposed to the action of the sun and air,
while the cold spriugs that fed them were desiccated, the temperature
of the water was raised higher than to be congenial to the habits of the
salmon. This condition may be discerned in nearly every stream that
flows into the lake. Another qualification of the water which is essen-
tial to the comfort and enjoyment of the salmon is that it should be
pure, and, in the words of Judge Watson, " highly aerated". The rapid
erection of saw-mills, until they occupied almost every water-power, lit-
erally extinguished in almost every stream this native condition. The
sawdust stained and polluted the water, and the sediments and debris
of the mills settled largely on the gravelly bottoms, which had been so
alluring to the salmon, changed their character, and revolted the cleanly
habits of the fish. Mr. Arnold mentions another effect from this cause,
which may have exerted a greater influence. He has observed, in his
own experience, that the sawdust with which the water was charged
was necessarily inhaled by the fish with the fluid, and that particles of
it were not ejected, but remained adhering to the gills. This mechanical
effect must have produced annoyance to the creature, with succeeding
suffering and possible death.

The most formidable and indeed insuperable obstacle to the ascent
of the salmon were the innumerable dams constructed on almost all the
streams near their mouths. These were usually of a perpendicular
height so great as to utterly repel the attempts of the fish to overcome
them. This cause of the disappearance of the salmon is so paramount
and obvious that the discussion of any other would be superfluous were
it not that it seems appropriate in a paper like this to present every
possible view of the question before us, and for the very conclusive rea-
son that several streams, of which the Au Sable Eiver is a striking
instance, that have equally suffered with the others from the abandon-
ment of the salmon, have never impeded the run of the fish by dams or
any other artificial obstruction. Had the advent of the salmon in the
rivers been coincident with the season of high water, their ascent of
these impediments would have been immensely facilitated, but their run
was precisely at the usual occurrence of the lowest flow of the streams.
The volume of water was almost totally exhausted by the flumes, and at
times scarcely trickling over the apron of the dam, without furnishing
any supply to the slopes or sluices constructed in accordance with the
statute. The popular excitement became at length so deeply inflamed
by acts which were then regarded as encroachment on public immuni-
ties that the grand jury of Clinton County, New York, were impelled,
in the year 1819, to present an indictment against the proprietors of the
dam erected at the mouth of the Saranac Kiver in Plattsburgh. The
indictment, among other averments, alleged that previous to the erec-
tion of this dam " salmon were accustomed to pass, and actually did

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 537

pass, from Lake Ghamplain into and up the Saranac Elver for a distance
of twenty miles; * * * that before the dam was built salmon were
seen above the site;" and that "after it was built many were caught at
the foot of the dam, but none above it;"' " that salmon begin to ascend
the river from the lake in June and July, but largely in August
and September1'. It appeared that the dam was fourteen feet high, and
the sluice-way forty feet long, and arranged at an angle of 30°.

This indictment was vehemently pressed, and resulted in a protracted
and bitter trial in the circuit court. It was calculated to open a thorough
investigation of the habits and movements of the salmon in connection
with that particular stream. A great mass of witnesses, embracing
most of the early settlers then living, were introduced, and, had the
great volume of testimony taken on that occasion been preserved, we
should now be in possession of all the essential facts and incidents neces-
sary to form a history of the salmon-fishery of that period and locality.
Although the case was elaborately argued in the supreme court (John-
sous Eeports, 17, page 195) both on the merits and the law, the decision,
which was in favor of the defendants, unfortunately rested purely on legal
and technical views, and we have but slight references to the facts in
the report. We detect, however, faint glimmerings of the evidence in
the arguments of counsel. It seems to have been in proof that the
water in the sluice-way was too shallow to admit the passage of the fish.
It is worthy of remark that one point of Mr. Walworth, the future emi-
nent chancellor, as counsel for the defense, and evidently based on some
features of the testimony, was that "no fish visit the lake from the
ocean ; the salmon ascend from the lake, and are fresh-water fish".

And it appears from a point made by the opposing counsel that "the
evidence in the case is that salmon abounded at the foot of the dam,
and would ascend the river if not hindered by that obstacle".

We may perhaps appropriately refer, as a subordinate cause of these
results, to the depredations of other fish upon the salmon by assailing
them on their spawning-grounds, destroying the ova, killing the young
fish on their passage to the sea, and frightening the salmon from their
usual haunts. This cause, of course, always existed, but circumstances
might have stimulated its development.

These changes in the physical condition of the region seem adequate
to producing the abandonment by the salmon of the Champlain waters,
but they were eutirely local. The eccentric and capricious nature
of all fish, which produces many strange phases in their movement,
and from the general operation of which the salmon is not ex-
empt, may be referred to as another possible cause of their disap-
pearance from these waters. The idea is probably fanciful; but as my
purpose is to unfold the whole subject, it may not be unworthy of a
moments inquiry. Is it wholly improbable that the abandonment of the
Champlain waters by the salmon may be due to their finding more
genial resorts and fresh and more attractive feeding-grounds ? I will
venture to present a few facts in support of this suggestion. During my

538 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

long residence on the borders of Lake Champlain, I have observed that a
particular kind of fish will occasionally, through several successive
seasons, be very abundant; that the supply gradually diminishes, until,
in the end, they nearly disappear, while another variety becomes
predominant, rapidly increases as the first decreases, and they also
pass through the same changes. Tbe smelt, a marine fish, was, until,
a comparatively recent period, almost unknown to the fishermen of the
lake; but in late years it is often taken in vast quantities through the
ice, while in some seasons it is rarely seen. Such, also, has been largely
the history of a choice fish known in this region as the lake-shad.

3. — TRAITS OF THE SALMON.

The pertinacity of the salmon in renewing, after repeated failures,
their attempts to leap up falls too high for their powers, and the vast
muscular force they exhibited, was witnessed by the settlers with equal
worfder and admiration. I do not kuow that the myth, which once
prevailed in the popular faith of England and Scotland, that the salmon
taking the tail in its mouth formed a wheel and thus rolled up the cas-
cade, ever obtained in this region ; but the stories of tbe pioneers
and old fishermen were almost equally marvelous. The fish ascended
the precipice by the mere exertion of physical strength; but the method
which it is said they adopted to secure a safe descent reveals a wonder-
ful instinct or a rare exercise of sagacity and intelligence. They were
accustomed, it is related, to approach very near the verge of a fall, and
instead of allowing themselves to be precipitated headlong or rolled
sideways down the current, with the imminent peril of being dashed upon
the rocks below or drowned, they would deliberately turn their tails
toward the cascade and by the vigorous action of their fins and motion
of their bodies would maintain their position and be borne safely down
the obstacle.

The progress of the salmon in their annual migration from the sea to
the tributaries of the lake seems to have been singularly slow and
methodical. Instead of diffusing themselves at once and promiscuously
through the lake, the advance from the north was apparently controlled
by a system or some law of instinct. The old fishermen all concur in
the recollection that a considerable interval, varying in their statements
from one week to a month, always occurred between the time of arrival
of the fish in the Saranac and their appearance in the Au Sable,
although the mouths of these streams are only separated by a space of
about twelve miles. Incidents in the habits of the salmon, which came
under my personal observation more than fifty years ago, expose some
traits which possibly may be regarded in the measures in progress to
rehabilitate the streams with these fish. A high bridge spanned the
Saranac, near its mouth, in the village of Plattsburgh; a massive dam
stood a few rods above, as it did at the commencement of the century ;
on the west end of the dam, the statutory trough or slope had been
constructed, and on the opposite end was situated a large saw-mill,

THE ATLANTIC SALMON. 539

which discharged a strong and impetuous volume of water through a
race-way. I saw schools of salmon swimming below the bridge, and
individuals speared from it at a height of fifteen or twenty feet. They
seemed to be wandering in confusion, ascended to the foot of the dam
and returned, paying no attention to the sluice-way, which was indeed
impracticable for their ascent from the slight supply of water that
passed down the slope. They were constantly attracted to the race-
way, and plunged into it as if its rushing current was congenial to their
habits, or perhaps in the vain hope of reaching by that channel their
appropriate breeding-grounds. A weir was built in tli is race-way, in
which, during the season, salmon were daily captured.

4.— THE AU SAELE RIVEE.

The contemplated scope of this paper does not embrace any notice of
the policy which has been initiated for restoring salmon to the waters
of this region ; but I will venture to express a regret that the experi-
ment was not extended to the An Sable Eiver. The reasons for this view
will best appear from a brief notice of the peculiarities of the stream and
the salmon-fishery connected with it. It will be seen that it retains,
more than any other tributary of the lake, its original qualities and
conditions.

The river measures from the lake to a high vertical fall, which was
never surmounted by the salmon, a distance of about six miles. Nearly
one-half of this space is below the chasm, and occupied by heavy rapids
or gentler ripples, with occasional short ranges of slackwater. A placid
and deep pool lies immediately at the foot of the chasm, where the
water seems to rest after its turbulent passage through the gorge.
Above this point, the water rushes with impetuous violence, and in part
of its course is compressed within a narrow natural canal, where a
human foothold cannot be maintained for a moment, and which no fish
but the salmon could ascend. In the short space between this canal
and the falls, the stream somewhat expands and although rapid is less
vehement than below. Through its whole course, with brief intervals,
it is overshadowed by masses of trees and thick bushes, or it leaps and
roars beneath lofty precipices that cast a perpetual shade, where the
rays of the sun have never penetrated. At one period, the whole line of
the river above this fall was studded with saw-mills; but to-day not one
of any magnitude exists within twenty miles of the lake, while below this
point no dam or other artificial obstruction has ever been erected on the
river. Such is the present aspect of the Au Sable, and such was nearly
its condition a hundred years ago. In the six miles I have described,
it is as quiet and secluded as it is possible any stream can be in the
midst of a populous and cultivated territory. The remarkable circum-
stance to which I have adverted of the appearance of the salmon in the
Au Sable River in the year 1838, and long after they had abandoned all
the waters of the Champlain system, while it is highly significant in

540 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

several respects, has an important bearing on the point we are examin-
ing-. Were they allured back to the stream by its peculiar and excep-
tional condition f Were they an advance-party exploring their former
haunts, with a purpose of recolonization by their tribe? The Au Sable
never abounded with salmon to the extent that characterized other
streams in the vicinity. No tradition's exist of its having teemed with
vast schools of the fish. They frequented it, however, in numbers to
make the fishery highly satisfactory. The salmon, it is supposed, left
this river simultaneously v.ith their abandonment of all the other
tributaries of the lake. We have seen that no dam or other artificial
obstruction ever existed on the lower portion of the river, and therefore
the disappearance of the fish from that particular stream cannot be im-
puted to the existence of any of these impediments. We must account
for this result on some different theory. Modern improvement has
created structures over the Au Sable which may affect the successful
introduction of the salmon into the stream. The New York and Canada
Railroad crosses the river not far from its mouth, and has constructed
a bridge over both the branches, which form a delta of the river. The
bridges are much elevated above the usual level of the water ; I have
felt apprehensive that these structures and their use might impair the
value even of the common fisheries on the stream. The hunting of the
salmon at that period in the Au Sable was by unusual methods and
specially exciting. An aged man is still living who informed Dr.
George F. Bixby, of Plattsburgh, that, in his boyhood, he was in the
habit of carrying a torch or jack-light for a sportsman to spear salmon
in this stream, and that they killed them, often weighing twenty pounds.
They would descend the high bank and enter the river near the head of
the natural canal, and, wading in the water toward the fall, fduud the
fish lying upon the bottom, who, either dazzled by the light or
careless in their refuge, would allow the spearsman to approach them
sufficiently near to strike. He represented the fish as appearing, when
the torch-light was reflected from their mottled backs, like bunches of
hay sunken in the water.

The valued correspondent from whom I have frequently quoted, writes
me that when a child he saw a man sitting in a boat at the head of one
of the rapids I have described, and drawing in the salmon with great
rapidity ; that he cast a long line and a common hook baited with a
piece of pork into the rapids, and that even before the hook touched
the water the fish would seize it with the eagerness that is often dis-
played by the trout. This is the only instance that my inquiries have
disclosed of salmon being taken in these waters by the hook. It was a
common sport, fifty years ago, to seek the salmon on the falls, where
they were speared in great numbers, as they attempted to leap up the
precipice.

APPENDIX C.

FISH-CTJLTUKE,

RELATING MORE ESPECIALLY TO

SPECIES OF CYPRINIDzE.

XXV -NOTES ON PISCICULTURE IN KIANGSI.'

By IT. Kopsch.

Fish-culture Laving attracted rnucb atteution of late years in Europe
and America, a few notes on the manner in which it is conducted in
this part of China may be of interest.

It is well known that "the Chinese have long bestowed more atten-
tion on pisciculture than any other nation, and with them it is truly a
branch of economy, tending to the increase of the supply of food and
the national wealth — not merely, as it seems to have been among the
Romans, an appliance of the luxury of the great.

" The art of breeding and fattening fish was well known to the luxurious
Romans, and many stories are related about the fanciful flavors which were
imparted to such pet fishes as were chosen for the sumptuous banquets of
Lucullus, Sergius Orata, and others. The art had doubtless been bor-
rowed from the ingenious Chinese, who are understood to have prac-
ticed the art of collecting fisli-eggs, and nursing young fish, from a very
early period. Fish forms to the Chinese a very important article of
diet, and from the extent of the watery territory of China, and the quan-
tities that can be cultivated, it is very cheap. The plan adopted for
procuring fish-eggs in China is to skim off the impregnated ova from the
surface of the great rivers at the spawning season, which are sold for the
purpose of being hatched in canals, paddy-fields, &c, and all that is
necessary to insure a Large growth is simply to throw into the water a
few yolks of eggs, by which means an incredible quantity of the young
fry is saved from destruction."

Such is the description given in Chambers's Encyclopedia, of pisci-
culture in China, but as all details are omitted, it is proposed to supply
a few from observations made in this vicinity. Fry-fishing commences
here (Kiu-Kiang, on the Yangtse) about the middle of May, and lasts
from ten to fifteen days. The preliminaries for this kind of fishing are
not numerous. The net, which is of coarse gauze, dyed brown, is fixed
on its proper frame, and the whole cast alongside the river-bank, where
there is a moderate current, sufficient, Lowever, to keep the net in posi-
tion, and to sweep the fry into the trap.

A single frame as it floats upon the water represents our letter V, and
measures about 15 feet long, and S feet across the mouth. The net

* Land and Water, XX, No. 510, October 30, 1875, pp. 338-339.

544 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

attached to it is submerged about a foot, thus serving to collect the fry
as they are drifted by the current into the trap at the end of the frame.
The bottom of this V-shaped frame is not closed together, a little space
being left to allow the spawn to pass through the throat of the net leading
into the trap, which floats perpendicularly and to prevent its collapsing;
it is tied to splints run through the four corners of its frame, as will be
seen from the drawing forwarded.*

As many as four or six of these Y-shaped frames are attached to a
long bamboo moored close to the river-bank in rows one above the
other, at distances of from 15 to 20 feet apart, where they are loft all
night and day.

But let us look into one of these traps. The net-tender, who lives in
a mat-hut on the river-bank hard by, or in the sampan (small boat) used
to visit the nets, readily gratifies our curiosity.

Taking an ordinary-sized rice-bowl, he dips it into one of these cages,
which it should be noted appear to require emptying every hour, and
hands us about a quart of muddy river- water, perfectly alive with wrig-
gling, transparent-looking fry, measuring from an eighth to two-eighths
of an inch in length, with heads and eyes greatly out of proportion to
the size of their bodies. Even in the muddy water there was no diffi-
culty in discerning them, as one would be led to suppose from Abbe
Hue's statement " that it is impossible to distinguish the smallest ani-
malculce with the naked eye." Experts are said to be able to detect the
different kinds of fry as soon as they are caught ; but as they would be
too small to handle, their knowledge would be of little practical value.
In a week or so they become large enough to distinguish one from the
other. After the fry are collected from the small traps they are put
into a floating reservoir made of net, exactly like the trap shown in the
sketch, but much larger in size, where they are kept until purchased
for conveyance inland.

Those sold for breeding in the neighborhood are carried on the shoul-
ders of coolies in water-tight baskets to the ponds and lakes, of which
there are a great number in this circuit. Along the Yangtse fry, is sold
by the jar or bowl, according to the quantity of fish it contains,
and from five to six hundred cash (equal Is. Sd. to 2s.) appears to be
the average price per jar, according to the statement of the boatmen.

Most of the fry is conveyed inland by boats, which come from the in-
terior for the especial purpose of loading with this freight. These pecu-
liar looking craft generally hail from Kan chow-fu, a large town to the
south of the province, on the Khan River; also from Kuei-hsi-hsieu, in
Kuanghism department, to the east of the province ; and those that
load here generally rendezvous at Kuan-pai-chia, a small village about a
mile west of Kiu Kiang, on the south bank of the river. Tea-boats are
likewise used to carry fry, but not so extensively as those from Kau-

* Sketches illustrating tin; article were forwarded to the office of " Land ar>d Water,"
London.

NOTES ON PISCICULTURE IN KIANGSI. 545

chow. Foreign residents on the Yaugtse are too well acquainted with
the craft to need any description.

The Kan-chow boats, or yu-miao-chuan (spawn-boats), are of much
larger carrying capacity, and measure about 78 feet long, 15 feet beam,
11 feet from bottom to top of mat-cover, and draw, when loaded, from 3
to 4 feet. They are built in water-tight compartments, and are pro-
pelled by sails, tracking, or yuloeing — that is, by long sculls rigged out
about 18 inches or two feet from either side of the boat, on outriggers,
forward of the mainmast, and worked parallel to the side of the boat
by four or six men at each scull. About twenty men comprise the
boat's crew, who also attend to the fish in turns, their wages averaging
2,000 cash (equal 6s. Sd.) per month, with food. The boats are worth
from 450 to 500 taels each (£150 to £167). Their cargoes brought to this
port consist chiefly of timber (hewn as if for railway sleepers), wood
for making coffins, planks, water-chestnuts, water-chestnut flour, grass-
cloth, and sundry sweet-smelliug flowers ; probably small speculations
of the crew, such as Knei hua (Oleafragrans), Moli-liua (Jasminum), Lan-
hua (Epideiidruni), and Taylaihsiang (Stephanotis), &c, which fetch a
good price here.

But as several of these boats are nearly laden, it will be curious to
see how they stow their freight. From the bottom boards of the boat
to the level of the gunwale we find the holes filled with red earthen-
ware jars (made of flower-pot clay), each measuring 18 inches in diam-
eter and 12 inches deep, arranged in tiers, one above the other, five
high, and as we counted eleven jars on the top row amidships of the
two tiers put into a compartment, between which room is left for a man
to pass, we may roughly estimate one hundred jars in each compart-
ment, or five hundred jars in the five sections into which the hold is
divided. A stout plank, about 5 inches broad, is laid across the wide-
mouthed jars to support the upper ones, and to spread the weight more
evenly, but the plank is not so wide as to interfere with the bailing out
of the vessels. The jars are fastened to the sides of the compartmeut
by a little splint of bamboo, made fast to an eye in the bulk-head, and
which is made to catch under the unturned rim of the jar, on the same
principle that a small-mouthed vessel is lifted by a piece of wood being
put crosswise into the opening. To strengthen the rim, it is sometimes
bound round with a bamboo hoop. On the upper row of jars another
plank is laid to receive the water-tight baskets, which, being much
lighter than the jars, are placed on the top, and piled up from the level
of the gunwale to the roof of the boat. The baskets are securely
lashed to poles braced athwart the boat to prevent their sliding out of
position, as at such a height a slight knock would capsize them, although
they are placed in a wicker-stand to steady them and ease the strain on
the sides of the baskets.

As the number of these baskets appears to be about the same as that
of the jars, we have a total of say one thousand jars and baskets of
35 f

546 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

fry in one boat. After all the internal arrangements are completed the
fry are poured into the jars and baskets, and when all are full, the boat
proceeds on her voyage. Kan-chow-fu, as I have remarked, is the chief
market for spawn, but much of it finds its way into the Canton, Fo-kien,
and (Jhekiang provinces, when it has to be carried across the boundary
range of mountains, about a day's journey, before gaining the water-
ways of the neighboring provinces.

The water is changed day and night, and after the muddy Yangtse
and Po-yang Lake have been left the young fish require feeding,
chopped yolk of hard-boiled egg being the food administered to them,
with a certain amount of bread paste. A cargo of fry is estimated to be
worth from 400 to 500 taels (£133 to £167), but on arrival at its desti-
nation realizes fnlly 1,000 taels or £300, the fish being then sold at so
much apiece instead of by the jar.

Eeliable information as to the mortality en route could not be ascer-
tained, but all agreed that it was considerable, though chiefly dependent
on the " good luck" accompanying the boat. The distance by water to
Kan-chow is 1,055 li or 350 miles, and occupies from ten to fifteen days,
according to the weather. The navigation is against the stream all the
way after entering the Po-yang Lake. During the journey the fish are
separated into different jars; the most important thing to be observed
is to keep the wild fish (yay yu) from the domestic fish (chia yu); the
former, said our informant, being of a restless nature, will not live
peaceably in confinement, but commences to prey on the others.

The Kan yii or pike appeared to be the wildest fish, and most to be
dreaded. The fry caught here and conveyed inland is chiefly that of
the Pang tou yii, Kuei yu (perch), Lien yii (bream), and Huen yii, draw-
ings of which are given.

The Pang tou yii measured 24 inches long, 13 inches girth, and
weighed 7 pounds, but it often attains a weight of 20 pounds to 24
pounds, and 4 feet in length. Its flesh is rather coarse and flavorless,
which is the chief complaint of most Yangtse fish. It is sold here at
this season of the year (May) for 40 cash, say l$d. per catty, equal
to a pound and a third. This is, of course, river-caught fish. Kuei yii
(perch), or "Mandarin fish," as our "boys" often call it, from the
fact of its being the best fish to be found in the market almost at all
times of the year, grows to a large size, is of excellent flavor, and very
firm if full-sized. The specimen in the illustration is only average size,
and measured 23 inches in length, 18 inches round the body, and
weighed between 7 pounds and 8 pounds. The price ranges from 40 to
60 cash, equal 2d. to M. per catty (Impounds), according to season
and time of day; but even at the latter price, "Mandarin " fish would
not be a very expensive luxury, yet the lower classes seldom indulge in
it. After the Kuei yii, the Lien yii ranks next, being a rich and firm
fish. It often grows 3 feet long and 20 pounds in weight, but the dimen-
sions of the one in the illustration were 22 inches long, 13 inches girth,

NOTES ON PISCICULTURE IN KIANGSI. 547

and weight C pounds. The Huen yii, though a coarse-looking fish, has
an excellent flavor, and in the proper season is a very acceptable change
at one's table, after the everlasting perch with which our cooks con-
tinually supply us. The length of the specimen given was 17 inches,
S^ inches round, and weighed between 7 pounds and 8 pounds. The fry
of the Shih yu^ov shad, which ascends the river in May to spawn, does
not appear to be caught or bred in ponds or lakes. It is greatly
esteemed by the Chinese, and is undoubtedly the best fish of their rivers.
The season for it is soon over, lasting from about the middle of May to
the third week in June. In former years this fish used to be taken from
Nanking to Peking for the Emperor's table, but the labor of getting it
there fresh was so trying to the people engaged to carry it, that the
Emperor was induced to forego this luxury, and the practice was dis-
continued.

The pike of these waters grow to a very large size, as will be seen
from the cut forwarded, the dimensions of which were 49 inches long,
21 girth, and weight 36 pounds. All attempts made by Europeans at
fishing with hooks appear to have failed, few even being rewarded with
as much as a bite, nor are Chinese often seen angling with rod and line
on the Yangtse. The system of taking spawn by forcible parturition
as practiced in the United States — a long description of which was
given in Harper's Magazine for June, 1874 — does not appear to be
known along the Yangtse, and it is a question which fish-culturists
can decide, whether the Chinese method of spawn collecting, or that
adopted in America and Europe, is the most effective.

It is said that at Canton fish are caught and their spawn expelled,
and afterward impregnated with the milt of the male fish, as described
iu the magazine quoted, but the statement has yet to be verified.

XXVI.-ON THE CULTURE OF THE CARP.

A.— ON CAEP-PONDS.*

As the price of fish and of other articles of food is gradually increas-
ing, greater attention is given to fish-culture, in order to have constantly
on hand an adequate supply in ponds. These reservoirs are either
natural sheets of water or artificial excavations. Those artificially con-
structed are, of course, preferable, especially when the greatest care has
been taken to provide everything that will secure a good supply. Fish
can also be reared in marl or peat bogs; yet, as a general rule, these are
suitable places of abode only for the crucian carp, the roach, &c. ; and
fish from such bogs can be used only as food for other fish, such as pike
and trout.

The two kinds of fish to which we direct our attention at present, in
connection with pond-culture, are the trout and the carp. We shall con-
fine ourselves in this article to carp-ponds, as these seem to be the more
popular with us. In former times such ponds were quite common in
Denmark, and traces of them may still be seen near many of our old
castles and manor-houses.

The chief difficulty in rearing carp is, that a large number of ponds
is absolutely necessary in order to meet the expense of culture, and to
make the time and labor bestowed upon it remunerative. Wherever
carps are raised, a complete system of ponds is arranged, the most im-
portant of which are those designed for the young carp, and those pro-
vided for the mature fish.

The pond for young carp forms, as it were, the basis of the whole estab-
lishment, and must be large enough to furnish young carp for the other
ponds. If this is not the case, it is best to have several ponds for the
young. Ponds having an area of from six to ten acres are considered the
best. Such a pond must only be fed from field-ditches, and must by no
means be connected with other ponds, brooks, or streams. In this way
only is it possible to preserve the pond free from pike, which are the
most dangerous enemies of the young carp. Immediately in front of
the chief embankment, the pond must have a depth of at least five feet,
while in other places two feet is sufficient. At its bottom a main ditch
is dug out, into which several smaller ditches lead from the sides, so
that in emptying the pond all the water can be drawn into a deeper

*Lidt om Karpedamme. [anon. Af A. F.] < Nordisk Tidsskrift for Fiskeri. — My
Rcekke af Tidsskrift for Fiskeri. Anden Aargang. Kjebenhavn. 1874. (pp. 79-84.)

550 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

ditch outside. By this means the young carp can gather in the inner
ditches of the pond, from which they are taken. It is necessary to do
this as quietly and quickly as possible, as the young fish are very tender,
and speedily perish.

The pond for young carp should have flat and even banks, so that
the sun may readily warm the water and thus quickly hatch the eggs
which are pasted to plants and roots. Hence it is not necessary to in-
troduce much fresh water during the spawning season, as the water in
the pond would thus become too cold, and so retard, and even completely
frustrate, the spawning and hatching process. During the spawning
season (from the end of May till some time in July) the plants which
grow in the shallow places should not be removed, and care should be
taken that neither cattle, ducks, nor crows, as well as other birds, ap-
proach the pond. Nor should perch, tench, or other fish be allowed to
enter it.

In those countries where carp are reared on a large scale, any piece
of ground which seems suitable is taken as a site for a pond for the
young fish, on the principle that the risk in raising any sort of grain is
much greater than that of rearing carp. In consequence of the high
price of fish, carp-ponds are now generally used year after year contin-
uously, while formerly the piece of ground was used one year as a fish-
pond and the next as a corn-field. It seems now to be the general opin-
ion that the keeping of fish year after year continuously in the same
pond has no deteriorating influence on their growth. When, however,
the grass at the bottom of the pond begins to disappear and gives way
to reeds,- the pond ought to be drained, and then plowed and sowed with
some grain. It is an easy matter, however, to arrange the ponds in such
a manner as to be proof against such contingencies. It is of course
necessary that the pond should be secure from inundations, and it is
always an advantage if no spring flows into it or issues from the bottom.
It is likewise important that the embankments should be made so strong
as not to be easily broken. A clayey or pulverulent bottom is prefera-
ble to any other.

It is best to stock the pond for young fish in the spring, when there
is no longer any danger of severe cold or snow. Two male carp, which
ought not to be less than four nor more than seven years of age, are
taken from the winter pond and placed in the pond for young fish, the
number of fish taken, however, being in proportion to the size of the
pond. Besides these fish, there are put into the pond about ten strong
carp, three years old ; from forty to fifty two years old ; and about six
hundred one year old. Care should be taken that all these fish be placed
in the pond in as perfect a condition as possible, and that they be put
down carefully in shallow places, so that it may be readily seen whether
the fish continue strong and healthy. Fish which have lost some of their
scales, or which have been injured in any other manner, grow slowly.
The experience of many years has proved that carp which are ready to

CULTURE OF THE CARP. 551

spawn, spawn but rarely, if there are no young carp in the same pond.
But even if the mother carp, notwithstanding all the care taken, should
not spawn, the pond would thus still yield some profit.

We cannot give here, in full, all the different regulations to be ob-
served in transplanting fish ; they are, on the whole, the same as those
used in shipping any live fish. The main thing to mention is, that in
emptying a pond for young fish, it should be done slowly, so as to allow
the fish sufficient time to collect in the ditches at the bottom of the
pond. While the process of emptying is going on, every other opening
should be closed in order to prevent the carp escaping.

The ponds for grown Jish may cover an area of about sixty acres.
Carp two and three years old are kept in these ponds, and even some-
times those only one year old, provided the pond can be preserved free
of pike. If, however, fish one year old are not placed in these ponds, no
fear need be entertained of pike, especially if a grating has been placed
at the openings where the water flows in and out, since this permits the
passage of small pike only. Great care must be taken not to allow the
fish to slip out. When it rains hard and the flow of water is consider-
ably increased, the young carp will immediately swim against the cur-
rent even into narrow and shallow ditches ; there it becomes an easy
prey to various animals, or else, remaining there after the water has
flowed off, dies on the dry ground.

Carp ponds are used exclusively for rearing carp that are more than
two years old. Two-year-old carp, after having been kept for two full
years in these ponds, ought to be fit for sale ; and three-year-old carp
ought likewise to be ready for sale after having been kept there for one
year, or, at any rate during one whole summer. The growth of the fish
will be dependent on the nature of the soil and the character of the wa-
ter. The water will be most suitable if it flows from all the neighbor-
ing farms. The bottom of a carp pond should be as even as possible,
and not rise in any place above the surface of the water, as such small
islands easily become the abodes of the enemies of the fish.

Small pike, perch, and tench may also be kept in these ponds. The
pike will find ample food in the perch, which increase very rapidly, and
the tench generally keep themselves so well concealed in the mud that
they escape the pike. The pike, perch, and tench alone will, as a gen-
eral rule, repay all the expenses of constructing the reservoir. Carp-
ponds are emptied in October.

Winter ponds are used for preventing the fish from perishing in very
severe winters, when the other shallow ponds easily freeze to such a
depth and for such a length of time as to cause the death of the carp.
It is best that these ponds be so arranged that the fish may be sup-
plied with good fresh water during the entire winter. The other ponds
can easily be so arranged as to preserve fish in them over winter ; but
although in this way the difficult labor of emptying the ponds in the
spring and autumn is avoided, it will always be best to have separate

552 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

winter-ponds, since, at any rate, the tench cannot be left over winter
with the carp in the shallow ponds, inasmuch as they constantly stir
up the sediment at the bottom and thereby disturb the young carp. In
the winter-ponds the different kinds of carp can easily be kept together,
as they generally remain very quietly at the bottom as soon as they
have found a place to suit them.

Sale-ponds are receptacles only for fish ready to be sold. They should
not be too large, since it is desirable that the fish may easily be taken
out with a bag-net. It is best to have them near the house, or at any
rate well guarded and locked. A constant stream of water should pass
through them, and at the place where the water flows in there should
be a strong wooden embankment, as the carp are apt to excavate the
earth round the opening. The sides of these ponds are sodded, and the
channel through which the water flows off should be so arranged as to
be proof against every danger of a break. These ponds ought to be
examined and cleaned every summer. They should have a depth of 6
feet, so that the bottom may not freeze.

Care should be taken in winter to keep some openings in the ice and
maintain the inward and outward flow of the water. This object is
most effectually secured by placing bundles of straw or reeds in both
the openings. One or more holes, in proportion to the size of the pond,
should constantly be kept open in the ice.

It must be understood that there are many rules to be observed, and
much work to be done, which, if minutely treated, would require a very
lengthy and detailed description, and which, indeed, would be out of
place here, as there are so many local differences to be taken into ac-
count in deciding what is the best plan to pursue.

In Holstein, where carp-raising on a large scale has been carried on
from very early times, almost every farm has its own method of pro-
cedure. In one thing, however, all are agreed, viz, that carp-raising
can only be carried on regularly and profitably by the most judicious
treatment. A careful choice of ponds, the selection of a superior breed
of carp, and careful treatment of the fish will always yield the largest
profits.

B— CARP-CULTUKE IN EAST PEUSSIA.
By R. Struvy.*

The undulating character of the surface of East Prussia favors the
construction of ponds, and led to extensive breeding of fish at an early
day, the heavy rains of that northern climate furnishing the necessary
water in abundance.

At the time of the Teutonic Order the province is said to have pos-
sessed an uuusual supply of fish, and traces of that period are even yet
to be seen, not only in the numerous ruined dams, but also in some that

"Unsere Karpfenzucht. <Xaudwirthschaft und Industrie. Herausgegeben von
August Wieneke. Berlin : 7. Jahrgang, 1875, Jan., p. 8, 9.

CULTURE OF THE CARP. 553

are still well preserved, on account of the practical plan upon which
they were constructed. A heavy pine tree, more rarely an oak one, was
simply dug out in such a way that it was hollow four feet from the
butt, and for the rest of its length was hewn out trough-shaped, and
covered with heavy cross-boards. It was supplied with a round hole
near the butt from which a tap projected at right angles. This was laid
as a discharging-pipe beneath the dam, the latter beiug formed, on the
side toward the pond, of planks or hewn timber, over the middle of the
hollow portion of the log, which was four feet long, as before stated. In
order to prevent the loss of fish, when the water was drawn off, screens
were placed at the tap and tap-hole. The dam was then banked up high
enough to cause the water to overflow upon a piece of gently-sloping
meadow-land. Flood-gates could therefore be dispensed with, it being
only necessary to see that the water never passed over the dam. If
this was sodded at first, and the pond did not remain dry too long, it
never leaked, since moles and rats only penetrated dams when the ponds ,
were dry. Strong streams should not be led into such dams unless the
escape for the water around them is well situated, otherwise it may be
washed out, and afford an outlet for the water.

The abandonment of a large number of these works occurred, chiefly,
between the years 1830 and I860, because it seemed more profitable to
convert the land into meadows or farming-land. Afterward the dams
necessarily disappeared entirely, as the land was drained and leveled.
The price of fish consequently advanced so high, on account of their
scarcity, th at those who had retained their ponds fouud their business very
profitable. In the last few years the larger farmers have turned their
attention again, with more earnestness, to this branch of production, but
skill and knowledge in regard to it have been lost, and such losses have
been suffered that it is absolutely necessary to consider the matter
practically and resort to exchanges of experience, since theory alone
does not answer.

Three annual courses of spawn, fry, and table-carp mainly require
attention. How, then, are good eggs to be obtained ? Theory suggests
that a shallow pond be constructed which can be kept free from preda-
cious fish, and that about five males and five females, of at least five
pounds in weight to the acre, be placed in it in the spring, and that ten
to twelve young carp be added for chasing ; old carp are said to be too
inactive about spawning-time, and the more the water is disturbed the
better the eggs will be fertilized. The writer, in spite of having followed
these directions closely, obtained no eggs during the past year, but pur-
chased 108,000 from a relative, who, in consequence of inability to finish
his spawning-pond in time, had placed his eighteen spawning-carp in a
pond of twelve and one:half acres, among the fry, and some table-carp
that had been left. The fry also grew finely.

The cause of the failure to obtain any eggs became very apparent.
When the pond was drawn off in the spring, before setting out the

554 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

spawning-fish, by way of precaution, on account of previous high water,
a number of large pike and perch were found, and carefully removed ;
but in the operation they lost their spawn. The pond was therefore al-
lowed to remain dry for eight days. This, however, was not sufficient,
since, instead of the expected carp, six bucketfuls of pike and perch, as
long as a hand, were obtained, and the workmen repeated the old ab-
surdity, that in some years carp spawn pike. Predacious fish make
their appearance of themselves where carp are bred. They seek the
ponds from the nearest streams during high water. The writer had the
opportunity, during the past spring, of witnessing the persistent efforts
of a pike, of four pounds in weight, in attempting to reach a carp in a
ditch so shallow that he was easily killed with a cane. But pike and
perch are not alone to be feared on account of their ravages ; the green
edible frog is also suspected of consuming the spawn. Large bastard-
carp are also supposed to injure the eggs by their attempts to fertilize
them, thus rendering them unproductive. The writer, however, doubts
this, as he has obtained pure carp-eggs among bastard-carp. In order
to produce valuable carp-eggs, the milters and spawners should be large
and healthy, rather more of the former than of the latter, and, above all,
they should receive gentle treatment in the spring, and neither be
squeezed nor struck. The pond should be preserved absolutely free from
predacious fish, and should have gently-sloping, sunny, grass-covered
banks ; it is even more beautiful if the grass grows down into the pond.
Ducks and geese, like all water-fowl, are injurious. The water must be
pure and not too cold, (spring,) nor in any degree fouled, since the form-
ation of mold may injure the whole lot of spawn. Only the strictest at-
tention in this particular can insure success, for one instance of neg-
lect generally injures the whole yield.

At the end of October, or the beginning of November,. the ponds are
drawn off and the eggs, fry, and spawning- fish are removed to their
winter-quarters from all that are not kept up during the winter. From
this time to spring carp eat exceedingly little, and can be kept,
if necessary, in very small inclosures, which are not liable to freeze,
or which are fed by water continually splattering into them. In East
Prussia preservation for the winter presents great difficulties, and
is attended too frequently with decided losses. If the pond is large
enough, and is supplied by a never-failing source of water, no air-holes
should be cut in the ice ; but if once made, they must be kept open
throughout the winter. The appearance of carp at these holes is always
a suspicious circumstance, as healthy fish are seldom seen at them.
Turbid snow-water, dammed back, also often destroys the whole winter-
stock in a short time. Where fish are crowded together light feeding,
of soaked peas and chopped bread, is advisable ; care, however, is neces-
sary with all easily putrescible matter, as animal offal, &c. Much has
been said in regard to the good or bad character of ponds, with refer-
ence to the flavor of the fish. This may, however, be regarded as a mat-

CULTURE OF THE CARP. 555

ter of secondary importance, for although carp may acquire a moldy fla-
vor in ponds with marshy and turfy bottoms, this unpleasant quality often
disappears a few days after they are placed in pure water, so that when
carp of very fine flavor are desired by the writer, he places them in the
basin of his fountain for two to three weeks. In case there are several
ponds, therefore, the worst should contain the fry, and the better ones
the marketable fish. With a liberal supply of food, carp, three years
old, will have a weight of three to four pounds, and they are then in the
best condition for the table, since old carp are tough and fibrous, and
those under three pounds are generally too full of small bones. For this
reason the ponds should never be overstocked. From 15 to 24 dozen of
eggs should be allowed to the acre, because of considerable loss, and 45
young fish, and, only where there is great abundance of food, double this
number. In this way a clear return of 10 to 25 pounds per hundred
square yards will be obtained, and even more if no accident prevents.

If old carp-culturists are disposed to smile at this brief account, and
to find nothing new in it, they are earnestly requested to communicate
their experience, as it was admitted in the beginning that skill and ex-
perience have both been lost, and everything must be learned anew.
The losses experienced, too, have been too great to permit the business
to get fairly under way ; in fact a large company failed for want of the
necessary experience. Since, however, there is no intention of abandon-
ing the enterprise until fine, fat carp, from East Prussia, appear as del-
icacies on the tables of Berlin, further information is desired.

C— CARP-PONDS.*

The value of a fish-pond depends upon an adequate supply of water,
and the amount of food for fish it affords. The latter condition is
affected, to a great degree, by the character of the soil and the depth
of the pond. Thus a sandy soil yields but little food, but of excellent
quality, while loamy and peaty soils are good, and a loamy mold excel-
lent indeed ; but those of tenacious meager clay, as well as stony soils,
are very inferior. These statements are especially true in regard to
ponds for carp. The first consideration in laying out new ponds is the
power to regulate perfectly the supply and discharge of the water. A
pond is seldom formed by excavating the earth, but generally by con-
structing an embankment across the lowest part of an uneven piece of
ground. By employing the earth adjoining for this purpose the fish-pit
is generally formed at the same time. The best material for the dam is
loam and clay. When the soil is sandy a foundation of loam must be
prepared in order to retain the water, wben a supply of the latter is not
at command. A new soil yields the largest return, which is diminished
by reedy growths and muddy sediment. A pipe for draining the pond,
which can be opened or closed on the water-side at pleasure, is laid

* Laudwirtbscbaft; uud Industrie, Berlin, Dec. 1, 1875, i?0. Translated by Prof. C.
1'. Hirnes.

556 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

through the dam at its lowest point. It usually consists of heavy
hollowed logs, imbedded in soft moss. These will last much longer if the
bark is uninjured. It may also be constructed of bricks, or of earthen-
ware pipes, with cement. On the water-side it passes through sheet-
piling, or a cemented wall, and is closed by a plug, or better, by means
of a drop- valve, which can be opened by ay rod with a screw attached.
A stand-pipe is also often placed vertically upon the horizontal discharge-
pipe. It is closed on the front, from the bottom to the water-level, with
sluice-boards placed on top of each other. These may be placed in posi-
tion or removed at will, according as it may be desired to raise or lower
the water in the pond. Where small streams flow through the pond,
this arrangement affords the additional advantage of keeping the depth
of water uniform, since it flows out over the top board through the
drain-pipe. A wooden grate is placed at the entrance of the drain-
pipe, to prevent the fish from passing into it. It is entirely sub-
merged to preserve it from decay. Iron grates are altogether unsuit-
able, ou account of their rapid destruction by rust. The fish-pit is an
excavation in which the fish collect when the pond is emptied. It must
be capable of being completely drained, and in loose, soft soil it is well
to line it with wooden or stone walls, and give it a firm bottom of sand,
stone, or boards. The greatest attention should be given to the fish-
pit, and it should be carefully freed from all mud whenever fish are
caught. It is also advisable to form a pit, called in Bohemia the sluice-
pit, at the outlet of the drain-pipe, in order to catch any fish that may
escape through a defective grate; and for this reason it should also be
supplied with a grate at its outlet. When the ponds are large, this is
lined with wood or stone. It should be kept full of water that the dis-
charge-pipe may be preserved from decay. After some time the flow of
water renders the interior of the drain-pipe so rough that the fish are so
injured in their passage through it, that it is very undesirable that they
should be found in the sluice-pit. The bottom of the pond is traversed
with ditches, so that the water may flow off freely and rapidly from all
sides, and the fish find their way easily into the fish-pit, and also that
the rich, muddy soil may dry off rapidly, and soon permit the passage
of draught-animals over it, if the pond is to be put in order. Depres-
sions in the pond, from which the water cannot be completely drained,
are very objectionable, since a great number of fish are lost in them,
and the removal of the predaceous fish is prevented. No trouble should
therefore be spared to drain such depressions. If the supply of water
is such that the pond can be filled with certainty in the spring, it is
well to allow it to become dry after the fall fishing, in order that the
soil may be freshened, and a portion of the enemies of the fish may be
destroyed. Ponds which are supplied exclusively by rain or snow water
must be filled again in the fall immediately after they have been emptied.
The water from villages and cultivated land is very advantageous, on
account of the nutriment contained in it, and in Wittiugau ponds are,

CULTURE OF THE CARP. 557

fed from the drainage of the soil rather than from streams, be-
cause the former is richer iu nutriment. By leading in water
from the adjoining water-sheds, from cultivated land, and villages,
the ponds are much improved. When creeks or brooks flow
through the pond, a brush-weir, formed of layers of uutrimmed
brush-wood, in such a way that the fish cannot pass over it, must
be placed so as to prevent the ascent of the fish in the stream. The
water-level should, as a rule, be maintained as constant as possible ;
and, in summer, a sudden, large influx of water should be prevented,
because the fish swim very eagerly toward the current of fresh water,
and are thus drawn from their feeding-ground and are liable to be
stolen. In a dry season, if the addition of water is unavoidable, it
should only be allowed to flow in during the day and be stopped at
night. It is important to be able to turn fresh water into the fish-pit,
when the pond is fished out, in order to revive the fish when they
become languid. If the water falls in dry weather, the borders become
dry, fermentation and putrefaction of the marsh-vegetation occur, and
the carp leave their feeding-ground for deep water. The spawn laid on
the grass iu the breeding- ponds also become dry and dead. On the
other hand, it is advantageous to allow ponds, prepared the summer
before, to dam up gradually, so that the higher portions may be pas-
tured, and breeding-places be afforded to insects. As these portions
are in succession rendered accessible to the carp, by the gradual rise of
the water, they are eagerly sought out by them. This plan has greatly
increased the productiveness of the ponds in Peiz, as well as in Wittin-
gau. Since carp find their food, for the most part, on the flat margins
of the pond, it is in general better to lay out several small, shallow
ponds than one large, deep one. Floating masses of vegetable matter
and marshy growth reduce the productiveness. Eepeated mowing in
summer, under water, and burning the roots when draiued and dried by
exposure, are employed to prevent the latter ; the former are intersected
in different directions by ditches, when the knots of vegetable matter
will float to the shore, and may be drawn out ; or the marsh may be
covered, when drained, if necessary when frozen, to the depth of several
inches with sand, which will prevent their floating when the pond is
filled. In the winter it is beneficial to allow the water to flow in and
out of the pond. If it becomes covered with ice, this is removed, at
such a distance from the wintering-place of the fish that they may not
be reached with a spear. In Wittingau, such openings in the ice, in
the larger ponds, are cut from 40 to 65 feet long and 3 to 4 feet wide,
and the ice is removed twice a day by means of hooks. If a decided
thaw occurs, when the ice is covered with a considerable depth of snow,
and the latter becomes saturated with water, and freezing weather fol-
lows, the preservation of the fish through the winter becomes doubtful.
The water generally changes color to yellowish, milky-white, or brown-
ish ; and sluggish insects appear at the openings in the ice and die, and

558 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

also fish that are weak and gasping after air. The craw-fish perish
first, next the frogs, then the predaceous fish, and finally the carp, and
the openings are surrounded by crows. The remedies for dangers from
these sources are increase of the number of openings, flooding, and
finally immediate fishing-out of the pond. A general destruction of fish
may also occur in summer, if the water becomes so low in hot weather
that vegetable and animal matter begins to putrefy and scum becomes
prevalent, or also if much manure or ditch-water flows into the pond.
The fish, in such cases, swim along the surface, gasping after air, and
finally die. A heavy rain is usually the most efficient remedy, in the
absence of which nothing remains but copious additions of water, or
immediate capturing of the fish. A pond in which the fish have died in
this way should be drained dry and put in order. It is very important
not to stock the pond too full. This was considered impossible in
Bohemia two hundred and fifty years ago, but the evidence in recent
times is conclusive that not only smaller fish are obtained, but also less
total weight of fish, when the stock exceeds certain limits established
by experience. In Schleswig-Holstein it is assumed that, in a good
pond, one carp can be fattened per 150 square feet, but that generally
70 to 80 fish to about two-thirds of an acre are plenty. The carp in
ponds there are marketable at three years, but generally only after four
years. Small ponds may be stocked proportionally heavier than large
ones. In general, it is not advisable to stock a pond with carp of differ-
ent sizes.

XXVII.— THE GOLD ORFE, (CYPRINUS ORFUS.)*

A — ON THE RAISING OF THE "GOLD ORFE," (CYPRINUS

ORFUS.)

Br M. Kirsch, Director of Fisheries at Wiesbaden.

The "Orfe," Cyprinus orfus Linn., "Porfe" in French, and bearing a va-
riety of names in German, such as "Nerfling," "Gold nerfling," " Erfel,"
"Elft," " Urs," "Urf," " Rotlling," and " Ladies' Fish," is distinguished
by its beautiful orange-colored back, and its belly-scales, which glitter
like silver. Taking into account its slender, trout-like shape, it may
well be called the most beautiful fish of our country.

Having been for many years occupied in raising the " Gold-orfe," in
addition to my raising large quantities of trout, pike, and carp, I desire
to state briefly the reasons why the Nassen Fishing Society has devoted
so much attention to this fish, and has spared no pains in raising it.

We think that it is not only the duty of all larger piscicultural estab-
lishments to prevent the entire disappearance of a species offish so near
extinction, but have also found after careful examination of everything
that has been said concerning this fish in old works, and of all we had
gleaned from our own experience, that the raising of the Cyprinus orfus
is of incalculable value to the practical pisciculturist.

There is scarcely a fish which as an ornamental fish so satisfactorily
meets all the demands made of it, as the Cyprinus orfus, which, in
summer and winter, is constantly seen near the surface of the water.
It does not sleep in winter like the carp and tench, and never makes
the water muddy. Ever restless, the Cyprinus orfus constantly swims
near the surface to seek its food, and even when ice thickly covers the
ponds, red spots indicate that this active fish is alive.

Gold-fish, gold tench, and carp only occasionally rise to the surface of
the water, while they seek their food at the bottom, and thus make the
water continually muddy.

The raising of the Cyprinus orfus as an ornamental fish has a peculiar
advantage over that of the gold-fish, which in early youth is black, and
only assumes its golden color during the second year, while the nu-
merous young of the Cyprinus orfus, floating about in large schools, even
when leaving the eggs present a remarkably beautiful appearance.

*Froni " Circular No. 4," published by the Deutsche Fischerei-Verein} Berlin, March,

1872.

560 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Having a thickness of about two lines, and a length of one-half to one
centimeter, their color being a bright red with a black head, the easily
frightened shoal swim with lightning-like rapidity from one place to the
other. Among the many hundreds which we have raised, there was
not a single one which had even a black spot or any change of color,
thus proving that the red "orfe" is no variety of the black "orfe,"
which, with us, spawn more than a month later. It is certain that a fish
which immediately on leaving the egg answers its purpose as an orna-
mental fish so completely, is preferable to the gold-fish, which does not,
till the second year, assume a brilliant color.

In the year 1558, Gessner wrote, in his " Natural History," p. 1268,
that the "orfe" enjoyed a high reputation as an article of food,
especially when fried, particularly in the months of April and May (a
season when with us trout can scarcely be recommended). Permission
to sell the "orfe" was only given when it had reached a certain size,
as tbey were considered an excellent food for the sick, and conse-
quently it was desirable not to let the species die out. This fish was
also considered a wholesome and strengthening food for women in con-
finement.

Dr. BlocJi, in " Our Fishes," Parts 1, II, III, published in 1782, pp.
138 and 139, acknowledges the excellence of the "orfe" as an article of
food, even giving the best mode of preparing them in the most palatable
manner, which this naturalist certainly would not have done if he had
not considered it his duty to awaken a more general interest in behalf
of this fish.

JocMsch, in his "Manual of Fisheries," 1802, p. 39, says: "The flesh
of the orfe has an excellent flavor, is very digestible," &c.

Bose, in his " Dictionary of Fisheries," 1811, p. 103, likewise says that
the " orfe " has a most delicious flavor.

La Cepede, in his " Histoire naturelle des poissons," 1796, states that
the "orfe" excels other fish, through its fine flavor.

Oken, the famous naturalist, says in his great "Natural History,"
vol. vi, p. 303, that the "orfe" is distinguished by its beautiful color,
and the wholesomeuess and excellent flavor of its flesh.

I therefore think that I am not too bold if, relying on the words of
these authorities, I recommend the raising of the "orfe" as a whole-
some, palatable article of food, for I am convinced that people in 1558,
1782, 1796, 1802, 1811, and 1836 knew just as well as we whether a fish
had a good flavor or not ; and it is evident that such authorities would
only recommend as good what was generally acknowledged to be so.

Besides the excellence of the Cyprinus or/us as an ornamental fish
and as an article of food, it possesses a still greater importance for the
ichthyologist, because it is very hardy and can be more easily trans-
ported to far distances than most other fish.

Our reports regarding the result of sending the Cyprinus or/us to
Cologne, Berlin, Lubbiuchen, Dresden, Hanover, Cassel, Freiburg,

THE GOLDE-ORFE, (CYPRINUS ORFUS.) 561

and to still more distant places, tbe fish being ou the road two days and
longer without being accompanied by a fish-breeder to pump in fresh
air or change the water, &c, will with pleasure be submitted for exam-
ination to any one who desires to see them ; and it will be found that
j ven when several hundred were sent together, not a single one was lost,
Xhe reader will know that none of the other superior kinds of fish could
stand such long journeys.

All the fish belonging to the family of salmonoids require for their
well-being cool and deep or pure and running water, and whether
their flesh, which is mostly very fat, can be considered a wholesome,
digestible food, such as the "orfe7' makes, I will leave to the physicians
to decide.

It is, at any rate, certain that there are a large number of stagnant
waters in which no salmonoids can be raised, because these waters
contain such large quantities of noxious substances that not even tench,
carp, or pike can live in them ; in such waters I advise the reader to
place Cyprinus or/us. As was mentioned above, they live near the sur-
face, making use of the purest portion of the water, do not touch the
noxious substances accumulating at the bottom, and seek their food near
the surface.

But if any one should distrust my experience of many years, I refer
%o the above-mentioned authorities, who tell us in every place that the
Cyprinus or/us has in former times been raised in the muddy, stagnant
water of the moats of the ancient cities of Nuremberg and Augsburg.

Let every unemployed and unproductive pool of stagnant water be a
reproach to German pisciculturists, and an incentive to free themselves
from their old unpractical methods, and to raise not only fish which
fashion momentarily favors, but such fish as are suitable for the exist
\ng sheets of water.

Our guide for the future of pisciculture is not only the little knowl
edge of our times, but let us examine what has been done in the dim
past, and let us gratefully adopt that which is really useful and profit-
able.

B — CORRESPONDENCE RELATING TO THE GOLDE-ORFE.*

By Prof. C. Th. E. v. Siebold.

In a letter which the bureau of the German Piscicultural Society at
Berlin has addressed to the president of the Fishing Society at Munich,
dated December 5, 1871, the question is asked whether this society pos-
sesses any information regarding the breeding and the value of the
gold-orfe (Cyprinus orf us), which at present is raised at Weisbaden in large
quantities, which would justify its introduction into other regions, es-
pecially North Germany % If such were the case, the German Piscicul-

* From " Circular No. 1," published by the Deutsche Fischerei-Yerein, Berlin, 1872.
36 F

56*2 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

tural Society would gladly lend a helping hand in furthering any ex-
periments in raising it.

As far as the undersigned knows, the gold-orfe has so far only been
raised in South Germany, by Mr. Scheuermann, at Dinkelsbiikl, Bavaria,
chiefly with a view of providing the aquaria with an ornamental fish.
If people in Wiesbaden have succeeded in raising this fish as a palat-
able article of food, the cause of this may be found in the circumstance
that the neighborhood of Wiesbaden must be entirely destitute of bet-
ter-flavored fish, for, otherwise, the gold-orfe would certainly not have
been used as an article of food. Judging of the experience of our
well-supplied Miiuich fish-market, it appears that this fish does not at
all find a ready market among the fish-loving Munich public, since
scarcely any of this fish and its variety (the Leuciscus or/us) are sold as
articles of food, their flesh being very insipid and full of bones.

Young "gold-orfe" are only sought after by keepers of aquaria, as,
on account of their beauty, they form a very good and cheap substitute
for the Chinese gold-fish. The larger fish of this kind are mostly used
for ornamenting lakes in parks and the basins of fountains. The under-
signed very much doubts whether even the most expert cook could so
heighten the flavor of the "goldorfe" as to compete successfully with
the salmon.

Munich, Becemher 15, 1871.

XXVIII.— DIRECTIONS FOR USING BLANKS FOR RECORDING
THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF FISH.

A series of blanks has been prepared for the purpose of facilitating
the record of the artificial propagation and distribution of fishes in the
United States. They will also, if carefully and fully filled out, supply
excellent data for determining the influences of natural agencies upon
the abundance of the food-fishes, their periods of migration, and the
hatching of the spawn. For example, the record of the temperature of
the air and water, together with that of the fish taken, will afford defi-
nite conclusions as to the effect of a cold late spring in retarding the
migrations of the shad ; while a comparison of the same temperatures
with the numbers of spawn taken and hatched will show the effect of a
high temperature upon the vitality of the eggs.

Table A is intended to record the operations at a hatching-station
where the eggs are taken from the parent fish and either hatched, or
distributed after the development has partially advanced.

Thus if the operation of hatching shad is being carried on at South
Hadley Falls, Mass., the reading would then be :

Becokd of shad-Jiatcliing operations conducted at South Hadley Falls,
Mass., on the Connecticut River, from July 20, 1874, to August 22, 1874,
on account of Connecticut State Commissioners, by Charles C. Smith.

The column under Line, No., relates to the numbering of the lines from
top to bottom. The column under Date relates to the day of the month
in which the work was performed. In the Hous-column are to be given
the hours of the day in which the physical observations of temperature,
wind, condition of sky and water and of tide are made. As many suc-
cessive lines should be appropriated for these records as observations
have been repeated at different hours during the day. Thus, if observa-
tions are made at 7 a. m., 12 m., and 7 p. m., three lines are required.
The record of Air and Surface-water temperatures needs no explanation.
In the record for -Bo^ow-temperature, the depth should be specified. If
it is always at the same depth, recording it at the head of the column
once is sufficient. The Direction of the Wind may be given approxi-
mately from the eight points of the compass most commonly referred
to. The Intensity may also be expressed in the words Gentle, Fresh,
Strong, Gale, Hurricane, &c. The Condition of Shy may be specified
by the words Clear, A few light clouds, Cloudy, Cloudy with showers,
rain, &c.j the Condition of Water as Clear, Muddied, Very turbid, &c.
Tide can be referred to by using L for low water and H for high water;
approximately half-way between these points of the tide by \. The record

564 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

under Seine hauled should give the hours of the day between which
successive hauls were made, and the number of seine-hauls in the time
specified. Under Fish taken should be recorded the entire number of
shad from the seine-hauls, divided, according to sex, under Males and Fe-
males; under Elpe fish, the number of "spawners" and "milters" under
Male and Female respectively. Eggs obtained is intended for the total
number of eggs for the day. The Period of hatching can be obtained
without difficulty or error if the spawning-boxes are numbered and a
record made of the date and hour when the eggs are placed in each
box. This record and the following ones have, of course, no reference
to the date in the preceding column. The Loss will be estimated with
more or less accuracy according to the method used for the purpose.
Under Remarks, a variety of record incident to the day may be inserted :
as, " The temperature of the water was so high that the eggs impreg-
nated showed no vitality ;" or, " The heavy northwest wind and sea cap-
sized twenty-five of the boxes;1' or, " 50,000 young fish from eggs impreg-
nated on July 24 and 25 were released into the river."

Table B is for the operations of hatching-houses which have received
eggs from stations at the streams where they have been impregnated
and carried forward to the point of development when they can be
shipped with safety.
The blank, if filled out for Vermont, would read :
Record of operations of M. G. Edmunds, fish-commissioner of Ver-
mont, conducted at Charlestown, N. H., in hatching and distributing
young of Penobscot River salmon, from October 22, 1874, to January 5,
1875.

The. heading Line, No., relates to the numbering of the lines from the
top of the page downward ; the Date refers to the time at which the
eggs were received; under Received from, the Government or State
commission or other source contributing the eggs is to be recorded ;
Whence received relates to the locality of the spawn-procuring sta-
tion ; Time of journey, from the date at which the eggs were packed
for shipment to the time of their arrival at the hatching-station and
the transfer to the hatching-troughs; General condition refers to
their condition on arrival ; under Number of eggs received : From
the United States, relates to those supplied by the United States Com-
mission; From other sources, all others, and Total the sum of these two
supplies ; Loss in unpacking means the bad eggs that have been in-
jured before arrival, which may include all that give evidence of loss of
vitality within twenty-four hours after they have been put in the hatch-
ing-apparatus, providing, of course, that there is no evidence apparent
of injury from other causes than those incurred in transportation;
Fish hatched is intended to include all that emerge from the egg,
except such as may hatch prematurely from injuries received during the
transportation of the eggs ; the Young distributed relates to the
number that are put alive into their destined waters ; Where planted

DIRECTIONS FOE USING BLANKS. 565

should include the name of the main river, the name of the tributary,
and the name of the town, city, or village near where the fish are
planted ; the column of Remarks may include anything important inci-
dent to the series of facts recorded, as loss in journey to point of distri-
bution ; as, "Bellows Falls, Vt., only five fishes;" or, "An accident to the
railroad delayed the train some hours, the weather was warm, and the
fish in such precarious condition that they were put into the Connecti-
cut River to save them, though they were intended for the Merrimack
River."

Table C is for record of distribution of any species of fish from the
hatching-establishment to the waters in which they are planted. It
should be filled out even where reference has been made to the distribu-
tion in Table B, as it contains the details of the transfer and planting
more fully than the latter. Filled out it might read : Record of distri-
bution of shad made from June 23, 1875, to July 5, 1875, by Jonathan
Mason, under the direction of the United States Commission of Fish and
Fisheries.

No. of line refers to the numbering of lines from the top of the page
downward ; Date of transfer, the time of placing the fish into the
cans ; Obtained from, the fish-commission or private source supplying
the eggs; Place where taken, the name of the hatching-station
whence fish were obtained; Period of journey, the time the fish
were in the cans ; Number of fish Originally taken, the number
put alive into the cans; Actually planted, the number put alive into
the destined waters ; Introduction of fish includes Place, name of
nearest town, village, or city ; Stream refers to the name of the tribu-
tary in which the fish are placed, and Tributary of, to the name of the
main river ; Transfer in charge of, to the person having the respon-
sibility of the fish en route ; Remarks, to any important incident of the
transfer.

The following specimen -tables will illustrate the nature of the data to
be recorded :

56G REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

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APPENDIX D.

THE RESTORATION OF THE INLAND FISHERIES.

569

CONTENTS

Tage.

A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 571

1. Early protective measures 571

2. Improved appreciation of the interest 572

3. The object of fishery-legislation 573

B. THE FISHERIES 575

4. The former condition of the Austrian fisheries 575

5. The present condition of the fisheries, and its causes 576

0. Artificial fish-breeding 580

7. Progress of foreign fisheries 585

Great Britain 585

France „ 586

Germany . 587

8. Condition of pisciculture in Austria. 589

9. Value of the products of the fisheries 598

10. Fishery-statistics 601

11. Scientific investigations 603

C. THE IMPORTANT FRESH-WATER FISHES 605

12. The Salmon family (Salmonoidei) 606

13. The Pike family (Esccini) 613

14. The Catfish family (Sunroidei) 613

15. The Cod family ( Gadoidei) 613

16. The Eels (Marcenoidei) 614

17. The Carp family ( Cyprinoidei) 614

18. The Perch family (Percoidei) 616

19. The Sturgeon family (Acipenserini) , 616

20. The Crawfish (Astacus fluviatilis) 617

D. PROTECTIVE LEGISLATION 618

21. Fishing-privileges 618

22. Foreign fishery-laws 619

Prussia 619

Bavaria , 630

Wiirtemberg 631

Baden 631

Saxony 632

Liibeck 633

Switzerland 633

France : 635

Italy 635

Denmark and Sweden and Norway 637

Russia 637

United States 637

Great Britain 638

23. Fishing-privileges and fishing-laws in Austria 643

Old fishing-laws 643

The present fishing-law 650

24. The buying-off of fishing-privileges 665

25. International fishery-treaties 669

26. Salt-water fisheries and the laws relating to them 674

E. CONCLUSION 677

70

XXIX -FISHERIES AND FISHERY LAWS IN AUSTRIA AND OF

THE WORLD IN GENERAL.

By Carl Peyrer.

[The following article was prepared by Mr. Carl Peyrer, at the request
of the department of agriculture of Austria, for the purpose of giving
an account of the present condition of the fresh- water fisheries of that
empire, and incidentally of Europe in general, as also to furnish an
explanation of the causes which have made it necessary to provide by
legislative enactment and by various methods of artificial propagation
for the preservation and further increase of the fish.

The article concludes with an account of the legislation which has
been adopted, and the general principles on which such legislation is
founded. All the points brought forward by the author apply to a
greater or less extent to the United States ; and for the purpose of
bringing the general history of the subject up to the present date, and
of showing the necessities of other countries and what has been done
to meet them, I have thought it proper to translate and publish the
report of Peyrer, so as to prepare the way for a national system ot
uniform regulations for the protection and improvement of the fisheries
of the United States.

Spencer, F. Baird.]

A— GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

1. — EARLY PROTECTIVE MEASURES.

Reports have been made at different times on the state of the fish-
eries, and on the existing fishing-privileges, in the different provinces
of Austria, as well as on the means of improving them, and especially
upon changes or complete reforms in the fishery laws. Draughts of
new laws have repeatedly been made, and have been thoroughly exam-
ined and discussed by committees appointed for the purpose, these
committees being assisted by persons who had made fishing a special
study, by representatives of the central government, by the provincial
authorities, and by agricultural societies.

In looking over the reports made at different times on one and the

* Fiscbereibetrieb uud Fiscbereirecbt in Osterreicb. Erne vergleicbeude Darstelluug
des osterreicbiscben Fiscbereiweseus mit dein Fiscbereibetriebe und der Fiscberei-
gesetgebung auderer Lander, insbesondere Deutscblands, verfasst im Auftrage des k. k.
Ackerbaumiuisteriurns von Carl Peyrer, Sectionsratb im k. k. Ackerbauuiinisterium.
Wien. Druck der k. k. Hof- uud Sfiaatsdruckerei. 1874. 8 vo. pp. iii, 159.

572 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

same fishery-law, one is struck by the peculiar changes of views regard-
ing the most important points in question.

Prior to the year 1848, the fishing-privileges were nearly everywhere
considered as an essential part of the rights belonging to every land-
owner, and a strict fishery-law would have appeared as an attempt to
give renewed stability to the claims of land-owners, which, even at that
time, were frequently attacked, and considered as untenable ; the de-
sire for such a law, which was expressed by several persons, conse-
quently found but little support.

In the following years, after the fishing-privilege had come to be
considered as only an individual claim, which any one might obtain,
when new landed properties had been formed and were still forming,
such a law appeared to many as an unjustifiable infringement ou the
rights of individuals, while most people thought it an unnecessary
measure, justified by no actual want ; others thought it a very small
matter that the government should make laws regarding the size of
meshes, the size of fish which might be caught, the seasons for fishing,
&c. Such laws, they said, could never be fully carried out, and would
only produce a hateful and inefficient police surveillance ; the gov-
ernment, in its zeal to promote the fishing interests, should confine itself
to the diffusion of useful information, to money-grants, and similar favors.
But even at that time, these views found their opponents. Zealous
naturalists and sound political economists joined the intelligent pro-
prietors in showing the pernicious consequences of neglecting the fish-
eries, and also showed the possibility of improving them by laws based
on sound scientific principles. The certain hope was expressed that
the constant growth of intelligence among the population would make
the belief in the usefulness and the necessity of such laws more uni-
versal, and increase the possibility of carrying them out. These views,
however, did not succeed, as their opponents were still too powerful.

2. — IMPROVED APPRECIATION OF THE INTEREST.

The reports of the last few years are in every respect more satisfac-
tory. Natural sciences, which have become better known, having
taught men not to surrender unconditionally to the powers in nature,
but to combine them in a practical manner with human activity, this
principle was also applied to the fisheries. Here, more than in many
other fields, have the scientific and economical interests, which called
to life the artificial propagation of fish, and the consequent system of
scientific fish-culture, produced a radical change. The growing produc-
tiveness of the fisheries in those countries in which the right to fish is
restrained by strict laws; the better knowledge of the actual condition
of the fisheries and of the historical development of the fishing-privi-
leges in the several provinces of Austria; the acquaintance with foreign
laws in all their details, and the manner iu which they are carried out;

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 573

and the glaring evils in the Austrian system: all these causes have
combined to eradicate the former indifference and have, among those
men in Austria who take an interest in the subject, produced an over-
whelming majority in favor of suitable laws for protecting and improv-
ing this branch of industry.

The objection that such laws could not, under existing circumstances,
be carried out, has become powerless ; on the contrary, it is fully expected
that the laws themselves will pave the way for more correct views, for
greater energy in carrying on the fisheries, for order and respect for law ;
and that, through the better understanding and the awakened interest
of the population, the laws will gradually grow in efficiency.

At first we shall have to be satisfied with small beginnings, and leave
it to the educating force of legislation gradually to produce a better state
of affairs. In some parts of the country the fishery-law may even now
bear its full fruit, and be put into practical execution in all its details ;
in other parts, however, where, for the time being, the conditions are
not so favorable, individual intelligence and perseverance will no doubt
secure a firm footing for the more important regulations.

The greatest change of views, however, is observable not only regard-
ing the question of the necessity and feasibility of a fishery-law, but
also regarding the extent of such a law. While the former laws did not
go beyond sporadic regulations, having the character of police-ordi-
nances, such as might seem desirable to a local observer, the more
recent reports have aimed at a thorough exposition of the object and
basis of the new legislation, as well as of the several conditions on
which the healthy development of the fisheries depends; they endeav-
ored to define clearly all the judicial points growing out of these con-
ditions, and to urge the settlement of all these points by a fishery-law
which should be as nearly complete as possible. They also aimed to
call into life institutions calculated to improve the fisheries still further.
From a mere police ordinance, the fishery-regulation is to rise to the
dignity of an organic law.

3. — THE OBJECT OF FISHERY LEGISLATION.

The object of fishery legislation, as of all other economical enact-
ments, is to make a lasting and advantageous use of the waters con-
taining valuable food-fishes, and to place this interest in its proper
relation to all the other industries, i. e., to increase the quantity of
fish as much as the due regard to other industries will permit. As,
according to Roscher, every industry rests on scientific, technical, and
economical principles, which are combined for reaching a certain defi-
nite, practical object, viz, the most advantageous carrying on of this
industry, therefore must all economical legislation, with a view to the
right adjustment of these, be made scientific, technical, and economical
principles.

Fishery legislation must have due regard to the teachings of science

574 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

concerning the nature of fish, their different species, propagation,
growth, location, migrations, &c. ; to the teachings of technology con-
cerning the different methods of catching fish, the implements employed,
the contrivances for protecting fish against hurtful influences, for favor-
ing their migration, &c. ; but no less must it study the principles of polit-
ical economy, the ways and means of carrying on business in the most ad-
vantageous manner, the mode of holding property and the uses made of
it which are hostile to modern civilization, in order to replace them by
such as Avill suit the fisheries and further their interests; it must like
wise study the true relation toward each other of all the industries car
ried on by means of water, the effect of laws on industrial pursuits so
as not to make laws which would- decrease the net profits and would
deter people from engaging in fishing industries.

Fishery legislation must also have due regard to judicial and admin-
istrative considerations ; it must be based on a thorough knowledge of
the condition of fisheries in other countries, of the fishery -laws of these
countries, as well as of the laws and administrative regulations of all
branches of industry related to fishing; and it must study the manner in
which laws are carried out in foreign countries and the effect of such
laws on the fishing interests.

These several elements of fishery legislation had, therefore, to be
studied as thoroughly as possible, and made perfectly clear, before a law
could be drawn up.

All the legal questions regarding fisheries cannot be settled at once
by passing fishery-laws, since many of them will have to be solved by
different forms of legislation, such as penal laws, special laws, &c. ; but
even for such laws, the study of the above-mentioned principles will be
of great use.

Although the passing of fishery laws is an important step toward
furthering the fishing interests, it is neither the law nor the government
which calls fisheries into life ; the law would be powerless if it were not
energetically supported by the will of the people ; the activity of those
persons who possess fishing-privileges, and the spirit of enterprise in
individuals can alone, under the protection of the law, bring about con-
tinued improvements; and further changes in the fishing-privileges will
favor the formation of societies, produce equitable methods of renting
out the fisheries, and common regulations for their protection and im-
provement. Such individual activity must then be followed by further
administrative measures on the part of the communities, the provincial
assemblies, and the central government, for clearing away hiuderanccs
and creating new means of promoting the fisheries.

From the government, we must, above everything else, expect that it
wdl strictly carry out the laws made for protecting the fisheries against
illegal encroachments, and against the unwise exhaustion of the waters
by those who possess fishing-privileges, as well as against interruptions
in fishing by the unlimited extension of the rights of third parties; to

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 575

the government we must likewise look for those general, far-reaching,
and, therefore, successful measures which the fishing interests require
from time to time even where there is a good fishery-law. Such meas-
ures likewise demand a thorough knowledge of the principles on which
the fishery-laws are based.

The sad experiences of the Austrian fisheries, which are related in
every one of the reports of competent men from all the provinces of
the Austrian empire, and which could not be passed over silently in this
report, will increase conviction that the former neglect and the conse-
quent exhaustion of the rivers and lakes cannot go on without this in-
dispensable harvest of the waters dwindling down to utter insignificance,
and the supplies of this wholesome and cheap food diminishing. It
must become a question of vital interest to the whole population to put
an end to the exhaustion of the waters by cultivating them.

B— THE FISHERIES.
4. — THE FORMER CONDITION OF THE AUSTRIAN FISHERIES.

In olden times, the waters of Austria were rich in fish of every kind,
supplying the population with a considerable quantity of cheap and
wholesome food, and the fishers with a fruitful source of income. On
all the more important waters, there were well organized fishing-associa-
tions, guilds of fishermen and traders ; in all the larger towns, there were
fish-markets, the names of which are alone left in many cases. Old ac-
count-books giving the quantities of fish used and sold, market-statistics
and service-lists of the number of fish to be paid to landed proprietors,
convents, cities, and markets, by their dependents, show in figures the
immense wealth of fish in the olden times ; not to mention the many
almost legendary reports of enormous hauls of fish, of the complaints
of servants that they were nauseated by the too frequent appearance on
the table of salmon and trout, which are found in the often quoted regu-
lations and service-compacts of many cities on rivers flowing into the
Baltic and the North Sea, as well as on the Danube, in Salzburg, Bohe-
mia, and in other provinces of Austria. As late as the first decades of
our century, the wealth of fish in the several provinces of Austria was
very considerable. Some rivers of Moravia, as late as thirty years ago,
furnished so many trout that these fish formed the common food of the
laborers, a good sized tubful being sold for about 5 cents.

Even during the period 1S50-'5S, trout were so numerous in the
rivers and rivulets of the Bohmer Wald that an observer counted
one trout to every fathom, the breadth of the water being 4 feet and
its depth 1 foot, (Woldrich, Ueber die Fische und ihr Leben in den
Waldbiichen des Centralstockes des Bohmerwaldes, 1858,) while the
same observer, in 1870, found the same streams almost without any
fish whatever, on account of fishing during the spawning season.

576 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Twenty -five years ago one might have seen, in the Vienna markets,
immense sturgeons, frequently 10 to 15, each weighing 250 to 500 pounds.

The wealth offish in our beautiful mountain lakes and in the numer-
ous rivers and streams in the Austrian Alps was world-renowned.

The saying of M. Coste, who, imitating a well-known wish of Henry
IV, promised, after the introduction of artificial fish-breeding, a trout to
every Frenchman, seemed to be fulfilled in Austria.

5. — THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE FISHERIES AND ITS CAUSES.

In our day, most of the waters are almost depopulated ; salmon and
trout formerly nearly worthless, being counted among dainties which
only the wealthy can enjoy. In many waters formerly visited by migra-
tory fish, especially salmon, these migrations have ceased entirely ;
fishing-privileges, once highly valued, have in most places become
worthless, and the fishing trade is languishing. Not only has the quan-
tity of fish decreased, but the number of fine and full-grown specimens
of the better kind of fish has also diminished considerably. In former
times, when fishing in our rivers and lakes was carried on with due
regard to the protection of the younger generations of fish, they grew
to a considerable size, aud the pictures in some of our old castles and
town halls, of fish caught in the olden times, represent them of aston-
ishing dimensions. In many cases, the cause of this depopulation of
the waters must be found in the advance of human civilization, driving
back animal creation.

The waves produced by steamers disturb and drive away the fish,
throw a large number of eggs and young fish on shore, or cover them
with mud in the spawning places. Embankments and other river im-
provements made in the interest of navigation, or as a protection against
inundations or the formation of marshes, make the water-courses nar-
rower, destroying many favorable spawning and breeding places, and
drying many sheets of water entirely. The lowering of lakes destroys
many of the old overgrown spawning places among the reeds and bushes
on the shores; the increased number of water- works, especially of weirs
aud sluices for industrial purposes, likewise disturbs the propagation of
fish, and makes their migration to the spawning grounds either very diffi-
cult or entirely impossible. Of the so-called salmon and trout paths, so
successfully introduced in other countries, so far but little use has been
made with us.

The constantly increasing devices for irrigation and for draining,
made with a view to heightened agricultural productiveness ; contriv-
ances for floating lumber down the streams ; the introduction into the
water of hurtful salts, coloring matter, and other refuse of industrial and
agricultural establishments ; the filth of cities; the innumerable small
particles of coal from steamers and factories, gas works, &c, are all
injurious to the fisheries, as they are apt to kill the young fish. After
every violent rain, which washes out the old heaps of rubbish near alum

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 577

and vitriol works and other manufacturing establishments, masses of
dead or stunned fish may be seen floating on the surface of the waters.

Still more does the decrease of food in the fishing waters, which is
brought about by various causes, diminish the number of fish to a
great extent. The number of fish is in due proportion to the quantity
of organic matter which annually passes into the water. The culti-
vation of the banks; the felling of trees; the clearing away of bushes;
the frequent cleaning of the river beds ; the rootiug out of aquatic
plants, which purify the air in the water and develop oxygen ; the
taking away of sand and mud; all these causes tend to diminish the
conditions under which alone a healthy growth of fish can be expected.
The consequent want of food, as supplied by aquatic plants and by the
numerous insects living in the mud, decreases the number of fish, even
in such waters as had the reputation of possessing inexhaustible wealth
of fish. As man takes away more and more grain and straw from the
fields and grass from the meadows, rain and snow-water can no longer
bring as much organic matter into the lakes and rivers. Such organic
matter as is carried along by the water is, moreover, hurried on in its
rush, made more rapid by river improvements, and not permitted
to become food for fish by settling in calmer waters and undergoing a
series of chemical changes.

The combination of all these unfavorable conditions, which cannot be
entirely removed, will always keep the productiveness of the fisheries
in most of our waters below the average of former times. But even
that degree of productiveness which might be reached has never been
attained ; and it can boldly be affirmed that the inland fisheries owe
their decline more to themselves than to those outward causes men-
tioned above. The destruction of fish even extended to those numerous
waters which had either entirely or partly escaped the hurtful influences
described above, or which could, by suitable arrangements, be freed
from such influences, and, even in spite of such unfavorable circum-
stances, still contain all the conditions necessary for successful fish-
breeding.

The number of bodies of waters and rivers which are rich in fish is,
even now, very considerable in several provinces of Austria ; by proper
care and cultivation, their number can be increased; and, considering the
almost inexhaustible strength which nature develops in the increase of
fish, even the smallest body of water can, from a state of poverty and
' neglect, be changed into a rich harvest field for the proprietor. We
are sorry to see that hitherto but very little has been done in the way
of caring for and and cultivating the waters, for keeping away hurtful
influences, and for taking proper steps to promote pisciculture.

The want of the spirit of industry on the part of those who possess

fishing-privileges, especially among the poorer and more ignorant.

neither permitted the employment of the proper means for promoting
37 F

578 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

the fishing interests, nor would it allow any clear light to be thrown
upon the hurtful character of most methods now in use.

The young fish, amounting to millions, are carelessly thrown on shore
or allowed to perish, when their preservation would bean easy and inex-
pensive matter. Everywhere the business is carried on with hurtful im-
plements, destroying the eggs and the young fish. Because there is no
season when fishing is prohibited, the fishermen destroy millions of eggs
by catching during the spawning season, thus sacrificing great future
wealth for the sake of inconsiderable present gain.

Nowhere are any efforts made to neutralize the hurtful influences of
industrial pursuits on the life and propagation of fish ; scarcely any-
where has an attempt been made to harmonize conflicting interests by
such measures as are suggested by the advancement of science.

The legal relations of the fisheries, especially those pertaining to their
renting or farming, are everywhere arranged in such a miserable manner
as to lead to the total exhaustion of the waters. In no portion of
political economy do we find so many antiquated legal forms, which
are hostile to civilization, and so many unpractical and useless regula-
tions, as here. Such a state of affairs not only encourages individual
proprietors either to make the most reckless use of their privileges or
to neglect them totally, but makes a rational fish-culture in larger
bodies of water by all other privileged persons almost a matter of im-
possibility.

There are privileges for employing certain specified fishing imple-
ments, fish-weirs, automatic traps, &c, and for small spaces in larger
bodies of water ; privileges extending only over one-half of a stream,
and those which change their possessor every year; privileges of a
doubtful or disputed character in private bodies of water ; fishing wa-
ters where any one or where all the members of a certain village or
town may fish ; and fishing waters which do not go beyond the extent
of the shore, &c. The fisheries are nearly everywhere leased in small
portions and on short time, thus preventing the lessee from making any
improvements. Large estates possessing fisheries lease them frequently
to their officials, to foresters, &c, who catch a few fish for their own
use, or lease the fisheries to others. Even sheets of water belonging to
the state frequently find no lessee on account of the arduous conditions
of the lease. In some parts of the country, where fishing has been car-
ried on in a reckless manner by the farmers or proprietors of the banks,,
the fisheries have, even in brooks that formerly possessed an endless
wealth of trout, dwindled down to a mere pastime for boys, or are fre-
quently carried on by vagrants, poor day-laborers, and mechanics not
at all in a concealed manner, but quite openly and with the knowledge
of the proprietors.

. But very rarely are the fisheries in the hands of men who, by the
intelligent and persevering application of sound principles follow a

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 579

practical aim that is likely to preserve them from exhaustion. Legisla-
tion in our country so far has not endeavored to transfer the fisheries
to a better class of men by regulating the system of leases, and by limit-
ing the powers of possessors whose titles to property are drawn up in a
form which is hostile to general civilization.

The state itself has hitherto set a bad example by leasing its waters
in small portions and on short time to ignorant fishermen. Nowhere
has the lease been made on scientific principles ; frequently, the reeds
of lakes and ponds are leased separately, or they are given away to
poor peasants, in payment for work done, who capture the fish at all
times, even during their spawning season, thus destroying even the
very germs of a rational protection.

Nowhere have new species been introduced into waters rich in inferior
fish and suited for the finest breeds, nor has any care been taken to
increase the quantity, to improve the breed by crossing it, or to estab-
lish places where fishing should be actually prohibited, in which places
artificial propagation might be utilized, or, in fact, to take any practical
measures for bringing to greater perfection this important industry.

The organization of companies on a legal basis has not been at-
tempted anywhere ; associations of all the persons privileged to fish,
such as existed in great number in olden times, have nowhere been
formed, although they had proved eminently useful for making good
fishing regulations, for organizing the fisheries either for the pur-
pose of carrying them on in common or only for taking uniform meas-
ures for protecting and increasing the fish, for doing away with obnox-
ious privileges, for establishing fish-passages and places where fishing
was prohibited, for stocking the waters with a superior breed of fish,
for common protection, and for common sales.

No wonder that our beautiful lakes, even those where no steamer nor
factory disturbs the fish, have gradually become just as depopulated as
our large rivers and streams.

The increase of population and the easier means of transportation
have produced a much larger market for fish, and made them the
object of an eager pursuit by privileged and non-privileged fishermen*
Instead of satisfying the increased demand brought about by the
increase of population, through greater care in the breeding of fish
and by strict protective measures, a perfect system of plunder has been
introduced aud is tolerated. Only the immediate demand is looked to
and is satisfied by every means; fish-thieves of every kind plunder
the waters, especially peddlers, traveling musicians, and actors, who
seek the placidly flowing waters, the old river beds, and stupefy the fish
by the seeds of Cocculus indicus mixed with other bait. Since the
building of railroads has made blasting with dynamite more frequent,
not only the laborers on the railroads, but, to their disgrace be it said,
persons possessing fishing-privileges and farmers, have made great
havoc by using explosives for catching fish. Those which have been

580 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

killed or stunned in this manner or by the use of Cocculus indicus float on
the surface, the larger ones are taken out, and the smaller oues perish
uselessly.* Carl Vogt, the well-known naturalist, says, in his work
on artificial fish- breeding, t "As far as the article of food is concerned
which is found in our waters in the shape of fish, we occupy entirely
the stand-point of the hunter, or at best that of the roving shepherd,
who seeks safe retreats for his flocks, but leaves all the rest to nature.
Our fishery-laws do not even go as far as our game-laws, which at least
protect the animals of the forest during their breeding time."

In reviewing all of the above-mentioned facts, we must, to our deep
regret, consider the reproach justified, " that the present state of our
fisheries and the manner in which they are carried on, are one of the most
unpardonable crimes against bountiful nature, against our own palpable
advantage, against the welfare of the nation, and the civilization of our
age." Men have actually, in their inexcusable blindness, done everything
to destroy not only the treasures of nature, but even the fountains from
which these treasures flow, while the means of preserving, protecting,
and increasing them are nowhere applied with true understanding, with
energy, and perseverance.

6. — ARTIFICIAL FISH-BREEDING.

The power of propagating is extraordinarily developed in fish. Of the
food-fishes trout deposit 6,000 eggs per annum; salmon, 25,000; tench,
70,000; pike, 100,000; perch, 200,000; sturgeon, upward of 2,000,000.
This circumstance, as well as the high price of fish, but more particu-
larly the invention and further development of artificial fish-breeding,
have again awakened the desire for an extensive and well-regulated fish-
culture; aud in spite of all the hiuderances mentioned above, which can-
not be obviated, and in spite of the demands for the most unlimited
use of the waters which navigation, industry, and agriculture are
making, there is a possibility of again gradually making pisciculture a
remunerative source of income in our country.

It would, however, be a delusive hope if, from the " mere possibility
of multiplying young fish," we would at once deduct its practical real-
ization on an extensive scale, and expect that the artificial impregna-
tion of thousands of eggs, which, by means of a couple of fish, had

* From Daubrawka, near Pilsen, in Bohemia, the "Nar. Listy" communicates the follow-
ing as the result of catching fish by means of dynamite : " The effect of the dynamite
thrown into the water soon became apparent. A large number of fish floated on the
surface ; these, however, were such as had only been stunned by the explosion. When
after the lapse of about half an hour the water had again become calm, so that one
could see the bottom, a large number of dead fish could be seen, which, when taken
out, proved useless, as they had spots and smelled very disagreeably. On the second
day, the place became almost impassable, because the fish had commenced to putrefy.
The result of this attempt was that the lessee of the fishery got about 40 pounds of
fish, while at least 400 pounds had been killed and become useless."

t Die kiinstliche Fischzucht, Leipzig : Brockhaus, 1859, p. 2. *

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 581

proved astonishingly successful, would immediately tend to restock all
our lakes and rivers.

The law of nature by which fish are increased by the enormous fruit-
fulness of a single pair is counterbalanced by another law of nature,
which permits the destruction of equally large numbers of fish during their
period of development, thus restoring the proper balance in the house-
hold of nature. Hitherto, man has only disturbed this balance, and no
endeavors were made to counteract destruction by taking measures for
preservation and increase.

On the continent of Europe, many races of animals that were hostile
to man, or at least useless, have, by this continued war of destruction,
either been entirely annihilated or very much diminished, in numbers ;
those, however, whose preservation and propagation are protected by
human laws and customs, those which have enjoyed the care of man,
have not only been preserved and increased, but also considerably im-
proved. Just as man in the care of his domestic animals does not leave
everything to nature alone, but rears them on practical and scientific
principles, he must also carry on fish-breeding in a similar manner.

It is the object of artificial pisciculture to make use of the spawn
which nature provides in rich profusion, and to protect it against all
hurtful influences in nature, as well as to provide the fish in a plentiful
manner with the food which they require for their development.

Of the enormous number of fish-eggs, a large portion is never fertil-
ized, the cause of this being the peculiar manner of impregnation,
which takes place outside of the body, as the female lets the eggs
(roe) drop into the water, and the male pours the semen (milt) over
them. The eggs of most species of fish lie free on the bottom, only cov-
ered a little by pebbles and sand, or are by some, as is the case with
the perch; pasted on aquatic plants and stones. During the breeding-
season, which lasts several weeks, the eggs are exposed to numberless
enemies. Wherever the spawning places have not been properly pre-
pared, many of the eggs are either washed away by the water, or thrown
on the dry land by the waves, or scattered by removing the plants or
the sand. Some fish, which are in the habit of gliding along the bottom,
such as the turbot, the groundling, and likewise the perch, feed almost
entirely on fish-eggs during the spawning-season. No less hurtful are
the numberless lar of insects, diminutive crabs, water-mice? and all
aquatic birds, such as ducks, geese, &c. The vegetable kingdom also
contains many enemies of the fish-eggs, such as the small plants of
which mold is composed, whose germs sticking to the outer skin of the
egg, soon commence to sprout forth, and destroy enormous quantities of
them. The eggs of those fish which spawn in winter, among which
there are some of the finest species, are frequently exposed to the dan-
ger of freezing to death. The young fish during the period when they
lie helpless at the bottom, and receive their food from the umbilical bag,
are threatened by numberless enemies such as fish of prey, insects

582 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

and their larvse, water bugs and their larvae, salamanders, wagtails, &c,
so that by computation out of 1,000 eggs laid by the trout or salmon
under favorable circumstances, ouly oue young fish reaches the age of
one year. Nature scatters the seed with inexhaustible prodigality, but
seems to make the least use of it in the water. Besides this it must be
remembered that during the spawning season most fish come in large
schools to the surface and to shallow places, and are therefore more ex--
posed to the persecutions of man in the spawning places than any-
where else. It is, therefore, all the more the duty of legislation to protect
these places in every possible way, and, wherever it can be done, to pre-
pare them in a suitable manner.

As in artificial impregnation the roe and milt of the spawning fish are
pressed out by human hands, and brought into contact by stirring them
carefully in w7ater, the fertilization becomes more complete than in
nature ; by suitable breeding-apparatus the further development of the
eggs and the young fish are cared for. The better science succeeds in
finding out the conditions of life of the several species of fish, the nearer
nature can be imitated in this respect in the fish-breeding establishments,
the better one succeeds in removing all hurtful influences from the fish,
the richer will be the harvest, and the greater the economical usefulness
of such establishments.

In selecting the species of fish, the quality of the water, as well as local
and commercial conditions, have to be taken into account.

For artificial breeding, the finest and healthiest specimens of fish should
always be selected. Brook-trout, for instance, should weigh at least a
pound and be without a blemish. As with other useful animals, so espe-
cially with fish, the species selected is of the utmost importance for a favor-
able result of the trial, since it often requires long experience to find
out the proper places from which to get breeding fish.

Streams or springs which have a considerable fall, fresh pure water,
and even temperature, are essential conditions to a favorable result of
artificial fish-breeding ; before entering the establishment, they should
have run for some time above «the ground, and received the oxygen,
which is necessary for the respiration of the fish ; they should likewise
be located near to good means of communication, especially railroads, so
that the impregnated eggs can be rapidly shipped to their destination ;
favorable places for catching small fish should be near; clearbrooks, which
are not so deep as to allow the entrance of large fish of prey, into
which the fish are to be transplanted from the hatching-houses, either
iu the immediate neighborhood or at least so located that they can
easily be reached ; finally, larger bodies of water, in which the fish-
ing-privileges are regulated in such a manner as to insure to the propri-
etors of the hatching-houses the full benefit of their efforts. The
chief and most essential point in artificial fish-breeding, however, is
in all cases to supply the growing fish with cheap and sufficient food.
The gain will be greatest iu those places where the food grows as it were

THE FISHERY INTERESTS Q? AUSTRIA. 583

in the same water with the fish. This result is most easily obtained if,
besides the breeding fish, small fish are raised to serve for their food.
Tne eggs of the pollard, the ray, the minnow, &c, develop during the
summer months, up to July, in as many days as during the winter season
it takes weeks for the eggs of trout to develop. The manner of feeding
with water insects and plants is a very simple one. Care should there-
fore be taken that they should be protected during the spawning season ;
that the banks should be planted with trees or bushes ; that the water
should contain aquatic plants, to which insects come of their own ac-
cord ; that the scum of the water, which always attracts numerous in-
sects, should not be allowed to escape, &c. At a later period, other food
is used, such as various refuse, horse-flesh, coagulated blood, &c. The
views of pisciculturists on the best manner of feeding fish still vary a
great deal ; many attempts, especially in feeding large numbers, have
been made in vain ; but, as a general rule, it can be said that a great
deal of inventive genius has been displayed in procuring articles of
food, which nearly everywhere vary according to local circumstances,
(see the numerous propositions in the circulars of the Deutsche Fischerei-
verein.)

Never were fish more plentifully supplied with food than by the lake-
dwellers. All the refuse of the kitchen, remains of vegetables, and of
wild and domestic animals, which the inhabitants had brought from the
shore into their villages built over the water, became the food of the fish
or of those aquatic animals which formed part of their food. This ex-
plains the fact, which Herodotus relates in that passage of his works
which has become so famous since the discovery of the remains of lake-
dwellings where he says that the inhabitants let down a basket into the
water, which, after a short time, they drew out filled with fish.

Fish-breediug has also made it possible to stock bodies of water with
water with fine species, which hitherto were not found there. Although
acclimatization is not yet entirely founded on scientific principles, many
of the questions pertaining thereto are being gradually solved by con-
tinued experiments. Instances of magnificent results in experiments on
fish rearing are not wanting.

The breeding-establishment founded by the French government at
Hiiningen, on the Upper Ehine, possesses vast arrangements, so that
eight millions of eggs of various species of trout are hatched at the
same time ; these eggs are partly obtained in the establishment, but
the larger number come from Switzerland, the Vosges Mountains, the
Black Forest, from Bavaria, and even from Upper Austria, and are
shipped when properly matured. The raising of fish is here only a
secondary consideration ; the chief object in view is to collect the largest
possible number of fish-eggs, and when these have become impregnated
to send them to all parts of the world either as an article of merchandise
or as presents. The eggs sent to Hiiningen by agents of the establish-
ment are carefully counted, which is done by weighing, and registered,

584 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

they are then put into the breeding-boxes which are covered by fresh
running water protected against all hurtful influences, and they are
shipped as soon as the eyes of the little fish can be seen through the
skin of the egg. Up to the autumn of 1864 more than 110,000,000 eggs
of fresh- water fish, among these 41,000,000 salmon and trout, had been
impregnated at Hiiuingen, and shipped from there. This number has no
doubt since then increased more than double.

The new German government, recognizing the beneficial influence
which this establishment has had on the increase of fish in France,
through the Deutsche Fisherei-verein takes all the necessary measures
to make this new acquisition a benefit to the German fisheries. It has
been made an imperial establishment, and the shipping of eggs is con-
tinued, no longer gratis, however, but at a moderate price — GO cents per
thousand for impregnated eggs of the salmon-trout.

Eecently successful experiments in sending fish-eggs to a consid-
erable distance have been made in other establishments, as at Freiburg in
Baden, but especially at Salzburg. From England, 100,000 salmon and
3,000 trout eggs, packed first in moss, and then in ice, were some years
ago sent to Australia, where they arrived safely. In the autumn of 1869,
110,000 salmon-eggs were sent to iSTew Zealand. Now they have in
Australia trout measuring 19£ inches in length and weighing 3£ pounds ;
two-year-old salmon have also been seen, and some of them have been
observed spawning. (Zeitschrift fur wissenscJiaftliche Zoologie, 1869.)

The most famous British fish-breeding establishment is at Stormont-
field, on the river Tay, where the young salmon raised from artificially-
impregnated eggs are cared for and fed in several ponds till they are
able to commence their journey to the sea as smolts. Originally calcu-
lated for 300,000 eggs, this establishment has been considerably en-
larged. A similar establishment is located on the river Dee, in Scot-
land, which makes a business of raising and selling eggs and young fish,
and realizes a considerable profit, although the managers pay an annual
rent of $6,000.

The Irish "salmon-factory" of Thomas Ashworth, in Galway, like-
wise raises millions of eggs every year, and increases in importance
from year to year. The establishments founded by private individuals,
by associations, or joint-stock companies, seem to flourish most, while
those which have been founded and are supported by the government
have not in all cases been as successful. It seems to be sufficient if
the government confines its activity to giving encouragement and as-
sistance to these local enterprises.

The organization of artificial fish-breeding asssociations involves
expenses which, in smaller bodies of water, are not in due proportion to
the extent of water, nor does every fishing water offer a suitable place.
For this reason, many proprietors of small fisheries prefer to buy im-
pregnated eggs from the larger establishments, and place them in suit-
able places in the waters, in shallow and quiet sand bottoms near to

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 585

reeds or bushes, or put them in wicker-baskets or boxes in streams,
leaving the hatching to nature.

7. — PROGRESS OF FOREIGN FISHERIES.

Great Britain. — The most brilliant example of progress is in Scotland,
whose rivers had for a long period been almost entirely depopulated by
reckless fishing. The river Spey in Scotland scarcely contained any fish
up to the year 1854 ; since then, and up to 1860, it has annually produced
upward of $10,000 worth of fish; this bas even been increased of late
years, so that a single fishing-station belonging' to the Duke of Eich-
mond yields an annual income of $52,500 to $60,000. The annual yield
of the river Tay has, in a few years, risen from $40,000 to $90,000, net
income, not counting the large number of fish given to the fishermen ;
and all this in consequence of feeding, watching, and protecting the
fisb, and of introducing artificial breeding. By the same means, and in
consequence of excellent laws and strict protection of the fish during
the spawning season, the yield of some of the Irish fisheries has in a
few years increased fourfold. In 1858, the revenues from the salmon
and trout fisheries in Scotland and Ireland amounted to $3,500,000,
while in 1863 they had increased to twice that sum. *

The constantly improved British fishery-laws, and many institutions
called to life by the government, or at least encouraged by it, such
as the appointing of inspectors of fisheries, are perseveringly following
the object in view, to clear away all impediments to the progress of the
fisheries, and to extend them by every possible means.

The report on the British salmon fisheries for the year 1870, by the
inspectors Buckland and Walpole, shows a considerably increased har-
vest during the year 1869 in consequence of artificial breeding and proper
protection of the fish ; there are, however, still some complaints of hin-
derances and plundering the fisheries. In the seventeen salmon -rivers,
the fish are still excluded from 7,990 square miles by weirs, and from
3,600 square miles by industrial poisoning of the water, so that, there
are only remaining 6,600 square miles for spawning and raising young
fish. In order to do away with the weirs, water-mills are as far as pos-
sible to be changed to steam-mills, and those which are still in existence
are to be made harmless by salmon-paths.

The poisoning of the rivers by factories is strongly condemned not
only on account of the salmon but likewise on account of human beings,
as it not only kills the fish, but has likewise been generally acknowl-
edged to be a means of breeding fatal contagious diseases. Great
efforts are therefore made in England to purify the rivers, whereby the
industries are likewise brought to a higher degree of perfection, as the

*Die rationelle Zucht der Siisswasserfische und einiger in der Volkswirthschaft
wichtigen Wasserthiere. R. Molin, Wien, 1864. p. 212.

Die Bewirthschaftung des Wassers und die Eraten darans. H. Beta, Leipzig urid
Heidelberg, 1868. p. 67.

586 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES,

factories are obliged to put the refuse, which formerly was thrown into
the river, to some use. Rivers which at an expense of many millions of
dollars have been purified of the refuse of sewers and other poisonous
matter, amply repay this outlay by the better health of the population
and by the increase in fine fish. During the year 1869, 33,321 barrels
of salmon each weighing 100 pounds, the whole valued at more than a
million dollars, arrived at tbe wholesale market in Billingsgate ; 2,405
of these barrels came from English rivers, which in 1864 had only sup-
plied 752.*

France. — The French, in their establishment at Hiiningen, have imme-
diately carried out, on a large scale, the system of artificial impregnation,
which was first discovered by a German, Jacobi, and much later by two
Frenchmen, Gehin and Reiny, and have thereby exercised a very bene-
ficial influence on pisciculture throughout the whole country.

Even small bodies of water are cultivated, and the best possible use
is made of the different character of the water : thus, in marshy places,
eels are raised ; in otherwise useless small streams, crawfish, imported
from Germany, are increasing rapidly ; and in the clear brooks number-
less trout are found.

The cultivation of the oyster, which had been almost entirely de-
stroyed by the former system of plundering, begins, though slowly, to
revive on many parts of the coast.

Even the raising of turtles has been commenced ; their eggs are
gathered, and the young ones cared for and protected till they are old
enough to take care of themselves.

In all parts of France, there are numerous private individuals who
breed and raise all sorts of marine animals, partly as a pastime and
partly for the sake of gain. The exaggerated expectations which in
the beginning were connected with artificial fish-breeding in France
have, however, not been fulfilled. Ignorance of the subject, which was
Arery prevalent till better methods gradually gained ground by long
experience and by many failures, demanded many sacrifices. It must,
nevertheless, be acknowledged that, through the better cultivation of the
water since the year 1849, when a beginning was made to extend the
system of artificial breeding to the French rivers, and at first to those
where there was the greatest amount of poverty, a new life has been
developed along these rivers, so that many a poor fisher and farmer has
become a man of means through his little fish-pond and his few pots
for artificial impregnation.

One establishment belonging to the Marquis de Folleville at Imsle-
ville in Normandy yields an annual income of $750 to 8900 from one
stream and pond which ten years ago did not produce a single dollar.

Before the war, France possessed about 4,600 (English) miles of nav-
igable rivers; nearly as many miles of canals; 322 miles of mouths of
rivers and bays; about 920 miles of private waters; more than 92,000

* Beta, (H.) op. cit. p. 31.

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 587

miles of not navigable rivers and streams ; and more than 4,600 miles of
lakes and ponds. The navigable rivers and canals belong to the gov-
ernment, and are leased to private individuals. In order to avoid all
trouble, the sheets of water are carefully measured and accurately-
marked on special maps, so that every one knows the exact limits of his
watery domain, within which he can fish with nets for an annual rent
of $4.50 to $22.50. French statisticians compute the annual gain from
the fresh-water fisheries at $4,000,000, and the average annual rent of
every hectare (1 hectare=2.47 acres) of water at $15. The fisheries,
however, are not yet able to supply the home demand. *

Germany. — Compared with the gratifying results in England, Scot-
land, and America, those obtained by the German fisheries can only be
considered as small beginnings, and the complaints of the various hin-
derances to success are no less loud and numerous than in Austria,
although it must be owned that of late years Germany has made con-
siderable progress.

In Munich, the city-fisherman, Kuffer carries on fish-breeding, and
has, according to a report published some years ago, during the last
eight years impregnated about 300,000 eggs of the Bavarian salmon per
aunum, partly for the Bavarian waters, and partly for Switzerland,
Austria, France, Italy, Bussia, Denmark, and Prussia. During the last
few years, he has shipped about half a million per annum. The estab-
lishment is well conducted, its location and the quality of the water are
excellent. Kuffer has therefore often been commissioned to organize
such enterprises in other countries, as for instance in Austria.

TViirteniberg only possesses some small breeding-establishments,
which owe their existence and success chiefly to the efforts of the royal
agricultural department, (Konigllche Gentralstelle fur Landwirthschaft.)
This department, since 1861, has endeavored to encourage pisciculture
among small proprietors by offering prizes for hatching-houses in con-
nection with ponds ; to persons who stock open waters with fish ; for a
rational system of pond-fisheries; for the union of small fishing districts
Tvith a view to carrying on the fisheries in a more systematic manner.
Information is freely given to all who desire it, as well as impregnated
and hatched trout-eggs.

A report, made in the year 1871, shows that nearly all these organi-
zations were in a flourishing condition.

In Baden, a joint-stock company was formed in 1865 with a capital of
$20,000. In the neighborhood of Freiburg, the seat of this company,
a breeding-establishment has been founded, which annually produces
about half a million young fish. All of their fish which were placed in
open waters, were flourishing. The company possesses several trout-
brooks, which they lease for an annual sum of $600.

The joint-stock fishery-company at Wiesbaden, besides raising fish in
closed waters to sell, has also set itself the praiseworthy task to re-

* Beta, op. cit. pp. 46, 50.

588 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

stock all the neighboring waters, which had been almost entirely de-
populated. Besides the numerous bodies of water owned by the com-
pany, about forty lakes and rivers have been leased by them on the
longest possible time; new trout-ponds have been made in shady forests ;
nor has the commercial portion of the enterprise been neglected, since
in addition to the model and experimenting branches, a flourishing busi-
ness has been started with a capital of $62,500 in shares.

The fish-breeding establishment at Hameln, (Hanover,) originally
founded by the Agricultural Society of Zelle, but which in later years
has been taken and further enlargeed by the city of Zelle, has, during
the last twelve years, placed 316,000 artificially-raised young salmon
into the river Weser, and its revenue has been constantly on the increase.
Other Prussian organizations have, according to the report of the eco-
nomical department (Landes-Oelconomie- Collegium) for 1868, done well,
although, as the report says, the artificial breeding of fish is not appre-
ciated as much as it deserves, and there is as yet a great want of larger
piscicultural institutions.

The fish-breeding companies in the Prussian province of Silesia have
have for four years made efforts to introduce the cultivation of salmon
into the Upper Oder and its tributaries, into which they placed no less
than 307,000 young ones during the year 1872. The eggs were provided
by the department of agriculture in Berlin, from the establishment
at Hiiningen, at the instigation of the Deutsche Fisherei-verein.

In accordance with an order of the Prussian commissioner of agricul-
ture, dated January 23, 1871, the fish-breeding establishments in the
Bhine province are to be subsidized in the following manner: A cer-
tain number of Bhine salmon, salmon-trout, and brook-trout, which
must be at least five months old, shall be bought at a moderate price,
which is to be settled every year, and placed directly into the water.
A competent person shall be charged with buying the fish and placing
them in the water. As the method of raising fish in the several estab-
lishments and the manner of feeding the young has the greatest influ-
ence on their ability to keep alive after they have been placed in the
waters, the price of the fish bought will be regulated by the manner
in which they have been raised.

The Deutsche Fischerei-verein, founded at Berlin in the year 1870, will
doubtless prove a great benefit to the craft in that country. Its object
is to further sea. and inland fisheries throughout the whole of Germany,
and to assist the several state governments in this direction. The
society has resolved itself into five committees: for facilitating the
transportation of stock; for the sea and inland fisheries; for the
artificial breeding and raising of fish; for fishery legislation ; and for the
culture of the crawfish. It will also direct its attention to scientific
investigations which will diffuse correct views regarding the true wants
of the sea and inland fisheries.

The society intends to place itself in communication with piscicultur-

THE FISHEEY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 589

ists in all parts of the country, and to form a central agency for pro-
moting the fisheries, and for facilitating the raising and shipping of fish
so as to benefit the whole population.

Through the efforts of this society, Berlin and other inland cities
receive an increased supply of fresh sea fish; it has also suggested
the introduction of the sterlet and other finer species of fishes instead of
the common food-fishes, which have hitherto been supplied to the mark-
ets from sadly neglected fish-ponds.

In May, 1871, the society addressed a petition to the chancellor of
the German empire that, for a number of years, an annual sum of $37,500
should be appropriated from the imperial German treasury to extend
pecuniary aid to deserving pisciculturists and piscicultural societies,
and to promote the interests of the sea-fisheries by procuring models
of vessels and implements.

The circulars of the Deutsche FiscJwrei-verein, which are edited in
a model way, give from time to time information both on the proceed-
ings of the society and on all matters of interest to pisciculturists.

The society likewise directs its attention to the improvement of exist-
ing legislation. Thus, in its second session, it was urged to remedy the
existing defects in the fishery-laws of North Germany, which at present
contain no clauses enforcing the building of weirs in such a manner as
to leave a free passage for migratory fish. The draught of a new fishery-
law for Prussia, which has been published recently, owes its origin to a
great degree in the exertions of this society.

8. — CONDITION OF PISCICULTURE IN AUSTRIA.

From the report of the ministry of agriculture for 1868, and from
numerous special reports on piscicultural establishments, it will be seen '
that fish-rearing is gaining ground in Austria, and private enterprise
has been successfully employed in this branch of industry. In nearly
all the provinces of Austria there are piscicultural establishments,
several of which have been very successful. Although there are no
complete statistics, we shall, in the followiug pages, give all the inform-
ation which can be gathered from the official reports and from articles in
various journals. In comparison with the vast arrangements of other
countries as described above, we can only chronicle small beginnings.

In Salzburg, a central establishment for fish-breeding was founded
in 1864, by a joint-stock company, which has not, so far, been a pe-
cuniary success, but which, nevertheless, has exercised a most bene-
ficial influence on fish-culture throughout Austria. Since its founda-
tion, it has sent a large number of eggs to nearly all the provinces of
Austria and to foreign parts. During the season 1867-'68, it shipped
253,000 eggs of lake- trout, Rhine salmon, brook-trout, and pike. Dur-
ing the winter 1869-'70, orders for 815,000 eggs were received at the
establishment, but only 572,000 could be shipped, partly because there
was a lack of eggs on account of unfavorable weather and inundations

590 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

which had interfered with the spawning, and partly because some
of these orders came too late. The arrangements for raising fish were
unfortunately very poor; the ponds were badly located and soon became
marshy ; there were no shade-trees, and the supply of fresh running water
was insufficient. Attempts had also beeu made in the beginning to breed
a great variety of fish, while at present only salmon are raised, and
the arrangements have beeu much improved. The rearing of fish in
several lakes which the government has given to the institution has
been much more successful.

In the Waller Lake, 19,000 young Ehine salmon were placed in 1S69>
and, so far as it is known, they are in a flourishing condition.

Last year, a new hatching-house for 300,000 eggs was built on the
shore of the Hinter Lake.

On the headwaters of the Waller Lake, simple breeding-apparatus
has been placed, so as to enable the stocking of all the streams with
young fish from the lakes.

There is a constant improvement from year to year in the growth of
the embryo business and in the stocking of the rented lakes.

During the season 1870-'71, the total number of impregnated eggs
was 1,157,000, of which 575,000 were sold, while the rest were either
hatched in the establishment or placed in the lakes. For two years, a
considerable number of fish have been sold as food from the estab-
lishment at Hellbrunn ; during the last year, many defects of the origi-
nal plan were remedied and many new improvements were introduced.

The central establishment has recently begun to obtain impregnated
eggs of brook-trout from the fishers on the rivers Vokla and Ager ; of
the Salmo hucho from the river Salzach, as well as from the streams of
Upper Austria ; spawn of the lake-salmon, of the Salmo salvelinus, and of
the Coregonns Wartmanni from the Matt, Mond, Fuschl, Wolfganger, and
Atter Lakes ; and to ship them at the proper time.

In Upper Austria, fish-culture has been carried on for some time
by the convent-chapter of Kremsmiiuster, which annually places 20,000
to 40,000 young trout hatched in the establishment, into the Aim Lake,
as soon as the umbilical bag has disappeared, (usually in February,)
so that a considerable increase in the number of fish in this lake can
already be noticed. Salmo salvelinus is raised in the lake itself. The fish-
ponds belonging to the chapter have been famous from time immemorial
for their great wealth of fine fish. Some of the small landed proprietors,
such as Bettenbaeher at Sulzbach near Ischl, Kottlat Neukirchen near
zipf, Schedl in Fischelham, and the Ischl Piscicultural Society, have,
with comparatively small means,founded establishments which to some
extent have proved a pecuniary success, thus furnishing another proof
that this branch of industry is suitable for private individuals of limited
means. Special mention must be made of Franz Rettenbacher, a miner,
who on his little piece of ground at Sulzbach near Ischl, has for some
years, without any assistance whatever, but with great enthusiasm, car-

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 591

ried on, in a small way, pisciculture. Only by the strictest econo-
my lie was enabled to raise the required capital ; with his own hand,
in the spare time which the arduous life of a miner left him, he erected
all the buildings, &c, so that the Upper Austria Agricultural Society,
acknowledging his apparatus to be the most perfect in the whole
province, gave him, in 1870, $100, the first government prize for pisci-
culture. We give here the full report of the committee sent by the
Agricultural Society, as it is in every respect very suggestive and in-
structive :

" The piscicultural establishment of Franz Eettenbacher consists of
two hatching-houses, five ponds for the growing fish, (Streckleiche,) and
one floating hut with a boat. In the two larger connected ponds, which
cover an area of about 1£ acres, a very pretty watch-house, with many
exceedingly practical contrivances, has been erected, from which all the
ponds of the establishment can be seen and watched ; all the buildings
and apparatus, by their simplicity, cleanliness,' and practical arrange-
ment, show the enthusiastic, enterprising, and rational pisciculturist,
whose fish, both in the houses and in the ponds, are all exceptionally
fine and healthy specimens. Franz Eettenbacher commenced his enter-
prise in 1858, on a very small scale ; up to 1864, his work consisted of
nothing else than the impregnation of several hundred, occasionally,
several thousand, trout-eggs, and the placing of young fish in the run-
ning water (his own property) near his house. After having labored six
years, no increase in the number of fish was observable, which doubt-
less was caused by the fact that the fish, when they had grown larger,
got into the government waters, into which his little stream flowed, and
even, when there was a means of communication, into the Traun Lake.

"In 1864, Eettenbacher resolved to raise and feed the young fish which
might be hatched during the following winter in a closed house ; in this
he was entirely successful, as the 800 young fish (Salmo salvelinus) when
one year old weighed from two to seven ounces. Unfortunately, many of
the fish died after they had reached the age of one and a half years,
without exhibiting any outward sign of sickness, and in the course of
half a year one-half of the whole number had perished ; then this
strange mortality ceased of itself. According to later experience, Eet-
tenbacher believes that he fed the fish too much ; for, since he possesses
a larger number of fish, and therefore has not been able to feed them so
much as formerly, this mortality has ceased.

"Since 1865, Eettenbacher annually has raised several thousand fish,
Salmo salvelinus, trout, and cross-breeds. Thecross-breeding, produced
by impregnating the roe of the Salmo , salvelinus with the milt of brook-
trout, has been very successful, as also the raising of the Salmo salvelinus
itself. Trout do not succeed so well, which seems to be caused by their
being fed with meat. During their infancy, the fish get calves' liver and
brains; later, lungs, entrails, and other cheap offal ; also, horse-flesh.
To every hundred-weight of live fish, Eettenbacher, on an average,
allows five pounds of food per day.

592 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OP PISH AND FISHERIES.

"To feed such a large number offish with insects is almost impossible,
as insects, such as water-palmers, flies, their larvae, &c, are very scarce
in that neighborhood, and frog-spawn and cheap fish cannot be had.
In Eettenbacher's opinion, every pisciculturist who cannot obtain insects
and whose space is limited, should only raise the Salmo salvelinus, since
this fish alone can in a small space be fed on meat from its infancy till
it is ripe for the market, and has the lowest percentage (7 per cent.) of
mortality. It is a very gregarious and tame fish, which does not seem
to be disturbed by being placed among fish of different species and size,
while the trout is always shy and of an unfriendly disposition, especially
toward small fish.

" Eettenbacher sells his fish at the age of two and one-half to three and
one-half years, and only those whose growth has been retarded, at the
age of four and one-half and five and one-half years. Kecently, he has
commenced to hatch a larger number of fish than he requires, and, after
a year or more, he throws those whose growth has been retarded into the
open water, leaving them to shift for themselves, because, according to
his theory, the gain is much greater if the expensive food is given to
such fish as promise a better growth. His spawn he gets from the
Aussee Lakes in Styria, where, during the spawning season, he annually
buys several hundred female fish, impregnating their eggs with milt
from male fish of his own raising, as very few male specimens of the
Salmo salvelinus are found in those lakes, and as those few are mostly
worthless. The female fish he keeps till next summer, when he sells
them. In 1870, Eettenbacher did not hatch any fish, since he had such a
large number left over from the year before as to make it impossible
for him to supply all the necessary food. The water used in his estab-
lishment consists of several hundred small and large springs flowing
from the ground, with a temperature of 5£ degrees Eeauinur in winter,
6£ in summer ; near the Traun river 3 degrees in winter and 9 in summer.
In this water, the young fish leave the eggs after fifty or sixty days.

" Up to 1864, Eettenbacher had only two small hatching-boxes. In
1864, he built a hatching-house with four boxes and two tanks for the
young fish; in 1865, he built a covered tank with three divisions; in
1866, he dug the two ponds; in 1867, he built a new hatching-house J
and in the same year, after having obtained the upper portion of the
Altwasser stream from the imperial forest office, in exchange for a
portion of forest belonging to him, he stopped the communication be-
tween his springs and the Traun Eiver by a stationary wooden gate of
lattice- work, and built his floating hut and boat, and, in 1868, the watch-
house, resting on pales. The total capital invested was $258.25. The
location was extremely favorable for making the ponds, as but very
little digging had to be done. According to the inventory taken, with
a view to his obtaining the government prize, on the 29th and 30th of
June, 1870, when all the fish were carefully counted and weighed, his
establishment contained the following number of fish :

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA.

593

' Location.

1 In the building for young fish, No. 3
' In the building for young iish, No. 4

' In the hatching-house, No. 2

1 In the hatching-house, No. 1

1 In the small pond

' In the larger pond

' In the largest pond

"Total

Age.

One and a half years. . .

do

do

Two and a half years . .

do '.

Various

Three and a half years.

Number.

3,700
2,100
3,000
1,010
1,400
944
250

12, 454

Weight.

Pounds,
avoirdupois.
54
67£
171J

277A
lti<5§

150

982$

"Of this number, 2G2£ pounds of fish could be sold during 1870.

u Tbe quality of tbe fish was very good, since, even at a high price,
they found a ready market. The capital invested has therefore borne
its fall interest.'*

A further proof that it only requires some encouragement in order to
have our smaller pisciculturists make practical inventions and improve-
ments is furnished by Mr. Kottl, a miller of Neukirchen. Formerly,
the better kind of food-fish were brought direct to Vienna from the
lakes and streams of Upper Austria; the fishermen not taking the least
care of the eggs contained in many of these fish. Kottl, at present,
gets what he can of these eggs, and immediately impregnates them.
Tbe female lake and brook trout which are on the point of spawning
when caught by the fishermen are brought to him, and their eggs are
impregnated by the male brook-trout from his establishment. In this
manner he has, in a short time, impregnated 200,000 eggs of brook and
lake trout, which, without his intervention, would have been sold in
Vienna with the fish.

In Upper Austria, a fishing-club has recently been formed, and its
preparations for pisciculture are progressing favorably. The headwaters
at St. Peter, near Linz, have been secured by a lease of ten years, a
hatching-house has been built, a covered pond for young fish is almost
finished, and the digging of an open pond has been commenced. (Re-
port for 1871.)

Another hatching-house has recently been started by Werndl in Steyer.

In Lower Austria, there is a piscicultural establishment at Hollenburg.
Mr. Fichtner, in Atzgersdorf, diffuses a knowledge of pisciculture by
lectures and publications. No noteworthy results, however, have so far
been obtained. That encouragement is wanting which this branch of
industry seems to require in its beginning.

In Styria, Baron de Washington, at Pols, has made the most praise-
worthy efforts to further tbe cause of pisciculture by tbe exhibition of
models, by lectures, and by giving general encouragement.

The farmers and the middle class begin to take an interest in pisci-
culture, and there are small establishments at Werndorf, Voitsberg,
Kofiach, Hirschegg, Altaussee, and other places.

Baron de Washington has succeeded in making the raising of gold-
fish more common. These fish, which originally came from China, but

DO F

594 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

with us increase almost as fast as the herring, are now raised by many-
farmers, whose income is by this means considerably increased.

In Carinthia, the only fish-breeding institution is at present at Lolling,
which, however, on account of the limited extent of water, confines its
rpoduction to the hatching and raising of young fish, (annually 12,000 to
18,000 Salmo salvelinus, lake and brook trout.)

In Tyrol, a fishing-club has been formed at Innsbruck, which, in
December, 1870, received 20,000 impregnated salmon-eggs from Mr.
Kuffer in Munich, from which, however, no more than 2,000 fish were
raised. The club has not been discouraged by this failure, but believes
if the hatching proves successful, if the eggs are carefully watched and
treated, if the young fish are placed in favorable localities, and if some
perseverance is shown, that it may do a great deal of good to Tyrol.

Mr. Glanzl, the city-fisher of Lienz, in Tyrol, has been more success,
ful, as, according to his report, he was able, from 18G5 to 1870, to transfer
260,000 young fish from his establishment at Moosbruunen, near Lavaut,
o other waters. He raises principally trout and the Thymallus: and,
as the spawning seasons of these two species of fish are far apart, the
same establishment can be used for both. The finer the specimens
which have been employed in artificial hatching the healthier and bet-
ter will the young fish be. The catching of the adult fish previous to
the spawning season, and their being kept in boxes till the spawn has
matured, is considered useless by Glanzl, as they do not ripen properly,
and as the female fish frequently does not let the eggs go.

According to the observations made by others, the catching of fish
about to spawn is only considered hurtful if the eggs are not pressed
out at once, while fish caught prior to the spawning-season mature their
ova even in an inclosed space.

Glanzl made the observation that the hatching of the eggs in metal
troughs, especially those made of zinc, succeeded much better when glass
rods were laid in the vessels, which, as he thinks, neutralize the bad
effects of oxidation.

He expresses his conviction that only by the artificial process, and by
their more general industrial application, can an increase of fish be pro-
duced in the particularly suitable territory of the Drau and Isel, which
is so rich in springs.

At the suggestion of the agricultural society, he accepted a subsidy
of $200 from the ministry of agriculture.

In Trius, a fisherman by the name of Schliereczauer has stocked sev-
eral brooks with trout; and in Tliiersee, Mr. Lerperger, a merchant, has
devoted much time to this industry.

In Vorarlberg, the artificial hatching of fish has been introduced by
Mr. Tiefenthaler, a landed proprietor of Meiningen, in the district of
Feldkirch. As early as 1802, he endeavored to obtain fish-eggs for the
purpose of hatching them, in which, however, he was unsuccessful for a
long time on account of the prejudices of the fishermen in that neigh-

THE FISHEEY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 595

borhood, who were afraid that their trade might thereby be injured. It
was not till 1864 that he was enabled to impregnate 1,500 eggs of the
lake-trout, which flourishes in Lake Constauce and its tributaries; he
was so successful in this that scarcely 10 per cent, were lost. He has
now on his property several large basins after the best foreign models ;
bought of the village of Baukweil the privilege to fish in the Ehe or
Malanka stream, which flows near his property, for $300 ; improved his
establishment constantly on his own ideas; and, as early as 18G7, he was
able to raise 30,000 young fish. As there was a great want of water,
the ministry of finance placed the remaining streams in that neighbor-
hood which belonged to the government at his disposal ; and the min-
istry of agriculture has repeatedly granted him subsidies for meeting
the considerable expenses of his first establishment.

His example was imitated by other landed proprietors in Vorarlberg.
With the subsidy granted in 1869, the agricultural society procured
the model of a new hatching-box, and distributed six of them among the
several pisciculturists of the province. We have reports of successful
experiments made by some of these, which, on the one hand, have been
favored by the excellent quality of the Vorarlberg water, but which, on
the other hand, as the reporter of the agricultural society says, have
been much impeded by the defective fishery-laws.

Bohemia in former times excelled all other provinces of Austria in
her famous lake-culture ; and, although a large number of lakes have
been drained, this province has still maintained her old fame. Thus,
370,500 to 492,000 pounds of carp are every year sent to Vienna from
the estate of Wittingau in the south of Bohemia. (Die TeicMcirthschaft
mit besonderer Riicksiclit auf das sudliche Bohmen. Wenzel Horak,
1869.) The great Rosenberg Lake in 1870 produced 192,660 pounds of
different fish, which shows what large revenues can, with proper care,
be derived from water.

The high prices have of late years made lake-culture more remunera-
tive, and more attention is consequently given to it. This industry is
particularly successful if there are separate lakes for spawning, for the
raising of fish, and for those which are to be sold, and if they are several
times transferred from one lake to the another. As in raising cattle and
sheep, great care is likewise taken in fish-culture to select for breeding
purposes the most perfect specimens; wherever artificial spawning can-
not be applied, great care is taken to protect the young ones against all
possible dangers ; the different species are kept separate, and the lake-
fish are well fed on various agricultural refuse, on refuse fish, and even
frog-spawn, which is found in all marshes.

The occasional draining of the lakes, and the planting of their beds
with corn or grass at the end of summer, usually every third or fourth
year, has not only a very beneficial influence on pisciculture, but as also
advantageous from an agricultural point of view by adding the rich
harvest of one year.

596 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

In making estimates as to whether lake-culture will pay, the value of
the soil, which thereby is abstracted from another culture, has to be
taken into account ; while the restocking of depopulated brooks, rivers,
and lakes does not monopolize soil devoted to any other purposes.

In 1824, the artificial impregnation and raising of salmon was suc-
cessfully carried out on the Horazdovic estate in Bohemia, but it was
not developed any further at the time, and was soon given up.

Quite recently, fish-eggs have been artificially impregnated in the
neighborhood of Brauuau, on the estates of Mabec and Tachau, in
Glashiitten near Pribram, in Opocno, in Hammer near Beichor, in
Krumau, in. Nedosim near Leitomischl, and in Frauenberg. Further
successful experiments in brooks and lakes were made with salmon-eggs,
which mostly came from Salzburg. The most successful experiments
were those made by Mr. Yacek^ of Nedosin, whose brook, in consequence
of culture and protection, produced a constant increase of fish, 62J
pounds of trout in 1865, and 250 pounds in 1870. The amonnt of
trout in the lower portion of the brook, where there was no protection
and culture, was likewise increased to about 500 pouuds, the trout from
the upper portion being carried down especially in consequence of high
water in spring ; while the fish-thieves of that neighborhood did a still
more flourishing business. In consequence of the 37,000 trout-eggs placed
there by Mr. Vacek, the number of fish has considerably increased in
every portion of this brook. In 1871, the salmon-breeding establishment
founded by Dr. Fric at Herrenskretschen, near the Saxon boundary -line,
commenced to place young fish in the Kamnitz, a small tributary of the
Elbe. Preparations have been made to found another on a larger scale.

The fishing-waters of Moravia were formerly counted among the
richest of the Austrian monarchy. Of late years, the fisheries have been
almost totally destroyed, as in other places, by the want of any legal
protection, and especially by the poisoning of the streams by the refuse
from factories. The statistics which were published in the report
of the Moravian and Silesian Agricultural Society for 1871 show, in
spite of the deplorable condition of the fisheries, the beginnings of
improvement. There are small piscicultural establishments in several
places, as in Wisowitz, on the estates of Baron de Stillfried, whither,
in 18G8, 20,000 eggs of the trout, the Salmo salvclinus, the salmon-trout,
and the salmon were brought from Salzburg. After the eggs had been
successfully hatched, the young fish were placed in a mountain-stream,
and in small lakes made specially for this purpose, where the trout are
flourishing, while the salmon-trout and the salmon grow but slowly,
most likely because the water is not sufficiently deep.

In Moravia, as in other countries, it is proposed to prohibit fishing,
at least with nets, entirely, for at least three years.

In Silesia, Mr. Ernst Giebner, of Bielitz, has a very successful hatch-
ing-establishment.

In Galicia, there is one at Dublany, and another was founded in 1867

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 597

at Lubatowka, by Mr. Ludwig Lindes, of which he gives the following
account in the Vienna Agricultural Journal, No. 51, 1869 :

" From my own experience, I can testify to the fact that in a wild
mountain-region, where, two years ago, the name salmon was entirely
unknown, nobody having any idea how such a fish looked, at this day,
ever5r peasant is able to distinguish the trout from the Salmo salveli-
mis, and this from the lake-trout, &c. ; that where formerly there were
marshy openings, which, from times immemorial, had been entirely
unproductive, there are now pleasant lakes, which are densely populated
with all sorts of trout and salmon, which received the germ of life at
the piscicuitural establishment of Salzburg, and which, in an embryonic
state, traveled a distance of 553 miles in order to reach their present
dwelling-place. This became possible only through artificial hatching!"

According to later information, (Der Wiener landicirthschaftlichen
Zeitung, November 5, 1870,) the establishment at present comprises
thirty basins, or small lakes, covering a total area of 6 acres. From the
year I860 there were left over 4,000 tish, (Salmo salvelinus, salmon-trout,
and lake-trout,) which in eighteen months had reached an average
length of 11 inches, and a weight of 23 ounces, besides these there were
2,000 perch and 3,200 crawfish; of young fish, from 18G9, 18,000, which,
during the first six months of their life, reached an average length of 5
inches.

In Hungary, the government has recently appropriated $10,000 for
fish-culture, of which $5,000 are to go toward the foundation of a pisci-
cuitural establishment, which will be supported by the government, and
$2,500 apiece to the assistance of two existing private enterprises.

A fisherman who was educated in Salzburg is at the head of the
well-managed private piscicuitural establishment at Szomolany, in the
district of Pressburg.

In Transylvania, fish-culture, according to the Hermannstadt Gazette,
is in a flourishing condition, and there are several piscicuitural societies.
The trout-raising establishment in Ireck, founded in 1869, got its spawn
from Salzburg and Tartlau ; the result was a very favorable one, and
it has now on hand 1,200 trout, varying in length from 4 to 6 inches,
which might have been sent to market in the autumn of 1870.

From this review, it will be seen that the results which fish-culture
has so far obtained in Austria are very small, as far as the increase of fish
in the open waters, viz, in the lakes, rivers, and brooks, is concerned.
There are ouly a few exceptions, such as the Aim Lake, belonging to
the chapter of Kremsmiinster, a few lakes and brooks in Salzburg, &c.

It is ouly recently that the Salzburg company has made a begin-
ning of placing impregnated spawn iu the open waters which were
placed at its disposal. Most of our organizations have limited their
activity to the trade in fish-eggs, or to the raising of -a few fish, for
which the small enclosed waters belonging to them were sufficient.

Agents of foreign piscicuitural establishments, especially Hiiningen
and Stormontfield, visit several of the provinces of Austria every year,

598 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

in order to buy trout and salmon spawn from the Austrian fishermen, as
the irregular way in which our fisheries are managed does not, for the
time being, offer any chances for an extensive use of this spawn at home.
The smaller pisciculturists are not inclined to give it up to the larger
waters, in which they have not the right to fish ; while the proprietors
of these larger waters do not feel encouraged to buy spawn, on account
of the irregular manner in which fishing is carried on and the little pro-
tection it enjoys. Our smaller hatching-establishments are, neverthe-
less, of importance to fish-culture, because they have at least awakened
an interest in this matter, and because they undoubtedly are the sources
from which our domestic waters will be restocked.

9. — VALUE OF THE PRODUCTS OF THE FISHERIES.

Fish, crawfish, and many other marine products, form an easily
digestible and pleasant food, which, it is maintained, is also calculated
to stimulate mental activity. Civilized nations cannot do without this
important aliment without detriment to themselves. Fish, even with-
out any elaborate dressing, form a good and easily-prepared meal for
the laboring classes.

Their flesh contains as large a quantity of proteine as pork ; 100
pounds (Austrian) offish-flesh contain as much nourishing matter as 200
pounds of wheat-bread or 700 pounds of potatoes.

It is an essential advantage of the fisheries that their products supply
delicacies for the table of the rich, and wholesome cheap food for the
poorer classes.

It is a great defect in the Austrian fisheries that the extraordinary
quantity of fish procured by occasional lucky hauls does not find a
ready market. The great number of huso caught in the Danube, occa-
sional rich hauls in the Alpine lakes, or even on the sea-shore, prove of
no benefit to the fishermen, and the dead ones have frequently to be cast
back into the water.

All this should be remedied by better arrangements for preserving
and shipping, by a well organized fish-trade, by improvements in the
manner of smoking fish on the Euglish plan, and finally by making use
of the refuse for various purposes, as for fish-oil, and even for manure.

In 1865, Dr. Lorenz, as also quite recently Professor Gohren, [Land-
wirthschaftlichen Wochenblatt des K. K. Adccrbauministeriums, 18G9, p.
114,) has directed attention to the importance of the fish-guano, which
might, with great advantage to our Austrian agriculture, be made from
the refuse of our fish, especially on the coast.

It must certainly be considered as in part the effect of a better sys-
tem of fish-culture, of a well -organized fish-trade and stricter laws, that,
according to calculations made some years ago, the daily consumption of
fish per head amounts to i pound (avoidupois) in London, -fa pound in
Paris, and -fa pound in Berlin; while in Vienua, the capital of a country
so rich in lakes and rivers, it is only ^ pound. While in other cities

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA.

599

the best kind of fish are seen in the markets, only inferior fish, frequently
nothing but carps from the Bohemian lakes, are brought to Vienna.

Accordiug to the report of the market-commissioner, the following-
quantities of fish were brought to the Vienna markets from October,
1867. till October, 1870 :

Place from which the fish were
brought.

From the Lower Danube

Upper Danube, Trann

A ussee

Gmund Lake and Atter Lake

Southern Bohemia

Mayence

Upper Austria

Kind.

Hanson, (Acipenser huso) . .
Dick, (Acipenser schypa ..
Schnidon, (Silurus glanis) . .
Schill, (Lucioperea sandra)

Hucbo (Sahno hucho) *

Prute(?)

Forelle, (Trutta fario)

Saibling, (Salmo salvelinus)
Lachsforelle, (Trutta lacus-

tris)

Carp

Hecbt, (Esostlucius)

Lachs, (Trutta salar)

Sea-fishes

Crawfishes

Weight in pounds, avoirdupois.

1867-'68.

2, 346*.

18, 154 J
45, 695

714,925
29, 207}

741
78, 669*
39, 051, 300

1868-69.

679J
185i
17, 290
61,997
370.}

5, 5571

30,

247

897, 845

20, 950J

8,367

287, 384j

220, 450

1869-'70.

l,llli

17, 413J
67, 554J

12, 226£

1,729

911,800*

28, 281 1

12, 955*

209, 703

123, 554, 950

To this must be added the sales made outside of the fish-market,
which, however, are said not to amount to much.

Formerly, the Neusiedler Lake alone supplied Vienna with 8G4,500
pounds of fish ; it has, however, been nearly drained.

The price of fish has increased considerably during late years,
a pound of huso (1 Austrian pound equal to about 3^ pounds avoirdupois)
now costing from 40 cents to 90 cents, carp from 10 cents to 40 cents,
white-fish 12| cents to 15 cents. In spite of good railroad-communica-
tions, but very small quantities of salt-water fish are brought to Vienna,
aud no other cause can be assigned for this but the high price of fish.
Although salt-water fish are very cheap in Trieste, and the freight is low,
their price in Vienna is high, because there is no wholesale trade, the
whole of this traffic being in the hands of a few fishermen, aud because
there is no suitable fish-market. When the market commissioners made
an attempt to organize this trade, many fish were brought to Vienna, but
they were — as is shown by a report on the subject — left lying too long out-
side the city custom-line, (a small duty has to be paid on all provisions
entering Vienna,) or on the railroad, so that many were spoiled before
they reached the market, and soon no more were sent. Poor people
can only buy white-fish, (a small species of carp.)

It cau safely be asserted that a well-organized system of fisheries,
aud suitable fish-markets, would, in Vienna, as in other large cities,
increase the demand for salt and fresh-water fish, and all classes of
society would be glad to buy them if, at all times good fish could be
procured at reasonable prices.

The duty on provisions is, unfortunately, very high, not merely on rare

600 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

fisb, but also on the inferior kinds, which alone are within the reach of
the poorer classes.

If, with this deplorable condition of the Austrian fish-trade, one com-
pares the vast proportions of the London wholesale fish-market in Bil-
lingsgate, as graphically described by Beta, the enormous difference
between neglected fisheries and those which are protected by suitable
laws, and carried on with a spirit of enterprise, is placed in bold relief.
"A large fleet of fishing- vessels, carrying a greater supply of fish for one
day than Germany draws from the inexhaustible harvest-field of the sea,
the lakes, and rivers during a whole year, supplies every night the daily
demand for fish of the three-million city. While half a century ago
fifty fishermen supplied London with fish, a fleet of a thousand vessels
scarcely suffices in our day. The daily supply of fish is bought by the
wholesale dealers ; and the finny inhabitants of the sea, as well as of
lakes and rivers, are offered for sale in every imaginable shape, in heaps,
and boxes, smoked, salted, and fresh, in barrels, baskets, bundles, and
kegs, by the hundred-weight and by the million. A magnificent market-
hall, with clean and airy apartments of every size, tempts even the
finest gentlemen to buy and eat on the spot marine delicacies of every
kind, while in other places the poorer classes buy their daily supply.
The inferior kinds of fish, such as herring, eels, &c, are sold in 'fisher-
hundreds,' at 140 fish, in quantities of 20 pounds, or by the bushel, to
the retail dealers. The more aristocratic fish, such as salmon and
salmon-trout, which in summer reach London by railroad, packed in ice
in barrels and boxes, are sold by the pound."

According to a report by District- Judge Friedel,in Circular No., 1 of
the Deutsche Fisherei-verein for 1872, on the English fisheries, the
city of London consumed, in 1870, 400,000,000 pounds of meat and
450,000,000 pounds of fish and shell-fish.

As a proof of the great number of fish brought to the London fish-
market and the strict regulations of the fish-trade, it may be mentioned
here that during the month of April, 1870, the officers of the London
Fishmongers' Society condemned 51,877 fish, 340 bushels of shell-fish,
and 138 gallons of crabs, lobsters, and crawfish, weighing in all 56,439i
pounds avoirdupois. (Circular No. 4,]1870, of the Deutsche Fisherei-verein,
p. 21.)

It must be acknowledged that the better organization of the hitherto
much neglected fish-trade in our larger cities would be the best means
of reviving our fisheries.

In some other respects our Austrian fish-markets deserve the sharp
criticism which Beta passes on those of interior Germany. Everywhere
fish are offered for sale either half-dead on account of bad water, or
sick, of an insipid flavor, and expensive, while they might be had much
healthier, fresher, and finer flavored if, immediately after having been
caught, they were killed by an incision between the brain and the spine,
and were packed in some moist substance, and during summer in ice.

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 601

Ice has repeatedly during winter been sent by railroad to Vienna from
our Alpine lakes ; aud if people were acquainted with the well-known
easy methods of preserving ice, fish could be sent fresh to Vienna even
in the height of summer.

The construction of a proper fish-market in Vienna, which has been
suggested by the committee appointed to inquire into the causes of the
rise in the price of provisions, would be greeted with joy as a welcome
beginning to improving the condition of the Austrian fisheries.

10.— FISHERY-STATISTICS.

In our Austrian Cataster* the fishing-waters have been treated in
a very superficial manner. The several lakes, rivers, streams, and
brooks have, it is true, been surveyed, aud their areas have been put
down ; but since water, as a general rule, is not subject to any land-tax,
the lakes, rivers, streams, and brooks have been thrown together with the
roads, marshes, rocks, rubbish, heaps of broken stones, sand-hills, and
other waste places, and have been given under the head of u unproductive
lands." t The area of our fishing-waters can, therefore, not be given
approximately, neither arranged according to their character, nor as a
whole, important as such a statement would be for statistical aud other
purposes. The ministry of agriculture has taken steps to have a special
survey taken aud published.

There is, unfortunately, an almost entire want of accurate statistics
of the products of our fisheries. Czornig states that in 1801 the Aus-
trian fisheries produced 145,000,000 pounds offish, valued at $10,500,000;
but these figures are only the result of approximate estimates. They
give, however, some idea of the still considerable value of this portion
of our national wealth, which surely could, by good fishing-laws, be
increased many millions.

There are no reliable statistical data as to the market-prices at the
capitals of all the provinces, and all that can be found are scattered
statistics from a few cities.

It is an exceedingly difficult matter to gather the statistics of fish-
eries, since persons who have leased them are very loth to state the
exact truth with regard to the income derived therefrom, for fear that
their rent might be raised. The importance of such statistics for legis-
lation and other government measures is, however, daily becoming more
evident; for which reason the sixth international statistical congress,
which met at the Hague in September, 1S69, placed fishing-statistics
on its programme.

In accordance with suggestious made by the above mentioned con-
gress, the Austrian central committee for statistics has resolved to

* Tho record-book of the titles, boundaries, and ownership of lands.

\ The law of May 24, 1869, No. 88, regarding land-tax, declares as free from this tax,
among other things, marshes, lakes, and ponds, in as far as they do not yield a revenue
from their fisheries, &c, as also the beds of rivers and brooks.

602 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

collect the accounts of the Austrian fisheries, and has adopted the
schedules which were recommended by a select committee.

With a view to this, the statistics of the several species of fish, fishing-
implements, as well as the fishing-seasons given in Heckel and Kner's
work, " Die Susswasserfisehe der Ostreichischen Monarchies are to be
thoroughly examined and revised by the agricultural societies of the
various provinces ; and it is to be ascertained what is the average price
of fishing-implements, how many persons are employed in the fisheries,
how many of each kind are on an average caught per annum, what
has been the influeuce of artificial hatching on the increase of fish in
depopulated waters, at what seasons the different kinds of fish spawn,
and, finally, what proportion the actual season of fishing in fresh- waters
bears to the legally prescribed fishing season.

Exact or even approximately reliable data must not, however, be
expected, as the agricultural societies have not the means of obtaining
such. To obtain fishing-statistics, it is indispensable that a law should
be passed requiring correct lists of all the fisheries, of the waters where
they are carried on, and of the different fishing-privileges, in the same
manner as a receut law ordered the registering of all the existing hy-
draulic constructions and water-privileges. On these official lists, the
statistical reports of competent men should be based.

Mr. Hey, a forest-inspector of Lolling in Cariuthia, has, from very

incomplete material, which he had increased and corrected as much as

possible from personal observations, made a report on the fisheries of his

province, which has been published in the reports of the Cariuthia

Agricultural Society for 1872, Nos. 18 and 19. According to this report,

the following is the area of the fishing waters in Cariuthia :

Acres.

Large lakes , - • 12, 773

Small lakes and ponds 706

Rivers and brooks 8, 912

Total 22,401

The quantity of fish which might be caught if there were sufficient pro-
tection against thieving and the present reckless system of plunder, is,
for running waters, estimated at 50 pounds avoirdupois per annum to
1£ acres, for lakes and ponds at 87£ pounds, making a total of 7,483,600,
including 617,500 pounds of fine fish valued at 835 for every hundred
weight, (Austrian : equal to 123J pounds avoirdupois,) and 0,866,106
pounds common fish at $15 per Austrian hundredweight. This gives
a total annual revenue of $258,394. The expenses for implements
salaries, aud taxes are estimated at $55,2S0, making the net rev-
enue $203,114, or $9 per acre. These estimates appear by no means
too high if compared with the revenues of other countries where the
fisheries are well protected.
The Deutsche Fishereiverein has also given its full attention to fish-

THE FISHEKY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 603

erv- statistics. This society has, in its Circular ISTo. 4 for 1872, published
a form containing questions regarding the number, nature, and econom-
ical value of the useful fish and crawfish, thus paving the way for reli-
able information.

More reliable data regarding the numbers, the different species of fish,
and their geographical location in the provinces of Austria have been
collected by zealous naturalists. Fish-culture has, undoubtedly, of late
years been studied very thoroughly on the before-mentioned basis of
legislation.

11. — SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS.

Scientific researches, which have made us better acquainted with the
mode of life of various animals, have encouraged numerous inven-
tions, by which man has been enabled to derive the greatest possible
benefit from the animal kingdom.

The excellent works of ichthyologists from those of Artedi and
Linue- down to Siebold's classic work, " Die Siissicasserjische von Mittel-
Europa," as also very thorough works on fish-culture, such as Carl Vogt's
"Die kunstliche FisckzucM,n Coste's u Instructions pratiques sur la pisci-
culture" and others, give the most important suggestions for fishing-
legislation.

Brehra, in the last volume of his u Illustrirtes TMerleben^ gives a
masterly description of the life of fishes ; Beta, in his work u Die Be-
ivirthschaftung des Wassers und die Ernten daraus,v by describing the un-
told wealth which is still hidden therein, endeavors to give a new impetus
to its cultivation.

We owe it to the high degree of perfection to which scientific obser-
vations in general have been carried, and especially to the intelligent,
thorough, and careful investigations of two Austrian naturalists, Heckel
and Kner, in numerous essays by the former, and in the work on the
fresh- water fish of the Austrian monarchy, published by them in com-
mon, as well as to the before-mentioned work by Siebold, for a faithful
and complete natural history of the Austrian fresh-water fish, includ-
ing the distribution of their species in the different waters, an exact
description of the manner in which they are caught, and the implements
employed in fishing.

Becently, several governments have endeavored to further scientific
investigations by special institutions and by granting subsidies from the
public treasury.

In 1862, the Austrian government sent Professor Molin to France and
Western Germany to gather full information, both practical and theo-
retical, on the progress of the artificial culture of useful aquatic animals.
He has published his reports on this journey as well as his important
suggestions for fishery-legislation in his work, " Die rationelle Zuclit der
Siiswasserjische und einiger in derVoUcsicirthsckaft wiclitigenWasserthiere"
li. Molin, Vienna : Braumiiller, 1SG1.

In 1870 and 1871, the Bohemian ichthyologist Dr. Fric made a jour-

604 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

ney through Bohemia and other countries on the Elbe, with a view to
studying the condition of the fisheries, especially the salmon fisheries and
their international regulation, upon which journey he has likewise pub-
lished a report.

In 1868, Professor Schmarda was sent to France by the Austrian min-
istry of agriculture, in order to report on the condition of fish-culture
along the French coasts. Besides many excellent features, he observed
many failures, and therefore recommends, above everything else, accu-
rate scientific investigations as the only safe basis of future progress.

Schmarda remarks that economical progress can only be made by
establishing experimental stations ; these are just as important for a
rational cultivation of the sea-coasts as for agriculture, and even more
so, because the leading principles of water culture have yet to be learned.
That something of the kind is necessary in order to put an end to the
purely empirical system of exhausting and plundering will even now be
clear to the unbiased observer of a large portion of the coasts of Europe.
No half-measure, however, should be taken in founding such institu-
tions, but they should be supplied with all the necessary scientific appa-
ratus, and naturalists should be permanently stationed there. They
will then flourish better than if some famous man whose time is neces-
sarily occupied otherwise give his name to some expensive institution,
buc never visit it in person.

With the advancement of political economy, the advancement of fish-
culture must go hand in hand.

In this respect, likewise, the great exertions of the Americans and En-
glish in investigating all the mysteries in the life of aquatic fauna, but
more particularly the efforts made by France, deserve to be imitated.
Everywhere, aquaria have been established for observing the mode of life
of these animals. They have partly been founded by the governments,
partly by scientific associations. One of the fiuest is the salt-water aqua-
rium at Arcachon. A great deal has been done for fresh-water fish at
Hiiuiugen, and for other useful aquatic animals by the institution at Con-
carneau, which theFreuch governmenthas established under the supervi-
sion of Professor Goste, at an expense of $20,000. (See Professor Sch-
marda's report on his visit to Concarneau, in the annual report of the min-
istry of agriculture for 18G8, p. 349.) In Berlin, a magnificent aquarium
for fresh and salt water fish and artificial fish-culture has been erected on
plans made by Dr. Brehm. Large aquaria are at present beiug con-
structed in Triest and Vienna, (in the Prater.)

The international maritime congress held at Naples in 1871 passed
the following resolutions on the promotion of fish-culture, and more
especially of the salt-water fisheries :

"This congress, acknowledging the importance of several inquiries
made with the view of ascertaining the fruitfulness of the different
species of fish, the number of those which reach the age of maturity, the
laws of individual increase, and the places and seasons best suited for

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 605

fishing, and taking into consideration the fact that the necessary
studies and observations may vary according to the location, circum-
stances, and personal views of the observer, expresses a desire that the
investigations which have beeu suggested be left to the private enter-
prise of the several practical scientific institutions ; that such researches
should be encouraged by these institutions, and by the several gov-
ernments by granting subsidies and by offering prizes; and that every
possible means should be employed to support and further them.

Austria so far does not possess any means for making scientific
investigations in the interest of fish-culture. The central establishment
for pisciculture at Salzburg would be well qualified to prosecute such
inquiries. From inaccurate observations, which have not been made
in a truly reliable and scientific manner, incorrect information may be
spread even by the institutions themselves, such as the report of the fruit
fulness of a cross-breed between the Salmo salvelinus and the trout
which had been raised in the Salzburg establishment, a report which
after repeated and more careful experiments, has not been confirmed

As late as 1871, the best modern works on lake-culture, fish-culture
and ichthyology could not be found in the library of this establishment

It is an essential condition of the well-being of every economical in
stitution, by which it also serves the cause of science, to supply the
means of study to the officials employed.

Recently, exhibitions have become a popular means of promoting fish-
culture and spreading a knowledge of ichthyology. Large exhibitions
of fishery-products, fishing-implements, &c, were held at Amsterdam
in 1SG1, at Bergen in 1865, at Havre in 1868. At the Paris exposition
of 1867, there was a special department for fisheries; at the Gottenburg
exposition of 1871, the fish-sections formed the chief attraction. Nearly
every one of our agricultural exhibitions also displays some fishery-
products, improved fishing implements, and especially improved appa-
ratus for piscicuture to show the progress which has been made, and
to awaken an interest in the matter. We may surely expect that
the Vienna world's fair of 1873 will prove of great benefit to the fisheries.

C— THE IMPORTANT FRESH-WATER FISHES.

According to Heckel's and Kner's accurate observations, the chief
mountain ranges exercise the greatest influence on the distribution of
the different species of fish, so that those rivers and streams whose
springs are on the same mountain slope have generally the same
species of fish, even if finally they empty into far distant seas. Since
all the great rivers of Central Europe, for longer or shorter distances,
flow through Austrian territory, and empty from the various slopes
into four different seas, we can easily explain Austria's wealth in fish
of all kinds, which from here spreads into all the neighboring countries.

Nearly all species of Central Europeau fish are, therefore, represented
in the Austrian waters, but distributed among the several provinces in

606 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

accordance with the various slopes of the central mountain range, the
Alps.

The following list of those fresh-water fish which are of most import-
ance to our legislation has been compiled from the scientific works men-
tioned above, as well as from the reports of the several agricultural
societies, and of many naturalists in the various provinces of Austria.*

12. — SALMON FAMILY, (SALMONOIDEI.)

The species of this family take the first place among fresh-water fish
in regard to fishery legislation, both on account of their great value,
and the exquisite flavor of their tender and boneless flesh, their rapid
growth, their existence in nearly all the Austrian waters, aud, finally,
on account of their special adaptation to pisciculture, in which latter
respect they excel most other species.

At the first glance, we can distinguish the individuals belonging to this
kind by a double dorsal fin, consisting of a front one placed about the
middle of the back, composed of soft rays of several joints, and a posterior
one, being only a small piece of skin, a so-called fat fin. They have
mostly very small scales, thus differing entirely from the large-scaled
fish of the carp kind.

Among the numerous genera of Salmonoidei, the following are the
most important :

a. Trutta, comprising all salmon and trout, distinguished by a wide
mouth with even teeth, and long vomer bone ;

b. Salmo, with short vomer bone, the short front part of which alone
has teeth ;

c. Thymallus, with small mouth, fine teeth in the jaws, and powerful
dorsal fin ;

d. Coregonus, with a toothless mouth, fine bent teeth on the tongue,
and a silvery-white body.

Carl Vogt divides the salmonoids of the genera Salmo and Trutta,
according to their mode of life, a manner which is equally suitable for
piscicultural and legislative purposes, into the sea salmon, the lake
salmon or lake trout, and the brook trout. All the different varieties of
this kind which are spread through Europe, Asia, aud North America,
as far as the northernmost limit of the circum-polar regions, are fish of
prey, and have many characteristics in common.

Among the sea salmon we must count the common salmon, (Rhine
salmon,) Trutta salar, the hook-salmon and silver-salmon, distinguished
as different kinds by some naturalists, being only varieties of one and
the same kind, and the sea-trout, Trutta trutta; these all spend a part
of their life in the ocean.
. The salmon are found in all northern seas, in the North Sea, and Bal-

* Along the coasts of Austria and Dalmatia the salt-water fisheries are of the greatest
importance. These, however, require a separate treatise, and we therefore limit our-
selves in this review to the fresh-water fish.

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 607

tic; in spring, they leave, and, favored by the sea-winds, come into
the rivers flowing into these waters, and into their tributaries. In a
short time, they reach a length of 3 and even 5 feet, leap over weirs and
embankments if they are not too high, especially if contrivances, called
salmon-paths or salmon-ladders, for making the leap easier have been
placed there.

In order to find the best spawning and hatching places, they go very
far up the rivers. They ascend the Elbe, and from thence into the
Moldau, also, into the Oder and its headwaters in Moravia and Silesia;
from the Vistula into the Dunajec, and into the Sau and its tributaries;
the hook-salmon go into a small tributary of the Bug, and also into
the Rhine as far as the falls at Schaffhausen.

Numerous experiments by markiug fish have proved the fact that the
salmon return to the same rivers and spawning places where they were
born. In the establishment at Stormontfield. on the river Tay, more
than 24,000 salmon were caught up to 1867, all of which had formerly
been marked and placed in the sea as smolts.

In England, the young salmon born in the rivers, which as yet have
no scales and cannot endure salt water, are called parrs ; the older fish,
•which have scales and eagerly seek the sea, smolts; those which, for the
first time, return from their voyage to the sea, grilse ; and the fully-ma-
tured salmon, salms.

The spawning season usually commences in September, and lasts till
the end of December ; the smaller female fish frequently spawning from
two weeks to a month sooner than the larger ones. During their stay in
fresh water, and. during the gradual development of the ova and milt,
the salmon assume a darker color, and the male fish frequently show
red spots on the sides and on the covering of the gills; old male fish
show the most brilliant colors during the spawning-season, which disap-
pear immediately when this season is over, and the salmou begin to
return to the sea in a very emaciated condition. Like most of our food-
fish, the salmon are fattest just previous to the spawning-season, but do
not eat anything during this time, and are afterward scarcely fit for
food. The old salmon are the first to go to the sea, while, of the young
ones, only about one-half lea ve the rivers somewhat later the first year,
(as smolts;) the other half remaining another year, (as parrs.) In the
sea, they rapidly increase in weight and size.

The well-known ichthyologist Dr. Erie has recently made some very
interesting observations on the life and habits of the Bohemian salmon.
He says that there are in Bohemia three different ascents of the salmon
during the year.

The first ascent frequently commences at the end of February under
the ice, as a general rule in March, and lasts till May. These salmon
are mostly large and strong, weighing from 25 to 50 pounds avoirdu-
pois, and are famous in Bohemia under the name of "violet-salmon."

The second ascent begins in the middle of June, and lasts till August,

608 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

if the rivers are not too low. These fish have a reddish flesh, and weigh
from 12£ to 22£ pounds avoirdupois, and are known by the name of
" rose-salmon."

These two classes of salmon are not ready to spawn when they arrive
in Bohemia, and require a considerable stay in fresh water to develop
their ova and milt.

The third ascent begins during the first half of September, and lasts
till the end of November, in mild winters even till December. These
fish are mostly weak, weighing from 3 to 10 and sometimes 15 pounds
avoirdupois. Their flesh is of a pale color, and for this reason they are
usually called " silver-salmon." They are fully prepared to spawn im-
mediately on their arrival. The process commences in the mountain
streams which flow into the Elbe, the Wild Adler, the Moldau, the
Wotawa, and other small rivers.

Among the chief causes of the decrease of salmon in Bohemia, which
formerly had large numbers of this fish, Dr. Fric places the high weirs
built across the rivers which the salmon cannot leap over, especially at
low- water ; the stationary fishing apparatus, which frequently span the
whole breadth of a river, especially near the weirs ; the unprotected
•condition of the spawning places ; the spearing of the fish with tridents
during the spawning season, when they are half .stupefied ; and, finally,
the want of well-protected hatching places, where the young fish can be
safe from their numerous enemies on laud and in the water.

No fisheries require proper legislation as much as those for salmon.
On account of the large schools which ascend the rivers, the whole
stream should be subjected to uniform laws and a uniform system of
fishing, which only becomes possible by international treaties.

The sea-trout (Trutta trutta) does not reach the size of the common
salmon, but is otherwise very much like it so far as its propagation and
the localities which it seeks are concerned. Like the salmon, it
ascends to the headwaters of the Oder and the Vistula, but does not go
as far in the Elbe.

The lake-trout, lake-salmon, or salmon-trout, (Trutta lacustris,) are
found exclusively in the fresh-water lakes of the alpine regions of Cen-
tral Europe, from which, during the spawning season, they go up or
down the stream in the rivers or brooks connected with them. Only
in lakes whose tributaries do not have much water, or mostly consist of
rapids, they are obliged to seek flat gravelly places near the shores
to spawn. Most of them spend the greater portion of their lives in
inaccessible depths, and only ascend to the surface under peculiar
conditions of temperature, in order to catch small fish and insects
During the spawning season, they come to the surface in larger numbers,
their excursions in the brooks and rivers sometimes extend to a great
distance, sometimes only to a few miles from their dwelling-place.

Those which ascend the brooks and rivers are caught with bow
and stationary nets, which are placed near the mouth of the rivers or

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 609

at the spawning places ; in the lakes, however, they are caught with
hooks and flies, which have been introduced from England.

Ichthyologists and fishermen have frequently confounded the lake-
trout belonging to the alpine lakes with the sea-trout (Trutta trutta) of
the Korth Sea and the Baltic. Those of different age and sex have
also been mistaken for separate species. The lake species, with com-
pletely developed sexual organs, which, in some lakes, as in the Chiem
Lake, is called salmon-trout, and on the Lake of Constance ground-trout,
is distinguished by a plumper shape, grows rapidly like the other kind
of salmon, and reaches a weight of 31^ to G2£ pounds avoirdupois,
and even more. Those which on the Lake of Constance, are called
" floating-trout," (Schwebforellen,) and on the Austrian lakes May trout,
remain barren and develop in a totally different manner from the fruit-
ful lake-trout. They are less fleshy than the ground-trout.

The male of the lake trout changes considerably in color and quality
of skin during the spawning season while he sojourns in running waters.
According to whetber they are caught in spring or autumn, in different
localities, of different color or size, they are called by different names
among the fishermen.

The brook trout to which, besides the common brook trout, (Trutta
fario,) some Dalmatian species belong, such as the Trotta and Pastrova.
The Trutta fario is of the utmost importance to protect, because it is
found in nearly all clear waters, especially mountain and forest streams
to a height of 5,000 feet; its flesh is universally esteemed, and its cul-
ture, both natural and artificial, is very productive, while it is easily
kept and fed. It is therefore considered one of the most important fish
to cultivate. The color, and partly also the size which it reaches, vary
according to its location, the influence of light, the seasou, water, and
food, and therefore several varieties are distinguished, such as the
forest or stone trout, the alpine or mountain trout, the gold or pond
trout, the lake-trout, and, according to the lighter or darker coloring
the white trout, the black trout, &c. In this species, some are likewise
found which are barren, and never spawn.,

In the smaller and rapid mountain streams, which do not afford much
food, the trout scarcely reach a length of 12 to 15 inches ; while, in
larger waters, such as lakes and ponds, with good and plentiful food, they
occasionally reach a weight of 18| to 25 pounds. They can easily be
fed with insects, small fish, &c. A beginning has even made on the
the sandy plains near Berlin, to dig artificial springs, in which trout are
raised and fed. In our alpine regions, where nearly every village has a
superabundance of fresh springs and brooks, much larger gains might
be realized in a short time by imitating this example.

The brook-trout go up the stream for the purpose of spawning, but

only for short distances, and make the most astonishing leaps over weirs

and small water-falls j in winter, they go to the deeper waters, in ord«er

not to be overtaken by the ice in the small streams.
3d F

610 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The female lays her eggs, which are of the size of a pea, from Septem-
ber to January, according to different climatic influences, in shallow peb-
bly places, between stones, logs of wood, and in little holes which they
hollow out in the sand. The male, which follows the female with a sort
of rage, squirts the milt over the eggs as they are laid. After the eggs
have been impregnated, the fish do not care for them any more, but leave
them to the stream. In comparison with other fish, the female of the
brook-trout lays only a small number of eggs. By artificial culture,
trout have been placed in many brooks where formerly they were not
found. The spawning place is usually a small bay with a fiat bottom,
and with as much pure gravel as possible, so that the young fish may be
protected against their numerous enemies. Such artificial spawning
places should be guarded as much as possible by law.

As the trout do not make long migrations like the salmon, even the
proprietor of small fisheries has them constantly within his reach, and
can easily raise and feed them.

Beta, in his work so frequently referred to, on page 189, gives the
following advice on trout-raising :

"Trout require very pure running spring- water, of the greatest possi*
ble evenness of temperature, which should be cool in summer and warm
in winter, a gravelly bottom, and a shady forest or bushes on the banks.

" In order to hatch artificially impregnated trout-eggs, and to raise
young fish, they have, in their brook or river, to go through a series
of ponds. These consist of a succession of artificial ponds or wideniugs,
which increase in size toward the mouth of the stream. In the first,
which is the one occupying the highest ground, the young fish are kept
for about a year, from the beginning of spring. Here care should
be taken that they find natural food enough either on the gravelly
bottom or between the aquatic plants near the banks, the water-cresses,
&c, or artificial food has to be provided for them. Meat that has been
chopped very fine and every kind of small worms are best suited for this.
Pieces of spoiled meat can also be suspended over the water, from which,
during summer, larva3 and maggots will soon fall down in sufficient quan-
tity as a welcome food for the fish. They should be separated from
the following division by a fine wire-work. In this division, the larger
trout are kept till the end of the second year, and are during this time
fed with snails, worms, young pike that have just been hatched, and
bleak. In the third and fourth divisions, they commence to catch iusects
that fly over the water, but larger bleak should be thrown in to them or
placed in the water for their food. In the third division, they are kept
till the end of the third year; and in the fourth, the grown trout remain
till the proprietor either sells them or uses them in his own household.

"The transfers from one division to another are generally made in the
beginning of spring, when the weather gets warmer, say about March.
The trout which are ready for the market weigh, on an average, 1£
pounds each, and are so strong and active that they are no longer at-

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. Ql\

tacked by their larger colleagues, and can undisturbedly chase the young
fishes which have been placed in the water for them. No other fish
should be kept in the ponds, and special care should be taken that young
pike, which have been put in as food, do not escape the trout, a,nd grow
up to become merciless robbers." *

The genus Salmo was formerly, by most ichthyologists, confounded
with the Trutta, although there are very characteristic differences be-
tween the two. The chief representatives of the former are the Salmo
hucho and the Salmo salvelinus.

The hucho, (Salmo hucho,) also called Danube salmon, is a fish belonging
to the Salmonoidei, found in the territory of the Danube, in size and
weight exceeding the salmon. The hucho reaches a weight of 50 to 75
and occasionally 125 pounds avoirdupois. Its sexual organs are not
fully developed till it weighs about 5 pounds. It is not a migratory fish,
like the salmon, returning to the ocean every year, but only leaves
its dwelling-place during the spawning season to seek shallow and
gravelly places. It is found in Austria, in the whole territory of the
Danube, from Passau downward, but most frequently in the larger and
smaller tributaries of the Danube flowing down from the Alps, especially
in the Inn, the Salzach, Ager, Bnns, Steyer, Traun, as far as the falls of
the Traun, in the Traisen, Save, and Drau. It grows so rapidly that
its weight annually increases about 2£ pounds. Its flesh is somewhat
inferior to that of the salmon, but is nevertheless considered a great
delicacy.

For the Austrian fisheries, the hucho is of the greatest importance on
account of the large extent of country — the Danube and its tributaries —
where it is found, and its rapid growth, produced through its great
voracity. It is so fond of bleak that it can easily be caught with a
hook baited with artificial fish of a whitish color.

The hucho does not spawn in winter, like all the other Salmonoidei, but
usually in April and May. The eggs, sometimes 40,000 from one single
female fish weighing about 50 pounds, mature much sooner than those of
other salmon ; the young fish weigh about 1£ pounds after one year,
while specimens weighing 5 pounds in the third year are quite frequent.

The chief causes of the decrease of the number of hucho are the weira
which recently have been built in the Upper Danube and its tributaries j
no passage ways having as yet been* left for them.

The Salmo salvelinus, also called red trout, is a lazy fish, but little
inclined to prey upon other fish, and leaves the lakes during the spawn-
ing season. Its form is exceedingly variable, according to age, sex, and
location, so that ichthyologists have frequently considered one or the
other of the different forms in which it occurs as a separate species. It
may be recognized by the color of its belly, which is orange, and even
borders on vermilion, which colors are particularly bright in the male.
It is found in the clear mountain lakes of the Alps of Upper Austria,
Tyrol, Bavaria, Switzerland, as also in the Carpathian mountain lakes

612 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

at a height of 6,000 feet above the level of the sea. These fish increase
very rapidly, but grow slower than the lake- salmon. Their flesh is,
according to the season, the lake in which they live, and the water in
■which they have been kept either of a reddish or a whitish color, but
has always been considered a great delicacy.

The Salmo salvelinus of the Fuschler Lake is distinguished by its rapid
growth in size and weight. Here, as well as in the Hinter Lake near
Bercktesgaden, rare specimens are sometimes caught, weighing 22£
to 25 pounds. This fish has likewise been transferred to lakes where
formerly it was not found. In Upper Austria, they are caught with
seines drawn by four men in two boats.

Artificial fish-culture has produced many cross-breeds, especially of
the Salmo salvelinus and the trout, which excel the pure breed in many
respects. In Upper Austria, the eggs of the Salmo salvelinus are mostly
impregnated with the milt of brook-trout.

The third genus of the Salmonoidei includes the "Asch," called
"Aesche," in North Germany, (Thymallus vulgaris.) It is found through-
out the whole of Central Europe, in clear, shallow, running water, with a
stony bottom, less frequently in lakes near the shore and the mouths of
rivers. Its flesh comes nearest to that of the trout ; and they are caught
in a similar manner to the trout, but in a peculiar manner in the river
Yokla, in Upper Austria, by tying a female which is on the point of
spawning to a pole rammed in the bottom of the stream, by means of a
thread fastened to the dorsal fin ; when the males approach the female,
they are quickly raised out of the water by the net spread out below.

The Thymallus vulgaris is distinguished from all the other Salmonoidei
by its remarkably large dorsal fin and by the great beauty of its vary-
ing colors.

In the ancient Austrian fishery-regulations, the Thymallus vulgaris is
frequently mentioned, the young fish being valued very highly. At
times it could only be caught for the imperial table, for sick persons, or
pregnant women. In Upper Austria these fish are in the first year
called tl Sprenzling f in the second, " Mailing ;'; in the third, "Aeseh-
ling;" and, finally, "Asch."

The fourth genus of the Salmonoidei, the Coregonus, especially the
species Coregonus Wartmanni and Coregonus /era, live almost exclu-
sively in lakes, and at the beginning of the spawning season gather in
such large numbers that many are killed by the pressure of the crowd ;
at this time they may frequently be seen leaping out of the water.
Closely pressed together, they drop roe and milt in the water. In large
schools, they swim noisily at the surface, especially at night-time, and
immense quantities are caught near the shore with floating drag-nets,
and, where the water is deeper, withv. stationary nets. Their flesh is
esteemed very highly; and, in some lakes where this industry is carried
on a large scale, it is of as much importance as the herring-fishery.
They cannot be easily caught with a hook and line. When taken out

THE FISHEKY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 613

of the water and exposed to the air, they die almost immediately. Like
herrings, they are salted, smoked, and pickled, and form a considerable
article of commerce. It is difficult to distinguish the several varieties,
as they mostly live together in large numbers; the different species of
the same age keeping together, changing their outward appearance
according to the season, the weather, the method of propagation, location,
and mode of life, and being called by different names by the fishermen.
The more important varieties are the lavaret, (Goregonus Wartmmmi,)
called "Keinanken" in Upper Austria and "Renken" in Tyrol and
Vorarlberg ; it weighs 1§ to 2 pounds, sometimes even 3§ to 5 pounds j
it is found in the Atter, Gmunden, and Fuschler Lakes, but in particu-
larly large numbers in the Lake of Constance.

The Goregonus /era, called " Sandgangfish" in the Lake of Constance,
"Knopfling" in the Atter Lake, and "Eindling" in the Traun Lake,
weighs little more than one-half pound.

The Goregonus maroena weighs as much as 12£ pounds, is found in
the lakes of Pomerania, and deserves to be acclimatized in the Austrian
waters.

13. — THE PIKE FAMILY, (ESOCINI.)

These fishes are easily recognizable by their broad, flat mouth and
their strong teeth. They are represented in the fresh waters of Europe
by the common pike, (Esox lucius,) the shark of the fresh waters,
which, unless purposely destroyed, is found in all large streams and
their tributaries, in lakes, ponds, and marshes. It feeds on any live
animals found in the water, and reaches a weight of more than 50
pounds ; a female pike of medium size will contain 00,000 eggs. It loves
to spawn on inundated meadows and peat-bogs, and in their ditches.
Its flesh resembles that of the trout.

14. — THE CATFISH FAMILY, (SILTJEOIDEI.)

The fishes of this family have no scales, and a broad low head.
Many species are found in North America. With us only one is found,
the common " Wels," or "Schaide," (Silurus glanis,) a fish of prey, living
in the Danube and its tributaries, also in Moravia, Galicia, and other
countries. Next to the sturgeon and huso, it is the largest fresh-water
fish, and in the Danube reaches a weight of 494 to 617^ pounds;
although its flesh is not universally esteemed, it is well suited for pond
culture in peat-bog water.

15. — THE COD FAMILY, (GADOIDEI.)

The fresh-water representative is the Lota vulgaris, with a slender
eel-like body. They spawn at different seasons, usually in December.
During this season, they gather in schools of about 100. In the Danube,
it weighs from 3f to 5 pounds ; in the Fuschler and Atter Lake, 10 to 15
and even 20 pounds; and is found in the greater part of Europe.

614 REPORT OP COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

16.— THE EELS, (MTJR^NOIDEI.)

This group comprises long-bodied, snake-like fish of prey, without
ventral fins. To this family belongs the river-eel, (Anguilla vulgaris,)
which lives both in fresh and salt water, and flourishes particularly in
peat-bog marshes. The manner in which it propagates its species is not
yet thoroughly known.

The young of those eels which spawn in the sea ascend the rivers
in spring by millions, and frequently go to running and stagnant waters
which are far distant from the sea.

The ascent of the young eels into fresh water, called montata in Italy
and montee in France, lasts three or four months in the spring-season.
Their return to the sea (calata) is made from October to December,
usually not until they have lived for several years in fresh water. It
invariably takes place during very stormy and dark nights. On the
Austrian coasts and in Italy, many fishermen at the mouths of the rivers
are employed in catching the migrating eels, which in some places are
by means of special canals led into entirely closed caves. The river-
eel spawns during summer on sandy and gravelly banks, where the
eggs are hatched in October, and where the young remain till April or
May.

The flesh of the eel is valued very highly, forms the exclusive flesh-
food of large populations, and, salted, smoked, or pickled, is an im-
portant article of trade. The eel is found in the larger part of Europe,
especially in all those rivers and standing waters which are connected
with the Baltic, the North Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean,
and the Adriatic; but it is entirely wanting in those lakes and rivers
which send their waters into the Black Sea.

As soon as that care which it deserves is given to the eel-fishery, and
especially to its culture in our waters, this fish would with us, just
as in England, become a cheap food for the whole people. Numerous
little ponds, with marshy bottom, which at present are useless, and
even injurious, might be populated with eels, and would, with some
care, yield a rich harvest, if, during the first weeks of spring and in the
latter part of autumn, they were properly fed.

17. — THE CARP FAMILY, (CYPRINOIDEI.)

The Cyprinoids are distinguished from all other fish by small tooth-
less mouths, the well-known carp-mouth. The greater number of our
fish belong to this family ; among them the numerous varieties of the
bleak, the carp, the loach, the barbel, the tench, &c, which chiefly inhabit
the fresh waters of the temperate zone, and " which are valued in
places where there are no better fish," (Vogt.)

By transferring the various kinds of carp into waters where they
were not originally found, by different modes of life to which they have

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. Gl£

been accustomed, by artificial culture, &c, numerous varieties of them
have been produced.

The common carp, (Cgprinus carpio,) for centuries the fish belonging
to our civilization, loves sluggish water, with a marshy bottom. Dur-
ing the spawning season, May and June, it retires to warm, brackish
waters, which are exposed to the sun. The females, while surrounded
by the male, paste their eggs to water-plants. A medium-sized female
carp is supposed to produce annually 200,000 to 250,000 eggs. In lakes,
they reach a weight of 5 to 6£ pounds in three years. All vegetable
and animal kitchen-refuse, agricultural and economical products of little
value, the refuse of slaughter-houses, &c, supply a welcome food for
them, if it is given to them in small soft pieces, so that they ca.n easily
grasp it with, their toothless mouth and swallow it.

In some countries carps form an important article of trade, and are
shipped to a great distance. In Austria, the " Danube carp " was once
a favorite and cheap food of the common people ; but, by the neglect
of years, and by the reckless plunder of the tributaries of this noble
river, once so rich in fish, their number has decreased very much.

The so-called mirror-carp, with disproportionately large scales ; the
leather-carp, which has no scales at all ; and others, are only varieties
of one and the same species. The barren carp, called " Laiinar" in South
Germany, and " Gelte carp " in North Germany, which is mentioned
by Aristotle, and by him counted among the best fish, is also in our
days highly esteemed on account of its tender flesh.

In Oarniolia, the two varieties of the carp called "Alant" and "Je-
ses" are very much esteemed.

The crucian (Carassius vulgaris) usually weighs about 2 pounds, and
is found all through Central Europe. Like the carp, it is cultivated, and
its flesh is much esteemed.

The tench (Tinea vulgaris) has a yellowish-green color, and is a lazjr
fish, which is found in most parts of Europe in rivers, lakes, ponds,
and clayey marshes. It can easily be shipped, and in clayey ponds
which are too poor for other fish it can be cultivated with great profit.
The barbel (Barbus fluviatilis) grows rapidly, usually weighs 10 to 12
pounds, and is frequently caught with a so-called Pater-noster line.
The roe of the barbel when eaten causes vomiting and diarrhoea.

The bream (Abramis brama) lives in lakes, gently-flowing rivers,
ponds, and marshes. It is caught in large numbers with seines. In the
spring of 1858, from 24,700 to 37,050 pounds of bream were in one day
caught near Ermattingen on the Lake of Constance.

The bleak, (Albumus lucidus,) called " Uckelei" in North Germany, is
found in all the running and standing waters of Central Europe with the
exception of mountain lakes and streams. From their scales, the so-
called essence cVorient is prepared, by which glass beads are made to
sparkle almost like the genuine oriental pearls.
Numerous other fish, besides the above mentioned, mostly designated

616 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

as white fishes, belong to the carp family. The smaller of these are
mostly used for feeding other fish. As they live on plants and refuse,
their food is easily supplied, and during spring and summer numerous
young fish are in a very short time developed from the eggs.

18.— THE PERCH FAMILY, (PERCOLDEI.)

The perch has a bright and beautiful color, and usually a wholesome
finely flavored flesh. The front rays of their dorsal fin are actually like
thorns, leaning backward like the bayonets of a column of marching
soldiers.

To the perch proper (Perca) belongs the river-perch, (Perca fluviatUis,)
with light-red ventral and anal fins, found nearly everywhere in large
and small rivers and lakes. It is very voracious, readily takes the hook,
and spawns in March, April, and May in calm water on a reedy bottom.
A medium-sized female perch lays on an average 80,000 eggs per an-
num, which, pasted together in the shape of ribbons or lumps, stick to
stones and water-plants. Its weight seldom exceeds 1% pounds; but in
the Zeller Lake, (in the Pinzgau,) where it is found in very large num-
bers, it sometimes weighs from 4 to 5 pounds.

To the genus Lucioperca belongs the Lucioperca sandra, called " Zan-
der" in North Germany, and in Hungary, when young, " Sziillo;" when
old, "Fogas." It lives in lakes, larger streams and their tributaries, keeps
at the bottom, in its voracity spares not even its own young, spawns
from April till the beginning of June in shallow places near the shore
where there are water-plants, thrives likewise in deep ponds, and
grows as rapidly as the pike, to which also in other respects it bears a
great similarity, and is, therefore, in Latin as well as in German, called
pike-perch. If well fed, it weighs in a few years about 25 pounds. This
fish was by an archbishop of Salzburg brought from the Neusiedler Lake
and placed in the Waller Lake.

19. — THE STURGEON FAMILY, (ACIPENSERINI.)

The species of this family have no bones like the fish that have
been spoken of, but instead, soft, flexible gristle. The sturgeon is for
some countries as important as the salmon; it is mostly found in Eastern
Europe, lives both in the sea and in large lakes, but at certain seasons
of the year ascends the rivers in large schools, never going beyond a
certain place. If supplied with good food, they reach a very large size;
specimens weighing from 800 to 1,000 pounds having frequently been
caught in the Danube in olden times.

There are few other fishes which are of greater use to man than the
sturgeon. In Eussia, a large portion of the population is supported by
the sturgeon fisheries. Its flesh combines a certain firmness with excel-
lent flavor, and is even preferred to veal by many persons. They are
salted, dried in the sun, or smoked, and shipped to a great distance; the

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 617

roe, packed in kegs, comes into the trade as caviar, and the inner skin
of the air-bladder is made into isinglass.

Most fish of the sturgeon family are found in the Black Sea, the Sea
of Azov, and the rivers flowing into them ; some of them are found in the
Danube beyond Pressburg.

All attempts to hatch sturgeon -eggs and to raise the young artificially
have so far been failures; and, only recently, Dr. Koch, in St. Peters-
burg, is said to have succeeded in solving this problem.

The common sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) is found in the Atlantic
Ocean, the Mediterranean, the Adriatic Sea, the North Sea, and Baltic,
and ascends very far up the rivers.

The huso (Acipenser huso) weighs as high as 2,500 pounds, and ascends
the Danube and some of its tributaries. On account of the persecutions
to which it has been exposed on the Lower Danube, it has at present
become very rare in Austria.

The finest kind of sturgeon, whose flesh is almost as high-priced as
that of the salmon, is the sterlet, (Acipenser ruthenus,) which seldom
measures more than two feet, and weighs from 8 \ to about 9 pounds.
It stays longer in the rivers than the other sturgeons, requires spawning
places with gravelly bottoms and considerable fall, and is found in the
Danube as far as Bavaria, in the Salzach, the Drau, and other tribu-
taries, as well as in the Dniester, &c. Its air-bladder makes the finest
isinglass.

The sterlet has recently been cultivated to a considerable extent in
North Germany at the suggestion of the Deutsche Fischerei-verein. The
Prussian ministry of agriculture, in 1872, accepted an offer of Dr. Koch,
in St. Petersburg, to bring 100,000 young sterlets from the Yolga
to Germany, where they are to be distributed among the public rivers,
private waters, and especially to piscicultural establishments.

20.— THE CRAWFISH, (ASTACUS FLTJVIATILIS.)

The river crawfish (Astacus fluviatilis)* is considered to be very different
from fish in the systems of naturalists ; but, in the practical fisheries, it
has to be treated in common with them, and the same legislation should
apply to both. It is found in nearly all of our rivers, brooks, and even in
ponds, though not always in such quantities as to supply cheap food for
the masses of the people. With proper care, their numbers could easily
be increased; all that has to be done is to give them cheap food, to
observe the times when they should not be caught, and to plant alders
and other bushes on the banks of those streams which, by too extensive
fishing, have become drained of crawfish.

In France, the government has granted an appropriation by which
more than 300 rivers and brooks can be stocked with German crawfish.
Even these are not sufficient to supply the great demand, and large num-

*One species of Astacus is considered a great table delicacy in Europe and sells at
high prices. — S. F. B.

618 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

bers are still imported from Germany. From Styria, fattened crawfish
have been sent to Paris by Baron de Washington. Crawfish, likewise,
increase very rapidly. Our present experience has shown that the eggs
perish when torn off from the animals, so that it will not do to press
them out and throw them into the water ; all that can be done is to give
ample protection to the female crawfish. In some places, young craw-
fish are kept and fed till they are able to take care of themselves. Con-
sidering the enormous demand for them, crawfish-culture in our num-
berless small brooks might soon become a remunerative occupation.

C— PROTECTIVE LEGISLATION.

21. — THE FISHING-PRIVILEGES.

We possess a great deal of valuable information on all the legal ques-
tions pertaining to fisheries in the thorough and exhaustive researches
made by eminent jurists upon the historical development of the fishing-
privileges in Austria and in other countries possessing similar laws, and
also in special investigations of the subject.

The historical development of the fishing-privileges was, especially
in olden times, very much the same in different countries.

Lette and Eonne, the well-known commentators on the "Agrarian
Laws of Prussia," (vol. ii, p. 760,) briefly describe this development as
follows :

" Originally, and far into the Middle Ages, every landed proprietor
had the right to fish on his property j those who owned lands bordering
on rivers could fish in these streams, and citizens of towns or villages
had the right to fish in all the waters belonging to these communities.
At a later period, the royal water and fishing privileges were established
in connection with the hunting-privileges of kings and princes, and were
in later times extended to nearly all the public rivers and streams,
and either given or rented to private individuals. The right to fish in
private waters, both standing and running, was, contrary to ancient
usage, appropriated by the owners of estates and the local authorities
to the entire exclusion of the vassals, (farmers.) These, as well as those
inhabitants who did not possess any property, were frequently only
allowed to fish with purse-nets and lines.

" Exclusive fishing-privileges are not acknowleged by the common
law, and a person claiming such rights, as well as any others, must
prove his lawful title to them. The right to fish in private waters is
considered a natural consequence of owning property, and in running
waters as belonging to persons holding landed property on the shores,
all of which, however, varies according to the special laws and usages
of different countries.

"Fishing privileges on foreign property must be considered as pre-
rogatives of possession, (Gr^lndgerecht^g]celten.y,

Most jurists express the same view, as in the text-books of German

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 619

private law by Runde, § 110; Eiehhorn, §§ 268 and 269; Mittermaier,
§ 290; Gerber, p. 2L4, &c.

In the following, it will be shown by various instances that these views
on the historical development of the fishing-privileges are confirmed by
the old Austrian law-books.

22 — FOREIGN FISHERY LAWS.

Most European states have of late years directed their special atten-
tion to the fishing-privileges and the fishery-laws, with the view to
reforming the whole system of the industry in conformity with the
demands of the natural sciences, of changed social conditions, and the
requirements of political economy.

From the great mass of material at our disposal, we shall only select
a few paragraphs of foreign laws which are of special importance to
Austrian legislation.

Prussia. — Prussian legislators have given much attention both to the
fishing-privileges and to the fishery-laws. Besides those provisions of
the common code of the Prussian monarchy, treating of the privileges of
private individuals, there are numerous provincial laws and local regu-
lations dating from different centuries, so that at present twelve differ-
ent laws may be distinguished in Prussia.

It is generally acknowledged, even there, that these laws and regu-
lations do not afford sufficient protection to the fisheries; that they
are defective in many points, and not sufficiently uniform; that, regard-
ing the nature and life of fish, they have not kept pace with the advance-
ment of natural sciences; and that, even including the recent laws of
the provinces of Prussia, Pomerania, and Posen, which in most respects
have proved satisfactory, they leave great room for improvement. The
draught of a new fishery-law has, therefore, been prepared.

The present Prussian legislation, in its most essential features, does,
nevertheless, deserve our full attention. The regulations concerning
private fishing-privileges, the laws on the abolition of such privileges,
numerous regulations regarding supervision, &c, are not touched at all
by the new laws; other provisions are changed but very inconsiderably;
and it is of great interest in every respect to become acquainted with
the progressive steps of this important legislation.

According to the common law of Prussia, fishing in public running
waters is a royal prerogative. Those persons who have been granted
fishing- privileges by the state, without defining certain limits, can only
avail themselves as far as their property on shore extends. No person
possessing them can extend his fisheries beyond their lawfully restricted
limits.

Fishing in closed waters which do not extend beyond the boundaries
of the estate in which they are located is as a rule the privilege of the
proprietor of such estate. As a general rule, fishing in streams, lakes,
and other waters can only be carried on by such persons as have re-

620 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

ceived especial grants. In some fishing-regulations, as in the case of
those relating to the gulfs of Dantzig and of Memel, those persons are
allowed to fish who possess the privilege either by grants from the local
authorities, by special arrangement with the treasury, or by prescription.
The law of March 2, 1850, says that fishing-privileges in private waters,
in as far as they are based on any relations of servitude, may be abol-
ished by buying off, at the motion of either the landlord or of the one
under obligations, in accordance with the principles of the agrarian law
of June 7, 1821. The net annual revenue is to be estimated by compe-
tent persons, who have to take into account the average profit derived
from the enterprise by those conducting it during the last ten years.
The privilege can then be bought off either by payment of the annual
iuterest or of the appraised value. In case the person under obliga-
tions has signified his willingness to buy off a privilege, the one hold-
ing it is entitled to have his fishing-implements likewise bought at their
true value.

Some provincial laws contain still farther fishing-regulations. Accord-
ing to those of the former Saxon provinces, fishing in the rivers Elbe,
Mulde, Elster, Saale, and Unstrut is a royal prerogative. Fisheries
belonging to towns or villages are to be rented out for the benefit of the
community, or are to be carried on by two citizens successively, limited
in this privilege to two days in the week.

In East and West Prussia, the right to fish in public .waters can
only be lost by its not having been exercised for forty years.

In the Prussian Rhine Province, especially in the district of Treves,
the government alone has the right to fish in navigable rivers, while in
private streams the persons owning the shores have this right. (Article
538 of the civil law, law of the 17th day of Floreal, year X of the
Erench Republic, royal cabinet order of June 23, 1838.) In navigable
rivers, the governments rent out the fisheries.

The fishing-regulations, and the manner in which they are carried out
differ in the several provinces.

The ordinance of 1669, Tit. 31, for the territory on the left bank of the
Rhine, prohibits fishing during the spawning season, the employment of
certain implements and methods of capture, and the taking of several
species of fish below a certain size.

Special fishing-regulations were made in 1845^ partly for different prov-
inces, such as Posen and West Prussia, partly for certain waters, such as
the gulfs of Dantzig and Memel, in 1859 for the province of Pomerania,
others for the district of Coslin, and in 1865 for the district of Stralsund.
Any closing of the fish-waters, hindering the migration of fish, espe-
cially salmon and sturgeon weirs and eel-traps, are prohibited, unless the
government has granted special privileges for using such contrivances.
New appliances disturbing the migration of fish cannot be permitted,
unless they have been rendered harmless, or can be made so by cer-
tain conditions imposed on the owners. The police-authorities have
to see to it that the conditions imposed, when privileges for such appli-

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 621

ances are granted, are strictly fulfilled. Should such appliances, be of
great benefit to navigation, agriculture, or industry, the authorities may
permit their use, even if they should be injurious to the fisheries, pro-
vided that the persons owning the fishing-privileges are properly
indemnified. In as far as no existing rights are infringed on, the police-
authorities have to prohibit every pollution of the water which, in their
opinion, is injurious to the fish or fisheries ; to remove all industrial or
other establishments whose refuse makes the water impure; and to
permit new establishments, whose refuse is to flow into the water, only on
condition that competent men shall decide that such refuse will not
hurt the fisheries. The authorities may, however, permit such estab-
lishments, if they will prove a considerable advantage to agriculture or
industry ; it being, of course, understood that the persons holding the
fishing-privileges are properly indemnified.

Towns, villages, or other corporations holding fishing-privileges, if
they have not obtained a special grant to carry on the business,
must transfer it, either as a whole or in suitable portions, to compe-
tent and reliable persons.

Fishing can only be carried on in such a manner and with such imple-
ments as are not injurious to the preservation and increase of the stock
of fish. The local authorities are entitled, and in duty bound, to enact
more detailed restrictions on this jjoint, in conformity with the local
wants. Methods of capture and fishing-implements, whose injurious char-
acter is universally acknowledged, are prohibited by the laws.

According to some fishery-laws, only such implements can be em-
ployed as are mentioned in the respective deeds, feudal documents,
written agreements, &c, in so far as their use is not interdicted by the
existing code.

The size of the meshes of nets is fixed by law. The authorities are,
however, empowered to prescribe the use of those with wider meshes for
certain species of fish in certain localities, and to permit the use of such
nets exceptionally for a period not exceeding five years in places where
those with narrower meshes have hitherto been employed. Some fish-
ing-laws prescribe in detail the methods of capture and the implements
allowed in certain waters, and make the use of new implements and
methods entirely dependent on the special permission of the government.
The seasons when the different kinds of fish in certain waters must
not be caught are specially defined by government ordinances, and fish-
ing during such seasons is either totally prohibited or limited according
to local circumstances. In later ordinances, the seasons when the dif-
ferent species of fish cannot be caught are defined by legal provisions,
and the capture and sale of spawning-fish and young fish are prohibited.
In fishing, the running waters must not be obstructed, and bags, station-
ary nets, as well as other implements, tools, and contrivances used,
must never occupy more than one-half the breadth of a river or stream.
The spawning-places of the finer kinds of fish are to be made known
to the fishermen in a manner to be defined by the government. Fishing-

622 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

apparatus -which has not been removed from these hatching-grounds
within twelve hours after notification, or which has been placed there
after notice has been given, is to be confiscated, as well as all the fish
which have been caught.

The fishery-laws of 1845 gave permission to persons holding fishing-
privileges in one or more sheets of water, in case they unanimously agree
to it, to abolish the confining regulations, either totally or in part, by a
treaty which must be laid before the governing counselor (Landrath) of
the district. The regulations of the district of Coslin, passed in 1859,
permit such deviations from certain specially mentioned rules, as have
been agreed on by all the holders of fishing-privileges, inasmuch as a still
greater protection of the industry is aimed at, and also the destruction
of fish of prey, such as pike, or the stocking of the waters with fish, or
the further increase of certain species of them, or the promotion of pis-
ciculture. Such a contract must be approved by the governing counselor
of the district, and the modified regulations must be clearly defined by
the local police-authorities, and be properly promulgated throughout
the whole district.

In some districts, special government officers are appointed to super-
vise the fisheries, such as higher fish-masters, fish-masters, fish-keepers,
fishery-overseers, &c, all wearing a special uniform, and having their
boats conspicuously marked, so as to be easily recognizable. Those pri-
vate watchmen and other officers who are appointed by the proprietors of
large fisheries are subordinate to the royal fish-master.

In other districts, the government has the right, in case the fishing-
laws are violated by holders of privileges, and the fisheries are large
and important, to appoint overseers at the expense of the proprietors.
Fishing-permits have been allowed in some waters; they are to be issued
on a mere request by the higher fish- master, but in case of litigation these
permits cannot be used in giving judgment as to the rights of persons.
The local police-authorities must every year make a list of all holders of
fishing-privileges, and must exhibit them publicly for a certain period of
time. Violations of the law are usually punished by a fine not to exceed
the sum of $37.50. In punishing transgressors, prohibited implements
are as a rule to be confiscated.

These cases come into the police-courts, (law of April 14, 1856,) before
which the district-attorney makes his charges. According to the circular
of September 19, 1864, forest-officers can be appointed as attorneys for all
violations of the fishing-law occurring within their jurisdiction, whenever
they have no private interest in the fisheries, as lessees, &c, in which
case the regular district-attorney prosecutes the case.

According to fl 370 of the imperial German penal code of May 15, 1871,
persons catching fish or crawfish without having a privilege or a permit,
are punishable by a fine not to exceed the sum of $37.50, or by imprison-
ment.

According to fl 296 of the same code, persons who at night-time

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OP AUSTRIA. 623

catcli fish or crawfish by torch-light, or, in fishing, use injurious or ex-
plosive matter, are to be punished with a fine not to exceed the sum of
8150, or by imprisonment for a period not to exceed six months.

In both cases of violation of the law, persons are prosecuted only if
proper information has been given to the authorities.

Great as had been the care which the Prussian government had de-
voted to the. framing of the several fishing-laws, many provisions had
to be changed after a few years, showing how difficult it is to hit the
right path at once in framing such a code. The published reasons for
passing the law of April 22, 1869, changing the fishing-regulations of the
law of August 30, 1S65, in the district or Stralsund, contain the following:

" The law of August 30, 1805, is the result of thorough discussion^
during many years. The provincial authorities have gathered a vast
mass of material for this purpose, which has been sifted and arranged
by the ministry ; and the provincial assemblies, as well as the Prussian
parliament, have carefully considered all the propositions. If this law,
nevertheless, after having been in force scarcely two years, is found to
require a change, the cause of this is not a want of preliminary consid-
eration, but the impossibility of making such consideration entirely
exhaustive."

The published reasons for passing the law point out the fact that the
criticising of the many views of private individuals and fishermen, often
differing in the m.ost essential points, requires a fund of general, local,
and technical knowledge not often found in one man, so that the defects
of the first law can be remedied only by experience.

It is a peculiar phenomenon that in the Ehine province, the fisheries
have been regulated by an order of Minister Stein, of August 18, 1814 —
to whom Prussia owes her best agrarian laws — on those principles which
are even now recognized there, viz, the formation of fishing-associations
by government order, in all cases where the persons holding fishing-
privileges cannot agree. This very excellent order was rescinded by the
law of July 23, 1833, and when, in consequence of this, the rentiug-out
of the fisheries in private waters was entirely stopped, the fisheries were
completely ruined. During the last thirty years, fisbing in private
streams in the Ehine province has decreased very much, because they
were almost depopulatedby the reckless conduct of privileged and non-
privileged persons. As nothing was done either to protect the propaga-
tion of fish, or to prevent abuses, the business has become almost the
exclusive property of fish-thieves.

From these and similar reasons, several agricultural societies, and
especially the Deutsche Fiselierei- Verein, have recently pointed out the
necessity of regulating the fisheries in the larger waters by the formation
of protective societies.

In the Ehine province, these protective associations begin to find favor,
although they have no legal basis, as is shown by those at Polch and on
the IsTiins, in the Bitburg district. The mayors, who usually start theso

624 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

enterprises, are unfortunately obliged, through the lack of a law, to have
recourse to ancient, almost fictitious laws, as for instance that those
holders of fishing-privileges who were not present when a resolution was
passed must be considered as having voted in the affirmative, that a
resolution passed by the majority was binding on the minority, &c, all
of which can only be enforced till one of the privilege-holders raises
objections. (See Beck, Beschreibung des RegierungsbezirJces Trier., vol. i,
549; iii, 305.)

In the autumn of 1872, the draught of a new fishing-law for the Prus-
sian monarchy was published, and in December, 1872, brought, in a
somewhat amended form, into the lower house of the Prussian parlia-
ment. This document is one of the most important in the history of
fishing-legislation, and deserves our full attention also with a view to
the adoption of a similar law in Austria.

In assigning reasons for passing such a law, the question is discussed
whether it would be profitable to settle the whole matter as hitherto, by
leaving it to the action of the local and provincial authorities, or whether
a uniform fishing-law should be passed for the whole Prussian monarchy.

A careful consideration of this question showed that, although the
fisheries differ very much in many respects, legislation for their benefit
ought to be the same for all the provinces of the monarchy. In study-
ing the different means of promoting the fisheries, no interests are fount!
which are peculiar to any one province ; they are,* on the contrary,
entirely independent of differences in the methods produced by local
and climatic influences.

This being the case, an economical legislation demands general and
uniform regulations. The means employed for promoting the fisheries
will only then be successful if they are impartially applied to all portions
of the country. It is true that, with regard to the inland waters, the
body of every river flowing into the sea forms, so to speak, a sepa-
rate and independent province ; legislation, however, cannot follow the
frequently not very clearly defined limits of these territories, whose
tributaries often extend from one to the other, without getting confused
and missing the object in view, viz : to establish firm and comprehensi-
ble rules for the fisheries, which gradually become indelibly impressed
on the legal conscience of all parties concerned.

A fishing-law for the Prussian monarchy cannot entirely exhaust this
matter, but must leave out some points which are to be settled accord-
ing to local wants and by international treaties.

Kules which come under this head would mostly refer to the weight
and measure below which certain fish could not be caught, sold, or
shipped, as also to the limits of those seasons when fish are to be pro-
tected, and to the use and character of the fishing-apparatus.

These rules must be in conformity with the different methods in which
the fisheries- are carried on in the several provinces; but they must also
have regard to the different species of fish found in the different waters

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 625

and to local and climatic circumstances. If such rules were embodied
in the general law, this would become unnecessarily large, and would
no doubt frequently require to be changed ; and would doubtless, to
the injury of the industry, of which science and experience are con-
stantly developing new aspects, it would be prematurely settled.

The existing law of Prussia, like all the older fishing-laws, is, with
few exceptions, confined to this field, and in most of the provioces there
are rules regulating details.

The proposed law leaves these regulations unchanged for the present j
but takes into consideration a uniform settlement of all these points in
territories which belong together by a royal ordinance, which in many
cases will have to be preceded by treaties with neighboring states.

The following are the more important provisions of this code, by
which existing laws are to be amended or changed :

Fishing-privileges, which are not connected with some specified landed
property, and which have hitherto been enjoyed by all the inhabitants
of a village or city, shall, in future, to their present extent belong to the
body politic, (fl 5.)

In those waters which form the boundary-line between two or more
communities, without belonging to either, these communities shall enjoy
equal privileges in that part of the water which is bordered by their
territory, (ft 6.)

Existing privileges which refer to the use of certain specified appa-
ratus for fishing, fixed contrivances, (weirs, fences, automatic traps for
salmon, eels, &c.,) stationary nets, those that obstruct the greater part
of the river, &c, can be limited or abolished by completely indemnify -
nifying the persons holding them.

Further limitation or abolition of such privileges can be claimed :

1. By the state for the public welfare ;

2. By holders of fishing-privileges, or by fishing-associations, in the
lower or upper portion of any water, if it can be proved that these ope-
rations are of lasting injury to the industry, impeding the introduction of
a rational and economical system of conducting it.

The petitions of holders of privileges and of fishing-associations are
decided on by the district government, after they have been thor-
oughly examined by competent men.

If the parties cannot agree upon the indemnity which is to be paid,
the authorities will fix the amount, which must be settled by the person
or persons petitioning for the abolition of privileges.

The existing ordinances regarding the abolition of servitude for the
fisheries are not touched by any of the preceding regulations, (ft 4.)

It is said in the law that the abolition of fishing-privileges on for-
eign soil does not come within its jurisdiction; and reference is made
to the above quoted abolition-law of March 2, 1850, which, as far as
is required, is to be amended and completed. It is, however, consid-
ered as coming within the scope of this law to leave open a way for
40 f

626 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

abolishing such fishing-privileges as form a lasting opposition to a
rational culture of the waters and the preservation and increase of the
stock of fish.

Towns or villages can only make use of the inland waters belonging to
them through specially appointed fishermen or by renting them. It is
not permitted to make the fisheries free to all persons belonging to the
community.

The period of lease must, as a rule, not be shorter than twelve years,
and exceptions to this regulation can only be allowed by the local
authorities in special cases.

If the fisheries belonging to one community are to be subdivided into
several districts which are to be rented separately, such action must be
approved by the local authorities, who have to see to it that they are
not subdivided too much.

The local authorities are empowered to fix the number of fishing-
apparatus in the several districts, which is not to be exceeded.

If two communities possess equal privileges iu the waters bordering
on their territory, they can only carry on the fisheries in common. If
such communities cannot agree as to the manner in which this is to be
done, the local authorities will decide the matter, (fl 7.)

Persons holding fishing- privileges in a larger connected sheet of water
may, with a view to better supervision and protection of the craft, form
themselves into an association, with a statute, which must be approved
by the government; such association must be represented by a board,
to be elected by all the members according to the statute.

Before such statute can be approved, the privileged persons must be
heard on the formation of the association and its statute, and, if one
of these raises objections, the representative assemblies of the district
in which the sheet of water in question is located are consulted. By the
consent of all parties concerned, the object of the association may by
the law be extended to the cultivation of the fish-waters in common.
(flff 8 and 9.)

The draught of the law discusses the question whether, after the
example of several old provincial codes and after the model of some
modern German fishing-laws, such as those of the Baden and Wiirtem-
berg, a rule should be made that every person who desires to fish should
have a permit. This rule, says the draught, is taken from the game-laws.

Hunting and fishing are industries which in some respects are closely
related to each other, and which, nevertheless, are totally different in
the very points in question.

The economical value of fishing to the life of a nation very consider-
ably exceeds that of hunting. Fishing is the chief industry and fre-
quently the only means of earning a living in numerous families, in
entire villages and districts, while hunting nearly everywhere is an
occupation carried on outside of the various trades or industries.

If hunting privileges have unhesitatingly been granted on permits,

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 627

and a tax could be imposed on such favors, such taxation could scarcely
be borne by the fishermen, who are as a general rule poor.

The most important reason for obliging all hunters to carry a permit
is doubtless to insure public safety, and this reason entirely falls to the
ground with the fishermen, not to mention other differences between the
two occupations.

The introduction of such a measure to the above-mentioned extent is
therefore not favored, as it would very much incommode the craft and
the authorities charged with issuing or certifying the permits.

On the other hand, it is considered necessary, in order to prevent non-
privileged persons from fishing, to demand some sort of identification
of those persons who fish in the waters belonging to the holders of priv-
ileges, in the shape of some paper which such persons should carry with
them when at work, and should exhibit., if requested to do so by an over-
seer. Those, however, who fish in their own waters would not require
such a paper.

The right to issue permits to third persons should belong to the holder
of a privilege within the limits of his jurisdiction j to the lessee of a
fishing-district within the limits of his contract ; and to the board of
directors in waters belonging to an association.

Assistants employed in the presence of holders of privileges, or of
persons having a permit, require no special permit.

The certifying of fishing-permits by the local police-authorities must
be done without any stamp or fee whatever, (fffl 10 to 15.)

The draught contains but very few regulations on the methods of
fishing and the apparatus used. Apparatus, which is set for the purpose
of fishing, in the absence of its owner must have a specified mark of
recognition, (fl 16.) Fishing with poisonous bait, or by other means
which stun or poison the fish, such as explosives, is prohibited, (fl 17,)
as likewise the obstruction of more than one-half of any stream of water,

(U 18-)

All other regulations regarding methods of fishing, apparatus, the
weight or measure below which fish are not to be caught, the days
and seasons when fishing is prohibited, the rules to be observed by fish-
ermen for avoiding mutual disturbances, and in the interest of public
traffic and navigation, as well as for making supervision easier, are left
to government ordinances, which, as far as required, are to be passed
for connected territories, (fl 10.)

The code also contains prohibitions as to the sale of fish the catching
of which is not permitted, (flfl 22 to 25.)

Great attention is given in this law to the establishment of places of
safety, where the fish are to be absolutely protected ; such places being
considered as among the most important measures for protecting and
preserving them.

The proposed law distinguishes two kinds of such places, viz :

a. Places of safety for spawning, i. e., those localities which, in the

628 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

opinion of competent men, are specially suited to the spawning of fine
fish ami the development of the young ;

b. Places of safety for fish, i. e., such portions of water in and before
the mouths of rivers as command the entrance of fish from the sea into
the inland waters.

Such localities (a and b) can be declared places of safety by the min-
ister of agriculture, after having consulted with all the holders of privi-
leges concerned ; in association-districts, with the board of directors.

The limits of sach places of safety are to be made known to all per-
sons concerned by public proclamation ; and they should be, as far as
the locality permits, marked by special signs. In these spots, fishing of
any kind is entirely prohibited.

In places of safety for spawning, all disturbances which tend to
endanger the propagation of fish, such as their being cleaned out, the
mowing of reeds and grass, the carrying away of sand, stones, mud, &c,
should be avoided during the spawning season, as far as the tide and the
claims of agriculture permit. More detailed regulations on these points
as well as on the supervision of places of safety are, if necessary, to be
made by the district authorities.

In selecting places of safety , preference should be given to those bodies
of water in which the government has the exclusive fishing-privilege,
or in which this has been transferred by law to political communities.

In these cases, no indemnity is paid for withdrawing the privilege of
fishing in the places of safety.

If, however, the preservation or improvement of the fisheries demands
the including of other waters as places of safety, the rights connected
with such waters are withdrawn, and the holders of privileges must be
fully indemnified from the public treasury ; the amount of such indem-
nity, if not mutually agreed on, to be settled by a court of law. .

If it should no longer be desirable to keep up a place of safety, it can
be abolished by an ordinance of the minister of agriculture. In this
case, the former laws and privileges regarding fishing come again into
force. If, however, an indemnity for the withdrawal of fishing-privileges
has been paid from the public treasury, they shall then remain in the
possession of the government, (flff 27 to 31.)

Fish-passes (trout-paths, salmon-ladders, &c.) are considered essential
conditions for the lasting preservation of remunerative fisheries.

The bill makes a distinction between new hydraulic constructions and
existing ones which hinder the passage of migratory fish.

In constructing new hydraulic works, or extending them, the propri-
etor has, at his own expense, to make such arrangements as are neces-
sary for letting the fish pass through.

If any such work is only constructed for a certain period of time, e. g.,
while brooks and small rivers are temporarily dammed for the purpose
of irrigating meadow-lauds, or if the passage of migratory fish in the

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 629

respective waters is for the time being excluded by existing construc-
tions or from other reasons, exceptions may be allowed under protest.

Proprietors of existing hydraulic works are obliged to permit the
construction of fish-passes, if, «, the government demands such con-
structions in the public interest ; or if, &, holders of fishing-privileges or
fishing-associations intend to establish such passes in the upper or lower
portions of the waters in question.

These rules only apply to natural waters, but not to artificial streams
and to those hydraulic works which protect the lowlands against the flood
from outside.

The proprietors of existing hydraulic works are to be fully indemni-
fied for any injury done to such works. No indemnity is paid for any
decrease in the value of the fisheries occasioned by the construction of
a fish-pass.

The ground required for constructing a fish-pass must be given up by
the proprietor ; the full value thereof being paid to him.

In the fish-passes, any kind of fishing is prohibited, (flfl 33 to 39.)

The introduction into the waters of agricultural or industrial refuse
of such quality and in such quantities as to injure the fish is prohibited.

In cases where the agricultural or industrial interests are of greater
value than the fisheries, the introduction into the water of any of the
above-mentioned refuse may be permitted by the authorities, provided
that measures are taken to limit the possible injury of the fish to the
smallest practicable amount.

If, through existing channels, agricultural or industrial refuse of an
injurious character is introduced into the water to such an extent as to
destroy or seriously endanger the fish, the proprietor of the establish-
ments from which such refuse comes can, on the complaint of those per-
sons whose fisheries are injured, be obliged by the authorities, after the
case has been thoroughly examined, to make such arrangements as will
remedy or at least diminish the damage that has been done, without;
however, injuring his own establishment. The expenses of making such
arrangements are to be refunded to the proprietor of the establishment
by the complainants, (fl 40.)

The rotting of flax and hemp in running waters is prohibited. Ex-
ceptions from this rule can be made by the local authorities, always
under protest, however, in such districts where the locality is not suited
for making rotting- pits, and where the use of running water for prepar-
ing flax and hemp is absolutely necessary for the time being. (Tf 41.)

The immediate supervision of the fisheries belongs to the government
and local police-officers ; in association-districts, besides these, to* the
board of directors; in all inland fisheries not belonging to associations,
to each community within the limits of its own jurisdiction ; in both
cases under the superintendence of the local authorities, (fl 42.)

The first draught of the law contained the following regulation in fl 43 :

In superintending the operations, in carrying out the provisions of the

630 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

law, and in supervising all measures for furthering the industry, the
district authorities shall, if necessary, be assisted by inspectors of fish-
eries. The relation of these inspectors to the superior and subordinate
officers is regulated by ordinances of the government. (1j 43.)

Eegarding the inspectors of fisheries, the preliminary report says :

"The appointment of inspectors of fisheries as-competent counselors
of the supervising officers has long since been recognized as an undis-
puted want, and becomes indispensable when all those measures are to
be executed by which the sea and inland fisheries are to be promoted.
It need scarcely be said that it is not intended to appoint at once an
inspector of fisheries for every province; their number will, on the
contrary, be at first a limited one, and will be increased as time and
occasion demand."

The second draught does not contain the above paragraph ; but the
preliminary report says expressly that the appointment of commis-
sioners in chief as counselors to the principal supervising authorities,
and as their referees in all matters pertaining to fisheries, will in all
probability become necessary, but that their number will have to be as
limited as possible. It seems, therefore, to be the intention to regulate
this whole matter by some future ordinance.

Whenever the general German penal code does not provide for (flfl
29G and 370) violations of the fishing-law, the punishment inflicted will
be by fines of $7.50, $22.50, and $37.50, or with imprisonment.

Any person who violates the law through his servants, apprentices,
or day-laborers is, besides being punished himself, made responsible for
the payment of fines imposed on these assistants in case they are not
able to pay them. (f[ 47.)

Bavaria. — In Bavaria, the government, in 1854, recommended that
artificial fish-culture should, with the assistance of the agricultural
society, be introduced as far as possible, and that, through it, natural
propagation should be carried out by placing spawn of the finer species
in the rivers.

By giving information and encouragement, the authorities should aim
at having smaller fisheries combined, and see to it that they are leased
as a whole for a longer period to enterprising fishermen, on condition of
their being carried on in a rational manner. The several villages and
towns should be urged to do the same with those under their control.

The police-authorities were ordered to afford the greatest possible
X)rotection to fish-culture; to remedy existing evils as soon as possible;
and, wherever practicable, to fix the amount of the fines.

In 1S55, the fishing and fish-market regulations, which were partly
revised and partly new, were promulgated throughout the kingdom.

Violations of the fishing-law were spoken of in article 231 of the
penal code.

The example of the neighboring states will soon prompt Bavaria to
reform her antiquated regulations, which will also exercise a beneficial

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 631

influence on the Austrian fisheries, since many of the Austrian and
Bavarian waters are closely connected.

Wurtemherg. — The Wiirteniberg fishing-law of November 27, 1865, is
the result of discussions which were carried on for several years in the
parliament. It contains regulations regarding permits, the leasing of
the waters for several years by the communities, and prohibitions of
entirely free fisheries ; also full regulations on the rights of land-holders
on the shores of the waters. In case of inundations, privileged persons
can fish even beyond their shores, but are obliged to pay for any dam-
age done to the land ; after the waters have receded, every proprietor
can catch the fish and crawfish left on his property, but must not place
any contrivances which might hinder them from returning to the waters.
During the spawning season of the finer species of fish, the cutting of
wood near the shore, the mowing of reeds, &c, are prohibited.

Authorities and associations are urged to see to it that holders of
fishing-privileges either carry on the enterprises in common, or lease
them as a whole; the too great subdivisions of fisheries being in all
cases considered as injurious.

Baden.— In Baden, the laws of March 29, 1852, and of March 20, 1853,
provided that fishing-privileges on foreign soil could be bought off by
paying a sum equal to twelve times the average annual revenue, to be
paid in ten yearly installments, at 5 per cent, interest.

The law of March 3, 1870, provides that smaller waters may be united
into a whole by the privilege-holders, with the consent of the district
authorities, if the interests of the fisheries require it.

The privilege-holders of such a united fishing-district form an associ-
ation ; resolutions passed by the majority, and approved by the authori-
ties, decide where the permanent seat of the association is to be, and on
its constitution, duties and rights, its members, organs, and the manner
in which business is to be transacted. Before the law, those privilege-
holders who combined own the largest extent of water, form a majority,
even though, in point of numbers, they should be in the minority.

The associations mentioned here, as well as communities and corpora-
tions, can only carry on their operations through specially appointed
fishermen, or by renting them; the term of the lease not to be less than
twelve years.

The draught of the law contains detailed regulations forbidding in-
jurious fishing- apparatus, mischievous transgression of the law, &c.
Special ordinances are to regulate the weight below which fish must not
be caught, days and seasons when fishing is prohibited, and to mention
those implements which are forbidden. All engaged must have permits,
and, during the seasons of protection, fish are not to be caught, or sold,
or offered as food in restaurants.

Fines for violating the fishing-laws, to which also assistants are liable,
as well as confiscated nets and apparatus, shall go to the holders of

632 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

fishing-privileges. No one is to be prosecuted unless on the complaint of
privilege-holders, their representatives, or one of the lawful overseers.

An ordinance of January 11, 1871, contains more detailed regulations
on the formation of fishing-associations and on the establishment of
spawning places and of places of safety. A minimum length has only been
prescribed for Trutta lacustris Agass., Trutta trutta Lin., (7| inches,) and
for Trutta fario and Thymallus vulgaris Miss., (5| inches.) These fish,
with the exception of the last mentioned, must not be caught from Octo-
ber 20 to January 20 j all others may be taken, as well as the crawfish,
from April 15 till the end of May.

The salmon-fisheries are to be regulated by future laws.

Fishing at night-time is prohibited, but exceptions may occasionally
be made ; the number of fish-weirs in public waters is to be limited as
much as possible 5 the regular width of meshes and openings is fixed at
0.78 inch ; spears and guns can only be employed in exceptional cases ;
automatic fish -traps connected with mills or other water-works are pro-
hibited.

The public treasury may offer prizes for the best piscicultural estab-
lishments and for artificially hatched fish.

-Saxony. — In Saxony, a new fishing-law was promulgated on the 15th
October, 1868. By this law, the right to fish in running waters and
their tributaries — if not otherwise settled by government grant or pri-
vate title — belongs, a, in the original portions of the kingdom, to the
proprietors of the shore as far as this extends, and, if both shores do
not belong to the same person, as far as the middle of the stream ; b, in
Upper Lusatia, to the landed proprietors ; c, in the rivers Elbe, Mulde,
Elster, and in the Grodler and Elster Canals, to the state. If the fish-
ing-privilege belongs to a community, or to the members of the commu-
nity at large, or to a privileged class of citizens, or to a corporation, it
can only be exercised through renting it or by appointing a special
fisherman. Fisheries can only be leased to a corporation of professional
fishermen or to one individual. Fishing-permits are issued, but only to
such persons as are not privilege-holders, lessees, or professional fisher-
men. All persons, including holders of privileges and manufacturers,
are prohibited from hindering the migration of fish by permanent
arrangements, and manufacturers must, as far as practicable, make
passages in their weirs. Also, in other ways, the law endeavors to
harmonize the water-privileges with the interests of fishing and pisci-
culture. Various ordinances regulate the employment of injurious ap-
paratus, the time when fishing is prohibited, the minimum weight of
fish that can be caught, &c. So far, only one ordinance has been passed
in regard to these matters, that of October 1G, 1868.

Dr. Fric, in his report, says that the carrying-out of the law leaves
much to be desired. Many fishermen seem scarcely to be aware of the
existence of a law at all, and are still waiting for one. The fixing of
the time when salmon are to be protected has been deferred till treaties

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 633

can bo concluded with all the other states bordering on the Elbe.
The authorities seem to delay the carrying-out of the law, because they
wait for a general fishing-code for the whole of the German empire.

Dr. Fric remarks that the fact of most of the shores and streams
being under one and the same authority greatly favors the execution
of the laws in Germany.

IAibeck. — In Lubeck, the piscicultural society has drawn up rules for
the protection of fish during the spawning season, the size of meshes,
the minimum size of fish that may be offered for sale, &c. ; all of which
rules have been adopted by the senate in its fishing-law of December
16, 1868. It is a matter of regret that the senate has been induced by
the representations of selfish men, who were afraid to see their income
diminished for a short time, to change some of the most important reg-
ulations by an amendment of February 15, 1869. Complaints are also
made that the supervision of the fisheries is very defective; the market-
police do not exercise the necessary control, from ignorance and want of
interest; the directors of the fishermen's guild, whose duty it is to
superintend the fisheries, are themselves fishermen, and therefore but
rarely inclined to use the proper severity in proceeding against mem-
bers of their guild. It is therefore the aim of the piscicultural society
to have a fish-master appointed, who is to possess special powers, and
whose duty it shall be to superintend the fisheries. This aim has not
yet been attained, from purely financial reasons.

Switzerland. — In Switzerland, there are different fishing-laws in the
different cantons. The most recent law is the one passed by the great
council of the canton of St. Gall, December 25, 1870.

According to this law, the right to fish in the waters of the canton,
whenever there are no special privileges of communities, corporations, or
private individuals, belongs to the government.

The right to fish in government waters may be obtained by a lease or
by buying a permit, (" patent.") The lease may be for a term of ten years
and shall be sold at public auction.

A fishing-permit must be renewed every year. Certain specified per-
sons are excluded from taking out permits. A permit to fish with nets
and other implements costs $1, and $2 for every assistant; and a permit
to fish with hook and line, $1.20 ; which sums go to the treasury of the
canton.

The law contains the usual regulations as to prohibited fishing-im-
plements, the seasons when there is to be no fishing, and the buying
and selling offish.

In some waters, such as the rivers Thnr and Rhine, and in the streams
flowing into the Lake of Constance, the Wallen Lake, and the Lake
of Zurich, fishing with hook and line is alone permitted j all other
implements being entirely prohibited. The great council is, however,
empowered to permit the use of nets, if in future times the increased
number offish in one or all these waters should justify such use.

634 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The council is likewise empowered to extend the time when the fish-
ing of salmon, salmon-trout, and trout is prohibited, in any water or
in portions of it, to a whole year or several years, if their preservation
demands such a measure.

The council can only make exceptions in the case of piscicultural
establishments, allowing fish to be caught during the season of protec-
tion, or spawn to be taken for the purpose of hatching, if the establish-
ment in question contributes its share toward restocking the waters of
the canton. Such establishments are, if necessary, to be placed under
special police protection.

It is forbidden to throw or otherwise introduce into fishing- waters
refuse from factories or other injurious substances. Such refuse must
be buried in pits. If the agricultural or industrial interests are of more
importance than the fisheries, the council may permit exceptions to
this rule.

The owners of water-privileges are obliged to build their weirs and
dams in such a manner as to allow the fish to swim up the stream.
Proper arrangements shall also be provided to prevent fish from getting
entangled in mill-wheels, &c.

Violations of this law are punished —

a. By fines, varying from 81 to $20, or by imprisonment;

b. Withdrawal of the lease, or of the fishing-permit, for a certain
period, or forever ;

c. By confiscation of prohibited implements, or of fish bought or sold
contrary to the regulations as to size and fishing-season.

The council is empowered to conclude treaties with the neighboring
cantons or states, regarding the fisheries in waters which form boundary-
lines, and, if circumstances require, to suspend some of the regulations
of this law as far as boundary- waters are concerned, and to make special
rules for such waters. It is also charged with carrying the law into
effect by special ordinances.

Such an ordinance was promulgated by the council May 17, 1871.

This statute gives. the division of the canton into districts which are
rented, and districts where fishing can be carried on by permit; like-
wise regulations as to renting and issuing fishing-permits.

If no bid should be made on any district, permits may be issued for
such a district ; and, vice versa, if no permits are taken out, it may be
rented.

An exception from the regulations contained in this law is made with
regard to the fisheries in the Bhine, both as to the implements and the
seasons of protection, as long as these fisheries are not regulated by
treaties, or whenever the fishermen on the opposite shore do not of
their own accord submit to these regulations. The obstruction of the
Bhine by nets or other apparatus for more than half its breadth is even
now strictly prohibited on both banks.

Lessees of fisheries who carry on artificial breeding, and can prove

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 635

that they do this in a productive maimer, not only can claim all those
favors which the law accords during the season of protection, &c.,but
their rent may also be lowered in proportion as they give young fish to
other waters of the canton.

The district-offices keep lists of all waters, leases, and fishing-permits.
The local, district, and cantonal police-officers are to see that all the
provisions of this law are fulfilled. If necessary, special overseers over
the fisheries in one or more waters may be appointed.

France. — In France, exclusive fishing-privileges were abolished by
the laws of July G, July 30, and September 26 1793, as being a remnant
of the age of feudalism. Navigable rivers and streams belong to the
state, and are usually rented.

The fisheries have since been regulated by the law of April 15, 1829,
which gives full details of the rights of the fishing-guards to examine
implements, vessels, huts, tanks, &c. A few changes have been made
by the law of May 31, 1865, and by an imperial decree of November
28, 1868.

The instructions given to the authorities to protect the fisheries in
every way, to use all means for improving them, to stock rivers and
streams with fish and crawfish, to establish places of safety, to plant the
banks with trees and shrubs, &c, deserve great praise.

Italy. — In Italy, a special committee was appointed as early as 1861
to prepare the draught of a fishing-law ; and a new committee for the
same purpose was appointed in 1870.

The government, in 1870, had reports drawn up by the prefects of all
the provinces relating to the several species of fish found in each pro-
vince, the implements used in fishing, the spawning seasons offish, &c,
the number of piscicultural establishments, the number of fishermen,
their relation to each other, the total area of water, and the existing
rules and regulations ; inquiries were also made regarding foreign fish-
eries and laws.

On the basis of these reports, the ministry of agriculture, industry and
commerce, in the session of the chamber of deputies of January 24,
1871, laid before the chambers the draught of a fishing-law, together
with a lengthy report containing the results of all the inquiries.

The annual value of the salt-water fisheries is estimated at $8,000,000,
and that of the fresh-water fisheries at from $600,000 to $800,000.

As interesting to Austrian fishermen, it may be mentioned that on the
Italian portion of Lake Garda 500 fishing- vessels, manned by 1,400 fish-
ermen, are employed. The fisheries on this water, belonging partly to
Austria and partly to Italy, must be regulated by an international
arrangement, to arrive at which the first steps have been taken by
the Austrian ministry of agriculture.

The draught of the new Italian fishing-law contains 54 paragraphs.
The separate laws of the provinces are abolished, and a uniform code

636 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

for the whole kingdom of Italy is to be introduced, extending also to the
salt-water fisheries.

The details of the code are modeled after the best modern fishing-laws,
especially those of Germany, and contain not only provisions for the
proper protection of the fisheries against reckless plundering by priv-
ilege-holders, but likewise such as are intended to regulate the legal
relation to third persons. Many points are left to be settled by special
ordinances.

These ordinances are to fix the boundaries between salt-water and
fresh-water fisheries ; to make rules and regulations regarding the time,
place, methods, and implements of fishing ; regarding the transportation
of implements and fish and the sale of the latter ; and, finally, regarding
the supervision of the fisheries, which the proper protection and care of
them requires. The nets and apparatus by which spawn and young fish
might be injured are to be prohibited.

The ordinances have also to fix the limits of time and space of such pro-
hibitory measures, and also the extent to which contrivances can be per-
mitted which would hinder or disturb the free passage of fish. Special
regulations are to be made for cases in which spawn and young fish may
be used for scientific purposes, for piscicultural establishments, or as
bait. Eules will be adopted as to the extent of regulations for the
transportation and sale of water-products according as these come
from private waters, from the open sea, or from foreign countries.
Other regulations will decide how far weirs, sluices, and other hy-
draulic constructions which hinder the free passage of fish can be per-
mitted in the interest of industry or agriculture, providing in all cases
for the construction of passage-ways. Special decrees will decide how
far refuse which is injurious to the growth and development offish can
be introduced into the water in the interest of industry or agriculture,
or how far industrial or agricultural pursuits, which have the same
effect, may be carried on near fishing-waters.

Without special permit, no water-plants, sand, stones, or mud can be
removed from inland waters.

The ordinances will point out those private waters to which the fore-
going provisions are to apply. The proper police-regulations for super-
vising the fisheries are also to be made.

By royal decree, a central commission of fisheries is to be appointed,
besides the ministry of agriculture. It belongs to this commission to
pass an opinion on the regulations of the above-mentioned ordinances,
and to propose all those measures which they consider to be of benefit
to the fisheries. Within one year, the provincial assemblies — and, in
behalf of the salt-water fisheries, special committees from each district —
have to hand in their draughts of these ordinances; the ministry pro-
mulgating them without delay in case of non-compliance with this
decree. The ordinances may refer to several provinces and several
districts or only to certain waters.

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 637

The ministry of finance will make proper regulations for the assistance
which coast-guards and officers of the customs are to give in superin-
tending the fisheries and in hunting up persons who have violated the
laws. The ordinances will also decide how far the various communities
have to assist in supervising the transportation and sale of fish and
other water-products. Violations of the law are to be punished by fines
not to exceed $60, and $200 in case of the tunny-fisheries.

The ordinances will also decide in what cases the implements of vio-
lators of the law shall be confiscated.

Two-thirds of the money coming from fines and the sale of confis*
cated articles is to go to the officers or agents who have discovered the
violations, and one-third is to go to the public treasury or to special
benevolent funds. The harbor-officers, as well as the prefects, may be
present in court, in person or by proxy, when cases of violation of the
fishery-law are brought up, in order to express their views on the case
and to decide legal questions.

Professional fishermen may form themselves into associations, and
elect from their number a board of directors, called " The trusty men of
the fisheries," (probi viri della pesca.) These men shall pass decisions
in private quarrels, shall assist in the superintendence of the fisheries,
and they are entitled to propose changes in the ordinances to the min-
istry, and to suggest new measures which, in their opinion, will be
beneficial to the industry. Special ordinances will prescribe the manner
in which associations are to be formed, what persons may be active and
honorary members, as well as rules for the guidance of the board of
directors, in cases laid before them.

Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. — The Scandinavian countries, Den-
mark, Sweden, and Norway, have also regulated their fisheries, both
salt-water and fresh-water, during the last twenty years, by new laws ;
Denmark, 1857-'G0, 18C1, and 1867 ; Sweden, 1852 and 1869 ; and Nor-
way, 1854, 1863, and 1869.

The many changes in the fishing-laws which have been made in these
countries during so short a period afford another proof of the difficulty
of passing such definite laws as will answer all practical purposes.

Russia. — Of the Eussian fisheries in the Dniester, Dnieper, the Volga,
and the Black Sea, it is said " that laws, discipline, and work are so
strictly and suitably regulated that other nations which consider them-
selves far more civilized might learn a great deal from them."

United States. — Even in the United States of North America, where
hitherto the large lakes, streams, and seas have been plundered shame-
fully, and with most ingeniously-contrived nets, the people have now
become afraid of exhausting their wealth of fish, and are endeavoring
to bring about order and a system of protection by laws, treaties, and
other measures. The last reports of the commissioners of the different
States, whose duty it is to see to the proper execution of the laws, to

638 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

propose new ones, and to promote the fisheries in every possible way,
have been spoken of above.

Great Britain. — The British fishing-laws deserve our fullest attention.
Since, about eighty years ago, the discovery was made that salmon
packed in ice could be brought to London in a fresh condition, the
demand for it, and the price paid, have been increasing so rapidly that
there was imminent danger of seeing the British seas and streams en-
tirely depopulated, and of having the traffic in salmon, the pride of the
English fisheries, entirely destroyed.

Dire necessity has compelled Great Britain to protect and improve
its fisheries in every possible manner. All technical inventions and im-
provements, artificial fish-culture, passage-ways for fish, &c, are put to
the best practical use. Immense capital is invested in the fisheries by
private individuals or by joint-stock companies. The laws afford the
fullest protection to these enterprises. Holders of fishing-privileges
have formed themselves into well-managed organizations, so that the
majority is enabled to pass resolutions which will prove beneficial. The
British fishing-laws afford protection against the factories, the poison-
ing of the waters, and their being obstructed by weirs ; they pro-
tect the spawning places; see to it that the spawning seasons are
properly observed ; do away with injurious stationary nets ; prevent the
capture and sale of young fish, &c. Inspectors of fisheries possess full
powers to control the privileges of angling in salmon rivers and of using
a specified kind of nets ; to have a strict eye to stationary nets and other
apparatus ; and to punish all violation of the law severely.

Although occasional complaints are raised that the acts of parliament
are getting more and more confused, their complication is not so great as
to injure the fisheries, and, with sensible firmness, injurious influences
are constantly overcome, and improvements are made.

Many antiquated and impracticable laws have been replaced by new
and better ones, especially since the beginning of Queen Victoria's reign.
Still more important are the acts of parliament of 1828, 1812, 1850,
1857, and 1861. They refer either to special branches of the trade
such as salt-water fishing, shell-fish and oyster dredging, and salmon
catching, or to the fisheries in the several different countries composing
the British monarchy, England, Scotland, Ireland, or to certain lakes or
streams, as for instance the act of 1857, concerning the Tweed fisheries,
which was ameuded in 1859.

In discussing the act of 1861, relating to salmon-fisheries, many were
of the opinion that this entirely neglected British industry, the profits
of which amounted to almost nothing, could never again be brought to
a flourishing condition.

These opinions have proved to be erroneous, since that law has pro-
duced such favorable results; and it is expected that these results will
be still more brilliant in the future. A commission was appointed in
1S70, charged with considering the question in what respects the salmon-

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 639

fishery laws could be still farther amended. Improvements had been
introduced into Scotland some time before this.

From the law of July 31, 1888, concerning the salmon-fisheries in
Scotland, and from some older laws, which have been incorporated with
it, we quote the following as of special interest for Austria:

"All the waters, streams, and rivers in Scotland which are of im-
portance to the fisheries have been accurately described by special com-
missioners, and their limits toward the sea have been defined; as a
general rule, they have been divided into an upper and a lower portion
by a boundary-line. These commissioners have fixed the annual as
well as the weekly period of protection for each sheet of water or stream,
when salmon-fishing is either entirely prohibited or only permitted with
hook-and-line, and their decisions have been published in an axjpendix
to the law. The different contrivances to be used in nets, salmon-traps,
&c, in order to keep the seasons of protection, the size of the meshes,
and certain precautions in using the nets, are separately prescribed
for each body of water.

" If two owners of salmon-fisheries in a continuous district — no matter
whether the waters at the time contain salmon or not — apply to the
county sheriff to have a district-board appointed, such application must
be granted. The clerk of the sheriff has to draw up a list of the upper
and lower fishery owners, and call separate meetings of both, for
electing a district-board. The district-board appoints an officer, whose
duty it is to keep the list of owners constantly revised. If names have
been left out of this list, or have been entered in a faulty manner, a
complaint may be made to the district-board; and if its decision is unfav-
orable, the matter can be referred to the sheriff, whose decision is final,
except in cases of hereditary rights.

"The district-board, at its meetings, decides all questions pertaining to
fisheries by an absolute majority. The minutes of the meetings of the
board, signed b}r the chairman, are considered evidence in a court of
law.

" The district-board may, by a resolution to that effect, petition the
ministry to make the following regulations:

"1. Change of the annual season of protection in the district,
fixed by the commissioners ; which season, however, is never to be less
than one hundred and sixty-eight days. (It generally embraces the
period from the 27th August till the 10th February, and for line-fish-
ing from November 1 till February 10.)

" 2. Change of the weekly season of protection in the district or in
portions of it ; such season to be no less than thirty-six hours per week.
(From G p. m. on Saturday till 0 a. m. on Monday.)

"3. Change of the rules applying to the j'early or weekly season of
protection.

640 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

"4. Change of the rules concerning 'cruives,'* and the dams and
weirs belonging thereto, within the district limits.

"5. Changes regarding the establishment of mill-dams, aqueducts,
and water-wheels, the placing of heks or gratings, the closing of sluices
wherever they open into or from aqueducts within the limits of the dis-
trict ; provided that by such changes the supply of water to which persons
are entitled who have the right to use an existing salmon-dam as a
weir is not diminished.

" The votes of the district-board deciding such changes must be pub-
lished in some paper of the district before they can be officially presented
to the minister. The minister may collect information on the subject;
and if the proposed change is not in opposition to any rights belonging
to persons by royal grant, privileges, or immemorial possession, the
minister shall consent to .the change and publish it in the Edinburgh
Gazette.

"Until some change shall have been made, the regulations settled for
each district by the act of 1868 remain in force.

"The district-board is empowered to buy, from the proprietors, dams,
weirs, cruives, and other stationary contrivances, whose removal they
consider necessary for the welfare of the fisheries ; heirs of entailed
estates are likewise entitled to conclude such transactions with the dis-
trict-board, even without the consent of their guardians.

"The district-board is also empowered to remove every natural
hinderance in the bed of a river which might impede the passage of fish ;
to make fish-passes near the water-falls ; to take all the measures and
meet all the expenses which in their opinion appear necessary for the
protection or improvement of the fisheries in the district, as well as for
stocking the waters with fish.

" The above-mentioned right of buying weirs, &c, can only be applied
if the resolution of the district-board relating thereto has the sanction
of the owners of four-fifths of the total value of the district fisheries.

" The members of the district-board shall not receive any salary or
fee.

" The board is empowered, with the consent of the minister, to con-
tract loans for carrying into effect the above regulations ; such loans not
to be made for any period exceeding two years.

"A fine, not to exceed $25, is to be imposed on any person who fishes
during the yearly or weekly season of protection, or assists in fishing,
or violates a law relating to the season of protection, or uses nets with
too narrow meshes, or catches salmon as they leap over a water-fall or
some other impediment, or keeps them back after the leap, or prevents
salmon from going through fish-passes, or catches them in such passes,
or throws sawdust, chaff, or corn husks into fishing waters, or causes it
to be thrown into it. For every salmon caught or killed contrary to

* A cruive is an inclosed space in a dam-wall, so contrived that when the fish enter
it in their passage up stream they cannot escape. — S. F. B.

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 641

law, a further fine, not to exceed $10, is to be imposed; and the fish are
to be confiscated.

"A fine of $25 is to be imposed on any person who fishes with a light
or fire, a spear, lance, harpoon, or similar implement, with a cross-line
or a drag-net, or who is found in possession of any of the above-mentioned
implements under circumstances which convince the court before which
he has been brought that he intended to catch salmon ; his implements
and the fish found in his possession are to be confiscated.

"A fine, not to exceed $10, is imposed on any person who uses fish-
spawn for fishing, who buys, sells, exhibits for sale, or has in his pos-
session, with a view to selling it, any salmon-spawn. This does not
apply to spawn used in artificial fish-culture or for scientific purposes.

"A fine, not to exceed $25, is imposed on any person who catches,
has in his possession, or sells a smolt, (young salmon ;) who places
contrivances in the water which delay the salmon on their journey ;
who intentionally damages salmon ; who disturbs fish-spawn, spawning
places, or shallow places where there might be salmon-spawn ; or who
prevents salmon from going to the spawning places.

" The district-board is empowered to use all suitable means for pre-
venting the entrance of salmon into narrow streams or into spawning
places where the eggs might be exposed to destruction ; provided that
industrial or agricultural establishments, and especially drainage, or any
water-rights, shall not be injured thereby.

"A fine, not to exceed $25 for every fish, is imposed on any person
who catches spawning salmon, or who buys, sells, or has such in his
possession.

" Salmon which are intended for exportation must be registered by
special officers of customs, in order that the law providing seasons of
protection may not be violated. Persons who violate this rule, including
those who ship the fish, are punished with a fine, not to exceed $10, for
every salmon. Custom-house officers have the unlimited right of search-
ing after salmon.

"The owner or lessee of a fishery must remove all fishing- vessels,
oars, nets, and other apparatus used in salmon-fishing from the waters,
from the landing-places and the portions of ground near to them within
thirty-six hours after the commencement of the annual season of pro-
tection, and secure them in such a manner as to prevent their use during
this season. Exceptions are made only for boats and oars used in line-
fishing. At the same time, all lielcs of the cruives must be removed, as
well as all planks and contrivances which might hinder the free passage
of the fish through the cruives. Persons who violate these rules have
their boats, nets, &c, confiscated, and are punished with a fine, not to
exceed $50, for every day after the time mentioned.

"Ferry-boats must be marked with the name of the owner, and must,

when not used, be kept under lock and key.

"The by-laws for the separate waters contain suitable regulations for
41 F

642 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH A.ND FISHERIES.

observing the weekly season of protection, for using poles, weirs, pole-
nets, fly-nets, and sack-nets. Persons violating any of these regulations
are punished with a general fine, not to exceed $50 for every net used,
and a special fine, not to exceed $10 for every salmon caught, during
the weekly season of protection.

"Every constable, overseer, or officer of the district-board, as well as
every police-officer, has the right to examine every boat, net, and other
fishing-apparatus in the water, or to have them brought on shore, and to
confiscate any salmon which have been caught contrary to law or which
are found in the possession of non-privileged persons. For the right to
fish in waters beyond the district, a written order from the sheriff or
justice of the peace is required, which must be issued on the oath of some
police-officer of the district that the person desiring such order is not in
any way a suspicious person.

"Any person can, even without a special order, take up any violator of
the above regulations, and take him before a sheriff* or justice of the
peace or any other magistrate, or have him taken there by a constable.
He is then to be heard immediately, and according to the circumstances
of the case, or, in default of bail, be kept in confinement till the next
meeting of the court.

"All violators of the ordinance can be prosecuted before any sheriff,
or before two or more judges who have the jurisdiction in the place
where the law was violated, even if the clerk of the district court or any
other person possessing the right should interfere; and the fines men-
tioned in the act can be imposed by such courts. The act prescribes a
special summary procedure for such cases.

" Conviction in any case of violating the aforesaid act also involves
the loss of all boats, nets, lines, hooks, spears, lances, or other imple-
ments used, as well as of all the salmon found in the possession of the
transgressor. The objects which have been confiscated are either to be
destroyed or handed to the district-board or to any person who acts as
plaintiff in the case.

" If a person is convicted of two violations of the law at one and the
same time, the fine must not be less than one-half of the highest amount
for each violation .; and, if convicted a third time, not below the highest
amount fixed by law.

" No justice of the peace should be considered incompetent because
he is a member of a district-board. No judge, however, shall preside in
a case of violation of law committed in his own waters.

" If a law has been violated on some water forming the boundary-line
between two counties, the case may be prosecuted iu either county.
If the law has been violated on the sea-coast or on the sea beyond the
jurisdiction of a sheriff or justice of the peace, it is to be considered as
if committed within the limits of some county bordering on the coast.

"All fines imposed by this act, and costs, can be assessed on a com-
mon complaint' or before the debtors' court. The- clerk of the district-

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 643

board is entitled to receive all such moneys. The district-board may
use all money coming from such sources iu meeting the expenses of
carrying out the regulations of this act."

23. — FISHING-PRIVILEGES AND FISHING-LAWS IN AUSTRIA.

A review of the fishing-privileges granted iu olden times in the sev-
eral provinces of Austria, and of the old fishing-laws, possesses not merely
a great historic interest, but is likewise useful, because a portion of
these, even some very old ones, have not been changed in the course
of time, and because all of them frequently throw much light on the
various demands which even a modern law must take into account.
Many of the older laws, though their form be antiquated, therefore
in many respects form tbe best guides for the framers of new ones.

The question which of the older laws are still in force is a very diffi-
cult one, and the following review, which divides them into old and still
existiug fishing-laws does not claim to be complete nor to be entirely
free from errors.

Old fishing-laics. — A large portion of legislation, especially with re-
gard to economical matters, and therefore also to the fisheries, was
formerly in tbe hands of lower autonomous bodies, such as villages,
towns, and corporations, and of smaller landed proprietors.

We therefore find numerous fishing-regulations from the oldest times
in the legal documents containing the privileges of villages and landed
proprietors. These ordinances partly define the limits of the fisheries,
and partly prescribe the manner in which they are to be carried on.

The older documents frequently consider the catching of fish as a priv-
ilege belonging to the community or to the landed proprietors ; but from
the fifteenth century the right had fallen almost entirely into the hands
of the government.

To mention a few examples : the Lower Austrian Law-Book of Mollers-
dorf, in the archbishopric of Vienna, gives the right to fish in the water
called the Mull to the community of Mollersdorf. The king's bailiff and
the bailiff of the convent-chapter are allowed to go to the water on
Fridays and catch a " dish of fish." Strangers are not allowed to catch
fish or crawfish, either with "tools" or with their hands. (Kal ten back,
Osterreichische Reclitsbiichcr^ I, 482.) In Oberwaltersdorf, the community
likewise possess a fishing grounds; the fisherman is appointed by the
community, but is not allowed to sell fish to any one, unless he has
called them three times on the bridge. Every person who sits "at his
own fire-place" may fish in the stream with hook and line, (I, 35.) Sim-
ilar regulations are given in the Lebarn Law-Book, (II, 114.)

According to the old Law-Book of IsTeunkirchen, the citizens of the
town have the right to fish ; servants who fish when not in the company
of their master are punished. A later appendix to this law-book like-
wise indicates the trausfer of the fishing-privileges iu the following
words: " When the market was changed, the fisheries were likewise

644 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

changed, so that henceforth neither citizen nor servant is allowed to
fish/ (I, 4S8.)

In Mmkendorf, every miller is allowed to fish as far as he can throw
his "Mile" (instrument used for sharpening the millstones) from his mill-
wheel, either up or down the stream, (I, 541.)

In Moravia, the neighbors of millers' wives are allowed to fish every
Thursday in the afternoon, and every Friday in the forenoon, and during
the season when the ice and water flow from the mountains for three
days in succession. (Chlumecky, Mdrische Dorfiveisthiimcr, Archivfiir
Kunde osterreichischer Geschichtsquellen, XVII, 70.)

In villages or towns where all the ground belongs to a landed pro-
prietor, the fisheries likewise belong to him. The old law-books say, in
such cases, that to him belong "the fish in the water," "the fish in the
stream," "the fish in the pond," " the fish on the sand," &c. In all such
domains, there were, however, free waters in which every one was
allowed to fish.

On lakes and rivers where fishing is carried on as a trade, the privilege
holders form an association, and have as such their own law-books,
their autonomous and judicial power. They make their own regulations,
and in their own court of justice decide all disputes between members
of the association, and punish violations of the law. The lord of the
manor, or his representative, presides at these courts of fishing-associa-
tions, as well as in village-courts. This applies as well to those free com-
munities which elect their own presiding officers as in domaius in which
the fishing grounds belongs to the lord of the manor, while the villagers
have only certain rights, either hereditary or temporary, which must be
paid for in a certain annual number of fish or by some work.

On the Gmunden Lake, the fishery court was held every year on the
days of the fishing apostles Philip and James, and, later, on St. Peter's
day, and the mayor of the village of Ort presided, under the title, "Lake-
judge." In special cases, the lord of the manor may call the court
together on other days.

The prelate of Klosterneuburg holds an annual fish-court at that place,
with the master-fishers of the Danube and their servants. Similar
courts are held at St. Georgeu on the Traisen. (Kaltenbiick, I, GOO; II,
107 and 108.)

The law-book of Ort, on the fisheries of the Traun and Gmunden Lakes,
gives very exact rules regarding nets and other fishing-implements; on
the seasons when the various kinds offish in these lakes may be caught ;
on the minimum length below which they must not be caught ; of the
rightsof the individual fishermen ; thefish-trade; punishments; theduties
which fishermen owe to the lord of the manor, and especially the right
of the latter to be the first bidder on all fish caught, &c.

This law-book is, like many old documents of the kind, arranged in the
form of questions and answers. The questions are, as in our modern
courts of law, addressed by the presidiug judge to the jurors, or, as they

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 645

are here called, " Scbranne," (Old-Gerinan;) arid the foreman of the jury,
appointed by the community, gives the answers in the name of the
jurors, and all the assembled citizens of the community or members of
the association. If these answers meet with no objections from the
assembly, they are considered as "judgments." The fish-court is opened
by the judge with the well-known introductory questions, "Is this the
right hour, day, and time that I should open the fish-court" on the Traun
Lake, as has been done from times of old?" The foreman answers,
" Your honor, the judge of the fish-court, since you ask me whether this
be the right time that you should hold a fish-court in the county of Ort,
I solemnly affirm that this is the day, hour, and time that such fish-
court should be held, seeing that this is St. James's Day." In this man-
ner, the fishing-laws, as they have been in force on this lake from time
immemorial, are given, with occasional later additions or changes, by
" question and judgment,-"' on every article of the law, on each command-
ment or probibition.

From all these old documents we see that the fishermen's trade in its
connection with agriculture was organized in a practical and liberal
manner, with much of that spirit of self-government which does not
shrink from energetic measures whenever these are considered neces-
sary and practical.

The oftener attempts are made, on the one hand, especially in the larger
waters, streams, and lakes, to enforce the royal prerogatives in the matter
of fishing-privileges, and the more, on the other hand, the ownership of
the fisheries by the monarch incites his disposition to control them,
the more does this autonomous legislation of the lower classes dis-
appear. From the sixteenth century, we find the fisheries more and
more regulated by state legislation, by rules and regulations for cer-
tain provinces or for certain waters, and from time to time measures
taken to make them more productive, and to prevent the reckless plun-
dering of the waters by the lower classes.

Some of these government fishing-regulations date very far back.
Instead of merely enumerating a great many of these provisions with
their date, we shall attempt to give a fuller review of some of the laws
enacted by the Upper Austrian government.

But few traces are found in these regulations of the fishing-priv-
ileges of olden times, when they formed an integral part of the common
rights of each community to field and forest, because these societies,
or, as they are usually called in Austria, these " neighborhoods,"
which had fields and meadows in common, still retained the right of
fishing in those waters which were the property of the people at large.
In the larger waters, especially in the lakes, the right to fish was in
most cases a special privilege, some of these dating back as far as the
time of Charlemagne. In granting such favors, a distinction is made
between "large" and "small* privileges, differing according to the
fishing-implements used. Thus, we read, in a document dated 813,

646 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

" Segena una ad piscandum!1 (Man. Boic, 85.) By the term " segena"
is meant a large drag-net, with all the fishing-apparatus belonging to
it, large and small boats, and implements of every kind ; sometimes this
word also implies the fishing-privilege, and occasionally the district
where such privilege may be exercised.

Besides the segena], or great fishers, there were small "carriers," or
small fishers, who again were subdivided into " Ganders? (literally
" netters,") who were allowed to use bow-nets, and " Schniirer,n (literally
" liners,") who were only allowed to use hooks and lines.

The oldest fishing-law of Upper Austria is that established by the
Emperor Maximilian I, March 7, 1499, which is preserved in the archives
at Linz. In this law, the emperor charges his vice-regent in the country
above the Enns, George von Losersteiu, to regulate the fisheries in the
river Traun from the Falls to the Danub.e.

This law contains a paragraph ordering the fishermen only to use
segenw, or bow-nets, with meshes of a certain size, and to throw out all
all fish which have not the prescribed length.

The government prescribed the size of the meshes on certain small
stamped pieces of board, which were to serve as models for those blocks
on which the fishermen knit their nets. Illustrations of such model
blocks are frequently met with in old fishing-laws, and also pictures of
fish of the exact size below which they must not be caught. Such pic-
tures were frequently hung up in town and city halls, and may yet be
seen there, as in the city-hall of Zurich.

A very similar fishing-law was proclaimed February 1, 1537, by the
Emperor Ferdinand I. This law enumerates those fishiugimplements
which are entirely prohibited, such as double drag-nets, the outer one
having smaller meshes than the inner one. It also prohibits the catch-
ing of fish during the spawning season. Specially appointed fish-mas-
ters are to examine the fish-tanks frequently.

A third fishing-law for Upper Austria was enacted by the Emperor
Maximilian II, December 31, 1573, which is kept in the register's office for
Upper Austria. This law for the greater part is a repetition of former
laws, and contains certain limitations for protecting navigation on the
river Traun.

Complaints having been raised by the provincial assembly against the
former fishing-laws, a new one was proclaimed by the Emperor Rudolf II,
June 3, 1583, which has not been displaced by any later code, but which
has practically everywhere fallen into disuse. It is contained in the
Codex Anstriacus, I, p. 354, and relates chiefly " to the waters, rivers, and
streams containing the greatest wealth of fish, viz, the Danube, Traun,
Vokla, Ager, Aim, Krems, Enns, and Heier."

For the lakes, especially for the Mond, After, Wolfganger, Hallstiidter,
and Gmunder Lakes, there were special laws, which the emperor in
former times had, to a great extent, examined and amended through his
commissioners.

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 647

In the general fishing-law, the size of the meshes in all nets is exactly
prescribed by a model block, of which an illustration is given in the text.
Such a block is to be kept in every town and in every market. The
exact size of the openings in box-nets is likewise given. They must not
be placed in such a manuer as to disturb navigation in the rivers.

]STo fisherman is allowed to interfere with the fisheries of another.
Fishing in the Traun at night-time is entirely prohibited. The drag-nets
forbidden by former fishing-laws are now permitted, but only for smaller
fish, and during the period from St. Martin's Day (November 11) till
Shrove Tuesday.

The owners or lessees of hereditary fisheries must observe the same

rules.

Millers, owners of founderies, and other manufacturers shall abstain
from all fishing in the waters flowing past their establishments, because
thereby the finer kinds of fish might be exterminated, even if some of
them should possess the privilege to fish as far as they can throw a ham-
mer or pick. They are forbidden to fish with bow-nets, and even with
hook and line, unless they have received a special permit. When, in
cases of necessity, they wish to turn off the mill-streams, they must an-
nounce their intention to the privilege-holder three days beforehand,
in order that the stock of fish be not destroyed. The privilege-holders
are obliged to permit this fqur times a year. In the common or free fish-
ing-waters, no person is allowed to fish, unless he possesses fields and
meadows in common with his neighbors.

The neighbors are only allowed to fish two days in every week, viz,
Thursdays and Fridays, with small nets with the meshes made of the size
of the model block. Fishing at night and the taking of crawfish in the
free streams are entirely prohibited. Those living near the waters who
find any one violating this rule are empowered to take all his fishing-
tackle and fish, and it is provided that the government shall punish
the transgressor.

Any person who stuns the fish with prepared pellets so as to enable
him to catch them with his hand shall undergo a severe corporal pun-
ishment.

No one is allowed to dig pits or to make marshes alongside of a fishing-
water, for the purpose of fishing. Wherever there are such pits or
marshes, they shall not be shut up when the water rises and fills them,
so as to prevent fish which a higher water has brought into them Irom
returning.

Fish remaining in uuiuclosed pits or marshes may be caught by the
proprietor thereof, who is, however, obliged to throw all the young ones
into the water. The rotting of hemp and flax in ponds, streams, and
fishing-waters is strictly prohibited, and the government shall see to
it that special pits and pools for rotting flax and hemp are prepared at
a suitable distance from these waters. As the fish at times go from
the Traun, the Enns, and other waters, into the Danube, and back again

648 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

to those rivers, and are frequently prevented from leaving and entering
by the fishermen of the Danube, it is decreed that henceforth neither the
Danube fishers nor any other fishermen shall close the streams flowing
into that river 'with stationary nets or any other contrivances.

Fishermen shall be allowed to catch injurious birds in traps all the year-
round, but shall not injure swans and herons. Koyal and other fishermen
shall not catch, confine, or sell any fish of the genus Thymallus, any pike,
carp, or Salmo hucho, in private, free, and other waters, unless their length
from head to tail is exactly the same as that given on the model board
as represented at the end of the fishing-law. If smaller fish get into the
nets, which cannot always be prevented, they are immediately to be
thrown back into the water. In order to carry out this provision of the
law, the authorities, the fish-masters, the market-overseers, shall ex-
amine the fish as well in the open markets as in the fishing-huts, fish-
tanks, and fish-boxes, and shall punish any persons violating this law.

During one month after St. Simon's Day, (18th February,) no fish ex-
cept salmon shall be confined, caught, or sold, and no fish of the genus
Thymallus for two weeks before and two weeks after St. George's Day,
(13th April.) The seasons of protection for other fish, as given in older
laws, shall be abolished, because there are a number of objections to
such an arrangement, and because it can never do full justice to all the
different kinds of fish.

The reckless fishing for the Thymallus vulgaris, by which the Traun,
one of our finest waters, has almost been depopulated, is for the time
being entirely forbidden, till the number of this fish has again increased
in that river. An exception is made for the imperial table only, which
may be provided with young fish caught before St. Catharine's Day,
(30th April.)

During the seasons when fishing is prohibited, the authorities, lords
of the manor, &c, cauuot demand the professional services of the fish-
ermen.

In the other forest streams not mentioned in the law, the lords of the
manor, and those of their subjects who own fisheries or fishing priv-
ileges, shall see that the laws are observed; and wherever several per-
sons own a fishing ground in common, they may make an agreement
among themselves not to catch fish out of seasou, nor to catch any
which have not the prescribed length, nor to sell or send to market any
such fish.

The fishing-law was considerably modified to suit the prejudices of
the times, which is shown by the introduction of certificates of sale,
and by the close supervision exercised over the sellers of fish, " in order
that fish may be sold cheap." From this reason, the arbitrary market-
laws of the period regulated the sale of fish. Salmon shall, at the market
in Linz, be sold at 14 pfennige (value at the time a little more than 4
cents) apiece, and at 12 kreuzer (somewhat more than 14 cents) the

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 649

pound, and a young fish of the genus Thymallus at 1 kreuzer 2 pfennige,
(nearly 2 cents,) &c.

With fish imported from Bohemia or Bavaria, the regulations regard-
ing size have nothing to do. The ordinances regarding the proper car-
rying-out of all the provisions of the fishing-law by specially appointed
fish-masters are very strict.

For the lakes, there were special fish-laws. Such a law was passed in
1544 for the Mond Lake in Upper Austria.

Wheu, in 1858, the district officers of Upper Austria were asked to
report on the fishing-privileges in their respective sections, the officer
in whose district the Mond Lake is located reported that the law of 1544
was still in force on this lake so far as police-regulations were concerned ;
that, as a general rule, these ordinances were well observed, and were
in many respects more practical than the draught of the new law which
had been sent to him.

The jurisdiction over the Mond Lake belongs partly to the archbishop
of Salzburg and partly to the abbot of the Mond Lake convent. Of
the fines, one-third belongs to the archbishop and two-thirds to the
abbot, exactly in the same manner as the division of fines prescribed in
the law-books of Charlemagne, is made between the country law-courts
and the lords of the manor. In the country-sessions, the fishery-courts
are held every year, and the mutual rights and duties of the lords and
other proprietors are defined.

Quarrels and abuses were the causes which, in 1544, led to the fisheries
being regulated anew by a treaty between Archbishop Ernst of Salzburg
and Sigmuud, abbot of the Mond Lake convent.

The owners of the buildings called segena houses, do not possess the
right to fish iu the lake as a free property, nor after the manner of a
lease, but as a hereditary privilege, and have in exchange to render
service to the lords of the manor.

To the archbishop, and to his hereditary lessees, there belong 5£ fish-
eries ; to the abbot of the Mond Lake convent, 10 fisheries ; and to the
Lord of Thury, 1. The abbot possesses, besides the 10 fisheries men-
tioned, which it seems were all rented on hereditary leases, two large
fisheries, which supply the convent with fish, called the dipper and the
long segena.

The length of each of these segenw (seines) is accurately described.
The clipper may be 360 feet long, and the " long segena" 27G feet. With
the dipper, fishing was permitted during Lent, from the fourth Sunday
thereof till Easter; at other times, only when the reigning prince comes
to the Mond Lake. Fishing with the long segena was permitted twice a
week, from Saint George's till Saint Michael's Day, (29th September.)

Every hereditary lessee has one broad segena 1G8 to 180 feet long, and a
narrow segena 120 to 138 feet long. The size of the meshes iu each
segena is fixed very accurately according to the measure given in the
fishery-law. Besides drag-nets and bow-nets, stationary nets are per-

650 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

nritted for catching A bramis brama, Coregonus Wartmanni, Salmo salveli-
nns, and pike; tbeir number and size is accurately given; angles are
prohibited as well as several other fishing-implements, because the lake
had thereby been almost depopulated; the places where each fisherman
may operate, and the fishing seasons are very accurately defined.

By a special regulation, the peasants near the Mond Lake are forbid-
den to dig ponds and stock them with fish, because they are in the habit
of taking the food-fish which they require for their ponds from the lake.
The peasants had at that time dug a great number of such ponds. The
hereditary lessees of fisheries, however, were permitted to have ponds
for finer fish, especially for pike.

The length below which pike, Abramis brama, Coregonus Wartmanni,
and Salmo salvelimis, must not be caught, is exactly prescribed; the law
contains drawings of these fish in their natural size and of the meshes of
nets. If smaller fish get into the nets, they shall, without injuring them,
be put back into the lake.

The number of fishing-boats, the manner in which they are to be used,
and the rules regarding the sale of fish are exactly prescribed. The
government has the first bid, as merchants must first offer their fish
for sale to the lords of the manor. Even those sent to the court of
the archbishop of Salzburg are to be supplied by the fish-merchants
in accordance with rules set down by the archi-episcopal fish-master.

The archbishop and the abbot each appoints an overseer of fisheries
from the number of his officers. These overseers are to punish all
violations of the law, and shall, once or twice a year, examine all fishing-
implements and remedy all defects. The fishing-law, like all similar
laws, is to be read and revised at the annual fishery-courts.

A law on the catching of fish and crawfish, made for the fishermen
and fish-merchants of the city of Vienna in 1557 by the Emperor Ferdi-
nand, regulates the trade in Vienna and shows the great wealth of the
industry at the time; numerous places in the city being assigned to
the fishermen for selling their stock.

The present fishing -law. — In 1864, reports on the fishing-privileges and
fishing-laws of the several provinces of Austria were prepared by the
minister of the interior. These reports and other more recent investi-
gations have shown that there is the greatest variety of privileges
and laws in the different provinces. The right to fish, especially in
public waters and lakes, sometimes is claimed by the state as a royal
prerogative, sometimes by communities, convents, former lords of the
manor or other private individuals, in the shape of a privilege or a free
possession, either tor or without payment, or is exercised without any
privilege or title whatever. Fishing in private waters is sometimes car-
ried on by the owners of the waters or of the shores, sometimes by
third persons as an independent right on soil not their own, mostly by
former lords of the manor ami other private individuals, by convents
and communities; all of these basing their rights on widely different
titles.

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OP AUSTRIA. 651

As the middle of running waters is usually considered the boundary-
line between villages and townships, judicial and manorial districts, as
well as between private properties, and as fishing-privileges usually
belong to one of the above mentioned divisions, it is easily explained
why numerous grants of this kind in all provinces only extend to the
middle of a stream, while other parties have the right to fish in the
other half.

In some provinces there are so-called alternate fisheries, in which the
right to fish successively passes from one person to another at certain
stated periods, usually one year.

Many fishing-privileges of different kinds are connected with mills
and other water-works; such grants being mostly limited to mill-dams
or to running water as far as a hammer can be thrown both up and
down the stream, a custom evidently a remnant of the Middle Ages.

Fishing is sometimes an independent right, recorded in the law-books
as a special grant ; sometimes a right connected with some other privi-
leges, or a right which may be sold, and as such entered on the public
records. In some parts of the country, the fishing- waters are entirely
free as they were in the Middle Ages; in others, they are the co-mmou
property of communities ; in the former, any one may fish, and in the
latter, all citizens of the community. As the old limitations for such
waters, such as that of* fishing on certain days of the week and the use
of prescribed fishing-implements, have been abolished, such waters have
been recklessly plundered, and have consequently been almost depopu-
lated.

In many lakes of Upper Austria, the fishing-privileges are very
ancient, and entered on the oldest documents, which prove how carefully
such rights were maintained in the olden times. In later times, how-
ever, we hear of complaints that these rights were no longer properly
respected; that irregularities began to occur; and that at present the
actual possession no longer tallies with the long neglected books ; and
that there is a universal desire to have order restored.

The question whether courts of law or the executive officers have to
decide on fishing-privileges has, for a long time, been in practice answered
in different ways. The ministry of the interior and the ministry of
agriculture, to which all matters pertaining to the fisheries have been
referred, have repeatedly decided that, in accordance with existing laws,
the ultimate decision regarding the title to, and the possession of, waters,
and the legal and actual possession of rights to fish in waters not one's
own, wherever such matters do not come within the jurisdiction of the
authorities appointed for regulating the buying-off of privileges, should
rest with the courts.

The regulations regarding fishing are, in the older laws, usually com-
bined with those regarding fishing-privileges. Most of these laws only
relate to one province, and frequently only to one lake or stream.

Several river police-regulations also contain paragraphs on fishing ;

652 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

thus, in Lower Austria, those for the lower part of the river March,
dated May 7, 1825, Z* 2739 ; those for the Danube of March 30, 1828,
Z. 10198, § 23, (both in the Lower Austrian collection of laws No. 29 and
No. 62.) The Styrian river police-regulations of October 9, 1826, section
IV, contain such paragraphs for the rivers Mur, Drau, Save, and Sann,
as well as special paragraphs regarding the other rivers and streams.
[Provincial Gesetz-sammlung 1826, vol. 8, page 228.)

Among the special laws which relate to the fishing-privileges, and to
some extent also to the fisheries, the following deserve especial mention.
The ordinance of the Empress Maria Theresa of March 21, 1771, is
almost universally recognized as a binding law, though rarely carried
out in practice, (Gesetz-sammlung Kaiser Josef II., vol. 8, page 506.)
Referring to the ordinances of June 3, 1583, June 25, 1720, and June
12, 1728, this ordinance decides that no person is allowed to fish except
owners of the waters, and those who, having learned the fishing-trade,
have rented a privilege ; fish of all those kinds which reach a heavier
weight than one pound, such as pike, carp, &c, must not be caught if
they weigh less ; aud those which do not reach a heavier weight, such as
the perch, tench, &c., if they weigh less than one-fourth of a pound. The
catching of young fish with narrow meshed nets of any kind is con-
sidered injurious to the fisheries; very narrow meshes are forbidden;
their width shall not be less than one square inch ; only exceptionally
are smaller meshes allowed for catching very small fry to be used as
fish-food. The use of hook and line is only prohibited in shallow water.

For fishing under the ice, a special permit is required. Forbidden fish-
ing-tackle will be confiscated, and all persons violating these regulations
will be punished in such a manner as the judge considers proper.

The royal ordinances of July 18, 1819, Z. 21529, (Folitiache Gesetz-
sammlung, 1S19, vol. 47,) and of July 23, 1829, Z. 9827, prohibitthe use of
cocculus indicus and of nux vomica in fishing, and are in force in all the
provinces of Austria.

For Lower Austria, a tractatus de juribus incorporations was prom nl
gated in 1679. It is contained in the Codex Austriacus, I, p. 599, and
partly also applies to other provinces, especially to Upper Austria. In
its tenth section it treats of the fisheries. Unlawful fishing is prohib-
ited bv several ordinances, such as those of May 9, 1799, and May 30,
1823.

The inquiries with regard to the statistics of Lower Austria, made by
the agricultural district societies, have shown that in most parts of this
province the present arrangement of the fishing-privileges throws the
greatest impediment in the way of all progress.

In some parts of the province, the domains rent their fishing-privi-
leges in several small portions, in order to keep themselves in possession
for the time being; for the division of privileges and disputes with the

* Z., abbreviation for "Ziffer, " meaning figure, usually referring to the page of the
law-book. — Translator.

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 653

lessees do not allow regular fisheries to be carried on. As an example,
we mention those in the river Ybbs.

In this river, which once possessed a great wealth of fish., the right to
catch on one bank belongs to the domain of Waidhofeu, which rents it
to numerous small lessees, while on the other bank it belongs to several
peasants. All this does more harm to the fisheries than the floating of
lumber in long rafts, recently introduced in the Ybbs, which, in some
places, turn up the ground, and which, in the upper portions of the river,
are moved by a rapid stream of Water, which has been dammed up and
suddenly let loose.

On account of the greater economical value of the lumber-trade, these
evils have to be borne; if the fishing privileges, however, were better
regulated, the protected portions of the Ybbs and its tributaries might
still contain a reasonable number of fish.

Salzburg is an example of a most fully-developed royal fishing-pre-
rogative. Even here the privileges were in olden times considered
as being an essential portion of landed possessions, and were in the
oldest deeds of transfer of real estate given over to the new proprietor,
with all other water-rights as part and parcel of the property, as is
shown by the usual form of such documents: " una cum campis, silvis,
acquis acquarumque decursibus.- In the lakes, however, there existed,
even in the oldest times, special fishing-privileges, so-called segence, as
in other provinces.

As in Salzburg the game and forest prerogatives of the archbishops
have been established since the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the
fisheries were in nearly all places included in these prerogatives and
declared as such in the law-books, particularly in thearchiepiscopal fish-
ing-law.

The Salzburg fisheries were therefore organized in the following man-
ner. There were :

1. Archiepiscopal lakes, or kitchen-lakes, in which no one was allowed
to fish except the specially appointed court-fishers, who had to sell
their stock, for a certain stipulated price, to the archiepiscopal kitchen.
These were the Fuschel, Hinter, Tappenkar, and the Little Ael Lakes,
likewise the Abbot Lake in Bavaria.

2. Lakes with hereditary leases, the Zeller, Matt, Waller, and Aber
Lakes, and the Waginger Lake in Bavaria. In some of these the leases
were given by the archbishop, some by the cathedral chapter, by other
chapters, domains, &c.

On the After, Moncl, Irr, and Zeller Lakes, in the neighboring prov-
ince of Upper Austria, the archbishop likewise possessed some fishing-
privileges.

3. The fisheries in the streams and rivers of Salzach were either under
the protection of the archbishop, and given to specially appointed fish-
ermen in exchange for a certain amount of fish and money, which helped
to suppy the court kitchen, or they were rented out annually for a cer-

654 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

tain amount of fish and money. Tbe officers of the government and
clergymen received a stipulated supply of fish yearly.

The following list shows the number caught, of which an account was
taken in 1804, at the Salzburg fishery-office ; these being partly used

in the court- kitchen and partly sold or given away.

Pounds avoirdupois.

Saibling, (Salmo salvelinus) ... 5, 166|

Eutte, (Lota vulgaris) 240§

Forelle, (Truttafario) 3, 909§

Asch, ( Thymallus vulgaris) ... 123£

Lake-trout, ( Trutta lacustris) 480$

Hucho, (Salmo liucho) 310

Perch, (Pereafluviatilis) S^tV

Waller, (Silurus glanis) 197£

Hecht, (Esox lucius) - 4, 8S5

Carp, ( Cyprinus carpio and var) 2, 038^

Kenke, ( Coregonus Wartmanni,) (fresh) 5, 850

Eenke, (Coregonus Wartmanni,) (salted) 2, 4G5

Schleihe, ( Tinea vulgaris) 431T9£

Weissfisch, (Alburnus lueidus) 40

Schratzer, (Acerina Sehraitzer) 70|

Brachsen, (Abram is brama)

Alte, (Squalius eephalus) 198^

Gruudel, ( Gobio fluviatilis)

Koppen, (Cottus Gobio) 218f

Pfrille, (Phoxiuus Uevis) 62 £

Table crawfish 16, 452£

Soup-crawfish G5|

From the archbishops, the fishing-privileges were transferred to the
crown; and of late years they have been leased to some extent to
private individuals.

Exceptions are only made with regard to a few small bodies of water,
which convents or chapters have possessed as special grants from time
immemorial, or which fishermen have held on hereditary leases, and
which now, in consequence of the buying-up of all old privileges or
servitude-rights resting upon the lands, are held by the fisherman in
free possession.

The archbishops had preserved the fisheries as their property through
numerous fishing-laws, as in the case of that of 1507, made by Archbishop
Leonhard Kreutschach ; of 1590, by Wolf Dietrich ; of 1767, by Sigis-
mund von Schrattenbach. For the lakes, there were special laws, which
have never been officially rescinded, but which have gradually fallen
into disuse. The Salzburg Historical Society has published some of
them in its reports, vols. V and VI, among others the law relating to
the Waller Lake, made by the Archbishop Cardinal Mattbaus Lang,
(1519~'40;) another one of 1567: the revised fishing-code relating to the

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 655

Matt Lake, made by the Archbishop Marcus Sitticus, in 1G17 ; one relat-
ing to the Aber Lake, of 1C92 ; and one for the Zeller Lake, of 1G41.

Some provisions of these laws are also entered on the old statute-books.
The common law of Altenthan, a district of Salzburg, dated 1625, pro-
hibits the building of weirs in waters without special permission,
" since the streams belong to the authorities, and because the fish would
be much disturbed thereby." (Salzburgische Taidinge, lierausgegefen von
der Akademie der Wlssenscltaftcn, p. 24.)

A more recent law is the one passed by the Salzburg provincial gov-
ernment February 13, 1856, Z. 13666, which forbids fishing in the
so-called "beaver-dams," marshy ponds much frequented by the beavers
on account of the many willows. The same law allows fishing at night
only after previous announcement to the forest- officers, and obliges
fishermen to submit to the examination of their fish, baskets, boxes, or
tanks by the officers, whenever these think it necessary.

The injudicious manner in which the Salzburg government till quite
recently cut up its fishing-waters by either selling or renting them on
short time in very small divisions — the lakes in very insiguificant little
patches, and the running waters frequently by shores — caused a peti-
tion to be addressed to the Salzburg assembly, asking that these small
subdivisions be discontinued.

In Styria, great attention was in olden times given to the fisheries and
the fishing-laws. A court fish-master was appointed, having his resi-
dence at Graz, and an inspector for Upper Styria to watch over the
several privileges, especially the royal prerogatives, both possessing the
most unlimited judicial and police powers. Since 1790, when a regular
police was introduced, "the authority of these two mentioned officers
began to be ignored," as we learn from a report. The court fish-master
gradually became a privileged fish-merchant ; the office of inspector dis-
appeared entirely ; and the numerous fishing-laws, such as those of March
24, 1G41, March 9, 1G73, February 27, 1676, May 30, 1699, May 24, 1747,
March 21, 1771, fell into disuse, were lost from the archives, and forgot-
ten by the people. In place of a regular system of fisheries, we find
plundering expeditions by foreigners, and the most reckless capture of
fish by privilege-holders and lessees.

A circular of the imperial government for the central provinces of
Austria, dated February 24, 1790, had to be published to counteract the
wide-spread " erroneous idea of the general freedom of fishing and hunt-
ing," and urged the holders of privileges to maintain themselves in their
undisturbed possession, for the reason that they had obtained them
" titulo onerosoP

At present, we see nothing else in Styria but constant quarrels be-
tween privilege-holders and communities, over small domain fishing-
privileges, which partly had their root in the feudal system, aud which
form a serious obstacle in the way of progress, as such small waters are

656 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Dot infrequently leased in smaller subdivisions, and are thoroughly
exhausted by the lessees.

Owners of land even now consider themselves in most places as priv-
ileged to fish, and do not allow any fisherman or lessee to come on their
property, even if no damage is done, threatening them and driving them
away. Everybody fishes, and there is no supervision attempted, as it
could scarcely be carried through. No more complaints are therefore
made as to unlawful fishing ; many of the privilege-holders consider
their rights as almost lost, and wish to sell them out.

This, of course, strengthens the erroneous views which the larger por-
tion of the population entertain.

Even in those parts where fishing-privileges are still somewhat re-
spected, the organization of the industry is not much better. The privi-
lege-holders rent their grounds in small portions and on short time,
and the lessees catch everything that swims in the water.

Here and there we find fishing-privileges belonging to a number of
persons in common ; also so-called alternate fishing-privileges, (see
above.) A reporter calls all these, " privileges for plundering and de-
stroying."

In CarintMaj provisions are made for the fisheries in the law made by
Charles VI, 1577, § 29, and also by a special resolution of the Carin-
thiau assembly, passed June 17, 1715, and the privileges of lords and
landed proprietors have been protected. Towns and market-places
which have their own independent law-courts likewise possess the
fishing-privilege.

The last reports complain very much of the senseless system of plun-
dering, thieving, insufficient protection, and of the antiquated forms
which are in the way of a healthy development of the fisheries. By
these evils, it is said, the finest fish-waters are depopulated, and this, as
well as the low price paid for the products, sufficiently explains the
decline of the Carinthian fisheries.

At the general meeting of the Carinthian Agricultural Society, held
January 25, 1872, a strong and almost universal desire was expressed to
have the fishing-privileges bought off. Although the necessity for such
a measure was fully recognized, no resolution was passed.

In Carniola, the state of affairs is very similar. Here also there are
in some parts of the country alternate fishing-privileges, the fisheries
changing owners every year or at longer intervals. No one doubts that
such privileges are injurious to the fisheries, and both the Carniola as-
sembly and the agricultural society have strongly urged their abolition.

By government ordinances of June 27, 1S52, Z. 4881, (Landesgcsetz-
blatt, XXV, p. 510,) and of September 18, 1852, Z. 8045, fishing-permits
have been introduced in Carniola.

Istria does not possess any fresh- water fisheries of importance. The
forest-streams mostly dry up during the summer; the Arsa Canal,

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 657

which is fed from the Lake of Ceppich, the lake itself, and the small
rivers Quieto and Kisano, are but little suited for fisheries.

Gorz and Gradisca possess fresh-water fisheries in the Isonzo and its
tributaries, and in Wippach. The other streams have a full supply of
water only during continued heavy rains, and the coast streams and
canals are of no importance.

During the sessions of the Ecumenical Council of 1870, trout were for
the first time sent regularly from Gorz to Koine. It is thought that arti-
ficial fish-culture could be successfully introduced through associations.
At present, there are no fishing-laws whatever.

Dalmatia is, according to Heckel and Kner, a very interesting country
for ichthyologists, not on account of its wealth offish, but on account of
its great number of fresh-water species. In this respect, it is the most in-
teresting portion of Austria ; for, in its, for the greater part, insignificant
streams, it has not only many species of fish similar to those of Lom-
bardy and Southern Italy, but likewise a great many which are peculiar
to this province, and which, continuing through Bosnia toward the East,
are related to Syrian fish, and through these again to those of India.

It must, therefore, be regretted, from a purely scientific point of view,
that pisciculture, like nearly all other branahes of culture, is entirely neg-
lected in this province.

Besides numerous smaller streams, which are entirely dry daring sum-
mer, Dalmatia has several coast rivers and lakes. The former are
particularly rich in fish near their mouths, which actually form arms or
bays of the sea. Especially is this the case with the river Narenta,
which is rich in eels, pike, and other fish. The total absence of any
fishing-laws and regulations has prevented fishing in the rivers and
lakes from becoming a source of income to the population.

Eishiug in the rivers is generally free; only in some portions thereof
the privilege to catch trout and eels has been reserved to private indi-
viduals, communities, or corporations, such as convents, through so-
called "investitures ;" legal documents dating from the times of the Vene-
tian Republic : thus, the Franciscan convent of Vissovaz has the exclu-
sive right to fish in the river Kerka, from the Slap Falls to the Scardona
Falls ; and the village of Almissa has the same exclusive right at the
mouth of the river Cettina. In many waters, the fisheries were rented
by the government, which is still the case at the mouth of the Narenta.
Fresh-water fish are never offered for sale, and there is no market for
them.

In the marshes and waters of the Narenta Valley, there were, in former
times, extensive eel-fisheries ; but these have likewise decreased very
much in value through the unpardonable neglect of the last few years.

The government has the right to fish at the mouths of the Torino and

Pranjak, in the Jesero Malo and the Cernarizza, in the valley of Cutti,

likewise at the mouth of the Pulinica, in the district of Logorie, which

right is mostly rented. The total annual revenue was, however, only
42 F

658 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

about $56. The village of Fort Opus has, through a grant from the
former republic of Venice, the right to catch eels in the lake of Dragace,
and in the river Jassenica-Struga. The income from these fisheries
scarcely amounts to $100 per annum.

In Tyrol, there were fishing-laws enacted in 1575, 1753, and 3 7G8;
sections XVI to XXI of the 4th book of the common law of Tyrol, of
1573, also treat of the fisheries. In many parts of Tyrol, fishing is free;
and in the remaining rivers, streams, and lakes, the fisheries belong to
private individuals, village-communities, and landed proprietors, but
especially to the state. The right to fish has frequently been acquired
by purchase-deeds and other documents, and is in some cases subjected
to taxation.

In the district of Bozen, there are several important fishing-grounds,
which are considered as belonging to no one in particular, and where,
consequently, anybody may fish.

Tyrol has several lakes, rivers, and numerous clear, mountain streams,
which formerly were full of fish, and which in every respect are well
suited for spawning places, places of safety, and waters where the finer
kinds might be successfully raised.

According to a report of the fish-master, Wolfgang Hochleituer, of
the year 1504, whole wagon-loads of fish came annually to Innsbruck
from the Achen Lake alone.

Even to this day, the finer kind of fish are represented, some of them
in Northern Tyrol, in the territory of the Danube, some of them in
Southern Tyrol, in the territory of the Etsch, some again in the lakes,
and some throughout the whole province ; but their number has de-
creased very much, through reckless plundering, carelessness, and com-
plete want of protection, so that in the markets, especially those of
Southern Tyrol, only foreign fish are offered for sale.

In Vorarlberg, a full report on fishing-privileges has been made at the
suggestion of Mr. Joseph Tiefenthaler.

Small as is this province, it, nevertheless, possesses the greatest
variety of fishing-privileges. There are waters in which the state pos-
sesses the royal prerogative, and which are rented to private individuals,
waters belonging to domains, waters which belong to the villages on
whose territory they are found, and waters in which only those living
near the shore have the right to fish. Some waters are partly in the
possession of private persons, possessing their rights to fish through
deeds of purchase; while other portions of the same waters are entirely
free, fishing in them being carried on only by peasant boys ; and of some
waters it could not, even after the most thorough investigation, be
ascertained to whom they belong.

Of the state fishing-privilege in the Ehine, small portions were sold
to private individuals in 1858, so that only the following sections are left
to it : from the mouth of the river 111 to the Lichtenstein boundary,
about 0,000 feet on the Austrian side of the river ; the 111 from Feldkirch

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 659

upward to its source in the Montafone Valley ; and the Dornbirner-Acli
to its mouth.

The Vorarlberg Agricultural Society justly regrets that the senseless
subdivision of the fishing- waters into insignificant patches throws almost
insurmountable obstacles in the way of successful fish- culture; and these
small patches of water have recently been still further subdivided, thus
lowering the value of the fisheries still more.

In Galicia, several reports have during the last years been made
regarding the fishing-privileges. These, on the strength of some old
Polish and other laws, in some cases have been defined as rights per-
taining to domains ; in others, as royal prerogatives, or as rights belong-
ing to the inhabitants of the shores or banks.

By a statute of Casimir the Great, dated 134G, fishing in rivers and
streams in the former kingdom of Poland was declared to be the exclu-
sive right of the inhabitants of towns or villages located on their banks;
such right to belong to them as long as these rivers and streams
remain in their original beds.

From this, as well as from a second statute of Casimir, dated 1457,
and from another published by King Sigismund II, dated 1507, we
see that even the common laboring people were permitted to fish.

By the statutes of Casimir Jagello, 1447, and Johann Albert, 1496,
the rivers were distinguished as royal and free, in order to diminish
abuses; and it was ordered that no weirs or poles should be allowed,
but only nets.

It was claimed in the reports, in favor of the domains, that, in the
kingdom of Poland, by its old constitution, all land lying within the
jurisdiction of a landed proprietor was his absolute property; and that
the lands given to the serfs, who themselves were property, only be-
longed to them as long as their master thought proper; and that conse-
quently the fisheries on his land were likewise his absolute property.
It was maintained that, by the charter which King Stephen Bathory
signed at his election in 1576, the entire usufruct from lands had been
made over to the owners ; neither tbe king nor his successors having
any right to deprive them of it. When Galicia became an Austrian
province, the privileges of the landed proprietors were not interfered
with. The government ordinance of May 6, 1808, was also thought to
be in favor of the landed proprietors, as it says that the Soltyssen (free
peasants) did not possess the right to grind corn, to cut wood, to sell
beer, wine, and liquor, and to fish, even if these pursuits should be men-
tioned in the privileges of the Soltyssen, and they should actually be in
the enjoyment of such rights. It was finally claimed that the imperial
decree of January 31, 1823, had declared fishing to be among the pre-
rogatives of landed proprietors.

To all these claims it was objected that the statute of Casimir, given
in 1346, did not speak of landed proprietors, but of the inhabitants of
villages on the banks of rivers and streams; that later statutes declared

660 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES

the rivers to be royal and free; that Stephen Bathory's charter only
guaranteed to the nobility the usufruct of lands belonging to them, and
not of the royal rivers; that the government ordinance of 1808 had been
expressly annulled by the ordinance of March 26, 1826. It was said that
the royal decree of January 31, 1823, had only exempted the fisheries
from the tax on landed property, and had placed them under the cate-
gory of trade-taxes ; §§ 3 to 6 and 9 of part II, as well as §§ 108, 110,
111, and 113 of the old Galician law of 1797, proved that fishing in the
public waters was not an exclusive right of the landed proprietors, but
a prerogative of the state or of those persons to whom the state had
granted it.

When these different views of the Galician authorities were laid
before the imperial ministries in 1864, they resolved that in Galicia also
the fishing privilege should be considered a private right, because
the general law in its § 414 had enumerated it among the other private
privileges, aud that no other explanation was possible ; that, therefore,
in Galicia, in public as well as in private waters, the actual possession,
based on many different titles, should be recognized before the law as
the only valid one. In this sense, the ministry of finance, in its decree of
June 19, 1865, Z. 2711, directed the provincial finance-office at Lemberg
not to enforce an exclusive fishing-privilege of the state in the rivers
of Galicia, and that matters in this respect should remain in statu quo
till otherwise regulated by some new law.

The reports of former Galician officials and of the Galician agri-
cultural societies faithfully depict the chaotic state of the fishing-laws,
which, in many parts of the province, had almost entirely exhausted this
source of national wealth, and had seriously injured the salmon and
sturgeon fisheries in the Galician rivers, which had formerly been very
extensive. In some districts, the fisheries are carried on by the land-
owners ; in others, they are managed by the village-communities as the
common property thereof, and the revenues derived from them are used
for meeting the common expenditure ; while, in other parts, they are
the independent property of private individuals.

One of the reporters writes : "The lower classes consider fishing in
rivers and streams as belonging to nobody ; at every season of the year,
people practice it in the most reckless manner, and the privileges of
other persons are entirely disregarded, since they are in no wise pro-
tected. The disorder exceeds all bounds ; the most injurious methods
of fishing are freely employed; and, contrary to common sense and law,
the fishing in the rivers is carried on in such a manner as to hasten its
entire destruction."

In Bukoicina, which, since its incorporation into the Austrian mon-
archy, has been treated like Galicia, even in matters concerning which
formerly a difference had existed, the condition of affairs has been very
much the same.

Bukowina has, in proportion to its area, the largest number of rivers

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OP, AUSTRIA. 661

and streams of any Austrian province, and, in former times, had, besides
these streams, more than 15,000 acres of ponds. These latter have
gradually been decreased to 000 acres ; most of the ground gained by
draining the ponds being planted with corn, which, so far, has not
proved a very profitable speculation.

The majority of the population, especially in the rural districts, belong
to the Greek Church, and have to observe one hundred and ninety -four
strict fast-days during the year, so that the demand for fish is conse-
quently very large. It has been estimated that $56,000 worth of fish
is annually imported into Bukowina from Moldavia and the cities on
the North Sea. On account of their high price, these fish are mostly
eaten only by the wealthier classes.

The agricultual society at Czernowitz deserves great praise for hav-
ing recently given its full attention to the fisheries hitherto neglected.

With the exception of the ponds and a few mountain streams, nearly
all waters in Bukowina are almost entirely deprived of their former
wealth of fish by reason of the utter want of system in all matters
pertaining to the fisheries ; and it will take a long time for a fishing-law
to gain ground.

In Bohemia, the revised law of Ferdinand II, dated May 19, 1627, was,
till the year 1848, considered the constitution of the country. In con-
sequence of the events which took place then, the political rights of the
assembly were limited, but the rights of private persons {jura priva-
torum) were not touched, as will be seen from the preface of the law
and from a comparison of its provisions with those of Maximilian's
ordinance of 15G4, and King Vladislaw's ordinance of 1500, which served
as bases for the former, as well as from the charters of the Bohemian
cities. In all these laws, the fisheries are protected against " arrogance
and violence."

This protection, however, was only afforded to members of the assem-
bly in their relations toward each other, and, according to Maximilian's
ordinance, especially against their vassals and their servants ; the vas-
sals themselves had at that time no property of their own, and could
only exceptionally enjoy the usufruct of property given to them by their
masters for a short period, but could never be the actual possessors of
any lands.

The laws of Maria Theresa and Joseph II were the first to afford
thorough protection to subjects and their property; the ordinance of
November 1, 1781, abolishing serfdom, gave a firmer basis to the
security of subjects; and the common law declared that they might
also hold property.

Thus it came that the fishing-privileges were transferred from their
originally exclusive owners, the landed proprietors and the cities, to
private individuals, by gift, sale, or exchange; and that they were exer-
cised tie facto on the ground of these various titles.*

* See Bericht der znr Revision der Fischereigesetze fur Bohmen gevriihlteu Laudtags-
comuiission of February 14, 1886,

662 REPOET OF ' COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Even in former times, numerous great and small fishing-privileges in
rivers and brooks had been hereditary in certain Bohemian 'families;
and the salmon and eel fisheries in the Elbe are carried on by nearly all
millers on a large scale at their weirs with an apparatus called Slup.

The small fishing-privileges connected with mills and other water-
works, especially the right to set so-called automatic traps, are in all
countries considered as hostile to our modern civilization and as great
obstacles in the way of rational fish-culture. A Bohemian inspector,
Director Horak, of Wittingau, calls the salmon and eel traps of the
millers on the Elbe and Moldau infernal machines, and remarks that,
like the shark, they devour all fish, both young and old. In interna-
tional treaties, the contracting parties usually agree to abolish such
privileges as far as possible.

Among the Bohemian fishing-laws, we mention as important an article
from the Bohemian river-police-regulations of February 10, 1854, which
says that a permit from the authorities is required for setting salmon-
traps in navigable rivers, and likewise decrees that the placing of bow-
nets, catch-poles, &c, must not in any way interfere with navigation.

In Moravia, the state of affairs up to 1849 was very similar to that of
Bohemia. According to the report, there were many waters in which
fishing with hook and line had never been prohibited; and the free
catching of crawfish in many running waters has been practiced for
centuries.

The practices allowed by the law of 1859, which we shall give more
in detail, have, with regard to those fishing-privileges which hitherto
belonged to the landed proprietors, produced a state of disorder and
uncertainty, which has contributed not a little to the neglect of the
fisheries, so that reforms are urgently demanded.

In Silesia, the government, at the request of the assembly in 1866,
had reports made on the fishing-privileges by the district officers, to be
made use of in the preparation of a new law, by which they should be
regulated.

Here, likewise, the titles to possession vary very much, and their
validity has frequently been questioned. The bishop of Breslau had, from
times immemorial, the fishing-privilege of numerous waters, but had
likewise many obligations toward the communities, especially with
regard to keeping the beds of rivers in order, protecting the banks, fur-
nishing the wood for bridges, &c. Since these obligations have ceased,
the fishing-privilege of the bishop is, as the agricultural society com-
plains, found to be a heavy burden.

On the actual state of affairs in Silesia, the report of 1869 says :

" In many waters, everybody is allowed to fish ; in some, the com-
munity is considered to possess this right, without its being clear
whether it possesses it as a corporation, or whether it merely means

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 663

that any person belonging to such community has the right to fish ;
sometimes the mayor of a village is mentioned as the privilege-holder,
or the clergyman, or some landed proprietor ; the fisheries are mostly
considered as belonging to the former proprietors of the lands, among
them the cities; and, in other cases, the privilege is said to belong to
the inhabitants of the banks, and occasionally to these and to every-
body."

In Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, these privileges are placed in a
peculiar position by the regulations for buying them off.

In Bohemia and Moravia, fishing-privileges on the land of others have
been abolished by the ordinances relating to the buying-off of privileges
of June 27, 1849, § 4, Z. 3; and in Silesia, by the ordinances of July 11,
1849; and an indemnity has only been conceded to the former holders
in cases where it could be proved that the privilege was based on a
special contract with the owner of the soil.

The regulations for buying off" privileges in the other provinces do
not contain any paragraphs relating to the fisheries.

When, somewhat later, doubts were raised as to the proper meaning
of different regulations, the ministries to whom this matter was referred
consulted on them in common. The ministry of justice, in its note of
December 30, 1851, Z. 13740, said that the fishing-privileges based on
different titles had not been changed in the other provinces ; but that
in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, this whole question had a different
aspect. In these provinces, a change had already been made by the
ordinances, (§ 4,) and, based on the abolition of all fishing-privileges on
the soil of others, many new property-rights had been established, with,
to some extent, respect for legal forms. If the state of affairs existing
prior to the year 1848 was to be continued, or, properly speaking, cre-
ated anew, any measure tending to this end must be preceded by a
special law sanctioned by the emperor, declaring the above-mentioned
§ 4 null and void.

The ministry of the interior thereupon, by its ordinance of January
31, 1852, Z. 4G0, informed the commissions for regulating the buying-
off of privileges, as well as the assemblies of Bohemia, Moravia, and
Silesia, that, conditionally on some future possible regulation of these
matters, every fishing-privilege which is not exercised in waters be-
longing to others shall be maintained ; and that any one who desires to
have his property freed from the burdensome, fishing-privileges, in ac-
cordance with the above-mentioned § 4, must bring absolute proof that
he is the exclusive owner of the property in question, viz, the water, it
being understood that all doubts as to the ownership will have to be
decided only before the proper court. Wherever the mutual relations of
the owner of the property and the holder of the fishing-privilege come
under the law of September 7, 1848, the commissions named above have,
conditionally on some future regulation of the fishing-privileges, to act
in accordance with existing rules.

664:. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The other commissions for buying off privileges, and the assemblies,
■were at the same time informed by the ordinance of January 31, 1852,
Z. 460, that by the laws regarding the purchasing of these rights, the
fishing-privileges had not been abolished, and should therefore remain
as they were in 1847, and that no buyiug-off should be allowed.

These ordinances have also been published in the official journals of
several provinces.

The government of Silesia has at its request been informed by an
ordinance of the ministry of the interior, of April 9, 1852, Z. 7997, that
protection was not to be afforded to the arbitrary practices introduced
in 1848, but to the laws as existing in 1847.

The ministry of justice, in its note of December 30, 1851, Z. 13740,
declared that it did not consider it proper to construe the regulations
for buying off privileges in such a manner as to make the proof of own-
ership of ground bordering on the water sufficient evidence as to the
ownership of the water, because such an explanation would exceed the
legally prescribed functions of the ministry, and would scarcely be no-
ticed by the civil courts. It would then also be necessary, if any one,
in accordance with § 4, had put himself in possession of some fishing-
privilege, and a dispute should arise on this point with the former'holder,
that the decision, and therefore also the explanation of the law, should
belong to the judge, inasmuch as the commissions themselves are not
competent judges in disputes relating to titles of possession.

In reviewing the different notes and proclamations of the ministries in
their connection, we are assured, beyond a doubt, that, in 1851 and 1852,
they did not consider themselves justified in annulling, by a ministerial
ordinance, the Bohemian and Moravian statutes of June 27, 1849, and
the Silesian statute of July 11, 1849 ; and that such action was by no
means intended by the ministerial ordinance of January 31, 1852, Z. 4G0,
even if a faulty practice occasionally led to such erroneous views.

That the practice was not the same everywhere is stated expressly in
a report on fishing-privileges of the Silesian assembly, {StenograpMsclw
Sitzungsberichte, 1869, p. 310,) in which it is said that in that province
the landed proprietors did not always succeed, and that in fact they
made no great exertions to restore the state of affairs that had existed
before 1848.

In Bohemia and Moravia, fishing is likewise carried on in some waters
by communities, or owners of the shore, without any dispute arising
from this. It is an undoubted fact that the fisheries in these provinces
have been declining rapidly since the year 1849, since the innumerable
small subdivisions of the fishing- waters, where frequently the left bank
of a stream has another owner than the right, do not admit of a rational
and profitable culture, and since, so far, all attempts at reform have
proved failures.

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 665

24. — THE BUYING-OFF OF FISHING-PRIVILEGES.

From the foregoing it will be seen what confusion was occasioned
among the fishing-privileges in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia by carry-
ing out the buying-off measures only to a limited extent. There has been
no lack of attempts to solve the many difficult problems which in this
respect present themselves in all the provinces of Austria.

The Silesian assembly, in order to put an end to this confusion, by
enforcing the ordinance of July 11, 1849, and to give an ear to complaints
which were comiug in thick and fast, proposed to make a new law de-
claring fishing in the waters of others, in brooks, and non-navigable
rivers, to be abolished, and to give the right to the owner of the river or
brook, and, wherever the ownership cannot be properly proved, to the
inhabitants on the banks, in proportion to the amount of property they
possess. If the fisheries are to be developed, and there is no reason why
they should not, there is no other way but to gain over to this cause
the owner of the river-bed and the owner of the bank.

The assembly also recommended the method of ascertaining the
amount of indemnity mentioned in the ministerial ordinance of July
11, 1849, in those cases where it could be proved that the fishing-
privilege was based on a contract made with the owner of the ground.

At the same time, it was proposed to establish, as far as possible,
large fishing-districts, where the business could be carried on in a
rational manner, and to lease them on long time. The net profits from
these leases should be distributed among the inhabitants on the shores
in due proportion to the extent of their property along the water's edge.

The above recommendations were referred to the committee on agri-
culture, but no discussion was reached in the assembly.

In the other provinces, the very important question was also frequent-
ly discussed, whether there should be any legal provisions prescribing
the buying-off of those fishing-privileges which were exercised in the
waters of others, or in those between banks owned by others in accord-
ance with the older laws.

The imperial law of May 30, 1869, on those regulations regarding
water-rights which are left to the decision of the imperial parliament,
in §§ 2 to 7, establishes principles on the juridical character of waters
which have been of great importance to the fisheries, and, in its § 2, says
expressly that rivers and streams and their tributaries shall be public
property from the place where they become navigable for ships or rafts;
in § 3, the same is said with certain limitations of other waters ; and in
§ 5, private brooks and other running waters shall, unless otherwise
decreed, belong to those tracts of ground over which or between which
they flow, in proportion to the length of bank occupied by each piece
of ground.

It has been repeatedly proposed to turn over to the state or province
all the fisheries, or at least those in the so-called public waters in

666 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

streams, rivers, lakes, and large brooks ; a proper indemnity being, of
course, paid to the former privilege-holders. In making such a change,
three methods or systems of developing the fisheries may be distin-
guished.

The first method would be for the state to lease the fisheries in large
portions, and by the terms of the lease oblige the lessee to protect and
increase the stock of fish. This system is at present in vogue in France
and Belgium.

The second method would be for the state to sell the different water-
courses and sheets of water in large and properly connected portions, as
is done at the present time in England.

According to the third method, the state makes the fisheries free by
issuing a certain limited number of fishing-permits, as is done in several
cantons of Switzerland.

The two first mentioned methods presuppose that there is a sufficient
number of capitalists who are willing to rent or buy the fisheries in
large portions, and to carry them on in a rational manner ; and all three
methods presuppose that the state has become the exclusive pro-
prietor of all the fishing-privileges, either by free agreement, or, as this
can be hoped for only in a few exceptional cases, by an intricate and
uncertain buying-off system, so that, at any rate, all those persons who
earned their living from the fisheries should have no cause to complain.

All these different suppositions and conditions on which a radical
change of the fishing-privileges would be beneficial to the fisheries do
not exist with us, and the obstacles in the way of reform would be
almost insurmountable.

Similar propositions have recently also been made in other countries,
as in Italy. But even there, where there is no opposition from principle to
such propositions, it is considered necessary, first of all, to make a good
fishing-law. The Italian report says, "As soon as such a law shall have
shown its beneficial effect, capitalists will be easily found willing to buy
or rent our lake-fisheries, and then the time will have arrived to carry
out the bold reform which has been proposed."

There is another proposition, to turn over the fisheries in large waters
to the town or village communities owning the rights of the shore; and
in other waters, ponds excepted, to the owners of the ground along the
shore; to facilitate the buying-off in both cases by a law, which law
should also, by forming suitable fishing-districts, regulate operations
still further, such districts either to be leased or worked in the interest
of the inhabitants of the shores.

The fisheries, or the usufruct thereof, were in future to be under con-
trol of districts, communities, or private individuals, or of whichever
of these had paid the indemnity. The transfer should either be made
on a certain day by law, and the indemnity paid later, just as in buying
off privileges resting on landed property, and in accordance with the
ordinance of September 7, 1848, or, only after the indemnity had been

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 667

paid, iii accordance with the ordinance of July 5, 1853. It should be
made either by the authorities or by mutual agreement between the
contracting parties.

Some think the provinces ought to issue bonds covering the amount
of the exemption, while others would have the communities or private
individuals owning the shores furnish the money required to pay the
former privilege-holders.

Leaving out of view certain minor details, which could be arranged
without much difficulty, the solution of the chief question should have
proper regard to the fisheries as well as to social and other relations.

In order to make the owners of the river-beds, or, more properly speak-
ing, of the shores, interested in the development of this industry, it
should be considered an important point, when buying off the privileges,
to remove out of the way the many causes of disputes between privi-
lege-holders and owners of the shore ; and to produce a well-estab-
lished state of affairs on a secure legal basis. This has been done in
Silesia, where the assembly, guided by the above-mentioned considera-
tions, has taken measures to continue the buying-off of fishing-privi-
leges, which had been commenced in accordance with the general regu-
lations for buying off liens resting on landed property, but which so far
had not yet beeu fully carried out.

In several reports, we find the remark that serious complications had
arisen since 1848 where former rulers exercise the right of fishing be-
tweeu lauds belonging to their former subjects ; and that the abolition
of fishing-privileges on the waters of others in the three provinces of
Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia had produced a desire in many other
provinces to see the same thing accomplished with them. Fishing-
privileges have frequently remained objects of dispute in the three
above-mentioned provinces, because the regulations regarding them
had not yet been fully carried out, and in other provinces, because the
titles to property were in many cases not perfectly clear. This applies
particularly to the fisheries in mill-streams, or in small tributary rivers,
in small brooks, where fishing was rarely carried on, and where the area
of the brook was frequently entered in the Kataster* as belonging to
village-communities, or to the persons owning the lands bordering on
such brooks; they, at any rate, paying the taxes on such property. It is
a natural consequence of such doubts and disputes that the owners of
the shore endeavor to keep privilege-holders and superintending officers
away from it, and seek to hinder all measures tending to the develop-
ment of the fisheries.

Wherever such circumstances prevail, we cannot hope to see the fish-
ing-laws carried out vigorously, or to see piscicultural establishments
founded ; and since the voluntary abolition of the fishing-privileges
presents too many difficulties, most holders of them, communities, and

* A book containing the surveys, titles, and ownership of the lands.

668 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

owners of shore-lands would consider a law regulating the buying-off
of privileges a great benefit.

Leases calculated to improve the condition of the fisheries would take
the place of worthless fishing-privileges, from which the owners derive
no real benefit ; former privilege-holders, especially where they own part
of the shore, would, be afforded a chance to lease, and smaller owners
of shore lands would see their income increasing by the rising rent.

It is hoped that, just as landed proprietors have quietly permitted their
farmers to hunt on their property ever since the right has been recog-
nized by the law as forming an integral part of such property, and. since
the rent forms part of their revenue, so also they will permit the lessees
of fisheries, not only to catch, but also to protect fish, and to introduce
all those measures, such as fish-passes, places of protection, planting of
banks with trees, &c, which are essential to successful fish-culture, but
which at present are almost unknown in Austria. Such a hope is also
encouraged, by the fact that even an extraordinarily large number of
fish would do no injury to agriculture, which can certainly not be said of
game.

It must not, on the other hand, be overlooked that, by abolishing the
old. fishing-privileges, and simply turning the fisheries over to the pro-
prietors of the banks, a condition of affairs may be produced which is
calculated to decrease rather than to increase the number of fish. This
applies particularly to countries where it is difficult to execute the fish-
ing-laws in an efficient manner.

The conditions on which privileges can be bought off should form the
subject of another law. In this matter, regard should be had to the dif-
ferent wants of the several provinces regarding the fisheries, as also to
all other circumstances which may be of influence, so that the question
whether the time has arrived when such a law can be really beneficial
should be answered separately for every province.

Whether the question of abolishing the privileges in any of our prov-
inces is being discussed at the present time, or whether it is referred to
some future period, it will, under all circumstances, be desirable that
such abolition should not take place before a good fishing-law has defi-
nitely settled all questions relating to the protection and practice of the
fisheries, especially those belonging to communities and owners of shore
lands, fishing-associations, &c. If this is not done, the abolition of privi-
leges and the transfer of the fisheries to communities and owners of
shore lands will do more harm than good to the industry. It would also
be an inestimable benefit if the new owners could enter on their pos-
sessions with that feeling of security which only a practical and well-
executed law produces, and if the great landed proprietors, who at
present own fisheries, could have the chance of improving them further
and of making them more valuable.

The question of abolishing the fishing-privileges has not yet been
fully discussed in all the provinces, nor has an accurate list of all such

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 669

privileges been made out. The above remarks on this subject, suggested
by the material at my command, will suffice for the present ; any further
discussion being at this time neither desirable nor possible.

25. — INTERNATIONAL FISHERY-TREATIES.

Many of the finer kinds of Austrian fish are migratory species, some
of which live part of the time in the sea. The salmon come from the
sea into the Bohemian, Moravian, Silesian, and Galician rivers and
their tributaries, spawn there, and then return. In the Rhine, the
salmon only go as far as the falls near Schaffhausen. The eels, on the
other hand, usually spawn in the sea ; the young ones ascend into the
fresh water, and live there till they are able to propagate their species,
when they return to the sea.

Other fish remain in fresh water, lakes, rivers, and brooks, but change
their location according to their size, the character and depth of the
water, temperature, the quantity and quality of food found, and the
more or less favorable location of the spawning places. What has been
said of salt-water fish applies likewise to several lake species, and to
some living in large rivers, which, during the spawning season, ascend
the tributaries and brooks.

These migrations cause a community of interests in all the countries
of one connected water-system, chiefly with regard to the cultivation
of the fish and the protection of the fisheries.

If, for example, the free passage of the salmon and eel from the Lower
Elbe is prevented by the fishermen of that region, if they are there
caught at the wrong season, or in too great numbers, all the fisheries on
the Upper Elbe will suffer from this, and all the efforts to improve those
of Bohemia will prove futile.

In the Netherlands, especially in the mouths of the Bhine, the salmon-
fisheries are at present carried on in such a destructive manner, with
immense seines, that only in very exceptional cases, high water, &c,
the fish escape and ascend to the spawning places; for during the sea-
son when the salmon ascend the rivers, these seines are hauled uninter-
ruptedly, even on Sundays; they take up the whole stream, and a few of
them, worked at short distances from each other, are sufficient to catch
every salmon entering the river.

The lower fishers, however, are likewise entirely dependent on those
higher up ; for, if the latter disturb the salmon while they are spawning,
and catch and destroy the young fish, none go to the sea, and conse-
quently none return from there.

In large connected fishing territories, divided between several coun-
tries, each one is dependent on the others for its fisheries. Every
country by itself can do much to destroy the fisheries of the whole ter-
ritory ; but, without the co-operation of the other countries, it is not able
to keep them up, even with the best and strictest fishing-laws.

670 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

The community of interests is still more striking in rivers which fcrin
the boundary -line between different countries. Of what use would it
be to prescribe times of protection when the fishermen on the right
bank were not allowed to fish, if those on the left bank were allowed
to catch all through the spawning season ?

In such a manner are the Austrian fisheries, especially the more valu-
able ones, such as those for salmon in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and
Galicia, dependent on those of the neighboring countries. The absence
of a good fishing-law in North Germany, more especially respecting
lawful seasons of protection; the lack of any law regarding places of
protection ; the utterly destructive way in which here and there salmon
are caught with seines; the many weirs and other hydraulic construc-
tions in most North German rivers, which hitherto have not been made
harmless by fish-passes; the poisoning of the waters by the introduction
of noxious substances; the numerous automatic salmon and eel traps
near the mills in those rivers and streams which from our country flow
into North Germany ; all these causes combined have injured our sal-
mon-fisheries to such a degree that at present but few salmon ascend
to our waters from the sea.

The Austrian government, for these reasons, endeavored to conclude
treaties with all the states bordering on the Elbe, as early as 1857, so
as to secure the free passage of salmon and eels from the sea to the
Bohemian waters and vice versa. These negotiations have been inter-
rupted, but will be taken up again.

It has been proposed to conclude treaties establishing uniform regu-
lations between Baden, Bavaria, Lichtenstein, Austria, Wiirtemberg,
and several cantons of Switzerland for the benefit of the fisheries in
the Lake of Constance and its tributaries. Such a treaty was, on De-
cember 9, 1869, concluded between the Baden government and the
Swiss federal council.

A similar treaty was concluded November 27, 18G9, by the delegates
of all the states on the Lower Bhine, from Basle downward, but failed
to be ratified by the Dutch government, as the lower house of the par-
liament, by a majority of four, voted against the treaty; and it is sought
to reach a uniform legislation by other means.

In the Netherlands, there is at present a new law in preparation,
which is to regulate the salmon-fisheries in the Bhine; and the Deutsche
Fisherei- Verein hopes, by laying its suggestions before the most famous
ichthyologists, both at home and abroad, to induce the Dutch gov-
ernment, in its own interest, to pass not only such laws as will include
the Mannheim propositions, but will even be an improvement on them
by prohibiting the catching of salmon in the Bhine for at least thirty-
six hours every week.

A fishing-treaty between all the states bordering on the Danube has
been proposed, as likewise one relating to the fisheries in Lake Garda
between the Austrian and Italian governments.

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 671

Such treaties make it necessary that the fishing-laws of the several
countries should accord with all the points touched in the treaties.

We give below the full text of the treaty between Baden and Switzer-
land, relating to the fisheries in the Ehine, including the Unter Lake, (a
portion of the Lake of Constance.) This treaty is based on scientific
principles, and on the experience of countries where strict fishing-laws
have been successfully in force for some time.

" For the protection and increase of the valuable kinds of fish in the
Ehine, including the Unter Lake and its tributaries, between Constance
and Basle, the government of Baden and the federal council of Switzer-
land have resolved to draw up uniform rules for the fisheries in these
waters, and have, for this purpose, appointed the following delegates :
His Royal Highness the Grand Duke of Baden, his Privy-Counselor in
the Ministry of Commerce, Dr. Eudolph Dietz ; the Federal Council of the
Swiss Confederation, the Federal Counselor, Dr. Karl Schenk : between
whom, after their credentials had been found to be correct, the follow-
ing treaty, waiting a future ratification, was drawn up :

"Article 1. In the Ehine fisheries, including those of the Unter
Lake and its tributaries, between Constance and Basle all stationary
apparatus (fish-weirs) and the use of stationary nets, which at the com-
mon low- water mark on a line drawn at right angles from the bank
obstructs more than one-half of the breadth of the river, thus hindering
the migration of fish, are prohibited. 'This prohibition only applies to
those waters which* contain salmon. The distance between the several
poles forming the fish-weir intended to catch salmon, as well as the
distance between the connecting cross-poles, must be at least 10 centime-
ters, (1 centimeter=0.39 inch.) If several such stationary apparatus, or
several stationary nets, are set at the same time, near one and the same
bank, or on the opposite bank, they must be placed at a distance from
each other amounting to at least twice that of the largest apparatus.

"Article 2. No fishing-implements of any kind or name must be
used, if, when moist, their openings do not have the following dimen-
sions: a, for salmon-fishing, — bow-nets, 0 centimeters, inside 4 centime-
ters; &, for catching other large fish, — 3 centimeters; c, for catching
small fish, — 1^ centimeters. Implements used in taking fish for bait are
not subject to these regulations.

" In the Ehine between SchaffLiausen and Basle no nets are to be used
whose openings are larger than 3 centimeters.

"In regulating nets and other implements, the difference of one-tenth
centimeter shall not be counted.

"Article 3. Floating nets must not be placed in such a manner as to
stick to the bottom or remain attached to anything.

"Article 4. All means employed to stun fish, as well as the use of
traps with springs, spears, guns, or pistols, explosive cartridges, poles,
and other contrivances tending to wound the fish, are forbidden.

672 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

" The authorities in the different parts of the country may permit
exceptions as to the use of spears and guns or pistols.

" Fishing with hooks and lines is allowed.

" It is forbidden to drain any water-courses dry for the purpose of fish-
ing.

"The governments which adopt this treaty will see to it that the
so-called automatic traps connected with mills and other water-works
are as much as possible removed.

" The placing of new traps of this kind is forbidden.

" Article 5. The following kinds of fish must neither be offered for
sale nor sold, if, from the eye to the commencement of the anal fin,
they have not at least the following length : Salmon, (Trutta salar Lin.,)
35 centimeters; lake-trout, (Trutta lacustris Agass.,) 20 centimeters;
brook-trout, (Trutta fario Lin.,) grayling (Thymallus vulgaris Nilss.,)
Eotheli, (Salmo salvelinus), 15 centimeters. The authorities of the two
countries may, for these measures, substitute the corresponding weights.

" If fish are caught which have not this weight or measure, they must
immediately be thrown back into the water.

"Article 6. In order to increase the number of salmon, fishing
is every year entirely suspended in the Ehine and its tributaries, from
Basle upward, from the 15th October till the 1st January.

" In the time from the 1st September till the 1st January, it is for-
bidden to offer for sale, to sell, or to transport Khine salmon which are
capable of spawning.

" During the seasons of protection, the respective authorities may
allow the taking of salmon to be used in piscicultural establishments
for impregnating eggs. These fish, after they have been used for this
purpose, may, under the proper supervision of the authorities, be offered
for sale, sold, or transported.

" Article 7. From the 20th October till the 20th January, it is for-
bidden to fish, offer for sale, or to sell lake-trout, salmon-trout, and brook-
trout. If, during this period fish of these kinds are caught accidentally,
they are to be thrown back into the water immediately.

" The respective authorities may permit the taking of these kinds of
fish, during the seasons of protection, for piscicultural purposes, and also
the offering for sale and the sale of lake-trout after these have been
used for impregnation, under proper supervision.

"Article 8. From the 15th April till the end of May, the catching of
any kind of fish — except salmon and lake-trout — with nets and bow-nets
of any kind, is prohibited.

"Article 9. The taking of fish for artificial culture, and the catching
of small fry to serve as food for the fish in the piscicultural establish-
ments, may, by the respective authorities, be permitted even during
the season of protection mentioned in article 8.

"Article 10. It is prohibited to throw refuse from factories or other

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 67

<■>

substances of a like character into the waters in such quantities as to
injure the fish thereby.

" If, in some places, the agricultural or industrial interests are of
greater value than the fisheries, the respective authorities may permit
such substances to be thrown into the water, taking measures, however,
to limit the injury as much as possible.

" The respective authorities will likewise decide whether and how
far the above regulations shall apply to existing conduits for leading
agricultural or industrial refuse into the water.

"Article 11. Both contracting states will see to it that the number
of salmon in the Ehine and its tributaries is increased by hatching a
number of eggs every year, and by placing the young in suitable por-
tions of the above-mentioned waters. They will likewise see to it that
so-called salmon-ladders are put in suitable places, to assist the salmon
and trout in ascending the river.

"Article 12. Each of the contracting states engages to make the
necessary regulations for carrying out the articles of this treaty, to
repay violations by suitable punishments, and to appoint the necessary
officers for this purpose.

"The present treaty shall not prevent either of the contracting states
from making still stricter regulations for the protection of fish on their
territory.

"Article 13. Each of the contracting states shall appoint a commis-
sioner of fisheries for its territory.

" These commissioners are to inform each other of all new measures
regarding the fisheries which their governments have adopted j com-
municate to each other the annual reports on the results of the salmon-
fisheries, as well as on the young salmon which have been artificially
hatched, and placed in the water j and shall, by correspondence and
occasional meetings, further the mutual interests of the fisheries in the
Rhine and its tributaries.

"Article 14. The contracting governments will, according to some
plan to be agreed on at some future time, make investigations as to the
nature and life of fish, especially of the Salmonoidei, and communicate
to each other the results of these investigations.

"Article 15. This treaty will take effect on the 1st of July, 1870,
and remain in force for ten years counting from that day ; and if no
warning shall have been given by either of the contracting parties twelve
months before the end of the period mentioned, it shall continue from
year to year till the end of a year after the day on which either of the
contracting parties will have given warning.

"Article 1G. If the treaty concluded November 27, 1SG9, between all

the states bordering on the Rhine should from some cause not take

effect on the 1st July, 1870, but at a later date, the present treaty will

likewise not take effect till this later date.

"Article 17. Those governments on whose territory there are portions
43 f

674 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

of the Lake of Constance and its tributaries may become parties to
this treaty.

"Those portions of the Lake of Constance and its tributaries which
are either on Swiss or Baden territory are subject to the articles of
this treaty as soon as all the other governments holding portions of the
Lake of Constance and its tributaries will have become parties to this
treaty.

"Article IS. This treaty shall be ratified, and the customary docu-
ments exchanged, on the 1st March, 1870, or, if possible, at an earlier
date, in the city of Berne.

"In witness whereof we have signed this treaty and affixed our seals.

" Done in the city of Berne, December 9, 1869."

2G. — SALT-WATER FISHERIES, AND THE LAWS RELATING TO THEM.

There are very important salt-water fisheries on the Austrian coasts,
viz, in the districts of Triest, Gorz, Gradisca, and Istria, and in the
kingdom of Dalmatia.

These may be considered under the divisions of high-sea fisheries and
coast-fisheries. The former are carried on in the open sea, and the latter
in gulfs and inlets and all along the coast as far as a gun-shot will reach.

From many sources we glean the fact that the salt-water fisheries in
olden times contributed more to the thrift and wealth of the towns on
the coast than nowadays. Of the high prices which the products of
the sea bring in far distant markets, the poor fishermen reap but little
benefit. It often happens that they sell the results of their laborious
and dangerous trade on board their vessels to speculators for a trifling
sum, and these latter reap the profit of the valuable products which
the fishermen have brought up from the store-houses of the sea. There is
no doubt that a suitable organization of the salt-water fisheries on a legal
basis, the encouragement of such institutions as the valli dipesca, (see
below,) and of the trade in salt-water fish with Vienna and other large
cities, would increase the profits of the fishermen considerably.

As being of special importance, we mention the so-called valli di
pesca, which includes inlets, canals, or brackish ponds near the coast,
that have been artificially closed, and are used for raising salt-water
fish and shell-fish. As is done by the French ministry of marine, we
likewise grant small strips of land near the coast to private individuals
for establishing such artificial waters, so that every inhabitant of the
coast is enabled to have his own little fish-pond or oyster-bed.

Mr. Smarda says that the arrangements of these brackish ponds on
the Austrian coast far excel anything of the kind in France.

The taking of some kinds of salt-water fish, such as sardines,
mackerel, and tunnies, is most profitable if carried on in common by
a number of fishermen, and should therefore be regulated with a view
to founding properly organized associations.

The attention of legislators has most frequently been given to the

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 675

methods of fishing termed a cocchia or alfondo, and those termed a bra-
gozzo or a tartana.

Fishing a cocchia is carried on with a deep, narrow-meshed net, taper-
ing off into a long bag, which by leaden weights is lowered to a great
depth, even to the bottom of the sea, where it is dragged along by two
boats sailing parallel with each other at a small distance apart. Fishing a
hragozzo or a tartana is carried on with a similar net, which, however, is
only fastened to one boat by means of poles. As these nets, which are
frequently many hundred feet long, are for hours dragged along the
bottom of the sea, before the fishermen haul them in at some point
which long experience has indicated to them as particularly favorable,
they catch not merely all the fish in those portions of the sea, but like-
wise destroy the algoe and sea-weeds growing on the bottom.

Fishing a tartana has been carried on from time immemorial, while
fishing a cocchia came into use on our coasts only during the last cent-
ury.

The greatest masters of fishing a cocchia are the inhabitants of the
island of Chioggia near Venice, who visit all the Austrian coasts,
especially those of Dalmatia.

Since the middle of the last century, there has been no lack of prohi-
bitions against both these methods of fishing, which, however, have in-
variably soon been revoked or permitted to fall into disuse.

There have been different causes for such contradictory measures. It
could not, on the one hand, be proved that these methods of fishing had
diminished the number of fish very materially. Just as the harvests
of fields vary in different years, so was the decrease in the quantity
of marine products only a temporary one ; in a few years, the fish came
again in large numbers, and certain species which had disappeared
entirely, returned after some time.

It must be granted, on the other hand, that fishing a cocchia is
undoubtedly the most ingenious and efficient method employed on our
coasts, which has been settled on by the fishermen after long thought,
and the experience of many years, and that it would be exceedingly
difficult to substitute any other method. It was not only a feeling of
pity for the families of poor fishermen which prompted the authorities
to relax their severe measures, which generally were caused by the loud
complaints of some community on the coast, desirous of obtaining a
secure monopoly by excluding all strangers ; but as long as no sufficient
proof has been adduced of the injurious character of these methods of
fishing, such prohibitory measures would only tend to raise the price of
fish, and, in this manner, they would be anything but beneficial to the
poor fishermen and the general public.

Fishing a cocchia is, at any rate, almost impossible on most coasts on
account of the uneven, and especially the rising bottom, and the dense
growth of sea-weeds on which fish deposit their spawn ; if, therefore, a few

676 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

spawning places should be destroyed by the large nets, the number
remaining would still be very large.

Although, as we have seen, the entire prohibition of this and of simi-
lar methods of fishing is scarcely justified, it is necessary that there
should be certain legally prescribed limitations ; economical and, still
more, administrative reasons demand the proper regulation of the coast-
fisheries, and certain rules as to the formation, rights, and duties of asso-
ciations.

In this respect, the coast-fisheries, especially those carried on in bays
and inlets, do not differ much from the inland. In such places, the ex-
clusive rights of communities and landed proprietors have been respected ;
while, outside of such narrow limits, salt-water fishing has been free.

Legislation has, therefore, directed its attention to the above-men-
tioned limited portions of the sea, although not to the same extent as to the
inland fisheries. As an example, we mention that, till the definite regu-
lation of the coast-fisheries, the use of torpedoes and other explosives
has been prohibited.

With regard to the high-sea or open sea fisheries, other considerations
prevail.

The productive power of the ocean, in its unlimited extent and its
unfathomable depths, is, with regard to its various processes and their
causes, far less known and far less accessible to human observation
than that of the inland waters.

It is true that there have been complaints of the decrease in the
wealth of fish in the ocean ; and the injurious methods of fishing are
partly assigned as the cause.

It is maintained that some species of the most valuable and numerous
salt-water fish, from which millions of money were formerly gained,
have been almost totally destroyed. This is certainly true of the gigan-
tic whales, which, even twenty or thirty years ago, were so numerous
on the coasts of the islands in the north of Scotland. It is likewise
said that a decrease in the number of sardines, cod-fish, &c, has been
observed ; while others deny this, especially as far as the sardines are
concerned.

We consequently find two opposing views on the high-sea fisheries:
the one demanding complete freedom frorn all those limitations which
only quench the spirit of enterprise, and do not benefit the fisheries; the
other fearing that the erroneous idea of an unlimited and indestructible
supply of fish, the disregard of all protective measures, and of all reg-
ulations limiting the methods of fishing, will, in the end, prove disastrous
to the salt-water fisheries, in the same way as with our river and lake
fisheries, and with the oyster-beds, which have been almost totally
destroyed in some parts.

Of late years, there have been many attempts to obtain a legal and
economical basis for the high-sea fisheries ; and seasons of protection,
artificial impregnation, and hatching, &c, have been spoken of. The

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 677

difficulties in the way of legislation are much greater, however, than
with the fresh-water fisheries.

The open sea, beyond the reach of a gun on shore, is the common
property of all nations, and individual states have no right to legislate
concerning it.

From the oldest times, fishing in the open sea has been a free trade,
bound by no guilds or other limitations. As an old document says,
" The fishermen are here allowed to fish as far as they want to risk
their necks."

No individual state would desire to limit the enterprise of its subjects
on the open sea, thus offering a chance for foreign fishermen ; and, as to
international legislation, there has been too little material collected on
which to build up such a code in spite of the numerous reports on the
subject made by individual states, and the trustworthy investigations
of the influence of certain methods of capture on the fisheries.

E.— CONCLUSION.

In reviewing the whole subject under consideration, we can briefly
give the following more important points, which should be kept in view
for any future regulation of the Austrian fresh-water fisheries.

The reports from all provinces of Austria agree that the fisheries
which formerly were in a very flourishing condition have declined. The
causes of this decline are nearly the same in all provinces. Not
to meution those unavoidable injuries which they have suffered
from the progress of civilization in other directions, we must assign, as
prominent causes, the entire want of protection ; numerous rights
and privileges which absolutely hinder or even destroy them ; the
reckless plundering of the large connected waters by privilege-holders,
each one being at war with the other ; and the total neglect of all
measures which tend to do justice to the fisheries in the exercise of
water-rights, even in cases where conflicting interests might easily have
been harmonized. All reports agree as to the necessity of passing laws
for protecting and promoting them.

In some provinces of Austria, there are at present, if we except laws
applying to the whole monarchy and a few regulations in general ordi-
nances, no laws whatever relating to the fisheries. Other provinces
possess old fishing-laws; but although we see in them the proof that
our ancestors desired to protect this important branch of economy,
although they might in many respects — with regard to the formation of
associations and the establishment of proper protective regulations —
serve as models, it is doubtful whether these laws, which in many points
are utterly at variance with modern ideas and statutes, could at this day
be enforced, either as a whole or in part. Many of the provisions of
these old laws no longer agree with the present advanced state of
natural sciences and technology. The most important relations which
a statute is intended to regulate, especially with regard to other

678 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

trades or industries, are not touched in the fishing-laws of the several
provinces. The regulations regarding punishments are entirely anti-
quated, and there were no measures for making tbe law more effective,
even in the olden times. Most of these statutes have fallen into oblivion,
so that it may justly be said tbat in none of the provinces of Austria
do tbe fisheries enjoy that protection by laws which is an essential condi-
tion of their success.

Tbe decline of tbe fisheries must, therefore, be mostly ascribed to
defective legislation, or, more correctly expressed, to the utter want
of legislation regarding the protection and practice thereof. Most
civilized nations are either ahead of us in making new fishing-laws
suited to the demands of modern science, or are on the point of re-or-
ganizing tbeir old ones.

The beneficial influence of such practical laws, and of the institutions
called to life by them, is universally recognized among these nations,
and has in many cases been proved by figures.

There is not the slightest doubt that the natural conditions in Aus-
tria are extremely favorable to the improvement of the fisheries. Few
other countries possess such a wealth of inland waters, streams,
rivers, brooks, lakes, and ponds ; most of these have, even at the
present day, an ample supply of fish, somewhat diminished as to num-
bers, but still excelling through its great variety of fine and valuable
sorts. Science and experience have in our time produced such a num-
ber of improvements in the fishing-trade — such as the different ways of
preserving fish, and the different uses to which the products of the
water are put — that by their aid it becomes possible to revive our fish-
eries, in spite of unfavorable influences to which they are exposed, and
without in the least injuring the more important interests of navigation,
industry, and agriculture.

Tbe spirit of enterprise has also in Austria again turned toward this
branch of productive industry ; and it is a matter of great satisfaction
that not only many great landed proprietors, but also many small land-
owners, peasants, mechanics, and workingmen have founded establish-
ments for artificial fish-culture, and derive considerable profit from small
sheets of water either owned or rented by them.

In some provinces, associations have been formed, having for their
object a system of rational fishing and fish-culture ; and there is no doubt
tbat such associations, adapted to the peculiar wants of the fisheries,
will, if supported by legislative measures, gain ground constantly.

The above mentioned manifold evils, which have hastened the decline
of the fisheries, have also prevented any practical benefit being derived
from the numerous modem inrprovenients in fishing and the fish-trade.

If one considers the enormous profit which other countries derive
from their lawfully protected fisheries, and then applies this staudard to
our extensive waters, it becomes absolutely certain that as soon as
a proper legislation has paved the way for the introduction of all the

THE FISHERY INTERESTS OF AUSTRIA. 679

modern improvements and institutions, the results of the fisheries in
Austria will be no less brilliant ; our national income will then likewise
increase, and these advantages must be rated all the higher, because
the point in question is to provide a cheap and wholesome article of
food, accessible to all classes of our population, for which no substitute
of equal value can be found.

Our government is earnestly endeavoring to extend such favors to the
fisheries, at first in the inland waters, as are commensurate with their
importance to the welfare of the nation, and is at present discussing the
draught of a new fishing-law, based on the most careful consideration of
all the reports sent to the ministries. Our review may serve as a fore-
runner of this law, and in some portions as a fuller commentary on the
subject, than the necessarily limited report preceding the law is able
to give.

XXX.-HOW CAN OUR LAKES AND RIVERS BE AGAIN STOCKED
WITH FISH IN THE SHORTEST POSSIBLE TIME?*

By Mr. von dem Borne,
Landed Proprietor at Berneuchen, near Wusterwltz. Neumark, t'russia.

The decline of our fisheries is only in part to be ascribed to the prog-
ress of civilization ; for, to a great extent, it has been caused by the
senseless manner in which the fisheries have been carried on. If, there-
fore, the fisheries are carried on in a rational manner, it would certainly
be easy to stock our waters completely, especially if we take into con-
sideration the extraordinary fruitfulness and the rapid growth of fish.
Mr. Horak, the superintendent of the immense ponds at Wittingau in Bo-
hemia (covering an area of about 15,043 acres), told me he was confi-
dent that he could in a few years stock the Elbe to its utmost capacity
with fish, if a stop were put to the plundering of the river ; and I am
thoroughly convinced that Mr. Horak is right.

The first question to be settled would be what kinds of fish would
be best suited for making our waters productive. We have migratory
fish, like the salmon and the May-fish, which live in the sea, but spawn
and spend their first youth in the rivers ; for the brooks with gravelly
bottom, we have the trout and the grayling; and for the deep lakes,
the saibliug, the different varieties of the muraena, the raaken, &c, are
of importance. For shallow lakes, and for rivers and brooks which
have no gravelly bottom and flow slowly, the carp is undoubtedly the
most suitable fish. We will now devote our attention to the last-men-
tioned kinds of waters.

Our lakes and rivers contain fish which require very different food,
and we accordingly divide the fish into fish of prey and peaceful fish, or
mto fish living on fish, those living on insects, and those living on plants.
The pike chiefly lives on fish, the perch lives on fish and insects, and the
carp on plants and insects. In the household of nature, the occurrence
of fish of prey aud peaceful fish side by side is of the utmost importance.
Those fish which live on plants are important, because they find most of
their food in the water, and consequently produce the greatest quantity
of flesh in a given sheet of water. But if their number exceeds a certain
limit, so that the quantity of food does no longer suffice to supply the
demand, the fish not only decrease in size but also in number, so that
the total weight of fish produced by that sheet of water declines steadily
from year to year. This is remedied by the fish of prey, especially the
pike, not only because they eat the small fish, but also because they

"From Circular No. 1, 1876, of the Deutsche Fisherei-Verein.

6S1

682 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

prevent the fully-matured fish, particularly the carp, from spawning.
In lakes where one wishes to produce a great quantity of young fish, it
will, therefore, be advantageous to have no fish of prey ; but where one
intends to produce large and heavy fish by preventing the water from
one lake to enter another, the presence of fish of prey offers the double
advantage, that they make use of the small and worthless fish, and that
they further the growth of the other fish by diminishing the number.

Among the fish living on plants, the carp is the most valuable, on
account of its rapid growth and its great value for the table. It has,
moreover, the following qualities, which are very desirable for the pisci-
culturist : it is very easy to produce a very great quantity of young-
carps ; the carp is a very hardy fish, and has but few wants ; and, finally,
there is scarcely a fish with whose conditions and mode of living we are
so well acquainted, as it has been raised for centuries and has almost
become a domestic animal.

The carp flourishes so well in our stagnating and slow-flowing waters
that, more than any other fish, it is suited to make our fisheries pro-
ductive in a very short time.

For producing great quantities of young carps, shallow ponds are
required, which contain no fish of prey, and can be drained entirely. It
will be well to protect the young fish from fish of prey for one year, and
place fish two years old into the open waters. They are at that age so
large that fish of prey cannot hurt them much. If there are no ponds
where the young fish can be placed, thus making it necessary to let the
young fish free at an age of one year, this should, if it is in any way
possible, be done in spring. During winter, the carp is in a state of
torpor, and is so lazy that it becomes an easy prey to the pike, which is
particularly voracious at that season. In spring, on the other hand, the
carp is lively, while the pike, on account of his spawning, has become
languid and sickly.

Unless the country is perfectly level, there is nearly everywhere a
chance to make ponds for the young fish (" Streichteiche7,)j as nearly
every flowing water is suitable for filling such ponds, and as in case of
necessity even rain and snow will supply the required quantity of water.

We will now, in accordance with the experiments made on the estate
of Cottbus-Peitz, in Lusatia, calculate what sized sheets of water can be
stocked in one year from a pond of a given size. The areas of the differ-
ent ponds at Peitz are as follows :

For fish of the first year, (spawning and young fish), 1 Morgen*.

For fish of the second year, (growing fish), 2 Morgen.

For fish of the third year, 3.4 Morgen.

For fish of the fourth year, (when the fish reach their full size), 12
Morgen.

If one wishes to raise two-year-old fish for the market, 15.4 Morgen
water-area would be required for the next two years for every 3 ilior-

*One Morgen =0.f>8Q8 of an acre.

ON STOCKING LAKES AND RIVERS WITH FISH. 683

gen, occupied the first year with young fish, if such ponds are used as
the ones in Peitz. If, as I propose, the open waters shall be used for
the complete development of the young fish, the fact must be taken into
account that our lakes and rivers contain fish of prey, and that, because
they cannot be drained, they can never become so entirely exhausted as
the ponds. The open waters can, therefore, not be stocked as fully as
the "Abwaclisteiclie" (ponds where the fish reach their full size) with-
out running the risk of crowding them too much, particularly as the
increase of the carp in the open water must be taken into account.
I would, therefore, propose that ponds used for raising two-year-old
carp for the market should every year stock an area ten times their size,
believing that such an area will then get its full supply of fish.

If, for instance,- the Wittingau lakes in Bohemia, which have an area
of 15,043 acres, were to be used for restocking the open waters with fish,
150,430 acres would have to be completely stocked every year, and in
ten years 100 German square miles of water would be fully supplied
with fish.

All our waters could doubtless reach the highest degree of product-
iveness in a few years, if we were to raise two-year-old carp in our
ponds, and let the open waters take the place of the ponds where the
fish reach their full size.

That the owners of ponds would be fully repaid for their trouble will
be evident from the following instance : On the estate of Baron von
Eothschild, iu Upper Silesia, 2 to 3 feet deep puddles in the villages
are used as ponds for raising two-year-old carp for stocking-purposes,
and are drained every year. These ponds, by the sale of such two-year-
old carp, yield annually a net profit of 150 Mark (about $37.50) per
Morgen. They yield, consequently, ten times as much as good carp-
ponds, in which fish are raised for the table, and more than the best
arable land. An owner of ponds can, therefore, best increase his income
by favoring as much as possible the production of two-year-old carp for
stocking-purposes.

As many proprietors of fisheries fear that it would be difficult to catch
carp in the open water, I can assure them, from personal experience,
that if the waters are well stocked, large quantities of fish can be caught
with the different nets, both in winter and summer.

In accordance with the above, 1 Morgen would have to be stocked
with about sixty two-year-old carp.

APPENDIX E.

NATURAL HISTORY.

XXXL— PRELIMINARY REPORT ON A SERIES OF DREDGINGS

MADE ON THE UNITED STATES COAST SURVEY

STEAMER BACHE, IN THE GULF OF MAINE,

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF PROF. S. F. BAIRD, UNITED STATES FISH COM-
MISSIONER, DURING SEPTEMBER, 1873.

By A. S. Packard, Jk., M. D.

Though it was the original intention to devote the month to an ex-
ploration of the Saint George's Banks, it was decided, on account of our
defective boilers, to work nearer shore, and extend the work of the
United States Fish Commission, for the season located in Casco Bay,
the dredging operations being conducted under the charge of Professor
Verrill. This involved an examination of certain unexplored portions
of that great indentation lying between Cape Sable, Nova Scotia, and
Cape Cod, which is laid down on the charts as the " Gulf of Maine."

Through the researches of Messrs. Stimpson,Verrill, myself, and others,
in the Bay of Fundy, and of Drs. Gould, Wheatland, Stimpson, and
others, in Massachusetts Bay, together with the very thorough examina-
tion of Casco Bay and vicinity, pursued during the past summer by
Professors Baird and Verrill, we had obtained a very complete knowl-
edge of the coast-fauna of New England north of Cape Cod. Moreover,
the exploration of Saint George's Banks, made by Messrs. Smith, Harger,
and myself last year in the Bache, had given us some idea of the
nature of the sea-bottom, dredging having been carried on at a depth of
432 fathoms by Messrs. Smith and Harger.

It now remained to explore some interesting localities within Saint
George's Banks, and at a distance from the coast. This report embraces
an account of a reconnaissance of Jeffrey's Bank, lying south of Mount
Desert Island ; Cash's Ledge, another bank lying southwest of Jeffrey's
Bank ; of Jeffrey's Ledge, a northeastern submarine prolongation of
Cape Ann ; and Stellwageu's Bank, a northerly submarine extension of
Cape Cod. As intermediate points were investigated, the series of
dredgings may be regarded as conducted along six main lines running
out easterly from the shore between Portland and Cape Cod.

On the 2d of September, the Bache, with Lieutenant Jaques tempora-
rily in command, left Peak's Island, Casco Bay, the headquarters of
Professor Baird, and made a harbor for the night at Booth Bay. Early
the next, morning, we ran out and dredged about " Monhegan Falls" in
60 fathoms, searching with dredge, tangles, and trawl for the arctic

G88 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

coral, Primnoa lepadifera, a species of sea-fan, which grows about three
feet in height. It is occasionally met with in the fiords of Norway at a
depth of 300 fathoms, while fishermen have been said to find it on the
ground known as " Monhegan Falls", and a specimen two feet high,
from Saint George's Banks, is now in the Museum of the Peabody Acad-
emy of Science at Salem, Mass. Our efforts to find it were, however,
unavailing.

We then ran out to Jeffrey's Bank, and trawled in 82 fathoms, bring-
ing up a fine Alecto or Coniatula, a near ally to the Crinoids. This was
the first specimen taken by the Fish Commission during the summer.
The head of another specimen was captured on Cash's Ledge. Near
Jeffrey's Bank, we also dredged in deep brown mud, at a depth of 107
fathoms, with a temperature of 39J°, Hyalonema, apparently interme-
diate between H. boreale of Loven and H. longissimum of Sars from
Northern Europe. This had previously been found off Casco Bay by
Professor Yerrill. Interesting sponges, allied to Holtenia, also occurred.
Everywhere on Jeffrey's Bank and Cash's Ledge the mud was reddish-
brown, and was possibly brought by currents from the Bay of Fundy.
This red mud probably extends as far west as the mouth of Kennebec
River. The mud about Jeffrey's Ledge and in Massachusetts Bay is of
the ordinary blue color.

At noon of September 4 the sea became too rough to dredge, and we
ran into a harbor at George's Island, north of Monhegan, for shelter,
and on the succeeding day returned to Portland for repairs.

On September 12 the Bache left Portland for a farther exploration of
Jeffrey's Bank, and on the loth a series of dredgings was made on each
side of the southern extremity of it, at depths of GO, 105, and 100 fathoms,
with excellent success. The weather appearing threatening, we ran
into Portsmouth.

On the 16th we began to dredge on a line extending from Portsmouth to
Cash's Ledge. Stopping to dredge on either side of Jeffrey's Ledge,
we found, in a deep- mud-hole, 95 to 98 fathoms, fourteen miles S. E. J
E. of Boon Island light, with a temperature of 37£° and 41°,* living
ticliizaster fragilis, a beautiful sea-urchin; Molpadia oolitica, a sea-cu-
cumber, not previously recorded so far north on the coast of North Amer-
ica ; Macoma proximo, and Aporrhais occidentalism two shells rivaling in
size individuals dredged by the reporter in shallow water in Labrador ;
and tubes of Spioclicciopterus typicus Sars. This abyss, so near the shore,
afforded the lowest temperature found during the month's work.

The results of the exploration on Cash's Ledge were extremely inter-
esting. At depths ranging from fifty to eighty fathoms, over a hard,
gravelly bottom, characterized by multitudes of Ascidia callosa, or sea-
potatoes, the richest assemblage of life was found that we met with in

# The readings of both thermometers used are given, the lowest temperature, that
given by a new Casella-Miller thermometer from the Smithsonian Institution, and
probably nearly correct.

DREDGINGS MADE IN THE GULF OF MAINE. 689

the gulf. It was a rare sight to see the tangle come in over the ship's
side hung with that gorgeous star-fish, the bright-red Astrogonium phry-
gianum, measuring fully eight inches across, with lesser forms of sea-
stars, Asterias, Cribella, and sand-stars, an enormous sea-spider or
Nymphon, Hyas ara?iea, an arctic spider-crab, and a species of Janira,
with beautiful sponges allied to Tethya, Thecophora, and Holtenia -\ike
forms four or five inches in diameter, these latter appearing in the
trawl with Tealia and tubes of Cerianthus borealis of Verrill, a large sea-
anemone. The excitement was shared by the crew, some of whom aided
in the tedious work of separating the collections from the strands of the
tangle.

On our way back to Gloucester we again dredged on each side of
Jeffrey's Ledge at depths of 112 and 118 fathoms, at the former station
east of the bank dredging the rare Myxine limpsa Girard, (bag-fish,) in
soft mud, with a bottom temperature in both stations of 39°.

On the 23d, dredgings were made in Salem Harbor and off Marble-
head. Two days, the 25th and 26tb, were devoted to investigating the
summit of Jeffrey's Ledge, at a distance of nine to eighteen miles east
of Cape Ann. The temperature here was between 40° and 49° in about
twenty-five fathoms, a difference of about ten degrees from that of the
abysses on each side of this submarine elevation. Both here and after-
ward we used two dredges, one being thrown over from the bows, the
other cast from the stern of the vessel, while the tangle was put over
from the side.

On the 27th, we began to run a line of dredgings and soundings from
Oape Ann to Cape Cod, crossing the middle of Stellwagen's Bank.

Dredging in depths between fifty and sixty fathoms in soft, blue mud,
northwest of Stellwagen's Bank, in the deepest portions of Massachu-
setts Bay, the fauna was found to closely resemble that of similar
localities on each side of Jeffrey's Ledge, the assemblage not more
southern in character, while the temperature of the bottom water
ranged between 41J° and 45° (two thermometers being used as before).
In one haul of the tangle, ninety-five Ctenodiscus crispatus, the common
pentagonal star-fish of muddy bottoms, were brought up, with several
very large Asterias vulgaris f and several young Solaster endeca and
papposa ; also a gigantic Corymorplia, a hydroid polyp, six inches in
height, and fully half an inch in diameter near the base. We found on
Stellwagen's Bank, in 22-30 fathoms, coarse sand, temperature 4S^° to
50J°, an abundance of Mactra polynema, the hen-clam, Cyprina islandica,
a shell resembling the quahaug, and Glycimeris siliqua, with five sponges.
The Corymorplia was abundant here, and the tangle brought up at a
single haul from 300 to 400 star-fish, mostly Asterias. At night, about
ten miles north of Cape Bace, the tangle was kept over from half past
ten until two o'clock, when it came up loaded with Astrophyton, or
Medusa's-head, and other kinds of star-fish, the temperature being

between 48° and 50°, at a depth of 34 fathoms.
44 f

690 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

But by far the most interesting results were obtained at a distance of
about 20 miles east of Cape Race, in deptbs of 117 and 142 fathoms, with
a bottom temperature of 39° to 43£°, the former (39°) probably the more
accurate determination. Here, in a remarkably tenacious soft blue mud,
we found indications of an intermixture of the abyssal fauna, character-
istic of depths in the North Atlantic, between 100 and 1,000 fathoms, with
a temperature of about 39° Fahrenheit. At the first station examined,
in 142 fathoms, temperature 39° to 42°, a large female Geryon, of a deep-
reddish flesh color, occurred, having more spines on the carapace than
in G. tridens, and with eggs. Associated with this arctic crab occurred
two fragments of a true cup-coral, allied to Cyathopliyllum. On submit-
ting the specimen to Count Pourtales, he at once pronounced it a species
of Deltocyatlms, and, on comparison with specimens of D. Agassizii,
Pourtales,* from depths ranging from 60 to 327 fathoms between Cuba
and Florida, our specimens did not differ specifically. Pourtales re-
marks (page 15) that this coral has been pronounced by Dr. Duncan
identical with the fossil species D. italicus, and, though closely allied,
yet readily distinguished by the costse and other characters. I may
say here that the indications are that the coral was not transported to
this spot. This is the only truly southern form which has occurred so
far north. With the crab and coral occurred Schizaster fragilis and
certain shells and worms.

The other station was ten miles northwest, in 117 fathoms, with the
same soft, tenacious mud, the temperature 394° to 43|°. Here occurred
a smaller Geryon, perhaps a male, and apparently, judging by Wyville
Thomson's figures in his work "The Depths of the Sea" (page 88),
identical with Kroyer's Geryon tridens. With this crab were associated
shells and worms. This day ended our explorations, and at night the
Bache arrived in Salem.

In my work 1 was assisted by Mr. C. Cooke, assistant in the Museum
of the Peabody Academy of Science at Salem. I would also express my
obligations to Captain Howell and the officers of the Bache for the effi-
cient aid they rendered me.

* Illustrated Catalogue of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, iv. Deep Sea Corals.
By L. F. de Pourtales, assistant, United States Coast Survey. 1871.

XXXII.— LIST OF THE MARINE ALGiE OF THE UNITED STATES.

By W. G. Farlow, M. D.

Class ALG^.
Subclass FLORIDE^.

Order EHODOMELE^J
(inc. Laurenciele).

Amansia multifida, Lmx.

Key West; West Indies ; Brazil.
Dasya Gibbesii, Harv.

Key West ; Cuba.

Dasya elegans, Ag. Chenille.

Key West to Cape Cod; Salem, Mass?; Southern Europe; West

Indies.

Dasya ramosissema, Harv.

Key West.
Dasya Harveyi, Ashmead.

Key West.
Dasya mollis, Harv.

Key West ; Cuba.
Dasya mucronata, Harv.

Key West.

Dasya Wurdemanni, Bailey.
Key West.

Dasya Callithamnion, Harv.

San Diego ; Santa Barbara, Cal.

Dasya Tumanowiczi, Gatty.

Key West.
Dasya lophocladqs, Mont.

Key West. i

Dasya plumosa, Bail, and Harv.
Pacific coast.

* The classification adopted is a modification of that given by Thuret in Le Jolis's
Liste des Algues Marines de Cherbourg.

692 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
BOSTRYCHIA MONTAGNEI, Hai'V.

Key West.

BOSTRYCHIA CALAMISTRATA, Mont.

Key West ; West Indies ; Pacific Ocean.

BOSTRYCHIA RIVULARIS, Harv.

Isle of Shoals, N. H., to Florida; Australia.
Bostrychia Tuomeyi, Harv.

Florida ; Pacific Ocean.
BOSTRYCHIA MORITZIANA, Mont.

Florida; Guiana; and the West Indies.

POLYSIPHONIA URCEOLATA, Grev.

New York, northward ; California. North Atlantic and Pacific.
Var. patens, Cape Ann, Mass.; Santa Cruz, Cal. Var. formosa,
New England.

POLYSIPHONIA SENTICULOSA, Harv.

Santa Cruz, Cal.; Vancouver's Island.

POLYSIPHONIA HAVANENSIS, Mont.

Yar. Binneyi, Ag., Key West ; France ; West Indies.

POLYSIPHONIA FERULACEA, Ag.

Key West ; West Indies ; Pacific Ocean ; Australia.

POLYSIPHONIA SUBTILISSIMA, Mont.

Jackson's Ferry, West Point, N. Y. ; Providence, R. I. ; New-
buryport, Mass. ; southward to Guiana.

POLYSIPHONIA SECUNDA, Ag.

Key West ; Southern Europe.

POLYSIPHONIA FRACTA, Ilarv.

Key West.

POLYSIPHONIA ECHINATA, Harv.

Key West.

POLYSIPHONIA HAPALACANTHA, Harv.

Key West.

POLYSIPHONIA GORGONLS!, Harv.

Key West ; Loo Choo Islands.
Polysiphonia Olneyi, Harv. Dough-balls.
Long Island Sound.

Polysiphonia Harveyi, Bail. Nigger-hair.

New York, northward. Yar. arietina, Harv., same limits.
Polysiphonia hirta, Ag.

• Key West ; Mediterranean.

Polysiphonia elongata, Grev. Lobster-claws.

Long Island Souud to Lynn, Mass. ; Europe.
Polysiphonia violacea, Grev.

New York, northward ; Europe.

MARINE ALG2E OF THE UNITED STATES. 693

POLYSIPHONIA FIBRILLOSA, Grev.

Noank, Conn.; Orient Point, L. I. ; Wood's Hole, Mass.; Europe.

POLYSIPHONIA COLLABENS, Ag.

San Diego, Cal.?; Southern Europe.

POLYSIPHONIA VARIEGATA, Ag.

Cape Cod, southward ; Europe.

POLYSIPHONIA PENNATA, Ag.

Southern California ; Southern Europe ; Australia.

POLYSIPHONIA PARASITICA, GrCV.

California ; Rhode Island % ; Europe. Var. dendroidea, Ag., Cali-
fornia ; Chili.

POLYSIPHONIA BAILEYI, Ag.

Pacific coast.
Polysiphonia Pecten-veneris, Harv.

Florida.
Polysiphonia exilis, Harv.

Key West.

Polysiphonia atrorubescens, Grev.

New York to Cape Ann; west coast?; Europe; Africa; Falk-
land Isles.
Polysiphonia bipinnata, Post, and Rupr.

West coast ; North Pacific.
Polysiphonia Woodii, Harv.

West coast.
Polysiphonia nigrescens, Grev.

East and west coasts; Europe.
Polysiphonia verticillata, Harv.

California.

Polysiphonia fastigiata, Grev.

New York, northward ; California ? ; Europe.

Odonthalia aleutica, Ag.

Oregon ; North Pacific.
Odonthalia Lyallii, Harv.

Vancouver's Island.
Odonthalia dentata, Lyngb.

California ; New England ? ; Northern Europe ; Nova Scotia ;
Canada.
Rhodomela Larix, Ag.

Oregon and California ; North Pacific.
Rhodomela floccosa, Ag.

Oregon and California ; North Pacific.
Rhodomela subfusca, Ag.

New York northward. Var. gracilis, same limits. Var. Rochei,
Long Island Sound ; North Atlantic, and Pacific

694 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER 0* FISH AND FISHERIES.
DlGENIA SIMPLEX, Ag.

Key West; Southern Europe ; Indian Ocean ; Red Sea.
Bryothamnion triangulare, Ag.

Key West ; West Indes ; Brazil.
Bryothajvxnion Seaforthii, Ag.

Florida to Brazil.
Alsidium Blodgettii, Harv.

North Carolina and southward.

ACANTHOPHORA THIERII, Lmx.

Florida to Brazil ; Pacific Ocean.

ACANTHOPHORA MUSCOIDES, Ag.

Florida to Brazil ; east coast of Africa.

ACANTHOPHORA DELILEI, LniX.

Florida ; Mediterranean and Bed Seas.

Chondria dasyphylla, Ag.

Cape Cod, southward ; Europe ; Australia.

Chondria striolata, Ag. (C. Baileyana, Mont.).
Cape Cod, southward ; Adriatic Sea.

Chondria tenuissima, Ag.

Long Island Sound ; Europe ; Australia.

Chondria littoralis, Harv.

Wood's Hole, Mass.; Florida ; Mexico.
Chondria atropurpurea, Harv.

Charleston, S. C, and southward ; California.

Chondria nidifica, Harv.

Pacific coast.
Laurencia pinnatifida, Lmx. Pepper-dulse.

California; Europe; Pacific and Indian Oceans and Bed Sea.
Laurencia virgata, Ag.

California ; Cape of Good Hope.
Laurencia obtusa, Lmx.

Florida : California ; common in all tropical seas.
Laurencia implicata, Ag.

Key West ; West Indies.

Laurencia cervicornis, Harv.
Key West.

Laurencia gemmifera, Harv.

Florida.
Laurencia papillosa, Grev.

Florida ; common in all tropical seas.
Laurencia paniculata, Ag.

Key West; Atlantic coast of Spain ; Mediterranean and Adriatic
Seas.

MARINE ALG.E OF THE UNITED STATES. 695

Order CHYLOCLADIEiE.

Chylocladia ovalis, Hook. (Lomentaria, Endl.)

California. Var. Coulteri, Harv., California; Europe.

*? LOMENTARIA SACCATA, J. Ag.

California.

Order SPHiEROCOCCOIDEiE.

Grinnellia Americana, Harv.

Long Island Sound to Norfolk, Va.

Delesseria sinuosa, Linx.

Long Island Sound, northward ; Europe; Arctic Ocean.
Delesseria quercifolia, Bory.

California ; Cape Horn and Antarctic Ocean.

Delesseria alata, Lmx.

Nahant, Mass., northward ; Northern Europe.

Delesseria angustissima, Griff.

Gloucester, Mass. ; Great Britain.

Delesseria Woodii, Ag., Bidrag.
Vancouver's Island.

Delesseria Hypoglossum, Lmx.

Charleston, S. C, and southward ; Europe.

Delesseria tenuifolia, Harv.
Key West.

Delesseria involvens, Harv.
Key West.

Delesseria Leprieurii, Mont.

West Point, N. Y., and southward ; in tropical and subtropical
seas.
Delesseria decipiens, Ag., Bidrag.

West coast.

Nitophyllum punctatum, var. ocellatum, Grev.

Sinithville, N. C. ; Key West; Europe; Tasmania.

Nitophyllum spectable, Eaton, mscr.
California.

NlTOPHYLLUM LACERATUM, Grev.

California; Europe.
Nitophyllum LATissiMUM, Ag., Bidrag.

California.
Nitophyllum AREOLATUM, Eaton, mscr.

California.

Nitophyllum Fryeanum, Harv.
California.

696 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
NlTOPHYLLUM (NeUROGLOSSUM) ANDERSONII, Ag.

California,

NlTOPHYLLUM EUPRECHTIANUM, Ag., Bidrag.

West coast.
Nitophyllum fissum, Ag., Bidrag.

West coast % ; Cape of Good Hope ; Peru.

Calliblephaeis ciliata, Kiitz.

Cape Add, Mass., northward ; Europe.

Gracilaria multipartita, Ag.

East and west coasts; Europe. Var. angustissima, Harv., New
York to Cape Cod.

Gracilaria compressa, Grev.

Key West ; Europe.
Gracilaria cervicornis, Ag.

Key West to Brazil.

Gracilaria confervoides, Grev.

Charleston, S. C, and southward; California; Oregon; Europe;
East and West Indies ; Australia.

Gracilaria armata, Ag.

Key West ; Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas.

Gracilaria divaricata, Harv.

KejT West.
Gracilaria Poitei, Lmx.

Key West ; West Indies.

? Gracilaria dam^cornis, Ag.
Atlantic coast.

Gracilaria? Blodgettii, Harv.

Key West.

Order CORALLINES.

*CORALLINA OFFICINALIS, L.

New York, northward; California and Oregon; Europe; North
Atlantic and Pacific.

CORALLINA SQUAMATA, Ellis and Sol.

California; Europe.

Jania rubens, Lmx.

Key West; San Diego, Cal.j Europe; Cape of Good Hope; Pa-
cific Ocean.

Jania Cubensis, Mont.

Key West; Cuba.
Jania capillacea, Harv.

Key West.

Amphiroa fragillissima, Lmx.
Florida; West Indies.

MARINE ALGiE OF THE UNITED STATES. 697

Amphiroa debilis, Kiitz.

Florida ; West Indies.
Amphiroa Californica, Deeaisue.

West eoast.
Melobesia membranacea, Linx.

East coast; Europe; Australia.
Melobesia farinosa, Lmx.

East coast; Europe; Australia.
Melobesia pustulata, Linx. •

East and west coasts; Europe; Australia.

LlTHOTHAMNION POLYMORPHUM, Aresch.

Eastport, Me.; Europe.

HlLDENBRANDTIA ROSEA, Kiitz.

New England coast; Europe.

Order GELIDIE.E.

Gelidium corneum, Linx.

Florida; California. Var. crinale, Charleston, S. C; New Haven,
Conn. ; Wood's Hole, Mass. ; Portland, Me. Found in almost
all seas.

Gelidium cartilagineum, Grev.

Santa Cruz; San Diego, Cal. ; Cape of Good Hope; Madagascar;
Philippine Islands ; Brazil.

Gelidium Coulteri, Harv.
California.

WURDEMANNIA SETACEA, Harv.

Key West.

EUCHEUMA ISIFORME, Ag.

Key West ; West Indies.
Eucheuma1? ACANTHOCLADUM, Ag. (Chrijsymenia, Harv.)
Key West.

Order HYPNEA

Hypnea musoiformis, Lmx.

Wood's Hole, Mass., and southward; California. In nearly all
temperate and tropical seas.

Hypnea? crinalis, Harv.
California.

Hypnea divaricata, Grev.

Key West ; Gulf of Mexico ; Australia.
Hypnea cornuta, Ag.

Key West ; Pacific Ocean.

698 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Order BHODYMENIE^.

Ehodymenia palmata, Grev. Common dulse.

North Carolina, northward ; west coast?; Europe; Cape Horn, &c.
Ehodymenia Palmetta, Grev.

Halifax, N. S.; Southern California ; Europe. ,
Ehodymenia corallina, Grev.

Southern California; Chili; New Zealand ; Antarctic Ocean.

EUTHORA CRISTATA, Ag.

Nahant, Mass., and ndrthward, common ; dredged off Block
Island, E. I., and off Gay Head, Mass.; Northern Europe.
Plooamium coccineum, Lyngb.

West coast, common ; East coast H ; found in some form in nearly
all seas.
Stenogramma interrtjpta, Mont.

California; Australia; Europe.
Pikea Californica, Harv.

California.
Champia paryula, Harv.

Cape Cod, southward ; Europe.
Lomentaria Baileyana, Farlow (Chylocladia, Harv.).

Cape Cod southward to West Indies.
Lomentaria rosea, Thuret.

Newport. E. I. ; Gay Head, Mass.; Portsmouth, N. H. ; Europe.
Ehabdonia tenera, Ag., Bidrag (Solieria chordalis, Ner. Am. Bor.).

Cape Cod, southward ; West Indies.
Ehabdonia Coulteri, Harv.

California.
Ehabdonia ramosissima, Ag., Bidrag (Chrysymenia, Harv.).

Key West.

?CORDYLECLADIA HUNTH, Harv.

Narragansett Bay.
Cordylecladia? IRREGULARIS, Harv. (Chylocladia rigens, Ag.).
Key West ; West Indies.

CORDYLECLADIA CONFERTA, Ag.

San Diego, Cal. ; Spain ; Algeria.

Order SPONGIOCAEPE^J.

POLYIDES ROTUNDUS, Ag.

New York, northward ; Europe.

Order SQUAMAEIE^E.

Peyssonnelia atro-purpurea, Crouan?.
Key West ; Eastport, Me. ; Europe.

MAEINE ALG^E OF THE UNITED STATES. 699

Order BATRACHOSPERME^E.

Helminthora divaricata, Ag.
Key West; Europe.

Nemalion multifidum, Ag.

Watch Hill, R. I., and northward ; Europe.

SCINAIA FURCELLATA, Bivon.

Newport, R. I. ; Gay Head, Katama, Mass. ; California. Var. un-
dulata, San Diego, Cal. ; Europe. Generally in the warmer seas.

LlAGORA VALIDA, Harv.

Florida.

LlAGORA PINNATA, Harv.

Florida.
LlAGORA LEPROSA, Ag.

Key West ; Gulf of Mexico ; Loo Choo Islands.

Ltagora pulverulenta, Ag.

Key West ; Gulf of Mexico ; Japan.

Liagora farionicolor, Melville.
Key West.

Liagora Cayohuesonica, Melville.

Key West.

Order WRANGELIE^.

Wrangelia penioillata, Ag.

Key West; Southern Europe.
Wrangelia multifida, Ag.

Key West; Europe.

Order GIGARTLNE^.

Phyllophora Brodlei, Ag.

Long Island Sound, northward ; Northern Europe.

Phyllophora membranifolia, Ag.

Long Island Sound and northward ; Northern Europe.
Phyllophora Clevelandii, Farlow.

San Diego, Cal.

Gymnogongrus Norvegicus, Ag. (inc. G. Torreyi, Ag.).

Penobscot Bay; Peak's Island, Me.,; Beverly, Nahaufc, Mass.;
also near New York ; Europe.

Gymnogongrus tenuis, Ag.
California ; West Indies.

Gymnogongrus Griffithsle, Ag.
California; Europe.

Gymnogongrus linearis, Ag.
California.

700 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
AHNFELTIA GIGARTINOIDES, Ag.

West coast.

AHNFELTIA PLICATA, Fr.

New York, northward ; west coast ; Europe.

AHNFELTIA? PINNULATA, Hai'V.

Key West.

Cystoclonium purpurascens, Kiitz.

New York, northward ; Europe.
Callophyllis laciniata, Kiitz.

Cape Heniopeu, N. C. ; California ; Europe.

Callophyllis variegata, Ag.

California ; Peru ; Antarctic Ocean.

Callophyllis obtusifqlia, Ag.

San Diego, Cal. ; Southern Ocean. ,

Callophyllis dtscigera, Ag.

California ; Cape of Good Hope.

Callophyllis ornata, Mont.

California "I ; Auckland Islands.

Callophyllis flabellulata, Harv.

California ; Vancouver's Island.
Constantinea Sitchensis, Post, and Eupr.

Oregon ; Santa Cruz, Cal. ; Alaska.

Gigartina acicularis, Lmx.

Florida ; Europe ; Indian and Southern Ocean.

Gigartina canaliculata, Harv.

West coast.
Gigartina mollis, Bail, and Harv.

Puget Sound.
Gigartina mamillosa, Ag.

Massachusetts Bay, northward ; Oregon ; Santa Cruz, Cal. ;
Europe ; North Atlantic and Pacific.
Gigartina microphylla, Harv.

California.

Gigartina Jardini, Ag., Bidrag.
California.

Gigartina volans, Ag.
West coast % .

Gigartina spinosa, Kiitz.
California.

Gigartina radula, Ag.

Westcoast. Cape of Good Hope; Australia; Auckland Islands;
Var. exasperata, West coast.

MARINE ALG^ OF THE UNITED STATES. 701

GlGARTINA CHAMISSOI, Mout.

California1?; Peru; Brazil.

*Chondeus crispus, Lyngb. Irish moss.

North Carolina ; New York, and northward. Very common.

Chqndrtjs affinis, Harv.
California.

Chondrus canalioulatus, Ag.

California ; west coast of South America.

Ieidjea laminarioides, Bory. (including Iridwa minor and Iridcea
dichotoma).

West coast of North and South America.
Iridwa punicea, Post, and Eupr.

Santa Cruz, Gal.?; Sitka.

Endocladia muricata, Ag.
West coast.

Gloiopeltis furcata, Ag.
Oregon ; North Pacific.

Order GRYPTONEMIE.E.

Cryptonemia crenulata, Ag.
Key West to Brazil.

Cryptonemia lttxurians, Ag.
Key West to Brazil.

Chrysymenia Enteromorpha, Harv.
Key West.

Chrysymenia halymenioides, Harv.
Key West.

Chrysymenia Agardhii, Harv.
Key Wrest.

Chrysymenia ttvaria, Ag.

Key West to Brazil ; Europe.
Halymenia ligulata, Ag.

Key West. Var. Californica; Santa Cruz, Gal.; Europe.

Halymenia Floresia, Ag.
Key West; Europe.

Corynomorpha clavata, Ag., Bidrag (Acrotylus, Harv.).
Key West.

Prionitis lanceolata, Harv.
West coast.

Prionitis Andersonii, Eaton, mscr.
Santa Cruz, Cal.

* SCHIZYMENIA EDULIS, Ag.

Oregon; Europe; Japan.

702 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES
SCHIZYMENIA ? COCCINEA, Harv.

Santa Cruz, Gal.; Vancouver's Island.

Grateloupia Gibbesii, Harv.

Charleston, S. C, and southward.

Grateloupia Cutlerle, Kiitz.
California; Chili.

Grateloupia filicina, Ag.

Florida ; West Indies ; Europe ; Indian Ocean
Nemastoma? Bairdii, Farlow.

Gay Head, Mass.

Order DUMONTIE^E.

Halosaccion Hydrophora, Ag.

West coast.
Halosaccion fucicola, Post, and Rupr.

West coast.
Halosaccion ramentaceum, Ag.

Gloucester, Mass., and northward ; Northern Europe

Catanella pinnata, Harv.
Key West.

Order SPYRIDIE^S.

Spyridia aculeata, Kiitz.

Florida ; Gulf of Mexico ; Europe ; Eed Sea.

Spyridia filamentosa, Harv.

Massachusetts Bay, southward; Europe; all warm seas.

Order CERAMIE^E.

MlCROCLADIA COULTERI, HARV.

West coast.
Microcladia Californica, Farlow.

California.
Microcladia Borealis, Rupr.

West coast.
Centroceras clavulatum, Ag.

Key West ; California. Common in all tropical and subtropical
seas.

Centroceras Eatonianum, Farlow.
West coast.

Ceramium nitens, Ag.

Key West ; West Indies.
Ceramium rubrum, Ag.

Everywhere.

MARINE ALGiE OF THE UNITED STATES. 703

CERAMIUM DESLONGCHAMPSII, Ch.

Nahant, Mass., and northward ; Europe: Tasmania.

Ceramium diapiianum, Roth.

Occasionally found on the New England coast; California;
Europe ; Cape of Good Hope ; Australia.

Ceramium stricttjm, Harv.

New England ; Europe.
Ceramium Youngii, Farlow, mscr.

Canarsie, L. I.
Ceramium tenuissimum, Lyngb.

Key West ; Europe.

Ceramium fastigiatum, Harv.

Southern New England ; Europe.

Ceramium byssoideum, Harv.
Key West.

Ptilota densa, Ag.

Southern California.

Ptilota hypnoides, Harv.
California.

Ptilota asplenioides, Ag.
Oregon, northward.

Ptilota plumosa, Ag.

East and west coasts. Var. JiUcina, west coast. Var. serrata.
New England from Nahant northward ; also northwest coast;
Northern Europe.

Ptilota elegans, Bonnem.

New York, northward ; Europe.

Gloiosiphonia capillaris, Carm.

Long Island Sound to Cape Ann, Mass.; Europe.

Crouania attenuata, J. Ag.

Key West; Europe; Australia.

Halurus equisetifolius, Kiitz.
New York *? ; Europe.

Griffithsia corallina?, Ag.

New York to Gloucester, Mass. ; Europe; Australia.

Callithamnion arbuscula, var. Pacijica, Ag. (0. Pikeanum, Harv.).
California.

Callithamnion tetragonum, Ag.

New York to Cape Cod ; Europe.

Callithamnion Baileyi, Harv.
New York, southward.

Callithamnion ptilophora, Eaton, mscr.
California.

704 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Callithamnion squareulosum, Harv.
California.

Callithamnion Boreeri, Ag.

New York to Nantucket ; Europe.

Callithamnion polyspermum, Ag.

New York, southward ; west coast ; Europe.
Callithamnion byssoideum, Arn.

Nabaut to New York ; Europe.
Callithamnion Diktzije, Hooper.

Long Island Sound.
Callithamnion corymbosum, Ag.

New York, northward ; Europe.

Callithamnion versicolor, Ag., var. seirospermum, Harv.
New York, northward; Europe.

Callithamnion plumula, Lyngb.

Long Branch, N. J., to Gay Head, Mass.; Europe; Southern
Ocean.

Callithamnion heteromorphum, Ag., mscr.
California.

Callithamnion Americanum, Harv.

New York, northward ; Vancouver's Island.
Callithamnion PYLAisiEi, Moat.

Orient, L. I., and northward ; Europe.

Callithamnion floccosum, Ag.

Massachusetts Bay, northward ; Northern Europe. Var. Pacifi-
cum, Harv. Santa Cruz, Cal.

Callithamnium cruciatum, Ag.

New York to Cape Cod ; Europe.

Callithamnion Lejoltsia, Farlow, rascr.
San Diego, Cal.

Callithamnion Turneri, Ag.

New York to Cape Cod; Europe.

Callithamnion Eotiiii, Lyngb.

New England coast; Europe.

f Order POPPHYREvE.

* PORPIIYRA VULGARIS, Ag. Laver.
Everywhere.

BANGIA VEEMICULARIS, Harv.

West coast.

Bangia fuscopurpurea, Lyngb.
East coast ; Europe.

MARINE ALG.E OF THE UNITED STATES. 705

?FLOBIDE^.

INCERTJE SEDIS.

Chantransia Daviesii, Thur.

Gloucester, Gay Head, Mass. ; Europe.

Chantransia secundata, Thur.

Peak's Islaud, Me.
Chantransia virgatula, Thuret.

New York, northward j Europe.
Erythrotrichia ciliaris, Thuret.

Charleston, S. C. ; Europe.
Erythrotrichia ceramicola, Aresch.

Buzzard's Bay, Cape Ann, Mass. ; Portland Harbor, Me.
Goniotrichum elegans, Zanard.

Cotuit Port, Mass.

• • Subclass MELANOSPORiE.

Order DICTYOTEJE.

Halyseris polypodioides, Ag.

North Carolina ; Europe.
Padina pavonia, Lmx. Peacock- s-tail.

East coast from North Carolina southward ; Europe ; in most
warm seas.

ZONARIA LOBATA, Ag.

Key West ; West Indies ; Cape of Good Hope ; Brazil ; Pacific
Ocean.

ZONARIA FLAVA, Ag.

California?; Southern Europe and Northern Africa.

ZONARIA INTERRUPTA, Ag.

California ; Cape of Good Hope ; Australia j New Zealand.

TAONIA ? SCHECEDERI, Ag.

Florida to Brazil.

DlCTYOTA FASCIOLA, Lmx.

Florida ; Mediterranean Sea.

DlCTYOTA DICHOTOMA, D. C.

Charleston, southward ; common in all warm seas.

DlCTYOTA CILIATA, Ag.

Key West ; West Indies.

DlCTYOTA KUNTHII, Ag.

San Diego, Cal. ; Peru ; New Zealand.
45 f

706 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

DlCTYOTA Bartayresiana, Lmx.
Key West ; West Indies.

DlCTYOTA ACUTILOBA, Ag.

Key West?; Sandwich Islands.

Order FUCACE^E.

Sargassum vulgare, Ag.

Atlantic coast, from Cape Cod south ; Atlantic Ocean generally ;
Australia.

Sargassum affine, Ag.

Florida ; West Indies.

Sargassum bacciferum, Ag. Gulf-weed.

Gulf Stream and floating off the southern coast ; Europe ; Indian
and Pacific Oceans; Australia; New Zealand; forming great
masses in what is known as the Sargasso Sea in the Atlantic.

Sargassum filipendula, Ag.

Key West ; Gulf of Mexico.
Sargassum dentifolium, Ag.

Kev West ; lied Sea.
Sargassum Agardianum, Farlow, inscr.

San Diego, Cal.
Sargassum piluliferum, Ag.

Guadeloupe Island, off California ; Japan.

TURBINARIA VULGARIS, Ag.

Key West ; West Indies ; Eed Sea ; China ; Indian Ocean ; Aus-
tralia.

Phyllospora Menziesii, Ag.
Var. glabra, west coast.

Halidrys OS3IUNDACEA, Harv.
West coast.

Fucus fastigiatus, Ag.
West coast.

* Fucus (Ozothallia) nodosus, L. Rock-iceed.

East coast, north of Charleston ; Europe ; North Atlantic.

Fucus distichus, L. (F. filiformis, Gm.).

Marblehead, Mass. ; Europe.
* Fucus furcatus, Ag.

Nahant, Mass., and northward ; California.

FUCUS CERANOIDES, L.

East coast ; Europe.

Fucus Harveyanus, D.c. ne.
Monterey, Cal.

MARINE ALG.E OF THE UNITED STATES. 707

*Fucus vesiculosus, L. Rock-weed.

East coast, north of Charleston ; west coast ; Europe ; North
Atlantic and Pacific; Australia1?.

FUCUS SERRATUS, L.

Newbury port, Mass. ; Nova Scotia ; Europe.

Order PH^OSPOEE^.

Suborder LAMINARIE^E.

•Microcystis pyrifera, Ag. Great kelp of Oregon and. California.
West coast of North and South America ; Australia ; and An-
tarctic Ocean.

Lessonia nigeescens, Bory.

Oregon ; Chili ; southward.

♦Nereocystis Lutkeana, Post, and Eupr. Great bladder-weed.
Monterey, Cal., and northward.

Postelsia palm^foemis, Euprecht. Kakgum-chale.
Santa Cruz, Cal., and northward.

Pterygophora Californioa, Euprecht. Ecliabalba; Mangai.
Santa Cruz, Cal., northward.

♦Alaria esculenta, Grev. Badderlocks. Senicare.

Cape Cod, northward ; Monterey, Cal., northward ; Europe.

Alaria fistulosa, Post, and Eupr.

Northwest coast.
Alaria marginata, Post, and Eupr.

Northwest coast.

Costaria Turneri, Grev.
Northwest coast.

Dictyoneuron Californicum, Euprecht.
Northwest coast.

Laminaria dermatodea, De la Pyl.

Peak's Island, Me.; Eastport, Me. ; Newfoundland; Katntschatka;
Vancouver's Island.

♦Laminaria saccarhina, Lmx. DeviVs apron ; Kelp.

New York, northward ; west coast; Europe; Japan?.
♦Laminaria longicruris, De la Pyl. DeviVs Apron; Kelp.

New England, northward; Northern Europe; North Atlantic and
Pacific.

♦Laminaria flexicaulis, Le Jolis. DeviVs apron; Kelp.

New England ; Europe ; California?.
♦Laminaria platymeris, De la Pyl.

New England?; Newfoundland.

708 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

AG ARUM Tueneei, Post, and Eupr. Sea-colander.
Nahant, Mass., northward; northwest coast.

Thalassiophyllum Clathrus, Post, and Eupr.
Northwest coast.

Subokder SPOROCHNE.&.

Stilophora ehizodes, Ag.

Long Island and Vineyard Sounds ; Europe ; Tasmania ; South-
ern Ocean.

Stilophoea papillosa, Ag.

Chesapeake Bay ; Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas.
Steiaeia attenuata, Grev.

Flushing, L. I. ; Europe.

Suborder ASPEROCOCCE&,
ASPEEOCOCCUS COMPEESSUS, Griff.

Gloucester, Mass.; Europe.
Asperoooccus sinuosus, Bory.

Key West; San Diego, Cal.; Southern Europe ; tropical and sub-
tropical oceans generally.

Aspeeococcus echinatus, Grev.
New England coast ; Europe.

Hydboclatheus cancellatus, Bory.

Florida to Brazil ; Mauritius ; Australia.

Ealfsia verrucosa, Aresch.

Nabant, northward ; Europe.

Suborder CHORDARIE^.

Chorda filum, Stack.

New York, northward; Europe.

Chordaria flagelliformis, Ag.

New York, northward; Europe; North Atlantic and Pacific;
Cape of Good Hope; Chili.

Chordaria abietina, Eupr.

Santa Cruz, Cal., northward.

Choedaeia divaeicata, Ag.

New York to Gloucester, Mass. ; Europe.

Castagnea vieescens, Thuret.

Wood's Hole, Gloucester, Mass. ; Portland, Me. ; Sand Key,
Fla.
Castagnea Zoster^e, Thuret.

Woods Hole, Mass. ; Europe.

Liebmannia Leyeillei, Ag.
West coast ; Europe.

MARINE ALG.E OF THE UNITED STATES. 709

Suborder MYRIONEMEJ3.

*

Leatfiesia tubertformis, Gray.

New York, northward ; Europe.

Elachista fucicola, Fr.

New England : Europe.

Myrionema strangulans, Grev.

Fisher's Island, N. Y.; Wood's Hole, Mass.; probably every-
where.
Myrionema Leclancherii, Harv.

Gay Head, Mass.

Suborder ARTHEOCLADIE^.

Arthrocladia villosa, Duby.
Wilmington, ST. C. ; Europe.

Suborder SPHACELARIE^.

Cladostephus spongiosus, Ag.

New England coast; Europe; Cape of Good Hope; Australia;
Cape Horn, &e.

Cladostephus vertictllatus, Ag.

New England coast ; Europe.
Sphacelaria fusca, Ag.

On Ampliiroa Californica, San Diego, Cal. ; England.
Sphacelaria radicans, Ag.

New England coast; Europe.
Sphacelaria cirrhosa, Ag.

New York, northward ; Europe.

Suborer ECTOCARPE.2E.

Myriotrichia filiformis, Harv.

Penobscot Bay ; Ehode Island ; Europe.

ECTOCARPUS BRACHIATUS, Harv.

Boston, northward ; Europe.

Ectocarpus firmus, Ag. (E. UttoraUs, Harv.).

New England coast ? ; Europe.
Ectocarpus Farlowii, Thuret.

Peak's Island, Me. ; Marblehead, Mass.

Ectocarpus longifructus, Harv.
Penobscot Bay.

Ectocarpus siliculosus, Lyngb.

Charleston, S. C, northward ; Europe ; Australia.

Ectocarpus amphibius, Harv.
New York ; Great Britain.

710 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Ectocarpus viridis, Harv.

Charleston, S. C, and uorthward.
Ectocarpus lutosus, Harv

Greenport, L. I.

Ectocarpus tomentosus, Lyngb.

Boston, northward ; Europe 5 Cape Horn.

Ectocarpus fasciculatus, Harv.
New England coast ; Europe.

Ectocarpus granulosus, Ag.

Boston Harbor ; Santa Cruz, Cal. ; Europe.

Ectocarpus Durkeei, Harv.

Portsmouth, N. H. ; Woodrs Hole, Mass. ?

Ectocarpus Mitchellje, Harv.
Nantucket.

Ectocarpus Hooperi, Harv.

Greenport, L. I.
Ectocarpus Dietzl^:, Harv.

Greenport, L. I.

Suborder DICTYOSIPHONKffl.
DlCTYOSIPHON FCENICULACBUS, Grev.

Long Island Sound, northward ; Europe.

Suborder DESMARESTIEJ3.
Desmarestia aculeata, Lmx.

New York, northward ; Europe; Kamtscbatka.
Desmarestia viridis, Lmx.

New York, northward ; Europe; North Pacific; southern part of
South America ; Kerguelen's Land, &c.

Desmarestia ligulata, Lmx.

Monterey, Cal., northward ; Europe ; Cape Horn ; Cape of Good
Hope; Australia.

Desmarestia latifrons, Kiitz.
Santa Cruz, Cal.

Suborder PUNCTARIE^E.

PUNCTARIA LAT1FOLIA, Grev.

New York, northward. Var. Zosterce, Le Jolis, same limits; Eu-
rope.

PUNCTARIA PLANTAGINEA, Grev.

New England coast ; Europe.

Suborder SCYTOSIPHONE.E.

Phyllitis Fascia, Ktz.

New York, northward ; Europe ; Cape Horn, &c.

SCYTOSIPHON LOMENTARIUS, Ag.

New York, northward; California; Europe; very generally
diffused all over the world.

MARINE ALG.E OF THE UNITED STATES. 711

Subclass CHLOROSPOR^.

Order SIPHONED.

Caulerpa prolifera, Lmx.

Florida ; Mediterranean Sea.

Caulerpa crassifolia, Ag., var. Mexi'cana.
Florida ; West Indies.

Caulerpa plumaris, Ag.

Florida; West Indies; generally in the warmer seas.

Caulerpa Ashmeadii, Harv.
Key West.

Caulerpa ericifolia, Ag.

Florida ; West Indies.
Caulerpa cupressoides, Ag.

Key West ; West Indies.

Caulerpa lanuginosa, Ag.
Key West.

Caulerpa Paspaloides, Bory.
Florida to Brazil.

Caulerpa clavifera, Ag.

Florida ; in all warm seas.

Halimeda Opuntia, Lmx.

Florida ; in most warm seas.

Halimeda incrassata, Lmx.
Florida; West Indies.

Halimeda tuna, Lmx.

Florida ; Mediterranean Sea ; Pacific Ocean.

Halimeda tridens, Lmx.

Key West ; West Indies.

Udotea flabellata, Lmx.

Key West ; West Indies.
Odotea cong-lutinata, Lmx.

Key West ; West Indies.
C odium tomentosum, Stack.

Florida; west coast; Europe; in all tropical and subtropical
seas.
Chlorodesmis ? Vaucherleformis, Harv.

Key West.

Bryopsis plumosa, Lmx.

Whole eastern coast ; nearly all temperate oceans.

712 KEPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

BRYorsis HYPNOIDES, Lmx.

Key West; Europe; warmer seas generally.

Vaucheria piloboloides, Thuret.
Wood's Hole, Mass. % ; Europe.

Order DASYCLADE^E.

Dasycladus ocgidentalis, Harv.
Florida ; West Id dies.

.Dasycladus clav^eformis, Ag.

Key West ; West Indies ; Mediterranean.

ACETABULARIA CRENULATA, Lmx.

Florida and West Indies.

Cymopolia barbata, Lmx.

Key West ; West Indies.

Order YALOXIEJB.

Cham^edoris anntjlata, Mont.

Key West ; West Indies ; Mauritius.

Penicilltjs dumetosus, Dne.
Florida; West Indies..

Penicilltjs capitattjs, Lmx. MermaiiPs shaving-brash.

Florida ; West Indies.
Penicilltjs Phgenix, Lmk.

Florida ; West Indies.

Blodgettia 1 conferyoides, Harv.

Key West ; West Indies.
Anadyomene flaeellata, Lmx.

Key West ; all tropical seas.

DlCTYOSPHJERIA FAVULOSA, Dne.

Key West; all tropical seas.

ASCOTHAMNION INTRICATUM, Kiltz.

Key West; Mediterranean.

Order ZOOSPOBE^E.

Enteromorpha intestinalis, Link.

Everywhere.
Enteromorpha compressa, Grev.

Everywhere.
Enteromorpha clathrata, Grev.

New England coast; west coast; Europe.

* Olva latissima, Linn. Sea-lettuce.
Everywhere.

MARINE ALG.E OF THE UNITED STATES. 713

Ulva lactuca, Linn.

With the last, but not so common.

Ulva fasciata, Delile.
California.

Cladophora repens, Ag.

Key West ; Europe.
Cladophora membranacea, Ag.

Key West; Mediterranean.

Cladophora rupestris, L.

New York, northward ; Europe.

Cladophora cartilaginea, Rupr.

California.
Cladophora arcta, Dillw.

New York, northward ; Europe.

Cladophora lanosa, Roth.
Boston ? ; Europe.

Cladophora uncialis, Fl. Dan.
New England coast ; Europe.

Cladophora glaucescens, Griff.

Charleston, S. C, northward ; Europe.

Cladophora flexuosa, Griff.

New England coast; Europe.

Cladophora refracta, Roth.

Charleston, S. C, northward ; Europe.

Cladophora Morrisijs, Harv.
Elsinborough, Del.

Cladophora albida, Huds.

New York and New Jersey ; Europe.

Cladophora Rudolphiana, Ag.

Jackson's Ferry, N. Y. ; Europe.

Cladophora gracilis, Griff.

Beesley's Point, N. J. ; Rhode Island ;• Nahant, Mass.: Europe;
Australia.
Cladophora brachyclados, Mont.

Texas.
Cladophora ltjteola, Harv.

Key West ; Cuba.
Cladophora l^tevirens, Dillw.

New York Bay; Boston Bay; California; Europe.

Cladophora diffusa, Harv.
New York !.

Cladophora fraota, Fl. Dan.

Eastern coast ; in fresh and brackish water all over the world.

714 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Ch^tomorpha Picquotiana, Mont.

New York, northward.
Ch^tomorpha melagonium, Web. and Mohr.

Boston Harbor, northward ; Europe.

OH^TOMORrHA ^IREA, Dillw.

East coast ; Europe ; North Pacific ; Australia.

Chjetomorpha Olneyi, Harv.
Rbode Island.

CH^ETOMORPHA L0NG1ARTICULATA, Harv.

Massachusetts and Ebode Island.

Ch^tomorpha sutoria, Berk.

Stonington, Conn. 5 Europe.

Ch^tomorpha erachygona, Harv.

Key West.
Ch^etomorpha tortuosa, Dillw.

Nahant, Mass., northward; Europe.
HORMOTRICHUM YOUNGANUM, Dillw.

New England coast ; Europe; Northern Atl a u tic and Pacific

HORMOTRICHUM Carmichaelh, Harv.
Boston i

Order CYANOPHYCE^.

Suborder OSCILLARIEiE.

Lyngbya majuscula, Harv.

Cape Cod, southward; Europe; Pacific Ocean, &c.
Lyngbya ferruginea, Ag.

New England coast ; Europe.

Lyngbya luteo-fusca, Ag. (inc. L.fulva, Harv.).

Stonington, Conn. ; Noauk, Conn.
Lyngbya nigrescens, Harv.

Peconic Bay, L. I.

Lyngbya confervoides, Ag.

Charleston, S. C. ; Europe.

Lyngbya pusilla, Harv.

Sullivan's Islands, S. C.
Lyngbya hyalina, Harv.

Key West.
Calothrix confervicola, Ag.

Everywhere.

Calothrix scopulorum, Ag.
Everywhere.

Calothrix vivipara, Harv.
Seaconuet Point, R. I.

MARINE ALG^ OF THE UNITED STATES. 715

Calothrix pilosa, Harv.

Key West.
Calothrix dura, Harv.

Key West.
Microcoleus corymbosus, Harv.

Key West.

Suborder NOSTOCHINE.E.

Sph^erozyga Carmichaelii, Harv.

Noank, Conn. ; Wood's Hole, Mass. ; Europe.

Suborder RIVULARIE^E.

ElVULARIA ATRA, Eotll.

New England ; Europe.
Eivularia plicata, Carni.

Cobasset Narrows, Mass.; Europe.

Order PALMELLE^.

Cryptocoocus roseus, Kiitz.
New England; Europe.

addenda.*

LlTHOTHAMNION FASCICULATUM, Aresch.

Eobbiustown, Me. ; Europe.

AMPHIROA NODULOSA, Kiitz.

San Diego, Cal. ; Venezuela.

Griffithsia opuntioides, J. Ag.l
Santa Cruz, Cal.

Petrocelis cruenta, Ag. i

Nabant, Mass. ; Eastport, Me. ; Europe.
Fucus platycarpus, Tburet.

Eastport, Me. ; Europe.

Laminaria Andersonii, Eaton, mscr.
Santa Cruz, Cal.

Mesogloia Andersonii, Farlow, mscr.
Santa Cruz, Cal.

Ealfsia clavata, Crouau.
Eastport, Me. ; Europe.

Spirulina tenuissima, Kiitz.
Eastport, Me. ; Europe.

ElVULARIA NITIDA, Ag.l

Wood's Hole, Mass.
Protococous crepidinum:, Thuret.
Eastport, Me.

716 -REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AMD FISHERIES.

LIST OF THE PEINCIPAL USEFUL SEA-WEEDS OCCUBBING
ON THE UNITED STATES COAST.

USED AS FOOD.

1. Chondrus crispus, Lyngb., commonly called Irish moss. Is abun-

dant on tbe New England coast, particularly to tbe north of Cape
Cod, growing just below low-water mark. It is gathered in large
quantities at Hingham, Mass., and sold for making blanc mange,
puddings, and sea-moss farine. It is also used by brewers for clar-
ifying, and by calico-printers.

2. Schizymenia EDULis, Ag. Found on the west coast; is eaten in

Europe.

3. Bhodymenia palmata, Grew Common dulse. Sold rough-dried in

the seaport towns of the Northern States; principally eaten by
sailors and children. That found in our markets is generally
imported from the British provinces, although the plant is very
common in New England.

4. Porphyra vulgaris, Ag. Laver. Eaten stewed in some parts of

Europe. Imported from China by the Chinese living in this coun-
try, even by those as far east as Massachusetts, although rhe plant
is common on the Massachusetts shore.
o. Alaria esculenta, Grev. .Common on the New England coast north
of Cape Cod. Is eaten in Scotland, but not in the United States.
No doubt, Eucheuma isiforme of Key West, Gigartina mammil-
losa, often gathered by mistake for the true Irish moss, the Californian
species of Chondrus, and some of the species of Gracilaria are quite
as good for culinary purposes as the Irish moss.

Ulya latissima, L., sea-lettuce, is used by owners of aquaria for feed-
ing some of the marine animals, particularly Mollusca.

USED AS FERTILIZERS.

The larger dark-colored sea-weeds are roughly distinguished by the
inhabitants of the shore as rocJe-iceeds, or those furnished with small
bladders or snappers, and Icelp. The rock-weed, of New England is
composed almost entirely of three species of Fucus, F. vesiculosus,
F. nodosus, and F. furcatus. The Jcelp of New England is composed
of the Deri's aprons, species of Laminaria, the sea-colander, Agarum
Turneri, and Alaria esculenta. The rock-weeds and kelp are all
useful for manure, and are either scattered over the land and allowed
to rot, or else manufactured together with other substances into mar-
ketable fertilizers.

The red sea-weed, Polysiphonia Haryeyi, is said, at times, to be
washed ashore in Peconic Bay in such quantities that it is used as ma-
nure.

MAEINE ALG^ OF THE UNITED STATES. 717

USED FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF IODINE.

The rock-weeds' and kelp furnish nearly all the iodine of commerce.
The largest manufactories of iodine are in Scotland, where use is made
of the same species of JFucus and Laminaria as are common on the
New England coast.

THE GREAT KELP OF CALIFORNIA.

Macrocystis pyrifera forms entangled masses, which serve as
natural breakwaters on the exposed portion of the California coast.
The leaf-bladders of the same plant are used by sailors in high southern
latitudes for rolling up into cigarettes.

The very long slender stems of Nereocystis Lutkeana, the Great
bladder -weed, of the west coast, are used as fish-lines by the Indians of
the Northwest.

The rough-dried stems of Laminaria saccarhina, L. longicruris,
L. flexicaulis, and other large species of Laminaria, under the name
of Artificial staghorn, are used for making handles to knives, paper-cut-
ters, and other ornamental purposes. At one time, an attempt was made
to establish a manufactory of buttons out of dried Laminaria stems at
Marblehead ; but the attempt was given up, as the buttons did not bear
washing.

The dry stems of the Laminariae, particularly the digitate species, as
L. flexicaulis, are used by surgical-instrument makers in the manu-
facture of sponge-tents.

Corallina officinalis, L., was formerly used in medicine as a tonic.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

Page.

Acarithophora 4

Acetabularia 22

Acrotylus 11

Agaruni 18

Ahnfeltia 10

Alaria 17

Alsidruni 4

Amausia 1

Amphiroa 6,25

Anadyomene 22

Arthrocladia 19

Arthrocladieae 19

Ascotharnnion 22

Asperococcese 18

Asperococcus 18

Bangia... 14

Batrachospermeas ... 9

Blodgettia 22

Bostrychia 2

Bryopsi8 21

Bryothamcion 4

Calliblepharis C

Callitbamnion 13

Callophyllis 10

Calothrix 24

Castagnea 18

Catanella 12

Caulerpa 21

Centroceras 12

Ceramieae 12

Ceraminm 12

Cbaetomorpha .. 24

Cbaniaedoria 22

Champia 8

Cbantransia 15

Chlorodesmis 21

Chlorosporae 21

Chondria 4

Cbondrus 11

Chorda 18

Cbordaria 18

Chordarieae 18

Chrysymenia 7, 8, 1 1

Cbylocladia 5,8

ChylocladieaB 5

Cladophora 23

Cladostephns 19

Codinm 21

Constan tinea 10

Corallina 6

Coralline® C

Page,

Cordylecladia 8

Corynojcorpha 11

Costaria 17

Cronania 13

Cryptococcns 25

Cryptonemia 11

Cryptonetaieae 11

Cyanophyceas 24

Cympolia 22

CystoeloniiiLQ 10

Dasya 1

Dasycladieas 22

Dasycladus . . 22

Delesseria 5

Desmarestia 20

Desmarestiens 20

Dietyoneuron 17

Dictyosiphon 20

Eictyosiphoneae 20

Dictyosphasria 22

Dictyota 15

Dictyoteae 15

Digenia 4

Dumontieas 12

Ectocarpeae 19

Ectocarpus 19

Elachista 19

Endoeladia 11

Enteromorpha 22

Erythrotrichia 15

Enchenma 7

Euthora 8

Elorideae 1

Florideae incertae

6edis 15

Fncaceas 1C

Fncns 16,25

GelidieaB 7

Golidin-m 7

Gigartica 10

Gigarticeae 9

Gloiopeltis 11

Gloiosipboaia 13

Gouiotrichum 15

Graeilaria 6

Gratelonpia 12

Griffithsia 13,25

Grinnellia 5

GymnogoDgrus 9

Halidrys 16

Halimeda 21

Page.

Kalosacciou 12

Halurns 13

Halynienia 11

Halyseris 15

Helmintbora 9

Hildenbrandtia 7

Hormotricbuin 24

Hydroclatbrus 18

Hypnea 7

Hypaeae 7

Iridsea 11

Jania 6

Lamicaria 17, 25

Laminariea?. 17

Lanrencia 4

Lanreneieaa 1

Lt.;.thesia 19

Lessouia 17

Liagora 9

Liebrnannia 18

Litbotbamnion 7, 25

Lomeiitaria 5, 8

Lycgbeya 24

Macrocystis 17

Melauosporas 15

Melobesia 7

Mesogloia 25

Microcladia 12

ilicrocoleus 25

Myrionema 19

Myrionemeas 19

Myriotricbia 19

Nemalion 9

Nemastoma 12

Ner. ocystis 17

Neuroglossum 6

Nitopbyllnm 5

Nostocbineae 25

Odonthalia 3

Osciilarieae 24

Padina 15

Palmelleae 25

Penicillus 22

Petroeelis 25

Peyesoiinelia 8

PbaeosporeaB 17

Pbyllitis 20

Pbyllophora 9

Pbyllospora 16

Pikea 8

Plocamium 8

Page.

Polyides 8

Polysipbouia 2

Porpbyra 14

Porpbyreas 14

Postelsia 17

Prionitis 11

Protococcus 25

Pterygophora 17

Ptilota 13

Pmictaria 20

Punctarieas 20

Kalfsia IS, 25

KhabdoDia 8

Kbodomela 3

Ebodomeleas 1

Ebodymenia 8

Ebodymeniea3 8

Rivitlaria 25

Eivularieae 25

Sargassuiii 16

Scbizymeaia 11

Scinaia 9

Scytosipbon 20

Scytosipboneae 20

Sipboneas 21

Solieria 8

Sphacelaria 19

SpbacelarieaB 19

Spbasrococooidea3 . 5

Spbasrozyga 25

Spirulina 25

Spongiocarpeae 8

Sporocbneas 18

Spyridia 12

Spyridieas 12

Squamarieas 8

Stenograruma 8

Stilopbora 18

Striaria 18

Taonia 15

Thalassiphyllum. 18

Turbicaria 16

Valonieae 22

Vaucheria 22

Udotea 21

tTlva 22

^Vrangelia 9

"W rangelieae 9

"Wurdemannia 7

Zonaria 15

Zocisporeae 22

XXXIII.— LECTURE ON THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION AND
THE FECUNDATION OF FISHES AND ESPECIALLY OF EELS.*

By Dr. Syrski.

INTRODUCTION.

The subject which I propose to speak of on this occasion is " On the
organs of reproduction of fishes, and especially of eels", a subject belong-
ing to zoology.

Every one knows what this word means, and its derivation is quite
clear, viz, from the Greek word "zoowP, a living being, an animal,
and " logos ", a word, a rational discourse. Any further definition of
this branch of natural science might therefore seem superfluous. And
still we hear people call " zoology " what is taught in the lower classes of
our " real-schools " as well as what is studied in the higher courses of the
university. Most people understand by this name the description of the
external forms of animals. In general, by zoology is meant a descrip-
tion of animals.

In the first place, it is only an exposition of some zoological data ; in
the second place, it is the expression of what is known of the inner life oi
animals during a certain given period, and indicates a simple period in
the development of zoology, the standard of the first and last develop-
ment, L e., the genealogical as well as philogenetic and individual develop-
ment of animals, the conformity of their outer forms to their inner organi-
zation, of their functions, of the mutual relations between them and the rest
of nature, and finally the manner in which man makes use of them. Zo-
ology therefore embraces soogeny, treating of the origin of animals; philo
geny, i e., the development of the species ; ontogeny, also called embry-
ology, i. e.,the development of the individual being; morphology, which
treats of the form ; anatomy, which relates to structure ; physiology, which
concerns itself with functions, and which, in a wider sense, also comprises
ontogeny, the geographical distribution of animals, and their uses.

The classification of animals according to their affinities, being noth-
ing but the result of a knowledge of the animals, must therefore natur-
ally be modified as this knowledge increases.

Some also comprise zoology together with botany, mineralogy, geoh
ogy, paleontology, in some cases even geography, under the common
name natural history, only applying the designation natural science to

* Degli organi della riproduzione e della fecondazione dei pesci ed in inspecialit&
delle anguille, in Bollettino della Sociela Adriatica di Scienze naturali in Trieste, No.
1, pp. 10-32, December, 1874. Trieste, 1875.

720 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

chemistry, physics, and astronomy. But the objects of the first, which
consist of organic and inorganic forms and vital phenomena, being noth-
ing but the results of chemico-physical forces, also properly belong to
the domain of natural science. My lecture to-day will be confined to
the description of the organs of reproduction in fish, in so far as relates
to anatomy and in part to physiology.

THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION AND FECUNDATION IN FISH IN

GENERAL.

The organs of reproduction in nearly all fish are distributed between
two individuals, in which the sexes are separate, viz, female and male.
So far we know only three species of hermaphrodites, in which the male
and female organs are found united in one and the same individual.
These hermaphrodites are the well-known " Perga comune" (Serranus
scriba), " Perga dahnata" (Serra?ms cabrilla), and the " Sacchetto" (Ser-
ranus hepatus).*

There are three typical forms of the female organs, or ovaries, in fish.

Figl.- Fig. 2.

d.

e.
f

J-
k.

Fig. 2. Ovaries, seen from the right side of the
abdomen.

a. Abdominal wall.

b. Dorsal wall.

c. Left ovary.

d. Intestine.

e. Urinary bladder.
/. Anus.

g. Genital orifice, with its outlet in the-
ft. Urethral orifice.

Fig. 1. Ovaries ivilh oviducts, seen from below.

a. (Esophagus, front part.

b. Peritonasuni.

c. Inner opening, common to the two

oviducts.

(Esophagus, rear part.

Left ovary.

Oviduct, front part.
g. Glandula of the oviduct.
h. Uterine part of the oviduct.

Intestine, partly split open lengthwise.

Urinary bladder.

Separate outer openings of the ovi-
ducts.
I. Urethral papilla,
m. Outlet of the urethra.

The first form (fig. 1), peculiar to the plagiostomes, among which we
mention the " pesci-cani " (dog-fish, or Mustelus), the" gatte" (Scyllium),

* Hermaphroditism also occurs in the genus Lutjanus or Ocyurua, Poey having dis-
covered a hermaphrodite of his Ocyurua ambiguus. — (T. G.)

SYRSKI ON THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION OF FISHES. 721

"squsene" (Squatina), "tremoli" (cramp-fish, or Torpedo), "rase" (ray, or
Raja), consists of one or two masses of eggs inclosed in a cellular tissue
which resembles that of the ovaries of birds. The eggs, when loosened
from the ovary in the abdominal cavity, enter two tubes, placed later-
ally, called the oviducts, across their inner, common orifice ; and in some
species, such as the majority of the dog-fishes (Mustelus), the cramp-
fish (Torpedo), &c, develop there till they become perfect animals, while
in others the eggs are surrounded by a solid horny shell, and their devel-
opment is completed in the water. The oviducts debouch in the termi-
nal part of the intestine.

The second form (fig. 2), which is the most common among fish, is
found in nearly all osseous fishes, and consists of two sacs (one in the
"girai," &c), uniting toward the posterior end in a single oviduct, which
discharges outside behind the anus. Of a similar form are also the ova-
ries of the hermaphrodites, so far known (fig. 3), in the parietes of which
are found the spermatic organs, and of which the vasa deferentia dis-
charge into the orifice of the oviduct. The ova contained in such sacs
taken from the " vol pine" and the " branzini" during the spawning-season
are sold by our fishermen under the name of "Bottarga ".

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 3. Hermaphrodite organs.

a. Abdominal wall.

b. Dorsal wall.

c. Left ovary.

d. Left testicle.

e. Abdominal commissure.
/. Dorsal commissure.

ff. Intestine.

h. Urin?,ry bladder.

i. Anus.

Genital orifice.

Urethral orifice.

J-
k.

Fig. 4. Ovaries.

a. Eight ovary.

b. Left ovary.

c. Intestine.

d. Part of the abdominal wall.

e. Urinary bladder.
/. Anus.

g. Genital orifice.
h. Urethral orifice.

In nearly all fish (except the "scarpene," &c), these sacs have on their

inner surface leaflets, placed crosswise or lengthwise, and containing the

eggs by thousands, which increase in number and size during the spawn-

and distend the ovarian sacs.
46 f

ing-season,

722 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

In some other fishes, the ovaries resemble two ribbons (fig. 4), more or
less twisted, running along both sides of the intestine to the dorsal wall
of the abdominal cavity, as in the sturgeons, salmons, and also in the
eels. The ripe egg, when it separates from the ovary in the abdominal
cavity, passes through a hole which opens on the outside behind the
anus.

The male organs of fish, or spermatic organs, commonly called milts
[testicles,] which produce the sperm — i. e., a fluid containing small organic
bodies, which, moving about, penetrate the egg, impregnate it, and start
the development of the embryo — are likewise of different forms.

In the " pesci-cani " (dog-fish7 i. e., Mustelus), the "rase " (ray, i. e.,
Raja), &c, the male organs resemble two thin laminae (fig. 5) elongated,
twisted, and partly lobate, composed of partitions, from which small
tubes start, which unite and compose a somewhat larger tube, terminat-
ing in the right as well as the left side in a canal, which serves for the
emission of the sperm.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 5. Testicles.

a. Left testicle.

b. Vasa efferentia.

c. Left epididymis.

d. Deferent canal.

e. Intestine.

/. Urinary bladder.

cj. Left seminal vesicle.

h. Opening of the deferent canals.

i. Urethral orifice.
j. Cloaca.

Fig. 6. Testicles.

a. Abdominal wall.

b. Dorsal wall.

c. Left testicle.

d. Left deferent canal.

e. Intestine.

/. Urinary bladder.
g. Anus.
■' i. Genital orifice.
j. Urethral orifice.

In the greater number of osseous Jish, the spermatic organs consist of
two elongated bodies (fig. G), more or less triangular, or in the form of
thin laminae, composed of compartments, which, beginning on the outer
surface, converge toward the interior of the organ, giving rise to a
canal called " vas deferens", which in many fishes consists of a net-work of
conduits; which " vasa", those of the opposite sides uniting, form a
single excretory canal, which debouches in many fish first in the urethra,
usually on a small papilla placed behind the anus.

Fig. 7.

Pig. 8.

Fig. 8. Young transparent egg.

a. Yolk.

b. Germinative vesicle.
e. Germinative dot.

Fig. 9.

SYESKI ON THE OEGANS OF EEPEODUCTION OF FISHES. 723

In other fishes, the spermatic organs are composed of lobes united by
means of vasa deferentia.

In the male eel,
these lobes form two
lateral rows (fig. 7),
extending nearly
the whole length of
the abdominal
cavity.

The eggs of fish
(like those of other
animals) are, in the
beginning of their
development, of mi-
croscopic size, and
consist of a trans-
parent yolk, which
incloses the germi-
nal cell (fig. 8). In
the state of matur-
ity, however, they
differ considerably
in size, and in some cases, though rarely, in form, as to their contents,
and in their covering. The mature eggs of the "pesci-cani" (dog-fish),

the " tremoli" (Torpedo), &c, which are as large
as hen or goose eggs, consist of a yellow yolk in-
closed in a membrane, and a germinative disk,
measuring about three millimeters in diameter,
placed on the surface of the yolk under the
membrane, and which contains the germinative
cell (fig. 9). From the disk of the fecundated egg
is formed the embryo, to which the yolk serves
as food.

When the egg has entered the oviduct, it be-
comes covered with a layer of gelatinous matter,
and in the agatte" (Scyllium), "rase" (Raja),

Fig. 7. Testicles.

a. Eight testicle.

b. Left testicle.

c. Deferent canal.

d. Intestine.

e. Seminal pouch.

/. Part of the abdominal wall

g. Anns.

h. Uro-genital orifice.

i. Urinary bladder.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 9. Egg.

a. Yolk.

b. Germinative vesicle.

c. Germinative dot.

&c.j also with a solid horny case, produced by
the glands of the oviduct (fig. 10).

The mature eggs of osseous fish (fig. 11) are
about one to six millimeters in diameter, and
sometimes even less than one. When they are
half-matured, they are of a yellow or white

t. Gelatinous matter , , , ., ,-, -,

surrounding the color ; and when quite mature, they are almost

yolk in the same

manner as the white transparent.

of the egg in birds' _,. „ „ , , ., , .,, .

eggs. The sperm of fish, commonly called milt, is a

thick, white liquid, containing innumerable small spermatic bodies, or

Fig. 10. Egg.

a. Corner of the shell.
6. Horney shell of the

egg.
e. Yolk of the egg or

nutrive yolk.
d. Germinative disk, or

yolk of evolution.

724 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

spermatozoa, formiugthe essential part of the sperm, and moving about
when in a fresh condition. They consist of an anterior thicker part, the
so-called head, and a more attenuated part, or tail.

The spermatic corpuscules vary both in size and shape. In the
" pesci-cani" (Mustelus), the " rase " (Raja), &c, they are larger, with the
head more or less fusiform, and the tail more or less spiral (fig. 12).

In the osseous fishes, the spermatic corpuscules are, as a general rule,
smaller, with the head rounder, and the tail quite attenuated and fili-
form (fig. 13).

Pis. 11.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 11. Eipc egg of the Pike (E.?0x
lucius), seen from above.

a. Nutritive yolk.

b. Germinative disk.

Fig. 13. Spermatic corpuscle.

a. Head nearly round.

b. Filiform tail.

Fig. 12. Spermatic corpuscle.

a. The elongated head.

b. The spiral-formed tail.
These corpuscles exe-
cute rotary move-

ments 'with their
spiral part, while
the other part has a
trembling, vibrat-
ing, and darting
motion.

The fecundation of the egg consists in the entry of the spermatic cor-
puscules into the egg (fig. 14), and in the production of a division of the
germinative disk, which phenomenon is called the process of segmenta-
tion, or furrowing (fig. 15), followed by a series of successive changes,
of which the final result is the embryo, which, feeding on the yolk,
gradually develops into the perfect fish.

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 15. Egg after fecundation, during the period
of segmentation, or sulcation, of the
germinative disk.

„ _ a. Nutritive volk.

Fig. 14. Ripe transparent egg of the Rayno 6> Germinative disk, or yolk of evolu-

( Trc5HJcr=TRACHiNUS kadiatus), with ti0Dj divided into four segments.

spermatic corpuscles.

a. Yolk.

b. Lump of fat.

c. Supermatic corpuscles.

The fecundation of the egg is effected in the " pesci-cani " (3iustehis)
and other viviparous species inside the body of the animal, while in
the great majority of fish it takes place outside the body in the water,
where the male fish, during the spawning-season, pursues the female,
squirting his sperm over the eggs ; and this fact makes artificial fecun-
dation and pisciculture possible.

SYRSKI ON THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION OF FISHES. 725

THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE EEL.

Although the eel is one of the most common fishes, it is, nevertheless,
one of the least known. As, even up to the present day, only the female
of the eel is known, and this even imperfectly, some naturalists have
supposed that the females propagate the species without the help of the
male, which mode of reproduction actually takes place in some insects,
and is called parthenogenesis ; while others, having recently recognized
iu a fatty formation, which is found in the abddminal cavity by the side
of the ovaries, the male organs of the eel, have declared it be a hermaph-
rodite— i. e., an animal in which both male and female organs are found
in the same individual.

Only a few naturalists have maintained, and as we shall see not with-
out reason, that male individuals must be found among the eels.

Basing their opinion on the reproductive organs, the majority of nat-
uralists have with good reason supposed that the eels are oviparous ani-
mals, while others, almost exclusively amateurs, have always considered
them as viviparous animals.

It will be of interest to cast a glance on the endeavors of the more
distinguished naturalists to find the ovaries and the spermatic organs
of the eel, and on some erroneous assertions with regard to this matter,
in order to bring out in bolder relief the object in view, viz, to give
through a history of a science an outline of this science.

Aristotle (fourth century before Christ1), the greatest naturalist of
antiquity, the founder of zoology, recognized the ovaries of the " grongo"
{Conger vulgaris) by the crackling of the eggs when placed over the fire,
but maintained that the eel, notwithstanding that its ovaries resemble
those of the "grongo" in every respect, is born from worms produced
by mud.

Pliny (first century A. D.2), who, in great part, like the majority of
his compatriots, only copied Greek works, especially those of Aristotle,
differs from him as regards the reproduction of the eel, maintaining
that it rubs itself against rocks, and that from the fragments coming
off during this rubbing process the young eels are born.

Albertus Magnus (thirteenth century A. D.3) accepts Pliny's hypoth-
esis, but says that he has heard that eels are also born alive from eels.

Rondelet (sixteenth century4) asserts that eels are born not only
from putrefied matter, but also from eggs produced by the copulation
of male and female eels.

x Aristotle: Tlepl tjbuv laropiag, lib. iii, cap. 10, § 1 ; lib. v, cap. 3, §2, and cap. 9, $ 4 ;
lib. vi, cap. 15, § 1-2, and cap. 16, § 6.

2 C. Plinii Secundi Naturalis historise, lib. ix, cap. 51.

3 Albertus Magnus: De aninialibus libri viginti sex; written about tbe year 1254, and
published at Venice 1495.

*Bondeletii Universse aquatium historiae pars altera. De piscibns fluviatilibns liberi
p. 200, An. 1555.

726 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Conrad Gesner (sixteenth century1) attributes the reproduction of
eels to putrefying matter, and also to copulation.

MalpigM (seventeenth century2), a great anatomist and expert micro-
scopist, declares that the ovaries not only of the eels but also of similar
fish, such as the "grongo" and the i4murena" {Murama helena), are fatty
productions, and calls them " striae adiposes?

Eedi (toward the end of the seventeenth century 3), who has dissected
many eels and "inurenas," (Murcerta helena), and also illustrated as such
the ovaries of the last-mentioned fish, nevertheless, does not recognize
the ovaries of the eel.

He opposes the hypothesis that the eel can be reproduced from putre-
fying matter; he proves, moreover, that what are called young eels are
nothing but intestinal worms, and that therefore eels are not viviparous
animals, but are reproduced by means of eggs'in the same manner as
other fish.

LeeuicenhoeJc (toward the end of the seventeenth century4), who has
occupied himself much with microscopic observations, and was the
first who made known the infusoria, having found, in the urinary bladder
of an eel, very small parasitic worms, mistook them for young eels, and
the bladder itself for the uterus.

Gcorg Eisner5 relates that a fish- vender showed him an eel whose
uterus was full of young ones, which, to quote his own words, hwrebdnt
in diversis membranis involulce anguillw.

Yallisneri (beginning of the eighteenth century6) has given illustra-
tions of the true ovaries of the eel, but, following Malpighi and Eedi,
calls them vasi adiposi [fatty vessels]; and, having accidentally found
in an eel a pathologically-deformed swimming-bladder, announced with
great joy to the Academy of Bologna and the whole scientific world
that he had found the true ovary of the eel.

Linne1 maintains that eels are viviparous.

Carlo Mwndini, 8 professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna,
was the first discoverer of the ovary of the eel, of which he gave a
detailed description to the Academy of Bologna the 19th day of May,
1777, which, however, was not published till 1783.

Otto Milller9 writes, in 1780, that he has found eggs in the fringed

1 Conradi Gesneri Historise animalium liber iv. Tiguri 1558.
2 Tetras epistolarum, &c. DissertatiodeOinento, 1665.

3 Osservazioni iutorno agli auimali viventi che si trovano negli auimali viventi.
Floreut. 1684.

4 Arcana naturae. Epistola 75. An. 1692.

6 Acad. Cass. Leopold. Miscellanea medico-pbysica. Observat. 119, p. 219.
6Pritnaraccolta d'osservazioni &c. Venice, 1710. — De ovario anguillaruin. Epbeme-

rides Acad. Nat. Curios, ad Centur. I et II appendix, p. 152, fig. h; An. 1712. — La terza
volta lo stesso: Nuova scoperta delle uova, ovaje delle anguille &c. nelle opere Fisico-
Medicbe, raccolta del suo figliulo. An. 1733.

7 Systenia naturte, 1750. »

8De anguillae ovariis. De Bononiensi Scientiaruni et Artium Institute atque Acade-
mia Conimentarii. Vol. vi. 1783.
•Scbriften der Berliner Gesellscbaft naturforscbender Freuude. Vol. i, p. 204. 1780.

SYRSKI ON THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION OF FISHES. 727

bodies; bat the description which he gives of them being in some respects
inaccurate, pre-eminence must be accorded to that of Mundini.

Spallanzani,1 a distinguished naturalist who lived toward the end of
the eighteenth and in the beginning of the present century, basing his
opinion on the examination of 497 eels, casts doubts on the discovery of
Mundini, remarking " that not content with destroying, he wishes to
erect on the Yallisuerian ruins a new edifice." These words, however,
lead us to suppose that a certain animosity toward the anatomist
Mundini, whom he possibly considered as an intruder among the zoolo-
gists, has led his judgment astray. In another place, moreover, he contra-
dicts himself when he adds: " If the masses of little globules were eggs,
and if they were found united with the fecundating semen, the eels
would be true hermaphrodites."

EathJce,2 who first, since Mundini, has in detail described (1824, 1838,
and 1850) the ovaries of the eel, is considered by some to have recog-
nized them ; but this, however, is not true, the additions made by him
to Mundini's description being to a great extent erroneous. It is not
true that the transverse leaflets are wanting in the ovaries of the eel, as
he asserts in his last work, contrary to his former description, which was
probably based on the law of analogy, and that thereby they are dis-
tinguished from those of the salmon and sturgeon. It is not true, what
Eathke likewise asserts, that the genital opening of the eel consists of
two small canals, for I have invariably only found one, which opens in
the urethra. Eathke has certainly described the eggs quite exactly,
distinguishing the larger whitish ones, having a diameter of about one-
fifteenth of a line, and the smaller transparent ones, with the germinal
vesicle inside; but Mundini likewise says: " innumeras sphcerulas mini-
mas, (equates, pellucidas, divisas tamen, qua; in centro maculam ostendebant
ecc. vidi", thus showing the true nature of the ovaries and the eggs, and
contrasting them with the fatty formation and with the ovaries and
eggs of other osseous fish.

If, as we have thus seen, it took more than two thousand years to
find out, and this even inaccurately, the ovaries, which are much larger
than the spermatic organs, it is but natural that it was no easy matter
to find these, which resemble two rows of small lobes, about two to three
millimeters large, and are of almost glassy appearance, starting from
the same place where in the females the ovaries are found, and running
both on the right and left side along the whole length of the abdominal
cavity.

Mundini3 and Spallanzani have sought the spermatic organs of the eel
in vain.

1 Due opuscoli sulle anguille. Appeuclice ai viaggi alle due Sicilie. Vol. vi. 1792.

4 Beitrage zur Geschichte der Thierwelt. Halle, 1824. — Wiegmann's Archiv far Natur-
geschichte. Vol. i. p. 299. 1838. — Muller's Archiv fur Anatomie, Physiologic, &c. Vol.
i, p. 203. 1850.

8 Memoria autografa del Mundini, del 1788, in the possession of Mr. Gualtiero Sac-
chetti, engineer.

V28 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Hombaum-HornschucJi,1 who re-ecboes Bathke's erroneous assertions,
claims to have found in the fringed bodies of many eels? instead of eggs,
round bodies inclosing small granules, and has declared tbat such eels
are male individuals.

Schlilsser2 was not able to confirm Hornbaum-Hornscbucb's assertion.

I have found only once, and that in an eel 390 millimeters long, dis-
sected on the 5th July, in the fringed organs, besides eggs, the above-
described small bodies in compartments similar to those of the testicles
of eels and other fish.

The rare phenomenon of spermatic compartments and ovarian leaflets
occurring side by side, I also found once in OpMdium barbatum and Smarts
alcedo, where the compartments were interlarded with groups of eggs.

Professor Sieboldf after having passed in review the different hypotheses
regarding the male organs of reproduction in the eel, and having reached
a negative conclusion, says that eels may reproduce by means of
parthenogenesis, or by being of different sex, or also by being her-
maphrodites.

In 1872 was published a memoir,4 accompanied by an illustrative plate,
by Prof. Gr. B. Ercolani, in which the author distinguishes, as a rudi-
mental testicle, the fat which is found attached to the swimming-bladder
between the intestine and the right ovary and the intestine itself/while
he calls " true testicle " a sac on the left side, formed exceptionally by
the peritoneum, and found in the place which corresponds to the posi-
tion of the fat on the right side. In the parietes of this sac, Professor
Ercolani found fat and self-moving spermatozoa, which movements,
however, seem to be nothing else but the molecular movement of the
granules found so frequently in the tissues of the animal body. I have,
instead of all this, found in the same place a fatty formation, resembling
that of the right side, and only in two eels have I found a sac which
could be inflated through the genital opening.

The so-called alveolar or proligeuous cells of the testicle are, therefore,
— as the illustration in Ercolani's article also shows — nothing else than
the common and well-known alveolar vessels of the adipose' tissue.

In the same year (1S72) was published the results of researches by
O. Balsamo Crivelli and L. Maggif professors at the University of Pavia,
who, contrary to the assertions of Professor Ercolani, maintained that the
fat on the right side was a well-developed testicle, and that of the left
an atrophied testicle. They, too, have therein found, and also given
illustrations of, spermatozoa. .

1 De Anguillaruin sexu ac generatione. Gryphiae, 1842.

2 De Petromyzoutuni et Auguillaruui sexu. Dorpati, 1849.

3 Die Siisswasseriische vou Mittel-Europa, p. 348. Leipzig, 1863.

4 Del perfetto ermafroditismo delle anguille. Meruoria del Prof. Coram. G. B. Erco-
3aui, uelle Memorie dell'Accademia delle Scienze dell'Istituto di Bologua. Serie iii,
tomo i, fascicolo 4. Bologua, 1872.

5 Iutorno agli organi esseuziali della riproduzione delle anguille &c. uelle Memorie
<lel Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere, vol. xii-xiii, della serie iii, fasci-
ola 4. Milauo, 1872.

SYKSKI ON THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION OF FISHES. 729

I have found similar formations in almost all eels, usually more devel-
oped on the right side than on the left, sometimes fringed, as shown in
the illustration accompanying Ercolaui's article, or with long borders,
as shown in Professor Maggi's illustration, but always of a structure
which is, so to speak, typical of adipose tissues.

Receutly there appeared in No. 7 for the year 1874, of the German
periodical "Die Gartenlaubev, an article, accompanied by an illustration,
which represents a pseudo-embryo of an eel of the length of 24 milli-
meters, with the head and eyes very large, the belly swollen, and a yel-
low yolk-sac, described by Dr. Eberhard, of Rostock, who says that he
received it in December last from a student, who again had got it from
a woman who had found in the abdominal cavity of an eel a net-like sac
containing about a thousand similar embryos. This story reminds one
of that told more than a century ago by George Eisner.

With regard to this matter, Professor Grube, at a session of the Society
of Natural History in Breslau (Prussia), expressed himself in the follow-
ing manner: —

" The journals have recently brought us from Rostock the intelligence
that an eel had given birth to living young ones. Similar statements
have been made in former times, but afterward corrected, to the effect that
the parasitic worms which are frequently found in the abdominal cavity
or, in the urinary bladder, had been mistaken for young eels. The state-
ment, however, which has come to us from Rostock owes its origin to
the fact that a really viviparous fish, the Zoarces vivlpants, has been
mistaken for an eel, as was proved when the supposed young eel was
sent to me by Professor Aubert. Young eels have never been found in
the bodies of mother eels."

During the month of March or April of this year (1874), there appeared
in the Miscellanea of the " Neue Ereie Presse " of Vienna, a notice
entitled " The reproduction of eels ", where it is stated, " Not unfre-
quently persons ignorant of zoology believe that they have found in the
bodies of eels young living eels, which, however — as was recently
brought out strongly by Professor Miinter, director of the Zoological
Museum of Greifswald— when subjected to the critical examination of
competent persons were found to be intestinal worms. The above-men-
tioned professor observes : ' It is not difficult to find in the eels of the
Baltic Sea curled ovaries resembling a drapery ; I myself [Miinter] hav-
ing invariably found ovaries in about 3,000 eels examined by me for that
purpose. Unfortunately, my numerous observations have never yet been
rewarded with the discovery of a male eel — i. e., a milter ; all the eels
examined by me with all possible care for a number of years having
turned out to be females. I must therefore admit that eels are repro-
duced by parthenogenesis, i. e., from non -fecundated eggs, as is the case
with some insects. In all probability, the eggs are deposited at the bot-
tom of the Baltic Sea from the middle of March to the middle of April,
and the young eels, one-half to two inches long, born from such eggs,
migrate into fresh water about the beginning of May.'"

T^

730 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Thus but few results have been obtained with great difficulty in all
the numerous researches, and the observations have frequently been
erroneous. This historical review is also, from an anthropologic point
of view, very instructive, showing that not only the masses of the
people but also highly intelligent and cultivated men are liable to err.

I commenced my investigations on the 29th November lastyear (1873),
and already in the second eel which 1 dissected on that day I found the
testicles, and therefore a male individual of the eel. I sent in March of
the following year (1874) to the Academy of Sciences in Vienna a pre-
liminary communication, which was read at the public session held the
loth April, and printed in the Eeports of the Academy.

Having in the course of my investigations met with similar errors
regarding the female organs of reproduction in the descriptions hitherto
given of them, with the view of rectifying and completing the details,
and also for the purpose of comparison with the male organs, I deter-
miued to commence by describing the former, i. e., female organs.

THE OVARIES OF THE EEL.

These organs (fig. 16), two in number, are ribbon-shaped, with leaf-
lets on their outer face, and with transverse folds. In the natural
position of the live fish, the one extends to the left and the other to the
right of the alimentary tube, following most of its angles nearly the whole
length of the abdominal cavity to the place where the dorsal parietes is
confluent with the lateral.

The right ovary commences at a point nearly corresponding to that
where on the outside the right pectoral fin ends, and the left ovary com-
mences about two centimeters and ends three to four centimeters behind
the former. They extend three to six centimeters back of the anus, into the
caudal part of the animal's body ; they do not, however, unite in a single
body, as some have asserted, but both are toward the end inclosed in a
peritoneal membrane, and are separated from each other by the union of
these membranes, having each on their inner face an accessory ovary
(pars recur rem ovarii). In rare cases is such an accessory ovary want-
ing either on the right or on the left side.

The ovaries in fully-grown eels are in the middle about two centimeters
larger, and posteriorly terminate in a thread-like form. They are not
smooth on both sides, but have, as was said above, on their outer side
numerous transverse folds (fig. 17) full of eggs (fig. 18).

It is another of Rathke's erroneous assertions, likewise maintained
by others, that the genital opening through which the eggs pass out
from the abdominal cavity is formed by two holes, a right one and a
left one. I have invariably found in all specimens examined a simple
hole, which communicated with the right and left half of the abdominal
cavity by means of a transverse fissure between the straight intestine
and the urinary bladder (fissura recto-vesicalis) and opens in the urethra
(fig. 19).

SYKSKI ON THE. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION OF FISHES. 731

Fig. 16.

m '

V.-T--

IJJaV VJTfc

rO —

lifcs-

Af

Fig. 17. Piece of the ovary, twice its natural size, with ova-
rian leaflets arranged in transversal rows, on its
outer surface.
The shorter border attached to the dorsal wall of
the abdominal cavity ; the longer being free.

Fig. 18.

Fig. 18. Piece of a somewhat developed ovary, one hundred
times the natural size, showing the transparent
eggs ivith the germinative vesicles and the germin-
ative dots.

o 4

Fig. 16. Female eel, longitudinal section
of the abdomen ; natural size.

a. Right ovary.

b. Left ovary.

c. Accessory part of the right

ovary.

d. Left accessory part.

e. Dividing membrane.
/. Anal depression.

g. Urinary bladder.

h. Fat on the right side erro-
neously taken for the testi-
cles by some.

h'. Similar fat, covering the
stomach.

i. Fat on the left side.

k. Stomach.

I. Pylorus.

m. Liver.

n. Gall-bladder.

oo. Pectoral fins

Fig. 19. Anal part of a female eel, twice the natural size.

a. Straight intestine.

b. Fissura recto-vesicalis.

c. "Urinary bladder.

d. Annus.

e. Partition.

/. TJro-genital opening.

g. Outlet of the genital opening in the urethra.

732 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

It is generally admitted that the eggs, when loosened from the ova-
ries, fall indiscriminately into the abdominal cavity, but it is not said
which w,.y they take in order to go out through the genital aperture.
As I have invariably found that the fully-developed ovaries lean with
their onter surface against tbe side of the abdominal cavity, and approach
with their free edges the lower portion of this side, forming, so to speak,
a furrow, I must conclude that the loosened eggs descend between the
abdominal partition and the folds and leaflets of the ovary in the above-
mentioned furrow, and from it pass to the genital aperture without
scattering in the abdominal cavity.

As to the development which the ovaries undergo, I have observed,
from the end of November till the beginning of March, in many adult
eels, of the length of 530 millimeters and more, that the ovaries were of
the breadth of 15 to 25 millimeters, and of a yellowish and sometimes red-
dish-white color, produced by the development of adipose tissues and of
the blood-vessels, and not by the eggs filled with little globules of fat ;
the genital aperture and the Jissura recto-vesicalis were open.

In other eels of a length sometimes of 600 millimeters and more, I
found the ovaries less broad, with but little fat, and of a mucous and
almost glassy appearance, so that I could discern the so-called vesicles
and germiuative dots {nuclei and nucleoli)) the genital aperture and
the Jissura recto-vesicalis were closed.

The ovaries of young eels, of the length of about 500 millimeters, con-
tained invariably but little fat, and the eggs were without globules.
The gradual growth and enlargement of the ovaries go on simultane-
ously with the opening of the genital orifice. According to the quantity of
fat contained in the ovaries, they have a mucous and glassy, or more or
less opaque or white, appearance, or have small shining white dots.

From the end of March till October, I found in the majority of eels
which I examined, measuring 600 to 700 millimeters in length, that the
ovaries were scarcely white, and that the genital aperture was closed.

The number of eggs contained in both developed ovaries reaches,
according to my calculation, five millions. Tbe larger eggs measured by
me had a diameter of one-fourth to one-fifth millimeter, while the eggs of
an adult "grongo" (Conger) had, accordingto my measurements, a
diameter of one-third of a millimeter, and those of the " murena" (Murama
helena) almost one millimeter, which explains to me why the ovaries of
the two last-mentioned species of fish have long since become known.

In an eel measuring 590 millimeters, examined on the 6th July, the
left ovary was entirely wanting, aud replaced by a mass of fat.

THE SPERMATIC ORGANS.

The position of these organs, (fig. 20), which are not ribbon-shaped
like the ovaries, but represent two longitudinal rows each with about
fifty lobules (fig. 21) of the width at most of three millimeters, and found

'Q 1;

y

SYRSKI ON THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION OF FISHES.

Fig. 20.

only in eels not more than 430 millimeters long,

corresponds entirely with that of tlie ovaries. In

these organs are likewise found, toward the pos-
terior end, the spermatic accessory organs (partes

recitrrcntes), which, however, as is the case with

the ovaries, are sometimes wanting.
The spermatic organs can be distinguished

at the first glance from the ovaries of the adult

eels and those of young eels, not only by their

lobular form, but also by their shining glassy

appearance, by the surface of the individual

lobes, which is smooth and without leaflets, and

by the much greater density of the tissue, so that

with a pair of pincers one can take off a large

portion of the organ, which could not possibly

be done with a more developed ovary whose tissue

is as tender as a cobweb, and. is composed of

small vessels formed of a thin membrane and

filled with eggs and fat.
The fibrous tissue of the spermatic organs is

composed of vascular compartments with thicker

partitions, inclosing, according to the develop-
ment of the organ, granular globules (fig. 22).

These compartments are joined toward the in-
side and the base of the lobes, which are united
to a tube (vas deferens), which, crecal at the com-
mencement, runs along the entire length of the m- \ ml
abdominal cavity, and opens near the straight
intestine (rectum) in a triangular pouch, which
likewise contains a vas deferens starting from the
caudal part of the spermatic organ. This pouch
has its outlet in the genital orifice, which opens in
the urethra (fig. 23).

As regards the development of the spermatic
organs, I have observed that the lobes of these
organs in young eels, measuring not more than
200 to 300 millimeters in length, are FlG- 20- Male eel
not yet very distinct, forming two
thin ribbons differing but little from
ovaries of the female in their aver-
age size. In eels measring about
400 millimeters in length, the tes-
ticles can easily be distinguished
from the ovaries. The former,
much straighter, and with tissue,
as has been already remarked,
much more solid, are provided with

733

-«

-8

-«■

V

a great

Eight testicle.

Left testicle.

Right accessory part.

Lett accessory part.

Dividing membrane.

Deferent canal.

Seminal pouch.

Anal degression.

TTriuary bladder, covered to
extent by the seminal pouch.

Fat on the right side.

Similar fat covering the stomach.

Fat on the left side.

Stomach.
n. Pylorus.

o. Liver, turned up to show the inner
surface adhering to the oesophagus
and the stomach.
p. Gall-bladder.
qq. Pectoral fins.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
O-
h.
i.

k.
k'.
I.
m.

734 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

a much more developed net-work of vessels; their lobes are very dis-
tinct, and tbe deferent canals are usually open, while the ovaries present
the appearance of two continuous ribbons, have a more delicate tissue,

Fig. 21.

Fig. 21. Three lobes of the right testicle, with the deferent canal (enlarged ten times).

a. Lobes, seen from their outer surface.

b. Lobe, seen from its inner surface.

c. Deferent canal.

d. Anterior part of the same.

and contain the

eggs

with the

and an almost mucous appearance,
germinative vesicles.

The deferent canals and the genital orifice are closed in young eels of
the male sex, and open simultaneously with the development of the lobes.

In the male eels examined by me from March to October, I have found
individuals of 400 millimeters and more in length, whose genital orifice
and deferent canals were invariably open, while in some of the smaller
ones they were closed and in others open.

Fig. 23.

TIG. 22. Piece of the testicle (one hundred and
sixty times enlarged), showing
the vascular tissue and the small
granules.

Fig. 23. Anal part of the male eel, enlarged twice.

a. Straight intestine.

b. Fisstira rectovesicalis, covered by the

outside wall of the seminal pouch.
cc. Outlet of the anterior and posterior part

of the deferent canal in the pouch.
d. Urinary bladder.

Of the 258 eels examined by me, the males and females were in about
even proportion; the greatest length of the former was about 430 milli-
meters, while the latter were of all sizes up to 1,050 millimeters, which
shows that the males are smaller than the females.

XXXIV -THE FOOD AND MODE OF LIVING OF THE SALMON,

THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD.

By D. Barfurth.*

PREFATORY NOTE.

A few preliminary remarks are demanded in explanation of this article.

The question investigated is whether the catching of what is called
" Ruinpchen " in certain parts of Germany (and in this case in the vicinity
of Bonn) is injurious in reference to the species of economical importance.
As the investigation has reference to forms or combinations which have
certain technical designations without exact English synonyms, those
designations are retained in the translation. They may be explained as
follows :

" Ruinpchen " is the collective name for small fresh-water fishes in
Western Germany, and under it are confounded small full-grown fishes
as well as the young of larger species. There is no exact English equiv-
alent for the term ; the word " minnows" being restricted properly to
small cyprinoids, while " fry," although sometimes used as a collective
name for small fishes, is in intention applicable rather to the very young
of various species.

It has been also deemed expedient to retain the German names of
the several species in question. These, however, have exact English
synonyms, viz :

The " Lutter-Riimpchen," or " Siisse Rumpchen, " (Cobitis barbatula,)
is the " loach " of the English.

The " Riedlingchen," or " Bitter-Riimpchen," (PJioximis Icevis,) is the
"minnow" of the English.

The "Gliwchen" (Gobio flunatilis) is the "gudgeon" of the English.

The "Kaulkopf" (Uranidea or Cottus gobio) is the "ruiller's-thuinb" of
the English.

The word "Gesams" corresponds as nearly as may be with the En-
glish word "fry."

The species whose food has been especially examined have been
named in accordance with the views of Siebold, and are respectively

* Ueber Nahrung und Lebensweise der Saline, Forellen uud Maifische. — Inaugural-
Dissertation zur Erlauguug der Doctorwiirde bei der philosopbischen Facultiit der
Rheinischen Friedrick-Wilhelms-Universitat zu Bonn eingereicbtuud mitden beigefiig-
ten Tbesen vertbeidigt am 19. December 1874 von D. Barfurth, stud. rer. nat. aus

Dinslaken Bonn, Druck von CarlGeorgi. 1874. [8vo, 41 pp.] — Reprinted from

Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte. Translated by O. Jacobsou.

736 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

(1) the salmon, (2) the sea-trout, (3) the common river-trout of Europe,
and (4) the Allice shad. These, in accordance with the nomenclature
generally prevalent, are (1) Salmo salar, (2) Salmo trutta, (3) Salmo fario,
and (4) Alausa vulgaris. The old genus Salmo has been differentiated
by Siebold into two genera : (1) Salmo, including the charrs and hucho,
distinguished by the vomer being abbreviated, the anterior short portion
thereof alone armed with teeth, the hinder louger portion (shaft) being
wholly toothless in the old as well as in the young; and (2) Trutta,
including the salmon, sea-trout, river-trout, and related species, whose
vomer is elongated, (the anterior short portion being with or without
teeth.) and the hinder elongated portion (shaft) armed along its entire
length with teeth, which, however, in the very old are more or less lost.
These would respectively correspond to (1) Salvelinus Bon. emend.
(= Salmo Siebold) and (2) Salmo Linn. Bon. emend. (= Trutta Siebold).
The " Maifische" of the Germans is the common shad or Allice shad of
the English, (Alosa vulgaris,) and is very closely related to the sbad of
the American coast (Alosa sapidissima).

THEO. GILL.

THE SALMON, THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 737

INTRODUCTION".

In the year 1852, the Prussian government proposed to forbid the
"Biimpcheu-fishery," as it was believed that, in consequence of such
fishery, species which when larger might be useful were destroyed. Pro-
fessor Troschel, of Bonn, thereupon examined the young fish which, under
.the name of " Biiinpchen," are brought to market, and found that the
"Lutter-Biitnpchen," or "SiisseBumpchen," was the Cobitis barbatida L.,
the "Biedlingchen" or "Bitter-Biiinpchen," the Phoxinus Icevis Ag., the
"Guwchen," the Gobio fluviatilis C, and the "Kaulkopf," the Coitus go-
bio L. The " Biimpchen," brought to market under the name of " Ge-
sams," consist, according to Troschel, of the young of all the fish living in
the river Ahr; consequently, besides the young of the species mentioned,
those of Alburniis lucidus H., Squalius cephalus L., Zeuciscus rutilus L.,
Barbus Jluviatilis Ag., and Trutta fario Lin.1 (Sicbold.) On the strength
of these investigations,2 Troschel declared that, as most of the "Biimp-
chen" are entirety worthless for fishery-purposes, they might be caught
without any injury to the fisheries. But when this problem had been
solved, the assertion was made that it would, nevertheless, be injurious
to catch the "Biimpchen," because thereby the better kinds of fish were
deprived of their necessary food,3 and the philosophical faculty of the
Friedrich-Wilhelms University of Bonn, during the year 1873-'7I, pro-
posed a prize for answering the following questions :

"It is asserted that the catching of 'Biimpchen,' although these fish
are in themselves worthless, still proves injurious to the Bhine fisheries,
because the larger fish, Salmo solar, Salmo hamaius, and Salmo fario,
are thereby deprived of their most necessary food. The salmon go into
the sea, where they feed on other fish, and only come into the rivers for
the purpose of spawning. The trout always keep in the mountain-
brooks. By examining the entrails of the above-mentioned fish at dif-
ferent seasons of the year, it is to be ascertained of what their food con-
sists while in fresh water, in order to decide whether it is injurious to the
fisheries to catch ' Biimpchen.' It is desired to extend these investiga-
tions to the 'Maifische,' (Alausa vulgaris,) as these likewise live in the
sea and only ascend the rivers in May."

1 Salmo fario of most authors, the common trout of Europe.

2 Published in " Verhandluugeu des naturhistorischen Vereina der Preussischeu
Rheinlande und Westphalens," 8 Jahrg., Bonn, 1851, p. 563.

3Siebold, Die Slisswasserhsche von Mitteleuropa, Leipzig. 1863, p. 420.

. 47 F

738 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

With a view to answering the above questions as far as possible satis-
factorily, I have made the following investigations :

I.

The food of trutta salar Siebold, (Sahno salar and hamatus Yal.,)
and trutta trutta Siebold (Fario argenteus Yal.) IN THE KIVER
Ehine.

The fishes belonging to the genus Salmo occurring in the Ehine are, by
the fishermen, distinguished as "Salm," "Lachs," and " Lachsforelle."
The Lachsforelle has been described as Fario argenteus by Valenciennes,1
and as Trutta trutta by Siebold.2 But, respecting the proper ichthyological
definition of the species which are brought to market under the popular
name of "Salin" and "Lachs," the views of zoologists still differ con-
siderably. Cuvier was the first to distinguish two species, and Valen-
ciennes described them at length as Salmo salmo, le saumon commun,z
and Salmo hamatus, le becard.* lie was followed by Heckel and Kner,5
Troschel,6 and others ; while Agassiz considered the Salmo hamatus as the
old male of the Salmo salar, and recognized only this latter species.
The same view was -taken by Siebold,1 Gunther,6 and many others.

Such a diversity of opinions seems surprising, as the question is about
such valuable and well-known fishes. It must, however, be remarked that
no other genus of fishes Las given the ichthyologists so much trouble as
the genus Salmo. Even such a thorough systematist as Gunther9 says:
" There is no other group of fishes which offers so many difficulties to
the ichthyologist with regard to the distinction of the species, as well as
to certain points in their life-history, as this genus."

Although a critical examination of these different views, properly
speaking, does not come within the reach of this treatise, and would
lead us too far, the nature of the question demands that I take my part
in this dispute.

After the investigations which I have made in this matter, I agree
with Agassiz and Siebold; i. e., I recognize only one species, viz, the
Salmo salar. My reasons for this I will state in brief.

Valenciennes mentions the following chief distinguishing marks be-
tween Salmo salar and Salmo hamatus :

1. The Salmo hamatus has more pyloric cceca (appendices pyloricce)
than the Salmo salar.10

1 Valenciennes, Histoire naturelle des poissons, Paris, 1848, tome xxi, p. 294.

2 Siebold, op. cit., p. 314.

'J Valenciennes, op. cit., p. 169.
4 Valenciennes, op. cit., p. 212.

6 Heckel and Kncr, Die Siisswasserfisclie der osterreicbiscben Monarcliie, Leipzig, 1858,
pp. 273 and 276.

e Troschel, Handbuch der Zoologie, 7tb ed., 1871, p. 266.

7 Siebold, op. cit., p. 293.

8 Gunther, Catalogue of tbe fisbes in tbe Britisb Museum, London, 1866, vol. vi, p. 11.
» Gunther, op. cit., p. 3.

'5 Valenciennes, op. cit., pp. 176 and 217.

THE SALMON, THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 739

2. The Salmo hamatus has invariably only one tooth on the front plate
of the vomer, while the Salmo salar has several teeth.1

3. The Salmo hamatus has a reddish-gray back, the color becoming more
lively on the lower portions of the sides ; the color of the belly is a
dull white. The Salmo salar, on the other hand, is slate-colored on the
back, of a subdued silver-color on the sides, and of a silvery-white,
shining like mother of pearl, on the belly.2

4. The flesh of the Salmo hamatus has much less color and is drier
than that of the Salmo salar.3

5. The Salmo hamatus has at the end of the lower jaw a protuberance,
(" tuuercule") which, when the mouth is closed, fits exactly into a con-
siderable concavity (" enfoncement considerable'''') of the upper jaw. 4 The
lower jaw thus forms a projecting hook, so that the upper and lower
jaws cannot be pressed against each other. The Salmo salar does not
have this hook.

With regard to the above assertions, the following remarks are to be
made:

To 1 : The number of pyloric cceca in one and the same species of sal-
mons varies greatly.5

Valenciennes found in the Salmo salar GO and in the Salmo hamatus 07
appendices pyloricce. In the enumerations which I have made, I was led
to the result that in the salmonoids which Valenciennes differentiated as
two species, the number of cceca is no safe distinctive character, as it
varied from 5G to 72, and was frequently larger in those which had no
hook than in the so-called "hook-salmon." Giinther states that the
number of cceca varies from 53 to 77 ; Richardson^ from G3 to 08. Kner7
has also shown that the number of cceca in one and the same species of
salmonoids is extremely varying.

To 2: The arrangement of the teeth on the vomer has been errone-
ously described by Valenciennes, as has been shown by Siebold.8 Tlie
short front plate (chevron) of the vomer of the Salmo salar (and the S.
hamatus) is invariably toothless, and only the long point of the vomer
has teeth. But, as the fish grows older, these teeth fall out gradually,
and no new ones take their place, so that an entirely toothless vomer
is frequently found in old fish. It is evident from this — as I also
found in my investigations — that the number of vomerine teeth differs
very much. In our Bonn Museum, there are two old specimens, labeled

1 Valenciennes, op. cit., pp. 172 and 213.

2 Valenciennes, op. cit., pp. 174 and 217.

3 Valenciennes, op. cit., p. 222.
* Valenciennes, op. cit., p. 215.
6 Siebold, op. cit., p. 314.

6 Giinther, op. cit., p. 13.

7 B. Kner, Uber die Verschiedeuheiten der Blinddiirme bei den Salmonen (in "Sitz-<
ungsbericbte der mathem.-naturw. Classe der kaiserl. Akademie der Wissenscbaften,"
vol. viii, 1852, p. 201).

8 Siebold, op. cit., p. 301.

740 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

"Salmj liamatus? of which the one has only two teeth in the vomer, and
the other none at all. A younger specimen, marked likewise Salmo
liamatus, has four teeth in two rows, one behind the other; while another
somewhat younger specimen, marked Salmo solar, has only two vomerine
teeth.

It is not necessary to go into further details, as Siebold has explained
this whole matter sufficiently, and has satisfactorily proved Valenciennes' s
errors.

To 3 : "In none of our native fish is there such variety of color, ac-
cording to the different influences of food, water, light, and temperature,
as in the toothed salmons."1 Giinther likewise lays special stress on
this change of color in the Salmo solar. Scientifically, we are scarcely
justified in distinguishing two different species merely on account of
this difference in color, when the other distinguishing marks cannot be
sustained.2

To 4 : Block has shown how much the color and quality of the flesh
varies in one and the same species of salmonoids.3 Siebold likewise, in
several places,4 has directed attention to this peculiar variation. It must
also be borne in mind that in all species of animals the flesh of old
ones5 which have propagated for many years has become of au inferior
quality. It is well known that the Bhine salmon is more savory than
that of the Oder, the Weser, and the Vistula j but nobody ever enter-
tained the idea that they were different species.

To 5 : The projecting hook of the lower jaw in some specimens is so
peculiar, that certain ichthyologists were thereby induced to distinguish a
separate species — Salmo hamatus, i. e., the hooked salmon. But Block
had already proved that these hooks occur only in old male fish. Agassiz,
all the modern English ichthyologists,6 Siebold,7 Scklegel,8 and others are
of the same opinion. The observations which I made on this point, and
the information which I gathered from experienced fishermen, led to the
same result : the hook is only found in male fishes, and — I must empha-
size it — only in such as have milt nearly ready for impregnation. I
have, by observing a large number of specimens, convinced myself that
this hook gradually forms in the male fish as it is growing old and the
milt is getting mature ; fishermen, by this mark, distinguish even the
young male from the young female. If, therefore, Valenciennes (p. 213)

1 Siebold, op. cit., p. 276.

2 1 may as well remark here that, according to my observations, this difference of
color, which Valenciennes considered as a distinguishing mark of the species, can only
serve as such for distinguishing the fruitful specimens of the Salmo salar from tempo-
rarily barren ones.

3 Block, Oekonomische Naturgeschichte der Fische, Berlin, 1782, p. 139.

* Siebold, op. cit., pp. 276, 299, &c.

6 It will bo presently seen why I only speak of old animals.

6 Valenciennes, op. cit., p. 22.4.

7 Siebold, op. cit., p. 293.

8 Schlegel, Do Dieren van Nederlandj Visschen, p. 127.

THE SALMON, THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 741

says that the female Las jnst as strongly curved a hook, it must be
considered an error. Why this peculiarity occurs only in the one sex
and not in the other has not yet been explained. It has been said that
too long a sojourn in fresh water, and swimming against the stream,
had caused it j but there is no reason why the hook should not develop
itself just as much in the female as in the male.

This hook occurs likewise in the lower jaw of the males of other spe-
cies of salmonoids. Thus, Wartmann1 has found it in Trulta lacustris
(Siebold) ; Meckel,2 in Trulta fario (Siebold) ) he also thinks that this
peculiarity is found in most of the species of the salmonoids.

On the strength of these facts, I must presume that of the salmonoids
belonging to the ocean only two species occur in the Rhine : 1. The
" Lachsforelle," (sea-trout,) Fario argenteus Yal. ; Trutta trutta ac-
cording to Siebold ; 2. The " Salm," (salmon,) Salmo salar Lin.; Trutta
salar according to Siebold. I cannot in this place refrain from making
the remark that people have been induced to accept the two species,
Salmo salar and Salmo hamatus, only by the occurrence together of
fruitful and temporarily barren specimens of one and the same species
of Salmo salar.

Henceforth, I shall exclusively use SieboWs nomenclature, as by his
investigations the position of our salmonoids in the general system has
been definitely settled.

I now turn to the investigation of the food of Trutta trutta and Trutta
salar in fresh water — the Rhine.

The question, What is the food of our salmonoids in fresh water and
in the ocean, is not only of scientific but also of great economical
interest. It is, however, very strange that the ichthyological works
contain scarcely any or wrong data regarding this point.

Valenciennes speaks only in one place of the food of Trutta salar : 3
"La nourriture consisteen poissons etl'ou dit qu'il pr6fere l'ammodite —
Ammodytes tobianus.m As the fish in question (Sard-launce) lives in the
North Sea and in the Baltic, this fact would refer to the food of the fish
while in the ocean ; but nothing is said regarding its food in fresh water.

Figuier, on the other hand, says : 5 " On n'a pu faire jusqu'ici que des
conjectures sur leur genre d'alimentation dans la mer, raais on est plus
instruit de leur maniere de vivre dans les eaux douces (?). Pendant leur
premier age, ils vivent d'insectes, de frai, et aussi de petits poissons,
des qu'ils ont atteint une certaine taille. A l'etat de grilse et a l'etat

1 Wartmann, Von den Rheinanken oder Illanken, in ''Scbriften der Berlinischen
Gesellschaft natnrforsckender Freunde," vol. iv, 1783, p. 55. (Quoted from Siebold,
op. cit., p. 32.)

2HccJcel, Bericht einer iclithyologischen Reise, in the " Sitznngsberickte der kaiserl.
Akademie der Wissenchaften," vol. viii, 1852, p. 355.

3 Valenciennes, op. cit., p. 197.

4 Its food consists of fish, and it is said that it prefers the SnrdAimnce-Ammodytcs to-
bianus.

5Figuier, La vie et les mcenrs des animaux, Paris, 18G8, p. 106.

742 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

adulte ils devorent une foule de poisson (?).'n Block 2 says that the salmon
lives 011 small fish, aquatic insects, and worms, and that it could be
enticed by dragon-flies, worms, and small fish if these were attached to
the hook (?).

In Heckel and Kner's work,3 1 find, regarding the food of Truita trutta,
only the very general remark that "it is a powerful fish of prey." SieboWs
excellent work4 contains several observations regarding the food of our
salmonoids while in fresh water.5 The most important, and, as will be
seen afterward, the most correct, (p. 246,) is the following : " I cannot
in this place pass over in silence the fact that in observing and describ-
ing the digestive organs of the salmonoids, no attention whatever has
been paid to the circumstance that these fishes do not eat anything before
and during their spawning-season, but are merely intent upon spawning,
during which process their empty stomach is unusually contracted ; the
' appendices pyloricce1 and the gut itself being filled only with the differ-
ent secretions of the digestive organs.-' From the following, it will be
seen whether and in how far the remarks of the above-quoted ichthyolo-
gists are correct.

On the 20th September, 1873, I examined the stomachs of the first
two specimens of Trutta salar, which had been caught in the Ehine, in the
neighborhood of Bonn. They were female spawn-salmon ("Laichsalme") ;
{. e., salmon which had ascended the Ehine for the purpose of spawning.
The eggs of both these specimens were of the size of a pea, and ripe
for impregnation. The sides of the stomach were strongly contracted,
and the pyloric cceca were exposed ; i. e., they were not covered with
masses of fat, as is the case with other specimens — as I shall detail
later — of the same species. The section of the whole digestive organs
showed the following : The oesophagus and the stomach itself contained
nothing but the secretion of the mucous membrane, a white and mostly
very sticky mucus, which is always there, whether there is food in the
stomach or not. At the place where the stomach proper joins the in-
testiue, and where the "appendices pyloricce" commence, this mucus
increased in quantity, and at the same time assumed a yellowish-green

1 So far, we have only been able to to make conjectures regarding their food while in
the ocean, but we are better informed regarding the mode of living while in fresh
water (?). When quite young, they feed on insects, spawn, and small fish, until they
have attained to a certain size. In their third year and when fully grown, they devour
great quantities offish (?).

2 Block, Oekonomische Naturgeschichte der Fische, Berlin, 1732, pp. 133 and 137.

3 Heckel and Kner, op. cit., p. 266.

4 Siebold, op. cit., pp. 246, 276, 299, &c.

6 After I had completed this treatise, there appeared in the "Acta Universitatis Lun-
deusis," Lund, 1871-72, a work by P. OUson— Jakttagelser ofver skandinaviska Fiskar
Foda— in which I find very valuable information regarding the food of Truita salar and
Trutta trutta while in the ocean. I shall again refer to this work, as thi3 information
has enabled me to yive fuller details in one place.

THE SALMON, THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 743

color from the secretions of the " appendices^ these themselves being
filled with the same matter. Nearer to the anus, this mucus became
darker, and finally assumed a reddish-black color. In no part of the
whole digestive organ did I find anything which might lead to the
supposition that any solid food had been taken. Near the pylorus, I
found in one of the specimens several tapeworms {taenia) with their
heads sticking in the appendices. In the tissues surrounding all these
organs, but more especially in the pyloric cceca, I found a large number
of entozoa.1

I have continued these investigations during the months of September,
October, November, and December, and invariably with the same result.

The digestive organs of Trutta trutta likewise showed the char-
acters detailed above. In both species, males as well as females, in
such as had already propagated their kind and likewise in such as
still contained roe or milt, the character of the stomach and intestine
was exactly the same as that of the first two specimens of Trutta salar
examined by me ; and I never found any food or anything which might
be considered as remnants of food. Three times I thought I had found
a fishbone, but a closer examination showed it to be particles of wood
or bast which had become enveloped in mucus, and stuck to the side of
the stomach or gut. The thick or corky cellulose had withstood the
digestive power, which, at any rate had been reduced to a minimum,
and no new food had been taken in through which these indigestible
particles could have been carried out. Up to the beginning of January,
1874, I thus examined stomachs of forty-four such spawn-salmon
{uLaichsahnev) — Trutta salar and Trutta trutta — and never found any
food. I must here state expressly that these investigations were made
during the spawning-season proper of both species.2

In the following, only Trutta salar is spoken of, as Trutta trutta ascends
the Rhine for the purpose of spawning only till the beginning of Jan-
uary. From January on, salmon {Trutta salar) are but rarely caught
in the neighborhood of Bonn, while on the Lower Rhine (near Wesel)
many are caught about this season. In Wesel, I succeeded in obtaining

1 Regarding these, as well as the entozoa which I found in those species of fish which
I examined, later — Trutta fario and Alausa vulgaris — see Gurlt's " Verzeichniss der
Thicre, bei welchen Entozoen gefunden worden sind " in Wiegmann'a "Archiv fur Natur-
geschichte," XI Jahrg., vol. i, 1845, p. 223.

2 The spawning-season of the salmon extends, according to Valenciennes, (p. 179,) from
the end of May till the end of February ; according to Siebold, (p. £99,) from May till
November. According to the information which I gathered from experienced fisher-
men and my personal observations, a spawn-salmon is scarcely ever seen in the
Rhine before the end of August. Those which show themselves in the Rhine at an
earlier date do not ascend the river for the purpose of spawning. As I have never
seen a spawn-salmon after the 10th January, I feel justified in assuming that the
spawning-season proper extends from the beginning of September till the beginning
of January. This explains the fact that the season when the Dutch are not permitted
to fish for salmon lasts from September 15 till November 15. — (From information com-
municated by Mr. Lisner, a fish-merchant of Wesel.)

744 REPORT CF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

and examining stomachs of several specimens.1 All these salmon,
and also those which I saw in March, May, and Jane, showed a very
striking difference from those which bad been caught during the spawn-
ing-season proper. Tbe fishermen call them iiWintersalme'n (winter-sal-
mon). They are highly esteemedou accountof their excellent flavor, which
far exceeds that of the spawniug-salmon, (at least during the spawning-
season proper,) and the character of their inner parts likewise differs
very much from that of the latter.

This winter-salmon is found in the river nearly all the year round, as
well as during the spawning-season proper,3 but is specially called " Win-
tersalm" by the fishermen during the winter-months, when its flesh
is of the finest quality.

When I said before that the inner parts of these fish differ very much
from those of the spawn-salmon, I referred to the sexual organs and
the surroundings of the entrails. Of the former difference I shall speak
later, and will confine myself here to the latter. The whole fish has a
much better and fatter texture than the spawn-salmon, and its en-
trails are entirely overgrown with fat, so that tbe united appendages
of the upper portion of the intestine (the appendices pyloricce) resemble
a lump of fat.4 When I commenced to examine the stomach, I obtained
nearly the same result as in my examination of the spawn-salmon j
for in by far the majority of cases no trace of food could be discovered.
In one stomacb, I found parts of the hard covering and of the wing of
a beetle; and in another, the skin of an insect-larva, which could not be
satisfactorily identified. In a third specimen, I found, in the back part
of the intestinal canal, the scale of a fish, seemingly a cycloid scale. It
was lying behind one of the numerous ring-shaped lids, which are found
all through the lower portion of the intestinal canal, and had not yet
been expelled with the other excrements.

Besides these, I examined twenty-three stomachs, but found no rem-
nants of food. The three fish in whose digestive organs I found some

'Through the kindness of Mr. Bidder, of Wesel. In Bonn, I obtained the material for
my investigations chiefly through Mr. Brenner, but in part from Mr. Schumacher. I must
also thank the following-named gentlemen for much valuable information concerning
the food of the Salmon : Messrs Lisner and Bidder, in Wesel ; Brenner, in Bonn ; Josten,
in Dinslakon ; and Bennings, in Rnhrort.

3In this and the following I make a distinction between Wintersalme and Laichsalme,
although they both belong to the same species, viz, Trutia salar. I shall later charac-
terize this distinction more exactly ; but I may state here that by Laichsalme I mean
those fish which, during the spawning-season, ascend the rivers for the purpose of
spawning, while I call Wintersalme those which, from October on, appear nearly all the
year round, and which do not come directly for the purpose of spawning, as their sexual
organs are entirely undeveloped from October to May, and only begin to develop from
the month of May.

3 Mr. Bidder, of Wesel, got the first TVintersalm on the 3d October, and Mr. Brenner,
of Bonn, on the 6th October, 1873.

4 There are such large quantities of fat, that it is extracted by boiling, and used for
various purposes. — (According to information received from Mr. Lisner, of Wesel.)

THE SALMON, THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 745

remnants of food had been caught near Wesel. The food may there-
fore have been taken partly in the mouth of the Rhine and partly in the
ocean.

I will here mention an interesting observation, which was communi-
cated to me by the Messrs. Bidder and Lindner. The Dutch fishermen
have occasionally found in the stomachs of those salmon which were
caught near the mouth of the Ehine remnants of fish which they said
came from the herring {Clupea liarengus). But, according to the unani-
mous testimony of the fishermen, there never were found remnants of
fish or any other food in the stomachs of salmon which had ascended
higher up the Ehine. This observation agrees in every particular with
those made by me.

These investigations therefore lead me to the following result: Trutta
salar and Trutta trutta, while in the Ehine, do not take food at any
season of the year, which explains the fact that all attempts to keep
salmon and raise them artificially in fresh water have proved failures.1
There are artificial hatching-establishments (e. g., in Hiiniugeu, near
Strasburg, and in Arnheim) where the ripe salmon-eggs are artificially
impregnated and hatched, and where the young salmon, called Salmlinge,
[in English samlets,] obtained in this manner, are kept for some time
(perhaps one to three years) ; but, if these fish are to become full-grown
salmon, they must be let loose so that they can reach the ocean, there
to feed and grow. A friend of mine communicated to me the following:
The institution near Arnheim, on the Yssel, has, during this spring, arti-
ficially raised 300,000 young salmon and placed them in the Yssel.
These are to go to the ocean, return to the Yssel2 during the following
years, and then be caught as salmon. The young salmon are fed in the
water of the Yssel, which is pumped into reservoirs from the river, and
then led through the tanks in which the fish are kept. They are not
supplied with any food, but find it in the water (infusoria, larvae, &c.)
If these young salmon are to be sent away, they are placed in special
boxes, and fed on calves' brain and worms.

The following observation, communicated by Sander in the " Naturfor-
scher,"3 is explained in the same manner: "A reliable fisherman kept
young salmon for many years, and fed them — on what % Unfortunately,
he did not inform me. He paid great attention to them, but found that

1 G Untlier says on this point, (p. 9:) "The question "whether any of the migratory
species (of the genus Sahno) can he retained in fresh water, and finally accommodate
themselves to a permanent sojourn therein, must be negatived for the present."

2 It may be considered as an established fact that the salmon return to the river in
which they were born and raised. In Brittauy, a dozen young salmon were marked
with copper rings on the tail. Of these, five were caught in the following year, three
in the second, and three in the third. — (Cornelius, Zng- and Wanderthiere, Berlin, 1865,
p. 202.) During the summer of 1873, 500 youug salmon, twenty-one months old, 5 to
6 inches long, were marked and placed in the Rhine, in order to ascertain whether they
will return to the same river. — (From a newspaper.)

3Der Naturforscher, 15. Stuck, 1781, p. 170.

746 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

not only did they not grow larger, remaining always the same size, but
also that they did not increase at all in number."

Siebold has therefore come nearest the truth regarding the salmonoids
found in the Rhine, (Trutta salar and Trutta trutta,) when he says that
the salmon just before and after their spawning-season do not eat any-
thing for weeks. I even go a little further, and maintain that these
salmonoids do not eat at all as soon as they have entered the Rhine
from the ocean.1

The circumstance that, as I mentioned above, I found remnants of
food in the stomachs of three winter-salmon is not against, but rather
in favor, of my assertion. These three salmon were caught below Wesel,
therefore comparatively near the mouth of the Rhine. The food whose
few undigested remnants I found might therefore have beeu taken in
the ocean, or when the fish had not yet lived in fresh water for any
length of time,2 and the desire for food had not yet become quite extinct.
The best proof of it is the fact that nothing was found in the stomachs
of those salmon which had been caught farther up the Rhine. This
likewise explains, in a very simple manner, the above-mentioned obser-
vation of the fishermen, that the stomachs of those salmon which are
caught in Holland near the mouth of the Rhine occasionally contain
parts of fish.

The result of this whole investigation is therefore the astonishing fact,
that fish which stay in the Rhine a long time, and move about a great
deal and in a very vigorous manner,3 take no food at all.

Such a very astonishing fact might well awaken the belief among the
common people that the salmon digests everything it eats in three min-
utes (!), although this is a physiological impossibility.4 I myself for a
moment* entertained the thought that the salmon might be able to
digest food taken after it had been caught, as it is frequently kept alive
in the fish- tanks for some time. But the fact that most salmon are
killed by the fishermen immediately after they are caught by being

1 It certainly does not follow directly from my investigations that they do not eat
anything at all in fresh water; but it is very probable that the facts are the same in
the Oder, Elbe, Weser, Vistula, and other rivers frequented by the salmon. (Of the
English rivers, I shall speak below.)

2 This would apply to those two specimens iu whose stomachs I found remnants of
insects, as no insects live in the ocean.

3 See, on this point, Siebold, op. cit., p. 297 ; Valenciennes, op. cit., pp. 194, 200, &c.

4 James G. Bertram (The Harvest of the Sea, Loudon, 1365) says "that one gentle-
man who writes on this subject accounts for the emptiness of the stomach by asserting
that the salmon vomits at the moment of beiug taken " (p. 192). Independently of
the fact that the fishermen know nothing of this strange act of vomiting, the salmon
could not well empty its intestines in this manner But remnants of food are found
neither in the intestines nor in the stomach. Bertram, whose book I unfortunately only
got after I had finished my treatise, confesses that hundreds of fish had been exam-
ined, and that but rarely traces of food had been found. He likewise confesses that
the salmon does not grow in fresh water, and still ho asserts that it takes food when in
fresh water. A recent publication will oblige me to refer once more to this point.

THE SALMON, TIIE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 747

knocked on the head, and that their stomachs never contain remnants
of food, militates against that supposition. All the fishermen whom I
questioned assured me that they never had found food in the salmon
even if cut open immediately after having been caught.

In view of this remarkable fact, two questions naturally arise: 1.
How can the salmon live for a comparatively long time without food
without (as is the case at least with the winter-salmon) growing visibly
thinner % 2. How does it happen that the salmon does not eat any more
after having entered fresh water ? The first of these questions is less
difficult to answer than the second. I shall now briefly examine the
first.

It is well known that the change of matter (Stoffwechsel) and the heat
of the animal body resulting from it reach their highest degree in birds
and mammals, but that they are much less in amphibious animals and
fishes, because the organs of respiration and of circulation are much less
complete in those vertebrates than in the two higher classes. This also
explains the well-known fact that amphibious animals and fishes can.
live without food for a much longer time than the higher vertebrates.
This circumstance, however, does not yet sufficiently explain the fact
that the salmon can live so long without food without growing visibly
thinner, as the winter-salmon. One might feel tempted to think of
the somewhat analogous winter-sleep of many animals, if this was not
made impossible by the violent motions of the salmon. If the swim-
ming and leaps of the salmon, like every motion of this kind, are noth-
ing but a change from the molecular to the mass motion, and if this
molecular motion can only be the result of a burning process, there must
be some matter which makes such a burning process possible ; and if
this matter is not, as is usually the case, supplied by the taking of food,
the body itself must furnish it ; and this is actually the case with the
salmon. As regards the winter-salmon, I have stated above that its
stomach is surrounded by a very considerable mass of fat. This fat
forms, so to speak, the reserve fand from which the expenses of this
burning process are paid. This fund is large, and lasts long enough
to make the winter-salmon during all the time of its sojourn in the
Ehine (which is not as long as is generally supposed) a highly-esteemed
fish.

The case is different with the spawn- salmon. When it ascends the
Ehine, its eggs are already as large as pease, and the milt is almost ready
for impregnating. Even while out in the ocean, the inner organs were
chiefly engaged in developing the eggs and the milt. On entering the
Ehine, it is well developed, but compared to the winter-salmon it has
only a small reserve fund. This is considerably diminished by the very
violent motions of the fish, and the remainder is so completely used up
in fully forming the sexual organs that the quality of the flesh deteri-
orates considerably, and the fish becomes weak and miserable. It is,
therefore, not astonishing to see these fish, after having finished spawn-

748 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

Log, utterly exhausted, " flottaut a la surface de l'eau sans faire aueun
mouveuient ; ou peut les prendre alors facilement a la main."1

As regards the second question, how does it come that th,e salmon
does not eat anything in fresh water, there are two ways of explain-
ing this fact. Either the fresh water (the Ehine) does not offer any suit-
able food, so that it cannot eat anything, or the salmon on entering the
fresh water loses all desire for food, so tbat it does not want to eat any-
thing. Regarding the first point, it is well known that the Rhine at any
rate does not offer much food for fish. The salmon, especially, finds but
little of its favorite food in the Rhine. T. Olsson2 has made observations
regarding the food of different species of fish on the coast of Scandi-
navia, and has, among the rest, also examined twelve specimens of
Irutta solar. He says, regarding the contents of the stomach : u It is
often empty, or contains a yellow mucus, (from the fresh-water crus-
taceans?) small fishes, (in seven specimens,) especially Ammodytes and
Gasterosteus aculeatus, (in twelve specimens,) young fish, likewise crus-
taceans, viz, small decapoda macroura and isopoda, and Mysis vulgaris,
according to Lilljeborg, (K. Vetensk. Ak. Fork., 1852,) and, in one case,
a large coleopterous insect {carabusf was found." If we inquire into
the place of sojourn of these animals, we find tbat the Ammodytes lives
exclusively, and the above-mentioned crustaceans almost exclusively, in
the sea. Gasterosteus aculeatus is frequently found in the region of the
Rhine, u but prefers the small brooks flowing into the Rhine, Main,
and jSTeckar," (Siebold, op. cit., p. 67,) and it would, therefore, be dif-
ficult for the salmon to get at it. The carabus must have been eaten
in the neighborhood of the coast or the mouth of a river, as no insects
are found in the ocean. As regards the mucus, Olsson would, on exam-
ining it microscopically, in all probability only have found torn epithe-
lial cells, blood-atoms, &c. If, therefore, the absence of its favorite
food would force the salmon to eat less while in the Rhine, it is very hard
to believe that the salmon would not be able to find a substitute for its
favorite food in the river. If it eats young fish while in the ocean, why
should it not do the same while in the river, though, perhaps, the young
of different species of fish? If in the ocean, or near the mouth of a
river, it eats a carabus, why should it not hunt for insects while in the
river! It seems to me that the want of suitable food is not the reason
why it does not eat anything in the river. I am rather inclined to think
that life in fresh water produces a certain morbid disgust with all food
in the salmon; and not only in the spawning salmon, in which this pecu-
liarity is not so striking, but also in the winter-salmon, which does not

1 Valenciennes, op. cit., p. 179. (Floating motionless at the surface of the water ; they
may then easily be caught with the hand.)

*Ols8on, Iakttagelser, &c, p. G.

3 Ohson examined two specimens of Tratta irutta; in the one, he found nothing, and,
in the otber, fourteen CUpea ftprattus and three Ammodytes.

THE SALMON, THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 749

ascend the Ehine for the express purpose of spawning.1 With regard to
this winter-salmon, which I have mentioned so often, I have made some
observations, up to this date, (October, 1874,) which I will give in this
place.2

Till quite recently, the opinion was prevalent, that the Trutta salar
spawned every year. An anonymous writer in Loudon's Magazine3 was
tho first to show that this opinion is erroneous. This writer says:
" Neither the salmon nor the trout spawns every year, for specimens of
both kinds are frequently caught in January whose roe is smaller than
mustard-seed, which, therefore, could not have spawned in that year;
while, on the other hand, in the red fish, (spawn-fish,) which ascends the
rivers in November and December, the spawn is almost ripe, and in March
and April no trace of roe is found." This observation is correct. From
September till May, specimens of Trutta salar appear in the Ehine whose
sexual organs are entirely undeveloped. The fishermen call these "TVin-
tersalme," (winter-salmon,) and esteem them very highly on account of
their fat red flesh (Rhine salmon). It is absolutely certain that these
fishes cannot have spawned in that one year, for they> appear at the
same time as the spawn-salmon, whose eggs have the size of pease.4
The question is only whether this barrenness is permanent or temporary.

Siebold, who was the first to show that permanently barren individ-
uals occur in several species of salmonoids,4 is inclined likewise to con-
sider these winter-salmon as permanently barren individuals;5 audi
thought at first that he was right, from reasons which I will proceed to
give.

Siebold shows that, in Truttalacustris, the barren ones arc distinguished
from the fruitful ones by some unimportant differences ; the body of the
barren ones is much more slender, and does not reach so large a weight
as that of the fruitful ones ; the mouth seems to be cleft deeper ; the
caudal fin does not so soon lose its emargination ; no hook is formed on
the lower jaw in old males ; and, in their color, they differ much from the
fruitful ones.

1 Siebold, Die Siisswasserfische, &c, p. !£)9.

2 1 will not deny that, in exceptional cases, the salmon, while in the Rhine, feels a
desire for taking food, for this is quite natural. Thus von clem Borne, in his interesting
" Handbuch der Angelfischerei," Berneuchen, 1875, says that an Englishman, Mr. Sachs,
near Schaffhausen, caught a salmon, -weighing 16| pounds, with an articficial Squalius
leueiscus. According to von clem Borne, it seems that the salmon is more inclined to
seek food in the English rivers than in the Rhine. It is true that he says, " While
ascending the rivers, the salmon eats but little. BucMancl has examined the entrails
of hundreds of salmon, and always found them without food, and only containing
entozoa;" but afterward he mentions various bait (insects, fish, &c.) with which the
salmon is caught in England.

3 Loudon, The Magazine of Natural History, vol. ii, 1834, p. 207, in an extract in TFieg-
mann's " Archiv fur Naturgeschicbte," 1835, vol. ii, p. 267.

4 From Mr. Bidder, in Wesel, I reoeived the entrails of the first Winlersalm during
this period (1874) on September 24.

5 Siebold, op. cit., pp. 276, 302, 321.

6 Siebold, op. cit., p. 277.

750 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

I have likewise found that the lower jaw of the older male individuals
of the winter-salmon never shows such a striking hook as the fruitful
male of the salmon (the hooked salmon). There is also a difference in the
color of the winter-salmon and spawn-salmon. The winter-salmon has a
grayish-blue back and silver-white sides, while the spawn-salmon has a
darker, frequently reddish-gray, color. The former has on the sides only
a few black spots, and the latter lias on the sides and the gill-covers num-%
erous red spots. The urogenital papilla is scarcely noticeable in the
winter-salmon, while it is large, protruding, and swollen on the edges in
the spawn-sal mou. The winter-salmon, on the other hand, generally
reaches a greater weight than the spawn-salmou, and its flesh is redder
and fatter. With regard to size and weight, therefore, the case seems here
to be just the opposite to what Siebold has found in Trutta lacustris.1

All these facts, therefore, seem to be in favor of the supposition that
the winter-salmon is the permanently barren variety of Trutta salar.
But, in spite of this, I have arrived at the conviction that this barren-
ness is only temporary,2 and that those fish which one autumn and
winter appear as barren wiuter-salmon probably spawn as spawn-salmon
during the next spawning-period.3 After I had continued my observa-

1 The opposite from the winter-salmon seems ^o be the case in the barren Ti-utta
lacustris, also with regard to the quality of the ilesh. Siehold, at least, says that, in the
Lake of Constance, the thin and barren " Schwebforelle" is esteemed much less than
the fruitful " Grundforelle," (p. 309.) The barren Trutta fario, (common trout,) on the
other hand, has a better flesh than the fruitful one.

iGiinther (op. cit., p. 8) says: Siebold "appears to have gone too far when he stated
that this state of sterility extends over the whole period of existence of such indi-
viduals." In " Nya Bidrag till Kiinnedommen om Sveriges Salmonider," communi-
cated in the " Kougl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Forhaudliugar," Stockholm, 1865, Wide-
gren has shown in very young (one to three years' old) individuals of Trutta trutta
and Trutta salar that this barrenness, which occurs in nearly one-half of all these fish,
is only temporary. He mentions, as the chief difference between barren and fruitful
fish, that in the barren ones the shorter middle ray of the caudal fin is not as much as,
or, at most, not more than, half the length of the lougest outer ray, while in the fruitful
ones the shortest ray exceeds a little more than half the length of the longest one.
This, in itself somewhat subtle distinguishing mark, (he gives, e. g., the proportions of
19:40 mm. in the sterile against 20:38 mm. in the fertile, p. 290,) which is subject to ex-
ceptions (p. 280,) forms no criterion in the case of older individuals, as the caudal fin
more and more loses its emargination as the fish grow old. — (See Siebold, p. 295.) TYide-
grcn then goes on to show that in the barren fish the sexual organs develop gradually ;
that the proportion between the longest and shortest ray of the caudal fin gradually
becomes the same as in the fruitful ones ; that the color changes, &c.

3 TYidegren thinks that several years may elapse before the barren ones become fruit-
ful (p. 202). William Broun, on the other hand, ("Natural History of the Salmon by
the Recent Experiments at Stormontfield," quoted from TYidegren, p. 294,) says (p. 48)
that of the young female fish which had been marked before going to the ocean, some
returned in the autumn of the same year for the purpose of spawning, while others
did not return till the autumn of the following year. Von dem Borne says (p. 339) :
" There are among the salmon some which spawn only every other year, just as there
are among the young salmon some which only leave the fresh water after two years.
(I must here remark that von dem Borne cites this fact from English sources, which
were not accessible to me.) I, therefore, think that the same applies to those salmon
whose home is the Rhine.

THE SALMON, THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 751

tions for more than a year, (from September, 1873, till October, 1874,) I
became convinced that all the above-mentioned differences between the
winter-salmon and the spawn-salmon disappear with the advancing season
of the year and the progressing sexual development. From September
till about May, the differences between the two are so striking that,
without knowing the further development of the winter-salmon, they
would forthwith be declared to be two different species. I am, there-
fore, not at all astonished that the spawn-salmon (Salmo liamatus) has
been distinguished as a separate species from the winter-salmon (Salmo
salar) when both were seen together, without knowing that the differences
between the two were only temporary. From May onwards, the whole ap-
pearance of the winter-salmon changes, and gradually approaches that of
the spawn-salmon. The spots become more numerous; besides the black
ones, red ones make their appearance; the silver- white sides assume a
dirty -white color, while the back changes from a slate blue to a dingy
gray; the jaw of the male becomes elongated, and the hook is formed
in the lower jaw; the cceca lose their fat ; the flesh becomes paler and
drier; the milt and the eggs become larger in proportion ; and the edges of
the urogenital papilla back of the anus swell and become more prominent.
It is interesting to watch the growth of the ovaries. The ovary of the
above-mentioned winter-salmon, caught near Wesel on the 22d Septem-
ber, weighed at that date 13 grams.1 According to my observations
of last winter, the weight of the ovaries increases very little up to April.
The ovary of a winter-salmon, caught in April of this year, weighed 19
grams ; of one caught in May, 22 grams ; in June, 48 ; in July, 91 ; in
August, 211; and the ripe ovary of a fish ready for spawning, (in Novem-
ber,) 800 to 1,000 grams.2

Two questions arise here : (1) Why does the winter-salmon ascend
the Ehiue long before it is able to spawn ? and (2) How long does
it remain in the river ?

The first question is difficult to answer. In such cases, resort is had
to an " obscure instinct." This would in this case be the desire for pro-
pagating, although this cannot as yet be realized. It is true that all
salmons require a longer or shorter sojourn in fresh water for develop-
ing their sexual organs.3 It is possible that, in the winter salmon, a
sojourn in fresh water, even if it be only temporary, gives the first impe-
tus toward the formation of the sexual organs ; this is, in fact, highly
probable. While in the sea, the fish has fattened so much that, if it
continued to take plenty of food, the milt and eggs would not develop
at all — a physiological fact which has long since been observed in other
animals. This development becomes possible by the fish's abstaining
from food while in the Ehiue.

1 1 gram = 15.434 grains troy.

2 In these figures, it must, of course, be taken into consideration that the fish from
which the ovaries were taken were not absolutely equal in age, size, and weight ; on
an average, they weighed 9 kilograms, (1 kilogram =2.205 pounds avoirdupois.)

3 See Siebold, op. pit., p. 208.

752 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

In many cases, some outward cause may induce the fish to ascend the
Ehine long before they are able to spawn. I will give the following
observations on this point which I have made.

On the bodies of the winter-salmon I frequently found wounds caused
by the teeth of other animals. These bites I found on different parts of
the body ; they were of different size, and most of them had healed
over. The fishermen of the Ehine are well acquainted with this fact,
and the Messrs. Bidder and Lisner, in Wesel, furnished me with the
interesting information that a rich salmon-year (with regard to winter-
salmon) might be expected if comparatively many fish appeared having
such wounds. It is but natural to draw certain conclusions from these
observations. Not only man but also other beings are eager for the
fine flesh of the winter-salmon. The greatest enemy of the salmon
are the seals (Phoca vitulina and annellata1). These nimble robbers
pursue the salmon,2 which seeks a place of refuge in the Ehine. If its
enemies increase in number and their attacks become more violent, the
winter-salmon in consequence appears in the Ehine more frequently, and
the above-mentioned observation would thereby be explained. Eegard-
ing the second question, " How long does the winter-salmon remain in
the Ehine," I think I can assert on the strength of my observations
that from September till May it only makes a temporary sojourn in the
Ehine.3 and that it becomes permanent ouly from May.4

Of the temporarily barren salmon which occurs in the English rivers,
von dem Borne says (p. 338) that it remains in the river nearly a whole
year. This may be possible in the English rivers; but, as far as the
Ehine is regarded, I must deny it emphatically, for the simple reason
that the winter-salmon while in the Ehine eats next to nothing. The
fishermen say that it gets into the Ehine only by " losing its way." It is a
fact that near the mouth of the Ehine it is caught frequently all the
year round; near \v~esel quite frequently, but near Bonn only rarely, up
to May. As the growth of the eggs — as I have remarked above — becomes
considerable only from May, I believe that its sojourn in the Ehine
becomes settled only from that time.

The results of the investigations which I have been able to make so far
regarding the salmonoids occurring in the Ehine are briefly the following :
In the Ehine, only two species are found, viz, Trutta salar and Trutta
trutta ; neither take any food while in the Ehine. Of Trutta salar, a

1 See on this point Block, op. cit., p. 139.

s This probably takes place chiefly in winter, because the seal is at that season
without any other food, and because the wiuter-salinon does not, like other fish, live
deep in the water, but rather near the surface. Thus, Mangold (quoted after Sicbold,
p. 309) says that the barren Trutta lacustris lives near the surface, while the fruitful
Grundforelle keeps near the bottom of the lake.

5 The great strength of its muscles enables it to travel long distances in a very short
time. According to Cornelius, (p. 199,) it can swim twenty-three to thirty English
miles ; according to von dem Borne, (p. 338,) it swims about 1,500 feet in one minute.

4 N. Loberg, Norges Fiskerier, Christiauia, 1864, p. 280, says of the Norwegian salmon
that they stay in the rivers all summer.

THE SALMON, THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 753

fruitful variety (spawn-salmon) and a temporarily barren one (winter-
salmon1) exist. The former ascends the Rhine for the purpose of spawn-
ing from September till November ; the latter appears sporadically, and
for a brief season from September till May, and probably remains in the
Ehine for a longer time, or permanently from May till the spawning-
season. These results answer — at least as far as the grown salmons
are concerned — the question, Is it injurious to catch "Eiimpchen" be-
cause thereby valuable fish are deprived of their food. As these
salmons do not eat anything while in the Ehine, the catching of the
" Etimpchen" cannot possibly deprive them of any food. The case will
be somewhat different with the young " Salnilinge," (salmon one to three
years old, which have never yet made the journey to the sea.) Prof, de
La Valette St. George, who is thoroughly acquainted with our native fishes,
and occupies himself with artificial pisciculture, has informed me that
he feeds his u Salmlinge" (specimens of Trutta trutta and Trutta lacus-
tris measuring on an average. 8 inches in length) chiefly on "Eiimp-
chen," and that they devour them eagerly. As this in all probability
will also be the case in the Ehine, and as the young Trutta trutta cer-
tainly does not differ from the Trutta salar with regard to the taking of
food, the catching of " Eiimpchen" will deprive these young salmon of
a considerable amount of food.2

I shall secondly examine the question whether the catching of "Etiuip-
chen" deprives the trout (Trutta fario) to any extent of their food.

II.

The food of Trutta fario.

Next to the two above-mentioned species, the trout3 is with us the most
common salmonoid, and is highly esteemed on account of the delicate
flavor of its flesh. It prefers small, rapidly-flowing, clear waters, and is
therefore chiefly caught in small rivers and mountain-streams — the
Ahr, Sieg, Eoer, Wupper, Wied, and Anbach near Neuwied, and the
Kyll near Gerolstein. But as the "Eiimpchen" are likewise caught in
these very waters, it is of special importance to ascertain whether the
catching of the " Eiimpchen" deprives the trout of food.

The first material for my investigations I obtained November 25, 1873,
from Mr. Brenner in Bonn.4 Among twenty-two fishes, I found four-

1 This must be understood in this manner : that of those salmon which return to the
sea from the Rhine after having done spawning, quite a number remain barren the
nest year, as probably the too rich food and the rapid accumulation of fat prevent
the development of the sexual organs.

* I must, however, remark here that these young salmon go into the sea at a very
early age— according to Siebold (p. 2W) in their second year, when they are about 4
inches long ; according to the recent observations of English naturalists, in their third
year, when they are about 8 inchea long — and that therefore the existence of the
Riimpchen is no matter of life and death with them.

3 As to the character of this kind, see Siebold, op. cit., and Valenciennes, op. cit., p. 320.

4 To this gentleman I am also indebted for the material for all my later investiga-
tions; also those made on Alausa vulgaris.

48 F

754 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

teen females and eight males; in two of the females, the eggs were
entirely undeveloped, and the same was the case with the milt in one
male fish, while in the others the sexual organs were fully developed. The
fins in these three fish were likewise much less developed, and the char-
acteristic modification of the skin found in the trout during the spawning-
season was wanting; in short, I recognized in these the barren variety
of the trout. As Siebold1 has proved with absolute certainty the exist-
ence of such barren varieties, and has accurately described their char-
acteristic distinguishing marks, I will not enter further on this matter,
but will only remark that since I have continually found specimens of
barren trout. I will here add that there is no difference between barren
and fruitful trout with regard to their food.

The section of the digestive organs showed immediately that their char-
acter was entirely different from those of Trutta solar and Trutta trutta.
The oesophagus and stomach were not contracted, but in most cases
considerably extended and showed symptoms of a — for the spawning-
season — very considerable feeding activity. Nearly all the organs
which play a part in digestion, from the oesophagus down to the anus,
contained remnants of food. Among the twenty-two which I examined
1 only found one whose digestive organs contained no remnants of food
whatever. Among the others there were several whose stomach con-
tained no food-substance, but in the entrails I found the indigestible
remnants of food.

I will now briefly state what I found in these twenty-one trout:2

1. Twenty-one wings of insects (mostly neuroptera).

2. Twenty-six parts of integuments, heads and wings of coleoptera and
orthoptera, as well as crustaceans and myriopods.

3. Thirty-five tarsi and other portions of the legs of the same insects.

4. Twenty-six larvae of Pkryganidce or their cases, composed of parti-
cles of quartz and plants.

What I looked for most eagerly — viz, remnants of fish — I did not find
in any of these twenty-one trout. The stomach occasionally contained
large connected parts of insects, and in some stomachs I found the toler-
ably well preserved larvae of Sialis lutaria. On one occasion, I found six
cases of Phryganidm in a fish, and several times three or four were
packed closely together, so that they extended the stomach and could
be seen from outside. In some cases, the larvae of these cases were well-
preserved. I found no lime in these cases, and in bringing them in con-
tact with muriatic acid they did not effervesce. It was surprising to me
that in three fishes I found large portions of the bast of a plant (perhaps

1 Siebold, op. cifc., p. 233.

3 Any one occupied with similar observations will know that in most cases it is
almost impossible to draw any conclusion, as to genus and species of the animals which
have been devoured, from the half-digested and torn fragments which are found.
Although in most cases the accurate definition of these animals is of no practical value,
it is of great interest to the zoologist to get as near the truth as possible. I have,
therefore, attempted a definition wherever it was possible.

THE SALMON, THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 755

Juncus or Garex) folded together, and measuring from one to four inches
in length. It is not possible that the trout had taken this as food, and I
explain its occurrence in the following manner : On these plants, some
insect or larva had settled, the trout had eagerly rushed toward it,1 and
had seized the insect with the plant or portion of it. I was likewise
surprised to find in the stomachs of some individuals ripe eggs of the size
of pease, which, on closer examination, completely resembled the eggs
of the trout. I thought at first that these eggs had got in accidentally
while the fish was being dissected,2 but I soon changed my opinion.
These eggs occurred, as I found later, in other specimens, not only in
the stomach but also in the entrails of trout, but when in the entrails
always deprived of their contents by having been digested, the empty
shells being folded together. This circumstance proves that this vora-
cious fish devours the spawn of its own species.

Similar contents of stomach and entrails I found in ten other trout,
which I examined on the 6th December. In the entrails of one I found
besides, remnants of fish — vertebrae and bones enveloped in the reddish
mucus of the entrails. It was, of course, impossible to ascertain to what
species this fish belonged.

On the 14th December, I received fifteen, and on the 16th, eight trout-
stomachs. In examining these, I was at once struck by the fact that
the remnants of food had considerably diminished. I found a large
quantity of partly-digested trout-eggs and a number of phrygauid
cases, but very few parts of other insects. The cause of this striking
diminution of food was, no doubt, the change in the weather. Till the
18th of December we had had mild sunny weather, but from that date
there had been considerable frosts. Two explanations of this diminu-
tion of food now became possible. The insects, larvse, &c, had either
sought a refuge from the severity of the weather in hidden nooks where
they were safe from the persecutions of the trout, or the lower tempera-
ture had diminished the liveliness of the trout and their desire for food.
The most probable explanation is that the two circumstances combined
in diminishing the quantity of food taken. On the 7th January, 1874,
I examined the last thirteen trout. The result, on the whole, was the
same as in the first instance. The weather had again become somewhat
milder, and the remnants of food had consequently increased. In two
of these trout, I at last found distinct remains of a fish. In one, I
found scales, bones, and barbels ; in the other, the tolerably well-pre-
served skeleton of a small fish. In this latter, the whole vertebral col-
umn, with portions of the bones and of the head, with three barbels,
)tad been preserved ; the total length of the skeleton was about four
inches. The trout in which I found this fish was about ten inches long,

1 It is well known that the troat, when rushing toward the bait, also devours the
hook. Valenciennes, op. cit., p. 330.

9 In dissecting the entrails, it occasionally happens that fresh scales of the same or
ether fish get in the oesophagus.

756 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

and the larger portion of the fish stuck in the lower half of the oesoph-
agus,1 as there was no room for it in the stomach. From the charac-
ter of the skeleton, I feel justified in inferring that the fish was a Cobitis
barbatula, which, like the trout, loves clear running water.

Quite recently, (I Oth June, 1874,) I succeeded, through the kindness of
a friend, in getting six stomachs of trout which had been caught in the
Kyll near Gerolstein. The examination of the stomach and entrails
showed entirely different results from those of trout which had been caught
during the spawning-season. In the first, I found four cases of Phry-
ganidw, which were shorter and thinner than those which I had obtained
in winter; in the second, I found one hundred and thirty-six such cases,
one insect, (half digested,) one dragon-fly's wing, and the remains of a
fish ; in the third, five hundred and eighty-five (!) cases, one insect, and the
scale of a fish ; in the fourth, one hundred and sixteen cases, one insect,
and the remains of a fish ; in the fifth, one hundred and eighty-six
cases and the flower of a graminaceous plant ; in the sixth, one hun-
dred and fifteen cases, a small caterpillar, a number of fish-eggs, and
the lower half of a small fish about four inches in length. The cases
of the Phryganidse were found in all the stomachs, and also in the
entrails; in one, the intestinal canal as far as the anus was completely
stuffed with these cases. I should expressly state that all these six fishes
were well fed.

It follows from this that the trout takes much more food before than
during the spawning-season, but that even during that season its
chief food does not consist of small fish but of insects and their larvse.
I draw from this the further conclusion that the quality of the flesh of
the trout does not deteriorate by this insect- diet, but that the delicacy
of its flavor is heightened.

The results of these investigations therefore in general agree with the
statements of other authors. Giinther2 says : " The trout is a very
voracious fish, and its food consists, besides insects, their larvae, and
worms, particularly (?) of young fish." Valenciennes,3 Heclcel* and Kner
make similar statements.

If from these investigations I now draw a conclusion as to whether
the fishing for " Eiimpchen" is injurious or not, I find that among the
fifty-three trout which had been caught during the spawning-season
there were three which had eaten fish, and among the six caught before
the spawning-season there were four whose stomachs contained remains
of fish. The fish, at any rate, formed but a very small portion of the
food. If I now assume as highly probable that these fish belonged to

1 " This part of the digestive organs lying immediately in front of the first curvature
takes the part of a stomach, and digestion in it becomes far advanced." — Kner, " Ueber
die Miigen und Blinddiirme der Salmoniden," in the " Sitzungsberichte der Kaiser-
lichen Akademie der Wissenschaften," vol. viiit 1852, p. 203.

2 Giinther, Die Fische des Neckars, Stuttgart, 1853, p. 116.

3 Valenciennes, op. cit., p. 330.

4 Bedel and Kner, op. cit., p. 252.

THE SALMON, THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 757

the genera Cobitis, Phoxmus, Leuciscus, or some other of the " Eumpchen"
kind, the catching of these fish would in the worst case only deprive
the trout of a comparatively small amount of food. And as the trout are
flourishing, even if they feed almost exclusively on insects, it follows
that they can live without any fish-food, and that no particular harm is
done by the catching of the " Etimpchen." In conclusion, I will give the
result of investigations which I have made regarding the food of the
"Maifisch," (Alausa vulgaris,) so as to enable us to pass a final judg-
ment on the fishing of " Riimpchen."

III.

The food of Alausa vulgaris while in the Ehine.

The three species spoken of above belong to the family of the Saluion-
oids, while the Alausa vulgaris is a representative of the Clupeoid fam-
ily.1 The " Maifisch " takes its German name from the month during
which it ascends the Ehine for the purpose of spawning, and during
which it is mostly caught. It is not so highly esteemed as an article of
food as the salmon, but its flesh still forms a favorite and valuable food,
so that the question whether by the catching of the " Eiimpchen " it is
deprived of food well deserves an answer based on scientific investiga-
tions. Till quite recently, the " Maifisch " (Alausa vulgaris) was identified
with the " Finte :? ( Alausa finta) — even by Heclcel and Kner. Cuvier2 and
other ichthyologists had tried to show certain differences between the
two, but Valenciennes3 had showed these to be untenable, and therefore
declared that both fish were one and the same species, viz, Alausa
vulgaris. But since Troschel4 has examined these fish more thoroughly,
and has shown the actual differences between them, it has become possi-
ble to distinguish them. The chief difference is in the gills ; Alausa
vulgaris has, on the first branchial arch, 99 to 118 long, slender, and
thin lamella?; on the second, 96 to 112 ; on the third, 74 to 88; and on
the fourth, 50 to G5 ; while Alausa finta has, on the first and second
arch, only 39 to 43 short and thick protuberances ; on the third, 33 to
31 ; and on the fourth, 23 to 27.

The flesh of the Alausa finta has a bad odor, and is not nearly as fat
and delicately-flavored as that of Alausa vulgaris ,5 so that the fishermen

1 As to the family and specific characters, see Meckel arid Kner, p. 228 ; Siebold, p. 328 ;
Valenciennes, vol. xx, 1847, p. 391.

2 Cuvier, Regno animal, tome ii, 1829, p. 319.
s Valenciennes, op. cit., p. 403.

4 Troschel, in Wiegmann's " Archiv fur Naturgeschichte," 1852, vol. i, p. 228, and
"Lehrbuch der Zoologie," 1859, p. 229 ; 7th ed., 1871, p. 268.

5 Siebold, op. cit., p. 334, erroneously doubts whether the difference in flavor between
Alausa vulgaris and Alausa finta has anything to do with the specific differences of the
fishes. Not only after the spawing, but also during the whole time of their sojourn iu
the Rhine, (therefore, also, at a time when they have not yet become worthless through
spawning,) the Alausa finia has poor flesh, so that many fish-dealers do not keep it at all.

758 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES.

do not esteem it at all. As the Alausa finta, consequently, does not come
within the scope of my observations,1 1 have confined myself to the
examination of the food of Alausa vulgaris.

In the above-mentioned authors, I find no statement regarding the
food of Alausa vulgaris. Only Giinther (who, however, had not been
able to examine any of those which occur in the Neckar, p. 121) says,
{p. 124:) "The food of the 'Maifisch' consists chiefly of worms and in-
sects. It is said, however, that it can also be caught with boiled pease."
It will be seen from the following in how far he is right.

The first two stomachs of Alausa vulgaris I received on the 3d May;
later I gradually got eighteen more, so that the total number of speci-
mens which I examined was twenty. The result was, on the whole, the
same in all. In most of them, I found that the stomach had some con-
tents; only in a few I found little or nothing. The examination of the
contents showed the following : Inside the stomach proper, which was
strongly contracted, there was a cylindrical mass, pointed at the lower
end, toward the pylorus; it seemed to consist of a stringy, white mu-
cus, and showed the impression of the folds of the stomach. By a longi-
tudinal section, the inside was laid open, and it became evident that the
mucus only formed an outer covering, enveloping a reddish or gray
grained substance. The microscopic examination of this substance
showed a large number of remnants of diminutive animal organs and
well-developed cell-like formations. As regards the former, I recognized
tarsi, antennae, &c, of microscopic entomostracans and other crustace-
ans. Occasionally, I found larger connected parts of these diminutive
animals. It is possible that these tarsi, &c, belonged to insects; but I
have never been able to find wings or parts of the skeleton, &c., of an
insect. I must also state that I have not found remains of fish in any
of the specimens which I examined.

Among the cell-like formations which I found in the stomach of
Alausa vulgaris, there were (as shown by a microscopic examination)
two varieties, a ball-shaped one and a tube-shaped one. In the ball-
shaped ones, I recognized animal eggs (probably of Ascaris adunca,
. which is found in large quantities in the stomach of the " Maifisch");
the tube shaped ones seemed to be encysted embryos of nematoids.
But as I could not bring my investigations of this point to a final con-
clusion, and as its further discussion goes beyond the aim of this trea-
tise, I confine myself to what has been said above.

conclusion.

Nothing remains but to give a brief resume of these investigations
and their results, so as to definitely answer the question whether or not
the catching of "Eiimpchen" is injurious to other fishes.

1 In examining the question as to whether the catching of the " Riimpcheu " is injuri-
ous to other fish, only such fish can he spoken of which exceed the "Riimpchcn" in
quality; for one certainly -would not think of sparing the " Eiimpchen," e. g., for the
pike.

THE SALMON, THE TROUT, AND THE SHAD. 759

Of the valuable fishes which, coming from the sea, ascend the Rhine and
its tributaries, (Trutta salar, Trutta trutta, and Alausa vulgaris.) the two
first-mentioned species do not eat anything, and the third only crusta-
ceans and insects. The young salmon living in the Ehine seem to show
a preference for the " Eiimpchen" as an article of food ; but they only
spend that part of their life in fresh water when they are too small to
hunt for " Eiiinpchen." The food of Trutta fario consists chiefly of
insects and their larvas, and only to a small extent of small fish which
must be classed with the " Eiimpchen." By the catching of the " Eiimp-
chen," only a small portion therefore of the young salmon and the trout
are to a limited extent deprived of food. Since, therefore, as Troschel
has shown, no valuable young fish are destroyed by the fishing of
" Eiimpchen," since thereby the more valuable large fish are not deprived
of any absolutely necessary food, and since, finally, the "Eiimpchen"
form a good and well-flavored article of food, thus amply making up for
the damage which their being fished may do to the great fisheries, I
must declare the fishing of " BUmpcken " to ~be entirely harmless.

IISTDEX.

Pago.

Abramis ballerus 62

brama 015

Abundarce of salmon 531

Acanthophora 694

Acclimatization 583

Acetabnlaria 712

Acipenser guldenstiidt ii 61

huso 58,02

ruthenus 44,62,617

stellatus 61,67

Acrotylus 701

iEliauus 7

Agarum ., 708

turneri 716

Agassiz, Professor, 221, 272, 274,281,314,

738, 740

Abnfeltia 700

Ah Sing, Chinese 437, 465

Alaria 707

esculenta 716

Alausa finta 757

vulgaris 737

food of 757

Albertus Magnus on reproduction of

the eel 725

Albarnus lucidus 615, 737

Aldrovandi's list of fishes 8

Algae 691

Allen, Mr. George 403,460

Alosa reevesii 481

vulgaris 331

Alsidium 094

Aluminum tag for marking 490

Amansia 091

Ambrosius, D 12

Ammody tes Iancea 45, 222

tobianus 741,748

Amphiroa 090,715

Anadyomene 712

Anchovies 151, 154, 183

Anderson, Mr 130,137,403

Mr. Aron 157

Mr. A. A 324,328,331

Mr. G.A 327

Mr. Johann 105

Mr.O.A 437

Pago.

Angora sheep 278

Anguilla vulgaris 014

Aporrhais occidentals 088

Apparatus for changing the water. . 391
hatching shad-ova, 338, 372

Appendices pyloricce 742, 744

Appendix A 1

B 321

C 539

D 569

E 085

A quaria for investigation 100

Aquarium at Arcachon 004

Berlin, Vienna, &c .. . 004

car, California 385

indispensable for
transporting lob-
sters 265

second California . . 477

, Arcachon, aquarium at 004

Arctic Ocean fisheries 44

Areuicola piscatorum 45

Aristoteies on reproduction of the

eel 725

Arnold. Hon. Elisha 533

Mr 532

Mr. Silas 533

Artedi,Mr 603

Arthrocladia 709

Arthrocladiese 709

Artificial fish-breeding 580

Ascaris adunca 758

Ascidia callosa 688

Ascothamnion 712

Asellus or squamus 12

Ash worth, Mr. Thomas 584

Asperococcese 708

Asperococcus 708

Aspius clupeoides 61

Astacus fluviatilis ., 224, 017

Asterias vulgaris 089

Astrogonium phrygianum 089

Atkins, Mr. C. G 421,422,485

Atlas maritimus et commercialis — 105

Aubert, Prof 729

Audouin, Mr 98

762

INDEX.

Page.

Au Sable Eiver 539

Australia, fish-eggs from England.. 534

fishery-laws in 571, 643

fish-markets " 600

Austria, pisciculture in 589

salt-water fisheries 674

Austrian fisheries, former condition

of 575

present condition 576

Autumn-herring 129

Avery, United States minister 4S1

Bache, dredgings by steamer 687

Baden,, a joint-stock company in . . . 587

fishery -laws in C31

Baer.Mr 63

Baird, Prof. Spencer F. .25, 35, 100, 107, 2.39,

271, 328, 330, 332, 351,

362, 385, 386, 390, 434,

571, 687

Bait for lino-fishing 7

in net-fishing 7

Baltimore's oyster-business 310

Balyk, manufacture of 88

Bangia 704

Barbusfluviatilis 615,737

Barfurth, Mr. D 735

Barren salmon 749

Barrow, Mr. S. H 356

Baskets for catching lobsters 229, 233

Batrachospermeoj 699

Bavaria, fishery-laws in 630

Bavarian salmon 587

Beardslce, Comdr. L. A 329, 363

Beckwith, Mr 276

Bell, Mr. Charles 338, 374

Berlin, aquarium at 604

Fiseherei-verein 588

Bertram, Mr. James G 746

Besley, Mr. Joseph 356

Beta, Mr. H 585,603,610

Beyer, Absalom Pedersen 117, 121

Bixby, Dr. George F 540

Black-fish 379

Blank form A 563,566

B 564,567

C 565,468

Blocb.Mr 106,560,740,742

Blodgettia ' 712

Boeck, A., and O. Sars, Messrs 195

Boeck, Mr. Axel . . .26, 97, 100, 103, 105, 115,

120, 127, 136, 139, 145,

195,199,204,223

Prof. C 245,246

Page.

Bohemia's lake-culture 595

Borne, Mr. von dem 631, 749

Bose's Dictionary of Fisheries 560

Boston's oyster-business 300

Bostrychia 692

Bow-net 174, 175

Brackett, Commissioner 337

Mr. E. A 421,422

Brehm, Mr 603,604

Brenner, Mr 744,753

Briggs, Mr. S. A „,„ 367

Broca, Lieut. P. de 169, 271, 277, 286

Brook-trout : 609

Brown, Mr. William 750

Bryan, Mr. O. N 356

Bryopsis 711

Bryothamnion 694

Buckland and Walpole, Messrs 585

Buckland, Mr 749

Bucksport, temperature observa-
tions at 506, 530

Budstikken for catching lobsters.. 228

Buffon, Mr 3,4

Bull-head 380

Burkardt, Mr 272,319

Buying-off of fishing-privileges .... 665

Bystrom, Dr. C 34

California aquarium-car 385

second 477

operations in, 1873 377

operations in, 1S74 437

salmon, hatching 431, 434

transportation of lobsters

to 259

Calliblepharis 696

Callithamnion 703

Callophyllis 700

Calotkrix 714

Cambridge Museu m 281

Campbell, Mr 467

Camp-buildings 443

Canadian oyster 288

Canned oysters 292

Carabus 748

Carassus vulgaris 615

Care cf fish during transporta-
tion 391

for shad on board 333

Carinthia, area of fishing-waters.. . 602

Carp, culture of 549

culture in East Prussia 552

Carp family 614,682

from Hamburg 481

INDEX.

763

Page.

Carp inEngland 279

ponds — 549, 551, 555

Caspian Sea, fishing and seal-hunt-
ing 58

fishing-basins 64

seal-hunting 92

spawning of the fish . . ' > !
value of the fisheries. Co-
wealth of fish in 62

Cassianus bassus 7

Castagnea 708

Casting-net, model and price of 174

Catawella 702

Catch i og lobsters 228

the parent salmon 403

Cat-fish / 351

family G13

Caulerpa 711

Cause of decrease of salmon 534,538

Caves in limestone mountains 462

Caviar and isinglass 617

manufacture of 84

Cay-wood, Mr. Joseph 356

Cederstrom, Baron C. G 34

Mr. G.C 135,136

Centroceras 702

Ceramium 702

Ceramieaa 702

Cerianthus borealis 689

Chajtomorpha 714

Chainsedoris 712

Champia - - - - 698

Chantransia =.- 705

Chapman, Dr. Pearson 351

Mr. John H 356

Charley's, Empire, petition 467

Chase, Mr. Oreu 353

Chase of the white orca 55

Chinese fishing in Sacramento 384

pisciculture 4

Chlorodesmis 711

Chlorosporos 711

Chondria 694

Chondrus 701

crispus 716

Chorda 708

Chordaria 708

Chordar iece 708

Chrysymenia 697, 698, 701

Chy, (silver sides) 379

Chylocladia 695,698

Chylocladiea? 695

Cladophora 713

Cladostephus 709

Page.

Clam-bakes 315

beds 314

rakes 317

the round 272,316

the soft 272,313

Ciams, natural history of 313

as bait. 316

in Boston Harbor 344

Claxk, Frank N.3 and H. E. Quin .... 337

Clear Lake 377, 378

Clif t, Mr. William 332

Close time for lobster-catehing in

Norway 253,254

Clupea alba 126

bahusica 133

cimbrica 126

harengus 37, 183

harengus (3 membras 125

leachii 126

majalis 128

membras 126

schoneveldi 143, 146

sprattus 146, 183

sprattus (Brisling) 196

Cobit is barbatula 735, 737, 756

Cocculus indicus 579

Cod family 12, 613

Codfish-chase of herrings Ill

mixed with the herrings. . . Ill

spawning, &c 213

Codium 711

Cold Creek 378

Collections sent to the Smithsonian

Institution 424,474

Commachio, fish-colony 5

Concarneau, institution at 604

Concholooloo, Indian chief 467

Conditions unfavorable to fisheries, 576, 577

Conger vulgaris 725

Congress, statistical 601

Conklin, Mr. E 437

Connecticut's laws on oyster-fishing. 294

Connecticut River station 337

Consignments of salmon-eggs, table

of 441

Constantinea 700

Contributions to the herring-ques-
tion, new 195

Cook, Captain 353,362

Cooke,Mr.C 690

Corallina 696

officinalis 717

Corallinese 696

Cordylecladia 696

764

INDEX.

Pago.
Coregonns 608,612

albus

leuciclithya .

omul

polkur.

378

44

44

44

Wartinanni 590,612

Cornelius, Mr 745,752

Correspondence relating to the San

Joaquin River 479

Corymorpha 689

Corynomorpha 701

Costaria 707

Coste.Mr 4,19,271,272,274,284,604

Cost of salmon-eggs 420, 443

Cottus gobio 735,737

Crawfish, the - 617

Crivelli, Prof. G. Balsamo, on repro-
duction of the eel 728

Crouania - 703

Crooks, Mr 408

Cross-breeding 591

breeds of salmon 612

Crnstaceous animals food for her-
rings 1) 187

Cryptococcus 715

Cryptonemia 701

CryptonemieEB 701

Ctenodiscus crispatus 689

Culture of oysters 296

the carp 549

Cunningham, Mr 356

Cup-coral 690

Custom-regulations for lobster-trado 240

Cuttle-fish against herring 118

Cuvier,Mr 738,757

and Valenciennes, Messrs., 102, 107,

109

Cyanophycese

Cympolia

Cyprina islandica 689

Cyprinidse 538

species of 541

Cyprinus carpio 61, 614

Cyprinus orfus 559, 561

Cystoclonium 700

Cy stophora cristata 52

Czornig, Mr 601

Dahl, Mr 201

Dalyell, Sir John Graham 225

Dambeck, Mr. Carl 21

Danilevsky, Mr 63,66

Dasya 691

Dasycladiese 712

Dasycladus 712

714
712

Page.

Decapoda mocroura 748

Decrease of fishes 360

De laBlanchere 162

Delaware's laws on oyster-fishing.. , 295

Delesseria 695

Delphinapterus leucas 53,55

Deltocyathus 690

Denmark, fishery-statistics from 22

Suekkersteen and Skot-

terup in 173

Sweden, and Norway, fish-
ery-laws in 637

Desmarestia 710

Desinarestiece 71Q

Deutsche Fischerei-Verein 600, 623, 681

Dictyoneuron 707

Dictyota . 705

Dictyoteoe 705

Dictyosphoeria 712

Dictyosiphon 710

Dictyosiphonere 710

Digenia 694

Directions for using blanks for re-
cording the propagation, &c 563

Disappearance of the salmon 534

Distribution of salmon-eggs 423

salmon, table 433

Distributing-spout 414

Dodd, Mr 105,136

Dog-fish or mustelus 720, 722

nets for herring 156

Drag, for oysters 292

Drag-nets for herring 157

Drift-nets 382

Dubb, Dr. P, 125, 136, 137, 144, 148, 155, 162

Duffy, Mr. James 450,456

Duke of Richmond 585

Dumontiese 702

Duncan, Dr 690

Dutch manner of preparing Baltic

herring 192

Eaton, Mr. Benjamin 403

Eberhard, Dr 729

Ectocarpeoo 709

Ectocarpus 709

Edenhjelm.Mr. G 142

Edwards, Capt. Vinal 386

Eel-trap 174,175

Eels, organs of reproduction 719,725

ovaries of the 730

spermatic organs of the 732

the 614

Eggs, cost of 420,443

death by suffocation '. 415

INDEX.

765

Page.
Eggs, death from direct rays of the

sun 41G

from diffused light of

the srtn 416

from inherent causes.. 417
from excessive agita-
tion 417

from want of i mpregna-

tion 417

of cod, dark spot on 216

Penobscot salmon suffered

severely 489

sbad preparing for the trip

to Germany 339

packing 448

and shipping 419

taking and ripening... 447

to he kept cold 450

two millions obtained 418

Ekman, Mr. F 147

Ekstrom, Mr 102,128,132,142,155,

166, 164

Elachista 709

Elliott, Mr. W. M 351

William H 356

Elsinore, exhibition of fishing-im-
plements at 173

Eisner on reproduction of the eel . . . 726

Endocladia 701

Enemies to young fish 581, 582

Enteromorpha 712

Ereolaui, Prof. G. B., on reproduc-
tion of the eel 728

Eris, Mr. von 227

Erslev, Mr. Jacob 183

Erythrotrichia 705

Esox lucius 61

Eucheuma 697

isiforme 716

Euthora 698

Exhibition of fishing-implements at

Elsinore, 1872 173

to promote fish-culture. 605

Expenses for investigations 167

Experiments on treating mollusks.. 275
with a view of trans-
porting shad a long

distance 338,363

with shad of greater
age as to transporta-
tion 370

with water 400

Explosives for catching fish 579

Export of lobsters 242

Page.

Fagraeus, Dr 136

FuhraBus, Mr. O. 1 153, 160, 163

Fairfax, Mr. J. W 336

Fario argenteus 738,741

Farlow, Dr. W. G 691

Fathering 196,206

Faunce, Mr. Conrad 356

Mr.J.D 336

Mr. Jacob 356

Feddersen, Mr. A 97,183

Feeding fish 591

young fish 583

Ferguson, Mr. T. B 351

Ferry Landing, Va., shad-hatching

operations in 1875 346

Fe"russac, Mr. de 272

Fichtner, Mr 593

Fiedler, H. V 3,97,183,224

Field-work in the winter, 1872-73. 377

Figuier, Mr 741

Filtering-boxes 414

Finsch, Dr. Otto 324,330

Fish and mollusks, advantage of in-
troducing 280

breeding, artificial 580

caught at Salzburg in 1804 654

culture 539

found in the Caspian Sea .... 58

gigs 80

glue from scales 87

increase of 280,281

in Washington Market 357

oyster, and snail ponds 18

preparations in ancient Greece 6

preparing, (arctic) 47

preparing 82

selling at Athens 5

selling in Vienna 5

thieves 579

ways not successful for shad.. 324
Fisheries and fishery -laws in Austria 571
and seal-hunting in the
White Sea, Arctic Ocean,

&c 35

at Novaya-Zemlya 52

in the Arctic Ocean 44,49

in the territory of the
T6rek Cossacks and of
the inhabitants of Man-

gyschlak 67

in the territory of the Ural

Cossacks 67

in the Kattegat 33

of Norway 25

- .-•

G6

INDEX.

Fisheries of the ancient Greeks and

Romans 3

on the Monrman coast 44

progress of foreign 585

time and place of herring - 150

Fishery-laws 610, 643

laws not enforced 360

legislation, object of 573

products, value of 598, 602

shores abandoned 358

statistics 60 1

treaties, international 669

Fishes in China 546

in Clear Lake, list of 378

Fishing and seal-hunting in the Cas-
pian Sea 58

basins in the Caspian Sea.. 64

by torch-light 8

implements 45

implements, (Caspian Sea). 72

implements for herring 154

implements at Elsinore 180

lines on exhibition at Elsi-
nore 176

privileges 618,643

privileges, buyirig-off of 605

Flies, artificial 8

Floating trout 609

Florideao 691

incertsB sedis 705

Flounder-net 1804

Flume, the 414

Folleville, Marquis do 586

Food and mode of living of the

salmon. &c 735

fishes in Washington Market,

names of 357

for herring 186

for the fish during transporta-
tion 394

of alausa vulgaris 757

of trutta fario 753

Forbcs,Mr. E. C 437

Foreign fisheries 585

fishermen complained of. . 358

Forests kept the water cool 536

P'orrest, Captain 352

Fournier, Mr 318

France, fishery -laws in 635

fishery-statistics from 24

Free Stone Point, Va., shad-batch-
ing operations in 1875 343

French fisheries.

386

Fresh- water fishes, important 605

Page.

Fric, Dr 596, 60:5, 607, 632

Friedel, District Judge 600

Frog eats spawn 554

Frost.Mr 3C6

Fry-fishing in China 543

food for, (China) 546

price of 1 . . . i . . . 546

selling for breeding in China.. 544

Fucaceae 706

Fucus...... 706,715

furcatu3 716

nodosus 716

vesiculosus 716

Fyke-net fishing 383

Gadus seglefinus 45,47,220

carbonarius 222

merluccius 12

morrhua 45, 47,213

navaga 43

virens 45, 47

Galenus 16

on oysters 20

Galicia fisheries 595

Gal way, salmon-f actory in 584

Game on McCloud River 468

Gartenlaube, Die 729

Garum sociorurn 16

Gasterosteus aculeatus 748

Gee,Mr 353

Gchin and Remy, Messrs 586

Gelidiese 697

Gelidium 697

Gernmn fisheries 587

Piscicultural Society 561,588

Germany, fishery-statistics from 22

Geryon 690

Gesner, Conrad, on reproduction of

the eel 726

Gessner's Natural History 560

Gibson, heirs, John 356

Gigartina 700

mammilosa 716

Gigartineas 699

Gili.Theo ..... 736

Gilliland, Mr. William 532

Gilpin, Mr. John 106

Guy, Mr. James 356

Glauzl.Mr 594

Gloiopeltis 701

Gloiosiphonia 703

Glycomeris siliqua 689

Gobio fluviatilis 735,737

Gohren, Professor 598

Gold-orfe, the 559,561

INDEX.

767

Page.
Gokl-orfe, correspondence about... 561

Goldsborough, Admiral 362

Goniotricbum *05

Goode, Mr. G. Brown 351,363

Gould, Dr 283, 287, 314, 316, 687

Gonrumi 281

from Cbina 481

Graabensild 199

Gracilaria *. 696

Grass-herring 129, 154

Grateloupia 702

Great Britain and Ireland, fishery-
statistics from 23

fisheries in 585

fisbery-la ws in 638

Salt Lake and tributaries.. . 434
Greeks and Romans, fisheries of the

ancient 3

Green, Mr. Monroe A 323, 338, 339, 386

Mr.Myron,386, 387, 399, 404, 410, 437

Mr. Price 356

Setb 332.391, 420, 421, 448

Griebner, Mr. Ernst 596

Griffitbsia 703,715

Grinnellia 695

Griswold, Mr. C. D 363, 370

Gjertsen,Mr 242,248

Grube, Professor, on reproduction of

tbe eel 729

Gulf of Maine, dredgings in 687

Giintber, Mr 738, 739, 745, 750, 756, 758

Gymnogongrus 699

Haddock-catching 176, 180

Hag-fish 689

Haiser, Mr. J 356

Halibut at Newfoundland Bank 170

fishery of the United States. 169

in New England 170

line 180

prejudice of the French.

against 170

Halidrys 708

Halimeda 711

Halosaccion 702

Halurus...., 703

Halymenia 701

Halyseris 705

Hameln, establishment at 583

Hansen, Andr., and H. Hansen 288

Hatching and distribution of Cali-
fornia salmon 431, 434

apparatus, (salmon) 411

in 1874 444

415

the eggs.

Page.

Hatching-troughs 414

works at Kelhey Mills . . . 377

Havens, Mr. C. B 389,398

Hawkins, Capt. John 278

Heckel, Mr 741

and Kner's work 602, 603

Kner, Messrs .... 733, 742, 756

Hellbrun, establishment at 590

Helminthora 699

Hemionns, or wild ass 278

Hemp preferable for dipping-bags. 485

Henderson, Mr. D. G 358

Herbst.Mr 234

Hermaphrodites 720, 725

Herring, the 37

and small-heri'iug,different

species 125

as an article of trade 183

catcher 176

cause of disappearing .... 116, 138

common salt Baltic 183

preparation of : 183

crustacean 209

delikatess 188

difference between great

and spring 113

difference between young

and old 112

. driven off by noise or strong

light 118

fisheries, implements 38

Norwegian 97

in Sweden 32

on the coast of

Sweden 123

organization 37

scientific obser-
vations, &c .. . 165
table of contents. 168
time and place .150, 152

fishing implements 154

foodfor 186

growth of 186

inclosing of young in small

basins 188

insects (Gaueskar) as food . 148

migrations 147

markets for 191

mode of life 147

nets, large 154

middle-sized 155

small 154

old, (gamla) 133

preparation of extra-fine.. 192

768

INDEX.

Pago.
Herring, preparation of the spiced. 193

preparing 39, 188

price of 191

propagation and growth . . 143
question, new contribu-

. tions 195

re-appearance of the old.. 137
roe as fertilizer and food

for hogs 112

sea 128,130

seine-fishing of 188

smoking of 40

spawning-places of 187

spawning-time of 185

spawning in autumn. 29, 133, 151

spring 128

stationary nets for 156

theory of migrations 195,205

time for development of

spawn 188

wandering 128, 132

Hertzberg, Rev. C 110

Hey, Mr 602

Higgins,Mr 275,309

Highby, Mr. Levi 534

Hildenbrandtia 697

Himes,Prof. C.F 555

Hitch 379

Hippoglossus maximus 45

Holleuburg, establishment at 593

Holm, Governor 234,239

Homarus americanus 224,272

capensis 224

grammarus 223

vulgaris 267

Homer's Odyssey 4

Horak, Mr. Wenzel 595,681

Hormotrichum 714

Hornbaum-Hornschuch, on repro-
duction of the eel 728

Hough, F. B., M. D 359

Hoven, for catching shrimps 175

How can our own lakes and rivers

be again stocked with fish? 681

Howell, Captain 690

Hubbard, Richard D 437, 460

W.F 437,460

Huobo, ealmo 611

Hudson, Commissioner 337

River, shad from 337

Hue,Abb6 544

Hungary's fish-culture 597

Hiiningen, establishment at 586, 604

Page.
Hunting the walrus and the polar

bear 56

Huso,tbe 617

Hyalonema 688

Hyas aranea 689

Hydroclathrus 708

Hypnea 697

Hypnese 697

Ice-openings for carp's 557

Idaho red-fish 481

Important fresh-water fishes 605

Increase of fish 280,281

Indian grave-yard near camp 487

meal for oystero 299

sentiment on catching the

salmon 408

words, supplementary list . . 428

Ingersoll, Mr. John D 383,385

Inland fisheries, restoration of 571

International fishery-treaties 669

Introduction of clams recommend-
ed 318

Iodine manufacture 717

Ireck, trout-raising establishment

at 597

Iridffia 701

Isinglass, manufacture of 86

Italy, fishery-laws in 635

Jacobson, Mr. H 21,31,97,123,213

Jackson City, Va., shad-hatching

operations in 1875 344, 345

Jania 696

Jaqnes, Lieutenant 687

Jenkins, Mr 356

Jockisch, Mr .. 560

Johnson, Mr. Clinton 464

and Young, Messrs 259, 386

Josten , Mr 744

Journal, 1874, extracts from 468

of tbe trip to California .. 395

Jovius, Paul 11,12,17

Juel, Governor Povel 233,234,236

Keller, Wallis and Postlethwaite,

Messrs 331

Kelp 716,717

Kelsey Creek 378

Mills, hatching- works at . . . 377

Kent, Mr. Alexander 450, 456

Kiangsi, pisciculture in 543

Kinston, N. C, shad-hatching op-
erations in 1875 340, 341

Kirsch,Mr.M 559

Kjelland & Son, Messrs 101,239

INDEX.

769

Page.

Kner, Mr. R 739

Knight, Mr. William 356

Koch, Dr 617

Konow, Consul Carl 101

Kopach, Mr. H 543

Kottl,Mr 593

Kraft, Lieutenant 99

Krdyer, Professor 98,99, 107, 117, 126,

139, 143, 146

Kryger, Mr •> 228

KufferrMr 587,594

Kulla-herring 196

Lagaboter Magnus, law of 116

Lake and coast fisheries in Sweden. 31

Champlain, salmon of 531

dwellers 583

trout 609

Laminaria 707,715,716,717

flexicaulis 717

longicruris 717

saccharina 717

LaniinariesB 707

Lamiral, Mr 281

Landmark, Judge 248

Lam prey-oil 90

Lampreys, pickling 61

Lauhat, Cointe de Ghassoloup 271

Laurencia 694

Laurencieae 691

Law regarding the protection of

lobsters 253

Laws on fishing in Norway 26

relating to oyster- fisheries. ..294, 295

Leathesia 709

Lecture on reproduction and fe-

cuudation of fishes 719

Leeuwenhoek on reproduction of

the eel 726

Legislation, protective 618

Leru,Mr 224

Lerperger, Mr 594

Leschinsky, Mr. A 403

Mr. J 403

Lessonia 707

Loth, Judge 236,238

Lette and Ronue, Messrs 618

Leuciscus orfus 562

rutilus 61,63,737

Liagora 699

Liciuian law 6

Liciuius mureua 19

Liebmannia 708

Life in camp 459

Liudes, Mi.Ludwig 597

49 F

Page,

Line-fishing by the Romans 7

Linnd, Carl 229

maintains that eels are vivi-
parous 726

Lisner, Mr 744,752

List of fishes in Greek and Latin

seas 8

McCloud Indian words 428, 429

useful sea-weeds 716

Lithothamnion , 697, 715

Liver, boiled, and grated as food.. - 435

Ljungman, Mr. Axel Vilhelm 123,167

Loberg, Mr. O. N 26, 125, 132, 137, 139

Mr.N 752

Lobster 17,281

artificial propagation of . .. 267
development of the embryos 226
fisheries, protection pro-
posed 248,251,253

fishery, Norwegian 223

impregnation of the roe 226

shedding the shell 227

trade, &c 232,240

trap.. 229

Lobsters, catching and shipping... 228

caught by crows 228

export of 242

keeping in an inclosed
sheet of water not prof-
itable 269

price of 231,233,235

transportation to Califor-
nia 259

Locations for planting fishes 433

Lofoten Islands 213

Logan, Dr. Thomas 479

Lolling, establishment at 594

Lorn, Judge 238,242,248

Lomax, Mr 356

Lomentaria 695,698

London fish-market 600

Lorange, Mr 268

Lorenz, Dr 598

Lota vulgaris 44,613

Lottsill 128,131

Loudon's Magazine 749

Louillet, Encyclopedie moderne 278

Low, F. F., United States minister. 481

Lubeck, fishery-laws in 633

Lucioperca 616

Luckett, Mr.. 356

Ludingtou, Mr. C 355

Lund, Mr. Hans G 243

Mr. Jochum Birch 241

770

INDEX.

Page.

Lundbeck, Mr 142

Lundsgaard, Mr. T 244, 248

Lyman, Mr. Theodore 221

Lyngbeya .- 714

McCloud River establishment 437

station 402

McCuing and Ticer, Messrs 356

McKewen,Mr 35G

Mackerel-nets 179

Ma coma proxima 688

Macrocystis 707

pyrifera 717

Mactra polynema 689

solidissima 272

Maine, dredgings in Gulf of 687

Malaga's tunny-fisheries 16

Mallotus arcticus 45

Malpigki, on reproduction of the

eel 726

Maltby, Mr 313

Mangold, Mr 752

Manufacture of balyk 88

caviar 84

isinglass 86

oil 89

seal-oil 95

veziga 87

Marine algae, list of 691

Marked salmon's return 607

Market-price of fish, &c 90

Marking salmon for future identifi-
cation 490

Marshall, Mr 279

Maryland's laws on oyster-fishing.. 295

Mason, Mr. Jonathan 336,343

Massachusetts' laws ahout oyster-
fishing 294

Mather, Mr. Fred.. .324. 328, 331, 336, 338,

342, 372

and Bell's apparatus 376

May -herring 129, 144, 150

Meigs, Mr 282

Melanosporse 705

Melobesia 697

Meltzer, Consul 248

Menhaden seines 357

Mercenaria violacea 316

Merchants' herring 199

Mesogloia 715

Microcladia ..: 702

Microcoleus 714

Migrations of the herring 195,205

of salmon, annual 538

theory of herrings 106, 107

Page.

Milbert, Mr 279

Miller, Mr 356

Milne-Edwards, Mr 98, 224

Miluer, Mr. James W..323, 326, 330, 351,

362, 372, 394

Minnow 735

Mirror-carp, the 615

Mitchell, Mr. J. M 148, 162

Jim, Indian chief 467

Mixed herring ..» 209

Mode of obtaining the oysters 292

Model of a casting-net 174

a transport-boat 173

fishing-boats 174

Mohn, Professor 211

meteorological ob-
servations of 206

Mohr's Islandske Naturhistorie 224

Molin, Mr. R., Professor 585,603

Mollersdorf, law-book of 643

Molpadia oolitica 688

Monsen, chief pilot 248

Montague. Mr. S. S 479

Montholon, Mr. de 272

Moore, Smith & Co., Messrs 356

Moosbrunnen, establishment at 594

Moravia's fisheries 596

Morch, Mr. Jacob 232

Moriniero, Noel de la 4, 7, 13, 20

Mormy rus of the Nile, the 15

Moseley, Mr. Alexander 351

Moss for packing 419

to be obtained and prepared.. 460

Monrman coast, fisheries .-. . 44

Moxley Point, Md., shad-hatching

operations in 1875 347

Mud-fish, mud-sucker 379

Miiller, Otto, on reproduction of the

eel 726

Mullet, the 9

Mundini, Carlo, discovers the ovary

of the eel 726

Munich Fishing-Society 561

Munter, Professor. 99, 104, 107, 196

on reproduction of

the eel 729

Muraema, the 11

helena 726

Mya arenaria 271, 272, 313

Myrionema 709

Myrioneineae 709

Myriotrichia 709

Mysis vulgaris 748

Mytilus edulis 272

INDEX

771

Pago.

Myxine limosa 689

Natural History 685

Navaga, the 43

Neinaber, Captain 331, 333

Neighbors of the camp 466

Nemalion 699

Nemastorua 702

Nereocystis 707

Liitkeana 717

Netherclif t, Mr. Walter 480

Nets for catching herrings 178

for catching horn-hsh 178

for catching mackerel 179

for catching porpoises 180

rivalry of 357,358

Neuroglossum 696

Neuse River station 335

New Haven's and Fair Haven's oys-
ter-business 305

New Jersey, shad-hatching in 327

New Jersey's laws on oyster-fish-
ing .* 295

New York's laws on oyster Ashing. 294

oyster-business 303

Nicolayseri, Mr. N 101

Nillson's and Ekstrom's report 198

Nilsson, Professor .... 98, 107, 116, 120, 125,
128, 134, 136, 139, 158

Nitophyllum 695

North America, fishery-statistics

from 24

North Atlantic fisheries 21

North German Lloyd 324, 330

Northern oyster 287

Norway, fishery-statistics from 21,25

Norwegian government commission 213

herring-fisheries 97

lobster-fishery 223

Nostochinea? 715

Novuja-Zemlya fisheries 52

Object of fishery-legislation 573

O'Conner, Mr 466

Odonthalia 693

Oelrichs & Co., Messrs 324, 330, 333

Oetker,Mr 229

Oftedahl.Mr 243

Oil, manufacture of 89

preparing the 57

Oken's Natural History 560

Old fishing-laws in Austria 643

Olrik.Mr 240

01sen,Mr 268

01sson,Mr. P 748

0'Neil,Mr 482

Page.

Oppianus 7, 13, 17

Optatus, Elipertius 279

Orca, chase of the white 55

Organs of reproduction 719,720

Oscillarieas 714

Osgood, Mr. Edward H 387

Osmerus eperlanus 44

Ostrea borealis 286

canadensis 285

virginiana 286

Ostriculture 285

Ovaries of the eel 730

Overland journey with live shad .. 390

trip with salmon-eggs.. .. 421
trip with salmon-eggs in

1874 449

Oxe, Mr. Pierre 279

Oyster beds 297

business, the 302

cultivation in France 5H6

culture 19

houses 290

industries of theUnited States 271

of Virginia 287

opening 307,310

plantations, laws concerning 299

planting 298

shells, use of 292

soup or stew 290

statistics 311,312

trade in 1859 282

Oysters, culture of . 296

fattening, by Indian meal. 299

mode of obtaining 292

of the United States 286

price of 291

Packard, Dr. A.S.J r 687

Packing and shipping the eggs 419

boxes and crates 460

the eggs 448

method discussed 420

Padina 705

Palangres, cable-lines, and bottom-
lines 78

Palrnellese 715

Pamunkey River station 336

Parmentier, Mr 278

Parthenogenesis of tho eel 725,729

Pecten coucentricus 272

Penicillus 712

Pennant.Mr 136

Penobscot salmon 485

Perca fiuviatilis 616

Perch 379

772

INDEX.

Page.

Perch family 616

white 351

yellow 351

Peron and Lesueur. Messrs 279

Perriii, Mr. M. L 259, 265, 437, 449, 459

Mr. W. S 386, 387, 397, 399

Petrocelis 715

Petromyzon flnviatilis 44,61

Peyrer, Mr. Carl 571

Peyssonnelia 698

PhreosporeaB 707

Philbert, Mr 279

Phoca caspica 92

anneallta 52

barbata 52

groenlandiea 52

vituliua 52

Phoxinus Isevis 735, 737

Phrygauidso 756

Phyllitis 710

Phyllophora '. 699,706

Pickled lamprey 61

oysters 291

Pike, Mr. R. G 421,457

Pike, an enemy to carps 549

family, the 613

Pikea 698

Pisciculture in Kiangsi 543

Planz & Sunt, Messrs 239

Pleiuonectes fiesus 43, 45

platessa 43, 45

Pliny on oysters 20

on reproduction of the eel.. . 725

Plocamium 698

Ploug & Sundt, Messrs 101

Polyides 696

Polysiphonia 692

Harveyi 716

Pomolobus mediocris 355

Ponds, fish, oyster, and snail 18

Pontoppidan, Mr 225, 229, 232

Poppy, Mr 481

Porpbyra 704

Porphyrese 704

Porphyria vulgaris 716

Postelsia 707

Potato introduced from America.. . 278

Potomac River station 336

fisheries 351, 355

former yield of. . . 354

Poulsen, Dr 224

Pound-nets to be encouraged 361

Pourtales, Count 690

Page.

Predacious fish in carp-ponds 554

Preparation of herring for trade.. . 183
extra fine herring.. 192
the common Baltic

herring 189

the spiced herring.. 193

Price of fish in Vienna 599

herring 191

small-herring 153

Prices of a casting-net 174

Prionitis 701

Profits from oyster-shells 292

Propagation and distribution of

shad 323,335

and growth of herring 143
of tbe lobster, artifi-
cial 267

Protection of lobster-fisheries, 248, 251,253

Protective legislation 618

Protococcus 715

Prussia, (East,) carp-culture in 552

fishery-laws in 619

Pfcerygophora 707

Ptilota 703

Punctaria 710

Punctariese 710

Purchase of breeding-salmon 486

Purse-net for herring 157

Quinn, Mr 340

Raiuer, Mr 356

Raja 721,722,723

Rake for oysters 292

Ralfsia 708,715

Rantzau, Couut 238

Rasch, H., and Berg, B. M., Messrs . 130, 147

151, 155, 160

Professor 250, 268

Rathke, Professor 118, 245, 247

on reproduction of the eel, 727, 730

Ray -herring 209

Record of distribution of shad iu

1874 326

Redding, Mr. B. B 480, 482, 483

Redi on reproduction of the eel 726

Reed, Mr. Alfred 356, 450, 457

Regulations relating to oyster-fish-
ery 293

Rennings, Mr 744

Report of operations iu California

in 1873 377

operations in California

in 1874 437

Mr. M. L. Perriu 449

INDEX.

773

Pago.

Eeport of Triana trip 351

on the collection of Penob-
scot salmon in 187:3-74

and 1874-75 486

the herring-fisheries on

"the coast of Sweden .. 123

Reseudius 15

Restoration of the inland fisheries.. 569
Results from apparatus for hatching

shad 375

Rettenbacher, Mr. Franz 591

Rhabdouia 698

Rhine, food of alausa vulgaris in the. 757
trutta in the river . .. 738
Rhode Island's laws on oyster-fish-
ing 294

Rhodomela 693

Rhodomelese 691

Rbody menia 698

Rhodymeniapalmata 716

Rhodymeniese 698

Bidder, Mr 744, 752

River and lake fish 44

fisheries 321

Rivers, to purify the 585

Rivularia 715

Rivularieaj 715

Roach, spotted suufish 379

Robbs, Mr. Terry 356

Robertson, Dr. W. B 351

Rock-fish 351

weed 716,717

Rock wood, Mr. A. P 263,397,434,

Roe of herring in great: mass. 112

Roevar, Mr. Henrik '. 101

Rogenia alba 126

Roily water not objectionable 401

Roudelet on reproduct ion of the eel . 725

Roosevelt, Mr 330

Rosen, Count 99

Rothschild, Baron von 683

Rumpchen 735, 753, 757, 759

Russia, fishery-laws in 637

Russian government's fisheries sta-
tistics 71

Sabourow, Mr 90

Sacramento record 461

River, character of fish-
ing on 382

Sale-ponds for carps 552

Salm ... 741

Salmo 606,611

amethystus 281

fario 737

Page.

Salmo hamulus 737, 738, 749

hucho 590

salar 485,737,738

salmo 738

salvelinus 590, 592, 61 1

Salmon, the 40

and sturgeon sent to San

Francisco in 1*72 332

average weight of breeding 4 37
bought alive atBucksport —

in 1873 493

in 1874 495

confining the 405

catching in the Sacramento 382

catching the parent ... . 403

corral for 405

disappearance of 534

distribution, table of 433

eggs, distribution of 423

taken, daily list of. .411, 417

tables of consignments 411

factory in Galway 584

family 606

fisheries in Sweden 32

fishery, effect of steamboats

on 535

fishing implements 40

former abundance 531

how can it live without food 747
in the San Joaquin.. .480. 481, 482

leaping up falls 533

marking of 490

migratory species cannot be

retained in fresh water.. 745

moving the parent 407

of Lake C ham plai u 53 1

percentage of sex 4-^7

preparing 43

-proof- fence and bridge

across McCloud River... 433

purchase of breeding- 486

spawn hatched, &c 431 , 432

spawning the 410

spearing by torch-light 540

trout 380

Salpaj near the coast. 209

Salting fish by the Romans 14

Salt-water fisheries 674

Salzburg, esta blishment at 589

number of fish caught in

1804 654

Sander, Mr 745

Sand-worms as bait 176

San Joacpiin River 479,480

774

INDEX.

Pago.

Sapojnikow Brothers 59

Sariuac River, dam erected iu 53(5

Sardine-fishing, bait for 7

Sargassum 706

Sars, Prof. G. O.. .26, 131, 136, 138, 140, 143,

145, 195, 203, 213, 221,

245,248,267

Savariu, Mr. Brillat 277

Sawdust in rivers 536

Saxony, fishery-laws in 632

Scardinins erytbrophthalinus 61

Scarus, the 10

Scheuermann, Mr 562

Schieber, M. C 331

Schiller and Mjoberg, Messrs 141

Schi6nning, Mr 239

Schizaster fragilis 683, 690

Sehizyrueuia 701

edulis 716

Schlegel, Mr 740

Scblierenzauer, Mr. . . . : 594

Schm arda, Professor 604

Schultz, Mr. Alexander 35

Schumacher, Mr 744

Schiisser on reproduction of the eel . 728

Schwab, Consul 331

Scientific investigations 603

observations and experi-
ments 165

Scinaia 699

Scotch fisheries 585

Scyllinm 720, 723

Scymnus borealis 45

Scytosiphon 710

Scytosiphoneao 710

Sea-eel 15

fisheries 1

herring 128,130

herring and coast-herring 125

herring and currents of the sea. 149

police in Norway 26, 28

trout 608

water and fresh mixed for trans-
porting shad 363

weeds, list of useful 716

Seal-hunting in Novaya-Zemlya .. 53

hunting in the Caspian Sea.. . 92

oil manufacture 95

skins 96

Seasons, influence in Clear Lake.. . 380

Seatus, Casper 117

Seine, large, belonging to Gibson

heirs 352

Page.
Seine, probably largest in United

States 357

fisheries of the Potomac 355, 356

fishing of herriugs 183

Selache maxima 45

Sergius Orata 19

Serrauus cabrilla 720

hepatus 720

scriba 720

Shad-box, Soth Green's 415

Shad, difference from different rivers 323

difficulties in transportation . 331
distributed in waters of New

England 337

distribution from Coeymans,

N.Y 323

distribution from South Had-

ley Falls, Mass 323

distribution iu 1874 326

eggs, the batching retarded by

cold 367

for Germany 324, 328

from the Hudson River 337

fry in the Jordan River 435

hatching operations at Ferry

Landing, Va., in 1875 346

hatching operations at Free

Stone Point, Va., in 1875 . . 343
hatching operations at Jack-
son City, Va., in 1875 344, 345

hatchingoperations near Kins-
ton, N. C, in 1875 340,341

hatching operations at Mox-

ley Point, Md., in 1875 .... 347

hatching in New Jersey 327

hatching operations at South
Hadley Falls, Conn., in

1875 348,349

hatching operations at West

Island, Va., in 1875 342

in China 481

on the voyage to Germany,

death of 329

on their way to the Weser.. . 330

overland journey with 390

propagation, &c, of 323, 335

spawn taken in 1874 328

transporting iu sea- water ... 363

young, need feeding 367

Shapaulle 379

Sharps, boats for oyster-business.. . 306

Sheldon, Mr. Oscar F 533

Shipments of Penobscot salmon 488

INDEX.

775

Pago.

Shoals or schools of salmon 533

Shrimps, catching 175

Siebold, Prof. C. Th. E. von .. .561, 603, 738,

739, 740, 742,
746, 750
on reproduction of the eel. . 728
SigDS for the success of herring-fish-
eries 110

SMesia, fish-breeding companies in. 588, 596

Silnrus glanis 61,613

Silver! home, Dr 462, 466

SiphonesB 711

Skidmore, Mr. J. H 356

Skins, preparing and cutting 57

Slack, Pr. J. II 327, 328, 431

Small-herring fisheries, time and

place 152, 154

herring, price of 153

perch, (viviparous) 380

Srnarda, Mr 674

• Smidth, Mr. J. K 3

Smith and Hargers, Messrs 687

Smith, Mr. C. C 348,563

Smith, Mr. Lauritz 235

Smith, Professor Sidney 1 227, 267

Smithsouiau Institution 373, 405, 688

collections
sent to.. 424, 474

Snails for bait 176

Snake mate with muraenas 12

Suekkersteen and Sketterup in Den-
mark 173

Sokologorski, surgeon 87

Solaster endeca 689

Solieria 698

South Hadley Falls, Conn., shad-
hatching operations in 1875 .. ..348,349
Spallanzaui, on reproduction of the

eel 727

Spawn in the stomach 755

of cod, floating 214

lobsters is impregnated be-
fore leaving the female. 264
shad taken on the Dela-
ware River, 1874 323

Spawning of codfish 213

Spawning the salmon 410

season of salmon . . 743, 749

clams 314

the fish in the

Caspian Sea 61

time of herring 185

Specific weight of the egg of the
cod-fish 215

Page.

Sperm or milt 721

Spermatic organs of the eel 732

Sphacelaria 709

Sphacelarieae 709

Sphaarococcoideae 695

Sphserozyga 715

Spider-crab, arctic 689

Spinning lines I 79

Spiochaetopterus typicus 688

Spirulina 715

Sponge for lobster transportation . . 259
instead of moss for packing- 377

Spougiocarpeae 693

SporocknesB 703

Spring-herring 128, 198

nets for herring 156

Spyridia 702

Spyridese 702

Squalins cephalus 737

Squamariese 696

Stag-horn, artificial 717

State laws concerning oyster- planta-
tions ■ 299,300,301

Stationary nets for herring 156

Statistics", fishery 21, 22, 31, 601

relating to oysters 311, 312

Steamboats, effeGt on salmon fishery 535

Steenstrup, Prof. Japetns 227

Steno^ramina 693

Sterlet, the 617

Stewart, Mr 356

St. George, Prof, de la Valette 753

Stillfried, Baron de 596

Stilophora 703

Stimpspn, Dr 687

Stomach of salmon, no food in 744, 747

Stone, Mr. Livingston .... 259, 332, 377, 403,

435, 437, 461, 481
Stone jars, glazed, better than tin for

keeping shad 372

Stony-Point seine, description of. . 357, 361

Stormontfield, establishment at 607

Straalsild 209

Striae adiposae 726

Striaria 708

Strom, Mr 228

Stromming, the 183

Structures for the preservation of

round clams 318

Striivy, Mr. R 552

Sturgeon family 616

Suckers 379

Sudden changes of temperature very

injurious 392

i i o

INDEX.

Page.
.Summaries in reference to Penob-
scot salmon 493

Summer-herring 129

Sundevall, Mr. C. J 135, 145

and Loven, Professors.. 99, 109

Snnfish 351

Swartz, Mr. William H 327

Sweden, fishery-statistics from 21, 31

herring-fisheries 123

Sweep-seine fishing 384

Switzerland, fishery-laws in 633

Sword-fish, the 13

Syrski, Dr 719

Szomolauy, establishment at 597

Table of results of experiments with

ombryo-shad : 369

Tables giviug data as to Penobscot

salmou -breeding 498-505

Tagged salmon returned 490, 491

Tan gen and Moses, Messrs 248

Taonia 705

Tape-worms in trutta salar 743

Teiste, Governor 239

Temperature during the season of

herring-fishing 99, 103

experiments with

shad 36S,392

observations at Bucks-
port 506,530

record of, (McCloud

Eiver) 471

of the Sacramento 474

for transportation . . .388, 392

Terrapin-turtle 281

Thalassiophyllum 708

Thanks to the representatives of the

German Lloyd 333

Thermometer 157° in the sand 465

Thomas, Mr. H. H 450, 456

Thompson, Mr. James B 448, 450

Thomson, Mr. Wy ville 690

Throckmorton, Mr. S. R 377, 390, 399

Thuret, Mr 691

Thymailus 594,606,612

Tiefenthaler, Mr 594

Tinea vulgaris 615

Tongs for catching lobsters 228

oysters 292

Torpedo 721

Tracy, Mr 452,454

Trangrums Act 136, 144

Trans-Caucasian fisheries 65

statistics 66

Transylvania's fish-culture 597

Page.

Trap for catching snails 170

lobsters 228

Triana trip, report of 351

Trichecus rosmarus 52

Trip to Germany 339

Troschcl, Professor 737, 738, 757

Trout in Australia 584

raising 610

sea, lake, brook, &c 609

Trutta 606,609

fario 737,741

fario, food of 75:5

ealar 741,745,748

trutta 741,745

Tucker and Hall, Messrs 356

Tulare Lake, undescribed fishes in. 480

Tunny, the 15

Tnrbinaria 706

Turner, Mr. William M 46G

Udotea 711

Uggla, Baron 160,163

Ulken,for catching shrimps 175

Ulva 712

latissima 716

United States, fishery-laws proposed 637

halibut-fishery 169

oyster-industries 271

Utah, fish-culture in 434, 435

Vacek, Mr 596

Valenciennes, Professor.. 281, 738, 739, 740,

748
Vallisneri, on reproduction of the

eel 726

Valoniea? 712

Value of the products of the fish-
eries 593,602

Van der Hoeven, Mr 98

Vataga, importance of a 80

Vaucheria 712

Venus mercenaria 272, 279, 316

Verrill, Professor 687

Ve'ziga, manufacture of 87

Vidoen, Mr. Jacob Olseu 236

Vienna, fish in the markets of 599

price of fish 599

Virginia's laws on oyster-fishing.. . 296
Viviparous species, fecundation of.. 724
Vlasow, Smolino, and Orekkow,

Messrs 96

Vogt, Mr. Carl 580, 603, 606

Voyage to Germany with shad 328

Vraa, Mr. David Halvoeseu 236

Wages of fishermen 91

Wallace.Mr 240

INDEX.

777

Pago.

Waller and Montacure, Messrs 356

Waller Lake, breeding-apparatus in 590

Walkendorph, Cristopher 117

Walrus and polar-bear hunting 56

Walworth.Mr ._ 537

Wandering herring 128, 132

Wartmann, Mr 741

Washington, Baron de 593, 618

Market, fish ins pected. 357
Water, to keep its temperature

warm enough 398

unwholesome, to be avoided 394

Watson, Hon. Thomas B 535

Watson,Mr.W. C 531

Webber, Mr. F. W 421,434

Weber,Mr 237

Wehlburg, Mr. V 34

Wells, Fargo & Co.'s Express 450

Welsher, Mr. H. W 336, 338, 340, 344,

390, 396

Werndl.Mr 593

Weser-Zeitung 330

West Island, Va., shad-hatehing op-
erations in 1875 342

Whale-catching 13

following the herring Ill

Wheatland, Mr 687

Wheel-pump, the 412

Whitebait 125

Page.
White-fish eggs from the Great

Lakes 377

fish in Tulare Lake 480

Sea-fishes, list of 36

Widegren, Mr. Hjalmar . . .31, 34, 116, 145,

183, 750
Wiegmann, Archive from Naturge-

schicbte 727

Wieneke, Mr. August 552

Wilmot, Mr. Samuel 450, 456.

Winter-ponds for carps 551

Wintersalme 744

Woodbury, Mr. John G..377, 378, 399, 403,

408, 419, 437
Wooden trays for packing salmou-

eggs 486

Works on pisciculture 603

Wounds found in winter-salmon.. . 752

Wrangelia 699

Wrangelie® 699

Wright, Mr. W. von 142, 153

Wurdemannia 697

Wurtemberg, fishing-laws in 631

Yarrell, Mr 98,126,148

Yhlen, Mr. G. von ... .34, 127, 132, 143, 153

Zealand, the Danish island 173

Zoarces viviparus 729

Zonaria 705

Zoospore® 712

'..■.■■■.■■".",-.0

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