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poverty and wretchedness, not only such a home in a small house, but the larger and
more expensive the house, the more barren and forbidding. Show us an artist who will
picture a house on the prairie without trees, and such an artist has poverty of design,
has missed his calling, and no one will buy the picture; and the home itself will lack
value without trees, many times more than their cost, for its lack both of beauty and
comfort.
“‘ Lo, the poor Indian ”—Although IT was in Iowa before they left, I have never seen
the marks on the prairie where they had built a wigwam, or seldom even pitched a tent in
the open prairie ; but they invariably sought the timber, as do the cattle, to shelter
themselves from winter winds. If we will have a law to compel a man to school his
children, we should have a section to compel the father to set trees to protect his
children from the winds and storms of winter.
Now for the fields.—Experience shows that high winds are injurious to the crops; they
often break the leaves of the corn, or slit them into shreds, and the growth and yield of
any field crop is perceptibly better where protected by a line of trees, and yet farmers
object to the trees taking too much of the land, without knowing that the field will yield
more if ten per cent. of it hasa belt of trees on the north and west sides. I have never
heard of any field crop being injured by too close confinement of air by trees ; it is thought
that this may be the case with orchards. Then trim up the trees at the bottom and
thus give half the force of wind. Far more orchards are injured by too much wind than
by too little.
Our western farmers now almost entirely use barbed wire for new fences, and re-
pair of old ones. The osage hedge was generally set for fences five to twenty-five years ago,
which needed no fence-posts ; and the farmers neglected planting wood for that pur-
pose, hence a good portion of the thrifty young oaks that cover the bluff lands and groves
about the streams of water, have been allowed to grow up until they are ten to fifteen
inches in diameter, making good posts. But there is a large proportion of farmers in this
prairie country who have no post-timber grove to cut from. They have now come to the
time when they begin to say :—‘“If we had planted post-timber twenty years ago, we
should now have a supply of posts.”
What shall we plant ?—First I would say to the new settler on the frontier, plant the
white willow, for the ease of producing trees quickly, by sticking cuttings and stakes into
the ground. It answers for fuel, and for fence, for wind break, for a live tree fence-post
to nail the piles to, or to support the barbed wire. Next have a strip of land ploughed
one year, and the next year set a belt of four or more rows four feet apart of Western or
Hardy Catalpa on the north and west sides of the farm. It is a safe tree in transplant-
ing, of very rapid growth, and we have abundant evidence, from undoubted authority, of
its great durability for posts, sills, bridge-timber, railroad ties. My experience with it,
for more than twenty years, fully satisfies me that it is the most valuable tree for the
farmers of the Northwest, and all the states where timber planting is done. Although
we are a fast people, we have moved very slow in getting the catalpa introduced. But wr
HAVE DONE IT. A catalpa of my own raising, twenty-two years old, which has had hard
usage, having been transplanted three times, was cut last winter, it was fourteen inches in
diameter. A writing-desk made from it is very beautiful. Let me step out now and
measure some trees I have that are six years from seed. They are six to nine inches in
diameter, and twenty to twenty-eight feet high. The best tree in the row of eight was
cut off with the axe when two years old, and in four years it has grown seven inches in
diameter, and twenty-four feet high. The best way to transplant catalpa, is to cut them
off if they are either one, two, or more years old, and set out the root with a short stump.
I will this year take roots, one, two, and three years, with the stock cut off, and drop
them in the furrow like potatoes, and then cover with the plough. This quality of tree
can be had now of nurserymen at $7 to $30 per 1,000 [and for a great deal less, yearlings,
first-class $7 ; second-class for $3.50 per 1,000.—Eb. ]
When catalpa trees are cut off near the ground they start several shoots, which should
all be picked off but one, and when treated in this way they make straight handsome trees
for the lawn, blooming early in June (the Southern Catalpa blooms two or three weeks
later, and cannot hybridise), the great bunches of large white flowers among the luxuriant
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green leaves, intermixing the white and green through the tree-top, like snow on a leafy
tree in early autumn, make it a thing of rare beauty.
I might weary your patience by continuing this paper on many other varieties, but
the two, willow and catalpa, make a very short list, always taking the best at the same cost,
and the difference one to three cents of first cost is repaid more than 100 per cent. a year
in culture and growth for the next ten years.
The beneficial effects of shelter-belts between farms and across townships are well set
forth in the paper which follows.
TREE PLANTING IN SHELTER-BELTS.
By Dr. Joun A. WarpER, oF NortuH Benn, OHIOo.
For many years past, upon all suitable occasions, earnest and practical tree-planters
of the prairie states have been advocating the introduction of this mode of planting trees.
They have urged it persistently by writing and by talking, but better still, and still more
eloquently and more convincingly, by the practice of the dogmas they have presented.
The arguments of a well-grown shelter-belt on the prairie in a windy winter’s day cannot
be gainsaid by the most obdurate doubter.
When exposed to the fierce prairie winds it would be well enough to call them by
the title of prairie zephyrs, and if sheltered from them by the kindly interposition of a
well-grown wind-break of evergreens, or even of deciduous trees, the benefit and the
effect upon the local climate cannot be gainsaid. After such a test no one can any longer
question the validity of the claim that forests do modify the climate. The fact being
demonstrated by the argumentum ad hominem, the discussion must end.
But more sensitive, more delicate, and much more accurate tests have been applied,
and the effects have been demonstrated by plants themselves, very many of which can
now be successfully produced if planted in the same soils, yes, even in the identical
stations, where they proved tender, and miserably failed, when planted in the open prairie
lands, without these shelter protectors a few short years ago. The more delicate and
convincing proofs have been furnished by the use of instruments of precision applied to
the solution of this question; their answers have been carefully noted and recorded during
continuous years at many forest-stations in Europe, some of these being located in the
forests, others in the open lands similarly situated as to soil, exposure, elevation, and
alike in all other respects, except the protection of the trees. The results carefully
collated and published have demonstrated that the humidity of forest lands is greater,
and that the temperature is sensibly moderated—the woods are cooler in the summer and
warmer in the winter, thus confirming what every one must have noticed by the test of
his own sensations.
Now that which has been found to be so essential on the prairie, and to yield such
happy results, in the increased certainty of all agricultural productions, in those vast
regions of agricultural lands that are being brought under the dominion of the plow, in
the great central portion of the continent which has heretofore been familiarly known
as The West, must be acknowledged to be a matter of national importance.
This truth is appreciated by far-seeing minds, and we have recently had the satisfaction
of reading in a recent metropolitan journal an article which has great significance. It
being conceded by all intelligent observers that trees and woods do modify the climate in |
the localities where they exist, and as it is well known their absence in the broad
region of open lands that lie beyond the Father of Waters—that part of our continent
now has an arid climate—often seriously affects agricultural productions and sometimes
utterly destroying the farmer’s anticipated harvest, why may we not hope and reasonably
expect to see portions, at least, of that large area between the Missouri and the Rocky
Mountains reclaimed to agriculture by the judicious planting of forest trees ?
Twenty years ago such a proposition was made, and plans were suggested for plant-
ng groves on alternate sections entirely across these treeless plains, to demonstrate the
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practicability of their production and their great utility, as well as to encourage private
enterprise by setting the example.
In a late number of the New York Hvening Post, these two postulates were set
forth by the editor, a man who has correct views respecting the principles of forestry, and
who appreciates the national importance of this branch of agriculture. He lays it
down :—
(1) “The Hast cannot flourish while the West suffers from the occasional drouths,”
and,
(2) “ The prosperity of the West will depend upon Forest growth.”
These two propositions are both true, and their serious consideration is worthy the
attention of the economist and the statesman. But how shall those forests be produced
in sufficient number and to a suflicient extent to be of general benefit? That is a problem
yet to be solved. The United States Government has encouraged planting by individual
effort in passing the ‘‘ Timber Act,” which gives a farm on the public domain to every
settler who will plant a portion of it with trees. This is well and will result in the
extension of woodlands. The great railroad corporations begin to plant trees upon the
principalities of lands granted them as subsidies by the Government. It is but right that
they should do this work, and it will enhance the value of the lands they hold for sale,
while the woodlands are producing the supplies of cross-ties, the fuel, and the lumber, for
their own and for others’ use ; and during all the time they stand, these artificial forests
will have exerted a most happy influence upon the climate.
All this may be admitted by some who are more happily situated among the remnants
of the ancient woodlands. But are not we also already in danger? We of the naturally
timbered regions of the continent, especially those of us whose lands stretch off to the
northward and westward of the Alleghanies, forming broad fertile plains that are not
broken and mountainous, but level and altogether arable? These lands were heavily
timbered when in a state of nature, but in a brief space we have removed these encum-
brances, and have appropriated these fertile plains to agriculture. We are still rapidly
progressing with this change, and are aided in the work by the wonderfully increasing
demand upon the products that is created by the extention of the various manufactures
that require wood.
Now, it may well be asked, Are we not in danger of carrying on this work to its
extreme limit, and shall we not suffer thereby? That is a momentous question, and one
which demands our most serious attention.
Meanwhile, we have something to offer as a substitute for the forest, to those of our
fellow citizens who do not feel prepared to plant timber trees extensively and as a crop,
more or less extensively, as it is done in thousands of instances by the land-owners of
Europe. We offer this plan to those who feel that they cannot spare a single field from
the plans and shedules they have laid down for a regular rotation of corn, oats, wheat,
and clover, or meadow lands—and also to those who may have on their farms no rocky
ledges, no ravines, no steep hill-sides, no odd waste corners, nor overflowed lands, upon
which they might advantageously plant trees. They are not asked to give up a single
field and turn it into woodland; but even they who are so happily situated as to the
cultivable character of their lands may yet find it greatly to their advantage to plant trees
in the manner which is now to be explained. It will be all the more desirable that they
should do so, if their farms be surrounded on all sides by other lands equally well adapted
to arable crops, and equally free from the waste places so often found on many farms, and
which are almost utterly profitless, though always counted in as so many acres by the
assessors in making up the tax duplicate.
In such a territory of fertile champaign country, where every farmer in a wide
neighbourhood is similarly inclined to crop his whole farm, and where each desires to reap
the golden harvest from every acre of which he may be possessed—just there is the great
danger of our finding out some of these days that we have too much cleared land in con-
tiguous tracts ; just there are we liable practically to turn our woodland into prairie—
and in many parts of the country we are rapidly reaching such a consummation.
Just there, too, is the place at once to institute means that shall obviate the danger
which threatens. This is not to be done by relegating a single one of these beautiful
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farms back to forest growths. No one shall lose anything by cruel edict, but each for
himself, and all collectively, are promised the full fruition of the benefits that will accrue
to those who accept the advice and adopt the plan, which consists in a system of tree belts
across the whole township, and across or between the several farms.
These shelter-belts and wind-breaks, though occupying a portion of the land, will add
materially to the productiveness of the soil that is retained in cultivation, and they will
in no small degree modify the local climate, which an extreme amount of clearing has.
already affected by the exposure of such broad contiguous surfaces to the influence of the
scorching sunshine, and to the drying and blasting winds.
On the broad and open expanse of surface of the treeless plains of Iowa, where in
the northwestern half of the State there is but one acre of woodland to a mile square of
640 acres, these shelter belts have been fairly tried by those who were bold enough to.
settle in such exposure. Among them Mr. C. E. Whiting has been one of the first and the
most extensive planter of trees upon this plan, and for the purpose of modifying the local
climate, and in this he has been successful. Mr. Whiting declares that he can well afford
to plant the trees and to give up the land they occupy, for, independently of the fuel
they already yield him, and the wood for many economical purposes upon his farm, the
remaining four-fifths of the land still occupied by his crops will yield him better returns
than the whole area would have done if it were all cultivated to the extreme outer boun-
daries, but exposed to the elements, and not thus protected by these artificial shelter-belts.
This kind of tree planting serves the double purpose of replacing the forests which
have been destroyed and of modifying the climate. First—it produces wood for fuel and
lumber. Second—it also modifies the climate.
These shelter-belts are particularly adapted to level tracts of fertile lands devoted to
agriculture, and the broader the area of such lands the greater becomes the necessity for
their protection in this way, just as they are needed in the prairie regions.
The planting of these shelters does not supercede the necessity of tree planting also
on the waste places, ravines, and corners, where they exist ; by all means, let that good
work also be done, to supplement the belts in our efforts to replace a proper proportion
of the forests we have destroyed.
Here, as elsewhere, in all our artificial forestation, planting directed by human brains.
is better, and the results will be more satisfactory, than trusting to natural reproduction,
for it enables us to do the work more thoroughly, more evenly, and more judiciously, since
we can make a selection of the species best adapted to our soils, and best fitted to our
necessities, whether for their sheltering effects or for their ultimate wood products.
If, as of necessity on the prairies, you desire to produce an immediate effect in the
shelter, you can be gratified by planting the trees of most rapid growth, even though they
be of inferior quality. The outer rows of the wind-break may be set with these
kinds, and next to them may be placed those of slower growth, whether deciduous or
evergreen. Or you may have the effect you desire at first, and better trees afterward, by
planting intermediately such as will be coming on more slowly to take the place of the
fast growers when they are removed. This will be true of oaks and hickories, or, walnuts,
planted among poplars and other rapidly growing kinds.
The evergreens should not be mixed with deciduous trees either in the belts or in the
groves, but they should always be massed by themselves and planted in separate rows, if
we desire them to succeed. In some cases it may be desired to use the evergreens exclu-
sively ; and for mere shelter, particulaly in winter, they are exceedingly effective, and a
double or quadruple belt will yield more shelter if set with Norway spruce, or some of
the pines, than ten rows of almost any of the deciduous class.
The preparation of the land for the shelter-belt should be as thorough as for a crop
of grain, and done, of course, with the plow and harrow. Furrows or marks are made at
intervals of four feet to receive the plants, which may be set closely as in other plantations,
especially as we desire to break the force of the winds as soon as possible.
A single row of trees, especially if they be of evergreen species, will yield a comfort-
able shelter, but to be effective, and in exposed situations, several rows should be planted
occupying a strip of from four to eight rods in width.
The cultivation should be thorough to encourage the rapid and healthy growth of the
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SS SE St SN
young trees, and it should be continued until the plants entirely shade the ground—a
varying period, depending upon the character of the trees, and in part upon the breadth
of the foliage.
Until the trees have attained sufficient size to protect themselves, it will be necessary
to exclude all domestic animals—or, indeed, these should never be admitted to tle
plantations.
The following papers refer to the proper care of forests, and the conditions which
favour their healthy development.
THE PRESERVATION OF FORESTS FROM WANTON DESTRUCTION,
. AND TREE PLANTING.
By Mr. Joun Dovugatt, Epitor oF THE “ NEw York WITNESS. ”
The greater part of the North American continent was covered with forests when first
invaded by Europeans. These forests had stood for many ages undisturbed, except by
the slow decay of one generation of trees, if we may so speak, and the slow growth of
another. These operations had been going on simultaneously since the creation, or since
the last great convulsion of nature, and the annual falling of leaves and the gradual
decay of branches and trunks had covered the earth with a vegetable mould of consider-
able depth.
A UNIVERSAL MINE OF WEALTH.
This mould, possessing all the elements of fertility, was an immense treasure, every-
where abounding, and tempting the settler to clear away the trees and reap the benefit of
the virgin soil. When trees were cut down, a crop, which had probably required
several hundred years to grow, was reaped in a few weeks or years, thereby leaving the
earth bare, and the vegetable mould was used up by continued cropping in wheat, corn,
and potatoes. The writer knew an excellent bush lot which produced great crops at first
to be reduced in less than ten years to mere rocks and stones. And this process of ex-
_ hausting the vegetable soil went on everywhere as fast as settlements advanced. Of
course where the subsoil was good and was turned up in part to mix with the vegetable
mould fertility continued much longer, but, in course of time, all, except prairie lands,
were reduced so much in fertility as to require the application of fertilizers at great ex-
pense. Had the soil at first required these fertilizers the progress of settlement would
have been exceedingly slow, or more probably there would have been no progress at all.
WAR AGAINST TREES AND ITS EFFECTS.
The labour of cutting down great trees, cutting them into short logs, and piling them
up in log heaps to burn, was however, so great, that afeeling of dislike to trees as the
settler’s natural enemy became general, and the vengeance against them was so great tht
in extensive regions the land was completely bared, and thus rendered not only unsightly
but unsheltered. Bleak winds had full play and droughts parched the earth. What was
even worse, the clearing away of trees on the hills and mountains by the settlers, the
lumbermen, and forest fires left the snow of winter exposed to the spring sun; and the
sudden melting and running off of this accumulation of frozen water made dangerous
floods in the streams in early summer, and left those streams nearly dry in the hot season.
CALLING A HALT,
At length the evil results of the indiscriminate cutting down of trees began to be per-
ceived. The improvidence of previous generations was lamented, and efforts to conserve
what forests were left and to plant trees gradually became popular. The first class of
efforts was directed to preserving a few acres of the original forest in each farm where that
still could be done, and merely thinning the trees for firewood, fencing, etc., thus leaving
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the smaller trees to grow more rapidly. The grove thus preserved became one of the
most necessary and valuable portions of the farm, and that without any labour of plough-
ing, sowing, or cultivating. It also afforded a delightful shade in hot weather for man and
beast.
FORESTS IN THE TERRITORIES.
The preservation of the vast forests in the Territories belonging to the nation
attracted attention also, and laws were enacted to protect them from wanton waste.
Secretary of the Interior Schurz distinguished himself for endeavouring to enforce these
laws, which are very difficult of execution on account of the opportunities lumbermen have
in an almost uninhabited region for cutting trees on Government land, and the frequency
of forest fires kindled by careless Indians, hunters, trappers, lumbermen, and settlers.
These fires often do more damage to forests in a few days than lumbermen could do in as
many years, and how to prevent them is yet an unsolved problem.
FORESTRY LAWS.
The only remedy, and that only a partial one, that can be suggested, for the wanton
destruction of forests is anational system of Forestry laws, somewhat similar to those of
France, Germany, Austria, Norway, and other European countries, which prohibit under
severe penalties the injury or destruction of trees by unauthorized persons ; and also the
kindling of fires or even smoking in the woods. A forest police was created to see to the
execution of these laws, and at the same time providing for the utilizing of forests by
gradually thinning out and selling the largest trees, so as to leave more room for the
smaller ones. In this way the public forests are an annual source of revenue, and after
centuries of such management they are in as good condition as they were at first.
JUDICIOUS THINNING.
In passing through Plattsburgh, N.Y., once, the writer saw the Saranac thickly
covered with sawed lumber, and he asked an old gentleman if that river was not yet
luinbered out. The reply was ‘Ihave known it for sixty years, and the quantity of
lumber coming down has been pretty much the same all the time. There is as much now
asthere was sixtyyears ago.” This shows the result of a judicious system of thinning forests.
A COMMISSIONER OF WOODS AND FORESTS.
If the United States and each state had a department of woods and forests with a
suitable head and necessary subordinates, much could be done, not only for the preserva-
tion of forests belonging to the public, but to persuade settlers to leave a suitable portion
of their farms in wood ; and to counsel from time to time in public documents, not only
care in husbanding present forests, but some general system of tree planting by states,
corporations, and individuals, soas to provide a supply of timber for the future.
TREE PLANTING.
The second branch of this great subject is tree planting, and here credit must be given
to the U.S. Government for its encouragement of this necessary work in the prairies. The
law giving 160 acres to anyone who will plant and maintain for a few years forty acres of
trees, has had a great effect already in providing for a future supply of timber in the
Prairie States ; those groves will alsobreak the terrible prairie blizzards, and, probably, to
some extent, attract rain-clouds to mitigate prairie droughts. A fine spirit of tree plant-
ing has also been manifested in many cities and villages ; and ‘‘ Arbour Day,” or a day
set apart in spring for tree-planting, has become, in some parts of the country, an institu-
tion for the purpose of beautifying streets and public and private grounds.
PLANTING TREES ON PUBLIC ROAD-SIDES.
The public roads should be lined on each side with trees, which, when grown, would
do something towards sheltering and beautifying the country everywhere ; but along rail-
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roads there should be something more than isolated trees. There should be a rather
broad belt on the windy side, thickly planted with the various kinds of trees needed for
repairing the roads. This belt would shelter the railway from storms, catch and retain
the winter’s snow which gives us so much trouble, and before many years supply much
useful timber when the supply from other sources might be exhausted.
TREE-PLANTING ON FARMS.
Every farm should have a belt of timber planted all along its windy side, this belt,
not less than fifty feet wide, should be planted thickly with the various kinds of trees
that grow best and fastest in the neighbourhood, the thinning of which for useful pur-
poses would soon be valuable, whilst the shelter it would give from prevailing winds
would be invaluable. All swamps not covered with trees should be planted with white,
and red cedar and tamarac, all of which grow best in damp ground, and produce most
excellent timber for various purposes. The leaves also of these trees would absorb the
unwholesome air which swamps generate.
STONY GROUND.
There is on many farms more or less of ground so rocky that it will not repay the
expense of cultivation, and all such spots should be planted with trees. These may be
got out of the woods or farm nurseries ; or what would be easier, cheaper, and probably
much more effectual, the seeds of various kinds of trees could be sown, imitating as nearly
as possible the natural processes which have produced all the forests of the country. The
seeds of different trees should be gathered in the woods just at the time that they fall
naturally, and they should be immediately planted in little shallow holes among the stones,
and covered with a little earth. There the rains of autumn, the snows of winter, and the
sunshine of spring would bring up quite a crop of young trees, which should be fenced in
from cattle and left to themselves. They would require no labour after the first sowing
and fencing except subsequent thinning out from year to year of those that were too
crowded or most valuable for economic purposes. If hickory nuts, black walnuts, butter-
nuts, chestnuts, and the seeds of sugar maples, pines and spruces were any of them or all
of them sown every here and there over the place intended for a grove the most valuable
kinds and those that thrive best could be ultimately left to become great trees. After
ten years the annual thinning of this grove for firewood, fencing, hop-poles, railway-ties,
etc., would probably make it as valuable a part of the farm as any other, and when the
black walnut and butternut trees became large enough to be sold to cabinetmakers the
value of the grove would be very great. The present race of farmers may say they would
not live to see the trees become fit for the cabinetmakers, but none the less would the
growth of that grove increase the value of the farm every year, and that whether the
owner sold it or left it to his children.
A FORESTRY COMMISSIONER.
What is very much needed as a preliminary to covering of a considerable portion of
land with these groves is the advice of scientists and experts as to the kinds of trees
suitable for different soils, the rapidity of their growth and the relative value of their
wood. This information could be collected and scattered by the judicious commissioner
of woods and forests in each state, just as the fish commissioner gives information about
fishes. To plant or sow millions of trees is just as necessary as to hatch and distribute
millions of food fishes.
THE DOMINION.
With respect to the Dominion of Canada there is great need for tree planting in the
fertile valley of the St. Lawrence for aconsiderable distance around Montreal, and still
more need in the prairies of the north-west. In the latter region of vast capabilities, to
which much attention is now turned, a system of granting land on condition of planting
trees might be most advantageously introduced now, as every year will render such an
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arrangement more difficult. The other Provinces of the Dominion are still well supplied
with timber, and the system of selling “ timber limits” to lumbermen is conservative to
the forests, but there is need of great precaution against forest fires or wasteful uses of
valuable timber. A capable commissioner of woods and forests for the Dominion would
therefore prove a very valuable functionary, if he were not only an expert, but an en-
thusiast in forestry, as otherwise his appointment would merely add another salary to the
expenses of Government.
Mr. TutstLe, Pembroke, suggested that the forest rangers, whose work cease in the
spring, should hereafter be employed during the summer in an attempt to preserve the
woods from fires.
Mr. E. B. Cowpsr, Crown Lands Department, Toronto, did not think the time had
come when the planting of forest was a practicable question for Ontario or Quebec. Clear-
ing must go on.
Mr. Lirtts, said too much, perhaps, had been made of planting as compared with the
preservation of forests, which was of infinitely more importance. He had seen splendid
pine destroyed for the sake of clearing land in Florida, which would only grow fifteen
bushels of corn tothe acre. He scarcely thought that wasright. It was like flying in the
face of providence.
COMET TON ss O.F EO RE Sot VG iO Wee,
By Bernoarp EK. Fernow, SLATINGTON, Pa.
To clearly understand and devise methods of forest management, and to forsee the
results of such, it is primarily essential that the natural conditions of forest growth be
first well understood ; that the principles be first recognized on which rest forest produc-
tion. This is the more important, as forestal operations extend over long periods of
time, and the results and effects thereof are often recognized only when the growth of
many years has been irretrievably injured, thus inflicting a heavy financial loss on the
economy.
In this paper the endeavour has been not to produce anything new and original, but
rather to so arrange the known facts of the natural sciences which contribute to the
understanding of the conditions of plant growth, that they may easily be applied to the
study of forest reproduction, a subject important before all to us at this present moment.
As the idea connected with the term “forest” is vague and undefined, I am desirous
before I proceed to clear the conception of what may or ought to be called a forest. When
we speak of a forest in connection with the science of forestry, we do not mean a mere
collection of trees, a wood or a park, a plantation, but an aggregate of trees or woodlands
which are intended and so set aside for the production of timber or lumber. If we speak
of planting and cultivating forests, we do not mean the laying out of parks or groves,
which have a very different object in view, which present very different conditions of tree
growth, and require in consequence very different methods of culture. Forestry has
nothing to do with the planting of fruit or ornamental trees, nor indeed with single trees
—just as agriculture does not consider the individual wheat plant. The object of forestry
is a financial effect, which is represented by the highest rent from the soil through the
cultivationof the same for timber growth.
Of the factors which condition forest growth the soil presents itself first to our con-
sideration.
The soil forms the standing place of the forest tree, as it does that of the wheat
plant. But this similar use of the same factor must not induce us to assume too close a
resemblance between agricultural and forestal conditions of growth.
It is natural that since agriculture and forestry have both to do with the products of
the soil they should be compared with each other, and the principles which govern the
one are often mistakenly applied to the other. The difference in these two branches o
economy is not merely one of financial import. Though both these sciences—or arts i
you prefer the term—have to deal with the products of the soil, this factor takes a very
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different part in each. The writer has seen numerous statements in books, papers and
journals in this country, pointing out the necessity of a change in species in renovating a
forest, thus applying the rules accepted in agriculture on the authority of Liebeg, for the
rotation of crops. Anyone who has had to do with forestry, however, will know that
not only is the same species of tree propagated on the same place for centuries, but that,
at least with some species, the production increases the longer they are propagated on the
same ground. That the foliage falling every year and accumulating does in a degree re-
place the manuring and plowing practiced in agriculture, is not the only cause why the
same species can grow and be reproduced on the same place for a thousand years, as is
the case with extensive beech, fir and spruce forests in Germany. From this experience
it would appear that the system of rotation which we see the farmer deems it necessary
to apply in the tillage and manuring of his soil, is unnecessary to the forester.
We shall at once see the reason when we consider the aims of the two.
The farmer’s manipulations tend to increase the soluble inorganic elements of the
soil, in order to get the highest yield from his field. He applies his energy to produce
the greatest amount of protein compounds and with these to remove the maximum of
sulphur and phosphorus. He does not pretend, as does the forester, to raise plants in
their natural condition, but only such as have been brought by a continued cultivation to
an abnormal state, developing one part to the detriment of another. In Asia, the native
- country of the wheat, our cereals do not differ in their habitus from the common grass.
In Chili, in its native state the potato produces bulbs not larger than a pea, and according
to Darwin the yield of one acre would not suffice to sustain for one year the life of one
Trish family. It is the abnormal abstraction from the soil of such enormous quantities
of mineral constituents for the formation of amylon, gluten, dextrin, sugars, etc., which
necessitates the replacing, in the form of manure of these elements, which are taken from
the soil with the reaping of the grain, or, since the different plants abstract different
quantities and qualities of the different inorganic elements from the soil, calls for a rota-
tion of plants.
The experiments of Pollstorfte Wiegman have beyond doubt demonstrated that the
inorganic bases of the soil form an essential factor for the development of all vegetable
life, and the quantities of the same, as found in the ashes of different plants, may be con-
sidered as indicating the amount of these materials needed for their full development.
We have said that plants differ in the quantity and in the kind of their mineral ingre-
dients very greatly, some of these existing in large quantities and in every soil, others
almost entirely lacking in many and only found in smail quantities in others.
Now to make a proportional comparison of plants with regard 1o the impoverishment
of soil, which they severally. produce, it is import to determine the kinds and amounts of
mineral bases each plant requires. A few results from many analyses by good authori-
ties on this point may suffice to show the position of forestry to this question.
Whilst the percentum of inorganic bases in all kinds of wood scarcely ever exceeds
three per cent. and mostly remains below one per cent. of the dry substances, we find the
ashes from hay six per cent., wheat and rye straw a little over four per cent., and that
from oat chaff not less than eighteen per cent. The farmers reap grain and straw, while
the forester, if he consults his own interests, allows twigs and leaves, which contain the
greatest part of the inorganic constituents of the tree, to remain on the ground.
If we compare the amount of mineral substances which are severally removed by a
field crop and a timber-growth, we find that a wheat crop abstracts from the same area
five times as much inorganic bases as the beech, ten times as muchas the pine ; the turnip
ten times the amount of the beech and twenty-two times that of the pine.
From this comparison of well authenticated calculations it would appear that tree-
culture has the advantage over agriculture as regards the quantity of inorganic bases
required.
Still more favourably stands the case if we compare them qualitatively.
The wheat, for instance, yields nearly from one hectare, according to Fresenius, 32.55
kilo of potassium, or five times as much as the beech and nearly ten times as much as the
pine ; of phosphoric acid 20.31 kilo, which is five times as much as the beech and ten
times as much as the pine ; of sulphuric acid 20.58 kilo, that is fifty-seven times as much
216
as either tree ; of silicic acid 129.35 kilo, or thirty-seven times the amount of the beech,
and as muchas one hundred and forty-three times of the pine. It is not to be forgotten
that sulphuric and phosphoric acids are very scarce in any soil.
The beech, however, requires considerably more lime than wheat, the latter yielding
12.93 kilo per acre to 20.29 kilo for the beech.
Whilst then these trees, and undoubtedly all others, use chiefly these inorganic ele-
ments, which appear abundantly in every soil, agriculture robs the soil of its rarest com-
ponents.
We may here adduce the experience of farmers, that the winter crops do not need so
much manuring as summer crops, and that the former prosper even on a soil of less min-
eral vigour.
This may be explained by the fact that the winter crops have a longer term of vege-
tation, and during the same find more opportunity to supply themselves and assimilate
the necessary inorganic elements ; for the summer crops, on the contrary, it is necessary
that the soil should be either well manured or easily decomposable. Our woody plants
enjoy, like the winter crops, a long term of vegetation, and consequently, can prosper on
soils that are slow to decompose.
We have then, from a theoretical point of view, sufficient reason to maintain that
the production of timber is much less dependent, nay almost entirely independent of the
mineral composition of the soil. This truth we could easily demonstrate by observations
from the practice in Germany, where on the mica sand of the Main plain, and the sea
sand of the North German plain, the poorest soils in regard to chemical composition, the
finest growths of pine and beech may be found. Whoever has travelled through Saxon
Switzerland, will agree that on the sandstone of that region, which forms one of the poor-
est soils, in moist situations, beech, fir, and spruce, species which require favourable condi-
tions of growth, prosper exceedingly.
That it is not the mineralogic condition of the soil, but rather its humidity, which
determines the forest growth, may often be observed, when on a soil of the same origin
and mineralogical composition you find here a most excellent growth, whilst on the drier
portions the growth is considerably retarded and stunted.
We may claim then, that any soil in its natural condition, 7. e. which has not been
used for agricultural purposes, contains sufficient inorganic elements for any timber-
growth ; that therefore the change of species observed in this country can hardly be at-
tributable to an exhaustation of the soil, but to other causes as we shall see later ; thata
change or rotation of crops, though it may be in some cases advisable for financial or even
forestal reasons, is not a necessity for a successful forestry, as it is in agriculture, and
that, if taking place by itself, it is a sign of mismanagement of the original forest.
Finding then that the chemical composition of the soilis not of much importance in
forestry, it must be its physical condition which determines a more or less prosperous
timber growth. And so we findall observations on the continent at least coincide in this
result, that the greatest mass of wood and the most regular growth of timber is yielded
by a soil which is deep, sufficiently loose and rich with humus, and which at the same
time possesses a degree of humidity proportionate to the wants of the species growing
thereon.
To understand the character of a soil it will be necessary to discriminate several
strata in the same ; we may call that upper part of the soil which the roots penetrate the
surface soil, in opposition to the lower strata or subsoil. These two strata may offer
different relative appearances ; they may be similar, 7. ¢., either both difficult to penetrate
like rock and clay, cr else easily permeable like sand, loam, or disintegrated rock; they
may be of different character, when either may be hard or loose ; the commonest case be-
ing a hard subsoil below more easily permeable surface soil, as for instance when clay or
rock or bogiron stone exists below sand or loam. Of course, these strata do not gener-
ally exist in this marked distinction, but in gradual transition, the looseness decreasing
with the depth.
In the subsoil strata the angle of inclination is of importance, as upon it partly de-
pends the capacity of the soil to retain water. We discriminate in regard to water a
pervious and impervious soil. Thus plastic clay, undisintegrated rock, or a horizontal or
217
]
only slightly inclined layer of subsoil, forms an impervious soil. If the subsoil present a
vertical or strongly inclined stratification an unfavourably quick percolation of the water
may be the consequence, whilst a horizontal stratification of impervious subsoil may cause
detrimental stagnation.
According to the depth of surface soil we discriminate a deep or shallow soil, which
properties, however, must be considered relative to the species of tree which is to grow
on it ; for a soil may be too shallow for oak, which is sufficiently deep for beech and fir.
Depth of soil, 2. ¢., a deep surface soil is especially desirable and important for such
species, as, like oak and spruce, form a taproot and which do not attain considerable
height if the development of this root is impeded, especially when the lack of depth is
not counterbalanced by extra humidity. The stunted growth of a forest will speedily
indicate such a locality. Depth of soil favours the growth for the reason that it provides
a continual reservoir of moisture. Therefore even those trees with shallow tracing roots
prosper best in a deep soil.
The shallowest soil is generally due to plastic clay, the tenacious quality of which
prevents the roots from penetrating deeply, consequently it is not fit for Oak timber for-
ests. The same disadvantages are caused by bog iron stone, which consisting of a mixture
of hydrous protoxide of iron, oxide of manganese, phosphoric acid, sand and organic com-
pounds, forms continuous slabs not far below the surface, presenting an impenetralle
barrier to the roots. In the province of Hanover, since its accession to Prussia, large
areas of the Luneburg heath have been inforested by breaking up this stone with subsoil
plows, and planting pine seedlings in the furrows, thus converting lands so long unprofit-
able into a source of wealth.
Looseness of soil, when accompanied by sufficient humidity, tends to produce a maxi-
mum of fibrous roots, which provide the plants with water and inorganic substances.
Consequently the largest yields and especially the greatest height of growths, are tobe
found on alluvial soil, which from the manner of its formation must be very finely divid-
ed. From this cause too results the fertility of the inundation soils of ponds and of the
marshes near the sea coasts. The superior growth on the fresh sweating sand is due to
its looseness and depth.
Though the looseness of the soil is most conducive to largest yields, yet a soil will pro-
duce a good yield, if it is only sufficiently deep and moist, such as that formed by disen-
tegrated rock.
In regard to humidity the different species require a different degree of moisture.
Most of the forest trees require only a “fresh” soil (which when pressed leaves traces of
moisture in the hand) ; some species, like the ash, prosper still in “moist” soil (which,
when pressed, drop water) ;and the elder requires even a “wet” soil (which drops water
without being pressed.) A dry soil isa favourite with no species, though birch and pine
can best exist on it.
Two circumstances determine the degree of moisture in the soil, its character and its
position. The soilin valleys, river places, near lakes and seas and on northern exposures
contains more humidity than that of the mountain ridges, on eastern and southern expo-
sures. One quantitative determination of this difference is known to the writer, where
the accretion of a beech growth, fifty-nine years old, on one of the Hessian mountains was
measured, and it was found that the accretion on the southern aspect bore the proportion
to that of a dell and to that of a northern aspect as 16: 39: 48.
The favourable appearance of tree growth on northern aspects may be considered due
to the greater depth of soil generally found in such localities, and this again is due to the
fact that the moisture, which promotes and expedites the disentegration of rocks, is not
as quickly absorbed there as on other exposures more subject to the drying influence of
sun and wind.
The lacking humidity of soil may be compensated by the humidity of the atmosphere,
especially for such species as, on account of their dense foliage like the beech, evaporate
profusely. This accounts for the excellence of the growth in higher mountainous regions
where the atmosphere is generally moister than on lower levels.
Considering that thirty to fifty per cent. is constituted of water, and of the dry sub-
stance forming the wood, called cellulose and lignine, forty-seven per cent. is composed of
218
oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion of water, it is no wonder that the humidity of the
soil is of so much importance for timber growth, and its supply may be held as the chief
office of the same.
Another factor of the soil has been considered in the light of a plant nourisher, and
through its chemical influence favourable to tree growth. This is the humus, which forms
the covering of all good forest soils, and is produced by the decay of the yearly fallen
foliage, twigs, etc., and other decaying vegetable matter, and consists of the combination
of neutral salts. The acids which are formed in some humus soils, according to Liebig,
are not components of a fertile humus, but belong to that of peaty and marshy soils,
which are not favourable to tree growth. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are the main
components cf humus. It has been asserted that the humus ought to be considered as
furnishing the supply of carbon, which forms the largest part in the composition of the
woody fibre. For any one who has seen the forests of large extent along the dunes of
southern France and the sea sand of the north German plain, lacking all traces of humus,
nay, containing so little carbon that after heating it will not leave a trace of black colour-
ing, it needs not to cite Liebig’s proof of the insufficiency of the humus or any part of the
soil, to provide the amount of carbon necessary for the building up of the tree and a for-
est. Besides, who could reasonably accept, as logic would compel us, the creation of de-
cayed organic matter previous, and as a condition of following plant life.
Yet that there is a chemical influence of the humus on forest growth cannot be denied.
Not only does the decaying vegetable matter develop a considerable amount of ammonia,
which imparted to the atmosphere enriches it with the needed nitrogen, but also of carbonic
acid, which contributes largely to the disintegration of the rocks and increases the solubility
of the carbonate and phosphate of lime. This influence will be readily admitted as im-
portant, when we remember that in ten thousand parts of pure water only one part of
‘carbonate of lime is soluble, whilst in the same quantity of water acidulated with carbonic
acid, ten parts of that salt will dissolve.
But the greatest significance of the humus lies in its physical influence, which is the
more important, where the other factors of ‘soilbonity,” depth, looseness, humidity are
lacking. A considerable layer of humus increases depth ; as a bad conductor of heat it
counteracts the drying effects of the sun, which, added to its capacity of absorbing easily
and retaining long the meteoric precipitations, makes it a very desirable covering of the
soil. The humus being of medium looseness tends to diminish the extremes of the
physical properties of the soil.
We may here sum up the influence of the soil on forest growth by stating that its
chemical composition is only of minor importance, almost all soils furnishing sufficient
inorganic bases of the description which is needed by forest growth ; that its main influence
consists in its physical properties, represented by its depth, looseness and, depending on
these, the capacity of absorbing and retaining moisture, which properties may be increased
or even compensated for by a sufficient layer of humus. The existence of these properties
in their highest perfection in due proportion are conducive to the prosperity of any species,
yet the necessity of their existence is a relative one with regard to the different species.
Seeing then that the soil, though a contributor, does not form the bulk of those
elements which form the fibre of the tree, we must look for another source of supply.
By asimple mathematical calculation we find that the 1846 kilo of carbon, which are repre-
sented by the yearly accretion of one hectare of pine forest cannot be supplied by the soil.
There is then only the atmosphere left as a source of this component as well as of the
small quantity of nitrogen required.
We need not go into any proof that the quantity of carbon present in the atmospheric
air is sufficient to grow wood on the entire area of our globe, nor need we apprehend any
danger from overproduction of carbonic acid to the detriment of vegetation. In short
we may conclude, that on the whole we need not apprehend any danger of exhaustion of
the sources of food, which our forests require, such as we see possible in our coal mines.
But it is incumbent on us to utilize this inexhaustible source of piant food by providing
the proper means for its conversion into marketable values, that is, by promoting and
directing the growths of forests.
Yet tree-growth as well as all other vegetation is confined in locality. Even the ©
\
219
deepest, freshest, most excellent soil will refuse to support vegetation above the line of
eternal snow. ‘That the temperature of the climate generally exerts great influence on all
vegetation may be inferred from the observation of the flora of different climates. As
the temperature declines from the equator towards the pole and from the sea level towards
higher elevation, so we find that the forest growth in both directions shows a less
diversified appearance and species, and at last a decline in the number of individuals.
This question of climatic influence on tree-growth becomes of practical interest, when
the possibility for existence and prosperity of a tree species under certain climatic condi-
‘tions is to be ascertained for the purpose of introducing new species, and it becomes
necessary to determine whether the thriving of a species depends on the mean yearly, the
mean summer or winter.temperature, or on the extremes of temperature. The solution
of this question is as yet possible only on grounds of observation in regard to the natural
distribution of trees, or else must in each individual case be ascertained by experiment.
It is not probable that the mean yearly temperature influences the growth much, as
may be inferred from the fact that localities of equal mean yearly temperature show a
very different influence on their timber growth.
Whilst in Siberia the willow grows on frozen soil, which thaws for a few summer
months, the St. Gothard Mountain, though enjoying a higher mean temperature than
the locality referred to in Siberia, is entirely bare of all vegetation. It is rather more
probable that the distribution of species depends mainly on the mean temperature of the
summer, or better on the length of the time of vegetation. For tender species the line of
distribution will no doubt be determined by the lowest extreme of winter temperature,
_ which may cause death by frost. On the contrary extremes of summer heat, if accom-
panied by sufficient humidity of soil and atmosphere are not opposed to the cultivation of
species, which in their natural occurrence belong to northern or elevated localities with
_ lower temperatures.
It may be mentioned here, that the different temperatures of the soil, depending
_ greatly on its colour, may hasten the revival of vegetation in spring and thus expose the
young buds to late frosts. In some localities the phenomenon of frosts rendering tree
culture hazardous is due to a rapid evaporation of the moisture of the soil as in the dells,
and vales, and on heavy, impervious soils where water is collecting and insufficient circu-
lation of air impedes its speedy removal. Plateaus too suffer often from frosts, when
i plains with the same mean yearly temperature are left intact.
This phenomenon is mainly due to the increased radiation of heat during the night
because the thinner strata of air in such plateaus offer less resistance to radiation.
So far we have considered such conditions of forest growth as are in the majority of
eases given and often unchangeable ; we have to accept them as they exist and try to
make the best of them. If our soil is a dry sand we shall not be able in most cases to
adapt it to the cultivation of elder or ash; if we live so far north that the period of
vegetation is too short for the prospering of the oak, we may as well not attempt its cul-
tivation, and soon. There is little scope for changing the conditions of soil, air, climate,
or at least the change can be effected only in an extended period of time and by careful
forestry.
But here a condition of forest growth presents itself, which largely, we may say
_ entirely, lies in the hands of the forester ; a condition which he is able to create and control,
on the understanding of which a successful management of his plantation must be based
throughout. In fact we may say that the most important criterion in forestal operations,
is formed by the relation of the forest trees towards light and shade. The conditions
created by the existence or absence of the proper amount of light, we should characterize
as the principal one for the consideration of any manager of forests. We do not mean
here to discuss the physiological influence of light on vegetation in general, which shows
itself in the decomposition of the carbonic acid of the air, thus furnishing the means of
assimilation of the carbon which is necessary for the growth of the plant, its colouring,
the ripening of the seed, etc.; but the necessity of providing in the forest a proper amount
of light or shade according to the wants of different species in their different ages.
The credit of having drawn the attention of foresters to the importance of this
relation of forest trees is due to Dr. G. Heyer, now Professor of Forestry in Munich, the
220
exposition of whose theory has induced a better comprehension and a modification of
existing methods of management.
It is a known fact, that the higher the organization of a plant the more light is needed
for its proper growth with few exceptions, such as some cryptogamia and mosses, which
require direct light. Most of the mosses prosper with a small amount of light under the
shade of trees, and disappear when the forest in its more advanced age grows thinner.
The contradiction to this rule presented by the vegetation in mountainous regions is only
an apparent one, because there the frequent mists replace the shade of forest trees.
The most highly organised plants exist in that part of the globe, where the sunlight
is most intense and the farther we go from the equator towards the poles, the more-
increases the proportion of cryptogamia to phanerogamia.
Now the quantity of sunlight necessary for the development of the most highly or-
ganised plants, the Cotyledons, is very different for difierent species and genera. Many
plants of this group can only live in the shade of forest trees, like the Asperula mono-
tropa, and disappear with the removal of the forest. So do the forest trees themselves
evince a difference of requirements with regard to light and shade, and on these different
requirements are based many important forestal operations.
All forest trees may be classified into three groups, which, however, gradually run
into each other, and express the relative position of each species with regard to its need
of light or shade. We may call these groups the shade-loving, shade-bearing, and light-
needing. Criteria for the classification of the different species into these groups are given
in the appearance of the foliage, its greater or lesser density, in the capacity of over-
shadowed branches and trunks to sustain life and to withstand the shading out by the
domineering neighbours, and in the power of young seedlings to prosper in the shade of
their mother trees.
In judging of the foliage of a species, such specimens as have grown in the full enjoy-
ment of sunlight, ought not to be chosen as samples, because this full enjoyment of light
tends to enlarge the amount of foliage and so to form a denser crown ; it is only in the
forest that the characteristic appearance of foliage belonging to each species can be —
discerned.
Those species which form dense crowns, evidently need less light than those with
higher foliage, for, as the interior leaves of the former get less light, and yet vegetate, it.
is evident that they need less for their existence. Yet though some species, like the fir,
are so tenacious that for sixty or more years they will preserve life under the dense shade
of the overshadowing forest, there is no doubt that all species, after a certain period of
life, prosper best and increase in the greatest ratio when in the full enjoyment of light,
because light favours the production of a large number of leaves, which in their turn excite
greater activity in the processes of life or growth of the plant.
This effect of the sunlight is probably not so much due to its luminous quality as to its.
temperature, which incites evaporation through the leaves, and with it circulation of the
sap.
‘ It is natural that species with a dense foliage 7.e. with a large leaf area, tend at the
same temperature to evaporate more water than those with lighter foliage, and therefore
draw more heavily on the moisture of the soil than the latter, or we may say on the same
soil, under the same conditions, the trees with light foliage will longer withstand the drying
effect of the hot sun, than those with dense foliage. This influence of the sun, inducing
increased evaporation, tells, especially in young plants, where the roots are drawing their
supply of water from a confined area, and the foliage does not stand in a favourable pro-
portion to that area. In this period of life, it is of the utmost importance to the forester
to understand this interrelation of sunlight, foliage, and humidity of soil to shape his
operations accordingly.
The writer is as yet not sufficiently conversant with the requirements in that respect
of the species, which forms the forests of North America, to be able to attempt the esta-
blishment of a scale, denoting the relative capacity of the species to sustain shade or their
comparative demand for light.
In Germany, where we have only fifteen or sixteen species, that may be considered
worthy of notice in the realm of forestry, Dr. Heyer established the following scale, in which
oe
221
the first three or four species named, are those that demand in their youth an unprepared
soil, shade for their proper developments, the others in their sequence are placed according
to their capacity of sustaining shade, the latter absolutely requiring direct light for their
development.
The series is :—
Spruce (Abies pectinata, &c.)—Fir (Pinus abies L.) equivalent to P. balsamea.
Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.)—Pinus austriaca (nigricans). Chestnut (Castanea vesca)
—Hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus).
Ash (Fraxinus excelsior L).
Oak (Quercus robur), practically only one species in Germany against fourteen in the
‘Tnited States.
Maple (Acer campestre and pseudoplatanus)—Alder (Alnus glutinosa and incana).
White Pine (Pinus strobus).
Common Pine (Pinus sylvestris).
| Elm (Ulmus campestris).
Birch (Betula alba)— Aspen (Populus poneday tlle (Larix europaea). The first
“three can (in Germany in unprepared forest soil) not be forwarded without the protection
! of nursetrees. In nurseries, and where the preparation of soil favours a stronger develop-
“ment of the roots, and the capacity of the soil to absorb moisture from the air is
heightened, plantations prosper without shade ; so they sometimes succeed in mountainous
regions with frequent mists and cloudy sky, yet according to good authorities, nine out
often plantations faileven there.
The fact, that on a loose and sufficiently ‘‘fresh” soil the young growth of these
“species makes less demand on the shady protection of their nurses than in drier localities,
confirms only this theory of the correlation of light, vegetation and humidity of soil.
The hornbeam, ash, and oak, and here we may add the American chestnut, will go
to seed under the overshadowing mother trees, but soon the vitality of the young plants
will be impaired, and if, with their increasing growth, the supply of light is not granted
in proportion they weaken and die. Here again a humid soil will help to sustain life
longer, by producing a larger amount of leaves, 7.é,, increasing the area of evaporation.
The species named towards the end of the list demand at an increasing ratio the in-
fluence of direct light for their development, the larch, above all, finding it “almost impos-
sible to exist, where it is shut out from a perfect enjoyment of light.
That the American forest trees make in this particular case an exception, nobody
will maintain, and there is no doubt, that they can be similarly grouped as to their relation
towards light and shade.
May we not here perhaps find a clue to the change of species or rotation, in the agri-
cultural sense of the word, which has been observed in this country ? Is it not the human
“hand which has produced indirectly this change, by destroying the conditions propitious
“for the one species and favouring those necessary for another by removing the shade of
: nurses, which the existing species needed for its youthful life, and thus creating a growth
_of species that are more ani to develop under the direct rays of the sun? Has not per-
haps the indiscriminate denudation, giving access to the scorching sun and drying winds, re-
duced the humidity of the soil so far as to exclude the existing : species from satisfying its
greater demand for moisture ?
In changing other conditions of growth too such alternations of species are natural.
Removing the valuable timber before the seed was dropped will invariably give prepon-
derance to the quick-growing mostly less valuable kinds, which bear seed every year, and
whose light seeds are carried over large distances by winds, insects, etc.
We will not dwell on this theme, “which has so unfortunately drawn the attention of
the cisatlantic foresters in the wrong direction, and only once more lay stress on the con-
sideration, that no chemical condition but the ph ysical conditions of forest-growth are un-
derlying the noted alternation of species ; species, that with regard to climate andsoil are
ff
if
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222
more easily accommodated, such as produce more and easily dispersed seed will conquer
the captious ones and those with heavy seed and deeprooting kinds will maintain existence:
in regions, where continuous droughts would kill the shallow-rooted ones in their youth ;
species that require a long duration of the vegetation period will recede or be over-
powered by the quick growing ones; species of slow growth may be crowded out, when
quick growing ones find otherwise favourable conditions. Territories which offer favour-
able conditions to only one or a few species will present pure forests of one, or nearly one
kind only, whilst more diversified conditions will through centuries show a varied appear-
ance of forest ; in the end perhaps, however, the shade enduring, longlived, heavy-seeded
ones will domineer. In forests, where the shade-loving species, such as beech and spruce,
have acquired absolute sovereignty, in consequence of human management (absolute
clearing), the light-foliaged and light-seeded kinds will gain ground. _In short these ap-
pearances and changes are the result of that continuous struggle for existence, which per-
vades all nature and is modified in many ways by the hand of man.
I know that I have only incompletely and in a general way pointed out some of the
more important conditions which underlie the growth of our forests. I have done so
without any attempt to exhaust the theme in any particular, but have merely endeavoured.
to draw your attention to the fact, that the whole science of forestry is built, or in the
ease of this continent, is to be built, upon a very complicated system of elementary know-
ledge, which can only be gathered by local observations based on acorrect understanding
of the physical forces at work.
Though there are many minor and local influences conditioning forest growth, those
discussed in the foregoing remarks may be considered as the principal and determining
ones. And without tracing step by step the deductions possible from these for a correct:
management of forests, we confine ourselves to giving in conclusion, in the form of short
theses,such rules of management as result from a logical consideration of the foregoing ex-
positions, the observation of which will at least insure a healthful preservation of existing
and a successful growth of new plantations.
1. Theprincipal effort of the forester must be to preserve and increase the ‘ soilbonity”
as defined in the foregoing paper, since upon it depends the productivity of the forest.
2. The measures to be adopted for this purpose are not much to be sought in direct
operations on the soil, but mainly in certain considerations in the selection of species,
methods of management, terms of rotation, interlucation, methods of reproduction, and in
the general care of the forests.
3. Only such species should form the predominant part of the forest as are able to
preserve the “‘soilbonity.” These are the shade-enduring and the evergreen.
4. Where an increase of depth, looseness and humidity is especially needed, it is es-
sential that such species should be cultivated as, through a plentiful fall of leaves, favour
formation of humus, and by the density of their crowns keep out the two enemies of humi-
fication : sun and wind.
5. Iffor a length of time one species alone is to be cultivated, it must be one with a
dense foliage. Light foliaged ones can only be allowed where Nature has provided in
some other way for the conservation of the “‘soilbonity,” because they not only furnish
too little material for humification, but impede the latter by giving sun and wind access
to the soil, thus drying it up and impoverishing it.
6. Mixed forests atford greater security against damages by wind, fire, frost, snow,
diseases, besides yielding a larger amount of wood. In these the predominant species
must be one of the shade-loving or enduring, densely-foliaged, which protect the soil. The
light-needing, thinly foliaged species are only to be mixed in by single individuals, and
not in groups, and must be quicker growing or have an advantage in age or height.
7. Two or more shade-enduring kinds can only be mixed, if they are equally quick
growing.
8. In growths which in later years become less dense any underbrush is favourable
as protection against sun and wind ; the cultivation of such artificially may be advisable
from financial considerations, though it may not be justified.
9. The distance of the plants in new plantations ought not to be more than three to.
four feet, as only thus a sufficient covering of the soil can be effected. Besides the yield
223 ,
of wood per acre stands in direct proportion to the density of growth, 7. ¢., the number
of plants per acre.
10. Of all the methods of management, the timber forest with natural reproduction
from seed trees is best calculated to maintain the vigour of the soil, for shade-enduring
species, if the cutting is done with necessary prudence, so that the soil is exposed as little
as possible. Next to this method comes absolute clearing, with immediate artificial re-
seeding or replanting. This is almost the only method advisable for light-foliaged trees.
11. Short terms of rotation remove the protection oftener from the soil ; long ones
carry the danger of soil impoverishment, owing to the natural thinning out of most species
in later stages of growth.
12. For interlucation the principal rule is never to deprive any portion of the soil
of the protecting cover of the crowns ; it is best to confine the thinning out to the over-
shadowed, dying trees.
THE CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF OUR NATIVE FORESTS, FOR
DEVELOPMENT AS TIMBER OR ORNAMENTAL WOOD.
By H. W. 8. CLeveLtanp, Cuicaco, IL.
No one can travel through any portion of the States east of the prairie regions, with-
out being impressed by the fact that he is never out of sight of woodland. In fact, the:
chief cause of the prevailing apathy on the subject of forest planting, arises from the fact
of the great abundance of groves and extended forests, which convey the impression, in
spite of the assertions of staticians, that there is still enough wood growing to supply the
place of that which is removed.
The Duke of Argyle, in the interesting sketch of his trip through the States, pub-
lished after his return to England, says emphatically that nothing in the aspect of the
country surprised and impressed him so much as the great amount of wood still remain-
ing, and everywhere giving beauty and variety to the landscape ; but he added that it
was everywhere the beauty of the wild-wood, which never bore any evidence of culture
or effort to increase its value by artificial development.
‘“‘T saw nothing (he says) that could be called fine timber, and no woods which showed
any care in thinning, with a view to the production of such timber in the future.”
Such a criticisn is not surprising from one who, like most country gentlemen of
England, is familiar with the process of forest culture, but it certainly is surprising that,
with all our boasted intelligence, we still remain practically insensible to the fact that,
while almost every tract of woodland contains a large per centage of such trees as are
most valuable for timber, already well advanced in growth, and susceptible, by judicious
management, of being developed into proper form and size for use in far less time and
at far less cost than would be required for the planting and growth of new forest ; yet,
if left to themselves, not one tree in a thousand will ever be fit for anything better than
fencing stuff or fuel. Vast resources of wealth are lying latent and running to waste in
our woodlands, and we stand stupidly unconscious of the fact that its development re-
quires simply the application of the intelligent culture we bestow on all other crops. In
many instances, it is true, the native woods have been so long neglected, that they are
past redemption, but there are, nevertheless, large areas of continuous forest, and smaller
groves and wood-lots in every section of the country, now yielding no revenue, which
might, by proper annual thinning, pruning and culture, be developed into timber forests
of very great value, while yielding an annual crop of firewood in the process.
Where shall we find, or how shall we create, the men who are competent to the
work? ‘lo judge from invariable practice, our people seem not only to be ignorant of the
first principles of forest culture, but unconscious even of the possibility of its application
to the development of our native woods. The fact of such prevailing ignorance rests not
alone upon negative evidence. We have positive proof in abundance in the attempts
which we often see at the “improvement” of a piece of woodland when it is appropriated:
as the site of a residence. It is hard to conceive of anything more dismal and forlorn
than the average result of the effort to impart a home-like aspect to such a place; the:
224
dwelling, with its ‘span new ” expression, standing in the midst of a multitude of tall
poles, with tufts of leaves upon their tops, looking like fowls stripped of their feathers,
and the bare ground fretted everywhere with freshly upturned roots, the sole remnants
of the wild shrubbery which has been ruthlessly exterminated.
In order to a comprehension of the principles of healthy forest growth, let us con-
sider some of the processes of nature, and learn from them her requirements.
If we plant the seed of a maple, chestnut, linden, oak or ash tree by itself in the
open ground in suitable soil, and suffer it to grow without molestation, simply guarding
it from injury, we shall find that the first act of the young plant is to send out broad
leaves, which serve among other purposes to shade completely the stem, and the ground
immediately around it in which the roots are growing. As the tree grows, it preserves a
symmetrical shape, the limbs spreading and the trunk increasing in size, in proportion to
its height, but always preserving the condition of keeping the trunk and the ground for
a considerable distance around it, in the shadow of the foliage till mature age, when the
roots have penetrated to such a depth as to be safe from injury, and the trunk is pro-
tected by thick layers of cork like bark, which safely guards alike from heat and cold the
inner layers and young wood in which the sap is performing its functions.
Such are the conditions to which nature adheres, if not interfered with by accident
or design, and such, therefore, we may be sure, are those best adapted to healthy and vig-
orous growth. The fact that they are continually violated with apparent impunity,
serves only to show the wonderful power of nature to supply deficiencies, and adapt her-
self to circumstances, but in artificial culture, we should aim as nearly as possible to imit-
ate the course she would pursue if unimpeded.
The requirements of nature are of course the same when trees are growing together in a
forest, as when they stand singly, but the conditions of growth are so changed that the
end is attained by entirely different means.
Tf we enter a tract of wood land, covered with a hard-wood growth of an average
height of thirty or forty feet we find it composed almost exclusively of trees which have run
up to a great height in proportion to the spread of their limbs. The largest and oldest of
them may have had some lateral branches which are now dead, but the younger growth
will consist only of tall, slender stems, without a branch or leaf except near the top. It
will be difficult, perhaps impossible, to find a single tree possessing sufficient symmetry of
form to be worth transplanting for ornamental use. A little reflection will serve to con-
vince us that this form of growth, so different from that of the single tree in the open
ground, is the natural result of the action of the same rules under changed conditions.
When a young wood first springs up on open ground, each tree begins to grow as if
it were alone, sending out lateral branches and preserving its just proportion. But when-
ever these laterals meet and mingle with each other, they shut out the sunlight from all
below, and thence forward all lateral growth must cease, and each individual is struggling
upward to keep even with its neighbours and secure its share of the sunbeams which are
essential to its existence, and which can only be had at the top. It thus becomes forced
out of all just proportions in the effort to keep even with its fellows. The conditions of
keeping the trunk and roots in the shade, however, are even more rigidly adhered to than
in the case of the single tree, growing by itself, for the whole area of the wood is shaded,
and, moreover, the trees on the edges of the wood, if not interfered with by men or cattle,
will be clothed on the outer side with limbs and foliage clear to the ground, so as to
check the free passage of the winds whose drying influence upon the soil is even more
active than that of the sun.
If we examine more closely we shall find that nature adapts herself to these changed
conditions, and avails herself of whatever advantages they afford.
The single tree when growing by itself sends its roots deep into the ground in search
of the moisture which cannot be had near the surface, and thus, when it reaches mature
age, it draws its supplies from sources beyond the reach of temporary changes, and, more-
over, secures so firm a hold upon the ground that it suffers no injury from the storms that
assail it, but fearlessly stretches forth its arms as if to challenge the gale.
In the woods, on the contrary, the surface soil never becomes parched or heated, but
maintains an even degree of temperature and moisture in consequence not only of the ex-
e
‘
225
clusion of the sun and winds, but of the deep mulching of leaves which annually cover
the ground and keep it moist, while, by their decomposition, they form a rich mould com-
prising all the ingredients of vegetation.
If we dig only afew inches into this mould we find it everywhere permeated by
fibrous rootlets emanating from larger roots, which under these circumstances have kept
near the surface where they draw nourishment from the rich material there provided.
Tf the single tree in the open ground had tried to live by such means, it would speedily
have perished for want of nourishment, or would have been uprooted by the winds as
forest trees are liable to be when left alone in a clearing.
_ In the woods the necessity no longer exists of sending the roots to a great depth
either in search of nourishment or for support against storms, and nature always adapts
herself to circumstances and attains her ends by the simplest and most economical means.
If we now consider the facts I have stated, which anyone can easily verify for him-
self, we shall find that all the essential principles of tree culture are comprised within
their limits, and by their rational observance we may secure healthy and vigorous trees,
and develop at will either such forms as will fit them for timber or for ornamental use.
The five trees I have cited—maple, chestnut, linden, oak and ash—are among the
most common and yet the most valuable of our forest trees, and may be taken as repre-
sentatives and proper illustrations of the facts I am stating. Hither of these trees, if
growing by itself in proper soil and undisturbed by other than natural influences, will at-
tain, at maturity a height of seventy or eighty feet, with a spread of limb equal in diameter
to its height, and a trunk of such massive proportions as leaves no room for apprehension
of inability to uphold the wilderness of foliage it has to support. But these same trees,
if growing in a wood, will send up a slender stem, straight as an arrow, fifty, sixty, or
seventy feet without a limb or a leaf, till it reaches the average height of its fellows, and
sends out its tufts of foliage to secure the benefit of every sunbeam it can catch.
We see, therefore, that if we wish to form a beautiful and symmetrical tree, or a
grove of such, composed of individual specimens of majestic and graceful proportions, we
must allow it free access to sun and air, with full power of expansion on every side.
While young, however, the growth will be more vigorous and healthy, and we can develope
the desired forms more easily and successfully, by leaving a much greater number of trees
than are eventually to remain, and removing from year to year all which are near enough
to the final occupants to check or impede their full development. 4
If, on the other hand, we wish to develop the trunk or bole for use as timber we
must plant, or suffer the trees to grow more thickly together, and thus extend its trunk
longitudinally by forcing it to ascend in search of the sunlight on which its very existence
is dependent. The indigenous growth, however, is always a great deal too thick for suc-
cessful development.. The trees are so crowded that many of them perish in the struggle,
and those which survive are drawn up into such spindling proportions that not one in a
hundred ever attains the dignity of timber, whereas by proper and reasonable thinning,
and judicious culture and pruning of the trees selected for final retention, every acre of
woodland might be made to yield an annual crop of fire-wood, and all the while be grow-
ing timber, which eventually, in many instances, might be worth more than the land
itself ; or by a different process of management may be converted into a grove of majestic
and graceful, ornamental trees,
The proper performance of this work constitutes the most important part of forest
culture, and for want of the knowledge of how it should be done, or from ignorance of
the possibility of its application to our native forest, a vast area (in the aggregate) of
woodland is running to waste ; yielding no revenue and promising nothing better in the
. future than fire-wood, of which a very large proportion is yet susceptible of redemption
and conversion into timber of great value at far less cost of time and labour than would be
required for the planting and rearing of new forests, while the very process of develop-
ment would be yielding an annual income instead of demanding large outlays.
Travel where we may we are never out of sight of forest, and every wood lot is a
mine of wealth, waiting only the application of intelligent labour for its development. In
almost every tract of woodland may be found more or less of the trees I have named, and
in many places also hickory, walnut, butternut, elm, cherry, beech and other valuable
15 (F. G.)
226
timber trees, mingled with a great variety of those which are worthless, or fit only for
fuel. In some cases they are past redemption, having been so long neglected that they
have run up into mere thickets of hoop-poles. Young growth may everywhere be found,
however, which are in condition to be taken in hand, and in almost all cases the work of
thinning and pruning may be entered upon with a certainty of profitable results if wisely
and perseveringly conducted.
The work of thinning, as ordinarily conducted in the occasional instances in which
on any account it has become desirable, is entrusted to mere labourers, who have no re-
gard for the natural conditions which are essential to healthy growth, and which can not
be suddenly changed, without serious injury to the trees that are left.
All the small growth of shrubs, such as hazel, cornel, dogwood, elder, shad-bush, etc.,
is first grubbed out and destroyed under the general term of “ underbrush,” and this not
only throughout the interior of the wood, but around its outer edges where such shrubbery
is apt to spring up in thickets, which serve the very important purpose of preventing the
free passage of the wind over the surface soil of the interior, besides adding incaleulably
to the beauty of the wood, as seen from without by connecting the line of foliage of the
trees with that of the sward below, and presenting a living mass of verdure. The trees
which are considered most desirable to preserve are then selected, and all the rest at
once removed. Finally the leaves are carefully raked from the surface and carried off
or burnt.
Sun and wind now have free access to the soil, and it very soon becomes parched
anddry. The fine rootlets near the surface, which have heretofore been preserved by the
never-failing moisture of the rich mould under its mulching of leaves, are converted into
a mass of wiry fibres, no longer capable of conveying nourishment, even if it were
within their reach. And while the means of supply are thus reduced, the tall, slender
trunk, through which the sap must ascend to the leaves, is now exposed to the free
action of the sun and winds. Now Ido not presume to say that evaporation can take
place through the bark, but the provisions which nature makes to guard the inner vital
tissues from the effect of the sun’s rays, indicate beyond all question that they are in
some way injurious. I have elsewhere shown that in the case of the single tree grow-
ing by itself, the trunk is always shaded by the spreading foliage, when suffered to retain
its natural form. In the forest the trees shade each other, and thus effect the object by
mutual action. But now let me call your attention to another provision of nature which
few people observe, but the meaning of which is too obvious to be mistaken. If we ex-
amine the bark of an oak, elm, chestnut or maple, of mature age, which has always stood
by itself, exposed to the full influence of atmospheric changes, we find it to be of great
thickness of very rugged character, and of a cork-like consistency, all of which character-
istics make it the best possible non-conductor of heat or cold that can be imagined, under
the protection of which the living tissues are safely kept from injury through the burn-
ing heat of summer and the intense cold of winter.
Now go into the forest where the trees shade each other, and wind and sun are ex-
cluded, and you will find that the bark of the trees is smooth and thin in comparison with
that of those in the open ground.
Nature never wastes her energies needlessly, and the trees in the woods do not re-
quire the thick coat of those that are exposed. But the effect of suddenly admitting the
sun and wind upon them is precisely the same as that of exposing any portion of the
human skin which had hertofore been clothed. It is to guard against injury from this
source that experienced tree-planters, when removing large trees from the woods, are
accustomed to swathe the trunks with ropes of straw, which is a rational process, yet it
is by no means uncommon to see the reverse of this action. I have seen during the
past wintera great many very large fine trees planted on the best avenues in Chicago,
at a cost of certainly not less than fifty dollars each, from the trunks and large limbs ~
of which all the rough bark had been carefully scraped, leaving only a thin, smooth
covering over the inner tissues. This is as if a man should prepare for unusual exposure
to heat or cold by laying aside all his clothing.
Few persons, even among those whose business is tree culture, have any just con-
ception of the value of thorough mulching, as a means of promoting the health and
227
vigour of growing trees. In fact, such a mulching of the whole ground as nature pro-
vides in the forest by the annual fall of the leaves, may be said to be unknown in arti-
ficial culture, so rarely is it practiced, yet its immediate effect in promoting new and
vigorous growth is such as would seem almost incredible to one who had not witnessed
it, and affords one of the most beautiful illustrations of nature’s methods of securing the
most important results by such simple and incidental means that they escape our notice,
though going on right under our eyes from year to year.
Of course the richest food for plant consumption is in the soil near the surface, but
if that soil is subjected to alternations of temperature and moisture, sometimes baked in
clods, and at others reduced to the consistency of mire, no roots can survive the changes.
In the forest, as I have elsewhere said, these changes are prevented by the shade of the
foliage and the mulching of fallen leaves. The rich mould of the surface soil maintains
an even temperature, is always moist, and is everywhere permeated with fibrous roots
drawing nourishment from'the rich sources which surround them, and this process may
be artificially imitated, and the same results attained, by mulching, if properly done. It
does not suffice to pile a few inches of straw or manure around each tree for a short dis-
tance from the trunk. If the tree stands singly, at a distance from others, the mulching
should extend on every side beyond the spread of its branches; and in the case of an —
orchard, or young wood, the surface of the whole area it occupies should be covered with
leaves, straw, shavings, chip-dirt, tan-bark, or whatever material is most available, to a
-depth of several inches. I first learned the value of the process when a young man, on a
coffee plantation in Cuba, where a portion of the hands were constantly employed in col-
lecting refuse vegetable matter of all kinds, and spreading over the whole ground between
the rows of the coffee bushes, to such a depth as served to keep the surface cool and of
even temperature, and also to prevent the growth of grass and weeds, and thus supersede
the necessity of ploughing between the rows.
Afterwards, when engaged in fruit culture in New Jersey, I practiced it in my vine-
yard and orchards with most satisfactory results, of which an account was published more
than thirty years ago, in the Horticulturist, then edited by A. J. Downing.*
The trees and vines responded at once to my efforts in their behalf by such increased
luxuriance of growth that it was easy to distinguish the portions that had been mulched
as far as they could be seen, and, on digging into the surface soil under the mulching at
any point, I found it filled with fibrous roots precisely as is the case in the leaf mould in
the woods. No fruit-grower who has once tried this experiment will ever after forego
the advantages it offers, and I have spoken of it thus at length from the obviously vital
importance of its bearing on forest culture. A moment’s reflection will show that in the
opening and thinning of native wood which had grown thickly together, a heavy mulching
of such portions of the ground as may unavoidably become exposed, may be of most es-
sential service in preserving the health and vigour of the trees that are to be retained.
It is difficult to lay down specific rules by which a novice could be guided in the
work of opening and thinning out the wood of a native forest, except by fully impress-
ing him with the importance of preserving, so far as is possible, the conditions which
nature shows to be the most favourable to vigorous growth, and proceeding very cautiously
when it becomes necessary to change the relative proportions of the influences which
affect the vitality of the trees. The age and condition of the wood at the time the work
is begun, are, of course, important elements for consideration. If the growth is not more
than ten or fifteen years, and the trees have not sprung up so thickly as already to have
become a mere thicket of hoop-poles, but have preserved a reasonable degree of symmetry,
its management can be much more easily controlled than if it has attained a more mature
. age, and especially if the object is to create an ornamental grove composed of fine speci-
mens of individual trees, a process by which the value of desirable residence sites in the
vicinity of cities or large towns might often be very greatly increased.
Whether this be the object, or the development of timber, the first thing to be done
is to select and place a distinguishing mark upon every tree which is ultimately to be re-
tained. Then remove at first from its immediate vicinity only those which are actually
* Horticulturist, Vol. 3, p. 113.
228
crowding it, or impeding its growth by shading or interfering with its foliage. Those
which simply shade the trunk or the ground around it are serving a useful purpose, and
should not be disturbed. Indeed, if it is found that the necessary removals involve much
increased exposure of the surface soil around the tree, it should at once be covered with
a mulching of sufficient depth to prevent the possibility of its becoming heated and dry.
All other sources of danger to the health of the trees are insignificant in comparison
with that of the rude check they are liable to receive from sudden exposure of the trunks.
and surface roots to the influence of the sun and wind, from which they have heretofore
been protected, and to which they can only become accustomed by a gradual change.
The next year it will be found that the tree has gladly availed itself of the oppor-
tunity for expansion, and has spread its limbs to fill the vacant space around it, so that
more trees must now be removed, while the increased mass of foliage it has developed
renders it less liable to suffer injury from their loss. ‘
The removal of the undergrowth of shrubbery, should be very cautiously conducted,
and in no case should it be removed from the outskirts of the wood, which should every-
where be left with as dense a growth as possible, to prevent the entrance of the winds.
The sirocco-like wind from the §. W., which often blows with great violence for
days together, especially in the spring and early summer, when the trees are full of sap,
and the young shoots and leaves are tender and sensitive, is the one from which most.
danger is to be apprehended. The merely mechanical injury it inflicts upon the spray
and foliage is often serious, but its worst effects are due to its absorption of moisture and
vitality.
All experienced nurserymen and fruit-growers, have learned to dread its exhaust-
ing influences especially upon grape vines and other broad leaved plants, and they too
are aware of the fact, which comparatively few ordinary observers seem to have noticed,
that its effect in giving a general trend of the spray and branches of trees in exposed
situations toward the N. E., isso marked that no one who has learned to observe it, need
ever be long at a loss to know the points of the compass in any parts of the country.
The fact, however, that we have it in our power to guard against the evil effects of
this wind by artificial means, is not so generally known as it should be, and it was only
after many years observation and experience that I came to a full realization of certain
facts in connection with its action, which have a most important bearing upon the ques-
tion of forest culture.
1 became aware, many years since, that many shrubs, trees and plants would grow and
thrive at Newport, R. I., and at Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, which in the interior were only
found much farther south, and would certainly perish if removed to the latitude of those
towns. The reason assigned in both cases was the warming influence of the neighbouring
gulf stream, which seemed a plausible explanation in which my faith remained unshaken
for years, until I went to Chicago, where I found it was impossible to grow many of the
finer fruits, and some of the forest trees which elsewhere are found in much higher lati-
tudes. Neither peaches or grapes can be grown at Chicago, or at any other point on the
western side of the lake without artificial protection, and the native growth of wood is
very meagre, and many varieties which elsewhere are found much farther north, as the
beech and the hemlock cannot be grown ; yet the eastern shore of the lake, only sixty miles.
distant, has no superior in the whole country as a fruit growing region. Peaches, grapes,
strawberries, etc., grow most luxuriantly anywhere on that shore up to the northern
extremity of the lake, three hundred miles north of Chicago, and every variety of forest.
tree indigenous to the country is found in the best condition of vigorous health.
There is no gulf stream to account for this difference, but the relative position
towards the lake of the whole extent of its fruitful shore is the same as that of Newport
and Nova Scotia towards the ocean. In both cases the 8S. W. wind reaches the shore
after passing for a long distance over water, and instead of burning and exhausting vege-
tation with a breath of fire, it comes laden with the moisture it has gathered up in its
passage, and brings health and strength upon its wings, instead of disease and death.
further reflection served to convince me that the rule was susceptible of much wider
application, and serves to explain the different vegetation of the eastern and western
shores of great continents in the same parallels of latitude. Central Spain and southern
229
———————=__-
Italy the lands of the orange and grape are in the same latitude as Boston, and going
west on the same parallel to California, we again find ourselves surrounded with fruits
and plants which in Boston can only be grown under glass. Continuing our western
flight across the Pacific, we find the flora of Eastern Asia to bear, in many respects, a
striking resemblance to that of Eastern America.
These facts have certainly a very important bearing upon the question of forest culture,
_ They prove that the 8. W. wind of spring and early summer is perhaps the worst enemy
we have to guard against, and also that its deleterious influences are neutralized when it
passes over a large body of water. It is comparatively rare, however, that a situation
can be secured affording that advantage, and the question naturally arises, are there no
other means of protection? Iam happy to have it in my power again to summon
nature as a witness that such means are within our reach.
IT have said that the beech would not grow near Chicago, a fact which I was very
reluctant to admit on first going there, and was only fully convinced of its truth by
witnessing repeated failures, and the evidence of reliable nurserymen who had tried in
vain to preserve it. Yet after I had long been satisfied that it was idle to attempt its
culture, I was one day amazed, while surveying in the woods a few miles from the city
at coming upon a little group of beech trees comprising some twenty or thirty in all, of
mature size and in full health and vigour. On examining the situation, to discover, if
possible, an explanation of the phenomenon, I observed first that they stood in the
bottom of a ravine so deep that their tops were scarcely even with its banks, while the
wood which surrounded them extended more than a mile to the 8. W., so that they were
completely sheltered from the effects of the wind from that quarter. I have never been
able to find or to hear of another beech tree anywhere in that region, and can only
account for their presence by supposing the seed to have been brought from a distance
by birds, probably crows, jays or wild pigeons, and dropped accidentally on the spot,
which proved to be a ‘‘coigne of vantage,” where they were safe from the enemy. ‘The
evidence thus afforded of the value of a screen onthe 8. W. side, should not be lost on
those who are selecting sites for orchards, or vineyards, and shows the importance when
thinning a wood, of leaving whatever shrubbery or foliage there may be on that side to
arrest the progress of the wind.
The work of pruning the trees which are to be preserved for timber involves a care-
ful consideration of the principles I have set forth, apart from the judgment required for
the skilful performance of the mere manual labour. The object in view being the develop-
ment of the bole, it is important to remove any limbs which threaten to become its rivals
in size, if any such have become established before the work of improvement began.
But after the trunk has attained the desired height, it is on all accounts desirable to
develop the largest possible mass of foliage, because the making of wood can only be
effected by the elaboration of the sap, which is the work of the leaves.
If one is rearing a new forest, in which the trees have been under his control from
the time of planting, it must be the result of his own ignorance or negligence if he has
failed to secure such forms as he desired, since it is easy to direct the growth of young
trees, and prevent them from running into extravagances, which will unfit them for
service as timber. And not unfrequently we may finda young wood of indigenous growth
which may be taken in hand and wrought into such shape that its future progress can be
easily directed. But, for the most part, in woods that have been suffered to run wild till
they have approached maturity, a good deal of skilful pruning will be required to bring
the individual trees that are to be preserved into such forms as will give them most value.
Nothing but practice and careful observation can confer this power. The little treatise
of DesCars on the pruning of forest and ornamental trees, translated by Mr. C. 8. Sar-
gent, of the Arnold Arboretum, and published by A. Williams & Co. of Boston, (price
75 cents) contains full and explicit illustrated directions for all the manual work of
pruning, and is invaluable as a guide to the novice, and a work of reference to ex-
perienced foresters. But mere manual skillin the performance of the work will be of
little avail without the application of a thorough knowledge of the principles of tree
growth, and a strict compliance with the requirements of their nature.
If our agriculturists will but apply to the management of their forests the same in-
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230
telligence with which they direct the culture of other farm crops, they will find an equally
ready response to their efforts. The farmer-who should leave his field of corn or potatoes.
to shift for itself, or suffer his cattle and hogs to ramble through it at will, would be
justly sneered at by his neighbours and punished by the loss of his crop—and trees have
no more capacity for self-management than corn or other vegetables, and are quite as.
ready to profit by judicious culture, and to yield returns corresponding to the care
bestowed upon them. They are not liable to be utterly destroyed, as corn is, by the in-
cursions of live stock, but they do suffer serious injury from the trampling and rooting
up of the ground. I have seen beautiful groves of oak in Iowa full of dead and dying
trees, and, on asking the cause, have been told that the native woods “ can’t stand civili-
zation,” but always die out when cattle begin to run in them; and I am told that, in
Kentucky and elsewhere in the South, the young growth is found to contain only the
inferior varieties of oak, as the swine running in the woods seek and greedily eat the
acorns of the white oak, on account of their superior sweetness. Has anyone ever
estimated the cost of raising hogs on such food?
I have endeavoured in the preceding pages, to confine myself to the special features.
of forest growth which need to be regarded in the effort to develop and improve a native
wood, wherever it may be. The planting and culture of an artificial forest is quite
another affair, and I have made no allusion to it because my special object has been, if
possible, to urge the fact, and arouse attention to it, that we still have vast resources of
latent wealth on every side, susceptible of development by proper management, which we- '
are everywhere suffering to run to waste. The work of planting and rearing artificial
forests cannot indeed be urged too strongly, and there is no danger of its being overdone.
But the conviction of its necessity can be more readily and forcibly impressed upon the
popular mind by an illustration of the possibilities of forest culture, when applied to our
native woods, than by any other means. The need of further progress by artificial
planting will speedily become obvious, and will follow in natural course.
It has been asserted, and with truth, that it is idle for us to establish schools of
forestry, because there is no demand for foresters, and consequently no stimulus to the
acquirement of knowledge of the theory and practice of the art. It will be time enough
to establish such schools, it is said, when we have evidence that there are people who de- ~
sire to avail themselves of the advantages they offer, and that will not be till there isa
demand for the services of those who have done so. This is true, so far as it goes, but
the next consideration is, how to create the demand. There was no demand a few years
ago for telegraph operators, and when I was a boy there was no demand for railroad
employés, for there were no railroads. How was the demand created? By showing the
importance of the results. Think of the time and labour expended by Morse and his
associates before they could get permission to demonstrate the value of the electric tele-
graph by a line from Washington to Baltimore. No general interest was felt in the
scheme till its advantages were thus made manifest, because there was no realizing con-
piction of its truth. And to-day we arein a similar position in reference to the question
of forestry. The impending danger of the diminishing supply of timber is acknowledged
by all who are familiar with the subject, but there is no realizing sense of it in the
popular mind, and there is a want of confidence in the practicability of any of the pro-
posed measures of relief. The first and most important thing to do, therefore, is to-
stimulate popular interest by showing what can be done. To create a popular demand of
any kind, it is essential first to demonstrate the value of its object. The men who are
familiar with forest culture, know, as well as Morse knew the capability of the telegraph,
that the wealth of the nation may be enormously increased by the proper development
of the native woods already standing, but they can point to no evidence of the truth of
their assertion, and the fact that it has not been done is regarded as proof of its impossi-
bility. There is no such thing in the country as an illustrative example of what may be
accomplished by timber culture, and very few of our citizens who visit Europe can
appreciate the works which have there been achieved. They go abroad to study works.
of art, with the idea that we have nothing to learn in regard to natural productions, and
the comparatively small number who grasp the conception of the grand possibilities of
development which our forests offer to the exercise of such artificial culture as may there
es
231
be seen, can do no more on their return than express their convictions and urge the
importance of acting upon them. This they have done for many years past, but they
have not succeeded in arousing such a popular conviction of the necessity as should
enforce the action of their representatives to the point of making needful provision.
The enormous and costly scale on which the work of planting new forests must be under-
taken, in order to be effective, seems to throw a damper upon every effort to bring it
to pass.
If every owner of a wood lot could be convinced that its value might be enormously
increased by a process which, so far from demanding an outlay, would add to his annual
income, it would not be long before farmers would consider it as derogatory to their repu-
tation to leave the forests in the wild condition they now are, as they would to have a
field of corn presenting a similar appearance of slovenliness. To produce such conviction
the truth must be demonstrated in actual practice, and the cost of such demonstration
will be but a trifling price to pay for the returns it will bring. Let any State or city
select a tract of woodland at some easily accessible point, and put it under a proper
course of management, as an experimental forest, and it would very soon excite an in-
terest which could not fail to increase. A portion of it should be suffered to remain in
its original unimproved condition. Another part should be improved as “open park,”
for the best development of individual trees in their fullest natural capacity of dignity
and grace, and a third portion should be devoted to the production of timber by the
process of thinning, pruning and proper culture. The progress of development could
then be seen and watched from year to year in all its stages, and the demonstration thus
afforded would touch the interest of every owner of a wood lot. The process would soon
begin to be imitated, a conviction of the value and importance of a knowledge of forestry
would become established in the popular mind, and the demand for the services of those
who had acquired it would lead to a demand for the means of acquirement, and thus the
schools of forestry would be called into existence by the natural course of events.
The inauguration of such an experimental or illustrative forest as a means of excit-
ing public interest is surely an object that is well worthy the consideration of legislative
and municipal bodies, or of corporations whose interests are connected with this form of
national wealth. The cost would be insignificant in comparison with that of planting
and maintaining new forests, and the spur of personal interest would incite such general
action as would add incaleulably to the wealth of every State without further outlay
than the cost of demonstration.
It is of course desirable that the experimental forest should he as conspicuous and
easily accessible to the public as possible, for which reason the vicinity of a city would
seem the most appropriate point. And municipal bodies would be justified in making a
liberal appropriation for the promotion of such an object, since it would certainly con-
stitute, for great numbers of people, one of the principal attractions of the city. The
beneficial results which would follow, however, would add so largely to the substantial
wealth and power of the State that its main support should be derived from legislative
rather than municipal action.
It is not, however, my province to discuss the means of effecting the work, beyond
this general suggestion.
I have aimed only to convey a conception of the rich resources which nature has
placed at our disposal, if we choose to avail ourselves of her offer.
I have made no statement in regard to forest growth which will not be recognized
as true by all who are familiar with the subject, and all such persons will endorse my
statement that, practically, the rules which govern the process are universally ignored.
I have pointed out what I conceive to be the readiest means of awakening public
attention and creating such general interest as will insure reform, and I leave to other
hands the task of arranging the laws which must govern its execution.
232
By way of illustrating what has been done in re-clothing a denuded district the
wonderful results obtained on Cape Cod are worthy of special attention.
EXPERIMENTS IN TREE PLANTING ON CAPE COD.
By Josrrn 8. Fay, Woop’s Hot, Mass.
The soil of Cape Cod is simply and purely dilwvian or drift, and at best a light sandy
loam, with little or no clay anywhere. Yet it has been, no doubt, well-wooded with oak,
hickory and pine in the time past, and has now its fair proportion of forest. Formerly
this has afforded some ship timber, but of late it has been mainly utilized for fuel, and
when cut off for this purpose, the trees have grown up again, to be again cut off at re-
gular periods. Of course, from this there can be no production of timber or lumber.
Until the last forty years the keeping of sheep has been inimical to fresh forest growth,
but since then that industry has been almost entirely abandoned, and attention has been
given to using some of the vacant lands for tree-planting. This has for the most part
been done with the seed of the native pitch pine (pinus rigida) and seemed for a time to
be quite a success. Unfortunately, in addition to the disasters incident to forest fires,
carelessly or wantonly set, this pine has become subject to a blight, said to be a fungus,
which attacks the foliage of the young growth, spreading and destroying the trees, so
that the hopes of the planter have been grievously disappointed. This has been the case
also on the island of Nantucket. Experiments have been made quite extensively, within
the last twenty years at Wood’s Holl, the south-west extremity of the Cape, with the
Scotch pine planted from seed on an old worn-out pasture land. So far, the promise
is very good, as the blight or fungus which is destroying the pitch pine does not seem to
touch it. The tree, so far, appears to be a rapid and healthy grower, but, of course, its
value for timber or lumber cannot be fixed for some years yet. It bears a severe exposure,
but more trees are broken off by gales of wind than among our native pines, although
this may be accidental or exceptional. The native pine seeds have usually been planted
by dropping them in light furrows, run six, eight or ten feet apart, according to the
supply of seed. If coming up too thickly, the surplus may be transplanted or cut out.
They, as well as the Scotch pine, are also sometimes sown broadcast and do well. If
done when there is a light snow on the ground in the spring, there is less likelihood of
their being sown too thickly. The white pine will not do well where it is likely to be
reached by the winds blowing from the sea, as the salt affects the foliage injuriously.
Experiments have been begun with the red pine (pinus resinosa) which is a desirable
tree for any part of the country. Is is very handsome, and is a fair substitute for the
southern yellow pine. It deserves attention. The European larch and Scotch birch have
been somewhat planted and are doing well. They are hardy and rapid growers. The
former are now planted from seedlings obtained at the west. The earlier ones came from
England. The latter came from abroad, and are already quite large trees. The Catalpa
seems to have done well, and there are some handsome well-grown specimens introduced
from the seed some forty years ago, which encourage the more extensive plantings now
beginning to be made. From present appearances there seems to be nothing that will re-
ward labour and capital, better than the systematic cultivation of trees on the light lands
of this region, the more so as they are of little value for any other purpose. Attention
is being more and more given to it.
The economic results obtained in Scotland from forest planting are forcibly presented
in the following extract from a paper read by Prof. Wm. Brown, of Guelph, at the Cin-
cinnati meeting :
Tn Scotland, especially, the re-clothing has been very extensive and successful. Land
that fetched only 8d. an acre for sheep grazing, or ls. for a deer forest, has been under
skill and capital, brought to produce a clear annual revenue of fifteen times these amounts
—by tree crops.
233
Beginning in 1855 I planted annually, on an average, for fourteen years, one and a
half million larch and Scotch pine, among the heather and granite of Banff and Aber-
-. deenshire.
Our process was simply to enclose with wire fence from three hundred to one
thousand acres, in districts where direct shelter, ornament and climatic amelioration,
with the best chances of economic results were necessary and most likely to be secured.
Drainage was thoroughly done where required. Planting carried out by day labour, never
by contract, under skilled foremen, one man, under average conditions as to soil and size
of plants, notching as many as one thousand a day. ‘Trees were sized according to height
and exposure of the ground, and not less than three thousand per acre—aiming at four
feet apart all over. Pitting was necessary only with the larger hard and Scotch pine, or
_ with hardwoods. We always had the best success with small plants, seedlings, with
conifera on the exposed parts, and not more than two years transplanted in any case.
Thus the Highlands of Scotland are to-day in possession of many thousands of acres,
producing handsome revenue that twenty years ago made a poor show on the rent rolls ;
average cost, £3 10s. per acre.
The importance of establishing schools for scientific and practical instruction in
forestry was set forth in a valuable paper read by Gen. C. C. Andrews, at the Cincinnati
meeting.
He first stated facts showing the influence of forestry products on the industrial
welfare of the country, and the rapid, and in some cases, wasteful consumption of these
products without corresponding means for their re-growth. The prosperity of many trades
and of vast numbers of artisans depends on the supply of forest products. A school for
scientific and practical instruction in forestry would train men for forest management,
and would exert an influence favourable to an improved forest economy. There were
more than thirty schools of forestry in Europe, and they had proved highly beneficial.
One had just been established in British India. There was not one such school in the
United States. This country could not afford to be behind the rest of the world in such
a matter. The countries of Europe had experienced forest spoliation like what is now
- occurring in America, and for many years had been trying to repair the evil. One of
their helps was the school of forestry. The public forests of Germany and of some other
countries now yield a net income of 4 per cent.
The United States are deeply concerned in the question. The way in which the
public timber lands had been for the last half century and were still being squandered
was a discredit to the administrative character of the country. Where separate States
for their school lands or railroad companies for granted lands are getting $30 an acre for
timber lands, the United States are either being defrauded of theirs, giving them away,
or, at most, getting only $1.25 to’ $2.50 per acre. The influence of a School of Forestry
would help to educate public sentiment up to a more conservative care of the public
timber lands ; and the United States could as properly grant public land to endow one
School of Forestry as they did twenty or thirty years ago to endow thirty or forty Agri-
cultural Colleges.
The first line of telegraph was put in operation by the Government of the United
States. It had, in many instances, lent a helping hand to science. While higher educa-
tion should, as a rule, depend on private support, there were cases where the Government
could probably give an enterprise a start, especially where the interests were national, as in
the case of forestry, and affected the mechanic arts as largely.
Besides the Government selling timber lands for a totally inadequate price, the
report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office showed that, in spite of a large
force of detectives, assisted by United States Attorneys and Marshals, at much expense,
$100,000 worth of Government timber was annually stolen and carried away.
Assuming that a school of forestry, with a man of acknowledged attainments in
science like an Agassiz at the head of it, would promote an improved forest economy,
then it seemed clearly the interest and duty of the Government to take the initiative in
the matter.
234
Some of the inducements which might be held out to the owners of land to encour-
age the planting of trees are suggested by Mr. Renick.
ENCOURAGEMENT OF TREE PLANTING BY-LAW.
By Harness RENICK, CIRCLEVILLE, OHIO.
If it is the purpose of the Forestry Convention to solve the question as to the best
plan to arrest, as far as possible, the now rapid destruction of timber, and to induce and
encourage tree culture, the undersigned, after a long experience and much study of this
most important subject, which should engage the attention of every one desiring the best
future interests of the whole country, begs leave to say, that in his opinion there is but
one practical way to obtain the much desired end, and that is to enlist the pockets of
land-holders by law swasion ; other kinds of suasion have for thirty years past been tried
and failed to effect any good in old Pickaway County ; and as the sentiment of the com-
munity in any one section is pretty much the same as in another, so that suasion other
than the pocket, or present self-interest of the land-holder, will assuredly fail wherever
tried.
The average land-owner is not at all inclined to preserve his timber for the good of
posterity. He rather aims to get all immediate, or near prospective profits from his
domains in the shortest possible time. He has heretofore, and will in the future continue
to cut off his timber just as soon as he believes it will be profitable to do it. Our fore-
fathers destroyed all the timber from necessity, but unfortunately their descendants of
this day seem to have inherited a propensity to continue it, even in many cases when it
pays them no profit.
To effectually induce timber preservation in some measure, and tree-planting, the
States should offer a liberal and sufficient bounty, or an equivalent i in tax exemption on
all lands planted and cultivated in trees, and also on at least four additional acres to
one planted, until the trees were cut off. To exempt from tax only the planted acres
would be next to no inducement to plant. And also exempt from tax all woodlands upon
which three-fourths or more of the original large trees were standing, and in addition on
four other acres to one of the timber lot. And also exempt partially cleared timber lots
whereon there remained one-fourth or more of the original large growth.
The lands devoted to tree culture under tax exemption law would generally be of the
thinnest and most exhausted soils, of low value, and to exempt five acres to one planted
would prove no great encouragement to the comparatively few who would engage in it,
If it is not constitutional in Ohio to enact a bounty or tax exemption law, then, we
should educate voters to favour an amendment of it. °
The different varieties of trees believed to be suitable or found so by actual experience
for planting in various parts of the country and the practical uses to which they are
applied are set forth in the papers which follow :—
THE GROWTH OF BLACK WALNUT IN ONTARIO.
By Tos. Bratt, Linpsay, Ont.
Some two or three years ago the persons who foresaw the coming scarcity of forest
timber in this country, and who had the courage to publicly express their opinion on the
subject, were denounced as alarmists, because almost every one believed our timber
resources to be nearly, if not quite, inexhaustible. The stern events of the past decade
have, however, shown that the fears of the so-called alarmists are already being realized.
Immense forests of pine, hemlock, cedar, tamarac, and other varieties of timber then
existing have entirely disappeared through the agency of the lumberman. For what he would
have left as a reserve for future use, has, in many cases, been destroyed by forest fires.
Many of our thinking people now see ‘that the time has arrived when every effort should
be exerted, not only to stay the ruthless demolition of our existing timber, but to commence
planting trees for the use of our immediate posterity.
235
As it is now generally conceded that the public domain will, at the present rate of
consumption, be entirely denuded of its timber before the end of the present century,
perhaps one of the best means to awaken general public interest on the subject will be to
endeavour to show that, for those persons who are secking permanent investment for sur-
plus capital, forest tree planting can be prosecuted with as great, or possibly a greater
probability of financial success than attends almost any other sound commercial enterprise.
Judging from our present knowledge of the commercial value of the various kinds of
timber best adapted to the climate, and much of the soil of Canada, the cultivation of the
Black Walnut offers greater promise for a profitable investment in this industry than, perhaps,
any other kind. Notwithstanding the opinion which so generally prevails that the Black
Walnut is not sufficiently hardy to withstand the extremes of our climate, recent experi-
ence has taught us that it can be successfully and easily grown throughout the greater
part of the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and, probably also of Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick, where an alluvial, or a deep, rich, loamy, clay soil can be found. Late spring
and early autumn frost does not injure the Black Walnut as it does some other varieties of
our forest trees. I have known a late spring frost to destroy nearly every leaf on a row
of these trees, and in two weeks after the trees were clothed with a new foliage. The
blossom buds, however, were destroyed, consequently no fruit was produced that season.
I have never observed the foliage to be injured by any insect enemy excepting the
red-hump caterpillar—notodonta concinna—and only occasionally by it, and this tree does
not suffer by the loss of its foliage as many other kinds do. Some four or five years ago,
at about this time of the year, one of my Black Walnut trees was completely stripped of its
leaves by this caterpillar, and to my surprise, the tree reclothed itself with new foliage
before the end of the season so completely that no difference could be observed in its gen-
eral appearance from others standing near it that had not been injured. The following .
season this tree appeared to be as healthy as any other.
Severe pruning does not perceptibly injure young walnut trees, and if an accident
should happen to one whereby it would be permanently disfigured, standing where it
might be desirable to have a perfect specimen, I would advise cutting it down to within a
few inches of the ground as early in the spring of the year as possible, and allow the
stump to throw out a hew shoot from out of its many latent buds in the remaining part
of its trunk, and obtain a new tree in this way rather than replace it by another. A few
years ago I treated several trees in this way that were about two inches in diameter. In
three years from that time these trees were really beautiful specimens, standing from ten
to sixteen feet in height.
No amount of heat or cold seem to affect the Black Walnut injuriously. During the
summer of 1881 the thermometer on my grounds registered over 90° several times, and on
two or three days over 100°, and on one day in January last between 35° and 36° below
zero was registered. Yet the trees this season present their usual healthy appearance,
and are bearing a fair quantity of nuts.
Several persons in the neighborhood in which I reside have lately commenced to plant
walnut trees, nearly all of whom are succeeding fairly well, and when a few nuts have been
planted in soil suited to their requirements, fine, healthy, and well-developed trees have been
the result. Many trees, however, have been transplanted in hard, dry, gravelly, clay soils,
and are not flourishing as the owners thereof expected them to do. °
Seeing, therefore, that the Black Walnut, although indigenous to only a very small
portion of the extreme southerly part of Ontario, has proven to be sufficiently hardy to
withstand the extremes of climate peculiar to the Provinces of both Ontario and Quebec ;
that vast areas exist in those Provinces where the soil is quite suited to produce its healthy
and rapid development ; that the peculiarities of its habit to produce new foliage when
anything occurs to destroy that already produced, and to produce a new growth of wood
from near the root in cases of accidents to the tops of young trees ; that the rapidity of its
growth equals that of any other tree grown in this country ; that its timber equals any
other in value, and that the cash value of well-developed timber which may be grown on
a given area, is so much greater than any other, I would urge that its cultivation under
proper management may reasonably be regarded as the most remunerative employment
in connection with the cultivation of the soil.
.
236
Dr. John A. Warder said that the walnut grew rapidly during the first years of its
growth, but grew much slower after it had attained a certain age. Under favourable
circumstances a walnut tree of fifty years growth will measure across the stump twenty-
four inches, but if it were brought into the market at that age it was found to be very
unsaleable, useful only for plain work, for chair legs and trifling things of thatkind. Its
chief character was its great value and great beauty which it gets only in centuries. He
recommended the planting of walnut trees, with trees of some variety which came to
maturity earlier at the same time, so that some return could be had from the land at
once. Although nothing would grow under the branches of the walnut, they might grow
up together.
THE EUROPEAN LARCH—Larix Europea.
By Davin Nicox, CaTaraQui, ONTARIO.
There are three other species of this tree ; one is a native of America, one of Siberia,
and one of China.
Between the European and American larches there is so little difference in their
characteristics when young that they can hardly be distinguished as two different species,
though in their growth and quality of their woods there is a remarkable difference.
In the American, Larix pendula (Black Larch, Tamarac), the branches are stronger,
the bark more inclining to yellow, the scars more slender and clustered, the leaves are
more slender, narrower and more glaucous, and the outer ones of each bundle shorter ;
cones only one-third the size, blunt, with scales scarcely exceeding twelve in number,
thinned, more shining, retuse, emarginate, wings of the seeds straight, more oblong, nar-
rower and, together with the seed itself, of a more diluted gray colour.
The European Larch is a quick growing tree, which rises to the height of sixty feet.
The branches are slender and generally drooping, the bark of an ash gray colour, the
leaves a little wider, bright green, all nearly equal, commonly more than forty in a bundle.
The male flowers appear in the month of April in the form of small purple cones ; after-
wards the female flowers are collected into egg-shaped, obtuse cones, which in some have
bright purple tops, but in others are white. This difference is accidental, for seeds taken
from either will produce both sorts. The cones are one and one-half inches long, with
over thirty woody, striated, rounded entire scales ; under each scale is lodged a brownish
gray seed, with two subtriangular wings somewhat bent in ; tree generally grows perfectly
straight.
No tree better deserves our attention than the larch, for it is one of the most valuabie,
which brings to the planter the quickest returns, with the most certain profitable results.
It possesses many valuable qualities, succeeds in almost every climate, thrives well
on poor land, and is certainly destined to become a blessing to the nations that adopt it.
In countries where it is plentiful, its wood is preferred to all kinds of pine for almost
all purposes ; for shipmasts, yards, booms, and gaffs, nothing excels it, and in Europe it
is extensively used in shipbuilding ; for door and window-frames it is well adapted because
it does not shrink or warp. Joists and rafters made of it support an almost incredible
weight, for it is exceedingly strong. Under water it becomes almost petrified and lasts
for centuries. In Venice the piles on which many of the houses were built many hundred
years ago, are said to be as fresh as when first put in ; for canal lock gates, no wood is
equal to it. The wood varies in colour according to age—that of the young trees is nearly
white ; as the trees grow older the wood becomes red, and is much used in Switzerland for
furniture making. Shingles made of it are more durable than cedar or pine, the resin
which it contains is hardened by the air and becomes a smooth shining varnish which
renders them impenetrable to moisture. For ornaments or farm fences, hurdles and gates,
it is particularly suitable, because they can be made lighter and more durable than of any
other kind of wood. In Italy it is used for carriage building, for wainscoting, panelling,
and flooring. No wood takes paint better. It resists the bore-worm, and wherever strength
and durability are required, larch timber is admirably adapted. A valuable product of
the larch is Venice turpentine, which exudes spontaneously from the bark, but is more
oe
237
commonly obtained by boring a hole in the tree and inserting a pipe ; this turpentine has
always been considered useful in chronic rheumatism and paralysis, gravel-complaints,
scurvy and pulmonic disorders.
The larch, when allowed plenty of room, makes a very handsome ornamental tree ;
its grand habit, with bright green foliage and purple flowers makes it exceedingly beautiful.
Placed on lawns surrounding the country villa it has 2 remarkably fine effect ; being per-
fectly hardy it is never injured by severe weather.
PROPAGATION AND CULTURE.
Though the cones are at their full size in autumn, they are not quite ripe until the
beginning of winter, which is the best time to gather them. The seeds in their cones will
remain good for years, yet out of their cones they lose their vegetating quality in a few
months, therefore, as soon as they are out of the cones, they should be mixed with dry
sand and kept in bags or boxes until the season for sowing, which is as early in spring
as the ground will permit ; when the cones are exposed to the sun a few days the seeds
are easily threshed out. They should be sown in finely made beds of*sandy loam, and
covered with nearly half an inch of fine compost mixed with sand. If kept moist by
gentle watering, they will begin to appear in four or five weeks ; they must be partially
shaded, because when newly up they are very tender, and a few hours of the full sun would
completely destroy them. The following spring they should be pricked out four or five inches
apart in bed or in rows ; in the succeeding spring they should again be transplanted at
wider distances, in rows three feet apart and fifteen inches apart in the row, and allowed
to remain two years, by which time they will be four to six feet high, and of the proper
size to transplant in exposed situations.
In favourable situations, when they are well protected, they do better when planted
of smaller size, say three years from the seed, they start more freely and make more rapid
progress. Experienced planters have long ago decided that the larch should be planted
entirely by itself, because of its quick growth it soon outgrows all other trees, and when
scattered thinly throughout the forest, the tender top shoots are apt to be damaged
by high winds ; they do best when planted thickly because they shelter one another ; they
are often planted as near as three feet and some times as near as two feet, but I would
prefer the former distance ; planted at this distance they rapidly shoot up straight, clean,
and healthy. At three feet apart an acre contains about 4,900 ; in this state they should
be allowed to remain six or seven years, when they will have attained the height of
twenty feet, if they have been well cultivated the first three or four years ; they should
then be thinned for the first time by taking out every alternate row, the thinnings make
the best quality of hop-poles, worth at present about five cents apiece—2,450 poles at
five cents brings $122.50. Then being allowed to remain in this state about three years
longer, they should have the second thinning. By taking out every alternate tree in the
row, this would leave them six feet apart each way ; the thinnings are now five to six
inches through, and are worth ten cents apiece for boat masts and yards, supports in mines,
etc.—1,225 spars at ten cents brings $122.50. After growing five years at this distance
they should be finally thinned out to twelve feet apart; the trees will now be seven to
ten inches through and over thirty feet high, can be sawed into rafters, fencing, flooring,
etc., and are worth at least twenty-five cents apiece—612 spars at twenty-five cents brings
$153. Now, if we suppose that the sale of poles and spars would be sufficient te defray
the expenses of making and upholding the plantation, and that each tree still remaining
on an acre, say fifteen years after planting, is worth only twenty-five cents, the value of
612 trees is $153, there would be a handsome profit after allowing $2 a year for rent,
which for fifteen years would be $30, and a great deal of land suitable for growing the
larch would not rent for more than half that amount. Now the expenses cease, because
the forest can be pastured with sheep without danger of injury to the trees ; the increase
in value is now much more rapid, the annual increase of the circumference of the trees
will average one and one-half inches until they nearly reach maturity, which is in about
fifty years after planting. The trees will then average thirty to forty inches in diameter,
three feet from the butt. Each tree will produce about 450 feet of lumber at $25 per
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1,000, $11.25, less expenses for drawing and sawing $2.25. It would surely not be con-
sidered extravagant to value each tree at $9—612 trees at $9, $5,508, less thirty-five
years rent at $2 per acre, $70 from $5,508 leaves a net profit of $5,438. Be it observed
that plantations of larch do not impoverish the land, but rather improve it. The annual
deposit of leaves gives more nutriment to the soil than is taken from it by the trees.
Larch in its green state is almost incombustible, so there would be but little danger
of destruction by fire, and there would be none if the dead branches were taken away.
A man would have to begin planting when young in order to realize the profits of a
plantation, but he can, by planting soon, add much to the value of his estate and the
investment would probably be as safe as in bank stock. The price of lumber now is more
than twice what it was fifty years ago, and there is every reason to believe that it will
double in price before another fifty years has gone.
There are thousands of acres of land in Canada and in the United States which
cannot be converted into arable land—an acre of which would give but poor summer
maintenance for a goat—if judiciously planted with larch would soon become the most
valuable lands in the state, and would add immensely to the wealth of the nation.
THE WHITE ASH.—(fPraxinus Americana.)
By ArtHur Bryant, Princeton, ILu.
Of the six species east of the Rocky Mountains, the white ash is the most useful for
all purposes where strength, lightness and elasticity are required, as notably in the manu-
facture of agricultural implements. When this tree grows rapidly, as in favourable soil
and climate, it affords the best timber, but where it is stunted in growth, as in Southern
Russia, it is of a weak and brittle texture. In planting the ash with a view to the pro-
duction of timber, the trees should be grown thickly while young, in order that they may
take a clean, straight stem. When of proper size the trees may be taken from the seed
bed and planted in rows four feet apart and two feet apart in the rows. They may be
easily transplanted, after which they should be kept well pruned of side branches up to
near the top. From three to four hundred trees are probably as many as can be grown
to maturity upon an acre. The blue ash is rarely found east of the Alleghanies. It some-
times reaches the height of seventy feet or more, and is distinguished from other species
by the quadrangular shape of the young shoots. The bark on old trees is not furrowed
like that of the white ash. The black ash is usually found in wetter soils than the other
species, whence it is often called swamp ash, or water ash. The wood is very elastic and
divides easily into thin strips, which are used for coarse basket work, and for the hoops of
barrels, for which latter purpose it is the most economical wood that can be procured.
The red ash is common in Pennsylvania and Virginia, and possesses similar qualities to
the white ash. The green ash is a small tree, seldom reaching middle size. It is found
on the banks of rivers, and is more common in the Western than in the Eastern States.
The properties of the wood are similar to those of the white ash. There is another
variety called the Carolina water ash, found in the swamps of the Southern States, which
has no very special merits.
THE RUSSIAN MULBERRY.
By D. C. Burson, TopeKa, Kansas.
The American people, as a nation, have a pre-disposition for quick returns, no matter
in what branch of industry or business it may be ; consequently it sounds too much
of the dim distant to talk of planting forests for the benefit of ‘‘ nations yet unborn.”
But if we can picture groves of beauty and use, bringing dollars and cents to the present
generation, they will grasp it at once. Consequently it is our duty to urge the planting of
quick growing, hardy, useful trees. And such a tree is now coming into great notoriety
on our western prairies. I refer to the “Russian Mulberry.” It was first brought to
239
_ this country by Menonites from Western Russia, and as near as I can learn through E.
H. Rondebush, of Topeka, who got a quantity of the seed direct from Russia last season,
it is a cross between the Morus nigra, or black Mulberry of Persia, and the Morus Tarta-
rica, a native Russian variety. It is a rapid grower, and stands transplanting almost
equal to the cotton wood, but its great superiority over the cotton wood is that its timber
is valuable, the tree ornamental, and the fruit useful. The timber is used in the manu-
facturing of cabinet-ware, and for durability as a fence post it is not surpassed even by
the Catalpa, or Red Cedar. It commences bearing at two years old, and is very produc-
tive. The fruit, which is about the size of blackberries, has a sub-acid, sweet taste, and
is used for dessert ; it also makes a pleasant light wine, and the leaves are largely used
for silk worm food. As to the rapidity of its growth, trees, the seed of which were
planted seven years ago, are now 25 feet in height, and from six to eight inches in diam-
eter. They grow to be very large, often sixty feet high, and from three to four feet in
diameter. So, I firmly believe, that after taking into consideration the certainty of grow-
ing when transplanted, the rapidity with which it grows, the value of the timber when
young, the usefulness of the fruit for the table, and the leaves for silk worms, we have
no tree of more value—the Catalpa excepted—for our Western prairies, both for present
and future generations, than the Russian Mulberry.
T ee ORL AB. WA Mer TY .
By Pror. SERENO WATSON.
The genus Populus stands at the head of all our deciduous trees in one respect. It
is the only one that ranges over our whole area, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from
the Gulf and the Mexican boundary to British America. The willows, alders and birches
extend across the continent—but only as shrubs between the Mississippi and the Sierra
Nevada. The oaks and buttonwoods also reach the Pacific, but only through the southern
tier of territories. There is not a state or territory in which some one or more of the
species of Populus may not be found at home, and attaining the dimensions of a respectable
tree, This fact speaks for itself, and need not be dwelt upon.
Unlike the much larger genus Salix, the members of which are all popularly known
only as “ Willows.” the kindred genus Populus is as generally divided into three groups,
the “aspens,” the ‘ cottonwoods,” and the “ poplars.” This division has, in fact, a scien-
tific basis, and in the consideration of our subject, we cannot do better that to accept
this grouping. All are characterized by a resemblance to the willows, to a greater or less
degree, in their fondness for water ; the readiness with which they are propagated by
cuttings, the rapidity of their growth, and the light and soft quality of the wood. 2
The aspens have smooth or smoothish bark, an ovate leaf with a flattened stem,
which causes its perpetual quivering motion in the wind, and a narrow seed-pod and minute
seed. They also are the least in size, rarely exceeding a height of fifty feet. We
have two species, the “ Quaking Asp” (Populus tremuloides), and the “ Large-toothed
Aspen” (P. grandidentata). A third species, (P. heterophylla), also technically belongs
here, though it has rougher bark, a round leaf-stalk, and becomes a somewhat larger tree.
The two latter are confined to the Atlantic region, from the Alleghanies and western New
England to the Mississippi. The Quaking Asp, on the other hand, is of very wide range,
extending from the Arctic zone to all our northern States, to New Mexico, Nevada, and
California. In the western mountains it is found reaching an altitude of 10,000 feet or
more. It is peculiar in its habits, growing usually in dense groves in moist valleys or on
mountain slopes, to the exclusion of everything else, the straight, smooth, slender trunks
very uniform in size, though never large. In the newer territories its long, straight poles
are sought for fencing, and notwithstanding the general poor repute of the wood of this
genus for out-door uses, they are said to be more durable than pine.
The cottonwoods are larger trees, with rough cracked bark, the triangular leaves
with a scalloped margin and flattened stalks, and the much broader pods with larger
seeds. Their range is southern, scarcely passing to the north of lat. 42°. The species as
240
at present recognized are two, the ‘“ Necklace Cottonwood ” (Populus monilifera), and
‘Fremont’s Cottonwood” (P. Fremonti). The first is eastern, probably not reaching the
Rocky Mountains ; the other extends, in two or three varieties (which may possibly be
distinct), from California through Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico, to Colorado.
They are found upon the borders of streams, and not to any great altitude in the
mountains.
The poplars, finally, are still larger trees, with thick and deeply cracked bark, the
heart-shaped or lance-shaped leaves, on round foot-stalks and slightly toothed, the pods
and seeds large, and the buds copiously coated with resin. These are northern trees, and
we have three species. The Balsam Poplar (Populus balsamifera), ranging from our
northern States to Colorado and Montana and northward. The Narrow-leaved Poplar
(P. angustifolia) in the Rocky Mountain region, and the Hairy-fruited Poplar (P. tricho-
carpa) in the Pacific ranges, from California to British Columbia.
We have here, therefore, a family of trees, which, in its several members, is adapted by
nature-to almost every extreme, whether of latitude, longtitude or altitude, that our
country affords. Taking this in connection with the extreme ease of their propagation,
and the usual rapidity of their growth, and we have the main reasons for considering
these species as the surest, readiest, and often the only resource in forest culture over
large portions of our territory.
Though in general found in the neighbourhood of water, yet this’ is not essential,
as they will grow with vigour wherever there is a damp substratum within reach, and
wherever any other tree will live. Nor isa rich soil needed for them. On the high tree-
less plateaus of Washington Territory bordering upon Idaho, a growth of aspens often
springs up voluntarily when provision is made against the usual autumn fires, and the
poplar is the tree that is planted in taking advantage of the territorial laws favouring
tree culture. In Utah, upon the dry slopes bordering the desert, the Mormon colonists
plant the cottonwood and poplar with success. And on the wind-swept plains of Kansas,
I am told that in the shelter of a mere furrow turned up across the prairie, there will
soon spring up a line of young cottonwoods marking its track.
And, moreover, for their economic uses these trees are not to be despised. They
afford a very fair fencing material, considering its quickness of growth, and therefore
ready replacement. They afford a good quality of fuel, burning freely and giving a
strong steady heat without smoke or snapping. The quality of the wood varies to some
degree in different species, but in general the lumber which they furnish, though not
suited for exposure to the weather, is well adapted to indoor uses, enduring and suffici-
ently strong. It works well under the plane, and from its lightness, softness, and fine
even grain is excellently suited for many minor purposes. The use of the wood in the
manufacture of paper-pulp is well known.
Again, for ornamental purposes the value of this family is not duly appreciated.
Some varieties have long been cultivated here and in Europe, but there are others which
are more worthy of it. None of the western species have, I believe, been planted at the
east. They differ considerably in their habit of growth, but all in their place are hand-
some trees, and deserve a more general introduction. No more noble tree is grown by
us than the true Balsam Poplar, as it is seen in the mountains of Montana, with its
straight, clear, massive trunk, gray and deeply furrowed, and a hundred or a hundred
and fifty feet high.
The objection that may well be made to the cottony clouds with which they fill the
air in the fruiting season is readily avoided by the planting of only the staminate form.
I have thus briefly called your attention to this important group of trees, confining
myself, as I suppose was intended, to our native species ; and I have done this the more
willingly as I am confident that they are better in every respect, and for any purpose,
than any foreign ones that can be introduced.
241
BLACK OR YELLOW LOCUST.
By Joun 8. Hicks, Rostyy, L. I.
The locust takes its common name from its resemblance to the ancient locust
mainly in the form of its leaf; and its botanical, Robinia pseudacacia, from its being
introduced into France by either John Robin, gardener to Henry IV. of France, or his
son, Vespasian, about 1601. It must have been taken from Virginia.
All evidence seems to point to Virginia as being the place of its most natural
growth.
There are locust trees on the lawn of Daniel Bogart, at Roslyn, L. L., that were brought
by Capt. Sands from Virginia, over a hundred years ago. I think there are but two
kinds of the locust generally known: the black or yellow locust and the white locust.
The yellow locust may vary much in different localities and soils—some darker in
colour than others—and this fact has also undoubtedly given the name of green locust.
The yellow locust is the only one of value.
The white iocust, the bark of which is much smoother, has more sap-wood and the
heart is of a silvery whiteness. It is of little value, either for strength or durability,
and I think, as this variety is easier grown from seed, that it is often planted in place of
the yellow.
The trees of the yellow locust usually grow forty to fifty feet in height—occasionally
ninety feet. After getting this size it grows very slow, and it is not profitable to graft to
the larger sizes. ;
The young trees have sharp and strong prickles, These disappear largely after the
tree has a growth of three to four inches, although the small branches always have some.
It does very well on yellow sandy soils, and in yellow sand banks, with no alluvial soil
covering the sand, it will often grow spontaneously ; in heavy clay soils it often proves a
failure. The fact that it will grow profitably upon soil that will not produce pasture
or grow other trees of value, and after the trees have grown a few years, induce, by its
shade and rich falling leaves a good growth of pasture, makes it the most valuable tree
that is grown for profit. This also will make many unsightly spots beautiful and
dreary hillsides profitable. The roots usually run near the surface of the ground and
extend to a long distance.
It is now being largely used in re-foresting the desolate regions of Austria and
Hungary—localities that have been made desolate by having the former forests de-
stroyed. It thrives well in these countries, growing in thirty years to twelve inches in
diameter. It grows well in portions of all the middle States, southern parts of the
northern States and northern portions of the southern States. Some localities have
attempted its growth and after the appearance of the borers abandoned it. While it
often survives them, and sometimes if cut off after the borers have attacked it, the second
growth thrived well.
The delicacy and lightness of foliage distinguish this from all other trees of cultivated
wood-land, while the colour of its leaves, so different from others, makes its presence
known at a long distance. The rugged character of rough bark, its singularly light and
graceful foliage makes it a marked tree of peculiar beauty. Its leaflets are arranged in
opposite pairs along the mid-stem, somewhat similar to the mountain ash. It is late in
coming into leaf, and goes early in autumn ; but in the perfection of its verdure no other
tree rivals it.
The foliage is very fertilizing to the soil, causing the grass beneath to be always
green and luxuriant. Its white and fragrant flowers appear in May and June. Tradition
says the American Indian made the gift of a bunch of its flowers a declaration of love.
The nightingale and other small birds resort to the protection of its thorny branches.
When dry, the wood weighs 54 pounds to the cubic foot, green 62; by tests made at Brest
and in the Woolwich ship-yards it was found to be about twice the strength of British
oak. It is used largely in making treenails for fastening planks to wooden ships, for
top timber and beams of vessels in exposed places. The most universal use is, however,
16 (F. G.)
242
for fence posts and beams of cellars, or sills of exposed buildings ; it has been known to
last forty to sixty years as fence post—the writer knows of posts not over three inches
in diameter that have been in use thirty years. Hough’s Report on Forestry mentions
its lasting fifteen to twenty years as railroad ties, while oak lasts only five to ten
years, and chestnut six to eight years. The timber is used very extensively by carriage
builders, and in some instances in preference to hickory. Brewster & Co., of Broome St.,
New York city, using it, and paying higher prices for it than for hickory,
On Long Island, near New York city, this tree is the most valuable grown. After
thirty years’ growth the tree will make posts eight, ten, and twelve feet long, three to five
inches in diameter at the small end. In New York city the posts are worth, for 8 feet in
length, 4 inches diameter, 48 cents ; 10 feet, 4} inches diameter, 77 cents ; 12 feet, 4? inches
diameter, 95 cents; 64 feet fencing post, 4 inches diameter, 28 cents. The trees will often cut
one piece or stick 12 feet, 1.10 feet, 1.8 feet, 1.64 feet, making $248 per tree; these are
the wholesale prices. In the most famed localities, and with five or ten years more growth,
the tree will make, say one stick, 16 feet, 36 inches girth; 1.12 feet, 30 inches girth; and
1.10 feet, 25 inches girth, this making the tree worth $500 to $700, on the basis of 60
cents per cubic foot ; it has sold in the past as high as $1.50 per cubic foot. As to
value in other localities, Dr. Warder states that he is cutting trees having a growth
of 24 years, averaging 12 inches diameter, and 60 feet high, trees making eight to ten
good fence posts, 7 feet in length, 6 to 8 inches face at the top end, trees standing 400
to the acre. :
Ezra Sherman, of Preston, Ohio, states that locust seed planted in 1830, three years
afterwards the trees were planted in a grove of 15 acres, also an avenue of 200 rods. In
1870 two-thirds of these last were cut, 180 trees making 1,500 posts, worth 35 cents
each, or $525, and Mr. Sherman says that the fifteen acres will furnish fence for the
farm of 1,500 acres for all time, and that the pasture, together with stakes and poles for
fencing, furnished from time to time, will pay as good interest as the open land would.
Waldo F. Brown, of Oxford, Ohio, states that the planting of locust is the best in-
vestment a young man can make, that the seeds should be planted in rows, and the seed-
lings transplanted in rows four feet apart, when one year old. When large enough for
fences, stakes, and bean poles, cut out three-quarters, leave them, when five to seven
years old, eight feet apart ; as soon as the trees are out of the way of cattle, sow blue
grass, as this does not injure the trees, and grows well, the pastures paying interest on
the investment after five years.
As the trees send up suckers as well as sprouts from the stump, the growth is always
increasing, and is thicker after such cutting. In France it is much grown for vine sup-
ports, and is sometimes cut every four years ; the leaves being used tor cattle food same
as hay. In 1826 premiums were offered by the Massachusetts Society for Promotion of
Agriculture for the promotion of its growth, and the extirpation of the borer.
The New England Farmer states the growth to be 300 to 600 posts to the acre,
worth 50 cents each, besides the growth of pasture, and that the Government pays 75
cents per cubic foot at this time, 1826.
The New York Cultivator says, ‘1,210 trees grow to the acre, and that trees grown
28 years produce two to four posts each, and that trees grown from suckers or shoots are
not so much inclined to seed, nor do the borers affect them as severely.”
Allen Furnas, of Danville, Indiana, states “that he has grown the black locust over
20 years, and has had very little trouble with the borers ; that it grows thrifty, making
good fence posts in 10 or 12 years, and three to six posts in 18 to 20 years, growing 1,000
to the acre at eighteen years ; the trees are worth 75 centseach. ‘The timber will last an
average of 35 years; grows well on poor soil.”
In the years of 1828 to 1838 Joseph Hicks planted at Westbury, Long Island, on
each side of the highway leading through his farm for about a quarter of a mile, locust
trees, about eight to ten feet apart. The trees were gathered from different parts of the
farm, where they had grown up from the roots of other trees ; thus grown and planted with
but little expense.. When first planted the top was entirely cut off, they growing much
better from this treatment. After thirty years of growth, and at least fifteen years of
the most beautiful shade in the heat of summer, and an abundant growth of grass be-
243
neath, they were then sold for $500 as they stood, and now three trees are growing in the
place of one, and as thrifty as the first crop.
It is thus seen that this tree grows in the most of our middle and western States,
and will grow in many sections where it is not now known, and some, where it has once
been condemned, the second trial will prove its value; the borers travelling some
seasons and not others. It is worth the thorough trial anywhere, being the most val-
uable of our timber for durability, growing on poor soil where other trees will not grow,
nourishing an abundant growth of grass, and finally, when cut, will send up twice or
thrice the number of young trees. What tree can be, or is, of more value for forestry
culture }
—_——.
BROLLT. OF DURABLE TIMBER.
By A. Furnas, DANVILLE, INDIANA.
Interesting as the growth of timber may be to all of us in its various relations, and
while wide and extended its results may be, involving the beautiful in nature, the useful in
art, controlling the elements as well as imparting sanitary influences ; yet there is extant a
feeling akin to belief that there is nothing real in it, that it is a sort of rocking chair
speculation, very nice on paper, and represented in diagrams where all trees stand like so
many posts or sentinels just where they were placed, and represent precisely just so much
controlling influence, zesthetic, sanitary, or financial.
All new enterprises that contemplate an innovation on long-established usage, be
they ever so wholesome, unselfish, charitable, or benevolent in their design, meet with
sceptism if not outspoken opposition ; and what is most remarkable, this spirit of unbelief
emanates most frequently from those whom such proposition is designed to benefit or
elevate.
However, my little paper is to deal with facts and figures, which, together, mean
stubborn truth, and if I tail to show the practical value of durable timber, you will be
left the alternative of deciding whether the fault is with me or my subject.
I shall confine my investigation entirely to the catalpa and locust, and assume with-
out argument their great durability as well as the unlimited demand for such timber.
Much of the cost of timber grown by cultivation depends on the price of land on
which it is produced. Assuming the average price of land away from the neighbourhood
of cities and villages to be fifty dollars per acre, which would be a high estimate for us
in Indiana, and the cost of catalpa plants set four feet apart each way, making 2,722 per
acre, at a cost of $5 per 1,000—(I grow my plants and they did not actually cost half
that figure)—we have thirteen dollars and sixty-one cents for plants. But the ground
must be prepared for the plants, and the transplanting is rather tedious work, hence we
will allow $11.39 for preparation of land and transplanting, making investment in plants
and labour, $25 per acre. Total investment, $75 per acre. . In Indiana lawful interest is
6 per cent. Now let us compound this amount for ten years, and we have principal and
interest in round numbers, $134.30. To this we will add $5 annually for four years for
cuitivation. With us the renter never pays taxes, but we will add that which would be
about $5. To this add $5 annually for keeping up fences and contingencies, and we are
debtor :
To cost of land and plants compounded for ten years .......... $134.30
My GOMEV EGLO, TOUT TVEATS cf. occas) chs. «0 \0 5,0 sree ela aww Bees Ati en) 5 20.00
<© TOnGoi AUG CONLIN ECNCION, Tai, GLC. -..,. « srnpaaanettidie = eS. ole = 50.00
110 Ca iE ae | os Sp ee $204.30
At the expiration of ten years we propose to remove one-fourth of the trees, which,
if all are standing, will be 680, for which we may claim credit. Many of these by this
time will make from one to two good fence posts, and at the lowest wholesale price in
carloads would be worth 20 cents each. At an average of 20 cents per tree, we have $136,
to say nothing of the tops for fence stakes and fuel, all of which will be consumed on the
244
farm. This reduces our debt to $68.30. This we will compound for two years more, and
we are debtor to $76.73. At this time, twelve years from setting, we propose to remove
one-half of the whole original number, which gives us 1,360 trees. These, at the very lowest
estimate, are worth 25 cents per tree, or $340 for the lot ; from this amount deduct our
indebtedness, and we have a credit of $263.27. We will now compound this for four
years more, ahd our credit is $332.35. To this amount we will add $50 for the land
charged to us sixteen years ago, and as it is none the worse we will take it at its former
appraisement. This further increases our balance to $382.35. Now we propose to close
the account, and sell the one-fourth yet remaining—680 trees. These are worth a dollar
a tree ; from this, however, I must deduct the interest on the land for the last four years,
which is $13.12. That leaves a net profit of $1,049.23. But suppose I am told that my
last lot of trees are not worth a dollar apiece. To this I reply that 1 know of quite a
number of Catalpa speciosa about that age, and for all such trees well-grown and within
twenty miles of my farm I will give a dollar each and go after them. The catalpa in
University Square, Indianapolis, have been set about sixteen years, and average one foot
from the ground about one inch in diameter for cvery year of growth, and notwithstand-
ing they have not been crowded so as to give them the most desirable shape, yet, if the’
city authorities wish to dispose of them I will take them at the above figure and be glad
of the chance. Of course $25 would not move one of them, but as this i is not their com-
mercial value it cannot be used as a basis of calculation.
Forty years of experience as a tree-planter has taught me that trees do not always
grow where they are set precisely as desired or indicated ; but, as the catalpa transplants
with a remarkable degree of certainty—even growing without roots—I believe on good
ground it is within the scope of practical demonstration to realize three-fourths of the
result above indicated ; but should one-half be attained we have $524.61 as the return
from one acre of land for sixteen years, and all this with very little labour or expense
after the setting and three or four years cultivation at the beginning, after which they
require no further care.
As to the question of the commercial demand I have no idea that it can be supplied
in half a century, but so far as I am concerned with my little plantation it is for the
necessities of my own farm. Every farmer should have a few acres of well-grown catalpa
or locust from which to draw for the thousand and one demands of the farm. If we fence
at all, I believe the coming fence will have posts. Just what this fence will be I cannot say ;
it may be boards, iron, steel—at all events it will require posts, and these posts should be
as durable as possible, and catalpa being the best now known for that purpose will be in
demand. But as I promised not to argue the demand for durable timber, allow me to
refer to the demand for raiiroad cross-ties, piles for trestles, bridges and embankments, as
well as telegraph poles, all affording an immense tield for the use of this wood.
I have occasionally referred to the Black Locust. Tam aware that it is not reliable
in some sections of the United States; especially is this true of most of our western
prairies, but in the timbered regions it generally succeeds, and on my own farm in a small
plantation made some twenty-one years ago I am now realizing an actual profit, clear of
all expense, of over $400 per acre.
There is a mystery about the growth of the Black Locust which I do not understand.
I saw beautiful, thrifty, isolated specimens of it in southern Kansas and the Indian
Territory, but wherever it had been set in quantities in the places above named it had in
every instance been destroyed by the borer, and yet fifty or sixty miles south of Baxter
Springs in Kansas, it is a beautiful forest tree with a body often fifty to sixty feet in
length.
Others is another feature of timber culture for profit which I have not mentioned, and
that is the supply for those vast western prairies where land can be had for the planting,
and in some instances, I believe, an exemption from taxes if planted to timber. The
field for enterprise here is incalculable, the demand without limit, and yet the investment.
comparatively trifling. It is true the risks are more and greater. These are mainly
drouth, grasshoppers, and fire. ,
The catalpa where fairly established might pass through a season without rain, but.
should the drouth immediately succeed the setting, the result would most likely be a total
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failure. You cannot frighten a western man by saying “ grasshopper,” half so much as
you can by ‘‘chinch bug.” And yet on the theory that what has been done can be done
again, we may at least be entitled to the benetit of the doubt. The grasshopper has in
many cases devastated the whole country, and may do so again, and yet there is a sort of
feeling of security among the western farmers which plainly says the grasshopper will
not trouble us any more. Fires also do much mischief in the new prairie country. But
as the prairie is broken, and the land brought under cultivation this trouble is no more
liable to the west than in the older States, and this objection will be entirely removed.
A number of Kansas men assured me that the grasshopper would not eat the catalpa,
but as I have not heard this idea broached as a trueism, it should be further confirmed
before being accepted. However, I have seen the catalpa at Kansas City, Fort Scott,
and elsewhere in the State of Kansas, which had passed the grasshopper raid, that looked
remarkably thrifty and nice. At all events, in view of all the drawbacks of this country,
if I were a citizen there I would plant catalpa. I would not invest everything in it,
nor would I make my plantation all at once. A few acres set each succeeding year, and
on its rich soil, genial clime, and usually productive seasons I should confidently expect
success four seasons out of five, and upon this ratio, with the extraordinary timber growth
there so far outstripping anything we can do in Central Indiana, in a decade of years I
should confidently expect more satisfactory results there than with us.
If this hypothesis be correct, the inducements to plant the catalpa on the western
prairies are stronger and more numerous than with us, because the investment on those
cheap lands would be comparatively nothing, while the demand for such timber must be
greater than with us, as the country becomes more populous.
Thus, gentlemen, I have endeavoured to present the actual results of timber growth
mostly on my own farm, which makes a good showing on the profit side, and that is all
that I intended to do.
A NEW CATALPA.
By Joun C. Tras, CartHace, Mo.
The consumption of timber and the destruction of our forest trees are going on at
such an alarmingly rapid rate, that public attention is becoming somewhat awakened to
the importance of some measures for providing a supply for the future.
Of all the trees that have been suggested as adapted to the formation of timber
plantations, the Catalpa stands pre-eminent. Its exceedingly rapid growth ; its adapta-
tion to almost all soils and situations ; its wide range of latitude, extending from Canada
to the Gulf of Mexico; its extraordinary success on the Western and Northwestern
prairies ; the ease and certainty with which it is transplanted ; its strong vitality and
freedom from diseases and insects; the incomparable value of its timber for the most
important as well as minor uses for which timber is needed ; the almost imperishable
nature of the wood when used for posts, railroad cross-ties and in other exposed situa-
tions ; its beautiful grain, and the high polish it bears, adapting it for furniture and fine
inside finishing work, to say nothing of the handsome and stately appearance of the tree
and the unrivalled beauty of its flowers, all point to the catalpa as the tree to plant.
[These remarks apply to the hardy, western, early blooming Catalpa speciosa, and
not in any degree to the common catalpa (bignonioides), which, unfortunatély, is the one
usually met with in cultivation. | f
A NEW VARIETY—OUR OWN HYBRID, AND HOW IT WAS PRODUCED.
In the year 1864, having already growing all the varieties of Catalpa then generally
known to cultivators in this country, viz.: the common, the speciosa, the Kempfert and
the Bungei, I procured from an eastern nursery, a tree under the name of “Japan
Catalpa.” Before I had become well acquainted with this new tree, I left my old home
in Indiana and came to Jasper county, Mo., where I have since lived, and did not again
see the tree for ten years. ‘Two or three years after leaving the old place, I sent back for
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catalpa seeds, and among the plants grown from these seeds were a few (perhaps the
product of a single pod) quite unlike any catalpa I knew, and showing so many points
of interest that I watched them with especial care—believing they must be from my
Japan tree, because so different from any of the others. Being unable to identify it
with descriptions within my reach, I sent samples of the flowers, leaves, seeds, etc., to
eminent botanists, and others skilled in trees, in different parts of the country, and also
tried to trace up the source from which the original tree hadcome. But nobody knew
it. The botanists were unable to give me any assistance, and the efforts to trace the
origin of my Japan tree only showed that it was grown from seed imported from Japan,
without name, other than catalpa.
IT have since visited my old place, and a careful examination of the original tree
there, its leaves, bloom, seeds, etc., proved, to my surprise, that it is nothing more nor
less than the species common in Japan, called by botanists Catalpa Kampfert, and quate
unlike the seedlings I had grown from it. There could be but one solution of the diffi-
culty, and that is, that the flowers of this tree had been fertilized by those of the
speciosa, which grew not far from it, and thus produced, by natural hybridization, this
new variety. This idea of hybridization had before been suggested to me by Robert
Douglas and others, but I felt reluctant to accept the theory until after I had examined
the parent tree.
The characteristics of the new variety are very marked, and partake largely of those
of both its parents. Jn its vigorous, upright growth, it even surpasses them both. Its
foliage is large and luxuriant, sometimes regularly heart-shaped, but often having sharp
pointed lobes on one side or both, showing great diversity of form on the same tree.
The lobed leaves—velvety purple or brown when they first appear—the yellow marking
about the throat of the flower, and the early age at which the young trees bloom, all
clearly point to the Japan influence in its parentage, while the American is unmistakably
shown in the profusion of its large and handsome white flowers, and the very thin sap-
wood. The seed-pods and seeds are very distinct, and are intermediate between those of
speciosa, which are the largest of all, and those of the yellow flowering Kempferi, which
are the smallest. It is the most profuse bloomer of all the catalpas, being literally
loaded with flowers, and remaining in bloom for several weeks—a much longer period
than the others. The individual flowers are the size of those of the common catalpa,
not so large as speciosa, but this is more than made up by their greater abundance.
They are white, with many very small purple dots and a touch of yellow, and are borne
in clusters of extraordinary size, sometimes numbering as high as three and even four
hundred buds and blooms in one great panicle. They do not all open at once, but keep
up a succession of bloom for a long time. The flowers have a very pleasant and delicate
fragrance, and a tree in bloom not only presents a magnificent spectacle to the eye, but
also fills the air for quite a distance with its agreeable odour.
The leaves frequently attain immense proportions—occasionally measuring eighteen
or twenty inches across, and even larger, and ONE MONSTROUS LEAF, carefully measured by
Prof. G. C. Swallow, of our State Agricultural College, and myself, was twenty-five inches
broad, and eight feet ten inches around the margin, not measuring the stem.
In the spring of 1880 I sent Prof. Geo. Husmann, at the: State University, Colum-
bia, Missouri, one thousand very small trees, culls out of the one-year-olds—many of
them no larger than small straws. They were set in nursery rows late in May, and
though it was a dry and unfavourable season, they made a surprising growth—many of
them reaching a heighth of six feet or more, and from one to one and a-half inches in
diameter, and straight as young Lombardy poplars. I also sent a dozen larger trees of.
the same, which were delayed on the way, and he wrote me were as dry as sticks when
received, and he thought ruined. However, he planted them, and every one not only
lived, but made a good growth.
Small trees planted in village lots, grew without cultivation, in five years, to be
twenty-five feet high, and twenty-four inches in circumference at one foot from the
ound ; and I measured one shoot in the top of one of these trees, which had grown
eight feet in a single season. They have made double the growth of other catalpas
alongside, under exactly the same conditions, though the last have made a fair growth.
247
I have recently examined a grove of about 100 catalpas, of the various kinds, set
eight years ago, on a farm which has been occupied by renters, and the trees neglected,
and many of them injured and broken by stock. They have consequently not made the
growth they would with better treatment, but as all have fared alike, a careful measure-
ment may be supposed to show their comparative rapidity of growth. As in every
instance that has come under my notice, the Japan Hybrid has far outstripped all the
others. It measured 25 feet high, and 33 inches in circumference, a foot above the
ground. Speciosa came next, 20 feet high, and 24 inches in circumference. bignonior-
des, 14 feet high, and 19 inches in circumference. These were all represented by
numerous specimens. There were but one or two Kempferi, and they were small,—pro-
bably the result of accidental causes, as it isa good grower. Had these trees been cut,
the tops of the stumps would measure in square inches,—the common 31, speciosa 50,
and the Japan hybrid 95. Taking the height of the trees into account, the difference is
still more apparent.
The well-known character of the catalpa for durability, and the close resemblance
between the wood of this and that of its parent, the speciosa, leave little room to doubt
its being similar to the others in its power to resist decay, As a timber tree it promises
to be of the greatest value, and to take a place in the very front rank, on acc)unt of the
wonderful rapidity of its growth, which equals that of the most luxuriant trees of tem-
perate climates, while its hardiness has been repeatedly demonstrated by its standing
uninjured, with the thermometer at twenty-five degrees below zero, showing that it is
abundantly hardy for the latitude of Kansas, Missouri, etc., though it has not yet been
so fully tested as speciosa in the extreme north.
We have grown several thousands of these seedlings, and it seems like being a well-
established variety, though. of course, there are some variations in growth, habit, colour,
foliage, etc., among the seedlings, but these variations scarcely appear greater or more
strongly marked, than are seen in different trees of speciosa or bignonioides.
While its vigour, hardiness, freedom from insects, etc., recommend this new tree so
strongly for timber plantations—the same qualities, added to its stately habit, the magni-
ficence of its bloom, its fragrance and the beauty of its ample and diversely shaped
foliage, cannot fail to make it popular as a tree for shade and ornament.
SOME OF THE BEST TREES TO GROW FOR TIMBER IN MICHIGAN.
By W. J. Beat, Lansinc, MicHican.
Michigan Agricultura] College is located at Lansing, about seventy miles north of the
Ohio line. This neighbourhood was nearly all a wilderness thirty years ago. Itis not
ten years since people rolled up large heaps of logs and burned them to get them out of
the way. Asa people, in Michigan we are hardly yet ‘‘ out of the woods.”
Our most valuable forest trees found in abundance were Black Walnut, White Pine,
White Ash, White Oak, Shag-bark Hickory, Black Cherry, Tulip-tree, Rock Elm, Sugar
Maple, and Arbor Vite. Of these, White Oak, Tulip-tree, Rock Elm, Arbor Vite,
Sugar Maple grow too slowly to be desirable trees to plant for growing timber.
I have been Professor of Horticulture in Michigan Agricultural College for nine
years, and in many ways have done the best I could to advance agriculture. But little
means has been offered for making experiments. Of all the efforts made, I can now
think of nothing which gives more satisfaction in proportion to the cost than a couple of
acres planted with a large variety of the seeds of trees. The interest in our little arbo-
retum must continue to increase rapidly as the trees become iarger and the country grows
older.
I will only give you my notes on a few species, at this time.
Except Populus balsamifera, I have only some very young specimens of poplars.
In the spring of 1873 I sowed some seeds sent by the United States Department of
Agriculture. When three years old, they were transplanted to their present position. They
248
fruited when six years old, and have fruited every year since. There are only nine trees
of this lot now standing in the arboretum. They proved to be Catalpa speciosa. They
have passed through two very cold winters when the thermometer reached thirty-two or
thirty-three degrees below zero. A few of the thriftiest limbs were injured, but the trunks
are sound, at least, to all appearance. The trees have had plenty of room, nothing shading
them to prevent the tops from spreading. There is quite a tendency in the limbs to
split off at the crotches, much like Ulmus Americana. ‘These trees, with a growth of
nine years, transplanted when three years old, now measure from sixteen to twenty-four
inches around at one foot above the soil. Five feet above the ground, two of the trees
each measures sixteen inches in circumference. They area trifle over twenty feet high.
They have not grown as fast as Acer dasycarpum, Silver-leafed Maple. Some of the
latter measure, with a growth of eight years, twenty-two and a half inches around and
run up twenty-eight or thirty feet. The tops have plenty of room and are large and
spreading. Some White Ash were grown from the seed six years without transplanting.
Many of these are eighteen feet high, and from eight to nine and a half inches in cireum-
ference, one foot from the ground. From the first the trees have been straight, clean and
handsome. Some Basswoods and Butternuts of the same age and with the same treat-
ment have trunks a trifle larger at the base, but they are more tapering and not so tall.
Some Black Walnuts have grown five years where the nuts were planted. Many of them
are fifteen feet high, and measure seven and a half to eight and a half inchesa foot from
the ground. They are straight, healthy and beautiful. We are north of the line where
many good Black Walnut trees grow in the forest. It is quite safe to plant them on soil
where they grow well in the native forest.
My friend, James Satterlee, of Greenville, Montcalm county, lives about one hun-
dred miles north of the Ohio line. On his father’s farm were planted some trees of which
he writes as follows: ‘There are about seventy Chestnut trees. The nuts were planted
in the spring of 1863, and set in the spring of 1865 from 25 to 30 feet apart, irregularly.
They were cultivated with corn or potatoes for five years, then seeded to clover, which
remained two years, then they were again cultivated for two years, since which time the
orchard has remained seeded. The trees are all healthy. 'The tallest are about thirty
feet ; the largest forty-two inches in circumference one foot from the ground, and thirty-
six inches, four feet from the ground. There are some Black Walnut and Butternut
trees of the same age. The largest Black Walnut is forty inches in circumference,
and not quite so high as the chestnuts. The largest Butternut is thirty-five inches in
circumference and a little lower than the walnuts. The chestnut trees vary consider-
ably in their productiveness. Some bear five or six nuts ina burr; some bear much
larger nuts than others. One tree holds its leaves all winter. This orchard of nut trees
is well known for miles around, and is one of the attractions of the neighbourhood
which is in a new country.”
Of forest trees indigenous to Michigan, all things considered, where the site and soil
are suitable, I should select to plant for timber Black Walnut and White Ash. I am
not yet certain that it would be better to plant European Larch, Silver Poplar, Cotton-
wood, Silver Maple, Butternut or any other foreign species.
FORESTRY IN MICHIGAN—OUTLOOK AND SUGGESTIONS.
By V. M. Spatpinc, ANN Arpor, MicuH.
It is not necessary to go into an argument to show that Michigan ought to be
interested in forestry. Everyone knows what an element the forests have been in our
prosperity. According to a late report of the Commissioner of Immigration “ the aggre-
gate value of the forest products of this State already mentioned is largely in excess of
$800,000,000,” and the timber product of a single year, 1879, amounted to $60,000,000,
or about thirty-five per cent. of the total value of the natural productions of the State for
that year. Michigan produces more salt than any other State in the Union, and the
Set =!
249
brine is evaporated by means of the refuse from the great saw-mills in the vicinity of
Saginaw and other lumbering towns. Ours is the second State in the production of iron,
and the blast furnaces of Ironton, Elk Rapids, and a number of other places are drawing
their supply of charcoal for its reduction from the great hardwood forests in their vicinity.
The products of these forests are sent to the ends of the earth. Much of the first lumber
of the Atlantic cities and of the Old World comes from Michigan pineries. ‘Threshing-
machines made in Battle Creek are sold in South America and Australia, and farming
implements, furniture, and a long list of articles requiring wood in their manufacture are
made in the State and exported from it, their manufacture being a source of support to
fifty thousand of our people and their sale a steady source of wealth to the State.
Nor is it necessary to repeat the well-known fact that our forests are rapidly disap-
pearing. The bulletins of the last census, accessible to everyone, show that the estimated
amount of merchantable pine timber standing in Michigan May 31st, 1880, was thirty-five
billions of feet. At our present rate of consumption, five billions of feet annually, it will
take seven years to use up our pine forests. Suppose, however, that the estimates of the
amount remaining, although made with great care, are too low ; suppose for safety that
the pine will last twice as long as has been estimated, the fact still thrusts itself upon us
that in a few years this great source of our wealth will be gone.
What are we doing in view of these facts? We are going on with astonishing
energy and improved machinery to hasten the end. Every man who can do so is trying
to get a piece of pine land, or a quantity of logs before they are gone, and our own people,
in company with eastern capitalists, are planning the speedy destruction of the hardwood
forests as soon as the pine lands have been stripped. The newspaper articles that charge
these things upon us are not sensational. They do not tell all the truth. We have
squandered with reckless haste the abundant forest wealth with which the State was
endowed, and, besides all this, time and again, forest fires, that might have been prevented,
have swept over fair portions of the commonwealth, carrying swift destruction with them
and completing the work that the axe had begun.
In the study of this subject then we may as well turn our attention at once to the
forests of the future, for it is evident that those of the present will be gone in a few years.
Our own legitimate wants and the great profits of the lumber trade have already settled
the question for Michigan. If we want forests we must make them.
Without repeating the arguments that have been given so fully by others, I shall
assume, what is admitted by everyone who has ever bestowed serious thought upon the
subject, that the highest welfare of the State requires the establishment and continued
maintenance of a suitable proportion of wood-land. It may be assumed, too, that, in due
time, both Government and people, moved by necessity, if by no higher influence, will
unite in a settled purpose to secure this. As soon as this attitude is taken by the people
of the State, and we are ready to enter upon the work of reforesting, we shall find our-
selves face to face with various difficult practical problems. Some of us, perhaps, may
render a service by studying these problems now, viz.:—
(1) What parts of the State and what proportion of its area should be covered with
forests ?
Economists estimate about twenty-five per cent. as a suitable proportion ; but this
varies with the position, physical character, and commercial interests of the State or
country under consideration. The State of Michigan contains large areas that are worth-
less for any other purpose than raising timber, and still more extended regions that, if
not absolutely valueless for agricultural purposes, can be used to far better advantage in
growing trees than in raising any other crop whatever. Undoubtedly, the great question
with us is, How, in the most direct practical way, can we rehabitate the extensive
regions in the central and northern parts of the lower peninsula that have been stripped
of their pine forests, and the remaining portions of this region that will so soon be bare ?
Anyone that has been through this part of the State will remember its desolate and ruined
aspect. ‘The valuable trees were all felled years ago, and the lumberman moved on to .
fresh spoils, leaving behind an inextricably confused mass of tree tops, broken logs, and
uprooted trunks. Blackberry canes spring up everywhere, forming a tangled thicket, and
a few scattering poplar, birch, and cherry trees serve for arboreal life, above which tower the
250
dead pines, bleached in the weather and blackened by fire, destitute of limbs, and looking
at a distance not unlike the masts of some great harbour. Thousands of such acres,
repellant alike to botanist and settler, can be seen in any of our northern counties.”*
While there is good soil to be found in this region, much of it is light and sandy,
altogether unfit for farming purposes, but it has raised one of the finest forests that ever
clothed the surface of the earth, and if it can again be covered with such a forest it will
become in the future, as it has been already, a source of almost unlimited wealth.
Another portion of the State will soon force itself upon our attention, unless it is cared
for. Allalong the eastern coast of Lake Michigan sand-dunes extend, precisely similar in
their nature, though of less extent than those of the old world, while these dunes are covered
with vegetation they keep, for the most part, within their limits, but indications of what they
may do, when free from such control, may be seen at Grand Haven, Michigan City, and
other places along the shore, where piles of fine, drifting sand are covering railroad tracks,
and fences, and some trees, and, in some localities are encroaching upon cultivated fields,
to the dismay of their proprietors. The experience of Western Europe is conclusive
upon this point, and it is the manifest duty of the State, and of the people, to absolutely
prohibit and prevent the clearing away of trees, or even excessive pasturage of such lands,
and to encourage, by every suitable means, their reforesting.
The farming lands in the southern portion of the lower peninsula all need a fair pro-
portion of woodland for fuel and shelter, and the great majority of these farms would he
rendered much more valuable in a few years by judicious plantations of trees ; so, also, the
northern peninsula, though still heavily wooded over large aveas, already has extensive
regions that have been stripped of their forests, and that can be turned to better
account for this than for any other purpose. We may safely conclude, therefore, that
the State of Michigan requires fully as great, and probably a greater proportion of its
area to be kept in wood-land than has been estimated as necessary for other countries ; in
other words, more than twenty-five per cent. in this State, rather than less, may properly
be covered with timber.
(2) What kinds of trees shall we plant ?
To answer this question we must know something about the different species of trees,
the soil and climate to which they are adapted or to which they can be induced to adapt
themselves, what kinds will endure unfavourable conditions best, what trees will grow
rapidly, and what sorts are most valuable for timber or other products.
Without attempting to decide all of these questions in detail—many of them requir-
ing not only careful study but long experiment, for which the State makes no adequate
provision, as yet—there ig one very important question suggested at the outset, and that
must be met, whether it can be settled at once or not. The question is, How much
significance must be attached to the principle of rotation? It has been commonly noticed
that forests of oak succeed those of pine, and vice versa. Oak and hemlock forests have
been succeeded by those of elm, beech, and maple. When the pine woods in the northern
part of Michigan and Wisconsin are cut off, poplars, birches, and the wild Red-cherry
Spring up, and so, as in many cases, this succession seems to be pretty uniform and con-
stant. There has grown up a half popular, half scientific notion that it must be so, and
that, if we are to succeed in reforesting our denuded pine lands, we must follow the order
of nature. We have no right, however, to follow nature blindly, and sometimes we can
take a short cut while nature is going round a corner. No one has ever formulated an
order that governs the succession of forest trees, nor has it ever been shown that there is
any such unvarying order of succession. On the contrary, it is one of the most variable
things with which we are acquainted, and there is every reason for believing that it
depends more upon what the ground is seeded with than anything else. The reason why
birches, poplars, and wild Red-cherry trees spring up on our wasted pine lands is that the
seeds of these species are carried there by the wind and by the birds, and there is no doubt
whatever that other and better trees may, with suitable pains, be made to take their
place. When we plant trees about our houses, or along the highway even, if it happen
to be new land, we do not stop to make a critical inquiry into the laws governing the
* Erwin F. Smith, ‘‘ Flora of Michigan.”
251
succession of forest trees; we find out what trees are hardy, and, having settled this
point, set out whatever kinds we fancy, with the expectation of having them do well if
they are cared for.
(3) Shall we plant the White Pine in Michigan ?
The answer may be given without hesitation. Yes; plant it first, and last, and all
the time. Give it a fair chance and it will cover the State again. It may be wisdom to
substitute some other species on those tracts that have just been covered with a heavy
growth of pine, but it is, to say the least, doubtful whether any such distinction need be
made. If the White Pine were planted in Michigan universally and everywhere, where
the land could be spared, it would find congenial ‘soil enough even in those counties that
have been most heavily covered with it.
Without discussing the value of other well-known species a few may be mentioned as
specially worthy of planting in Michigan. The European Larch, famous for the durability of
its timber, and perfectly adapted to our northern climate ; the Azlanthus, the only tree
that has successfully controlled the drifting sand plains of southern Russia, and will
perhaps be more valuable than any other on our own sand dunes; the Catalpa speciosa,
of which specimens a foot and a half in diameter may be seen in Ann Arbor, and which,
probably, may be depended upon for hardiness throughout the southern portion of the
lower peninsula ; the white ash and a long list of indigenous trees, any of which may be
planted with every reason to expect a good return. The consideration of the large num-
ber of species, both indigenous and introduced, that may be successfully cultivated in
Michigan is of great importance, but requires too much space for this article, and will
have to be taken up in a separate paper, together with the consideration of the species
best adapted to our sand-dunes, and the methods to be employed in planting them.
4. Admitting that it is desirable that the planting of trees in Michigan should be
undertaken at once and in earnest, what are the means of securing this and of ensuring
the best results ?
(1) The Legislature of the State may promote the work by offering encouragement
to tree planting in the way of exemption of property from taxation. As to the form
of legislation and its practical details, a careful study of the action of other States will
furnish valuable suggestions. Of all State laws on the subject of tree planting that have
come to my notice, that of Iowa has seemed preéminently adapted to the purpose. The
law provides that ‘for every acre of forest trees planted and cultivated for timber
within the State, the trees thereon not being more than twelve feet apart, and kept in a
phy condition, the sum of one hundred dollars shall be exempted from taxation
= * ‘for ten years after each acre is so planted ; provided, etc.” Possibly
other forms of legislative action on this subject may be found better, but that of Iowa
has this very excellent feature, that it has very largely accomplished the object aimed at.
We can profitably follow the example of Iowa, too, in securing the preparation and dis-
tribution of something corresponding to their “ Forestry Manual,” an unpretentious pam-
phlet of about thirty pages, filled with valuable information and practical hints on the
subject of tree planting, and distributed gratutitously among the farmers of the State.
(2) The State ought also to be establishing facts upon which to base the future man-
agement of the great work of reforesting its waste lands. Two or three experimental
stations, located in as many parts of the State, where trees of all sorts, both native and
foreign, can be cultivated and the results recorded, would enable us in a few years to
demonstrate the usefulness of some kinds and the unfitness of others for general cultiva-
tion. Meteorological observations carried on at these stations would give data for the
solution of the difficult but important question relating to the climatic effects of forests.
(3) Very much depends upon the railroad companies, owning as they do, in the State
of Michigan, lines aggregating over four thousand miles in length, with large grants of
valuable . land, they control, in a very great measure, the agricultural and commercial in-
terests of large areas of the State. The Detroit, Mackinac and Marquette Railroad
alone owns over 1,300,000 acres of land, and the Flint and Pere Marquette, the Grand
Rapids and Indiana, and other lines are possessed of large tracts of both farming and
timber lands. An abundant supply of wood for ties and manufacturing purposes is a
prime necessity of all these lines, and may be secured by the prompt “adoption of a
252
Fe Sse eee en ig a ee
liberal and enlightened policy in maintaining or restoring a suitable amount of forests
on their lands. A number of western railroads, though obliged to contend with great
natural disadvantages, have taken hold of this work with great enthusiasm, and several
of them are now employing paid foresters to direct the work of raising and caring for
forests along their lines.
(4) The farmers of the State have very much to do with the future of our forests, and,
unfortunately, they have not yet, as a rule, taken a practical interest in maintaining or
restoring them. There is, however, no class more ready to enter into undertakings that
promise to be productive of good, and none more accustomed to meet and overcome diffi-
culties. When the farmers of Michigan are once possessed with the conviction, that trees
are often far more valuable than any other crop, and that they render the farm more
productive and worth more per acre, trees will be planted.
(5) A few at least of the educational institutions of the State can do an important
work by giving forestry an honourable place among the subjects of their respective
courses of study. Whether there is as yet a science of forestry in the United States or
not, there will be before long, and intelligent and interested action on the part of such in-
stitutions will aid greatly in establishing the science, and in gaining for it the confidence
and encouragement of both government and people. A beginning of this kind has been
made at the University of Michigan, in connection with the School of Political Science
recently established there, and the lectures on forestry are attended by a class of about
fifty.
(6) The General Government still owns something over a million acres of land in
Michigan, and the State Government has yet large tracts of land under its control. If,
instead of throwing this away, or selling it at the rate of $18 per 160 acres, any consid-
erable portion might by any means still be kept in permanent forests under Government
control, and this control be exercised wisely and for the public good, as is done in the
State forests of the old world, forestry in Michigan would become an established fact.
In some or all of these ways it is to be hoped that the great work of restoring the forests
of the State may be accomplished.
POPLAR TREES FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER AND CHARCOAL.
By Wm. SaunpeErs, Lonpon, ONTARIO.
Within the past few years the consumption of the wood of several species of poplar
for paper making has greatly enhanced the value of these trees, and so extensive has been
the demand that in many sections it has been difficult to supply it from the immediate
neighbourhood, and this wood, hitherto of little value, now commands a price nearly or
quite equal to the more valuable sorts. The species which have, up to the present time,
furnished the bulk of the wood used in paper-making, are the aspen or Trembling-leaved
Poplar ( Populus tremuloides), and the Silver-leaved or Abele of Europe (Populus alba).
These have also been used to some extent by charcoal-makers, and are found to produce
a superior quality of charcoal. Doubtless the Large-toothed Poplar (Populus grandi-
dentata), and the cotton-wood of the North-West (Populus monilifera), and probably
the Balsam Poplar (Populus balsamifera), being similar in their structure and character-
istics, will prove almost, if not quite, equal in value to the two species first named.
These trees are of very rapid growth, most of them thrive on inferior soils, and are
capable of cultivation in almost all the settled portions of the Dominion. The aspen is
said to be the most widely diffused tree of North America, and one of the most abundant
in the Far West, where it ranges from the Arctic regions to California. It extends over
the southern half of the Labrador peninsula, and is common throughout the whole region
from the Gulf of the St. Lawrence near the mouth of the McKenzie River, about lati-
tude 67. Throughout the North-Western Territories it is the commonest tree in the
partly-wooded and prairie districts, and is the chief fuel used at the Hudson Bay Com-
pany’s posts and by the Indians. The quantities of this wood existing in the forests
throughout this vast area are immense.
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253
The balsam poplar is distributed over an area almost as great as that of the aspen
extending to about the same point north, and about Lakes Huron and Superior and in
the valley of the McKenzie River attains a large size.
The large-toothed poplar does not range nearly so far north, but is abundant in New
Brunswick and Gaspé, and is found in most parts of Ontario and Quebec.
The cottonwood is very common throughout a large portion of the North-West 'T,
tories, where it is the chief source of fuel for the settlers. rri-
The silver-leaved poplar was introduced as an ornamental tree from Europe, and the
rapidity of its growth and beauty of its foliage induced many to plant it. It will thrive
well in waste places and in the poorest soil. While young it forms a rather pretty tree,
but becomes ungainly as it grows older, and its persistent habit of sending up suckers
from the roots has almost led to its abandonment for ornamental purposes. Wherever
this tree has been planted throughout the northern United States and Canada, it has, as
far as is known, proved hardy, and in rapidity of growth it has few equals, the trunk often
attaining a diameter of two feet within fifteen years. Isolated trees usually have low and
wide-spreading heads, but closely planted in groves they run up tall and straight, and the
poles taken out in thinning can be turned to many useful purposes, and the trees when
grown converted into useful lumber for building purposes where other timber is scarce.
Poplar trees may be grown from cuttings, suckers or from the seed contained in the
catkins. Cuttings may be made from two or three to five or six feet in length, and from
an inch to two or three inches in diameter. They should be taken from the young woods
and the larger end sharpened by a sloping cut on one side to expose the bark. Suckers
can usually be obtained with a small proportion of root and grow very readily ; cuttings,
suckers, and young trees should be planted four feet apart. If young trees are to be raised
from seed the catkins should be gathered in June, the seed rubbed out with the hand and
mixed with sand to facilitate even sowing, planted in drills on mellow, moist soil from
half an inch to an inch deep, and kept free from weeds during the summer ; the young
trees will be ready for planting the following season.
On most farms there are waste places, broken land, or small areas of poor soil un-
suited for general agricultural purposes, probably nothing could be used to occupy so pro-
fitably such waste places as poplar trees. In addition to the value of the thinnings while
growing and such portions of the wood as the owner may choose to sell when grown, he
might enjoy all the advantages resulting from adjacent forest growth. Such clumps or
belts would act as useful wind breaks, protecting the crops in adjoining fields; they
would help to equalize violent alternations of heat and cold, exercising a conservative in-
fluence on the humidity of the atmosphere, aid in inducing rain fall and in purifying the
soil and the air.
FOREST TREE CULTURE,
By Hon. H. G. Jory, QuEBEC,
The European traveller who visits only the settled parts of this Province, is invari-
ably disappointed at the scarcity and meanness of our trees. Of course, if he leave the
beaten tracks of travellers, and goes far enough into the wilderness, up the Ottawa and
the St. Maurice, he will see fine timber, but, in our settlements, we can only show him,
here and there, at long intervals, one solitary elm, model of grace and beauty, and the
traveller will feel, as we do, grateful to the man who spared that tree.
On a warm summer’s day, the Desert of Sahara, with its lovely oasis, would be sug-
gestive of coolness, compared with our country. No trees to shade the dusty roads, to
shelter the panting cattle, to set off the neat white-washed houses ; only far away, hidden
nearly out of sight, the patch of small neglected timber which the farmer is compelled by
our stern winters, to spare from the general slaughter, as, without fuel, he will die.
If every acre of ground were covered with valuable crops, one would try and get
reconciled to the absence of. trees, and bow to the iron rule of our age which converts
everything into cash. But what a small proportion of all that ground is used profitably !
254
We can find plenty of spare room for growing forest trees ; they are not only the most
beautiful ornaments to a country and the most useful product of nature, giving fuel,
timber, shade, shelter, retaining moisture and a protection against droughts, etc., etc., but,
considering the question from a strictly money-making point of view, the culture of forest
trees is perhaps the best and safest investment that can be made.
It is rather difficult, I admit, to induce people to plant forest trees in this Province,
where, for generations, they have been brought up to look upon the forest tree as their
natural enemy, to be got rid of at any cost, hacked down, burnt out of the way (for want
of a better mode of disposing of it), and still troubling the settler for years with its ever-
lasting stump, an obstacle to thorough cultivation. The children and grandchildren of
the old settlers remember too well ; they cannot be expected to love the forest tree, but
self-interest ought to conquer instinct and prejudice. With us, land is not too valuable
for forest tree culture. In Europe, where land is scarcer and more valuable than here,
they plant, every year, thousands and thousands of acres in forest trees.
To those who say that our country is too new to think of that, I will answer that
New Zealand, the Australian Colonies, India (so far as the settlement of the land by
Europeans is concerned), are newer countries than ours, and they are all taking active
steps towards the planting of forest trees on a large scale. In the United States, the
Federal as well as the State Governments encourage the culture of forest trees by grants
of land, and money, and exemption from taxation, and powerful societies are co-operating
with energy and liberality. The Government of Canada has begun by offering free grants
to those who undertake the planting of a certain number of trees on the western prairies ;
but I will here observe that it will require more active measures to set the people in
motion, and especially the establishment of nurseries, where the people can buy young
trees and seed, and the beginning of some large plantations, as an example, to show to
the people, by practical results, that the culture of forest trees is within the reach of
every one.
We see in the papers that the western railways have started the culture of trees on
their own account ; the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railway is reported as hav-
ing appointed a superintendent of tree culture, who has just contracted for three hundred
thousand trees, and most of the roads west of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers have
also begun to raise trees, in order to insure a supply of ties, and for other purposes.
How many give as their reason for not planting forest trees, that they will not live
long enough to get any profit out of them. You do nothear thatin Europe. Are people
more selfish in America than they are in Europe? Or is the feeling of self-reliance so
much more developed in America that the people here expect the next generation to take
care of itself as they have taken care of themselves? Then leave them some timber, if
you wish them to have the same chance that you had. It was but a heathen who wrote,
more than eighteen hundred years ago: “ Arbores serit diligens agricola quorum fructus
numquam videbit.” ‘The good husbandman plants trees whose fruits he will never see.”
But I must not drift away from my subject into philosophical considerations ; it will be
more to the point to show that the profits of forest tree culture are not only enormous,
but that their realization is far from being delayed to an indefinite future.
I do not pretend that the whole of our farms should be planted in forest trees ; that
would be too absurd. Our farms are generally too large for the small number of hands
we employ ; there are always some odd corners, idle strips, stony or damp patches which
it does not pay to cultivate ; begin and plant forest trees there, suiting the tree to the
nature of the soil—you will find some for every kind of soil. Once planted and fairly
started, they will take care of themselves, give no trouble and increase yearly in value,
in a wonderful ratio, so well expressed by the Honourable ¥. B. Hough, chief of the
Forestry Division of the United States Agricultural Department, in the address lately
delivered by him at Columbus, Ohio.
For years past, I have sought the best and cheapest mode of re-wooding our denuded
lands, and have made some experiments ; they have not yet been carried over a great
many years and are, so far, most encouraging, notwithstanding my numerous mistakes -
and enforced absence at the best seasons, and they satisfy me as to the correctness of the
statements made by the leading advocates of forest tree culture. I trust not to be
at ai lal
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255
charged with egotism if I now give the results of some of those personal experiments,
rather than copy or condense what has been written by others, and it will be a great satis-
faction if ‘I can induce a few to try for themselves.
In selecting forest trees for planting, the first consideration ought to be the nature of
the soil where they are to be planted ; if the soil is not favourable to one kind of tree,
do not waste your time in planting it there ; you will find another tree that will suit the
soil. After paying all due deference to soil and climate, you must be guided in your
selection of a particular kind of tree: lst. By the value of the timber. 2nd. The greater
or lesser ease and certainty with which the tree can be grown, 3rd. The rate of growth.
I have tried principally black walnut, oak, elm, maple, ash, tamarack, Russian pine,
and fir and poplar, and will now give some of the results.
Black Walnut—The value of that wood is so considerable (a dollar a cubic foot at the
present time), and it is getting so scarce that it struck me as the most worthy of being in-
troduced and cultivated here. ‘True it did not grow spontaneously any where in the Pro-
vince of Quebec, but this appeared to me no conclusive reason why it should not grow and
flourish here. The lilac comes all the way from Persia, and it spreads out its leaves earlier
and keeps them unchanged later than our typical tree, the maple. I did not fear our
great colds, for in the West, the natural home of the black walnut, the thermometer
often ranges as low as here, though for a shorter period at a time. It was well worth
trying.
I procured a bag of black walnut nuts from the West in the fall of 1874, and sowed
them at once ; it was late in November ; we had to remove the snow and break the frozen
ground, but I thought the earth the safest place to winter them. They began to come up
about the tenth of June following; not five per cent. failed, and they have never been
artificially sheered in any way. It would not be worth while introducing them here if
they could not take cave of themselves.
Of those left undisturbed where they were sown, I have not lost one ; they have
now had six summers’ growth. I have just had some of them measured, so as to be
certain of their size ; the height of the four largest is as follows: fifteen feet and a half,
fourteen feet and a half, fourteen feet and twelve feet, and thick in proportion. Those
have not been transplanted ; now notice the difference between them and those that
have been moved.
In the fall of 1875, when they were only one year old, one lot were transplanted, but
the soil was not favourable and they have not done well, so far; however, they are
beginning to recover. In the spring of 1876 I transplanted another lot ; the best are
about eight feet high ; and another lot last spring, the tallest of which are about ten or
eleven feet. All those trees are the same age as the fifteen and fourteen feet trees ; the
difference in size results from the transplanting, wherefore it is much better to sow them
at once where they are to remain. Plant them thick, as the wood of the young tree is
rather soft, like that of our native butternut.
It is contrary to all preconceived ideas, even among those who handle timber every
day, but nevertheless true, that the black walnut (Juglans mgra) and the Canadian oak
(Quercus alba)as a rule increase much more rapidly in girth than our pine and white
spruce. I conclude, from counting the rings on the trees after they are cut down, and
from watching the growth of the living trees, that black walnut and Canadian oak gener-
ally gain one inch in diameter in about three years and a half, while our spruce and pine
take about double that time to accomplish the same result ; this can easily be ascertained
by counting and measuring the rings. Of course there will be exceptions, and it would
not be fair to judge by those only ; I speak of the average.
It is now time to say something of the profits, and I must be careful to avoid exag-
geration. Judging by the growth of the living trees and the rings of the timber, when
cut, I do not hesitate to say that a black walnut, under ordinary circumstances, at the
age of seventy-five years, will have attained twenty-one inches in diameter and will con-
tain at least fifty cubic feet of timber, the actual value of which is about one dollar per
cubic foot. (See for prices the Lumberman’s Gazette, published at Bay City, Michigan,
the numbers of the 26th January, 2nd February, and 2nd March of this year.)
For how many such trees, judiciously planted, will there be comfortable room on one
superficial acre? It is difficult to find a regular plantation of any kind of trees of that-
diameter here, to help us toward a solution of the question, and the way in which trees
are scattered in the forest and their irregular size leave but a vague impression on the
mind, varying according to the personal experience of each. I am not ready to answer
the question at present for want of full information, and will not venture a guess, but I
do not feel the same hesitation where trees standing in one single row, with plenty of
room on both sides, are concerned ; in that case, trees twenty-one inches diameter would
not be too close, standing at eighteen feet from one another. Take a farm three acres
wide, with a road across the width and row of black walnuts of an average diameter of
twenty-one inches on each side of the road, the trees eighteen feet distant from one an-
other, you get sixty trees containing fifty cubic feet each, three thousand cubic feet, worth,
at the present price, three thousand dollars.
But it will be safer to sow the black walnut in clumps, pretty close. They will pro-
tect one another when young, and, as they grow, they can be thinned gradually. Their
culture will entail little trouble, apart from the preparation of the soil, and the sowing of
the nut ; the work of thinning will soon repay itself with the timber removed. The better
the soil, the quicker the growth. Such a valuable tree as the black walnut deserves to be
well treated. If possible, find some shelter against the strongest prevailing winds for the
young plantation, a belt of older trees, or a hill. They are rather soft, like our butternut ;
it is the only drawback I have found out so far, but not fatal. Even the youngest trees
will get several branches torn off and very ugly wounds without dying ; they are wonder-
fully hardy.
The value of these plantations will increase steadily from the day when they have
taken root ; they represent an ever-increasing marketable value long before the expiration
of that period of seventy-five years which I have indicated—not as the limit of their
growth ; they will grow for centuries, but—as the period necessary to attain a profitable
size, when they can be cut down without waste.
The Butternut grows spontaneously here ; its beautiful timber can be worked with
as much ease as the softest pine ; it ranks immediately after the black walnut, and is in-
ferior to it only in the colour of the wood, which is lighter. Rubbed with linseed oil, it
takes the soft, rich hue of sandal wood, and if judiciously sawn, shows wonderful marks. I
recommend strongly its culture, and will be glad to send nuts to those who will plant
them, next fall, as we gather a large crop of them.
White Oak—The acorn ought to be sown as soon as possible after it drops, in the fall,
as it loses its vitality rapidly, and to avoid the great check resulting from transplanting,
it ought to be sown at once, if possible, where the tree is destined to remain. Its wood
is tougher, and not so liable to break when young. I think it ought to grow with at least
as much ease and rapidity as the black walnut ; ours are rather behind, as they have been
transplanted twice. The oak is so useful and valuable, and its culture so easy, that every
plantation of trees ought to contain a good proportion of oak, provided the soil be not too
poor for it.
White Elm—This splendid tree recommends itself sufliciently by its beauty and use-
fulness to dispense me from dwelling at any length upon it; it grows rapidly in a deep,
damp soil. I have not grown it from seed, but by taking up young trees from a low
island, where they grow in abundance. It appears to bear transplanting better than the
oak, walnut or maple, and can be moved safely of a much larger size than any of those
trees.
Maple—If you wish to raise a maple sugary with the smallest amount of expense
and trouble, go to an old maple grove in the fall; the ground is covered with a thick
carpet of seedlings. After rain, you can pull them up by hand with the greatest ease,
without breaking any of their small roots, if you are moderately careful. Plant them at
once in a corner of your garden, about two feet apart each way ; weed during the first
two summers with a light hoe. We found, after four years, the trees fit for transplant-
ing, about five feet high, and the thickness of a man’s thumb. As the ground was mellow
and free, we took them up with little damage. Of course, there is still the objection of
transplanting, but in a less degree than when you seek your maples in the woods, where
their roots are mixed up with those of other trees, stumps and stones, and must be more
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257
or less torn up with violence. There is an immense difference in the comparative cost of
the two processes, which will tell upon the hundreds of trees required to make a sugary
worth working. Those small trees never fail (at all events, none of those we transplanted
did), while much larger trees, more injured in the moving from the forest, die in great
numbers, and the survivors are seriously checked. I have been told that the seedlings
would overtake them, but have not yet had time to verify that statement. Maples will
begin to yield a reasonable quantity of sap for sugar, when about twenty or twenty-five
years old.
The Ash—It is well known, and its different varieties are found very useful, especially
the white ash, which recommends itself for its elasticity ; its wood is beautifully marked,
and is largely employed in the making of furniture, panels, etc. It will thrive where the
walnut, oak, and maple refuse to grow, or only linger miserably. I remember part of
a maple avenue, where, year after year, the maples had been replaced over and over and
failed ; at last, we had recourse to white and black ash ; none failed, and they are pro-
gressing most ‘satisfactorily.
Tamarack will grow in damp, wet ground ; we have succeeded with them where even
willows had failed ; the value of this timber and knees is too well known to require any
comment from me.
Russian Pine (Pinus Sylvestris)—In making new plantations, especially from seed, it
is no more trouble to try foreign than Canadian seed, and, however strange it may appear,
I find it easier to procure the seed of the Russian and the Himalaya than of the Canadian
pine. One may find among foreign trees valuable additions to our plantations ; such as,
I think, the Russian pine, native of the north of Russia. Our climate suits it admirably,
and it appears a more vigorous grower than our Canadian white pine. I cannot give -
any opinion as to the quality of the timber, as they have only been sown in the spring of
1873. They started rather slowly, and their height and thickness are less than those of
the black walnuts sown two summers later, in November, 1874; but they are now be-
ginning to take more rapid strides. I measured the season’s growth of one of them last
year, on the third day of July. It showed twenty-six inches in length, gained in about
thirty days, as the buds of the conifers do not open much before the beginning of June ;
the year’s growth was already over, and from that moment it only thickened and hardened
into wood.
Since the growing season of our trees is so short, we ought to lose no time if we wish
to help them along, by thinning, removing useless branches, mellowing the ground, or
otherwise; all that ought to be done before June, so as to afford them every chance during
the growing month. I think the Abies Nobilis or White Fir of Washington Territory is
the fastest grower among the Coniferz.
Poplar—\ must beg the indulgent reader to listen to my plea in favour of this tree
and not condemn it unheard. I speak of the kind known as Cotton Wood or Populus
Canadensis (not to be confounded with the Balsam Poplar and Aspen). Its growth is
wonderfully rapid ; twenty-three years ago, in November, 1858, I stuck in the ground
three cuttings ; it was my first trial at tree culture. They are now over sixty feet high, one
is twenty-five inches in diameter, the second twenty-four inches, and the third twenty-two
inches, an average of one inch a year in diameter. In every new plantation, in a country
completely denuded of forest trees, and especially in re-wooding our western prairies, I
would recommend at the start, a plentiful use of this poplar, without neglecting, of course,
more valuable trees. It strikes at once from cuttings, which can be procured and trans-
ported anywhere with the greatest ease. Thanks to its rapid growth, it will soon enliven
the scenery (as it is a handsome tree), afford shade, shelter the other trees in the plantation
and supply timber, not of the first quality, but better than none, until the slower growing
trees are ready with their more valuable contributions, and it can easily be cut down
when the room it occupies is wanted for better trees. This poplar has been introduced from
Canada into France, where it is designated as the “ Peuplier du Canada,” and considered as
a useful and profitable tree,
I must now close this long article. The results of my experiments are nothing to
boast of ; practical men would have done much better. If I had chosen the soil for the
different kinds of trees more judiciously, had not left them much too long without thinning
17 (F. G.)
258
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them, and been able to attend to them in the proper seasons, I am convinced that, as a
whole, they would be much finer. At all events, it shows that any one who will take the
trouble, can begin the culture of forest trees without previous training. I do not speak
of orchards here. Having no School of Forestry in Canada, we must educate ourselves ;
we have got books written on the subject by eminent and practical men, and we have got,
always open before our eyes, the great book of Nature.
TREE PLANTING ON THE PRAIRIES.
By 8S. M. Emory, Minnesora.
The development of the vast system of railroads throughout the west, is bringing
into prominence a scope of country to which the name “ empire” is peculiarly applicable.
Our eastern friends, whose journeys have been confined to the country east of the
Mississippi, have but a limited idea of the boundlessness of this immmense section.
To the new comer, it is hard to make selection from so much that is deserving and
desirous ; and the usual distinction made, is a settlement of the question—stock raising
or wheat growing. Wheat growers are usually attracted to the Red River Valley, the
popular name given to the territory extending from Lake Traverse, on the boundary be-
tween Minnesota and Dakota, as a starting point on the south, extending north to Lake
Winnipeg, with eastern and western boundaries extending indefinitely into Minnesota
and Dakota on either side, embracing, also, nearly all of Manitoba.
Stock growers, on the contrary, find greater attractions, in milder winters and better
grazing facilities, in the belt of country lying south of the Red River Valley. Each sec-
tion presents remarkable inducements in its particular line, and both are equally destitute
and equally desirous of the benefits arising from tree planting.
The most skeptical caviller from the east, after having given just and impartial criti-
cism to either of these regions, can only find two tangible points of objection to the
country: First, the quality of the water ; second, the absence of timber. The first is
easily remedied by the use of cisterns, supplemented with ice ; the second, by the judi-
cious planting and cultivation of desirable varieties of timber. If this prove successful, it
must be done under direction and auspices of horticultural bodies and sound doctrine, and
information must be disseminated,
The nurseryman can give the embryo tree the best of care, and can send it forth, a
thing of beauty, with his tenderest blessing, but it will certainly come to naught, unless
the same intelligent providence and forethought attend it on its perilous struggle for
existence, surrounded on all sides by the lower and inferior types of creation.
Tt is dense and overshadowing ignorance, that so effectually bars progress in horticul-
tural effort ; the need and want of timber, fruit and ornamental trees, is obvious.
All are anxious to enjoy, but the usual failure that waits upon their careless minis-
trations has a decided tendency to deter and discourage any further expenditure of time
and money, both on the part of producer and consumer, with this difference however: the
producer or nurseryman, usually having his all invested in his business, will not allow
total failure to ensue, by the neglect on his part of getting rid of his stock, and thus he
shifts the responsibility on the shoulders of the planter where it belongs.
The passage of the United States timber law gave tree planting its real impulse.
The action of the Government in this respect is munificent, offering as it does, free of
cost, 160 acres of land to the planter, save the small sum incident to the cost of filing
papers, and the attendant expenses to the planting and cultivation of ten acres of timber.
This inures to the benefit of the planter, and is worth all and more than the actual cost
of complying with the requirements of the law. Those claims are eagerly sought, being
particularly desirable for non-residents, in the liberality of the law as regards settlement
and residence.
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259
Many file, depending on future developments to help them toward a compliance with
the law, and it is from these, ignorant of the simplest laws of nature, that the greatest
annoyances arise.
Their lands, as a rule, are poorly prepared, and sad lack of judgment is shown in
the selection of stock, in planting it, and subsequent cultivation. In many instances ab-
solute lack of cultivation follows, so much so, that in traversing the frontier, when atten-
tion is directed to some particularly weedy and neglected plot of ground, the information
is vouchsafed that this is Mr. So and So’s timber claim.
Men, otherwise intelligent, have been heard to say that the timber law was abso-
lutely inoperative, owing to its being an impossibility to successfully grow timber upon
the naked prairie ; a new version of the old story of the fond mamma, who didn’t want
her boy to go near the water until he could swim ; all this in spite of the fact that in the
settled parts of this country, timber is steadily on the increase, in spite of the amount
used annually for fuel and other purposes. And it is no infrequent occurrence to exhume
from excavation on the prairie, well preserved specimens of timber, giving the best
evidence that it formerly existed on all our prairies.
One of the most plausible reasons for the abundance of alkaline deposits, as evinced
in the water and other ways, is a heavy deposit of ashes in the soil (?) centuries ago,
caused by the destruction of timber by fires. The increase of timber is owing to the sup-
pression of these fires, which in their annual sweep over the country, destroy the season’s
growth of such deciduous trees as may have sprung up from wind-sown seed.
Two years ago, in making a delivery near Fort Abercrombie, a Norwegian, in com-
pany with his wife, called for his bill, in which was a large quantity of cottonwood seed-
lings. The woman objected strenuously to the goods, giving as her reason, that she did
not think they were cottonwoods, as the same things were growing all over their new
breaking. Subsequent examination proved this to be a fact; it was “ bringing coals to
Newcastle.”
As a rule these claims are being planted to the quick-growing deciduous trees, as Cot-
tonwoods, Box Elder, Willow, and Soft Maple—all good in their place, but hardly to be
chosen as life-time neighbours. These planters are many of them poor, with urgent calls
for all the money they can get, and it is not strange that they secure those trees that can
be had to the best advantage, financially and otherwise. The islands and low lands of
the Missouri furnish the bulk of these trees ; and cottonwood seedlings are sold at figures
that will hardly pay for count and packing ; these, if given anything like a fair chance
for their lives, will get out at the little end of the horn, and struggle into some promin-
ence as applicants for public favour ; however, at best they are poor in quality for fuel and
timber, and their open growing tops offer but little protection from dritting snow.
The White Ash, willow, and Box Elder are of more value to the frontier than the cotton-
wood. The Lombardy poplar is useless, not being sufficiently hardy to stand the low tem-
perature of the winters. The Soft Maple suffers as a small tree, from the same cause, and
after attaining respectable dimensions as a tree, suffers from wind storms, which break
the tops badly. The Walnut, Butternut, European Larch, Hard Maple, and White Elm
are all within reach, and highly desirable as timber trees.
Many are planting liberally of evergreens. These, with proper care, are flourishing,
and are valued as snow and wind-breaks, and also as ornamentul trees ; their rich deep
living green breaking the monotony and desolation of the snow-covered prairies.
The varieties doing the best are in the following order, Scotch Pine, White or Silver
Spruce, Norway Spruce, American Pine, Balsam Fir, White and Red Cedar, and Austrian
Pine. Their growth in our rich soil, stimulated by good cultivation, is phenomenal.
Before leaving the subject of timber planting, attention should be called to the merits
of the Black Oak. This possesses peculiar attractions to those living on the prairie. It
is easy to propagate by sowing the acorns, care be taken not to disturb the tender root-
lets, during the first season, until they have penetrated into the earth and are well estab-
lished. They increase in size wonderfully fast, and from their habit of holding their
leaves during the winter, are almost equal to evergreens as a shelter-belt a quality by no
means to be despised in the blizzard region.
260
The immense consumption of timber for railway purposes, and the protection of the
track from snow drifts, makes it highly important that all railway companies should take
an active interest in the planting, and where practicable plant trees themselves sufficient
for their own needs. The following papers in reference to this important subject are
worthy of attention.
TREE PLANTING BY RAILROAD COMPANIES.
By Frankuin B. Houau, Cuier or THE Forestry DEPARTMENT OF THE UNITED STATES.
The freight and passenger traffic of the country having passed in a large degree into
the hands of railroad companies with a constant tendency to further increase through all
coming time, so far as we can now foresee, it becomes a question worthy of notice, as to
how the maintenance of these railroads is likely to affect our future timber-supply, and
how far it may be for the interest of the companies owning these roads, to provide for
their own wants, by reasonable and sufficient planting. We may also in this connection
consider the incidental benefits that may be gained from planting, besides those derived
from timber as a material for construction or other use.
We have in the United States, about one hundred thousand miles of railroads. The
past affords a record of steady increase, but how long it may continue, or to what limit
it may reach, it is wholly beyond our power to foretell. In a hilly country these lines of
travel must necessarily follow the valleys, and a road once made will generally satisfy
the demand, unless, as in the Mohawk valley, there be an enormous amount of through
traffic from great distances beyond. There must, however, come a time, when the country
will be supplied, even in level regions where there are no difficulties from grades to over-
come. We will, however, take the facts as they are, and without estimating future in-
crease, examine the question of maintenance in the single item of railroad ties, and see
what facts show.
The number of ties to a mile ranges from 2,200 to 3,000, and in some cases as high
as 3,500. If we assume that they average 2,500 to the mile we have a quarter of a
billion in use. They average eight feet in length, and about seven inches deep and eight
wide, giving the contents about three cubic feet apiece, or in all six millions of cords.
If piled cord fashion, they would form a pile four feet high, eight feet wide, and 4,575
miles long. Placed end to end they would span the earth fifteen times at the equator, or
in one line would reach miles beyond the moon.
These wooden ties besides being placed on the ground, partly buried in sand or gravel,
and alternately wet and dry, are exposed to great strain and pressure from passing trains,
and under these combined influences are always tending to decay, so that in a period
ranging from three to twelve years, they must be replaced by new ones. Their durability
depends most upon the timber, and much upon the soil and the amount of use. We
may take their average life at from five to eight years, and we shall need from 30,000,000
to 50,000,000 new ties a year for maintaining the present railroads of the country in
constant use.
The number of ties that can be cut from an acre of wood-land varies exceedingly,
but, at 500 to the acre, we shall need to cut over from 60,000 to 100,000 acres every year
to meet this demand.
We can scarcely expect trees to grow to the sizes necessary for ties in less than forty
years. In some places it would be no more than twenty, and often forty ; but taking
thirty years as the average we shall need from nearly two millions to over three millions
of acres, or from 3,126 to 4,687 square miles of forest to keep up this supply. In
Europe, the beech, which we know is very perishable when on the ground, is made to last
from nine to twelve years by various methods of preparation either by the injection of
sulphate of copper, at the cost of about twenty cents a piece, or by thoroughly creosoting
at eighteen cents, or by immersion in a hot solution of sulphate of copper at about eleven
cents, or by external carbonization at six cents a piece. The oak, in Europe, is expected
to last in use, as railway ties, from twelve to fourteen years. The sap-wood only of the
261
oak admits of the injection of antiseptic substances to advantage. The pine, when in-
jected, last from ten to eleven years as ties.
Hitherto these methods of preservation have not been much employed in our country,
the prices of timber being still so low that it is cheaper to renew them when they decay
than to prolong their use by their preparation as in Europe.
A time must surely come when this subject will receive attention, but for the
present let us consider the amount of planting required for the maintenance of a supply
of ties, and how this can be done with greatest economy by the companies owning these
roads.
At the rates we have assumed, there should be from eighteen to thirty acres of wood-
land for every mile of single track road. Taking twenty-five as a safe averaye, it follows
that there should be somewhere 2,500 acres of forest for the maintenance of every hun-
dred miles of track. This is equivalent to a belt of woodland twelve and a half rods
wide along the road, or about three times the width of the right of way.
But woodlands need protection from cattle and from fires. The former can only be
got by fencing, and the latter only by vigilance. It would, unquestionably, be cheaper to
have these woodlands in a body, or in parcels at convenient distances from the line. It
is further to be remembered that railways must run along the valleys where the land is
generally rich and high-priced as compared with that in hilly regions, where the timber
would grow just as well. In the end, there might not be much difference whether this
woodland was owned and cared for by the companies, or whether they bought the ties
from those who grew them. There are always other products from a cutting—such as
firewood, and in the oak and hemlock, bark for tanning—that may be saved, and always
some timber that is worth more for other uses than for ties. We assume that land for
this use can be bought for twenty dollars an acre, and at this rate it will need the in-
vestment of $500 in land, for every mile of track to maintain a perpetual supply of ties
for its use. This is the fixed capital in land, without including the cost of planting and
management, nor of cutting or delivery. It will undoubtedly be a wise and proper in-
vestment of money on the part of railroad companies, by thus rendering themselves
independent for the supply of a material as necessary for their use as iron itself. There
will arise, and perhaps may now be found, a class of men who would undertake by con-
tract the planting and care of such woodlands, and this would doubtless prove the most
economical mode of management.
With reference to the use of wood by railroads for fuel and for bridges, we are for-
tunate in finding them both largely decreasing, the former being superceded by mineral
coal, and the latter by permanent structures of stone and iron. The tendency will
doubtless be much farther in this direction, and with every motive in its favour. In
Europe we seldom see a station, or other railroad building, excepting those of brick
or stone, and there are no platforms for handling freight, but those of masonry and
earth. A shingle-roof is almost wholly unknown and the flooring is very often of brick
or stone.
The substitution of other materials for ties is a very different matter. In the early
history of railroads in our country blocks of stone were tried, and proved a failure, In
India, where the white ants prove destructive to wood, a bedding has been secured by the
use of bowl-shaped castings of iron, with the convex side up; and upon some lines in
Europe iron ties have been used. Other mineral substances have been proposed, but
all of them are much more costly than wooden ties are, and will be for some time to
come.
There are other important motives for planting by railroads that we next notice.
The consolidation of embankments, and the fastening of the soil upon the slopes that
overhang the track, can bé done in no way so effectually as by the roots of trees and
bushes, and for this use those that have tracing roots, and that are continually sending
up sprouts at a distance from the parent tree acquire great value, while they could scarcely
be tolerated near cultivated grounds. The erosion of banks by streams can best be cor-
rected by the planting of alders and willows, and the ravines that are so sure to form in
light soils, upon steep banks, from rains, are effectually prevented, even by a dense growth
of bushes, but better by forest trees.
262
As to the kinds to be used, and the mode of planting or starting them, everything
depends upon the soil, climate, and other circumstances. Asa general rule, the Conifer,
from, their liability to suffer from fires, are not desirable near a railroad track, and in
some places in Europe, the birch and other deciduous trees are planted along the sides of
lines that run through a pine or spruce forest.
There are other cases in which judicious planting may prove of inestimable advant-
age, as well to railroads as to common highways, in preventing drifting snows. In our
northern States and in Canada this becomes in winter a matter of great anxiety to the
traveller, and often of vast expense to railroad companies. It may in every instance be
alleviated or wholly prevented by judicious planting, especially on the side of the prevail-
ing winds. A single row of deciduous trees will scarcely produce an effect ; there should
be at least half a dozen rows, and in the more exposed places twice this number, set as
closely as may be conveniently grown, to secure full immunity from this cause. A double
row of evergreens will generally serve the purpose, but it would still be well in a bleak
exposure to have a narrow belt of woodland on the outside to break the force of the
storm, and protect the plantation from injury.
So important has this subject proved to be, that the Northern Pacific Railroad in
Minnesota and Dakota has undertaken to protect its line at all the cuttings and exposed
places for the whole of the distance or as far as it is possible to make trees survive, and
with the view of continuing these plantations at places where it is less necessary for the
general benefits to be derived from their presence.
Several other railroad companies in the northern and western States have given
attention to planting, in some cases for shelter against drifting snows, and in others for
the encouragement of settlement, by proving the capacity of the country for the growth
of forest trees, in treeless regions on the prairies and the plains.
This subject has in recent years been receiving attention in Russia and other countries,
with the most encouraging results.
In these plantations along railroads in a prairie region, it is necessary to prepare the
soil for planting, by previously breaking, and afterwards thoroughly and deeply ploughing,
and to afterwards cultivate the trees until they have grown sufficiently to shade the
ground. It is also necessary to guard against accident from fires whether those that are
set by locomotives, or those that sweep over the prairies in the dry seasons, destroying
every living thing in their way. The best modes of prevention against ‘these fires, is by
carefully burning off the dead herbage and dry materials, selecting for this a time when
the fires can be controlled and limiting their spread by a few furrows of freshly ploughed
soil. As a country becomes well settled these running fires become infrequent and
almost unknown, and the care required in protection grows every year less.
Although there may be infinite advantages derived from ornamental plantations
around railway stations, the idea of affording shade to the traveller by avenues along the
line presents more points than one for consideration. Along the common highway they
become a positive luxury in a hot summer day, as the carriage passes leisurely along
under their shade. Is it the same with the flitting shadows on a railway train? Does
not the effect become painful to the eyes, and is not the beauty of the scenery lost when
the shade is too near, and when there is too much of it? Whoever has travelled in
Northern Itlay must have realized this discomfort from the abundance of trees planted,
perhaps, partly for ornament, but oftener for use along the sides of the railways. They
are far enough apart to afford glimpses of distant scenery—perhaps of marvellous beauty
—but in an instant obscured to be the next moment revealed, and so continually till the
eyes grow weary and close upon the scenery they cannot enjoy.
263 ;
TREE PLANTING FOR RAILROADS.
By Dr. Joun A. Warpver, Nortu Benn, Onto.
Not long ago some suggestions were advanced by the New York Post, or the Nation
newspaper, intended to show how great operations in Forestry might be carried forward
by the combination of capital united in joint stock companies. The contributions of
many persons, even of limited means, could thus be brought to bear upon the subject
effectively, and the company could be enabled to carry forward operations of a magnitude
that would be altogether beyond the ability of most individuals to conduct separately,
and thus a number of persons could unite in a work, the undertaking of which would be
impossible for most of them separately. To grow a forest of any extent, deserving the
name, requires a large capital ; the land must be purchased and put in order whether we
pursue the plan of conservation of the natural growths or by sowing or planting anew.
Not only for land, material, and labour, will money be required, and a good deal of it, but
the returns will necessarily be slow. The long rotation of most trees put the profits of
the harvest beyond a generation of men, hence they who plant can rarely expect to reap.
This tree planting, however, is to be a permanent and a sure investment of capital, and
being for a while without annual returns, it has little attraction for the poor man, who
needs to keep his means in circulation. Like insurance, it is a continuous drain until
the trees are established, but when they reach maturity the returns are eminently satis-
factory. How many persons constantly bury their capital in the hidden recesses of the
earth by taking stock in companies to explore and develope the mines, and wait for many
years before the glittering gold appears in the shape of the coveted dividends. But men
are led on by hope of the eventual returns.
The forest is a long investment, but a certain and safe depository for our means,
where bountiful Nature is ever adding to the capital. The trees are growing while we
are sleeping, and a well-managed forest is ever increasing in value, in it the rich lode may be
worked continuously, the veins are never exhausted nor cut off, like those of the mine, by
“horseback nor fault.” Hence the desirability of such an investment, and in the corpora-
tion the combined small contributions of the many, in sums that they can spare by using
economy, are enabled when thus aggregated to carry on works that would usually be
possible only for the rich landed proprietors. Even small amounts of subscriptions to
such stocks, aggregating a sufficiently large amount, will enable the company to procure
land and proceed with the plantations.
The railways are already incorporated ; thanks to the lavish aid of our Government,
they are in possession of millions of acres, they hola large principalities of lands just
where forests are most needed to meet their own enormous demands for future construction
and repairs, as well as to supply the necessities of the rapidly increasing populations
which they invite into the country—and just where, for the sake of their influence upon
climate, the forests are most required—for it is firmly believed that the disastrous storms,
hurricanes and cyclones, that seem to be bred upon those arid regions, or on the mountains
beyond them, will at least be greatly modified, if not entirely prevented on the plains,
wherever a sufficient amount of the territory in question shall have been covered with
trees.
These railroad corporations are wealthy and abundantly able to carry on such works,
Years ago, some attempts were made by these Pacific roads, which, however, were rather
experimental and intended to prove the possibilities of tree-growing on the plains; but
from lack of practical knowledge on the subject by those in charge, and for want of per-
severance by the managers of the roads, these spasmodic efforts were abandoned during
the financial panic. The Northern Pacific, under the persevering efforts of Mr. Leonard
R. Hodges, and the Union Pacific with the enthusiasm of J. T. Allen, sustained by Land
Commissioner Burnham, have again undertaken the good work, and within the past two
years have been planting groves about the station houses along their lines—even where
irrigation was necessary to sustain the trees. Experiments have also been made with
264
more extensive plantations of trees, which are intended for utility rather than mere
ornamentation and comfort.
Some really important work worthy of note has been begun and has reached a degree
of success. It was inspired by that noble and intelligent forest advocate and student,
Prof. C. 8. Sargent, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, near Boston. “This refers to
planting extensively by contract undertaken by Messrs. Robt. Douglas & Son, of Wau-
kegan, Illinois, with the Missouri River, Fort Scott and Gulf Railroad, and also with a
private gentleman of wealth, who is largely interested in the same road, but who has
undertaken his planting asa profitable investment. These contracts are of such magni-
tude as to be of great importance, since they consist of one entire section for the rail-
road and nearly as much on private account. The data here given have been received
from private correspondence with the gentlemen engaged in the work, and in part from a
Boston newspaper, the Herald, which was in direct communication with the other con-
tracting parties and therefore they. are quite reliable.
The forest plantation referred to is owned by the M. R. & Ft. Scott & Gulf Railway,
and is located at Ferlington, Kansas, in 37.30 North Latitude. The 560 acres planted
on private account is four miles further south, both are on high dry prairie. The trees
are planted 4x4 feet apart, except the White Ash which are set 4x2 feet. This locality
is rather too far west and south for most of our eastern trees, but seems especially adapted
to the Catalpa and Ailanthus.
Of the Catalpa, all Speciosa, 100,000 planted in the autumn of 1878 and the follow-
ing spring, with three summers’ growth, had reached eight and ten feet, with a diameter
of trunk two to two and a-half inches. The 217,600 catalpas planted in the next season,
with two summers’ growth, had attained the height of four, five and even six feet.
Despite the severe drouth of 1881, those planted in 1881, 155,000 catalpas, in one sum-
mer, made a growth of eighteen to thirty inches, with the terrible drouth that ruined
the grain crop. :
In the fall of last year 288,000 were planted, from these the tops were cut off above
the collar as they were put into the ground. ;
The Ailanthus after growing two years had reached six and eight feet with diameter
of two inches.
On the other tract the following amounts and acres were set out: Catalpas, 75 acres;
Ailanthus, 40 acres.
White Ash, 60 acres, set two by four feet, which required 326,400 plants, making a
total of 530,400 trees planted. This plantation was continued during the current season.
The catalpa plantation of 4x4 feet has been easily cultivated and has required no
pruning. The trees that have three years’ growth, required little care the third summer,
and pruning can be entirely dispensed with. The tops shade the ground and prevent the
growth of weeds ; they are very uniform in size, so that they will stand 2,500 to the
acre of contract size four to six feet.
In his letter, Mr. Douglas adds this item which wil] be of interest to the private
planter » ‘‘From our past experience with this tree we think, in the case of farmers
planting (the cost of trees being an object) they might be planted 6x8 feet with a hill of
corn between the trees and a row of corn between the rows, this would require 680 trees,
and would allow 2,040 hills of corn per acre. The tall growing corn would have the
effect of close planting upon the trees. The corn might be grown three years after which
the trees would meet and shade the ground.”
The contract is thus described in the Boston Herald: ‘A Boston capitalist has con-
tracted for the planting of 560 acres of prairie land in eastern Kansas. This contract
is made with the Messrs. Robert Douglas & Sons, of Waukegan, Illinois, the largest and
most successful raisers of forest-tree seedlings in the United States, and is peculiar and
novel in its provisions. They agree, at a certain price per acre,—which would differ, of
course, with different conditions and location,— to break and plough the land, prepare it
for planting, plant not less than 2,720 trees to the acre, and cultivate these until they
shade the ground and so require no further cultivation to keep down the weeds and
strong natural grasses. At the end of this time, probably in three or four years, the
trees will be delivered over to the owner, one cent being deducted from the final payment
265
for every tree less than 2,000 to the acre delivered, which must be at least six feet high
at the time of delivery. The advantage of this plan, which is the one also adopted by
the Fort Scott Railroad, is that the trees will be carefully planted and attended to by ex-
perienced men, for whose interest it will be to use the best plants, and to cultivate and
care for them in the best manner, so as to be able to deliver the greatest number of trees
in the shortest possible time, that they may get quick returns for the money invested in
plants, planting, ete. Any plantation in which the trees are six feet high, and in which
the ground is so shaded that weeds and natural grasses cannot grow, will require no
further attention until the time comes for thinning them out for fence-posts, etc. The
plan relieves the owner of the great risk always attending the early years of a plantation,
and makes his investment practically safe. This plantation of 560 acres is to consist of
300 acres of the Western Catalpa, 200 acres of Ailanthus, and 60 acres which will serve
as an experimental ground on which will be tested trees of several varieties, to be selected
by Prof. Sargent, the director of the Harvard Arboretum. The Western Catalpa, a native
of the low lands bordering the lower Ohio and the banks of the Mississippi in Missouri,
Kentucky and Tennessee, is a rapidly growing tree, easily cultivated, and producing tim-
ber which, though soft, is almost indestructible when placed in the ground, and, therefore,
of the greatest value for fence-posts, railway ties and similar uses. The Ailanthus will
grow with great rapidity wherever the climate is not too cold for it, and in spite of its won-
derfully quick growth, produces hard, heavy timber valuable for fuel, ties, cabinet work,
or almost every purpose for which wood is used.
It is believed that this plantation will soon lead to the formation of others, both by the
railroad companies and by individuals, or corporations chartered to plant and own timber
lands in the prairie States. Eventually a great deal of capital will be invested in this
way. The returns will be slow, and a man investing thus should consider that he is
doing it for his children. But when the returns do come they will be enormous, even at
the present price of lumber, and it must be remembered that, before a crop of trees
planted now can be harvested, the price of ties and other forest products will be more
than double in the Western States. An encouraging fact, and one which shows that
public attention is being directed to the importance of providing for the future demand
of such things is that the Iron Mountain Railroad Company, which runs for hundreds of
miles through a heavily timbered region, and possesses in its own lands some of the finest
White Oak on the continent, has also made a contract with the Messrs. Douglas to plant
near Charleston, Mo., 100 acres of Western Catalpa as an experiment. They do this
because catalpa ties have stood on their road scarcely affected by decay more than twelve
years, and because this tree isso valued by the farmers for fence posts that it is already
practically exterminated in Illinois, Indiana and Missouri, and so not to be procured for
ties, although the Superintendent of the railroad is willing to pay three times as much as
for the best White Oak ties. If the planting of trees is good policy for a railroad run-
ning through a heavily timbered country like Missouri and Arkansas, it will certainly
pay for roads in Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota and Kansas to do the same.
The conclusion of the reading of: Dr. Warder’s valuable paper was greeted with
loud applause.
Hon. Louis Beaubien did not know much about the Catalpa, but could scarcely
believe it was more durable than Canadian cedar.
Dr. Warder agreed that Red Cedar was highly durable, but required from one to two
hundred years’ growth before it was fully developed. Cedar was of slow growth, whereas
the Catalpa was of use in two or three years. When you get a catalpa tree of six
inches in diameter, you have a post worth planting, but a cedar of the same size grown
in the United States, was valueless.
In the paper next submitted will be found some practical suggestions on the growing
of forest trees from seed for the benefit of those who may feel inclined to raise their own
trees.
266
HOW FARMERS MAY GROW FOREST TREES FROM SEED.
By D. W. Beanie, or St. CaTHaRINEs, ONT.
It has occurred to me that there may be farmers who want to plant young trees,
either for useful purposes or for ornamentation, and if they want to plant largely may
find it impossible to get them in sufficient quantity from nurserymen, who generally con-
fine their cultivation to fruit trees, and have not grown to any large extent forest trees
for timber. But these parties can form a nursery of these trees themselves by procuring
a small piece of ground and have it especially prepared and well mauured, so that there
will be strength in the soil for a few years, and then they can raise whatever kind of tree
they want. Seeds of the elm, maple, ash and of the walnut and butternut can be found
in almost any part of the Province. The important point in planting seeds is that they
should be planted as soon as perfectly ripe. Some of our trees ripen their seeds quite
early. The Soft Maples, the Dasycarpum and rubum and the elms, ripen their seeds in
June. (Mr. Beadle here exhibited two seedlings of Soft Maple grown from this year’s
seeds.) These maples ripen their seed in June, and it should be gathered and sown at
once so that you can get a tree of considerable growth before the winter season. The
seed of the elms should also be sown at once ; it should be sown in drills not deeply, but
covered very lightly. These small seeds require to be covered with only sufficient earth
to keep them moist, and they will produce plants in a very short time, and gain sufficient
strength to tide over the cold season. But it is not true of all the maples that they
ripen their seed so early in the season. The Sugar Maple ripens its seeds late in the au-
tumn, as well as the Ash-leaved Maple, and unless you wish to sow them in the autumn,
you have to preserve them and sow them in the spring. If you are not in a position
to sow the seed at once, and wish to keep them till the next spring, they should be
mixed with sandy soil and kept damp, yet not so damp as to cause them to germinate,
and not be allowed to get dry. In this way you may preserve them with safety. If kept
dry in papers some of them will have vitality the following spring, but very many of
them will not germinate next season, and the proper way to preserve them is to mix them _
with moist earth. Now comes the butternuts, chestnuts and walnuts ; these all ripen in the
late autumn, and in suitable soils, may be planted as soon as gathered, and allowed to
freeze and thaw with impunity, as they will not suffer therefrom, but will germinate
freely in the spring. But in soils which heave out the nuts under the effect of alternate
freezing and thawing, it will be better to mix the seeds with soil in sufficient quantity to
keep them moist, and prevent them from moulding, and keep them until spring before
planting, or they may be spread out very thin upon the ground, and covered with a sod,
in which manner they will keep fresh. It is not necessary that the nuts be subjected to
frost, that isa matter of perfect indifference ; the important thing is not to permit them
to become dry. These trees can be grown in nursery fashion, until they attain sufficient
size to be planted where they are to remain, especially the elms, maples and ashes. The
nut-bearing trees will make better growth if they be planted in the nut where they are
to remain.
The benefits actually resulting to farm crops from suitable shelter by hedges is set
forth in the following letter to Dr. Warder, from L. B. Wing, Newark, Ohio.
Dr. Jno. A. Warder:
My Dear S1r,—In conversation with Mr. Chamberlain, I stated that the only wheat
I raised in 1881 was upon the ground protected by my hedges. In your note of the 15th
to me at Newark you ask me for particulars—they are not extraordinary, but I will give
them :—
One prairie field about eighty rods in length was sown in the fall of 1880 with Fultz
Wheat. The land had good natural drainage, and the wheat went into the winter with
a good growth and healthy appearance. But the only part of it that withstood the severe
ee a a a a
267
winter following was a strip from six to ten rods in width along the west side of the
q field, where it was protected by a tall Osage Orange hedge, and the snow ‘which the hedge
had intercepted and lodged upon it.
At harvest this strip yielded about eighteen bushels per acre—the remainder of the
field nothing. At corn-planting time we had been tempted to plough up all this strip,
but concluded to wait the outcome ; but it was never worth cutting.
The value of this protection to the young wheat plants, which secured a partial crop
on this occasion, might not be so obvious another year. With a more favourable winter
| they might be able to get on without it. But the shelter these hedges afford to farm
animals will commend them in every year and in all seasons. I have upon this farm
long lines of hedges that will turn any sort of farm stock. Upon the roadside it is kept
at a height of four to five feet by one annual cutting in April or September. The rest of
it has never been cut and most of this is twenty to twenty-five feet in height, with few
gaps or weak places.
I never had any patience with the fellows who delight in telling me that my ‘‘hedges
occupy too much room.” When I commenced improving this farm it was a// room—not
a tree or shrub upon a thousand acres ; and to-day with twenty acres in orchards, with
seven miles of hedges, witlr a few acres in groves of forest trees, I haven’t a single twig
too much—not half enough—to meet what is an equitable requirement that I should con-
tribute my share toward the amelioration of the climate in winter, for the favouring of
rainfall in summer, and for reasonable forethought and provision for those who are to
come after me.
Those who are apparently so covetous of the little ground that my trees and hedges
occupy can generally find upon their own farms undrained lands, unbroken and unpro-
ductive prairie, much greater in extent, which they have never yet found time to bring
to profitable uses. I doubt if I have any land that pays me so well, even now, as that
which is occupied by these tall hedges and wind-breaks. I have in mind two fields of
twenty and forty acres, each well set in Kentucky blue-grass, their summer growth kept
till the frosts came, making a thick soft covering, so that one might imagine that he was
“walking upon a feather bed” as he passed over them. Our young Shorthorn steers
were taken to these fields at the beginning of winter. The tall thick hedges upon every
side enable them to shelter themselves, no matter from what quarter the wind may blow,
and they do not seem to realize that
“The melancholy days have come, ”
but they apply themselves diligently to the freshest of the blue-grass, and grow fat. This
_ is the 21st day of February, and they have not yet been out of their pastures. Occasion-
ee” ns
i
ally, upon a stormy day, they have been offered hay, which, for the most part, has been
contemptuously rejected. Later in the season we shall give them a daily ration of corn
and fresh pasture next summer, and before we realize it they will go upon the market as
‘export cattle.”
Now, my dear friend and preceptor, I am sure you can make it clear to the
Convention that this pleasant way of farming is not practicable upon the open prairie
fenced with barbed wire, and, if you do, it will be my apology for drifting away from the
particular subject of your inquiry.
Very truly yours,
L. B. WIna.
P.S. But, my dear sir, after the ‘‘ Forestry Congress ” shall have considered the subject
of hedge planting and the extension and preservation of our woodlands upon climatic con-
siderations, I hope the members will not fail to express themselves in regard to our
national protective duty upon Canadian lumber. It is a strange policy to encourage the
mowing down of our own forests by a duty upon logs and lumber brought across the
lakes for the use of our people. The theory of protection in general is that it increases
home production ; this duty destroys the home production. Each year’s cutting of our
pine timber is now well ascertained in its extent, and the time when our supply will be
268
exhausted is not far distant and can he predicted with considerable accuracy. The profits
of this destruction goes to the few men who own our pine lands, and is paid them by the
many industries that manufacture and consume the lumber.
We need not flatter ourselves that when we shall have exhausted our own inheritance,
and are then compelled to admit Canadian lumber free, that our neighbours will not add
to the price of that which we have helped them to preserve, a sum equal not only to the
duty which our Government now imposes, but also to the profits added which our land-
grant railroads and lumber kings are now able to realize through lack of competition.
The sort of statesmanship which would offer bounties for tree planting, and at the
same time restrict the importations of lumber for our own necessities, is as feeble as
would be an attempt to preserve to this country the American bison by offering a premium
for their propagation in your zoological garden, and at the same time give a bounty for
their pelts taken from the herds of the great west.
BNW
f
In every locality forest trees, in common with all other vegetable growths, are more
or less liable to the attacks of injurious insects. In order that tree growers may be
enabled to distinguish insect friends from foes, and to know how best to subdue injurious
species, the following paper is submitted :
INSECTS AFFECTING FOREST TREES.
By Wi.iiAm Saunpers, Lonpon, ONTARIO.
The preservation of our existing forests, and the protection of new plantations de-
signed in some measure to re-clothe denuded districts, also the establishment of wooded
patches throughout the open prairie sections of the western portion of this continent, are
all questions of primary importance to us, affecting as they will the climate, and thus
the comfort and well-being of a large present and very large prospective population.
The regularity of the crops of cereals and fruits is much influenced by the presence of
shelter belts of forest, as these break the winds which would otherwise sweep unchecked
over the open country, and by their shelter and shade prevent that rapid evaporation
from the surface which so often results in the drying up of rivers and streams, causing
drought at a time when moisture is most needed.
One of the influences which seriously affects the growth and preservation of forest
trees is insect pests. These creatures, often insignificant in size, make up in numbers
what they lack in individual power, and frequently by their depredations cast the shadow
of disappointment over the hopes and aspirations of the lover of forest trees. These in-
sidious foes sometimes attack the roots, feeding upon them or boring into them, and thus
sap the foundations of the tree’s existence ; they burrow under the bark, eating out chan-
nels or galleries through the sap wood, and materially interfere with the regular flow of
the sap, or by the multiplication of these channels sometimes girdle the tree and cause
its death. Some of the tiny hosts attack the smoother bark of the twigs and branches,
and puncturing their surface suck the sap, the life-blood of the tree ; others burrow into
the terminal shoots and cause their death ; while a large army of invaders feed openly
upon the leaves, consuming their substance, and materially retard the growth of the trees
they attack.
It would be impossible in a paper like the present one to refer in detail to the in-
dividual species composing these vast hordes—such particulars would fill volumes ; hence
on this occasion we must content ourselves by dwelling on the general principles which
are to guide us in our efforts to destroy these foes. When such destruction is practicable,
and where direct human effort seems powerless or too insignificant in its result to be
eS OR Rees On Sete, eee 5
——
©
EASE SE IM SI i SI
269
worthy of trial, we must then endeavour to aid Nature in her efforts to restore the equili-
brium, after which she is ever striving, by encouraging and protecting insect friends,
which prey on the destructive species, also insectivorous birds and other useful agencies ;
in short, learn to distinguish our friends from our foes, and strive to protect the former
while we destroy the latter.
To make our subject clearer we shall refer somewhat in detail to the habits and
peculiarities of some common representative species in each of the departments referred
to. As representing the root-boring insects, the broad-necked Prionus, Prionus laticollis,
which sometimes attacks the roots of apple and pear trees. The sap-sucking insects attack-
ing the root, the apple-root plant-louse, Schizoneura lanigera. The trunk borers will
be represented by the maple borer, Glycobius speciosus ; the maple egerian, Aegeria
acernt ; the northern brenthian, Hupsalis minuta, the pigeon tremex, T’remex columba ; and
the hickory and walnut borer, Monohammus tigrinus. Those which injure the
branches, by the hickory twig girdler, Oncideres cingulatus, and the woolly louse of
the pine, (/oceus pinicorticis. Of the hosts which attack the leaves, reference will
be made to the forest tent caterpillar, Clisiocampa sylvatica ; the luna moth, Actias
luna; the lime-tree measuring worm, Hybernia tiliaria ; the poplar dagger-moth,
Acronycta lepusculina ; the pine leaf-miner, Gelechia pinifoliella ; the oak leaf-miner,
Lithocolletis hamadryadella ; the white pine saw-fly, Lophyrus abbotii ; and the hickory
aphis, Aphis caryalla,
ATTACKING THE Roots.
The Broad-necked Prionus—Prionus laticollis.
This insect bores Into the roots of the apple and pear trees, and often injures the
roots of grape vines. When
full grown it is a very large
fleshy grub, from two and a
half to three inches long (see
Fig. 1), of a yellowish white
colour, with a reddish brown
head, and a dull bluish line
down the back. It eats its
way through the centre of
the root, and where the root
it attacks is not very large,
reduces it to a mere shell. It lives in the
larval state some two or three years, and
then changes to a chrysalis, as shown in
Fig. 2, within the root ; this change occur-
ring in the summer season, usually towards
the end of June.
About the middle of July the beetle
appears. It is of a brownish black colour,
about an inch and a half long, with strong
thick jaws and rather slender antennz or
horns. It is well represented in Fig. 3.
Its thorax is short and wide, and armed at
the sides with three teeth ; the wing-covers
have three slightly elevated lines on each,
and are thickly punctured. The figure
i represents a female ; in the male the body
is shorter and the antennz longer. Fig. 3.
270
The Apple-root Plant Louse—Mytilaspis gromi corticts.
This inseet works underground, and pro-
duces the odd-looking, gall-like excrescences
often found on the roots. In Fig. 4, a repre-
sents an affected root, 6 a wingless louse, and
c¢ a winged specimen. These enlargements
are all caused by minute lice, which may
usually be found in considerable numbers in
the crevices of the protuberances, where many
of them will be seen, of a pale yellow
colour, covered with a bluish white cottony
matter, and along with these, larger winged
specimens. The insects are nourished by
sucking the juices of the tree obtained from
the tender roots, by piercing them with their
beaks.
A species of syrphus fly, known as the
root louse syrphus fly, Pipiza radicum, preys
on these lice, and devours immense numbers
of them. In Fig. 5 this useful insect is shown
in the larval and chrysalis state, as well as in
the perfect condition, all the illustrations
being magnified.
ATTACKING THE TRUNK.
The Maple Borer—Clytus speciosus.
This is a very beautiful insect, and may be readily distinguished by its brilliant black
and yellow colours, giving it much the appearance of a large hornet, so much so, indeed, that
few persons except entomologists care to touch it (see Fig. 6). Itisa
little over an inch long, and about three-tenths of an inch in width.
The head is yellow, and furnished with powerful mandibles or jaws ;
the eyes and a band above them extending across the head, are
black ; the antenne or horns are also black, and are curved some-
what after the fashion of those of a goat, a similarity which gave
rise to their general name of Capricorns or goat-horns. The thorax
is deep black, with two yellow oblique stripes on each side ; it is very
large, somewhat globular, and flattened or depressed above. The
body is deep black, oblong, somewhat cylindrical, a little flattened
above, and tapering behind. The elytra or wing covers have yellow
bands, the first of which forms a regular arch, of which the keystone
is composed of the yellow scutel or little shield-shaped spot at the
top of the wings, just behind the centre of the thorax ; the second band is in the form of
the letter W, each V receiving a termination of the first band ; the third band is nearly
transverse, and placed across the middle ; the fourth is bent obliquely backward, parallel
with and near to a large terminal spot or band, which latter has a large black central
spot on each wing case.
The elytra are each tipped with a short blunt tooth. The legs are long and yellow,
with a brown line on the inner side of the thighs; they are made for standing securely,
being very broad, and with the third joint deeply notched. The underside of the abdo-
men is reddish-yellow, variegated with brown. Fig. 6 represents the male. The female
is larger and stouter than the male, and has rather shorter antenne. She may also be
easily distinguished by having a jointed tube at the end of the abdomen, which is capable
of being extended or contracted at will, and is used for the purpose of conveying the eggs
into the crevices or holes of the bark of the trees. These insects emit a shrill, screeching
271
noise on being handled or disturbed. This noise is caused by rubbing the joints of the
thorax and abdomen together.
The beetles may generally be seen reposing quietly on the trunks of the trees during
the day time, as they are more active at night, which period they select for their excur-
sions in search of their mates. According to Mr. Harris, the bettle lays its eggs on the
trunk of the maple in the months of July and August.
The larve hatched from these eggs are long, whitish, fleshy grubs, with deeply marked
transverse incisions on the body. Their legs, which are six in number, are only rudi-
mentary, and are of no service in locomotion ; it is by means of the alternate contraction
and extension of the rings or segments of the body that these little creatures force their
way through the wooden tunnels in which they live, and in order to further assist their
progress each segment is furnished with fleshy tubercles capable of protrusion, and which,
being pressed against the sides of their retreats, enable them to thrust forward by degrees
the other segments. As the grub has to feed upon very hard material it is provided with
strong horny jaws, and the head, which is slightly bent downwards, is also covered with
a strong horny skin. The grubs penetrate the bark, under which they lie dormant during
the winter, and in the succeeding spring and summer they pierce further in, running long
winding galleries up and down the trunk. The larve probably remain more than one
year in this condition, and then change into pup, in which state they are at first whitish
and very soft, but gradually harden and darken until the time arrives when the beetle is
perfectly matured, and forcing a passage through the outer bark, near which it has
instinctively eaten its way whilst yet a grub, emerges into the open air.
This is a very injurious insect, which attacks chiefly the sugar maple. When pre-
sent they can be readily detected by the sawdust and exuvie that they cast out of their
burrows, and in the spring, whilst still near the surface, it is quite possible to kill them
by means of a stout piece of wire, or the judicious use of a good sharp knife.
The Maple Aegerian—Aegeria acernt.
While the borer last described is partial to the sugar maple this species is usually
found injuring the soft or red maple. The several stages of the insect are shown in
Fig. 7: a represents the larva, 6 the cocoons under the bark, c the moth, and d the chrysalis
forced through the bark.
The moth appears late in May and during June.
When the wings are expanded it measures about three-
quarters of an inch across; its wings are transparent,
decorated with bluish-black markings. The head and
palpi are of a deep reddish-orange, antennae bluish-black,
thorax ochreous-yellow, abdomen bluish-black varied with
ochreous-yellow and terminated by a tuft of brilliant
reddish-orange hairs.
The under side of the body is ochreous-yellow with
bluish-black markings.
The female deposits her eggs on the bark of the soft
and sugar maple trees, chiefly on the former, and when
hatched the young larve burrow through the bark and
feed upon the inner portion and sap wood, never pene-
trating into the solid hard wood. The excavations made
by the larva are filled with its brown castings. When
full grown it is more than half an inch long, cylindrical
to the eleventh segment, then tapering to the end, with
the skin wrinkled and folded. The head is small, of a
yellow color, cervical shield paler ; stigmata brown ; legs
and tips of prolegs reddish. When the larva is full
grown it eats its way nearly through the bark, leaving
but a very thin layer unbroken ; it then retires within its burrow, and having enclosed
itself within a loose, silky cocoon, changes to a brown chrysalis. A short time before
272
the moth escapes the chrysalis wriggles itself forward, and pushing itself against the thin
papery-like layer of bark, ruptures it, and the chrysalis protrudes as shown in the figure.
Soon afterwards the imprisoned moth in its struggles ruptures the chrysalis and escapes.
This insect appears to be increasing in numbers every year, and is very destructive,
especially to young maple trees.
The Northern Brenthian—LEupsalis minuta.
This insect in the larval state bores into the solid wood of the white oak, forming a
way into the solid wood of the tree.
cylindrical passage. The larva is about three-quar-
ters of an inch long, (see a, Fig. 8,)with a pale
yellow head. It changes to a chrysalis 6 within
its chamber and appears as a beetle c in June and
July. This beetle belongs to the family of weevils,
but differs from most of them in that its snout pro-
jects straight out in front and is not bent under
as is the case with weevils in general. The male
is very unlike the female, in the figure c repre-
sents the female, d the head of the male ; both sexes
vary much in size.
‘The female bores a cylindrical hole with her
snout in the bark of the oak and deposits therein
one egg which she pushes to the bottom. This
shortly hatches, when the young grub works its
The Pigeon Tremex—Tremex columba.
This species belongs to the Hymenoptera or four
winged insects.
yellow.
The male is unlike the female, is smaller in size,
and has no borer. Its body is reddish, varied with Fig. 9.
The female is shown in Fig. 9. It
is a large, wasp-like creature, measuring, when its
wings are spread, an inch and a half or more across.
The wings are of a smoky brown colour and semi-
transparent ; the body is cylindrical, and about an
inch and a half long, exclusive of the borer, which
projects about three-eighths of an inch beyond the
body ; the head and thorax are reddish, varied with
black ; the body black, crossed by seven yellow bands,
all excepting the first two interrupted in the middle.
The horny tail and a round spot at the base are
black (see Fig. 10), the wings more transparent than
Fig. 10.
those of the female, the body somewhat flattened, rather wider
behind. Its length is from three-fourths of an inch to an inch
or more, and the wings, when expanded, measure about an inch
and a quarter across.
The female deposits her eggs chiefly in maple trees, but some-
times in hickory, buttonwood and elm, and also in pear trees,
She bores into the bark with her borer, and drops an egg in the
hole. The egg is oblong oval, pointed at both ends, and rather
less than one-twentieth of an inch in length.
The larva is soft, of a yellowish-white colour, cylindrical in
form, rounded behind, with a conical horny point on the upper
part of the hinder extremity, and when full grown is about an inch and a half long. It
bores deep into the interior of the wood.
OIE Ses
a ae
ee ae Se Ste ee
273
The Twig Girdler—Oncideres cingulatus.
This beetle has the singular habit of amputating the twigs of the
hickory and pear during the latter half of August and early in September.
The female which is shown at a, Fig. 11, makes perforations in the
smaller branches of the tree upon which she lives, and in these deposits
her eggs, one of these punctures is shown in the figure at 6. She then
proceeds to gnaw a groove about a tenth of an inch wide, and
about a similar depth all around the branch, as shown in the
figure, when the exterior portion dies and the larva, when hatched,
feeds upon the dead wood. The girdled twigs sooner or later fall to
the ground, and in them the insect completes its transformations, and
finally escapes a perfect beetle. The beetle is more than half an inch
long, of a brownish grey colour, with dull reddish-yellow dots, and a
broad grey band across the middle of the wing cases. The antenne
are longer than the body.
The Hickory and Walnut Borer—Monohammus tigrinus.
The larva of this insect bores under the bark and into the solid heart wood of these
valuable trees, excavating chambers sometimes to the depth of two feet. The hole runs
longitudinally upwards, enlarging as the worm increases in size, being in its largest part
about half an inch in width, and a little less in depth. At its upper end it suddenly
turns outward through the wood to the bark. Having prepared this outlet for the
escape of the insect when it is perfected, the larva retires backward a short distance,
and stufts this upper extremity with its castings, for the purpose apparently of prevent-
ing birds like the woodpecker from detecting the burrow by its hollowness, thus showing
astonishing instinctive foresight. This artifice is not always successful, for the acute ear
of the woodpecker is not easily deceived, and these birds often detect the boring larve,
drag them out of their retreats and devour them. All the lower portion of the gallery
or chamber is filled with the fine powder like castings of the insect which are of a brown-
ish colour. The grub when full grown is about an inch and a quarter long, of a whitish-
yellow colour, with a faint interrupted dark line down the back ; body smooth, broad on
the anterior segments, tapering towards the extremity ; head black.
Within its mined chamber the larva changes to a chrysalis, and this finally to the
beetle, which gnaws.its way through the outer bark and escapes. Soon after escaping
the beetles pair, and shortly after the female deposits her eggs upon the bark of the |
trees, and as soon as hatched the young grubs burrow into the wood and begin to destroy
it in the manner already described.
The Woolly Louse of the Pine—Coccus Pinicorticis.
This shows itself in the form of a white cottony-like substance, growing upon the
smooth bark, particularly below the axils, where the limbs spring from the main trunk, and
often small white spots of this same substance are scattered irregularly over the whole
of the bark of the limbs, particularly upon the north or shaded side. Trees coated with
this substance soon become sickly and stunted in their growth. If a portion of the
cottony substance be carefully removed there will be found underneath each tuft, a
cluster of small lice huddled closely together and fixed to the bark.
ATTACKING THE LEAVES.
A multitude of insects devour the leaves of forest trees—prominent among these
are the following :
The Forest Tent Caterpillar—Clisiocampa sylvatica.
This insect much resembles the common tent caterpillar, Clisiocampa americana.
18 (F. G.)
274
The eggs (a, Fig. 12) are laid in clusters, fastened firmly around the small twigs of vari-
ous sorts of trees, the number in each cluster
being usually from three to four hundred.
These are placed in position by the moth dur-
ing the summer, and remain in this condition
over the winter, and until the following spring.
The young caterpillars hatch about the time of
the bursting of the buds, and. while small they
spin a slight web or tent against the side of the
trunk or branches of the tree on which they
are placed. In this early stage they often have
strange processionary habits ; marching about
a in single or double column, one larva so im-
Fig. 12. mediately following another, that when cross-
ing a sidewalk, or other smooth surface, they
appear at a little distance like black streaks, or pieces of black cord stretched across.
They grow rapidly, and in about six weeks attain their full size, when
they are an inch and a half or more in length, (see Fig. 13), of a pale
bluish colour, sprinkled all over with black points and dots. On the
back is a row of ten or eleven oval or diamond shaped white spots, and
on the sides, pale yellowish stripes, somewhat broken and mixed with
grey. When about half grown or more, which occurs during the
latter part of May, they are extremely voracious, and sometimes swarm
to such an extent as to completely defoliate large patches of wooded
land, and thus compelling the trees to start a fresh growth of leaves
at a critical time during the hot weather, which injures them.
When the caterpillar is full grown it spins a cocoon usually with-
in the shelter of a leaf, the edges of which are partially drawn to-
gether. The cocoon is whitish-yellow, oval in form, and closely spun
with silk intermixed with a pasty substance, which, when dry,
becomes powdery, and resembles sulphur in appearance. This cocoon is
surrounded by an outer web of silk, loosely woven, and slight in texture.
The moths (see Fig. 12 6), which appear early in July, are of a pale dull-reddish or
yellowish-brown colour, crossed by two oblique parallel lines, which are darker than the
rest of the wing. When the wings are spread the male measures about an inch, the
female nearly an inch ana half across. After pairing, the female deposits her eggs in
the manner already referred to, and shortly after dies. ;
The Luna Moth—Actias luna.
The larva of this magnificent moth feeds
on hickory, walnut, butternut, and some-
times on beech and oak, and is shown in
Fig. 14. It is, when full grown, about three
inches long, of a clear bluish-green colour,
with a pearly head, and a very pale yellow
stripe along each side of the body ; the back
is crossed between the rings by transverse
PS” EX \\ lines of the same colour. Each segment is
lie? i if gr adorned with small pearly warts, five or six in
fu oOo NF f/ S ) . . .
lil — His ff, ZA number, each furnished with a few short hairs.
SS Wa u yr Y
SK USS OT os
When the caterpillar is full grown it
Y draws together two or three leaves of the
~~ tree on which it has fed, and within this
“ o. hollow spins an oval, close and strong cocoon
of whitish silk, within which it changes to a
brown chrysalis.
S SS
Fig. 14.
"
275
Fig. 15.
The moth, Fig. 15, measures, when its wings are spread, from four to five inches
across. The wings are of a delicate green colour, thickly covered with pale hairs as they
approach the body. There is a purplish brown stripe along the front margin of the fore
wings, which stretches across the thorax, while a small branch of the same is extended
to the eye-spot near the middle of the wing. The eye-spots are transparent in the middle,
and margined with rings of white, yellow, blue and black ; the hinder edges of the wings
are bordered with purplish brown; the head is white; the antenne feathered ; the
thorax thickly clothed with whitish wooly down, and the legs purplish brown.
The Lime-tree Measuring Worm—Hybernia tiliaria.
The larva of this insect is a yellowish looper or measuring worm, with a reddish
head and ten wavy black lines along the back. It is shown in Fig. 16 in different posi-
tions. It is hatched early in the spring, and completes its growth about the middle of
June, about which time it is often very destructive to basswood, elm, hickory and apple
trees. When ready for its next change, the larva lets itself down from the tree by a
silken thread, and buries itself five or six inches below the surface of the ground, and
there changes to a chrysalis, from which the moth usually escapes the following spring,
and occasionally some of the moths appear in October or November, but this rarely
occurs with us.
The male moths have large and delicate wings and feathered antenne, as seen in the
figure. The fore wings, which measure, when spread, about an inch and a half across,
are of a rusty buff colour, sprinkled with brownish dots, with two transverse wavy brown
lines and a central brown dot. The hind wings are pale, with a brown dot about their
middle.
The female, also shown in the figure, is a wingless, spider-like creature, with slender
thread-like antenne, yellowish-white body, sprinkled on the sides with black dots, and
276
Fig. 16.
with two black spots on the top of each segment, excepting the last, which has only one:
The eggs are oval, of a pale colour, and covered with a net-work of raised lines.
The Poplar Dagger-moth—Acronycta lepus-culina.
The caterpillar of this moth is often very destructive to poplar trees, and more
especially to the foliage of the cottonwood
tree in the west. It is, when full grown,
an inch and a half or more in length, with
a black head and its body clothed with
long, soft, yellow hairs, from amongst
which arise along the back five long pen-
cils of black hairs. When at rest it curls
itself up on the leaf, as shown in Fig. 17
Fig. 18,
When full grown the caterpillar spins a pale yellow cocoon of silk, interwoven with
its own hairs, hidden in some sheltered spot, and there,changes to a dark brown crysalis,
from which, in due time, the moth appears.
The perfect insect measures, when its wings are expanded, about an inch and three-
quarters across. (See Fig. 18). Its wings are grey, varied with dark brown dots and
spots and shadings. Near the hinder angle of the front wings is a rather conspicuous spot,
not very distinctly shown in the figure, resembling the Greek letter psi placed sidewise.
There are two broods of this insect during the year; the moths of the first appear in
J une, deposit eggs which produce larve that reach their full growth, pass the chrysalis
_—
277
stage, and from which moths emerge about the end of July. The second brood of larve
are found about the last of August and throughout September, they become crysalids
- late in the season, and pass the winter in the crysalis state.
The Pine Leaf-miner—Gelechia pinifoliella.
The leaf eaters of forest trees are not all large insects ; there are legions of tiny foes,
which make up in numbers what
they lack in size, and thus inflict
serious injury. As a specimen of
this class is a minute moth, whose
larva lives within the leaf of several
species of pine. It may often be
observed that the ends of pine
leaves, and in many cases the entire
leaves above their base, become
dead and brown, and when opened
are found to be entirely eaten out
and to contain, if in the proper
season, the larva or pupa of this
leaf-miner. Fig. 19 (after Comstock)
represents this insect in its various
stages, much magnified ; the short
lines near the figures indicate the
natural size. The caterpillar is
light brown, narrow, and nearly
cylindrical in form, with the head
and shield on next segment black.
The crysalis is long and slender, of
a light brown when first formed,
but becoming darker afterwards.
The moth is brownish, the fore wings crossed by three white lines, the hind wings pale grey.
The moth, when its wings are spread, measures only three-eighths of an inch across.
The Oak Leaf-miner—Lithocolletis hamadryadella.
) This is another very small insect of the same class which injures the leaves of differ-
Fig. 19.
\
——— EE —
NICHOLS. ENG>
278
ent species of oak. In Fig. 20 (after Comstock) we have an oak leaf represented, covered
with blotches. These are of a dull yellowish-white colour, and are caused by the larva of
this insect, which lives between the upper and under skins of the leaf and consumes its
substance. The young larve are shown at 4, in the figure ; c, f, and g represent the larva
in the later periods of its growth; m the chrysalis anda the moth. Although each insect
makes but an insignificant blotch on the leaf, yet they are sometimes found in such
countless multitudes that almost every leaf has a colony of them, and this interference
with the vital functions of the tree by the destruction of the foliage often seriously injures
it, and sometimes causes its death.
The White Pine Saw-fly—Lophyrus abbotiz.
Moths and their caterpillars are not the only enemies the tree grower has to contend
with ; foes of the most formidable character are found as well among other orders of
insects. Probably, no insect is more gen-
erally destructive to the white pine than
the pine saw-fly, belonging to the order
Hymenoptera, which is represented in its
different stages in Fig. 21 (after Riley).
The larve, shown at 4 in the figure, are
found in colonies, keeping together until
full-grown, and after stripping the leaves
off one twig or branch they pass on to the
adjoining branches, until sometimes one
side of a tree, or, if it be of small size, the
whole tree will be denuded of its foliage
and destroyed. They appear from mid-
summer until October, are nearly an inch
i long, of a yellowish-white colour, with
Fie. 21. o three or four longitudinal rows of black
F spots. When mature they form tough,
brown, pod-like cocoons attached to the twigs within which the change to a crysalis takes
place, from which, in due time, the perfect fly escapes.
The Hickory Aphis—Aphis Caryalla.
This is a small yellow aphis which lives on the under side of the leaves of the
hickory. Its antenne are ringed alternately with white and black, the wings are tran-
sparent, without spots, and the legs yellowish white. This insect, in common with all
other plant lice, lives by suction ; it inserts its beak into the tissues of the leaf and lives
upon the sap. : as
Having briefly referred to some representative species in each group of these insect
enemies to forest culture, we now pass to the consideration of the remedies, natural and
artificial, available for their destruction.
It is obviously extremely difficult, if not impracticable, to undertake to destroy or
control by human agency, insects injurious to forest trees. The area covered by them is
so great that the labour and expense connected therewith would be out of all proportion
to the good likely to be accomplished. Artificial remedies are applicable only to street
trees, small groups on the lawn or ornamental ground, or to plantations of young trees,
where the depredators may be easily reached, and since such trees or groups are in most
instances esteemed as of great value by the owners, and are objects of constant solicitude,
they are worthy of special efforts for their preservation.
It is difficult to reach insects which make their home either on the surface or in the
interior of the roots of trees. Where the presence of such insects are suspected, the sur-
face soil should be removed and the superficial roots examined, when if convincing
evidence of their presence is found, scalding hot water should be poured upon the roots thus
laid partially bare, and the earth replaced, It has also been suggested to apply bisulphide
= - ah Sune
279
of carbon, a volatile fluid of a very nauseous odour, by first making holes in the ground by
means of a crowbar, and pouring therein a little of this fluid, then closing the aperture
and confining the liquid, which slowly vaporizing finds its way into the porous soil around
it, for a considerable distance. This liquid has been used for the Phylloxera on the grape
roots in France, and it is claimed, with much success.
Borers in the trunks of trees may be detected by the little heaps of sawdust-like
castings, Which are thrust out of the holes at the extremity of their burrows. Where
such are seen, the culprit should be searched for and destroyed with a knife or by thrust-
ing a pointed wire into the orifice. As a preventive measure, the trees should be coated
early in June with an alkaline mixture, made by mixing a cold saturated solution of
washing soda with soft soap, until the soap is reduced to the consistence of paint. This
should be freely applied with a brush, from the base up to the crotch of the tree, and
along such of the larger branches as may be within reach. If this is applied during dry
weather, it will dry and form a coating not easily removed by rain. The parent insects
avoid depositing their eggs on trees so protected, since the alkaline coating is distasteful
to them, and would probably destroy any young larve hatching from eggs placed on it.
As most of the perfect insects of borers appear during June and July, if this application
is made early in June, and repeated in three or four weeks afterwards, the trees to which
it is applied will be efficiently protected.
For the destruction of insects on the external surface of the bark, a similar alkaline
-wash would prove an efficient remedy.
All insects which devour the leaves of forest trees may be destroyed by syringing the
foliage with water to which Paris green has been added, in the proportion of one or two
teaspoonfuls of the powder to two gallons of water. If the Paris green be of the best
quality, a teaspoonful to two gallons would be sufficient. It should be well mixed,
and being a strong poison, care should be taken after using it to thoroughly cleanse the
vessels in which it has been mixed, before using them for any other purpose. Powdered
hellebore, which is not so very poisonous, may also be employed to advantage. for the same
purpose, by mixing an ounce of the powder with two gallons of water.
Where insects attack the terminal twigs of trees, and burrow into their substance,
they can be destroyed by cutting off the infested twigs and burning them. Plant lice on
the leaves of trees may be destroyed by syringing with strong tobacco water.
It is, however, to Nature’s remedies that we must look mainly for relief, especially
where large groves of forest trees are invaded. ‘There are a vast number of insects which
have been specially fitted to prey on other insects, and it is to them that we must mainly
look for aid in subduing noxious species. Since their habits and modes of life vary
greatly, we must, to make the subject clear, go a little into detail here.
First, we have the sand beetles, or tiger beetles, as
they are sometimes called, Cicindelide, (represented by
Figs. 22 and 23,) which are very active creatures, de-
vouring whatever defenceless insect life may fall in their
way. The beetles, of which we have a number of species,
lay their eggs on the ground, and the larve, which are
.odd-looking humped-backed creatures, excavate for them-
selves small cylindrical holes in the
ey ey earth of such a calibre that their large
dull bronzy heads will just fill the ori-
fice. They never leave these excavated
Fig. 22. (gj Fig. 23. Fig. 24. chambers in search of food, but crawl
to the surface and there place their
heads in position, in such a way that the hole is exactly filled, and there patiently wait
until some unwary insect strays within their reach, or walks over their heads, when the
jaws suddenly open, the unsuspecting victim is seized, dragged down the hole and de-
voured at leisure. (This larva is represented by Fig. 24.) When the larva is full grown
it changes to a chrysalis under the ground, from which, after a time, the perfect beetle
escapes.
Next in order come the ground beetles, or carabide, of which we have in America,
280
north of Mexico, about 1,100 named species. These vary greatly in size, some when perfect
are but little larger than fleas, while others attain a length of an inch and a quarter or more.
The members of this immense family are, with very few exceptions, insect eaters in their
caterpillar as well as beetle state. In both conditions they are very active, wandering
about from place to place seeking whom they may devour. Some apply themselves to
this useful work during the day time, while others are nocturnal in their habits. The
larve of many of them, being soft-bodied and comparatively defenceless, live under stones
and logs, or hide themselves in loose earth or rubbish. Every person interested in the
destruction of noxious insects should so far acquaint himself with the general appearance
of the members of this useful family as to be able to recognize them. The copper-spotted
carab, Calosoma calidum, is shown in Fig. 25, and the green caterpillar hunter, Calosoma
scrutator, in Fig. 26 ; these are among the largest and most familiar species. They often
climb trees in search of canker-worms, tent caterpillars, and other injurious species, and
consume them with great gusto.
Fig. 25.
A third very useful family of beetles is that of the lady birds Coccinellide. These
nearly all feed on insects, both as larvee and beetles, and are especially fond of plant lice,
Aphides. In Figs. 27, 28 and 29 some of our most useful species are shown in the
larval, chrysalis and beetle stages, others are represented in the beetle state only, in
Figs. 30, 31, 32, 33 and 34. Some of the beetles are known to devour the eggs of the
Fig. 29.
Colorado potato beetle, and in all probability they eat the eggs of other destructive
insects as well. Were it not for these useful creatures we should soon have our trees
b 1 ny
Fig. 34,
Fig. 30.
i
281
and shrubs swarming with plant lice, for the powers of reproduction among the plant
lice are so enormous that, if unchecked by these active and efficient aids, their numbers
would increase to an extent at present inconceivable. In addition to those enumerated,
there are species belonging to some other families of beetles which, either in the larval
or perfect state, feed on other insects ; but the three great families named stand pre-emi-
nently out among the most useful of the insect tribes.
Among the four-winged flies (Hymenoptera) we have also many active and useful
friends. Some of the larger species of wasps feed on insects, and many of them lay up a
store of insects as food for their young: When preparing for the sustenance of their
successors these sagacious creatures make cells in the ground, and having placed an egg
therein, pack the cells with a sufficient number of insects to sustain the young larva
when hatched until it reaches maturity. The cell, when filled, is sealed by the parent,
and in this the insect passes through its several
stages of egg, larva, and chrysalis, finally escap-
ing from this prison-house a perfect wasp, to
continue its useful work. The fraternal potter
wasp, Lumenes fraterna (Fig. 35), is one of these
useful insects. All sorts of soft bodied insects.
are stored up in these wasp cells, especially
caterpillars, and the wasps have the power either
of so poisoning their victims that they do not
die outright, but remain ina constant state of
torpor, or else they inject some fluid into their
bodies which preserves them, since they do not,
Fic. 35. when stored in these cells, undergo decay.
i A far more important and useful family of
insect killers are the ichneumon flies, which belong to the same order as the wasps.
These active, sprightly creatures are all day long on the wing, searching everywhere, and
prying into every nook and corner for caterpillars, in whose bodies they deposit eggs,
puncturing the skin and placing them underneath, where they hatch into tiny grubs,
which sustain themselves on the bodies of their victims, avoiding the vital organs, but
so weakening the caterpillars that they die either before or soon after passing into the
chrysalis condition. In this manner myriads of caterpillars are yearly destroyed, the
ichneumon usually changing to a chrysalis within the body of its victim, or spinning a
cocoon upon its surface. In Figs. 36 and 37 representatives of this class are shown.
19(F. G.)
282
Among the two-winged flies, Diptera, we have also our useful allies. The Tachina
flies, whose history is very similar to that of the ichneumons, are very numerous, and
they destroy immense numbers of caterpillars; Fig. 38
illustrates one of these. The syrphus flies, elegant little
creatures with golden bands across their bodies (see Fig. 39),
deposit their eggs where plant lice are most numerous, and
their larvee, which are blind, grope around searching for the
Fig. 38. Fig. 40.
defenceless lice, which they greedily devour (see Fig. 40). The dragon flies, Vewroptera,
are also worthy of mention, since they are great insect eaters, catching their prey on the
wing and alighting to devour it.
Insectivorous birds are also useful helpers, although not so important as insect
friends. Nearly all birds feed their young on insects, and hence, during the breeding
season, consume large numbers of them, but they devour alike the useful and the injurious,
the one as readily as the other, and are not at all discriminating in this important parti-
cular. From the observations thus far made it seems probable that birds do comparatively
little to keep down injurious insects ; that the even balance between the useful and the
noxious species, when disturbed by the overdue accumulation of the latter, is set right
mainly through the agency of friendly insects. This subject has not, however, been suffi-
ciently studied to enable one to speak positively concerning it. In the meantime let us
encourage the insectivorous birds, and do all we can to protect them.
CONCLUSION.
The delegates, in view of the information obtained at the several meetings of the
American Forestry Congress, beg leave to make the following recommendations :
I. That such of the public lands as are more suitable for the growing of timber
than for agricultural purpose, be retained by Government as a part of the public domain.
II. That within this timbered tract scattered portions be leased to persons suitable to
act as forest police, to protect the timber lands from trespass, guard against fires, remove
fallen timber, and act under instructions.
III. That no trees shall be cut, whether pine, spruce, hemlock, or hardwood, on any
of the public timber lands under fourteen inches in diameter at the stump.
IV. That no cattle, sheep, or swine be allowed to roam at large in any of the public
woodlands.
V. That the lighting of fires in or near any woods from May to October, inclusive,
be prohibited, under severe penalties.
VI. That a general stock law be enacted, prohibiting cattle, sheep, and swine from
running at large in any part of the Province, unless the municipal council of any muni-
cipality shall pass a by-law authorizing their running at large within that municipality.
VII. That encouragement be given to farmers to plant timber lots of not less than
ten acres on each farm of one hundred acres, and maintain the same asa timber lot, from
283
which cattle must be carefully excluded. Such encouragement may be given by exempt-
ing the timber lots from taxation so long as the same are maintained and properly cared
for.
VIII. That encouragement be given to farmers to plant and maintain shade trees
along the public highways and the boundary lines of farms, by granting out of the Pro-
vincial treasury, a sum of ten or twelve cents for each tree so planted and maintained in
a healthy and growing condition for a period of five years, provided the municipal coun-
cil of the municipality in which they are growing shall have granted a like sum.
IX. That hereafter it be a condition in all sales or grants to settlers, that not less
than twenty-five acres in every hundred shall be forever kept as woodland, under penalty
-of forfeiture of the whole, and that the covenant be made to run with the land.
X. That scientific and practical instruction in forestry be given to the students at
the Agricultural College.
XI. That a competent conservator of forests be employed, with a sufficient staff, and
clothed with adequate powers to see to the proper execution of all laws relating to the
cutting of timber, lighting of fires, running at large of animals, etc., etce., within the
timber lands of the Province.
XII. That as soon as practicable the management of the public forests be assumed
by the Government, and all timber be cut and sold, trees planted, pruned, and cared for,
and all matters relating thereto be conducted under the supervision of a chief forester.
XIII. That the grounds of the several public institutions be utilized as far as prac-
ticable as experimental stations, by planting thereon timber trees that promise to be of
practical value, and testing their adaptation to these several localities.
XIV. That Government cause accurate maps to be made of each County, shewing
the area that has been cleared off, that has been destroyed by fire, and that is yet covered
with timber, and indicating as far as practicable the quality of the standing timber.
XV. That a forest of acclimation be establishedjat the, Agricultural College, Guelph,
in which shall be planted such forest trees of other countries as may probably become
acclimated in this country, and prove to be valuable for economical or ornamental pur-
poses.
All of which is respectfully submitted,
D. W. BEADLE,
Wm. SAUNDERS,
Wm. Browy,
P. C. Dempsey,
THos. BEALL.
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REPORT
OF THE
ENTUMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
ChE ONCE A REG),
MeCtie riod eG. Ve BA i he So
Printed by Order of the Legislative Assembly.
Goronta :
PRINTED BY C. BLACKETT ROBINSON, 5 JORDAN STREET.
1883.
Actias luna .. ; 26
Adoxus vitis : 54
Aeschna heros 4 29
Aletia argillacea .. 10, 24, 50
Amphropora parallela 3 76
Anax junius ip 29
Annual Address of President .. 5
Annual Meeting, aM SAT Society « of
Ontario 2
Anomoea laticlavia 53
Anthomyia betz 29
ceparum 51
re radicum 51
Apple tree pest, a new 16
Asparagus beetle .. . 53
Aspidiotus conchiformis .. 80
B.
Birds, revised check list of 31
Book notices a4 30
Bowles, George H., ‘article by .. 32
Bowles, Gace article by 19
Cc.
Cabbage butterfly, English T1223} -2ou2o
Southern he 2, 24
Catocale of Illinois 4 3l
Cecidomyia destructor .. 45, 66
leguminicola. . . 45, 66
a strobiloides .. : 46
se trifolii 45
sy tritici .. 45
Ceresa bubalis 75
** diceros 75
Chelimorpha argus 59
Chlamys plicata 54
Chrysomela clivicollis 56
elegans : 56
” multiguttata. 56
+ i ie 56
Chrysomelide 51
Cicada canicularis \. 72
ee imperatoria 70
sf pruinosa f(t
“ ~ TiImosa . 7%
‘* septendecim 7s
Clastoptera obtusa 76
proteus 76
Claypole, E. W., article by 24
Clisiocampa constricta 9
Cockchafer . 24
Codling moth 9
Colaspis flavida .. HS 55
Colorado potato beetle oe lila ats
Conotrachelus nenuphar . . s 24
Coptocycla aurichalcea 60
Coscinoptera dominicana 53
Crioceris asparagi . 53
Cryptocephalus, luteipennis 54
maculatus 54
Cucumber beetle i Bi
Culex pipiens 44
D.
PAGE.
Diabrotica 12-punctata 57
-vittata . : 57
Diplosis, parasitic, species of 8
$f resinicola 47
Diptera é 43
Disonycha alternata 58
collaris 58
i glabrata 58
“ triangularis .. Pe 58
Dodge, Charles R., article by .. 16
Dodge, G. M., article ae 28
Donacia equalis 52
proxima .. 52
‘pubescens 52
** subtilis 52
Doryphora decem- lineata 55
Dragon-flies, migration of 29
Drosophila ampelophila A 19
E.
Ecpantheria scribonia 12
Enchenopa binotata 75
Entilia carinata_ . ne 75
Entomological Society of Ontario, “annual
meeting of . : 2
Entomology, elementary 31
si popular papers on 12
Fintoniological notes for 1881 24
Epitrix cucumeris . 59
Erythroneura vitis 76
Eugonia subsignaria 16
FE.
Fidia viticida 54
Field Notes for 1881 23
Fire-fly ; : 32
Flesh-fly 50
Fletcher, J ames, article by 67
G.
Galeruca rufosanguinea .. 57
Galerucella marginella 57
Se sagittarize 58
ee xanthomelina 57
Gastrophysa polygoni 56
Glyptoscelis pubescens 54
Gooseberry saw-fly 8
Grape berry moth .. 65"
“ phylloxera .. 7, 60
Graptodera chalybea 58
H.
Hagen, Dr. H. A., article by , 27
Harrington, W. ie article eo by: 21, 36, 51
Harvest-flies, : 67
Hemonia nigricornis AF a oe if 52
Hessian fly . : ® 3 .. 5, 30, 45, 66
Holophora arctata, ae meas ye 64
Homoptera .. 67
Hop-vine borer 17
Horse breeze fly
Horse flies .. ©
House flies ..
I.
Ichneumon fly
Insects, fossil, bibliography of .
injurious to forest trees
af noxious and beneficial .
L.
Lachnosterna fusca
Lampyris Italica ..
te noctiluca
Lasioptera Vitis ste
Last year’s collecting, notes on.
Leaf-hoppers :
Leaf-mining anthomyidz
Leopard moth :
Lema trilineata
Leucania unipuncta :
Lintner, J. A., article by
Lobesia botrana ..
Long-stings .. 5h
Luminous insects . .
Luna moth .
Lyman, H. H., article by,
M.
Midge, clover
“¢ wheat
Moffat, J. Alston, ‘article by
Monachus saponatus se
Monocesta coryli ..
Mud-wasp ..
Mundt, ie 13h , article by
Musca domestica ..
N.
Nematus ventricosus
Nemoria leucanie ..
O.
Odontota rosea :
Oedionychus quercata
Oestius bovis
se. MOVIE, 3
Onion flies ae
Ophion macrurum ..
Orsodachna childreni
Ortalis flexa. .
Ox bot-fly ..
Oyster- shell bark louse
PR.
Pachybrachis tridens
Papilio machaon
Paria aterrima ae
Photuris pennsylvanica ..
3 injurious to fruit trees in California
. 45,
36:
Phyllotreta vittata
Phylloxera vastatrix
Pickled fruit fly
Pieris marsupia
‘¢ protodice
rape ..
Pipiza radicum
Plagiodera lapponica
. scripta ..
Platycerus quercus
Plum curculio '
Polestes annulatus. .
Polyphemus moth
Potato sphinx 3é
Psylla celtisdis-mamma ..
Pyrophorus noctilucus
ce
R.
Reed, E. B., articles by .
Report of Council .
Montreal Branch
a Secretary-Treasurer ..
Rhyssa atrata
“ — lunator
Root louse Syrphus fly
S.
Samia cecropia
* columbia
Sarcophaga carnaria
sarracenize
Saunders, W., articles by
Saunders, W. E., article by
Scolops dulcipes
Sheep bot-fly
Smilia van ..
Syneta tripla
Systena frontalis
marginalis
T.
Tabanus atratus .
Tachina doryphorze :
Telamona ampelopsides ..
Telea polyphemus..
Tree-hoppers oh
Trichogramma pretiosa ..
Trupanze apivora .
Two-winged flies .. :
Tyroglyphus phylloxera . i
V.
Vespa maculata
‘* oecidentalis
Vitis coryloides
‘* pomum
tomatos
‘** viticola
“ce
Y.
| Yeast as an insect destroyer
1, 2, 10,
.. 5, 12, 30,
8, 60,
8, 64
27
THERE NTE. (ANNUAL REP ORT
OF THE
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
OF
QIN. VA be 1 CO)’,
INCLUDING REPORTS ON SOME OF THE NOXIOUS, BENEFICIAL
AND OTHER INSECTS OF THE PROVINCE.
PREPARED FOR THE HONOURABLE THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE
BY THE OFFICERS AND MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY.
A Oy a se me
To the Honourable the Commissioner of Agriculture :
Sm,—I beg to submit to you, herewith, the Annual Report of the Entomological
Society of Ontario, prepared in compliance with the provisions of our Act of Incorporation.
The audited Financial Statement is submitted, as well as the transactions of the
annual meeting, which was held this year in the City of Montreal, on August 24th. The
Society is greatly indebted to your courtesy in enabling them to meet in Montreal, as an
opportunity was thus afforded of obtaining the presence of a large number of scientists,
who were attending the session there being held, of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science.
I have, also, the honour to submit, herewith, for your approval, illustrated reports of
various insects, which have been prepared by members of the Society.
In order to make these reports more useful and their information more accessible to
those interested in them, the society has thought it advisable to prepare an index of the
whole series that have been issued by the Department, and I trust that it will meet with
bo
your approval. It will bear’good evidence, that, through the Department, a vast amount
of practical information has been given to the public respecting the habits and life history
of the various insect friends and foes that abound in every part of the Province.
I am glad to be able to report that our Society still maintains the publication of the
Canadian Entomologist.
During the year an application was made to the members of the Society by the
Minister of Marine and Fisheries of the Dominion to furnish specimens, illustrating the
natural history of insects serving as food for fishes, or which are destroyers of spawn, it
being desired to exhibit them at the great International Fisheries exhibition to be held
in London, England, in 1883. A tec
The Society cheerfully complied with the request, and it is intended to prepare some
forty cases as a Canadian exhibit.
I have the honour, sir, to remain,
Your obedient servant,
Epmunp Baynes REED,
Secretary-Treasurer.
ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF ONTARIO.
The annual meeting was held in the rooms of the Natural History Society, Montreal,
on Thursday, August 24, 1882, at 3 o’clock p.m.
The President, Mr. Wm. Saunders, of London, Ont., in the chair.
Present: H. F. Bassett,Waterbury, Conn.; Rev. C. J. 8. Bethune, M.A., Port
Hope ; G. J. Bowles, Vice-President, Montreal; F. B. Caulfield, Montreal ; Prof. J. H.
Comstock, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.; Prof. A. J. Cook, Agric. College, Lansing,
Mich. ; Wm. Couper, Montreal; T. Craig, Montreal; J. M. Denton, London; C. R.
Dodge, Washington, D. C.; Prof. C. H. Fernald, State Coll, Orono, Maine; C. Fish,
Brunswick, Maine ; Jas. Fletcher, Ottawa; Rev. F. W. Fyles, Cowansville, P. Q.; Prof.
H. A. Hagen, Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, Mass. ; W. H. Harrington, Ottawa; Prof.
S. Henshaw, Boston, Mass.; Dr. P. R. Hoy, Rachine, Wis. ; J. G. Jack, Chateauguay
Basin, P. Q.; Dr. H. 8. Jewett, Dayton, Ohio; Prof. J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist,
Albany, N. Y.; H. H. Lyman, Montreal; B. Pickman Mann, Assist. Entomologist,
Agricul. Dept., Washington. D. C.; Prof. C. V. Riley, Entomologist Agric. Dept.,
Washington, D. C.; Wm. Shaw, Montreal; E. D. Winble, Montreal; C. D. Zimmer-
man, Buffalo, N. Y.; E. Baynes Reed, Sec.-Treas., London, and others,
The minutes of the previous meeting were confirmed, the reading being dispensed
with as they had been printed and sent to the members.
The President then addressed a few words of cordial welcome to the members
present.
The report of the Council and the financial statement of the Sec.-Treas. for the past
year were then read, and on motion, adopted.
os
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR 1882.
In presenting their Annual Report, the Council desire to give some explanation as
to the place and time of holding this annual meeting. Knowing that it had been
determined that the American Association for the Advancement of Science would meet
this year in Montreal, it seemed to your Council to be desirable to hold the annual
session of the Entomological Society of Ontario at the same time and place.
The necessary application was accordingly made to the Hon, 8. C. Wood, the Com-
missioner of Agriculture for the Province of Ontario, to sanction such an arrangement,
it being pointed out to him that the presence of so many distinguished EKntomologists
from the United States would have a most beneficial effect upon the meeting, and that
the interests of the great agricultural community for whose welfare this Society is chietly
maintained would be promoted by the intercourse and exchange of thoughtful and useful
suggestions from so large a gathering of practical entomologists, with this request the
Commissioner most cheerfully and promptly complied.
The Council, moreover, felt that the holding of the annual meeting of the Entomo-
logical Society of Ontario, in the ancient City of Montreal, was the more desired on
account of the presence there of those energetic entomologists through whose unwearied
efforts the Montreal Branch of our Society has been so well sustained, and whose Ninth
Annual Report, to be submitted to you to-day, affords additional evidence of zeal and
interest in Entomology.
The Council are pleased to be able to report that the progress of the Society still
continues.
After thirteen years of existence, the Canadian Entomologist may now be regarded
as firmly established, and the Council trust that it may continue to receive in the future
the same amount of valuable additions to our store of Entomological knowledge which in
past years have given it a not unworthy place as one of the chief contributors to the
Entomological Literature of America.
The demand from various European Scientific Societies, and others, for complete
sets of the Canadian Entomologist, have rendered it necessary to reprint the first and
second volumes. ‘The Society can now, therefore, furnish copies of all the volumes.
During the last session of the Dominion Parliament the Council endeavoured to
obtain for Scientific Societies the admission of books for their Libraries free of duty ; in
this they were disappointed, but they hope at the next session to be more successful, being
convinced that it is an effort in the right direction, and that its success would prove a
great benefit tothe various Scientific Societies of the Dominion.
The Annual Keports of our Societies are being continued, and the Ontario Govern-
ment distributes large numbers of them.
In the past year the Council have caused visits to be made to various places where
insects were reported to be damaging crops, etc. Inquiry was made as to amount of
injury being caused, and suggested practical remedies.
The Library of the Society isincreasing. Itis hoped that the catalogue—the print-
ing of which has from various reasons been delayed—will shortly be issued to the mem-
bers. The Council are glad to be able to report that they have secured a complete set
of the valuable publications of Prof. Townend Glover, of Washington, D. C.
It is with regret that the Council learn that the sub-section of Entomology of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science has been merged in the important
section of Biology. The meetings of the sub-section in past years was a source of gratifi-
cation to all attending them, and afforded excellent opportunities for furthering Kntomo-
logical Science.
In the wide region, embraced by Section F., it is to be feared that the special
interests of Entomology will suffer in some degree, and the Council would respectfully
suggest that an effort be made to revive the Entomological Club, so that the members
attending the meeting of the Association, while doing all they can to sustain Kntomo-
logy in Section F. by reading of papers, etc., may have ample time for that full and
free discussion of the details of our work which is so important to the progress of our
special branch of Natural History.
The audited Report of our finances for the past year will be submitted to you as usual.
On behalf of the Council.
. E. Baynes Reep,
Montreal, P. Q., Aug. 24th, 1882. Secretary-Treasurer.
ANNUAL STATEMENT OF THE SECRETARY-TRE ASURER OF THE
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF ONTARIO, FOR THE
YEAR ENDING AUGUST 197, 1882.
Receipts.
Balance from: preyions. year, 1B81 .... x. encsaeeeeenn st cence -neeen A ey, ee
Members’ fees, sale of E’ntomologist, etc.............ccc0. eens cee eee ees 253 48
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