Cy ae ne pam ery rae * Rayos RAS \ rN . y RAN ~ a RASS SEENON Shay RETRAIN “s, >) YSN iY NARS x i. Ny \ SARA eS ene Tee Te . Ke ees y | U. S. COMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES, 5 JOHN J. BRICE, Commissioner. Dwvision of Fishes, 5 U. 8. Metional Museu REPORT or THE COMMISSIONER FOR THE YRAK ENDING JUNE’ 30, 1897. ae inal e ce pop WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1598; (og ae htt, a | ua Bi cid eet > RFishos COT Ben iS: Renory of the, Commissioner: s4- ==. /s22 se. 2 5e= ee ee ees sess Ses sciteese see V-XVII Report on the Propagation and Distribution of Food-fishes. By W. deC. aivenelllic: Sateen Senses weet se Se ae Beem em aes ayaa ce Aa ee ee XVIII-XC Report of the Division of Scientific Inquiry. By Hugh M. Smith... xcI-cxx1v Report of the Division of Statistics and Methods of the Fisheries. By emo he MCE Smatthe = oe tae ee ne nates oes loiaaras a ciate sec eaee serosa CXXV-CXLVI Report on the Work of the Albatross. (Abstract.) By J. F. Moser, Lieut. CommandersUe SoNavy sassccs- -seeee a5 ee ER esta ei eee CXLViI-CLXXx1I APPENDIX. A Manual of Fish-culture, based on the Methods of the United States Com- mission of Fish and Fisheries, with Chapters on the Cultivation of Oysters and Frogs (Plates 1-62 and I-XVIII) ...----..---.--- DSR e SIA Sia ace 1-340 Ms ‘ | aal pene waren.) re ied EP ORT OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1897. I have the honor to submit a report of the operations of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries for the year ending June 30, 1897, with reports from the assistants in charge of its different divisions, showing the work in detail, together with an appendix describing the methods of fish-culture pursued by the Commission. ‘The work of the Division of Fish-Culture has been very satisfactory, showing a gratifying increase in the propagation and distribution of the important food-fishes. In addition to the stations mentioned last year, those at San Marcos, Tex., Manchester, Iowa, and Bozeman, Mont., have been completed and are now in operation. Attention has been paid to carrying out the policy outlined in my former report, of increasing the production of the commercial species propagated by the Commission on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and the Great Lakes, by establishing auxiliary hatcheries in connection with the permanent stations, for the extension of the field for the collection ofeggs. The use of Battle Creek Station, Shasta County, Cal., obtained through the cooperation of the California Fish Commission, resulted in the collection of over 25,000,000 salmon eggs in addition to the 5,000,000 collected at Baird Station. In the Columbia River Basin the plants of fry were increased by the establishment of temporary stations on the Salmon River in Oregon and the Little White Salmon River in Washington, the two stations yielding over 4,700,000 eggs. The total collection at the Pacific stations, amounting to 37,000,000, was over three times greater than the collection of any previous season. 5,000,000 quinnat-salmon eggs were transferred to eastern stations, and the fry resulting from them were planted in the Hudson, Delaware, and St. Lawrence rivers, New York, and the Penobscot and Union rivers, Maine. Additional assignments of steelhead eggs were also sent east, and plants of the fry were made in the Penobscot and Hudson rivers and tributaries of Lakes Michigan and Superior. The cod work at the Massachusetts stations was the most extensive ever accomplished by the Commission, over 178,000,000 eggs being collected. 97,419,000 fry were hatched and liberated on the natural Spawning-grounds by means of the steamer Fish Hawk and sailing vessels chartered for the purpose. 3 VI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. For the maintenance of the lobster fishery, which has been steadily declining for a number of years, it was arranged not only to cover the region in the vicinity of Woods Hole and Gloucester stations, but also to make systematic collections of eggs from fishermen between Rock- land, Me., and Noank, Conn. The schooner Grampus was utilized on the Maine coast for the collection of eggs and the liberation of fry, and the steamer Fish Hawk was employed as a floating hatchery at Casco Bay. Agents were stationed at Kittery, Me.; Boston, Plymouth, and New Bedford, Mass., and points in Connecticut, who collected egg lob- sters for transportation to the hatcheries of Gloucester and Woods Hole. As a result of this extension of the work, over 128,000,000 eggs were secured and 115,606,000 fry planted. During the spring and summer particular attention was paid to the food, habits, and growth of the young lobster, and much valuable information was obtained at Woods Hole, where experiments were conducted in the holding of the fry during the molting stages. Preliminary to the establishment of auxiliary shad-hatcheries on the South Atlantic Coast, the Fish Hawk was detailed early in the winter to make investigations on certain important rivers in that section for the purpose of determining their value as collecting fields for eggs. Proceeding to Palatka, Fla., the vessel was anchored at the mouth of the Ocklawaha River and arrangements were made to collect eggs from fishermen operating on the St. Johns between Welaka and Sanford, where most of the fishing is done. Large numbers of shad were taken daily in the nets and seines, and valuable information with reference to their habits and movements was obtained, but only three or four ripe fish were secured. At the end of March the vessel proceeded to Albemarle Sound and commenced operations at Avoca, N. C., at the mouth of the Chowan River. The work at that point resulted in the collection of over 27,000,000 shad eggs and the liberation of 16,000,000 fry at the head of the sound. During the months of April, May, and June the usual shad operations were conducted on the Delaware, Potomac, and Susquehanna rivers, the total collection of eggs for the season resulting in a distribution of 134,545,500 yearlings, fry, and eggs. From the experience gained this year there is little doubt that the col- lection of shad eggs can be largely increased by the establishment of auxiliary stations on other rivers of the South Atlantic Coast. The work on the Great Lakes was attended with good results, though the collection of eggs was seriously interfered with by severe gales, which destroyed the fishing gear during the spawning season. Over 18,000,000 lake-trout eggs were secured on Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Ontario, besides 126,000,000 whitefish eggs on Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Erie; 13,509,000 yearlings, fry, and eggs of the lake trout and 95,049,000 whitefish fry were distributed. At the interior stations devoted to the production of trout, bass, and crappie the work of restocking inland streams and lakes has progressed satisfactorily. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. VII In continuation of the experiments of previous years, to introduce lobsters and eastern oysters on the Pacific coast, 20 adult male lobsters and 69 females, with eggs, were taken from New England and liberated near Monterey, Cal.,in November, 1896, and at the same time 25 barrels of 3-year-old oysters were planted on suitable grounds in Humboldt Bay, near Eureka, Cal., and an equal number in Yaquina Bay, Oregon. On the same trip 129 diamond-backed terrapin from Chesapeake Bay and South Carolina were planted in San Francisco Bay under the direction of the California Fish Commission. The following table shows the numbers of fish and eggs furnished for distribution by the various stations: Source of s upply. Fry and Green Lake, Mie Craig Brook, Me St. Johnsbury, Vt-------- bee Gloucester, Mass --........-- | Landlocked salmon Woods Hole. Mass........--. Cape Vincent, N. Steamer Fish Ha Battery Island, Md Fish Lakes, D. C Central Station, D. C Bryan Point, Md Wytheville, Va. Put-iun Bay, Ohio Northville, Mich Alpena, Mich y wk Species. Eggs fingerlings. Landlocked salmon..-..-------- 77, 000 61, 000 | Atlantivysalmvon ks tees aie eel siee anche aie 33, 000 Quinnatisalmone2-n-sos-oeee. 30, 000 894, 500 IBTOOKbrOMbs=-oe ee eee 40, 000 50, 000 Von Behr trout-...-.. Patra tiered betes mente ines ea nee Goldenttrowt see sees asec 10, 000 | 35, 000 AMilantie salmon ts ose eee 390, 000 | 1, 653, 671 Quinnat salmon Brook trout Atlantic salmon Quinnat salmon Brook trout 140, 000 NLISHINGAC LOU bs csesenn sks oa enolase aoe es Lobster Rainbow trout Lake trout Steelheadttrouth.. - 24-22-2252. Quinnat salmon Atlantic salmon Whitefish IP SLED GQUDAGH) 4 352) 4o sce ucce Voce nee | Rock bass Black bass, large-mouth Black bass, small-mouth Shad Brooks eroWuerwsecnducececececed Rainbow trout Quinnat BAI THORB LL otc a tee Shad Black bass, large-mouth Rock bass Whitefish -. Lake trout Lake herring Black bass, small-mouth Lake trout Rainbow trout Loch Leven trout. --..-.2.-.--- Steelhead trout Whitefish t 2, 070, 000 39, 707, 000 245, 000 12, 000 495, 400 10, 000 47, 869, 000 62, 305, 000 652, 000 64, 419, 000 35, 953, 000 64, 095, 000 624, 000 193, 000 18, 000 1, 290, 000 10, 600 1, 958, 000 48, 000 750, 000 58, 066, 500 4. 616, 065 50, 862, 000 450, 000 4, 338 7, 516 25, 346, 000 Adults and yearlings. 60, 309, 000 794, 400 | 7, 299, 000 5, 280, 000) 97, 500 6, 500 15, 000 32, 000 32, 000, 000 # 2,819,000 planted in Delaware River, New Jersey; 411,000 sent to Nashville Exposition. tShad eggs sent to Nashville Exposition. Vill ¥ REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. Statement of. fish and 998. Puen eA Jo distribution, etc.—Continued. Source of supply. ath. Aina. Quincey, Il Manchester, Iowa Neosho, Mo... MAM NeATCOS. “LOX..---..-05---/- | Leadville, Colo Baird, Cal... Fort Gaston, Cal Korbel, Cal.-- Battle Creek, Cal BearsvValley, Cal’ .---.-..-.-- ace Clackamas, Oreg...-.-.---.-- | Salmon River station, Oreg -- Little White Salmon River station, Wash. Mapleton, Oreg ee mien Fry and Adults and Species. Pages. ipieerinee yearlings. Steelhead trout................. Inge aeconoe se T4AS0000 Sere cctemete TGA ROMEGH Ue = cm caw iatalele'e a\=taaletomle tia ee se poco - 42768, 000"\Cecian meee IBTOOMULOU be tala c come = sierra eaeecoss soe 15; 400 eu. 2 eee Rainbow trout......-.-.-.------|------------ 200 | eease eee ae Whitefish . 5.2 22822 ccc eae eee M990; 000) 5220 -ro sae Black bass, large-mouth........|------------|------.--..--. 32, 375 Crappie..-.-----.----------------|------------|-------------- 3, 418 Yellow perch ....---------------|------+-----|-------------- 1, 025 PiGkOTel oss 25.2 26 2c os aalncie oe =) |e eee le ee eee 1,700 TRAIN DOW? CLOUT. (6 cic <5 oat win = wm ata eel tele As 22 ik aoe ae ate corel Diag kKerOU be ce sen cic opera ats | ea eee | 158: 000! tis Ss So eee Rem O Wwatn Ol Gece ee ea eee 96, 200 27, 000 60, 125 Black bass, large-mouth .---....|------------|-----.---.---. 15, 660 ROCK PASS) <2 2.21 5 = 21 wa = eee eal ee el ee 32, 940 Strawberry Dass =o. cece o-e=anel| mee etetete eee aeree 3, 129 Biscla bass. larce-m OW «ae ale) emt tele eae 11, 740 Loch Leven trout....-...-----++ BO O00 ewenintseeee aire 500 Rainbow trout. .....-.--.------- 5, 000 27; 500! |S 2- =< nee Black-spotted trout......------. 5, 000 42,200) oon oe aoe IBTO OK: DROW bere eciae aaa tet 140, 000 287, 009 94; 000 Yellow-fin trout --......----.-..|------.----- EM eines eres Quinnat salmon. .-.--- Kianaeuace 4, 337, 500 11996; 086 222 3-- eee Dee Ove essen ane a1 a nis clase er eae tre 280-250N eae Silver salmon! oo os. 02s eee ae eee eee | W24 S750) Ine note ete Rainbow trout... -.------------- |e 2 -2.ommnnm 22, 000 30, 000 Won Bebr troutss-.---= -s=-=e =e |ae ene eee 22, 100 275 Steelhead trout -....----------.-. 50, 000 202)'0009 | oe nemeete te Quinnat salmon ..----------=-2-|-- ~~ 2-2... 145, Bhi) lessoebpcae a: Silver salmoniee<-- see) eee eee Seats nV G ety Oi eee ces & - Steelhead trowts ce 6 o-oo ae ee LASTRUN ees ee = Quinnat salmon)e22-2--o-e--eer 137 S95iG90! Woe wees e sere pee emreieee OO een ese cus seets sere (eee eee 635;000"|Se2esseeeees este i RSE BOReemEm ser eseccoo Co lesoccsorene 4, 642, 634 |....-.------ eae GO. ccc Sete cae ose ee neeeen Peace ets UO AOV SS seacrcecas Bene (i eee ee ERR osc cemsion oocsoaoe 848, 7600|\e oem eetes seth eid « Svs os Sule cS ere Eee ee ee 180; (000 )/22 S222 eens The following table shows, by species, the fish and eggs distributed by the Commission during the year: NotTEr.—3, 036,000 shad fie were eau in . | si Adultsand Species. | Eggs. Fry. yearlings. Total. inl as Seco ego nb scepeseeecs oporccosscecesepEesse 2,819, 000 130, 226, 500 1,500, 000 | 184, 545, 500 (niin GEE he was Sepeeseadacooone 26 SS seeseceoseec | 18, 262, 590 18, 834, 261 32, 104, 049 PAC eI SAlIMON Mane sees secs c yee eeeoiee sauce sec cese | 390, 000 1, 705, 010 2, 329, 809 HgarllocKed SAlMON . (60 sabscccsccee esse pcc cece tens 77, 000 61, 000 150, 566 Silva SunOS -4* Rega tase Bseaen © GOOF ON OCEE EE BASS obone sc s- 298, 137 298, 137 DEBE ACGhEO Ube emilee cists ove4 asses anal n sacle a0s-ie sci ¢| == mn eee 42, 200 42, 200 BROUMat TOWLE oon a's fis a1e eae sings ye minieie -. sess 487 Quimnatsalmon s../226 J2---<1-58 7, (96 || Scotch sea trout).ss: 55... .-2-22 iL sei ISOS THROU ITE aes ie as ee 2, 668, | Steelnead trout .-525----.-5---- 12, 511 yatnbOw thOMulec ae s2 ac. 5e ce 12, 778 —_—. American lake trout...-..-.-.--- 38, 965 Wotalty 22255 2 Sasseus eee 378, 776 During July 5,515 steelheads were liberated; the remainder of the stock was carried through to October, when the fish were counted and distributed with comparatively small losses The food given was the same material usually employed—chopped liver and other butchers’ offal, the flesh of horses, and maggots reared at the station. A small quantity of herring roe was also used and appeared to be acceptable to the quinnats, though it was not readily taken by the Atlantic salmon. As in former years the food most readily eaten was the maggots, which were given alive. This year for the first time a large number of fry were kept in the ponds, and although the losses were slightly heavier than heretofore, these fry did remarkably well and outgrew the trough fish. In all, 102,265 Atlantic salmon and 8,122 steelhead trout were transferred to the ponds; three months later 91,017 Atlantic salmon and 7,398 steelheads were removed, showing a loss of 11 per cent on the XXII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. salmon and 8.9 per cent on the steelheads. The loss in the troughs amounted to 9.1 per cent, 143,374 salmon being taken out at the expira- tion of seven months. It is probable that the loss on the trough fish during the three months that the others were in the ponds did not exceed 3 per cent, but in point of growth the pond fish were far supe- rior, the pond salmon in the fall averaging 101.1 grains against a mean of 45.8 for the trough fish. These figures were obtained by actually weighing the fish. A summary of the result of rearing fry to the yearling stage from eggs collected in the fall of 1895 is presented below in tabular form: Percentage— Total re- a Kind | Number | Number oo nae maining or pe of eggs. | hatched. 1896 y 1896.’ at fall |Of eggs| Of fish i = 7 count. jlaidout.) hatched. alee | June 1 Atlantic salmon ......- 275, 004 | 274,158 | 263,818 | 244,405 | 234, 983 85. 4 85.7 89.1 Quinnat salmon.....-.-. 8, 345 8, 248 7, 961 7, 796 7,407 88.7 | 89.7 95 Landlocked salmon.... 18, 883 18, 736 12, 464 11, 033 10, 889 57.7 58.1 87.3 Brookstroubes-- > eee = 7,120 6, 364 2, 726 2, 668 2,219 31.2 34.8 81.4 Rainbow trout. .-..-.--. | 25,485 25, 377 13, 303 12, 778 11, 651 45.7 45.9 87.6 Swiss lake trout....--. 51, 892 51, 294 49, 803 46, 796 41,130 79.3 80. 2 82.6 Von Behr trout.....--. (OByil 6, 652 5, 978 487 653 8.8 9.8 10.9 Make trout. -cccs+e..--- 43,460 | 42, 906 40, 112 38, 965 10, 411 23. 9 24.3 25.9 437, 560 433, 735 396, 165 364, 928 | 319, 343 72.9 73.6 80.6 Atlantic salmon.—During the previous June 677 brood salmon were collected and released in the, inclosure at Dead Brook; and, with the view of increasing this stock, a trap was constructed early in August near the Bangor Dam in order to stop any salmon that might ascend the river to spawn in the fall. This dam, located below the natural head of tide water, is subject to partial submergence during periods of high water. It is also-provided with a good fishway, but it forms a serious obstacle, nevertheless, to the ascent of fish, and considerable numbers were collected there during the season. They were especially noticed under the wheelhouse of the waterworks at the west end of the dam, where the trap was located. This trap was constructed of steel and wood, as offering the least resistance to the constant heavy current, being formed like a pound in an ordinary weir, with a V-shaped entrance and a wing running obliquely out into the river. It was secured by bolts and numerous guys in the ledge forming the bed of the river, and was provided with halyards by which it could be drawn up for inspec- tion or hauled down for work. The trap proved to be well adapted for the purpose, as the salmon passed in readily and were removed without difficulty or serious injury. The work of construction was quite ardu- ous and consumed more time than was anticipated, as it was not ready for operation until August 12, when the water temperature registered 79°. Ithad also become very muddy from the operations of a contractor who was putting in a cofferdam preliminary to some improvements to the waterworks. Under these adverse circumstances very few salmon were taken; but the conditions improved later on, and 8 were secured REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXIII on August 27, making a total of 33 captured by the trap. These were placed in the cars and towed to Orland, whence they were transferred to the Dead Brook inclosure, 26 of them being delivered alive. It appears that salmon do not congregate in large numbers at mid- summer, and, moreover, it is very difficult to transfer them at that season to the inclosure, which is 30 miles distant, on account of the high temperature of the water. To obtain good results, the trap should be constructed early in the spring and a retaining pool pro- vided in the immediate vicinity. During the summer 109 dead fish were removed from the pools, which should have left 594 breeders, but as a matter of fact only 539 were found, indicating a loss of 25 per cent. Of these, 174 were males and 365 females, 12 of which yielded no eggs. From the others, the weight of which aggregated 1,050 pounds, 3,192,124 eggs were secured, of which the Maine Commission received 496,000. From the remainder, 490,000 were shipped as follows: To the New York Fish Commission, 100,000; to the Connecticut Fish Commission, 100,000; to U.S, Fish Commission stations, 100,000; to W.S. Hadaway, Plymouth, Mass., 25,000; to the Pennsylvania Fish Commission, 100,000; to the Adirondack League Club, 25,000; to Amos Ellis, Rangeley, Me., 40,000. From the balance of the eggs 2,008,766 fry were hatched, all of which, with the exception of 390,000, were liberated in the tributaries of the Penobscot above Oldtown and in streams in the vicinity of the station; 150,000 were planted in the St. Croix River at Vanceboro, and 240,000 were retained for rearing. The loss on this stock to the close of the year amounted to 24,442. At the beginning of the year there were on hand 705 Atlantic salmon which had been hatched during the season of 1893-94; of these, 290 were distributed and the balance were placed in one of the new ponds and retained for domestication. In June, 1897, the usual arrangements were made for the collection of adult salmon, but owing to the late run only 595 were obtained. The losses during June were very light, and favorable results are expected in the fall. From the two lots of domesticated salmon (descendants of parents reared in confinement in fresh water) 4,400 eggs of inferior quality were secured during November; these yielded 2,167 fry, but only 1,600 of them survived to the close of the year. Of the parent fish there now remain 41. Landlocked salmon.—Late in October 10,889 yearling landlocked sal- mon were deposited in Toddy Pond. These fish resulted from a con- signment of eggs delivered at the station by a number of citizens who were interested in keeping up the supply of fish in that pond. In November, 1896, the same parties furnished another consignment of 2,352, from which 2,129 fry were hatched. Other species—The brook, rainbow, lake, and von Behr trout were distributed with the other fishes in the fall, the losses being very slight, except in the case of the lake trout. On July 1 there were 38,965 lake trout on hand, as a result of the eggs shipped from North- XXIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. ville the previous winter. They appeared to be very healthy for a time, but later in the summer they were attacked by a parasitic trematode, which appeared in large numbers, especially on their fins and jaws. The mortality resulting aggregated over 26,000, leaving only 10,411 for distribution in November. No. other species were attacked by this parasite, though all were kept in the same locality and under the same conditions. A large percentage of fish was hatched from the consign. ment of Swiss lake-trout eggs received from Switzerland in February, 1896. A few of these were held over and distributed in the spring of 1897, but the’ bulk of them were disposed of in the fall. Steelhead trout.—The fish on hand at the beginning of the year were carried through the summer with small loss, and all of them with the exception of 200 were distributed during the fall. These were placed in one of the new ponds for domestication, and 191 of them survived to the close of the year. From a consignment of eggs received in April 94,811 fry were hatched; all but 10,000 of these, which have been retained for rearing, were distributed in local waters during May and June. Quinnat salmon.—The quinnat salmon on hand at the beginning of the year were the result of a consignment of eggs received from Baird in December, 1895. They were carried through the summer without material loss, and in November 7,062 yearlings were liberated in local waters. During the fall 200 of them were transferred to the aquarium in Washington and held until the following spring, when they were sent to Nashville for exposition purposes. Another lot of 200 was retained at the station until the following June, when they were liber- ated, with a loss of only 4, in local waters. In December, 1896, a con- signment of 1,440,000 eggs was received from Battle Creek, Cal. Some slight mishaps befell them and it became necessary to crowd them considerably on account of lack of space, but notwithstanding these adverse circumstances 1,255,594, or 87 per cent, of them hatched. Of these, 789,000 were deposited in the Penobscot and its branches above Oldtown, 77,449 were liberated in local waters, and 50,000 were trans- ferred to the Maine Commission, making a total distribution of 916,449; 250,000 were reserved at the station to be reared and distributed in the fall, and at the close of the year they were in excellent condition. The total amount of food used consisted of 42,746 pounds of butcher’s offal, beef blood, and horse carcasses, the original cost of which was $592.25, the additional expense of freight and drayage aggregating $105.97, This large increase in cost and amount of food was due to the increased number of fish carried; and it was learned by experiment that quinnat salmon require a larger amount of food than Atlantic salmon and other fishes. The stock of fry held for distribution in the fall consisted of 240,000 Atlantic salmon, 2,167 domesticated Atlantic salmon, 2,295 landlocked salmon, 250,000 quinnat salmon, 1,894 Scotch sea trout, and 10,000 steel- head trout. yee Oo REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXV Following is a record of the meteorological observations made at the station during the year: Mean temperatures. Water. Rain- | aiow : phere ; fal], | SDOW- Date. Air, Hatchery, | Head of feed- | inside. trough stand. 7a.m.|2p.m./7a.m.)2p.m./7 a.m. | 2 p.m. Inches. Inches. | | TS 1 fn AeA An Sees 64.71 | 76.00] 68.98 | 71.77 | 63.55} 67.35 GIGS 2 82 saed PASI OUS ti iace cela cen's = Ss) 61.02 | 74.56 | 69.28 | 72.23 | 64.05] 68.40 1s D5 lees ah September):=-.---5.----..222- | 53.45 | 64.88 | 62.78] 65.05 | 59.83 | 63.13 Gr 95! ee a oacee October, ------.i5:-.- gi5a 5 e's Syaccls 40.27 | 51.74] 53.08] 55.15 | 52.18 55.00 450i atte see November se= 2222-250 s- <<< 34.02 | 40.73 | 44.73 | 46.15 | 45.70] 47.37 4, 25 Mecember ses fo.) siens oe ass 17.77 | 27.85 | 34.74) 35.45 | 37.92) 39.29 1.55 4 1ST — January she ase s<-2cctese es 13.81 | 26.02 | 33.56 | 34.19 | 36.65] 38.18 1. 65 18 Mebraary acdsee a. 15.09 | 30.62] 33.66] 34.82 | 35.34] 38.02 1, 65 9 inno hretec are ssreatetas ceases 24.55 | 35.13 | 34.11 | 385.77 | 35.87] 38.87 2. 30 144 ATi esse rceseset cise sees 37.13 | 50.10] 37.95] 40.98 | 38.72] 43.42 QISD | Sess WIE RY Ga8h 06,5 Use SCRE ee ee ae 49.14 | 60.49 | 50.77 | 53.06 | 48.70 | 52.37 B90) | sees PUN GE EEL pate seiner tertile neisee ae 55. 54 65. 77 58. 71 60.92 | 54. 60 57. 82 3. 00 |ocecreee St. JOHNSBURY STATION, VERMONT (J. W. TITCOMB, SUPERINTENDENT). A special appropriation for increase of the spring water supply, construction of reservoir, and general improvement to the grounds having been provided, the work was undertaken early in the summer under the direction of the superintendent. In order to increase the water supply, the springs on the station property were developed by excavating ditches into the hillsides, These were lined with 3-inch land tile, laid on hemlock boards and covered with stones and gravel. Wooden boxes were set at the outlet of each ditch to catch the water, from which it is conveyed through pipes connecting with the main line to the reservoir. Much difficulty was experienced in making the exca- vations on account of the land containing quicksand and clay, which also made it impossible to obtain water free from sediment. The supply secured by this means was about double the amount obtained under the old system. During the rainy season the capacity of the springs has averaged about 80 gallons per minute. In order to prevent the clogging of the intake at the dam in Sleepers River, a deflecting wall 30 feet long, 6 feet wide at base, 4 feet wide at top, and 6 feet high, was constructed. A framework of timber inserted in the wall on the east side near the lower end and fastened to the intake on the west side forms a recess for the water to pass through into the intake. This recess is protected by a grating formed of iron rods extending perpendicularly down through the framework. Below the grating, between the jetty and the crib, a piece of 10-inch cast-iron pipe was inserted, to be used for flushing during periods of high water, when the entrance to the crib becomes filled with sediment. The wooden gates connecting the two 8-inch pipe lines were replaced by iron ones. A reservoir of 172,198 gallons capacity was constructed between Emerson Falls and the hatchery, at an elevation of 83 feet. A much XXVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. larger one had at first been proposed, but it became necessary to reduce the size owing to the discovery of quicksand. The reservoir was sur- rounded by a wall made of local stone and Rosendale cement, the dimen- sions being 24 feet thick at base, 2 feet at top, and 5 feet in height. The sides of the reservoir and the wall were covered with Portland cement and plastered with a mixture of 1 part cement to 24 parts clear sand. The filter to the reservoir is so constructed that it can be cleaned by reversing the current. A roof was constructed over the reservoir, four doors being provided in it to permit access to the reservoir. On January 23 the overflow from the reservoir was broken by an earth- quake, which interfered materially with its use until the weather per- mitted of its being repaired. Considerable work was done in grading the grounds, building plank walks around the ponds, installing a steam-heating plant, and in repair- ing the ponds constructed the previous year, frost having injured them to such an extent that it became necessary to rebuild all of the supply and stand pipes. A large amount of work was also done in the interior of the hatchery, completing unfinished rooms, ete. At the beginning of the year the stock on hand was as follows: Calendar year in : . which batcked. Species. 1896. 1895. STOO ULOUWE soe sicrece cis oe San ara Se sia Sheree Sratare os ate oso (a meager Srene tare ie ie me era ie teeta = eee otece 8, 748 j|sstece seme Ral DOW CLOUbE s 2 caro enin ne cee ETE SNe wike tale aie Sacre ee ete setae STU a emrene 700723. eee xt langie Salmon 22 fe nnse sc a oe Oc Oe Sel eee a web eae E cet as oe anne eyecare 1 7584| eee Steelhead mrowt 2 S02 o~ Seo eo ne Meme othe be soe ate Sete oles AOE ae ete te een ore eter | eee terres 90 URC UGOU Lhe rcisci2 Sak as cee misters Rise we Sieve isiere Gree ete tc tsiae rays eiciare hora nore et ictcretaee cer aoe ees |eessoeeeee 5 DN ee ene eee eevee 0) lr ele) rae 11,201 95 During the summer field stations for collecting brook-trout eggs from wild fish were established at Darlings Pond, Caspian Lake, Greensboro, Willoughby Lake, Groton, Fairbanks Pond, and Pico Pond. Darlings Pond is about 36 miles from St. Johnsbury, 30 by rail and 6by wagon road. The fish there were captured by means of a V-shaped slat trap or weir and held in retaining pens until ripe. A shanty was erected near the trap for the accommodation of the attendant. The first run of trout occurred on the 23d of August, 1,650 being taken in the brook during a heavy rain storm. Very few were captured from that time until September 6, when 1,000 more entered the trap. The fish continued to run in schools during the rainy weather, and on October 15, when the trap was removed, 7,138 had been captured. During the season it was discovered that large numbers of trout were ascending streams which dry up in summer. At the request of the owners of the pond they were not disturbed, but it is doubtful whether their spawn ever matured. The first eggs were taken on September 24 and the last on October 26, over 900,000 being secured. The loss in hatching was very heavy, only 25 per cent producing fry available for distribution; but these were vigorous, and no definite reason can be REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXVII ascribed for the large loss, though it has been attributed to confinement of the trout for a considerable period before they were ripe. Next year a temporary auxiliary hatchery will be constructed at this point. At Caspian Lake, 32 miles from St. Johnsbury, the trout were col- lected by means of small-meshed gill nets and dip nets, the only improvement in the apparatus being the jack lights, which were con- structed especially for the purpose. Most of the fish were caught between sunset and midnight. The first were captured October 29, and work continued until the lake froze over, on December 2. Long after the 1st of January the trout could be seen at work on their beds under the ice. The total number taken in dip nets amounted to 1,457, their average weight being a little over 1 pound. The season lasted one month, commencing November 10, and 97 per cent of the 500,000 eggs were good. For convenience and comfort while collecting the eggs a boat-house was constructed over the confining pen in the lake, with platform space for the spawn-takers. The eggs were placed in a small private hatchery located near the lake, and as soon as they had reached the eyed stage were transferred to St. Johnsbury. The hatching of the eggs taken at this point continued from January 17 to about the end of April. Willoughby Lake (situated 26 miles from the station, 16 by rail and 10 by wagon road) was examined with the view to collecting eggs of the lake trout, but owing to pressure of other work the investigation was delayed until November 10, when it appeared that the fish had already deposited their eggs. Irom the extent of the spawning-grounds and the abundance of fish there seems to be little doubt that a large number might have been taken. Suitable facilities were found for the establishment of an auxiliary field station. At Fairbanks Pond, 35 miles from St. Johnsbury, 31,500 eggs were collected. The work at Pico Pond proved unprofitable, and operations were discontinued after 12,000 eggs had been secured. All of the fish were returned to the waters from which they were taken, the total loss on nearly 10,000 amounting to only 56. During the winter 140,000 eggs were shipped to the applicants mentioned below, and from the balance of the season’s take 491,000 fry were hatched, a fair proportion of which were returned to the waters from which the eggs were collected: S. M. Pearson, Stratham, N. H.... 10,000 | L. J. Johnson, Brattleboro, Vt... 15, 000 Vermont Fish Commission ...-...- 50, 000 | Clarence Brown, Toledo, Ohio.. i 15, 000 Adirondack League Club, N. Y--- 25,000 | Connecticut Fish Commission -.. 25, 000 While there is a marked difference in the sizes of the trout eggs taken from different waters, they do not always vary according to the size of the fish, as was supposed. The sizes of eggs taken at three of the field stations were in the propoition of 54, 41, and 42 to the square inch. Those numbering 34 and 42 to the inch were taken from trout averag- ing 5 to the pound, while those numbering 41 were secured from fish weighing over a pound each. XXVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. Observations as to the effect of low temperature on trout eggs con firmed the experience of the previous season. Eggs eyed and hatched entirely in the spring water (ranging from 45° to 50°) yielded a larger percentage and better fish than those taken under the same conditions and at the same time which were hatched in water varying from 32° to 50° in temperature. The comparisons were made with eggs collected at Caspian Lake. It was also observed that eggs eyed in spring water before being subjected to colder water yielded a larger percentage than green eggs laid down in cold water. The investigations were carried still further by trying different temperatures during the period of ineu- bation on various lots of eyed eggs, but these were not fully completed owing to an accident to the water supply during the critical period. It was intended to carry ali of the eggs after they were eyed in a mixture of the spring and river water, the spring-water supply being insufficient, but on the 4th of March, and periodically from that time to April 15, it became necessary to shut off the spring water entirely. The eggs were thus subjected to the reduced water temperature from 12 hours to 16 days at a time, the temperature during these periods ranging from 324° to 35°. After reaching 325° the development of the eggs was apparently suspended for several days, which accounts for the length of time between the commencement and the end of the hatching periods with the various lots. One lot of 35,000 was placed in water registering 324° as soon as eyed and kept there until they hatched, for the purpose of comparing the results with those obtained in hatching in spring and river water mixed. They commenced hatching March 15 and finished April 24, the total loss to May 30 amounting to 520 eggs and 1,435 fry. An equal number of the same lot of eggs placed in mixed water, but subjected to changes caused by shutting off the spring water periodically, began hatching February 26 and finished April 15, with a loss of 1,223 fry and 487 eggs to May 30. Better results would undoubtedly have been secured had it not been necessary to shut off the spring water. In addition to the collections made in the vicinity of the station 300,000 quinnat-salmon eggs were received in December from Battle Creek, 5,000 landlocked-salmon eggs from Green Lake in February, and 100,000 steelhead-trout eggs from Fort Gaston in April. The quinnat- salmon eggs arrived in excellent condition and commenced hatching on April 3 in water of an average temperature of 34°, but during the hatching period it went down to 325° on several occasions. The fry resulting from them numbered 200,000 at the time of their distribution. They were deposited in tributaries of the Connecticut and Merrimack riversduring the monthof July. Duringincubation white spots appeared on some of the embryos, causing the loss of many. Those on which the spots were most noticeable were separated from the others and in a large number of instances they hatched, the spots disappearing with the absorption of the sac. The steelhead-trout eggs arrived during a period of unusually warm weather and were in very bad condition, REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXIX only 26,379 healthy fry resulting from them; 10,000 were distributed in New Hampshire waters and the balance were retained for rearing. During the summer months observations were made in air.and water temperatures at Caspian Lake, with the view to testing the qualifications of the lake water for use in operating a trout hatchery on a large scale. During November the surface temperature ranged from 45° to 33°. On the spawning-beds (from 1 to 6 feet in depth) it registered the same, whereas it varied from 45° to 38° when taken from a depth of 40 feet. In December and January, with an air temperature below zero, the water from 20 to 100 feet registered 37° and 38° above zero, indicating that an equable temperature of from 37° to 40° can be maintained throughout the year with water taken at a depth of over 20 feet. A small sandpiper was killed on June 13 and in its gizzard were found the vertebral columns of several small fish about 15 inches long. In November the superintendent was instructed to make an investi- gation in New Hampshire respecting the advisability of establishing a station for the propagation of trout at some suitable point in that State. This work covered a period of two weeks in December and January. CaPE VINCENT STATION, NEW York (H. D. DEAN, SUPERINTENDENT). An appropriation of $2,500 having been secured for the completion of the hatchery and grounds, the work of improvement was commenced early in July. The building was completed, the grounds graded, a wire fence constructed around the property, a walk laid from the street to the hatchery, and a gas plant installed. Permission having been granted by the Canadian Government to col- lect whitefish eggs in Bay Quinte, under the supervision of the fishery overseers, the grounds between Belleville and Deseronto were exam- ined and arrangements were made with the fishermen to operate four seines in the vicinity of Massassaga Point, the fishermen agreeing to pay all expenses of running the seines for the coarse fish and to allow the Commission to have the whitefish. The fish were penned in crates, under the supervision of one of the employees of the station. Of the 400 collected, only 25 per cent proved to be females, and a number of these were so bruised in handling that the eggs were worthless. As it was seen that very few eggs could be taken at this point, on November 13 four more seines were secured nearer Deseronto. Many fish were caught there, but only a few were females, and these yielded no eggs, though they were held in pounds for some time. Pound nets belong- ing to the Commission were also operated in Chaumont Bay without results, and at Three Mile Bay six or seven traps were operated and a good many fish captured, but owing to heavy gales the bulk of them died before the eggs could be taken. As a result of the season’s operations only 2,300,000 eggs of very poor quality were obtained from all sources, from which 750,000, fry were hatched and liberated in the St. Lawrence River. The total cost of the work with this species for the season was $476.41. XXX REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. As there seemed to be little prospect of securing a supply of lake trout eggs in the vicinity of the station, early in November arrangements were made to attend the tug fishermen at Dunkirk, and as a result nearly 1,000,000 eggs were secured, at an expense of $141. In addition to these 145,000 were taken in the vicinity of Charity Shoals, and on November 24 a consignment of 1,000,000 was received from Northville Station, giving a total of 2,085,000. The hatching period extended from April 19 to May 8, and the 1,290,000 fry hatched were distributed in Lake Ontario and its tributaries. In addition to the operations with lake trout and whitefish the fol- lowing consignments of eggs from other stations were hatched and distributed. A shipment of 2,095,000 quinnat-salmon eggs arrived from Baird, Cal., on December 15 in excellent condition, and although much crowded in the troughs, 94 per cent of them were hatched and were planted in tributaries of Lake Ontario and in the Hudson and Delaware rivers. One thousand of these fry were retained at the station, and at the close of the year they had attained a length of over 3dinches. From the 50,000 Atlantic salmon eggs received from Craig Brook 48,000 iry were hatched, the period of incubation extending from March 19 to April 8. All of the fry were deposited in the Salmon River on May 17. Two consignments of steelhead eggs, aggregating 50,000, were received from Fort Gaston on April 24. As they were in very bad condition on arrival, only 10,600 fry were obtained from them for distribution. A shipment of 27,700 rainbow-trout eggs from Wythe- ville yielded 11,600 fry, which were distributed soon after hatching to applicants in the State of New York. The following table gives the average, maximum, and mean tempera- tures of air and water at the station for the fiscal year, by months: | Air. Water. | Air. | ‘Water. 1896. | — ae oh 1897. = 7 aie Min. | Max. Mean.) Min. | Max. Mean. | Min. | Max.|Mean, Min. | Max.|Mean OuULy; n= = =| 62 85 | 73.5 61| 72] 66.75|| January...| —9 57 | 24 33 36 33.6 August .--.| 56 88 74 68 | 76) 72 || February-. 0 44 | 25.75] 33 33 33 September 39 80 | 62 58 | 69 | 64.33|/) March 6 49 | 33. 66) 33 33 33 October ..-. 34 68 | 47 A eee OOM R28 Sel PACDFTL eres 23 69 | 47 33.5 | 43.5 38 November... P43) 63 | 43. 66 42) 51 | 45.3 |] May, se2=c 44 717 | 57 42 51.5 47.5 December ..| —1 48 | 27.4 33 | 41 | 36.8 | Osuna sabass 49 85 | 66.75) 50 | 64 59 | | GLOUCESTER STATION, MASSACHUSETTS (C. G. CORLISS IN CHARGE). Upon the appointment of E. F. Locke as superintendent at Woods Hole in October, C. G. Corliss, fish-culturist, was placed in charge of Gloucester Station. Repairs were made to the hatching-boxes, build- ings, and machinery, and by November 13 the station was ready for operations. Cod.—The crew of the Grampus, under the direction of Captain Hahn, was stationed at Kittery Point, Me., as heretofore, and commenced making egg collections for the station on November 19. The eggs were transferred to Gloucester, packed in closed jars, and surrounded with REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXI crushed ice or snow to keep the temperature equable. Collections continued daily until March 26, the total take amounting to 113,000,000 eggs, from which 62,505,000 fry were hatched and planted. The meteoro- logical conditions during the season were much more favorable than for several years previous, especially in the months of November and December, when 63,000,000 eggs were secured, from which 45,000,000 fry were hatched. The fish from which the eggs were taken were caught in gill nets and in trawls fished by vessels making their headquarters at Kittery. It has been customary to fertilize cod eggs by what is known as the wet method, but this year the dry method was employed, and the increased percentage of fry hatched is thought to have been due to that fact. This percentage, though much smaller than is secured with the eggs of other species handled by the Commission, was remarkably good considering the conditions under which they were taken. Owing to heavy storms it is frequently necessary to allow the fish to remain in the nets for several days, and in such instances those captured in the gill nets perish. The fish taken by the trawl nets frequently live for several days, and for this reason the eggs secured from that source are superior to those obtained from the gill nets. Where the fish have been dead only a short time it is customary to save the eggs, and though they appear to be good when received at the station very heavy losses occur after they have been in the apparatus for some time. The prin- cipal losses with cod eggs occur during the earlier stages of develop- ment, and until the embryo is well formed great care must be taken in handling them; after that stage has been passed they are quite hardy and comparatively few are lost. During the early part of the season the temperature ranged from 47° to 40°, but after the 15th of December it fell gradually, reaching 35° on January 15. It having been found that the water on the spawning-grounds ranges from 37° to 38°, steam was employed from that time on for the purpose of maintaining about the same temperature in the boxes. The experiment of hatching eggs by means of air circulation in the McDonald automatic jar was again tried, but the results did not indi- cate that this method could be successfully adopted. The temperature of the water in the jars was kept at 40° by packing them in salt and ice; the water was changed twice a day during the earlier stages and more frequently later on, as it became foul ina very short time. About one-third of the eggs which reached the hatching point were hatched in the jars; the remainder, though kept in circulation for several days, did not hatch until they were transferred to a McDonald tidal box, when the fry appeared within twenty-four hours, being strong and healthy, apparently. Instead of liberating them in Gloucester Harbor, as heretofore, they were taken out in a sailing boat to the natural spawning-grounds in Ipswich Bay and deposited at the point of collec- tion. The loss in transportation was very small. XXXII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The following table shows the daily collections of cod eggs lost during incubation, number of fry hatched, and period of incubation: Cod season at Gloucester Station, 1896-97. ef : Period Date re- f x Eggs re- |Lossduring Fr : ceived. Whence. ceived. | incubation. tiaten od! fe 1896. Days. one, UY |) Glassy eters WIS Se See ee eecemecersced| 575, 000 167, 000 408, 000 12 20h ete Oe Oe eee ee Se tionc cae ouisnacemes: 509, 000 136, 000 373, 000 13 ile eet MORSE ee ce ence e ewe Sachse ceeste sccemiee 752, 000 149, 000 603, 000 12 DS tl meee GO) Se Se ARO e Seo Se See ae ease eee ese at 1, 693, 000 413,000 | 1, 280, 000 12 2 | Rh Oe enters nccine s bas sbvee aninde sine soci 1, 847, 000 414,000 | 1, 433, 000 12 OB aeceer CO Beer e ares ee sn ste ces Sense ccecregee 2, 451, 000 633, 000 | 1, 818, 000 12 7H sl eR Bee RRO eee eee eo es Sate eg stein inte mata ote eget 1, 251, 000 661, 000 590, 000 11 Or lemeist Dius ss sbapos Jhon seehcdedqedseer seo ee certs sre 1, 784, 000 1, 172, 000 | 612, 000 11 33 1) Sear NO ene oe eae den Gretins sais cicanlemaeeemeee | 2,557, 000 579,000 | 1,978, 000 13 Des. 1 | Kittery Pointand Rockport. .-.---.----------- 2, 649, 000 683,000 | 1, 966, 000 14 2 | Kittery Point, Me.........-.--- Bee eee eee 1, 749, 000 | 1, 219, 000 530, 000 14 AG See et O ciate cee sale ae ales te are eaten ara 3, 759, 000 | 1, 093, 000 2, 666, 000 14 Cry eee COetees sicsscasececsarice asec e Sen teen emeese 2, 119, 000 888,000 | 1, 231, 000 14 eas. - Oe ar ie He ote Donte e leeicee ee Eee 3,102,000 | 1,874,000 | 1, 228, 0&0 14 ‘ 'f 1,786, 000 15 (ea RE SP eee -- 3,708,000, 470,000 { 3° 452000 | 15 10 | Kittery Point hee Rockport. 222 .ces sasasceeee 2, 559, 000 969,000 1, 590, 000 15 al Kattory Point; Me. 0.0... 2-4.2206 2s eee 1, 148, 000 609,000 | 539, 000 19 107) Bees dO)s-2 t=. Scenes Sele sos eee eee ee eee 1, 121, 000 858, 000 | 263, 000 20 16iq anes do ieee elke 28. mendes desk ero eee eee 983, 000 610, 000 373, 000 20 1s eee OO ss aaeos onesie acces cgcens eee eee eee 3, 327,000 | 1,654,000 | 1,673, 000 21 18 | Kittery Point and Gloucester --...----.------- | 1,733, 000 708,000 | 1,025, 000 24 20 | Gloucester, WEN s5modaecocossomtce Segue ssoseze 161, 000 37, 000 124, 000 24 21 | 4,371,000 | 1,732,000 { be ane | ’ ’ 2p ees 4,022,000 | 1,177,000 2,845, 000 24 24 2, 185, 000 679, 000 1, 506, 000 24 25 | 785, 000 388, 000 | 397, 000 24 Pot fal eeteaee 949, 000 436, 000 513, 000 24 28 963, 000 158, 000 805, 000 23 29 840, 000 301, 000 539, 000 23 30 3,572,000 | 1,880,000 | 1, 692, 000 23 ae 726, 000 5738, 000 | 153, 000 22 1897, | | Ey Or eee (LO) Sn ale'a: so nines 'alcihinin ia feleteeietees Beet Peer ete 1, 111, 000 733, 000 | 378, 000 25 6 | Kittery Point and Rockpor 1S a 2) 437, 000 247, 000 | 190, 000 22 7 HeSueLy Point andiGloucesten-ss--- eee eee eee 1, 153, 000 700, 000 | 453, 000 21 Spee eee eee ccorususicayansssseccoeaee 1, 708, 000 646,000 | 1, 062, 000 22 12 Kittery Point and Rockporb--------------o--- 710, 000 303, 000 | 407, 000 20 19) IRit berry, E011 t, Mic sesame ee enn | 758, 000 471,000 | 287, 000 20 145) Rockport, Mass./--psssecmtes eee a= eee eee 1, 299, 000 477, 000 | 822, 000 19 LGh) Kattery Point, Mic ee eeere eee ee ease nese 624, 000 200,000 | 424, 000 20 17 | t, 137, 000 367, 000 | 770, 000 19 20 | 1,919, 000 662,000 | 1, rol 000 18 és 1, 069, 000 19 22 2, 387, 000 655, 000 { 663; 000 os 23 |- 4,185,000 ; 2,891,060 1, 294, 000 21 27 1,691,000 | 1,518, 000 | 173, 000 20 29 1, 209, 000 484, 000 725, 000 20 30 1,777,000 | 1,179, 000 598, 000 22 Feb. 1 885, 000 571, 000 314, 000 20 2 Kitter y Pointandshockporteessessseeeaseese- 1, 108, 600 242, 000 866, 000 20 5) | Kittery Point, Me:sas.ss-e-ee= seenee nee 2,828,000 | 1,148,000 | 1, 680, 000 2 6 | Rockport and Kittery POimnbY Sog-c eee sess oes 3,644,000 3,139,000 505, 000 21 f 1,965, 000 21 I |[seooe GO. 2.22: ace eee eee eee ee 4,124,000 | 1,953, 000 { ’ 206, 000 20 10 | Kattery. Point; Mies -o-scee tee 1, 705, 000 573, 000 | 1, 132, 000 20 7 ah Besser G02 a sindeeock.)gosadin Je eae en ee ee ears 1, 695, 000 1, 312, 000 383, 000 19 leccee OO swicciccscends te ce seen e eee Seer eeree ae 1, 646, 000 1, 021, 000 625, 000 18 Ue Beaee- 0: -2 22 obs 2ao a hee ee eee eee 482, 000 74, 000 408, 000 20 ute 5) |e DG sige cicinice aide Secale heh ee eee ee eee 997, 000 558, 000 439, 000 19 LG (re GOw. eit h- sk ued 32s ee eee ee 1, 167, 000 869. 000 298, 000 16 Tsao i I eis 368, 000 $32, 000 36, 000 19 201|(Rockport;. Mass.) $5/...25- eee eee eee eee 192, 000 179, 000 13, 000 18 210 \ecoe GC oe ee PEER RE cosy SSE 398, 000 94, 000 304, 000 20 27 aad Point; Me. : 22:22). 022 eeeseesesee sneer 2, 333, 000 | 1,212,000 | 1, 121, 000 19 QB) See OO cain aie bondi new oess)scek = ee C CR ete 942, 000 388, 000 554, 000 18 Mar. 54 ee Pointand Rockport-.--s25--es22=5 2-6 3,985,000 | 1,114,000} 2, 871, 000 19 6:| Kattery Point, Me. 2222222... eeeeeeeee ee Ba 643, 000 127, 000 516, 000 18 8 | Kittery Point and Rockport: - 3. Seepaeeeceees 1, 440, 000 739, 000 701, 000 19 95) "Rockport, Mass... <.:.ceaici c= eee Ree neeene 503, 000 337, 000 166, 000 18 Potato: 5. ec Sea oie rr 113, 140, 000 | 50, 835,000 62, 305, 000 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXIII Lobster work.—Arrangements were made for collecting berried lob- sters from fishermen in the vicinity of Gloucester, Boston Bay, and Kittery Point, and with the view to further extending the work the schooner Grampus was detailed to make collections along the Maine coast from Portland to Rockland. Permission having been obtained from the commissioners of Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts for holding egg lobsters in live-boxes for the use of the Commission, Captain Hahn visited the various fishing centers in March and made the necessary arrangements with the fishermen, who agreed to deliver large females for 15 cents each and small ones for 10 cents. A small steamer was chartered to make the collections in Boston and Gloucester harbors. The season extended from April 17 to July 19, the total col- lection amounting to 54,532,000, from which 47,869,000 fry were hatched and planted. These results, though not as good as had been expected from the extent of the territory covered, indicated that the work can be greatly extended under favorable conditions. The weather during the early part of the season was very bad, and as a large part of the territory covered was new, the fishermen did not take much interest in the work until the season was well advanced. The greater part of the lobsters from Boston Bay came from the dealers, and by employing two or three local agents instead of one next yearit is probable that better results can be secured. The collections by localities were as follows: Boston Bay, 23,687,000 ; Gloucester Harbor, 5,950,000; Kittery Point, 6,966,000; the schooner Grampus, in Maine, 17,370,000; Marblehead, 559,000. The egg lobsters collected on the Maine coast were transferred without difficulty in the well of the Grampus to Gloucester, where the eggs were stripped and placed in jars, the lobsters being liberated by the vessel’s crew at points along the Maine coast on the return trip. Those collected in Boston Bay were transferred by steamer, and little difficulty was experienced in transporting them during the early part of the season. On the first five or six trips they were carried in hogsheads packed in seaweed, no water being used, but as the weather grew warmer it became necessary to use water and to change it frequently enroute. Ice was used, but without any apparent effect. This failure late in the season was prob- ably due as much to the condition of the lobsters when received as to the temperature, since many of them had been shipped to Boston, from distant points, packed in ice. A vessel with a well should be used for transporting them. The eggs were developed as heretofore, in the McDonald jar. As the temperature of the water remained below 50° until June 1, the fry did not commence hatching until after that date, but from that time on they came out very rapidly, necessitating large plants each day. The bulk of them were distributed in Massachusetts waters between Marblehead and Rockport. By means of the Grampus 11,665,000 were shipped to Maine and planted in the localities from which the lobsters were col- F. R. 97-——II1 XXXIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. lected, little difficulty being experienced in the transfer. During the latter part of the season several shipments were sent by rail to Port- land in charge of a messenger. The first two lots were planted without loss, as the weather was cool, but the third, shipped on a very warm day, suffered heavy losses, as it was impracticable to use ice on account of its freshening the water. Mackerel.—Early in June steps were taken to secure eggs from the trap-net fishermen in the vicinity of the station, but no mackerel were caught until June 9, when the drag nets secured a small number 15 or 20 miles offshore. Spawn-takers were detailed to attend the drag nets, and the launch visited the traps in the vicinity of Magnolia and Manchester daily. The first eggs were collected June 16, and the last on July 12, the total collections amounting to 1,108,000, from which 652,000 fry were produced. From some of the eggs collected over 90 per cent were hatched. They were handled in the McDonald tidal box in the manner adopted for the cod eggs, except that the motion given was not so violent. This was regulated by setting the siphon high enough to allow the water to rise and fall not over aninch. By doing this the full strength of the current did not reach the surface where the greater part of the eggs were, and a gentle motion was secured, just sufficient to keep them in circulation. The eggs hatched in from 3 to 5 days and were cleaned only once. They should not be changed from one box to another during the first day or two. The following table gives a summary of the work at the station: Species. ees Fry planted. COD een oscccciinicie ss Sicivisiesis atic nieve lela sieltarete eee re stele oe cietote erate eteeaeteteeia ae eats 113, 000, 000 62, 305, 000 TUG) TR) Peo ope o SoS OR EERE EEE eno oe acer checoUcopaOboeCUpHonoes decade atusoessas 54, 532, 000 47, 869, 000 WIE OEGTIG) SS SeSe Se SoBe Ree Rane hOo Soe OCHO aE Hobos omoononTOsdnoCnUSESarcnoose 1, 108, 000 652, 000 410) BOB Re eS Bereeocc as SHaecsoCUlSEa. Horonerocciode tua sOGod Coneaeae' 168, 640, 000 ' 110, 826, 000 The hatchery and pumps were taxed to their utmost capacity many times during the season, and at its close arrangements were made to enlarge the plant so as to be able to meet all emergencies another year. Woops Hoe StTaTIon, MASSACHUSETTS (E. F. LOCKE, SUPERINTENDENT). The following statement shows the kinds of fish propagated, number of eggs collected, and fry hatched and distributed during the year: aia E 1- Species. Be de Fry planted. (SORE Meee eee Se cts SAU Sorc ehcsiare sa Soe Se Sasa RRO Ee eee 65, 167,000 | 35, 953, 000 TDSC beaten ES Cae SOG SSE MOC IE REE Eee Cerne Se emeoq ss aticooanelens: 74, 152, 000 64, 419, 000 TET Nae ee an Cee ee ee ee EET Te oe baebacine 84,591,000 | 64, 095, 000 MOTTO Cee a aintc cle coe cc ee ete oa coals bia sedie's scales dc aicae See ee Ree ee ee one eet 1, 646, 000 624, 000 Sa DISS) Se eciseicicljersitmie bella Sea ne Sisto die tajore, Sujciarcje’a scien cae SUCRE EERE eee eee 241, 000 193, 000 WNETOK ENE coe cee ceciae oe male e aisietiwice tle seis vimaiejacels eimtota ee ese peels Setetreaeiee esters 153; '000\)Pes=.seeeeeee DOtal sc. c os aeete cas oe casas cekwc ces acerssces> Se ceee eer EE eeeene 225, 950,000 | 165, 284, 000 The work at the station was directed by Alexander Jones until October 10, when he was relieved by E. F. Locke, who was appointed superin- REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXV tendent of the station. With the view to increasing the output, addi- tional live-cars for holding adult cod were constructed and arrangements were made with the commercial fishermen to supply the fish. The Grampus was also detailed during the latter part of September to make collections. The first consignment of cod was delivered at the station on October 3, and by the 4th of November 9,379 fish, averaging 4 pounds and more in weight, had been delivered ; 2,910 were furnished by . the Grampus and the balance were purchased. They were apparently in first-class condition when received, and no serious losses occurred until the middle of November, when the death rate became very heavy, as many as 200 dying in24 hours. This loss was due to injuries received in capture and transportation from fishing-grounds and to the breaking out of sores, which formed just under the skin and spread over the entire body. Of the smaller fish, 2,+00 were transferred to a small pool near the residence, many of them being affected as described above, but after remaining in the pool a short time the sores healed and they apparently recovered. The collection of eggs commenced November 9 and continued until January 25, during which time 50,914,000 were secured from 884 spawn- ers. The results attained were very discouraging, as the number of brood fish secured was much larger than in past years. During the winter 2,550 of the smaller ones were released, as they gave no evidence of spawning. The experience of this season seems to show that no fish weighing less than 6 pounds should be retained for spawning purposes. On January 25 all of the stock on hand, amounting to 1,500, were killed by anchor frost. From the following table it appears that not only a much smaller percentage of the fish purchased this year were spawners, but the yield of eggs per fish was also much smaller than in past years: me Brood ~ ‘ Ripe | Eggs per wes fish. | 2Sgs taken.) ‘gan. | fish. ABR GEC Meets emacteel. Seb Sonica cc acs cace Fe Sedans caters ek eae 349 8, 500, 000 91 93, 000 PUNO eens the ter. wel 6 Wee s Bie fee hoes | 3,000) 67, 600, 000 587 | 115, 000 TIDIAO Es 5-5, cea RS gee eR ee gS en a 1,620 48, 600, 000 444 | 102, 000 eR EEE eer Sc COO BEDD DOD USO BB CR OSE On niC tsar AMES eee tines | 3,320 85, 500, 000 1, 107 71, 000 ERODE OBE eet aalam Sat eica a cst satnieie ssid ao nanieeiee SoS ademicmieslewisie vic 3,836 | 70,800, 000 | 415 170, 000 ISHS coc nignad pont da guebdoUdoUaoseccosGan boacScEScoacee ase 9,379 | 50, 914, 000 884 57, 000 JME, se She toHoonencsectibo snes aoogduerncnseage Cemencense 21, 504 | 331, 914, 000° 3, 528 608, 000 In addition to the eggs collected at the station, 5,606,000 were received from Kittery Point, Me., and 8,647,000 from the fishermen near Duxbury, Mass. It having been decided in January to attempt the collection of eggs at the latter point, the mate of the Grampus, Mr. J. C. Conley, was placed in immediate charge of the work with a small force, and, although the collection was undertaken at the time of year when the weather is most unfavorable, the results attained were grati- fying, and it seems probable that about 75,000,000 eggs can be obtained from this source next season. The total output of fry from the eggs handled at the station amounted to 35,953,000, the hatching being done, as usual, in the McDonald tidal box. The temperature of the XXXVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. water having fallen to 35° in January, it was raised and maintained at from 38° to 40° by introducing steam directly into the supply pipes. The fry distributed during the month of November were deposited in the harbor, but all those hatching after December 1 were liberated on the spawning-grounds off No Man’s Land and Gayhead, part of the plants being made by the steamer Fish Hawk and part by a small sloop chartered for the purpose. The following table shows in detail the daily receipts of eggs, number ot iat hatched, and period of incubation: | ir Ramiper Namen Dare of | Date of Number | Number | Date of | Date of Date. | of eggs of fry hatch- | plant- || Date. | of eggs of fry hatch- | plant- | received. | hatched. ing. ing. received. | hatched. ing. ing. is = (wes SST ee : oe 2 PS Us eee El ef 1896. 1896. 1896. || 1896. 1897. 1897. Nov. 9 337, 000 235,000 Nov. 19 | Noy. 20 || Dec. 17 | 2, 298,000 | 1,096,000 | Jan. 14 | Jan. 16 10 | 545, 000 261, 000 | 20 | 21 | 18 758, 000 431, 000 14 16 12 972, 000 560, 000 | 21 22 | 19 | 1, 516, 000 788, 000 18 22 14 426, 000 302, 000 24 24 | 21 | 1,420, 000 979, 000 19 22 16 | 1, 162, 000 640, 000 25 | 25 || 22 213, 000 124, 000 19 22 17 663, 000 397, 000 26 28 || 26 | 2,370, 000 | 1, 472, 000 22 29 18 | 1, 085, 000 700, 000 27 | 28 28 | 1,017,000 580, 000 24 29 19 758, 000 400, 000 29 |! 29 30 379, 000 263, 000 25 29 20 | 1,279, 000 728, 000 29 | 30 || 1897. 21 | 1,943, 000 | 1, 138, 000 30 30 | Jan. 1/ 1,720,000 1,844, 000 27 25 23 | 1,966, 000 | 1,086,000 | Dec. 21! Dec. 3 4 948, 000 654, 000 29 | Feb. 9 24 | 1,160, 000 594, 000 3 4 6 758, 000 521,600 | Feb. 2 5 25 | 2,487, 000 | 1, 430, 000 4 6 8 | 237, 000 102, 000 2 5 27 | 2, 842, 000 | 1,760, 000 8 9 10-1, 801, 000 | 1, 320, 000 8 8 28 | 2,038, 000 | 1,400, 000 8 12 | 11 5,070, 000 | 1, 844, 000 8 8 30 | 2,181, 000 | 1, 319, 000 12 14 12 427, 000 230, 000 11 13 Dec. 1 | 1.092, 000 864, 000 13 14 14 2,914, 000 | 1, 5389, 000 11 13 4 | 2,180, 000 | 1, 232, 000 15 18 16 450, 000 174, 000 11 13 5 | 1,188, 000 655, 000 16 18 | 18 758, 000 179, 000 11 13 6 758, 000 490, 000 17 18 | 21 237, 000 127, 000 16 17 7 474, 000 91, 000 21 24 | 22, | 758, 000 226, 000 16 17 8 | 2,465, 000 | 1,712, 000 21 24 | 23 | 47, 000 11, 000 16 17 9 592, 000 296, 000 23 24 24 616, 000 379, 000 16 17 10 663, 000 362, 000 25 31 31 948, 000 314, 000 26 27 11 | 1, 233, 000 687, 000 27 31 || Feb. 1 | 1,326, 000 305, 000 26 27 1897. 1897. 2, 1,137, 000 546, 000 26 27 12 544, 000 379,000 | Jan. 6|Jan. 9 Bo 14 | 2,061, 000 | 1,019, 000 7 9 163, 167, 000 es 953, 000 Flatfish.—Early in February fyke nets were as in Woods Hole Har- bor and Waquoit Bay,and the first ripe fish were captured on the 15th. From that time collections were continued daily until the 15th of April, 305 ripe females being secured from the seven nets operated. The take of eggs aggregated 84,591,000, or an average of about 277,000 per fish; the yield per fish varied with the size, one female, 34 pounds in weight, producing 1,462,000. The fish captured in Waquoit Bay were much larger than those from Woods Hole Harbor. The hatching was done, as usual, in the modified McDonald box, the period of incubation vary- ing from 7 to 22 days, according to the temperature of the water. By the close of the season 64,095,000 fry had been hatched and distributed on suitable grounds in Buzzards and Waquoit bays. Lobsters.—While engaged in collecting lobsters for shipment to the Pacific Coast during October and November 887,000 eggs were collected and placed in hatching-jars. They did well throughout the winter, but the losses became very heavy about the Ist of April, and as a result only 385,000 fry were hatched from them. The regular spring collec- tions commenced on April 7. The field of operations was enlarged by the employment of an agent at Plymouth, Mass., who purchased egg REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXVII lobsters from the fishermen operating between Green Harbor and Ship Pond, including Duxbury, Kingston Bay, and Plymouth Harbor. This territory proved to be very disappointing, as the entire number of eggs received during the months of April, May, and June amounted to only 5,335,000. Collections were made at the usual points in the vicinity of Woods Hole, and steps were also taken to secure the egg lobsters cap- tured in the vicinity of Block Island and along the Connecticut coast, a small smack being chartered for the purpose of bringing them to the station and transporting the fry back to the spawning-grounds. The lobsters brought in by the smack were much larger than those obtained from the other points, hence the yield of eggs per lobster was greater. All of the adults handled were returned to the waters after the eggs had been stripped. The eggs were handled in the universal hatching- jar, and the losses were comparatively light, the total take of 74,152,000 yielding 64,419,000 fry. The planting of the fry was commenced on May 19, and during the season several shipments were sent by rail to Plymonth and Provincetown, being carried in the ordinary transporta- tion can without serious losses. The last deposit was made on July 13. Experiments were tried during the latter part of the season in holding and feeding young lobsters in hatching-boxes containing sand, gravel, stones, and vegetable life. Collections of crustaceans and copepods were made daily, and microscopical examinations showed that these, together with some vegetable life, formed their principal food. In only a few instances was cannibalism observed. Mackerel.—During May and June efforts were made to collect mack- erel eggs from fish caught in pound nets in the vicinity of the station, but no ripe ones were captured, though the nets were visited daily from June 16 to the end of the month. Spawn-takers sent to Edgartown to make collections from the hand-line fishermen reported that all of the female mackerel were either spent or unripe, and the only eggs received were several small shipments, aggregating 153,000, sent by the spawn- taker stationed at Barnstable, Mass. These were collected between June 19 and 26, and were forwarded to the station in Mason jars, packed in an ordinary transportation can partly filled with ice water. They were apparently in good condition when received, but died on the second day, and it is thought that the change in temperature affected them, as the water inshore where they were packed was 6° higher than that at the point of collection. Sea bass.—Efforts were made to secure eggs of the sea bass in con- nection with the collection of mackeral eggs, but only two ripe fish were found. The 241,000 eggs obtained from these produced 193,000 fry, which were planted in Vineyard Sound. As large numbers of these fish are usually taken off Cotuit and Hyannis by hand-line fishermen a Spawn-taker was sent to those points, but he found that the fishery had been abandoned before the commencement of the spawning season. Tautog.—At the approach of the spawning season of this fish arrange- ments were made for continuing the work begun last season, and on XXXVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. the 29th of June fishermen were employed to capture brood fish. Many large ones were secured, but only 24 of them were ripe. These yielded 1,646,000 eggs, from which 735,000 fry were hatched and planted in Vineyard Sound. The last eggs were taken on July 9, and the average period of incubation was from two to three days. STEAMER FisH Hawk (Linut. FRANKLIN SwirT, COMMANDING). With the view of determining the spawning-grounds and season of the shad on the St. Johns River and other southern streams, the steamer Fish Hawk proceeded to Florida in January to undertake the collection and hatching of shad eggs. Palatka was reached on January 16, and an investigation of the fishing-grounds between that point and the headwaters of the St. Johns was at once commenced. It was found that the majority of the shad taken in the upper part of the river were caught in haul seines; from Volusia Bar to Lake Monroe, a distance of 50 miles, 30 of them were operated, while above the lake there were only 3. The seines were of 34-inch mesh, 300 yards long, and 40 meshes deep. No ripe shad were caught at Sanford and an examination of those taken indicated that they would not spawn for some time. As the water at the mouth of the Ocklawaha River was found to be well adapted for hatching purposes, a suitable anchorage was found and the vessel was removed there on January 26. The water in this section of the river was found to be slightly brackish, and it continued so until February 17. This was attributed by the inhabitants to the presence of salt springs in the lakes and river, but 1t seems more probable that it was caused by the banking up of the sea water at the mouth of the river by easterly gales. Tide gauges were used and regu- lar observations of density and temperature were kept during the time the vessel was stationed at this point. As operations were being con- ducted on a large scale at Volusia Bar, arrangements were made with the fishermen for collecting eggs, and through the courtesy of Capt. W. A. Shaw, commanding the steamer City of Jacksonville, free trans- portation was furnished the employees of the Commission engaged in the work. Volusia Bar is situated at the entrance of the St. Johns into Lake George, and is so narrow that a seine can be stretched across it, thus effectually stopping all fish. The seines are operated from sun- rise to sunset, and as soon as one is laid out and ready to be hauled in another is run out behind it, so that the shad passing up the river have little chance to escape. The catch was large throughout the season, and at times amounted to over 1,000 per day. Spawn-takers were stationed at this point and at Welaka on Feb ruary 23 for the purpose of making regular examinations of the fish captured. The ship’s nets were also set regularly, but the majority of the fish taken were gizzard shad. On the 3d of March 8,000 eggs were secured at Volusia Bar. They were hatched without loss, the mean temperature of the water during incubation being 73°. The fry were strong and healthy, and exhibited no signs of weakness, as might have been expected from the high temperature of the water. They were REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XXXIX liberated in the middle of Little Lake George. At the time these eggs were taken it was thought that the spawning season had at last arrived, but no more were secured, though operations were continued daily. In order that the entire field might be covered, car No. 3 was stationed at Sanford, Fla.,in February, and a part of the crew of the Fish Hawk was detailed to assist Capt. T. C. Pearce in making collections in Lake Monroe and in the river above and below it. From February 20 to the end of March the spawn-takers from the car attended daily the seines operated at Manuel Landing, between Lakes George and Monroe. The appearance of the shad in general remained the same to the close of the season, though several ripe ones were found early in March, from which 57,000 eggs were secured. The first two lots taken were placed in the hatching apparatus as usual, but inside of twenty-four hours they were all dead. This loss was attributed to the use of water from the city works, which contains tannin. The third lot of eggs was hatched without difficulty in water taken from Lake Monroe, and the 10,000 fry resulting from them were liberated in that lake. At Volusia Bar observations continued until the close of the month, but though large numbers of shad were being taken in the various seines and gill nets fished on that river, no ripe ones were found About the close of March spawn-takers were sent to Lake Harney, 35 miles up the river, but they reported that there was no fishing for Shad at that point. Again, in April, one of the men returned and made several hauls with a seine, capturing 1. He was informed that small numbers of spent shad had been caught there for the past three weeks. A third trip to that lake, on April 15, resulted in the capture of 5 spent fish. On April 5, after the close of the fishing season, a seine was hired and four hauls were made at Manuel Landing, resulting in the capture of 18 roe shad, none of which was ripe. ° Trips were also made to Lakes Poinsett, Winder, and Washington, but from the information gathered it seems that very few shad go beyond Lake Harney. : Though much valuable information was obtained, the results as a whole were unsatisfactory, as the main object had been to locate the spawning-grounds and to determine definitely at what season eggs are deposited. The dealers stated repeatedly that spawning fish had been captured in January and February. It may be that the headwaters of the river and the lakes are the principal spawning-grounds, but as there is no commercial fishing in those waters this was not decided. On March 25 the Fish Hawk sailed for Albemarle Sound, arriving at Mackey’s Ferry on April 1. As soon as possible afterward the owners of the seines, pounds, and gill nets were interviewed and arrangements made for collecting eggs. Spawn-takers were sent out on April 2 and the first eggs were brought in on the 5th. From that time to April 27 eggs were taken every day except Sunday, when fishing is prohibited by law. On April 7 the eggs collected the previous day commenced XL REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. dying, and as their general condition before being placed in the jars was good, the loss was attributed to the water. An examination by the chemist failed to show any deleterious substances, but to avoid further losses the vessel was removed to Avoca, on Salmon Creek, where it remained to the close of the season. This location proved excellent, as it was within reach of the seines owned by Dr. Capehart and Mr. Hampton. The ship’s launches and five spawning boats were in constant use, and by April 27 the collection from all sources amounted to 27,901,000; 22,540,000 of these were secured from the seines at Avoca and 3,965,000 from Mr. Hampton’s seines on the Roanoke River; the bal- ance were obtained from pound nets. As the result of the season’s work 16,911,000 fry were hatched and planted in the Albemarle and its tributaries, under the direction of Dr. Kendall, who had been detailed to observe their habits after liberation. The temperature of the water during the season varied from 59° to 63°, On April 27 the vessel proceeded to Delaware Bay, the 5,475,000 impregnated eggs still on hand having been turned over to Dr. Ken- dall, to be hatched in floating boxes anchored in the Salmon River. Owing to the very poor circulation of the water here the loss on these egos was very heavy; the 750,000 fry resulting from them were liberated in the Chowan River. The vessel arrived in the Delaware on May 1, and remained at Howell Cove until May 28, when it removed to an anchorage off Gloucester. For the first time in the history of the shad work on this river the efforts to collect eggs from the fisheries above the city of Philadelphia met with success. Collections commenced at once and continued without interruption until June 11, during which time 66,708,000 eggs were obtained and 42,130,000 fry hatched. Over a third of the eggs were collected in Howell Cove; the balance were ‘obtained from gill-net fishermen and from seines above Philadelphia. The following table shows the daily collection, number of ripe fish used, fry hatched, and average temperature of air and water: | | Average Average |Female| No. of temperature} Female} No.of |. _|temperature Date. fish | eggs ob- |N0.0f RY, each day. |/ Date. | fish | eggs ob-/4,9,1 259| each day. used. | tained. edge ey Sere used. | tained. = SS Air.| Water. Air.|Water. oF,! oF, OF.) Om, May 1 2 SA O00| ee sae cicin 64 59.5 || May 23 |Sunday].-...-..... 3,376, 000) 63 65.5 MRC RAYE comer oor ae GL 59 24 74) 2, 982, 000) 2,179, 000) 62.5) 66 3 24) 1, 214, 000). - 55 60.5 25 58) PRBYA UD!) Samneeesc sc 60 67 4 90! 3, 453, 000). - 58 | 60 26 45| 2, 302, 000)....--.--- 60 65 5 61) 2,927, 000). -. 63 61 27 63) 3, 110, 000,.---...---/ 62 65.5 6 68) 2, 964, 000). - -| 68 61 28 39} 1, 901, 000, 1, 000, 000) 65 65 ff, 51) 2, 206, 000). - ween tos 60 29 3 142,000 1, 155, 000) 61 66 8 4 199, 000 50, 000) 60 60 30 |Sunday]-.---.---- | 1,690, 000) 64 66 OU SUNnOay| ante oc. =. 6 500, 000) 62 62.5 31 | 54| 2,767,000 2,000, 000) 66 56.5 10 34) 1, 211, 000 956, 000] 68 63.5 || June 1 30, 1,125,000 2,494,000) 63.5) 66 11 82) 3, 369, 000) 1,994, 000) 66.5) 64.5 2 23} 1, 025, 000 1,726,000, 61 66 12 40} 1,550, 000) 2, 800, 000) 71 65 3 4G6\6 2,054 000! 22. boo oe 72./5) © 66 13 48) 2,761, 000| 2,337, 000) 66.5) 66 4 19 954,000 1,500, 000) 72 63 14 46). 1, 942, 000 273, 000) 67.5) 66.5 Bille sovende etlereyots eitctarers 1, 409, 000! 69 69 15 14 715, 000| 1, 500, 000) 64 65 6 | Sunday). = -c-6c <5 | 649, 000! 68 69 16 |Sunday}].....-....| 1,851, 000} 62 64 | 7 10 513, 000] 1,191,000 60.5) 68 17 121) 5, 930, 000} 1, 996, 600} 64.5) 64.5 | Si lvass Soemleciacne eee 574, 000) 59 67 18 87| 4, 297, 000) 1, 076, 000} 65 64.5 9 6 ZOO O00 mem meeps 61 66 19 87| 3, 422, 000) 1,122, 000} 69 iy 10 11 BS 7000: cam tase 67.5 66.5 20 93) 3, 611, 000 670, 000} 68.5) 65 il 16 547, 000 380,000 70 67 21 45) 2, 169, 000) 1, 000, 000) 63 65 $= —— 22 i) 294, 009) 3,597, 000) 64 65 | 15] 1/66, 708, 000/43, 045, 000} REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XLI Several times during the season the capacity of the vessel was taxed to its utmost, and on two occasions it was found necessary to transfer eggs to other stations. In addition to the jar, various forms of appa- ratus, such as the Seth Green boxes, tidal boxes, and aquaria, were employed temporarily in hatching. The shad work was discontinued on June 14 and the vessel pro- ceeded to Woods Hole, arriving there June 16, It was the intention to remain here for a time, to cooperate in the collection of mackerel eggs near Edgartown, but after waiting for several days and failing to secure any eggs she proceeded on June 24 to Casco Bay and anchored in Orr Island Harbor. This location was selected as the base of operations on account of its being the headquarters of the mackerel fishermen; it was also in easy communication with Portland, where large numbers of lobsters are collected. Arrangements were at once made for the spawn- takers to attend the pound nets in the vicinity and to accompany the drag-net fishermen regularly on their trips. The weather at this time was so bad that the drag-netters were often prevented from going out, and on July 13 a southwesterly gale completely wrecked the pounds at two of the fisheries. Asa result the total number of mackerel eggs secured amounted to only 999,880, most of which were taken from the pounds on Jaquish Island. The period of collection extended from June 25 to July 8. In view of the difficulties experienced the past season in hatching eggs of the mackerel, Dr. J. P. Moore was employed to make a special study of the development of the egg, with the view to suggesting some practical improvements in the hatching methods. The following are the most important of the hatching processes experimented with: Increase of density from the normal 1.0224 to 1.0252 by the addition of salt; floating box in supply tank; McDonald jar with supply covered; inverted cod-jar with tidal flow; jar with bottom feed and cheese-cloth top; jar containing salt water to which new water was added from time to time; and, finally, the tidal-box system. There appeared to be no marked improvement in any of the methods over that of the tidal-box system, which last year hatched over 70 per cent in one instance. As far as could be observed the difficulty appeared to be with the egg and not with the hatching apparatus. Many fish were found to be spent soon after the commencement of operations, and eggs were found in all stages of development throughout the season. At the end of July fish were noticed that had not yet spawned. There is no difficulty in fertilizing the eggs, as all taken appear to be impregnated. It has been stated in previous reports that the eggs lacked sufficient vitality to produce healthy fry, and it was thought that the good eggs were given up while the fish were endeavoring to escape from the net. Nothing occurred during the season to disprove this, but from further investigations it would seem that the greater number of the mackerel spawn offshore. This view is substantiated by the condition of the fish when taken, and by the fact that only with offshore winds XLIJ. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. were eggs found in the surface tow net used. Before coming to any definite conclusions on this point, however, it would be necessary to conduct a series of offshore towings, and to carefully examine the eggs under a microscope in order to note their development, if impregnated, and to compare it with that of eggs artifically treated. Lobsters.—The Grampus, which had been engaged in collecting seed lobsters and transferring them to Gloucester, was instructed to cooper- ate with the Fish Hawk on the arrival of the latter in Casco Bay. Dur- ing the season 372 lobsters were received, from which 4,877,935 eggs were secured, and 4,616,065 fry hatched and liberated 2 miles offshore, directly in the center of the bay. The direction of the wind and the current were considered in making the plants, so as to provide against the fry being swept toward the shore. Experiments were also conducted in the holding of lobster fry. They were placed in boxes with a good circulation of water, individually and in lots of fifty, rock, gravel, and rockweed being provided so as to imitate as nearly as possible the conditions of nature. They were fed with towings from the surface of the water in the vicinity of the ledges. It was soon found that they would not live under these conditions, and they were removed to floating boxes in the supply tank and overboard. Notwithstanding these efforts it was impossible to keep them alive longer than i3 days. Death was not caused by starvation, as their stomachs were found to contain such food as copepods, diatoms, vege- table débris, and fragments of alge. In but few instances could the mortality be attributed to cannibalism, as only one specimen of the many examined was found to contain any portion of a lobster. It was also noticed that those confined separately lived no longer than those in lots of fifty. Toward the end of the season young lobsters in the second, third, and fourth stages of molting appeared in the jars which contained eggs and fry in the first stages. Most of these when first noticed must have been three or four weeks old. As the increase in size became apparent they were placed in a jar by themselves and fed on lobster eggs. They were brought to Woods Hole on the return of the vessel on July 31, but they all died the night of the arrival, probably because of the change in the temperature of the water, which showed an increase of 10°. They had passed the fourth stage and taken on the character- istics of the adult; the largest were over five-eighths of an inch in length. ‘Of adult lobsters handled during the season, 332 were liberated in open waters and 40 died in transportation. BATTERY STATION, MARYLAND (ALEX. JONES IN CHARGE). Ice disappeared from the Susquehanna early in March, and, as reports from the lower part of Chesapeake Bay indicated a very early season, the station was gotten ready for operations by April 1, and on April 8 the first lot of eggs were received. The weather turned cool, however, and the temperature of the water remained so low that the full force of employees was not taken on until April19. From that date collections REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XLIII continued daily until June 5, the total take for the season amounting to 71,145,000, not including 3,000,000 received from the steamer Fish Hawk. From these eggs 50,682,000 fry were hatched and distributed. A shipment of 994,000 eggs was sent to Nashville during the season for exposition purposes. The following table shows in detail the daily collections of eggs, fry latched and planted, and average temperature of the air and water: Hatching. Average Dat Eggs en ee Bains temperature. a received. Saree . | Number : oo . ae hatched. | Planted. Air. | Water. oF, oF, 35, 000 SAND | ee essed eee AE AN ies kre am | |p sweat ee Die 60, 000 60000) }o oo. 222 - = ea ee ee ae 58 53. 4 58, 000 Be \000: Man 36 Seee sellsenicoasdabr opsocsot cose 58 54 279, 000 149, 000 | Apr. 28 130, 000 130, 000 58 54 180, 000 96,000 | Apr. 29 84, 000 84, 000 55 54.5 388, 000 172,000 ; Apr. 29 216, 000 216, 000 55 54. 6 247, 000 131,000 | Apr. 29 116, 000 116, 000 55 54.6 321, 000 213,000 | Apr. 29 108, 000 108, 000 55 54. 6 78, 000 41,000 | Apr. 29 37, 000 37, 000 55 54.7 1, 725, 000 645,000 | May 1 1, 080, 000 1, 080, 000 55.3 | 54.7 2, 938, 000 973,000 | May 1 1, $65, 000 | 1, 965, 000 56,7 | 55. 7 420, 000 218,000 | May 2 202, 000 202, 000 bir CEU 1, 254, 000 1, 184, 000 May 3 70, 000 70, 000 57 55.7 2, 395, 000 973,000 May 4 1, 422, 000 1, 422, 000 58 56 1, 212, 000 298,000 | May 6 | 914, 000 914, 000 58.3 56. 2 4,729,000 | 1,457,000 | May 7 | 3,272,000 | 3,272,000 59 56.4 6, 902, 000 2,297,000 | May 8 4,605,000 | 4, 605, 000 59 56. 4 428, 000 185,000 | May 9 243, 000 243, 000 60 57 2, 018, 000 697,000 | May 11 1, 321, 000 1, 321, 000 60 57 1, 270, 0U0 401, 000 | May 14 869, 000 869, 000 60. 4 58.1 894, 000 103, 000 | May 15 791, 000 791, 000 60.7 59 448, 000 132,000 | May 16 316, 000 316, 000 60.7 | 59.3 550, 000 155, 000 | May 16 395, 000 395, 000 61 60 951, 000 126,000 | May 17 825, 000 825, 000 61.3 60 1, 801, 000 341,000 | May i8 960, 000 960, 000 61.3 | 60 1, 142, 000 343,000 | May 18 799, 000 799, 000 61.5 61 929, 000 252,000 | May 19 677, 000 677, 000 61.5] 61 1, 609, 000 389,000 | May 19 | 1,220,000 | 1, 220, 000 GUST a le GLSs 636, 0U0 196,000 | May 21 440, 000 440, 000 65 63 203, 000 73,000 | May 21 130, 000 130, 000 65.9 | 64 1, 189, 000 289, 000 | May 23 900, 000 900, 000 65.9 64.3 2, 004, 000 650,000 | May 23 | 1,354,000 | 1,354, 000 65.9 | 64.3 2, 377, 000 636,000 | May 25 | 1,741,000 | 1,741,000 66 64.7 5, 888,000 | 1,149,000 | May 26 | 4,739,000 | 4,739, 000 66 65 | *1, 800, 000 684,000 | May 26 1,116,000 | 1,116, 000 66 65 2, 398, 000 760, 000 | May 27 1, 638, 000 | 1, 638, 000 66.3 | 65 * 663, 000 155,000 | May 27 508, 000 508, 000 66.3 | 65 *198, 000 32,000 | May 2 166, 000 166, 000 64 65. 2 1, 764, G00 678,000 | May 28 | 1,,086,000 | 1,086, 000 64.7 | 65.1 816, 600 320,000 | May 29 496, 000 496, 000 65 65 45, 000 10,000 | May 30 35, 000 35, 000 65.3 | 65.1 346, 000 34,000 | May 30 312, 000 * 312, 000 65.3 | 65.1 340, 000 30,000 | May 30 310, 000 310, 000 65.7 | 65.3 1, 544, 000 362, 000 | May 21 1,182,000 | 1,182, 000 65.7 | 65.5 3, 416, 000 816,000 | June 1) 2,600,000 | 2,600, 000 66 65.7 2,580, 000 618,000 | June 2%| 1,962,000] 1,962,000] 66 65.9 1, 432, 000 613,000 | June 3 919,000 | , 919, 000 66.3 | 65.9 3, 667, 000 704,000 | June 4) 2,449,000 | 2,449, 000 66.3 | 66 2, 260, 000 415,000 | June 5 | 1,845,000 | 1,845, 000 67 66. 1 1, 039, 000 178,000 | June 7 | 861, 000 861, 000 67 66 1, 574, 000 623,000 | June 8 951, 000 951, 000 67.3 | 66.5 805, 000 BlORCOO INS Spill Mees teen lem yas ware 68 66.7 400, 000 95,000 | June 11 305, 000 305, 000 68.3 | 67.2 74, 145, 000 | 22, 469, 000 |.......-... 50, 682, 000 | 50, 682, 000 |........].--.-- +1, 280, 000 780,000 | May 6 500, 000 450, 000 57 58 «Steamer Fish Hawk. + Eggs of striped bass. Storms were very frequent throughout the season, and as they usually occurred at slack water, between sunset and midnight, the daily collec- tions were materially interfered with, though the total take exceeded that of any season since 1888. It is worthy of mention that 11,000,000 XLIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, eges were obtained between midnight and daylight, more than 3,000,000 between 8 a. m. and noon, and 6,000,000 between noon and night. Contrary to past experience, the eggs collected during the day were of excellent quality and produced strong, healthy fry. This year the number of fry hatched amounted to 72 per cent of the total take of eggs. The fishermen in the neighborhood cooperated with the superintendent throughout the season, and furnished 26,000,000 eggs, or nearly three times the number furnished last year, at a rate of $20 per 1,000,000. Striped bass.—For several years the station force has been on the lookout for striped bass or rockfish eggs, and on May 3 the spawn-taker attending the Carpenter Point seine brought in 1,280,000, which he had collected from a fish weighing 12 pounds. The eggs were nearly trans- parent and measured one-seventh of a linear inch, or 24,552 to the quart. After attempting to hatch them in the McDonald jar it was found neces- sary to improvise a special form of apparatus somewhat similar to the Me Donald tidal box, owing to the fact that there is very little ditterence between the specific gravity of the water and that of the eggs. The improvised form consisted of four bell aquariainverted and placed in a box supplied with water through a 2-inch tube and discharged through a l-inch tube, thus giving a rise and fall of 54 inches every 8 minutes. By the afternoon of May 6 the hatching was completed, the mean tem- perature during the period of incubation being 58°. The fry resulting trom these eggs (estimated at 450,000) were liberated in the Susque- hanna River near Port Deposit. The small percentage hatched was occasioned partly by the muddy condition of the water and partly by imperfect circulation due to the character of material used for covering the jars. For the purpose of closer observation during the period of incubation, two small glass jars were placed in a bell aquarium fitted with tidal motion. The water used was first run through a charcoal filter. BRYAN POINT STATION, MARYLAND (S. G. WORTH, SUPERINTENDENT). In August and September important improvements were made under the direction of the superintendent, embodying repairs to the boiler- house, seine-house, and boat-house; the wharf was repaired and pro- tected against damage from ice by driving piles 20 feet away from the corners, on a line with the end, and a well 184 feet deep was excavated, which affords a copious supply of cold, clear water. The station has heretofore been dependent on a very unsatisfactory spring and upon river water, which caused sickness. A large amount of worn-out property, including seines, seine boat, and other fishing apparatus, was condemned and sold at auction. A topographical survey of the station was made during the year, and an estimate was submitted by the superintendent for a large hatchery, where the entire product of the station can be cared for, thus obviating the necessity of transferring the eggs to Central Station. In view of the receipt of large numbers of shad during March, 104,000 being received from the 14th to the 28th, preparations were made REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XLV to open the station two weeks in advance of the usual time. Mr. L. G. Harron was detailed to assist the superintendent in field work. Special attention is called to the fact that although immense numbers of shad were taken in March, the catch during the spawning period (April 15 to June 30) was much smaller than that of any year since 1887, and this accounts for the poor results secured. o- - 70 66 | 68. 64 66 64 | 65 70 65 | 67.92 69 65 67. 25 68 64 | 65.92 68 64 | 66.45 73 66 | 69.14 74 72 73. 61 68 61 | 64.61 66 62 | 64.42 70 62 | 67.42 12 66 68. 42 69 65 | 67.33 66 62 | 64.57 74 62 | 68, 66 74 70 72. 19 69 60 | 63, 57 70 66 | 69.09 75 68 | 71.23 76 74 75 70 67 | 69.10 68 64 | 65.71 69 62 | 65.07 17 66 72.71 62 60 | 61.28 72 62 | 65.32 82 70 | 76.28 80 75 77.50 75 72 | 73.28 72 70 | 71.78 73 ul 72. 03 76 73 75. 21 67 66 | 66.14 68 67 | 67.75 71 68 | 69 71 70 70. 12 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XLVII The following table shows the receipts of shad from the Potomac River, at Washington, D. C., by weeks during the season, from 1887 to 1897. The data were furnished by Mr. Gwynn Harris, inspector of marine products: Non-spawn fish. Year. | Week | Week | Week | Week | Week | Week | Week | Week | Week | Week ending ending | ending | ending | ending ending | ending | ending | ending | ending Feb. 7. | Feb. 14. | Feb. 21. | Feb. 28. | Mar.7.; Mar. 14.) Mar. 21.) Mar. 28.. Apr. 4. | Apr. 11. Ts = i a ake 2 2 64 | 208 | 464 3, 325 4, 841 26, 038 THORS Eee 22 ce | SRP Toe fle fest Nallte SS, cea 2 | a| eee NY 2,963 | 25, 922 Tc) 5ee eee ES sear aie P| Rape cg eh es oh | i) 221 3,020 | 16,862] 42, 463 TEI oe ae 4 | 15 19 292 391} 4,103) 15,916 | 43,520] 97,375 ISSUE Ue = BRD a a 2 12 38 53 491 | 92,447] 7,070] 15,761 TiS ke ae 2 (Sey eel eee ee 4 2 52 132 | 1,442] 16,493] 71,056 WER Beco sad Goatees (td Se aa (aa [real ana (eet 38 477 | 5,914] 48,170] 58,115 1894..... 3 2 5 aby) (RS Re a 2 eB oe | om See 23,631 | 67, 325 TES corel See ee a Rel i 89| 1,897 | 15,743 | 70,352] 134, 800 1896..... 1 3 1 Pie opens a a 39 101 | 3,642} 23,338 | 49, 456 TCG eee eee eet ee Bae leeds ted 16 25 | 1,060 | 24,986 | 80,120] 84,373 79,287 Spawn fish. Year. | Week | Week | Week | Week | Week | Week | Week | Week | June 6 | Total. ending | ending | ending | ending | ending | ending | ending | ending to Apr. 18.) Apr. 25.| May 2. | May 9. | May 16.| May 23., May 30.) June 6. | June 10. USS Teeem 50,045 | 48,634-| 33,655 | 49,921 | 22,951 | 17,921 | 5,760 8,881 | 1,398] 269,110 1888..... 61,611 | 61,611 | 53,302 | 51,363 | 23,442 | 14,307 7, 790 5, 237 893 | 308, 444 SSo eee 88, 832 | 110,254 | 56,139 | 72,066} 31,979 | 14, 886 8, 002 2, 308 1,544 | 448,577 1890522 = 97,676 | 71,895 | 45,586 | 24,328 | 11,822 3, 261 1, 369 1, 481 337 | 419,390 ies 87,341 | 97,600 | 53,918} 21,211 15,194 | 10,920 3, 412 2, 061 258 | 317,789 1892-5 =. 60,592 | 38,753 | 28,173 | 22, 285 8, 468 4, 655 3, 476 3, 961 1,358 | 260, 882 1893... =: 55,431 | 55,392 | 35,963 | 18,029 | 15, 220 9, 520 3, 820 1, 514 375 | 307, 978 ibe wegee 83,959 | 79,067 | 55,370 | 22,470 |) 20,195 9, 044 7,234 | 12,410 2,777 | 383, 507 TS9b ee tee 126, 290 | 106,501 | 38,123 | 56,874 | 28,642 | 20,449 | 13,112 8, 826 1,612 | 623,310 1895 eo- =. 128,050 | 53,300 | 32,852) 22,973 | 13, 218 7, 937 3, 807 4, 346 592 | 343, 160 Leo hese =. 60,250 | 24,079 18, 598 10, 239 7, 273 3, 400 1, 882 1,151 | 210 396, 899 CENTRAL STATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. (5. G. WortTH, SUPERINTENDENT). During the summer the superintendent was detailed to make an investigation in the neighborhood of Weldon, N. C., with the view to determining the extent to which the river shrimp, Palemonetes exitlipes, enters into the food of the bass and crappie, and to arrange for the extension of its geographical range as a natural food for trout and other edible fishes. They were found in many of the ponds and streams of Halifax and Northampton counties, and shipments were sent to Washington, D. C., Wytheville, Va., and Neosho, Mo. It was learned that they form an important part of the natural food of bass, crappie, and other predaceons fishes, and that they can be successfully shipped in pails of water by express for distances requiring not over seven hours time. Part of the consignment sent to Washington were put in a trout stream near Leesburg, Va. An examination of the pond in Washington during the month of May showed the presence of egg-bearing shrimp. As in former years, the fish-cultural work included the distribution of the year’s production of fish from the Fish Commission ponds, the hatching of shad eggs collected on the Potomac River, and of a few eggs of the quinnat salmon, brook, rainbow, Loch Leven, and lake trouts, which had been transferred from other stations during the winter for the purpose of illustrating fish-cultural methods. XLVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The following table shows the number of eggs received and the fish distributed : : Eggs Fry Species. received. | distributed. BS LOUKAMTOME Saas siore na Ao eee Bee ae eR ae Ee ays edo eR eae See 3, 000 | 2, 202 Dake yiroulte- ascites oases seen BARE DOBS SOO GSC CaCO ROMaeed oe Toctesiccic ascetics 5, 000 4, 338 hoch WWweven trowh. 22-2 ses bere tee tee eee ea ciate ansiaiia Seeion eee 3, 000 2, 209 RAIMDOW (VOU Gi. so es one oe Coens eats aera bee sins sane clsbs oe on ae eee 10, 000 7,479 Quinn ab Salm omy = Seperate misiaemae meters sie aos sicisiom ine acs seen mae eee 10, 000 7,516 SS a SE DE LEST UPC Ss TS? eR Se SORE Cg | 40, 359, 000 25, 346, 000 Ota tes Soak Be ae cre eee eee ee ree ie mirc aie cts Sayin ne eee 40, 390, 000 | 25, 369, 744 The first consignment of shad eggs was received from Bryan Point on April 14, and shipments continued uninterruptedly from that time until the 29th of May, 31,877,000 of the 39,719,000 shipped being received in good condition. A consignment of 640,000 was also received from the Delaware River on May 22. During the season 25,346,000 fry were hatched and distributed, and 2,070,000 eggs were shipped to Nashville for exposition purposes; the baiance were lost during incubation. The eggs were transferred from Bryan Point by means of the Fish Commission launch instead of by passenger boat, as in past years. At the close of the year the superintendent was detailed for duty in connection with the construction of the station at Erwin, Tenn. AQUARIUM AT CENTRAL STATION (L. G. HARRON, IN CHARGE). In October arrangements were made to restock the aquarium with salt-water fishes from Chesapeake Bay, but owing to the prevalence of heavy gales it was impossible to obtain good collections. Fresh- water fishes were collected from time to time in the Potomac River, and consignments of trout and salmon were received from the New England stations. Guipatatively littie difficulty was experienced during fie year with fungus or disease of any kind. During March and April 19 yellow perch spawned in the aquarium, but efforts to hatch their eggs were unsuccessful; this was attributed to the presence of alum in the filtered water. Two rainbow trout spawned early in March and another on May 12; none of the eggs hatched, though efforts were made tosavethem. The goldfish spawned in NG and May and the eggs were placed in a separate aquarium in the greenhouse, where they were hatched. The fresh-water fishes, with the exception of the lake trout, were held without loss until May 6, when a part of the steelhead trout and quinnat salmon were transferred to Nashville. ~ "5 balance were retained with comparatively light losses until June 18, when they were liberated in a small spring fed pond about 10 miles from Washington. Several adult rainbow trout, weighing from 14 to 2 pounds, a number of 2-year-olds, and a few steelheads were retained in the aquarium for experimental purposes, and lived until July 4, when they died at a temperature of 82°. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. XLIX From June 18 to July 4 the water temperature was as follows: Date. 6a.m.| Noon. | 6 p.m. Date. 6 a.m.) Noon. | 6 p.m. oF. oF, oF, 1897. OF. oF, OF, 74 74 74 Nba) 2 (ener paniccoacenc 77 77 77 74 75 75 AO eastern aierataiacaratel 77 77 77 75 75 76 2Yceooan sc bosodses 77 77 77 75 75 75 BUREabeee ooo COnS DE 77 78 78 75 75 75 Uawlivn Meee ees ease See 78 78 78 75 75 75 A Sey AOD OLINS GSE 78 80 80 7 76 76 Bees ieee pivaleleis 80 81 | 81 76 76 76 ‘ae siganoodacneoage 81 81 82 77 77 17 | The following shows the number and kind of salt and fresh water fishes exhibited during the year: Species. No. || Species. No. || Species. |, «No: | | = Fresh water: | Fresh water—Continued. || Salt water—Continued. Large-mouthblackbass. 295 Ipickereley ss sees. seo Bel Pinfish 2-2. Paee as 3 Small-mouth black bass. 32 Channel cat ......--.-- 10 ISN) Gkdancddeseer tones 30 ROGK PASSas-—.225--- = 100 Yellow ¢at.....-...-.. 30 @roakerhateeeases.<-\ 20 (Oi) Ge ee epinepenaenes | 120 Chub sucker ........-- Gi bi otishteeser sce. son. - 4 Wihite bass-2...--...... 3 Redisucker-/--2...--... 4 Striped mullet......... 9 Yellow bass ...--....-..| 1 Leather carp --..-..... 6 Mioundereseser sce sess 8 Rainbow trout .--.-..-. IG) Wie Se sonsessosaqeenene 2, 700 Mummichog.....-.-.-. 20 Brook trout ...-.------- Tay ||| RAG soososcbecasese 120 Manto ea-= 5 se. 2 secs 24 Lake trout ......-....... 193 MM POACh sas ce -t n= 20 Toadtish eteseese s. oee 12 Swiss lake trout-..-.---- 150 Common eel....------- 12 Hog-choker ..--....... 14 Steelheads .......-.---- 300 Lacefin dace..........- 252" eMoonfish=<2-->------ - 4 Quinnat salmon ---..---. | 174 | Fresh-water shrimp ..| 200 |} Swellfish.-.---..--.--. 19 Atlantic salmon. .--..--. | 29 ie GUlba Ne ce ecogeesose 12|| Striped bass-..-..-.... 6 Yellow perch...-----... | 66 Crawiishies 9-2 cree 100 Black drnm ye. .-. 52... 3 White perch .-.--.-..--. | 40 Fresh- water terrapin. . 4 Sheepshead .....-----.- 3 English tench. --....---- 12 Snapping turtle ...--.. Ail: eWSkatorec. smeetias= * acm 2 Paradise fish ......-.-.- 12 | Salt water: | Shingerayeeecme sees 1 Golden tench......----- 300 Dea trontiec.. 23-2561 195 ||) | obsterye-sem-ss- s- ee 4 OIGUS Us seo nntoe'= = == 65 Sey sh: hoeaeoanseosace 40 Hermit crab. .-----.---- 12 Go1denide;-22-.25---..-< 5 Spa-nobinieseere oes c= 2 Blueiera pls 24sec -esses 15 12 Set SRB ssepere 1 Spot or goody ..-....--- 32) |S Med usaias seem 8 acto e 1 Fish CoMMISSION LAKES, WASHINGTON, D. C. (RUDOLPH HESSEL IN CHARGE). During the fall months the following fish, resulting from the crop of the previous spring, were distributed: Large-mouth black bass, 38,492; small-mouth black bass, 2,688; rock bass, 5,070; shad (estimated num- ber), 1,500,000. At the close of the previous fiscal year 12,270 young large-mouth black bass had been transferred from the breeding-ponds to the tanks and the small rearing-ponds. This work was continued during the summer, a total of 48,822 large-mouth and 2,976 small-mouth bass being secured. The losses up to the time of distribution amounted to 11,410, of which 1,080 were the small-mouth-species. The heaviest mortality occurred in June, caused by the hig: mperature and the muddy condition of the water. Their food during the early summer consisted of chopped fish (carp and tench reared at the station), and when the supply was exhausted, fishes purchased from the market were substituted. The bass refused to take the fresh-water species, but the various salt-water fishes, particularly the butter-fish and the sea trout, proved very accept- F. R. 97——IV L REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. able. These were purchased at arate of 3 cents per pound. In pre- paring fish as food the scales and gills should be carefully removed. With the view to enlarging the output of bass, spawning-ponds were constructed along the south banks of the north and south ponds during the winter, and the stock was increased by the transfer of several hundred large-mouth breeders from Quincy and small-mouth breeders from Lake Erie. On the 15th of April 20 adults were placed in each of the partitions.of the north pond and the same number of small-mouth bass were placed in the various partitions of the south pond. Spawners were also placed in Pond No. 6 and in a number of the small ponds on the terrace in front of the cottage. As good results had been attained at Wytheville Station the pre- vious year by the use of artificial nests, all of the ponds were provided with them, in addition to piles of gravel. The nests used were of two forms, one being simply a cement plate 20 inches in diameter, covered with coarse gravel; the other, the Seagle nest, described in the Report for 1896, page 48. The fish commenced spawning on April 18, and it was noticed that they deposited their eggs on the artificial nests quite as readily as on the natural nests of gravel. The temperature of the water at the opening of the spawning season was 45°, Fungus developed after a few days on the first eggs deposited in partitions 1 and 2 of the north pond and Pond No. 6, but the others did well, and on April 26 young fish were seen in both the north and south ponds. Owing to the fact that the ponds were not dried during the winter, there was an immense growth of alge, which not only interfered mate- rially with the removal of the fry, but prevented close observation of their movements. As an examination of the ponds showed them to be abundantly stocked with microscopic food, artificial feeding was not commenced until the bass were about two weeks old. During the month of May there was every reason to expect a large crop of both species, but late in June a small bug belonging to the family of Notonectide made its appearance and destroyed large numbers of the young fish. An insect which belongs to the Dytiscide family appeared later and caused even greater damage. It attacked the young bass in large numbers, killing and eating in a few minutes a fish 135 inches long, nothing remaining but the skeleton. Though little is known of the natural history of this insect, it has heretofore been thought that its food consisted solely of dead flesh. The pests fly over into the ponds at night from the river, and the only way to prevent their ravages is to cover the ponds with very fine meshed netting. At the close of the year, owing to heavy losses caused by the insects referred to, very few of the young fish remained in the small ponds. Orappie.—As the demand for this species is constantly increasing, a supply of adults was brought to the station from Quincy in the fall, and early in April 23 of them were placed in Pond No. 5 and the remainder REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. LI in the acclimatization pond, No. 20, which has an area of 17,500 square feet. In Pond No. 5, where there was very little vegetation, a close watch was kept, with the view of noting the spawning habits of the fish, but in no instance were they observed to nest, though a few fry appeared in June. The vegetation in Pond No. 20 is very dense, and the results attained were apparently much better, as hundreds of fry an inch in length were observed during the latter part of June. The crappie are so delicate that it is impracticable to handle them during warm weather, and no effort was made to remove the young brood, but the old fish were taken out and placed in a smaller pond. ' Golden ide.—A part of the stock of golden ide was placed in Pond No. 4 and commenced spawning on April 21. The temperature of the water at that time was 54°, but it fell to 41° on the 24th, causing the loss of all the eggs. A few days later 16 specimens which had been set aside for shipment to Nashville spawned, the temperature at the time being 58°. These eggs were successfully hatched within 10 days, and at the close of the year there were several hundred of the young fish on hand. Their food consists of cornmeal and flour. All of the spotted catfish and rock bass on hand were shipped to Nashville for exhibition purposes. As usual, large numbers of carp and tench were hatched to be used as food for the bass, and a sufficient number of goldfish were reared for stocking the public parks. During the winter the old tool-house, the fences, and the partitions around the ponds were removed; a driveway was constructed from Executive avenue to the office, and the grounds were further improved by the planting of ornamental flower beds. WYTHEVILLE STATION, VIRGINIA (GEORGE A. SEAGLE, SUPERINTENDENT). The condition of the ponds and buildings was such that it became necessary to expend $800 in improvements during the fall. These con- sisted of the subdivision of the bass ponds into 9 spawning-ponds by the construction of wooden and earthen partitions, and the painting and repairing of the hatchery and superintendent’s residence. The stock of fish on hand at the beginning of the year is shown in the following table: Calendar year in which fish were hatched. Species. ae TP > > : | 1892 or 1896. 1895. 1894. 1893. | wefore. ANON ALOU Ua sees - 5c see ec see tl. Se saps ote et 117, 300 1, 400 560 805 1, 830 (ES hal MSS eee at ee ee eee at ee ees e ms were as ceca s saints [nc amieencie'e|sinaeees- =. 24 IBGIGE [PRI Sono SenaRe mice pdocal Ha sgtSO SCLC UCC Scr ted Beppe CSS] Se Cee Sees] PERO EEene Ress see 140 Gieevi lata OE bans es ao cite Bia core 117,300) 1,400 560 | 805 1, 994 At the time of distribution in the fall the trout numbered 81,954; 2,200 of these were retained for breeding purposes and the remainder were planted in public and private waters. Very few black bass were reared at the station, owing to the condition of the ponds, but the out- LIT REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. put was increased by the transfer of 13,562 from Central Station and 234 from Quincey, Ill. The output of rock bass was 11,485 yearlings and 70 adults reared at the station and 2,550 yearlings transferred from Neosho. Rainbow trout.—The brood stock at the station in November con- sisted of 1,623 fish from 4 to 8 years old, 700 three-year olds, 515 two- year olds, and 1,200 yearlings. The spawning season commenced on November 6 and continued until February 5, during which time 770,440 eggs were collected from 984 fish, 620 males being used to fertilize them. Of these eggs 245,000 were assigned to State fish commissions, foreign societies, and private applicants; 52,000 were transferred to other sta- tions of the Commission; and from the balance 365,000 healthy fry were hatched. During March and April 120,000 of these were distributed to applicants in Virginia and Tennessee; the remainder were placed in troughs in the hatchery and in outside ponds to be reared for the fall distribution, the losses to the close of the fiscal year amounting to 63,038. During the early stages of the existence of the fry their diet consisted entirely of canned herring roe and salted cod roe, but from May 1 to the close of the year a mixture of liver and mush was given to them. After an experience of two years, fish roe, either salted or canned, is considered far superior to the usual liver diet for small fry. Of the two preparations the canned roe is preferable. There were no unusual casualties until June 23, when the water supply to one of the ponds was obstructed for several hours, resulting in the loss of 327 two-year old fish. Quinnat salmon.—On December 31, 5,000 quinnat salmon eggs were received. They hatched between January 8 and 12 with slight loss, and on May 28, when the fry were transferred to the ponds, the loss from the time of hatching amounted to less than 200. They grew very rapidly after being released in the ponds, and at the close of the year were about 4 inches long. Black bass.—To increase the output of the station, 59 adult small- mouth black bass were transferred from Put-in Bay in October. They were kept in one of the spring-fed ponds until April 14 when they were transferred to the spawning-ponds, which had been prepared with artificial nests. Owing to the unusually cool and cloudy weather they did not commence nesting until late in May, and at the end of June only two nests containing eggs had been found. Rock bass.—Early in April 145 adult rock bass were placed in the spawning-ponds. These were also affected by cool weather, and though they commenced nesting early in May very few eggs were noticed at the close of the year. Crappie.—Oft 104 crappie transferred from Quincy Station in October, there remained but 46 the following spring. These were in excellent. condition, apparently, but so far they have shown no indications of Spawning. REPORT OF COMMISS{ONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. LIII PuT-IN BAY STATION, OHIO (J. J. STRANAHAN, SUPERINTENDENT). The following important improvements were made at the station during the year: A frame storehouse 15 by 20 feet, 15 stories high, was erected on the southwest corner of the station grounds; the old dock was replanked throughout and supplied with new timbers where needed ; a rowboat dock, 40 feet by 9 feet, was built at the southeast corner of the building, running parallel to and 20 feet away from the main dock; a 30-foot channel, 260 feet long and 74 feet deep, was dredged from the dock outward to deep water; retaining walls were built on the north and the west sides of the main building and on the northeast of the grounds on the lake front; the grounds were graded and seeded and walks were built; a 60-light gas plant was installed in the hatchery, and to obviate the possibility of the water supply being cut off, the suction pipe at the end of the dock was placed in deep water in the new channel. During October the usual arrangements were made for collecting whitefish and herring eggs at various points on Lake Erie, but owing to the exceedingly bad weather during the spawning season the total take was less than half that of the previous year. The first eggs were obtained on November 4, but a violent storm commenced November 6 and lasted for several days, causing great destruction to the nets, and breaking up and driving the schools of whitefish and herring out into deep water. Scarcely a pound net escaped injury, and it was estimated that over one-third of the gill nets in the western end of the lake were destroyed; 21 pounds belonging to a firm in Toledo were so injured that phey were not fished again during the season. At the close of operations, on November 26, the total collections amounted to 86,139,000 whitefish and 11,725,000 lake-herring eggs, secured from the following fields: Collecting fleld. | Whitefish. | Herring. Par rial ra Oth aie fale esse) tate utes eee eras aes cis.ain cman s' gem inh Sim capain ae wie | 45,513,000 | —_5, 225, 000 UG AN BY tas epee <= Se asin nase slab sanfemanemese cc woes. Saseelits FEUER Sctiatas 12, 213, 000 | 3, 200, 000 North Bass Tslz rrr TED ERS Sie caea 2 S28 SR i Se on an 12, 159, 000 1, 100, 000 EUS ees Be AN oe Pe RR Foe SER ol 7, 137, 000 2, 200, 000 FSC aes) ri re eee et an ee ee I RS OS oa oe teeth ian AX GUT 000) | nayeisreice vaccine PIRI OME aS Belial ani Gere een, See a mt ae STE ly A 24395 000" lec 5 2ee5 soon Gate sel ALATA eee ltor sae mera eet re sia Same tera oe dicivio mie win ninetn el eree aweniescied 2, 061, 000 | See ee Owing to the unfavorable conditions under which the eggs were col- lected, their quality was not so good as in former years. The first fry were nlinced on March 26, and deposits were continued to April 29, during which time 60,309,000 whitefish, and 7,299,000 lake herring ae liberated. For the purpose of experiment, 2,000,000 fry hatched early in April were held in four tanks and were fed on fine middlings prepared by LIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. the roller process. They commenced to take food on April 8, and were apparently healthy and vigorous until April 17, when a considerable number of dead ones were discovered at the bottom of the tanks. The death rate continued to increase from this time until about the 28th, when it had become so large that it was decided to plant half of them. The balance were held for experimental purposes, and various kinds of food were tried, but they all died on the night of May 6. The temperature of the water during this period was as follows: Air. Water. Air. W ater. $ -| Min. Mean. |Max.| Min. | Mean. | Max.) Min. | Mean. | — | | =) ej Apr. 8 | 48 41.5 | 42.25 | 40.5 | 40 40.25 || Apr. 23 | 73 64 68.5 | 46 45 45.5 9 | 35 34 34.5 | 40 | 40 40 24 | 74 59 66.5 | 48 47 47.5 10 | 41 33. | 37 | 40 39 39.5 ‘ 25 | 61 54.5 | 57.75 | 48 48 48 11 | 38 | 35 | 36.5 | 40 40 40 26 | 54 54 54 | 48 47.5 | 47.75 12 | 44 38 41 41 40 40.5 27 | 44.5 | 40 42.25 | 47.5 | 47 47.25 5 13 | 59 49 | 54 41 40.5 | 40.7 14 | 49 | 42 45.5 | 42 | 41.5) 41.7 15 | 52 | 45 48.5 A 16; 48 | 44 | 46 42 |May 1/41 | 41 | 41 48.5 | 48.5 | 48.5 ooo rs Cw bo ~ bo bo uo lyf | SirGia sie |eiepbyy| 26s! 1.48) 43. 25 || 2 | 42 40 41 48 47.5 | 47.5 18 | 58 | 40 49 43 42 42.5 3 | 56 47 51.5 | 48 47.5 | 47.75 19 | 36 34 =|: 35 43 | 43 43 4 | 55 47 51 51.5 | 51 51. 25 ZUM oe ZO Gn jl aah 43 | 42.5 | 42.75 5 | 56 52 54 52 51 51.5 21 | 50 41 | 45.5 3.5 | 43.5 | 43.5 6 | 69 57 63 52 51 51.5 222) | dieS GLa qos Fate ASN aa S75, | From a consignment of 1,000,000 lake-trout eggs shipped from North- ville Station 794,000 fry were hatched and liberated in the vicinity of the station, on North Bass Island and Peach Point Reef. Another attempt was made to collect black-bass eggs by setting out artificial nests in the vicinity of the hatchery. Over 100 were prepared and placed in shallow places, but owing to the very high winds and low temperature prevailing during the spawning season only three broods of young fish were hatched. In the spring the superintendent made an investigation of the stur- geon fisheries at the west end of the bay, with the view to taking up the propagation of that species, but it was found that the conditions would not warrant it. Following is a record of the maximum, mean, and minimum tempera- tures of air and water, by months: Air. Water. | Air. Water. Month. = ~|| Month. 5; 5 Max.) Min. Mean.} Max.} Min. Mean. Max.| Min. |Mean.| Max. Min. Mean. | | 1896. | | | | 1897. Ait zara 90} 66) 76.51) 74 64 | 70.60)) January..-| 55 |—13 29.56} 35.5 32.5) 32.84 August .... 92) 65 77.09) 80.50; 68 | 73.67)| February .| 44 6 | 29.47] 34.5' 32.5) 32.63 September - 86) 54) 65.01) 70 56. 5; 66. 25]| March. .-.- 56.5] 21.5) 35.12) 38 32.5) 33. 70 October ..-- 67 36 51.48 59 46 | 51..82)) Acprill -._- 74 33 46.51) 49 37 =| 42.63 November. - 66) 21| 43.05) 52.5 | 38.5, 44.30)| May ...--. 77 40 | 56.84) 62 47.5! Sb se December - . | 17, 31.85, 37 3200} 39.74) PUNO series = 86 52 68.65, 73 56 64. 85 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. LV NORTHVILLE STATION, MICHIGAN (FRANK N. CLARK, SUPERINTENDENT). The regular force of the station was employed during the summer in assisting in the various constructions, repairs, and improvements. The stock of fish on hand at the beginning of the year was as follows: Calendar year in whieh fish were hatched. Species. 1896. 1895. 1894. | 1893. | 1892. BES EHO MCE CL Melee cate patalote ts at ea ei isle a alee ciels aie /xisjasisiave.a\s otele'o/msinimiaie 17, 000 GOR eens eacocee oe tere MVR Teens Jaa Gat Gh ae ee SS ALS Ste i ae STR Ro eo eee Sas ee ee 675 215 WOT) ISS)? HRD OShind 55 ocon SSE sSoe see cena aa oe eceenen ee SsCOrs lezcocese Basorsec| Eos seed Soeur amr 230 Loch Leven trout .........- a sind age SaboacusssescsdoqosateogSn|jSoceancallcoceas-4|a55nq6en 512 85 INES ESS) cops 2 coded sé asedcde desoccocnmmnonerobescnocnon 00d) |cesouced S5asosSe|5sescoer SECEnOe 20 UCU 2 2 ahee 4 Oe SR ete ee ee eee ee AS 17, 000 UW) |lecosoad= Pepa bir 550 The fish continued to do well until the excavations for the new hatchery were commenced, when it became necessary to cut off a large part of the water supply. This resulted in heavy losses, and by the close of summer there remained on hand only 1,600 yearling fish. Lake trout.—The collection of eggs on Lake Superior commenced on October 9, and was continued without interruption until November 26, the total take amounting to 12,277,000. Of these, 1,330,000 were obtained in the vicinity of Caribou Island, Lake Superior; 2,174,000 near Alpena, Lake Huron, and the remaining 8,773,000 in Lake Michi- gan, near Epoufette, Beaver Island, and Charlevoix. The eggs were shipped as usual, on canton-flannel trays incased in wooden boxes, and arrived at the station in excellent condition. During the months of November, December, and January 3,487,000 eyed eggs were trans- ferred to other stations of the Commission, State fish commissions, and private applicants, including one shipment to Germany. The fry commenced hatching early in January, and the distribution was continued from January 29 to March 21, during which period 50,000 were furnished to private applicants, 1,400,000 were planted in Lake Huron, 1,000,000 in the Straits of Mackinac, 2,350,000 in Lake Michigan, and 480,000 in Pine Lake, Michigan. Over 500,000 were placed in tanks in February and fed, and 400,000 were liberated at Beaver Island, Lake Michigan, on April 28. The balance of the stock was retained for dis- tribution in the fall, and at the close of the year the 141,000 on hand in the rearing ponds and troughs were doing well. Brook trout.—Very few of the wild brook-trout spawners captured in the Au Sable in 1895 remained this season, as most of them died from lack of water at the time the improvements were being made. Between October 17 and November 25, 81,000 eggs were collected from the stock at the station, and 100,000 eggs were purchased. Excellent results were obtained in hatching, and during March and April 97,500 fry were distributed. Two shipments of eggs were made in December, one con- ‘signment of 12,000 being furnished to M, A. Bigelow, Evanston, II1., and one of 3,000 to Central Station. LVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. Loch Leven trout.—The spawning season commenced October 17 and was continued to November 25, but as the eggs were of very poor quality and the hatchery was crowded, operations were discontinued at that time. From the 129 ripe females handled 130,575 eggs were obtained; from these, 5,000 eggs were transferred to other stations and 15,000 fry were distributed. Rainbow trout.—The consignment of eggs shipped from Neosho yielded 16,000 fry; 6,500 of these were distributed to applicants in Ohio during the spring, and on June 30 there remained at the station 9,000 healthy fingerlings. Steelhead trout.—On April 27 a consignment of 41,000 steelhead eggs was received from Fort Gaston Station, and 32,000 of the fry resulting from them were planted in May in streams crossed by the Detroit and Mackinae and the Flint and Pere Marquette railroads. The remaining 5,000 were held for rearing. The following shows the number of fry on hand at the close of the year, the age, and the weight of fish per 1,000: Weight ‘Total Species. Age. Number. | per 1,000 weight fish. of fish. Pounds. Pounds. BROOKAETOUE on ataccisec cteimatnic cae ce cieeeeeee emanates. 4smOmMbhs -e--c1< 15, 000 Ff 105 AKO tROUbe esac incs = sec ane anboesossoszes0e¢ 4 months -.-.--.-.- 141, 000 4 | 564 WochelWeviensrowt: sac. so delete sees cass ansitee 34 months .--.---- 17, 000 3 51 Rain bOWallOuite eee oe ae eee eereee aioe 24 months ..-...... 9, 000 24 223 Steelhead trout..........-....-..... spousensopgones 14 months ........ 5, 000 1% | 7k ALPENA STATION, MICHIGAN, (FRANK N. CLARK, SUPERINTENDENT). Early in the summer the superintendent and foreman visited the important fishing centers on Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior, and made arrangements for the lake-trout and whitefish work. On Sep- tember 15 the spawn-takers, under the direction of Mr. George Platts, proceeded to Lake Superior and commenced the collection of trout eggs at Spruce Harbor and Michipicoten Island, Ontario, and at the close of the season there they were transferred to various points on Lakes Michigan and Huron. The first whitefish eggs were received at the station on October 27, having been collected at Scarecrow Island, Lake Huron. The collections continued until December 14, and a total of 35,800,000 were secured from the following points: Point of collection. Muniber Point of collection. | hy Warehouse, Lake Michigan...-..-...-- 1, 300, 000 | - Traverse Bay (tributary), Lake Mich- Epoufette, Lake Michigan.........--.- G50; O00 ||) Pane aa ee ester emc le ate tree eet 600, 000 Naubinway, Lake Michigan ......--.- 650, 000 || Hammond Bay, Lake Huron....----- 900, 000 Manistique, Lake Michigan .....-..--- 10,000,000 | Rogers City; Mich., Lake Huron..--. 800, 000 Seulchoix Point, Lake Michigan. ...-- 600, 000 | Lixeys Fishery (Oscoda), Lake Hu- . Beaver Island, Lake Michigan. ....--./#10, 000, 000 TON sabe -seenacs cekoas eodoe eee eeeeee 300, 000 Manitou Island, Lake Michigan -...-.- 3, 000, 000 |; Alpena and vicinity ........-.......- 7, 000, 000 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. LVII The eggs arrived at the station in excellent condition. They com- meneed hatching on March 28 and 32,000,000 were planted during the months of April and May, as follows: Number Waters. Point of deposit. Tanta Waters. Point of deposit. planted. Lake Michigan | North Shore -....-..-- 2,000,000 | Lake Huron -.| Hammond Bay ..---. 2, 000, 000 DOs. osac2 ss PAK TOU. siete e es =o 2, 500, 000 Ostet nats" Scarecrow Island ... 4, 000, 000 LINE Ba meee: Manistique ....--...- 4, 000, 000 Doses sess Miller Point.-..----- 4, 000, 000 Doe asesace Beaver Island. .-..-... 3, 000, 000 DOl esse coer || Wastelawasicce oe 2, 000, 000 10 Ne ae Sane Straits of Mackinac.| 2,500,000 | Thunder Bay .| Whitefish Point ..-. 2, 000, 000 Lake Huron ...| North Point....-..... 4, 000, 000 After completing the distribution and placing the station in order, Mr. Downing, the foreman, was detached and ordered to Woods Hole, and Mr. Thayer, fish-culturist, to Northville. The station was placed in charge of a watchman to the close of the year. QuINCY STATION, ILLINOIS (S. P. BARTLETT, SUPERINTENDENT). Indications in June seemed favorable for a successful season’s work, as the winter had been an open one and the bass and crappie spawned early. Three carloads of fish were distributed between July 6 and 22 to applicants in Minnesota, Dakota, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Mississippi, but heavy rains occurred on July 25, which stopped all work until Sep- tember 10, when it was resumed and continued until November. In addition to the fishes furnished to applicants, collections of breed- ers were made for the Wytheville and Neosho stations and for the Fish Commission ponds, Washington, D.C. During the year the station furnished for distribution the following adults and yearlings: 32,375 black bass, 3,418 crappie, 1,025 yellow perch, and 1,700 pickerel. In addition to this output, immense numbers of the common fishes, such as yellow perch, catfish, sunfish, and other indigenous species were collected from overflowed lands and returned to the Mississippi and Illinois rivers. During the winter the boiler-house built the previous year was enlarged, all of the buildings were painted, and the boats and seines were overhauled. Owing to continued high water during the spring no collections of fry were made. MANCHESTER STATION, IloWA (R. 8S. JOHNSON, SUPERINTENDENT). The superintendent assumed charge of the station in January. As the work of construction had not advanced sufficiently during the fall to permit of the collection of trout eggs, consignments of lake and rainbow trout eggs were sent from Northville and Neosho during the winter. All of the fry resulting from them, with the exception of 2,500 of the rainbows, were distributed in the spring. These were reserved to be reared for brood stock. Efforts were made to secure a stock of bass as soon as the ponds were ready, but the first consignment of brood fish received from Quincy developed fungus shortly after their arrival LVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. and died. Fifty adults were then collected from the Maquoketa River and placed in Pond X, but they were captured too late in the season to spawn. On March 9 unusually high water in the spring branch flooded the lowlands east of the superintendent’s residence. The water rose a foot above the floor of the wagon bridge, doing considerable damage to the stone abutments and causing numerous washouts along the pond site. The water supply to the hatchery and ponds was cut off by the wash- ing out of the 14-inch pipe, but the eggs and fry were saved by promptly repairing it. Later in the season considerable work was done with the view to protecting the supply pipe and ponds from damage by future freshets. Owing to changes in the plans and to damage done by the freshet and the cyclone of the previous year, the appropriation for the construction of the station proved inadequate, hence work had to be stopped in the spring, pending an additional appropriation of iS: submitted in the deficiency bill. DULUTH STATION, MINNESOTA (S. P. WIRES, SUPERINTENDENT). Early in the summer the usual arrangements were made for collecting lake-trout and whitefish eggs from the waters of Lake Superior. The lake-trout season commenced September 15 and closed November 7, resulting in a collection of 5,874,000 eggs from the following points: Ross Port, Ontario, 2,203,000; St. [Ignace Island, Ontario, 800,000; Isle Royale, Mich., 1,701,000; Grand Portage, Minn., 410,000; French River, Minn., 40,000; Bayfield, Wis., 690,000; Pueblo River, Ontario, 30,000. They were transferred to the station and 4,768,000 fry were hatched from them and distributed during April, May, and June. The whitefish collections commenced at Basswood Lake, Minn., on October 17 and the total take of eggs during the season amounted to 4,200,000. The loss during incubation was very heavy, owing partly to unfavorable weather conditions which prevailed during the collecting season and partly to the fact that it was necessary to transport the eggs long distances over rough roads by wagon from the fishing-grounds to the railroad station. As the result of the season’s work 1,990,000 fry were deposited at Grace Harbor, Isle Royale, Michigan, on April 29. In addition to the collections made by the station force 25,000 brook, 21,450 rainbow, and 100,000 steelhead trout eggs were transferred from other stations to be hatched and distributed from.Duluth. The brook- trout eggs yielded 15,400 fry, which were furnished to applicants in Minnesota and North Dakota during May and June. The rainbow eggs were in excellent condition when received, but they proved almost a total loss, probably because of the difference in the temperature of the water at Neosho, where they were eyed, and Duluth. The tem- perature at Duluth during the hatching period was below 34° F., whereas at Neosho it is 57°. The steelhead eggs produced 75,000 fry, which were deposited during July in tributaries of Lake Superior. A number of specimens of that species have been captured in French and Lester REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. LIX rivers, Minnesota, which indicates that the plants heretofore made in those streams have been successful. The station force was occupied as usual during the summer months in overhauling the apparatus and painting the buildings. The low, marshy land at the south of the building was also filled in with gravel and stone, and protected from encroachments of the lake by a crib 198 feet long, 6 feet wide, and 33 feet deep. NrEosHO STATION, MISSOURI (WILLIAM IF. PAGE, SUPERINTENDENT). ’ ? The work of the station was directed by W. F. Page until April 4, when the foreman, L. E. Baldridge, was placed in charge. .cics.s «)eaivialvisie saleinioke teleieelemaivsiv.vicele TOME. ades clo saeeese 23 otal =e rete - Black*bass, laroe-mouth 222s. |feeeee soe jalan eees one 3, 716 Crappie. oo aosaciece seers eee ae eee AemGCOCOOr aisee 12 Rock bass: 2.2tte sc Sethe. Se SSSS Uae eo aecise ceed estes eee 1, 000 RIATNISAS\a:-= cele ee Swiss mee = ois ss Rainbow trowt-<3 Seimes cmc nnn a| heed eenee ete ericmeiete ene 6, 200 Black’bass; large-mouth 222 s204|) Jie se sacees lees 5, 825 Crappie sj sac seSsase8 See desl Ses ees aes |Roeeeee eee 1, 750 Rock bass.2+2.2Gse¢ 4 see Se al Sas 8s Se ee eee ee 6, 525 IRGC! socoocsoDpEpepaeasS Rainbow: trout: <2.) 2.-e-e2— 2-5). seeeee wai Ue a eipereinauleetets 895 Black bass, large-mouth ......-.|-..----..--<|- 2G eeesceee 5, 585 Rock bassiac .csaacaver amet sotice| ra oictacietism all ere siete eens 1, 535 IMiRinG jp oteeaeeces -22/ss'sa00 eee Quinnat salmon 1, 810, 936 7, 198 Atlantic salmon 1, 655, 671 234, 799 Landlocked salmon.....-...--.- 20, 000 61, 000 11, 050 Steelhead*trout2ssteceesebese.s-lbtesnecceers 55, 745 10, 545 Rainbow troubsg 22 e seers se aes oe oe se en aeretse emit see 7, 402 Von Behrstrombacsecssscees seas leeececee ates sataee eaten 569 Brook trowmtessosaeseees se eae 30, 000 50, 000 519 Lakeitroute: = 4 - hese See a pee sane cb sc Clleoee eee eee 3, 211 Swiss lake:trout2 220. Pes seetes| Ss Leek cedleneewoe eee nas 18, 982 Goldenitrontss 22: - sees aes 10, 000 35; 1000))|2Seenemeees ‘Black bass; large-mouth@ee-sees|-----ece eee |eeeat eee eee 500 LOpSteresia.h22 2 meen cris ese o-oo =e em heen South Platte River, near Buffalo, Colo Pine River, Pine River, Colo Lake Loveland, Loveland, Colo Applicants in Colorado at Leadville State Fish Commission, Hartford, Conn Brandywine Creek, Wilmington, Del in wae wlee clas & aia eae we = ol eie mma er) * Lost en route, 484 yearlings. 173, 387 124, 750 298, 137 202, 000 15, 000 } Lost en route, 625 yearlings and 311 fry. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. LXXXI Details of distribution—Continued. Species and disposition. Rainbow trout—-Continued. Pond in Zoological Park, District of Columbia Rock Creekin Zooand Rock Creek Parks, District of Columbia. Little River; Gainesville, Goes. cece css esse oadoccece cts cccs cass | Star Creek, Mineral Bluff, Ga Hemptown Creek, Mineral Bluff, Ga Young Stone Creek, Mineral Bluff, Ga Sawmill Creek, Mineral Bluff, Ga..-... toate Bheckesleaes Snawseee Hothouse Creek, Mineral Bluff, Ga panther Greek, Hannin County, (Ga. <<=5<.2ascceeente oes oct Applicants in Georgia Lake Cliff, Beaver Canyon, Idaho Applicants in Indian Territory Evans Lake, Rush Springs, Indian Territory Barren Fork off Illinois River, Indian Territory Sallisaw River, Sallisaw, Indian Territory Applicants in lowa Lakes Okoboji, Spirit Lake, Iowa Spring Brook, Montezuma, Iowa..........--..-------f-es--e0-- Cedar River, Cedar Rapids, lowa Spring Branch, Manchester, lowa-------.--.ssscces-sse+-e---2- | Trout Run, Decorah, Iowa Applicants in Kansas Chikaskia River, Drury, Kans Applicantsin: Kentucky. --..-----2-2ssi--ss2+- beens Fern Lake, Middleboro, Ky Applicantsin Maine, Cargill Pond, ‘Thorndike, Me Alamoosook Lake, Orland, Me Applicants in Maryland Mosners Brook, Reisterstown, Md Western Run, Reisterstown, Md Little Elk Creek, Cherry Hill, Md Jackson Run, Lonaconing, Md Nine Mile Pond, Centerville, Mass Deer Creek, Spring Valley, Minn Applicants in Mississippi Elk Creek, Elk Creek, Mo Reubivoux Oreck, Crocker MMOs .2-See nee Applicants in Ohio.....--.------ -----------------+--------e22-/------------] 2, 000 |---------- Applicants in Oklahoma ...-..---------------------+----+----+-- 7,591 Cache Creek, Chickasha, Oklahoma. .-..---.-.----------------- Pe een ae eereree rs 950 Applicants in Pennsylvania -...--.----.--------------+----+--- 1, 800 Jones Creek, Ebensburg, Pa~...-...--..-.---.--.--------------- 175 West Branch of Queens Run, Lockhaven, Pa 2, 000 Falling Spring, Chambersburg, Pa--.-.-...----------------------- 900 Bently Creek and Pond, Tioga, Pa.-...---.-..------------------ 900 Harmmen Oneal Mae Dally hae telee erate erate tate oe = atelier 400 Killinger Creek, Lebanon, Pa.....-.-.....--.------------------ 300 Mancils (Run, Norristown, Pa----- 2... 2-2 =< 22.6 eee ane 600 Rapid Run, Montandon, Pa...---.----------------------------- 600 Piney Creek, Altoona, Pa.......-.----------------------------- 300 White Deer Creek, Milton, Pa 300 Bloody Run, Gaines, Pa..-------.------.---+------------ 300 ihanrelehonyeNacholson, bale. ce oe 25am aaa eee 400 Long Run, Gaines, Pa...---.----------------------------------- 600 Gall Run, Gaines, Pa.....-..-----.----------------------------- 300 Pike Creek, Wyoming, Pa -.--.-.- Besse sececeeceseeu een = oes 300 Witwll eyeon, Genes) Jey Ses s5 le eégo anne oducssse oueseaseosasgas 1, 200 Tumbling Run Lake, Pottsville, Pa.-.---.--.------------------ 300 Weront nee © UES Oye tesa sateen eee eee ee eee ea 300 Smethers' Greek. Beachhaven ba eared an sie= sein ele = saan i= 300 Shickshinny Creek, Shickshinny, Pa.........-.--.------------- 300 West Branch of Shickshinny Creek, Shickshinny, Pa-....-...--. 300 Stony Brook, Moosic; Pa: -- 2. <2 6- e-- = .....---.-..|.......----- 55000) ae. so aeee North Fork of South Platte River, South Platte, Colo..........|..-.-..----- 5,000! 22-2 -2eace North Horkof Platte River, Herndale; Colos.s2s2ss- 24-5255 9 24|/aoseeeeee see 570008 | oee eee Platte niver, Herndale, Colotas. : 2 sacs: Soesaaetnees qs aeiesigde tial eee mee recente 5,000) |2e=- 22a South Forkiof Platte River, South Platte, Colo .--....:.2.---=4|-cceces----- By 000) | 2s Seaenee BuiraloiCreek:.Budtalo. COLO: = 220. oes fsa ponainat ee etnein eee fos hee oe ee ee 5, 0004/5025. oer Carbon and Castle creeks, Gunnison, Colo..-:.---...-.-2-+-s<-|--cc-s-c+--- 55000" |/Stsecoeees Gunnison River, Gunnison, Colosiet sea6 Posada sascueee tend tee See 5,000! |22233eeeee Blue River, Breckenridge, Colo esses teens Shae Sees Re ce ORE Reon 5000.22 ee eee Clear Creek, Empire, GG a as eer gc tt ng dn 5000: | Peessea eae CieariCreekvidaho Sprines | Coloss == s-cins-esnsssco sees ae ses aie| Eee eneeee 10, 000 fone CleariCreekeeDumontAColoveie oc cceernie 21e Joc ay sas os eis sows etel| serene meee 5, 00004. 2 =a= Chicago Creek, Idaho Suouee COlO seco 5s0e5hi se oes sae eee eee ee 5;.000h|o2 oes eaee South Platte River, CUE Colo tees scecleroangacas totes o eSeee aces es|eeeaeeeenee 5,000)? sa2e ee Roantng Pork River, Aspen, Colowsesc. 4-222 >00nct.. 9 saceeads |oeRe eee ies 10;000) | 2eeeeeeees Straight Creek, Dillon, Colds taheso saeco socio Waa Ror neces sit) ae es sees 5/000) | ae Wallow: Creek, Dillon, (Colo. ¢-. 2.j=.2c se 33 naa ansoena aoe eae MPeEee eee 5; 000)" ioe ee Platte River, between Grant and South Platte, Colo ---..-.---.|......-..--. 20; 000.5222 .4eaee State Fish Commission, Windsor, Conn ..-.------.--.-.--------- 255000) |eekek coes ee lene ee eee Applicants in Connecticut, sacs. .cemsecss ]. .-4aeaeee Geo. Wi. Res, weaver Canyon, Tdaho-. 2222-522 -2-e-4--25- see 5, 000%). <6 .2ca5c ms |e eee Beaver Canyon Creek, Beaver Canyon, Idaho. ...--.-.....-.---.|s22-02--+---|-----------0 1, 000 Wallow: Creek) Beaver Canyvon* Idaho .. <2. 2ceeeeueeeerer eee nem oe aces kan ce beeen 1, 000 Sheridan Creek) Beaver:Canvon; Idaho ..- 2. -..c2)=.--2eeeeeeese | -2 > sea e ee Jnseereeeeeee 1, 000 Sheridan Lake, Beaver Canyon) Idaho 3.)-<. 22 S2s.seeemici ee |e eee (o setEes 1, 000 Lost River, Lost (Rivereldano.. <0 a nicie seine een eeoe lanes 900:000! |Steeaaneate Makesciuron heb ay rane MAC hye jsclereinc acm iio 2 <== = sss cicin cies ellen sees bOOS000)| See eaeeeee Marble slialxke 1G) WiNG YaeMliG Wee 2 aiacjan sce icc aac occ cece ek Scie e seine|eeemieeteeiene 1.0000) fee eee ake winichican@harlevoxs MACH <2 scale <)5 =~ s0 22 cee as ee eeeeeenine TS OLOK000 9) Semen see Makesvire hipan tranktoru, Miche. 2s cc.c----1-<4 c004 225s cioe ances] heme eteee A95, 000) |\-. =< =; eee iPineslakenOhanlevoree Micha. sccticiecisclenis sc scien eas cs eee elses eee 480 %000M eee a kouHnron wast Lawas; MICHA. 6 cei -s- caceseeciecbacreamace 10, 000 | BONO00) Sa. Sees Whiteyish: Hake Wohi can se ranktort, ilCh tae aisieisisics cies vag sso nessa aad mene seer ZeS0OVO0O) meeemeee MakemMachioansManistiquemMach, osis-cscecemscsc sees sao mcicccslsemessecelee AeO00K000G| eae ee eee Lake Michigan, Warehouse Fishery, Mich............--...-...|------------ LSS OOO 000) ens =e. Makemiuchigans Hpoutette, Mich s o2o8 2 aso clne 2 == ocincciin omens alae aesaeeen al TO008000!|Poseeeeaee Make Michioan.Beaverisland) Mich#s 2. cb ---ce-eccss-s4ccc|-c0c5e senses BR O008000!||Sosce='-=2 = Straits of Mackinaw, Mackinaw City, Mich ..-...........-....|------....-. leeeo0ON000) |etece sac. a KOEN NOLLAVE ON t MUCH Ss 5 oss 2aeetak = ones cel nawemateciall sete tactao cle on O00 0008) Fees AkeseeNrous Oscoda, Miche. cas ssncesecceccewesc coeeacoasee ae 20005000) 4-8 Scene - MalesHuron, MasbeLawas, MiIchs 2s jcc cies cscsasce-cceecntsdece: 2000; 0008 Se sesce se Lake Huron, off Scarecrow Island, Mich....................-.-. 4° (000; 000): s2=-- ee. Pakonmurons of Alpena, MICH = 2 sfecoccs Sates seats «steels cece ae ZLOOOkO00Rl nee s-oeee Lake Superior, Grace Harbor, Mich...-...--..--..- Heel 990000) | Se sere ee Hammond Bay, Hammond Bay, Mich 25000; 000N|e5=5-222-- St. Lawrence River, Cape Vincent, N. Y-..--...----.----------- Tod (O003|-SSe sees. Takeo palast) [land Ree O10 ct s | 95 | 104,367} 26,422) 7,453) 1,811,119 59, 557 345 5, 348 Massachusetts..--...----- 45 17, 739 3, 075 10, 2, 250 VAG eaetetstes | Sec soster New Hampshire ...-...-.. 2} 360 | 5Oh he Sacre ni |Naertaceiies 5) iaaceesta te wticails Jowece sae ING Widersey ce... 2... 145 | 90,012 17, 838 3,658 | 1, 845, 368 111, 483 270 3, 214 INIA Sea aera 67 35, 450 7,220 | 1,879 | 670, 949 34, 727 54 955 Worth Carolina ......---- 232 | 232, 749 56, 971 | 58, 234 3, 417, 263 SONOO2 sett allow epee Pennsylvania.........-.. 96 57, 915 12, 285 179 | 217, 770 MIMS aleeeea ae seneeeeee Rhode Island ......-..--. 16 9, 600 S400 Easterns Jassose ssaeeslencacos cet ecnacsa|/seodosooce South Carolina .-<.--..- 22 4, 905 931 399 | 283, 011 TE Bei | eee econo NVANPANT Re. eiec cies see == 44 75,183 | 19,230 | 10,924 | 1,253,575 | 40,131 72 1, 032 Motalessse ses eete | 944 704,276 | 155,883 | 84,139 | 10,399,589 | 409,116 801 | 10, 729 , 1 Dip and other | ; 7 ? ce nets. | SSIS: Wheels. bee ee Total value States. ik Be es Ce ee eresreeee|" OL MV OSU ; | accessory t | No. Value. No. | Value.| No. Value. | property. ment: @onnecticut) cs... 2-2 =. | $1, 575 $14, 091 IDET SS 8 Seeeeeesae 13, 467 52015 RUG ss 5 Bee eee as 4, 349 33, 458 GOOLE acne siaicce = = anne = 2, 817 23, 387 50 [a0 TRG) 5 Seg eh es | 11, 254 53, 253 Mamvlan discs acceces osc 128 625) |aeee ase Jooaseo solssss5cse||Seeencocse 54, 149 325, 299 Massachusetts........... 121 DO EES Sa aeeee ted Gar ceete lect ERES: 12, 958 19, 470 WO? JEEMTIOS TG aeiae Boodle ap ooeise SSoeeoc rod Eeersnce jsererca seccrsca lncersbcaoae 355 1, 040 ING PORSEVa<-2ccciscite [pacecens|cosesdece |lososess avon eb eictoeays nll SecteBteee ee 90, 228 374, 890 INIGNT AGO] RANGES a SSD Ee Bea aeeGn eeeesaace 20 | CED |loossonselledssocaacic 6, 325 81, 868 NWonuhl Carolina... -.2-- 1, 278 Gh tell Neb Sodaedbeanaces } 75 $1,125 | 227,252 622, 997 Pennsylvania. -.-......-.. 51 185 30 28k leas = icc vmea semen 36, 451 82, 252 MOORS AMO ae operas Seen nee ec ana aes are Qeebocod HeMersee acme oe BEES see 1,170 4, 620 South Carolina -......... 450 MSM a cesaced Inshococe ~80 2,178 2, 645 40, 355 Vai ati, (apneecneeSEeneae lapaccGae |WAaBee nce RE Sell see era ee ARG AD eS ose 62, 253 441, 859 Motal eevee ence. | 2,245 6, 467 | 50 | 43 155 3,303 | 527,248) 2,171,554 * Includes fall traps. The shad catch of the Atlantic coast in 1896 in apparatus set pri- marily for this fish was 12,940,000 fish, weighing 50,000,000 pounds and valued at $1,637,000, The yield of alewives was 140,850,000 fish, weigh- ing 58,703,000 pounds and worth $435,000. The additional output of these fish in apparatus set primarily for other fish was 207,000 shad, with a weight of 775,000 pounds and a value of $19,000, and 7,008,000 alewives, weighing 3,363,000 pounds and worth $24,600; included in these figures is the incidental catch of shad on the Pacific coast. The table which follows gives the results of these fisheries in each State. New Jersey is seen to take precedence in the number and the weight of shad, being credited with about 3,298,000 fish, weighing 13,746,000 pounds. Virginia ranks second, with 3,197,000 fish, with a weight of 11,146,000 pounds. In North Carolina, with a catch of 2,097,000 shad, weighing 8,843,000 pounds, the value is greater than in any other State, namely, $417,000. Maryland is the foremost State in the yield of alewives; over 44,000,000 were taken, weighing 17,641,000 pounds and valued at nearly $126,000. In North Carolina about 39,890,000 alewives were caught and in Virginia more than 30,000,000, CXXVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. Table showing the shad and alewife catch of the United States in 1896 by apparatus fished primarily for these fish. Shad. Alewives. States. ie Number. Pounds. | Value. Number. Pounds. Value, Connecticut ..-.-..-.------- 67, 746 251,810 | $13, 486 2, 257, 798 812,119 | $10, 498 DClAWariceeccesteescs occu ee 467, 744 |» 1, 990, 694 69, 160 2, 057, 390 822, 956 7, 756 WhonGaicreseateret eects nes 460, 214 1, 298, 605 62, 589 40, 000 16, 000 400 Georeia.-so-ces--s- deen << 148, 974 536, 627 AOFORON | ato eter ee | eines eve Sosa eee MGEING wha mteete eee Se ce emace tas 348, 757 1, 334, 443 29, 553 4,670,581 | 2, 598, 527 19, 664 Wisumsy lant disieiers atclarse ainsi ia 1, 542, 869. 5, 540, 224 166, 464 44,103, 306 | 17, 641, 322 125, 870 Massachusetts. -.....-....... 3, 355 18, 420 934 7, 370, 689 3, 970, 274 35, 050 Wien Lia) plane 5s donses es sob aoSoge| bs soos s6q584)|booceoSssoe= 479, 500 269, 734 2, 795 NIG AIOE) @esnaeececoooseoe 3, 297, 593 | 13, 746, 298 333, 188 5,610, 990 | 2, 859, 299 14, 157 ING WeUOL Ke came cca sielectosie nc 537,543 | 2,181,724 73, 596 2, 317, 070 926, 828 11, 225 North! Garoling).-5-se.c- G0 .s..<: 0m .lse--028 eelddenice das laoccnct 4, 528, 211) 2, 430, 450) 21, 372 Shores of Massachusetts. ...-..|..... domseee 3, 555 13, 980 851} 942,265) 501,960) 4,595 Warren River. -:----..---.... Rhode Island.. 9, 258 36,534) 2,408) 403,200) 161,280 692 Ponds and small rivers..-....|..... Picea oe Ed ne be pana ED fess five 3, 960, 920) 1, 584, 368) 23, 641 Shores of Rhode Island..-...-..|..... doe sess 38, 374 12, 912) 925) 828,280} 331,312) 3,551 Connecticut River.........--. Connecticut - 51,690} 190,934) 9,508) 2,216,243) 795,497) 10, 350 Housatonic River......--=--.-|-...- Ole esene 9, 878 37,360) 2, 471) 4, 200 1, 680 28 Shores of Connecticut......-.|..... CO Sates 8, 720 32, 896) 2,103} 509,980) 204,011) 1,653 Shores of Long Weland) << cae: New York aesce 8, 786 21,680, 2,241 336, 540) 134, 616 2, 840 Ma RONeBIVeDs ssc. cess mce N. Y.andN.J..| . 588, 898) 2, 356, 966, 83, 237| 2, 192, 000; 876,800} 9,763 New York, Sandy Hook, and |....- OO basis ae =i 216, 425 861, 653) 30, 941 ” 930, 800} 465,400) 1,374 Raritan bays. Shores of New Jersey SE neSeSc New Jersey.--.| 16,240 64, a 3,518) 3,482,140) 1, 955, 234) 8, 873 Delaware River.........-..-. ee Pa., and /|2, 833, 101/11, 752, 359,306, 536) 4, 420, 700) 1, 812, 980) 11, 044 el. Delaware Bay.....-.....----- N.J.and Del ..}1, 183, 761) 5, 075, 891,119, 870 221, 490 88,596) 1,589 NGI AMER Ole cardiac csce eee WGlawWaArelscaceelsr Hee asles cesicmioas salons osicc 550,700} 220,280} 3, 823 Chesapeake Bay and tribu- taries: i IBA VERHONOS = eieiaa)aniaiemroo ce. Md. and Va....|1, 742, 455) 6, 261, 967 177, 742 24, 112, 084| 9, 644, 835) 61, 709 Susquehanna River . Md.and Pa ....| 140, 087, 565,037) 20, 153 10, 864, 000) 4, 345, 600| 48, 983 Northeast River...... ; Maryland...... 47,205) 176,215 5,138) 587,400} 234, 960 929 HII IN GIS s ctxt clase cee ciem=|= cre dome es. 14, 164 52, 250) 1,579) 2, 327, 000 930, 800 3, 834 @hester River:= 22 ..-. BB ibe stceses|icoosen Middle Bank...-. 9 3, 500 OF Reece cenene aan se aol eeedccaasloattessocteaarice ces | tacoma Jeffreys Ledge... 25 34, 500 584 7, 600 222 51, 400 G05) ese se occ Sosemee Ipswich Bay..-.. 14 | 116,736 | 2,155 8, 000 2605 | asses sates eel esceciccclaeccwes South Channel...| 82 (1,167, 555 | 17, 084 15, 000 GSE P44 ORTON FOSS ese ee eos ees Nantucket Shoals 52 40, 000 540 1, 705, 495 BE a eS AtBESA eeerc eo) are comerel Geer tac Off Chatham. .... Bn SC AE oe A OCT ic] Cie ETERS ti ee tome Ce ea eae ices | eater ere aii See mies General shore : grounds........ BSD |e SOON TO. iis G40 Sets cars asian all wraiaccicaioeia | a ciclctore catata| Sno wtaterntall seins dens ne mates Total. -i--52=2 = 1,616 |4, 486, 871 | 72,467 | 13,464,570 | 377,136 /|1,770, 350 | 21,238 | 294, 430 6, 379 Grand total. . “i 22¢ |5, 196,511 | 82,970 | 34, 039,988 | 769, 883 |1, 853,010 | 22,339 | 305, 070 6, 576 Haddock. Hake. Pollock Fishing-grounds. Fresh. Fresh. Salted. Fresh. Salted. Pounds. |Value.| Pounds. | Value. |Pounds.| Value. |Pounds.| Value. |Pounds, Value. East of 66° W. lon- gitude: La Have Bank..| 10,000 PaDetee 903480) tim OSD ME eee ne eee Diane o OhilwSiid) S6bee beeanoenag secosas 30, 000 130 | 10, 000 Totaliss. 2s. - 10, 000 42 220, 480 | 1,070 | 10,000 (oD See bo See oe Sasaeese| secoe ac West of 66°W. lon- gitude: Browns Bank...| | 11, 000 69") 200800014)) 1S005\|- ssl E ates 4; 000 $18) |S. See selene Georges Bank ..|1, 050, 200 | 4, 877 158, 000 821 3, 500 DON eee tesco oe alae s cles] (ame come Cashes Bank.... 92, 000 408) (2.0384 100) 10538388). cote eee |Scowele Be Seal Pace sos aleeeenaae Fippenies Bank.|.......--.|------- 3, 000 BL React esac |beptdsea|been se) cn aeease| aaa omee Middle Bank....- 7, 300 222 20, 800 OO eee ee sae eee AL et encore meron Jefireys Ledge. . 11, 400 436 245, 500 | 1,377 2, 500 25 | 50, 860 1820 | Sei Sececlaowensee Ifbehr a iby eel Me Sess Seal leca a cS5 lose sas Iere) Eecasc 2, 000 20 | 18, 000 a Bee Beene South Channel.. 40, 000 LOSa LOD AON a WO DAE ee ctete | tect cc acini slo canes |e ocven =| se ennminte Nantucket GUIs: SS ee ee te SS ee ee eee (ee See eee 25, 000 $133 CHP Cre no aad Boasosnace odecee SCeeeE ees GEDSSAn SSEnee = AeeSrae eens Menai 230, 000 4, 353 General shore erounds.22=--- 36, 186 735 7, 000 BA Wteeeciced REEoen 682: 322)| 2969) too tee esl eee merce Total: ...=2 1, 248, 086 | 6,896 |3, 770, 640 118,621 | 8,000 71 |755, 182 | 3, 250 |255, 000 4, 486 Grand total.|1, 258, 086 | 6,938 |3, 991,120 |19, 691 | 18, 000 156 |755, 182 | 3, 250 |255, 000 4, 486 CXXXIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. Summary by fishing-grounds of certain fishery products landed at Gloucester, Mass., in 1896 by American fishing vessels—Continued. Halibut. Mackerel. i Fishing-grounds. Fresh. Salted. Fresh. Salted Pounds. | Value. | Pounds. | Value.| Pounds. | Value. | Pounds. | Value East of 66° W. longitude: ijavelavesban kes seme = 3127495) $23, 9528 |e. cerieicecis| cies ee viw.cle tee ee Greenibanke esse ceeeee en Chr EPORII PALL UPAD | Sa aaa cea 4 looaceone||seecaeeocd Segoe yoe coc seae asc detaction GrandeBankeesccse< sees 2) (0545/5938 hO27 89070 Bal es2b | WS i588) Sen. ciate sn 2 = see] snes =e |e St. Peters Bank.......... 78; 040 | (16) DaG"| pet cecios a s|caecetesiincae extents Se eee eb c|-Sa-ce4eee | pee Burgeo Bank .........--- 312, 588 | 18, 163 7, 530 BO eee ain ewe (ereiaies alee ceo dae Seen Bacalieu Bank... 2-2-2. 2:4935.209 102-967 Mira 94s AO0N | 20 Ma oon eeeet we cie mls sete cle (s essere tae eee Cape Nonihees-s-eeesce essex eer|=—eeReer 5, 430 2G Es ee ce sea | melee eicton |soee lsc ete (eee CapeiShore...---- 25-2... CLARO NIN GYRE eSadesenndbssetasc 4,375 $520 |2, 852, 000 |$158, 550 Gulf of St. Lawrence --. 9, 960 BO es evs ataten | etarsrsretaie | Ratner eee lye See 623, 000 | 46, 823 Greenland and Iceland ..|.-----.--.|-------- 334,000: 8 13 O80) | senmemicec|scecere st kas eeee ee | eee Motaliewer ean 276, 605} $3, 965 99 SOG) IRL Bai lae stemeerclae| tem ace cae 376, 004) $5, 312 COd Seatac censet 2, 783, 550 Ba HOOG Eee ase ese oe 484,250) $13,934) 3, 267, 800 97, 440 Cultus-cod............ 139, 495 4,213 6, 000 240 223, 278) 4, 193) 368, 773 8, 646 Mlounders\sscs---=ss-5 3, 308, 334 G9995|teo Seuss eee ate ook 106, 850 1,502) 3,415, 184 71, 497 Hahibuibee. tte ssene | seek escalate sees 5, 000 400} 1, 714, 315 39,418) 1,719. 315 39, 818 Merring 2: sitesi seen: Be1S0i 960)! TH24t3G0|ss-pee net |acee ee 344,670| 2,201) 3,525,630) 26, 561 Rockish, -pocmeeocce se 1, 527, 344 31, 033} 37, 000 1, 780 38, 420 796) 1, 602, 764 33, 609 Salmon, blueback..---- 192, 000 4, 800 565, 913 18, 315} 7, 292,588) 166,818) $, 050,501) 189, 933 Salmon, chinook ...--- 4, 398, 044) 126, 601/21, 056,926) 977, 901/12, 936, 886) 574,975) 38, 391, 856)1, 679, 477 Salnion Cots sean eas | peee a tenes | eee 2,125,115) 10,627) 5,471,897| 28,956) 7,597,012) 39,583 Nalmon amp Dae ker s eee ateetee |ae eile | See ee eclae Serer 2, 269,766} 15,326) 2,269,766) 15,326 Salmon, silver..-...--- 164, 41% 4, 403] 9, 457,355) 142, 143/12, 361,721! 141, 460) 21,983,489) 288,006 - Salmon, steelhead... .. 461, 225 18, 449) 3, 220, 324 80, 825) 4,971,385} 135,040) 8,652,934] 234, 314 Smeltovecs-s -saceeneus 1, 739, 600 53, 303 31, 125 1, 245 528, 455 7,706) 2,299, 180 62, 254 Striped bass ..-..-..-. 202404), VSTOST a-€ sac =a eee ce eee pe eeeeee a pare eee 252,454) 13,037 SHUEY 555.555 Sooseoe 299, 729 8, 393 956, 239 23, 767) 1, 883, 543 47,934} 3,139,511 80, 094 Other fish. . 222-5... 2. 4, 781, 467 86, 144 125, 246 1, 252 245, 480 5,983} 5, 152, 193 93, 379 Oyasters.s-s---5------ 14, 727, 240} 539, 497 88, 800 2, 220] 6, 484, 035} 109, 232) 21,300,075 650, 949 Glamsistecsceesietes 1,582,959] 15,457| 280,700] 2,475] 1,405,000| 8,550| 3,268 659 26, 482 Aibalones\.-----<---<- - 302, 292 URAC) Resa sas bance se lS Sermatese sete Sae 302, 292) 7,173 Other mollusks .....-- 520, 590 BSS secs ere asl ster eease 23, 650 208 544, 240) 5, 739 Craps fies dnaeeuesee 2, 565, 000 61, 750) 23, 520 037 163, 000 4,241] 2,751,520) 66, 628 Spiny lobster .......-. DOSHODS| NianO (Ol ena cm sne| atemieteict| eee eee al Seer 558, 054; 12, 575 Crawilishtc. ccs haces ad] t2ccecensaloeee eects 58, 970 3,369) soo secccecleeeeee coe 58, 970; 3, 369 Shrimp and prawn. .-.; 5,425,000) 162, 749)........../......... 36, 088 1,804, 5,461,088 164, 553 Terrapins, turtles, and! frogs'.2-2-2:.--- 144, 566 21, 606 4, 000 400 cS Seeealeaee sede 148, 566 22, 006 Fur-seal, sea-lion, and sea-otter pelts ......|..-------- 120, 061|.....-.... AS OOS teers atte 86; 291). 2-2-5 ==e 219, 445 Winaleioilcse-e eee c= BELO Tee lees So sena pgeeoomed scenes seselbsecccanse 549,517; 19,944 Otheroill-2 222-2255. 4, 500 180] Beeaeecees | eeeerees 104, 250 4, 865 108, 750 5, 045 Whalebone ..-.--.....- UES OI SrAe?a | eanosocrs4 |Agaeno aos josbonasocs||sboaees =o 98,517} 287, 227 ANP ce ccnessececue 26, 565 Dalleeseeee fe elec oe seasons aoe mete ane 26, 565 531 Totalesenheeces 50, 010, 020/1, 786, sah 141, 6832/1, 282, 036/59, 089, 527|1, 401, 483/147, 241, 179 4, 469, 952 Comparing the extent of the fishing industry in 1895 with that in 1892 (the year covered by the previous canvass), it appears that 3,260 more persons were engaged, $881,515 more capital invested, and $357,012 less products taken. Notwithstanding the decrease in the output, the canvass of 1895 showed a substantial gain in the fisheries for food products. In Washington and Oregon there was an increase of more than 1,900 persons engaged and over $400,000 in the value of the catch in each State, with a corresponding increase in capital. This gain was chiefly in the salmon fishery. The building of cold-storage plants has also largely increased the utilization of fresh salmon, of which extensive shipments have been made to Eastern States as well as to European countries. : In the varied fisheries of California there have been more marked changes. In some sections the food-fish fisheries show large gains, San Diego and Los Angeles counties especially having greatly increased their fishing business by building up a trade with the interior States of the Southwest. San Francisco continues to be the chief center for the reception and distribution of a vast amount of canned, dried, pickled,and fresh fish, besides the products of the whale and seal fleets. The decline in the yield of whales and seals has been marked, amount- ing to nearly $1,000,000 compared with 1892; the number of vessels engaged becomes less yearly; some vessels are lost, some are not put in commission, and there are no new additions to the fleet. This branch may be expected to still further decline. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. CXXXIX The canning of salmon is the most important industry depending on the fisheries. In 1895 there were 47 establishments in operation. These employed over 33,300 persons, and represented an investment of more than $2,760,000. The fresh salmon utilized amounted to 64,648,000 pounds, for which $1,968,000 was paid. The canned goods comprised 955,000 cases, holding 48 one-pound cans or the equivalent, the market value of which was $4,224,000. The extent of this industry in each State is outlined in the following table: Summary of the salmon-canning industry of the Pacific Staies in 1895. Persons | No. of : Salmon utilized. | Salmon canned. States. em- | can- | Value. Be: ae leaned = SSS ployed. |neries. ae ‘| Pounds. | Value. | Cases. | Value. California. --- 198 4 | $62,000 | $64,000 | $126,000 | 1,906,525 | $52,091 | 29,035 | $128, 632 Oregon.....--. 1, 960 26 | 719,225 | 942,500 |1, 661, 725 |35, 299, 241 |1, 184, 029 | 525, 839 /|2, 456, 698 Washington .- 1, 146 17 | 374,650 | 601,000 | 975, 650 |27, 441,724 | 731,922 | 400, 752 |1, 638, 938 Total... 3, 304 47 |1, 155, 875 1, 607,500 |2, 763, 375 |64, 647, 490 |1, 968,042 | 955, 626 /4, 224, 268 LOBSTER INQUIRIES ON THE PACIFIC COAST. As noticed in the last report of the division, some special inquiries relative to eastern lobsters on the Pacific coast were begun by the writer in the latter part of the fiscal year 1895-96. The inquiries were especially addressed to the region of Monterey Bay, where the largest plants of adults, young, and eggs had been made in 1888. The supposed capture of lobsters in this locality has from time to time been reported, but no specimens have ever been seen by persons competent to identify them. No apparatus adapted to the taking of the eastern lobster is used here or elsewhere on the western coast where lobsters have been planted, and the absence of results may rep- resent simply a lack of knowledge. There is a widespread belief on the Pacific coast, especially in Cali- fornia, that, through an oversight, the lobsters brought from the East were planted with their claws tied together, and that consequently all must have soon perished by starvation. This story, originally told as a joke at the expense of a member of the California Fish Commission, has by many come to be accepted as a fact. It is hardly necessary to say that there is absolutely no foundation for the rumor; the lobsters were not tied in any way whatever during transportation from the East, and they were deposited under the most favorable conditions. While at San Pedro, Cal., in June, 1896, the writer secured 3 lobster traps that had been constructed by an eastern lobster fisherman some years before. These had been set for the spiny lobster, but had been discarded as being non-effective for that species. The traps were sent to Monterey for the purpose of setting them in that bay for eastern lobsters. After securing the services of a local boatman and fisherman, there was begun a series of trials for lobsters in various parts of the bay. Fresh rock-cod and flounders were used for bait and the lobster traps were rigged and set as on the New England coast. The experi- CXL REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. ments were continued for seven daysinJune. During that time the traps were set once or twice daily in water from 18 to 125 feet deep, on rocky and sandy bottoms, at distances from the shore varying from 100 feet tol4miles. The ground covered was from one-half mile off Pacific Grove to the Hotel Del Monte wharf. The conditions seemed favorable for the existence of lobsters, the bottom consisting of rocky ledges, loose rocky patches, and hard sand, with giant kelp and other vegetation. Sometimes the traps were left down 24 hours; sometimes they were lifted in 7to12 hours. The results, so far as lobsters were concerned, were entirely negative. Sometimes the traps were empty, with bait unmo- lested; sometimes the bait would be taken, with no clew to the animal removing it; but generally the traps contained starfish, rock-crabs, and spider-crabs, often in large numbers. On one occasion a trap was com- pletely filled by an octopus, which had insinuated its body between the slats and whose arms projected from the sides of the trap. As much time was given to the experiment as could then be properly devoted to it, but the trials should be continued with more traps and in other parts of the bay before the absence of lobsters is conceded. No evidence of the presence or absence of lobsters in the region may be expected of the fishermen, as they set no apparatus in which a lobster is apt to be caught. Several other reports of the capture of lobsters in Monterey Bay have been made to the writer. Mr. R. Duarte, afish-dealer of Monterey, states that about January, 1896, while in the Chinese village near Monterey, he saw a large lobster that a Chinese fisherman had snagged on a trawl line. He engaged to take it for 25 cents, but during a short absence the China: man became suspicious that it was unlawful to sell it and made away with it. It weighed between 5 and 7 pounds, and Mr. Duarte is con- fident it was an eastern lobster. No spiny lobsters are caught here. Mr. James McMann, superintendent of a fish-cannery at San Pedro and formerly of Maine, states that in 1893 he saw a lobster at Monterey that he is confident was a genuine eastern lobster; it was 6 inches long. Inquiries relative to the lobsters planted off the Oregon and Wash- ington coasts elicited only negative information. In July, 1896, the Canadian Fisheries Department had a consign- ment of eastern lobsters planted on the coast of British Columbia. The shipment was in charge of Mr. C. A. Stayner, inspector of lobster fisheries, and consisted of 600 adults and 2,000,000 eggs; some of the lobsters weighed 10 pounds. All but 196 died in transit; the survivors were deposited in deep water at Nanaimo, Vancouver Island, on the Strait of Georgia, the eggs being planted near Vancouver, on the mainland. Mr. Stayner reports that about September 1 a lobster was caught at Victoria and fully identified. Victoria is on Fuca Strait, on the southern side of Vancouver Island, and about 80 miles from Nanaimo. The opinion of the local government fishery inspector is that the lobster was a representative of plants made by this Commission in Puget Sound in 1889, but the matter can not be definitely decided. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. CXLI STRIPED BASS IN CALIFORNIA. In the summer of 1896 the writer made some special studies of the striped bass in the waters of California, supplemental to the inquiries carried on in 1894, an account of which has been published by the Com- mission.* Distribution.—The striped bass continues to be most numerous in San Francisco Bay and its tributaries; it is also taken in small numbers in Monterey Bay, and regularly ascends the coast as far as Russian River, which stream it enters. A few have been taken as far south as Los Angeles County. Up to 1896 Russian River was the supposed northern limit of its range, but in February of that year two medium- sized bass were taken in the Gualala River, which divides Sonoma and Mendocino counties and is nearly 100 miles north of Russian River. From time to time in 1896 small shipments of striped bass reached the San Francisco market from Alviso, in Santa Clara County; these were taken in the sloughs which connect with the extreme southern end of San Francisco Bay, into which they are supposed to run for the pur- pose of spawning. This is the first year the species has been reported from this locality. Very few are caught at Sacramento, and none in salmon gill nets; the few obtained are taken in seines hauled on the bars for catfish. They are found from June to October. In weight they range from 4 to 10 pounds, no large fish being observed. Abundance.—The abundance of this fish in the San Francisco Bay region is remarkable and shows no signs of diminution; in fact, the receipts in the markets have been steadily increasing from year to year, and 1896 showed a large gain over 1895. The increased catch is due entirely to increased abundance, and does not represent more active fish- ing operations or the employment of more apparatus; on the contrary, it is probable that less fishing is now done than formerly, when the good prices received for bass were an incentive that is now lacking. In April, 1896, a deputy of the California Fish Commission seized a lot of nets that had a mesh below the size permitted bylaw. They had been set in Honker Bay, an arm of Suisun Bay, and consisted of 200 fathoms of 5-inch gill net and about 180 fathoms of trammel net, all belonging to one fisherman. The nets, when seized, had a large number of striped bass in them, weighing from 74 to 25 pounds, and averaging 10 or 12 pounds. The deputy making the seizure reports that about 465 fish were taken out and given away, the total catch thus being not less than 5,000 pounds. So abundant was the fish in the Sacramento-San Joaquin delta in the spring of 1896 that one salmon fisherman reported that ‘the spring run of salmon this year was all striped bass.” In the fall of 1895, while fishing for salmon off Sherman Island, in the San Joaquin River, this fisherman had the following experience: He had set a large- * A review of the history and results of the attempts to acclimatize fish and other water animalsin the Pacific States. By HughM. Smith,M.D. Bull. U. 8. F.C. 1895, pp. 379-472, CXLII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. meshed salmon gill net near one of the breaks in the island, through which the water pours from a tule lake. No salmon had been caught, and he was taking the empty net into his boat (having stowed fully half of it), when suddenly the water was churned into foam near his boat and around his net by a school of striped bass that had evidently just come out of the tule lake. He realized that a large number of fish had struck his net and set about to secure them. One end of his net was close to shore, and he hailed some fishermen on the bank, who began to lift that end of the net, throwing the fish on land, while he emptied the other end into his boat. The catch consisted of 700 fish of nearly uniform size, and averaged 30 pounds each. This fish- erman states that if his whole net had been out he would probably have lost all or part of it from the weight of the fish. This catch of 21,000 pounds was sold at less than 5 cents a pound, in San Francisco. Grounds, movements, spawning, etc.—Evidence is accumulating to show that the striped bass remain in the tule lands for long periods, or, at least, do not move to and from salt water, as they do on the Atlantic coast. Schools are often found in the delta, and large catches are made without any fish having been caught below, and the fishermen think the fish have suddenly emerged from some tule lake. The opinion is entertained that the striped bass often become landlocked in the tule lakes, to be liberated by some freshet or high tide, thus explaining their sudden occurrence in a certain place when nets above and below have taken none. Above the Strait of Karquines the fish are usually of uniform size in the different schools, while in the straits they are apt to vary. Large catches are often made at the outlets of the tule lakes. With few exceptions, the food of the striped bass in the fresh waters consists of carp. Additional information has been obtained indicating a protracted spawning period for the fish on the California coast. On June 4, 1896, a 15-pound striped bass, examined by the writer in the San Francisco market, was found to be a nearly spent male from which ripe milt was running. On July 3 both male and female ripe fish (sent from Benicia) were observed in the San Francisco market. In October, 1895, a San Joaquin River fisherman, while taking a bass from a salmon net, observed a large quantity of ripe eggs to fall into the bottom of his boat. The present abundance and rate of increase of striped bass in Cali- fornia render almost unnecessary at this time the consideration of the question of their artificial propagation. It can not be said that those now taken form a large part of the run. Few persons fish especially for them, the largest part of the catch being taken incidentally in salmon nets. When the conditions change, as they probably will in time, the artificial propagation of striped bass in California may become desirable. Striped bass trade of San Francisco.—Practically the entire catch of striped bass is consigned to the San Francisco dealers, whose receipts afford an accurate basis for determining the catch. Their receipts during recent years have increased almost 100 per cent annually, and in 1896 amounted to about 364,000 pounds, REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. CXLIII The following table shows the number of pounds of striped bass handled in San Francisco in 1893, 1894, 1895, and 1896: Statement by months of the pounds of striped bass handled by San Francisco dealers in 1898, 1894, 1895, and 1896. Months. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. JP ISY mann ddsinadocdebigcosoeesoneeseaspesnocbecarcorcasccbs 3, 448 14,177 28, 328 27,179 TNS STENT) Oper em REC adEEIC Ca Seon cGobr ea CCE EAnOnE or br tec Deaaec ht 3, 087 12, 572 15, 611 36, 107 Mince seats eienecte cs eerie mae St cas cacwicseccloes oeecene cri 5, 408 9, 002 11, 281 38, 340 IXSIERD cio ok Ce oe ek ee DO De ee 8, 351 9,638 | 22, 000 41, 740 Menemesteces 222.2 12 oe ee ee REN SEES IS A 7, 232 9,413 | 12, 639 45, 903 AUST G8 ECE CE SOR Ce ee aa oe eee Eee eee ae ne Area 4, 353 4, 820 11, 532 15, 047 DTG) esis in bwaenese i cdasepeb Ses do spc no OSE SSBB EEE Dpeseboocoe 2, 950 7, 521 13, 782 13, 531 PUL ENTLN fiatal ate ala = 2, 655 6, 863 12, 419 15, 574 September......- 8, 507 10, 218 21, 063 24, 214 October-2-22-. <4 6, 820 23, 192 28, 724 40, 704 INP POTTNET 2o3 Soe hee Oa CORR U ee Beau ee Bosc CC pene Meer Eerae 10, 473 17, 950 50, 245 40, 089 IBC EMI DO tate eerie cite ce s.ce le ne Seeta cine aideicidcisie'e sie w'wvie cia se sicla cc 17, 514 24, 631 24, 553 25, 319 Motaliacee sec snamsas eadics mee aaee casas Sescceeetwecec 80,793 | 149,997 | 252,177 363, 747 Receipts in 1890, 5,000 pounds; in 1891, 25,000 pounds; in 1892, 50,000 pounds (estimated). The prices received by the fishermen did not average more than 5 cents per pound in 1896, and at times were much lower. In April, for instance, only 3 cents a pound could be obtained. SHAD ON THE PACIFIC COAST. Distribution, abundance, ete.—Inquiries by the writer in 1896 disclosed the fact that the shad is becoming more evenly distributed along the Pacifie coast of the United States, although the San Francisco Bay region and the Columbia River are still the centers of greatest abun- dance. The fish seems to range regularly as far south as Los Angeles County, Cal., and as far north as Stikine River, in southeast Alaska. Following are a few special notes regarding the shad’s distribution and abundance supplemental to the information given in the report* based on an examination of this subject in 1894: In April, 1895, a 5-pound shad was caught in a seine in San Pedro Bay, Los Angeles County, Cal., and three or four others were taken during the same year at San Pedro. In Monterey Bay this fish is found from August to December. It is taken chiefly in gill nets having a 3 to 4inch mesh set for perch and horse-mackerel (Trachurus). Shad are very abundant in the bay and are increasing yearly. In that part of the bay adjacent to Santa Cruz and Capitola they are more numerous than at Monterey. There are some small fresh-water streams near Santa Cruz which may attract them. It is reported that a good many 7 to 9 pound fish are taken in that section, while the average for the bay is only 5 pounds. In the vicinity of Sacramento, shad are taken mostly in April and May, although some are caught in June and a few throughout the summer and fall months. The heaviest run is in May, which is the * Bull. U.S. F. C. 1895, pp. 379-472. CXLIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. spawning time; after that the fish are of poor quality. The largest shad taken in this vicinity weighed 8 pounds, and 5 to 7 pound fish are not rare. The fish-dealers of Sacramento obtain all the shad they can handle from salmon fishermen, in whose nets the shad are snagged by being caught by their maxillary bone, the mesh of the nets being too large for the shad to gill. Shad now ascend the Sacramento as far as Chico, about 120 miles above Sacramento. They were caught there in large numbers in dip nets in June, 1896, and it is probable that they have pushed their way for a considerable distance beyond Chico. In the Columbia River the shad is extremely abundant, and was per- haps more numerous in 1896 than in any previous year. Its move- ments in this river conform with those on the Atlantic coast; that is, there is a definite run into the river for spawning purposes. The fish are in greatest numbers in May and the first half of June. In the region of the Cascades but few are caught in July, and none in August. Here, in the season of 1896, the fish was more abundant and larger than ever before. Shad are taken in salmon wheels in the vicinity of the Cascades. In May, 1896, 200 were caught in one wheel in a single day. The largest ever seen here weighed 7 or 8 pounds, the usual weight being from 4 to 6 pounds. Near the mouth of the river shad are taken in salmon traps from early spring to the end of the fishing season, probably more being caught in June than in any other month. Examples weighing as much as 7 pounds are not infrequently taken, although the average in trap nets is only about 4 pounds. Usually only 3 or 4 are taken at each lift of the net, but sometimes 30 or more are obtained. A great many shad too small to mesh are seen in the traps. In May, 1896, 7 of the largest brought in by the Ilwaco trap fishermen on one day ranged in weight from 74 to11 pounds. The 11-pound shad was the largest ever observed on the Columbia of which any record may be had. In a salmon seine at Wallace Island, Columbia River, in May, 1896, from one to two thousand shad were sometimes caught daily in six or eight hauls, and in another seine operated 15 miles below Mapledell, Oreg., 15,637 pounds were caught and marketed in the same month. In 1895, between April 25 and July 13,a salmon seine at Quinn, Oreg., took 25,791 pounds of shad, that were shipped to Portland, and in the following year, between April 13 and June 17, the same seine took 22,792 pounds. The monthly catch was as follows: Months. 1805. | 1896. Apr os Ledakn eee ca, one -Rint cata see eee pk gosh tie rec esc 1, 304 2, 639 Misiy oo pects elcae MII Ee Geen «op SEN Ota Alc ceed cs 14,070 | 15,335 PUNE ie bc ce ee sae ilies cielo sieie ale «(siete cietlsleiac =\a)2'=wlaial=l-\cvk\sia= © \6 n[s [oie elafei=iainie eiEale 9, 307 4, 818 DULY. 22. eee ee eee eee reece ecw rece erences reece cnc rwnceee cn etscen cates snersnscnncns 1; 1100) Seeeeeener PE GBA ca. = oc cka en ce oe Sines ne dierent eee | 25,791 | 22, 792 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. CXLV Shad are numerous in most of the rivers and bays on the coast of Washington. Many have been taken in Chehalis River, in tributaries of Willapa Bay, and in Grays Harbor. Mr. A. B. Alexander reports that shad have made their appearance in considerable numbers in the vicinity of Point Roberts. At almost every lift of the salmon traps during the summer of 1896 from 30 to 40 shad were taken. One trap lifted in Mr. Alexander’s presence in July contained 55; their aver- age size was about 34 pounds, but several weighed fully 5 pounds apiece. There is little or no demand for them, and those caught are returned to the water. At the present rate of increase it will be only a short time when the waters of Puget Sound will teem with this fish. In July, 1887, Capt. D. Markham, of Ilwaco, Wash., while experi- menting with salmon traps just below the mouth of the Stikine River, Alaska, caught a dozen shad. Commercial value of shad.—The prices received for shad by the Cali- fornia fishermen in 1895 and 1896 rarely reached 5 cents a pound, and were usually much lower. In April, 1896, many hundred pounds con- signed to the San Francisco market brought only ;$; cent or 1 cent a pound, and even these prices were maintained only by restricting the catch. In Monterey Bay about 75 per cent of the catch goes to San Francisco. The fish sold locally bring the fishermen 3 to 6 cents a pound, but sometimes the prices fall very low, and a box of 100 or 125 pounds of shad will often yield only $1. At Sacramento there is little sale for shad. They bring the fishermen only 2 to 24 cents a pound at the height of the season, and retail for 4 or 5 cents a pound. The quantity of shad handled by the San Francisco dealers in 1894 was much less than in 1893. The receipts in 1895 were but little more than half those in 1894, but 1896 showed a large gain over both 1894 and 1895. Mr. John P. Babcock, the chief deputy of the California Fish Commission, thinks that the decline noted between 1893 and 1895 was more apparent than real, owing to the fact that in recent years the practice has been growing among dealers of buying directly from the fishermen at the city wharves, of which receipts no full account is kept. The following statement, taken from the books of the San Francisco dealers who purchased directly from the fishermen, shows by months the quantities of shad handled in 1893, 1894, 1895, and 1896: Months. 1893. 1894. 1895. | 1896. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. DANUALY saaanecccccnsccnvccsccnecceneneseeccecsense teessence 6, 588 41, 266 369 4, 600 LUGS E 8 fio cha gate nBSbe 50 SSCS EDOC OBC DAC OR ED SRS a aeee ee oeee 19, 185 11, 767 2, 106 6, 000 WIERD Soe hecncocoSbSe Bese CHOU IDCs O. COSC ER EU COCO Sap SC ECeuare 19, 546 17, 747 14, 257 14, 353 PAC eeins Seer en care mein aati a ieeineine ainiainrs wine saiawce see 32, 389 39, 115 23, 960 65, 625 BY gan nee eimiciale a oe me siee las was eiieieima(siniveisiew's oe .c cela ani 80, 557 57, 823 36, 729 95, 392 JIMIG) soa. SaceeSSco SS SS BOER SbOtS CORSA SSCS SOpASSntoobescesespse 36, 184 22, 027 25, 787 38, 620 UND Ky dQSbaGe 22 So Dae RES REC SE MOOT EG ECUS COCO c SUED Eee seca oe 3, 319 7, 941 3, 213 18, 151 JATIRAU Cig oogn seco nade So ppeonspe Poe eee eee 2, 796 2, 029 805 3, 527 ODUM DOL eos cemcceuic cmaccenislnceesbessccclececweme's ccc om ce 698 475 3, 317 9, 264 OTM Sci SRe CSS E DCU EE OMOCEIEL OA COB OC DOLD OF SOS BOSE Dene ao 53, 652 24, 229 5, 788 5, 383 PERETTI care ere Cie see ae eee none soacenieaenes 96, 340 38, 110 23, 534 24, 926 LG GEIR UST ae Sin eed nc cUSSiICODEOC UDC UCHCC HDC UU ONO OROSOLpOe® 77, 882 8, 278 6, 5384 20, 404 Fa bal vats cicero saat salsa sedans aoc icdetncs hota seciates sisi 429,136 | 270, 807 146, 399 306, 245 F B72 x CXLVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. In the Columbia River shad will bring the fishermen 8 or 4 cents a pound early in the season, but in the middle of the season the price drops to 1 cent, and even at that price the demand is limited. The absence of a good market necessitates the throwing away of far the larger part of the catch. The fishermen save a few for home consump- tion and for the use of their neighbors. The shad is regarded as a good fish and is much liked, but it can not compete with salmon as a marketable species. A few shad have been canned on the Columbia River for experi- mental purposes and home consumption. Mr. M. J. Kinney, of Asto- ria, in 1895 canned shad for winter use on his own table. He states that they were very good, but of course lacked the color and oil which add to the value of the canned salmon. REPORT ON THE WORK OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. [Abstract. } By LizuT. COMMANDER J. F. Moser, U. 8. N. During the first part of the fiscal year, until December 15, the Albatross was employed in fur-seal investigations, under direction of the Treasury Department. After an extensive cruise in the North Pacific Ocean, Bering Sea, visiting the different seal islands, she returned via Japan and Honolulu. The vessel was relieved from duty under the Treasury Department December 15, and the latter part of the year was engaged in fishery investigations off the coast of southern and central California until May, when preparations were made for an examination of the streams of southeast Alaska, to determine their fishery resources. During the year there were 155 days spent at sea underway and in open anchorages, and 13,925 miles were steamed by log. The want of reliable charts for navigation on the Asiatic coast was felt, and, incident- ally to the regular work of the vessel, many hydrographic omissions and errors were noted and corrected. Attention is called, in the report of the vessel work, to the many doubtful islands, reefs, and shoals on or near the regular tracks of vessels between Yokohama, Honolulu, and San Francisco. Hydrographic notes and observations, particularly of the Robben and Kuril islands, were compiled which, accompanied by photographs and sketches, have been transmitted to the office of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The itinerary of the vessel was as follows: Dutch Harbor, Unalaska...............-- July 2-6 | Honolulu Harbor, Oahu Island, Hawaii, Nov. 7-30 ExIDHOL ASIANAS coos c cones ceancnecanen= July 8-19 | Sausalito Harbor, California.........-- Dec. 11-30 Dutch Harbor, Unalaska...-...-.------ July 20-23 | San Diego Bay, California -.......-- Jan. 1-Apr.5 Commander Islands-.-.-.-...-..----- July 30-Aug. 9 | Santa Catalina Island, California.--...... Apr. 6-10 Petropaulski Harbor, Kamchatka-..-. Aug. 11-19 | Monterey Bay, California...........-.- Apr. 11-24 EO YAUTSIBOS, pe ease teas oxime edna Aug. 22-26 | Sausalito Anchorage .........-.--- Apr. 25-May 8 Robben Island, Okhotsk Sea .-..-.. Aug. 28-Sept.1 | Ports on Puget Sound, Washington.-...May 14-30 Shana Anchorage, Kuril Islands-...---.. Sept.4-6 | Ports and anchorages in British Colum- Hakodate Harbor, Yezo Island, Japan, Sept. 10-19 bia aud southeast Alaska...........-- June 1-30 Yokohama Harbor, Japan.......- Sept. 22-Oct. 22 The commission appointed by the President in June, 1896, to investi- gate the condition of the fur-seal herds of the Pribilof, Commander, and Kuril islands consisted of Dr. David Starr Jordan, of Leland Stan- ford. Junior University; Mr. Leonhard Stejneger and Mr. F. A. Lucas, of the United States National Museum; Lieut. Commander Jeff. F. Moser, U.S. N., commander of the steamer Albatross; Mr. C. H. Town- CXLVIL OXLVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. send, naturalist; Col. Joseph Murray, special agent of the Treasury, and Mr. G. A.Clark, secretary. The report covering their work will be made by that commission. All the commissioners visited the Pribilof Islands, and Dr. Stejneger and Lieut. Commander Moser were instructed to visit the Asiatic side, the former being detailed to make the report. Submitted herewith are extracts and tables from the report of Lieut. Commander Moser covering the subsequent work of the vessel: PACIFIC COAST FISHERIES. In summing up the work of this vessel for the six months ending June 30, 1897, that part relating to the salmon and halibut fisheries of Alaska, which commenced June 6, forming part of the work for the summer and fall, will not be referred to, but left for the full report for the six monthsending December 31,1897. The fisheries in the vicinity of Santa Catalina Island and the salmon trials with deep-sea gill nets will here be chiefly considered. Under instructions of March 24, the Albatross was directed to examine the shelf surrounding the island of Santa Catalina with reference to its fishing resources. This island lies 18 miles south of Point Fermin (San Pedro) and is separated from the mainland by the San Pedro Channel. Its extreme length is 184 miles in a general east-and-west direction, extreme breadth 7 miles, average width 4 miles, and length of shore line about 45 miles. It is mountainous, with precipitous slopes, the highest peak reaching an altitude of 2,109 feet. About 6 milesfrom the extreme western end a break occurs in the mountain system con- necting the two parts by a very narrow isthmus about one-half mile long, which gives it the appearance of two islands when approaching from the northward. There are several coves in which large vessels may find a lee, but no harbors for an all-around protection. The pre- cipitous character of the shore line is sufficient indication that the shore shelf is narrow. The 50-fathom curve is nowhere more than 24 miles from shore, and generally within a mile, while the greatest dis- tance of the 100-fathom curve, so far as the hydrography has been developed, is less than 4 miles. The character of the bottom generally is mud, with areas of mud and sand, or mud and shells, or all combined. At afew points outside of the immediate shore line and off the eastern and ee eae parts of the island small areas of rocky bottom are found. The visit of the Albatross during the first part of April was at a period when the migratory fishes had not yet appeared, or at least the advance guard of a few species had only commenced to run. I can therefore only speak of what might be termed the winter or early spring fishing. From the morning of our arrival at Isthmus Cove, April 6, to the morning of departure, April 10, the drag seines, gill nets, trawl lines, hand lines, and beam trawl were constantly used whenever prac- ticable, in depths varying between a few fathoms to 130 fathoms. The principal stations were made at Isthmus Cove and vicinity, in Catalina REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. CXQLIX Harbor—in the vicinity of Dakin Cove (Avalon) to 86 fathoms, off the southeast end to 50 fathoms, and off the south end to 132 fathoms. The results are appended in detail by stations. The largest catches were made with the drag seine, large numbers of smelt and small herring being taken; with other gear the results were disappointing. At Avalon, one morning, some 25 or 30 wall-eyed mackerel (Scomber colias) and about a dozen rockfish (Sebastodes) were taken with the triple mesh gill-net; a few yellow-tails had also recently been taken. Hand-line fishing off the eastern end of the island did not meet with much success, but south of the island, off what is known locally as Silver Canon, where the chart has character of bottom marked “rocky,” we took by liand lines, in depths ranging from 90 to 132 fathoms, a large number of rockfish (Sebastodes), the largest weighing 8 pounds. The fishing here is entirely in spots: As the vessel drifted over a favorable locality, probably a small, exposed rock area, as many as five rockfish would be taken on one line. A few minutes afterwards the place would be passed, and then a long wait until we drifted over another spot. All the places were visited that are known locally as good fishing-grounds around the island, but so far as could be ascer- tained there are no large fishing-banks on the shore shelf of this island. On the south and southeast sides are a few small, rocky patches in deep water, 80 to 130 fathoms, where if ope knows the exact ranges—a ship’s length makes a difference—a person desiring to handle 100 or more fathoms of line can obtain several varieties of fish in large numbers. The visitor to the winter resort at Avalon can go to these spots and get a ‘‘ good day’s fishing,” and the small village at that point can also be supplied, but the grounds could not be relied upon for large markets. Migratory fishes come to these shores during the spring and summer in large numbers for spawning, and the summer visitor finds many different species in abundance. During our visit, smelt, small herring, and anchovies were plentiful, the seine bringing in large numbers; and the local authorities stated that a little later all the fishes so well known in these waters would be abundant, such as mackerel (Scomber colias), yellow-tail (Seriola dorsalis), bonito (Sarda chilensis), albacore (Germo alalunga), barracuda (Sphyrena argentea), ete. The fisheries around Santa Catalina Island are not vigorously pros- ecuted; there are a few fishermen at Avalon who supply the local demands, and a few more at Isthmus Cove who ship occasionally to San Pedro. These latter were engaged in setting pots for the spiny lobster during our visit, and making some preparations for summer fishing. The demand for fresh fish by neighboring cities on the mainland is easily met by local fishermen, and as the demands become greater this island may supply a larger amount during the summer season. When the sardine cannery at San Pedro is running, large hauls are made on this side of the channel, and no doubt fish of different species can be taken here in sufficient numbers for canning or salting, but the supply near the large cities is ample to meet their wants. CL REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The fishing methods in this vicinity have been fully described in pre- vious publications of the Fish Commission, and therefore need not be referred to again. The Albatross arrived at Santa Cruz, Monterey Bay, at midnight of April 11, and commenced a series of investigations off Monterey Bay and the Golden Gate with a view of determining the grounds resorted to by salmon while at sea, and all the attending conditions. The stations were selected with special reference to the character of the bottom, and as net setting in such great depths was experimental, the work was commenced under 100 fathoms depth. Seven stations were made, and while the catch at each station, together with the beam-trawl hauls, is appended in detail, it may not be uninteresting to add a few remarks relating to our trials. The stations were first selected on the chart, but before setting the nets the depth was ascertained by sounding, and, if satisfactory, one or more hauls of the beam trawl were made to test the bottom life. The first station was selected near the 100-fathom curve on the south side of the submarine gorge which penetrates the central portion of Monterey Bay, in latitude 36° 45’ 30” N., longitude 121° 53’ 30” W., at the sounding marked 127 fathoms, fine, dark sand. The lead at this point indicated soft mud. The vessel was then moved over short distances, but each sounding indicated muddy bottom. Trials with the beam trawl showed that proper bottom had been found, and two cod gill-nets were set in 68 fathoms, latitude 36° 45’ 15” N., longitude 121° 53’ W., C. S. chart No. 5500. On account of a dense fog these nets were not hauled for three days, when the catch was found to be a few rockfish and dogfish. The nets were badly torn by sharks. In all our search for proper bottom conditions, the indications of mud as shown by the lead were not conclusive, for at all such stations in this vicinity and to the northward the beam trawl gave evidence of rocky bottom, either by bringing up pieces of rock or marine forms only found on rocky bottom, besides the net being torn by dragging over rocks. The shore shelf, say to 500 fathoms, appears to be bowlderous or stony, generally covered or partly covered with or imbedded in mud. Station No. 2 was in 39 fathoms, latitude 36° 39/ 30” N., longitude 121° 53/ W., near sounding 38 fathoms, hard gray sand. Two surface salmon nets were set at this station and remained 18 hours without result. Ata third station, in 5 fathoms, gray sand and rock, inside of Point Pinos and parallel to the beach of Pacific Grove, where 2 salmon nets were down 12 hours, only a couple of rock bass were taken. Station No. 4 was in 278 fathoms, mud and sand bottom, in latitude 36° 47’ N., longitude 122° 10’ W. The beam trawl indicated very pro- lific life, bringing up several bushels of sea-urchins, large numbers of flounders, slime-eels, spider-crabs, starfishes, and other forms. There were many humpback whales seen in the vicinity. These nets fished 16 hours, and when hauled brought in a number of black-cod and afew dogfish, rockfish, and spider-crabs; nets very badly torn by sharks. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. CLI Station No. 5 was in 581 fathoms, mud and sand, in latitude 36° 43/ N., longitude 122° 12’ W. The beam trawl at this position brought up about a dozen large macrura, the same number of rockfish and small flounders, spider-crabs, and many other forms. Easter Sunday inter- vened, and as a long search had to be made to recover the station the nets were in position 48 hours, and when hauled contained a number of macrura and black-cod; nets badly torn, presumably by sharks. This station is probably the deepest gill-net station that has ever been made, and it is doubtful if macrura have ever before been gilled. Station No. 6 was made in 56 fathoms, sand and mud, in latitude 37° 00/ 30” N., longitude 122° 20'30’ W. The beam trawl indicated live bottom, but the nets, after fishing 40 hours, were empty when hauled. The conditions at this time were very unsatisfactory; heavy wind and sea prevailed, so that the gear could hardly be handled, but the nets were well set, for they were clear when hauled. Station No. 7 was in 68 fathoms, in latitude 37° 37’ 30” N., longitude 123° 02’ W. The beam trawl indicated rocky bottom, the trawl net being badly cut. The gill nets fished 18 hours, and brought in large numbers of rockfish, several black-cod, ratfish, dogfish, skates, ete. These stations were all made between April 13 and 24. En route to Alaska gill nets were set 4 miles SW. from the Tatoosh Island light (entrance to Straits of Fuca) in 77 fathoms, live bottom, as indicated by the beam trawl, and were fished for about 20 hours; they brought in 1 black-cod, 1 flounder, numerous dogfish, and (rolled up in a few fragments of what had been a net) a ground shark 103 feet long. It was intended to continue this work a few days off Cape Flattery, but the weather was so unfavorable that all further trials were aban- doned, and the vessel entered the sound to complete her preparations for work in Alaska. Deep-sea gill nets, I think, can be used to 1,000 fathoms if the proper gear and proper weather conditions are obtained. The nets furnished the Albatross were not specially rigged and consisted of three salmon gill nets and three cod gill nets, all 30 yards long of 16-6 flax, and hung to 6-thread tarred manila. The salmon nets were: One 53 meshes, 6-inch; 45 meshes, 7-inch; and 40 meshes 8-inch; floats, 1 fathom apart. The cod nets were 1 each: 24 meshes, 6-inch; 21 meshes, 7-inch; 18 meshes, 8-inch; floats, 2 fathoms apart. The floats used were glass, and alter- nate ones on the salmon nets removed. The lower corner of the nets were anchored with 10-pound Chester folding anchors. The buoy line was 6 and 9 thread stuff and usually from a third to a half the depth of water was added to stray line. The hauling was done from boats by a small hand winch. This could have been done from the vessel by steam winch, but there was danger of carrying away the light gear, not only by the heavy strain of the winch, but by the jump of the vessel in a seaway. For hauling by steam specially heavy gear will be necessary. The buoys were ordinary trawl-line buoys, the number increasing with the depth of the set. At 581 fathoms four buoys were used on CLI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. each line, and the line further relieved by a glass float at each 100 fathoms. The glass floats are excellent if properly made; those sup- plied seemed to be thin and not well sealed—about half becoming “drunken” under the pressure, and therefore useless. The positions were obtained by sextant angles on shore objects and compass bearings, yet in several instances some difficulty was experi- enced in recovering the buoys. Large buoys can not be used without increasing the gear very much in weight, and it is probable if the size were very much increased the jump of the buoy in a seaway would move the moorings. A very small metal nun-bucy painted red and white, fitted with a socket for the staff of a small white flag, would be most suitable. It is true that a vessel could lie near the nets, but some method would have to be adopted to light the buoys for night work. This course would, however, be frequently defeated by the weather. The weather on the Pacific Coast is not favorable for these investi- gations. The prevailing northwest winds, while not blowing a steady gale, at times approach it and send in a sea too heavy for work of this nature. When the winds slacken the fogsrelieve them. Moderate and smooth seas are necessary to work the nets and use the beam trawl successfully, and clear weather to locate the positions. The greatest enemies to the nets were found to be sharks, for which the gilled fish no doubt formed a tempting bait. A bite of the net was usually taken with the fish. In some instances the nets came up almost in ribbons, and one set was always under repairs. From 15 to 20 nets are needed in these investigations. When detained at an anchorage on - account of unfavorable conditions outside, the drag seine was used, surface gill nets and hook trawls set, and boats employed in trolling and hand-line fishing. Many fish taken by hook trawl and gill nets were found completely hollowed out, nothing remaining but the head, vertebra, and skin, This is the work of the slime eel, which, introducing itself inside the fish, sucks out the fleshy portion. A few specimens taken in the beam trawl have been preserved. The fishermen of Santa Cruz and Monterey state that they took salmon in the bay every month during the winter of 1896-97; that the salmon follow the bait, anchovies, and sardines, and can be taken when the bait is inshore; that no salmon are taken in gill nets, but that during the summer when the run is large they take several tons a day, and all by trolling. During our visit no salmon were taken. Referring to the investigations by deep-sea gill nets it will be seen that at every station occupied there was good live bottom, and at every set, except No. 6, fish were taken, showing that the nets were doing their work; but in no instance were any anadromous fishes captured. Judging from the forms of the bottom fish taken in the nets, the hauls of the beam trawl, the general nature of the bottom, and considering the subject of structure and pressure, it is my opinion that anadromous fishes will not be found in ocean depths. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. CLITI TABLES. 1.—ecord of ¢ ocean temperatures and specific gravities (sur face). : 1 Temp. of : Temper- A Jat aba By Temper. |8Pecimen 4 Specific Date. | Time of day. attached| ature | ®t time | Specific | gravity re- thermom-| of air. agen gravity. eps Lat. N. | Long. W. : at. N ong eter. patel fe} / iad fo} / ul fo} fo} fe} 53 45 00 156 40 00 47 47 59 1. 0250 1. 024060 u 53 47 00 158 09 00 46 48 59 1. 0252 1. 024260 1 53 40 00 159 22 00 46 49 59 1. 0250 1. 024060 1 53 37 00 160 41 00 46 47 59 1. 0250 1. 024060 2 53 35 00 162 12 00 46 47 59 1, 0250 1. 024060 2 53 30 00 164 07 00 45 43 59 1, 0246 1, 023660 2 53 46 00 165 28 00 44 43 59 1. 0246 1, 023660 3 Dutch Harbor ...----. 46 41 59 1. 0234 1. 022460 jl Pa Se a 56 26 30; 169 34 00 40 43 59 1. 0246 1. 023660 ee Ls TS ele io mi cim'e 54 24 15 169 08 30 45 46 64 1. 0244 1. 024128 24 Gimeme ss. s-1- 54 31 00 170 08 00 44 45 64 1. 0244 1, 024128 Bay Le pe Mess. = 54 40 00 | 171 30 00 45 44 $4 1. 0246 1, 024328 20))|) Gasmoss..- =. 54 45 00 172 48 00 45 45 64 1. 0246 1. 024328 727) |) WSs See teoos 54 46 20 174 17 00 45 47 64 1. 0244 1. 024128 zoule 6 pam: sae =~ 54 58 00) 175 24 00 45 46 64 1. 0244 1. 024128 Pay ve ilepr pit A eames 54 59 00 176 38 00 | 46 48 64 1, 0242 1. 023928 CA fal Me Pap Tee eee 55 03 35 179 07 18 | 47 48 64 1. 0242 1. 023928 Kast. 27 Gipnamnee as == 55 05 00 179 55 00 46 49 64 1. 0242 1. 023928 a elit Ps Wears == = 55 07 00 178 53 00 46 46 64 1. 0244 1. 024128 28 Gkanme soe. 55 07 00 177 30 00 46 48 64 1. 0244 1. 024128 OM ODN eae cia ts 55 05 00 176 09 00 46 48 64 1. 0244 1. 024128 28 Opies ae set, 55 05 00 175 28 00 46 48 64 1. 0244 1. 024128 ZONA Psa cas oct 55 03 00 175 15 00 46 47 64 1. 0244 1. 024128 29 Games esses. 55 03 00 174 08 00 45 46 64 1. 0246 1. 024328 BON ie, We va odo <8 55 02 20) 173 15 00 46 48 64 1, 0246 1. 024328 2A |) uth seeeeee 54 58 00 172 21 00 46 48 64 1, 0246 1. 024328 2OWelA ps Me a=) = 26 54 55 00 | 171 12 00 46 47 64 1. 0246 1, 024528 SOU) Ga: meres... 54 51 00 170 08 00 46 46 64 1. 0246 1. 024328 SLOSS Pome. 2... Bering Island -..-...--. 51 47 64 1, 0244 1. 024128 PATI ei ELON ets <= Copper. island SS CHD See 47 46 64 1. 0246 1. 024328 Sel 2em sss 25 55 165 44 45 48 49 64 1. 0246 1, 024328 OM elo cme Ses occ. 54 re 30 162 55 00 51 58 64 1. 0244 1. 024128 LOW) 2p. mas ss = 5) 53 45 00 161 15 00 51 55 64 1, 0236 1. 023328 eC ames. se 53 17 00 160 35 00 50 53 64 1, 0236 1. 023328 8 Ae Pas ee 52 59 00 159 54 50 52 58 64 1, 0224 1. 022128 AGH SL2 messes. c.. Petropaulski ......... 50 55 64 1, 0184 1. 018128 LOWS apes 25-22 Aratcha Bay .-.-.-.---. 48 60 64 1. 0208 1. 020528 HOM el2psmM= 5.2 <== 52 04 00 | 158 49 00 49 54 64 1, 0240 1. 023728 2008 Gasm-5 22... 51 36 00 158 30 00 46 50 64 1, 0240 1. 023728 PANE Pa Wea ee eee 51 15 30 157 53 30 51 54 64 1. 0236 1. 023328 20) 6 Pes 2 --,- 50 49 00 157 22 00 52 55 64 1, 0238 1, 028528 Opel Ar Divedibe SA a ciate 50 23 00 | 156 53 00 48 48 67 1. 0240 1.024167 Pai OES es aes 49 48 00 156 13 30 49 50 67 1. 0238 1. 023967 PAN UO Ne eco. Nn 49 30 00 | 155 21 00 45 48 67 1. 0240 1. 024167 21 Gi psmlss- 6 ses 49 12 00 154 56 00 42 45 67 1, 0242 1. 024367 Pla eLAT path eso: 48 43 00 154 36 00 40 44 67 1, 0242 1. 024867 oils Game.) ss22 48 39 00 154 20 00 38 41 67 1, 0242 1. 024367 7p UPA eee ee 48 34 11 153 52 00 42 44 67 1. 0242 1. 024367 220s Gi pamyes soe 48 29 00 | 153 37 00 38 48 67 1, 0242 1. 024367 APA WAAR OBS aE ae cs 48 22 00 153 20 00 43 45 67 1. 0240 1. 024167 200i) sup: TW 4s s ie Sets marked x made at surface; remainder on bottom. Results of gill-net trials. April 7.—1 anchovy. ach empty. 1 large floundér; 2 dogfish; 6 crabs; April §.—Barren. No. 1.—One net badly torn. 8 rockfish (S. paucispinis), 3 badly eaten by sea lice—skin only remaining; average length of 5 not destroyed, 264 inches; average weight, 8 lbs.; 4 females, all with empty stomachs; 1 male with fish bones. 1 rockfish (S. melanops), 20 inches long, also badly eaten. 1 cultus-cod (badly eaten), 38 inches long. 3 ground sharks (2 badly eaten), 1 with beaks of large octopus in stomach. 3 dogfish. No. 2.—Barren. No. 3.—2 rock-bass. No.4.—One cod and one salmon net badly torn; 7 black-cod; 3 males and 4 females; average length, 28inches; average weight, 83 pounds; 3 stomachs empty; others with fish bones, young shrimps, and medusa. 3 red rockfish; bodies of 2 badly eaten; the other, 19 inches, 3 pounds; male, stom- branch of cherry tree with anemone attached (pre- served section with anemone). No.5.—Cod net badly torn; 3 black-cod, all females; average length, 302 inches; average weight, 114 pounds; 2 stomachs empty; 1 with small piece fish bone; ova partially developed; 9 Macruri; 8 males, 1 female; average length, 244 inches; average weight, 23} pounds. No. 6.—Barren. Set from ship. No. 7.—1 rockfish (5. entomelas); female; 18 in- ches; 3 pounds; stomachempty. 8rocktish(S. pau- cispinis) ; 1 badly eaten by sea lice and slime eels; eel found in skin; of other 7, 3 were females and 4 males; average length, 27 inches; average weight, 64 pounds; stomachs all empty; 2 black-cod; 1 chimera; 1 barndoor skate; 5 small dogtish. No. 8.—Nets badly torn; 1 ground shark 103 feet long; several dogfish; 1 flounder; 1 black-cod, 5.—Record of dip-net trials with electric light. Position. Santa Oatalina Island, Cal. Temperature. Length of trial. |State ofsea.) 4 ;,. San D.B. | surface. ONO eaten eee Smooth -.- 60 56 al eee 102s osce ens | oes 200 fe 70 58 B} SHOUTS cme <= 3 Smooth . 59 54 iii eer ae Sagse Paohtes ea: 55 49 ociedeescc OO ea odecscndnascinose ani Monterey Bay and vicinity, Oal. Apr. 12 | 7.30 p.m.-| Anchorage, Santa Cruz -.--.- 23 | 8p.m..... Anchorage, Halfmoon Bay-... Result of dip-net trials with electric light at surface. April 6.—Quantity of minute crustacea, me- dusz, and marine refuse. One worm. April 9.—Severalannelids. Quantity of minute crustacea and marine refuse. April 12,—1 small fish. April 23._Many young fishes, thought to be anchovies and sand launces; 4 very tiny fishes; 3 young Sbraaps; many minute crustacea; large crustacean like a centipede; several minute worms. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. CLIX 6.—Record of trawl-line stations of the U. S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross. Sr Tempera- Position. Fare Date. Time. Lat. N. | Long. W. | Air. | SU" Santa Catalina Is- land, Cal. 1897. Apr. 6 | 10a.m..} Isthmus Cove ....| 60] 56 6 | 1 p.m...| Catalina Harbor..| 62 | 57 7 | 10.30a.m| East Point ent. | 63 | 57 Dakins Cove. 7|4p.m...| SE. end SantaCa- | 66] 59 talina Island. 8 | 9.30a.m-|.--.- Gti aor eeeacuce 66 | 58 8 | 3.30p.m.|..... Gil pond eeeeco ce || oe) ke 9|5p.m...| Bird Rock, Isth- | 80] 59 mus Cove. Monterey Bay and vicinity. Apr.12} 5p.m...| 2’ south, Santa | 64] 55 Cruz Light. 17 | 5.30p.m-.} Off Point Almiza. | 59) 55 Wind. Trawls set. Character : Depth.|o¢ bottom. oi Direction| 5 | 5 | >| Kind. & |HIA Fms. 8-12'| S: Sh. R. | NE ..... 1-2 | 20 | 1 | Cod. 10) |S Sz shelve te -cdOr. 4) Ob | 17 | 1 Do. 10-15 | S.Sh.R. | Calm. 0| 8 | 1/| Haddock 15-20 | gy.S.R. | Variable} 0-1 | 17 | 1 Do. 15-20 | gy.S.R. | Calm ...| 0} 6/1 Do. 15-20 | gy. S.R. | Variable} 0-1 | 15 | 1 Do. 35-40 | S.Sh.R. | SSW ... 1 \palks {a Do. 8-25| S.rky. | SW.....|23]13/1 | Do. 8| S.Sh.R. | WSW 2 14) 2 Do. Results of trawl-line trials. April6, 10 a.m.—1 large stingray ; 2 tiger sharks; 3 rocktish. April 6, 1p.m.—Barren. Hooks fouled in kelp. April 7, 10.30 a.m.—2 ground sharks; 2 dogfish; 7 chimera; 14 red rockfish of several species; 2 small sheep or fat-heads. April 7,4p.m.—8 dogfish; 1sculpin. (Fish badly eaten by sea lice; small vial of them preserved.) April 8, 9.30 a,m.—Barren. April 8, 3.30 p. m.—2 dogfish; 3 red rockfish (badly eaten). April 9, 5 p.m.—8 sharks; 6 dogfish; 1 chimera; 2 yellow-tails (badly eaten); 1 sculpin; 8 rock- fish; piece branchy vegetable coral. April 12.Gear lost. Ground line chafed off. April 17.—1 rockfish; 3 large, soft starfish, with many arms; 4 small, hard starfish, short arms. 7:—Record of seine hauls. Temperature.: F sue No. of Character of Date. Time. Position. haals. beach: Air ee | D.B. | face 1897 Santa Catalina Island, Oal. Apr. 6 | 9.30-11.30a.m-.| Isthmus Cove.........-..-.--- Bl init basssacnccceas 61 57 6 | 2-4 p.m....... Catalina Harbor.........-.... 3 | Sand and shingle 61 57 7 | 10-11.30 a.m ..| 1’SE. Avalon, Dakins Cove .. 4 | Shingle........... 64 58 8 | 3.30-5.30 p.m-.-| 3/ SE. Avalon, Dakins Cove ..| Several. |.-.... IO) sooccnan soe 71 60 Monterey Bay and vicinity, Cal. Apr. 12 | 2-3 p.m....... Beach near steamship wharf, OO SG cee gasocaane 64 56 Santa Cruz Harbor. 15 | 8-10 a.m...... PomtrAlme)| Merce see se ene = <= Pyle oae Gy Goacecaceso5 56 56 Neah Bay, Washington. May 14 | 2.30-5 p.m~....| Beach between Indian Agen- Wi leeoce (i Mignadesacéoas 55 49 ey and Indian Village. Results of seine hauls. April 6, both stations.—Many smelt; 6 small kelp fish; 2 small flounders; 2 whitefish; small fry like smelt; many small crabs; several shells; quantity sea lice; 1 shrimp (from Isthmus Cove). April 7.—Many herring; few smelt. April 8.—3 barrels of herring; many smelt. (Salted down 4 tubs of herring for bait.) April 12.4 flounders of two species; several flounder fry; many anchovy fry; many young smelt; 1 young striped bass; 6 young cultus-cod ; 1 pipefish; several sticklebacks; several sar- dines; 2 small fish like billfish; many perch (feed- ing on small fry); 1 large and 8 small crabs; few shrimps; few shells of four species; 1 small star- fish; several sand crabs; 2 small crustacea. April 15.—100 smelt; 1 small striped bass; 1 small crab. May 14.—Many large black flounders. The 8 largest averaged 134 inches and 1} pounds; all females, only one showing development of ova; 4 with empty stomachs, while other 4 contained fish bones and shrimps partly digested. Few small black flounders. Many starry flounders. The 4 largest averaged 13 inches and % pound; 3 females (ova developed), and 1 male; stomachs allempty. Many flounder fry. Many perch, the majority with young. Many sand launces, and several young. 3 small sculpins. Several young fishes, probably cultus-cod. Few shrimps; several small crabs. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 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CLXIX OBSERVATIONS ON THE MULLET AND OYSTERS OF HAWAII. The principal food of the native Hawaiians, like the Japanese, is fish, the waters around the islands containing many varieties, some in great numbers. The market in Honolulu is a large, substantial structure, paved, open on the sides, clean, and well kept. The sale of fish is under Government supervision, an inspector having charge of all fish delivered, which if not sold after they have been taken from the water a certain length of time are converted into fertilizer. The Chinese largely conduct this industry, not only in the open waters, but in the private ponds, and their methods are similar to those in their native country. A few natives also are employed in fishing. The mullet is the principal marketable fish, and those supplied are largely taken along the reefs; but another source of this species is from the ponds, and this affords the main supply during inclement weather. The fish-ponds are nearly as old as the peopling of the islands, for even the traditions give no time when they were first built; but it is supposed by the best authorities that they date back at least 500 or 600 years, and before the advent of civilization were the source of meat supply in addition to the sea fishes, as these islands when discovered contained no mammals. Fish and poi (fermented paste from the root of the taro) were the diet of the ancient Hawaiians, and are very dear to the modern natives, as fish and rice are to the Japanese. These fish- ponds were very numerous on all the islands, but through disuse and neglect many have become silted up and are now marshes, while the walls have been destroyed in others by the progress of civilization and the ravages of nature and are now dry land. Still quite a number are in excellent condition and are used for raising mullet from the small fry. There are about a dozen of these ponds in the vicinity of Hono-— lulu, ranging in size from 15 or 20 acres to 150 acres. The site selected for the pond usually is in shallow water, where the configuration of the land is such as to reduce as much as possible the length of the wall to be built, and in localities visited by the spawning mullet. The Loko Hanaloa, on the Pearl Lochs, covers at least 150 acres, but the wall necessary to inclose this area is less than one-fourth of amile in length. The walls are constructed of volcanic or coral rock and originally without gratings. Interstices in the wall formed by the loose rock allowed the tidal flow. Prior to the advent of the mission- aries, when the government of the island was in the hands of the native chiefs and subchiefs, every native was obliged to contribute his labor for several days, at certain definite periods, to his chief, and tradition states that in building the walls lines of men were formed from the sea to the hillsides and the rock passed from hand to hand. There is no artificial hatching of food-fishes on any of the Hawaiian Islands, nor has there ever been any, so far as could be learned, but the fry are driven or transported to these artificial ponds and there raised. When the mullet come into the shoaler waters to spawn, the young fry seek, instinctively, the protection of the shallowest water. In former CLXX REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. times the natives from their lookouts would discover the location of the schools of fry, and then in their canoes, or by wading, would drive the fry toward the pond walls, where they would escape through the inter- stices into the ponds. In this manner the ponds were stocked. It is probable that many again found their way to the sea, but a large part, no doubt, learned the protection the walls afforded against predatory fishes, and remained to grow up and fatten. At the present time the walls are filled up solid, but openings or gratings, protected by grated gates to prevent the entrance of the larger fishes, are left at intervals for the ingress and egress of the tide waters. In stocking the ponds the fry are caught in small nets of mosquito netting or other open woven fabric, placed in pails and tubs, and quickly transported to the ponds; some few are driven through the gratings with the entering tide. The mullet are the only fish intentionally introduced, but natur- ally by the methods employed a few other species enter, which generally are destructive to the young mullet, and are removed whenever it is possible to do so. Pond mullet are considered the finest, and when. sea mullet bring 10 cents a pound those from the ponds find ready purchasers at 13 cents. The pond mullet is the fish usually eaten raw by the natives; from 6,000 to 10,000 of them are marketed in Honolulu each week, besides those taken at sea. OYSTERS. That the oyster was a native of these waters and occurred in great numbers is evidenced by the numerous oyster-banks found in different localities now raised above the sea level and having an earthy covering. _ When visiting the fish-ponds on the Pearl Lochs, I examined the ancient oyster-banks on the eastern side of the middle loch, on the neck which joins Waipu with the mainland. The shore line here consists of a ver- tical bluff from 10 to 15 feet high, with a stratum of oyster shells 6 to 8 feet thick. This stratum is exposed on the loch face for at least half a mile, and it can be traced for a long distance across the peninsula. From specimens procured it seems that they closely resemble our own oyster of the Atlantic coast. These are not shell heaps, like those on our Southern coast and in other localities, but are entire, im situ, as both valves are usually in place and can be readily removed. They do not seem to occur in masses or clusters, but are large single oysters, in size resembling the better varieties of the marketable Chesapeake Bay oysters. It is possible that these oyster-banks were formed layer by layer, the upper ones smothering the lower, until through some natural cause the beds were covered with mud and afterwards lifted above the sea level. On this little peninsula, in two different places, I examined the remains of large numbers of the pearl oysters, which seem to have occurred in pockets among the other oysters. It is said that at present a few pearl oysters are found off Beckoning Point. Upon invitation of Hon. John F. Colburn I vistted his fish and oyster pond on Pearl Lochs. In reply to an inquiry requesting information REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. CLXXI relating to his efforts in oyster-culture in Hawaii, Mr. Colburn wrote as follows: In the month of October, 1893, I imported from Mr. M. B. Moraghan, of San Fran- cisco, three cases of oysters for the purpose of planting. Two of the cases contained about 1,000 eastern transplanted, and one case contained about 3,000 of the native California. They were brought down on the steamship Australia, in the ice-house, and arrived in apparently good order. I at once had them removed to my pond at Manana Ewa, and planted in a depth ranging from 1 foot to 2 feet of water. Some three months after I made a thorough search of different places where I had planted oysters, and found that the native California were all dead, and of the eastern transplanted about 50 per cent were still living, though considerably sunk into the soft mud at the bottom of the pond. I had these taken up and put down again, and some three months afterward I examined them again and found they had started to grow; the new shell forming was easily noticeable. I continued my practice of taking them up at different intervals of time until the early part of 1895, when I was so elated with the prospect of my success that I made arrangements with Mr. Moraghan to send me down more eastern transplanted, with two objects in view: (1) To have fresh eastern oysters to supply the oyster-eaters of our city, and (2) to have them answer for the purpose of seed for propagating. I imported 38,614 from San Francisco by the steamship Australia, having them come in five different trips of the vessel. About two-thirds were brought down on the open deck in boxes, and were wet down every morning when decks were being washed down. The balance came in the ice-house. With the former way my loss was more in number, but the latter way was the most expensive. On deck I could get the oysters landed for about $10 a ton measurement, but through the ice-house the charges were 5 cents a pound for freight. As fast as the oysters would arrive I would have them sent down to my pond and laid out. In a month or so afterwards they would get very thin and be unfit for the market. However, I allowed them to recuperate by getting acclimated to the conditions of my pond as well as to the food. In the latter part of 1895 I discovered young oysters clinging to stones and dead oyster shells. JI have watched them very carefully and at different intervals of this year I have found more young ones. Of course the young are not as many as I would like to see, stillI trust that in time I will be able to boast of a bed of Hawaiian oysters reared from the seed of the American eastern oyster. From those I have imported I am in a position to furnish to those desiring oysters a mess of them fresh from the water. The last lot have been now about eighteen months in my pond and are in fine and fat condition, having grown twice their original size. Fresh sea water empties into my fish-pond through gates and a large spring of fresh water also runs into it, thereby making the water a little brackish. It will be seen that oyster-culture in Hawaii is of very modern date and in an experimental stage. There is scarcely any doubt that the waters are suitable for oyster-culture; the ancient beds and the experi- ence of Mr. Colburn attest it, but further investigation is necessary to discover the proper conditions for a commercial enterprise. I went over the oyster-beds with Mr. Colburn and we took from the water both transplanted oysters and those that had been propagated in the pond. When taken from the water they have a brownish appear- ance, which upon inspection proves to be a mossy growth on the shell. They are large, well rounded, and when opened beautiful in appearance and of good flavor. They are planted in a fish-pond which is stocked with mullet. The bottom is soft, and I believe covered with grass, The gratings for tidal access are very small. v4 el i ; ‘ ies Pre Be (Or SHV B RTS PE ESE E 3° HS} Rag Ne wal ee "i ‘ , J re Att be Veet ey th f f fil Pie : 7 . vest f Bae ‘ é b ° — y cs * «ht > ‘ ¢ , ‘ y } os ? ‘ & 4 : Oe ae iedise te _- # Ae > Hct t : : A 7 4 , t x ‘ & moe j t 4 ‘ , Ca¥ ' ry re , Mf miu a settee nie ihit a ah fied stehaige et ee | LS i! Wd @ Book f vie Hitt ROME. tt aah } bi Le ec CR PALSIF, tt a iasce BM tee a: , Sfx h. (sil efer yh Helis nike fi Pai rik YOR erlieie HGH 1D ses : scf7v OLN 10s UR SR. CReLH aL DAR OR MAELG ok SRI wet . vin ite ined Pyli it 4 ett ts it wh 1 DATE bind gM ay namo ar egfalt (ie DAR a ier abate? (“COL ead - ij mis linn “ pies” iy 4 oo : ashes ae ‘ - ; - ae iL rm Py 7 7 ki ¢ ‘ 7 7 - wa Pe, OA] cemee?, oo As Beanare A MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE, BASED ON THE METHODS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES, PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF JOHN J. BRICHE, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page IniPOGMeHON Sees ees ose oeeloe cic s Mee eer ace cee eecemee 5-6 [Sher salmonsiot tne lacie (Coash-o_-6-cs ose. see eee eee 7-26 The Atlantic and Landlocked Salmons. ......-..---...----- 27-70 aire Ava OW aL LOULess eee eet cee tee eee one eee eee eee 71-89 ERie roo ke Lobes ssc. se oee Ce eee merrae eee eee eee 91-101 he sake miro wbsecs coe see seme See eee ee ee et Ae ee LOS teleg he aWihitetish e223 scl cae os Le eee ed: : a= ie SHAG scene eek sarees cea cine eta Dee rie ee eee ee eee al Somos The Black Basses, Crappies, and Rock Bass..-..-.-..-....-. 159-177 Miscellaneous Fresh-Water Fishes...........--....-.----.- 179-191 Minor routs "and! ihe Grayling, s sss eee) see ee eee 179 Lake Herring and other Whitefishes ---.-.---...-.-..... 180 Muskellnnge: 242. onctecee spice cede at ose ee Hence etees 181 Wellow Perch ut ee Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 11.) PLATE 4. Redfish. ONCORHYNCHUS NERKA. Blueback Salmon tee oF oF, <2; Ley, YESS MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. a1) rivers they are comparatively safe from enemies except otters, ospreys, and fishers, but immense numbers are destroyed at the mouths of the streams by seals and sea lions. The quinnat salmon has been successfully introduced into Australia, New Zealand, and France, and in the latter country it is now being reared successfully as landlocked salmon in fresh-water lakes. Efforts to acclimatize this species on the Atlantic coast of the United States have up to this time been unsuccessful. THE BLUEBACK SALMON. Considering the entire west coast, this species (Oncorhynchus nerka) is probably more numerous than all the other salmons combined. It is known in different regions under the names blueback, redfish, red salmon, Fraser River salmon, and sock-eye or saw-qui. It ranks next to the chinook in commercial value, being especially important in the Columbia and Fraser rivers and in Alaska. For canning purposes 1t is but little inferior to the chinook, the color of the flesh being a rich red, which persists after canning. Comparatively few red salmon are sold fresh in the United States. Large quantities are canned in British Columbia and in Alaska, particularly on Kadiak Island, and its com- mercial importance to that Territory is indicated by the fact that nearly half of the entire salmon pack of the world comes from Alaska and the majority of the fish canned are of this species. It is next to the smallest of the salmons, the maximum weight being about 15 pounds, but it rarely weighs over 8 pounds and the average weight is scarcely 5 pounds. In various lakes this fish weighs only half a pound when mature, and is called the little redfish. It ranges from Humboldt Bay, California, to the far north. In general it ascends only those rivers which rise in cold, snow-fed lakes. No more is known of its ocean life than of the quinnat. It appears in the Columbia River with the spring run of the quinnat salmon. In southern Alaska and also at Kadiak Island it comes in numbers in June; the heaviest run is during June and July, the spawning occur- ring in August and September. In the Idaho lakes, which may be considered typical spawning-grounds for this fish in the United States, the height of the spawning season is from August 25 to September 5, although ripe eggs have been found as early as August 2, and fish with eggs in them as late as September 11. In the numerous affluents of the Fraser River the spawning extends from September 15 to November 15, a few stragglers spawning as late as November 30. They scoop out small circular nests for their eggs in rather shallow water in the inlets of the lakes, where they deposit their spawn, the eggs averaging about 1,000 to 1,200 to the fish. Except during the breeding season the color of this fish is a clear bright blue above, with silvery sides and belly. At the spawning period the back becomes blood-red in color, the sides dark red, and the male develops an extravagantly hooked jaw. 12 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. THE HUMPBACK SALMON. The humpback salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) is the smallest of the Pacific salmons; its average weight is only 5 pounds, and it is rarely found weighing as much as 10 pounds. Its geographical range is from San Francisco probably as far north as the Mackenzie River, and it is also common on the Asiatic coast. It is the most abundant and generally distributed salmon in Alaska, but in the Pacific States it does not ordinarily occur in great abundance, although there is some- times a noteworthy run in the Puget Sound region. In food value the fresh-run humpback is scarcely inferior to any other salmon. While the flesh has a very fine flavor, it is paler than that of other red salmon, and the species has consequently been neglected by canners. It is probable, however, that it will eventually be utilized for canning purposes, and its excellent qualities when fresh are undoubtedly destined to give it a great commercial value. The chief consumption now is by Alaskan natives, who cure large quantities for winter use. The humpback salmon generally seeks the smaller streams for the purpose of spawning and deposits its eggs a short distance from the sea, Sometimes within only a few rods of the ocean. At Kadiak Island, Alaska, where it is often very abundant, it arrives in the latter part of July, the run continuing only a few weeks. Spawning takes place in August. There are only a few hundred eggs to each fish, the eggs being smaller than those of the quinnat but larger than those of the redfish, and paler in color than the eggs of either of those species. When this salmon first comes from the ocean it resembles a small quinnat, but as the spawning season advances it develops a very large and prominent hump onits back. This, with the distortion of the jaws, gives the fish a very singular appearance. The extreme emaciation and the extensive sloughing of the skin and flesh, which are incident to spawning, result in the death of all the fish, either on the spawning- grounds or after being swept out to sea by the current. THE SILVER SALMON. This fish (Oncorhynchus kisutch) is known as silver salmon, silversides, skowitz, kisutch, hoopid salmon, and coho salmon. It is a beautiful fish, having a graceful form and a bright silvery skin. The flesh, which is fairly good, usually has a bright red color, but owing to its fading: on cooking it is not highly regarded for canning purposes, although large quantities are thus utilized in the Columbia River, Puget Sound, and in the short coast streams of Oregon and Washington. Its average size in the Columbia and Puget Sound is 8 pounds, but in Alaska the average is nearly 15 pounds. It rarely reaches 30 pounds in weight. Its range is from San Francisco to northern Alaska, and as far south on the Asiatic coast as Japan. It runs up the rivers to spawn in late fall or early winter, when the waters are high, but does not ascend great distances from the ocean. The average number of eggs to a fish is about 2,000. a i Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 13.) PEATEs: \ AY SA anes’ SON) Breeding male, with disterted jaws. ONCORHYNCHUS KISUTCH. Dog Salmon. sa i bead M4 Report U. S. F.C. 1897. (To face page 13.) PLATE 6 ANY \\ \\\ ARAN \\ AN \ aN = == ee, fy £04 tie Rvangwaes te Petar cise: eae aang Steelhead. Cy se See, eas ant SERN Cae 5 SEES Saree San faase eescaeeae oy Si sais ee lesan staged. ac So SALMO GAIRDNERI. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 13 THE DOG SALMON. The dog salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) is the least valuable of the Pacific salmons, although it is dried in large quantities by the Alaskan natives. Its average weight is 12 pounds and the maximum is about 20 pounds. It is found from San Francisco to Kamchatka, being especially abundant in Alaska. The enlargement and distortion of the jaws give the species a very repulsive look. When just from the ocean, the flesh has a beautiful red color and is not unpalatable, but it deteriorates rapidly in fresh water. Larger quantities are utilized in Puget Sound than elsewhere in the Pacific States. THE STEELHEAD. Another anadromous salmonoid fish found on the Pacific coast, popu- larly regarded as a salmon, is the steelhead (Salmo gairdneri), known also as Gairdner’s trout, hardhead, winter salmon, square-tailed trout, and salmon trout. It resembles in form, size, and general appearance the salmon of the Atlantic coast, and is distinguished from other Pacific coast salmon by its square tail in the spawning season, its small head, round snout, comparatively slender form, light-colored flesh, and its habit of spawning in spring. It is more slender than the quinnat and consequently not so heavy for its length. The average weight in the Columbia is about 10 pounds, although sometimes a weight of 30 pounds is attained. Its range is very extended, reaching from Santa Barbara on the southern coast of California to the Alaska Peninsula, and perhaps to the Arctic Ocean, and it is found in almost all the streams of the Pacific States which empty into the ocean. It begins to enter the Columbia in the fall, and is then in prime condition. From this time it deteriorates until the following spring, when, between the months of February and May, spawning occurs. The fish’s movements in other rivers on the coast are not materially different, though perhaps it enters the southern rivers earlier and the northern rivers later than the Columbia. Like the chinook, the steelhead ascends rivers for long distances, and it has been found almost as far up the tributaries of the Columbia as the ascent of fish is possible. The eggs are much smaller than those of the quinnat salmon and average 3,000 to 5,000 to the fish. As the greatest quantities of steelheads are caught in the spring, when they are spawning and in a deteriorated condition, they are not generally esteemed as food. When they come fresh from the sea and are in good condition, however, their flesh is excellent. As the demand for salmon has increased, steelheads have been utilized for cauning and they have formed a noteworthy part of the canned salmon from the Columbia River for a number of years past, as well as from the short coast rivers of Washington and Oregon. Their consumption fresh has been increasing yearly and considerable quantities have been sent to the Eastern States in refrigerator cars. 14 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION. The chinook being the principal salmon that has been propagated artificially, the following chapter is devoted almost entirely to this species. The discussion of the apparatus and methods has special reference to the hatcheries of the United States Fish Commission on the McCloud River and Battle Creek, tributaries of the Sacramento, although cognizance is also taken of the work at the stations in the basin of the Columbia River and on the short coast rivers’ of California and Oregon. In 1896 the number of eggs of this fish collected by the Commission was 36,237,000, from which about 32,000,000 fry were hatched and planted. The collections of eggs of the silver salmon numbered 298,137, which yielded 298,000 fry, and of steelhead eggs 604,000, which pro- duced 499,690 fry. CAPTURING ADULT SALMON. The adult salmon from which eggs are obtained for the purposes of propagation are taken chiefly with drag or sweep seines, this being the most practical method of collecting them in large numbers. The seines at the United States Fish Commission station at Baird, on the McCloud River, are from 120 to 170 feet long, made of about 28-thread twine, and are 20 feet deep in the middle, tapering down to about 6 feet at the ends; they are double-leaded on account of the swift current of the river, and have a 4-inch mesh. In the rack placed across the river to stop the passage of fish it is customary to build large wooden traps in which to capture salmon, and at times, espe- cially during a rain storm accompanied by a marked rise in the river, large numbers of salmon are taken, but at other times only a few, while there is never more than a small percentage of spawning fish secured in this way. The trap is quite a valuable auxiliary to the seine, but can not be relied on exclusively. Although it will secure many unripe fish, the ripe ones, which are the ones that are wanted, finding an obstruction in their way, settle back to spawning-grounds below and remain there. The trap is simply a square inclosure of vertically placed slats, with an entrance similar to that of an ordinary pound net. The fish in their eager efforts to pass upstream, go through the V-shaped mouth of the trap, and having once entered, are not able to find their way out. Boards are placed over the top of the trap to prevent the fish from leaping out. Large dip nets have been used occasionally at Clackamas station, in Oregon, the fishermen standing on the rack at night and dipping below it. Toward the end of the season this method secures a considerable number of ripe fish, but it involves much labor and expense, and most of the spawning fish taken with the dip nets would probably have been captured in the regular course of fishing. There being no satisfac- tory seining-grounds at Clackamas, and the river just below the rack REATES7: (To face page 15.) Report U. S. F. C. 1897. VINYOAINVS WASNO AILivad Lv ‘NOW IVS 40 LN3SOSV DNiddOlS YOS HOVE MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 15 being shallow, an Indian method of fishing is used. The aversion of salmon to heading downstream is well known, but when they are very much frightened they will turn around and rush downstream at their utmost speed. The Indians take advantage of this fact and build a dam of rock or wickerwork, or anything that will present an obstruc- tion to the frightened fish. It is shaped like the letter V, with the angle downstream, and at the angle is a large trap into which the fish are driven. This was at one time the principal method of capturing the breeding salmon at Clackamas, and it worked very satisfactorily. Fyke nets and other fish-catching devices have been employed from time to time, but have been rejected as unsatisfactory. At Baird, before the rack was employed permanently, seine fishing was usually begun after dark and continued throughout the night, but since the rack has been in use the seine has been hauled more or less in the daytime with perfectly satisfactory results, the fishing generally commencing about 4.30 a.m.and continuing as long as the results war- rant it. The work is resumed again about 5 o’clock in the afternoon and continued as long as it meets with success. . RACK FOR CLOSING THE STREAM. The rack employed as a barricade against the ascending salmon consists of a fence placed across the river and supported by piers heavy enough to prevent the force of the current from pushing them out of position. Log stringers, from 8 to 15 inches in diameter, are laid from pier to pier, to which they are securely pinned, and posts, from 2 to 4 inches in diameter and of the required length, are driven obliquely into the bed of the river, the lower ends feing 3 or 4 feet upstream, the upper ends resting on the stringers. Against these posts is laid the rack, which is made in sections, each 6 to 10 feet long, the slats which form them being 14 inches thick and 3 inches wide, and securely braced at top and bottom. ‘The slats are set 14 inches apart, and are beveled on the upper side in order to present less resistance to the current. The space between the slats allows ample room for the water to go through, but prevents any salmon from ascending. A wider space between the slats would be preferable, as creating less obstruction to the current, but it would allow a considerable percentage of small grilse (the young salmon after its first return from the sea) to get by the rack, and unless males are quite plentiful the grilse are likely to be needed when the spawning season arrives. The piers, when first made, are hollow triangles of heavy logs, each layer of logs being firmly pinned to the one below it, until the required height is reached, the apex of the triangle pointing upstream. They are afterwards filled with rocks and are very substantial. Those on the McCloud have been able to withstand the tremendous momentum of the current. even in the highest water. 16 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. TAKING AND IMPREGNATING THE EGGS. After salmon are secured by the seine or other means, they are, for convenience in handling, placed in pens or live-boxes made for this purpose, the ripe or nearly ripe males and females being kept separate. Where the eggs are taken on a large scale, it is desirable to have separate compartments for ripe males, ripe females, nearly ripe females, and males partially spent that it may be necessary to use again, and one or two spare compartments are found to be convenient where large numbers of fish are handled. Stripping the fish is usually done every day, as the eggs of the females confined in the pens are likely to be injured within the fish, which is a serious objection to keeping the parent fish in confinement any longer than is absolutely necessary. Of the signs that usually accompany ripeness in a female salmon, the separation of the eggs in the ovaries is the surest, but the specific signs are all fallible, and the spawn-taker relies rather on an indescrib- able ripe look, which is neither color, shape, nor condition of organs, but a general appearance which shows at a glance that the fish is ripe, and can be appreciated only by experience. When taking the eggs, one or two men stand ready with dip nets to hand the females to the spawn-taker, and one or more perform the same office with the males. After the salmon are taken from the pens they are held suspended in the net until their violent struggles are over, after which they become quiet enough to be handled and the eggs and milt can be expressed easily. All methods of taking salmon spawn are very much the same, there being only slight differences in details, chiefly in the manner of holding the parent fish and impregnating the eggs. Where there are plenty of assistants and the salmon are of medium size, the most expeditious way is for the man who takes the spawn to hold the female in one hand and press out the eggs with the other, another in the meantime holding the tail of the fish. The male fish is handled in the same way. This is the method employed at Baird, but on the Columbia, where the salmon are larger and harder to manage, the “strait-jacket,” as it is called, is used; this is a sort of treugh made the average length of the salmon and hollowed out to fit its general shape. Across the lower end is a permanent cleat, and at the upper end is a strap with a buckle. The fish, when manipulated, is slid into the trough, the tail going down below the cleat, where it is securely held and the head buckled in at the upper end with the strap. It is now unable to do any harm by its struggles and the eggs can be pressed out at leisure. The strait-jacket is almost indispensable with very large salmon and is very convenient when the operators are limited in number. In impregnating the eggs the main object is to bring the milt and the eggs together as quickly as possible after they have left the fish. -By some persons a little water is considered desirable to give greater activity to the milt, but if left more than a minute in the water there MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 17 . is a decided loss of fertilizing power. The eggs do not suffer so quickly from immersion in water. The absorbing property which they possess when they first leave the parent fish, and which attracts to the micropyle the spermatozoa, lasts several minutes, but it is not prudent to leave the eggs in the water a moment longer than is necessary before adding the milt. é The addition of the water is not essential to a good impregnation; in some instances better results are secured without the use ot water and, after all, if the main object is secured, of bringing the milt and the eggs together with the shghtest possible delay after they leave the fish, it makes very little difference whether water is used or not. The milt retains its fertilizing power several days when kept from air and water, and impregnation can be effected between fishes widely separated by merely forwarding the milt properly sealed. At Baird impregnation by the dry method, which has always been followed there, has resulted in the fertilization of about 90 per cent of the eggs so treated. The Russian or dry method of impregnating eggs consists simply in taking both the eggs and the milt inadry pan. It may be urged as an objection to this method that the eggs will be injured by striking against the dry pan, but it is a fact that although the same eggs would be destroyed by the concussion a week afterwards, or even twenty-four hours afterwards, they do not suffer in the least from it at the moment of extrusion from the fish. It was at one time considered an important question whether the eggs or milt should be taken first, but with the dry method it makes no difference, as, either way, both eggs and milt remain operative long enough for all practical purposes of impregnation. Various methods of treating the eggs in the pan after impregnation has taken place have been tried, and all apparently with about the same results. Some operators leave the eggs in the pans as first taken with the milt for two or three minutes and then add water, after which they are left to stand in the pan until they separate, when they are washed clean, taken to the hatching-house, and placed in the troughs. Others pour the contents of the several pans—eggs, milt, and all—into a large can, after they have remained in the pans just long enough to become impregnated. When the eggs separate the contents of the can are poured into the hatching-troughs just as they are, trusting to the current in the troughs to wash the milt from the eggs. Where the water supply is scant and the current sluggish in the trays, the best method is to wash the milt thoroughly from the eggs before placing them in the hatching-trays, as the milt will foul the water if 1t remains in the troughs. The methods employed in taking and fertilizing eggs at Clackamas station are as follows: The female fish to be operated upon is taken from a floating pen and placed in the spawning-box or ‘straight- jacket”; a male fish is then caught and tied with a small rope axound F. ©. R. 1897—2 18 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. its tail to some part of the corral where he can be quickly caught when needed. One man presses the eggs from the female securely held in the spawning-box, the pan for receiving these being held by another. As soon as the eggs are taken, the male is drawn from the pen by the rope and held by one man, who takes it by the tail with his left hand, its head between or across his knees. With his right hand the milt is then pressed from the fish into the pan containing the eggs as soon as possible after they are taken. The eggs are taken in a pan without any water and milt enough is used to insure its coming in contact with each egg. After the eggs and milt are obtained the pan is gently tilted from side to side and the mass of eggs and milt stirred with the fingers until it is thoroughly mixed. The pan is then filled about two- thirds full of water and left until the eggs separate, the time varying from 1 to 14 hours, according to the number of eggs and the condition of the atmosphere. After the eggs cease to stick to each other and to the sides of the pan they are washed clean by repeated rinsings and taken to the hatching- house, where they are measured and put in troughs. The percentage of eggs impregnated varies with different seasons, places, and methods of handling, but it is safe to say that 90 per cent of the eggs taken are impregnated. The eggs of the quinnat salmon are of a deep salmon-red color. They are heavier than water. Their size varies somewhat, but averages about -4- or ==, of an inch; from 12 to 18 are covered by a square inch. The number in a quart is about 3,700. HATCHING APPARATUS AND METHODS. The hatching apparatus generally employed on the Pacific coast in salmon propagation consists of a combination of troughs and baskets. The troughs in common use are the so-called ‘ Williamson troughs,” which are 16 feet long, 12 or 16 inches wide, and 64 inches deep. The troughs are arranged in pairs, and usually two or three pairs are placed end to end on different levels. The fall of water in each trough is 14 inches. The troughs are divided by double partitions of wood or metal into compartments just enough longer than the baskets to enable the latter to be raised and lowered and to be tilted slightly. The essential feature of these troughs is that at the lower end of each compartment a partition, extending entirely across the trough, reaches from the bottom almost to the top, and another similar partition at the upper end of the compartment reaches from the top almost to the bottom of the trough, each set of partitions being about an inch apart. The water is consequently forced to flow under the upper partition and over the lower partition, and in order to do this it must necessarily ascend through the tray of eggs The troughs are provided with covers made of canvas stretched upon light frames, and made sunlight proof by saturation with asphaltum varnish. The interior of the troughs is thickly coated with asphaltum. PLaTE 8. (To face page 19.) Report U.S. F. C. 1897. ‘NOW1VYS JO LN3OSV dOLS OL G3SN WOVY ONIGIOH YO4 SUald GNVY ‘TSSHM-LNSYYNO : GuIVE 'AYSHOLVH GNV SSNOH-ANISNA MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 19 The egg receptacles are deep wire trays or baskets about 12 inches wide, 24 inches long, and deep enough to project an inch or two above the water, which is 5 or 6 inches deep in the troughs in which they are placed. Into each of these baskets 2 gallons of salmon eggs, equiva- lent to about 30,000, are poured at a time. The eggs suffer no injury whatever from being packed together in this manner, the water being supplied in a way that forces it through the eggs, partially supporting and circulating through them. The meshes are too smatl to permit the eggs to pass through, although the fry are able to do so. The advantages of this apparatus and method are: (1) The top of the tray or basket is out of the water and always entirely dry; consequently, in handling it, the hands are kept dry. (2) By tilting one end of the tray up and down a little or by lifting it entirely and settling it gently back again in its place the bad eggs will be forced to the top; thus a feather is not required in picking over the eggs and the injuries very often inflicted with it are avoided. (3) The top of the tray being above water, the eggs can never run over the top nor escape in any way, which is a great advantage over the shallow form of tray. (4) There is economy of space; 30,000 to 40,000 eggs can be placed in each basket, provided a sufficient quantity of water is available. Two troughs, 16 feet long and 1 foot wide, will by this method carry about 500,000 salmon eggs. The deep trays may be filled at least half full of eggs, and thus ten times as many eggs can be hatched in the same space and with the same supply of water as by the old method. A good but gentle circulation is continually maintained through the eggs. (5) The deep-tray system is admirably adapted to getting rid of mud that has collected on the eggs, for all sediment accumulating about them can be easily removed by gently moving the tray up and down a few times in the water; but if the deposit of mud on the troughs becomes so excessive as to be unmanageable, a false bottom of wire cloth or perforated zinc can be placed in the troughs at a suitable distance above their real bottom, leaving a space of about 1 or 14 inches between the wire cloth and the trough bottom. By this means the mud that comes into the trough will sift down into the space below the wire cloth entirely out of the way of the fish, the movements of the fish themselves helping very much to produce this result. Should the accumulation of mud in the space below the false bottom of the trough become too great, 1t can easily be sluiced out in various ways. When quinnat-salmon eggs are simply to be matured for shipment, hatching-trays with 4 or + inch square mesh will answer the purpose, but when the eggs are to be hatched in them, every alternate strand of wire running lengthwise, or, better still, every second and third thread, should be left out in order to form an oblong mesh through which the newly hatched fry, after separating themselves from the unhatched eggs, can escape from the hatching-trays into the troughs below. 20 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES, At Baird eggs kept in water averaging about 54° F. hatch in 35 days. The allowance of 5 days’ difference in the time of hatching for each degree of change in the temperature of the water is approximately correct. For the first few days the eggs of the quinnat salmon are very hardy, and at this time they should be thoroughly picked over and the dead ones removed as far as possible before the delicate stage during the formation of the spinal column comes on, so that during that critical period they may be left in perfect quiet. As soon as the spinal column and the head show plainly, the eggs are hardy enough to ship, but when there is time enough it is better to wait a day or two until the eye-spot is distinctly visible, after which time the eggs will stand handling. PACKING EGGS. FOR SHIPMENT. The packing-box used in shipping salmon eggs is made of 4-inch pine, 2 feet square and 1 foot deep. At the bottom is placed a thick layer of moss, then a layer of mosquito netting, then a layer of eggs, then mosquito netting again, then successive layers of moss, netting, eggs, netting, and so on to the middle of the box. Here a firm wooden partition is fastened in and the packing renewed above in the same manner as below. The cover is then laid on the top, and when two boxes are ready they are placed in a wooden crate, made large enough to allow a space of 3 inches on all sides of the boxes. This space is filled with hay to protect the eggs against changes of temperature, and when the cover is put on the eggs are ready to ship. In the middle of the crate an open space about 4 inches in depth is left, between the two boxes of eggs, for ice. As soon as the crates arrive at the railway station this space, as well as the top of the crate, is filled in with ice. Recent experiments show that salmon eggs can be packed and safely transported to considerable distances when they are first taken. CARE OF THE FRY. The eggs of quinnat salmon, like those of other Salmonide, hatch very gradually at first, only a small proportion of fish coming out the first day. The number increases daily, however, until the climax of the hatching is reached, when large numbers of the young burst their shells in a single day.. At this time great care and vigilance are required. The vast number of shells rapidly clog up the guard-screens at the outlet of the troughs, which should be kept as free as possible by thoroughly cleansing them from time to time. Im the deep trays the newly hatched fish are mixed with unhatched eggs, and the advantage of the oblong mesh in the bottom of the trays becomes apparent. This mesh is too narrow to allow the eggs to fall through, but the hatched fish, being comparatively long and narrow, easily slip down through the long meshes into the space below. They should be assisted in accomplishing this by gently raising and lowering PLATE 9. (To face page 21.) Report U. S. F. C. 1897. CURRENT-WHEEL FOR PUMPING WATER AT BAIRD, CALIFORNIA. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. ref the tray at intervals, care being taken not to raise them out of the water, as at this tender age a slight pressure against the wire of the tray will often produce fatal injuries. On this account too much caution can not be exercised in regard to handling them out of water during the first stages of the yolk-sac period, for the injuries can not be seen at first, and often the death of the fry is the first warning that they have been injured. After the eggs are all hatched and the young fish are safely out of the trays and in the bottom of the troughs their dangers are few and they require comparatively little care. Almost the only thing to be guarded against now is suffocation. Even where there is an abun- dance of water and room, with a good circulation, they often crowd together in heaps or dig down under one another until some of them die from want of running water which is not an inch away from them. The best remedy in such a case is to thin them out. Hight thousand gallons of water an hour is sufficient for ten lines of troughs 64 feet in length, containing altogether a little over 1,000,000 young salmons in the yolk-sac stage. This gives in round numbers 800 gallons of water to each 100,000 fry every hour, or 16% gallons per minute, which is a safe minimum. When the yolk-sac has become nearly absorbed the fish rise from the bottom of the trough, where they have previously remained, and hold themselves up in the water. It is now almost time to begin to feed them, and they have become comparatively hardy and require very little care. Close attention is required again, however, as soon as they commence to feed. They will show when they are ready to feed by darting to one side or the other when small particles of food are dropped in the water and floated past them. From this time, for several weeks, the necessity for care and vigilance never ceases. The young fish should, for the first few weeks, be fed regularly and as often as six times a day, and the earlier in the day the feeding begins and the later it continues at night the better. Two hours after feeding they will be found to be ravenously hungry, and they grow much faster for frequent feeding and get that growth in their infancy which is indispensable to their ultimately attaining the largest possible size. If they are not fed very often they will bite at one anothev’s fins and so cause more or less mortality among themselves. ARTIFICIAL FOOD. The best food for salmon fry is some kind of meat, finely pulverized. Boiled liver is especially good for this purpose, partly because it is inexpensive and easily obtainable, and also because it can be separated into very fine particles. Raw liver is also an excellent food for fry, and may be reduced into as fine particles as the cooked liver by grind- ing or chopping and then properly straining it through a fine-mesh 22 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. screen. The yolk of boiled eggs is also suitable, but it is comparatively expensive and is not so good for the fish as liver unless largely mixed with it. As the fish grow older they continue to thrive best on meat food, but if that is not always obtainable in sufficient quantities or on account of its expense, a very good substitute is a mixture of shorts or corn meal with the meat. This is prepared as a mush by stirring shorts or middlings into boiling water, a little at a time, so that it will not cook in lumps, but become more of a paste. After it has thoroughly cooked it is allowed to cool and harden. The best proportion is 30 pounds of shorts to 25 gallons of water with 3 or 4 pounds of salt. The per- centage of liver to be used in this mixture should be regulated by the age of the fish, feeding the very young fry upon almost a simple meat diet and increasing the proportion of mush with the age of the fish. Doubtless for young Salmonid the best natural fish food, not arti- ficially bred, is the roe of fishes which have minute ova, as the best food for the mature fish is live minnows. These foods furnish the fish with a clean, suitable diet and leave no decaying matter on the bottom of the troughs or ponds to foul them or produce disease. But these foods can rarely be obtained without too much expense, although the time will undoubtedly come when perch, carp, and similar coarse fish will be economically propagated and raised to serve as food for trout and salmon. Herring roe is now canned for fish food, and if this can be furnished at a sufficiently low price ic may ultimately provide an excellent food for young salmon. PLANTING THE FRY. The most prominent instinct of the newly-hatched salmon is to burrow for concealment, and this habit persists until the necessity for active feeding compels them to come from their hiding-places. The retention of salmon in troughs for a number of months after they begin to feed naturally leads to a considerable change in their instincts and makes them less liable to escape from their enemies after being planted. The fry are liberated on the natural spawning-grounds, as a rule, as soon as the umbilical sac is exhausted and they show a disposition to feed at the surface. When, for any reason, the fry are held longer, their growth varies in accordance with the character and temperature of the water in which they are reared and the foed they receive. The young fry reared at Baird station grow to a length of 24 inches from the time when they begin to feed in February until the middle of May, when, on account of the rising temperature of the water, they are liberated in the McCloud River. ni is. ; iat ape lta : neh ae bilnan toe Sea OS Ay co ee Nas A, eet en Ton 5ak Lah tA Sy, DIAM ile gas PLATE 10. e page 23.) c (To fa 1897. Report U.S. F. C. ‘LSYSVE NOWIVS SNIMOHS 'W33YO 3ILLVE LV AYSHOLYH 4O YOINSLNI é er ad MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 25 SALMON-HATCHING AT BATTLE CREEK. While the manner of taking and impregnating salmon eggs differs but little at the hatchery of the United States Fish Commission at Battle Creek, California, from that at other places, the magnitude of the operations warrants separate description. This is now the most remarkable salmou-propagating station in the world, the total number of eggs secured for hatching during the season of 1896 being 25,852,880, which is about 15,000,000 more than have been taken hitherto at any one station. This phenomenal take of eggs would have been still larger had not a flood washed away the rack and allowed the heavy run of salmon to pass upstream. This station is situated near the mouth of Battle Creek, a tributary of the Sacramento, and although less than 40 miles below Baird station, receives the fall run of salmon only, while at Baird this run is light as compared with the summer run. Immediately above its confluence with the Sacramento, Battle Creek is deep and lagoon-like for a distance of 24 miles, and salmon gather there in vast numbers before entering the shallow waters where their spawning-grounds commence. At the head of the lagoon is a retaining- rack similar to that in use at Baird, the fish being taken with a seine just below it. During the heavier part of the run 500 or 600 are taken at each sweep of the seine, the number at times being more than can be hauled ._ in. The first eggs were taken in 1896 on October 8, and collection con- tinued until the breaking of the rack on November 23, at which time the run of fish was still in progress. Five thousand “ripe” females were taken, averaging 18 pounds in weight. No record was kept of the males, as more could always be taken than were required, but those retained were used day after day until exhausted. Male salmon out- numbered the ripe females 5 to 1. Spawning operations are conducted upon a floating platform 24 feet long and 12 feet wide, beneath which are nine compartments for retain- ing the ripe fish, and which are accessible through hinged covers set in the plank flooring. Projecting beyond this platform is another, upon which the actual work of stripping the fish and caring for the pans is performed. It is roofed with tarpaulin, and on three sides is inclosed with burlap. The taking of spawn is performed by ten men. The method differs but little from that at Baird, except in the manner of handling the fish and the regular use of water in the spawning-pan. One pint of water is placed in the pan before either the eggs or the milt. Two men take the females from the compartments in dip nets and hold them until taken out by the spawn-takers, not allowing them to strike the floor dur- ing their struggles. The female is held by two men, one taking the fish from the dip net by the tail, and the other by the head. The stripper then comes between them as the fish is held over the spawning-pan and 24 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. presses out the eggs. One man dips the male fish from their com- partment and places them on the floor of the platform directly behind the two men who handle them. One holds the fish by the head and the other presses out the milt with one hand as he holds it by the tail with the other, the milt falling into the same pan that receives the eggs and practically at the same time. The eggs and milt are gently stirred with a feather in the spawning- pan as they are expressed from the fish, and the pan is then placed upon a shelf under a dark curtain, where it remains for 15 minutes, when the contents are poured into a large galvanized iron bucket nearly full of water, the eggs being placed therein before adhesion takes place. During the season of 1896 a total of 4,968 females were stripped, producing 25,852,880 eggs. The greatest number of females stripped in any one day was 269, yielding 1,392,000 eggs. The spawning crew became very proficient, having stripped as many as 151 females in 60 minutes. Spawning usually takes place during the afternoon and seldom exceeds 24 hours of active work. The eggs are transferred by wagons from the spawning platform to the hatcheries in large galvanized-iron buckets, 15 inches deep and 14 inches in diameter, which, when filled with water, hold about 70,000 eggs. The tops of the buckets are covered with canvas, and the average length of time occupied in taking the eggs, transferring them to the hatcheries, and measuring them into the hatching-baskets is 40 minutes. The two hatcheries at Battle Creek contain 160 hatching-troughs, 68 of those in the building first erected being 16 feet by 16 inches by 64 inches, while half of the 92 in the other building are of the same size, the remainder being 16 feet by 12 inches by 64 inches. A head or distributing trough runs lengthwise of each building and receives the water from the settling-tank on the outside. The hatching-troughs are arranged in sections of four bound together. Two abut against the distributing-trough, from which they take their supply of water and carry it to the two troughs below, whence it passes to the escape drain at their lower ends; 24 gallons of water per minute are admitted to each trough, and the average temperature of the water is 52°. At the head of each hatching-trough, 2 inches above the surface of the water, is placed a tin aerator, 10 inches by 4 inches by 14 inches, the bottom only being perforated; 4 inches from the lower end of each trough a retaining-screen is placed at an angle. Between the screen and the end there is a 2-inch hole in the bottom stopped with a plug which projects above the surface of the water. In cleaning the trough this plug is removed, the increased flow of water causing a strong current through the entire length of the trough, which has a capacity of 200,000 eggs contained in five trays or baskets. When the eggs reach the hatchery they are washed, measured, and placed in the hatching baskets or trays, 40,000 being placed in the 16-inch and 25,000 in the 12-inch trays. These are made of galvanized ; 7 20h bh, =f 4: yu! , ; " 7 é ? Uae 1 pets " f . ‘ i Oem sg) ed ~~ v, \ P ae if . ; f. * ur 4 ra 7 * 2 r oon " qi *, 1 * a ’ aa an : Ye a 5 % . & )? oa » < : j bi hla ¢ Ve * a A Ti wr! bu. # Aes) : , ae L Lee | Oe ay he a ge Ha i< * it Saf 6 ‘ ul ® as ‘ wii } en ¥. a 7 ‘’ f a r win \ eas ht é : Mam 2 A ' ah ; u at 0 TAS a ' ei { y is Y Dat Red Vas Ae Son ‘ ae hk ; Posethl ss Sal y aba be ret he a ah ee - . Te F u f ’ ie ‘ ’ " wat rhe re is si Hida NS, DA rd a ' eT), hd Leen i tty, « Pave) tak)” ivas ‘ j J ¢ A ea 4 Mia Loa Mansy! 4 ie ee J . Poi) , 5 bP) YA ‘ tn ty MARS a gee me Yaa PLATE 11. (To face page 25.) Report U. S. F. C. 1897. VINYOSINVO ‘WSO A3TLLive LV ‘WYOsSLV1d ONIddld¥lS GNv HSI3 Sd!l¥ SNIGIOH YOs SN&3d MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 25 iron wire, with meshes ® by + of an inch, fastened at the top to a wooden frame 4 inch thick. They are 23 inches long, 1535 inches wide at top, 15 inches at bottom, and 6 inches deep. When placed in the hatching- trough the wooden frame of the basket rests on the edge of the trough. Two division plates of galvanized iron are placed in the hatching- trough just above each basket. The first one rests on the bottom and extends to within an inch of the surface of the water; the second is placed half an inch below the first one, and extends from the top of the box to within an inch of the bottom. This causes an upward current of water to pass through the eggs, which, however, is not strong enough to move them. From the second to the tenth day the eggs are washed and the dead eges are picked out, but from the tenth to the fifteenth day they are not handled in any manner, no matter how much sediment may cover them. After the fifteenth day, or when the young fish is well defined in the egg, washing and picking is renewed and continued daily until the eggs are packed for shipment. The method of handling is determined by the conditions, a lower temperature allowing them to be washed beyond the tenth day, but the above noted is the average for the season of 1896. The total loss in eyeing (that is, carrying eggs from time of taking until the eye- spots appear) during the season was 1,308,290, or 5.06 per cent. No eggs were hatched at Battle Creek station, as the water supply was . considered unsafe. In packing eggs for shipment no ice is used except for long distances. The eggs received at the Sisson station of the California Fish Com- mission, located at the headwaters of the Sacramento River, are treated by methods similar to those already described as being used at Battle Creek. The average number of days taken to hatch the eggs is 42, and the alevins absorb the sac in from 30 to 40 days at an average temperature of 44°. After the eggs are hatched, the division plates resting upon the bottom of each trough are removed and the remaining plates lowered to within half an inch of the bottom of the hatching- trough. This divides the trough into sections and results in a stiff current running under each plate, which prevents the massing of the alevins at the head of the trough. At this time, a A-shaped piece of galvanized iron, termed a harbor plate, is placed in each trough 4 inches above the retaining-screen, with its apex against the current; it extends to within an inch of each side of the trough and rises to the surface of the water. The water in passing around each end of the plate causes an eddy that carries the weak alevins away from the screen into the angle of the plate, affording them a harbor of rest and preventing their being held against the screen. The loss of alevins while absorbing the sac is slight. The space for hatching-troughs at Sisson is limited; and to relieve the troughs the planting of alevins begins a few days after they hatch; hence the exact 26 REPORT OF GOMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. percentage of loss can not be given; but the total loss of alevins at the hatchery the past season was 32,934, or 0.3 per cent, in a total of 10,000,000. The loss after feeding began was very slight, amounting only to 5,716. The alevins and the fry of the Pacific salmon possess great vitality and are less liable to disease than those of any of the other Salmonide. The natural conditions for hatching, rearing, and planting fry at the Sisson hatchery are excellent; the water supply is unlimited and is very free from sediment, even during stormy weather, while it has an equable temperature, averaging 52° for the year, seldom falling to 40° or exceeding 60°. No part of the hatching-house work requires more attention or is of such vital importance as the cleaning of the troughs. Up to the time that the alevins begin to feed the troughs should be thoroughly cleaned once every day by rubbing them down with the hand covered with a coarse crash mitten, and after they begin feeding the troughs require much more attention. One hour after each, meal the troughs should be cleaned by passing a bunch of stiff feathers over the sides and bottom, first removing the division and harbor plates and the plug at the foot of the trough. Pt pases Me 2 | ole ars ; f Pts ee r at gen , n & a 5 J Ara arg. i See ware ae ates nist ere ih ¢. : iL LA : + ra an =p ' a ® : y SVinedl des 2. did ale gi Dio, Weer Report U. S. F. C. 1897, (To face page Dis) PLATE 12 i ml DEER Atlantic Salmon. SALMO SALAR. THE ATLANTIC SALMON. DESCRIPTION OF THE FISH. The body of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is moderately elongate and but little compressed; the greatest depth is about one-fourth the total Jength without the caudal fin. The length of the head is about equal to the body depth. The mouth is of moderate size, the maxillary reaching just past the eye, its length contained 25 or 3 times in the head. The scales are comparatively large, becoming embedded in adult males; the number in the lateral line is about 120, with 23 above and 21 below that line. The dorsal fin has 11 rays and the anal 9 rays. The pyloric cceca number about 65. The color, like the form, varies with sex, age, food, and condition, The adult is brownish above and silvery on the sides, with numerous small black spots, often x or xx shaped, on the head, body, and fins, and with red patches along the sides in the male. Young salmon (parrs) have about 11 dusky crossbars, besides black and red spots. RANGE. The salmon native to the rivers of the northeastern United States is specifically identical with the salmon of Europe and all the affluents of the North Atlantic. Its original natural range in America appears to have been from Labrador or Hudson Bay on the north to the vicinity of New York on the south. Within these limits, at the proper season of the year, it ascended, for the purpose of reproduction, nearly every river except those that did not afford the requisite facilities for depositing Spawn or were inaccessible by reason of impassable falls near their mouths. In American rivers frequented by Atlantic salmon they were found successively in all parts from the mouth upward, their migrations extend- ing nearly to the headwaters of all the branches so far as they were accessible and adapted to their necessities. The one exception is the river St. Lawrence, where it seems probable, from such evidence as is available, that few if any salmon entering the river from the sea ever ascended as far as Lake Ontario, and that the salmon inhabiting that lake and its tributaries have always, as a rule, made the lake their sea and the limit of their downward migrations. Within or partly within the limits of the United States there can be enumerated twenty-eight rivers that were beyond doubt naturally frequented by salmon, beginning witit 27 28 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. the St. John and ending with the Housatonic.* In the greater part of these the species has been exterminated by civilized man, and in the few in which it still persists its numbers are far below the estimates which the earliest records warrant us in making for those days. In certain lakes of Maine and northward this fish is perfectly land- locked and has somewhat different habits and coloration, but no distinet specific characters. Similar landlocked varieties occur in Europe. LIFE AND HABITS. Salmon eggs are deposited on coarse gravel on some rapid, generally far up toward the sources of a river, late in October or early in Novem- ber, when the water is perhaps about 44° F. and the temperature is falling. The egg is impregnated at the moment of its deposit, and the independent life of the salmon begins to develop at once. In a few weeks the embryo becomes sensitive, but the extreme cold of the water retards its development to such an extent that it does not burst the shell of the egg until spring. In the rivers of New England it is prob- able that nearly all the eggs naturally deposited hatch very late in April and early in May. At this time the embryo salmon has a slender half-transparent trunk, less than an inch in length, carrying, suspended beneath, an immense ovoid sac—the ‘“ yolk-sac.” For about six weeks after hatching it hides in crevices among stones, keeping up an inces- sant fanning with its pectoral fins. During this period it takes no food, but is supported and nourished by the yolk-sac, the substance of which is gradually absorbed into the rest of the body, and not until the sae has nearly disappeared does the salmon really look like a fish and begin to seize and swallow food. It now puts on a mottled coat, with several heavy dark bars across its sides, and bright red spots, larger and fewer than those of a trout, looking therefore very unlike the adult salmon but much like a young trout. In this stage it is termed, in Scotland and England, a “parr,” and it was formerly thought to be a wholly different species from salmon. The parr stage lasts a year or two in British rivers, and the few observations made in America indicate that it is more likely two years than one in our rivers. The parr, at first but little over an inch in length, is provided with good teeth and a good appetite, and beginning to feed at a season of the year when the water is almost crowded with small insects and other more minute creatures, it grows rapidly, prob- ably increasing its weight thirty or forty times the first summer. In two years it reaches the length of 6 or 8 inches, and its bright red spots and dark bars have given place to a silvery coat like the adult salmon. It is now termed a ‘“‘smolt” and is ready to go to sea, which it does with little delay, and passes out beyond the range of man’s *The Hudson River is by some believed to have been a natural salmon river. Its discoverer, Hendrick Hudson, reported having observed them there, and there is nothing inherently improbable in it, but the evidence is perhaps insufficient. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 29 observation, but to a region where it finds a rich feeding-ground and rapidly increases in size.* In northern rivers, those of New Brunswick and beyond, as in those of northern Europe, the salmon returns from the sea when it has attained a weight of 2 to 6 vounds, and is then termed a ‘“grilse.” In the rivers of Canada, in general, grilse occur in great numbers, coming in from the sea at a later date than the adults, but ascending like them to the upper waters, mingling freely with them, rising to the same fly, and caught in the same weirs. The mesh of the nets is limited by law to a size that takes the adult salmon, but allows the grilse to slip through. To this circumstance it is in part owing that by the time the fish have reached those portions of the rivers suitable for angling there is commonly, if it be late enough in the season, a great preponderance of grilse, so that more of the latter than of the former are taken by the angler. In Nova Scotia many grilse are taken in the Shubenacadie River from August until late in the fall. On the Mirami- chi, in New Brunswick, grilse make their appearance about July 1, and from the middle of that month till the end of August they constitute the main body of the salmon entering the river. Some sportsmen report that the grilse caught exceed the adults in the ratio of 5 to 1. In the month of August, in the Nepissiguit, Restigouche, and St. John of Gaspé, grilse have been found in some years to exceed the adults in the ratio of 3 to 1. They run into the Nepissiguit mostly between July 25 and September1. Their scarcity during the early part of the angling season, or say previous to July 20, is attested by numer- ous fishing scores. A series of scores of salmon fishing in the Godbout River, on the north side of the St. Lawrence, shows that previous to July 15 or 20 the adult salmon taken with the fly in that river exceed the grilse in the ratio of 10 to 1 or more. In our rivers grilse are seldom seen, and only 3 or 4 are taken per year in a weir in theSt. Croix, which takes about 70 adults. In the Dennys River the ratio of grilse to salmon caught is not more than 1 to500, and in the Penobscot they are quite as rare. Adult salmon running in this river several weeks earlier than in those of eastern New Brunswick, we *There has been considerable discussion on this point, and the conclusions of some observers are at variance with the above statement. In Scotland many years ago it seemed to be wellestablished by the observations of Buist that a portion of the young salmon put on the silvery coat and went to sea at the age of one year, but that others of the same brood did not get ready to go until two years old. American observa- tions, however, tend strongly to the conclusion that the young salmon passes two whole summers in the river, going out to sea in the autumn following its second summer or the next spring. It is not probable that the seaward migration is restricted in any river to any exact period of a few weeks duration, but that it extends over many months, some of the young salmon, by reason of superior native vigor of growth or from other equally efficient cause, attaining the migratory stage months earlier than others of the same brood. It is the opinion of one American observer that salmon fry remain in the streams until October of the second year before going to sea, and that they do not go down until the spring of the third year; i. e., when they are two years old; though some may go down the fall of the second year; and that the salmon do not return until they are four years old, 30 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. should naturally expect the advent of grilse early in July in considerable numbers; but some of the weirs are often kept in operation until the middle or last of July, and sometimes even through August, when they take menhaden; but no grilse enter them. During the latter part of the summer the water at the several falls between Bangor and Oldtown is generally at a low stage, and the attempt of grilse, even in small num- bers, to ascend the river could hardly fail to be frequently detected. A similar state of things exists inthe Kennebec. There is no escaping the conelusion that the great run of grilse, which is so prominent a fea- ture in the history of the salmon of northern rivers, is almost entirely wanting in therivers of the United States. It by no means follows from this that our salmon do not pass through the same phases of growth, or that the growth is more rapid, but merely that when in the grilse stage they generally lack the instinct that impels their more northern relatives to seek fresh water. Of the characteristics of grilse, as ascertained in the rivers they frequent, it will be sufficient to say that they exhibit to a great degree the characteristics of the adult; that the main external differences are a shorter head, slenderer form, and a difference in the color and markings; that they are remarkably active and agile, leaping to great heights; that the male is sexually well developed and mates with the adult, but that the female is immature, and that, like the adult, they abstain from food and consequently lose flesh during their stay in fresh water. The next stage of life of the fish is that of the adult salmon, and this is the stage at which, with the exceptions indicated above, the Atlantic salmon first ascends the rivers of the United States. Assuming thatit relinquished the rivers for the sea at the age of two years, being then asmolt, it has been absent two years, and it is now four years or a little more since it burst the shell. This estimate of age is based on the observations made by the Massachusetts commissioners of fisheries on the return of salmon to the Merrimac River, which plainly estab- lished the fact that the entire period between the hatching of the fry and the return of the adult to the rivers is about four years. Whether the same rule holds in other New England rivers can not as yet be established, owing to deficient data, but the presumption is in favor of that conclusion. In Canadian rivers the same period of growth appears to be the universal rule, at least as far north as the St. Lawrence River. Statistics of the catch of salmon for many years in eighteen separate districts, showing many fluctuations, exhibit a remarkable tendency of the figures to arrange themselves in periods of five years; thus, the year 1875 having been a year of small catch of salmon, it also appears in most of the districts that the next year of abnormally small catch was 1880. Now, the eggs laid in 1875 would hatch in 1876, and the young hatched at that time would be grown in 1880, requiring thus four years from hatching to maturity, just as on the Merrimac. It would seem no other interpretation can be put upon the statistics. Report U. S. F.C. 1897. (To face page 31.) PLATE 13 ENTRANCE TO DEAD BROOK INCLOSURE FOR SALMON. DEAD BROOK INCLOSURE FOR ATLANTIC SALMON, SHOWING PENS. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. oO. EARLY SALMON-CULTURE ON THE PENOBSCOT RIVER. The movement for the reestablishment of the fisheries for salmon, shad, and other anadromous species in American rivers originated in the action of the legislatures of New Hampshire and Massachusetts, having in view primarily the fisheries of the Merrimac and Connecti- cut rivers. The course of the Connecticut lies partly in the State of Connecticut, while many of its tributaries are in the State of Vermont, and these two States were therefore early interested in the project, and their action soon led to a similar movement on the part of Rhode Island and Maine. The rivers within the borders of these six States are the only ones in the United States known to have been frequented by the seagoing Salmo salar, except possibly the Hudson and certain rivers tributary to the St. Lawrence, in the northern part of New York. The commissioners to whom the governments of the above States confided the task of restocking the exhausted rivers turned their attention at once to the two most important of the migratory fishes, the salmon and the shad. The utter extermination of salmon from most of the rivers compelling the commissioners to consider the best mode of introducing them from abroad, eggs were obtained for a time from the spawning-beds in the rivers of Canada and hatched with a measure of success. After a few seasons permits for such operations were discon- tinued, and it became essential to look elsewhere for a supply of salmon ova. In 1870 attention was directed to the Penobscot River, in the State of Maine, which, though very unproductive compared with Cana- dian rivers, might yet, perhaps, be made to yield the requisite quantity of spawn. The fisheries are all in the lower part of the river and in the estuary into which it empties, Penobscot Bay, and there the supply of adult salmon could be found with certainty, but they must be obtained from the ordinary salmon fisheries in June and held in durance until October or November, and the possibility of confining them without interfering seriously with the normal action of their reproductive func- tions was not yet established. This plan was finally adopted, and in 1871 this method of breeding salmon was first attempted. For the purpose of the experiment, a point at the mouth of Craig Brook, which is by water nearly 9 miles distant from the mouth of the Penobscot River, more than half the route being through brackish water, was selected as the most conven- ient fresh-water stream which offered facilities for confining the salmon and maturing their eggs. After some unsuccessful trials means were found of safely conveying a few live salmon in floating cars from the fishing-grounds to the station, where they were held till the spawning season, when their eggs were taken and impregnated. From 1872 to 1876 operations were conducted on a larger scale, with a fair degree of success, and, after a suspension, were resumed in 1879 at Craig Brook hatchery, while the retaining inclosures were located in Dead Brook, about 2 miles distant. The disadvantage of this 32 ‘REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. distance between the hatchery and retaining-ponds was offset by other advantageous conditions. Until 1886 no attempt was made to rear salmon, and with unimpor- tant exceptions the work was confined to the collection of salmon eggs, their development during the earlier stages, and their transfer in winter to other stations to be hatched. In 1889, however, the United States Fish Commissioner decided to establish a permanent station at Craig Brook, and in anticipation of the purchase of the premises, which was concluded the following year, the rearing of salmon to the age of six or seven months was undertaken as the leading work of the station. COLLECTION OF STOCK SALMON. The only salmon fisheries available for the purpose of supplying Craig Brook station with breeding fish are those carried on by weirs about the mouth of the Penobscot. Arrangements are made early in the season with weir fishermen to save their salmon alive and deliver them daily to the collecting agent of the station, who makes the rounds of the district about low water with a small steamer, which tows the cars containing the fish on the flood-tide to Orland village, where they are passed through the lock about high water and taken by a crew of oars- men to the inclosure at Dead Brook. In anticipation of this work, the fisherman places the floor of his weir a little lower than he would otherwise do, so that at low water the salmon may have water to swim in instead of being left high and dry by the retreating tide, in case of an accidental delay or failure to visit the weir at the usual hour. It is, however, the ordinary practice to take the salmon out at each “fish-tide,” i. e., low water, and place them in acar. Cars enough are stationed among the fishermen to bring one at least in each neighborhood, and in most cases the car is brought alongside and the salmon transferred to it directly from the weir, though in some cases it is necessary to place the salmon first in a box, in which it is carried by a boat to the car. The car employed is made from the common dory, divided transversely into three compartments. The central one, which is much the larger, is occupied by the fish, and is smoothly lined with thin boards and covered with a net to prevent the fish jumping out or being lost by the ear capsizing, which some- times occurs, while to guard them from fright and the rays of the sun @ Canvas cover is drawn over all. The first cars of this form constructed had iron gratings to separate the central from the forward and after compartments, the water being admitted through the forward and discharged through the after compartment, but this was ebjectionable because the salmon were constantly seeking to escape through the forward grating, and often injured themselves by rushing against it. Smooth wooden gratings were afterwards used and for many years cars were employed in which the compartments were separated by tight board partitions, the open- ings for the circulation of water communicating through the sides of Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 33.) PLATE 14. SALMON LIVE-CAR USED IN TRANSPORTING FISH FROM WEIRS TO DEAD BROOK. SALMON LIVE-CARS EN ROUTE WITH FISH. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 33 the boat directly with the fish compartment and being, of course, grated. _This was very satisfactory, but when it was found desirable and prac- ticable to use ice in transportation, the forward compartment became the ice-room, and it was necessary to perforate the partition again to admit the cold water to the fish. Finally, stout woolen blanket cloth was substituted in the partitions, with eyelet holes wrought in to afford passage to the water. This is the form now in use, in which the water is admitted through openings in the sides to the ice-room, from which it passes through the fish-room to the afterroom, whence it is discharged. The car is ballasted so that the rail is just above water or, in case of an unusually large load of fish, a little below it. All the openings communicating with the outside are controlled by slides, which can be closed so as to let the car swim high and light when it is towed empty. The boxes used for the transfer of salmon hold about 90 gallons each, and are 2 feet wide, 2 feet deep, and 3 feet long, with a sliding cover, in the center of which is an inch auger hole for ventilation. Such boxes were used at Bucksport from 1872 to 1874 to convey the salmon on drays from the cars to the inclosure, a distance of a little more than a mile; six or eight salmon were taken at once, the box being filled brim- ful of water, which was brackish and generally clear and cool. Though the largest fish could not lie straight in the box, and the time occupied in trausit was commonly twenty minutes, they as a rule arrived at the pond in good condition. To avoid injury to the fish in transferring them to the cars, fine minnow dip nets, lined with woolen flannel of open texture, are used. The bow on which the net is hung is 22 inches in diameter, and to secure a net of ample width three ordinary nets, 36 inches in depth, are cut open down one side quite to the bottom, and then sewed together, giving thus three times the ordinary breadth without increasing the depth. The collection of salmon is begun each season usually from the 20th of May to the 1st of June, but as the maximum temperature that the fish fresh from the weirs will endure is about 75° F., the temperature of the water through which the cars are towed must be taken into consideration, and the collection not be postponed until too late in the season. If the collection is prolonged, this difficulty is obviated by using ice, as it has been found that by moderating the volume of water passing through the car and introducing it all through the ice compart- ment it is possible to keep a uniform temperature in the compartment in which the fish are held several degrees below that of the water in the river, thereby insuring the safe transfer of the salmon. THE DEAD BROOK INCLOSURE. The principal sources of Dead Brook are two small lakes, and on some of the tributaries there are considerable springs. While the water is slightly purer than that of ordinary brooks, it is by no means F.C. R. 1897——3 34 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. so transparent as that of Craig Brook, and the bottom can hardly be seen at the depth of 4 feet. This circumstance is regarded as favor- able. The inclosure is located on the lower stretches of the brook, not more than half a mile from its mouth, with low banks on either hand and a very gentle current flowing over a bed that is for the most part gravelly but in part consists of a peaty mud that supports a luxurious growth of aquatic vegetation. The general depth is less than 4 feet, but two of the pools are 8 feet deep and another is 6 feet deep. The width of the stream is from 20 to 80 feet. The inclosure occupies the entire stream for a distance of 2,200 feet, embracing an area of about 24 acres. At either end is a substantial barrier, cousisting of wooden racks, which obstruct the current very slightly but contine the salmon securely. The lower barrier is provided with a gate, which swings open to admit boats, and at the upper barrier are located the spawning-house and watchman’s camp and a small storehouse. The temperature of the water during the summer months generally ranges between 60° and 70° F., but the surface temperature occasionally rises to 76°, 80°, and even 84°. During sultry weather the temperature at the bottom has been observed and in the deeper pools has been found to be notably lower than at the surface. Thus a temperature of 75° at the surface has been found to be accompanied by 68° at the bottom; 78° by 74°; and 81° by 72°. Itis probable that to the existence of these deeper pools the survival of the salmon through extremely hot weather may be ascribed. After their liberation in the inclosure the salmon are at first quite active, swimming about and often leaping into the air. This continues for several weeks. After that they become very quiet, lying in the deepest pools and rarely showing themselves until the approach of the spawning season. Most of the deaths occur during the first few weeks of their impris- onment, doubtless in consequence of injuries received in capture or during transfer, though high temperature in the inclosure itself about the time of the introduction of the salmon may be one of the causes of mortality. Fish that escape the dangers of June appear to become acclimated and able to endure the high temperatures of July and August without injury. Notwithstanding salmon enter the rivers in spring or early summer, ascending at once to their upper waters and there, in fresh water, awaiting the spawning season, fresh water is not essential to the activ- ity of their reproductive functions. At the Canadian fish-breeding station of Tadoussac, where salmon are almost the only fish cultivated, it has for many years been the practice to hold their brood fish in au inclosure supplied with salt water, which flows and ebbs through the barrier confining the salmon, and the development of eggs and milt 1s in no wise unfavorably aftected, MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 35 WATER FOR A SALMON HATCHERY. The first requisite for a salmon hatchery is an. ample supply of suit- able water, on a site where it can be brought completely under control and the proper tall secured. In this matter there is quite a range of choice. The very best is the water from a stream fed by a clean lake of considerable depth, taken a shert distance below the outlet of the lake, with an intervening rapid. Craig Pond may be taken as an example of such a lake. It has an area of 231 acres, an extreme depth of 69 feet, and a depth of 25 feet within 500 feet of the outlet. The depth directly influences the temperature and, other things being equal, a deep lake will afford water more uniform in temperature than a shallow one—cooler in summer and warmer, though never too warm, in winter. Such water is commonly quite even in volume and temperature, and comparatively pure. Itis cold in winter and warms up slowly in spring, assuring a slow, normal development of the eggs, which is more conducive to health and vigor than a quicker development. The passage down a rapid will further improve this water by charging it highly with air. After this, the water of a brook is to be chosen that is fed largely by springs, so as to insure constancy in the supply and some moderation of the temperature on warm days, but it is better to have the water flow a long distance in an open channel before using, and, if possible, over a rough and descending bed, that it may be well aerated, and in cold weather somewhat cooled down from the temperature with which it springs from the ground. Thirdly, choose pure spring water; but in all cases where this is necessary provide a cooling and aerating pond, that the original warmth of the water may be subdued by the cold of the air before it reaches the hatching-troughs, and that it may absorb more or less air by its wide surface. Lastly, choose ordinary river or brook water, as clean as possible. The latter are considered inferior to spring water by reason of their liability to floods, drought, muddiness, and foulness of other sorts, and in cold climates to anchor ice. Between these different sorts there is of course an infinite number of gradations. If lake water can not be obtained it would be of some advantage to have a supply of both spring water and brook water, depending for ordinary use on the brook water or a mixture of the two, and on the spring water for emergencies, such as the freezing, drying, or excessive heating of the brook, floods with accompanying muddiness, etc. Avoid water coming from boggy and stagnant ponds and marshes; for though excellent water, capable of bringing out the most vigorous of fish, may sometimes be had in such places, yet when not supplied by springs it is dependent for its freshness and good qualities upon rainfalls, and if these fail, as they are liable to, the water may become foul and unfit. It must be borne m mind that these remarks about the selection of water for fish-cultural purposes apply only to the culture of Atlantic or landlocked salmon, in a climate like that of the State of Maine. 36 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. It is best to select a site for a hatching establishment in time of extreme drought, and if it then has an ample supply of pure, sweet water the first requisites are fulfilled. It is well also to visit the place in time of flood and, if in a cold climate, in severe winter weather, to learn the dangers to be guarded against on those scores. The volume of water necessary will depend mainly on the proposed capacity of the establishment, the temperature of the water, its character as to aeration, and the facilities existing for the aeration and repeated use of the water. » With water of the highest quality and low temperature, and with unlim- ited facilities for aeration, possibly a gallon a minute, or even less, can be made to answer for the incubation of 100,000 eggs of salmon. As the temperature rises or the facilities for aeration are curtailed a larger volume becomes necessary. In case of spring water, cooled only to 40° and aerated only by exposure to air in a pool of about a square rod surface, with no facilities in the house for aeration, and with the eggs and fry crowded in the troughs at the rate of 4,000 per square foot, 4 gallons a minute is the least that can be allowed, while 6, 8, or 10 gallons per minute are better. While the minimum is, as stated above, possibly less than a gallon a minute, it is not advisable to trust to less than 3 gallons per minute for each 100,000 eggs under the most favorable circumstances. If the water supply is drawn from a small brook or spring, it is neces- sary to measure the volume approximately, which is easily done, in the following manner: With a wide board 1 inch thick, having a smooth inch hole bored through the middle, a tight dam is made across the stream so that all the water will have to flow through the hole. If the water on the upper side rises just to the.top of the hole, it indicates a volume of 2.3 gallons per minute; a rise of half an inch above the top of the hole indicates a volume of 3.5 gallons per minute; 2 inches rise, 5 gallons per minute; 3 inches, 6 gallons per minute; 6 inches, 8 gallons per minute; 13 inches, 12 gallons per minute. If two 1-inch holes are bored, the same will, of course, indicate twice the volume. The volume of water flowing through holes of different sizes is in proportion to the squares of their diameters; thus a 2-inch hole permits the passage of four times as much as a l-inch hole. A cylindrical tube whose length is three times its diameter will allow 29 per cent more water to pass than a hole of the same diameter through a thin plate or board. SITE. After a satisfactory supply of water is found a site for the hatching- house must be selected that affords facilities for creating a head of water to provide for the requisite fall into and through the troughs, security against inundation, security against too much freezing if in a cold climate, and, finally, general safety and accessibility. The fall required in the hatching-house can hardly be too great. The minimum is as low as 3 inches, but only under the most favorable circumstances MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. ot in other respects will this answer, and even then it is only admissible where there is an ample supply of aerated water and the troughs are very short and there is absolutely no danger of inundation; and this fall has the disadvantages of the impracticability of introducing any aerating apparatus and the necessity of having the troughs sunk below the floor of the hatching-house, which makes the work of attending the eggs and fish very laborious. A fall of 1 foot will do fairly well if there is entire safety from inun- dation, as this will permit the troughs being placed on the floor, which is a better position than below it, though still an inconvenient one, and some of the simpler aerating devices can be introduced. Better is a fall of 3 feet, and far better a fall of 6 feet. The latter permits the placing of the lowest hatching-troughs 2 feet above the floor and leaves ample room for complete aeration. The necessities of the case are dependent largely upon the volume and character of the water, and if there is plenty of it, well aerated before reaching the hatching-house, there is no occasion, in a small establishment, of additional aeration in the house, and therefore no need of more than 3 feet fall. Inspection of the premises at time of floods will suggest the safe- guards necessary to provide against inundation. If located by a brook- side, the hatching-house should not obtrude too much on the channel, and below the house there should be an ample outlet for everything that may come. By clearing out and enlarging a natural watercourse much can often be done to improve an originally bad site. In a cold climate it is an excellent plan to have the hatching- house partly under ground, for greater protection against outside cold. When spring water is used there is rarely any trouble, even in a cool house, from the formation of ice in the troughs; but water from lake, river, or brook is, in the latitude of the northern tier of States, so cold in winter that if the air of the hatching-house is allowed to remain much below the freezing-point ice will form in the troughs and on the floor to such an extent as to be a serious annoyance, and if not watched will form in the hatching-troughs so deeply as to freeze the eggs and destroy them. Stoves are needed in such climates to warm the air enough for the comfort of the attendants: but the house should be so located and constructed that it may be left without a fire for weeks without any dangerous accumulation of ice, and if the site does not permit of building the house partly under ground the walls must be thoroughly constructed and banked well with earth, sawdust, or other material. In warmer climates no trouble will be experienced from this source. DAMS AND CONDUITS. The requisite head of water can often be had by throwing a dam across the stream and locating the hatching-house close to it. The dam will form a small pond, which will serve the triple purpose of cool- ing, aerating, and cleansing the water. But unless the character of the bed and banks of the stream are such as to preclude any danger 38 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. of undermining or washing out the ends of the dam, it is best not to undertake to raise a great head in this way. With any bottom except one of solid ledge there is always great danger, and to guard against it when the dam is more than 2 feet high may be very troublesome. If there is a searcity of water, or if it is desirable, for aerating or other purposes, to secure a considerable fall, it is better to construct the dam at some distance above the hatching-house, on higher ground, where a very lew dam will suffice to turn the water into a conduit which will lead it into the hatching-house at the desired height. A square conduit made of boards or planks, carefully jointed and nailed, is in nearly all cases perfectly satisfactory, and for an ordinary establishment a very small one will suffice. The volume of water that will flow through a pipe of a given form depends upon its size and the inclination at which it is laid. A straight cylindrical pipe, 1 inch in diameter, inclined 1 foot in 10, conveys about 11 gallons of water per minute. The same pipe, with an inclination of 1 in 20, conveys 8 gallons per minute; with an inclination of 1 in 100, it conveys 34 gallons per minute; with an inclination of 1 in 1,000, it conveys 1 gallon per minute. A 2-inch pipe conveys about 53 times as much water as an inch pipe; a 3-inch pipe nearly 15 times as much. A 1-inch pipe, with an inclination of 1 in 1,000, conveys water enough for hatching 25,000 eggs; with an inclination of 1 in 50, enough for 100,000 eggs; with an inclination of 1 in 20, enough for nearly 200,000 eggs. A square conduit conveys one-quarter more water than a cylin- drical pipe of the same diameter. If there are any angles or abrupt bends in the pipe, its capacity will be considerably reduced. It should be remembered that if the water completely fills the aqueduct it is entirely shut out from contact with the air during its passage, whereas if the pipe is larger than the water can fill, the remainder of the space will be occupied by air, of which the water, rushing down the incline, will absorb a considerable volume and be greatly improved. It is therefore much better to make the conduit twice or thrice the size demanded by the required volume of water. If the bottom and sides are rough, so as to break up the water, so much the better, and the wider the conduit is the more surface does the water present to the air. AERATION. The water which fishes breathe is but the medium for the conveyance of air, which is the real vivifying agent, without which fish and eggs will die, and with a scanty supply of which the proper development of the growing embryo is impossible. Water readily absorbs air when- ever it comes in contact with it, and the more intimate and the longer continued the contact the greater the volume it will absorb. The ample aeration of the water to be used in the hatching-house has already been mentioned as a desideratum of the first importance, and some of the devices by which it is to be secured have been alluded to. Water from either a brook or a river that has been torn into froth by MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 39 dashing down a steep bed has absorbed all the air that is needed in 10 or 20 feet of hatching-trough, and demands no further attention on this score; but if the water is taken from a lake, a spring, or a quiet brook it contains less air, which may be so reduced before it gets through the hatching-house as to be unable to do its proper work. It is therefore desirable to adopt all practicable means of reinforcing it. If the site of the hatching-house commands a fall of 5 feet or more, the object may be attained by contriving in the conduit outside the house, or in the hatching-troughs themselves, a series of miniature cascades. The broader. and thinner the sheet of water the more thoroughly it is exposed to the air, and if, instead of being allowed to trickle down the face of a perpendicular board, it is carried off so that it must fall free through the air, both surfaces of the sheet are exposed and the effect doubled. If practicable, it is best to aerate in the conduit, which, as already suggested, may be made wide and open for that purpose. If aeration can not be effected outside the house it may be done inside by arranging two long troughs side by side, leveled carefully, so that the water is received in one of them and poured over into the other in a sheet the whole length of the trough. In the hatching- troughs themselves there is an opportunity for aeration either by making short troughs with a fall from one to another or by inclining the troughs and creating falls at regular distances by partitions or dams, each with its cascade, after the fashion already described. The only serious difficulty is encountered where the ground is very flat, so that the requisite fall can not be obtained, and in this case the best that can be done is to make a very large pool, several square rods at least, outside the house, and make all the conduits as wide as possible, so that the water shall flow in a wide and shallow stream. It will of course be borne in mind that the better the aeration the smaller the volume required to do a given work, and on the other hand it is equally true that the greater the volume the less aeration is necessary. When so large a volume as 6 gallons per minute for every 100,000 eggs is at command, a comparatively small amount of aeration will answer. But, so far as known, the higher the degree of aeration the better the result, without limit, other things being equal, and it is therefore advised to make use of all. the facilities existing for this purpose. FILTERING. Before the introduction of wire or glass trays for hatching fish eggs it was customary to lay them on gravel, and it was then absolutely necessary to filter all but the purest water. Even ordinary spring water deposits a very considerable sediment, which might accumulate upon the eggs to such an extent as to deprive them of a change of water and smother and destroy them. When, however, eggs are depos- ited on trays arranged for a circulation of water beneath, as well as over them, as described below, even though their upper sides are covered with sediment, they are clean and bright underneath and remain in 40 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. communication with the water beneath the tray, though of course the circulation of the water through the tray is not perfect. It is not, therefore, deemed necessary to introduce any considerable devices for filtering water which is naturally very pure, like lake and spring water when not subject to intermixture with surface water during rains; but where it is necessary to use water subject to constant or occasional turbidness some method of filtering is indispensable. In the majority of cases at least a portion of the water supply is obtained from an open brook, lake, or pond, and measures must be taken to get rid of the leaves and other coarse rubbish brought down by the stream or conduit. A great deal of such material is encountered in a stream at all seasons, but during fall and early winter it is especially abundant, and to secure entire safety from a stoppage of the water, and consequent loss, a screen on a generous scale must be provided. A description of the means adopted at this station for providing a temporary extra water service of several hundred gallons per minute, taken from Craig Brook, will serve as an illustration: A tank or vat, 12 feet square and about 2 feet deep, is built in the bed of the brook with a tight dam of stones, gravel, loam, and leaves (these to stop small leaks) running ashore on either side, so that the entire volume of the brook passes over the tank. The bottom and sides are tight and strong, and both bottom and top are inclined about 6 inches down the stream. The cover is of spruce lumber sawed 14 inches square, and nailed on in the direction of the current, with interstices open half an inch; when in operation the water fills the tank and runs over the lower edge, which is raised enough to maintain a depth of several inches over nearly the whole tank. All leaves and other materials floating near the surface of the water are carried over, together with most rubbish which floats deep. At one of the lower corners of the tank, near the bottom, is a gate about 15 inches square, which is hung by hinges on its upper side. It opens inward, and is closed tightly by the pressure of the water; but it can be easily opened by pushing with a pole from without, and then serves as a floodgate, whereby the tank may be thoroughly cleaned out. At the other lower corner is a conduit, 6 by 9 inches, which takes from this “leaf-screen” a supply of water not entirely free from rubbish, but so nearly so that a filter of moderate capacity can cope with what remains. A very useful adjunct would be a second horizontal screen of similar construction, through which the water that has passed down- ward through the first screen, as described, should next pass upward through the second; the first screen would remove floating debris, the second such as is heavier than water. The filter, situated about 70 feet from the leaf-screen, consists of a wooden flume, 12 feet long and 4 feet deep, divided lengthwise into three compartments, of which the central contains fine gravel held in place by a rack on e*ther hand, of which the interstices are 4 inch wide and 14 inches apart. The water from the leaf-screen is introduced into one MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 41 of the lateral compartments, and filters through the gravel into the opposite compartment, from which it is taken by a plank aqueduct, 6 by 6 inches, to the hatchery. Under the conditions described, and with a fall of about 1 foot from supply to discharge, this filter discharges over 300 gallons of water per minute into the aqgueduct—water not abso- lutely pure, but sufficiently free from coarse dirt for the purpose. In many cases, where small quantities of water are used, itis customary to filter through flannel screens in the hatchery, and such filters do very good service. They can be introduced into the egg-troughs, or by running them lengthwise of a trough a very large volume of water can be filtered. Scale of feet. ° 1 2 3 t 5 6 Gravel Filter. a, conduit from brook. h, a single long compartment for filtered water. b, gate, swinging on pivotate,to change i,j, racks to hold gravel in place. direction of water. i isin 5sections, movable, and can be taken out d, direct branch of conduit. when gravel is to be renewed. e, reverse branch of conduit. k,l, sluices near bottom for cleaning out. J, f, ete., a single long compartment for unfiltered m, wasteway. water. n, aqueduct to hatchery. 9,9, ete., compartments occupied by gravel. A form of filter that has given good satisfaction at the Craig Brook station through five years of service consists in a series of graduated wire screens, through which the water passes upward, first through the coarser, and then through the finer screens, with provision for the reversal of the current for cleaning purposes. By reference to the above plan and section, it will be seen that the water is brought to the filter through a plank conduit, and is admitted to the filter through either of two gates that swing on hinges, one for the direct flow and the other for the reversal. The direct flow is first into a receiving chamber, which extends under the screens, then upward through the whole series and out at the top, overflowing into a catch-trough, from which it is distributed as desired. In cleansing, the supply-gate is closed and the other one opened, and at the same time the sluice-gate at the bottom is opened; the water then flows in full volume upon the screens and down through them, carrying all the intercepted debris into the lower chamber and out through the sluice-gate. 42 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The wire filter illustrated has to pass some 500 gallons of water per minute, and has three screen-boxes, each of which carries 5 to 7 screens about 2 feet wide and 4 feet long; the meshes are from 2 inches down to $ inch square, and therefore intercept all coarse debris. PLAN. Ordinary Water Level. Conduit. ESSSSSSSSSS SSS 2 creens. EE ET TT (Ee SAA NY SS Sty NZNZNS BSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSsont QS SSS SES SSS SASS SESS SY MMIIIZ!: Leelee Scale of feet. . Wire Filter. It is but the work of a few moments to reverse the current and thoroughly cleanse the screens; when the autumn leaves are falling this must be done several times a day, but at other seasons some days PLATE 15. (To face page 43.) Report U, S. F. C. 1897. NOILVLS WOOUS DSIVYD ‘GNNOYONOVE NI SMOVYYVE GNV SONAGISSY HLIM 'SHONOYL-ONINVSY NOWTYS MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 43 elapse between the cleanings. The wire—even galvanized—rusts out in two or three years, and lately the coarser screens have been made of slender rods of oak, which will undoubtedly prove more durable. None of the filters described will intercept the finest sediment, and the water is finally passed through a capacious wooden reservoir, 30 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 54 feet deep, before it reaches the troughs. This answers the purpose well for the amount of water supplied by the filter last described (about 500 gallons per minute) and is regarded as well worth having, though even this will not insure limpidity in the water when the brook is swollen by rains. It may be mentioned that this reservoir is kept brimful at all times, so that all portions of the woodwork, except the railing surrounding it, are kept continuously wet and thus insured against decay for a very long period of years. CRAIG BROOK HATCHERY AND ITS EQUIPMENT. The Craig Brook hatchery derives its water supply from the brook, which has its source in Craig Pond, but which receives in the lower part of its course many copious springs. This spring water has some advantages, but possesses the serious disadvantage of such high tem- perature in winter as to unduly hasten the development of the eggs, causing them to hatch early and necessitating shipments of eggs in December. Accordingly, an aqueduct from a point on the brook above the springs brings to the hatchery a supply of cold water for winter use, in which eges taken the first of November will not hatch until the following April. This is important, as, if the product of the season’s hatching is to be liberated as fry, the late date of hatching will bring them to the feeding stage about the time when suitable food abounds in open waters, and if they are to be reared it is well to shorten up the sac stage and to have the early feeding stage fall at a date when the temperature of the water is rapidly rising, which will get the fish quickly through that most difficult of all stages of growth. The aqueduct is about 1,600 feet long, with a bore 44 inches, and has a nearly uniform descent and total freedom from depressions, and is from end to end one single piece of cement concrete. It delivers to the hatchery about 100 gallons of water per minute, which is sufficient for the development of 4,000,000 eggs, and possibly many more. It was built in place around a slightly tapering core, which was drawn forward as fast as the mortar set, and it has now done good service for seven- teen years. By this means the temperature of the hatchery water is maintained 3° below that of the brook modified by the springs. During the five months from November 1, 1895, to April 1, 1896, the mean tem- perature in the hatchery was 36.65° F. 44 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. THE EGG HARVEST. The natural deposit of spawn by the Atlantic salmon in the rivers of the United States occurs during the months of October and November. In artificial operations at Dead Brook it has rarely been necessary to begin spawning before October 22, or to close later than November 15.* Dead Brook is commonly at a very low stage in August and Septem- ber, but it rarely fails that before October 20 there is a very material increase in volume. Whenever a sudden rise occurs, even in August or September, imprisoned salmon are at once excited to activity, and any aperture in the upper barrier sufficient to admit the body of a salmon is sure to lead to loss. As the breeding season approaches the sensitiveness of the fish to such influences increases, and a rise about October 20 is followed by a general movement of the salmon upstream in search of spawning-grounds. Advantage is taken of this cireum- stance to entrap them at the upper barrier, where a small pound with a board floor and a barbed entrance, like that of a weir, is constructed a few days in advance. The success of this trap depends on the stage of the water, and it is always the case that a portion of the fish fail to enter it, so that the final resort is to a seine, with which the recalcitrant salmon are swept out of pools where they are wont to lie. The fish are dipped from the trap or from the seine with soft bag-nets, such as are used in collecting them at the beginning of the season, assorted according to sex and condition, to facilitate manipulation, and placed in floating wooden pens, which are moored to the bank in front of the spawn-house. These pens are about 12 feet long and 4 feet wide, with grated sides and floors, affording sufficient circulation of water, and, although indispensable for the convenient manipulation of the fish, the confinement in such narrow quarters leads to considerable chafing of noses and tails, and if long continued affects the development of the sexual functions of the female unfavorably, retarding the maturity of the eggs and even affecting their quality. The capture of the fish from the brook is therefore delayed to the point of risking the deposit of some of the earliest eggs in the brook rather than the possible injuries in the pens. The spawn-taking operations begin as soon as any females are ready to yield theireggs. A scarcity of males in breeding condition has never yet occurred at this station at the beginning of the season, and hardly ever at its close. Among the earliest captures there are always a few unripe fish, but invariably by the last day of October all are ripe. The spawning-house consists of a single, plain room, with two doors. From one of the beams hangs a steelyard and a bag, in which salmon are weighed. At one end is a stove,in which a fire is built in very cold weather. At the other end is a graduated board, upon which the *In Canadian rivers the dates are buta little earlier. Thus atthe Gaspé hatchery, in the Province of Quebec, in 1894, the work of spawning began October 10 and closed November 2. Report U S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 45.) PLATE 16 : . Ripe fish. Not ripe. mes Shy te ay 2 eas STRIPPING FEMALE SALMON. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 45 fish are laid for measurement. At the front is a narrow table, on which the eggs are washed; and at the rear the entire side of the room is occupied by a series of shelves, on which the eggs are placed after fecundation and washing. The spawn-taker, clad in waterproof clothing and wearing woolen mittens, sits on a stool or box, and on a box in front of him is a clean tin pan holding about 10 quarts, which has been rinsed and emptied but not wiped out. A female salmon is dipped up from one of the floating pens and brought to the operator, who seizes her by the tail with the right hand and holds her up, head downward. If unripe, the fish is returned to the pens; if ripe, the spawn will be loose and soft and will run down toward the head, leaving the region of the vent loose and flabby, and the operator, retaining his hold of the tail with his right hand, places the head of the fish under his left arm with the back uppermost, the head highest, and the vent immediately over the pan. At first the fish generally struggles violently and no spawn will flow; but as soon as she yields the eggs flow in a continuous stream, rattling sometimes with great force against the bottom of the pan. Shortly the flow slackens and must be encouraged and forced by pressing and stroking the abdomen with the left hand. It is better to use the face of the palm or the edge of the hand rather than pinch between the thumb and finger; the latter action, especially when work- ing down near the vent, is apt to rupture some of the minor blood vessels, with the result of internal bleeding, and it is better to leave some of the eggs behind to be taken another day than to run the risk of such ruptures. If the fish in hand is fully ripe, nine-tenths of the eggs are obtained at the first trial. When the operation has apparently gone far enough for the first day, the fish is laid in the weighing bag, and as soon as the weight is recorded is stretched upon the measuring board, whence she is returned to the water, after a stay of 10 or 15 minutes in the air, which results in no permanent injury. Both the weight and length of the fish and the weight of the eggs are recorded, together with anything remarkable connected with fish or eggs. Large salmon endure transportation and confinement less success- fully than smaller ones, and the record therefore shows large numbers of salmon from 29 to 31 inches in length, weighing, including eggs, from 9 to 12 pounds, and yielding 24 to 3 pounds of spawn (6,000 to 8,700 eggs), with now and then a fish 35 or 40 inches in length, yielding, in some cases, aS many as 16,000 to 20,000 eggs. As soon as the spawn of a single female is taken, a male is brought to the spawn-taker and the milt expressed upon the eggs. The pan is then swayed and shaken violently until the milt becomes well dis- tributed and in contact with every egg. If the quantity of spawn exceeds 3 pounds it is divided and fecundated in two pans instead of one, as it is difficult to secure a good result if the eggs lie in too great 46 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. masses. The eggs are passed over to the washer, who repeats the swaying and the shaking, and, having weighed them, pours in a small quantity of water and goes through the mixing process for a third time. After this the eggs are immediately washed by pouring in an abundance of water and turning it off, and repeating the operation until the water appears quite clear, when the eggs are placed on the shelves in the rear of the apartment, to await the process of swelling. When the egg first comes from the fish it has a soft and velvety feeling to the hand, and the outer shell lies loose and slack against the yolk. The presence of water excites the shell to action; its pores absorb water with such force that any foreign object coming in contact is sucked against it, and in consequence of this suction the eggs stick to the pan and to each other. In the course of 20 or 30 minutes this process is completed, the shell is swollen to its utmost extent and is firm to the touch, the space between the shell and the yolk is now filled with water, and adhesion to outer objects ceases. The eggs can now be laid upon trays and carried to the hatchery. No serious harm would ensue if the eggs should be disturbed during the process of swelling, but it is better not to spread them upon trays until they have attained full size and ceased to adhere to each other, and they are left on the shelves until the spawning for the day is over, when all are carried to the hatchery together. After the absorption of water the eggs must be handled very gently, as they are now suscep- tible to injury from sudden shocks, such as might ensue from pouring them from pan to pan, or setting the pan containing them down roughly upon a wooden table, and to guard against such injuries the tables and shelves are covered with old nets or other soft material. CONDITIONS AFFECTING FECUNDATION OF EGGS. While the spawn of a salmon is, with very rare exceptions, in normal and healthy condition and capable of fecundation within the limits of the spawning season, occasionally a fish is found whose eggs are in some way defective. Sometimes they are developed unevenly, the ovaries containing eggs in various stages of growth, some mature and some rudimentary; sometimes all the eggs of a fish are abnormally small, and sometimes all have defects which render them incapable of fecundation. But among the thousands that have been manipulated at the station not 1 in 300 has had defects involving as many as 20 per cent of her eggs, and in the spawn deemed of normal quality there can hardly be more than 1 defective egg in 400. Among the males no instance has occurred where there was reason to suspect the milt of being of defective quality if secured from a living fish. In 1872 experiments were made bearing on the duration of the capacity for fecundation of the eggs with interesting results. From eight lots of eggs taken from dead fish, the rates of impregnation ranged from 924 per cent down to zero. From a fish that had been dead 2 MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. AT hours 4,400 eggs were obtained, of which only 584 per cent were capable of fecundation. In one instance eggs taken from a dead fish and kept until the morrow before milting remained so far in normal condition that 124 per cent were fecundated. In another case 400 eggs from a fish that had been dead 15 hours failed totally; and the same result was obtained with 2,200 eggs taken from four specimens killed two days before. The same experiments afford evidence as to the result of keeping eggs for various periods of time after they are taken from the fish, and eggs exposed to the air and guarded against contact with water appear to keep better than in the organs of a dead fish. Thus, 200 eggs were kept in a pan without water for 12 hours after they were taken from the fish, and the application of milt then resulted in the impregnation of 90 per cent; of 200 eggs kept in the same way for 30 hours and then treated with fresh milt, 874 per cent were impregnated; and of 100 eggs kept 4 days and then treated with fresh milt, 12 were impregnated. Milt taken from a living male and kept in an open dish for several hours retains its powers fully, but experiments with milt from dead fish have given almost wholly negative results. Numerous experiments show that if eggs are merely covered by water, without effort to secure intermixture or the washing off of the mucus that envelops them when pressed from the organs of the mother fish, their susceptibility to fecun- dation may not be seriously affected by immersion 5 or 6 minutes; but if the eggs are stirred, so as to facilitate the washing off of the mucus and the access of pure water, immersion for 1 or 2 minutes may pre- vent impregnation. When thoroughly diluted with water the milt speedily loses its power, the effect being very marked at the end of 30 seconds; diluted with the mucus that accompanies the egg, it will remain effective for a long period. Where water has been carefully excluded, milt has been used successfully after the lapse of 12 hours with landlocked salmon, and this would probably hold with eggs of all kinds of salmon and trout. This property of the mixed mucus and milt has been utilized in impregnating masses of eggs when there is a scarcity of males, as sometimes occurs toward the close of the spawning season. In strain- ing the mixed mucus and milt from the pan of eggs, the lower strata, which are richer in milt than the upper, should be especially secured and the mixture kept in a convenient receptacle. The upper strata of the mixture should not be used, as the milt settles to the bottom. Fresh milt should always be preferred when obtainable. The eggs are washed as soon as the milt is thoroughly diffused among them, and this can hardly be done too speedily for the milt to act. A careful record of certain lots of eggs that were washed in special haste for experimental purposes shows that they were as well impregnated as those exposed to the action of the milt for a considerable period. Prolonged exposure to the milt has been found to affect the health and development of the embryo unfavorably. 48 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. TRANSFER OF EGGS TO THE HATCHERY AND THEIR CARE. From Dead Brook the eggs are transferred to the hatchery at Craig Brook station, about 2 miles, and spread on trays in the spawning- house. The trays are placed in frames, inclosed in boxes which are padded within to guard against concussion. In spite of all precautions some of the eggs are occasionally killed, though the trays are placed in pans of water and the eggs poured from the spawning-pans with the greatest care. The frames or “stacks” containing the eggs are placed at once in the troughs where they are to be developed. The trays are 124 inches square, and constructed by attaching iron wire-cloth to light wooden rims with blocks at the corners, so that when piled up, one above another, there are narrow interstices on all four sides, through which water circulates freely. The rims of the trays are very slender, in order that they may never have buoyancy enough to float, which would necessitate some means of holding them down and increase the trouble attending their manipulation. Southern poplar (whitewood) is commonly used, and a rim 4 inch wide and 2 inch deep answers the purpose well, provided the wire be not very light. The corner pieces are } inch thick, and give the interstices just enough width to provide an ample circulation of water, but not enough to allow the escape of salmon eggs, which are nearly } inch in diameter. Rusting is prevented by varnishing the wire-cloth with several coats of asphaltum varnish, which works better if made very thin by the use of a large proportion of spirits of turpentine. The same varnish gives a clean and glossy surface to submerged woodwork, and the varnishing is extended to the rims of the trays, the ‘‘stack-pans,” and the interior surfaces of the troughs themselves. Material subject to rust should be used only with great caution. Wire or other metallic forms galvanized with zine vary in quality. Total loss of eggs has been known to result from the use of galvanized wire-cloth when unvarnished. Careful experiment should precede the use of any particular brand. Tinned wire cloth is better, but whether enough so to warrant the extra expense is a question. In developing eggs, in order to economize room, the trays are piled up 10 or 20 deep in frames that confine them only at the corners and do not hinder the free passage of water horizontally through the ‘‘stack.” About 2,000 Atlantic salmon eggs are placed on a single tray, and a trough of the ordinary length, 104 feet, therefore carries 140,000 to 280,000 eggs, with suitable free space at either end. It is therefore an exceedingly compact apparatus and has the further advantage that it can be used ina very plain trough which can, with a few minutes’ work, be transformed into a rearing-trough for young fish. For 10-tray stacks the trough is made of pine boards, 122 inches wide and 9 inches deep inside, and is set up level, with the top about 30 inches from the floor of the room. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 49 The water is fed into one end through a wooden or rubber tube guarded by a wire screen, and is regulated by a simple swinging gate. The outlet is either over a wooden dam or through a hollow plug, either of which determines the height of the water in the trough, which is always maintained just at the top of the covering tray or an eighth of an inch above it. H Scale of feet. Ne a ati ee A ae % ae ae “F §.2 | a Y, ge 3S Saas SS Bee Sa = Bee ee SS SSeS ee I! = =| a= =| Y lect -d = — Rl =| SMIS LEIS IE T ELT [2 MIE = =| CIEL ae cre maint H i: | | Trough Arranged for Eggs. Fig. 1, plan. Fig. 2, longitudinal section. a, supply-trough j, down-spout. u, screen. b, screen. r, cleats. v, outlet. d, supply-pipe. s, stacks of egg-trays. w, wooden dam. J, egg-trough. t, waste-pipe. x, water surface. For the regular picking and cleaning, and for other examinations, the stacks are removed from the trough to a table, where the trays can be taken out one by one, set over into an empty frame, and returned to the trough. This can be performed with ordinary caution at any stage of the development of the embryo, without doing the slightest injury, and after the delicate stage is passed the trays and their burden of eggs can be washed at the same time in a pan of water. WINTER CARE OF EGGS. The eggs pass the winter in the stacks. They are regularly picked over and the dead ones removed once or twice a week—twice during the first few weeks, on account of the comparatively high temperature then prevailing and the consequent rapid development of decay and growth of fungus. It depends, to a considerable extent, on the water tempera. ture; the water at the beginning of the spawning season varies from 50° to 55° F., and maintains a mean of 43° to 45° F. during the month of November. The color of a good egg, or of an unimpregnated egg that still retains its vitality, is a translucent salmon pink, with some variations in shade. F.C. R. 1897-4 SSSSSSSSSS 50 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. It is possible, by placing it in a favorable light, to get a fairly good interior view, including the detailed anatomy of the embryo. When the egg dies it turns chalky white, becomes wholly opaque, and in a few days, depending on the temperature, decay sets in, and sometimes a white water-mold or fungus begins to grow upon it. The mere decay of the egg would foul the water, thereby injuring the neighboring eggs, and the fungus established on the dead eggs may spread to the living ones. It is therefore essential that the white eggs be removed before they have time to do any injury. For egg-picking a homemade pair of tweezers, about 6 inches long, is used, made of any convenient wood and tipped with a pair of wire loops of a size to conveniently grasp the egg. The operator lifts the stack of trays carefully from the trough and, to save dripping, carries it on a wooden waiter to a well-lighted table of convenient height, on which stands an oblong pan, 14 by 18 inches, holding about an inch of water. The stack of eggs to be picked is placed at one end of the pan and at the other end is an empty stack-frame. The trays are examined one by one, dipped in the pan of water, picked (or cleaned by agitation when the eggs are in condition to endure the disturbance), and placed in the empty frame. The air of the room is kept at a low temperature during this process, and the water in the pan is often changed. The eggs when first impregnated are very sensitive to rude shocks and are handled with great care. Within a few hours the germ begins to develop; in 10 days, at a temperature of about 40° F., the germ-disk appears as a ring of color on the upper side of the yolk. At this date the unimpregnated egg presents the same appearance and does not change much until its death, however long that may be deferred. In the impregnated egg, however, the germ-disk continually enlarges upon the surface of the yolk; the ring of color that marks its edge advances before it, passing quite round the yolk, and closing up on the posterior side. As early as the thirteenth day the difference between the impregnated and unimpregnated egg is quite plain to the unaided eye after a very little experience, and three or four days later the good egg is marked by a distinct line of color passing around the very middle of the yolk, a phenomenon never appearing in an unimpregnated egg. During this stage, while the embryonic disk is spreading around the yolk, the egg grows constantly more and more delicate, and liable to rupture of its tissues and consequent death on very slight disturbance; but later the tissues grow stronger, and when, about the thirty-fifth or fortieth day, the eyes of the embryo have assumed enough color to appear as two dark dots, the egg has attained hardiness enough to endure rougher handling. Thenceforward, until the near approach of the time for hatching, the work consists simply in picking out the dead ones, occasionally rinsing out the sediment, and sometimes removing the unimpregnated eggs. af - . eis . J Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 51 ) PLATE 17. HANDLING EGG-TRAYS. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. D1 The latter procedure is attended to for the entire stock of eggs, but is of special importance in case of those that are to be transported. It may be performed any time after the good eggs become hardy—that is, after the eyes become black—but becomes easier late in the season. The unimpregnated eggs, which were at first fully equal in hardiness to the impregnated, lose in that respect as time passes, and finally are readily killed and turned white by a shock which does no injury to the impreg- nated eggs. When this time has arrived, the eggs are turned from the trays into spawning-pans with a moderate quantity of water, and poured from pan to pan back and forth a dozen times, each time falling a foot or more, and striking the bottom of the pan with considerable force, giving each egg a severe shock. They are then returned to the trays and troughs and as soon as convenient are picked, and if the operation has been thorough almost every unimpregnated egg has turned white and is picked out, while the eggs in which the embryos are developing have not suffered at all. PACKING AND TRANSPORTING. Eggs may be safely transported as soon as the eyes have become thoroughly colored, and until within a few weeks (five or six in cold weather) of the date for hatching. In shipments made too late the shells burst on the way and the embryos perish. The method of packing eggs at Craig Brook is to put them in layers alternating with wet sphagnum moss in shallow wooden boxes, placed in cases of a size to afford on all sides of the inner package a space of 24 or 3 inches, which is filled with some light, porous material that will form a good nonconductor of heat. The eggs are thrown from hatching-trays into a large rectangular pan, from which they are poured with water into tin measures which hold 2,500 each. A thin layer of moss is placed in the bottom of a packing-box. A little fine snow is sifted upon the moss, and on this is spread a piece of mosquito netting that has been soaked and rinsed in clean water. A measure of eggs is now poured on and spread out and covered by folding over the edges of the netting, which now completely envelops them. Next a layer of moss is spread, followed by snow, netting, and eggs, as before, and the series is repeated until the box is full. The moss must be sufficiently wet, so that with the melting of the snow it shall have all the moisture it will hold, and no more, as it is very desirable to avoid the wetting of the outer packing. If the moss is too dry, the eggs may dry to the extent of becoming indented, and the same result may come from crowding the moss in too hard on the eggs, though it should be pressed in so tightly that the eggs will not slide out of place if the case is turned for a moment on its side. The temperature of the packing-room is below 50° F., and packing materials are kept in a place which is cool, yet not much below the freezing-point. Salmon eggs packed as above commonly go a three days’ journey without completely melting the snow that was sprinkled 52 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. under the eggs, and on several occasions eggs of landlocked salmon have been carried across the Atlantic in prime condition, without repacking or special attention. The packing-boxes are made of thin pine or fir, 12 inches wide and 15 inches long—?-inch thick boards being used for the end pieces and 4-inch for the other parts—and hold in a single layer, without crowding, 2,500 eggs. The deepest are 34 inches deep and take four layers, or 10,000 eggs, in a box. To make up a shipment of 40,000 eggs, four boxes are piled up and secured together by tacking strips of wood against the ends, with a cover on the upper box, and this package placed in the case. Fora shipment of 80,000, two of the 40,000 packages are put side by side in a larger case, and the proportions selected for the inner boxes are such that the case required is of convenient form. ees BLAS Sete Ne e aaeneas anne meres VZZZZL Ns OEP FIST T IO PT FTET TTI ITIL IED LILLTLZ/LL Longitudinal section of a case of Atlantic Salmon eggs. Different mosses can be used for packing, but none are so good as the sphagnous moss that can be found in swamps and bogs in most regions of high latitude or considerable elevation. Fresh moss is preferable for a bed for the eggs, though dead, dry moss may be moist- ened and used with good results. The moss is gathered in August or September, dried on the ground, and stored in sacks or in bulk until wanted. It retains its freshness through the following winter, not heating like most organic materials. It is exceedingly light, and the best nonconductor known, with the possible exception of asbestos. It-is used dry in the outer packing, mainly to save weight, but when protection against freezing is all that is sought, wet moss is better, as frost penetrates wet moss more slowly than dry. When moss can not be had, there are many substitutes which may be used for the protective envelope, such as dry forest leaves, chaff from a haymow, chopped hay, or even crumpled paper; but the latter should not be allowed to become wet. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 53 HATCHING. As the time for hatching draws near, the eggs are placed on trays provided with legs or some other support to keep them up from the bottom of the trough. Brass nails driven into the under sides of the tray rims are good temporary legs, and after the hatching is over they are readily removed and the necessity of a special set of trays for hatching is avoided. When there are plenty of troughs, these trays stand singly on the bottom of the trough, but when it is necessary to economize room two or even three are disposed one above another. When no necessity exists for economy of space, 4,000 eggs are allowed a whole trough, which is at the rate of 400 to the square foot; 2,000 or even 5,000 to the square foot may be carried through hatching and the entire sac stage, but the latter number involves risky crowding. The hatching is sometimes expedited by giving eggs that are just at the hatching point a decided shock, similar to that given at an earlier date to kill the unimpregnated ones; also by the temporary stoppage of the water supply. But at Craig Brook it is the custom to lay the eggs out in good season and allow them unlimited time in which to hatch, sometimes a week, sometimes two weeks. The earliest lots commonly hatch the latter part of March, and it is not often that any remain unhatched after April 20. The mean duration of the egg stage is therefore about 157 days, during which the mean temperature of the water has been about 37° F. While hatching is progressing, the outlet screens are closely watched to keep the empty shells from clogging them up; for when a considerable part of the screen is clogged the force of the current through the open spaces is greatly increased, and the soft and yielding sacs of the fish are liable to be drawn through the meshes. THE SAC STAGE. When the shell breaks, though it has been coiled up in a space less than + inch in diameter, the trunk of the newly hatched salmon at once straightens out to a length of about 2? inch. The yolk, scarcely dimin- ished from its original size, hangs beneath and constitutes the greater part of the bulk of the fish. The young salmon is for a while more unwieldly than a tadpole. When frightened he sculls about with great energy, but makes slow progress and is fain to lie on his side on the bottom of the trough or crowd with his companions into a corner. The sac is a store of nutriment, which is gradually absorbed into the other parts of the fish; and so long as it lasts the young salmon will not eat. The interval between hatching and total absorption of the sac varies with the temperature, the mean at Craig Brook in April and May being about six weeks. As time passes the embryo fish grows more and more to resemble the adult, his body acquires strength, and his fins assume form and become more effective as organs of propulsion. At last his digestive system 54 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. assumes its functions and rouses the desire for food. Until this time, intent only on hiding, the fry have clung obstinately to the bottom and to the dark corners, but now they scatter about through the water, with heads upstream watching for prey. This indicates that they must be fed. During this period of his growth it is simply necessary to see that the young fish has plenty of water, that there is no hole or crevice into which he can be drawn by the current, and that he is pro- tected from enemies, such as large fishes, minks, rats, kingfishers, and herons. If not in a house, well-fitting covers must be provided to the troughs and impassable screens command both ends. The screens are of fine wire-cloth, 12 or 14 meshes to the linear inch, and present a sur- face of 14 square inches to each gallon of water passing through them each minute. Thus, if there are 4 gallons of water passing through the trough each minute the portion of the screen beneath the surface of the water must measure as much as 56 square inches, and if the screen is. 2 inches wide the water must be 42 inches deep on the screen. / WLM A ty Atlantic Salmon, recently hatched. REARING. The leading feature of the work of the station is the rearing of fry to the age of six or eight months. The fishes reared are mainly Atlantic salmon, but landlocked salmon, American brook trout, European brook trout, rainbow trout, steelhead trout, American lake trout, Swiss lake trout, Scotch sea trout, and saibling have also been handled. The fish are fed wholly on artificial food from about June 1 till October or November, when they are mostly liberated. To a limited extent they are kept in artificial ponds, but troughs of the same form and dimen- sions as those already described for use in developing the eggs and in hatching have given satisfactory results and have been adopted for the most part. Each trough is provided with a changeable outlet screen and below the screen discharges the water through a hole in the bottom, into which is fitted a hollow plug, the height of which determines the depth of waterin the trough. The hollow plug plays an important part in the daily cleaning of the trough, which will be referred to further on. ‘he use of the troughs in the open air, which, in the absence of com- modious buildings, is a necessity, compels the constant use of covers -to keep out vermin; and wooden covers in pairs, running the whole length “MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 55 of the trough, hinged to its sides, and, when closed, assuming the form of a roof at an angle of 45°, were finally adopted. These covers are made of thin boards, 2 inch thick, sawed in narrow pieces, which are put together so as to leave in each corner two cracks open 4 inch wide for the admission of light when the covers are closed. When open they may be fixed in an upright position, thus increasing the height of the sides and guarding against the loss of fish by jumping out. 4 «| 4 Y) y RSS eee a Fass 1] Scale of feet. $ 2 = 3 o Troughs arranged for Rearing. Fig. 1, plan. Fig. 2, longitudinal section. Fig. 3, cross-section near foot of trough. Fig. 4, inlet, with rocking gate. Fig. 5, elevation of lower end. a, supply-trough. i, hollow outlet plug. b, screen. j, down-spout. c, rocking gate. k, supports. d, supply-pipe. I, cover. é, water-board (to spread the water and throw it down). mm, cover open (hanging). J, fish-trough. n, cover open (upright). gy, gripe, to prevent spreading of sides. , p, cover closed. h, outlet screen. q, end boards (closing aperture). Water is furnished through rubber or wooden pipes ? inch in diame- ter, and the bore of the hollow plug at the outlet is 14 inch or larger. The inflow is regulated by an oscillating or rocking gate, which is set to admit the desired volume of water. The trough is set with the upper end an inch or two higher than the other, to facilitate cleaning out, and the water is kept during the summer about 4 inches deep at the lower end. 56 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The troughs are supported by a suitable framework at a convenient height from the ground and arranged in pairs with their heads against along feed-trough, constructed of pine boards and perforated on the side by the feed-pipes, over each of which is a capacious screen to pre- vent clogging by leaves or other floating debris. A frame 6 by 12 inches, covered on its outer side by wire-cloth of 4 inch square mesh, answers the purpose of a screen so well that water from an ordinary brook can be admitted to the feed-trough without previous filtering or screening and with little or no danger of a stoppage of water in any of the fish-troughs. Such screens over the feed-pipes might be made the sole dependence, were it not that the labor attending their cleaning would be greater than that required by a separate filter or screen. Scale of feet. + lower level. Ne Stand of Troughs for Rearing Atlantic Salmon. The system represented here by 12 troughs in two series may be extended to many hundreds of troughs in four (or more) series, each series on a different level and receiving water from the series next above, the fall from one to another being about 4 feet. In the drawing the series of 6 troughs on the left is supplied with water directly from the upper ‘“‘feed-trough” (i. e., supply-trough), and they discharge into a catch-trough, from which the water is carried to the supply-trough (‘‘feed-trough”) of the lower level. If the aqueduct supplies more water than the upper series of troughs can use, the surplus passes by way of the “overflow” directly to the catch-trough and thence to the supply-trough of the second series. With a fall of 4 feet, the catch- trough and the conduits that lead from it are below the walks which give access to the troughs on both sides and at the lower end. The number of fish assigned to a single trough is ordinarily 2,000, and the volume of water given them is commonly 5 gallons per minute. Generally the water is used but once in troughs and is discharged MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. Ht into conduits leading to ponds where larger fish are kept; but a stand of 100 troughs has lately been set up with the design of using all the water twice; and for many years there has been one system of 52 troughs, arranged in four series, which use in succession the same water, the young salmon thriving quite as well in the fourth series as in the first. On one occasion a few of them were maintained for several weeks in the warmer water of a neighboring brook, where a trough was set up and stocked with 100 young salmon taken from one of the troughs at the station July 30. The temperatures observed between 1 and 4 p. m. in the fish-trough on successive days from July 30 to August 14, not including August 1 or 10, were as follows: 79°, 75°, 77°, 799, 829, 829, 78°, 76°, 76°, 76°, 74°, 74°, 74°, 74°, F. The fish were fed the same as the lot out of which they were taken, except that they received food only once a day instead of twice, and were returned to the station October 7 without a single loss during the experiment. Moreover, they were all weighed October 10 and found to average 100.6 grains, while those of the original lot that had remained at the station, with a temperature between 50° and 71° F., averaged only 56.1 grains. While the greatly increased weight of the fish kept in the stream was owing in part to more space, as the 100 had as large a trough as 1,505 at the station, the higher temperature was undoubt- edly one of the factors that contributed to the gain in weight, and it is at least plainly shown that the warm water was not unhealthful. Though small ponds, excavated by the former proprietor, were in existence at the station and used to some extent for rearing young fish in their first summer as far back as 1888, and older fish have been kept in small ponds each season since that, it was not until 1896 that enough pond work was done to furnish data of importance. The ponds for rearing Atlantic salmon are among the series known as the “south ponds,” occupying a smooth piece of ground sloping toward Alamoosook Lake at a grade of lin 8. Formerly it was mostly a swale, watered by a copious spring at its head. This series comprises 19 ponds of rectangular form, about 50 to 90 feet long and 15 feet wide, with a depth of 2 or3 feet. The water supply of those used for Atlantic sal- mon is derived from Craig Brook by an aqueduct tapping it at a point where two parts of Craig Pond water are mingled with one part spring water, being substantially the same as the water supplying the most of the rearing-troughs. From 5,000 to 10,000 fish that have been fed in troughs during the early pare of the feeding season are placed in each pond, and for the remainder of the season are fed the same food that is given to the fish left in the troughs; and the results indicate that the stock of fish might be safely increased. While the greater part of the salmon reared at Craig Brook are liberated in October, when about seven months old, in 1891-92 about 16,000 were carried through the winter, most of them in tanks sunk in the ground, and nearly as many have been wintered some other 58 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. seasons. Fish may also be kept all winter in troughs in the open air by occasionally spreading blankets over them in exceptionally cold weather, and keeping the conduits carefully covered. The fish surviving the summer season are generally counted and weighed in October, in the following manner: A large number of them are dipped up from a trough in a small dip net made of cheese-cloth, and from this, while it is hanging in the water in such a manner that the fish can not escape, they are dipped out a few at a time, in a small dipper or cup, counted, and placed in another bag net until a sufficient number (generally 200) are counted, when they are lifted out of the water, held a moment in the air to drain, and all turned quickly into a pail of water which has previously been weighed. With care no appreciable amount of water goes with the fish, and the increase in the reading indicates their weight with a fair approach to accuracy, and with care and celerity of action it is quite safe for the fish. The size attained by the fish varies greatly, being affected by the water, the space allowed, the feed, and perhaps by hereditary influences; but when seven months old a trough-reared salmon is generally from 24 to3 inches long and weighs from 35 to 100 grains, the maximum being about 130 grains and the minimum as low as 7 grains, the general mean for 1896 being 45.8 grains. Salmon reared in ponds have been far more thrifty, their general average in 1896 being 101 grains.* The losses in ponds from July to October were rather heavy, being 11.7 per cent, owing to depredations of frogs, birds, and cannibal fish. The losses in the troughs during the entire season were 9.1 per cent, but most of these were in the early stages of fryhood. After July losses in troughs are always very light. MATERIALS FOR FISH FOOD. At Craig Brook station there have been used butchers’ offal, flesh of horses and other domestic animals, fresh fish,and maggots. Experi- ments have also been made with pickled fish, blood, fresh-water mussels, mosquito larve, miscellaneous aquatic animals of minute size, *A very interesting comparison between the results of rearing in troughs and ponds is afforded by the record of two lots of steelhead trout during the season of 1896. All the fry of this species that were devoted to rearing were fed in troughs until July 22, when some of them were transferred to a pond which has dn area of about 1,100 square feet and another lot was.kept inatrough. The two lots were fed exactly alike, about one-sixth of their nutriment being liv maggots, and five-sixths chopped meat, liver, and other butchers’ offal. November 7, the lof in the trough was overhauled, and the 762 survivors found to weigh 10 pounds 4 ounces, or an average of 94 grains. Three days later the pond fish were seined out and the 7,398 survivors found to weigh 235 pounds 10 ounces, an average of 223 grains, It is not believed that natural food occurring in the pond contributed much to this result, and it would appear that the controlling factor in the case was the space afforded the fish. Leaving out of the account the difference in depth, in the pond there were less than 7 fish to each square foot of area, while in the trough, which had an area of about 11 square feet, there were to each square foot 69 fish. A similar illustration was furnished by 41 rainbow trout of the hatching of 1896 that got astray in one of the ponds and were taken out November 11, weighing 480 grains each. Those of the same age, reared in troughs, attained during the season only a weight of 1363 grains each. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 59 flour, and middlings. The butchers’ offal comprises livers, hearts, and lights, which are collected from the slaughter-houses twice or thrice weekly, and preserved in refrigerators until used. The flesh of old and worn-out horses has been used each year since 1892 in the same way as the butcher’s offal, with very satisfactory results; the parts that could be chopped readily have been fed direct to the fish so far as needed, and other parts have been used in the rearing of maggots. Next to chopped meat maggots have constituted the most important article of food, and their systematic production has received much attention. A rough wooden building has been erected for this branch of the work, and one man is constantly employed about it during the summer and early autumn months. The maggots thus far used are exclusively flesh-eaters, mainly those of two undetermined species of flies; the first and most important being a small, smooth, shining green or bluish-green fly, occurring in early summer and remaining in some- what diminished numbers until October; and the other a large, rough, steel-blue fly that comes later and in autumn becomes the predomi- nating species, having such hardiness as to continue the reproduction of its kind long after the occurrence of frosts sufficiently severe to freeze the ground. To obtain maggots meat is exposed in a sheltered location accessible to flies during the day. When well stocked with the spawn of the flies it is placed in boxes, which are set away in the “ fly-house” to develop; when fully grown, the maggots are taken out and fed at once to the fish. Stale meat, parts of the butchers’ offal and of the horse carcasses not adapted to chopping; fish, fresh, dried, or pickled; fish pomace from herring-oil works, and any animal refuse that comes to hand, are used to entice the flies and afford nourishment for the maggots. Fresh fish, when not too watery or oily, like alewives and herring, is very attract- ive to the flies, and in proper condition may serve as well as fresh meat. Fish dried without salt or smoke and moistened before using is, when free from oil, a superior article. Its preparation presents some difti- culties, but in winter it is easily effected by impaling whole fishes on sticks and hanging them up under a roof where they will be protected from rain without hindering the circulation of the air; in this way many flounders and other refuse fish from the smelt fisheries have been dried. It is usually necessary to expose meat but a single day to obtain suf- ficient fly spawn; the larve are hatched and active the next day, except in cool weather, and they attain their full growth in two or three days. To separate them from the remnants of food the meat bearing the fly spawn is placed on a layer of loose hay or straw in a box which has a wire-cloth bottom, and which stands inside a slightly larger box with a tight wooden bottom. When full grown, the maggots work their way down through the hay into the lower box, where they are found nearly free from dirt. 60 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. When young salmon or trout first begin to feed they are quite unable to swallow full-grown maggots, and small ones are obtained for them by putting a large quantity of fly spawn with a small quantity of meat, the result being that the maggots soon begin to crowd each other and the surplus is worked off into the lower box before attaining great size. No attempt is, however, made to induce the young fish to swallow even the smallest maggots until they have been fed a while on chopped liver. Maggots are produced and used in considerable numbers, sometimes as many as a bushelinaday. The fish eat them eagerly, and appear to thrive on them better than on dead meat. Having great tenacity of life, if not snapped up immediately by the fish they remain alive for a day or two, and, as they wriggle about on the bottom, are almost cer- tain to be finally eaten, which is a great gain in cleanliness and economy, as the particles of dead flesh falling to the bottom are largely neglected by the fish and begin to putrefy in a few hours and foul the troughs. As the growth of maggots can be controlled by regulation of the tem- perature, they may be kept all winter in a pit or cellar and used as food for fish confined in deep tanks not easily cleaned. In the rearing of maggots the offensive odors of decaying flesh may be partly overcome by putting it away in boxes, after the visits of the flies, and covering it with pulverized earth. Only flesh-eating maggots have yet been tried, and the trouble may possibly be rectified by culti- vating the larve of other species, such as the house-fly, the stable fly, etc., or a little white maggot known to grow in heaps of seaweec, if their rate of growth is found to be satisfactory. Occasional use has been made of fresh fish for direct feeding, but when thrown into the water after chopping it breaks up into fibers to such an extent that it is not satisfactory, unless in a coarsely chopped form, for the food of large fish. A few barrels of salted alewives have been used, and, if well soaked out and chopped, they are readily eaten by the larger fish and can be fed to fry, but are less satisfactory with the latter, and, like fresh fish, break up to such an extent that they are only to be regarded as one of the last resorts. Fresh-water mussels, belonging almost wholly to a species of Unio, have been occasionally gathered with nets or dredges in the lake close to the station and opened with knives and chopped. The meat is readily eaten by all fishes and appears to form an excellent diet. It is more buoyant than any other article tried, sinks slower in the water, and gives the fish more time to seize it before it reaches the bottom; but the labor involved in dredging and shelling is a serious drawback. During the seasons of 1886 and 1888 some use was made of mosquito larvee, collected trom pools of swamp water by means of a set of strain- ers specially devised for the purpose and from barrels filled with water disposed in convenient places near the rearing-troughs. The larve (or pup) were strained out and fed to the fish. No kind of food has been MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 61 more eagerly devoured, and apparently no other food has contributed more to the growth of the fish; but the time expended in collecting is out of all proportion to the quantity of food secured. Perhaps a series of breeding-tanks arranged in proximity to the fish-troughs, into which the water containing the larve might be drawn when desirable by the simple opening of a faucet, would reduce the labor involved. Middlings and flour have been tried in combination with blood from the shambles, but did not appear to satisfy the fish so well as the vari- ous forms of meat, and their use has, therefore, not been continued. They were fed in the form of a pudding composed of two parts blood and one part flour or middlings, cooked carefully to avoid burning, and the mixture was then passed through a meat-chopper and ladled out with a spoon, like other chopped food. The growth of live food in the ponds themselves in which the fish are maintained has been the subject of study. Ponds several years old and well stocked with vegetation were at one time devoted to these experiments. They had been empty during the preceding winter, and in the spring were fertilized with various sorts of animal and vegetable refuse. They were stocked with different species of crustacea native to the region, including shrimps (Gammarus) and entomostraca, of the genera Daphnia, Ceriodaphnia, Sida, Cyclops, Polyphemus, ete., which were systematically collected from open waters by nets and other appa- ratus and placed in the ponds. These forms all multiplied there, some of them enormously, but no means was found of inducing continuous or frequent reproduction of them, and the young fish soon exhausted the supply. In serving the food the attendant carries it with the left hand—in a 2-quart dipper if chopped meat, in a larger vessel if maggots—and, dipping it out with a large spoon, strews it the whole length of the trough, being careful to put the greater portion at the head, where the fish nearly always congregate. Finely chopped food, for very young fish, is slightly thinned with water before feeding. It is usual to feed the meat raw except the lights, which chop better if boiled first; but occasional lots of meat, on the point of becoming tainted, are boiled to save them. All meats fed directly to the fish are first passed through a chopping-machine. To fish just beginning to eat, food is given four times a day, or in some cases even six times, but as the season progresses the number of rations is gradually reduced to two daily. In winter such fish as are carried through are fed but once a day. CLEANING THE TROUGHS. The troughs are all cleaned daily. When the hollow plug is drawn the water rushes out rapidly and carries most of the debris against the screen. The fishes are excited, and, scurrying about, loosen nearly all the dirt from the bottom; what will not otherwise yield is started with a brush, but after the first few weeks the brush has rarely to be used 62 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. except to rub the debris through the outlet screen. Owing to the incli- nation of the trough, the water recedes from the upper end until the fishes lying there are almost wholly out of water, but, although they are left in that position sometimes for 10 or 15 minutes, no harm has ever been known to result. TRANSPORTATION AND LIBERATION OF YOUNG SALMON. The salmon produced at the station have, with few exceptions, been liberated in the Penobscot River or its tributaries, and more than 90 per cent of them in small tributaries within 10 miles of the station. They have been spread about in streams and lakes, at all accessible points. They are transferred in tin cans, holding about 8 gallons, with an extreme height, including neck, of 17 or 18 inches, and a body 154 inches in diameter and 10 inches deep, making a very broad and low can, well adapted to the use to which it is put. Its great width favors aeration at the surface, and a good deal of dashing about of the water when on the road. The cans are filled to within about an inch from the shoulder, giving opportunity for the water to swash about and aerate itself. Into such a can are put from 200 to 400 Atlantic salmon seven months old, more or less, according to the size of the fish, the tempera- ture of the air, and the weather. The ordinary load is about 300 when the temperature of the water is 52° to 54° F., making 37 fish per gallon. Such loads are entirely safe for the conditions attending the work. The motion of the wagon in which they are carried keeps up the aera- tion of the water, so that the fish can not exhaust the air. Should the cans stand still a very long time aeration is effected by a force-pump which draws the water from the can and returns it through a tube so that it strikes upon a deflector by which it is broken and scattered in spray. The suction hose is covered with a roomy wire strainer, so that the fish are not drawn in. DISEASES. Salmon in all their stages of growth are subject to a variety of dis- eases. White spots sometimes occur on the eggs attached to the shell, but have no hold on the embryos, so that when the shell is torn off the white spot is seen as a cluster of globular white masses on its inner surface. These appear to be vegetable parasites, perhaps fungoid in their relations, and are never seriously abundant. Other white spots are connected with the yolk-sac itself. These are more-serious, but while they result in the death of many embryos, they are by no means always fatal. In 1896 there were hatched at the station some rainbow trout that were badly spotted on the sac. A portion of the fry were divided into three lots for experiment: (a) Without spots; (b) moder- ately spotted; (c) badly spotted. They were kept separate through the Season, and a fair percentage survived, as follows: Of lot a, 55 per cent; of lot b, 59 per cent; of lot c, 43 per cent. In the fall they were Report U.S, F.C. 1897. (To face page 63.) PLATE 18. =| FUNGUS ON SALMON EGG, (Enlarged 9 times.) FUNGUS ON SALMON EGG, BEARING REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. (Enlarged 9 times.) REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF EGG FUNGUS. (Enlarged 150 times.) MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 63 all weighed, and it was found that lot ¢ had made a slightly better growth than lot a. One of the most uncontrollable diseases attacks salmon fry midway in the sac stage, and finishes its work before the complete absorption of the sac. The most evident symptom is the appearance of scattered white spots in the sac; the fish cease to try to hide, but lie scattered about on the bottom of the trough; the spots increase in size, coalesce, and finally occupy large areas, especially in the tip of the sac, which becomes quite white. Soon after this the fish dies. The attack on a lot makes rapid progress; for instance, a lot of 2,000 in which, up to April 22, the losses have been from 1 to 9 daily, will show 17 dead on the 23d, and five days later 560 die in a single day. In 1890 this epi- demic attacked especially the fry of Atlantic salmon, destroying about a third of them; it also destroyed many landlocked salmon, and some other species suffered heavily about the same time. In 1891 there was -not a trace of it. In 1892 it returned again, and out of 305,353 fry of Atlantic salmon it left but 3,874, and these were by no means healthy; but it attacked only Atlantic salmon. Salt and mud were tried as remedies, but though the progress of the disease appeared in some instances checked thereby, no permanent benefit resulted from their use. In 1890 this epidemic appeared to run in families. There was evi- dence tending to show that all the eggs coming from a particular mother would have a common degree of liability to the disease—some families being exterminated by it, some only decimated, and others able to resist it altogether. It did not appear to be infectious, as several lots of fry, separated by screens, would occupy a single trough, and in some cases those at the head of the trough would be totally destroyed, or nearly so, and those below them escape from attack. The only other diseases of Atlantic salmon that demand notice here are connected with the so-called fungus, belonging to the group of water molds called Saprolegnic, and probably to the genus Saprolegnia, one species of which, S. ferax, is noted as the cause of very destructive epidemics among the adult salmon of Scotch and English rivers. The species that attacks fish eggs is well known to every fish-culturist as a fine white growth of a cottony or woolly appearance that forms upon dead eggs, and when neglected spreads out so as to envelop in its threads a great many of the living eggs surrounding it. It is by no means certain that all such growths belong to one species or even to one genus, but they are much alike in structure and growth and live upon animal and vegetable matter, either as parasites attacking living matter or as saprophytes attacking only dead and decaying matter. There has never been serious trouble with this fungus at Craig Brook station, and great loss from it can only occur in consequence of neglect of the duty of picking out the dead eggs. An instance of its attacking a living egg except by reaching out from a dead oneis unknown. Fish 64 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. several months old are sometimes afflicted with a similar growth, which may possibly be not the original cause of the disease, but only an attendant symptom. Such an attack was experienced at Craig Brook in July, 1888. The fry of Atlantic salmon were the sufferers and the mortality was considerable, but it yielded promptly to a salt bath. The occurrence of fungus on wounds, even on such as result from the abrasion of the skin or the loss of a scale, is very common, but such cases are rarely fatal, though no remedy be applied. The only serious attack of fungus on adult salmon occurred during the experimental work at Craig Brook in 1871. The first inclosure made to receive the breeding fish was a small and shallow one, made by damming the brook itself at a point where its volume consisted of about 30 per cent of spring water. The fish had suffered considerably from the handling necessary in bringing them so far and from the rough character of the experimental cars in which they were transported. The first of them were placed in the inclosure June 8. On the 12th 2 of them died, on the 13th 2 more, and by the 17th 14 were dead out of 41 received; by the 20th the mortality had increased to such a point that it became evident that not a single salmon would survive unless some change was made in the mode of confining them, and they were all removed and placed in other quarters. Nine of them, already so badly diseased as to be considered hopeless cases, were turned loose in Craig Pond, and part of these recovered and spawned in the autumn following on a gravelly shore, where some of them were taken and found to bear the well-healed scars of their ugly sores. The symptoms noted were sluggishness and heedlessness; an inclina- tion to swim near the surface of the water; a white, filmy appearance of the eyes, which seemed to be accompanied or followed in many cases by blindness; a white fungoid growth on the abraded tips of the fins and wherever the scales had been rubbed off; white blotches breaking out on all parts of the body, even where there had been no mark of injury, particularly on the head, proving on examination to be patches of white fungus, which, on the parts of the body covered by scales, grew underneath the latter and pushed them from their places. Experiments in confining salmon in other waters the same season turned out successfully, and it seems that the most important condi- tions in the case were these: The area of the fatal inclosure was about a quarter of an acre; the water was partly from springs and was so exceedingly transparent that a pin dropped into it could be readily seen at a depth of 6 feet, so that there was practically no protection from the rays of the June sun; the fish had been transported in a com- mon dory with holes bored in the bottom to admit water, a very inferior sort of car compared with those now in use; they had been transported a long distance and passed three separate locks and had finally been hauled in a tub on a eart over rough ground from Alamoosook Lake to the inclosure. ° MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 65 The conditions at Craig Pond, where some of the worst cases recov- ered, were these: An area of 231 acres; a maximum depth of 69 feet; exceedingly pure and transparent water, like that of the inclosure. At two of the other inclosures tried that summer, where there was no attack of fungus, the water was brown and dark, like that of ordi- nary brooks and ponds, and in the remaining one it was intermediate in character. These facts point strongly to the character of the water as the cause of the fatality of the disease, and especially to its pellucid character, which exposed the salmon to an extraordinary glare of light, whereby the growth of the pest was greatly encouraged. The recovery in the transparent water of Craig Pond was rendered possible by the great depth of the water, through which but a small fraction of the light of day could penetrate. No doubt the salmon liberated there at once took refuge in the deeper parts. The suggestion naturally arises that arti- ficial shade might be useful in the treatment of such diseases, whether the attacking fungus be identical with that observed in the above in- stances or a related one. It is certain, from the promptness with which dead animal matter becomes the prey of saprophytic growths, that the spores of these water-molds are well disseminated throughout fresh waters, everywhere ready to seize upon an opportunity for germination and growth, and that as a general rule these spores are quite unable to seize upon any animal substance which is not already dead or in a diseased condition. A growth of Saprolegnia ferax once established on the body of a salmon is able to extend itself upon and into the living tissues around it, which it seizes upon and destroys. Growing upon a dead egg, it not only ensnares the neighboring living eggs, but sometimes pierces their shells and establishes itself on the internal parts. In one instance the fungus had gone so far as to attach itself to a living embryo, which, on removal from the shell, was tound to support on the sac quite a tuft of growing fungus, though neither on the sac nor any other part of the fish was a trace of dead substance discernible. It has been ascertained that the Saprolegnia which attacked the living salmon can be communicated by contact to dead flies, and that Sanrolegnia found growing in the ordinary way on dead flies in water can be communicated in its turn to living and healthy dace and may so flourish on them as to cause their death. The impression has prevailed that the Saprolegnia which infests the eggs in hatching-troughs originates in or is encouraged by bare wood exposed to water, and that special effort is necessary to prevent its forming; but experience at this station does not show that attacks of fungus on either eggs or fish could be traced to bare wood, and, on the other hand, eggs and fish in troughs carefully varnished with asphaltum are no freer from fungoid or other disease than those in neighboring troughs from which long use had worn almost the last vestige of varnish. F.C. R. 1897 —5 66 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The best precaution against this growth is the careful picking out of dead eggs before there is time for the fungus to grow on them, and in case of a serious attack on fry or older fish to treat them with an exterior application of salt, which, while not a cure-all, is very efficacious in cases of fungous diseases, and, if prudently used, a safe remedy for fish that have reached the feeding stage. To apply this remedy to fry in the troughs a saturated solution of saltin water is made—that is, the strongest brine that can be made with- out heating the water. The flow of water in the trough to be treated is then stopped, which leaves it from 3 to 4 inches deep, when enough brine is poured in to make the water in the trough about as salt as com- mon sea-water, about 1.028 specific gravity. The fish are left 1n this 20 or 30 minutes, unless they exhibit uneasiness, and then fresh water is turned on. Precaution is taken to dilute the brine with an equal quan- tity of water, to distribute it the whole length of the trough, actively stirring the water to secure an even mixture; and before turning on the usual water supply, a large quantity of fresh water is likewise poured in, distributing it the whole length of the trough and stirring as before, to guard against a too sudden change. Such precautions are especially necessary in the application of salt to very young fish. A large number of salmon in the sac stage was once destroyed by pouring in a little brine without stirring it; it ap- peared to sink to the bottom and spread out in a layer by itself among the fry, and all exposed to it died. ENEMIES OF YOUNG SALMON. The young salmon are subject to the attacks of many animals and birds, such as the mink, mole. star-nosed mole, common rat, muskrat, kingfisher, great horned owl, great blue heron, sandpiper, and _ fish- hawk, besides frogs and all large fishes. At Craig Brook the mink has caused serious loss in the ponds. As a protection some of the ponds are covered with galvanized poultry netting, and traps are kept constantly set in the avenues by which it is apt to approach. The mole burrows through embankments and thus sometimes causes trouble. The star-nosed mole is known to steal dead eges, and is suspected of taking live ones. The rat sometimes takes young fish from the troughs. The muskrat burrows in embankments and sometimes eats fish. The different fish-eating birds occasionally steal fish from the ponds or troughs, but if a careful watch is’ kept the danger is not great. Frogs may be exceedingly destructive to young salmon, and must be caught out of the fish-ponds. Yo avoid loss from cannibalism among the fishes it is necessary to feed them well and to take great care that no large fish get in among the small ones. Report U. S, F. C. 1897. (To face page 67.) PLATE 19 TAKING SPAWN OF LANDLOCKED SALMON AT GRAND LAKE STREAM, MAINE. THE LANDLOCKED SALMON. The landlocked salmon was formerly regarded as specifically distinct from the seagoing form, but it is now generally considered only a vari- ety. The fish found in Sebago Lake and other localities in the United States is known as Salmo salar sebago, and the Canadian form as Salmo salar ouananiche. From the fish-culturist’s point of view, however, the marked difference between the landlocked and the seagoing salmon in habits and growth must separate them as widely as any two species of the same family. Landlocked salmon are known to exist only in some of the lakes in Sweden, besides the lakes of eastern North America. They are native to most of the lakes of eastern Labrador, including the waters tribu- tary to Ungava Bay, and find their western limit in Lake St. John and vicinity, on the Saguenay River. Those of the latter district have been much written about under the name of ‘‘owananiche.” Doubtless the absence of the migratory instinct is at the bottom of most of the variations from the normal type of Salmo salar which the landlocked salmon exhibits. The lakes afford a far poorer feeding- ground than the sea; hence, perhaps, the diminutive size and leaner flesh of the landlocked salmon. Its lower tone of color, less permanent sexual marks, and greater liability to ovarian disease, as well as differ- ent habits of feeding, may perhaps be referable to the same general cause. There are some other peculiarities, however, which are not so easily explained. For instance, the eggs of the landlocked salmon are considerably larger than those of the sea salmon, and the very young fry are correspondingly larger. The growth of the young of the Sebago landlocked salmon seems to be more rapid than that of the anadromous salmon, for some specimens more than a foot long still bear on their sides dark, transverse bands, characteristic of young salmon; but it may be that the landlocked fish simply retain the marks of the immature stages to a later period of life. This view is supported by the fact that the dark bands are never com- pletely obliterated from the sides of the landlocked salmon, being always very distinct, even in adult specimens, on the under side of the skin, a character absent among migratory salmon. The landlocked salmon is smaller and more slender than the anadro- mous salmon, but its flesh is fat and rich and of a very delicate flavor. In game qualities it is, for its size, quite the peer of the larger salmon, and affords keen sport to the fly fisherman. It is, therefore, much sought after, and ranks in public favor among the foremost fresh-water species. 67 68 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The natural range of the landlocked salmon in the United States is much restricted. Leaving out of the question the salmon formerly frequenting the rivers tributary to Lakes Ontario and Champlain, the extent of whose migration is a matter of doubt, we find them only in four limited districts, all in the State of Maine, namely, the Presumpscot River (including Sebago Lake) in Cumberland and Oxford counties, the Sebec River (a tributary of the Penobscot) in Piscataquis County, the Union River in Hancock County, and the St. Croix River in Washing- ton County. There are some minor differences between the fish of these several districts, of which, perhaps, that of size is most notable. The Sebago and Union River fish are much larger on the average than those of the Sebec and St. Croix. The Sebago salmon average at the spawn- ing season 4 or 5 pounds weight for the males and a pound less for the females, while specimens of 12 and 14 pounds weight are not rare, and there is a record of one of 174 pounds. The Union River fish are about the same size. “The St. Croix fish vary in the matter of weight in different parts of their range, but the average weiglit of either sex at Grand Lake Stream is a little less than 3 pounds; specimens of over 6 pounds are rare, and none is on record of over 10 pounds. After attempts to collect eggs of landlocked salmon in each of the four regions mentioned, it was found that Grand Lake Stream in the St. Croix district afforded excellent facilities for this work. The hatching station at that place was operated continuously from 1875 to 1892. Since 1892 the station has been closed and the propagation of landlocked salmon by the United States Fish Commission has been conducted at Green Lake station. The following notes on fish-cultural methods have special application to Grand Lake Stream: The landlocked salmon of the St. Croix, though originally well dis- tributed through the lakes tributary tu that river and still inhabiting a great many of them, finds in some a much more congenial home than in others, its favorite abode being Grand Lake on the Schoodic River. This body of water is of irregular. shape, about 12 miles in length and 4 in extreme breadth, fed almost wholly by short streams that form the outlets of other lakes, and from this cause, as well as from the fact that it drains a gravelly country and is girt with clean, rocky shores, it is one of the purest of the Maine lakes. Its greatest depth is believed to be a little more than 100 feet. Its outlet is Grand Lake Stream, a shallow, rapid, gravelly stream, about 3 miles long, to which the salmon go in October and November to deposit their eggs. Comparatively few of the salmon of this lake resort to the streams tributary to it. The operations with landlocked salmon necessarily differ from those with migratory salmon. Being at home in fresh water and having there their feeding-grounds, they continue to feed until the close approach of the spawning time, and hence they could not be penned up in the summer without some provision for an artificial supply of food, which would probably invoive a great deal of expense and troubie. More- MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 69 over, the necessity of collecting breeding fish early in the summer does not exist, because they are at no time more congregated and easy to catch than at the spawning season. Their capture is easily effected by stretching a net across the outlet of the lake and leading them through a tunnel-formed passage into an inclosure of netting. There happens to be at this point a wide surface of smooth bottom, with water from 1 to 3 feet in depth, affording an excellent site for spacious inclosures, not only for entrapping but for assorting and storing salmon during the spawning season. Nets are generally stretched across the stream (to keep the fish back in the lake) immediately after the beginning of the close season, September 15. The earliest of them begin to spawn before the end of October, but the actual inclosing of the breeding stock is deferred until the early days of November. The taking of spawn generally begins about November 6 and continues two or three weeks. Commonly by November 20 or 22 this work is completed, and the breeders are carried a mile or two up the lake and liberated. The method of manipulation is the same as at the Craig Brook station, and does not differ materially from that adopted by all the American breeders of Salmonide. The results in the impregnation of the spawn are not so uniformly satisfactory as with sea salmon. There appears to be a greater prevalence of ovarian disease than among the migratory salmon. The occurrence of white eggs among the normally colored and healthy ones as they are yielded by the fish is very common, and occasionally the entire litter is defective. It is not improbable that some eggs are incapable of impregnation, though exhibiting no visible signs of disease. However, the general result is satisfactory, the ratio of impregnated eggs being from 93 to 95 per cent. The facilities for developing and hatching the eggs at Grand Lake Stream are rather poor. No good site could be found by the side of the stream, no suitable brook could be found near enough to the fishing- grounds, and the neighboring springs lacked either volume or facilities for utilization. Of three hatcheries, two use spring water exclusively, and one of them lake or stream water exclusively. The lake water is preferred, but unfortunately it can only be used for the slow develop- ment of part of the eggs, circumstances connected with the floating of timber down the stream compelling the evacuation of that hatchery in March. The main hatchery is well located except that the water is from springs, and this unfavorable circumstance is well counterbalanced by the facilities for aeration, which are very good and very fully employed. The eggs are placed upon wire-cloth trays in stacks or tiers, ten deep, and arranged for a free horizontal movement in the water. The egg shipments are made in January, February, March, and some- times in April. The eggs hatched are selected from those that have been retarded in development; the fry reach the age for liberation in June, when their natural food is believed to be abundant. 70 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. Experience at Green Lake has supplied some interesting data. Here we find the breeding- grounds of the salmon both in the affluents and in the effluent of the lake, but, unlike Grand Lake, mainly in the affluents. Great Brook, the largest tributary, is most resorted to, and on this stream is located the station of the United States Fish Commission. The most of the breeders are taken in a trap in the brook, which they readily enter when seeking to ascend to their natural breeding- grounds just above. The trap is constructed of wood and close to it, also in the bed of the brook, are numerous pens of the same material in which the fish are assorted and held during the spawning season. On the bank, snug by the pens, is the spawn-house, and a few rods away isthe hatchery. The hatchery is supplied with water from Rocky Pond, the source of Great Brook, by a wooden flume 7,050 feet long, supported by wooden trestles, at some points elevated many feet above the ground. In cold weather the water cools off 14 degrees in passing down this flume; in warm weather it warms up 14 degrees. Though the summer temperature during the early years of the station was sometimes over 80° F. and some other species succumbed to the heat, the landlocked salmon endured it safely, and the only notable effect on them was that at 75° and upward the adults reared in the station ponds refused to eat. As at the Schoodic station, among the adult wild salmon caught for breeding each year are many more females than males. In 1889 the proportion was 3 females to 2 males; in 1893 it was 9to4. The size of the Green Lake salmon is remarkable; the mean of 69 full-roed females in 1889 was 7.8 pounds in weight and 25.5 inches in length; the maies the same year averaged 5 pounds in weight and 22.3 inches in length; one female weighed 11 pouds 9 ounces, and measured 30 inches; another, 11 pounds 6 ounces in weight, was 303 inches in length; one male, 31 inches long, weighed 13 pounds 8 ounces. The number of eggs yielded by the females is about 4,000 each. e a ¢ Poke i) PLATE 20. (To face page 71.) Report U. S. F. C. 1897. ‘YS oANjVUIUNT oINSY 19MOT ‘grew y[npe eansy zedd ak 252 qno4T MOQUIMY ‘SNAdiy! OWS oak as THE RAINBOW TROUT. DESCRIPTION OF THE FISH. The body of the rainbow trout (Salmo trideus) is comparatively short and deep, and is more elongate in males than in females. The average depth is contained about three and four-fifths times in the body length. The short head, which is obtusely ridged above, is about one-fourth the total length. The mouth is smaller than in other species of Salimo, the maxillary reaching scarcely beyond the eye, which is rather large, and is contained five times in the side of the head. The caudal fin is dis tinctly but not strongly forked. On the vomer are two irregular series of teeth. The dorsal rays number 11 and the anal 10. In the typical species there are about 135 scales in the lateral series, with 20 rows above and 20 below the lateral line; in the several subspecies the number of rows of scales along the side is from 120 to 180. The color is variable, depending on sex, age, and character of water. Typical adult fish are bluish above, silvery on the sides, profusely and irregularly dark-spotied on the back and sides, the spots extending to the vertical fins, with a red lateral band and blotches and a nearly plain belly. The sea-run fish are nearly plain silvery. The chief distinguishing color characteristics of the varieties are in the number and position of the spots. RANGE AND VARIATION, The rainbow trout is not indigenous to eastern waters, its original habitat being the Pacific coast of the United Staves. Itis especially abundant in the mountain streams of California. A few specimens, however, have been taken in salt water, and it is not unlikely that some find their way through the rivers into the sea. The species is subject to considerable variation in form and color in different parts of its range, and the following varieties have received recognition by ichthyologists: The brook trout of western Oregon and Washington (Salmo trideus masoni), which rarely weighs as much as a pound and is locally abundant in the streams of the Coast Range from Puget Sound to southern Oregon; the McCloud River trout (Salmo trideus shasta), which attains a large size, is abundant in the streams of the Sierra Nevada Mountains from Mount Shasta southward, and is the rainbow trout which has received most attention from fish-culturists; the Kern River trout (Salmo trideus gilberti), which attains a weight of 8 pounds, and is found only in Kern River, California; the noshee or nissuee trout (Salmo irideus stonei), which inhabits the Sacramento basin, and reaches a weight of 12 pounds; the golden trout of Mount Whitney (Salmo irideus aqua-bonita), which inhabits streams on both sides of Mount Whitney, California. 71 12 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. . In the extensive section of the West in which the fish abounds its name varies in different localities; ‘‘red sides,” ‘mountain trout,” ‘“‘brook trout,” and ‘golden trout,” besides ‘rainbow trout,” are some of the popular appellations, while in the States east of the Mississippi — River it is generally called “ rainbow trout” or ‘California trout.” TRANSPLANTING. The rainbow trout has been successfully transplanted in many of the mountain streams in different parts of the United States, where it grows and multiplies rapidly, as is shown by the many favorable reports. The best results, however, seem to have been obtained from plants made in streams of Michigan, Missouri, Arkansas, throughout the Alleghany Mountain ranges, and in Colorado, Nevada, and other Western States. It was introduced into eastern waters by the United States Fish Commission in 1880, but it is possible that specimens of it, or its spawn, had been brought east prior to that time by some of the State commissions or by private enterprise. It is believed that this species will serve for stocking streams for- merly inhabited by the brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), in which the latter no longer thrives, owing to the clearing of the lands at the sources of the streams, which has produced changed conditions in and along the waters not agreeable to the brook trout’s wild nature. The rainbow is adapted to warmer and deeper waters, and is therefore suited to many of the now depleted streams which flow from the moun- tains through the cultivated lands of the valleys. Rainbow trout differ widely from brook trout and other pugnacious fishes, in that they feed principafly upon worms, larve, crustacea, and the like, and do not take readily to minnows as food. They should be planted in spring or early summer, when their natural food is abun- dant, as they will then grow more rapidly and become accustomed to life in the stream; and when worms, larve, etc., are no longer to be found, their experience and size will enable them to take a minnow or anything that may present itself in the shape of food. In the Eastern States fry should not be planted in open waters until they are several months old, and then not until the temperature of the streams begins to rise; but fish hatched in December and January can safely be planted in April and May. On the Pacific slope the fry may be successfully liberated at any time after the umbilical sac is absorbed. SIZE AND GROWTH. The size of the rainbow trout depends upon its surroundings, the volume and temperature of the water, and the amount of food it con- tains. The average weight of those caught from streams in the East is probably less than a pound, but some weighing 63 pounds have been taken. In the Ozark region of Missouri they are caught weighing 5 to 10 pounds. In some of the cold mountain streams of Colorado their average weight is not more than 6 or 8 ounces, but in lakes in the PLATE 21. (To face page 73.) Report U. S. F. C. 1897. GNNOYDYOVE SHL NI AYSHOLVH HLIM ‘SGNOd OSNIGSSYS SNIMOHS 'NOILVLS SATIHABSHLAM 430 MAGIA MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. (iF: Same State, where the water becomes moderately warm in summer and food is plentiful, they reach 12 or 13 pounds, fish of this size being from 25 to 28 inches long. In the Au Sable River, in Michigan, they attain a weight of 5 to 7 pounds. In their native streams of California they are often caught ranging from 3 to 10 pounds, but average from 1to2 pounds. The largest specimen ever produced in the ponds at Wytheville, and fed artificially, weighed 64 pounds, but many others in the same ponds weigh from 1 to 3 pounds. The average growth of the rainbow trout under favorable artificial circumstances is as follows: One year old, from ? to 1 ounce; 2 years old, from 8 to 10 ounces; 3 years old, from 1 to 2 pounds; 4 years old, from 2 to3 pounds. They grow until they are 8 or 10 years old, the rate diminishing with age. Some grow much faster than others under the same circumstances, but the rate of growth is largely a question of food, temperature of water, and extent of the range. In water at 60°, with plenty of food, fish 1 or 2 years old will double their size several times in a single season; while in water at 40°, with limited food, the growth is scarcely perceptible. The rainbow, like the brook trout, will live in water with a compara- tively high temperature if it is plentiful and running with a strong current, but sluggish and shallow water, even with a temperature of 70° F., is dangerous for brook trout. Rainbow trout will live in warmer water than brook trout, and are found in swift, rapid streams at 85° F., especially where there is some shade, but in ponds that temperature is dangerous even with shade and a good current. In its natural condi- tion this trout is usually found in water varying from 38° F, in winter to 70° F. in summer, and in selecting a site for a trout hatchery spring water with a temperature of 42° to 58° is required. The rainbow trout is a superior game fish, a vigorous biter, and fights bravely for liberty, though in the East it is somewhat inferior to the brook trout in these respects. SPAWNING-PONDS. In constructing ponds, one of the first considerations is to place the fish absolutely under the control of the fish-culturist, that he may be able to handle them without delay or inconvenience. At Wytheville they are constructed entirely of wood, about 15 by 50 feet and 3 to 34 feet deep, and shaped as shown in plate 22, and have been found very satisfactory. Excellent water circulation is obtained in all parts, and there are no corners for refuse to lodge in. The bottom of the pond is built with a gradual elevation, in the direction of the upper end, of 2 inches in the entire length of the pond. This makes it practically self- cleaning; nearly all of the foul matter will pass off and any remainder can be disposed of by drawing the water down low for a short period and then flushing the pond with fresh water. This method obviates the necessity of handling the fish, which is very important, especially when near the spawning time. 74 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. A guard-rack made of thin, narrow slats is arranged on an incline of about 45°, as shown at ©. If the water is to be used again in ponds below, a receiver is built underneath the bottom of the pond at the lower end, between the foot of the guard-rack and the dam-boards, and the floor of the pond immediately over the receiver is cut away and fitted with a grating. This allows matter to fall through the receiver and from there it is washed through the sluiceway, which taps the receiver by drawing the gate shown at D. The sluiceway, H, is covered and leads off to a general waste-ditch. The pond is provided with a spawning-race about a foot deep, 4 feet wide, and 25 feet long, placed at the upper end of the pond, as shown at H. Three division boards (shown at F), about 12 feet long and of suitable width to come within 1 or 2 inches of the surface of the water when the pond is filled, are firmly fixed at the bottom. The object of these boards is to form four avenues leading to the raceway, so that one or two pugnacious fish can not command the approach and keep back spawning fish inclined to enter. There is a dam across the race- way about 4 inches high (shown at G) for the purpose of bringing the water to that depth in the lower end, so that when the trout enter they will find sufficient water in which to swim freely, and not be inclined through fear to return to the pond. The water in the pond is of sufficient depth to bring its surface within 6 inches of the top of the dam in the raceway, which will give the fish, in entering the raceway, a jump of 7 inches, allowing 1 inch for the depth of water on the dam in the raceway. This distance has been found more satisfactory than any other, and spawning fish alone will go up. If a jump of less than 7 inches is given, other fish can enter the raceway without much exertion, and will ascend and disturb the breeding fish, which, when spawning, should be kept strictly by themselves. There is no rule regarding the supply of water that applies to a spawning-pond at all times and in all places. It is necessarily gov- erned by the temperature of the water, size and shape of the pond, size of the fish to be supported, the amount of shade, etc. For a pond such as has been described, where water is plentiful, at least 200 gallons per minute should be provided, with not less than 75 gallons per minute as a minimum, even where the temperature is from 50 to 55 degrees and all other conditions are favorable. While the former amount is not absolutely necessary for the support of the fish, 16 insures the pond being kept clean and the fish are more inclined to enter the raceway at spawning time. In order to maintain an even temperature in the pond the earth is banked against the sides and ends, covering the framework shown on plate 25, and the embankments are made broad enough on top to admit of a good footway around the ponds. Such a pond as this can accommodate from 1,000 to 1,500 breeding fish. Fish must not be overcrowded, and in estimating the capacity of MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 75 a pond several modifying conditions must be considered, such as the size of the fish, water supply, temperature, and shade. In stocking the spawning-pond a good proportion is two females to one male. The breeding stock is selected carefully every year; only sound and perfect fish are retained for the next season, and the blind and emaciated fish of both sexes are destroyed. TAKING THE SPAWN. The spawning season varies with the locality and the temperature of the water. It is usually two to four weeks later in the streams than where the fish are kept confined in spring water. In the ponds at Wytheville the spawning fish may be found any time after the Ist of November; the season is well started by November 15, and generally closes about the Ist of March. December and January are the best months. In California the season extends from the Ist of February to May, and in Colorado begins early in May and continues until July. The natural nests of these fish are made on gravelly bottoms, and are round or elongated depressions about the size of a dinner plate. After the eggs have been deposited and fertilized they drop-between the pebbles of the nest, where they lie protected until hatched. Where spawning-ponds are provided with suitable raceways the fish will ascend from the ponds into them, seeking a place to make their nests, and may then be taken out and stripped of their spawn. To take the fish from the raceway, a square net (I, plate 22) is dropped in on the cleats nailed against the side walls in the approach, shown at J, the dam in the mouth of the raceway is raised, and the fish driven back into the net. The net is then lifted out of the water, and if it contains too many fish to handle conveniently a landing-net is used to take out part of them before the square net is moved. The ripe fish are then placed in tubs or other vessels provided for the purpose. If too many fish are put in the tub at one time they become restless and sick before they can be stripped of their spawn. There are two methods of taking and impregnating the spawn of fishes, the ‘‘wet” and the “dry” methods. Bythe “wet” method the eggs are taken in a pan containing sufficient water to cover them and allow them to mix freely with the milt, which is immediately added. After the contents of the pan have been stirred for a few seconds with a feather, the eggs are set aside and left undisturbed during fertiliza- tion. The ‘‘dry” or “Russian” method is nowin general use; the eggs and milt are taken in a moist pan and it makes little difference which is taken first, but one should immediately follow the other, and the contents of the pan be thoroughly mixed. After the eggs and milt have had time for contact, and before the eggs begin to adhere to the bottom of the pan, water is added to the depth of about an inch, the eggs being kept in gentle motion, by turning the pan, to prevent adhesion. After 2 or 3 minutes the milt 76 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. is poured off and clear water is put in the pan, in which the eggs are allowed to remain until they separate, which will be in from 15 to 45 minutes, depending on the temperature of the water. It is preferable to take the eggs to the hatchery before the milt and water are poured off, and there rinse them off and place them directly on the hatching- trays (previously arranged in the troughs) and then allow them to separate. In freezing weather it is advisable to strip the eggs in water or to use two pans, one set in the other, with water in the bottom pan to prevent the eggs from being chilled. In taking spawn the manipulation of the fish without injury is a very delicate and exacting task, full knowledge of which can only be acquired by experience, as it is difficult to squeeze the spawn from the fish without injuring or even killing it. In taking hold of the fish in the spawning-tub the operator catches it by the head with the right hand, the back of the hand being up, and at the same time slips the left hand under the fish and grasps it near the tail, between the anal and caudal fins. ; iy ‘ lan) muleh . 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Had all other fisheries furnished an equal percentage of eggs, the annual Potomac collections would have reached about 300,000,000. But while the Fort Washington seine, with a catch of 10,000 shad, gave 20,000,000 eggs, and another, capturing 18,000, gave 17,000,000, a third catching 60,000 shad, gave only 1,000,000. Eggs taken by gill fishermen are usually superior to those from seines, and the gillers attach enough value to the market for eggs to save almost all within reach. At the commencement of the season many of them secure spawning-pans, which they keep in their boats, taking and fertilizing the eggs themselves, and when accidentally overlooked by the regular spawn-takers they sometimes row several miles to bring in pans of eggs. In 1896 a giller who laid out his net with the special object of securing spawning shad, caught 3,300 fish and sold over 6,000,000 eggs to the Commission. About 1,100 of his fish were roe shad; of the total, about 6 per cent were ripe; of the 1,100 roe, about 20 per cent were ripe. The average catch of shad by the gillers who supply eggs is 1,600 to 1,800 per season; but they do not all operate specially for the capture of spawning fish, though this work is profitable and gillers are fast turning attention to it. The Fort Washington gilling boats furnish on an average about 1,000,000 eggs each a season, those at White House 400,000, Sandy Bar 350,000, Greenway 300,000, and Craney Island 150,000, the average being about 500,000 per boat. Susquehanna River.—The shoal water in the neighborhood of Battery Station is an extensive and valuable spawning-ground. The station is conveniently situated on an island and the possibilities in egg- collecting appear to be almost unlimited. Hundreds of gill fishermen are engaged and large seines are operated within easy distance. In 1886 the station was overrun with eggs; 170 universal hatching-jars and 58 cones would not contain them, large numbers being held in cylinders, buckets, and pans. In 1888 over 105,000,000 were taken, and in 1889 7,600,000 were obtained in one night. Both egg-collecting and hatching are carried on, and the establishment is complete in itself. There is no transfer of the eggs except for occasional car shipments, and the fry are carried to Havre de Grace in 10-gallon cans for railroad transfer to the piaces of deposit. The collections at this station amounted to 45,983,000 eggs in 1896 and 71,000,000 in 1897. Delaware River.—The steamer Fish Hawk has been employed in shad- hatching on this river nearly every season since 1887, the egg-collecting and other labor being performed by the crew. An interesting feature of the work is the large yield of eggs per fish. Eggs from this river have been saved regularly since 1887 from seines, but the available product among the gill fishermen has never been fully ascertained. The eggs collected by the Fish Hawk numbered 37,814,000 in 1896 and 66,708,000 in 1897. 5 c > ‘ - ik es PSP abt 4) BG “~ eet ar * y ‘ ag eae ** 4 2 peg te -* aT ee aS ‘ - ~ ri a ; ode wal , Say «o> F 9 , % 4 1 ¥ ' % val jg s Eee Sh ee e fi ‘ 4 Report U.S. F.C. 1897. (To face page 143.) PLATE 40. MAIN DECK OF THE STEAMER FISH HAWK, EQUIPPED FOR HATCHING SHAD. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 143 EGG-COLLECTING. Collecting eggs is the work of experienced watermen, who must be prepared to endure all kinds of weather in open boats. The boats are towed out to the fishing-grounds by steam-launches, where the spawn- takers visit the nets of the market fishermen, obtaining from them the spawning fish. After eggs have been obtained a ticket is dropped into each panful, with the date and the name of the fisherman, for entry on the books of the station. The price for eggs is always above the market price of the shad, and payment is made at the end of the season on the basis of 28,000 to the liquid quart, the price being $10 to $20 per 1,000,000. On the Potomac 40 to 50 spawn-takers are employed at the station, besides 12 or 15 men who are engaged as hatching attendants, machinists, firemen, and cooks. The spawn-taker uses a 16-foot flat-bottomed bateau and is provided with a lantern, six small and four large spawn pans, and a dipper of 1-quart capacity. The pans are made of tin and are of two sizes, 11-inch and 18-inch diameters, the latter with handles. The smaller are for receiving eggs on delivery from the fish, and the larger for carrying them. The pans are thoroughly washed each night after use and not allowed to become rusty or indented. The dippers are round-bottomed, hold nearly a quart, and have handles with open ends, with 5 inches of the free end wrapped with seine twine. To obtain eggs from a seine, double the above number of spawn vessels may be required. Spawn-taking tubs of indurated wood fiber have been introduced in Potomae River operations and found superior to tin, being without hoops or joints, non-corrosive, and non-conductors of heat. They have wood covers which fit inside the rims, and the tops fit tightly by means of a soft rubber joint: 4 inches of the central part of the cover is cut away to admit air. As the shad manipulated are sold and consumed in a fresh state, fishermen waste no time in transferring them to market boats, which are in waiting, and rapidity of execution is therefore required on the part of the spawn-taker, who must be alert and exact in his methods. In gill-net fishing there is usually. ample time to assort the fish, which are taken into the boat one at a time, except when sudden Squalls or exceptional captures force the premature hauling in of the net with the fish wound up in the meshes. Unskilled spawn-takers are liable to the mistake of stripping eggs without having the neces- sary milt to impregnate them, for several spawners may be taken over a period of ten or twenty minutes without the capture of a male fish. In such cases (of great frequency late in the season) the female fish must be placed conveniently, backs down, to prevent the eggs from running out, and the males may have to be obtained from other boats. When ripe shad are taken in seines, two or three large baskets should be in readiness to receive them. Sometimes the number of ripe fish will be sufficient to occupy all the attention that can be devoted to them; at other times the run of fish 144 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. is greatly reduced by local conditions. Even when other conditions are satisfactory, if neither high nor low water occurs about sunset but few ripe fish are caught. The large seines land toward the last of the ebb tide, and gill net fishermen can do nothing except on the change of the tide—on slack water. The fish spawn at a certain time of day, and when taken at other hours are not in spawning condition. Thun- derstorms sometimes occur for days in succession about sunset, the very hour when most disastrous. A searcity of male fish toward the end of the season often cuts short operations when eggs are plentiful. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to capture the males at such times by using gill nets with meshes smaller than those in the nets of market fishermen. Attempts have been made to pen the adults, but without success, as the fish become diseased and their eggs spoil within them. In gill nets the adult is entangled in the mesh and can not escape by struggling, and it therefore remains comparatively quiet. The quality of shad eggs is generally impaired where the fish are held for an hour or more in trap nets or seines. The eggs from fish taken in large seines are usually of bad quality, but those from short seines, which are landed quickly after the fish have been surrounded, are usually good; and those from trap nets, in which the fish have been held for some hours, are valueless. [Eggs are rarely susceptible to fer- tilization longer than 20 minutes after the fish are taken from the water, though there are exceptions to this rule. On May 23, 1895, Potomac Shad were stripped which had been out of the water about 14 hours; they were kept separate, and at the end of 48 hours produced 100,000 eggs, which yielded 98,000 fry. The shad dies very auieiy after sake and is immediately respon- sive to electrical storms, the catch of seines and nets of all kinds falling off promptly when a thunderstorm develops. Even in seines already laid out in the water, with lead line on the bottom, there is an appre- ciable decrease in such event. On the Delaware River, May 29, 1887, nearly 50 per cent of the shad eggs on board the steamer Fish Hawk perished during an electrical storm which continued from 6 p. m. to midnight. There were 4,481,000 eggs with embryos well formed, and without perceptible uRnena in water temperature 1,918,000 were killed, many turning white by 8 p. m. Heavy freshets cause an abrupt suspension of fishing, but the effect of a single freshet is usually temporary. The shad which have gone above are backed down before the muddy water, but reappear upon its outward passage. An occurrence of this kind will effect a great increase in egg receipts if the water temperature before muddy water comes is suitable. The shad that were scattered above being throws back in a body, reascend in a body. A season of clear water is undesirable both for fishermen and hatching work, as the fish see the nets and avoid them, gill nets being put out only on the night tide and half the fishing being thus lost. The water MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 145 should be discolored enough to prevent the fish from seeing the nets, but not thick, say from 10 to 20.* An occasional freshet reduces the temperature and prolongs the season; however, with an equal number of fish in the rivers, clear water is probably more advantageous for natural increase, as a large proportion of naturally deposited eggs must perish from suffocation under the mud in seasons of freshet. THE WEATHER AND SPAWN. The development of eggs within the ovaries is hastened by heat and retarded by cold. In a warm season fish ready to spawn are more numerous early in the season than in a cold one, and the period for obtaining them is apt to close earlier. The eggs, not only after they are deposited and impregnated, but before they leave the body of the fish, are affected by the temperature of the water, often being ‘“ blighted” or “rotten ripe.” This phenomenon was observed as far back as 1873, It oceurs on the water reaching 80° to 81°, or with a rapid rise. On the other hand, a sudden fall in temperature has been observed to arrest natural spawning, produce blighted eggs, and to destroy those in the hatching-vessels. Continued low temperature is also disastrous to fishing. An abnormally inferior quality of the Potomac River eggs was noticed during the full period of operations in 1896. The bulk of the run of shad made their appearance on a rapidly ascending temperature, and the eges were injured within the parent fish, more than half perishing before conversion into fry. The rise in temperature was greater than had been recorded in the eleven years preceding. The run of shad increased proportionately, the catch at one seine increasing from 100 to 800 in 24 hours. A snowstorm on April 7—morning air temperature 35° F. and mean air temperature 46°—was followed by heavy frost on April 9, the morning air temperature on the last-named date being 34°. The river water on April 10 was 46°, rising to 48° on April 12 and to 71° in the afternoon of April 21, thus gaining 25° in 10 days. After April 21 the catch of shad fell off to such an extent that fishing was no longer profitable. The water of the Potomac early in March is usually of a temperature of 36° to 40°, rising to 52° to 58° about the middle of April, when the spawning period begins, and at the end of May, the close of the period, it averages from 65° to 70°. STRIPPING AND FERTILIZING THE EGGS. In stripping the eggs the shad is lifted with the right hand and caught above the tail with the left. All slime and loose scales are removed by going over the fish two or three times in quick succession with the right hand. The head is carried to the left side under the *The condition that permits the discernment of objects at a distance of 10 to 20 inches beneath the water surface, the method of registration employed by the Wash- ington (D. C.) aqueduct office, , F. C. R, 1897-19 146 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. arm and there retained by the arm, the tail being bent slightly upward with the left hand. When the fish is properly adjusted its head is nearly concealed. The fish is held firmly over a moist pan, and with a moderate downward pressure of the right hand the eggs will flow freely if mature. The strokes are continued until there are signs of blood, which usually accompany the last eggs. The fingers should not touch the gills of the fish, as laceration of these organs causes a flow of blood injurious to the eggs. Two fish may be stripped into each pan. As soon as the spawn is all obtained, the shad is discarded, it being impossible to preserve the life of such a delicate fish, even with the utmostcare. But though it has slight tenacity of life when taken from the water, the shad is a very muscular fish, and if not firmly held it will flounder and splash in the pan of eggs and probably throw a large proportion out and damage some of those that remain. The first half teaspoonfub of eggs should be pressed out into the palm of the left hand and inspected. Skilled operatives can usually discern ripeness by general outward appearance. A slow and yet almost positive test consists in running some of the eggs into water, when, if dead, they will have the appearance of boiled rice. But bad eggs are sometimes beyond the detection of the most skilled fish- culturists. If the eggs are white, opaque, or of milky appearance, the fish is put aside. Immature eggs are white, small, and adhering in clots; or they may be transparent and yet unyielding to pressure. The former are valueless, while the latter can sometimes be utilized by putting the fish aside to soften. Both ripe and green eggs sometimes occur in the same fish, but only expert operatives can hope to take the one and leave the other. If eggs are mature, but little pressure is necessary to start them, and if not, they are only injured by squeezing, and will either not flow at all, or will come away with difficulty in clotted massés and generally with a little blood. After the spawn is taken away, the fish has a soft and flaccid appearance about the abdomen, which after natural spawning becomes contracted and drawn up, taper- ing slenderly toward the tail. Eggs of the best grade may be impaired by intermixture of overripe or green ones, lumps of milt, tissues of the sperm sac, or fish scales. The overripe and unfertilized ones can be discarded, and a tiny net, an inch square, or a straw or twig, may be used in removing foreign substances. The spawn-taker should clean the eggs before delivering them at the hatchery, and no subsequent care can compensate for his neglect. Experienced men rarely bring in bad eggs, unless as a result of vari- able and unfavorable weather conditions. To obtain the milt the spawn-taker catches the fish by the back, taking hold of the under side with the right hand. Without relaxing pressure at any point the milt is forced out with the thumb and fore- finger. Good milt is so thin that it flows in a steady stream, and from some fish it can be ejected widely over the surface of the eggs, but in MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 147 fish which have been dead some minutes the milt is lumpy and flows only in drops. A teaspoonful will fertilize 40,000 to 75,000. After the milt has been applied, from half a pint to a pint of water from the river is added and the pan given a slow rotary motion, continued till the milt is thoroughly mixed, when a milky appearance is imparted to the water. When the river water is turbid, clear water must be obtained before work is commenced. In gill-net boats eggs thus treated will expand without further imme- diate attention, for there is sufficient motion from the boat to prevent clotting; shad eggs do not “cement” when the milt is applied to them, as in the case with salmon and trout eggs; but they adhere, and if left perfectly quiet, as on shore, a large proportion will be lifeless. Those comprising the lower strata may either lack sufficient expansive power to absorb water under weight of the others, or in the suction of each separate egg, in the natural tendency to absorb water, they may have a cupping effect upon one another, thus preventing water contact. Whatever the cause, they stick together in one mass, and only those of the upper layers receive sufficient water; the others remain under- sized and die. Large quantities of eggs must be separated, either by agitating the water already in the pan or by the addition of more. In one minute after thorough mixing the milt can be washed off with safety, but usually several pans are to be looked after, when the milt may be allowed to remain 5,10, or even 15 minutes, After the last pan of eggs has been fertilized, they are rinsed, beginning with those first taken, by pouring in a quart of water, placing the edge of the dipper so that the stream is directed between the eggs and the sides of the pan, as the eggs may be injured if the water is poured directly upon them. Then the pan is oscillated, the water being drained over the edge slowly, and, the operation being repeated, the third quart of water is left upon the eggs. The eggs must be well stirred with the inflowing water. There need be no fear of applying too much milt. The amount obtained from one fish may be ample for the eggs from two, but it is always better to employ two males. Eggs may look promising for two. or three hours, yet never expand to full size or produce fish. They lie at the bottom, and underneath any good ones which may be in the pan; they stick to the fingers, while the good ones will not, nor can they be successfully removed from hatching-jars until after several days’ decomposition. By using two pans, good eggs may be separated from bad by pouring, but the process is slow and there is usually no time in the hatcheries for such operations. Good eggs are very transparent and so soft and light that they are not apparent to the touch when the fingers are moved among them. When the temperature is about 70°, no change is observed for about 12 or 13 minutes after the milt is added, but about this time a careful movement of the fingers in the pan discloses their presence, and in a 148 RxPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF' FISH AND FISHERIES. little more than 20 minutes from the time the milt is applied they feel like shot against the fingers, and to an experienced eye are observed to increase slightly in size; when a day old, they will not break if dropped to the floor. In transferring to other vessels, the rim of the smaller pan should be gently immersed beneath the water surface in the larger one, and the pouring take place gradually. To prevent splashing, in boats, a small pan should be put on the water surface of the larger pan. Sudden jars must be avoided, all foreign substances excluded, and the pans be free from grease and salt. After the application of milt they expand to full size in 20 to 60 minutes, depending partly on tem- perature, and at this stage they may be doubled up in the larger pans, the question of safety in moving them being determined by their hardness. Pans used in cleaning eggs. When eggs are received at the station, in order to thoroughly remove all impurities they are passed through netting, and for this purpose, two 18-inch flared tin pans with handles, one pan fitting within the other, are employed; 2 inches of the bottom part of the inner pan are evenly cut off and replaced with quarter-inch (bar) twine netting. The lower pan is filled with water to a point just above the netting, and then several quarts of eggs are gently poured in, when they drop through the meshes, leaving the fish scales, etc., behind. Thus they are also given a change of water, which should be clean and fresh and of about the same temperature as that in the hatchery and river. If the eggs have absorbed sufficient water in the spawn-pan, they swell and adhere to each other, forming a compact mass, and are ready to be transferred to the hatching-jars, but if they are not sufficiently expanded or “ water-hardened,” they must remain in the pans, from 30 to 60 minutes being required for their full expamsion. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 149 HATCHERIES AND EQUIPMENT. The building for a shad-hatchery may be of a temporary character, as it is used only about two months each year, but ample light, space, ventilation, and arrangements for moderate heating are necessary. The steam boiler and pumps should be in a separate structure. In exceptional cases, as at Central Station, in Washington, river water from city pipes can be utilized. If the water supply is taken directly from the river the suction should be put below low-water mark, and the end provided with a strainer and kept off the bottom to avoid sediment. The water should be supplied from an open tank, not by a force-pump, but if it is taken from municipal pipes a regulator may be employed. A fall of 16 feet is desirable, or 8 pounds pressure per square inch at the top of the hatching-jars. The amount required is 2 quarts per minute to each jar. > Y INGH FALL Scale feet Section A-B = LQTS N SUL S| SS iS S S PILLS Upper figure showing view from Ramm above. Lower left-hand figure: End view showing hatching-jar in position. Lower right-hand figure: Cross- section showing the drain-pipe and trough in center of table. Shad-hatching table. The jars are arranged on tables, as shown in the cut. From a large iron pipe, branch piping of 14 to 2 inches diameter is run over each table, where 4-inch brass pet-cocks are inserted 6 inches apart. The jars are connected with the supply-pipes by half-inch rubber tubing. Tight drains are required to carry away the waste water. Collector- tanks for fry are rectangular and may be of glass or wood, the former possibly preferred. 150 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The overflow from the collectors is guarded by a wire-gauze or cheese- cloth strainer. A safe and interchangeable device consists of a stout wire frame, over which a cheese-cloth bag is drawn and tied. A ’inch rubber hose is attached to the opening in the frame. The strainer is put inside among the fry, and the outflow in an overflow cup. The overflow cup is set at the proper height to control the water level in the collector-tank. Long-handled nets of ;%;-inch mesh are required to remove egg lumps or other matter from the jars. THE AUTOMATIC HATCHING-JAR. The United States Fish Commission, in the development of its work, had presented to it the nee ey of dealing with the eggs of the ieee whitefish and the shad upon a scale unprecedented in the his- tory of fish-culture. Millions were to be handled instead of thousands, and the removal of dead eggs by hand picking was no longer to be considered. After successive experiments the McDonald automatic hatech- ing-jar was devised, and it is now generally employed. The most meritorious feature of this apparatus is that it prevents the development of the saprolegnious fungus, which caused so great a mortality in some other forms of hatching contrivances in which all the ova were not in continual movement. The very gradual, gentle, and continual rolling movement of the ova upon each other in the jar apparently prevents the spores of the fungus from ad- hering. The cleanliness of the apparatus is also advantageous, and as the material of which it is made is glass, the progress of development can be watched satisfactorily from the outside of the jar with a hand glass or pocket lens of moderate power. The jar consists of a cylindrical glass vessel, of 7 quarts’ capacity, with hemispherical bottom, supported upon three glass legs. The top is made with threads to receive a screw-cap. It is closed by a metallic disk, perforated with two holes five-eighths inch in diameter—one in the center admits the glass tube that introduces the water into the jar, the other, equally distant from the central hole and the edge of Automatic shad-hatching jar. * ee dl, ore he Ke ¥ aes 4 as 1a: PLATE 41. (To face page 151.) Report U. S. F. C. 1897. “SUVP-ONIHOLVH HLIM GaddINOS 'NOILVLS AYSLLVEa LY AYSHOLVH JO YOIYSLNI MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 151 the metal plate, admits the glass tube which carries off the waste water. The central tube is connected by half-inch rubber tubing with the pet-cock, which regulates the supply of water. A groove in the inner surface of the metallic plate carries a rubber collar, and when the plate is in place the tightening of the metallic screw-cap seals the opening hermetically. Both the inlet and outlet tubes pass through stuffing-boxes provided with gum-washers and binding-screws. The central or feed tube is provided with stuffing-boxes, one on the top of the disk and one on the bottom, the better to hold it to a true center. The outlet tube is provided with only one stuffing-box, and the binding- ring is beveled. In preparing the jar for work the side tube is fitted first. The glass tube should be wet, the gum-washer slipped on the tube about an inch from the end and introduced into the opening. Holding the tube per- pendicularly to the face of the plate, press fairly on the tube, and the washer, rolling on itself, will fall into the seat provided for it. Screw on the binding- ring, and test by seeing that the tube slides freely back and forth in the stuffing-box; if not, it should be refitted with a heavier or lighter washer, as may be required. Glass tubes can not be procured of abso- lute uniformity in Egg Funnel. size. Water is the only lubricant that should be used about the jar fittings. The jar, after being washed clean, is. filled with fresh water. A Shallow tin funnel with a perforated rim is inserted, so that the water will stand as high in the funnel-throat as possible, and the eggs are poured in by dipperfuls, or when taken from transportation trays are washed in by a jet of water. Care is used to have the eggs fall but a Short distance, and no fish scales or other foreign matter should enter the jar with them, as the presence of anything but water and eggs ren- ders a proper motion of the mass impossible, and usually results in the loss of a large proportion of the eggs. The requisite number of eggs, 80,000 to 100,000, being in the jar, it is put in position and closed, eare being taken that both the inlet and outlet tubes slide freely in their stuffing-boxes. If the tubes become gummed, let water trickle down around the binding-screws. To close the jar, turn on the water, place the feed-tube in the jar, turning off the water immediately after the feed-tube has passed beneath the surface of the water in the jar, 152 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. thus expelling all the air from the feed-tube; otherwise it would rise in bubbles, throwing a portion of the eggs out through the outlet-tube. With a proper quantity of semi-buoyant eggs in the jar and the water turned on and regulated, the movement of the current estab- lishes a regular boiling motion in the mass of eggs, which brings each in succession to the surface. This motion may be regulated without altering the quantity of water. By loosening the upper binding-screw of the central stuffing-box, and pushing the feed-tube down until it almost comes in contact with the bottom of the jar, the motion of the eggs is increased. If the jar is working properly, the dead eggs when brought to the surface remain on top, forming a distinct layer, and by pushing down the outlet tube a suitable distance they are lifted up by the escaping current and taken out. When the water is turned on for the first time the jar should be watched closely until a regular motion has been established. When eges have stood 15 or 20 minutes in the jar before the water is turned on they do not readily yield to the boiling motion, but tend to rise in a solid mass to the top of the jar. By quickly starting and stopping the current the mass is readily disintegrated. The degree or intensity of motion of the eggs varies not only with their age and condition, but also with the condition of the water. If the water is muddy, the motion should be rapid enough to prevent mud settling either on the eggs or in the bottom of the jar. Ordinarily the best motion is that which readily brings the dead eggs to the surface. After the hatching has progressed far enough to dispose of a portion of the eggs there is less resistance to the current, and it should be reduced by shutting off part of the supply or by slightly lifting the central tube. If the motion is not reduced from time to time as the hatching progresses, shells will be carried over into the receiving-tank with the fish and, being very light, will be drawn against the outlet screen, causing an overflow. The motion should be so gentle at the time of the greatest hatching as barely to induce the fish to swim out of the jar and leave their cast-off shells behind. Very healthy eggs, exposed to bright direct sunshine, hatch so rapidly that the combined effort of the swarming mass of young fish will establish sufficient current to draw some shells over into the receiving- tank. This may be modified by placing a screen between the jar and the light. The shells under normal conditions remain and form a cloud-like layer above the mass of working eggs. As they accumulate they should be removed by shoving down the outlet-tube until they are drawn up with the escaping water. oy) wn K) eet: ES MICROPTERUS SALMOIDES. Large-mouth Black Bass. SG ORY, SOK Rereens aweur ei = y} Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 159.) PLATE 44 Panes ae BY Small-mouth Black Bass. MICROPTERUS DOLOMIEU, THE BLACK BASSES, CRAPPIES, AND ROCK BASS. DESCRIPTION OF THE FISHES, COMMON NAMES, ETC. The species treated of in this chapter are those members of the Centrarchidae (or fresh-water sunfishes) which have come under the scope of fish-culture, namely, the large-mouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides), the small-mouth black bass (Micropterus dolomieu), the rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris), the crappie (Pomoxis annularis), and the calico bass (Poxomis sparoides). Whatever is said of the rock bass will apply equally well to other sunfishes, which might be here considered but which have not been artificially reared. The principal physical characters of these fishes are indicated in the following key, which serves to distinguish the two species of black bass and the two species of crappie from each other as well as from less closely related species. Large-mouth black bass: Body comparatively long, the depth about one-third the length; back little elevated; head large, 3 to 34 in body; eye 5 to 6 in head; mouth very large, the maxillary in adults extending beyond eye, smaller in young. Ten rows of scales on the cheeks; body scales large, about 68 in the lateral line, and 7 above and 16 below the line. Dorsal fin low, deeply notched, larger than anal, with 10 spines and 12 or 13 soft rays; anal with 3 spines and 10 or 11 rays. Color above dark-green, sides greenish-silvery, belly white; young with a blackish band along sides from opercle to tail, the band breaking up and growing paler with age; caudal fin pale at base, white on edge and black between; older specimens almost uniformly dull greenish; three dark oblique stripes across opercle and cheek; dark blotch on opercle. Small-mouth black bass: Similar in form to large-mouth bass. Mouth smaller, the maxillary terminating in front of posterior edge of eye, except in very old specimens. About 17 rows of small scales on the cheeks; body scales small, 11-74-17. Dorsal fin less deeply notched than in other species, with 10 spines and 13 to 15 rays; anal with 3 spines and 12 0r13 rays. General color dull golden-green, belly white; young with dark spots along sides tending to form irregular vertical bars, but never a lateral band; caudal fin yellowish at base, white at tip, with dark intervening area; dorsal with bronze spots and dusky edge; three radiating bronze stripes extending backward from eye; dusky spot on point of opercle. Crappie: Body short, greatly compressed, back much elevated; depth 159 160 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 24 in length; eye large, one-fourth length of head; head long, 3 in length; profile with double curve; mouth large, snout projecting. Seales on cheeks in 4 or 5 rows; scales in lateral line 36 to 48. Dorsal fin smaller than anal, with 6 spines and 15 rays, the spinous part the shorter; anal with 6 spines and 18 rays; dorsal and anal fins very high. Color silvery white or olive, with mottlings of dark green; the markings mostly on upper part of body and tending to form narrow, irregular vertical bars; dorsal and caudal fins with dark markings; anal nearly plain. Calico bass: Similar in form to crappie, but the body shorter, back more elevated, and profile of head straighter; depth, one-half length; head one-third length; mouth smaller than in crappie; snout less pro- jecting. Six rows of scales on cheeks, and 40 to 45 along lateral line. Dorsal and anal fins higher than in crappie; dorsal spines 7 or 8, rays 15; anal spines 6, rays 17 or 18. Color, light silvery-green, with dark-green irregular mottlings over entire body; dorsal, caudal, and anal fins with dark-olive reticulations surrounding pale areas; whole body sometimes with a delicate pink reflection (whence the name strawberry bass). Rock bass: Body oblong, compressed, back moderately elevated; depth 2 to 24 in length; head large, 22 in length; eye very large, 33 in head. Scales 5-39-12, in 6 to 8 rows on cheeks. Dorsal fin much larger than anal, with 11 spines and 10 rays; anal, with 6 spines and 10 rays. Opercle ending in two flat points; gillrakers less than 10. Color olive-green, with brassy reflections; young irregularly barred | and blotched with black; adult with a dark spot at base of each scale, forming interrupted and inconspicuous stripes; a black spot on opercle; anal, caudal, and soft dorsal fins with dark mottlings. The most reliable character for distinguishing the large-mouth from the small-mouth bass is the number of rows of scales on the cheeks. The colors of each species vary with age and the size of the mouth varies with the size of the fish, but the scales are constant under all conditions. With the crappies, the leading differential feature is the number of dorsal spines. By reason of their wide geographical range, the black basses have received a multiplicity of popular names. The large-mouth black bass is known as Oswego bass, lake bass, green bass, yellow bass, moss bass, bayou bass, trout, jumper, chub, and welchman. In the North it is generally called black bass; in Virginia and North Carolina it is usually designated as the chub, and in Florida and the Southern States it is often called trout. The small-mouth black bass has received the common names of lake bass, brown bass, ninny bass, hog bass, black perch (used in the mountain sections of Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina} trout perch, brown trout, jumper, mountain trout, together with other names of purely local use. Rock bass are variously known as red-eye, red-eye perch, aifd goggle- eye, and are sometimes confounded with the warmouth (Chenobryttus gulosus), which bears some of the same common names. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 161 The calico bass has received the names of strawberry bass, grass bass, bitter-head, barfish, lamplighter, goggle-eye, goggle-eye perch, speckled perch, and speckled trout. The crappie is known in its native waters as crappie, new light, campbellite, sac-a-lait, bachelor, chinquapin perch, croppie, and cropet. On account of the similarity of the calico bass and crappie, anglers and fish-culturists have frequently confounded the two, the common and local names often being used interchangeably throughout the regions to which both are native. Possibly no common name of the black bass is more appropriate than ‘‘ jumper,” which is applied in certain parts of Kentucky. That both species of the black bass are jumpers is well known to every angler, but it is better understood by those who have had occasion to collect these fishes by seining. It is almost impossible to capture them witha Seine rigged in the ordinary manner, especially when the fish have the vitality and activity which is usual when living in water of moderate temperature. Like other fishes, they lose in strength and activity when they inhabit warmer waters. While the black bass of the colder northern waters make a fight worthy of the salmon, they may be taken from the waters of the south with hardly a struggle. In seining for brood stock it is well to employ a seine about three times the depth of the water, as the bagging or bellying of a seine so rigged confuses the fish and deters them from jumping. On one occasion, when collecting black bass on the Holston River, advantage was taken of their jumping habits to effect their capture. A flatboat 12 feet wide and 50 feet long was procured and in suitable places was rapidly poled broadside from one bank to the other. As it approached the further shore the bass would leap from the stream and frequently land in the boat, the gunwale of which was cut down to within 4 inches of the water. One bass was seen to clear the entire width of the boat, making a horizontal jump of 14 feet. A marked characteristic of the rock bass is their habit of settling down in dense, compact masses, resembling a swarm of bees, which is especially true of the young in cold weather. They are exceedingly pugnacious, and sometimes seem to take the hook rather on this account than from a desire for food. They are well adapted for pond- culture, and under proper conditions will repay the culturist in a large crop of young with the expenditure of very little labor and time. The calico bass is a fairly game fighter, and its firm, white flesh has a fine flavor when the fish is taken from cool, pure waters; but it is a very delicate fish to artificially propagate. It seems to resent captivity, and especially when taken from warm waters is exceedingly tender, quick to yield to attacks of fungus, and liable to become blind and die. Of farge numbers collected and transplanted in new waters many have died within a few days after being deposited. The spawning and breeding habits of the calico bass and the crappie are so nearly like those of the rock bass that special remarks on the subject do not appear necessary. F.C, R. 1897 —11 162 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. GROWTH AND WEIGHT. There is a wide difference in the rate of growth, and there is no way by which the age of a black bass can be determined from its size. Some are comparatively large from the moment they sre hatched, and grow much more rapidly than the smaller members of the same school. The average size of adults varies in different localities, and sometimes will be found to vary from year to year in any particular locality. The variations depend upon initial vitality, upon the scarcity or abundance of food, and upon the range and space given the fish. At the age of 5 or 6 months the young bass measure from 4 to 8 inches, according to locality and surroundings, though a certain percentage of the crop will always run large. In 1892, at Neosho station, a black bass, which was positively known to be under 18 months old, weighed on the scales 1 pound 94 ounces. Large-mouth bass have been known to weigh 23 pounds. They are not infrequently taken from the San Marcos River, Texas, weighing from 12 to 15 pounds, and a 6-pound or 8-pound bass in the southern tributaries of the Mississippi and in the inland lakes of Florida excites no surprise. The small-mouth bass does not grow so large, 24 pounds probably exceeding their average size, though they occasionally reach 5 or 6 pounds. The rock-bass fry grow slowly, those 6 months old seldom averaging 2 inches in length. The adult usually weighs from 4 to 2? pound, occasionally reaching 1 pound; and examples have been recorded as high as 3 pounds. The crappie and the strawberry bass will, as a rule, not exceed 1 pound in weight, though in Missouri the former has been taken as high as 3 pounds. Under like conditions of pond environment, at 6 months old the young of both these species are about the size of black- bass fry of the same age, possibly a little smaller. Each school will have a few individuals much larger than the majority. NATURAL HABITAT AND DISTRIBUTION. The large-mouth and small-mouth black basses are widely distrib- uted. The natural range of the large-mouth is from the Great Lakes and the Red River of the North to Florida, Texas, and Mexico, and west to the Dakotas, Nebraska, and Kansas. The small-mouth bass ranged formerly from Lake Champlain to Manitoba, and southward on both sides of the Alleghanies to South Carolina and Arkansas. The adaptability of these fish to extremes of temperature and their great tenacity of life under seemingly adverse conditions has rendered their distribution comparatively easy, and they have been successfully intro- duced into nearly all the sections of the United States to which they were not native, and into England, France, Germany, and Finland. They have been planted in California, Washington, Utah, and other Western States by the United States Fish Commission. In three years they became so numerous in Utah that 30,000 pounds were caught and marketed from one lake. Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 163.) PLATE 45. oN POMOXIS ANNULARIS. Crappie. Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 163.) PLATE 46. ats a \c: SACAPANOATEEN Vy aba! NA SANA Tf 1, Ne POMOXIS SPAROIDES. Calico Bass; Strawberry Bass. Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 163.) PLATE 47. Rock Bass. AMBLOPLITES RUPESTRIS. rey): Bs BD MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 163 Two notable early instances of the successful transplanting of black bass in a primitive way: may be mentioned, the fish being transferred in the tender of a locomotive—once in 1853, when the Potomac was stocked, and again in 1875, when, under the direction of the Commis- sioner of Fisheries of Virginia, adult black bass were moved from the Roanoke River across the divide to the New Liver, a tributary of the Kanawha. Up to 1875 the Kanawha contained no bass, and its edible fishes consisted almost entirely of catfish, but for the past ten or a dozen years thousands of bass have been taken from New River and its numerous tributaries, draining ten counties of Virginia and running through parts of North Carolina and West Virginia. New River was also successfully stocked with rock bass by the Virginia Fish Commission, the fish being brought from Holston River, a tributary of the Tennessee in Washington County, Virginia, in June, 1876, and deposited in the smaller tributaries of New River, in Montgomery County, Virginia, whence they have colonized the entire New River basin. Few fish thrive in water of such varying extremes of temperature as the large-mouth black bass, and, to a certain extent, the small-mouth. The former are found in water covered with ice and in that standing at 100° F.; but with both species sudden changes of temperature fre- quently prove fatal. The small-mouth black bass seeks pure, rapid, fairly clear streams, and lives at higher elevations and in clearer waters than the large-mouth. In the northern part of its range it becomes torpid in winter, but in the warmer waters of the South it is active throughout the year. The large-mouth black bass also likes pure, clear water, but often inhabits the hot and stagnant bayous and ponds of the South. It has been seen in great numbers under conditions of high temperature and muddy water which would ordinarily be fatal to all forms of aquatic life except of a very low order. Many die under these conditions, but numbers live for months and some possibly for years. Those from hot, stagnant waters, however, have a soft, flabby flesh, and are apt to be infested with parasites; they spoil quickly and are not palatable. Bass do not voluntarily seek such unfavorable surroundings, and their presence there is attributable to accident. The bass found in the Mississippi valley under these conditions have been left by the spring freshets, and, failing to go out with the slowly receding waters, they reproduce in great numbers in the ponds and lakes temporarily formed in the depressions of the land. The surroundings are generally either rich alluvial meadows or swampy forests, from which the receding water drains an infinite quantity of natural food for the sustenance of the fish retained in the temporary ponds. The rock bass is indigenous to the Great Lakes region and Missis- sippi Valley, and there is evidence to show that it 1s native to certain streams on the east side of the Alleghanies. It has been successfully introduced into many new waters. In its native waters it is found in the winter months under ice, and stands a high summer temperature, 164 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. though not so great as the black bass. The highest temperature to which it has been subjected at Neosho is 88°. The transportation of this species would indicate that it suffers from change of temperature as quickly as the black bass, with possibly this difference, that while the black bass seems to be more quickly and fatally affected by a change from high to low temperature, the opposite change more quickly and injuriously affects the rock bass. Though sometimes found in muddy bayous and in waters of the middle South stained by decaying vegeta- tion, the rock bass thrives better in clear, pure waters well stocked with aquatic plants. The natural habitat of the calico bass is the Great Lakes region, the entire Mississippi Valley south to Louisiana, and the streams of the Carolinas and Georgia east of the Alleghanies, while its close kin, the crappie, is confined to the Mississippi Valley, though it is sometimes taken in the Great Lakes region. The calico bass is said to demand a higher temperature and clearer water than the crappie, but this is not certain. NATURAL FOOD, ETC. The natural food of the black basses varies greatly, and is influenced by the spawning season, character and temperature of the water, and the weather. They are voracious and pugnacious, and devour other fish almost indiscriminately. The food of the adults comprises crayfish, minnows, frogs, tadpoles, worms, and mussels, and the young feed on insects and other minute forms of life found in water. At times both the large-mouth and small-mouth bass refuse the most tempting bait, and at other times they bite greedily at almost everything. Various kinds of animals of a suitable size, even rats and snakes, and many varieties of vegetables, have been found in their stomachs, and in a wild state under some conditions they devour almost anything moving in or immediately over the surface of the water. The black basses afford perhaps the highest type among fishes of parental care and watchfulness, guarding their young until after the dispersal of the school of fry; but a large part of the young, so zeal- ously protected early in the season, at a later date furnish food for adult bass, possibly their own progenitors. As with trout, bass of the same school of young vary in size, and the larger prey mercilessly upon the weaker, often attacking their own kind when other natural food is abundant. COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE. The market value to the fishermen of the black bass taken in the United States amounts to about $130,000 annually, a sum represent- ing over 2,000,000 pounds of fish. Report U.S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 193.) PLATE 52. Cod. ante GADUS CALLARIAS. ier aeitee ¥ nese gas! a nis raea i fevey ewesee Raaas era new ees LAO as eos Eire roe Aer PRE Ee pS ToT Purrtintin Leer ts. Fe ee + LY Ss aiiitat ors te =a =o x iol Hl Mt THE COD. DESCRIPTION OF THE FISH. The body of the cod is moderately long, compressed and tapering behind; the greatest depth is about one-fourth its length. The large head is narrowed anteriorly and is contained 34 to 4§ times in the body length. The mouth is large; the lower jaw is included within the upper when the mouth is closed; the maxillary extends to about middle of eye. The diameter of the eye is about half the length of the snout and one-fifth that of the head. There is a conspicuous barbel on the chin. The number of dorsal fins is 3 and of anal fins 2; the dorsal rays are usually about 14, 21, and 19 in the respective fins, and the anal rays are 20 and 18. The ventral fins are well developed, with about 7 rays. The cycloid scales, with which the body is covered, are very small. The air-bladder is large and thick. The color varies greatly, depending on food, kind of bottom on which found, and other conditions. Fish taken offshore in deep water are usually olivaceous on the back and whitish beneath; the so-called rock cod, found in shoaler water among rocks and kelp, vary in color from green to deep red. The back and sides are covered with small, round, reddish-brown spots. The lateral line is conspicuous, of a whitish color. The fins are dark. From other species of the family, taken in the same waters, the cod is readily distinguished. From the haddock it differs in having a pale, instead of a black, lateral line; in its spots (absent in the haddock), and in its larger maxillary bone, which reaches past the eye, while in the haddock this bone does not extend to the eye. The teatures dis- tinguishing the pollock from the cod are the smaller size, the projecting lower jaw, the uniform coloration above, the sharp snout, the smaller barbel, etc. The hakes have only 1 anal and 2 dorsal fins, a filamentous prolongation of the first dorsal ray, and a ventral fin consisting of two or three very long filamentous rays. The status of the cod of the North Pacific Ocean is somewhat uncer- tain. It has generally been considered identical with the Atlantic species, but its smaller air-bladder and other features may entitle it to recognition as a distinct species. RANGE, MOVEMENTS, FOOD, ETC. Cod are widely distributed in the North Atlantic Ocean. To the north they range far beyond the Arctic Circle, and to the south as far as Cape Hatteras, although they are not common south of New Jersey. BYOB. 1897-—13 193 194 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The cod of the North Pacific Ocean is found from Bering Sea south to Oregon and Japan. The movements of cod are not well understood. They go in schools, but in much less dense bodies than do mackerel, herring, and men- haden, and when moving from one ground to another they are in more compact schools than when on the feeding-grounds. The movements on and off shore and from bank to bank are due to several causes, among which are the effects of water temperature, the presence or absence of food, and the spawning instinct. In the winter months there is a well-marked movement of large bodies of codfish to the shores of the New England and Middle States, and important fisheries are there carried on in regions from which cod are absent at other times. This movement seems to be chiefly for the purpose of finding shallow grounds for spawning. That the cod sometimes makes very long journeys is shown by their capture on the New England coast with peculiar hooks in their bodies which have been identified as similar to the hooks employed by the French cod fishermen on the Grand Banks. Although sometimes found in shallow water, cod are essentially deep- water fish, preferring water from 20 to 70 fathoms deep and being found even at a depth of 300 fathoms. Those caught for market are usually taken at depths of 20 to 40 fathoms. The cod takes its food on the bottom, at the surface, or at intermediate points. It is an omnivorous and extremely voracious feeder, consuming all marine animals of suitable size. Favorite articles are bivalve mollusks, crabs, lobsters, starfish, and fish. Among the fish consumed in large quantities are capelin, lant, herring, alewives, menhaden, mackerel, and haddock, although many others are also eaten. The abundance and movements of such fish have an important relation to the presence and abundance of cod in a given region. WEIGHT AND GROWTH OF COD. The largest cod recorded from New England waters weighed 2114 pounds and was over 6 feet long; it was taken on a trawl off the northern Massachusetts coast in May, 1895. The capture of a number weighing from 100 to 175 pounds could be cited, but those exceeding 100 pounds in weight are by no means common, and even 75-pound cod are notnumerous. The average weight of the large-size cod caught in the shore waters of New England is about 35 pounds; on Georges Bank, 25 pounds; on the Grand Banks and other eastern grounds, 20 pounds; the average weight of the small-size fish caught on all these grounds is about 12 pounds. Observations in Massachusetts of the rate of growth of the cod show that those 14 to 3 inches long are about 6 months old; those 9 to 13 inches long, and weighing 7 or 8 ounces, are 14 years old; those 18 inches long, and weighing 2 to 24 pounds, are 24 years old; and those about 22 inches long, and having a weight of 4 to 5 pounds, are 34 years old. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 195 SPAWNING. The principal spawning time of the cod on the New England coast is winter, but the season begins as early as November and continues until April. Spawning fish are occasionally caught from October until May. The spawning period for an individual fish is greatly prolonged, and probably covers six or eight weeks, only a small percentage of the eggs maturing at one time. The male and female cod may attain sexual maturity when weighing only 34 or 4 pounds. The ages of normal fish having these weights are supposed to be three to four years. When impelled by the spawning instinct, the cod seek the shoal waters of the coast or banks in schools consisting of both sexes. The female is less active than the male at this period, and probably rests quietly on the bottom while discharging the eggs. There is no evidence to show that the sexes are paired or in close proximity during the act of spawning. On the contrary, it seems likely that fertilization is generally accomplished by accidental contact of the sexual products as they are swept about by the elements, having risen to or near the surface as soon as extruded. The cod is one of the most prolific fishes. The ovaries of a 21-pound fish have been computed to contain 2,700,000 eggs, and a 75-pound cod has been estimated to have 9,100,000 eggs, these figures being deduced by careful weighing or measuring of a known number of eggs. The egg is from ;4, to 4; inch in diameter, the smallest fishes having the smallest eggs; the average size may be taken as ;4, inch. The appcoxi- mate number in a fluid quart is 337,000. The destruction of cod eggs in nature is necessarily large. The principal loss is probably through failure of impregnation, the eggs losing their ability to become fertilized and the milt its vitality very soon after being thrown from the fish. Incaleulable numbers are thrown on the shore by the waves and there die. Cod eggs are also destroyed by numerous animals, including fish, birds, and invertebrates. COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE AND FOOD VALUE. The cod is one of the most valuable of all food-fishes, and in the United States ranks as the most prominent commercial fish. In the matter of persons engaged, vessels employed, capital invested, and value of catch, the taking of cod in the United States is more extensive than any other fishery for fish proper.* The number of vessels which fish wholly for cod or take cod in noteworthy quantities, together with other “ground fish,” is not less than 600, of over 25,000 net tons burden, carrying about 7,000 men, and with a value of $3,000,000, besides which there-are very large fisheries carried on from boats and small vessels of less than 5 tons burden. The approximate annual value of the cod *The oyster fishery is the most important branch of the fishing industry of the United States. 196 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. catch in recent years is about $3,000,000, a sum representing the first value of the fish. The weight of the fish as landed from the vessels (fresh, split, and salted) is about 100,000,000 pounds. The cod fishery is prosecuted in all the coastal States from Maine to New Jersey, being most important in Massachusetts and Maine. Gloucester and Boston are the principal fishing centers. On the Pacific coast there is an important fishery in Alaska, carried on by San Francisco vessels. Cod are taken with hand and trawl lines, baited with fish, squid, etc., and fished from small boats or the vessel’s deck. The principal grounds in the Atlantic are the famous “ banks”—Grand, Georges, Western, Quereau, etc.; on the Pacific coast the Shumagin Islands are the chief grounds. Small quantities are taken in traps at places on the New England shore. ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION. The cod is propagated artificially on a more extensive scale than any other marine fish. Artificial hatching was first undertaken at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in the winter of 1878-79, and has since been regularly prosecuted on an increasingly large seale at both Gloucester and Woods Hole. Up to and including the season of 1896-97, the number of cod fry liberated by the Commission on the east coast was 449,764,000. The output of fry in the last-named year was 98,000,000. The unmistakable economic results which have attended these efforts warrant all the time and money devoted to them and justify the greatest possible expansion of the work. COLLECTING EGGS ON THE FISHING-GROUNDS. The following methods are pursued in collecting cod eggs for the United States Fish Commission station at Gloucester. As cod are abundant in Ipswich Bay during the winter, vessels from Gloucester, varying in size from 10 to 79 tons, engage in fishing there, starting from Kittery Point, Maine, or Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where they market their catch, secure bait, and obtain supplies. At the beginning of the cod season (which usually opens from the middle to the last of November) arrangements for the board of the men, dory and building hire, transportation of eggs, etc., are made with persons at Kittery Point and permission to place spawn-takers aboard the fishing vessels is obtained, with the understanding that they will be allowed to take eggs from the fish secured, that they be given the freedom of the vessel in order to properly care for the eggs, and that no charges be made against the Commission except that 25 cents be paid for each meal furnished the spawn-takers. After these arrange- mets are made the men are directed to board such of the fleet as are at the time meeting with the best fishing, but as the fish are not of uniform abundance in the bay it is necessary to keep a vigilant watch on each vessel’s catch as it is landed, daily, to know where to place the spawn-takers to the best advantage. “TESS3A NO dOD DNiddl¥ls Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 196.) PLATE 53 ita ’ eb spss an. ithe Rote? : Te 4 soa rey, = “ : , ‘ . . ‘ q Z 3 ? oar, adic ‘ } + a an | ; ' MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 197 A spawn-taker’s outfit consists of a water bucket or pail, a dipper, a siphon, a thermometer, and a tin spawn-kettle about 2 feet long, 1 foot wide, and 8 to 9 inches deep; the kettle has a cover and handle. When new spawn-takers are employed they are instructed in the work and sent out in vessels with the experienced men to familiarize themselves with the methods. The spawn-takers ordinarily leave their boarding-places at 1 o’clock in the morning (though the time varies somewhat, according to the weather) and join the boa s anchored in the harbor of Kittery or at Portsmouth. During moderate weather the men frequently go aboard before midnight, as the vessels must sail when the tide is favorable, to avoid getting becalmed or meeting a head tide, either of which might prevent them from reaching the fishing-grounds in good season. After joining the vessels, the spawn-takers usually assist the fisher- men in getting under way, managing the ship, ete., and on reaching the place where the nets or trawls are set—usually 6 to 10 miles distant— the spawn-takers help the crews in hoisting out and dropping the dories on the gear as each buoy is reached, the men remaining on the vessel's deck with the captain while the fishermen are hauling or under-running their gear, and until they return to the vessel with the fish. As soon as the dories begin to arrive with fish, the work of the spawn- taker begins. As the fish are pitched aboard, the spawn-taker stands ready to examine each one and select those that may contain ripe eggs or milt. As the dories are usually picked up in the same order in which they are dropped, there is opportunity to strip the fish without much hurry, but sometimes several are picked up in a short space of time, and if a large quantity of fish is landed the catch remains on deck until the spawn-taker can overhaul it. In bad weather, however, when the fish would be in danger of being washed away, they are put in bins on deck and can be pitched from one bin to another by the spawn- taker as the condition of each is determined. Usually one of the crew assists in this work and often renders valuable assistance. Great care is taken not to get any green or dead eggs with the good ones and to keep the eggs as free from foreign matter as possible; but in rough weather, when the vessel is pitching or rolling heavily, vigilance in these respects is necessarily somewhat relaxed. The spawn-taker seizes the fish by the tail, places the head under the left arm, if it is not too large, leaving the right arm free for stripping the fish, which is done in the usual way. Ontfy live fish or fish recently dead are used. The eggs are first taken in a common pail, the inside of which has been moistened with water. Then a sufficient quantity of milt to fertilize the eggsis added and thoroughly mixed with them and allowed to remain from 10 to 20 minutes, or longer, after which water is added and the eggs are carefully cleaned by siphoning off the old water and putting in fresh water until all the slime and milt are drawn from the pail. The good eggs, which rise to the surface of the water, are 198 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. then transferred to the spawn-kettle containing clean water and the poor or dead eggs are thrown away. All the eggs obtained on a given vessel are kept in the kettle until the receiving-house on shore is reached, the water on the eggs being changed at intervals during the passage in; and to keep the tempera- ture uniform, the eggs -are shifted from one part of the vessel to another, according to conditions. Sometimes, when the sea is very choppy or rough, the pail can not safely be used, as the eggs will spill out, and they are then stripped directly in the spawn-kettle and cleaned as well as possible. It was formerly the practice to take cod eggs in a small quantity of water, but during the season of 1896-97 it was determined to test the relative efficacy of the so-called wet and dry methods of fertilization. Some of the spawn-takers were instructed to employ the dry method and others the wet method. The experiments show that when eggs were taken by the dry method a much larger percentage was fertilized than when taken in water. Eggs from fish caught on trawl lines inva- riably yield a larger percentage of fry than those from fish caught in nets, although fine eggs are frequently obtained from net fish. The explanation seems to be that fish caught in nets soon become entangled and are either drowned, or nearly so, shortly after being meshed; they struggle a great deal more than fish on trawls and the greater part of them are dead when taken into the boats, many of them being scaled, which indicates severe exertion in trying to escape. Trawl fish, on the other hand, are almost always alive and active when taken from the water, and very few fish without scales are found unless the gear has been out a long time or has been set during a heavy storm, when, of course, many of the fish will be dead. Better results are obtained from eggs taken when the weather is fairly cold than when it is warm, as when the temperature is high it is difficult for spawn-takers to keep the water containing the eggs at a safe temperature, and before the egg house on shore is reached there is almost always a heavy loss. When the weather is too cold for eggs to be kept on the vessel’s deck the spawn-takers put them below the deck, where the temperature will be suitable. Many difficulties and much exposure are encountered by the men who collect cod eggs on the fishing vessels, and during severely cold and windy weather, when the deck is covered with ice and the fish freeze stiff in the dories before they reach the vessel, it is practically impossible to get good eggs. During boisterous weather, when the fleet succeeds in hauling the gear only once or twice a week, the greater part of the catch is generally dead when taken. A spawn-taker often secures a good lot of eggs and can find no ripe milt fish, but in this event he will, if the weather permits, visit the nearest vessel in quest of milt. Sometimes there is a school of milt fish in the bay and very few female fish, and a vessel may catch several thousand pounds of cod day after day without finding ripe spawn in any of them, while another Report U.S F.C. 1897. (To face page 198.) PLATE 54. NOILVLS YBLSSONO19 x f: wi “il oy ¢ et, NT Hy 'Fo fh | "pp Ob La es y's" _ — a) S\Ud, 4 ital Oa Sika Ns itn bow We he.” Pie te « Ve ws. we a) Ma ats ‘ay ‘> oe ae | at Ay Ra i ys ; 5 ; i 5 pe 4) ~ 4 ‘ ty ol 7 } mre a ye " es v bs « 4 t yy AeA 5) i rid 4 re v0 MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 199 vessel, fishing only a short distance away and not catching many fish, will get a comparatively large number of spawners. The spawn-takers are instructed not to take eggs from fish that have died on trawls or in nets, although fine lots of eggs are often taken from fish that diein the dories before they reach the vessel, showing that the eggs do not die immediately after the fish expire. The vitality of the eggs after the death of the fish varies in different cases and depends on the conditions of the eggs and the fish at the time the fish are caught, the state of the weather, ete. An experienced spawn-taker can almost always distinguish readily between good and poor eggs, although it is not always possible to determine whether or not a given lot of eggs will live. As the weather and the nature of the school of fish in the bay regulate the collection of eggs, the results of a season’s work can not be estimated in advance. It has been observed that roe fish are found in largest numbers previous to an easterly storm and when the wind is from the south or west. During heavy westerly winds cod appear to approach quite close to the beach, and when the wind blows from the eastward and the sea begins to rise, they leave for deeper water. When fishermen are hauling their nets and trawls, they frequently notice spawn being emitted from fish when they are landed in the dories. Such fish are laid away on their backs in the stern of the boat and when the vessel is reached are carefully passed to the spawn-taker, many eggs that would otherwise be lost being thus saved. When the price of fish is low at Portsmouth or the wind is unfavor- able for making that harbor, some of the fleet go to Rockport to sell their fish,and should spawn-takers be on such vessels they immediately take their eggs to Gloucester when the vessels arrive in Rockport. Usually the fishing vessels return to Kittery Point between 1 o’clock and 10 o’clock p.m. Immediately on landing, the spawn-takers carry their collections to the egg-house on shore, where the spawn is carefully examined, cleaned, packed, and shipped to Gloucester by first train. In shipping eggs large fruit jars are used. About 350,000 eggs are put in each jar, the jar is filled with water, the top is securely fastened, and the jar is placed horizontally in a large iron kettle made especially for the purpose and holding five jars. The jars are wrapped in burlap before they are put in the kettles to prevent them from breaking, and when necessary, snow or ice is put in each end of the kettles to keep the temperature uniform during transit, but it is not allowed to come in direct contact with the jars. A messenger usually accompanies the eggs and gives them constant attention until they are delivered at the station. The snow or ice is removed from the kettles, if the temperature falls too low, and replaced, if necessary, the messenger making frequent use of a thermometer. In preparing eggs for shipment without messenger, they are first cleaned carefully by drawing off all dead eggs or dirt, then put in large fruit jars in the same manner as when they are shipped to Gloucester, and the jars are packed horizontally in large wooden cases holding nine 200 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. jars each. Rockweed or moss, together with ice or snow, is used in packing them, the former being placed around the jars and the latter put in the bottom, sides, and top of the case to keep the eggs cool. Successful shipments are often made by express. Some difficulty has been experienced in keeping large lots of eggs over night at Kittery Point, as the facilities are insufficient for chang- ing water or for spreading the eggs out to overcome the injurious effects of prolonged crowding; but when it is necessary to so retain them, they are put in McDonald jars in which the water is changed as often as the supply will permit. As the water in the harbor is partly fresh and unfit for this purpose, it is necessary for spawn-takers to bring in a supply from the open bay in large transportation cans. CAPTURING AND PENNING BROOD COD. Practically all of the cod fry hatched at Woods Hole prior to 1896 represented eggs taken from penned fish. Some of the cod collected for breeders are caught by the crew of the Fish Commission schooner Grampus and some are purchased from commercial fishermen. Two or more smacks usually engage in fishing for the station during the collecting season, which is from about October 1 to November 30. The grounds resorted to are east of Nantucket and around Block Island. The fish are taken with hand lines fished from the deck while the vessel is drifting, in water from 10 to 40 fathoms deep. Those taken in the shoaler water are preferable to those coming from deep water, as the change to the shallow cars in which they are held at the station is less pronounced. Great care is exercised in catching the fish, for when hastily hauled up from deep water they are very liable to be “ poke- blown,” that is, they have their stomachs turned inside out through the mouth. When drawn in with moderate speed, they become adapted to the gradually diminishing pressure and do not suffer injury. It is also important in unhooking the fish not to injure its mouth any more than is absolutely necessary, as the wound caused by the hook frequently spreads and forms a large sore and eventually kills the fish. All the vessels which collect cod for the station are provided with wells in which the fish are placed and held while in transit. When a vessel arrives at the station with cod, the fish are immedi- ately transferred with dip nets from the well to live-cars 16 feet long, 6 feet wide, and 5 feet deep, which are constructed of wood and divided into two compartments by a crosswise partition. As the fish obtained from smacks are paid for by the pound, it is customary to weigh about 10 per cent of each load’and estimate the total weight by the average of those weighed. While being weighed, the cod are also counted, about 500 being putin each car. The cars are moored in the middle of a pool or basin protected on all sides by a wharf, which breaks the force of the sea in stormy weather and affords a sheltered place for handling the fish and taking the eggs. Cod take little or no food when spawning. The impounded brood fish are often tempted with fresh fish and with fresh and salted clams, PLaTe 55. 2CC.) age 2 (To face p Report U.S. F C. 1€97. POOL FOR RETAINING BROOD FISH AT WOODS HOLE. THE ALBATROSS AT WHARF, ey. cone ot ins? eed tes MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 201 but they can rarely be induced to eat. A certain percentage of the penned fish die and are removed at once from the cars. The develop- ment of the sexual organs is noted when the dead fish are taken out. Fish about ready to spawn are placed in a separate car and carefully watched. They are examined two or three times a week and any ripe eggs are taken. In taking and fertilizing the eggs of brood cod the same general methods are followed as are adopted on the fishing vessels in Ipswich Bay. The spawn-taker grasps the ripe fish near the tail with his left hand and holds the fish’s head either between his body and left arm or — between his thighs, using his right hand to strip the fish. The eggs are usually taken in a bueket. Both the dry and wet methods of fertil- ization are used at Woods Hole. Usually about 80 per cent of the eggs taken are fertilized. Unlike many other fishes artificially propagated, the cod does not yield all of its eggs at one time. After expressing all the eggs possible from a given fish, it is returned to the live-car, and in afew days will have matured more eggs, which are then taken. When the ovaries have discharged all their eggs, the fish is released. In recent years from 1,600 to 9,000 cod have been penned annually in the protected basin at Woods Hole. Only from. one-ninth to one- third of these, according to the season, yield good eggs. CHARACTERISTICS OF COD EGGS. Cod eggs are nearly transparent, and float at the surface of the water when first taken. They vary in color from a pale green to a deep red, those having the green color being the best. Good results are seldom obtained from the red eggs, and those of a deep red color almost invari- ably die in three or four days after being received. Unless the densitr of the water is low, the eggs normally float during the entire hatching period. However, it frequently happens that, owing probably to the accumulation of sediment, the eggs gradually sink during the last third of the incubation period, and finally mass together on the bottom of the hatching-box; here they would quickly smother but for the current. Floating eggs are not necessarily good ones, for unfertilized and injured eggs usually float 18 to 36 hours before going to the bottom. Unfertilized eggs may be readily detected, as they have no dise which marks fertilization and have a milky appearance. The dead eggs quickly sink, and are easily distinguished from the sound eggs by a white spot in the center. Eggs received at the hatchery are transferred from the vessels in which they came to Chester jars partly filled with water, and in 10 or 15 minutes they rise to the surface in a dense mass. The eggs are put in each jar to the depth of an inch, a quantity representing approx- imately 379,000 eggs. lf the hatchery is full, about a fifth more eggs may be put in a box, the maximum number that may be safely carried being 450,000. The first measurements are carefully made, as they form the basis for subsequent estimates. As soon as the eggs are measured they are transferred to the hatching-boxes with dippers. 202 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. THE APPARATUS USED IN HATCHING COD. The apparatus and methods employed in cod-culture are the out- growth of long experience and study and have as their special features the closest possible simulation of natural conditions. The apparatus now in general use is the so-called McDonald or automatic tidal box. The boxes are constructed in series of 12 or less, the number depend- Section through A-B SOTLLEPLETILOLLE, i SSSNOLZZL LLL —KKWHu$#iésiSiS AG, 5. "=,»01:) Y Longitudinal Section. area ESSN | SESS SSS Va Me II GI j N NS es Wo Wl. C—'Cll ——'\Wl’. — lo Ll (a ee PRR at nr eT Se KIM, Wa Wd 12 INCHES ? 1 @ FEET Diagram of Tidal Cod Hatching-Box, A-B Points where cross-section is taken. e, partition forming space at lower end of a, siphon. compartment. c, partitions forming upper pockets. Ff, glass gate. d, partition forming space at upper end of g, slot between adjoining compartments. compartment. ing on the size of the hatching-room, the arrangement of the hatching- tables, or other conditions. The Gloucester hatchery has 8 tables of 9 boxes each, and Woods Hole 14 tables of 12 each. At Gloucester 25,000,000 eggs can be hatched at one time, and at Woods Hole 65,000,000. For a wooden framework to accommodate 9 boxes such as are used af Gloucester the outside dimensions are: Length, 10 Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 202.) PLATE 56. McDONALD TIDAL BOXES, USED FOR HATCHING COD AND FLATFISH. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 203 feet; width, 3 feet 8 inches; depth, 11 inches. The table or trough is constructed of 2-inch lumber and raised to a convenient height by short, stout legs. The table is divided into 9 water tight compart- ments by means of crosswise partitions of 14-inch plank. At Woods Hole the dimensions of the troughs containing 12 boxes are as follows: Length over all, 13 feet; width, 2 feet 7 inches; depth, 12 inches. The plank is 14 inches thick. The bottom of the trough is 24 feet above the floor. The compartments are separated by 14-inch partitions and are 22 inches long, 12 inches wide, and 103 or 11 inches deep. Two inches from each end of each compartment there is a 1-inch wood partition. The partition d at the supply or upper end of the compartment extends with its middle portion to the bottom of the trough, while the two sides extend only to within 14 inches of the bot- tom. The partition e, at the discharge or lower end of the compart- ment, extends its full length to within 145 inches of the bottom of the trough. Between the two partitions d and ein each compartment there is snugly fitted a movable box in which the eggs are placed. This box, which is constructed of 4-inch plank, is 9 to 94 inches deep in the center, but only 8 inches deep at the corners, the bottom sloping upward toward the sides and ends of the box and being covered with linen scrim. A wooden strip at the bottom, 4 inch thick and conform- ing to the shape of the bottom of the box, extends the length of the box. The box rests on cleats in the corners of the compartments which keep the center of the box 14 inches above the bottom of the trough. The space at the supply end of each compartment is divided into three pockets by 1-inch wootl partitions. The middle pocket connects with the main compartment by means of a small hole (-3; to 58; inch) through the center of the partition and end of the box immediately above the lengthwise strip, and the two lateral pockets connect by a space at the bottom with the main compartment. At Woods Hole the water used in hatching is pumped from the harbor to two tanks of about 18,000 gallons joint capacity. The water is led to the hatching-room through a 4-inch wooden pipe and is sup- plied to the hatching apparatus through a 24-inch hard-rubber pipe which branches from the main pipe and runs directly over each row of tables. At Gloucester the main supply-pipe is of hard rubber, 3 inches in diameter; this leads from a tank of 15,000 gallons capacity, the bottom of which is about 6 feet above the level of the troughs. A small soft-rubber tube, provided with a rubber pet-cock, carries the water to the middle pocket at the back of each box. As the pocket is always full of water when the boxes are in operation, a considerable amount of water goes through the small hole with much force, creating a strong current in the box and keeping the eggs in constant rotary motion. This current is one of the principal features of the apparatus. Much more water enters the middle pocket than can pass through the small hole into the box, and the surplus flows over the sides and 204 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. enters the main compartment from below, coming up through the scrim- covered bottom into the movable box. The partition forming the pocket at the lower or front end of the box only extends to within 14 inches of the bottom, leaving a space through which the water runs from the compartment. In the bottom of the pocket there is an opening in which the vertical waste-pipe fits. This pipe is brass, $ inch in diameter aad 10 or 11 inches long; the top of the pipe is 7 inches above the bottom of the table. The waste-pipes’ from the different boxes discharge into a trough which carries the water from the building. A particularly important part, and the one which gives the name “tidal box” to the apparatus, is used in conjunction with the waste- pipe. This is a brass siphon-cap, which fits over the upper end of the waste pipe. The cap is a tube, closed at the top, 9 inches long and 14 inches in diameter. It is kept at any desired height on the waste-pipe by wire springs in the cap or by other means. By virtue of the siphon attachment the water in each box rises to the height of the top of the waste-pipe and begins to run over. This partly exhausts the air in the cap, more water rushes in, and the pipe becomes filled with water; then the siphon begins to act and takes off the water to a level of the bottom of the siphon-eap. Usually the cap is pushed about half down the waste-tube, although the height of the water in the box after the discharge of the siphon is regulated by the manner in which the eggs are working. About 7 minutes are required for the water to be drawn down and the box to again fill, and approxi- mately two-fifths of the water is taken off at each discharge. By this arrangememt the water in the boxes is constantly rising and falling automatically; the movements of the waves are thus simulated, the eges are kept in constant circulation, and fresh water is continually entering the boxes. The Chester box was generally used in cod-culture up to a com- paratively recent date, and is still occasionally employed in marine fish-cultural operations. The general object of its construction is the production of an automatic rise and fall of water, as in the McDonald box, although it differs from the latter in some essential particulars. It consists of a box of variable dimensions in which jars are placed for the reception of the eggs. A convenient size of box is 74 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 24 feet deep. From 4 to 8 large glass jars are arranged on wooden supports 7 or 8 inches above the bottom of the trough. Smaller boxes, to accommodate only 2 or 4 jars, are also used. The jars are about 9 inches in diameter and are of two heights—9 inches and 17 or 18 inches; they have straight sides and a flat bottom with a central half-inch hole. The jar is placed in the box in an inverted position, with its bottom above the level of the top of the trough. The sea water supplying the trough enters the compartment at one end of the trough and escapes Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 204.) PLATE 57. a RENEE LTE MAAN CHESTER BOXES. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE 205 by means of a siphon in the other compartment, running through a hole several inches below the top of the trough. The trough fills with water up to a level with the hole, when the siphon begins to act and takes off the water more rapidly than it enters, to a level with the inner end of the siphon, the fall being 4 to 5 inches. Air then enters the siphon, and it ceases to act until the water has again risen to the height of the discharge hole. The water thus rises and fallsin the jars automatically, the interval between the successive discharges being regulated by the length of the inner arm of the siphon, the size of the tube, and amount of water supplied. After the eggs are introduced into the jars a piece of cheese-cloth or linen scrim is placed over the top, and fastened by means of rubber bands. The jar is then inverted and placed on the wooden supports provided for the purpose, and the plug in the bottom removed to allow the escape of the air and the rise and fall of water. The number of eggs per jar is about 190,000 or 200,000. DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGG. The development of the cod egg is greatly influenced by the water temperature, which fluctuates from day to day and makes it difficult to state exactly when the eggs will hatch. With a high temperature the advancement of the egg through the different stages proceeds rapidly and can readily be appreciated with the unaided eye, while with a low temperature the development is slow and may be greatly prolonged by very cold water. With a mean temperature of 47° cod eggs begin to hatch in 11 days, although 2 or 3 additional days are usually nec- essary for all the eggs of a given lot to hatch. At 43° the time is 14 or 15 days, and at 38° itis 20 to 23 days. The best results are obtained when the temperature ranges from 41° to 47°. The hatching proceeds satisfactorily with the water at 38°, but with a lower temperature the incubation period is so long that the fry are very weak. On the natural spawning-grounds the water seldom gets below 38°, while at the stations after January 1 the water used for hatching rarely gets as warm as 37°, and often is as low as 31°; from the middle of January to the latter part of February it remains at about 32°. Since it is impossible to do even fair work when the water gets below 35°, it has been the practice to warm the water by passing it through a coil of pipe contained in a tank of warm water or by introducing steam directly into the water pipe whenever the hatchery water gets below 37°. The water being at 47°, during the first 4 days the egg passes through the different stages of segmentation; at the end of that time the germinal area begins to assume the general form of a fish; and by the ninth day the fish is quite well formed, and may be readily seen with the naked eye. By the tenth day the embryo shows signs of life, and under the microscope the heart may be seen to beat. 206 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. Following is a table showing the approximate time required for cod eggs to hatch, with the water at the stated mean temperatures: Mean water tem- | No. of || Mean water tem- | No. of | Mean water tem- | No. of perature. days. perature. days. | perature. days. SIOMN 2 So. Ge ee HOW STORE mice eee DSil| [450 SRM se oes 14 ppAet] ese eS AQ POBO SMe fees eee Q1 1 440 Wee eee 13 230 (He sae ere Sou NS9C Wy. st iee esos 19) 1) 450 VM nets sce ee 12 BT OE ees Se 31 || 40° F.. Ban ae od Yeas See a BDO TSE cece ce 28 ALS es SESS SEE TGE|| 479) Wye See eee 10 or 11 BOONR cocesvsu ens Dt tas Oe Moo eeretareteta says 15 Moderately clear water is essential to the healthy development of the fry. If much sediment is present it collects on the eggs and acts very injuriously, often killing them. Sometimes eggs become so coated with sediment that the fry appear to be unable to burst the shell; some lots of eggs thus affected have been known to retain fry fully two weeks beyond the normal period of incubation. With eggs carefully taken and fertilized, and clear water of a temperature from 41° to 47° F., it is possible to hatch from 70 to 85 per cent of the eggs, but when the temperature gets below 38° the percentage of fry hatched is only from 25 to 50, and the average for the season is thus greatly reduced. The number of fry hatched is deter- mined by deducting the losses shown on the hatching-cards from the number of eggs originally in the box. One liquid ounce is estimated to contain 10,524 eggs. CLEANING THE EGGS. Owing to the accumulation of sediment and other foreign matters in the hatching-boxes, it is necessary to clean the eggs daily, running the sound eggs from one box to another through a slot, the dead eggs being left behind. The slots in the partitions dividing the hatching compartments correspond with similar slots in the boxes; they are 3 to 34 inches long and 14 inches deep, and are placed 3 inches from the front of the compartments. To begin the cleaning of a given row of boxes, a glass slip is fitted into the slot between the second and third boxes, the first box being left empty for the purpose of receiving the cleaned eggs from the second box. A wooden plug is then put in the current hole at the back of the second box, and the siphon cap is removed from the waste-pipe; this allows the box to fill with water, and the eggs, undisturbed by the current, rise to the surface. The water is allowed to enter the first box and to gradually fill it to the level of the waste-pipe, and is then turned off. A plug is next put in the waste-pipe of the box containing the eggs; the water rises till it reaches the slot, and then runs over into the first box, carrying the good eggs with it, while the dead eggs remain in the box. The regular water circulation is then established in the first box. The inner box from which the good eggs have been removed is taken out and the remaining eggs are washed into one end and poured into MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 207 a glass graduate. The dead eggs quickly sink and the quantity, in ounces, is noted on a card attached to each box. If there are any good eggs in the glass they are saved; the spoiled eggs are thrown into the waste-trough. Both the inner box and the trough in which if rests are thoroughly washed and sponged after each change. When the inner box is replaced it is made ready for the eggs to be transferred from the third box, and the same method is pursued until all the boxes have been cleaned. Eggs recently taken, being on the surface, run over very quickly, 5 or 10 minutes usually sufficing for the transfer of a box of 400,000 eggs; but when eggs become heavier, as aresult of development, the cleaning takes much longer, as it is then necessary to run them into the lower part of the box (as in removing dead eggs) and to dip them out, care being taken to keep the lower end of the box in the water while manipulating them. As the loss of eggs has ceased by the time they reach this stage, everything in the box may be dipped over, and with care no damage is done the eggs. THE FRY. When the fry first hatch they are much curved in shape and show but little vigor. If the water is comparatively warm they rapidly straighten out and become stronger. At this stage they float at the sur- face, except when forced about by the current. As they get older they frequent the upper water Jess and if kept in the boxes till the mouth begins tv functionate most of them remain on or near the bottom. As soon as the first fry in a given box make their appearance the eggs are all runrover for the last time. As the fry are comparatively delicate they are handled as little as possible and with great care. The fry are planted as soon as practicable. If all the eggs of a given lot have not hatched it is better to plant them with the fry rather than hold the latter until incubation is complete, for the boxes soon become foul from the accumulation of eggshells and the eggs will hatch ina very short time, especially as the water on the spawning-grounds is usually 3 or 4 degrees warmer than the water in the hatchery. When the fry are to be removed from the boxes, preparatory to plant- ing, a plug is put in the current hole at the back of the box, and ina short time most of them will come to the surface. They are then dipped out and put in transportation cans. About 200,000 fry may be safely carried in a 10-gallon can. Deposits are usually made on the natural Spawning-grounds. Report U. S. F.C. 1897. (To face page 209.) PLATE 58. Winey Wipe M1 nL YY lig Common Mackerel. SCOMBER SCOMBRUS. THE COMMON MACKEREL. DESCRIPTION, SIZE, ETC. The genus Scomber, of which the common mackerel (S. scombrus) is the leading representative, is distinguished from related genera of scombroid fishes of the Atlantic coast (Auris, the frigate mackerels; Gymnosarda, the little tunnies; Thunnus, the great tunnies; Sarda, the bonitos, and Scomberomorus, the Spanish mackerels and kingfish) by the small size of the species, by the absence of a median keel on each side of the caudal peduncle, by a short spinous dorsal fin having 9 to 12 spines, by the pattern of coloration, and by a number of other characters. The body of the mackerel is fusiform and but little compressed later- ally. The standard length is 34 times the depth. Thecaudal peduncle is slender, with a small keel on either side. One-third of the total length without tail consists of the head. The eye is rather small, its diameter being only one-fifth the length of the head. The mouth is large and armed with a row of small slender teeth in each jaw. There are two dorsal fins, the anterior containing 11 spines and the posterior 12 rays, following which are 5 finlets; the formula of the anal fin is 1 spine, 11 rays, and 5 finlets. The scales are very small, numbering several hundred along the lateral line. The color is dark blue above and white below. About 35 dark wavy vertical streaks mark the back. The common mackerel closely resembles the other species of the same genus found on both the Atlantivand Pacific coasts, namely, the bull’s- eye, chub, or thimble-eye mackerel (8. colias), but is separated from it by the absence of the air-bladder, more dorsal spines, smaller eye, and somewhat different markings. The length of the full-grown mackerel is 17 or 18 inches, but fish a little over 20 inches long, and weighing upward of 34 or 4 pounds, are occasionally taken. The average length of the market catch is about 12inches. Such a fish weighs from three-fourths of a pound to a pound. Small mackerel are known among the fishermen by several names, such as “ spikes,” “blinkers,” and “ tinkers.” Spikes are the smallest caught by the commercial fishermen; they are 5 or 6 inches long and are ) to 7 months old. Tinkers are under 9 inches in length and are supposed to be about two years old. Blinkers are intermediate in size and age. Maturity is probably attained in the fourth year. DISTRIBUTION, MOVEMENTS, ABUNDANCE, AND SPAWNING. This species inhabits the North Atlantic Ocean. On the American coast its range is from Cape Hatteras to the Straits of Belle Isle. On the European coast the fish is found from northern Norway, in latitude F.C. R. 1897 —14 209 210 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. 71°, to the Mediterranean and Adriatic. It is not recorded from the West Indies, Bermudas, Gulf of Mexico, South America, or Africa. On the east coast of North America mackerel first appear in the spring off Cape Hatteras and subsequently reach the shores of the Middle and New England States and the British possessions, migrating in from the sea from a southerly or southeasterly direction. Certain bodies of fish seek the New England shore, while others first strike the shore of Nova Scotia and follow it into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They leave the coast in the same way in fall and early winter. The mackerel is a wandering fish. Its movements when in the coast waters are undoubtedly regulated by external causes not yet clearly understood, but food, temperature of water, and reproduction are potent factors. The mackerel is one of the most abundant fishes found on the Atlan- tic coast. It goes in schools, often of immense extent. The testimony of reliable fishermen relative to the size of schools observed often seems incredible; thus one school seen in the South Channel in 1848 was half a mile wide and at least 20 miles long. Another school noticed off Block Island in 1877 was estimated to contain 1,000,000 barrels. The schools swim at the surface or at varying depths beneath the surface, and present a comparatively broad front. From the earliest times, there have been periods of scarcity of mack- erel alternating with seasons of abundance. As early as 1670 the Colony of Massachusetts enacted laws for the preservation of mackerel. Since 1885 there has been the most noteworthy and prolonged scarcity of the fish of which there is any record. The New England catch in 1885 was 330,000 barrels, and in the 8 years ending in 1885 averaged 309,000 barrels; in 1886 it fell to 80,000 barrels, and in the succeeding 10 years aggregated only 481,000 barrels; was several times below 25,000 barrels, and never exceeded 89,000 barrels. The yield in 1896 was the largest in 9 years. The spawning season on the east coast of North America includes the months of May, June, and July, June probably being the principal month. The spawning-grounds are in rather deep water and extend along the entire coast from Long Island to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Most of the bays and sounds of the New England coast are important spawning-grounds, as is also the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Prior to spawning and for several weeks thereafter the mackerel are lean and poor and never make No. 1 fish when salted. FOOD AND ENEMIES. The mackerel feeds on a large variety of small animals, and is in turn eaten by a number of fishes, birds, cetaceans, etc. The relations existing between the presence of favorite food and of enemies on one hand and of mackerel on the other are fully appreciated by the com- mercial fishermen, who are often guided in their search for fish by the appearance of mackerel food in abundance or of their well-known MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. rae! enemies. The presence of food is frequently shown by flocks of birds, especially phalaropes, which are called ‘‘ mackerel geese.” The principal food objects of the mackerel are small crustaceans; copepods predominate, but shrimps of various kinds, young crabs, etc., are also important. One of the surface-swimming copepods, known as “red feed,” “cayenne,” etc., is a very favorite food; when mackerel have been feeding freely on it, they spoil very quickly after being caught, owing to their sides rotting or “burning.” Fish constitute a rather importaut part of the mackerel’s diet; herring, anchovy, sand launce, silversides, nenhaden, and many other small fishes are eaten. Among fishes, sharks are, perhaps, the most destructive enemies; mackerel sharks and dogfish are known to prey on the mackerel, driving and scattering the schools. Other fish enemies are bluefish and cod. Porpoises and whales are often seen feeding on the mackerel schools. Large squids do great damage to small mackerel. Among birds, the gannet is especially destructive. THE MACKEREL FISHERY. The mackerel is one of the best and most valuable food-fishes of the Atlantic Ocean. It is the object of important fisheries in Norway, Ireland, and Great Britain, and is extensively taken in the United States and the British provinces of North America. The fishery is prosecuted with vessels using purse seines, gill nets, and lines, much the largest part of the catch being taken in seines, In the boat fishery, lines and nets areemployed. Stationary appliances, such as pound nets, trap nets, and weirs, also secure considerable quantities of mackerel. In the United States the vessel fishery is carried on chiefly from Gloucester, Mass. The vessels sail south in early spring and fall in with the fish when they first appear off the coast of the Southern and Middle States, the catch being landed fresh in New York and Philadel- ° phia. The fleet next seeks the fish on the southern shore of Nova Scotia and follows the school north to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. During the summer some of the vessels enter the gulf, but most of them cruise on the New England shore, where most of the fall fishing is also done. Some of the finest fishing vessels of the United States are engaged in this fishery. In recent years the fleet has numbered only 150 to 225 sail, but formerly nearly 1,000 vessels were at times employed in this branch. The shore and boat fishing is carried on from New Jersey to Maine. The fish thus caught are as.a rule sold in a fresh condition. The fishery is much less productive than formerly, and during the past ten years has not as arule been profitable, although each year a few vessels make good catches and yield very satisfactory returns, owing to the high price of fish. The local fishing does not supply the home demand, and large quantities of fresh and salt mackerel are annualy imported from Norway, Ireland, and the British provinces, 212 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION. The artificial propagation of mackerel was more extensively prose- cuted in 1896 than in any previous year. The long-continued scarcity of mackerel on the Atlantic coast of the United States seemed to warrant some efforts on the part of the Government to increase the supply by artificial means. The limitations of mackerel culture depend on the erratic movements of the fish in a given season or on a given part of the coast and the difficulty of securing healthy eggs in large quantities from fish taken by the commercial fishermen. During the summer of 1896, 24,000,000 mackerel eggs were collected. The work was largely experimental and only a small percentage of fry was hatched, but the outlook is good for a great expansion of mackerel propagation. The egg of the mackerel is one of the smallest dealt with by the fish- culturist, being only 4; inch in diameter. Being provided with a large oil-globule, it floats at the surface, like the eggs of many other marine fishes. Within 48 hours after fertilization it generally begins to sink, remains in suspension a short while, and then falls to the bottom, where it remains until hatching ensues. Owing to the inability to retain mackerel in ponds or live-cars pend- ing the ripening of the eggs, as is done with the cod, it is necessary to depend for the egg supply on the nets of the fishermen. The eggs collected at Woods Hole are secured from fish captured in pound nets near Chatham and at other points on the southern Massachusetts coast; at Gloucester traps in the vicinity furnish the eggs. As the nets are usually hauled only once or twice a day, the fish have often been caught for many hours, and the tender eggs have undergone considerable loss of vitality; the quality of the eggs seems to have a direct relation to the length of time the fish have been in the nets. One of the most favorable grounds for collecting mackerel spawn is ‘ Casco Bay, on the coast of Maine. Mackerel are taken chiefly in drag nets set about 4 o’clock p. m., and hauled from 9 o’clock p m. to day- light. Eggs from fish caught in the first hauls of the nets are of much better quality than those taken in the last lifts. In collecting eggs from pound nets the spawn-takers accompany the fishermen when they visit their nets and overhaul the mackerel as they are taken into the boats. The collection of eggs from the drag-net fishermen requires the spawn-takers to remain on the fishing-grounds from early in the afternoon until the next morning. There is nothing peculiar in the methods of stripping the fish, mixing the eggs and milt, and transferring the eggs from the field to the hatch- ery. Although both the wet and the dry methods of fertilization have been practiced, the latter apparently gives better results. The average number of eggs taken from a fish is probably about 40,000. Three mackerel, stripped at Woods Hole in 1893, yielded 434,500 ripe eggs, an average of 144,833 eggs. As many as 546,000 eggs have been taken from a 13-pound fish, and the largest fish probably yield fully 1,000,000 MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 213 eggs. The largest number of eggs taken from one fish in Casco Bay in 1897 was 200,000. From the field the fertilized eggs are conveyed to the station in jars, as described in the chapter on cod propagation. For short shipments they may be transported in buckets or cans. Mackerel eggs may be artificially incubated in a variety of ways. In 1896 three forms of apparatus were employed for comparative purposes. These were (1) the McDonald hatching-jar, with the water supplied through the long central tube and discharged through a cheese-cloth top; (2) the Chester jar, and (3) the automatic tidal-box; the latter gave the best results. Owing to the very small size of the eggs, from 200,000 to 225,000 may be placed in a Chester jar and 450,000 or more in a tidal box 20 by ll inches. The eggs are manipulated in about the same way that cod eggs are, but, owing to the short period of incubation, require very little handling. For reasons not yet definitely determined, but apparently connected with the condition of the eggs rather than the methods of hatching, mackerel ova are liable to exceedingly large mortality during ineuba- tion. While as many as 75 per cent of certain small lots of eggs have produced fry, less than 1 per cent of most of the eggs hatch. The period of incubation at a mean water-temperature of 58° is about 5 days. In 48 hours after impregnation the embryo is discernible, and in 68 hours its development is far advanced. The critical period seems to be the end of the third day, when a large part of the eggs die. The fry are planted within 24 hours of hatching. They are taken to the natural spawning-grounds in regular transportation cans and liberated below the surface of the water. i He eset: arth at Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 215.) PLATE 59. ry > yl OSS WO LN teas opessesece a an os i ie i tr aS, Pitp Sa aoe, Sate al ae, Wave: Was ouD perme. Aer N, ¢ 3 >) x Pi LW bat Ec ae ae rey, pee ES wy ew www! IS My 2 Rr hth fy geen ne ye eae a rh PSEUDOPLEURONECTES AMERICANUS. Flatfish, or Winter Flounder. Op Poy pp ay ate see a aa oo THE FLATFISH, OR WINTER FLOUNDER. The body of the flatfish (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) is regularly elliptical. The eyes and color are on the right side. The upper side oft the head is covered with imbricated ctenoid scales similar to those of the body; the blind side of the head is nearly naked. The teeth are close-set, incisor-like, and form a continuous cutting edge; the right side of each jaw is toothless. The length of the head is contained 4 times in the length of the body and the depth 24 times in the body length. The dorsal fin contains 65 rays and the anal fin 48 rays. The lateral line, which is nearly straight, has 83 scales. The color above is dark rusty-brown, either plain or mottled with darker; the young are olive- brown, spotted with reddish; the under parts are white. This species has a comparatively small mouth, and feeds chiefly on small shells, crabs, and other bottom animals. It is found on sandy,- muddy, or rocky bottoms, and seems to prefer sheltered coves and bays. Its coastwise and bathic movements are limited. It is one of the most abundant flounders of the Atlantic coast, being especially numerous in southern New England and New York. It ranges as far north as Labrador and as far south as the Carolinas, but is not present in noteworthy quantities south of New Jersey. It does not attain a large size, the usual length being only 12 to 15 inches and the weight about 14 pounds. Very rarely examples are taken over 20 inches long, weighing as much as 5 pounds. The winter flounder is exceedingly prolific, over a million eggs being laid by alarge fish. Along the coast of the southern New England and Middle Atlantic States the spawning season is from February to April. By August the young fish, having attained a length of 1 or 2 inches, are found in shallow water along sandy shores. The species is obtained principally during the winter and spring months, and large quantities are sent to the markets, where it sells readily at good prices. The flesh is white, firm, and of excellent flavor. Next to the halibut and the summer flounder, or plaice (Paralichthys dentatus), this is the most important flatfish of the Atlantic coast. The winter flounder has been more extensively propagated than any other species of Pleuronectide, owing to the facility with which its eggs are obtained at Woods Hole, where its propagation fills in the time between the taking of cod eggs on one hand and of lobster eggs on the other, slightly overlapping the ending of the former and the beginning of the latter. The work covers that part of the year when the most 215 216 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. inclement and changeable weather occurs, and is necessarily somewhat limited in extent by uncontrollable physical and other conditions. During the fiscal year 1895-96, the collections of flatfish eggs num- bered 11,008,000, which yielded 8,472,000 fry; in the year 1896-97 84,591,000 eggs were taken, from which 64,095,000 fry were hatched. The flatfish from which eggs are obtained are very plentiful during February in the Woods Hole region, being found on sandy or hard clay bottom, and taken in fyke nets set in water from 6 to 14 feet deep. As many as 60 to 70 fish are sometimes taken at one lift of a fyke net, but as a rule not more than two or three of this number are gravid fish. These nets are usually some distance from the station, and the fish are carried to the hatchery in transportation cans, six or eight being put in one can. In some cases this trip is made by water in a sail or row boat, while at other times it is made overland by team. The fish are often carried 10 or 12 miles without change of water and without apparent injury. A few are caught while the water temperature is as low as 33° F., but they are more numerous after the temperature reaches 34° or 35° F. On arriving at the station the fish are put into wooden tanks supplied with constantly changing water, and here they are held until ripe. It is customary to put both males and females in .the same box or tank. The fish are examined daily and the eggs are taken from all which are found to have ripened, the stripped or spent fish being released. The eggs of the flatfish are quite small, there being 30 in a linear inch. Unlike the eggs of the cod, haddock, mackerel, and other marine fishes, they do not float, but sink to the bottom of the vessel in which they are held. They are not so heavy as those of the lobster, and a slight current causes them to rise and carries them to a point where there is suill water, when they again go to the bottom. When first deposited, the eggs are very adhesive and stick together‘in one mass or in clusters of different sizes. This adhesiveness is overcome, in a measure, by thoroughly washing them, and, as this force gradually weakens as the eggs become older, usually nearly all the eggs are separate when they begin to hatch. Theuse of dry powdered starch is very effective for this purpose; this mixes readily with the salt water and admirably over- comes the glutinosity of the eggs. Its action is purely mechanical. In stripping, itis customary to fill a Chester jar with water and place inside the jar a bag made of cheese-cloth, into which the eggs are allowed to fall. The fish is grasped by the head with the left hand, the mouth being in the palm of the hand, and the edge on which the vent is located turned from the spawn-taker. The right grasps the fish near the tail, and as it is moved with gentle pressure toward the vent, at the same time that the left thumb is moving crosswise and exerting similar pressure, the eggs are extruded. The milt is then expressed in the sane way; the eggs are stirred slightly with the hand to thoroughly mix them with the milt, and after allowing a short time for the action MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. Dit of the milt they are cleaned and the superfluous milt washed off by introducing a gentle stream of water into the bag and rolling the eggs from side to side. It frequently happens that fish held in tanks to mature deposit their eggs during thenight. In such cases the eggs are found on the bottom of the tank the next morning. They are usually in clusters and when examined with the microscope it will be found that practically every egg is fertilized. After the eggs have been taken and fertilized the number is calcu- lated by measuring in a glass graduate and computing 47,826 eggs to the liquid ounce. The average number of eggs is about 500,000 to a fish. On March 6, 1897, 30 ounces, or 1,462,000 eggs, were taken from a fish 20 inches long and 11 inches wide, its weight being 34 pounds after the eggs were taken. Flatfish eggs may be hatched in several kinds of apparatus, but the Chester jar is most used, in combination with the McDonald tidal box employed in incubating cod eggs. From 400,000 to 500,000 eggs are usually placed in each jar. The top of the jar is covered with cheese- cloth held in place by rubber bands. The jar is then inverted and placed in a tidal box. The usual complement of each box is 2 jars. A wooden frame of 1-inch strips is placed lengthwise on the bottom of the box for the jars to rest on, so as to raise them and allow the free circulation of the water. A hole in the bottom of the jar allows the air to pass in and out as the water inside rises and falls. The inner compartment, with a bottom of cheese-cloth, used in cod-hatching is omitted. Asin using the jars the eggs are generally on the bottom all the time, the experiment .has been tried of employing the McDonald box with the automatic current in order to keep the eggs in circulation. It having been found that the current commonly used for cod eggs caused the eggs to pile up in the end nearest the outlet, a stream was intro- duced into each end of the box and the water was allowed to escape in . all directions through a perforated nozzle; the water was kept about 3 inches deep in the bottom of the box by using a quantity sufficient to prevent the breaking of the siphon. By this means a constant current is formed, the eggs develop nicely, and the fry hatch, but the current necessary to keep the eggs in circulation is strong enough to kill the fry by forcing them against the sides of the box. This experiment is therefore not considered a success. The period of incubation when the mean water temperature is 37° or 38° F. is 17 or 18 days. The fry of the flatfish, although much smaller than those of the cod, are much more lively, and are straightened out when first hatched. Unlike the young cod, they do not float on the surface, but are scat- tered through the water from top to bottom, many being seen among the eggs on the bottom of the jars. Unlike the adults, the flatfish fry 218 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. swim with the body upright, as young fish of other families do, and when first hatched the eyes are on opposite sides of the head. At the age of about three months, however, one of the eyes will have moved to the other side of the head, to conform with the change of the body in swimming from an upright to a flat position. The position constantly assumed by the very young fry is peculiar, the long axis of the body being vertical, with the head upward. This is owing to a large oil-globule in the anterior part of the yolk-sac. The fry are quite hardy and stand transportation very well. They have been kept three weeks without change of water in a bottle hang- ing in a box of running water to maintain an even temperature in the bottle. In planting the fry, which is done in one or two days after hatching, they are put into the transportation cans commonly used for such purposes and taken in a boat to localities in which the brood fish are found. The cans are put overboard and sunk until the mouth is submerged, when the contents are gently turned out. For a trip of not more than two or three hours’ duration, with water temperature about 38° F., from 400,000 to 500,000 fry may be safely carried in a 10-gallon cal. Report U.S F C. 1897. (To face page 219.) 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CHAMBERLAIN, Assistant, U. S. Fish Commission. a ey , F Fc pe hi ud | " | Pe a i i f i é i hile be) j F ie, Py ePe Sai ae PT? od NOTES ON THE EDIBLE FROGS OF THE UNITED STATES AND THEIR ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION. The frogs are familiar representatives of the great class of cold- blooded vertebrates known as the Batrachia. The batrachians are intermediate anatomically and physiologically between the fishes and the reptiles (snakes, turtles, terrapins, alligators, etc.); they are chiefly characterized by the metamorphosis which the young undergo before assuming the functions and habits of the adults. The young are mostly aquatic and breathe by means of gills, which absorb oxygen from the water. Later the gills disappear and are replaced by lungs. The frogs are included in the order Salientia (the leapers), distin- guished by having a short, depressed body and four limbs, the hind pair being much enlarged and adapted to leaping and swimming; the tail, present in the young, disappears with age. In the related orders (Urodela, containing the salamanders and newts; Proteida, the mud- puppies or water-dogs, and Trachystomata, the sirens or mud-eels) the tail persists in adult life and the hind limbs are small, but the metamor- phoses and habits otherwise more or less closely resemble the Salientia. Associated with the frogs (Ranide), in the order Salientia, are the families (Bufonide and Hylide) to which the toads and tree frogs belong. The toads are very closely related to the frogs, but differ in having more terrestrial habits and, among other structural features, in the absence of teeth and the possession of an expansible thorax; their uncouth form and the pungent secretions which have brought them immunity from the attacks of other animals have added to the preju- dice against their relatives, the frogs. The tree frogs are characterized by arboreal habits and corresponding changes in structure. More than 250 species of true frogs (Ranidw) are known. They are most numer- ous in Africa and the East Indies. The edible frogs of the United States belong to the genus Rana (Latin, a frog). Of these, Professor Cope in his Batrachia of North America (1889) lists 13 species and 6 subspecies or varieties, to which there have since been some additions. FOOD VALUE OF FROGS. The value of frogs as food is now thoroughly recognized. The meat is white, delicate, and very wholesome and palatable. Although eaten at all times, it is in best condition in fall and winter; in spring it is of 251 252 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. relatively inferior quality. Only the hind legs are commonly utilized, the meat on the other parts of the body being edible, but in very small quantity. In some localities, however, the entire body, after the removal of the viscera, is fried with eggs and bread crumbs. The legs are pre- pared for the table by broiling, frying, or stewing. A prejudice formerly existed against frogs as an article of food, per- haps based on their uncanny appearance and heightened through their appropriation by witches and empirics for spells in love affairs and the cure of various diseases. For a long time the French people alone availed themselves of this delicacy, though it was known to the Romans. From France the use of this food passed into Germany, England, and other parts of Europe, and later into the United States, where frogs are now more generally consumed than in any other country, and where, during the proper seasons, they may be found in the markets of any of the larger cities.* FROG-HUNTING. The business of taking frogs for market has greatly increased in recent years. It is now carried on in all sections of the United States, and is of economic importance in about fifteen States, while in nearly all the remaining States and Territories frogs are taken for local or home consumption, of which it is impossible to get a statistical account. The States supplying the largest quantities for the markets are Cali- fornia, Missouri, New York, Arkansas, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, and Indiana. More frogs are taken in New York than in any other State, but on account of their comparatively small size their value is less than in Missouri and California. The Canadian Province of Ontario also yields a comparatively large supply of market frogs. According to inquiries of the United States Fish Commission, the annual catch in the United States is but little less than 1,000,000, with a gross value to the hunters of about $50,000. The yearly cost of frogs and frog legs to the consumers is not less than $150,000. The localities in which especially important frog hunting is done are the marshes of the western end of Lake Erie, and Lewis and Grand reservoirs, in Ohio; the marshes of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, California; the valley of the Kankakee River, Indiana; Oneida Lake, Seneca River, and other waters of northern New York, and the St. Francis River and the sunken lands of the Mississippi River, in Arkansas and Missouri. In taking frogs for market, lines baited with red cloth, worms, or insects are extensively used; guns, small-bore rifles, and spears are also employed, and cross-bows are adopted for this purpose in Canada. They are often hunted at night, a lantern furnishing light for the * While it is popularly supposed that the consumption of frogs in France is much larger than elsewhere, this is not the case, and, on the authority of the Revue des Sciences Naturelles Appliquées (1889), it may be stated that the annual consumption of frogs in the United States is ten times that in France. MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 253 hunter’s aim, and at the same time blinding or dazing the frogs. After entering on their hibernation, many are dug out of the mud, large numbers often being found together at this time. In the basin of the St. Francis River, in Missouri and Arkansas, where the business is important, frogs are captured by means of spears, with lines at the end of long rods, and with firearms. In the early part of the season, when the frogs retire to the mud during the cool nights, and -only appear on warm, bright days, they are taken on hooks baited with red cloth and by guns and rifles. Later the bulk of the catch is made at night by means of spears with one to three barbed prongs. Two men usually hunt together in a boat, one rowing, the other standing in the bow with spear and a large reflector made especially for the purpose. The season in thisregion is principally from March to June. Only the hind legs are preserved; a pair of these weighs about half a pound. The prices received for frogs varies greatly, and depends on the con- dition of the market, the size of the frogs, and the locality. Dressed legs yield the hunters from 124 to 50 cents a pound, and live frogs from 5 cents to $4 a dozen. In the Kankakee Valley, Indiana, for example, the prices received by the hunters are 75 cents a dozen for large frogs, 10 cents a dozen for medium-sized frogs, and 5 cents a dozen for small frogs, while in San Francisco the market price is $3 to $4 a dozen. The unrestricted hunting of frogs threatens their practical extinction in all places where their abundance and shipping facilities or proximity to market render the business profitable. Already a marked decrease in the supply is manifest in Lake Erie, in northern New York, and other places, and in order to meet the increasing demand hundreds of people are experimenting or preparing to engage in frog-culture. The need of definite information as to the methods of procedure has been generally felt and frequent inquiries concerning frog-culture are received by the United States Fish Commission. While the practica- bility of artificial propagation has not been demonstrated, it is evident that the number of salable frogs from a given area may be largely increased by artificial means. To undertake intelligent work in this line a knowledge of the natural history of the frog is essential. HABITS AND DEVELOPMENT OF FROGS. All frogs undergo a tadpole stage, though in some species this is so rapid as to lead the casual observer to think it omitted. Upon the disappearance of frosts at the close of winter the hibernating frogs return to active life, and as the waters become warmer in the spring sun their notes are heard in suitable localities all over the country. In some species the song is distinctly a chant @amour; in others it is continued long after the breeding season is over. During the breeding season the social instinct prevails, and species of usually solitary habits congregate in large numbers, thus becoming ready prey for the hunter, 254 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The eggs are extruded by the female and are fertilized by the male as they pass out, very few failing to be impregnated. The process of oviposition or laying continues through several days, and during this period several hundred eggs may be deposited. The size of the ova varies with the species, but averages about 1.75 millimeters (.07 inch) in diameter. In passing down the oviduct the egg receives a thin coating of albuminous material; this rapidly swells when the egg enters the water and forms the well-known gelatinous mass in which the frog eggs are always found imbedded. The toad’s eggs are laid in long strings and are readily distinguishable. The salamander’s eggs are also placed in the water, but the gelatinous mass is somewhat firmer and the eggs are slightly larger than the frog’s, and they are usually deposited somewhat earlier. The eggs begin development, under favorable circumstances, aS soon as fertilized, the rapidity depending mainly on the temperature of the water; incubation is much retarded by cold, and some seasons many eggs are killed by late frosts. At first the upper part of the’eggs is black and the lower white, but the rapid growth of the black embryo makes the entire egg dark. The egg, which is at first spherical, soon becomes ovoid. In from 4 to 30 days the tadpole is able to wriggle out of its gelatinous envelope and shortly attaches itself to some plant or other support by means of a sort of adhesive organ in front of the mouth. At first the mouth and anus are closed, and food can only be obtained by absorption, the first food consisting of the gelatinous egg- envelope. In a short time the mouth and anus become functional, the alimentary canal lengthens, and macerated animal and vegetable matter becomes the food. The prevalent idea that the tadpole is exclusively vegetarian, based on its anatomical structure, horny jaws, and long ~ intestine, is incorrect. Recent observations have shown that animal matter is preferred to vegetable; all food must be in a state of macera- tion, especial fondness for dead animals being shown. Respiration is at first carried on by means of external gills. They are soon replaced by internal structures covered by opercula. Rapidity of development depends upon the abundance of food and the temperature of water. The most favorable conditions are a shallow pool, readily warmed by the sun and well stocked with organie matter, that is, an old pond. In this stage the frogs may reach a length of several inches, the bullfrog tadpole being largest. The various species closely resemble each other, but can be distinguished after some expe- rience by certain points of mouth structure, size, and coloration. In a period varying from two months to two years the first indication of the adult form appears in the protrusion of the two hind legs. The forelegs or arms, owing to their being concealed by the gill membranes, are much later in coming out. As the legs become functional the tail is absorbed and furnishes material for growth, so that little food is taken. In the case of the second-year tadpole the capture of insects is begun before the tail is MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 255 lost. As the gills are replaced by lungs during this perioa, 1t is essen- tial that the tadpoles have access to land or resting-places, and it is a time of peculiar difficulty in the creature’s existence. When the tail is almost fully resorbed, the purely aquatic life is forsaken for the amphibious and the food is changed from dead to living matter, which must demonstrate its living condition by motion. The peculiarly formed tongue—loose behind, so that it may be thrown out to quite a distance— is covered with a viscid secretion so that the frog readily captures any insects or small animals that approach it closely. Tadpoles are commonly satisfied to wait patiently for their food, and even the adults do not often search actively for food. Sexual maturity is reached in about three or four years, being latest for those varieties that pass the first winter in the tadpole stage. It is generally believed that frogs live for 12, 15, or even 20 years. . During the tadpole stage they furnish tempting morsels for fish, rep- tiles, some mammals, and other frogs, and especially for wading birds, like herons and cranes. Their defenseless condition and the shallow- ness of their natural habitats at this period make them ready prey, Spring Frog or Leopard Frog (Rana virescens). and it is in the prevention of this wholesale destruction that man may profitably intervene. In the adult frog stage the relentless pursuit by birds and reptiles is continued until of the hundreds of eggs deposited few become reproducing individuals. Only slight revenge for all this slaughter can be taken. They may occasionally capture disabled fish or small fish of sluggish habits found in the mud or on the bottom, and instances are recorded of their eating snakes, toads, and young birds, but insects and lower forms are their staple diet. DESCRIPTIONS OF MARKETABLE FROGS OF THE UNITED STATES. The species of frogs commonly eaten are the bullfrog (ana cates- biana), the green frog (Rana clamata), the spring frog (Rana virescens), and the western bullfrogs (Rana pretiosa and Rana aurora). The following references to their geographical distribution and brief descriptions of their color and form have mainly been extracted from Professor Cope’s work on The Batrachia of North America (Bulletin No. 34, U.S. National Museum, 1889). 256 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The most widely distributed species is the common frog, spring frog, Shad frog, or leopard frog (Rana virescens). It is found from the Atlantic Coast to the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and from Lake Atha- basca, in Canada, to Guatemala, Central America, but is most abundant in the Eastern States. It reaches a length of about 34 inches, exclusive of legs. The toes are well webbed, but the web does not reach the tips of the fourth toe, as in the common bullfrog. The head is moderate in size, the snout being rather pointed; the tympanum (ear) is distinct and nearly as large as the eye. The hind limb being carried forward along the body, the tibio-tarsal articulation reaches nearly the tip of the snout. The color is usually bright green, marked by irregular black, dark-brown, or olive blotches edged with whitish or yellowish. These spots form two irregular rows on the back and one or two more or less Green Frog or Spring Frog (Rana clamata). indefinite rows on the sides. The blotching is continued as spots or bars on the posterior extremities. These spots are frequently smaller and more numerous than shown in the specimen figured. The glandular fold which runs from the orbit to the posterior part of the body is yellow. The under surface is whitish or light yellow and unspotted. The leopard frog passes the tadpole stage the first season, and is more gregarious than the bullfrog or green frog. These considerations are of importance from a culturist’s standpoint. The green frog or spring frog (Rana clamata) is found throughout the Eastern and Central States and neighboring parts of Canada. The body and limbs are stout and massive, the legs are short, and the head is more rounded than in RF. virescens. The tympanum is very large, though this differs in the sexes, as a rule being larger than the eye in MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 257 males and smaller in females. A fold of skin runs from the eye back- ward, with a short branch from the tympanum to the shoulder. The femur and tibia are equal in length, the web of toes not reaching end of fourth toe. The color above is dark olive posteriorly, passing into brilliant green anteriorly. It is sometimes greenish-brown above and on sides, with small round brown spots. The buttocks are usually mottled with brown and yellowish white, but are almost uniformly black in some specimens. Below, this species, white or greenish white, sometimes more or less mottled and blotched. The throat is citron yellow. This frog is especially aquatic in habits, not hunting on land; it fre- quents all kinds of fresh waters. It is more solitary in its habits than R. virescens, living singly, in pairs, or in small companies. It is active on land and in water, but not noisy. A nasal “chung” is occasionally uttered. When disturbed it often emits a shrill cry as it leaps into oe SO fe cO Rana catesbiana. Upper fig- Rana clamata. Upper figure fe- ure female. lower fi gure male. male, lower figure male. Figures illustrating relative size of the tympanum in the two sexes. the water. It is preeminently an inhabitant of swamps and marshes, especially those connected with rivers or large creeks. ‘It is the first species heard in spring, and although its voice is not loud, the noise produced by thousands of them is deafening when heard close at hand, and is transmitted through the atmosphere for many miles. It may be imitated by the syllables chock, chock, chock.” The pickerel frog, marsh frog, or tiger frog (Rana palustris) closely resembles the leopard frog, but may be readily distinguished from it by the bright yellow on the thighs and legs. Itis solitary in its habits and is often found in the grass, although preferring cold spring streams. In the Alleghany Mountains it is the most abundant frog. Itis avery active species, taking longer leaps than any of the others here mentioned. The note is a prolonged, low, grating croak. Owing to its disagreeable odor it is but rarely eaten. F, C. R. 1897-——17 258 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The bullfrog (Rana catesbiana) is the largest of North American frogs, reaching a body length of over 8 inches. It has much the same geographical range as the spring frog. The body is very bulky and clumsy, the legs are thick, and the head is broader than in &. clamata. A fold of skin extends from the eyes over the tympanum, around the insertion of forearm, and disappears on the breast. There are no folds on the sides of back, as in R. clamata and R. virescens. The skin is slightly rough above. The tympanum is larger than eye, with the same sexual differences as in R. clamata. The tibia is slightly shorter than the femur. The hind toes are fully webbed. The complete webbing of the fourth toe, with the absence of dorsal folds of skin, furnishes means of distinguishing this from the spring frog. Common Bullfrog (Rana catesbiana). Male. The color above is olivaceous, brown, or ferruginous, with darker blotches half the diameter of the eye, more or less uniformly distributed. The color is sometimes yellowish green without blotches or other mark- ings. The hind legs are barred above and the buttocks blotched with nearly black markings. The lower parts are white, with obscure mottlings of brown, the throat sometimes being bright yellow. In the young the blotches above are reduced to distinct black dots, and the under parts are yellowish anteriorly. The habits are much the same as those of R. clamata. Both species pass the first winter in the tadpole stage and are said under unfavorable circumstances to pass even the ~ second winter so. This fact, with the solitary habits of the adult, is of importance to the culturist. ‘The Western frogs are not well known. The range of Rana pretiosa is from Montana west to Puget Sound, thence south to southern Cali- fornia. It is the common frog of the Northwestern States. The body is stout and depressed like R. catesbiana, The head is obtuse, rounded, subtrunecate, and broader than long. The eyes are small and the MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 259 tympanum, which is sometimes indistinct in some small specimens, is smaller than the eye. Skin thick. The femur is sborter than the tibia and not quité half length of body. The toes are fully webbed. A depressed ridge extends from eye to flank. The color is dull yellowish- Western Frog (Rana pretiosa). brown (dead leaf) above, darker on sides, with circular brown blotches between the ridges. The outer surface of the limbs is blotched trans- versely. The body spots are often less numerous and smaller than in the specimen figured. The under partsare yellowish white, with obscure brown marbling, posteriorly salmon color. Western Bullfrog (Rana aurora). Rana aurora is found in the western coast region of the United States. The body is depressed and elongated; limbs slender, well developed; head broad, acute, rounded anteriorly; eye moderate; tympanum smaller than eye, but not so small as in preceding species. A fold of 260 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. skin runs from eye to hind leg. The femur is shorter than the tibia, which is rather more than half the length of body. The toes are not quite fully webbed, the last joints of all the toes and last two of the fourth toe being free. The color above is greenish;yellow, with golden reflections, spotted with black. The sides of abdomen and hind legs are reddish-orange. The under parts are dull yellowish-green, spotted. While the species of frogs described are those commonly used for food, there seems no valid reason why any of the Ranide may not be eaten. The small size of some, with possibly a disagreeable odor, has prevented their use up to this time. SUGGESTIONS FOR FROG-CULTURE. From the foregoing discussion of the development of the frog it will be seen that its culture must be of necessity a matter requiring time, patience, and an appreciation of the animal’s habits and needs. So far as can be learned, attempts thus far made in the cultivation of frogs from the egg stage have been arrested at the period when the larva assumes the adult form. From this time the food must be living, and it generally consists almost entirely of insects. The difficulty, approaching impossibility, of furnishing these in sufficient quantity has been the great drawback. The placing about the pond of meat and decaying matter to attract flies has been suggested, but the con- tamination of the water by the poisonous matters of decomposition has counteracted all benefits produced. The frogs, failing in the supply of more natural food, have been compelled to devour one another. To rear the tadpole is comparatively easy. Anyone may obtain a supply of eggs by visiting the stagnant pools in early spring with a dipper and bucket, but this method is said to be less advantageous than the stocking of suitable waters with a sufficient number of pairs of mature frogs. The young can be protected by building a close fence around the edge of the pond to exclude such enemies as raccoons and reptiles, while a screen must be provided so that wading birds, whose long legs furnish them special facilities, can not stand in the water and devour the helpless tadpoles. Any device to be effective must be so arranged that there is no room for birds or other animals to stand on shore or in shallow water, either on or under the screen, and at the same time it must allow the young to come to land, for if there is no opportunity for the tadpoles to breathe the air at rest and exercise the legs, the period of metamorphosis will be indefinitely delayed. They have been kept in aquaria for years in the tadpole stage. Food during this period is readily provided. If a shallow old pond is chosen, already well stocked with organic matter, it will supply, un- aided, food for a large number of frogs. This may be readily increased by supplying animal refuse, liver and such material, care being taken, of course, not to leave a surplus to putrefy and infect the water. The more abundant the food and the warmer the water the more rapid is the MANUAL OF FISH-CULTURE. 261 growth, hence the desirability of selecting ashallow pond. The young should be separated from the adult frogs during this time, as they are eagerly eaten; and it is needless to say that the pond must be free from fish, turtles, snakes, and crayfish. The critical period occurs at the time of metamorphosis. The crea- ture is now abandoning its aquatic habits and has not yet a perfect apparatus for terrestrial life. Any slight disarrangement of the natural environment is liable to destroy the equilibrium. The rapid resorption of the tail furnishes matter for growth, so that food is not so much a necessity, but as soon as the terrestrial habit is fully assumed live food is absolutely requisite, and should be furnished in liberal quantities. There seems to be no reason why this might not be accomplished by transfer of the tadpoles to waters where natural food abounds. It is useless to attempt to supply this food artificially by any method at present known, neither has any device to increase the natural abundance of insects been practicable as yet. The pond should have a growth of rushes and other plants; wild rice (Zizania aquatica) has been recom- mended, but it might attract birds that would prefer young frogs and tadpoles to their vegetable fare. Shade is necessary. Such a pond will furnish natural food for a large stock of frogs, and give opportunity for successful breeding. One of the most successful ‘frog farms” is in Ontario, in the Trent River basin. It has been in operation about twenty years and annually yields a comparatively large product of frogs. The waters were stocked by means of mature mated frogs. No attempt is made to confine the frogs until near the time for shipment to market. They are then taken alive at night, with the aid of a torchlight, and confined in small pens that can be drained when the frogs are desired for market. No food is given, as this is naturally present in sufficient amount for successful growth. The species is the eastern bullfrog (Rana catesbiana); it begins to breed at the age of three years and reaches a marketable size in four years. During the years 1895 and 1896 this “farm” yielded 5,000 pounds of dressed frog legs and 7,000 living frogs for scientific purposes and for stocking other waters. While at present it would perhaps be advisable to limit practical attempts at frog-culture to stocking natural waters with paired breeders, experiments in artificial methods should not be abandoned. There seems no reason why methods similar to those at present pursued in fish-culture may not eventually be successful in the case of frogs. rset ech ey Ae aint iid ms ce visi bun wad ai ar HBnles Bee ioe at AT ye ot eee De bid if Mindy Oh dic Mey et certs 74 dla ; (ayer tte a> sii oatritale i vi} ‘ TA Oesttinke is WAL Pie TAA Baie ud besa) eae 5 Gr Hite ss ee} ie Ler gait Cifras ip Bek £ ; piste EEE qi Lege atl pat? v4 OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. BY FH. MOORE, Assistant, U. S. Fish Commission. CONTENTS. Introduction Distribution: Atblanitic Comsat. cesccccesseeoeseeseee iPacilicicoasts--- << sc sece eae ees Description : Eastern oyster, Ostrea virginiana. --. Pacific coast ‘‘ native,” Ostrea lurida. Reproduction and development: Sexual characteristics.-...-......---- Ripening of the generative organs... Spawning Embryonic development Fixation, set, or spatting Growth PANBLOMY Cente ein ries cincenise nies ccnceneise Physical and biological conditions on oys- ter-beds: Temperature of water Temperature; planted beds in San Francisco Bay Density of water; determination of density and temperature.....-..-.. Silt, mud, and suspended matter-...-- PRides and currents). -- eee eee eacnoe Wepibiak wabter-ecaccce+ nesses e- Weather conditions—storms, gales, ANG dCCten cca shes cases one eee eee 264 Description of natural bed.......-....---. Destruction of natural beds—causes and remedies =-- cee ee CeSSpOconanbadotemac Increase of supply by artificial means. --. Planting with seed : Preliminary considerations Preparing bottom Seed Sowing ‘thejseed: ~~~ ---eee- ssseeeeeeee Working the beds. --.-.--c--<.-ee-eee Planting with cultch or stool: Preliminary considerations Preparing bottom Cultch, collectors, stool Coating cultch General considerations on spat-col- lecting Working the beds=--.---s-+eee essere Protection from enemies Increase on planted beds................. Growing oysters in ponds................ Breeding oysters in ponds Artificial propagation...-...............- Artificial feeding Fattening, plumping, floating.-.......-.- Greening. see ecome et cee ee ae eee Transportation and length of life when removed from the water...--.---------- seen eww eee Notes on clam-culture.-.----....-....-.--- OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. By H. F. Moors, Assistant, United States Fish Commission. INTRODUCTION. This paper is designed to briefly set forth the principal facts relating to the subject of oyster-culture in the United States. It embraces the practices of proved commercial value as well as a summary of the methods and results of investigations which appear to give some prom- ise of utility in certain places and under special conditions, or which indicate the lines along which profitable experiment may be carried on. It is intended primarily as a guide to those persons who are exhibiting an interest in the subject and who contemplate embarking in the industry, yet hesitate on account of unfamiliarity with the methods employed. To aid such persons to a more thorough understanding of the problem involved, certain matters are considered which do not strictly appertain to the practical side of the subject, but which may assist in explaining observed phenomena or in indicating the lim- itations and possibilities of experiment. Such are the chapters on development and anatomy. Attention is directed chiefly to the eastern oyster, which is the species of principal, one might almost say only, interest in this country, and, practically, the great problem of oyster-culture applies to it alone. For comparative purposes, however, and to round out the information presented, it has seemed advisable to incorporate some facts regarding ‘the native oysters of the Pacific Coast. DISTRIBUTION. ATLANTIC COAST. Upon the eastern coast of North America there is but one species of oyster, Ostrea virginiana, which occurs along the northern side of the Gulf of Mexico, on the Atlantic coast from Florida to Cape Cod, and on the southern and western shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In Massachusetts Bay and on the coast of New Hampshire and Maine it does not now occur, though it was found in abundance locally at the time of the settlement of the country, and the former existence of beds of great extent is indicated by the vast quantities of the valves in the ancient Indian shell-heaps. Oyster fisheries are located in every coast- wise State from Texas to Massachusetts and in the Maritime Provinces, 265 266 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. the most important being in Chesapeake Bay, mainly upon the natural beds, and in Long Island Sound, principally upon planted grounds. The Canadian oyster-beds are much depleted, and an effort is now being made to restore them to a productive condition. PACIFIC COAST. Upon the western coast of North America there are five, and perhaps six, recognized species of oysters, but only two of them are of present importance. The eastern oyster was planted in San Francisco Bay about 1872 and has there formed the basis of a somewhat important industry ever since. The supply has been maintained by the annual planting of seed oysters from the east, and while the species appears to be propagating itself to a limited extent, no reliance has been placed upon this fact for the maintenance of the beds. The United States Fish Commission has recently platited oysters in Willapa Bay, Washington; Yaquina Bay, Oregon, and Humboldt Bay, California, but it is still too early to say with what success. The native oyster (Ostrea lurida) of California, Oregon, and Washing- ton is found at various places on the coasts of the States mentioned, but attains its greatest size and perfection in Willapa Bay. It is much inferior to the eastern oyster in size, but its flavor is esteemed by many. In the Gulf of California is found a large species, Ostrea iridescens, which resembles the eastern species and is an object of some trade in the adjoining portions of Mexico. Attempts have been made to intro- duce this form in the markets of San Francisco, but the mortality en route has been large and the venture unprofitable. Two smaller oysters, Ostrea palumea and Ostrea palumea glomerata, are also found in the Gulf of California. DESCRIPTION. EASTERN OYSTER, OSTREA VIRGINIANA. The shell of this species is generally elongate, but varies much with age and the conditions under which it grows. In the younger stages it is often nearly round, with ear-like projections on each side of the hinge and stout radiating ridges near the margin, thus bearing some resemblance to the European oyster. In shells which are actively growing there is a broad fringe of yellow cuticle around the edge of the valves, which, however, soon becomes thickened by a deposit of lime. The shell is subject to great variation in thickness, but it is rarely so thin as in the Pacific coast oyster. The exterior is marked by laminations and more or less concentric lines of growth; it is often covered by a yellowish cuticle, but is sometimes white and flinty in appearance. The inside of the shell is generally white, somewhat tinged with purple near the margins, and with a more or less pearly luster. The muscular impression is generally nearer to the posterior OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 267 margin than to the hinge; it is a well-defined scar, kidney-shaped in specimens of ordinary size, but becoming more elongate in very large individuals; in young specimens if is pale, but it afterwards becomes purple or almost black. The left or lower valve is deeply concave within, the upper valve being flat or, usually, slightly concave. The animal portions are large, nearly filling the shell, and the mantle border is comparatively narrow. (Plate vy.) PACIFIC COAST “NATIVE,” OSTREA LURIDA. The shell of this species is thin and irregular, varying in shape from almost round to elongate elliptical; the surface is sometimes laminated, but is never ribbed; the color is variable, being sometimes purple, sometimes dirty green or gray; the inside of the shell is greenish, sometimes tinged with purple. The muscular impression or scar is purple, but paler than in the eastern oyster, and its greatest length is usually longitudinal rather than transverse; it is situated about mid- way between the hinge and the lips or nibs of the shell, and its ventral margin is usually prolonged toward the hinge. There is rarely a well- defined pit or excavation beneath the hinge, the inner face of the shell sloping off gently from the ligament. The lower valve is deeper than the upper one, but is rarely so strongly concave as in the eastern species. (Plate V1.) REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT. SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS. In the European oyster the individuals are hermaphrodites—that is, each is both male and female; in the common eastern oyster the sexes are separate, each individual being either male or female, but not both. Although the sexes differ remarkably in physiology and minute anatomy, it is not possible to distinguish male from female by any known external characters. It is only by an examination of the genital glands, which in the male produce the spermatozoa or milt and in the female the ova, eggs, or spawn, or by examining the genital products themselves, that the one sex may be distinguished from the other. The differences between the ovaries of the female and the testes of the male are explained in the section treating of the anatomy. When the animals are ripe, the distinction of the sexes is most conveniently made by an examination of the genital products. A drop of genital fluid is extracted from the oyster in the manner described under the head of artificial fertilization (p. 332) and let fall into a glass of clear sea water. If the individual be a ripe female, the drop will break up into a uniformly distributed cloud, which, if examined against a black background, will be seen to consist of separate minute white granules or eggs. If the eggs be unripe, they will remain aggregated in little compound masses. If the specimen examined be a male, the drop of mult will form an irregular, stringy cloud, showing a tendency to drift in 268 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. streaks if the water be agitated, and with no particles distinguishable by the naked eye. Another test is to spread out a drop of the genital fluid, mixed with a drop of water, in a thin film upon a piece of glass, such as a micro- scope slide. If the specimen be a female, an examination with a strong hand lens will reveal many minute pear-shaped or oval bodies or eggs, each with a clear spot, the nucleus or so-called germinal vesicle. If the specimen be a male, the film can not be resolved into distinguishable particles when viewed with the lens, but consists of a milk-white mass, having a quivering appearance owing to the effect of the combined movements of the indistinguishable spermatozoa. The histological characters which distinguish the testes and ovary are considered under the head of anatomy. According to Professor Schiedt, an hermaphroditic oyster occurs on our northwest coast, the specimens examined coming from the State of Washington, the exact locality not being mentioned. Sexually, there- fore, this species resembles the common oyster of Europe. RIPENING OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. In spring, when the water begins to warm, certain changes begin to manifest themselves in the generative organs, preparatory to the act of spawning. In the female some of the minute eggs in the ovaries increase in size and become loosened in the follicles or little pockets of tissue in which they have undergone their early development. All of the eggs which are to be discharged in any one year do not ripen at the same time, so that the spawning of each individual extends over a greater or less period. An examination of the ovary at any time will always show great numbers of minute immature eggs, most of these being ova which will ripen and be discharged during some subsequent year. Other changes, which it is not necessary to mention here, take place in the eggs and tissues, but the ultimate result is that the ovary becomes enlarged by the growth of the ripening eggs and the latter pass into the oviducts, which stand out as milky-white and much- branched vessels on each side of the body. The spermatozoa develop in somewhat the same manner, but the generative cells, instead of developing into eggs, undergo rapid divi- sion, each into a number of minute active bodies, which pass into the sperm ducts and gorge them with a white fluid, the milt, in general naked-eye appearance closely resembling the ovarian fluid. SPAWNING. The act of spawning consists in the discharge of the ripe genital products into the surrounding water, where fertilization 1s left to chance. The genital ducts, one on each side, open into the chambers above the gills, and the ova in the one sex and the spermatozoa in the other, gradually oozing out of the openings, are caught up by the currents of water passing through the gill-canals and expelled from the body, OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 269 together with the various waste products resulting from digestion and respiration. The season at which oysters spawn differs with the latitude of the bed and with local conditions. As a general rule, it may be said that they ripen earlier in the south than in the north, and that in the same region the genital products mature earlier in shallow than in deep water. These facts appear to be dependent primarily upon the temperature, other things being equal, southern waters warming before the northern, and the shallows before the depths. It is stated that the raccoon oyster of South Carolina spawns from the middle of March to the middle of August. Ripe individuals are found in shallow-water creeks during January and February, and it is probable that intermittent spawning may take place at any time during the year when favorable conditions prevail. In Chesapeake Bay oysters are found spawning from April to October, but apparently a few scattered individuals spawn at other times, though most of the spawn appears to be cast during the latter part of July or early in August. In Long Island Sound spawning takes place, according to the locality, during May, June, July, and August. Sometimes many oysters are found with well-developed ova during April, but this appears to be unusual, and Dr. Dean remarks that when it occurs “it will almost invariably be found that the spring has been warm and dry.” Not only the time of spawning, but the quantity of spawn, appears to be affected by the weather conditions. Sudden changes produce very marked results, and a transfer of the oyster from one place to another during the spawning season is almost certain to interfere with reproduction or even absolutely arrest it. The age at which the oyster becomes capable of reproducing its kind varies with the locality, but it appears that in regions of rapid growth the generative organs ripen during the first year. The number of eggs discharged by the female is naturally dependent upon its size. Accord- ing to Dr. Brooks, the Maryland oyster of average size produces 16,000,000 eggs each year, while a very large individual may produce 60,000,000. The spermatozoa, being extremely minute, are present in the milt in inconceivable numbers. Notwithstanding the great fecundity of the individual oyster the reproductive power of the beds is not so vast as is generally supposed. If the oysters are scattered, or the number spawning at a given time is small, most of the genital matter will be wasted, as the contact of the male and female cells is entirely dependent upon chance, and the fewer such cells there are in a given body of water the smaller the probability of their meeting and fusing in the manner constituting the act of fer- tilization. Neither the eggs nor the spermatozoa live long after they are discharged from the parent, and if fertilization is to take place at all the two elements must be brought into contact promptly; and it will be seen, therefore, that nature must supply a vast number of germ cells to insure the survival of but a few. 270 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISR AND FISHERIES. EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT. The following popular account of the early stages in the development of the oyster is slightly modified from the description by Dr. W. K. Brooks: The ovarian eggs are simply the cells of an organ of the body, the ovary, and they differ from the ordinary cells only in being much larger and more distinct from each other, and they have the power, wken detached from the body, of growing and dividing up into cells, which shall shape themselves into a new organism like that from whose body the egg came. Most of the steps in this wonderful process may be watched under the microscope, and owing to the ease with which the eggs of the oyster may be obtained this is a very good egg to study. About 15 minutes after the eggs are fertilized they will be found to be covered with male cells, as shown in plate vil, fig. 1.* In about an hour the egg will be found to have changed its shape and appearance. It is now nearly spherical, as shown in plate Vil, fig. 2, and the germinative vesicle is no longer visible. The male cells may or may not still be visible upon the outer surface. In a short time a little transparent point makes its appearance on the surface of the egg and increases in size and soon forms a little projecting transparent knob—the polar globule—which is shown in plate vu, fig. 3, and in succeeding figures. Recent investigations tend to show that while these changes are taking place one of the male cells penetrates the protoplasm of the egg and unites with the germinative vesicle, which does not disappear but divides into two parts, one of which is pushed out of the egg and becomes the polar globule, while the other remains behind and becomes the nucleus of the developing egg, but changes its appearance so that itis no longer conspicuous. The egg now becomes pear-shaped, with the polar globule at the broad end of the pear, and this end soon divides into two parts, so that the egg (plate vu, fig. 4) is now made of one large mass and two slightly smaller ones, with the polar globule between them. The later history of the egg shows that at this early stage the egg is not perfectly homogeneous, but that the protoplasm which is to give rise to certain organs of the body has separated from that which is to give rise to others. The upper portion of the egg soon divides up into smaller and smaller spherules, until at the stage shown in plate vil, figs. 5, 6, and 7, we have a layer of small cells wrapped around the greater part of the surface of a single large spherule, and the series of figures shows that the latter is the spherule which is below in plate vu, fig. 4. This spherule now divides up into a layer of cells, and at the same time the egg, or rather the embryo, becomes flattened from above downward and assumes the shape ofaflatoval disk. Plate vil, figs. 10 and 9, are views of the upper and lower surface of the embryo at about this time. In a sectional view, plate vit, fig. 11, it is seen to be made of two layers of cells, an upper layer of small transparent cells, e c, which are to form the outer wall of the body and which have been formed by the division of the spherules which occupy the upper end of the egg in plate vil, fig. 6, and a lower layer of much larger, more opaque cells, 7, which are to become the walls of the stomach, and which have been formed by the division of the large spherule, a, of plate vil, fig. 6. This layer is seen in the section to be pushed in a little toward the upper layer, so that the lower surface of the disk-shaped embryo is not flat, but very slightly concave. This concavity is destined to grow deeper until its edges almost meet, and it is the rudimentary digestive cavity. A very short time after this stage has been reached, and usually within from two to four hours after the eggs were fertilized, the embryo undergoes a great change of shape and assumes the form which is shown in three different views in plate vil, figs. 12, 13, 14, and 15. ’ * References to figures in quoted portions of this paper do not correspond with the originals, being altered to accord with their sequence in the present article, OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 271 A circular tuft of long hairs or cilia has now made its appearance at what is thus marked as the anterior end of the body, and as soon as these hairs are formed they begin to swing backward and forward in such a way as to constitute a swimming organ, which rows the little animal up from the bottom to the surface of the water, where if) swims around very actively by the aid of its cilia. This stage of develop- ment, plate vul, fig. 12, which is of short duration, is of great importance in raising the young oysters, for it is the time when they can best be siphoned off into a separate vessel and freed from the danger of being killed by the decay of any eggs which may fail to develop. On one surface of the body at this stage, the dorsal surface, there is a well-marked groove, and when a specimen is found in a proper position for examination the opening into the digestive tract is found at the bottom of this groove. Plate vu, fig. 13, is a sectional view of such anembryo. It is seen to consist of a cen- tral cavity, the digestive cavity, which opens externally on the dorsal surface of the body by a small orifice, the primitive mouth, and which is surrounded at all points, except at the mouth, by a wall which is distinct from the outer wall of the body. Around the primitive mouth these two layers are continuous with each other. The way in which this cavity, with its wall and external opening, has been formed will be understood by a comparison of plate vu, fig. 13, with plate vm, fig. 8. The layer which is below in plate vu, fig. 8, has been pushed upward in such a way as to convert it into a long tube, and at the same time the outer layer has grown downward and inward around it, and has thus constricted the opening. The layer of cells which is below in plate vu, fig. 8, thus becomes converted into the walls of the digestive tract, and the space which is outside and below the embryo, in plate vi, fig. 8, becomes converted into an inclosed digestive cavity, which opens externally by the primitive mouth. This stage of development, in which the embryo consists of two layers, an inner layer surrounding a cavity which opens externally by a mouth-like opening, and an outer layer which is continuous with vhe inner around the margins of the opening, is of very frequent occurrence, and it has been found, with modifications, in the most widely separated groups of animals, such as the starfish, the oyster, and the frog; and some representatives of all the larger groups of animals, except the protozoa, appear to pass during their development through a form which may be regarded as a more or less considerable modification of that presented by our embryo oyster. This stage of development is known as the gastrula stage. The edges of the primitive mouth of the oyster continue to approach each other and finally meet and unite, thus closing up the opening, as shown in plate vu, fig. 16, and leaving the digestive tract without any communication with the outside of the body, and entirely surrounded by the outer layer. The embryo shown in plate vu, figs. 12 and 16, are represented with the dorsal surface below, in order to facilitate comparison with the adult, but in plate vu, fig. 17, and most of the following figures, the dorsal surface is uppermost, for more ready comparison with the adult. In other lamellibranchs, and doubtless also in the oyster, the shell begins as a deposit in an invagination or pocket on the dorsal side of the body. In its manner of formation this shell-gland resembles the primitive mouth for which it has been more than once mistaken by investigators. In some forms the shell is at first single, but in the oyster they are said to be separated from each other from the beginning, and appear independently. Dr. Brooks says further: Soon after they make their appearance, the embryos cease to crowd to the surface of the water and sink to various depths, although they continue to swim actively in all directions, and may still be found occasionally close to the surface. The region of the body which carries the cilia now becomes sharply defined, as a circular pro- jecting pad, the velum, and this is present and is the organ of locomotion at a much later stage of development. It is shown at the right side of the figure in plate vu, 22 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. fig. 17, and in plate vu, fig. 18, it is seen in surface view, drawn in between the shells, and with its cilia folded down and at rest, as they are seen when the little oyster lies upon the bottom. The two shells grow rapidly, and soon become quite regular in outline, as shown in piate vil, fig. 17, and plate v1u1, fig. 1, but for some time they are much smaller than the body, which projects from between their edges around their whole circumference, except that along a short area, the area of the hinge upon the dorsal surface, where the two valves are in contact. The two shells continue to grow at their edges, and soon become large enough to cover up and project a little beyond the surface of the body, as shown in plate vm, fig. 1, and at the same time muscular fibers make their appearance and are so arranged that they can draw the edge of the body and the velum in between the edges of the shells in the manner shown in plate vit. fig. 18. In this way that surface of the body which lines the shell becomes converted into the two lobes of the mantle, and between them a mantle cavity is formed, into which the velum can be drawn when the animal is at rest. While these changes have been going on over the outer sur- face of the body other important internal modifications have taken place. We left the digestive tract at the stage shown in plate vu, fig. 16, without any communica- tion with the exterior. Soon the outer wall of the body becomes pushed inward to form the true mouth, at a point (plate vu, fig. 17) which is upon the ventral surface and almost directly opposite the point where the primitive mouth was situated at an earlier stage. The digestive cavity now becomes greatly enlarged and cilia make their appearance upon its walls, the mouth becomes connected with the chamber which is thus formed and which becomes the stomach, and minute particles of food are drawn in by the cilia and can now be seen inside the stomach, where the vibration of the cilia keep them in constant motion. Up to this time the animal has developed without growing, and at the stage shown in plate vil, fig. 16, it is scarcely larger than the unfertilized ege, but it now begins to increase in size. The stages shown in plate vm, fig. 1, and plate vu, fig. 18, agree pretty closely with the figures which the European embry- ologists give of the oyster embryo at the time when it escapes from the mantle chamber of its parent. The American oyster reaches this stage in from twenty-four hours to six days after the egg is fertilized, the rate of development being deter- mined mainly by the temperature of the water. Soon after the mantle has become connected with the stomach this becomes united to the body wall at another point a little behind the mantle, and a second opening, the anus, is formed. The tract, which connects the anus with the stomach, lengthens and forms the intestine, and soon after the sides of the stomach become folded off to form the two halves of the liver, as shown in plate vin, fig. 1. Various muscular fibers now make their appearance within the body, and the animal assumes the form shown in plate vii, fig. 1, and plate vu, fig. 18.* What follows this stage may be best told in the words of Professor Huxley, who speaks of the European oyster, in which the metamor- phosis from the free-swimming fry to the fixed spat and finally the adult oyster is essentially the same as in our species. The young animal which is hatched out of the egg of the oyster is extremely unlike the adult, and it will be worth while to consider its character more closely than we have hitherto done. Under a tolerably high magnifying power the body is observed to be inclosed in a transparent but rather thick shell (plate vim, fig. 2, L), composed, as in the parent, of two valves united by a straight hinge, h. But these valves are symmetrical and similar in size and shape, so that the shell resembles that of a cockle more than it does that of an adult oyster. In the adult the shell is composed of two substances *Report Maryland Fish Commission, Annapolis, 1880, pp. 19-25, in part. OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 273 of different character, the outer brownish, with a friable prismatic structure, the inner dense and nacreous. In the larva there is no such distinction, and the whole shell consists of a glassy substance devoid of any definite structure. The hinge line answers, as in the adult, to the dorsal side of the body. On the opposite or ventral side the wide mouth m and the minute vent v are seen at no great distance from one another. Projecting from the front part of the aperture of the shell there is a sort of outgrowth of the integument of what we may call the back of the neck into a large oval thick-rimmed disk termed the velum, vl, the middle of which presents a more or less marked prominence. Therim of the disk is lined with long vibratile cilia, and it is the lashing of these cilia which propels the animal, and, in the absence of gills, probably subserves respiration. The funnel-shaped mouth has no palps; it leads into a wide gullet, and this into a capacious stomach. A sac-like process of the stomach on either side (the left one, 7, only is shown in fig. 2) represents the “liver.” The narrow intestine is already partially coiled on itself, and this is the only departure from perfect bilateral symmetry in the whole body of the animal. The alimentary canal is lined throughout with ciliated cells, and the vibra- tion of these cilia is the means by which the minute bodies which serve the larva for food are drawn into the digestive cavity. There are two pairs of delicate longitudinal muscles, rs ri, which are competent to draw back the ciliated velum into the cavity of the shell, when the animal at once sinks. The complete closure of the valves is effected, as in the adult, by an adductor muscle, am, the fibers of which pass from one valve to the other. But it is a very curious circumstance that this adductor muscle is not the same as that which exists in the adult. It lies, in fact, in the forepart of the body and on the dorsal side of the alimentary canal. The great muscle of the adult, fig. 3, M, on the other hand, lies on the ventral side of the alimentary canal and in the hinder part of the body. And as the muscles, respectively, lie on opposite sides of the alimentary canal, that of the adult can not be that of the larva, which has merely shifted its position; for in order to get from one side of the alimentary canal to the other it must needs cut through that organ; but as in the adult no adductor muscle is discoverable in the position occupied by that of the larva or anywhere on the dorsal side of the aliment- ary canal, while on the other hand there is no trace of any adductor on the ventral side in the larva, it follows that the dorsal or anterior adductor of the larva must vanish in the course of development, and that a new ventral or posterior adductor must be developed to play the same part and replace the original muscle functionally, though not morphologically. * x * 4 * * * * When the free larva of the oyster settles down into the fixed state, the left lobe of the mantle stretches beyond its valve, and, applying itself to the surface of the stone or shell to which the valve is to adhere, secretes shelly matter, which serves to cement the valve to its support.. As the animal grows the mantle deposits new layers of shell over its whole surface, so that the larval shell valves become separated from the mantle by the new layers (plate vu, fig. 3, 8), which crop out beyond their margins and acquire the characteristic prismatic and nacreous structure. The sum: mits of the outer faces of the umbones thus correspond with the places of the larval valves, which soon cease to be discernible. After a time the body becomes convex on the left side and flat on the right; the successively added new layers of shell mold themselves upon it, and the animal acquires the asymmetry characteristic of the adult. * The horny convex shell of the fry (plate v111, fig. 3, LZ) may be seen, for a considerable time after attachment, at the umbo or beak of the develop- ing shell of the spat (plate v1, fig. 3, 8). The under or attached valve of the latter at first conforms closely to the surface to which it has become *Huxley, Thomas H. Oysters and the Oyster Question. The English Illustrated Magazine, London, Oct. 1883 and Nov. 1883, vol. 1, pp. 47-55, and pp. 112-121, F. C. R. 1897——18 274 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES attached, being usually flat, but afterwards, as a rule, becoming deep and strongly concave, through an upgrowing along the edges. FIXATION, SET, OR SPATTING. At the time of fixation the fry will, under proper conditions, attach itself by its left valve to any hard or firm body with which it may come in contact. The first essential is that the surface should be clean and that it should remain so a sufficient length of time to enable the young oyster to firmly establish itself. So long as this condition obtains, the nature of the material seems to matter but little. In most bodies of water the spat fixes itself at all levels from the surface to the bottom, but in cer- tain parts of the coast its place of attachment is confined to the zone between high and low water, the mid-tide mark being the place of max- imum fixation. It has been suggested that this was due to the density of the water preventing the sinking of the fry. There are a number of objections to this theory, but no better one has been offered, and it may receive provisional acceptance. GROWTH. At the time of its attachment the oyster fry measures about one- eightieth or one-ninetieth of an inch in diameter. The valves of the shell are strongly convex and symmetrical, and are composed of a horny material quite different from the finished shell of the adult. The mantle, a thin flap of tissue which envelops the body of the oyster on each side, projects freely from between the lips of the valves and is the organ which secretes the shell. Upon its outer surface suc- cessive layers of horny material are laid down, these becoming impreg- nated with calcareous matter arranged in a prismatic manner, and thus forming the stony shell which characterizes the adult. The mantle increases pari passu with the growth of the soft parts in general, and as it is always capable of protrusion a little beyond the lips of the valves, it follows that each successive layer of shell is slightly larger than that which preceded it, and the shell increases in length and breadth as well as in thickness. From the nature of its growth, therefore, the youngest or newest part of the shell is on the inner face and at the edges, the latter always being sharp and thin in a growing oyster. The shell of the young oyster is always thin and delicate, and is generally more rounded than in the adult. The lower valve at first adheres closely to the body to which it is attached, but later its edge grows free and the valve, as a whole, becomes deeper and more capa- cious than its fellow. The small larval or fry shell remains visible at the beak of the spat shell for a considerable time, but becomes eroded away before the oyster reaches the adult condition. The soft parts of the oyster assume their adult form in general soon after attachment, although the genital glands do not become functional until a much later period. OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 215 The rate of growth (plates X, XI, XII, XIII) varies with locality and conditions. It is more rapid when food is abundant and at seasons when the oyster is feeding most vigorously, these conditions being filled most thoroughly in summer and fall, when the warm water increases the vital activities of both oyster and food. In South Carolina oysters not more than six or seven months old were found to have reached a length of 24 inches, and in the warm sounds of North Carolina they reach a length of 14 inches in from two to three months. In the coves and creeks of Chesapeake Bay they attain about the same size by the end of the first season’s active growth, and by the time they are two years old they measure from 24 to 3? inches long and from 2 to 3 inches wide. On the south side of Long Island the growth of the planted oysters is much more rapid than in Connecticut, it being stated that ‘“‘two-year plants” set out in spring are ready for use in the following fall, while upon the Connecticut shore it would require two or three years to make the same growth. On the south side of Long Island oysters 12 inches long in May have increased to 3 inches by November of the same year. The amount of lime in the water is a factor in determining the character of the shell, and oysters growing in waters deficient in that respect have thinner shells than those which are well supplied, and are therefore more susceptible to the attacks of the drill. The shape of the oyster to a certain extent determines its value in the market. Single oysters of regular shape with deep shells and plump bodies will bring a better price than those which are irregular and clustered. The shape depends largely upon the degree of crowding to which the oyster has been subject. When numerous spat become attached to a single piece of cultch, such as an oyster shell, there is often insufficient room for the development of all. Many will becrowded out and suffocated, while the survivors will be distorted through the necessity of conforming to the irregular spaces between the valves of their fellows. Sometimes the pressure exerted between the rapidly growing shells is sufficient to break up the more fragile forms of cultch, and the separated oysters then usually improve somewhat in shape. The crowding of oysters reaches its climax upon the ‘“ raccoon” oyster beds. Raccoon oysters are usually found in localities where the bottom is soft and the only firm place which offers itself for the attach- ment of the spat is upon the shells of its ancestors. Temperature and other conditions are favorable, growth is rapid, the young oysters are crowded into the most irregular shapes, the shells are long; thin, and sharp-edged, and eventually the mass of young is so dense that it crowds out and smothers the preceding generations which produced it and offered means for its attachment. Oysters crowded in this excessive manner are poor-flavored as well as ill-shaped, but both defects are corrected if they be broken apart, as may be readily done, and planted elsewhere. 276 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. ANATOMY. The following popular description of the anatomy of the oyster is extracted from the writings of Professors Brooks and Ryder: The general structure of an oyster may be roughly represented by a long, narrow memorandum book, with the back at one of the narrow ends instead of one of the long ones. The covers of such a book represent the two shells of the oyster, and the back represents the hinge, or the area where the two valves of the sheil are fastened together by the hinge ligament. (Plate1, fig.1/.) This ligament is an elastic, dark- brown structure, which is placed in such a relation to the valves of the shell that it tends to throw their free ends a little apart. In order to understand its manner of working, open the memorandum book and place between its leaves, close to the back, a small piece of rubber to represent the ligament. If the free ends of the cover are pulled together the rubber will be compressed and will throw the covers apart as soon as they are loosened. The ligament of the oyster shell tends, by its elasticity, to keep the shell open at all times, and while the oyster is lying undisturbed upon the bottom, or when its muscle is cut, or when the animal is dying or dead, the edges of the shell are separated a little. The shell is lined by a thin membrane, the mantle (plate 1, fig. 1, mt), which folds down on each side, and may be compared to the leaf next the cover on each side of the book. The next two leaves of each side roughly represent the four gills, g, the so-called ‘‘ beard” of the oyster, which hang down like leaves into the space inside the two lobes of the mantle. The remaining leaves may be compared to the body or visceral mass of the oyster. Although the oyster lies upon the bottom, with one shell above and one below, the shells are not upon the top and bottom of the body, but upon the right and left sides. The two shells are symmetrical in the young oyster (plate vu, fig. 2), but after it becomes attached the lower or attached side grows faster than the other and becomes deep and spoon-shaped, while the free valve remains nearly flat. In nearly every case the lower or deep valve is the left. As the hinge marks the anterior end of the body, an oyster which is held on edge, with the hinge away from the observer and the flat valve on the right side, will be placed with its dorsal surface uppermost, its ventral surface below, its anterior end away from the observer, and its posterior end toward him, and its right and left sides on his right and left hands, respectively. In order to examine the soft parts, the oyster should be opened by gently working a thin, flat knife blade under the posterior end of the right valve of the shell, and pushing the blade forward until it strikes and cuts the strong adductor muscle, M, which passes from one shell to another and pulls them together. As soon‘as this muscle is cut the valves separate a little, and the right valve may be raised up and broken off from the left, thus exposing the right side of the body. The surface of the body is covered by the mantle, a thin membrane which is attached to the body over a great part of its surface, but hangs free like a curtain around nearly the whole circumference. By raising its edge, or gently tearing the whole right half away from the body, the gills, gy, will be exposed. These are four parallel plates which occupy the ventral half of the mantle cavity and extend from the posterior nearly to the anterior end of the body. Their ventral edges are free, but their dorsal edges are united to each other, to the mantle, and to the body. Thespace above, or dorsal to the posterior ends of the gills, is occupied by the oval, firm adductor muscle, M, the so-called “heart.” For some time I was at a loss to know how the muscle came to be called the “heart,” but a friend told me that he had always supposed that this was the heart, since the oyster dies when it is injured. The supposed “death ” is simply the opening of the shell, when the animal loses the power to keep itshut, Between this muscle and the hinge the space above the gills is occupied Report U.S. F.C. 1897. (To face page 276.) PLATE |. Fie. 1. Oyster with right shell and mantle removed. a anda, origin of arteries from the ventricle: au, auricle of heart; br, vessel carrying blood from the gills to the auricle of the heart: bj, outline of organ of Bojanus, the so-called kidney; bp, pores from which the water issues into the branchial canals after passing through the gills; cl, cloaca: d, pg.and sg, connective and two ganglia of the nervous system; g, gills; gc, cavity between the two mantle folds; h, hinge: J, ligament: M, ad- ductor muscle; m, mouth; mt, mantle, the arrows show the direction of currents produced by the cilia; p, palps; p’, outer end of right pedal muscle; s, external opening of sexual and renal organs of right side; v, anus; ve, ventricle of heart. Fie. 2. Diagram to show sexual organs of the oyster. d, duct of sexual gland. Other letters as above. - oe ee 5 | r er) “= % ,wP e : e 2) See 4 OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 277 by the body, or visceral mass, which is made up mainly of the light-colored repro- ductive organs and the dark-colored digestive organs, packed together in one continuous mass. If the oyster has been opened very carefully, a transparent, crescent-shaped space will be seen between the muscle and the visceral mass. This space is the pericar- dium, and if the delicate membrane which forms its sides be carefully cut away, the heart, ve and au, may be found without any difficulty lying in this cavity and pulsat- ingslowly. Ifthe oyster has been opened roughly, or if it has been out of water for some time, the rate of beating may be as low as one a minute, or even less, so the heart must be watched attentively for some time in order to see one of the contractions. * * * * * * * In front of the gills, that is, between them and the hinge, there are four fleshy flaps—the lips, p, two on each side of the body. They are much like the gills in appearance, and they are connected with each other by two ridges, which run across the middle of the body close to the anterior end, and between these folds is the large oval mouth, m, which is thus seen to be situated, not at the open end of the shell, but as far away from it as possible. As the oyster is immovably fixed upon the bottom, and has no arms or other structures for seizing food and carrying it to the mouth, the question how it obtains its food at once suggests itself. If a fragment of one of the gills is examined with a microscope it will be found to be covered with very small hairs, or cilia, arranged in rows, plate viil, fig. 3, e. Each of these cilia is constantly swinging back and forth with a motion something like that of an oar in rowing. The motion is quick and strong in one direction and slower in the other. As all the cilia of a row swing together they act like a line of oars, only they are fastened to the gill, and as this is immovable they do not move forward through the water, but produce a current of water in the opposite direction. This action is not directed by the animal, for it can be observed for hours in a fragment cut out of the gill, and if such a fragment be supplied with fresh sea water the motion will continue until it begins to decay. While the oyster lies undisturbed on the bottom, with its muscle relaxed and its shell open, the sea water is drawn on to the gills by the action of the cilia, for although each cilium is too small to be seen without a microscope, they cover the gills in such great numbers that their united action pro- duces quite a vigorous stream of water, which is drawn through the shell and is then forced through very small openings on the surfaces of the gills into the water tubes inside the gills, and through these tubes into the cavity above them, and so out of the shell again. As the stream of water passes through the gills the blood is aerated by contact with it. The food of the oyster consists entirely of minute animal and vegetable organisms and small particles of organized matter. Ordinary sea water contains an abundance of this sort of food, which is drawn into the gills with the water, but as the water strains through the pores into the water tubes the food particles are caught on the surface of the gills by a layer of adhesive slime, which covers all the soft parts of the body. Assoon as they are entangled the cilia strike against them in such a way as to roll or slide them along the gills toward the mouth. When they reach the anterior ends of the gills they are pushed off and fall between the lips, and these again are covered with cilia, which carry the particles forward until they slide into the mouth, which is always wide open and ciliated, so as to draw the food through the esophagus into the stomach. Whenever the shell is open these cilia are in action, and as long as the oyster is breathing a current of food is sliding into its meuth. The cilia and particles of food are too small to be seen without a microscope, but if finely powdered carmine be sprinkled over the gills of a fresh oyster, which has been carefully opened and placed in a shallow dish of sea water, careful observation will show that as soon as the colored particles touch the gills they begin to slide along with a motion which is quite uniform, but not much faster than that of the minute-hand of a watch. This slow, steady, gliding motion, without any visible 278 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. cause, is a very striking sight, and with a little care the particles may be followed up to and into the mouth. In order to trace the course of the digestive organs, the visceral mass may be split with a sharp knife or razor. If the split is pretty near the middle of the body each half will show sections of the short, folded esophagus, running upward from the mouth, and the irregular stomach, cut 1, s, with thick, semi-transparent walls, sur- rounded by the compact, dark-greenish liver, 11. Back of the liver and stomach the convoluted intestine, i, will be seen, cut irregularly at several points by the section. There are no accessory organs of reproduction, and the position, form, and general appearance of the reproductive organ, plate 1, fig. 2, is the same in both sexes. As the reproductive organ has an opening on each side of the body, it is usually spoken of as double, but in the adult oyster it forms one continuous mass, with no trace of a division into halves, and extends entirely across the body and (against) the bends and folds of the digestive tract. * * * * * * * * The stomach is pretty definitely marked off from the other portions of the digest- ive tract. It may be said to be that portion of the latter which is surrounded by the liver. The portion of the intestine immediately following the short, widened region which we regarded as the stomach is the most spacious portion of the gut, and in if is lodged avery singular organ, which has been called the ‘crystalline style.” This is an opalescent rod of a glass-like transparency and gelatinous consistence, which measures according to the size of the oyster from half an inch up to one and a half inches in length. Its anterior end is the largest, and in a large specimen measures nearly an eighth of an inch in diameter, but at its posterior end is scarcely half as thick; both ends are bluntly rounded. I fell into an error in supposing that this style was lodged in a special pouch or sac, as described in my report to the Maryland commissioner in 1880. The “crystalline style” really lies in the first portion of the intestine and extends from the pyloric end of the stomach to the first bend of the * Brooks, W. K. Studies from the Biological Laboratory of Johns Hopkins Univer- sity, No. 1v, 1888, pp. 5-10 in part. OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 279 intestine, where there is a marked constriction of the alimentary cana]. It appears, therefore, to bea sort of loose valve in the cavity of the gut; its function may be to prevent coarse particles of food from passing or it may in some way assist digestion. In specimens hardened in acid or alcohol this rod is destroyed, or at least disappears, so that I have been unable to find it. The greater portion of its substance is appar- ently made up of water. The peculiar double induplication of the wall of the intestine is described in another place. The fecal matters are extruded in the form of a demi-cylinder, with one side excavated in a groove-like manner. This shape of the fecal matters is due to the presence of the double fold. The feces themselves are composed of extremely fine particles of quartz or sand grains, the tests of diatoms, organic matters, humus, cellulose, fragments of the chitinous coverings of some of the minute worms and articulates, etc., which have been swallowed and digested by the animal. The anus, », is situated on the dorsal side of the great adductor muscle where the intestine ends. The organs of sensation of the oyster, though not very highly developed, are of sufficient importance to merit attention. The auditory sense, although I have never been able to dissect out the auditory vesicles, I am satisfied exists, because one can not noisily approach an oyster bank where the oysters are feeding without their hearing so that instantly every shell is closed. The tentacles of the mantle are often extended until their tips reach beyond the edges of the valves. If the animal in this condition is exposed to a strong light the shadow of the hand passing over it is a sufficient stimulus to cause it to retract the mantle and tentacles and to close its parted valves. The mantle incloses, like a curtain, the internal organs of the crea- ture on either side, and lies next the shell, and, as already stated, secretes and deposits the layers of calcic carbonate composing the latter. The free edges of the mantle, which are purplish, are garnished with small, highly sensitive tentacles of the same color. These tentacles are ciliated and serve as organs of touch, and also appear to be to some extent sensitive to light. The nervous system of the oyster is very simple, and, as elsewhere stated, is to some extent degenerate in character. It is composed of a pair of ganglia or knots of nervous matter, plate I, fig. 1, sy, which lie just over the gullet, and from these a pair of nervous cords, d, pass backward, one on each side, to join the hinder pair which lie just beneath the adductor muscle, pg. The mantle receives nerve branches from the hindmost ganglia or knots of nervous matter; these, as their centers, control the contraction and elongation of the radiating bundle of muscular fibers, as well as those which lie lengthwise along the margin; the former contract and withdraw the edges of the mantle from the margin of the shell, while the latter in contracting tend to crimp or fold its edges. The tentacles are mainly innervated by fibers emanating from the hindmost ganglia, while the internal organs are innervated from the head or cephalic ganglia. The hind ganglia also preside over the contractions of the great adductor muscle. The nerve threads which radiate outward from it to the tentacles dispatch the warnings when intruders are at hand that it must contract and close the shells.* *Ryder, John A.; Fishery Industries of the United States, pp. 714-715. 280 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS ON OYS’‘ER-BEDS. TEMPERATURE OF WATER. The oyster lives in waters of widely varying temperature, both as to the average for the year and the extremes met with at different seasons. Perhaps the greatest divergence between the extremes is in Chesapeake Bay, where the range is from the freezing-point of brackish water, something below 32°, to 90° F. In New Jersey and in Chesapeake Bay the shallow-water oysters, which are exposed or nearly exposed at low water, are frequently frozen, an event which is not necessarily fatal if they are gradually thawed. Young oysters in shallow water are sometimes ‘“winter-killed,” or their vitality is seriously reduced, by exposure to exceptionally low temperatures. The remedy, or rather preventive, is to remove to deeper water in the fall, and seed oysters on natural spatting-grounds may often be saved by this means. In deeper water, such as is found on the offshore beds of Long Island Sound, they are not subject to such severe trials, but are nevertheless called upon to withstand, during several months, a temperature not far from 32°F. In the Long Island oyster region the summer temperature of the water reaches 75° F., and from May 1 to November 1 probably never falls below 60° F. On the South Carolina oyster-beds the tem- perature appears to rarely fall below 55° I., but, on the other hand, the exposed banks of that region are subjected to the direct rays of the sun and therefore withstand a temperature considerably higher than that to which submerged oysters are liable. The temperature has an important bearing upon the food supply. When the water is warm there is a rapid multiplication of the small forms upon which the oyster feeds, and at the same time the activities of the oyster itself are quickened. The two facts taken together result in a more rapid growth of the oyster than is likely to take place in colder waters. It is often said that “plants do not spawn,” and there appears to be some truth in the statement if we apply it to a period of a year or so after planting, and refer to cases in which the transplanting has induced considerable modification in the conditions under which the oyster is placed. This fact is no doubt largely due to the changes in temperature to which the oyster is subjected when transplanted. Dr. Ryder says: A very short exposure of the animal to water of an increased temperature caused a deterioration of the generative matter. I have tried to fertilize the eggs of num- bers of oysters that had lain over night in the Quinnipiak River and invariably failed; the eggs in every case appeared to be overripe. Oysters taken from the bed at the same time and from the same locality, but kept in a basket over night, gave good results. The same investigator found that at Beaufort, N. C., the best results in fertilization were obtained the nearer the temperature was to 70° F. Both at Beaufort and in Chesapeake Bay the embryos develop most OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 281 rapidly in waters between 74° and 80° F., although the mortality is ereater than at a slightly lower temperature. Under such conditions the embryos reach the swimming stage in from 3 to 10 hours, a fact which is, of course, advantageous to those undertaking artificial propa- gation. When the temperature falls to below 65° F., development almost ceases, and when it rises above 80° F. but few of the embryos reach the swimming stage. Sudden changes are usually fatal, and cold rains kill great numbers of the swimming fry. Dr. Ryder recommends “that the prevalent temperature of the water during the spawning season shall range from 68 to 80° F.” It is quite possible that in other regions, with oysters native thereto, or even those which have been acclimated therein, some other temperature may be found more favorable, but no data horse upon the matter have been published. TEMPERATURE; PLANTED BEDS IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY. The temperature at San Francisco is usually not much higher in summer than in winter, but information upon the subject is limited. Upon the oyster-beds at Millbrae it is said to vary from 58° to 65° F,, but at the extreme southern end of the bay it ranges from 67° to 74° FF. In October, 1890, Mr. C. H. Townsend found 61° F. at Belmont; at San Mateo, nearer the sea, 60° F., and at California city, 57° F. In midsummer the temperature was considerably higher; between July 12, 1891, and September 7, 1891, it ranged from 67° to 74° F., the means for 10-day periods during the same time being between 69.1° and 72° F. As Mr. Townsend points out, there is, therefore, a con- siderable period during the summer when the temperature, in portions of the bay at least, is favorable for spawning of the planted eastern oysters. The portions of the bay near the sea appear to have a tem- perature several degrees cooler than in the southern portions. DENSITY OF WATER. Oysters are found living in water ranging in salinity from 1.002* to 1.025, but the lower densities are always injurious, and prolonged exposure to their influence is fatal to oyster life. It is not possible to profitably maintain oyster-beds in waters where the density falls below 1.007 for any length of time, the oyster, if not killed, becoming poor in quality, pale, watery, and tasteless. Heavy freshets, such as occur in the rivers discharging into Chesapeake Bay and at various places on the Gulf coast, frequently so lower the density of the water as to prac- tically exterminate the oysters on certain beds. Experience apparently indicates that the best oysters are grown in densities between about 1.011 and 1.022, the former being approximately the specific gravity over the Tangier Sound beds, the latter that over the deep-water oyster-grounds of Long Island Sound. *The figures represent the specific gravity as measured with the salinometer, that of pure water being 1.000. 282 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. Change of density has an important effect upon the spawning of oysters. At St. Jerome Creek, Dr. Ryder found that the eggs could not be impregnated in a density much exceeding that in which the parent animals live. With oysters raised in water ranging from 1.007 to 1.0095 it was found that the milt was killed by a density greater than 1.013, the individual spermatozoa losing their mobility in a few moments when exposed to the greater density. The frequent failure of oysters to spawn in the season in which they are transplanted is perhaps in a measure owing to this cause. In Chesapeake Bay they are usually transplanted from deeper, denser water to more shallow and less dense, and when taken from the Chesapeake to Long Island Sound they go through a similar experience. There is at the same time, however, usually a change in temperature, and doubtless both factors combine to produce the effect noticed. It has been suggested by Lieutenant Platt that the density of the water has an effect on the distribution of the set; that is, the specitic eravity of the swimming embryo is such that it can not sink in dense water and therefore must become attached in marginal beds between tide marks, as is seen on the ‘“‘raccoon”’ oyster-beds of South Carolina. In some places it has been found that the best results in oyster- culture are to be had in brackish water, and Dr. Kyder suggests that this may be largely due to the fact that water of the lower densities is usually shallower, and consequently warmer and better adapted to the production of an abundant supply of the minute organisms which constitute the principal source of the oyster’s food. There can be no doubt, however, that the eastern oyster is distinctively a brackish- water form. It has been found that it will not thrive in French waters perfectly adapted to the culture of the European species, and there is reason to believe that it will reproduce itself in a lower density than is necessary for the native oyster of California. For determining the temperature and the density of sea waters the apparatus shown in plate 11 is used. It consists of a glass float with a long stem and a large bulb, weighted so as to sink in fresh water to a point near the top of the stem. The stem is graduated to read between 1.000 and 1.031, the figures representing the specific gravity; that is, they show the weight of the salt water, an equal body of fresh water being supposed to weigh 1.000. In practice.a scale having the entire range would be too long for safety and convenience, and therefore the salinometers are made in sets of three, reading from 1.000 to 1.011, from 1.010 to 1.021, and from 1.020 to 1.031, respectively. There is also provided with them a deep copper cup or cylinder, at one side of which a thermometer is attached (plate 11). The method of using the salinometer is as follows: The cup is filled with the water to be tested, the appropriate float is placed in the water, the density of Report U. S. F. C. 1897. (To face page 282.) PLATE ll. IE 4 b Coote toe Pee —— J Be Se ee | 7; D 7) iy Yy Yf y yj 2 > ~ SS ys FULTONS= N. NARNIA BUE 66 Fu SCALE —— EE INCHES SALINOMETER AND SALINOMETER CUP. The scale opposite the stem of the salinometer represents that of the high reading spindle as if unrolled. It registers densities between 1.020 and 1.031. hale Gee Pas jee ie tit hee a Hitt ae oA, cae OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 283 which will be the reading of the scale nearest the point where the sur- face of the water touches the stem. For purposes of oyster-culture the finer graduations may be neglected. To show the specific gravity, the number “1.0” should always be placed in front of the scale reading; for example, if the surface of the water should stand opposite the scale reading “15,” the density would be 1.015. The test should be made immediately after the water specimen has been collected and a reading of the thermometer should be taken at the same time. For practical purposes on the oyster-beds, a bottle or jar not less than 10 inches deep may be used instead of the copper cup, and any ordinary thermometer may be used for obtaining the temperature. The cheap, wooden-cased instruments known as “bath thermometers” serve very well, as they have no metal parts to be corroded by the salt water. In most oyster regions the salinometer reading from 1.020 to 1.031 will not be necessary, as the density on the oyster-beds rarely falls within its range. The specimens of water should be from the bottom, or near it, and may be conveniently obtained by the following rough method: An empty jug or large bottle weighted and corked is lowered to the bottom by means of aline. The cork is then pulled out by jerking on a cord previously attached to it, the receptacle fills with a sample of water from or near the bottom, and if hauled rapidly to the surface it answers the practical purposes of more scientific and accurate apparatus. SILT, MUD, AND SUSPENDED MATTER. A bottom composed of soft mud, into which the young oysters would sink and become stifled, is unfavorable to oyster-culture or to the de- velopment of natural beds. If, however, hard objects are distributed over the bottom they will become collectors of spat so long as the surface remains clean and free from slime and sediment, and the importance of having water containing as little sedimentary matter as possible is manifest if it is desired to produce permanent beds or catch the floating fry. s Oysters will grow more rapidly on muddy bottoms, or in their vicinity, than they will elsewhere, as such situations are usually more pro- ductive of food materials. This food is in the form of suspended or swimming organic particles, and, therefore, filtered water, or that which is devoid of suspended matter of all kinds, lacks one of the essential requirements of successful oyster-culture. The most desirable water is that which contains an abundance of minute living particles with a minimum of suspended inorganic matter. An organic slime, however, such as rapidly forms on exposed surfaces in some localities, is as effectual in preventing fixation as is inorganic sediment. In many places in Chesapeake Bay and in the bays on the New Jersey coast the sediment, as well as the bottom mud, is largely composed of the finely comminuted fragments of vegetable matter, seaweeds, etc., the rapid deposit of which soon covers with a soft film the surface of all objects 284 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. exposed to it, except when the currents are sufficient to exert a scouring influence. Large oysters are not so susceptible as small ones to the effects of mud, but even those full grown may be stifled or buried by the rapid deposit of mud or sediment, whether this be of organic or inorganic origin. Freshets and heavy seas often cause great damage by the amount of mud, sand, and other debris which they carry upon the beds. The question of the physical characters of a suitable bottom for oyster-culture is considered in another connection. TIDES AND CURRENTS. Tides and currents are important factors in the growth and culture of the oyster. They bring about the aeration of the water and oxida- tion of its dead organic ingredients; they have a scouring action upon the bottom and thereby cleanse the cultch, and at the same time serve as the vehicles for the transportation of food, of the genital products, and of the young. Stagnant water tends to become exhausted of its oxygen; it is heated by the sun, and the contained organic matter undergoing death and decomposition causes it to become foul and fatal to the oysters in the vicinity. With currents, however, a fresh supply of oxygen is constantly being supplied for respiration and for the combustion of the effete matter, which is thus rendered harmless. Over densely-populated beds the food supply, unless unusually pro- lific, as in claives, would in time become exhausted. The oyster can not, of course, change its location, but the same purpose is subserved by currents constantly bringing a fresh supply of food-laden water within the influence of the ciliary action by which the oyster captures its food. The genital products of the oyster, both male and female, are simply discharged into the surrounding water. The eggs are absolutely immo- bile, and while the spermatozoa, or male elements, possess the power of locomotion to some extent, they are obviously incapable of moving very far during the limited period of their mobility. In densely-crowded beds no doubt a considerable proportion of the eggs may become fertilized even without the agency of currents, but where, as upon most oyster- grounds, the oysters are scattered, the proportion must be exceedingly small. Oystermen are well acquainted with the fact that upon beds removed from the influence of the tides the rate of reproduction is very low. Currents, however, will bring about a distribution of the genital products, more particularly the almost impalpable milt, and thus give an opportunity for obtaining better results by increasing the chances for spawn and milt to come into contact. Although the young spat is a free-swimming organism, yet its powers are not sufficient to carry it to any great distance from its original source. It is transported mainly by tidal currents, and, as a general rule, the more widely distributed a given lot of spat, the greater is the number liable to become success- OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 285 fully set. Currents, even of considerable strength, do not prevent the settling down of the larval oyster and its fixation upon a proper surface. In the preparation of this surface the currents are also effective, inasmuch as by their scouring action they prevent the deposit of sedi- ment and slime, which soon render collectors unsuitable for the fixation of the young oyster. Finally, where the fry are uniformly distributed in a body of water a collector placed in a current will collect more spat than one in quiet water, because a greater quantity of water and con- sequently a larger number of fry will be brought into contact with it. Points around which fry-charged water sweeps with sufficient velocity to prevent the deposit of sediment are good places for the location of collectors. Freshets, for several reasons, usually have a bad effect upon the oyster-beds. When the volume of fresh water is large, the oysters suffer from the decrease in the density. Large quantities of mud and sediment are brought down by the floods and often deposited on the beds, covering up the cultch and smothering the young spat, and, if the amount of sedimentation is very great, even injuring or killing the adults. DEPTH OF WATER. The vertical range of the cultivated oyster beds is from the shore line to a depth of 15 fathoms. In New Jersey, Chesapeake Bay, South Carolina, and other places, there are beds which are partially exposed at low water, while in Long Island Sound successful oyster-culture is carried on in depths as great as 15 fathoms, the average over planted grounds in that region, however, being from 5 to 6 fathoms. In most places, however, the planting is done in shallow bays and coves. WEATHER CONDITIONS—STORMS, GALES, AND ICE. Gales rarely have any influence upon adult oysters in deep water, but they sometimes seriously affect shallow-water beds. Heavy surf occasionally carries away the oysters and throws them upon the beach, or they may be buried in situ by the sand and seaweeds which the waves lodge upon the beds. Sometimes, after the lapse of a short time, the beds are again uncovered by the eroding effects of currents, but in many cases they are practically destroyed, both old and young being smothered by the overlying deposits. In winter, ice often grounds upon the beds during gales and does considerable damage. The oyster appears also to be temporarily affected by the mere freezing of the waters, and it is said that, in the Chesapeake, oysters on the deeper beds are more affected than those in shoal and brackish water, becoming dark, slimy, and worthless for the market. Ten days or a fortnight must elapse after the disappearance of the ice before they become again fit for use. The fry are more affected by the weather than are the adults. Dr. Ryder found that in the swimming stage they were killed by thunder- 286 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. storms, by cold rains, and by sudden falls in temperature, and the prevalence of such weather during the spawning season must have an important effect upon the set of spat. : FOOD. The oyster feeds upon both animal and vegetable food, the particles of which are of microscopic dimensions. The fry and young spat consume relatively large quantities of bacteria and monads, among the most minute organisms known to microscopists. According to Dr. Ryder: Many of the food balls found in the intestine of the recently attached spat will measure under y5}o9 inch in diameter. The cavity of the little creature’s stomach measures only zs'y7 inch. Yet in this minute digestive cavity the food is actually found rotating in the form of minute rounded and oval bodies, which are kept in motion by the action of the cilia which line the stomach. That these bodies must have been of about the size noted when they were originally swallowed and as seen rotating in the stomach is evident from the fact that the young oysters, like the adults, are wholly without teeth or triturating organs of any kind. This minute kind of vegetable and animal food is found more or less abundantly in all sea water, and is especially abundant during the spawning season, when the decomposition and disintegration of all kinds of minute organic debris floating about in the water is in rapid progress, owing to the prevalent high temperature of the air and water. It is, therefore, probable that very few otherwise suitable locations exist where it is not possible to find an abundance of the proper sort of food for the oyster during its very earliest stages of growth. The food of the slightly more advanced spat and the adults is found to consist of diatoms, rhizopods, infusoria of all kinds, monads, spores of alg, pollen grains blown from trees and plants on shore, their own larve or fry, as well as that of many other mollusks, of bryozoa and minute embryos of polyps and worms, together with other fragments of animal or vegetable origin, and sometimes even minute crusta- ceans. In variety of food the oyster, therefore, has a wide range of choice. There are also few locations otherwise well adapted which will not supply an abundance of food for the animal, which, it is to be remembered, captures and hoards millions of these minute plants and creatures in its stomach, where they are digested and incorporated into its own organization. It therefore follows that when we eat an oyster we are consuming what it required millions of the minutest organisms in the world to nourish. The oyster is consequently a sort of living storehouse for the incorporation and appropriation of the minute life of the sea, which could never be rendered tributary to the food supply of mankind in any other way except through the action, growth, and organization of this mollusk. * The quantity of young oysters consumed by the adults is doubtless enormous, 200 fry having been found in the stomach of single individ- uals. Notonly the free-swimming fry, but eggs and spermatozoa are fed upon, and an insight is here gained into the ultimate fate of some of the vast numbers of genital elements which the parents shed into the water. While the oyster feeds upon both plant and animal organisnis, it must be remembered that it is primarily dependent upon the former. That not only is the major portion ot the food of the oyster itself of vegetable origin, but the minute animal forms are dependent for their sustenance upon the plants and are not to be found in abundance far removed from them. * Rept. U.S. F. C. 1885, pp. 387-388. OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 287 In most regions which have been investigated the plants constitute by far the most important item of diet, usually over 90 per cent of the food contents of the stomachs being composed of vegetable matter. Of this diatoms are the chief constituents, and to a certain extent the food value of any given oyster region may be measured by the quantity of these minute plants which it is capable of producing. Diatoms are numerous both in species and individuals, and all possess two interesting peculiarities: They are incased in a siliceous or flinty box and they possess the power of locomotion, the first permitting their ready identification in the stomach contents and the second aiding in their distribution. More or less regular diurnal migrations of swarms to and from the surface of the water take place with the variations in the light. During sunlight they rise from the bottom, and are then readily transported by the currents, again settling down as darkness comes on. They feed and grow in size most actively during the day, but multiply in number principally at night. Diatoms are important, not only in fattening the oyster, but they also have a profound influence upon its flavor and color. The oyster is said to feed mainly during flood tide, opening its shell at that time to admit the influx of water with its contained organisms. Investigation by Dr. Bashford Dean showed that the stomachs were practically foodless in the morning, contained most food at midday, and a somewhat reduced quantity at evening, thus suggesting that feeding was most active during intense daylight. Dr. Dean remarks: This suggestion, as to the feeding habits of the oyster, is not a surprising one when we remember that it is during the strongest sunlight than diatoms, as plants keenly sensitive to the sun, are most active and are known to migrate in floating clouds from the bottom of the surface. As is mentioned in the section relating to the anatomy of the oyster, the water drawn into the mantle cavity by the action of the cilia is filtered through the rectangular openings in the gills into a chamber or tube lying above each gill, whence it passes backward and out of the shell in a current dorsal to the entering stream. The particles of food in the inflowing stream become entrapped in a sticky mucus covering the gills, and, together with this mucus, in part, are carried in a steady stream toward the mouth, the motion being imparted to the mass by the rhythmic action of the cilia. The palps and mouth are also ciliated, which insures the continuance of this current into the stomach, where the food particles undergo digestion. A very considerable pro- portion of inert matter, sand, mud, ete., of no rutrient value passes into the alimentary tract along with the food, the oyster having no means of making selection. The temperature, depth, and density of the water have considerable effect upon the food supply. In clear, warm weather the amount of food matter is increased by the natural multiplication of the minute 288 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. organic bodies which find such conditions favorable, but at the same time many of these organisms, particularly the diatoms and zoospores, are attracted to the surface by the sunlight and are thus placed beyond reach of the oyster. In rainy or stormy weather, however, they are driven down toward the bottom, where they may be brought within the influence of the cilia, and at the same time there is an increase in the amount of other organic sediment, much of which is available as food. Shallow water, as a rule, produces more food than the greater depths, owing largely to the fact that it warms more quickly and thus increases the vitality of both the oyster and its tood. The latter shows its greater vigor by a more rapid multiplication, and the former by its greater consumption of the food which is thus provided for it. In other words, the chemical and physiological changes resulting in the conver- sion of inorganic matter into oyster tissue through the medium of plant life go on more rapidly in the presence of warmth. It must also be remembered that the shallow waters are generally of a lower density than the deeper ones, and this approach to brackishness appears to be also favorable to the production of food. Summer and fall, the seasons of most vigorous growth of aquatic vegetation, are in most localities likewise the best seasons for the growth of the oyster, while in winter the food supply is at a minimum, the vital activities of the oyster are much reduced, the ciliary action is weak, and the oyster in a state of semihibernation, both the waste and repair of tissue being reduced to a minimum. That the oyster in many places reaches its greatest fatness and per- fection late in fall is due partly to the quantity of food produced during the summer and partly to the cessation of the drain which the act of spawning entails. Shortly before and during the spawning season most of the nutrient matter in the food is utilized in the rapid growth of the sexual products, but after the cessation of spawning it is con- verted into surplus protoplasmic matter, which is stored up in the tissues and thereby renders the oyster fat and well flavored. ENEMIES. At all stages of its career the oyster is preyed upon by more or less dangerous foes. It might be supposed that an animal inclosed in a ponderous armor, which in times of danger is a complete encasement, would be free from the attacks of enemies, but no organism has ever evolved a protective device which some other organism has not found partially vulnerable; and it must be remembered that the oyster 1s not always as well protected as we find it in the adult and marketable con- dition. In the young state, before attachment, the minute and delicate fry is fed upon extensively by the adult oyster and by other mollusca, lingulas, worms, sponges, and hydroids. Upward of 200 young have been found in the stomach of an oyster, and there is but little doubt large numbers are so consumed on every oyster-bed. Probably the OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 289 menhaden, the alewife, and other fish equipped with delicate sifting ‘devices at times find the oyster fry of some importance in their dietary. After the attachment of the spat other enemies, active and passive, wage war upon it. The passive enemies affect its welfare by consum- ing its food or by smothering it beneath their own more active growth. Of the former class, mussels, lingulas, etc., are examples, but as the food upon an oyster-bed is usually sufficient for all, this is not a very important consideration, particularly as in the end an equilibrium is established through the intimate reciprocity which exists between the various forms of life. The conditions of life upon an oyster-bed are favorable to the rapid growth of dense sponges, mussels, barnacles, hydroids, and tube-build- ing worms, which establish themselves upon the young growth, often increase more rapidly than their hosts, and, in many cases, overgrow them to such an extent as to cut off the supply of food and oxygen. (Plate xvi). Aquatic vegetation sometimes has the same effect when its growth becomes extensive. Certain worms, such as Serpula, and especially Sabellaria (plate Xv, fig. 3), often build their tubes of lime or sand so rapidly as to produce dense accumulations upon the surface of the shells, thus forming a nidus for the collection of sand and mud. Considerable loss has at times resulted from the suffocation of oysters by sponges, worm tubes, and vegetable growths, but most of these passive forms have a compensatory use in the food which their spores, eggs, and young furnish to the oysters. The active enemies of the adult oyster are those which injure it by direct attacks, such enemies being found in most of the classes of zoological life having aquatic representatives. Fishes of several kinds are found habitually on the oyster-beds. Most of these offer no direct injury and they may even benefit the oyster by keeping down the crowding masses of hydroids and vegetable life, but a few species, of which the drumfish is apparently the most destructive upon the Atlantic coast, consume considerable quantities of oysters as food. At times much damage has thus been wrought to the beds in the vicinity of New York and along the New Jersey coast. In San Francisco Bay the stingray is the most feared enemy of the oyster, and schools of them frequently “clean out” the beds to which they gain access, their teeth being such that the shells are crushed into fragments in their grasp. Some of the skates and rays on the eastern coast no doubt have similar habits, but they do not appear in sufficient numbers to cause much harm. The drills are the most destructive enemies of the oysters in the Chesapeake and adjoining regions, as well as upon most of the more important inshore beds northward. There are, perhaps, several species, but the most destructive is the form known to naturalists as Urosalping cinerea (plate Xv, fig.1). Itis a snail-like mollusk, which, by means of its rasping tongue, drills a tiny hole in the shell of the oyster, through which it extracts the soft parts. It is only the younger oysters which are thus F. C. R. 1897-19 290 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. attacked, as after they become about 2 inches long the shell is stout enough to resist this foe. The loss sustained from this source is very | great, as the drills are often present in large numbers and continue their work throughout the year. The two large conch-like gasteropods of the Atlantic coast, Sycoty- pus canalicuiatus and Fulgur carica (plate xv, fig. 4), also feed upon the oyster, from their size being capable of attacking the largest individ- uals. These periwinkles, ‘‘ winkles,” or conchs, as they are variously called, appear to do comparatively little damage, as they are not pres- ent in sufficiently large numbers anywhere except perhaps on the coast of Florida, Other gasteropods doubtless feed upon the oyster, but not to an extent worthy of consideration. Upon brackish-water beds the starfish (plate xv1) is not usually troublesome, and in Chesapeake Bay it is practically unknown, but in Long Island Sound, and especially upon the offshore beds in the more saline waters, it is the most destructive enemy with which oystermen have to contend. It is there extremely abundant at times, but it is a migratory form, and sometimes certain beds are unmolested while others nearby are almost ruined by its inroads. The appearance of this pest upon the beds is without warning, and frequently the ground is almost devastated before the owner is aware of their presence. Vast swarms or schools sweep across the beds, devouring the oysters in their path. The migration is said to take place in the form of a ‘‘winrow,” moving in some cases at the rate of about 500 feet per day. Apparently the only way to stop the march of these hordes is to catch them up by some of the methods indicated in pp. 313-316. By energetic work the damage may often be confined to the beds at the edge of a cultivated area. The starfish begins its destructive work soon after it abandons its free-swimming larval condition, at a time when it is hardly larger than a pin’s head, and continues it through life. At first it feeds upon the tiny spat, but as it grows it increases the size of its prey, though even the full-grown stars rarely feed upon oysters over two, or, at most, three years old. Small oysters are often taken bodily into the stomach of the starfish, a proceeding which is of course impossible with large ones or those firmly attached to large cultch. It is not definitely known how the oysters are opened, but Dr. Paulus Schiemenz has pretty con- clusively demonstrated the probability that they are actually pulled open by muscular effort on the part of the starfish. If the common starfish be examined there will be found on the under Surface of each arm four rows of closely crowded suckers or feet extend- ing from the mouth to the tips of the arms. These feet are tubular and are extended by having a fluid pumped into their cavities by a special apparatus in the body of the starfish. The suckers at the ends may be caused to adhere to foreign bodies with great tenacity, and if the hydrostatic pressure be then relieved and the muscles of the stalks of the feet contract, a strong pull may be exerted by each foot, either OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE., 291 independently of its fellows or in conjunction with them. As shown in plate Xvi, the starfish feeding upon oysters or other lamellibranchs arches itself over the nibs or lips of the mollusk so that some of its arms are on one side and some on the other. In this position a large number of the sucker feet are attached to each valve, and when they contract a stress is produced in opposite directions and opposed to the force of the adductor muscle which tends to keep the valves of the oyster closed. Dr. Schiemenz has shown by actual measurement that in this manner there is exerted a force sufficient to overcome any resistance which the oyster may offer. It is eventually tired out by the persist- ence of its enemy, its shell is forced open, the stomach of the starfish is inserted, and within a few hours the valves only remain. Another annoying and frequently very destructive enemy of the oyster is the boring-sponge, Cliona sulphurea. It differs from the enemies before enumerated in that it consumes the shell and not the soft parts of the unfortunate oyster. The young sponge lives in galleries excavated in the substance of either dead or living shells which are soon reduced to a honey-combed condition, when they may be crumbled to powder between the fingers. When they attack a living oyster, as the galleries penetrate the inner face of the shell, an irritation of the mantle is produced, causing an increased amount of shell deposit at that point. If the inside of such a shell be examined it will be found to be covered with blister-like shell deposits, sealing up the openings to the galleries, and many curious distortions follow from the destruction of the hinge area and the portion of the shell to which the adductor muscle is attached. Although the oyster itself is not attacked, yet it becomes poor, thin, and watery and often dies from the exhaustion induced by the constant effort to keep its shell intact. The older specimens of the boring-sponge are large, dense, yellow masses, often 6 or 7 inches in diameter and usually inclosing the shells, etc., to which they were originally attached. All stages intermediate between those described can usually be found upon infested oyster- beds. ‘The older, more massive forms often suffocate the oyster through the denseness of their growth. In addition to the various forms already enumerated there is a large population upon the oyster-beds which is not injurious. This, of course, includes many of the minute food forms, together with some of the fishes and crabs. The latter, at least on the Atlantic coast, can not be regarded as very destructive, but on the contrary they serve as scay- engers, removing dead matter trom the beds when it might otherwise become foul and fatal to the oysters. It will be seen that the popula- tion of the oyster-beds is large and extremely complex. The social relations of the various forms are exceedingly intricate and have, in the course of evolution, become nicely adjusted in a system of reciprocity. The law of the oyster beds is “give and take,” each of a large number of organisms giving something for the general welfare and taking what it needs for its own well being. 292 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. DESCRIPTION OF NATURAL BED.’ Dr. Brooks thus describes a natural oyster bank: An examination of a Coast Survey chart of any part of the Chesapeake Bay or ofi any of its tributaries will show that there is usually a midchannel or line of deep water where the bottom is generally soft and where no oysters are met with, and on each side of this an area where the bottom is hard, running from the edge of the channel to the shore. This hard strip is the oyster area. It varies in width from a few yards to several miles, and the depth of water varies upon it from a few feet to 5 or 6 fathoms or even more. But there is usually a sudden fall at the edge of the channel where the oysters stop, and we pass onto hard bottom; and a cross-section of the channel would show a hard, flat plane with oysters on each side of the deep, muddy channel. The oyster bottom is pretty continuous, except opposite the mouth of a tributary, where it is cut across by a deep, muddy channel. The solid oyster rocks are usually situated along the outer edge of this plateau, although in many cases they are found over its whole width nearly up to low-tide mark or beyond. As we pass south along the bays and sounds of Virginia and North Carolina, we nnd that the hard borders of the channel come nearer and nearer to the surface until in the lower part of North Carolina there is on each side.of the channel a wide strip of hard bottom, which is bare at low tide and covered with oysters up to high-water mark, although the oysters are most abundant and largest at the edge of the deep water, where they form a well-defined reef. In our own waters there is usually a strip along the shore where no oysters are found, as the depth of water is not great enough to protect them in winter. The whole of the hard belt is not uniformly covered with oysters, but it is divided up into separate oyster rocks, between which comparatively few can be found. The boundaries of a natural rock which has not been changed by dredging are usually well defined, and few oysters are to be found beyond its limits. The oysters are crowded together so closely that they can not lie flat, but grow vertically upward, side by side. They are long and narrow, are fastened together in clusters, and are known as ‘‘coon oysters.” When such a bed is carefully examined it will be found that most of the rock is made up of empty shells, and a little examination will show that the crowding is so great that the growth of one oyster prevents adjacent ones from opening their shells, and thus crowds them out and exterminates them. Examination shows, too, that nearly every one of the living oysters is fastened to the open or free end of a dead shell which has thus been crowded to death, and it is not at all unusual to find a pile of five or six shells thus united, showing that number two has fastened, when small, to the open end of number one, thus raising itself a little above the crowd. After number one was killed, number two continued to grow, and number three fast- ened itself to its shell, and so on. Usually the oysters upon such a bed aresmall, but in some places shells 12 or 14 inches longsaremet with. The most significant charac- teristic of a bed of this kind is the sharpness of its boundaries. In regions where the oysters are never disturbed by man it is not unusual to find a hard bottom extending along the edge of the shore for miles and divided up into a number of oyster rocks, where the oysters are so thick that most of them are crowded out and die long before they are full grown, and between these beds are areas where not a single oyster can be found. The intervening area is perfectly adapted for the oyster, and when a few bushels of shells are scattered upon it they are soon covered with young, and in a year or two a new oyster rock is established upon them, but when they are left to themselves the rocks remain sharply defined. What is the reason for this sharp limitation of a natural bed? Those who know the oyster only in its adult condition may believe that it is due to the absence of powers of locomotion and may hold that the young oysters grew up among the old ones, just as young oak trees grow up where the acorns fall from the branches. This can not be the true explanation, for the young oysters are swimming animals, and OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 293 they are discharged into the water in countless numbers, to be swept away to great distances by the currents. As they are too small to be seen at this time without a microscope it is impossible to trace their wanderings directly, but it is possible to show indirectly that they are carried to great distances and that the water for miles around the natural bed is full of them. They serve as food for other marine animals, and when the contents of the stomachs of these animals are carefully examined with a microscope the shells of the little oysters are often found in abundance. While examining the contents of the stomach of lingula in this way [ have found hundreds of the shells of the young oysters in the swimming stage of growth, although the specimens of lingula were captured several miles from the nearest oyster-bed. As lingula is a fixed animal the oysters must have been brought to the spot where the specimens were found, and as the lingula has no means of capturing its food, and subsists upon what is swept within its reach by the water, the presence of so many inside its stomach shows that the water must have contained great numbers of them. It is clear, then, that the sharp limitation of the area of a natural oyster bed is not due to the absence in the young of the power to reach distant points. There is another proof of this, which is familiar to all oystermen—the possibility of estab- lishing new beds without transplanting any oysters. The following illustration of this was observed by one of your commissioners: On part of a large mud flat which was bare at low tide there were no oysters, although there was a natural bed upon the same flats, about half a mile away. A wharf was built from high-tide mark across the flat out to the edge of the channel, and the shells of all the oysters which were consumed in the house were thrown onto the mud alongside the wharf. In the third summer the flat in the vicinity of the wharf had become converted into an oyster-bed, with a few medium-sized oysters and very great numbers of young, and the bottom, which had been rather soft, had become quite hard; in fact, the spot presented all the characteristics of a natural bed. Changes of this sort are a matter of familiar experience, and it is plain that something else besides the absence in the oyster of locomotive power determines the size and position of a bed. Now, what is this something else? If the planting of dead shells will build up a new bed, may we not conclude that a natural bed tends to retain its position and size because the shells are there? This conclusion may not seem to be very import- ant, but I hope to show that it is really of fundamental importance and is essential to a correct conception of the oyster problem. Why should the presence of shells, which are dead and have no power to multiply, have anything to do with the perpetuation of a bed? We have already called attention to the fact that oysters are found on the hard bottom on each side of the channel, while they are not found in the soft mud of the channel itself, and it may at first seem as if there were some direct connection between a hard bottom and the presence of oysters, but the fact that no oysters are found upon the hard, firm sand of the ocean beach shows that this is not the case. As amatter of fact, they thrive best upon a soft bottom. They feed upon the floating organic matter which is brought to them by the water, and this food is most abun- dant where the water flows in a strong current over soft organic mud. When the bottom is hard there is little food, and this little is not favorably placed for diffusion by the water, while the water which flows over soft mud is rich in food. The young oysters which settle upon or near a soft bottom are therefore most favorably placed for procuring food, but the young oyster is very small—so small that a layer of mud as deep as the thickness of a sheet of paper would smother and destroy it. Hence the young oysters have the habit of fastening themselves to solid bodies, such as shells, rocks, or piles, or floating bushes, and they are enabled to profit by the soft bottoms without danger. Owing to the peculiar shape of an oyster shell, some portions usually project above the mud long after most of it is buried, and its rough surface furnishes an excellent basis for attachment. It forms one of the very best supports for the young, anda little swimming oyster is especially fortunate if it finds a clean shell to adhere to when it is ready to settle down for life. Then, too, the decaying and crumbling 294 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. shells are gradually dissolved in the sea water, and thus furnish the lime which the growing oyster needs to build up its own shell. As long as the shell is soft and thin the danger from enemies is very great, and this danger is greatly diminished as soon as the shell becomes thick enough to resist attack. It is, therefore, very neces- sary that the shell should be built up as rapidly as possible, and an abundant supply of food in general will be of no advantage unless the supply of lime is great enough for the growth of the shell to keep pace with the growth of the body. All sea water contains lime in solution, but the percentage is, of course, greatest near the sources of supply. It is well known that on coral reefs, which are entirely made of lime, all kinds of shelled mollusks flourish in unusual abundance and have very strong and massive shells, and our common land and fresh-water snails are much larger and more abundant ina limestone region than in one where the supply of lime is scanty. In such regions it is not unusual to find the snails gathered around old decaying bones, to which they have been drawn in order to obtain a supply of lime for their shells. From all these causes combined it results that a young oyster which settles upon a natural oyster-bed has a much better chance of survival than one which settles anywhere else, and a natural bed thus tends to perpetuate itself and to persist as a definite, well-defined area; but there is stillanother reason. As the flood tide rushes up the channels it stirs up the fine mud which has been deposited in the deep water. The mud is swept up onto the shallows along the shore, and if these are level much of the sediment settles there. If, however, the flat is covered by groups of oysters, the ebbing tide does not flow off in an even sheet, but is broken up into thousands of small channels, through which the sediment flows down to be swept out to sea. The oyster-bed thus tends to keep itself clean, and for these various reasons it follows that the more firmly established an oyster bed is the better is its chance of perpetuation, since the young spat finds more favorable conditions where there are oysters, or at least shells, already than it finds anywhere else. Now, what is the practical importance of this description of anatural bed? It is this: Since a natural bed tends to remain permanent, because of the presence of * oyster shells, the shelling of bottoms where there are no oysters furnishes us with a means of establishing new beds or of increasing the area of the old ones. The oyster-dredgers state, with perfect truth, that by breaking up the crowded clusters of oysters and by scattering the shells the use of the dredge tends to enlarge the oyster-beds. Thesketch which we havejust given shows the truth of this claim, but this is a very rough and crude way of accomplishing this end.* This description, so far as it relates to the oysters themselves, gives a good idea of the average oyster-bed, though they differ somewhat in details in different localities. But, as shown in the sections which treat of the enemies and the food of the oyster, the latter is very far from constituting the entire population of the beds. The same causes which induce the growth of the oyster, the firm basis of attachment, the sur- rounding food-producing mud, the favorable density and temperature, alltend to make the oyster-bed a center teeming with aquatic life. Thus a single point of attachment, a firm nucleus projecting naturally above the surrounding mud, or a few shells thrown upon the muddy bottom may give rise to a community where life is as abundant and the struggle for existence as complex and strenuous as is anywhere found in nature. * Brooks, W. K., Maryland Oyster Report, 1884, pp. 86 to 88, inclusive. OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 295 DESTRUCTION OF NATURAL BEDS—CAUSES AND REMEDIES. Until a comparatively recent date our supply of oysters was drawn almost entirely from the natural beds, which were originally so vast that it was a common saying that they were inexhaustible. The fallacy of this view has been abundantly proven, and wherever reliance has been placed upon natural beds solely there has been a decreasing supply to meet an increasing demand. Many causes have been cited to account for the decrease in the productiveness of the oyster-beds, but wherever unprejudiced investigation has been brought to bear upon the subject the verdict has always been that the fishing upon the beds has outgrown their fecundity. Vast as is the production of spawn, the chances against its growth to maturity are such as to limit the productiveness of the beds. Much of it fails of fertilization. Most which passes that critical stage becomes a prey to enemies or falls upon unsuitable bottom, where it fails of attachment and sinks in the ooze. Even after the vicissitudes of larval life are passed the infantile spat may be buried in an accumu- lation of organic or inorganic sediment, or it may be devoured by enemies against which it can present no adequate defense. Storms may tear the adult oysters from their attachment and cast them upon the shore, or they may become covered by sand and seaweeds drifted in by the waves; or, again, excessively cold weather may cause their death in exposed places by freezing. Numerous as are the perils which beset them under their natural surroundings, they have, upon the whole, found the conditions favorable for their maintenance and increase until civilized man began his syste- matic attacks. It is true that before the appearance of the white man upon the scene they had disappeared from regions where they were formerly found, but upon our coasts such cases are isolated and rare. Without here going into the evidence, it may be asserted as a dem- onstrated fact that overfishing is the cause of the depletion of our oyster-beds, and that it produces its damaging effect in several ways: 1. It removes the adult oysters, which are either spawning or are capable of spawning, and thereby reduces the reproductive power of the bed as a whole. 2. It removes the shells, and therefore decreases the available points of attachment of the spawn. When the oysters are not culled on the beds this effect is aggravated by the removal of the dead shells. 3. Spat and young oysters attached to the shells of the adults are removed from the beds, and as it is impracticable in many cases to detach them they are of necessity destroyed. 4. The quantity of oysters taken and destroyed from the several causes mentioned is greater than that which is permitted to annually grow up to take their places. Many causes have been assigned as tendin to deplete the oyster- beds, and many remedies have been proposed. Various phases of the 296 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. oyster business have been cited to show cause why they should not be curtailed or abolished as destructive. It has been proposed to restrict the demand by prohibiting canning; to prohibit the use of this or that kind of apparatus, or to interfere in various ways, with more or less legitimate methods of meeting and increasing the demand. ‘‘he attempts that have been made to keep the demand upon the beds within the limit of their fecundity have so far been failures, and such attempts are also seen to be illogical when it can be shown that the reciprocal measure, increasing the supply, is perfectly feasible. The dictates of sound economics require that no effort be made to restrict the demand until it can be shown that efforts to increase the sup- ply are futile. A growing demand for a product is the most trustworthy indication of an industry’s prosperity, and the only rational manner in which to bring the supply and demand into equilibrium is to increase the former. Only after the failure of all efforts to save the supply from total extinction, should a restriction be placed upon the demand. The close season has been a favorite measure in protective legisla- tion, as it has been in most legislation looking to the perpetuation of game and fish. It is usual to fix the close season during the spawning months, upon the theory that the reproductive act should be allowed to proceed unmolested. It really matters but little whether the oyster is taken during the season of spawning or a month or two before; the effect upon the fishery is the same, as in either case the bed is deprived of an individual capable of reproducing its kind. The only effect of a close season, whenever occurring, is to reduce the time during which the oyster is subject to attack from the oystermen. Even this is of little avail with the sedentary oyster, for it is possible for 365 men, fishing ten days, to as effectually “‘clean up” a bed as can be done by 10 men fishing throughout the year. This has been found to be the practical result of a close season in some places; the first few days of fishing removing so many oysters as to make it unprofitable to work the beds during the rest of the year. The methods by which the increased demand resulting from a widen- ing of the markets may be met will be treated of in another connection. It may become necessary in some parts of this country, as in Europe, to reserve the natural beds for the production of seed. Such a reser- vation would naturally excite the strenuous opposition of the oystermen ; but should the industry ever be reduced to the desperate condition at one time found in France, correspondingly desperate remedies must be invoked. INCREASE OF SUPPLY BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. In many countries in which oysters are an important item of food it has been found necessary to give nature some assistance in order to maintain or increase the supply of oysters available for the markets. The direction in which this as sistance is rendered is governed by local conditions, but in general it may be stated that all methods of oyster- culture depend for their success upon the modification of the natural OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 297 conditions in such a manner as to bring about one or several of the following results: 1. An increase in the number of eggs successfully fertilized. 2. Anincrease in the surfaces available for fixation, and consequently an increase in the number of spat which become fixed and pass through the early stages of spat existence. 3. The utilization and salvage of spat, which would otherwise fall victims to the several vicissitudes of their careers—storms, frosts, crowding, ete. 4. A decrease in the liability to attacks from enemies. 5. The utilization of otherwise neglected bottoms and food supplies, Upon our coasts the objects set forth above, or some of them, have been best realized by the process of “planting.” This consists in placing firm bodies in the water for the purpose of catching. the spat or in spreading young oysters upon the bottom in places suitable for their growth. Vast as are our oyster-fields, but a small portion of the bottom available for the growth of this mollusk has been utilized by nature. This has arisen from the fact that in many cases where the other conditions are favorable the bottom is of such a character as to prevent the attachment of the young, though perfectly adapted to the rapid growth of the adults. If then the spat be caught on planted eultch, or partially grown oysters be placed upon such bottoms, the difficulty is overcome and nature has been assisted to the degree necessary and all or some of the conditions mentioned above are more or less completely fulfilled; the first by increasing the number of adult oysters in any region, and by their closer aggregation; the second, by the process of preparing the ground and sowing the shells; the third, by the use of seed from regions less favorable to its maturing; the fourth, from the greater care with which a bed under private owner- ship will be watched and guarded, and the fifth by the very act of planting upon virgin or depleted bottom. Other and more complex plans of oyster-culture are employed in the countries of Europe, but have not yet been adopted in the United States. There are indications, however, that in certain portions of our oyster belt it may be necessary to follow some method of pond culture, not so much for the purpose of growing the oysters, but to fatten them for market. Should the feasibility of this be demonstrated under the conditions prevailing in the United States, a vast increase could be made to our oyster supply, as it is a well-known fact that certain large areas are capable of raising oysters which they rarely fatten and for which, therefore, no market can be found. By some modification of pond culture it may also be possible to raise seed oysters in regions in which few or none are now produced, thus adding another considerable item to the wealth-giving powers of our coasts. These several subjects are treated under their appropriate headings in the following pages. 298 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. PLANTING WITH SEED. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS. Preliminary to planting, the first essential is to determine whether private rights in oyster bottoms are recognized by law or countenanced by public opinion. Unless the planter is assured of exclusive owner- ship in the product of his labor and enterprise he will find more profit and peace of mind in devoting his energies to some other calling. Unless the law, backed by the public sense of justice, makes the theft of oysters from planted grounds punishable like theft of any other kind, it will be impossible to expect success in oyster-planting. Very remarkable views obtain in some places concerning the right to property beneath the sea, and in such places the planter will find it impossible to proteet his interests. Having determined that his rights in his riparian property may be successfully maintained, the next step is to select beds that present the proper conditions of temperature, density, bottom, food, ete. Temperature.—If it is desired to establish a self-perpetuating bed the temperature should rise for a considerable time during the spawn- ing period to between 68 and 80 degrees. If it be desired to merely increase the size of seed oysters obtained elsewhere, it is not necessary that the temperature should ever rise so high, although, as a rule, warm waters induce more rapid growth. The range of temperature to which adult oysters are subject will be seen on page 280. Density.—The density should be above 1.007 at least, and the beds should be so located as not to be subject to the influence of freshets which would reduce the density below that degree for any length of time. A density over 1.023 is not advisable, although oysters grow in places in a somewhat greater salinity. (See p. 281.) Bottom.—The character of the bottom is the most important consid- eration, and it is probable that, upon our coasts, the other conditions will be fairly met in any locality where suitable bottom is available. The selection should be made with care, and the methods employed should be adapted to the character of the ground. Otherwise the planter may be put to labor and expense without return. Hard, rocky bottom is in general unsuited for the cultivation of the oyster. Such ground, while affording facilities for the fixation of spat, does not supply sufficient food to cause arapid growth, such as is desired by the planter, unless there is abundant muddy bottom in the vicinity. Heavy clay is open to the same objection. Loose sand is liable to drift and bury the oysters, and deep, soft mud is absolutely fatal, as it allows even adult oysters to sink to such a depth that they are smothered. The best bottom consists of a firm substratum, above which is a layer of soft floceulent mud. In Long Island Sound, firm, sandy bottom is often used with great success. The oysters do not grow so rapidly there, however, as they do upon the soft mud of Jamaica Bay and other places on the south shore of Long Island. OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 299 Food.—The question of food is a sine qua non in oyster-culture. Without a supply of suitable and proper food it is useless to attempt the growth of oysters. As a general rule, it will be found that where the proper conditions of temperature obtain the vicinity of a muddy bottom will be well stocked with the minute organisms upon which the oyster feeds. Reliance upon this fact, however, is placing dependence upon a ‘rule of thumb,” never a profitable method where more accurate and scientific information can be obtained. Oystermen usually determine the best growing and fattening grounds by actual experiment, a pro- ceeding often entailing the wasteful expenditure of time and capital, and the small cost which would be involved in making a preliminary biological survey would be, in most cases, well expended. The currents may be such as to carry the food organisms away, or for other reasons beds, apparently well situated, may be lacking in food, a fact usually not discovered until time and money have been wasted in experimental planting. Marking bed, etc.—The boundaries of the planting-grounds should be marked with stakes in such a way that each planter will have no diffi- culty in distinguishing his own ground from that of his neighbor. In order to recover the boundary, should the stakes be carried away by storms or ice, it is usual to have ranges locating the most important marks, such as those at the corners of the beds, these ranges being either conspicuous natural objects, buildings, ete., or, preferably, signals erected especially for the purpose. In deep water, or upon bottoms where stakes can not be driven or held, buoys are commonly used for locating the beds. Some of the States have laws regulating more or less strictly the manner of describing and marking the private oyster- grounds, and to avoid trouble and disputes these should be strictly complied with. It should be remembered that it is more difficult to lay out and mark areas beneath the water than upon the land. It sometimes happens that the planter is able to get control of an entire cove or brackish- water creek, in which case the question of marking the beds and of protecting them from poachers is much simplified. In some places it is customary for owners to subdivide their beds for purposes hereafter mentioned, and such subdivisions may be marked in the manner adopted for indicating the boundary of the right. PREPARING BOTTOM. Having located and marked the beds, the ground should be prepared for planting. In places such as San Francisco Bay, where the oysters are placed on beds which are more or less exposed at low tide, this usually consists of clearing away the snags and other debris at low water and leveling off the mounds and filling up the hollows. If itis necessary to build stockades to protect the oysters from fish, this should also be done before planting is begun, as otherwise the bed may be ruined before it is fairly planted. 300 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. In deeper water the clearing up of the grounds is usually done by means of the dredge, all debris being carefully removed. This work is best performed by steam, the larger planters owning vessels and the smaller ones hiring them for the purpose. The work with sailboats is more laborious and less rapid. If the bottom is firm, or if there is a firm substratum an inch or two below the soft surface-layer, no further preparation is needed. When there is a soft mud of some depth, however, it is absolutely necessary that the surface be prepared in some way which will prevent the oysters from becoming completely submerged and suffocated in the soft deposit. — This is usually done by distributing over the soft places various hard substances, which, resting upon the mud, give it a firm surface upon which the oysters may repose in safety. In France, where the lack of suitable grounds frequently requires the use of very soft bottoms, this difficulty is sometimes overcome by the expensive means of macadamizing the bottom with gravel and clay. While this, of course, forms an excellent bottom, hard and smooth, it can only be used on grounds exposed at low tide. American planters usually provide a firm surface by strewing oyster Shells, clam shells, gravel, or sand over the bottom in such quantities as to have the desired effect. When shells or gravel are used the double purpose is often served of preventing the submergence of the adult oyster in the mud and offering a place of attachment for the spat. In certain places sandy and gravelly material resulting from dredging for harbor improvements has been utilized for this purpose, and much soft bottom, before valueless, has been made to yield a profitable return to the planter. Such material can often be obtained at a very small cost, sometimes merely for the expense of transportation to the beds. In surfacing, care should be exercised that the firm layer be deposited uniformly, as otherwise the muddy bottom will be exposed in places and the oysters falling thereon in planting will be engulfed in the mud. Plenty of material should always be used, as it is poor economy to spend money for work and material which is insufficient to accomplish the end sought. The exact amount necessary will depend upon the character of the bottom. Where it consists of a very deep, pulpy or flocculent deposit it is useless in most cases to attempt to improve it, as the surfacing material will sink almost as fast as it is deposited. In places perhaps this might be overcome by the French system of macadamizing, but as more suitable bottom is abundant on our coast such an expensive procedure would be unnecessary. When the bottom is properly surfaced with coarse sand or gravel it does not as a rule require another coat for four or five years. When there is a rapid deposit of mud it will, of course, soon become covered up, but a location where this takes place with much rapidity should perhaps be better left alone, as the seed oysters are liable to suffocation by the deposit of material upon them. A strong current will prevent the deposit and keep the surface scoured after it has been once prepared. OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 301 SEED. After the ground has been thoroughly prepared according to its requirements, the next consideration is the actual planting of the oysters. Planters follow one of two methods, as their interests and experience may dictate; they either plant seed oysters and raise them to an adult or marketable size, or they use cultch to catch the spat, which may be either sold as seed or retained until it has grown. The former method is perhaps the simpler and more uniformly successful in most localities, and it will be, therefore, first discussed. Seed oysters are young or immature oysters suitable for planting. They vary in size from minute “blisters” up to well-grown oysters, which will be ready for market in six months after they have been bedded. In most cases they run in size between 1 and 14 inches, or from about the size of a silver quarter up to the size of a silver dollar. The seed is obtained either from planters who make a specialty of raising it, or from the natural reefs, or from various places along shore where there may be an abundant set of spat. In certain localities gravel beaches often show a strong set in the area between tides, where it may be collected at low water, or beyond low-water mark, where it may be dredged or tonged from boats. In some parts of Long Island Sound there is an extensive fishery for seed oysters in localities such as described. Some planters collect seed for themselves, but most of them prefer to buy from those who make a specialty of that branch of the industry. The pxice varies in different localities and with the character and size of seed, from 10 cents to $1 per bushel. The larger growth of seed brings a better price than the smaller, as it takes a shorter time to bring it to maturity and it is less susceptible to the attacks of enemies. The care with which the seed has been sorted is also a prime factor in the cost. Seed, just as it comes from the beds, contains much besides oysters; sometimes as much as 75 per cent consisting of old shells, sponge, and other rubbish. Though such material may be obtained at a low price, it is not generally regarded as economical, as a larger quantity must be planted than when good seed is used, the bed is littered with unde- sirable rubbish of all kinds, and is liable to become stocked with enemies which will cause trouble in the future. The unculled seed is liable also to grow into rough oysters, crowded into bunches and of undesirable shapes, which bring a smaller price when put upon the market. When culled stock is selected—that is, seed consisting of separate individuais of good shape and uniform size—it is said to generally give satisfactory results. It is free from rubbish and enemies, and, being vigorous, it is able to at once avail itself of such advantages as the beds possess and its growth is correspondingly rapid. The oysters being separate from the beginning, when they reach maturity they are shapely and in good condition, 302 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. It has sometimes happened that good results have followed the sowing of spat-covered shells purchased from the canneries, but this method is precarious unless the shells are used in the process of spat- collecting to be explained hereafter. The locality whence the seed is derived is also important. Oysters taken from a warm region, where food is plenty and growth rapid, to a colder region, where food is more scanty, are, it is stated, not always successfully acclimated unless the transfer is made when the oyster is very young. Some planters say that when southern oysters just about to spawn are taken to Long Island Sound, the generative products are not discharged and many of them die in the course of the season. The seed obtained from southern ‘“ plants,” however, is as hardy as that obtained from the “natives,” from which it can not be distinguished in either appearance or growth. The planting of southern seed oysters was formerly an important industry in Long Island Sound, but it has been almost entirely supplanted by shell culture. Each spring a com- paratively small number of Chesapeake oysters are set down, as they have been found to fatten earlier in the fall than the native stock. There is no complaint of excessive mortality among the ‘ Virginia plants,” and it is claimed that they spawn freely in summer even if bedded in the preceding spring. SOWING THE SEED. The seed oysters are usually scattered over the beds from boats or scows. Care should be exercised to get them as equally distributed as possible, as experience has shown this to be advantageous to their growth. When thrown into heaps many are prevented from getting a proper supply of food, and the crowding may also cause irregularities in the shape of the shells, thus reducing their market value. In order to secure a proper distribution over a bed, it may be roughly marked out into areas, say 50 feet square, in each of which an equal amount of seed should be planted, by scattering it broadcast with shovels or scoops from the boat or scow. In subdividing the bed a few rough stakes or buoys may be used as temporary guides. Another method is to anchor the boat upon the bed, distribute the required amount of seed over the area which can be reached by throw- ing the oysters from a shovel, and then move on to the next station, where the boat is again anchored and the operation repeated. When the scow is emptied a buoy or stake may be used to mark the position of the last deposit, and operations can be resumed from that point with the next boat load. By such means the seed is rapidly and evenly spread over the bottom. In planting on extensive beds where steam power is used the seed is distributed from scows, which are slowly towed back and forth, while a gang of 8 or 10 men shovel the oysters overboard as rapidly as possible. That is the most rapid and economical method, and is the one usually employed on the deep-water grounds of Long Island Sound. OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 303 It is not well to deposit the oysters very thickly. About 300 to 600 bushels per acre appears to be the usual amount in most places. The ground will, of course, support a larger number of yearling seed, but as they grow larger there will be more or less crowding and the demand for food will be greater. In certain places where oyster-planting has greatly increased within recent years it is found that the oyster neither grows as rapidly nor fat- tens as readily as formerly, and it is supposed by many that the quantity of oysters has outgrown the ability of the region to supply them with food. The matter has not yet been investigated and the facts‘in the case are not definitely known, but the theory proposed is a plausible one to account for the difficulty with which the planter is beset in fitting his stock for market. It is well known that when the seed is sowed too closely upon a given bed the oysters grow and fatten more slowly than upon less thickly populated ground, and only in waters exceptionally rich in food can the quantity of seed planted exceed with safety the number of bushels stated. When the seed is sowed too thickly there is also a tendency to distortion from crowding. WORKING THE BEDS. When seed oysters of good quality are used it is generally not regarded as necessary to ‘work the beds,” although care should be taken to prevent, if possible, the inroads of enemies. The various methods of attempted protection from enemies have been discussed in another connection. It is sometimes advantageous to dredge over the planted beds to remove debris, seaweed, etc., which has drifted upon them, and which of itself and by the collection of sand, etc., would smother the oysters if allowed to remain. If the bottom is not perfectly fixed it may be necessary to shift the oysters during their growth in order to prevent “sanding,” i. e., being covered with sand, etc., from the drifting bottom. While oysters grow most rapidly upon or near muddy bottom, they are often in some respects objectionable if placed upon the market directly from such beds. Some planters, therefore, transplant them to hard bottom for several months before sending them to market, it being said that this improves their flavor and appearance by causing the muddy matter in the gills and mantle cavity, as well as in the intestine, to be gradually cleared out and disgorged. In parts of Long Island Sound many of the planters take up a por- tion of their stock in spring and transplant it to such ground as may be available in the bays and harbors. Such transplanted oysters fatten and grow more rapidly than those left in the deeper water; the differ- ence in condition is manifest to even the inexperienced, and a higher price is obtained and a more ready market found for the ‘harbor plants.” The area available for this purpose, however, is insufficient to permit of the transplanting of more than a very small proportion of the “Sound stock.” 304 REPORT OF CO! MISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES. The bottom from which the oysters have been shifted is, of course, cleansed of rubbish when the oysters are taken up and may be at once utilized for fresh seed. Some oystermen prefer to let it lie idle for a year, supposing that this increases its fitness for a further crop, but there appears to be no good reason for this, though it may be that this course permits of a recuperation of the food supply on the fallow beds. The length of time during which the plants are allowed to lie depends upon the location of the beds, as affecting the rapidity of growth, upon the size of the seed planted, and upon the judgment of the planter. In many places “yearling” seed will be ready for the market in two or three years after being planted, i. e., when the oysters are 3 or 4 years old, but in exceptionally favorable localities, such as Jamaica Bay, Long Island, such seed is said to grow to marketable size in six months or a year. In some places it is said to now take a year longer for the oysters to mature than when planting was first practiced. As large oysters bring a better price than small ones, it generally pays to allow them to grow for a year or two after they reach a market- able size, but this is a matter which the planter will determine for himself, as conditions vary with the locality. As the planter generally wishes to harvest a portion of his crop each year, it is customary to divide the beds into sections, which are planted in successive years in such a manner as may suit the plan of operations of the particular grower concerned. PLANTING WITH CULTCH OR STOOL. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS. This method of oyster-culture is that which was first adopted, and to it and its modifications we must doubtless look for future growth in the oyster industry. The method of planting seed oysters improves the size, shape, and flavor of the plants, and to some extent increases the quantity of oysters available for the markets, but, nevertheless, many of those which are raised from seed derived from the natural beds would have reached a marketable size if left to remain. Moreover, the natural beds are now being depleted at a rapid rate by the drain which has been made upon them. Not only are they compelled to supply oysters for market, but the young growth is now carried off to be planted elsewhere. As the number of spawning oysters on the beds is reduced and as the spawners become more scattered, the reproduc- tive capacity of the beds is being lowered, and at the same time the removal of both oysters and shells leaves fewer points of attachment for the young spat. As the seed-producing power of the natural beds becomes reduced from these various causes, the planter must have recourse to other methods for obtaining his set of young oysters. Fortunately, there is a well-tried method which may be adopted. The oystermen long ago noticed that under certain conditions not only did natural objects of various kinds become covered with young oysters, OYSTERS AND METHODS OF OYSTER-CULTURE. 305 but other objects accidentally dropped overboard would often, when recovered a few weeks later, show a heavy set of spat. Naturally they began to throw objects into the water for the express purpose of collecting the spat and thus increasing the amount of seed available, and from this beginning the present system of spat-collecting now in use in our waters was developed. For this method of planting it is, of course, essential that there Should be in the vicinity of the beds spawning oysters, either of volun- teer growth or planted, and that the temperature of the water should be between 68° and 80° F. during a period of some weeks’ duration. PREPARING BOTTOM. The bottom used for this method of cultivation should be firmer than that which will suffice for bedding well-grown seed, though soft bottom may be prepared so as to be satisfactorily used. If the bottom is very soft it may be overlaid with gravel or sand in the manner before described (p. 300), and upon this the collectors or cultch may be depos- ited. In a moderately soft bottom the cultch can be applied without previous preparation other than to clear the ground of all debris which would interfere with working it. Hard, gravelly bottom in shoal water, which may be of little use for the raising of adult oysters on account of the absence of food, may prove an excellent place for ‘the collection of spat, and the same may be said of some places with a stiff clay soil. One of the great difficulties in spat-collecting is to avoid the deposit of sediment upon the cultch, as an amount of sedimentation which would bave no effect whatever upon the adult oyster would prove absolutely fatal to the young spat. At the time of attachment the infant oyster is about one-ninetieth of an inch in diameter, and the deposit of a very slight film either before or immediately after the falling of the spat would be sufficient to cause its suffocation. It will be seen, therefore, that a soft bottom upon which the large oysters will thrive} or an amount of sedimentation which may favor the rapid growth of the adults from the food matter which it contains. will effectually prevent, in many instances, the cultivation of spat. CULTCH, COLLECTORS, STOOL. By these terms is understood any firm and clean body placed in the water for the purpose of affording attachment to the spat or young oyster.