• V

:)

:

:

,■

>

:'i
■■1

i

;

\

i

.nSiitiiiion

U. S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT

COAST GUARD

THE MARION AND
GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

TO

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

UNDER DIRECTION OF
THE UNITED STATES COAST GUARD

1928-1931-1933-1934-1935

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

PART 2

tkmm^

MARINE
BIOlOGlCAt
LABORATOf?Y

1 IIH ■ I

LIBRARY

WOODS HOiE, MASS.
W. H 0 I.

U. S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT

COAST GUARD

Bulletin No. 19

THE MARION AND
GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

TO

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

UNDER DIRECTION OF
THE UNITED STATES COAST GUARD

1928-1931-1933-1934-1935

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

PART 2

PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

EDWARD H. SMITH

FLOYD M. SOULE

OLAV MOSBY

UNITED STATES

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON : 1937

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. ------- Price 75 cents

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction ^

Chapter I

The northwestern North Atlantic:

Definition and general description 1

History of oceanographic exploration 3

Chapter II

Instruments and methods 13

Chapter III

The circulatory system and types of water 25

C^HAPTER It

The West Greenland sector:

The surface currents 28

Cross sections of the currents 30

Horizontal distribution of temperature and salinity 37

Vertical distribution of temperature and salinity 42

Annual variations ^^

Annual cycle "2

Table of volume of currents 65

Chapter V
The Davis Strait sector:

The surface currents ^^

Cross sections of the currents 69

Horizontal distribution of temperature and saUnity 71

Vertical distribution of temperature and salinity 73

mu » • J. Chapter VI

The American sector:

The surface currents ^0

Cross sections of the currents 83

Horizontal distribution of temperature and salinity 90

Vertical distribution of temperature and salinity 99

Annual variations 1^2

Annual cycle 1^''

Table of volume of currents 127

_, ^ J T, 1 A Chapter VII

The Grand Banks sector:

The surface currents 129

Cross sections of the currents 133

Horizontal distribution of temperature and salinity 135

Vertical distribution of temperature and salinity .: 136

Annual variations 13'

Annual cycle 1^^

Table of volume of currents 1^3

ni

IV CONTENTS

The Labrador Sea: Chapter VIII P.^e

Surface circulation 167

Summary of the surface circulation 170

Exchange of water in Baffin Bay 173

Exchange of water, Labrador Sea 173

Exchange of heat in Labrador Sea 173

Cabbeling 175

Velocity profiles of stratosphere , 179

Vertical distribution of temperature and salinity 180

The intermediate water 184

The deep water 186

The bottom water 187

Summary 192

Bibliography . 195

Station maps and station table data - 201

INTRODUCTION

The appearance of this publication completes the series of United
States Coast Guard Bulletin 19.^

The report is based on the observations of the Mario7i expedition,
1928, and amplified by the cruises of the General Greene to the
Labrador Sea, 1931 and 1933 to 1935. In view of the similarity and
intermixture between the waters north of Newfoundland and those
around the Grand Banks, it has been deemed advisable to add an
exposition of the latter based upon the researches of the International
Ice Patrol, the observations of which are published in Coast Guard
Bulletins 1-25.

The Coast Guard's material consists of temperature and salinity
observations from surface and subsurface; the treatment centering
on a portrayal of the distribution and correlation of these two physi-
cal characteristics and their dependent variables in vertical and hori-
zontal planes. A few oxygen observations have also been made in
order to examine the vertical motion in the deeper Avater of the
Labrador Sea.

The prevailing circulation, as indicated by the dynamic topogra-
phic maps, the velocity profiles, and the velocities of the currents
have been computed in accordance with generally accepted methods
of present-clay dynamic oceanography. Calculations of the volumes
of the discharge, the cooling and warming eifect of given water
masses, and other influences have been recorded. The repetition of
observations in many places, moreover, during a series of months
and a series of years, affords opportunity to discuss variations and
cycles. In this respect the Grand Banks region has been investi-
gated in more detail than has the area north of Newfoundland, but
even from the Grand Banks there are insufficient observations to de-
scribe accurately the annual cycle.

The three collaborators have been at one time or another asso-
ciated with, or in active charge of, the scientific work which the
United States Coast Guard has maintained in connection with the
International Ice Observation and Ice Patrol.^

Acknowledgments

The Commandant of the United States Coast Guard, as chair-
man of the International Ice Patrol Board, as well as the other
members, has through an appreciation of the scientific aspects of the
ice-patrol work, afforded us the time to prepare this bulletin.

The appearance of the report is largely due to the efforts of Prof.
Henry B. Bigelow, director, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
We wish to take this opportunity to acknowledge particularly Dr.

1 Contribution No. 107 of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
= Those interested in a description of the methods employed to protect trans-Atlantic
shipping from the ice menace are referred to Smith (1931).

V

VI INTRODUCTION

Bigelow's interest in behalf of our work and also his iinfailincr coun-
sel and advice. Commander Eigil Riis-Cai-stensen, Royal Danisli
Navy, leader of the Godthadb expedition 1928, has extended a helpjful
spirit of cooperation in order that a clear exposition of the physical
oceanography of the Labrador Sea be attained. Officials of the In-
stitut fiir Meereskunde have generously permitted us to make use of
the results of the wintertime observations of the Meteor in the
Irminger and Labrador Seas.

Acknowledgments are also made to Mr. C. O'D. Iselin for reading
parts of the manuscript; to Dr. W. L. G. Joerg for advice and
counsel on bulletin, part 3, of this series; and to members of the
United States Coast Guard who have assisted with the actual work
of preparing the paper. Institutions which have cooperated include
the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; the American Geo-
graphic Society; the Institut fiir Meereskunde; and the Geophysical
Institute, Bergen, Norway.

Chapter I
THE NOKTHWESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC

DEFINITION AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The northwestern North Atlantic, as it is discussed here, is that
portion of the western Atlantic Ocean embraced by the normal drift
of Arctic ice ; and, so defined, includes the waters around and on the
Grand Banks, and northward, between North America and Green-
land to the seventieth parallel of latitude. Observations in the areas
closer to the sources of Arctic ice have not been undertaken by the
Coast Guard. Information, therefore, on the oceanography of Baffin
Bay and other tributaries as they affect our own investigations, has
been dra^vn from previously published works.

The bathymetric features of the northwestern North Atlantic are
shown on tlie frontispiece (fig. 1). The depth contours have been
drawn from information contained on various navigational charts
and from several other sources, such as Ricketts and Trask (1932) ;
Defant (1931) ; Stocks and Wust (1935), and Soule (1936).

Northwestward from the Newfoundland Basin to the sixty-third
parallel the bottom rises gradually (more than 2,000 meters below
the surface) to form, between Greenland and Labrador, the Labrador
Basin. Continuing northward the basin grades upward more
abruptly to depths slightly less than 700 meters in the region of
Davis Strait Ridge where the slope is reversed, the bottom receding
to form the Baffin Bay Basin with depths greater than 2,000 meters.

The sides of the Labrador Basin present an interesting contrast.
Along the Greenland slope the basin rises steeply to a narrow con-
tinental shelf, while on the Labrador side a well-defined continental
edge and wide coastal margin prevails.

Greenland's shelf from a narrow continental ledge along its south-
western coast broadens to the latitude of Davis Strait, where in
places the 400-meter contour lies 80 miles oflfshore. This forma-
tion (Nielsen, 1928) is divided into three principal shoals, south to
north — Fylla, Little Hellefiske, and Great Hellefiske Banks. The
entrance to Baffin Bay places the deepest part of the channel through
Davis Strait nearer the Baffin Land than the Greenland shore. The
American shelf as bounded by the 400-meter contour broadens from
a width of TO miles off northern Labrador to a width of 180 miles
off Newfoundland and thence southward, as the Grand Banks and
Flemish Cap, it becomes one of the broadest of continental shelves.

The northeasterly extension of the 2,000-meter isobath (see frontis-
piece) between the Greenland slope and Reykjanes Ridge creates an
eastern appendage and a heart-shaped form to the Labrador Basin.
This eastern arm falls necessarily without the limits of our station
observations, and is, therefore, referred to only as its waters (the
Irminger Sea) affect our own regions under investigation.

2 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

The waters of the northwestern arm of the Labrador Basin
usually referred to as Davis Strait, has often raised a doubt as to
the extent of this body of water. Some maps, for example, print the
legend Davis Strait from the southern entrance of Baffin Bay to a
line from Cape Farewell to Newfoundland. The majority of car-
tographers, however, on recent maps, confine the name to the waters
on the submarine ridge between Greenland and Baffin Land. The
United States Geographic Board is also of the opinion that, strictly
speaking, the waters of Davis Strait refer only to the narrowest
part of the above waterway. If this definition be observed, and
such appears to be best practice, there remains a relatively large
sea expanse, bounded on the northeast by Greenland and on the
southwest by Labrador and Newfoundland, for which no name pre-
vails. The suggestion that this body of water be called the Labrador
Sea appears both logical and of good precedent, and so this usage
has been followed throughout the present paper.

Nearby waters to which occasional references are made include:
Irminger Sea, Denmark Strait, and Greenland Sea. The prevailing
circulation of the waters also requires frequent reference to the
Irminger Current, East Greenland Current, West Greenland Cur-
rent, Baffin Land Current, Labrador Current, Gulf Stream, and At-
lantic Current. The fanning out of the Gulf Stream on reaching the
longitude of the Grand Banks has necessitated another designation
for the flow east of the fiftieth meridian — Atlantic Current.

Knowledge regarding the submarine configuration of the north-
western North Atlantic in its deepest parts, especially where it con-
nects through the Labrador and Newfoundland Basins with the
North American Basin, helps to explain broad questions of deep-
water and bottom-water circulation. As a result of the echo sound-
ings obtained by the Meteor^ 1929-33, it was found that Reykjanes
Ridge (Defant, 1931) extends much farther to the southwest of
Iceland than had previously been believed. The configuration, as
shown by the trend of the 4,000-meter isobath in the lower right-
hand side of the frontispiece, suggests a topographic connection
between Reykjanes Ridge and Flemish Cap. Wiist (1935), for one,
was of the opinion that the deep water of the Labrador Basin was
partially barred from the Newfoundland Basin and the North Amer-
ican Basin by a Newfoundland Ridge (i. e., a connection between
the Reykjanes Ridge and Flemish Cap) at a depth of about 3,600
meters.^ The Meteor^ however, which in February and INIarch 1935
ran a line of soundings from Cape Farewell southward to the
fiftieth parallel as stated in a preliminary report by Dr. Bohnecke
dated April 8, 1935, found only one isolated sounding of about
3,800 meters near the position of the suspected ridge.

In the summer of 1935 Soule (1936) on the United States Coast
Guard cutter General Greene collected a total of 2,036 sonic sound-
ings from the Labrador Basin and in the region of the Newfound-
land Ridge hypothesized by Wiist (1933) . A bathynietric map based
upon all available soundings has been published by Soule (1936) and

8 His assumption of a Newfoundland Ridge was based on a difference in temperature
of tho bottom water as shown by the two following: observations : British ship Cambria,
latitude 51<'34' N., longitude 41*43'.S0" W., depth 4,2:U meters; ts 1.83° C, tp 1.46° C. :
and an unnamed ship, from the records of the British Admiralty, latitude 49°49' N., longi-
tude 38°00' W. ; depth 4,005 meters; ts 2.22° C, tp 1.85° C, (where U is the temperature
in situ and tp is the potential temperature).

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 6

the important contours from this map in the questionable region
have been incorporated in our frontispiece. As a result of the
General Greeners survey it now can be definitely stated that there
is no Newfoundland Ridge in the vicinity of the fiftieth parallel,
but Key k janes Ridge and Flemish Cap are separated by a tortuous
channel deeper than 4,500 meters. This depression which lies closer
to the American side of the Labrador Sea than the Greenland side
can be followed wdth decreasing depths in a northwesterly direction
for a considerable distance. Although there is no bar to the deeper
circulation of the Labrador Sea, as formerly suspected, the winding
and narrow features of the entering channel, however, may con-
siderably restrict the freer movement of the bottom water and par-
tially explain the temperature gradient recorded in footnote 3 (p. 2).
Secondary bathymetric features which have an important bearing
on some of the subjects under discussion, and to which brief atten-
tion should be called, include a trough-like embayment across the
American slope in the latitude of Hudson Strait, the 600-meter con-
tour penetrating to within a few miles of Resolution Island. An-
other topographic feature is an elliptical depression about 60 miles
long by 15 miles wide, its deepest parts more than 200 meters below
the surrounding shoal, in latitude 56 N., longitude 59 W. (See
frontispiece.) A larger and more irregularly shaped depression, but
not so deep a scarp, is found farther south, about 120 miles north-
east of Newfoundland. The Grand Banks, as bounded by the 100-
meter contour, are separated from St. Pierre Bank, Green Bank,
and Newfoundland by an equal number of channels, the one between
Cape Race and the Grand^ Banks cutting to a depth of 100 meters
below the main block of the Banks themselves. In practically every
one of the seven sections across the Labrador shelf (figs. 50 and 51)
the presence of a longitudinal depression is indicated.

HISTORY or OCEANOGRAPHIC EXPLORATION

The northwestern North Atlantic witnessed the voyages of the
Norse Vikings colonizing Greenland and reaching North American
(Vinland) shores as early as 1000 A. D. Existing written accounts
of the sea in the northwestern North Atlantic date from 1266, when
a Norse expedition sailed northward in Avest Greenland waters to the
region of Smith Sound. The first recorded crossing of the Labrador
Sea was made by Martin Frobisher in 1576.

Surface temperature data from the northwestern North Atlantic,
as material incidental to exploration, fisheries, and trade, together
with accounts of ice, were made the subject of an oceanographic
paper by Petermann (1867). He found evidence of a warm current
from the Atlantic that reached even the headwaters of Baffin Bay.

In 1872 Bessels, a scientist on board the Polaris of the United
States North Polar Expedition, recorded the first sub-surface tem-
peratures in the northwestern North Atlantic. Bessels' (1876) ob-
servations from depths of several meters in Kane Basin, north of
Baffin Bay, refuted the popular theory of Petermann of a warm
Atlantic current.

In 1875 Moss, staff surgeon with Nares on H. M. S. Alert of the
British North Polar Expedition, carried out a program of tempera-

4 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

ture observations at winter quarters and later in the nearby region of
Smith Sound. Also in August of the same year H. M. S. Valorous
returning home from Disko Island, Greenland, occupied three sta-
tions in the Labrador Sea, at which serial temperatures were secured,
surface to bottom. Carpenter (1887) found evidence of the follow-
ing : (a) A superheated surface layer in the Labrador Sea moving in
a northward direction; (h) a neutral intermediate layer 1,000
fathoms in thickness ; and {c) a cold bottom water of northern origin.
Carpenter's bottom temperatures of 1.44° C, and 1.11° C, are ap-
proximately a degree too low, which, no doubt overemphasized his
views of an Arctic influence.

Baron Nordenskiold's expedition in the Sofa to Greenland in the
summer of 1883 afforded Dr. Axel Hamberg (1884) opportunity
to take a series of oceanographic stations along the west coast of
Greenland as far north as Cape York. Miller-Casella and Negretti
and Zambra thermometers recorded temperatures in tenths. Ham-
berg reported the presence of a north flowing current off west Green-
land and also pointed out that the Baffin Bay water column is
divided into three strata — a surface layer of polar water; a mid-
depth Avarm stratum; and, beneath, water with minimum tempera-
ture. Hamburg's survey, both from the accuracy of measurements
and scope, was the most important oceanographic investigation of
the northwestern North Atlantic uj) to that time.

In the summers of 1884, 1886, and 1889 Lt. C. F. Wandel (later
Admiral) of the Royal Danish Navy, commanding the Fylla, car-
ried out in connection with fisheries investigations in west Green-
land waters a hydrographical survey. Six sections, extending out
across the shelf distances of 30-75 miles, were made along a front
from Godthaab to just north of Disko Island. A resume of the
Fylla''s survey indicated («) the Labrador current flowing southward
contributes Arctic water to the Labrador Sea; {h) the East Green-
land Current mixes with a current from the Atlantic along the west
coast of Greenland and gives off branches into the Labrador Sea ;
{c) the West Greenland Current continues northward as far as the
observations extended. In the light of subsequent investigations
Wandel's description of Arctic and Atlantic water entering the
Labrador Sea along the southwest coast of Greenland are surpris-
ingly true to prevailing fact.

The Danish naval schooner Ingolf, during an oceanographic expe-
dition in command of Captain Wandel (later Admiral) of the FyUa,
reportedly visited the region of Davis Strait June 26 to July 26,
1895. Dr. Martin Knudsen, in charge of the hydrographic work, took
a total of 15 stations of serial temperatures and salinities. Knudsen
found {a) the warm subsurface water mass in the Labrador Sea is
brought there by an extension of tlie Irminger Current which curves
nortiiward around Cape Farewell; {h) the subsurface waters of the
Labrador Sea are colder than those of the same latitude in the
Denmark Sea because of the chilling effect of the Labrador Current.
Knudsen's observations of temperatures and salinities were much
more accurate than previous records, but the temperatures from
below 2,000 meters are in most cases about a degree too low, a fact
which has been noted by Helland-Hansen (1930). The salinity of
Llie water of the Labrador Sea below 3.000 meters averages close

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 5

to 34.92%o whereas Knudsen at stations 38 and 37 obtained 34.60
and 34.63%o, respectively. At Knudsen's station no. 22, liowever, in
the bottom water southwest of Cape Farewell, 34.96%o appears fairly
accurate.

Based upon ships' log book records filed at the Deutsche Seewarte,
Schott (1897) published an exposition of the waters of the Grand
Banks and surroundings. In spite of the fact that the basic data
were necessarily confined to observations that could be made from
passing ships, Schott's paper is noteworthy, as it marks the beginning
of oceanographic literature on this particularly interesting area.

During the summers of 1908 and 1909 the Greeidand Trading Co.'s
brig Tjalfe carried out fishery and hydrogr-apical work in west
Greenland waters between the sixty-third and seventy-first parallels
of latitude. The results of the physical observations, considered with
data from other sources, have been reported by the Tjalfe's hydro-
grapher. Dr. J. N. Nielsen (1928). This is the most detailed and
complete oceanographic paper yet published on the northwestern
North Atlantic. The following conclusions are put forward, {a) The
Labrador and Denmark Seas, in mid-depths, are essentially of the
same physical character; {h) the West Greenland Current, with a
velocity of approximately 8 miles per day, leaves the coast in the
latitude of Godthaab to join the Labrador Current; {c) the tidal
flood current increases the velocity of the West Greenland Current,
the ebb decreases the same; {d) the velocity of the surface currents
around Greenland are greatly affected by the winds; {e) the extension
of the East Greenland Current undergoes seasonal variation and along
the southwest coast of Greenland disappears during autumn; (/) the
effects of winter chilling of the surface layers of the Labrador Sea
jDrobably extends all the way to bottom, j)roducing there the greater
part of the bottom water of the North Atlantic; {g) the eastern part
of Baffin Bay, beneath the surface, is filled with warm water that
has come across Davis Strait Ridge from the Atlantic and this layer
is thickest where it is pressed, by earth rotation, against the Green-
land slope; (A) the surface layers of Davis Strait are negative in
temperature throughout the year, and the warm water underneath
can have no direct effect, therefore, to melt the ice which is super-
ficial in draft. Our own observations in 1928 and subsequent years
supj)ort with specific evidence many of the early conclusions and
theories advanced as above by Nielsen.

In 1910 the waters of the northwestern North Atlantic in their
southern and eastern sectors were explored by the Michael Sars North
Atlantic Deep-Sea Expedition. Prof. B. Helland-Hansen (1930) was
in charge of the physical work. The Michael Sars approached north-
ward toward the Grand Banks running a line of stations near the
fiftieth meridian toward St. John's, Newfoundland, and thence east-
ward in that latitude across the Atlantic. Serial observations of tem-
perature and salinity taken surface to 3,000 meters portray in both
sections the abrupt transitions that prevail along the North American
slope. The large scale maps, as Helland-Hansen points out, will
require many corrections as more and more detailed observations are
compiled. This in fact has been proved as will be shown by our own
contributions herein. One of the most important questions dealt with
by Helland-Hansen is the source of supply of the North Atlantic

6 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

bottom water. Helland-Hansen believes Arctic contributions are
indicated in what few observations there are recorded from the deeper
parts of the northwestern North Atlantic.

In 1913 the Grand Banks and Atlantic waters adjacent to New-
foundland received their first systematic study. Dr. D. J. Matthews
(1914), on the steamship Scotia, carried out these investigations in
connection with a service providing better protection for trans-At-
lantic steamers against the menace of Arctic ice. Some of the main
results of .Matthew's summary are («) the Labrador Current has
salinities on the surface between 32.5 and 33.5%o which increase
with depth, while a temperature minimum as low as — 1.8° C, is to
be found at depths of 5(>^T5 meters; {h) the Labrador Current splits
into three parts on the northern edge of the Grand Banks; (1) the
westerly branch flows around Cape Race; (2) the middle and most
important arm follows tlie eastern edge of the Grand Banks, prob-
ably diving under the Gulf Stream; and (3) the eastern arm flows
eastward to the north of Flemish Cap; (<?) the Grand Banks is
dominated by no single definite current, the general tendency of
the circulation appearing to be that of a great eddy with a slow
southeastward drift; and finally {d) the velocities of the Labrador
Current are as a rule relatively weak.

April 14, 1914, the United States Coast Guard in conjunction
with its International Ice Observation and Ice Patrol service, inau-
gurated subsurface observations of temperature and salinity in
the Grand Banks sector. The program except for the World War
years, 1917 and 1918, has been continuous and gradually amplified.

The observations prior to 1922 were taken at unrelated positions
and often separated by considerable intervals of time. During the
ice season of 1922, and subsequently, the stations for observations
have been located, for the most part, along lines normal to the
Grand Banks slopes and as synoptic as the duties of the ice patrol
ship permitted. The current maps constructed by means of these
observations were found to be of sucli practical value both in fol-
lowing the movement of the icebergs and in providing a higher
degree of protection for the transatlantic steamships (see Smith
1931, p. 175) that in 1931 the ice patrol cutter was relieved of the
task of collecting subsurface observations by the addition of a third
v^essel to the service. Under the present program the oceanographic
vessel occupies between 100 and 200 stations for observations during
the normal ice season which constitute the data for three or four
maps of the circulation around the Grand Banks. The selection
of the particular sea area surveyed depends mostly upon the dis-
tribution of the icebergs at the time, but it usually embraces the
slope waters and ranges in latitude from the vicinity of Flemish
Cap to the Tail of the Grand Banks or even as far south as the
fortieth parallel. The size of the area mapped and the extent of
the deepest observation depends upon the urgency of the informa-
tion ; prior to 1931 the oceanographic work was much curtailed below
what it is now on account of the necessary scouting duties of the
ice patrol cutter itself. Since the assignment of an oceanographic
veSvSel observations have been nuide to 1,000 meters depth and every
second or third station in tlie deeper water is extended to 1,500
meters.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA /

At the expiration of the 1935 ice season, Soule (1936), on the
United States Coast Guard cutter General Greene (the oceanographic
vessel of the International Ice Patrol), made a cruise to the southern
part of the Labrador Sea and eastward as far as the fortieth merid-
ian. Temperatures and salinities surface to bottom were collected
from a large number of stations, and also oxygen determinations
from a few, thus filling in a "blind spot" in the northwestern North
Atlantic from the Marion expedition's survey on the west to the
Meteor'^s on the east.

The station table data and scientific results of the above Inter-
national Ice Patrol oceanographic work have all been published
in the series of annual reports of the International Ice Patrol. (See
Coast Guard bulletins 1-26.)

In 1914r-15 Dr. Johan Hjort, in charge of a Canadian fisheries
expedition, made a careful and methodical study of the shelf waters
of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Sandstrom and Bjerkan (1916)
have reported on the dynamics and physical character of the water.
There are only a few features of direct importance to the present
discussion,

. In 1916 from July to November Dr. Thorild Wulff in charge of
the hydrographical work of the II Thule Expedition took a total of
27 stations along the west Greenland slope from Disko Island to
Wolstenholme Fjord in Smith Sound. The table data have been
published in a short report by Martin Knudsen (1923).

For a number of years, especially since 1924, the French Govern-
ment has carried out extensive studies in connection with the fishery
industry of the Grand Banks and west Greenland banks. Le Danois
(1924) in an exposition of his theory of "transgressions", sum-
marizes the results of French investigations of the Grand Banks.
The general distribution of temperature and salinity as shown in
the one profile, page 42, is similar to that which has been later
obtained in nearby localities by the Ice Patrol. Doubt has previously
been raised, however, regarding Le Danois' temperature values of
— 2° to —4° C. obtained between Green and St. Pierre Banks. Sub-
sequent observations both by ourselves and others indicate this to
be an error; the lowest temperature reading ever obtained by the Ice
Patrol in the coldest of the Arctic water being — 1.8° C.

Captain L. Beauge of the French Naval Reserve, in command of
the French hospital ships Jeanne d\A.rG and VWe cVYs has carried on
the work of Le Danois and reported in a number of the issues of
les Revues des Travaux' (Beauge 1928 to 1933 inclusive) the results
of as many annual investigations on the hydrology of the Grand
Banks. The undulations in the boundary of "cod water" (3.5° C.
and 33%o), caused by Atlantic intrusions over the southwest slope
of the Grand Banks, are continually referred to, traced, and empha-
sized by Beauge. Le Danois' theory of oceanic transgressions across
continental slopes is applied and described as found annually for the
Grand Banks region. So practicable may it be, Beauge recommends
the use of subsurface thermometers to fishermen so that they may
locate the best places in which to fish.

These papers contain many interesting remarks on other Grand
Banks hydrological features. For example an increase in the Arctic
character of the bottom water, paradoxically, is attributed to a de-

8 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

ficiency of Arctic water south of Newfoundland. The density wall,
normally offshore in deep water, in this scheme is held to migrate
in on to the bank itself, where cabbeling is free to supply an ab-
normal quantity of cold water directly to the bottom. An intensi-
lied Labrador Current, on the other hand, bars cabbeling and makes
for unusually warm water and poor fishing on the Grand Banks.
The Ice Patrol's observations, taken in spring and early summer and
our own interpretations of the hydrology, differ materially from
those of Beauge's as will be discussed in subsequent pages. In this
connection we have been unable to find station table data in concise
and complete form accompanying Beauge's text and figures. This
makes comparisons much more difficult. In each of the sununers of
1929, 1930, 1931, and 1932, Beauge's Grand Banks studies were sup-
plemented with a cruise to the west Greenland banks. Sections
through the Labrador Sea have been made from the Strait of Belle
Isle to the offing of Godthaab and to a depth of 300 meters. A com-
parison between 1929 and 1931 (the only 2 years for which both
temperature and salinity profiles are shown) indicates that in 1931
a decrease in the Arctic water had taken place while Atlantic water
>35%o had appeared in surprising volume. These observations re-
garding the volume and salinity of Atlantic water do not agree with
our own taken at about the same time and place across the Labrador
Sea by the General Greene. The subject will be discussed further in
the appropriate section.

In 1924 the Norwegian Government vessel Michael Sars, conduct-
ing a scientific study of whale population and fishing in the North
Atlantic, carried out hydrographical investigations in Davis Strait.
Martens (1929) reported the results of the observations made at 75
stations, about half of which were taken in west Greenland and
Davis Strait waters. Martens concludes from a study of the sections
between Iceland and Greenland and that across Davis Strait (a)
Atlantic water of 6° C and >35%o was a branch of the Irminger
Current which flowed around Cape Farewell and into Davis Strait as
far northward as the ridge and (6) an under current of warm water,
200 to 500 meters deep, flowed northward across Davis Strait Ridge,
while above 200 meters cold water flowed in the opposite direction.

In June and July 1925 the Danish fisheries vessel Danu, carried
out hydrographical investigations between Iceland and Greenland
and also along the west coast of Greenland. Baggesgaard-Rasmus-
sen and Jacobsen (1930) reported (a) the presence along the west
coast of Greenland at 50 meters depth of water of —0.24° C. and
33.42%o which was believed to be a mixture of east Greenland and
Davis Strait w^aters; (h) farther north in west Greenland in latitude
65° to 68°30', a temperature of -0.7° C. and 34.12%o, at 100
meters, indicated a mixture involving water from Baffin Bay; (c)
the outer stations, 50-75 miles off the coast of west Greenland, with
temperatures of 4° C and salinity 34.95%o, indicated the influence
of the Irminger Current.

In July and August 1926 the auxiliary schooner yacht Chance
carried out a brief but important oceanographic reconnaissance of
the practically imknown subsui-face waters of Labrador, Iselin
(1930), leader of the expedition, has published an exposition based
not only on the Chancers two sections across the Labrador shelf but

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 9

including both a consideration of tlie Michael Sar.s section across
Davis Strait and one taken northeast of Newfoundland by the Scotia
in 1913. Some of Iselin's findings are (a) the Labrador Current is
narrower than popularly supposed ancl is confined mostly to the
continental edge; (b) an abrupt change from water of —1.5° C. and
33.5%o to 4° C. and 34.5%o occurred at the outer edge of the
Labrador Current; (c) the margin of the Labrador Sea, where
entered, had little indicated movement; {d) the slope current, fairly
constant in character and volume, averaged 10 miles per day; (e)
the Labrador Current, beneath the surface and throughout its length,
remains surprisingly constant in temperature.

The supposed position and general characteristics of the Labrador
Current and several other tentative opinions of Iselin, based on the
two sections, have been borne out in several instances by our more
detailed observations.

The same year of the Marion expedition, 1928, the Danish Gov-
ernment steam barkentine Godthaah carried out an oceanographic
survey of Baffin Bay as well as the Labrador Sea. Commander
Eigil Riis-Carstensen (1931) of the Eoyal Danish Navy, leader of
the expedition, has written the narrative account, and the Conseil
Permanent International (1929) carried the table data of stations,
temperatures, and salinities. The hydrographical report of this
expedition, the only thorough and S3^stematic 'study of Baffin Bay,
has not yet been published. The Godthaah and Marion expeditions
prior to departure, and while cruising in the northwestern North
Atlantic, were frequently in communication with each other regard-
ing cooperation of their programs. The same good spirit of co-
operation has been extended by the commander of the Godthaah
expedition, for the purposes of interpreting our own results and
questions which depend on factors in adjoining areas and he has
given generous permission to use the station data contained in
Bulletin Hydrographique (1929).

The summer of 1928 witnessed the entrance of still another
oceanographic expedition, that of the nonmagnetic vessel Carnegie
of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington, D. C. This expedition took five stations en
route across the northwestern North Atlantic. Like the GodthaaVs
the report of this survey has not yet been published, but reference to
the station table data has been made through the permission of the
director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Washington,
D. C. The only station comparable with those of the Marion^ Car-
negie\s station no. 12, is in good agreement with those nearby of the
Mari.on.

During the summers of 1928 to 1930, inclusive, and in February,
March, and the summer of 1933, the German research vessel Meteor
carried out oceanographic work in the Denmark Sea as far as 500
miles southeast of Cape Farewell. Bohnecke (1930, 1931), Defant
(1931, 1933). and Schulz (1934), have given preliminary accounts
of surface water conditions and other hydrographical features. No
report on the results of the February-March 1933 investigations has
yet appeared. Bohnecke (1931) has also employed the T-S corre-
lation to interpret other parts of the data. Some of the important
findings have been {a) the Reykjanes Ridge, as bounded by the 2,000

10 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

meter isobath, extends farther southwest of Iceland than heretofore
supposed (approximately 900 miles) ; (b) Atlantic water (the
Trminger Current) extended closer toward Cape Farewell and in
greater volume in 1928 than in 1930; {c) the Arctic water appar-
ently was subject to greater variations during these years than was
Atlantic water; {d) Arctic and Atlantic water mix along the outer
edge of the East Greenland Current called the polar front; {e) sub-
Arctic waters composed of Atlantic mixed water, mixed water from
the polar front, and water from the Labrador Current all mix with
Atlantic water along the fifty-first parallel of latitude in a so-called
secondary polar front; {d) surface temperatures, salinities, and de-
duced circulation in the region appear to agree with the early
hypotheses of Nansen.

The Newfoundland Fishery Research Laboratory located at Bay
Bulls, Newfoundland, Harold Thompson, director, made two annual
cruises with its research vessel during the period 1931 to 1935. The
survey embraced the coastal waters from Hamilton Inlet southward
to the Laurentian Channel including the off-lying Grand Banks to
the continental edge. The oceanographic work consisted of tem-
peratures and salinities collected surface to depths of 500 meters
and the release of drift bottles, A record has thus been kept of the
variation in Arctic water over the area during the period. (This
information is contained in Newfoundland Fishery Research Labora-
tory, Annual Reports, 1931 to 1931.)

The new British hydrographical ship Challenger in 1932 took
three hydrographical sections in the northwestern North Atlantic
from surface to bottom. One was taken from the tail of the Grand
Banks to St. John's, Newfoundland, another from St. John's east-
ward along the fiftieth ])arallel, and the third near Cape Harrigan
and normal to the Labrador coast from shore into deep water.
Challenger station number 8, northwest of Flemish Cap, latitude
49°51', longitude 42°09', with temperatures >10° C. and salinities
>35%o at depths down to 385 meters, is of special interest to us.

In September 1935 the Atlantis^ oceanographic ketch of the Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institution, ran two sections south from the
Tail (8 stations) to about the fortieth parallel and another section
(8 stations) along the fortieth meridian from latitude 40° to 50° N.
Temperatures and salinities were secured from the surface to bottom.
The physical results are referred to by Iselin (1936) .

February and March 1935 witnessed another cruise of the German
research vessel Meteor to the waters southwest of Iceland, the expedi-
tion being of unusual interest since it collected wintertime observa-
tions in a practically unknown region south of Cape Farewell long
suspected of contributing at this time of year to the su]iply of bottom
water of the North Atlantic. No published report of the scientific
results has yet appeared, but through the courtesy of the director
of the Institut fiir Meereskunde a copy of the temperature and
salinity data has been placed at our disposal and is later discussed
as it bears upon our data taken during summer only.

The Danish Meteorological Institute in its annual publication, the
State of the Ice in Arctic Seas (Publilvationer frn Det Danske
Meteorlogiske Institut 1926), has published a series of 12 monthly

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

11

mean surface temperature maps which embrace part of the north-
western North Atlantic region. Although there are no observations
available from the surface or subsurface west and northwest of Cape
Farewell from January to March, isothermal maps are presented
It is presumed that they are based upon the indications and trend
of the nine monthly maps for which there are observations. The

Figure ''—The extent of oceanograpbic exploration of the northwestern North Atlantic.
Areas \i X and A,, in order, have been more tborouKbly explored than areas
B, to b"- or than areas C, to €•■. in similar order. Areas marked "D" have had little
or no subsurface investigation. For oceanographic vessels and dates of surveys in the
above areas see text (p. 12).

results so obtained are, of course, questionable, especially in view
of the Meteor's March 1935 observations south of Cape Farew^ell.
The Meteor's station surface temi)eratures, except foi- one station
located in East Greenland Arctic water near Cape Farewell, are
higher than those indicated by the surface isothermal maps pub-
lished by the Danish Meteorological Institute (1926).

79920—37 2

12 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

It can be seen from the foregoing history that the waters of
the northwestern North Atlantic can be divided with reference to
the degree of their exploration. A list of the research vessels with
the dates during which they have made physical oceanographic sur-
veys in the areas shown on figures 2 is as follows :

Ai. Michael Sars, 1910; Scotia, 1913; United States Coast Guard (Inter-
national Ice Patrol), 1914-35; French hospital ship, 1929-34; Cape Agiihlas,
1931-33; Canadian Fisheries, 1914^15; Caniegie, 1928; Challenger, 1932; At-
lantis 1935

Aj. '/Sfo^ff, 1883; Fylla, 1884-89; Ingolf, 1895, 1934; Tjalfe, 1908-9; Michael
Sars, 1924; Dana, 1925; Godthaab, 1928; Marion, 1928; General Greene, 1931,
1933, 1934; French hospital ship, 1929-30-31-34.

A,. Sofia, 1883 ; Ingolf, 1895 ; Tjalfe, 1908-9 ; Dana, 1925 ; Meteor, 1929-33-35 ;
Carnegie, 1928; Polaris, 1932.

Bi. Ingolf, 1895; Chance, 1926; Scotia, 1913; Godthaab, 1928; Carnegie, 1928;
French hospital ship, 1929-31-34; Marion, 1928; General Greene, 1931-33-34-35;
Challenger, 1932.

Bj. Meteor, 1935; General Greene, 1935.

Bs. Canadian Fisheries, 1914-15; United States Coast Guard (International
Ice Patrol), 1921-23.

Bi. Sofia, 1883; Michael Sars, 1924; Gadthaab, 1928; Marion, 1928.

Bs. Atlantis, 1931 ; Michael Sars, 1910 ; Challenger, 1932 ; Scotia, 1913.

Ci. Atlantis, 1932.

C2. Atlantis, 1931, 1935; Challenger, 1932.

D. Challenger, 1932.

It should be added there is no sector from which there are today
sufficient subsurface observations to give accurately the prevailing
annual cycle.

Chapter II
INSTEUMENTS AND METHODS

A report of some of the oceanographic apparatus of the Marion
Expedition 1928 is contained in the narrative of the cruise. (See
Kicketts and Trask, 1932.

The subsurface temperatures were taken with deep-sea ther-
mometers belonging to the International Ice Patrol and manufac-
tured by Negretti & Zambra, Schmidt & Vossberg, and Richter &
Wiese. Most of the instruments were of the Negretti & Zambra make
with no auxiliary thermometer and graduated into two-tenths of a
degree centigrade. The remainder of the supply were fitted with
auxiliary thermometers, their main stems graduated in one-tenth of
a degree centigrade. There were a sufficient number of these latter
to pair with the former in each water bottle. Test certificates were
available for all thermometers, and readings were corrected to the
nearest one one-hundredth of a degree centigrade from prepared
correction graphs in the usual manner.

The surface temperatures were taken with a dip bucket and a
thermometer of known calibration, graduated into tenths of a degree
centigrade. The corrected temperatures are so shown in the station
tables.

As a result of the above-described methods, the record of tem-
peratures contained in the 1928 station tables are considered accurate
to within 0.03° C. An exception is to be noted, however, in the case
of station 1016, the only deep-water station taken north of the Davis
Strait Ridge. Proceeding downward at station 1016 the temperature
dropped to a minimum at 60 meters and then immediately rose to a
negative fraction which prevailed to bottom. Such a vertical distri-
bution of temperature does not agree with that at several nearby
stations taken by the Danish ship Godthaah (Conseil Permanent
International, 1929) prior and subsequent to the date of station 1016.
Nor do the Marion's temperatures agree with those of the typical
summer-time column in Baffin Bay which is characterized by a posi-
tive temperatured mid-depth layer. The constant increase of salinity
with depth at station 1016, on the other hand, precluded the most
probable interpretation, that the water bottles may have tripped be-
fore reaching the recorded depths. A comparison between the tem-
peratures at Marion station 1016 and Michael Sars station 46 and
Godthaah stations 162 and 163 has permitted corrections to be made
to some of those of station 1016, and, so qualified, they have been
allowed to enter the dynamic calculations.

Water samples were stoppered in newly rubber-gasketed citrate
bottles and all salinities were determined by means of electric con-
ductivity. The two salinometers on board the Marion were con-
structed and calibrated at the United States Bureau of Standards,

13

14 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

AVashington, D. C, a description of the instriinients having been
published by Wenner, Smith, and Soule (1930). The adjustment
of the variables were checked at least every 4 days, and often once or
twice daily by means of two or more tests with water of known
salinity. Frequent duplicate determinations of the salinity of
samples was performed where there was any reason to doubt the
reliability of any determination; also duplicate determinations were
made of nearly every sample from depths greater than 1.200 meters.
The precision of the salinity values, therefore, shown in the 1928
tables is believed to be equal to 0.02%o.

In addition to the temperature and salinity observations approxi-
mately oO samples of the bottom from the shelves and slopes of the
Labrador Basin were secured by means of a home-made sampler.
A report of the scientific findings regarding the bottom collections
has been published by Ricketts & Trask (1932).

The Marion was equipped with a fathometer, manufactured by the
Submarine Signal Corporation, Boston, Mass., with which sound-
ings were made at half-hour intervals and sometimes oftener. A
description of the instrument and the methods employed in the
bathymetrical survey have also been reported by Ricketts & Trask
(1932).

The Greene-Bigelow water bottles gave us continual trouble and
their unreliability necessitated unceasing vigilance to guard against
errors entering the observations. The Marion received these instru-
ments immediately on the expiration of Ice Patrol, where for the pre-
vious 3 months they had received hard usage. No time was available
to give them the much-needed attention of a machine shop. The
material, moreover, from which the bottles had been manufactured
was entirely too soft and malleable to withstand the shocks and
handling incident to field work. Despite continual repairs on board
the bottles occasionally would fail to close after releasing the mes-
sengers or would sometimes, during rough seas and lively motion of
the ship, release a messenger prematurely, thus necessitating the en-
tire retaking of the observations at a station.

It was our practice, however, by pressing against the suspended
wire, to feel and count the messengers as each one of the series
tripped its respective bottle. If these did not check with the total
number of bottles, then those depths not so recorded were retaken.
In order to guard more carefully against faulty operation of the
water bottles it was routine procedure for those responsible for the
station observations to construct a temperature curve of the ther-
mometer readings on cross-section paper before the ship was per-
mitted to depart from the spot. If the temperature curve was found
to contain any marked irregularities, those observations considered
suspicious were immediately retaken and rechecked.

No unprotected thermometers were included in the 1928 equip-
ment, and because of this fact particular attention at stations was
given to the elimination, as much as possible, of the wire angle.
It was found j)ossiblc to maintain a nearly vertical wire with the
Marion even during a gale of wind by a kick ahead, first on one
motor and then on the other, as she fell off either side of "'the
eye" of the wind. The fact that the Marion possessed twin screws
made this possible and reduced this source of error to a minimum.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 15

The customary practice of spacing the water bottles on the wire
was folloAved, viz, bottles were placed at shorter intervals, directly
proportional to the depth of the most rapid change in the tem-
perature and the salinity. The maximum clepth of observation for
the deeper stations was 3,100 meters, with 11 stations 2,000 meters
or more, and 61 stations between 1,200 and 2,000 meters.

The thermometers on board the General Greene for the 1931 expe-
dition totaled 25 as follows: 2 Richter & AViese and 4 Negretti
& Zambra with scales graduated into two-tenths of a degree centi-
grade. The remainder were of an older type divided into two-tenths
of a degree and without auxiliary thermometers.

The Greene-Bigelow w^ater bottles contained two thermometers
each, old and new thermometers being paired together, the correc-
tions for the instruments having auxiliaries being applied also to
those without same. A comparison of all corrected temperatures
showed a difference less than one one-hundredth of a degree centi-
grade in 34 percent of the observations. The average difference for
all the temperature records was 0.03° C. The mean corrected tem-
peratures of paired thermometers is shown in the 1931 station tables
except where a difference greater than 0.04° C. occurred. In such
cases only the corrected temperature from the thermometer equipped
with the auxiliary has been printed.

The surface temperatures were obtained with thermometers having
a scale divided into 0.1 of a degree centigrade, the length of 1 degree
being 10 millimeters. The surface water w^as brought on deck by
means of a metal dip bucket.

Salinities in 1931 were determined partly by means of the electric
conductivity method on board or by means of titration. Faulty
mechanical functioning of the electrical equipment necessitated re-
course to titration of about 100 samples from stations 1220 to 1287
on board and titration of samples from stations 1288 to 1341 at
the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution on the return of the
General Greene. Each sample was titrated twice, and if the differ-
ence in salinity exceeded 0.02%o a third titration w^as made. Out
of approximately 550 samples, stations 1220 to 1286, along the Labra-
dor coast, 250 have been determined twice. At those stations where
titrations have been made, the mean of the determinations by the
salinometer and by titration, have been printed in the tables except
where the difference exceeded 0.03%o, and in such cases titrated
values only have been used.

There are about 300 salinities, stations 1220 to 1287, which have
been determined by the salinometer only once, and it is, of course,
impossible to tell the accuracy of these determinations. Salinity
curves for each station, how^ever, have been carefully constructed,
and they do not show any marked irregularities in the deeper or
higher strata, the salinities apparently agreeing very well with the
checked values. The values of the salinities from stations 1254 and
1255 are higher by 0.10%o to 0.15%o than for stations 1253 and
1256. No extra samples unfortunately w^ere retained from these sta-
tions. The salinities are obviously incorrect, and they have, accord-
ingly, been stricken from the tables.

As in 1928 on the Marion the General Greene carried no unpro-
tected thermometers in 1931. It was attempted, as far as possible,

16 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

to eliminate the wire angle by maneuvering the vessel. There are
only some few stations where the wire angle may have had any
important influence on the observations. These stations are as
follows :

Station no. i 293.— Estimated wire angle=15° (0-500 meters) and 25° (600-
1,400 meters).

Station no. i29^.— Estimated wire angle=15° (0-500 meters) and 25° (800-
1,600 meters).

Station no. 1312. — Estimated wire angle about 30°.

Station no. 1313. — Estimated wire angle about or more than 30°.

Station no. i3J//.— About 15° (0-600 meters) and about 10° (800-2,000
meters).

Station no. 1326.— About 10°.

Station no. 1327.— About 10°.

Station no. 1328.— About 10°-15°.

The wire angle was taken into consideration for stations 1293, 1294,
1312, and 1313 and corrected in the sections of temperature, salinity,
and velocity, and in the dynamic calculations for the current maps.
This has been done simply by reducing the depths recorded by the
meter wheel in proportion to the mean of the wire angles for the
two first stations, and 30° for the two last-mentioned stations, the
wire being considered as a straight line. Such a method is of course
not accurate, but it seemed, by comparison between station curves,
to give more reasonable values than the uncorrected observations.
In the tables, however, for the four stations mentioned above, the
values of temperature, salinity, density, and the result of the dynamic
calculations are published for uncorrected depths, as measured by the
meter wheels.

Approximately 1,800 soundings were taken on the 1931 cruise
mostly by use of the fathometer. When on the continental shelves
wire soundings were used to control the sonic ones.

A brief narrative of the General Greene's 1931 cruise is contained
in United States Coast Guard Bulletin No. 21.

In 1933 Nansen w^ater bottles and Richter & Wiese protected and
unprotected reversing thermometers were used, all of the thermom-
eters being equipped with auxiliary thermometers. Details of the
methods employed in obaining and correcting observations are the
same as for the 1933 season's work described by Soule (1934) (pp.
30-35). A series of timed trials indicated that the messengers de-
scended at a rate of about 150 meters per minute. No bottles were
reversed until at least 10 minutes after they were in place. Time
taken for the messengers to travel from the surface to the first bottle
was estimated using a speed of 200 meters per minute, and the time
allowed after release of the messenger from the surface, before haul-
ing in the bottles, was based on a messenger speed of 100 meters per
minute.

The titration results gave abnormally high salinities, the values in
some cases being as great as 35.30%o with a small area southwest
of Greenland having salinities of 35.20%o or more from 200 to
2,000 meters. These values were so suspiciously high that several
thorough attempts have been made to luicover some error. Copen-
hagen standard water of the batch Pjs was used every daj^ in the
standardization of tlie silver nitrate solution, the reduction of the
burette reading to salinities have been cheeked, the burette and
pipette used have been examined, the potassium chromate solution

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 17

used was checked by using it in other titrations, all with no explana-
tion of the high salinities. The titrations were made within 24 hours
after collection of the samples. The sample bottles were of the
citrate of magnesia type and were well aged, having been used
throughout the season and in most cases having been used the pre-
ceding season. In filling the sample bottles from Nansen bottles the
sample bottle was half filled, shaken, emptied, and again half filled
and emptied before filling with the sample. New rubber washers had
been placed on all sample bottles just prior to the cruise. The main
valves, air valve, and petcocks of the Nansen bottles were repeatedly
inspected, and, as the temperatures are about normal, the Nansen
bottles have reversed at the proper level. As the vertical temperature
gradient in the laboratory is considerable and the samples are ordi-
narily stored on the deck, whereas the standard water is kept at a
level about 3 feet above the deck, the therinal expansion effect was
investigated by Mr. Alfred H. Woodcock of the Woods Hole Ocean-
ographic Institution by experiment, standardizing the silver nitrate
with Copenhagen water at room temperature and then measuring a
refrigerated sample by titrating it several times as it warmed up to
room temperature. As a result of this experiment it was concluded
that the error due to this source was probably less than 0.05%o in
salinity and certainly less than 0.10%o.

A group of 42 samples, originally titrated immediately after col-
lection in July 1933 and which had been brought back were then
again titrated by Mr. Alfred H. Woodcock at Woods Hole in
October. These results averaged 0.018%o chlorine lower than the
first results, 32 samples freshening, 9 samples being saltier, and 1
sample being the same. However, the samples were allowed to stand
another 2 months and then were measured for a third time in De-
cember. The December titrations averaged 0.014%o chlorine lower
than the second measurements, 40 of the 42 samples being fresher
and two being slightly saltier (0.001%o and 0.002%o chlorine)
than found in October. We shall not discuss here the causes of this
continued freshening which averaged more than 0.011%o salinity
per month for 5 months; but, whatever the causes, the second and
third titrations, because of the relatively small salinity differences,
throw no direct doubt upon the first titrations, or at least not upon
the chlorine values found in the first titrations.

The fact that during the fall of 1932 Wilson and Thompson (1933)
found a strong influx of salty water from the Atlantic in the deeper
layers on the Grand Banks indicates a flooding of the Gulf Stream
and suggests that the high salinities found in 1933 in the Labrador
Sea are not beyond the bounds of possibility. The axis of the highest
salinity water off the Greenland coast, according to the 1933 results,
coincides very well in location with the usual hi^h salinity axis and
grades off to small anomalies on the Labrador side, thus making it
impossible to deduct a constant amount from all the measurements
without making the salinities on the Labrador side abnormally low.
This lends credence to the 1933 observations ; but because the salini-
ties are so unusually high, and because there is not a corresponding
increase in temperature, the salinities have not been used except for
the construction of a dynamic topographic chart, and are not pre-
sented here in graphical form, but appear only in the tables.

18 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

In detei'iiiining the depths of the observations in 1983 a combina-
tion of meter-wheel readings and unprotected reversing thermometers
was used. The deepest bottle of a series carried one protected and
one unprotected thermometer. At stations where two series were
necessary, unprotected thermometers were attached to the upper-
most, deepest, and middle bottles of the deep series. The depths
indicated by these unprotected thermometers were used in conjunc-
tion with the meter-wheel readings to determine the depth of re-
versal for all the bottles. Whenever conditions seemed favorable,
that is when there was little wind and a small wire angle, oppor-
tunity was taken to check the pressure coefficients of the unprotected
thermometers. The pressure coefficients so obtained w^ere based on
the assumption of an accurate meter wheel and were consistently
higher by about 3 percent than the coefficients given in the test
certificates. These experimentally determined pressure coefficients
were used in deriving the depths of reversal. However, it is probable
that the pressure coefficients given in the test certificates are more
accurate than the meter wheel. The listed depths of the observa-
tions therefore are probably too shallow by about 3 percent.

During July 1934 the General Greene ran two lines of oceano-
graphic stations across the shelf northeast of Newfoundland and a
complete traverse of the Labrador Sea from southern Labrador to
Cape Farew^ell, Greenland. Nansen water bottles and Richter &
Wiese reversing thermometers were again used. The same time in-
tervals were allowed for the thermometers to attain temperature
equilibrium, and the same messenger speeds of travel were used as
in 1933.

A brief description of the details of the methods employed has
been given by Soule (1935) (pp. 49-58). Provision was made for
the determination of salinities by either the silver nitrate titration
method or the electrical conductivity method. A new model Wenner
salinity bridge was received during the season and w^as calibrated
with titrated samples as described by Soule (1935). This new model
embodied many of the improvements in construction recommended
by Wenner, Smith, and Soule (1930). All routine measurements
of salinity were made with the neAv salinity bridge and each sample
was so measured twice. During the season, and on the cruise under
discussion, a total of 2,570 measurements were made of half that
number of samples. No tAvo measurements of the same sam])le
differed by more than 0.015Voo in salinity, so it was not necessary
to measure any of them a third time. All measurements were re-
ferred to Copenhagen standard water of the batch P13, the same
batch being used throughout so that any variation in salt ratios
which might possibly exist between different batches would not
invalidate the calibration curve of the bridge. Copenhagen standard
water was used for every series of measureuients, and either Copen-
hagen standard or a substandard water was used in each cell once
every 10 or 12 measureuients. All titrations and the routine bridge
measurements were made by the oceanographer's assistant.

As a result of careful comparisons of the sinuiltaneous measure-
ment of samples by both titration and new mod(d salinity bridge
methods the conclusion has been reached that at least under condi-
tions existing on board the General Greene at sea the titration

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 19

method is not sufficiently fi'ee from erratic results for the purposes
of the International Ice' Patrol and the new model bridge is looked
upon as an essential instrument.

From the deeper layers in the vicinity southwest of Green-
land for which the unusually high salinities were found in 1933,
double samples were taken and were measured by silver nitrate titra-
tion in addition to the routine bridge measurements. Fourteen
samples Avere so measured, each sample being titrated twice, the
titration taking place within 48 hours after collection. In the case
of 13 of the 14 samples no third titration was necessary and the
titration values were consistently higher than the salinity bridge
values, the differences ranging from 0.03%o to 0.065%o salinity with
an average difference of 0.048%o salinity. In the case of the remain-
ing sample (Station 1764, 735 meters) the bridge gave 34.955%o on
July 14, the first titration gave 35.05%o on July 14, and the second
titration gave 34.99%o on July 14. As there was insufficient silver
nitrate solution prepared to "make a third titration that day, the
sample was set aside and titrated again on July 16, when a value of
34.96%o was obtained. Not enough of the sample remained for a
fourth titration.

The consistent discrepancy is somewhat puzzling. The persistence
of the difference, in magnitude and sign, makes it improbable that
the ])recision of the measurements is at fault. There seem but two
renuiining explanations — (1) that the calibration of the bridge was
faulty and (2) that the relation of conductivity to total halogens
was different here than elsewhere. The fact that the same batch
of Copenhagen standard water was used for the measurements as
for the calibration of the bridge leaves no doubt but that the cali-
bration curve was correct at the salinity of the standard water.
Further, because the salinity of the 13 samples in question covered
but a small range of salinities (34.88%o to 34.93%o with an aver-
age of 34.912Voo~) very close to the salinity of the standard water
(35.018%o) it does not seem possible that the calibration of the
l)ridge was at fault. This leaves as probable only the possibilities
that the conductivity varies among ditferent tubes of the same batch
of standard water or that the relation of conductivity to total
halogens w^as different in this water than elsewhere.

The depths of the observations in 1934 were determined by the use
of unprotected thermometers. Five such instruments were used in
conjunction with protected thermometers. The shallow series always
carried an unprotected thermometer on its deepest bottle. At stations
where two series w^ere necessary the deep series usually consisted of
seven bottles, the uppermost, deepest, and alternate intermediate
bottles being equipped with un]H'otected thermometers. The pres-
sure coefficients given in the Physikalish-Technische Reichsanstalt
test certificates for the instruments w^ere used as given.

The dynamic computations for the stations occupied in 1928 and
1934 have been made by means of anomaly tables published by Sver-
drup (1933) ; and for the years 1931 and 1933 after the manner de-
scribed by Smith (1926). The dynamic heights for those stations
shallower than the common reference depth have been computed by
means of the method described by Helland-Hansen (1934) for all 4
years.

20

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

1085 1084 1063 1062 1081 1080

Figure 3. — An example of the metliod of construction of a velocity (current) profile.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 21

The velocity of the current between any two points has been com-
puted in the manner described by Smith (1926) (p. 31).

The extensive use of velocity profiles as illustrations in this paper
justifies a description of the method of construction and also refer-
ence to the method of computing the volume of the current, or the
transport, as it is often called, through any given vertical section.

A velocity profile is a representation in vertical cross section of
the distribution of the components of velocity of the horizontal cur-
rents perpendicular to the plane of the section. Equal values of
velocity are connected and expressed usually in terms of centimeters
per second. As an example we have selected section A, figure 3, a
section normal to the West Greenland Current taken off Cape Fare-
well, Greenland, September 2-3, 1928. (See station tables, stations
1080 to 1086 (pp. 219-220).)

It is assumed that the mean velocities between successive pairs of
stations for a number of standard depths have been computed in
accordance with the equation — •

_ (Ea—Eb)
^~2w • L -sin <f>

where (Ea — Eb) denotes the average slope of the isobaric surfaces
between stations A and B ; w, the angular velocity of the earth ; L, the
distance between the stations, and (f>, their mean latitude. These
values of mean velocity are then plotted to scale against horizontal
distance along the section and with regard to the direction of the
component at right angles to the section, figure 3, as a series of
parallel lines.

A smooth curve representing the velocity at any point on any one
of the given levels, stations 1080 to 1086, may be substituted for the
series of mean velocity lines, provided that (a) the curve be drawn
in such a manner between adjacent stations that equal areas are
formed on either side of the previously fixed lines of mean velocity
and (&) that the curve be drawn flattest near the margin, and near
the axis, of each indicated band. Between stations 1080 and 1081,
figure 3, for example, the velocity curve is drawn so that the area
BEF equals area FAG', and between stations 1081 and 1082 DGH
and ICJ equal area P. The velocity curve MN, figure 3, is thus
continued to include the remaining stations of the section, and simi-
lar curves are constructed for other levels.

The final step is to project the curve MN, and the curves for the
other levels, on to their respective depths in a vertical plane and
lastly to connect equal values of the same sign. The resulting illus-
tration (see upper half of fig. 3) is referred to as a velocity profile.

In order to test the accuracy of the above-described method, the
dynamic height of a station located midway between stations 1081
and 1082 was computed on the basis of temperatures and salinities
interpolated from the profiles of these variables. The values of the
mean velocity were then computed and plotted and the velocity curve
for the surface was drawn as described. It indicated that the axis
of the current lay closer to station 1082 than previously drawn but
its velocity of 48 centimeters per second differed only 4 centimeters
per second from the earlier determined value.

22 MARION AXD GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

The question also arises as to how closely computed velocities agree
with actual velocities where dynamic heights have been calculated
to the nearest millimeter. From our experience it is doubtful
whether the velocity lines on the profiles can claim a greater accuracy
than 1 centimeter per second or, expressed in dynamic height for the
mean latitude of the area investigated, this is equal to a slope of
about 9 dynamic millimeters in a distance of 20 miles.

The volume of current, or the transport, through a given vertical
section may be found either graphically from the sum of the products
of cross-sectional areas and their mean velocities or by numerical
integration in accordance with a method described by Jakhelln
(1936).

Jakhelln's method, briefly, takes advantage of the fact that in the
development of the equation of the volume of the current (i. e., the
transport), the value of the distance between two stations appearing
in both numerator and denominator, is eliminated.

U=vzL (1)

where U is the net transport ; v is the mean velocity, surface to a
depth, s, where the current is assumed zero.

Further —
But—

v-2= \v-dz (2)

2-o:-L-sm<t> ^'^^

where E represents the anomaly of dynamic height. Substituting
(3) in (1), results in the above-mentioned cancelation of L and

or exju-essed in different form —

U=a[ fAE^dz- r^Esdz] (5)

where A = ^ . — -• (For values of A, see Smith 1926, table VI.)

2a> sin 0 ^ ' ' ^

Since it is more convenient to deal with the values of the anomaly
of specific volume A^^ than the anomaly of dynamic height, aA",
we can from (5) express the equation in final form —

^=^[rr^^-"^^^-xi^''»'''-']

(6)

The ])ractical application of Jakhelln's method to any two sta-
tion's, ^1 and B, is, first, to find the station anomalies of specific
volume in the usual manner and then integrate the same, for each
station, from the assumed common motionless depth to the surface.
The difference between the two station integrals when divided by
2w sin 0 (see table VI, Smith 1926), gives the value of the net volume

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

23

of the current, or the net transport, normal to the plane of, and
between, stations ^4 and B.

It has been the practice in the present paper first to construct
velocity profiles and then to make planimeter measurements of the

FiGUKE 4. — An example of a transport map, each line representing a volume of current
of 1,000,000 cubic meters per second. Based on General Greene's survey July 4-August
8, 1931.

\oluine of the separate bands of oi)posino; flow as shown distributed
on the particular profile. The net transport thus found has then
been checked by employing the values at end stations, or between
critical pairs of stations, of the section, in accordance with the above-

24 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

described method of Jakhelln (1936). The difference in the values
thus found by the two methods seldom exceeded 15 percent of the net
transport, and this figure was considered immaterial. The net
volume of the current, figure 3, was 4.41 mVs X 10^ by graphic
method and 3.73 mVsXW by Jakhelln's method. It should of
course be borne in mind that Jakhelln's method (see also Werens-
kiold, 1935) gives results in terms of net volume or transport, and this,
for example where the two given stations span the boundary of op-
posing currents, furnishes information in comparative terms only.
Perhaps the best practice, although laborious, is, first, the construc-
tion of a velocity profile as earlier described, and, second, the com-
putation of the volume of the various currents by integrating to the
zero velocity lines as shown on the profile in accordance with the
Jakhelln method. The determination of the transport through the
several sections in the Labrador Sea the summer of 1931 have been
combined in a so-called transport map. (See fig. 4, p. 23.) Ekman
(1929) and Thorade (1933) have published similar maps for other
regions of the North Atlantic.

It should be added that the construction of velocity profiles and
the planimeter determination of velocity areas and volumes there-
from is essential, wherever the average temperature of the separate
bands of currents and the rate of heat transport are desired. The
algebraic sum of the several products of velocity by cross-sectional
area by temperature represents the net rate of heat transfer through
the section. The average temperature has been obtained by dividing
this value for the rate of heat transfer by the net volume of flow.
The average temperature of the slope band of the West Greenland
Current in the Cape Farewell section A, figure 3, was 5.5° C. The
rate of heat transfer is expressed in million-cubic-meter-degrees,
centigrade-per-second. In the case of the slope band of the West
Greenland Current at Cape Farewell September 2-3, 1928, figure 3,
the rate of heat transfer was 17.5° C. mVsXlO^.

In computing the volume of current (transport) from velocity
profiles, it is important that the profiles be drawn as accurately as
possible. The velocity profiles described and used in this report are
considered justifiable, if on no other basis than that they provide a
means of computing the average temperature of, and the rate of
heat transported by, ocean currents.

The salinity of the sea is, of course, free from many of the in-
fluences that act upon the temperature. A quantitative determina-
tion of the rate of salt transport similar to the above-described
method of obtaining the rate of heat transport has been utilized as
shown on p. 77.

Chapter III

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM AND TYPES OF WATER

When our data collected during the summer of 1928 from the
Labrador Sea were substituted in Bjerknes' hydrodynamic formulae,
a general cyclonic circulation of the upper water layers (the tropo-
sphere) was revealed.'*

60 50 40

Figure 5.

-The system of circulation of the upper water layers (troposphere) in the
northwestern North Atlantic.

This consists of a northward flow along the Greenland slope, the
AVest Greenland Current; a southward movement along the Ameri-
can side, the Baffin Land Current and the Labrador Current (cf. Riis-
Carstensen 1931, p. 5), and a northward set, the Atlantic Current
in the southern part of the Labrador Sea (fig. 5). The more cen-

* The circulation of the upper water layers has been determined by reference to the
1,500-decibar surface. This common depth best served the observational data, several
stations offshore of the continental slopes not having been taken to greater depths than
1,500 meters. The computations indicated, however, that in certain regions, notably
along the Greenland slope, appreciable motion prevailed even at 1,500 meters. It should
be constantly borne in mind, therefore, that the Bjerknes' methods express results in terms
of comparative motion only. If the state of rest or motion on a selected datum plane
be incorrectly assumed, an error is introduced and the results in terms of direction and
velocity of the currents consequently will be incorrect. In an area such as the north-
western North Atlantic, subject as it is to severe wintertime conditions and other
equally important suspected influences, it is wise to challenge constantly the validity
of assumptions required by the Bjerknes' method.

26

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

tral portions of the Labrador Sea partake of a slow cyclonic mo-
tion. The West Greenland Current in this scheme is really two flows
in one — (a) the East Greenland Current and (h) the Irminger Cur-
rent ; ^ which in their extension around Cape Farewell become reen-
ergized along the west coast of Greenland and are renamed for that
region. The Labrador Current likewise is an extension of the Baffin
Land Current and the West Greenland Current.

A vertical section of the Labrador Sea between points A and B,
figure 5, shows that tiie greatest changes in phj^sical character occur
at the sides of the basin as represented by the line M~N (fig. 6).
Three principal water types cliaracterize the northwestern North

Figure 6.— A schematic vertical cross section of the Labrador Sea, Belle Isle to Cape Farewell.
^%%%: Coastal water. $$$^$$$$j Arctic water. |./v.'vj Atlantic water. MiiM Mixed Labrador Sea water.

Atlantic, viz, coastal, Arctic, and Atlantic. Their mixture (dis-
cussed in chap. VIII), with a remarkably small range of approxi-
mately 1° C. temperature and 0.06%o salinity, fills ai)proximately
90 percent of the Labrador Basin.

In assigning names to water masses in the sea it should always be
remembered that values are comparative only. Variations in the
mixing processes, as regards time and place, constantly prevail. This
fact precludes any possibility of assigning definite limits of tem-
perature and salinity. An interpretation of the circulation, based
solely upon the relative proportions and degree of purity of a par-
ticular tyi^e of water present in a given mass, may often prove mis-
leading. Detecting the presence of waters from known sources re-
quires a thorough familiarity with the region investigated, })articu-

^ For a description of the general position and beliavior of the Kast (ireenland Current
and n-mingcr Current east of Cape Farewell prior to entering the Labrador Sea see
Nielsen (1928).

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 27

larly as to the range and degree of thermal and saline character of
the mass where and when observed. In this respect the employment
of temperature-salinity correlation graphs has been found helpful.

Atlantic water, for example, is found at certain times off the Tail
of the Grand Banks with a temperature of 16° C, and a salinity of
36.00%o. Atlantic water off Cape Farewell at the same time, how-
ever, has, as might be expected, different criteria; a temperature of
about 6° C, and a salinity of about 35.00%o. Vestiges of Atlantic
water still farther north in the northern sector of the Labrador Sea
can be traced where the temperature is only about 4° C, and a
salinity of about 34.80%o.

The w^ord "Arctic" has been used mainly to designate w^ater, the
temperature of which is so low as to indicate a far northern source.
In the present case, where the area extends beyond the Arctic Circle
itself, the term Arctic water is intended to signify water which has
originally flowed from a more northern point than where the ob-
servation in question was made. Reflecting, therefore, the frigidity
of its polar sources, Arctic water often has a minimum temperature
asi loAV as —1.7° C. Such water masses, when insulated by lighter
layers, may be transported great distances without appreciable
change in temperature, readings of —1.5° C. having often been ob-
served in latitudes as low as 43° near the Tail of the Grand Banks,
more than halfway from the Pole to the Equator. The salinity of
Arctic water lies between that of Atlantic and coastal, and for that
reason it is best identified by its temperature.

Coastal water naturally is in the lowest brackets of salinity. The
term is associated primarily with land drainage and river discharge
and later as such water expands seaward over shelves or banks or is
transported along coastal slopes. Identification: is most easily made
during summer when coastal water from its lightness lies uppermost
and thus absorbs greater quantities of solar radiation. Winter chill-
ing, on the other hand, especially severe in the noi-thwestern North
Atlantic, may cool coastal water to temperatures approaching closely
that of minimum Arctic character.

79020—37 3

Chapter IV
THE WEST GREENLAND SECTOR

THE SURFACE CURRENTS

The more critically ocean currents are examined, the more neces-
sary it becomes to subclassify them geographically; for example, the
East Greenland Current on passing tnrough Denmark Strait is joined
by a signihcant branch of the Irminger Current (see Baggesgaard-
Rasmussen and Jacobsen, 1930; also Bohnecke, 1931), both streams
merging in one parallel flow which so rounds Cape Farewell. Off
the southwest coast of Greenland this composite current is further
augmented by streams converging from the Labrador Sea. ^y the

Figure 7. — The west Greenland sector (1928). Sections arc as follows: A, Cape Fare-
well ; B, Ivigtut ; C, Fiskernaessett ; D, Godthaab ; E, Holsteinsborg ; F, Egedesminde ;
Fi, Disko Bay ; G, Disko Island.

time it has reached Fylla Bank, west Greenland (as will be proved
later by the Coast Guard's observations), the original identifying
character belonging to the East Greenland Arctic Current has been
completely transformed to current of Atlantic character. It is ob-
viously incorrect then to refer to the current throughout the west
coast solely as an extension of the East Greenland Current. In order,
therefore, to avoid confusion it seems best to designate the current
from Cape Farewell northward as the West Greenland Current. A
similar procedure has been followed in similar cases wherever the

28

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

29

original current becomes considerably changed by significant trib-
utaries.

West Greenland waters, at least south of Davis Strait, are dom-
inated by this West Greenland Current. An exposition of the sector,

Figure 8. — The West Greenland Current on the surface, July 30-September 3, 1928. The
velocities expressed in miles per day indicate the axis of maximum velocity.

therefore, centers mainly on a full description of this important
stream.

During the period July 30 to September 3, 1928, the surface waters
over and along the steepest part of the continental slope, Cape Fare-
well to Little Hellefiske Bank (fig. 8), were in northwesterly move-

30 IMARIOX AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

ment at velocities of 6 to 33 miles per clay in the axis of the current.
The Cape Farewell section (A) just outside of the slope current
intersects a slowly rotating anticyclonic vortex approxnnately 35
miles in diameter. Further offshore a secondary band of north-
westerly current was entered. It is conjectural whether this outer
band was part of the West Greenland Current, split in this locality by
this eddy, or was an unrelated stream. It appears from the general
trend and direction of the dynamic isobaths on figure 122, page 167,
however, that this current shown on the extreme southwestern end
of the Cape Farewell section was approaching from the south and
Avest, in contrast to the main portion of the West Greenland Current,
which hugged the continental slope, rounding Cape Farewell from
the north and east. The source of this out^r band of current, which
it is believed may have considerable significance in the general scheme
of circulation for the entire Labrador Sea, is discussed on page 32.
Regardless of its origin, however, it joined the trunk of the west
Greenland stream as the latter increased to its maximum velocity of
33 miles per day off Ivigtut. (See fig. 8.) Immediately north of
Ivigtut the current began to throw off branches along its outer side,
all of which turned westward into the Labrador Sea. As Fylla Bank
was approached the rate of flow diminished. Just north of Fylla
Bank the West Greenland Current experienced major westward
branching, the bulk of its surface w^aters being deflected here, prob-
ably by meeting the southern face of Little Hellefiske Bank.

Inshore portions of the West Greenland Current continued north-
ward hugging the slope and flowing at the much reduced rate of 6
miles per day. Narrow bands of current, probably continuations
of the more vigorous parts of the system, were found along the slopes
of Great Hellefiske Bank. Such streams (fig. 8) entered Disko Bay
entrance on the south and discharged on the north. A weak but
appreciable set of West Greenland Current, more clearly distin-
guished in the Disko Island section (fig. 11) below the surface,
flowed through Davis Strait Channel into BaiRn Bay.

CROSS SECTIONS OF THE CURRENTS

A total of .seven hydrographic sections taken during the summer
of 1928 (fig. 7) more or less normal to the coast, and more or less
equally spaced between Cape Farewell and Disko Island, afford a
means of studying the West Greenland Current below the sea surface
and along its course northward to the entrance of Baffin Bay.

The discussion in this and the following three chapters is lim-
ited to the circulation of the upper water layers (sometimes re-
ferred to as the troposphere), in the depth of which has been de-
termined by reference to a conunon isobaric surface. It has been
found for the west Greenland sector that motionless water (or
nearly so) ])revails usually between l,r)00-2,000 meters. The 1,500-
decibar level has served, therefore, for all i)racti('al purposes as the
datum plane upon w^liich the calculations of direction and velocity
of the currents are based.

Cape Farewell. — A cross section of the West Greenland Current,* i
off Cape Farewell (fig. 9), shows, as does the surface map (fig. 8), I

"For a description of the nictlioa cniployod in the construction of the velocity profiles
see p. 21.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

31

Figure 9. — Velocity profiles of the West Greenland Current expressed In centimeters per
second. The solid lines represent northwesterly current and the broken lines south-
easterly current. Section A, September 2-3, 1928; section B, August 27-28, 1928;
section C, July 29-31, 1928.

32 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

that the main current hugged the continental slope and that an outer
band was separated by a clockwise rotating eddy. The alternations
in the directions of the flow as evidence throughout the section in-
dicate the probable effect of the bottom configuration on the gradient
current as it rounds Cape Farewell and is subsequently joined by
other current from the Labrador Sea. The calculated volume of
the trunk of the West Greenland Current w^hich hugged the con-
tinental edge at Cape Farewell (fig. 8) was 3.2 million cubic meters
per second; the vortex contained approximately 1 million cubic
meters per second ; and the converging set at the outer end of the
section totaled nearly 2 million cubic meters per second.

Ivigtut. — One hundred and fifty miles farther along the current,
off Ivigtut, the West Greenland Current (fig. 9) was found, as at
Cape Farewell, hugging the continental edge. It had, however, in-
creased greatly both in cross-sectional area and velocity ; the 5-centi-
meter-per-second velocity curve here extended to a depth of nearly
1,200 meters. Offshore the section intersected a south-flowing band
of 2.6 million cubic meters per second, evidently a branch of the slope
current which had recurved southward and then westward into the
Labrador Sea (cf. fig. 9 with fig. 8).

The calculated volume of the slope band of the West Greenland
Current off Ivigtut, August 27-28, 1928, was 7.4 million cubic meters
per second, or approximately double the slope band observed a week
later off Cape Farewell. Reference to the surface current map
(fig. 8) indicates that some of the discrepancy may be attributed to
coastal current which flowed through the 10-mile gap between station
1080 and Cape Farewell. The fact that there is swift current here
at times is confirmed by Soule who, in 1935, observed icebergs moving
westward close under Egger Island, Cape Farewell, at an estimated
rate of 4 knots per hour. Finally it was thought that the excess of
transport off Ivigtut may have been partially due to current which
entered from offshore between the two sections. A computation of
the current there between stations 1070 and 1086, however, gave 2.7
million cubic meters per second but in a westerly direction away
from the Greenland slope. Of course this does not preclude the pos-
sibility of a current from below 1,500 meters intersecting the Ivigtut
profile above 1,500 meters, but this is contrary to our conception
of the general circulation. It seems more likely, in view of the
above, that the discrepancy noted in the computed volumes of the
current at Ivigtut and Cape Farewell resulted from errors incident to
the method and its application there.

FiskernaesseU. — This section (fig. 9, profile C) shows the slope
band of the West Greenland Current as having a volume of 6.6
million cubic meters per second, or a reduction of about 15 percent
from that at Ivigtut. The decrease in the volume of the current
can safely be attributed to offshore branching which is clearly re-
corded on the surface current map between Ivigtut and Fiskernaes-
sett. The offshore part of the Fiskernaessett section records alter-
nate southeast and northwest flow, which the dynamic topographic
map (fig. 122, p. 167) indicates was one single band of current which
moved out into the Labrador Sea. The volume of this band
amounted to 1.8 million cubic meters per second, leaving 5.8 million .
cubic meters per second to continue northward.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 33

Godthaab. — The slope band of West Greenland Current which in-
tersected this section was 5.3 million cubic meters per second, thus
supporting previous computations, viz, that approximately 20 per-
cent of the current branched offshore between Fiskernaessett and
Godthaab. An appreciable reduction in the draft of the West Green-
land Current also occurred between these two points along the slope
(cf. figs. 9 and 10, profiles C and D). Additional westerly branch-
ing of the West Greenland Current is noted in the offshore end of the
Godthaab section, where 1.8 million cubic meters per second recurved
southward between stations 975 and 973. The slope band which re-
mained to continue northward was consequently reduced to 3.5 mil-
lion cubic meters per second or about one-half the volume of current
found off Ivigtut.

Holsteinshorg. — The greatest and most striking decrease in volume
of the slope band of the West Greenland Current took place between
Godthaab and Holsteinsborg. (See fig. 10, p. 34.) The widening of
the Greenland shelf and the continued shoaling of the bottom at
the head of the Labrador Sea tended to deflect much of the West
Greenland Current westward around the Labrador Basin. Those
l^ortions of the West Greenland Current which remained to follow
the contour of the banks northward Avere also further reduced in
draft. Thus the Holsteinsborg profile shows the 5-centimeter-per-
second velocity line at a depth of 200 meters, in contrast to the
draft of this current, Cape Farewell, to Fiskernaessett, of 1,100
meters.

The plane of the Holsteinsborg section intersected four separate
bands of current, but reference to the surface current map (fig. 8)
indicates that all these intersections belong to one and the same
stream which, guided by the channel between Little Hellefiske and
Great Hellefiske Banks, w^ound a northeasterly course. The net
volume of the northerly current past Holsteinsborg was 1.25 million
cubic meters per second, which, as can be seen, is only 25 percent of
the transport which was found off Godthaab. This agrees, more-
over with previous findings (p. 30) that major proportions of the
slope current were deflected offshore between Godthaab and Hol-
steinsborg, probably by the southern face of Little Hellefiske Bank.
The volume of the West Greenland Current so turned toward Ameri-
can shores was 1.95 million cubic meters per second, the bulk of the
discharge being directed between stations 984 and 987.

No more impressive evidence is needed than this series of five
velocity profiles, figs. 9 and 10 (see also fig. 12) to demonstrate the
manner m which the West Greenland Current is distributed north-
ward from Cape Farewell, only 15 percent of its volume reaching
the entrance of Davis Strait.

Egedesminde. — This section (fig. 10, profile F), with a northerly
transport of 1.3 million cubic meters per second, showed a slight
increase from that off Holsteinsborg and thus reversed the trend
which characterized the West Greenland Current for most of the
west coast. Reference to the dynamic topographic map (fig. 122,
p. 167) attributes the larger volume of flow off Egedesminde not to
any swelling of the West Greenland Current but to water contributed
locally by a counterclockwise eddy formed in the deep basin which
extends southwestward from the entrance of Disko Bay, The eddy

34

MARION AND GENP:R-1L GREENE EXPEDITIONS

F

OM
100
2

4
6

6 lb 20 30

60 (MILES)

OM.

too

-16

(M

_

o

(y>

00

CO

00

N

<n

0^

en

<p

IOC

10

15

fpiitinu'ters

FicuRK lO.—Velocity profiles oC the West (ireenliin.l Ciiireiit expressed

per second The solid lines represent northwesterly cum nt and the broken lines south-
easterly current. Section D, August 1-:'., 1928; section E, August 4-5. 102S: section
K. August 7, 1928.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

35

o

^ ro ca — O

O O O O O

Figure 11.— Velocity piotiles of the West Greenland Current expressed in centimeters per
second. The solid lines represent northerly current and the broken lines southerly
current. Section Fi, August 7, 1928 ; .section (i, August 13-14, 1928.

received water from northward in Baffin Bay, and station 995, lo-
cated at the onter end of the Egedesminde section, show^ed this cur-
rent as additional to the West Greenland Current from the south.
On the other hand it should be noted from the current map (fig. 8),
that part of the West Greenland Current revealed on the Holsteins-
borg section followed Davis Strait Channel directly into Baffin Bay,
The distribution of the 1.3-million-cubic-meters-per-second trans-

36

MARTON AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

port past the Egedesminde section is estimated as follows : One-
third of the current entered Disko Bay as described in the next
paragraph ; about two-thirds of the remainder entered the aforemen-
tioned eddy; and about 0.3 million cubic meters per second flowed
northerly across the mouth of Disko Bay and joined the bay dis-
charge there.

Disko Bay. — This section embraced a band of West Greenland Cur-
rent, 0.44 million cubic meters per second, which had hugged Great
Hellefiske Bank and entered Disko Bay along the southern shore. A
discharge, approximately equal to the indraft, filled the northern half
of the bay's entrance. This band of westerly flowing current is of
particular interest to the Ice Patrol because it transports many of the
icebergs calved from Disko Bay glaciers out on the main pathways
toward the North Atlantic. (See Smith 1931, p. 143).

Disko Island. — Our northernmost observations (except those in the
Vaigat, not discussed here), section G (fig. 11), extended from the
soutliwestern point of Disko Island diagonally out into Davis Strait.
It was intended to make a complete traverse of Davis Strait, but, as
related by Ricketts (1932), pack ice off Cape Dier, Baffin Land,
stopped the Marion 30 miles short of the goal. If the bathymetric
and station maps be consulted, they show that section G lies along
the top of a ridge which juts out into Davis Strait. Stations 1014 to
1016 continue the section across the continental slope and into the
deep w^ater of the Baffin Bay Basin near its southern rim. Station
1016, with its deepest observation at 1,200 meters, most probably
penetrated into sluggish bottom water and therefore permits a fairly
accurate calculation of the currents farther inshore as shown on the
velocity profile.

Tha alternation of direction of the components as shown by the
successive areas bounded by the zero velocity lines on section G (fig.
11) when compared with the surface current map (fig. 8) indicates
a band of winding current, probably the southern side of an eddy cen-
tered farther north in Baffin Bay. The main channel of Davis Strait,
stations 1014 to 1016 (fig. 11) was filled with weak northerly current
which totaled 0.9 million cubic meters per second in volume. If the
velocity profile be compared with the corresponding temperature and
salinity profiles (figs. 20 and 21, pp. 45-46), this band of northerly
current is quite definitely identified as West Greenland Current
which penetrated directly into Baffin Bay.

A resume of the volume of flow (the transport) of the slope band
of the West Greenland Current along the slope from Cape Farewell
northward to Baffin Bay, expressed in millions of cubic meters per
second for 1928, is contained in tlie following table :

Section

Cape Farewell (A)

Ivigtut (B)

Fiskernaessett (C)
Oodthaab(D)

Volume of
flow

3.2
7.4

5.3

Section

Holsteinsborg (E)
Egedesminde (F).
Disko Bay (Fi)...
Disko Island (G).

Volume of
flow

1.3
1.3
0.4
0.9

It can be seen from the above table that a constant diminution
in the current from south to north was interrupted at Ivigtut,

DAVTS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

37

Egedesminde, and Disko Island. The increase in the current at
Ivigtut was explained on page 32, as most probably due to contri-
butions from the Labrador Sea. The volume of the West Greenland
Current off Egedesminde, as previously explained, is misleading be-
cause of a supply from a Davis Strait eddy. (See fig. 8.) The vol-
ume of 0.9 million cubic meters per second recorded in the above
table for the Disko Island section refers only to the band of West

DISKO ISLAND

DISKO BAY

/

EGEDESMINDE

HGLSTEINSeORG
GODTHAAB

N

^

\

\

\

"^

FISKERNAESSET

-

—

\

\

1 VI GTUT

/

/

I

CAPE FAREWELL

/

/

'

I :

J

*

5

6

7 8

VOL. OF CURRENT IN MySEC X lO"^

Figure 12. — The distribution of the volume of the We.st Greenland Current along the
continental slope from Cape Farewell to the entrance of Baffin Bay, July 29-September
3. 1928.

Greenland Current which entered Baffin Bay between stations 1014-
1016. This branch, which was last measured by the Holsteinsborg
section, evidently skirted the Egedesminde and Disko Bay sections
and followed the deeper channels through Davis Strait.

THE HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY

The dual physical character of the water composing the West
Greenland Current (see p. 26) does not become revealed until one
examines the distribution of temperature and salinity.

38

]\rARION AND GEXER.IL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

At the surface the coldest water in the west Greenland sector
in the summer of 1928 was found in two small widely separated
areas as bounded by the 4° isotherm on figure 13 — one near Cape
Farewell and the other in Davis Strait about 100 miles west of

60 50

Figure 13. — Temperatiirc at llif siirfaof July .'iO-St'iJtt'raber ."., lOliS.

Disko ]^ay. The fact that this water was colder than that adjacent
to it is good evidence that it flowed there in a current. Reference to
the surface current map (fig. 8) itlentifies both of these pools as
Arctic in origin — the one transported around Cape Farewell by the
East Greenland Current and the other brought directly from the

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 39

north by the Baffin Land Current. The degree of Arctic character,
moreover, of the waters of the west Greenland sector at any given
time of the year is determined directly by the extent and the magni-
tude of the above two salients intruding from opposite direct:ions.
Baggesgaard-Rasmussen and Jacobsen (1930) have likewise pointed
out the difference in the origin of the two regional cold-water areas
along the west coast of Greenland.

On the other hand the course of the 7° isotherm, near Godthaab, in
1928, appears to mark a central zone, freest from Arctic chilling of
all the west coast. In truth the fairly large area off Godthaab
with temperatures between 7 and 8 degrees, and which extended north-
ward along the continental slope to the Holsteinsborg section, appears
so warm as to suggest an Atlantic source. The warmest water region
of all, however (9°), lay outside the more rapid currents, over the
deeper water in the Labrador Sea.

If the surface temperature map (fig. 13) be superimposed on the
surface current map (fig. 8), it is found that the tongue of coldest
water embraced by the 4°, 5°, and 6° isotherms coincides with the axis
of the West Greenland Current, the water warming 2° along its jjath.
Cape Farewell to Fylla Bank. There the cooling influence of the east
Greenland Arctic water, at least on the surface, appears to have been
spent. Tlie tendency of the cool Avater to keep to the slope in contrast
to branching westward as was noted for much of the West Greenland
Current indicates that the east Greenland Arctic water constituted
some of the lightest surface layers of the West Greenland Current and
occupied tlie inshore band.

Continuing northward, the temperature gradient on figure 13 re-
versed, with cooler and cooler water being entered until the 4° iso-
therm was reached on the border of the Baffin Land Current in Davis
Strait. The position of the 5° isotherm, moreover, indicates that this
Arctic influence made itself felt even as far south as Little Hellefiske
Bank in the west Greenland sector. Both Little Hellefiske and Great
Hellefiske Banks, in themselves, however, appear freer from Arctic
intrusion, a condition previously remarked by Nielsen (1928), with
solar radiation a more noticeable factor than along the deeper parts
of the slope to the north and south.

The warmest water, with the exception of the Labrador Sea (fig.
13) was found in Disko Bay. Both of these regions, it will be noted,
are outside the main paths of gradient currents, and undisturbed, the
surface layers absorb a maximum amount of heat from the summer's
sun.

Figure 14 indicates a uniform distribution of the salinity in the
west Greenland sector which increased from a minimum near the
shore (30.44%o off Ivigtut), to >34.50%o, a maximum, near the
1,000-meter isobath of the slope. Such a distribution supports previ-
ous statements regarding the relative position of east Greenland,
Arctic, and coastal water.

Paralleling the tongue of east Greenland Arctic water but approxi-
mately 20 miles offshore of it, we found at a depth of 100 meters, fig-
ures 15 and 16, a tongue of water of 6° temperature and >35%o salin-
ity— the warmest and saltest water of the entire region. Reference
to the current map (fig. 8) unmistakably identifies this water as At-
lantic in origin, an extension of the Irminger Current around Cape

40

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Farewell. Comparison between figure 8 and the velocity profiles for
the Godthaab and Holsteinsborg sections (fig. 10) shows that this
warm and salty Avater, bounded by the 4° and 5° isotherms and the
34.50%o isohaline, extended northwestward to the southern slopes of
Little Hellefiske Bank where it probably turned westward.

Figure 14. — Salinity at the surface July 30-September 3, 1928.

Inshore against the slope of Fylla Bank at the 100-meter level
(fig. 15) lay vestiges of east Greenland Arctic water as marked by
the 2° isotherm. The temperatures and salinitias contained on the
Holsteinsborg section at 100 meters (fig. 15 and fig. 16) indicate an
area entirely different in physical character, with cooling and fresh-
ening which probably emanated from the Baffin Land Current.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

41

The remaining 1928 maps for the 200-, 400-, and 600-meter levels
(figs. 17-19) are particularly instructive in tracing the areas occu-
pied by Atlantic water off the southwest coast of Greenland at these
levels. Neither function alone, temperature nor salinity, can be
accepted for all depths to mark the boundary of this water. It was

60

60 50

FIGURE 15. — Temperature at a depth of 100 meters July 30-September 3, 1928.

warmest (6°) at the 100-meter level, but saltiest, 35.10%o, on the
200-meter plane. For the same salinity (35%o) for an increase
in draft from 100 meters to 400 meters the Irminger- Atlantic water
cooled approximately 1.5° C, on its under side.

The areas enclosed by the critical isotherms and isohalines (figs.
17 to 19) indicate the manner in which the Atlantic water flows

42 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

60 50

FiGUKE ](■>. — Salinity at a deptli of 100 meters July .'iO-Soptomljer 3, 1028.

northwestward in the (ireenlaiul sector and sj)i('ads oiil into the
Labrador Sea.

THE VERTICAL DlSTKlliUTION OF TEM PKUATrUE AND SALINITY

The vertical distribution of temperature and salinity 1928, in the
seven hydro^raphical sections, Cape Farewell to Disko Island (figs.
20 and 21), emphasizes the evidence revealed on the horizontal pro-
jections. The east (Jreenland Arctic watei- northward to (lodthaab,
and more pronouncetl from Ivigtut to Godtliaab than at Cape Fare-

D/VVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

50 AO 60 50

43

FiGiUE 17. — Temperaturo and salinity at a depth of 200 meters July 30-Septeniber

3, 192S.

Figure 18. — Temperature and salinity at a depth of 400 meters July 30-September

8, 1928.

well, is clearly indicated in the coldest and freshest surface layers
inshore. The frigid layer which is to be seen on the three northern-
most profiles E to G (figs. 20 and 21) as represented by the isotherms
at about 100 meters depth, indicates Arctic water which has pene-
trated to these points from a northern source, probably from Baffin
Bay.

79920—37 4

44

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

The positions of the isohalines representing the saltest water,
on the other hand (fig. 20), indicated the Irminger- Atlantic water
as it progressed from Cape Farewell to Godthaab, branched west-
ward, and sank from the 150-meter level to about the 500-meter
depth. It is estimated from these data that the axis of the Irminger-
Atlantic water cooled approximately li/^° C, and freshened about
0.20%o. This process of mixing and sinking is discussed on
page 175. The warmest and saltest water consistently found on the
deeper parts of the shelf in the Holsteinsborg section, and north-
ward, indicates Atlantic water much diluted from its passage into
Davis Strait. The vertical position of such water in the northern
sections when compared with the respective velocity profiles places
it near the under side of the West Greenland Current. The distribu-

FiGUEB 19. — Temperature and salinity at a depth of 600 meters July 30-September

3. 1928.

tion of temperature and salinity in the Disko Island section, section
G (figs. 20 and 21), like the other sections to the south, supports the
evidence of the velocity profiles, viz, an appreciable amount of West
Greenland Current entered Baffin Bay.

The continuity and concentration of the Irminger-xVtlaiitic water,
as the subsurface illustrations generally reveal, was less pronounced
off Cape Farewell at a point nearer its source than it was off
Ivigtut. The east Greenland Arctic water was similarly distributed.
The GodthaaVs observations agree with the Manori's in this respect
and thus indicate that the condition wag not purely coincidental.
The International Ice Patrol, similarly, has found lower tempera-
tures on the southwest slope of the Grand Banks than upstream at
the Tail of the Banks. The distribution of the Irminger-Atlantic
water along the southwest slope of Greenland in 1931, however
(figs. 32 and 33), was in accordance with the direction of the cur-

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

45

1.5 43 4.8 52

,0-M

^49 5.1 Q.^ 0 30 60 (MILES)
,^2 iOO

FiGURK 20. — -Temperature profiles acros.s the continental shelf July 30-Septeniber 3, 1928 ;
A, Cape Farewell ; B, Ivigtut ; C, Flskernaessett ; D, Godthaab ; E. Holsteinsborg ; F,
Egedesminde ; Fj, Dlsko Bay ; and G, Disko Island.

rent, that is, more concentrated and in greater volume at Cape Fare-
well than at Ivigtut.

The fact that the thermal and haline gradients were less steep
at Cape Farewell than at Ivigtut in 1928 (figs. 20 and 21) strongly
suggests a more active mixing of the West Greenland Current at
times in the former, than in the latter, region.

46

MARION AND GP^NERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

30.94 32.40 33.61 3338

33,22 32.72 o-M 0 30 60(miLES)

Figure 21. — Salinity profiles across the conlineiital shelf July 30-September 3, 1928.

The turbulence noted at times off Cape Farewell appears most
likely to be caused by the abrupt change in the direction of the
continental slope and tlie conse(iuent turning of the current to the
right. Eddies a])i);iren(Iy form (lig. 8) in this locality of rugged
bottom topography and jjrobably assist in s})litting the West Green-
land Current. At such times one branch hugs the slope and the other

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

47

branch is deflected southwestward offshore. A more active mixing
in the Cape Farewell region may also be contributed by an intensi-
fication of the offshore circulation, at which times a portion of the
Atlantic current in the Labrador Sea may join the West Greenland
Current setting northward toward Davis Strait.

A comparison between the relative positions of the coldest water
and the saltest water and the position of the strong slope current
off Ivigtut (fig. 22) continues to substantiate previous findings,

OM
100
2

10

12

15

Figure 22. — The Ivigtut profile August 28, 1928. The relative positions of east Green-
land Arctic water and Irminger-Atlantic water in the West Greenland Current are
shown by the 0° C. isotherm and the isohalines greater than 34.95%o, respectively.
The velocity lines represent northwesterly current e.xpressed in centimeters per second.

namely that the "West Greenland Current was composed of two types
of water of opposite characteristics; (a) inshore in the surface
layers as marked by temperatures <3.0° C, east Greenland Arctic
water; and, (&), farther offshore and about 100 meters deeper, as
embraced b}^ salinities >34.95%o, Irminger-Atlantic water.

It will be noted that in none of the Coast Guard's surveys has water
as salt as 35.00%o been found west of Cape Farewell on the sea
surface. The axis of greater than 35.00%o water, wherever present,
immediately north and west of Cape Farewell, has been concentrated

48

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

about 100 to 150 meters below the sea surface. If the Irmmger-
Atlantic water be traced upstream, however, the upper side as
marked by the 35.00%o isohaline, often intersects the sea surface (see
Bohnecke, 1931) east and north of Cape Farewell in the vicinity
of the thirty-seventh meridian. This again strongly suggests the
sinking of Irminger- Atlantic water. (See p. 175.)

That two homogeneous bodies of water free from outside influences
mix in ratio to their physical properties of temperature and salinity
is well known. This correlation when plotted graphically forms a
straight line between the points typical of the components of the

33.00

3400

SALl N I TY

35.00

Figure 23. — Temperature-salinity correlation curves of the West Greenland Current, Cape
Farewell to Hosteinsborg, the summer of 1928.

mixture. In all of our correlation graphs (figs. 23, 49, 65, 66, 76, and
100) the temperature-salinity data have been plotted by sections,
the resulting curves representing, therefore, each the temperature-
salinity correlation of the current at that particular cross section.
The continuity of the curves is directly proportional to the distance
between stations of the given section ; tlie greater the number the
stations the more accurate the temperature-salinity curve. The
West Greenland current, for example, is ilhistrated by a series of
curves on figure 23, the letter on each curve referring to the corre-
sponding section as shown on figure 7. The lower left portion of
the curves represents east Greenland Arctic water, and the upper

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

49

right Irminger-Atlantic water. The more vertical part of the curves
from the upper inflection point downward is indicative of the deep-
est water embraced in the observations. This lower point may be
regarded as a third component of the West Greenland Current, the
mixing between the Irminger-Atlantic water and this deep water
being indicated by the curves. Corroboration of the loss of heat from
the warm core of the West Greenland Current with northward pro-
gress is furnished by the continually lower inflection points on the
correlation curves, A to E (fig. 23). A similar progression of the
curves at the point of greatest salinity indicates a continual f resliening
of the Irminger-Atlantic water. The resulting density as indicated
by the inflection points representative of Irminger-Atlantic water,
curves A to E (fig. 23) increased approximately 0.04, Cape Farewell
to Holsteinsborg. The mixing and cabbeling of the current as a
whole is further discussed in chapter VIII, p. 175.

As a final analysis of the slope band of the West Greenland Cur-
rent, the average temperature and the rate of heat transfer at the
eight sections, A to G, are given in the table below, and expressed
in million cubic meter degrees centigrade per second. The method
of obtaining these values is explained in chapter II, page 24.

West Greenland Current

Section

Average
tempera-
ture (°C.)

Rate of heat
transfer

Section

Average
tempera-
ture (°C.)

Rate of heat
transfer

Cape Farewell (A)

Ivigtut (B) __

5.5
6.0
4.2
4.1

17.5
44.4
27.7
21.7

Holsteinsborg (E)

Egedesminde (F)

Disko Bay (Fi)

3.0
2.3
2.7
0.5

3.9
3 0

Fiskernaessett (C)

1 1

Qodthaab (D)

Disko Island (Q)

0 5

The table shows that the average temperature progressively de-
creased as the West Greenland Current flowed northward, except in
the offing of Ivigtut and Disko Bay. The swelling of the current at
Ivigtut, and the consequent increase in heat transfer, has been
previously explained. The higher average temperature in the Disko
Bay section is attributed directly to solar warming of that shallower-
water locality.

The marked reduction in the rate of heat transfer to be noted in
the last four sections of the above table is attributed to the great
proportion of the current which left the Greenland slope near God-
thaab (see p. 33) and carried its heat toward American shores.

The slope band of the West Greenland Current with a maximum
of 44.4 million cubic meter degrees centigrade, per second at Ivigtut
transported 0.5° C. mVsXlO'' or only about 1 percent of its heat
into Baffin Bay. The heat transported into Baffin Bay based on
the GodthaaVs observations (p. 53) was 1.4 million cubic meter de-
grees centigrade per second. This higher value is due to the higher
average temperature, the GodthaaVs stations being located in deeper
and warmer water than those of the Marion. An average tem-
perature of 1.0° C. and a heat transport of 1.0 million cubic meter
degrees centigrade per second is considered representative of the
West Greenland Current entering Baffin Bay.

50

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS
50

Figure 24. — The West Greenland Current on the surface, July
Velocities expressed in miles per day.

27- August 2, 1931.

ANNUAL VARIATIONS

The question whether or not the ooeanographic conditions already
described in this chapter as existing in west Greenland waters in 1928
prevail during most summers can be answered, at least for south-
western Greenland, by the Coast Guard's surveys repeated there in
1931, 1933, and 1934, and also by further comparisons with other
published observations.

Currejits. — The surface current maps for each of the Coast Guard's
surveys, when compared with the similar map for 1928 (fig. 8) indi-
cate that variations of considerable magnitude occur in the surface
current off southwest Greenland. The branching of the West Green-
land Current away from the slope at Cape Farwell in 1931, a feature
which is more clearly revealed in the velocity profiles than in the
surface current maps, represents an important departure from the
other years. If the velocity profiles (figs. 27 to 29) be compared
with the surface current maps (figs. 24 to 26) it will be noted that
in 1931 the volume of slope band of the West Greenland Current at
Cape Farewell was 3.98 million cubic meters per second, and this was
separated from the slope itself by 0.3 million cubic meters per second
of counter current. Off Ivigtut a few days earlier the slope band was
calculated at 2.42 million cubic meters per second. Although the
velocity at Ivigtut exceeded that at Cape Farewell a smaller transport
resulted at the former place because of the cui'ront's decrease in width
and draft. In the summer of 1933 the slope band at Cape Farewell,
amounting to G.52 million cubic meters per second, was split by a
subsurface counter current of 0.7(5 million cubic meters per second
vohiiiie. ()ff Ivigtut, however, the West Greenland Current swelled
to 12.1 niilliou cubic meters per second; the largest transport recorded

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

51

Figure 25. — The West Greenland Current on the surface, July 2-14, 1933. Velocities
expressed in miles per day.

FiGtJRK 26. — The West Greenland Current on the surface, July 1215, 19.34. Velocities

expressed in miles per day.

52

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

CO ^ LO '-D r>.
O O O O O
ro ro 00 CO ro

To (miles)

Figure 27. — Velocity profiles of the West Greenland Current expressed in centimeters
per second. Tlie solid lines represent northerly current and the dashed lines southerly
current. Section .Aj, August 1-2. litMl ; section Bi, July -S. 1931.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

53

I -A

0 10 2030

60 H I LES

i

L

Figure 28. — Velocity profiles of the West Greenland Current expressed in centimeters
per second. Tlie solid lines represent northerly current and the dashed lines southerly
current. Section Aj, July 9. 1933; section Ba. July 7-13, 1933.

for the west Greenland sector. In 1934 the slope band at Cape Fare-
well w^as 3.71 million cubic meters per second. In order to obtain
further comparisons the volume of the West Greenland Current was
computed from the observations of the Godthadb (see Conseil Per-
manent International, 1929) ; the observations of the Meteor (unpub-
lished) ; and the observations of the General Greene (see Soule, 1936).

54

IVfARION AND Gl^XERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

0 10 20 30

60 MILES

Figure 29. — Velocity profile of the West Greenlanil Current expresseil in centimeters per
second. The solid lines represent northerly current and the dashed lines southerly
current. Section A3, July 12-13, 1934.

The above data on tlie slope band of tlie west Greenland current may
be summarized as follows :

CAPE FAREWELL SECTION '

Date

Width
(miles)

Average velocity

Velocity on axis

Volume of flow

May 1928 .

4.0 mVsec.XlO^

August-September

1928.
July-August 1931....

July-August 1933

July 1934

24

95
80
36

10.0 miles per day

2.8 miles per day

4.8 miles per day

10.8 miles per day

15.0 miles per day

7.2 miles per day

9.6 miles per day

22.0 miles per day

3.2m3/sec.X10«.

3.7 m3/sec.X10«.
5.8mVsec.X106.
3.7 mVsec.X10«.

March 1935

7.5 m^/secXlO*.

August 1935.

8.5 m3/sec.X106.

IVIGTUT SECTION i

August 1928.

40

19.0 miles per day

33.0 miles per day

7.4 mVsec.XlO*.

October 1928...

7.8 mVsec.XlO".

July 1931

22
66

13.4 miles per day

12.0 miles per day

24.0 miles per day

21.6 miles per day

2.4 m'/sec.X106.

July 1933

12.1 mVsec.XlOa.

' See station maps, figs. 153 to 155 herein, and Conseil Permanent International, 1929, for difference in
geographical positions of the sections. i)

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

55

It is seen from the above table that the width, velocity, and conse-
(juent transport of the West Greenland Current vary considerably
tiom year to year. The close agreement between the Meteor's and
dctieral Greene's Cape Farewell observations March to August 1935,
as well as the Godthaab'^s and Marion's Ivigtut observations, regard-
ing the volume of current, August to October 1928, indicate that the
variations in the transport of the West Greenland Current sometimes
are of long periods. A doubling of the volume of the West Green-
land Current along the southwest coast of Greenland is noted in 2 of
tlie 3 years (1928 and 1933). It is also interesting to note from the
table that the summer which recorded the deficiency in volume of
current off Ivigtut, 1931, also marked a major branching of the cur-
rent off Cape Farewell, as shown on the dynamic topographic map
for that year (fi^. 123, p. 167). The foregoing suggests that the sum-
mers of 1928 and 1933, on the one hand, and the summer of 1931, on
the other, represent two distinct types of the system of circulation off
West Greenland. According to this view, the slope band in some
summers increases in volume between Cape Farewell and Ivigtut,
■u'hile in other summers the West Greenland Current may branch
southwestward at Cape Farewell, as much as two-thirds of its
volume mixing offshore in the Labrador Sea.

Temperature and salinity. — The relative positions of, and areas
occupied hj^ Atlantic and Arctic water, and the values of the tem-
perature and the salinity in the maps and sections for 1931, 1933, and
1934 (figs. 30 to 35) do not differ materially from those described for
1928.

In order to compare one summer with another and also consecutive
months of a single summer, the minimum temperatures of the east
Greenland Arctic water and the maximum temperatures of the At-
lantic water of the West Greenland Current have been arranged in
table form :

EAST GREENLAND ARCTIC WATER— CAPE FAREWELL
(Average minimum summer temperature, 0.6°; average depth, 33 meters)

Date

Vessel

Station

Depth

(meters)

Tempera-
ture

Mavl928

Godthaab

3

1767
VII 23
1311
1542
137
1080

75
24
25
0
0
90
20

-0.25

July 1934

—.13

July 1925

Dana - . . . .

.26

July 1931

.75

July 1933

do

2.02

September 1909

September 1928

Tjalfe... _._

Marion

<1.00
14.30

1 Not included as conjectured to be outside East Greenland Arctic Water.
EAST GREENLAND ARCTIC WATER— IVIGTUT
(Average minimum summer temperature, 0.82°; average depth, 60 meters)

June 1928-

Godthaab . .-.

28

1307

VII 10

1546
1076
180

75
50
75
50
100
10

0.20

July 1931. . . .

General Greene

— .27

July 1925

July 1933

Dana

General G reene

.09
-.10

August 1928

October 1928

Marion

Godthaab

2.30
2.70

56

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

ATLANTIC WATER— CAPE FAREWELL
(Average maximum summer temperature, 5.85°; average depth, 130 meters)

Date

Vessel

Station

Depth
(meters)

Tempera-
ture

May 1928

Godthaab.-- -

Dana . ....

6
VI 5
1540
1313
1765
1083
140

50
200
113
100
147
100
200

5.49

June 1925

.3.96

July 1933 . .

5.39

July 1931

do . . -

7.60

July 1934

... do.

6.65

August 1928 -

Marlon

5.85

September 1909

Tjalfe

>6.00

ATLANTIC WATER— IVIGTUT
(Average maximum summer temperature 5.70°; average depth, 135 meters)

June 1925

July 1931

July 1933

August 1928..
October 1928.

Dana

General Greene.

do

Marion .

Godthaab

VI6

300

1303

100

1549

98

1074

100

183

75

4.03
5.53
6.39
6.00
7.58

The tables show that the Atlantic water, both in temperature and
salinity, remains more constant, summer to summer, than does the
temperature and salinity of the Arctic water. This fact was also
noted by Bohencke (1931) for the same latitudes off the east coast
of Greenland. The constancy of the maximum salinity of the At-
lantic water off the southwest slope of Greenland was remarkable,
it varying only 0.03%o for the three summers, viz. 1928, 35.10%o;
1931, 35.07%o; and 1934, 35.07%o. The saltest water reported from
the west Greenland section by the Godthaah in 1928 was 35.07%o.

That variations occur, however, in the average minimum and the
average maximum temperatures of the West Greenland Current and
also in its volume has been demonstrated. Helland -Hansen (1934)
has found that similar important variations take place in the dis-
charge of the Atlantic Current along the Norwegian coast and also
that they correlate with certain climatic variations in Scandinavia
as well as with the area of pack ice in the Barents Sea.

In the case of the West Greenland Current, which is composed of
both Arctic and Atlantic water, it is more instructive to include con-
sideration of its average temperature and its rate of heat transfer
than simply to compare volumes alone or to compare a series of
isolated observations. We have, therefore, expanded the table on
page 54 in accordance with the method described in chapter II. The
average temperature and the rate of heat transfer of the slope band
of the West Greenland Current, expressed in million cubic meter
degrees centigrade per second, varied as follows :

CAPE FAREWELL SECTION

Date

Volume of flow

Average
tempera-
ture (°C.)

Rate of

heat
transfer

May 28-30, 1928
Sept. 2-3, 1928..
Aug. 1-2, 1931,.
July 8-9, 1933...
July 13-14, 1934.
Mar. 8, 1935....
Aug. 1&-20, 1935

4.0ms/sec.X10«
3.2mVsec.X106
3.7mVsec.X10«
5.8mVsec.X10e
3.7 mVsec.XlOs
7.5mVsec.X10«
8.5m3/sec.X10«

4.1

5.5
5.3
4.2
5.1
4.0
5.0

16.4
17.5
19.6
24.4
18,9
30.0
42.5

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA
IVIGTUT SECTION

57

Date

Volume of flow

Average
tempera-
ture (°C.)

Rate of

heat
transfer

Aug. 27-28, 1928

7.4mVsec.X108

6.0
3.1
4.2
5.4

44.4

7.4

50.8

42.1

July 28, 1931

2.4 mVsecXlO*

July 13-14, 1933

12.1 mVsec.X10«

Oct. 8-9, 1928

7.8mVsec.Xl08

400

400

Figure 30.— Temperature and salinity at the surface, 100, 200, 400, and 600 meters

July 27-August 4. 1931

58

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

The above table shows that the West Greenland Current " trans-
ported more heat per second past Cape Farewell in 1935 than in any
other summer for which there is record. The additional heat was,
moreover, due not to a higher mean temperature but to a more volii-
minous current. At Ivigtut more heat was carried in 1933 than in
any other year, but there are only data there from three summers
with which to make comparisons. The greatest variation in the rate
of heat transfer is noted for the summer of 1931 at Ivigtut wdien it
amounted to only about 25 percent of any of the other summers.
This deticiency is described above (p. 54) as arising not from lower
temperature of the current itself, as can be seen from the table of
average temperatures, but to major branching at Cape Farewell.

Figure 31.— Temperature at 100, 200, 400, and 600 meters July 9-14, 1933

Variations in the rate of heat transport of the West Greenland Cur-
rent may have many far-reaching effects. That such variations do
occur is proved by the quantitative observations included in the fore-
going table, but as to the range of such variations and what corre-
lations exist between them and related factors — climatic, biological,
and glaciological — the data are yet scanty. It may be more than
simply coincidental, for example, that contemporary with the deficit
in 1931 of the rate of heat transported northward into Davis Strait
and toward blockaded iceberg glaciers (Smith, 1931) only 13 ice-
bergs that spring were recorded south of Newfoundland.

In this connection it should be mentioned that the method of ice-
berg forecasting developed by Smith (1931) and tested by the Coast

'■ Bohnecke (1931) found the Irminger Current in Deuniurk Strait more volun\inous in
1928 than 1930.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

59

Guard during the past several years is based solely on meteorological
factors. From the beginning it was realized that there were other
factors, and we suspect that two of these are (a) the rate of heat sup-
ply of the West Greenland Current and (h) the degree of branching
of the West Greenland Current into the Labrador Sea. The former
may affect the icebergs near their source and the latter may affect
them on their journey southward.

o o

o o o

3 60

3.26

3.41

0-M

too

2

30 60 (miles)

750

7.29

6.90

B,

367

n

r

L.

3.20

Figure 32. — Temperature profiles across the continental shelf, Ai, August 1-2, 1931

Bi, July 28, 1931

In commenting on the East Greenland Polar Current along the west
coast of Greenland Nielsen (1928) points out that, if negative tem-
perature is to be accepted as the index of such water, then often in
autumn the extension of the East Greenland Current northward of
Cape Farewell along the west coast dwindles and disappears. Nat-
urally during summer in sub-Arctic zones higher temperatures pre-
vail in the upper water layers than at other times of the year. Ac-

79920—37 5

60

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

<\J fO Tj- in to 1^
O O O OO O

ro ro ro ro to K)

34.44 3467 3461

-34.8
34a

34.95

3491

3489

34.89

30 60 (miles)

34.63

B,

3494

34.92

34.91

Figure 33.

-Salinity profiles across the continental shelf, Ai, August 1-2, 1931 ; Bi,
July 28, 1981

cordingly, the tongue of coldest water along the southwest coast of
Greenland shown by our observations, even if positive in tempera-
ture (see fig. 15), has been considered by us as representing the East
Greenland Current, and, if so defined, it cannot be said to disappear
from the west coast. According to this view east (Treenland Arctic
water suffers major diminution near Fylla Bank, and, while there is

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

61

a northerly set even to Disko Bay, tlie proportion of original con-
stituents are probably very small. The designation of West Green-
land Current for the northerly set along the west coast of Greenland
avoids any opportunity for a misunderstanding on this point.

Nielsen's (1928) statement that the East Greenland Polar Current
may carry ice as far north as Egedesminde is believed in error.
The ice referred to was probably "vestis" (see Smith, 1931, p. 44),
which in severe winters drifts eastward across Davis Strait and

o-M

200

Figure 34.

-Temperature profiles across the continental shelf, A2, July 9, 1933 ; B",
July 7-13, 1933

has been reported on the Greenland coast even as far south as
Holsteinsborg.

The Dana's and Godthaah\s sections of temperature extending from
Godthaab out into the Labrador Sea (Baggesgaard-Rasmussen and
Jacobsen, 1928) and (Conseil Permanent International, 1929), when
compared with the corresponding section of the Marion (fig. 20,
p. 45), reveals that east (jrreenland Arctic water does not always
hug the slope as might be inferred from the MariorVs observations
but may often be present in one of the several branches of the West
Greenland Current which turn westward into the Labrador Sea.

62

MARION AND GENP^RAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

735

683

00 3479

0-M

325

;34.95^^__y~^
200 "^--^ ) /34.95

g 34 92

to

12

34.91

Figure 35. — Temperature and salinity profiles across the continental shelf at Cape Fare-
well, July 13-14, 1934

ANNUAL CYCLES

While there are several years' data with which to trace annual
variations of temperature and salinity in the west Greenland sector
for summer and early autumn there have been until recently very
few surface or subsurface observations collected during other periods
of the year essential to learn the annual cycle. The information
available now is contained in a section running southward from
Cape Farewell. The observations there have been collected at the
following times: Meteor, March 1935; Godf/:aah, May 1928; and
Marion, September 1928.

A comparison of the vertical distribution of the temperature,
salinity, and density off Cape Farewell at the end of winter, again
the latter part of spring, and finally at the end of summer (fig. 36)
indicates that throughout the year cold low-salinity water (east
Greenland-Arctic) prevails in the surface la3^ers next to the coast,
while farther offshore at deeper levels persists warmer, saltier water
(Irminger- Atlantic) .

The extent to which the system of circulation in the northwestern
North Atlantic is affected by wintertime conditions has heretofore
been speculative. That the West Greenland Current, however, pre-
vails throughout the year is apparent from a. comparison of the
March to September profiles (fig. 30) one with another. The com-
puted volume of the West Greenland Current at Cape Farewell in

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

63

March 1935 of 7.5 million cubic meters per second when compared
with volumes found there in August 1935 and also during several
other summers proves that the West Greenland Current is apparently
not seasonal, or, if seasonal, that effect is masked by greater varia-
tions noncyclic in character.

The effects of winter chilling of the surface layers, and consequent
convectional mixing, are, however, plainly visible (fig. 36), where the
temperature and salinity gradients of May and September were com-
pletely erased by March. The sections furnish information on the
annual temperature range of the surface layers outside the shelf
off Cape Farewell. The temperature in the axis of the Irminger-
Atlantic current ])r()bably rises from a minimum in February of
about 4° C. to a maximum of slightly over 8° C. in September.
In the fresher water near the coast it probably ranges from —1.3°
C. at the end of winter to around 3.0° C. or 4.0° C. at the end of
summer. The May section of the Godtliaab apparently recorded a
point about midway of the annual cycle.

The average temperature and the rate of heat transfer of the
West Greenland Current off Cape Farewell at the three seasons was
computed as follows:

Annual thermal cycle of the West Greenland Current (Cape Farewell)

Date

Volume of
flow

Average
tempera-
ture

Rate of

heat
transfer

Mar. 7-8, 1935. _
May 28-30, 1928
Sept. 2-3, 1928..

7.5
4.0
3.2

4.0
4.1

4.4

30.0
16.4
17.5

Despite the winter chilling of the surface layers of the West Green-
land Current, the table shows that in some winters, at least, the cur-
rent transports more heat into the Labrador Sea than it does at
other times of a year.

The higlier average temperature of the deeper parts of the cur-
rent in March 1935 was also accompanied, according to the salinity
profile (fig. 36), by a correspondingly higher salinity. Warm, salty
water apparently mixed and sank to greater depths off Cape Fare-
well in March 1935 than in any of the summers for which there is
record.

A more thorough internal mixing during winter below the fric-
tional influence of the wind may have been due to convectional cur-
rents, but an examination of the density profile reveals generally a
fair stability. The stability of any column in the section, 0-1,500
meters, was greatest closest to Cape Farewell and decreased directly
with the distance from the coast. Farthest out from the shore (Me-
teor's station 120, fig. 36) the density was uniformly 27.75, surface
to 220 meters, but below there the density progressively increased
with depth to 27.88 at 1,500 meters. The maximum depth, there-
fore, to which convectional chilling was directly and actively pene-
trating around Cape Farewell March 7-8, 1935, was probably about
220 meters. Wintertime convectional currents are, however, believed

64

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

to have assisted salty water downward to depths of 1.200 and 1,500
meters at Meteor''s station 120, prior, however, to the time of, and
upstream from the place of, the actual taking of the observations.
The depth of vertical convection farther offshore is discussed in
chapter VIII.

No wintertime observations have ever been taken northward of
Cape Farewell in the west Greenland sector, but an indication of
the annual cycle is contained in the Ivigtut sections of the Marion
and Godthaab. The Marion ran the Ivigtut section the last few
days of August 1928, and the Godthaab repeated the survey the first
week in October (fig. 37). The close proximity of the two section?
in geographical position and the recorded constancy of the West
Greenland Current during the interval of about 5 weeks lend accu-
racy to a direct comparison between relative heat values as follows :

Ivigtut section

Date

Volume of flow

Average
tempera-
ture (°C.)

Rate of

heat
transfer

Aug. 27-28, 1928.
Oct. 8-9, 1928—-

7.4 m3/sec.X10«.
7.8m3/sec.X10.

5.96
5.40

44.1
42.1

The rate of heat transfer of the West Greenland Current August
28 to October 9, 1928, without appreciable change of the volume
of flow diminished 2.0 million cubic meter degrees centigrade per
second in a period of about 5 weeks. This decline in the rate of
heat supply is attributed directly to the seasonal cooling of the
surface layers.

A table recording in more detail the volume of the West Greenland
Current, previously depicted on the velocity profiles, and described
in this chapter is appended herewith.

ife

64

to
me
up
Th
c\v,
]
Ca
th(
aiK
da;
we
in
Gr
rac

Aug
Oct.

28
of
sec
he£
sur
J
Cu
in

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

65

Volume of West Greenland current
[Millions cubic meters per second]

1928

1931

South

North

North

South

North

North

Section A:

1.66
1.11

3.98
[ 3.20

Slope- - -

0.30

3.98

Shelf

Total

2.77

7.18

4.41

.30

3.98

3.68

Section B:
Offshore

2.6C

.35

.48
2.42

Slope -

[ 7.40

Shelf

Total --

2.60

7.40

4.80

.35

2.90

2.55

Section C:
Offshore

1.85

3.00
[ 6.65

Slope -.-

Shelf -

Total

1.85

9.65

7.80

Section D:

1.80

2.00
} 5.32

Shelf

Total

1.80

7.32

5.52

Section E:
Slope

1.12
.20

Shelf

.07

Total

.07

1.32

1.25

Section F:

Slope ---

} 1.29

Shelf --

Total

1.29

1.29

Section Fi:

} ■«

.44

Shelf

Total .- - -

.44

.44

Section Q:
Slope

.93

Shelf

1.29

Total

1 29

93

1.36

Section and position

1933

1934

South

North

North

South

North

North

Section A:

Offshore

6.52

1.55

0.36
3.71

Slope

0.76

Shelf

/

Total

.76

6.52

5.76

1.55

4.07

2.52

Section B:
Offshore

.48

Slope

} 12. 57

Shelf - -

Total . .

.48

12.57

12.09

> South.

Chapter V
THE DAVIS SECTOR

THE SURFACE CURRENTS

The name, "Davis Strait", is used here for the narrow part of the
waterway which separates Greenland and Baffin Land (p. 2). The
bathymetric map of this region (fig. 38) shows the two basins,
Labrador and Baffin, connected by a winding channel, which, as
marked by the 600 meters isobath, averages 40 miles in width and
with a threshold depth of 675 meters. Because all exchanges be-
tween the Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay necessarily have to pass
across this sill, particular investigation has been devoted to the Davis
Strait sector. Besides the Coast Guard's data, the Godthaab expedi-
tion's observations, Riis-Carstensen (1936), and the Michael Sars^
observations. Martens (1929) have also been utilized. For the geo-
graphical position of the stations see figure 38. In constructing the
series of dynamic topographic maps shown in figure 39, Godthaab'' s
station number 162, latitude 67°48.5' north, longitude 60°48' west,
was selected as the datum station for the surveyed area, except for
Marion stations 986 to 994, which have been referred to Maiion sta-
tion 984, latitude 63° 10' north, longitude 56°32' west. The dynamic
heights for the above stations, similar to those of the Coast Guard,
have been computed in accordance with the anomaly tables published
by Sverdrup (1933) and the method referred to by Helland-Hansen
(1934).

It will be recalled from this theorem that if motionless water is
correctly assumed at the selected level (usually a deep level between
two deep-water stations), all motion is accounted for even at the
bottom of the shoalest stations. An important step in the method,
however, is the correct determination or portrayal of the distribution
of the anomaly of specific volume along the bottom of the shoal water
stations in the section. That errors in the dynamic height and the
computed velocity at shoal water stations may result from the above
source was demonstrated in our work when a common inshore sta-
tion was approached along two converging sections. For example,
the computed dynamic heights of station 45, based upon the distribu-
tion of specific volume in a vertical plane passed through station
42 and another plane passed through station 46, were 1,454.874
dynamic meters and 1,454.900 dynamic meters, respectively. A
similar discrepancy arose in the computed dynamic heights of sta-
tion 168 which were 1,454.879 and 1,454.823 dynamic meters by
different approaches. The difference in the first case when expresesd
in terms of motion introduces an error of 1.7 centimeters per sec-
ond, which is not great, but in the second case the difference repre-
sents a current of 7.3 centimeters per second, which is relatively
significant. When the dynamic values for each one of the stations
in the Davis Strait sector were plotted, and a topographic map at-

66

70'

62'

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

58°

67

o

54

o

53

P : ; 51 / 50\

68

C5 : ^>^

■^

"••••■•••• I *. /i5^ o /ao° //-.o-. o :• BANK .

RE
SKE^
BANK-

igrr^'n

"170 ^^ • :^- L...-/<^ .:+;';^;i-

I

64-

\2I+"--,
= 23 /

.+

';^^^""Xf\ IHELDERS.

\ 4° ; ^^91 x^ankI

^°^ .' ; ^ IHELLEFigKE,

; ; ^ •• BANK ••. /J

+987

•2oa'

■ ./ /•' ^ooo •'•*' \\-

+986

58

4 I

179

62'

58"

64^

54'

Figure 38— The Davis Strait sector: D Michael iiars stations, 1924; + Marion stations, 1928; O God-

thaab stations, 1928.

68 MARION AND GENER.\L GREENE EXPEDITIONS

tempted, it was immediately perceived, moreover, that the dynamic
values of adjacent stations not in the same section exhibited undue
irregularities. Similar conditions appearing at the 500 meter level
(a depth beyond the seasonal influence in this type of water), indi-
cated that errors were probably introduced by incorrect assumptions
as to the distribution of anomaly of specific volume. It must be
admitted, however, that the time embraced by the observations taken
by three separate expenditions easily affords opportunity for both
seasonal and secular changes of considerable magnitude, and it
must be realized that in a waterway, such as Davis Strait, wide and
rapid fluctuations are to be expected. Consequently the dynamic
topographic maps shown here can present only the outstanding fea-
tures of circulation through the strait.

The most striking feature as shown on figure 39 is the vigorous
south-flowing band which dominates the western side of the strait,
penetrating downward there more than 500 meters — the so-called
Baffin Land Current. This stream was widest and most rapid at the
surface, showing a maximum calculated velocity of 26 centimeters
per second (12.5 miles per day) over the slope between Cape Kater
and Cape Dier. The velocity decreased inversely with the depth, a
velocity of 6 centimeters per second (2.9 miles per day) being re-
corded at the 500-meter level.

The eastern side of Davis Strait, figure 39, shows a weak but
widespread drift of water northward. From the surface down to the
200-meter level this movement was given continuity by narrow bands
of more rapid current which reflected the outline of the west Green-
land banks in this sector. The northerly set in the surface layers
constituted importations to many coastal estuaries and to Disko Bay
where the indraft along the Egedesminde shore partially compen-
sated for the discharge past Godhavn.

Below 200 meters (see 500 meters, fig. 39), northerly current
filled the eastern half of the Davis Strait Channel and continued
northward into Baffin Bay. The current at the 500-meter level with
a mean velocity of approximately 3 centimeters per second (1.5 miles
per day), according to figure 39, appeared stronger and more endur-
ing than the similarly directed movement in the upper layers. The
fact that this current at 500 meters was composed of water much
warmer and more saline than its surroundings (see figs. 42 and 44)
positively identifies it as that part of the West Greenland Current
which had continued farthest northward along the Greenland slope.
It is our conjecture that this current represents the main source of
supply of the well-known warm intermediate layer of Baffin Bay and
partially compensates for the discharge of the Baffin Land Current in
the west.

The eddies and swirls noted at every one of the levels of the Davis
Strait Channel (fig. 39) are believed characteristic features of the
circulation which continually develop as a result of the mixing along
the margins of dissimilar types of water.

Many Disko Bay icebergs (mostly from Jacobshavn and Torsuka-
tak glaciers) as previously pointed out (p. 36) are borne out of tho
bay in the discharge which hugs the Disko Island slope. (See sur-
face current map, fig. 39, and velocity profile Fi, fig. 11.) The

68

tern]
vail)
irre|
(a c
cate
as t
adm
by 1
seas'
mus
rapi
topo
ture:
T]
sout
pene
Baff
surf
per
and
velo'
cord

wide
200-;
of ir
land
cons
whei
sate(

B<
fiUec
nort
a me
per I
ing 1
fact
wan
posi
wlii(
It i^
supi
part
the ^

T]
Stra
circi
the 1

M
tak I
l)ay
face

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 69

dynamic topograi^hic map of Baffin Bay (fig. 126, p. 170) indicates
that many of the Disko Bay icebergs are carried northward with the
current through the Vaigat. Once outside the coastal estuaries and
headlands, as indicated by the slope currents (fig. 126), the icebergs
follow a generally cyclonic circuit of Baffin Bay. There is no evi-
dence from the dynamic topographic maps that icebergs in the south-
ern part of Baffin Bay drift directly across to the Baffin Land Cur-
rent, The Marion on her track between Disko Island and Cape Dier
sighted no icebergs out in the central part of Davis Strait.

CROSS SECTIONS OF THE CURRENTS

The stations shown on figure 38 have been grouped into a total
of five cross sections of the currents in the Davis Strait sector as
shown on figure 40. All of the velocity profiles with little exception
emphasize the main features of the circulation described in the
horizontal projections. The Baffin Land Current with velocity lines
ranging from 5 to 20 centimeters per second in the heart of the
current appears on all the profiles, filling the western half of Davis
Strait. The West Greenland Current, much weaker, with velocity
lines varying from 1 to 5 centimeters per second, prevailed in the
eastern half of the strait. A band of northbound Greenland coastal
current is also to be noted in each one of the profiles. The southerly
current, which appears at stations 161 to 159 on profile 4, and sta-
tions 1014 to 1013, profile 5 (fig. 40), refers to the discharge from
Disko Bay which the plane of the section intersected at an acute
angle. The successive areas of alternate northerly and southerly
current recorded on the right side of profile 5 (fig. 40) probably
refer to a single band of winding current which followed the ti-end
of Disko Island Bank.

The dynamic gradient resulting from the warmer and fresher
waters in over the Greenland banks accounts for the northerly
movement of the surface layers * on the east side of Davis Strait.
It is quite certain after studying the distribution of temperature
and salinity across Davis Strait (see fig. 44) that the same dynamic
factors extend down over the edge of the Greenland slope and re-
sult in northerly motion of the deeper water there. The higher
temperature and salinity of the band of current centered at 500
meters on the Greenland slope (see fig. 40, profiles 1, 2, and 5) has
already been identified as Irminger-Atlantic portions of the West
Greenland Current. Previous published statements have pointed out
that this warm water is forced up over the Davis Strait Ridge as
an undercurrent to Baffin Bay. The impression of an undercurrent
has probably been much accentuated by the behavior of the Baffin
Land Current, which, being the more vigorous and lighter, often
floods eastward in the surface layers, overriding the West Green-
land Current. This appears to be the most logical explanation at
present for the position of the currents depicted in profile 1 (fig. 40),
and also for the notion that Atlantic water penetrates northward
into Baffin Bay as an undercurrent only.

* Nielsen (1928) identified surface water in Disko Bay which had been encountered
earlier in a wide area over Great Hellefiske Bank more than a hundred miles south-
ward.

70

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

67 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175

43 46

165 164 163 i6l 160 159 158

Figure 40. — Five velocity profiles across Davis Strait expressed in centimeters per seo-
oud. The solid lines represent soutlierlv current and the hroken lines northerly current.
(1) Michael Snrs, Ansiust 16-18, 191-'4 : (U) Godthaub. September 17-19, V.rJH : CO
Michael Sars, August 9-13, 1924; (4) Qodthaab, September 12-14, 1928; (5) Marian,
August 13-17, 1928,

The velocity profiles are particularly valuable in revealing the
volume of the exchanges across the Davis Strait Ridge. These arc
contained in the following table expressed in millions of cubic meters
per second :

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

71

Volume of flow

[Millions of cubic meters per second]

BaflBn Land
Current
(south)

West

Greenland

Current

(north)

Section 1

1.92
2.68
1.78
4.29
2.55

0.61

Section 2

1. 12

Section 3

Section 4 . . .

i. 87

Section 5

.93

Average.-

2.64

1.13

The table shows that the vohime of flow of the Baffin Land Cur-
rent thron^jh section 4 much exceeded that through any of the other
sections. Reference to the station map (fig. 38) indicates that sec-
tion 4 crossed the deep water in the southern end of Baffin Ba}^
about 60 miles north of the shallowest part of Davis Strait Ridge.
It is possible that the Baffin Land Current is subject to considerable
fluctuation in volume, but the added fact that the three other cross
sections of the Baffin Land Current taken over the ridge itself re-
corded a volume of current that varied little from 2 million cubic
meters per second supports th« conjecture that the Baffin Land
Current is notably constant in rate of transport. In view of the
foregoing it seems most probable that significant under portions
of the Baffin Land Current on meeting the rise of the bottom, at
the south end of the bay, are deflected to the left following around
the side of the basin. Making suitable allowances, therefore, for
the larger volume of the Baffin Land Current recorded farther north-
ward in the bay, the normal volume of the discharge across Davis
Strait Ridge into the Labrador Sea is placed at 2 million cubic
meters per second.

The average rate of transport of the West Greenland Current
through Davis Strait according to the table is 1.13 million cubic
meters per second. Section 3, as can be seen from the station map
(fig. 38), did not extend more than halfway across Davis Strait
and therefore furnishes no information on the volume of the West
Greenland Current. If the total volume of northward flow is about
equally divided between the inshore surface layers and the deeper
slope band, it agrees well with previous computations made of the
West Greenland Current at points farther south. (See p. 65.)

It is concluded from the foregoing that the average rate of ex-
change of the w^ater between Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea is
in the ratio of about 2 to 1, and the West Greenland Current through
Davis Strait definitely fails, therefore, to maintain the renewal of
Baffin Bay water.

HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY

The distribution of temperature at 75 meters (fig. 41) reflects
the courses of the two main currents through Davis Strait — the
frigid Baffin Land Current, on the one hand, and the northward
drift of the Greenland shelf waters on the other. The area of

72

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

warmest water recorded in the lower right-hand corner of figure 41
marks the upper layers of the West Greenland Current which have
been further heated by the summer's sun. Little or no indication
of the penetration of the West Greenland Current into Baffin Bay
is to be found on figure 41. This strengthens the conjecture pre-
viously advanced that the more important inflow to Baffin Bay
follows along the deeper part of the Greenland slope and joins the
intermediate layers north of the ridge. The blanket-like layer of

Figure 41. — The temperature at 75 meters.

frigid water at 75 meters as marked by the — 1.5° C. isotherm on
figure 41 is spread completely across to the Disko Island slope.
This suggests an eastAvard flooding of the Baffin Land Current which
as interpreted by these observations overrode the warm current from
the south. Such behavior of the surface currents in the Davis Strait
sector are believed common, especially in winter when it is well
known that pack ice is carried, partly by wind and partly by current,
over to the Greenland coast.

The strongest evidence that the previously described exchanges of
water through Davis Strait are divisible longitudinally into a

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

73

cold, fresh current on the west and a warmer, saltier one on the east
is contained in the temperature and salinity maps for the 500-meter
level (fig. 42), There is also a suggestion in the form and position
of the isotherms and the isohalines near the 100-meter isobath at
the southern end of Baffin Bay (fig. 15) that the Baffin Land Cur-
rent at times spreads southeasterly in the surface layers toward
Great Hellefiske Bank and may even dam temporarily the northward
set of the Greenland waters.

60 S8 36 S4 62 60 58 5fo

Figure 42. — The temperature and salinity at 500 meters.

54

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY

Martens (1929) has published cross sections of the temperature
and salinity taken along the top of the ridge and has given a clear
exposition of what are regarded as normal conditions. Two sections
only of temperature and salinity, therefore, are presented here —
Marion's section 5 and GodthaaVs section 2, both of which illustrate
interesting features of the above variables.

Marion'' 8 section 5 (fig. 43), following southwesterly along the
edge of Disko Island Bank, intersected typical banks water. The
intermediate and bottom water, with temperatures below 0° C, were
probably reminiscent of winter chilling. The warmest and saltiest
water, according to the profile, is noted at a depth of 400 meters
on the Greenland slope. Arctic water with temperatures less than
0° C. from station 1015 southward filled the surface layers to a

74

MARION AXD GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

depth of 250 meters. Below that, and most pronounced on the bot-
tom, temperatures as high as 2° C., and salinities of 34.50%o, indi-
cate that even as far north as Marioti's station 1021, in latitude 65°-
37', longitude 59°05', west Greenland water sometimes is found under

Figure 43. — The vertical distribution of temperature and salinity across Davis Straiti
August 13-17, 1928, as shown by Marion's stations 1007-1025.

the Arctic water on the Baffin Land shelf. The negative tempera-
tures and salinities about 34.50%o noted in section 5 (fig. 43), below
depths of 800 meters, represent true Baffin Bay bottom water that is
barred from the Labrador Sea by the Davis Strait Ridge. ,

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

75

Section 2 (fig. 44), based on the GodthaaVs observations, follows
the shoaler part of the ridge across Davis Strait. The temperature
profile is the more interesting as it more clearly delineates the cur-
rents. The water less than —1.0° C, which rested against the Baffin
Land slope, represents the heart of the Baffin Land Current. The

0.73

1.47

2.41

5.40

6 10 20 40 60 (Ml LES)

00 0) o

<0 <D h-

— CM to * «>

31.33

3091 3055 32.18

32.27

riGUEB 44. — The vertical distribution of temperature and salinity across Davis Strait
September 17-19, 1928, as sbown by section 2, Oodthaab's stations 168-175.

:ore of —1.0° water centered at 100 meters, station 172, however,
svhen compared with velocity profile 2 (fig. 40) is found to have a
lortherly component. This apparent inconsistency is due to the
presence of a cyclonic eddy previously described on page 71. The
•ore of water warmer than 1.0° C, which filled the eastern side

79920 — 37 6

76

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Of the channel around the 400-meter depth, marks Irmmger-Atlan-
tic water of the West Greenland Current. In its passage of 600
miles along the Greenland slope this water, solely through mixing,
lost approximately 4° C. of its temperature and 0.50o/oo of its
salinity in a period of 3 months after passing Gape Farewell. The
salinity profile (fig. 44) records two reservoirs of fresh water one^
on either side of Davis Strait, the larger of which hugged the
American side. Solely on the basis of such a distribution, currents
normal to the section are predicated for Davis Strait with the more
voluminous flow on the BaiRn Land side.

A north-south temperature profile through Davis Strait (ng. 45)
emphasizes the shearing action of the currents— a southerly com-

FiGURH 45.— The vertical distribution of temperature longitudinally through midchann
of Davis Strait. (For station identification, see fig. 38.)

ponent dominated the upper layers to a depth of nearly 300 met«i
and a northerly component prevailed from there to the botton;
In this manner' cold water spread southward in the surface layer
and warmer water worked northward into Baffin Bay. Practicall
identical salinity but higher temperature of the channel streai
across Davis Strait Kidge marked this branch of the West Greer
land Current as an eventual supply of Baffin Bay.

The extent of the production and propagation of the bottoi
water of Baffin Bay is of particular interest to us, inasmuch f
such water may indirectly affect the deeper water of the Labradc
Basin. That a great part of the bottom water of Baffin Bay
probably formed by the intermixture of Atlantic and Arctic mass«
in the northern ]:>a"rt of the bay is the opinion of Commander Km
Carstensen expressed in a letter to one of us. The oxygen dii
tribution of Baffin Bay (fig. 148, p. 187) indicates that bottom wat(

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

77

is renewed at a very slow rate. Baffin Bay bottom water (as cold
as —0.39° C. and with uniform salinity ca 34.49%o below the level
of Davis Strait sill (figs. 142 and 143) is, of course, directly barred
from the much warmer water of the Labrador Sea. The eventual
displacement of even the deepest layers in Baffin Bay, however, most
probably takes place through upwelling and mixing with lighter
water in the bay itself and thys escapes as Baffin Land Current.

A computation of the rate of heat transported by the Baffin Land
Current and the West Greenland Current across the Davis Strait
Ridge through section 2 (fig. 40) has been made from the God-
fhaab^s observations, stations 167-175.

Average
tempera-
ture (°C)

Rate of heat

transfer

(°C m3/sX

10-«)

Baffin Land Current

-0.6
1.2

—1.6

West Greenland current.. - - -

1.4

The fact that the Godfhaah^s section 2 was taken in September 1928
only a short distance from section 1 (fig. 38) made by the Michael
Sars in August 1924 affords a good opportmiity also to learn what
annual variations, if any, occur in the waters of Davis Strait. The
sections to which reference is made have been published by Martens
(1929) and Riis-Carstensen (1936). A comparison between the two
profiles shows that the north and south currents occupied similar
relative positions. It is surprising, therefore, to find on comparing
summertime temperature profiles that the slope band of the West
Greenland Current was much warmer and saltier in 1924 than in
1928. The actual figures taken in the heart of the current, at 500-
meters depth on the Greenland slope, are —

Year

°C.

«/oo

1924..

4.08
1.20

34.88

1928

34.48

The temperature and salinity of the Baffin Land Current for the
two summers, on the other hand, was nearly constant.

The transport of salt through Davis Strait based on the observa-
tions of stations contained in section 2 (fig. 40) was —

•

Average

salinity

(9-00)

Rate of salt
transport

(Kg./sec.)

xio-«

Baffin Land Current.. . .

34.01
34.32

91 1

West Greenland Current .

38.4

Net south salt transport

52.7

Although the West Greenland Current was of higher average
salinity than the Baffin Land Current, the much greater volume of
the latter resulted in more salt being transported out of Baffin Bay

78 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

across the Davis Strait Ridge than entered there. A net south rate
of salt transport of 52.0 million kilograms per second was obtained
based on the observations of the Michael Sars as contained in section
1 (fig. 40). Assuming, therefore, a salt balance is being maintained
in Baffin Bay, the above deficit indicated through Davis Strait must
be compensated by an excess through Lancaster Sound, Jones Sound,
and Smith Sound.

It appears from the foregoing that the branch of the West Green-
land Current through Davis Strait is subject to considerable varia-
tion in temperature. Similar variations in temperature at mid-
depths in the West Greenland Current farther south (p. 58) suggest
they are related. The fact that the above differences are greatest at
depths of 400 and 500 meters eliminates the wind and other surface
elements as directly involved factors. Even the variations in the
volume of the West Greenland Current noted around Cape Farewell
are often probably reflected in excesses or deficits of heat imported
to Baffin Bay. The abnormal scarcity of ice in Baffin Bay rej^orted
by Bartlett (1936) corresponds well with the excess in the rate of
heat supply (p. 63) past Cape Farewell March to August 1935.

It should be added in conclusion that the above remarks apply
to the behavior and character of the currents in summer. But it
seems logical that the rate of exchanges and the circulation through
Davis Strait might be less active in winter when most of the sea
in this region is ice covered. Insofar as the West Greenland Cur-
rent is concerned, however, evidence has been presented (p. 63)
which refutes any apparent semblance of seasonal character. What
actually happens in the 8 months outside of summer in the region
of Davis Strait is wholly unknown.

Chapter VI

THE AMERICAN SECTOR

The American sector is the term applied here to the shelf and slope
waters embraced by the U. S. Coast Guard's surveys north of St,
John's, Newfoundland, during the years 1928, 1931, "1933, and 1934.
The 1928 observations, upon which the discussion is based, were made
along a series of sections, H to Q, as shown on figure 46.

Figure 46 — The American sector, 1928. Sections are as follows : H, Cumberland Sound ;
I, Frobisher Bay ; J, Resolution Island ; K, Naehvak Fjord ; L, Cape Harrigan ; M,
Hamilton Inlet ; N, Domino Island ; O, Belle Isle ; P, White Bay ; and Q, St. John's.

The American sector embraces two principal slope currents — the
Baffin Land Current and the Labrador Current. This division of the
south flowing waters along the American continental slope, from El-
lesmere Land to the Grand Banks, into two currents, differs mate-
rially from the j)revious classifications. As a rule, the flow over this
entire range is considered as pertaining to one current, the Labrador.

79

80 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

It will be demonstrated, however, that the Arctic current shortly
after crossing Davis Strait Ridge is joined by a branch of the West
Greenland Current of greater volume. The union of these two
streams so fundamentally alters the physical character of the current
south of this point that a new designation is necessitated. The junc-
tion of the Baffin Land and West Greenland Currents not far south
of the Davis Strait Ridge may be said to represent, therefore, the
source region of the Labrador Current.

THE SURFACE CURRENTS

The surface waters of the American sector, July 22 to September
11, 1928, were in southward motion at velocities ranging from 5 to
38 miles per day in the axis of the currents.^ The surface current
map (fig. 47) reveals that the inshore margin of the Labrador Cur-
rent entered along the northern shores of the many bays and gulfs
which indent the American coast line, but such circuitous arms
sooner or later rejoined the trunk stream in the form of discharges
out of the southern sides of the same estuaries. Especially noticeable
are the major openings in the American littoral of Hudson Strait
and the Strait of Belle Isle. Considerable quantities of Labrador
Current entered along the Baffin Land side of Hudson Strait by
rounding Resolution Island and also by passing through Gabriel
Strait. Icebergs, according to Smith (1931), have been carried by
this inflow for a distance of 150 miles where, near Big Island, they
nearly all recurve and drift out past Cape Chidley, Labrador.

Continuing down the coast, the Labrador Current followed an
easy sinuous course which exhibited two major bends — the one be-
tween Cape Harrigan and Cape Harrison, Labrador, and the other
between Cape Bauld and Funk Island, Newfoundland. The Coast
Guard's observations in the Labrador and Newfoundland areas in-
dicate that more bergs strand along the American coast opposite
these bends than elsewhere. The Labrador Current also received
continual contributions from the streams which in summer form
copious discharges from the many lakes and fiords. This reservoir
of fresh water along the inshore side of the current plus the water
released by melting drift ice doubtless compensates for the continual
salting which the current receives along its outer side.

On meeting the northern face of the Grand Banks in the latitude
of St. John's the Labrador Current was split, and tlie slope band con-
tinued down the east side of the Grand Banks, while an inshore
branch followed the gully past Cape Race. It is the latter stream
which is responsible for the icebergs (Smith 1931, p. 151) often
reported in the vicinity of Cape Race,

The offshore margin of the Baffin Land Current, as it emerged
from Baffin Bay the summer of 1928, was bounded by cyclonic vortices
as shown on figure 47. These were displaced, however, in the margin
of the Labrador Current, Hudson Strait to Hamilton Inlet, by bands
of current converging from the Labrador Sea. On the dynamic

^ It will be noted that the Telocity values shown on fig. 47 differ in most rases
from those published by Smith (1931, fig. 96). The velocity values shown on the latter
illustration represent the average velocity of a given bniid of current, while in fig.
47 the values represent the maximum velocities in the axis of the currents. The recalcu-
lation of the dynamic heights in accordance with methods descril)e(l on p. 19 has also
modified the stream lines of the currents from those earlier recorded.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

81

Figure 47. — The Labrador Current, July 22-September 11, 1928. The velocities shown
in miles per day indicate the axis of maximum flow.

82 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

topographic map of the Labrador Sea (fig. 122, p. 167) these several
tortuous streams are traced to the West Greenland Current, which, as
emphasized in chapter IV, branched westward toward the American
shore, the bulk of the West Greenland contribution in 1928, as
indicated on figure 47, met the American slope between latitudes 68°
and 65°, where the Corolian force steepened the dynamic gradient
and accelerated the slope current. One of the most important
branches of the West Greenland Current, described on page 33, as
parting from the slope off Godthaab, is the same as that shown on
figure 47, as joining the Baffin Land Current on the Baffin Land
slope, in the vicinity of latitude 64°. Although relic traces of
Irminger-Atlantic water were found as far north as 65° 37' (p. 42),
they apparently formed no continuous current and, therefore, the
more southern position is held to have marked in 1928 the source
region of the Labrador Current. The point of junction of the Baffin
Land Current and the West Greenland Current is probably subject to
considerable fluctuation along the Baffin Land slope from the Davis
Strait Ridge southward. The physical character and the distribu-
tion of velocity of the currents before and after forming the Labra-
dor Current are discussed further in vertical cross section, on
page 83.

The farthest offshore observations, which are located in the lower
right-hand part of figure 47, indicate the presence of a northerly
countercurrent. Had the 1928 survey been extended a little farther
offshore in this region, more definite statements regarding the circu-
lation there could be made. In the light of subsequent Coast Guard
observations (p. 170) it can be stated, however, that in 1928 outer por-
tions of the Labrador Current in the vicinity of latitude 53°, longi-
tude 50°, joined in an easterly set with a branch of the Atlantic
Current.

Two areas marking weak currents are noted near Hudson Strait
on figure 47, the one due east of the strait and the other extended
for about 150 miles southward of Hudson Strait along the coast. In
the first case the continuation of the Hudson Strait trough across
the continental shelf forms an embayment of deeper water around
which, in 1928, the currents were turned c^yclonically. The free
area along the coast south of Hudson Strait is also attributed
to the shelf contour; the bottom being flat and near the surface
caused the more rapid currents to sweep out around the steepest
inclination of the slope.

A third region of w^eak circulation was located over a broad de-
pression in the continental shelf southeast of Belle Isle, around which
a cyclonic eddy w^as developed.

An interesting feature of the Labrador Current in 1928 Avas the
apparent tendency as revealed by the streamlines (fig. 47) to group
themselves in two bands — the one over the inshore portion of the
continental shelf and the other over the steepest part of the slope.
The banding may have been due to (a) the bottom configuration, one
of the chief features of the Labrador shelf being a series of longi-
tudinal folds which are to be seen in many of the cross sections (figs.
48, 50 and 51) ; or (h) the separate sources of the Labrador Current;
or (c) a combination of (a) and (h). The Baffin Land Current as
described (p. 68) was a relatively shallow, frigid stream which, hold-

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 83

ing to the shelf, deflected much of its waters into Hudson Strait.
Those portions of the Baffin Land Current which continued directly
down the Labrador coast (fig. 47) were joined by an outflow from the
south side of Hudson Strait. This stream constituted the inshore
band of the Labrador Current throughout the remainder of its
length. The outer belt, on the otlier hand, impinging in about lati-
tude 63° in 1928, prevailed along the continental edge as far south as
the observations extended off St. John's. This band of the Labrador
Current, reflecting its West Greenland source as shown on page 45,
was much warmer, deeper, and more rapid than the inshore one.
The banding of the Labrador Current and its effect on tlie drift of
icebergs has been discussed by Smith (1931),

It will be noted that the velocities of the Labrador Current in 1928
were much greater south of Hudson Strait than north of that latitude.
The acceleration of the current is attributed to the convergence of
the West Greenland Current from the east as well as the discharge
from Hudson Strait on the west. Land drainage from the Hudson
Bay Basin alone indicates that the discharge through Hudson Strait
probably exceeds the inflow. Tangible evidence of such contribu-
tions is to be observed in the increase of the stream lines on the cur-
rent map (fig. 47) just south of Hudson Strait. A computation of
the volume of the currents through Hudson Strait, based on stations
1285-1287 taken by the General Greene in 1931, gave a net discharge
of about 1.0 million cubic meters per second. The fact, however, that
these stations did not completely span the strait on the north and
also that the inflow through Gabriel Strait was unaccounted for.
causes us to estimate the net discharge to have been 0.5 million cubic
meters per second.

In conclusion it may be stated that the surface waters of the
Labrador Current are collected from the following principal sources :
The West Greenland Current, the Baffui Land Current, Hudson
Strait, and the Strait of Belle Isle. On the other hand, the Labrador
Current discharges as follows : into Hudson Strait ; into the Strait of
Belle Isle; eastward into the Labrador Sea, south of the latitude of
Hamilton Inlet; southward past Newfoundland; and throughout its
length through cabbeling along its offshore side. (See p. 175.)

CROSS SECTION OF THE CURRENTS

In order to make a systematic study, the 1928 observations have
been grouped in a series of ten vertical cross sections, H to Q (fig.
46), more or less equally spaced between Cumberland Gulf, Baffin
Land, and St. John's, Newfoundland.

Cumberland Gulf. — A section of the Baffin Land Current in the
offing of Cumberland Gulf on the point of being joined by a branch
of the West Greenland Current is represented by H (fig. 48). The
profile shows that below the surface the south-flowing current was
divided into two bands by a wall of dead water. In the outer band
the 5-centimeter-per-second-velocity line extended to a depth of ap-
proximately 300 meters, but there was weak southerly current even
down to 600 nieters. This draft undoubtedly marks the depth of
the sill of Davis Strait over which the current had recently passed.
If the velocity lines on section H (fig. 48) be compared with those
on other profiles taken farther south, it reveals the Baffin Land

84

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

h- «> to
CM CM OJ
O O O

0102030 60

OM

100

2

10

12

15

Figure 48. — Velocity profiles of the Labrador Current expressed in centimeters per second.
The solid lines represent southerly current and the brolfen lines northerly current.
Section H, August 17-18, 1928 ; section I, August 18-19, 1928 ; section J, August 19-
20, 1928.

Current as much shallower than the Labrador Current. The com-
puted volume of the inner band was 1.0 million cubic meters per
second and of the outer band 1.5 million cubic meters per second,
the total volume corresponding quite closely to that recorded farther
north through the Davis Strait sections.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 85

Frohisher Boy. — Section I (fig. 48) was taken 2 days following
section H and at a point on the slope 50 miles farther south. A strik-
ing difference will be noted if the two sections be compared. Tlie
volume of the shelf current (sec. I, fig. 48), of 1.7 million cubic
meters per second, remained practically unaltered, but the outer band
of the current bounded by the 1 centimeter-per-second line, had in-
creased in draft from 300 to 1,200 meters and in consequence a volume
of 3.3 million cubic meters per second, about double the volume of
the current farther north. This deepening and swelling of the
south flowing current between Cumberland Gulf and Frobisher Bay
was due to tlie Baffin Land Current being joined by significant por-
tions of the West Greenland Current. The net volume of the west-
erly set between stations 984 and 986 (fig. 153, p. 202) was computed
as 1.9 million cubic meters per second. If this sum be added to the
volume of the Baffin Land Current through the Cumberland Gulf
section, it closely equals the computed volume of the flow through
the Frobisher Bay section. Subsequent examination of the temper-
ature and salinity profiles and maps of this region (p. 99) also re-
veals a sharp contrast in the physical character of the abutting Baffin
Land and West Greenland Currents.

The temperature and salinity correlation curves for sections H and
I (fig. 49) also reveal the difference in derivation of the water com-
posing the current there. The right-hand portion of curve I with a
maximum temperature of 4.1° C, and a salinity of 34.86%o, indi-
cates the relatively greater contribution of the West Greenland Cur-
rent at this point on the Baffin Land slope than farther north off
Cumberland Gulf.

Finally, to dispel any doubt as to the difference in derivation of
the currents recorded by the two sections, one need only regard their
respective rates of heat transfer. It is, of course, well known that
the Baffin Land Current is essentially frigid in character ; a compu-
tation of the average temperature of the current past Cumberland
Gulf was 0.3° C, and the rate of heat transfer was 0.5 million cubic
meter degrees centigrade per second. After being joined by the
West Greenland Current, however, and known as the Labrador Cur-
rent (sec. I) the average temperature was 4.2° C, and the rate
of heat transfer mounted to 22.9 million cubic meter degrees centi-
grade per second. The only possible source of so much warmth in
this part of the sea is the West Greenland Current.

Consideration of the foregoing and other computations on the
volume of the West Greenlancl Current and the Baffin Land Current
indicate that they combine in proportions of approximately 3 to 2,
respectively.

A core of northerly countercurrent not reaching up to the surface
and amounting to 1.3 million cubic meters per second does not
materially alter the main features noted on the Frobisher Bay
section.

Resolution Islcmd. — Section J (fig. 48) taken August 19-20, 1928,
about 50 miles south of section I, shows that the shelf current pro-
ceeding southward decreased both in velocity and volume, the com-
puted transport being 0.6 million cubic meters per second. The
surface current map (fig. 47) reveals that a large proportion of the
shelf current recorded on section I passed through Gabriel Strait

86

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

and was, therefore, missed on our Resolution Island section. The
swelling of the slope band, on the other hand, to 4.2 million cubic
meters per second was largely due to an eddy (fig. 47) which inter-
sected the outer end of the Resolution Island section.

Nachvak. — The distribution of velocity August 25-26, 1928, off
Nachvak Fiord, Labrador, section K, fig. 50, indicates weak eddy
currents prevailed over the shelf, but a band of stronger current, 1.3

4
IxJ

r\

A

^ 3

1-

/

/ "

< "

/

ct:

/

u ,

/

a.

/

0

/

LJ ^

/

1-
-1

b/-

-2

1

> ^

1 1 1.1

1 1 1 1.

33.00

34.00

35.00

SALI N 1 TY

FiGDRE 49. — Temperature-salinity correlation curves of the Labrador Current, sections H

and I.

million cubic meters per second, hugged the continental edge. The
slope band off Nachvak which coresponds to the shelf band off Reso-
lution Island had increased to double the volume of the latter. It is
traced (fig. 47) partly to Baffin Land Current and partly to dis-
charge from Hudson Strait. The fact that lower salinities prevailed
in this band of current than in the corresponding band off Resolu-
tion Island (figs. 62 and 63) also supports the above view. Continu-
ing offshore along section K a relatively wide belt of weak northerly
current is crossed before entering the outer band of the Labrador
Current. The presence of so much northerly current may have been

•"•lt«;i»3»V^^M

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 87

the result of the bottom topography in this vicinity, but its effect on
the Labrador Current was to split the stream which characteristi-
cally hugs the steepest part of the slope and to reduce its draft mate-
rially. In consequence only 2.4 million cubic meters per second was
transported southward or about a 50 percent reduction of that found
farther north for the Labrador current. The interruption in the
constancy of transport of the Labrador Current in the offiing of
Hudson Strait and the Strait of Belle Isle has also been remarked

(P-80). . ^

Gafpe Harrigan. — A characteristic banding but an appreciable in-
crease in the velocity of the Labrador Current from that farther
north is shown on section L (fig. .50). It should be remarked, how-
ever, that the observations off Cape Harrigan were taken nearly
a month prior to those of the adjacent northerl}^ sections. The
shelf band renuiined fairly constant in volume of flow but the slope
band rose to 4.7 million cubic meters per second. This increase is
attributed (fig. 47) to converging current (West Greenland Current)
from out in the Labrador Sea.

Hamilton Inlet. — Downstream again, approximately 60 miles, sec-
tion M was taken 2 days prior to section L. Shelf and slope bands
were computed as 0.6 and 4.2 million cubic meters per second, re-
spectively. The draft of the slope band of about 1,200 meters, as
recorded by the 1-centimeter-per-second-velocity line, suggests that
along this section of the American slope the Labrador Current may
penetrate to depths even greater than 1,500 meters.

Domino Islcmd. — A reduction in the velocity but a widening of
the Labrador Current was found 60 miles farther downstream at
section N (fig. 50) taken off Domino Island July 22-23, 1928. The
inner and outer current belts were computed as 1.0 and 4.1 million
cubic meters per second, similar to the distribution found off Hamil-
ton Inlet.

Belle Isle. — Continuing southward another cross section of the
Labrador Current section O (fig. 51) was made September .5-8,
1928. There was, therefore, an interval of about 6 weeks between
the time of running the Domino Island and the Bell Isle sections.
The net volume of flow of the Labrador Current off Belle Isle
of 2.6 million cubic meters per second was about 50 percent less
than that farther north off Domino Island. Examination of the
surface current map (fig. 47) indicates that the decrease in the
southward component of transport was partly due to countercurrent
which pressed in against the slope between stations 1097 and 1098.
This eddy, probably part of a backwash associated with the Atlantic
Current farther offshore, apparently deflected much of the Labrador
Current in toward Belle Isle as noted by the streamlines on figure
47. A shallow but relatively large depression in the Newfoundland
shelf located between sections O and P, around which the Labrador
Current was turned cyclonically, is also believed to have contributed
to a deficiency of southward transport.

White Bay. — The presence of the above-described eddy in the form
of a northerly component is also to be noted between stations 1115
and 1117 on section P (fig. 51). The slope band of the Labrador
Current was disrupted here off the Strait of Belle Isle in similar
manner to that in which the slope band was split off Hudson Strait.

88

MARION AND GENERj^L, GREENE EXPEDITIONS

The net volume of the Labrador Current southward through section
P in consequence was reduced to 0.8 million cubic meters per second.

JSt. John's. — Section Q (fig. 51) was the tenth and southernmost
profile taken by the Marion in the American sector in 1928. The
slope band of the Labrador Current at this point had accelerated,
deepened, and, with a computed volume of 4.4 million cubic meters
per second, resumed its mid-Labrador proportions. The inshore
belt of 0.8 million cubic meters per second discharged most of its
contents through the gully between the Grand Banks and Cape Race.

A resume of the discharge of the Labrador Current in 1928 is
shown by the following table:

Volume flow (m '/s X lO-*)

Section and current band

Volume flow (m^/s X 10-<)

Section and current band

South

North

South
(net)

South

North

South
(net)

Section H:
Slops

1.5
1.0

Section M:
Slope

4.2
0.6

Shelf.

Shelf

0.1

Total

Total

2.5

0

2.5

4.8

0.1

4.7

Section N:

Slope

Section I:

Slope

3.3

1.7

4.1
1.0

Shelf

1.3

Shelf

0.1

Total -

Total

5.0

1.3

3.7

5.1

0.1

5.0

Section 0:

Slope -.

Section J:

Slope

4.2
0.6

3.6
2.9

Shelf.—

0.3

Shelf

3.0

Total

Total

4.8

0.3

4.5

6.5

3.0

3.5

Section P:

Slope .. ..

Section K:

Slope

2.4
0.2

2.1
1.0

Shelf -.-

0.7

Shelf

1.9

Total

Total

2.6

0.7

1.9

3.1

1.9

1.2

Section Q:

Slope

Section L:

Slope .

4.7
1.4

4.4
0.8

Shelf.

0.8

Shelf

0.3

Total

Total

6.1

0.8

5.3

5.2

0.3

4.9

The above table shows that the net mean discharge of the Labrador
Current, not including the apparent deficit in the volume of the cur-
rent at sections K and P, during the summer of 1928 was 4.3 million
cubic meters per second.

One of the most interesting features revealed by the velocity pro-
files was the division of the Labrador Current generally into a slope
band and a shelf band, although such a grouping was less positively
suggested by the streamlines on the surface current map. The pro-
l^ortions of inner to outer band for the 10 sections, H to Q, was 1 to
3 ; or, in other words, approximately 75 percent of the water trans-
ported by the Labrador Current was contained in the slope band.
Consideration of the proportions of the banding and the previously
described proportions of the components (p. 85) indicates that some
Arctic Avater is embraced in the slope band.

A shelf and slope band characteristic of the Labrador Current are
underlying features which no doubt exert their influence on the drift
of the Arctic ice. The much colder water inshore of the continental

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA
70 70 60 50

89

60 50

Figure 52. — Temperature at surface July 19-September 11, 1928.

edge largely relegates the drift of that pack ice which eventually
gets south of Newfoundland, to the shelf band of the current. Ice-
bergs, on the other hand, capable of surviving in relatively warm
water for much longer periods than pack ice constitute a greater
menace to the Nortli Atlantic shipping lanes because of the velocity of
the slope band of the Labrador Current.

90 MARION AISTD GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

70 70 60 50 40 30

il I I I I I I

60 50

Figure 53. — Salinity at surface July 19-Septenibor 11, J928.

HORIZOJsTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY

The distribution of temperature and salinity in the upper 600
meters of the American sector is best shown on the maps for Davis
Strait and the Labrador Sea (figs. 52 to 61).

The coldest area on the sea surface lay over the Baffin Land shell'
and slope, where temperatures as low as 0° C, were found in August.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA
60 50 40

91

30

60 50

Figure 54. — Temperature at 100 meters July 19-September 11, 1928.

That this water was the result of melting sea ice encountered in that
locality by the Marion is further supported by the salinity map (fig.
53), the freshest water coinciding with the minimum temperature.

The warmest surface water with temperatures of 12° C, and higher
was found over the Newfoundland shelf in the lattude of St. John's

79920—37 7

92 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

70 70 60 50 40 30

TTTTTTT

I

60 50

FiGUUK 55. — Salinity at 100 meters July 19-St pt.mber 11, 192S.

This area was also relatively fresh, indicating quite plainly that an
offshore expansion of the surface layers occurs here at times during
summer. In this connection it should be noted that the observations
south and east of the kStrait of Belle Isle were made approximately
0 weeks subsequent to those immediately north of that region, and
consequently due allowance must be made for that fact. Two other

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA
70 70 3Q 50 40

93

60 50

Figure 56. — Temperature at 200 meters July 19-September 11, 1928.

warm areas, both of which lay outside of the American slope, are
revealed by the surface temperature map (fig. 52) — the one off
southern Labrador and the other off middle Labrador. The former,
undoubtedly, is a reflection of the Atlantic Current and the latter
the result of solar warming in a locality free from active circulation.

94 ■ MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

7D 70 60 50 40 30

60 50

FiGOEB 57. — Salinity at 200 meters July 19-September 11, 1928.

A narrow strip of water colder than its surroundings is recorded
over the continental edge on the surface temperature map extending
from Hudson Strait to the Strait of Belle Isle. This, of course, is
the reflection of the axis of the coldest subsurface water of the
Labrador Current. The warmer area off Nachvak Fiord, enclosed by
6° and 7° isotherms, coincides (fig. 47) with the shelf locality of
weak currents.

70 70

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA
60 50 40

95

"SO 5jD

FiGUKE 58. — Temperature at 400 meters July 19-September 11, 1928.

At. a depth of 100 meters water colder than —1.0° C. transported
by the Labrador Current was found throughout the length of the
American shelf except in the offing of Hudson Strait and the Strait
of Belle Isle. These interruptions in the otherwise uniform distribu-
tion of the Arctic water north of the Grand Banks indicate a dis-
; iiuptive effect of the warmer discharges from both of these openings.

96

MARION AWD GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

70 70 60

I 1-41 I I

60 30

Figure 59. — Salinity at 400 meters July 19-September 11, 1928.

The failure of the subsurface isotherms in several places to coin-
cide with the streamlines of the currents may well be due to the
\ariation in the proportions in which the various tributaries of the
Labrador Current mix. A partial damming of the Baffin Land
Current, for example, by a southerly gale in the region of the Davis

6^ 50

Figure 60. — Temperature at 600 meters July 10-September 11, 1928.

Strait Ridge might be reflected later along the course in a corre-
spondingly warmer and saltier Labrador Current.

The presence of frigid water of —1.5° C, at a depth of 100 meters
over the Newfoundland shelf in September clearly emphasizes the
small interchange of heat of subsurface waters on journeys as great
as 2,000 miles in length.

98 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

70 70 60 50 40 3D

,' M ; / J

,60 50

Figure 61. — Salinity at COO meters July 19-September 11. 1928.

Attention is particularly invited to the position of p. salient formed
by both the 4° isothern and the 34.8%o isohaline (figs. 54 and
55) off southern Labrador in the vicinity of latitude 55° N., longi-
tude 50° W. The distribution of temperature and salinity, corre-
sponding to the circulation (fig. 47), indicates a convergence of cool,
low-salinity surface layers from the Labrador slope with the inshore

i

t^

^

cO

CO

+

+

rO

iD

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 99

margin of the outer countercurrent. The combined set of this mixed
water in 1928, easterly near the fifty-fifth parallel of latitude, cor-
responds well with the surface circulation farther offsliore as re-
ported by Soule (1936).

The temperature and salinity maps of the 200- and 400-meter levels
(figs. 56 to 59) indicate the presence of water from the West Green-
land Current near the American slope. This feature is especially
pronounced in the 400-meter temperature map (fig. 58) in the offing
of Hudson Strait. The drift of this water southward along the Amer-
ican slope (figs. 58 and 60) is also indicated in the band of higher
temperatures at 400 and 600 meters along the American slope than
adjacently offshore in the Labrador Sea.

A strong temperature and salinity gradient is to be noted along
the Baffin Land slope at depths of 400 to 600 meters (figs. 58 to 61)
where the underside of the Baffin Land current and the West Green-
land Current abut.

The temperature and salinity maps for the 200-, 400-, and 600-
meter levels all record pools of water colder and saltier than their
surroundings in the depressions of the Labrador shelf. This indi-
cates that offshore water floods in over the shelf, where it becomes
pocketed and is chilled later during winter. The fact that intrusions
of the slope water are occasional is indicated in the survival of the
above-mentioned relics as late as midsummer. The two most obvious
means of transportation of the deeper slope water in over the con-
tinental shelf are (a) a lateral bending of the current temporarily in
over the shelf, or (b) a screwing of the current.

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY

The vertical distribution of temperature and salinity in the 10
sections, H to Q, already discussed, is illustrated on figures 62 to 64.

Probably the most impressive feature common to all the profiles
is the shelf of frigid water which exteiided from near the coast
out to the continental edge. Except for a thin, isolated surface film
and an undercutting by the warmer isotherms on the continental
edge, the shelf column is dominated by frigid water. The shallow-
ness of the shelf waters in the American sector, and also their loca-
tion north of the fiftieth parallel of latitude, might easily ascribe
the low temperatures to local winter chilling. Reference, however,
to the series of con-esponding profiles of velocity (figs. 48, 50, and
51), as well as to the surface current map (fig. 47), conclusively estab-
lishes most of the minimum temperaturecl water as a transport first
of the Baffin Land Current and then of the Labrador Current from
points farther north.

An equally striking feature common to the profiles is the distri-
bution of the salinity across the shelf, the isohalines sloping upward
from inshore near the bottom to near the surface over the continental
edge. This position of the isohalines portrays primarily a reservoir
of river discharge and other land drainage which expands offshore
across the shelf in the light surface layers. Melting sea ice, usually
more abundant along the coast in these latitudes than farther out
to sea, also probably augments the supply. On the other hand the

100 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

salinity profiles, H, J, and O, record water in on the bottom of the
slope which is saltier than that shown on any of the other profiles.,
Where the depth of the shelf below the sea surface is as great as
600 meters as off Resolution Island, Baffin Land (section J, fig. 62),
bottom water as salty as 34.7%o was found. When such evidence
is compared with that contained on the horizontal projections, where
relic pools of salty water were noted in many of the shelf depres-
sions, it all strongly suggests that the removal of low-salinity surface
water is more or less compensated by intrusions of West Greenland
Current water over the bottom. That such movements occur in
the shelf column, with a component lateral to the main transport
of the Labrador Current, appears reasonable, but the fact that such
currents are not directly measurable, or revealed on the dynamic
topographic maps, indicates that, if they do actually exist, they must
be weak, irregular, and transitional. It must be realized, neverthe-
less, that any picture of the circulation based solely upon the dis-
tribution of the temperature and the salinity is not conclusive, and
whether or not the Labrador Current at times has torsional as well
as translatory motion, merits further investigation.

During the summer of 1928 water colder than 2° C. extended to a
depth of 500 meters on the Baffin Land slope as shown on sections
H and I (fig. 62), As previously remarked in the discussion of the
temperature charts, this is the under side of the Baffin Land Current.
The further fact that water as cold as this was not found farther
south off Hudson Strait, section J, at a depth greater than 250 meters
indicates considerable mixing occurred at these levels on the Baffin
Land slope between the Baffin Land Current and the warmer West
Greenland Current. The fact that the core of coldest water in sec-
tions J and K was warmer than the corresponding water shown in
the sections both north and south indicates either more extensive
warming there by the West Greenland Current or that the water in
question came from sources other than the Baffin Land Current.
Reference to the surface current may (fig. 122, p. 167) indicates that
the higher temperatures off Resolution Island resulted from the
West Greenland Current, while those off Nacllivak Fiord were con-
tributed from Hudson Strait. Much of the Baffin Land Current
water at times apparently makes the circuit into Hudson Strait.

Attention is particularly invited to the relatively warm, salty
water found on the Baffin Land slope as shown by the temperatures
higher than 4° C, and salinities of 34.86 to 34.89%o, at the outer
end of sections I, J, and K (figs. 62 and 63). When these profiles are
compared with corresponding velocity profiles and also with the
temperature and salinity maps, the source of the warm salty water is
traced toward Greenland.

The water of the slope current, Frobisher Bay to mid-Labrador at
depths below the seasonal influence, was found to be warmer than the
slope current at similar levels farther south, an apparentl}^ paradoxi-
cal fact that as the water in the slope band moves southward it cools.
Incidentally this introduces a new conception of the Labrador Cur-
rent which heretofore has been regarded primarily as an icy stream
from the far north.

ouJ

€0

^

to

(0
CO

ill

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

101

If the temperature profiles of the Labrador Current for 1928 be
superimposed on the velocity profiles and the average temperature
of the current, Frobisher Bay to St. John's, computed in accordance
with the method described (p. 24) we obtain the following values:

° c.
Shelf band 1. 5

Slope iband 4. 0

3300 34.00

SALI N I TV

35.00

PiGDRB 65. — Temperature-salinity correlation curves of the Labrador current, Resolution
Island to Hamilton Inlet, the summer of 1928.

If the proportions of shelf to slope band of 1 to 3 be accepted then
an average temperature for the whole current was approximately
3.4° C. The average rate of heat transfer of the Labrador Current
the summer of 1928 was 14.6 million cubic meter degrees centigrade
per second (see p. 173).

Temperature-salinity correlation curves for the sections in the
American sector, 1928^ figs. (65 and 66), assist to identify the com-
ponents w^hich constitute the Labrador Current. Two inflection

102

IMARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

points near the end portions of the curves are a common feature.
The lower left inversion with an approximate value of temperature
of —1.75° C, and 33.14%o salinity, represents typical Arctic water,
and the upper right inversion is representative of west Greenland
water. Along the straighter part of the curves fall the correlation
points indicative of the Labrador Current.

33.00

5400

3500

SALI N 1 TY

Figure 66. — Temperature-salinity correlation curves of the Labrador Current, Domino
Island to St. John's, the summer of 1928.

ANNUAL VARIATIONS

The question whether or not the oceanographic conditions in the
American sector already described in this chapter as existing in
1928 prevail during most summers can best be answered by the
U. S. Coast Guard's surveys made there in 1931, 1933, and 1934. ,

In can be seen by comparing figures 67, 68, and 69 with figure 47
that the surface extent of the Labrador Current remains fairly con- •
stant summer to summer. The previously described sinuous form

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

103

of the Labrador CiUTent, with inshore bends opposite Cape Harri-
gan and White Bay, and also offshore salients opposite Nachvak
Fiord and Domino Island, is established on all the surface current
maps. The division of the Labrador Current into an inshore band
over the continental shelf and an outer band over the continental
edge is also portrayed on all the surface current maps but not so
noticeably on the map for 1933.

Attention is also called to the north flowing Atlantic Current
which was found just outside the continental slope off the Strait

Figure 67. — The Labrador Current on the surface the summer of 1931.
expressed in miles per day in axis of current.

Velocities

of Belle Isle in both the summers of 1931 and 1934 (figs. 67 and
69) but not in 1933. The fact that this had a volume in its margin
alone greater than the Labrador Current merits particular emphasis
regarding its significance to the circulation of the Labrador Sea.

The surface current maps show one point quite definitely, viz,
that variations in the velocity occur throughout the length of the
Labrador Current. Such a behavior of the current is not especially
surprising when one appreciates the many vagaries and fluctuating
factors to which the surface layers are continually subjected.

In order to obtain an idea representative of the velocity of the
shelf and slope bands of the Labrador Current along its course, the

104 MARION AND GENERAL, GREENE EXPEDITIONS

^0 50

\

Figure 68.- — ^The Labrador Current on the surface the summer of 1933. Velocities
expressed in miles per day in axis of current.

velocity over a common width of 20 miles, was measured near the
axis of each band at several points.

Surface velocity, Labrador Current
[Miles per day]

1928

1931

1933

1934

Shelf

Slope

Shelf

Slope

Shelf

Slope

Shelf

Slope ij

Section K

6.0
7.2

8.4
8.2
12.4
7.7
3.4

12.0
17.5
10.0
8.2
3.1
11.0
10.0

1.3
4.9
4.2
6.2
4.3
5.4
2.3

15.1
10.3
9.6
6.2
4.3
8.9
7.0

0

0

0

0

8.6

6.2

2.2

12.0
9.1
21.1
14.9
10.8
10.0
7.9

i

Section L

:l

Section M .

— 1

Section N

6.2

14. 9 ■

Section 0.

...I

Section P

8.4
2.2

15.0 Fl

Section Q

9.1

Average

7.6

10.3

4.1

8.8

5.6

12.3

4.2

13.0

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

50

105

FiGUHB 69. — The Labrador Current on the surface the summer
expressed in miles per day in axis of current.

of 1934. Velocities

The table shows that the average surface velocity of the shelf band
of the Labrador Current, for the summers recorded, ranged from 7.6
to 4.1 miles per day. And for the slope band the velocity ranged
from 13.0 to 8.8 miles per day. The shelf band and the slope band,
therefore, for all of the years, average 5.4 and 11.1 miles per day,
or a final average of 8.2 miles per day for the Labrador Current as a
whole.^^

The above figures agree well with the general knowledge regarding
the drift of the icebergs from tlie dates of the breakup of the fast and
pack ice in Baffin Bay and along the Labrador coast to the appear-
ance of the ice south of Newfoundland. It is not difficult to trace
the spring crop of bergs which constitute the danger to the North
Atlantic steamship lanes. If not unduly hindered, they probably
spent the previous winter in the vicinity of Cape Dyer, Baffin Land,
and the second previous winter in Melville Bay and northern Baffin
Bay.^^ Their calving from the glacier the summer of that year checks
well with our scanty knowledge of the currents in the far north and
of the vicissitudes which the icebergs experience along their drifts.

1" Iselin (1930) estimated the average surface velocity of the Labrador Current was
10 miles per day.

11 The thousands of bergs observed by Bartlett (1935) off Devon Island, Aug. 20-25,
1934. probably wer" released from West Greenland ice-fiords the previous summer. The
International Ice Patrol reported a total of 872 icebergs south of Newfoundland the
season of 1935, a heavy ice year.

106

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

CO ffi O

0 10 20 30 60 (miles)

FiGURB 70. — Velocity profiles of the Labrador Current expressed in eentiineters per second
The solid lines represent southerly current and the broken lines northerly current
Section J,, July 24-26, 1931; section K,, July 17-18, 1931; section L,, July 15-16
1931 ; section Mi, July 12-13, 1931 ; and section Ni, July 10-11, 1931.

Additional quantitative information as to normal conditions in th(
Labrador Current, and variations therefrom, is contained in a series
of velocity profiles— 8 for 1931, 7 for 1933, and 3 for 1934 (figs. 7(
1-0 74). If the profiles shown on figures 70 to 74 be compared with

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

107

0 10 EO 30 60 (miles)

Figure 71. — Velocity profiles of the Labrador Current expressed in centimeters per sec-
ond. The solid lines represent soutlierly current and the broken lines northerly cur-
rent. Section Oi, August 7-8, 1931 ; section Pi, July 6-7, 1931 ; and section Qi, July
4-6, 1931.

the corresponding sections (figs. 48, 50, and 51) it will be found that
they are nearly similar and support many of the statements which
were based on the 1928 observations alone. For example, the divi-
sion of the Labrador Current below the surface into a shelf and a

79920—37-

108

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

slope band is a characteristic feature of nearly all the profiles. The
1933 surface current map (fig. 68), it will be recalled, did not exhibit
a banding of the current, but below the surface it was so divided, as
figures 72 and 73 prove. Corroboration of the junction of West

Figure 72. — Velocity protiles of tlio Labrador Current expressed in centimeters per sec
end. The solid lines represent southerly current and the broken lines northerly cur-
rent. Section Ka, July 18, 1933 ; section La, July 19-20, 1933 ; section Mj, July 21-22,
1933 ; and section N-, July 23-24, 1933.

Greenland Current and Baffin Land Current to form Labrador Cur-
rent is shown by the northernmost section in 1931 off Resolution
Island, The west Greenland band of deep current, with relatively
high temperature and salinity is shown at the offshore end of the
profile (sec. Ji, fig. 70) as having already joined the southward flow
in the American sector. The volumes of this band of the current for

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

109

1928 and 1931 of 4.8 and 4.5 million cubic meters per second agree

well.

A comparison of corresponding velocity profiles for the summers
available also reveals that the Labrador Current was probably deeper

Figure 73. — Velocity profiles of the Labrador Current expressed in centimeters per sec-
ond. The solid lines represent southerly current and the broken lines northerly cur-
, rent. Section O2, June 30-July 2, 1933 ; section P2, July 28-29, 1983, and section Q2,
July 26-28, 1933.

on the mid-Labrador slope than it was either north or south of this
zone. This appears consistent, moreover, when it is recalled that
it is the deepest section of the West Greenland Current in the offing
of Ivigtut and Fiskernaessett which contributed water to the slope

no

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

m mm in

0 10 20 30

00 <" O

„__ f\j Q ^m<g

CM rO'*' fO f^ lOfOtO

Fioi'RE 74. — Velocity pioflles of the Lahrarior Current expressed in centiineteis per s^ec-
ond. The solid lines represent southerly current and the broken lines northerly cur-
rent. Section N3, July 10-11, 1934 ; section P3, July 9-10, 1934 ; and section Q3, July
3-7, 1934.

band of the Labrador Current at mid-Labrador. The West (ireeii-
land Current north of the latitude of Hudson Strait is shallower
than farther south because of the lesser bottom depths there.

A comparison of the average draft of the current as shown by the
1-centimeter-per-second-velocity lines on the several profiles indicates

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

111

that the Labrador Current was shallowei' in 1931 than in any of
the other years. This agrees also with the variations noted for the
above period off Cape Farewell and Ivigtut, when a deficit was
recorded there in the volume of the West Greeidand Current.

The profiles for the few summers recorded indicate in general
a decrease in the transport of the current near the latitude of Belle

_^ 4

Q

Z

o 2
o

UJ

« 0 -

QC
UJ

a.

CO

oe 10

UJ

I-

Ul

3 8

SHELF BAND

1933

SLOPE BAND

1933

1931

1928

< 1933

TOTAL NET CURRENT

K L M N 0 P Q

S E C T I 0 N S

Pi(;l:re 75. — The volume of the shelf band, the slope band, and the total net southerly
flow of the Labrador Current, sections K to Q, expressed in millions of cubic meters
per second.

Isle. This is attributed partly to the influence of the Strait of
Belle Isle and the uneven topography of the Newfoundland shelf
and partly to countermovements associated with the Atlantic Cur-
rent. The volume of the inshore margin of the Atlantic Current
which intersected the offshore end of section O (fig. 71) in 1931 has
been computed as 5.6 million cubic meters per .second. The observa-

112

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

tions in 1933 did not extend out to the margin of the Atlantic Current
but if section P3 (1934, fig. 74) had been drawn so as to have included
station 1739, it would also have shown the margin of the Atlantic
Current. The margin was computed to have contained 7.8 million
cubic meters per second. This set, as earlier described on page 82,
is a mixture of subtropical Atlantic water and returning water of
the Labrador Current.

In some of the velocity profiles, especially those for 1933, a third
band of current has been revealed somewhat offshore of the conti-
nental slope. It is believed that this represents a local, temporary
condition only, in which a whorl in the Labrador Current intersected

A

UlJ 3

r

/jl

-

/ ' 1

cr

-

//

=^2

1-

<

:

/ / 1

r

///

CC 1

LU

CL
0

-

^^^ /

/ /

:

/ /

LU

\

\

-9

\ 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1

33.00 3400

35

.00

SALI N 1 TY

■

FiGUBB 76. — Temperature-salinity correlation of the Labrador Current in the Amerioai

sector the summer of 1931.

the plane of the section. Such departures often reflecting an excess
or deficit in the computed volume of the north-south components
should, of course, be discounted, each case being judged on its
particular merits at the time and place.

A table, recording in more detail the volume of the bands of
Labrador Current and intersected eddies, is appended at the end
of this chapter.

The Labrador Current (see table p. 127) averaged greatest volume
in 1933 and smallest in 1931, varying from 5.4 million cubic meters
per second to 3.4 million cubic meters per second. The excess of
current in 1933, as shown on figure 75, was mostly confined to the

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 113

slope band which from its derivation points to a swelling in the
west Greenland portion of the Labrador Current rather than an
increase in the Baffin Bay discharge. This is substantiated by the
excess in volumes recorded in 1933 (p. 54) for the West Greenland
Current off Cape Farewell and Ivigtut.

The deficit of Labrador Current in 1931 along the American slope
is corroborated also (p. 50) by the fact that much of the West
Greenland Current off Cape Farewell branched out into the Labra-
dor Sea and was thus lost that summer to the Labrador Current.
Attention has already been called to the great scarcity of icebergs
south of Newfoundland in 1931, a total of 13 compared with the
average number of 420.

As a further analysis of the components of the Labrador Current,
temperature-salinity correlation curves have been drawn based upon
all 1931 observations below a depth of 50 meters in the Labrador
Current of the American sector. The two solid lines embrace the
pattern of the temperature-salinity plots, the greater distance be-
tween the two curves near the bottom of the graph signifies a con-
sistent scattering of the correlation points in the cold low-salinity
water and a concentration in the higher temperature and salinity
brackets. The broken line is illustrative of the mean temperature-
salinity correlation for all the sections in the American sector the
summer of 1931. The lower left-hand portion of this curve repre-
sents the Baffin Land Current component and the upper right-hand
the West Greenland Current component. A point about halfway
along the broken line may be taken as representative of the division
between the mixture. A computation of the average volumes of the
current for the American sector in 1931 with reference to this
boundary results in 2.1 million cubic meters per second for the West
Greenland Current water and 1.4 million cubic meters per second for
the Baffin Land Current water. These proportions of 3 to 2 cor-
respond to previous estimates of the composition of the Labrador
Current based on the observations of 1928. (See p. 85.)

The horizontal distribution of temperature and salinity, surface
to 600 meters, in the American sector during the summers of 1931,
1933, and 1934 is portrayed on figures 77 to 86. When these are
compared with figures 52 to 61, the temperature and salinity maps
for 1928, good agreement in the general form and position of the
isotherms and isohalines fs observed. The resemblance between
the 1928 and 1931 surface isotherms and isohalines is especially
striking, the 1928 temperatures in the American sector being gen-
erally about 1° C. lower than those in 1931. A minimum tempera-
ture about —1.5° C. was found on the American shelf in all of the
summers. A feature common to all of the 400- and 600-meter
temperature maps is a band of water warmer than its surroundings
which extended southward along the American slope to the latitude
of Belle Isle. This is undoubtedly the thermal influence of the west
Greenland water in the slope band of the Labrador Current which,
as remarked on page 100, was cooled as it progressed southward.

Attention is especially called to the distribution of temperature
and salinity at a depth of 100 meters in the latitude of Belle Isle
just offshore of the continental edge (fig. 84). Temperatures of

114

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

60 50 60 50

Figure 78. — Temperature and salinity at 100 meters July 4 August 8, 1931.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

115

'60 50 60 50

Figure 79. — Temperature and salinity at 200 meters July 4-Augi)st S, 1931.

60 50 60 50

Figure 80. — Temperature and salinity at 400 meters July 4-Au'4Ust 8, 1931.

116

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

7° C, and salinities of 34.90%o were found in this locality, where
on the current maps and the velocity profiles, north-flowing counter-
current has previously been described. This region, therefore, is
unmistakably associated with currents coming from farther south
in the Atlantic.

The vertical distribution of temperature and salinity for the
summers of 1931, 1933, and 1934 is depicted on figures 87 to 92.
The same outstanding features noted in the 1928 sections are seen
here, viz, the shelf of frigid water and the upward inclination of
the isohalines coast to continental edge.

The 1931 profiles in both the northern and southern regions of
the American sector, recording saltier water than the profiles in

60 50 60 50

Figure 81. — Temperature and salinity at 600 meters July 4-August S, 1931.

between, indicate first the influence of the West Greenland Current
in the north and later the Atlantic Current in the south. The saltier
water in 1931 than in any of the other summers, as revealed by a
comparison of all of the salinity profiles, corroborates the surface
current map (fig. 123, p. 167), viz, the West Greenland Current set
more directly across the Labrador Sea the summer of 1931 than in
any of the other summers.

If the corresponding temperature and velocity profiles for the
"N" sections be superimposed on each other and the average tempera-
ture and the rate of heat transfer for the Labrador Current be
computed in accordance with the methods explained (p. 24), these
values afford a means of comparison between the summers investi-
ofated.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA
60* 50"

117

60' 50'

Figure 82. — Temperature at the surface June 26-July 24, 1933.

Average tetnperature and rate of heat transfer of Labrador Current

Year

Volume current
(m3/sX10-6)

Average temperature

Rate heat transfer
(°cm3/sX10-«)

South
(net)

North
(net)

South
(net)

South
(net)

North
(net)

South
(net)

South
(net)

North
(net)

South
Cnet)

1928

5.11
1.62
7.93
5.31
4.22

0.05
.31
.33

.28

5.06
1.31
7.60
5.03
4.22

3.26
1.51
3.27
2.74
2.76

1.04

0.63

3.00

—1.11

16.7
2.4

25.9
4.5

11.6

0.1
0.2

1.0
-0.3

16.6

1931.

2.2

1933

24.9

1934

14.8

1935

11.6

Averages

4.84

0.19

4.64

2.7

0.89

14.2

0.2

14.0

The Labrador Current averaged highest in temperature, according
to the above table, during the summers of 1933 and 1928, and lowest
in temperature the summer of 1931. The greatest volume of the
Labrador Current occurring in the year 1933 combined with the high
temperature resulted in a rate of heat transfer that exceeded any of
the other summers.

118 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS
60' 50L 60° 50°

60 lA — W-l A 1^%^ ^Peoi

50

iirr^-i^

^^-1 WV-*

^^ j:--^^

^k\

H^^ t

^D^L^ii )\.(^5

/ir^

W ,00 50- 60° 200 ^^'

400

600

Figure 83. — Temperature at 100, 200, 400, ami 600 meters June 26-July 24, 1933.

It is instructive to note that the annual variations in the average
temperature are of less ]na<i-nitu(le in the Lahrador Current, the tem-
peratures of which are relatively low, than in the West Greenland
Current, where they are relatively high.

In order to establish more firmly in mind normal sunnnertime con-
ditions and to learn more of the degree of annual variations, refer-
ence is made to subsurface observations other than the U. S. Coast
Guard's. These are practically all contained, as noted in chapter I,

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

119

viz, Matthews (1914) ; Iselin (1930) ; and Conseil Permanent Inter-
national (1929) and (1933). In each one of the Scotia's three slope
stations, between Belle Isle and St. John's, the water at mid-depths
averaged about a half-degree Centigrade colder than similar slope
stations taken at about the same time of the year in 1928, 1931, 1933,

^° 100 METERS

FiGUKE 84. — Temperature anti salinity at surface and 100 meters July o-ll, 1934.

and 1934. Otherwise the Scotia's and the Coast Guard's data are in
good general agreement. Iselin 's (1930) two cross sections of the
Labrador Current, the one taken off Xachvak Fiord and the other off
Sandwich Bay, are typical and similar to subsequent ones made by
the Coast Guard and already fully described in this chapter. The
more numerous and widely distributed observations now reported
permit amplifications to be made particularly with regard to the

120 MARIOISr AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

50° 50*

400 METERS ^°

Figure 85. — Temperature and salinity at 200 and 400 meters July 3-11, 1934.

Labrador Current itself. The smaller proportion of the total vol-
ume of the Labrador Current, as reiterated, is frigid in character, the
major quantities being none other than an extension of the West
Greenland Current around the periphery of the Labrador Sea.

The GodthcuiVs observations in the American sector (Conseil
Permanent International, 1929) support the general distribution of
temperature and salinity described above. The net volume of the
Labrador Current, according to the GodthaaVs observations, was
computed as 3.5 million cubic meters per second off Resolution Island
and 5.9 million cubic meters per second off Cape Harrigan. This
corresponds with previously recorded figures of the U. S. Coast
Guard of 4.6 and 4.1 million cubic meters per second off Resolution

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA
50° sol

121

600 METERS ^°

Figure 86. — Temperature and salinity at 600 meters July 3-11, 1934.

OM

100

2

1.5 1.9 14 5.8 8.8

.3.23

3?.5 31.2 33.41 33.98

34.e3

34.92

Figure 87. — Temperature and salinity profiles across the continental shelf and slope July
24-26, 1931. Section Ji, Resolution Island.

Island, and 4.7, 2.8, and 4.9 million cubic meters per second off Cape
Harrigan.

The ChaUenger's observations (Conseil Permanent International,
1933) show no departures of any consequence in the Labrador Cur-
rent from those published and described herein. A computed trans-
port of 4.9 million cubic meters per second off Cape Harrigan, sec-
tion L (fig. 50), also agrees well with our results.

122

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

FiorjRE 88. — Temperaturo and salinity Didfiies across tho continental shelf and slope July
10-18, 1931. Section Ki, Naclivalv Fiord ; seelion Li, Cape Harrigan ; section Mi, Hamil-
ton Inlet; and section N,, Domino Lshind.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

J 23

6 2 6.5 bi 5.2 5.5 5i3 SO 87

32M 3J.34 32 53 3442 34.41

.34.9? 0 20 40 60 80 100

(MILES)

Figure 89. — Temperature and salinity profiles across the continental shelf and slope July
4-August 8, 1931. Section Oi, Belle Isle ; section Pi, White Bay ; and section Qi, St.
John's.

ANNUAL CYCLE

The Labrador Current has been referred to by some as an
overflow from melting; sea ice and smnmer land drainage from
the regions of Baffin Bay and the Arctic Archipelago. A point,
however, well established by the present observations was the source
of the two principal tributaries of the Labrador Current, viz, the
West Greenland Current and the Baffin Land Current which joined
in the ratio of about 3 to 2. The wintertime observations of the
Meteor, 1935 (p. 10) when compared with the U. S. Coast Guard's
summertime surveys indicate that the "West Greenland Current off

79920 — 37 9

124

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

0 20 40 60 80 100 (MILES)

0.4fe 4.9 5.2 70
4

DM
100

4 -

6

8 -

10

12

100

4L IY|2
his 6.0 6.48 6S 5.0b 8 65

3.4 .i.i

3.35 13.15 32

3.30 .3.2

.^■20

Figure 90. — Temperature profiles across the continental shelf and slope July 15-24, 1933.
Section Ko, Nachvak P^iord ; section Lo, Cape Harrigan ; section M^, Hamilton Inlet ;
and section No, Domino Island.

Cape Farewell exhibited no apparent seasonal cycle. The smaller
tributary across Davis Strait according to the GodthaaVs observa-
tions (p. 71), as late in the year as September, was flowing with only
slightly diminished volume. The Marion (p. 88) also found a nor-

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

125

1.19 2 2 216 2.9 213 218 4 47 6.55 7.07 72S

6 20 40 60 80 100 (milE-S)

0

100

2

10

IS^-

Figure 91. — Temperature profiles across the continental shelf and slope June 26-July 2,
1933. Section Oo, Belle Isle ; section P2, White Bay ; and section Q2, St. John's.

mal discharge of the Labrador Current off Resohition Island in late
August and again off St. John's in early September. No early
spring or winter observations allowing cross sections of the Labrador
Current there have ever been collected. There is no direct evidence,
therefore, on the time, place, or extent of the current sufficient to
construct a reliable picture of the annual cycle. Further remarks
on the subject are contained in chapter VII, page 140.

126

INIARIOX AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

2.7 ?.99 3.06 5.28

32.21 3Z.5 32.43 3433 34.51

34.82

34 87

.3488

3.25

2.99 1.9 1.9 1.41 ?0 S.22 32.21 32.71 32.72 34.44

3488

100

0 20 40 60 (MILES)

1.34.90

6.21 6 5 5 66. 4.68 4.8 3.45 3.63 4.68 „ 31.4 31.77 3242 32.55 3270 3283 53.45 34.26

-^^ 0

FiGDRE 92. — Temperature and salinity profiles across the continental shelf and slope July
.'i-11, 1934. Section Na, Domino Island ; section Pa. White Bay ; and section Qa, St.
John's.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

127

Volume of Labrador Current
[Millions cubic meters per second]

Section and position

1928

1931

South

North

South
(net)

South

North

South
(net)

Section H:

1.55
1.04

Shelf

Total

2.59

2.59

Section I:

Offshore. . .

3.26
1.70

1.26

Shelf

Total

4.96

1.26

3.70

Section J:

Ofishore

1.21

2.79

.48

Slope .

4.21
.62

Shelf -

.27

0.42

Total

4.83

.27

4.56

4.48

.42

4.06

Section K:

Offshore

Slope.-

2.45
.22

.67

4.75
.19

Shelf

.20

Total

2.67

.67

2.00

4.94

.20

4.74

Section L:

Offshore

Slope

4.66
1.41

4.10
.25

Shelf -

.80

Total

6.07

.80

5.27

4.35

4.35

Section M:

Offshore- .- - .

.01

Slope

4.24
.60

2.78

Shelf

.09

Total -_

4.84

.09

4.75

2.78

.01

2.77

Section N:

Offshore

Slope- .

4.15
.96

1.32
.30

Shelf— - _.--

.05

.31

Total

5.11

.05

5.06

1.62

.31

1.31

Section 0:

Offshore ... _. _

3.57

2.80

.08

15.62

Slope....

3.00
.85

2.81
.58

Shelf...

.07

Total

6.45

3.85

2.60

3.39

.07

3 31

Section P:

Offshore

Slope

2.06
1.04

i.87
.43

3.70
1.03

Shelf

.81

Total

3.10

2.30

.80

4.73

.81

3 92

Section Q:

Offshore

Slope

4.39
.85

2.52
.22

Shelf...

.31

.07

Total

5.24

.31

4.93

2.74

.07

2 67

Average

4.3

3.4

' Margin of Atlantic current not included in averages.

128

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Volume of Labrador Current — Continued
[Millions cubic meters per second]

Section and position

1933

1934

South

North

South
(net)

South

North

South
(net)

Section K:

Offshore

0.38

Slope

8.02

Shelf.

Total.

8.02

.38

7.64

Section L:

Offshore

.35

2.79

.74

1.79

Slope ---

Shelf

Total

3.88

1.79

2.09

Section M:

Offshore

.13

6.07

.35

1.59

Slope

Shelf. -.._

.03

Total

6.55

1.62

4.93

Section N:

Slope - ... -

7.45
.48

5.31

Shelf

.33

0.28

Total-. -

7.93

.33

7.60

6.31

.28

5.03

Section 0:

Offshore.

4.46
1.62
1.23

.18
.12

Slope

Shelf

Total ..

7.31

.30

7.01

Section P:

Offshore ...

4.70
1.13
1.27

4.28

•7.78

Slope . ...

3.40
1.26

Shelf

.26

.14

Total

7.10

4.54

2.56

4.66

.14

4.52

Section Q:

Offshore.-- -

5.90

3.81

Shelf

.01

Total

5.90

.01

5.89

3.81

3.81

Average

5.4

4.4

1 Margin of Atlantic current not included in averages.

Chapter VII

THE GEAND BANKS SECTOR

The Grand Banks sector is defined as the region south and east
of Newfoundland which embraces the Labrador Current. The dis-
cussion refers particularly to the eastern slope of the Grand Banks
along which the Labrador Current carries icebergs farthest south
into the North Atlantic. A frigid branch of the Labrador Current
often prevails between the Grand Banks and Cape Race and may
extend southwestward to the continental edge. Also cold water
from the Labrador Current continually spread in over the bottom
of the Grand Banks for considerable distances where the configura-
tion favors such incursions. The shallowness of the Grand Banks
waters permits no satisfactory dynamic topographic maps, and the
primary circulation is indicated mainly by the boundary surfaces
of temperature and salinity. Illustrations of the distribution of
temperature and salinity over the Grand Banks have not been in-
cluded since they have already been published by Smith (1924).

THE SURFACE CURRENTS

The system of prevailing circulation of the surface layers in the
Grand Banks sector is shown on the composite dynamic topographic
map of the surface relative to 1,500 decibars (fig. 126, p.iTO). When
this chart is compared with the distribution of temperature and
salinity, horizontal and vertical (figs. 96 to 99), it indicates that the
Labrador Current flows southward along the eastern slope of the
Grand Banks, to the vicinity of the Tail, where practically all of it
turns eastward, joining the Atlantic Current. In this manner much
of the Labrador Current water returns and may even complete a
circuit of the Labrador Sea. Throughout the course of the Labrador
Current in the Grand Banks sector, branches are turned back along
the outer side and as in the American sector it loses water through
cabbeling along its offshore side. Although this process contributes
some northern water to the upper levels of the North Atlantic (see
Iselin, 1936, fig. 57), the major compensating return to the system
as a whole is concentrated at deeper levels and in the manner as
explained in chapter VIII.

The inshore margin of the Atlantic Current crossing the fifty-
second meridian follows near the 4,000-meter isobath around the
Grand Banks to the vicinity of the forty-fourth parallel, where the
border of the current bends inshore across the forty-eighth meridian
and then recurves south of Flemish Cap.

Cyclonic eddies are often found along the boundary of the Lab-
rador Current and the Atlantic Current, one particularly east of
the Tail of the Grand Banks near latitude 42°-30', longitude 49°-00',
and the other west of the Tail in the vicinity of longitude 51°-30'.

129

130 MARION AND GENERAL. GREENE EXPEDITIONS \

The development and position of these vortices in the mixing zone
continually varies, but they may be easily recognized on many of
the dynamic topographic maps (figs. 102 to 121), and are also
reflected in the drifts of the icebergs.

As the position of the two principal currents continually change
according to the described system (fig. 126), so also does the surface
velocity vary. The slope band of the Labrador Current over the
200-meter contour along the eastern slope of the Grand Banks often
may become constricted to a ^vidth of 6 miles when velocities in
the axis have attained 110 centimeters per second. In bands of the
Gulf Stream and the Atlantic Current, only the borders of which
lie within the region of the Grand Banks sector, velocities more
regularly reach 80 to 100 centimeters per second. The Labrador
Current apparently is subject to greater fluctuations in the Grand
Banks sector than farther north or than the Atlantic Current. The
average surface velocity of the Labrador Current is estimated to
differ little from that found farther north in the American sector,
8.2 miles per day (18 centimeters per second).

A departure in the course of the surface currents from that de-
scribed above, and which has particular significance for the Inter-
national Ice Patrol, has been indicated during the period 1900-30
by the phenomenal drifts of icebergs in the western North Atlantic
Ocean. (See Smith, 1931, pp. 160-166.) Such rare drifts appear
to originate between longitudes 49° and 46°-50' in the Grand Banks
sector, and thence proceed southerly and sometimes finally westerly.
But if this track be plotted (fig. 93) it does not coincide with the
streamlines of the Atlantic Current, south of the Grand Banks, nor
with the southern branch of the Atlantic Current which is commonly
believed to follow the trend of the 4,000-meter isobath (fig. 93)
southeasterly to about latitude 38° longitude 43° between which
position and the mid-Atlantic Ridge the current turns southwesterly.

The Michael /Sars observations, on the other hand, stations 64 to
70, June 24-30, 1910 (fig. 93), clearly indicate a southerly direction to
the Atlantic Current south of the Grand Banks. The current was
easterly between stations TO and 68 with a volume of 40.3 million
cubic meters per second, but between stations 68 and 64 it had
westerly direction and a net volume of approximately 2 million
cubic meters per second. Reference to the respective dynamic
heights of the latter pair of stations shows that from the surface
to a depth of about 550 meters the Atlantic Current ran westerly
but below that easterly. It probably closely paralleled the plane
of the stations.

Reference to the back of the United States Hydrographic Office
Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean for the month of July 1935
indicates the general course of the southward branch of the Atlantic
Current on the sea surface, and the f^eneral trend and bounds have
been plotted on our figure 93. It will be seen that southwesterly
surface currents often prevail as far west as latitude 35° longitude
60°, the center of the great Atlantic eddy apparently lying north-
west of this position. The remains of an iceberg from the Grand
Banks was sighted by the steamer Baxtergatc (and the report veri-
fied) June 5, 1926, latitude 30°-20'. longitude 62°-32', near Bermuda.

The foregoing strongly suggests, therefore, that portions of the
Atlantic Current to depths as great as 500 meters sometimes turn

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

131

southward in the North Atlantic as far west as the fiftieth meridian,
and this band of current is traceable downstream even to the region
of Bermuda. Rarely icebergs discharged at the southernmost turn-
ing point of the Labrador Current may be caught in the above stream
and carried great distances south and west in the North Atlantic
Ocean.

65

60 55

50

45

50

^^L A '/

~ 50067

/ V

/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ \

/ 5090

/ /

20

/

1

4

\
200

vT" <
X y

/) 1
IJ 1

y '

\ V

°^ L

,- — k

4000 7 ^

1 )

45

r"

\

A
0

/

y^J /'so

40

35

/
/

^" 5000

/

'

sclooj/ y

30

/ /

>^000

)

50

45

_ 40

35

55

50

45

Figure 93. — The surface currents south of the Grand Banks.

In tliis connection the marked branching of the Gulf Stream on
reaching the longitude of the Grand Banks, and the further dis-
tribution of its waters as Atlantic Current, has been computed from
the few existing subsurface observations, as follows :

Atlantic Cm-rent

mVs X 10-8

Northern branch which enters Labrador Sea 14.4

Southern branch which turns along mid-Atlantic Ridge 15.8

Middle branch which continues eastward 10.1

Volume of the Gulf Stream crossing fiftieth meridian 40. 3

132

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

The primary circulation over the Grand Banks themselves as
interpreted from the distribution of tlie temperature and salinity
(fig. 94) is based mainly upon the United States Coast Guard's
surveys (Smith, 1924, pp. 100-134) and that of the Scotia (Matthews,
1914, pp. 30-32). The above observations indicate that the Labra-
dor Current fans out and loses draft on meeting the northern slope
of the Grand Banks, the inshore branch of which, subject to con-
siderable variation, turns back in the vicinity of the fifty-fifth

55 54

FIG0BB 94.'

53 52

-The primary

51 50

circulation ove

49 48

the Grand Banks.

meridian and joins with coastal water (most pronounced in the
surface layers) in slow eastward progress. The colder, saltier Lab-
rador water slides to the bottom while the coastal water spreads
out in the surface layers. There are continual coastal contributions
which accumulate in the more central parts of the Grand Banks at a
maximum in summer, flooding that column surface to bottom and
giving it low salinity character although it is actually about 200 miles
from the nearest land. This water mass normally centered near lati-
tude 44°-30', longitude 50°-00' (fig. 94) is intermittently cooled audi'

I

l(

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 133

salted by a flooding of the Labrador Current past Cape Race. An
increase of the coastal supply accompanied by a dimunition in the
Labrador Current renews the coastal character of the central Grand
Banks reservoir.

Another important movement of the waters over the Grand Banks
occurs when the border of the Gulf Stream floods in toward the
southwest slope bringing w^arm and salty water to the surface layers
there.

Superimposed on the above primary circulation are the rotary
clockwise tidal currents and the annual temperature cycle, the range
of the latter of which is great in the shallow banks' column. (See
Smith, 1922, stations 140-142, for subsurface winter temperatures on
the Grand Banks; also Smith, 1924, p. 148.) The drift of icebergs in
over the Grand Banks has been described by Smith (1931).

CROSS SECTIONS OF THE CURRENTS

A total of seven velocity sections taken at fairly equal distances
along the eastern and southern slopes of the Grand Banks from the
forty-eighth parallel around to a point about 60 miles northwest of
the Tail are shown on figure 95. The profiles are based on the syn-
optic observations made from the United States Coast Guard cutter
General Chreene^ May 17-25, 1934. In addition, section R was taken
June 12-13 and section X, April 19-20. (For station table data,
see Soule, 1935.) In the aggregate these velocity profiles may be
compared with the map of the surface currents (fig. 117) and the
corresponding vertical sections of temperature and salinity (figs.
98 and 99).

, A feature common to practically all of the velocity profiles (fig. 95)
! is their division each into two bands of alternately directed current.
Reference to the horizontal and vertical sections of temperature and
salinity, as well as to the maps of the surface currents (fig. 117).
demonstrates conclusively that the inshore band represents Labrador
Current and the offshore band Atlantic Current. Unlike the sections
farther north, the Labrador Current is contained in a single band
centered over the steepest part of the slope.

Particular attention is called to the decrease in the volume of the
Labrador Current between sections W and X, where on the latter
profile, stations 1603 to 1602, the westbound current was very di-
minutive. The vicinity of the Tail of the Banks represents, as stated
previously, the terminus of the Labrador Current.

The axis of the cold current was centered over the steepest part
of the continental slope, and it had a mean draft of 950 meters. A
marked decrease in the draft of the Labrador Current was noted
•upon its crossing the Flemish Cap Ridge, but subsequently it deep-
ened (in places along the Grand Banks slope as great as 1,500
meters), yet not to the depths which it averaged upstream in the
American sector. The depth of the Atlantic Current on the other
hand was in most places probably greater than 1,500 meters.

Section R. — It will be re<;alled that the net average volume of the
Labrador Current through the St. John's section, July 3-7, 1934 (p.
128), w^as 3.8 million cubic meters per second. The northernmost
profile in the Grand Banks section (sec. R, fig. 95), taken about
3 weeks prior to the St. John's, and 120 miles south of it, recorded

134 MARION AND GENERAL, GREENE EXPEDITIONS

a volume of 2.7 million cubic meters per second. Reference to the
position of the t\yo sections indicates that section E, did not extend
offshore so far as section Q, and it is probable, therefore, that a
small portion of the southerly current was missed. This fact nor
the difference in time fails to explain, however, the marked decrease
of about 30 percent in the volume of the Labrador Current in the
above passage.

Section S. — Proceeding southward about 60 miles, two bands of
alternately directed current intersected the section between the
Grand Banks and Flemish Cap. The slope band represents the
Labrador Current with a volume of 1.1 million cubic meters per
second. The offshore band was Atlantic Current.

Although the observations composing sections E, and S were not
synoptic, the decrease in the volume of the southbound current from
2.7 to 1.1 million cubic meters per second strongly suggests an east-
ward branching. If the course of the current, St. John's to Flemish
Cap, as shown on figure 126, page 170, be com])ared with the velocity
at Q, E, and S, it is estimated that the distribution of the Labrador
Current on reaching the northern part of the Grand Banks was as
follows :

Labrador Current m'/sXlO"* Percent

Past Cape Race

Eastward just north of Flemish Cap

Southward between Grand Banks and Flemish Cap

Volume of Labrador Current in American sector

The spreading and shallowing of the Labrador Current on meet
ing the Grand Banks' promontory and the resulting distribution
along the above routes is probably subject to considerable variation
The fluctuation in the Cape Race branch from 10 percent of the
whole in 1928 to 20 percent in 1934 is quite illustrative of the
behavior.

Section T. — A volume of 1.5 million cubic meters per second indi-
cates that little change had occurred in the Labrador Current between
sections S and T. The margin of the Atlantic Current embraced
by stations 1661 to 1664 had a volume of 8.4 million cubic meters per
second.

Section U. — Continuing only 40 miles southward the volume of
the cold current increased to 2.2 million cubic meters \)qv second.
This flooding is explained on the surface current map (fig. 117)
where Labrador Current from in on the bank recurved out into deep
water.

Section V. — About 60 miles downstream from section U, the vol-
ume of the south-flowing band increased to a maximum of 4.1 mil-
lion cubic meters per second. If reference be made to the corre-
sponding temperature and salinity profiles (figs. 98 and 99), it will
be perceived that the additional discharge was due to an indraft
of the Atlantic Current. The Labrador Current alone is estimated
to have been 2 million cubic meters ])er second in volume.

Section W. — The Labrador Current at the Tail of the Grand Banks
discharged at the rate of 1.6 million cubic meters per second. The

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 135

inshore marffin of the Atlantic Current had a vohime of 9.6 million
cubic meters per second.

Section X. — This section, located normal to the southwest slope
of the Grand Banks about 60 miles northwest of the Tail, illustrates
the diminutive proportions to which the Labrador Current shrank,
with a computed volume of only 0.12 million cubic meters per sec-
ond. Practically all of the cold current, except that which sank
below the depth of our observations, was turned back with the
Atlantic Current in the vicinity of the Tail. The Atlantic Current
recorded a volume of 6.6 million cubic meters per second.

The foregoing set of seven velocity profiles (fig. 95) is believed
to be quite representative quantitatively of the Labrador Current
along the east side of the Grand Banks. Expressed in millions of
cubic meters per second it was as follows :

Grand Bank sectiovs

R 2.7 U 2.2 W 1. G

S 1.1 V 4.1 X 0.1

T 1. 5

The table shows that the average volume of the Labrador Current
in the Grand Banks sector the spring of 1934 was approximately
2 million cubic meters per second. Earlier computations of the
volume of the Labrador Current by Smith (1931) gave 3.2 million
cubic meters per second, which is probably somewhat too large, but
the above difference in no way alters the conclusions based upon
such quantitative data.

HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY

Tlie distribution of temperature and salinity around the Grand
Banks for the 100-, 200-, 400-, and 600-meter levels is represented on
figures 96 and 97. The maps have been constructed from the United
States Coast Guard's station observations 1536 to 1681 taken May 17-
25, 1934. (See Soule, 1935.) In order to obtain a more accurate pic-
ture of conditions southeast of the Tail, the observations from Coast
Guard stations 571-576 taken April 30-May 1, 1926 (see Smith, 1926)
have been utilized. Also in order to indicate the continuity of the
temperature and the salinity in the borders of the Atlantic Current
below the surface, the Michael Sars^ stations 67-69 (see Helland-
Hansen, 1930), which are located along the fifty-first meridian, have
been plotted.

The similarity between the horizontal distribution of temperature
and salinity and the map of the surface currents (fig. 117) is strik-
ing. Frigid low-salinity water, less than —1.0° C., wrapped itself
siround the Grand Banks slope as far south as the Tail, while offshore
at similar levels salty water warmer than 14° C, is traceable as far
Qorth as the forty-fifth parallel. Another feature common to both
' figures 96 and 97 is the rapid decrease in the thermal and saline gradi-
3nts with an increase in depth ; 17 isotherms on the 100-meter projec-
fcion, for example, are replaced by only 2 on the 600-meter level. The
small differences between the temperatures and the salinities of the
farthest offsliore observations of the Coast Guard and those farther
3outh in the axis of the Atlantic Current is good evidence that this is

136 MARION AND GENERAL. GREENE EXPEDITIONS

a similar type of water. The increase in the difference between the
Coast Guard's data and the Michael Sars\ data, with proportional in-
crease in depth, on the other hand, testifies to the shoaling of the
Atlantic Current with approach toward its borders.

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY

The same foregoing stations, with the exception of those of the
Michael Sars, have been utilized to construct the vertical sections.
These temperature and salinity profiles correspond section for section
to the velocity profiles already discussed (p. 133) . Labrador Current
of low salinity and temperature hugged the Atlantic slope of the
Grand Banks Avhile adjacently offshore lay salty warm water of the
Atlantic Current. The draft of the Labrador Current as indicated
by the above sections agrees well with the average depth of 950,
meters obtained from the velocity profiles. j

The presence of sub-Arctic intermediate water corresponding tol
that defined by Wiist (1935) and found by Iselin (1936, p. 47), is'
evident at depths of 400 to 600 meters as represented on the salinity
sections T and U (fig. 99). Reference to the corresponding velocity
profiles (fig. 95) establishes the motion of this water, with its prin-
cipal component, as northerly. It is our view that this is mixedi
water formed by cabbeling along the boundaries of the Labrador
Current and the Atlantic Ciirrent (see p. 183).

The relatively small area of cool water on the southwest edg^
of the Grand Banks, as marked by the 3° and 4° isotherms (section
X, fig. 98), is corroborative evidence of the very small proportions
of sub-Arctic water which continue as far westward as this point
from the Tail along the continental slope. The northern border of
the Gulf Stream in the deep water between the Grand Banks and the
Nova Scotian Banks often lies as far north as latitude 43°-30' in the
vicinity of the fifty-fourth meridian. (See Smith, 1923, -stations
178 and 209; also Bjerkan, 1919, stations 16, 17, 74, and 75.) A
cold, low-salinity discharge from the Laurentian Channel appar-
ently displaces the Gulf Stream southward in longitudes 56° and 57'',
and thus accentuates a warm salient in longitudes 53° and 54°. This
characteristic northward encroachment of the Gulf Stream appears
to dam the westward flow of the Labrador Current. Small quanti-
ties of Labrador Current from around the Tail may, at times, escap©
along the continental slope past the above barrier (Smith, 1924i
stations 353 and 354) and join other small tributaries such as th|
occasional extensions of the Labrador Current across the shelf south-
west of Cape Race (Smith, 1924, p. 92) or a more pronounced and
constant tongue of cold water from the Laurentian Channel (Bjer-
kan, 1919, station 12). Such intermittent contributions probably re-
sult in cooling and freshening the surface layers in the slope watei?
as they mix with the margin of the Gulf Stream system (see Iselin,
1936, fig. 57). No direct extension of the Labrador Current to the
coast of the United States has been emphasized by Bigelow (1927,
pp. 825-836).

There is little evidence in the deepest temperature and salinity
observations in the Grand Banks sector (figs. 98 and 99) of the cold
water which was indicated on our Labrador Sea sections as draining!
out along the American slope (p. 184). This movement has prob-

1

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 137

ably been missed since the ice-scouting duties of the Ice Patrol have
never afforded time to explore depths in the Grand Banks sector
greater than 1,500 meters. Michael Sars stations 69 and TO at the
Tail of the Grand Banks (Helland-Hansen, 1930) do indicate, how-
ever, the southerly continuation of the deep water described in
chapter VIII.

A striking feature of the profiles, best illustrated on sections T, U,
and W (figs. 98 and 99) where the isotherms and isohalines surface
to 300 meters on the scale of the drawings lie nearly vertical, is the
abutment of Arctic and Atlantic water. A similar distribution of
the temperature and the salinity, but not quite so well defined, has
been noted in the Greenland sector, where two different types of
water flank each other. These convergences illustrate cabbeling
(p. 175), the angle being greatest in the zone of greatest changes in
temperature and salinity. The temperature convergence, most
clearly marked in the surface layers during the colder part of the
year, is commonly known as the cold wall. (See 10° C, isotherm on
profiles T, U, and W, fig. 98.) If the temperature profiles be com-
pared with the corresponding ones of velocity (fig. 95), it will be
found that the cold wall lay an average of 20 miles offshore of the
boundary between the Labrador and Atlantic Currents. This con-
dition is believed to be more apparent than real ; observations taken
at closer intervals across the two streams would probably reveal a
coincidence between the distribution of temperature, salinity, and
resulting motion.

Along the boundary of the Atlantic and Labrador Currents, as
shown by several of the intersecting sections of density (Smith, 1926,
p. 30), relatively light water often collects in the surface layers to
depths of 20 or 30 meters. Whether or not these shallow pools are
the result of an indraft initiated by intense cabbeling along the
density wall is a question which remains for future investigation.

Temperature-salinity correlation curves for the sections in the Grand
Banks sector (fig. 100) correspond in general features to those (figs.
65 and 66) for the American sector. The flatter part of the curve is
again representative of the Labrador Current, while the end portions
beyond points I and II are typical of the Labrador Current's prin-
cipal components. Point I, with an approximate temperature value
of —1.5° C, and a salinity of about 33.32%o (slightly warmer and
saltier than typical Arctic water in the American sector) represents
typical Arctic water in the Grand Banks sector. Continuation of
the curves (fig. 100) upward and to the left is representative of the
correlation in banks and coastal water. Continuation of the curves
from point II upward to the right gives graphs which parallel those
representative of the correlation found in Atlantic water. Naturally
these given lines lie to the left of a curve representative of the axis
of the Gulf Stream since the Grand Banks sector embraces only the
northern margin of that current system.

ANNUAL VARIATIONS

In order to show the variation in the position of the Labrador
Current and the Atlantic Current in the Grand Banks sector, a series
of 20 dynamic topographic maps, 1000-0 decibars (figs. 102-121) are
appended to this chapter. The station table data upon which they

138

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

are based are contained in the United States Coast Guard Ice Patrol
Bulletins, 1922-36. In the earlier part of the period when the sub-
surface observations did not extend to 1,000 meters, resort has been
made to extrapolation.

Smith (1931), in order to point out the paths along which icebergs
most frequently drift, grouped the above maps (appended to this

lu

12

cr

10

3

y-

8

<

tr

6

UJ

UJ

-2

/

/

//

/

i

7

X

I

/

A

^

■^

1

8 33.0 2

8 34.0 2

8 35.0 2

8 36.0 2

S A L I N I T Y

Figure 100. — Temperature-salinity correlation curves in the Grand Banks sector the spring

of 1934

chapter) into several characteristic types of circulation in the Grand
Banks sector as follows : ^-

(a) A swelling of the Labrador Current in the Grand Banks
sector is often accompanied by an extension of its terminus as far
west as the fifty-third meridian. At such times it may hug closely

'= The agreement between the isobaths shown on the dynamic topographic maps and the
actual iceberg drifts has been confirmed by the Ice Patrol and reported by Smith (1931).

DA.VIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 139

to the continental slope (fig. 113), or it may project southwesterly
past the Tail (fig. 115), or run nearly south (fig. 117). Another
characteristic type of the circulation west of the Tail which persisted
for over 2 months the spring of 1926 is featured by a cyclonic
eddy (figs. 105, 106, 107, and 109). The system west of the Tail,
on the other hand, may be completely altered in appearance by the
encroachment of the Atlantic Current toward the southwest slope
(figs. 102, 116, and 117).

(b) The Labrador Current sometimes meets the Atlantic Current
in such a manner that a cold-water salient extends southeasterly
from the Tail along the 4,000-meter isobath as far as latitude 41°,
longitude 47°. This course of the currents appears to favor the
formation of a cyclonic eddy which may travel about southeast of
the Tail as shown on figures i06, 107, and 115. An apparent weaken-
ing of the Labrador Current may be the cause of the retreat of this
eddy to the northward along the eastern slope of the Grand Banks
(figs. 105, 112, 117, 118, and 120).

(c) The previously described intrusion of the Atlantic Current
between the forty-fourth and forty-fifth parallels on the east side
of the Grand Banks is one of the most constant features of the
circulation (figs. 102, 109, 110, 112, 116, 117, 120, and 121). This
development of the Atlantic Current during the latter part of the
iceberg season and the consequent deflection of the ice from the main
steamship tracks has occasionally been a determining factor in the
discontinuation of the Ice Patrol for that season.

(d) The Labrador Current upon crossing the Flemish Cap Ridge
often gives off a small branch southeastward between the northern
border of the Atlantic Current and Flemish Cap (figs. 112 and 116).

(e) The system of circulation at the junction of the Labrador
Current and the Atlantic Current sometimes becomes very complex
as attenuated sinuous tongues of superficial current interlace. The
cold southwesterly current, for example, which intersected the plane
of the Michael Sars'' section south of the Grand Banks in June 1910
(Helland-Hansen, 1930), indicated a system of circulation similar to
that shown on figures 109 and 110. The surface temperature maps
compiled fortnightly by the Ice Patrol during the ice season, each
based upon hundreds of temperature reports from passing steamers,
indicate that narrow tongues and occluded pools of warm and cold
surface water from the two main currents sometimes extend con-
siderable distances on both sides of the boundary as marked by the
dynamic topographic maps. The more closely the subsurface obser-
vations are taken in the active mixing area, it is safe to state, the
more complex the currents will be revealed there.

The variation in the volume of the Labrador Current and the
Atlantic Current in the Grand Banks sector (1910-35) is shown by
the table on page 143. The computed volumes of the Labrador Cur-
rent during the earlier part of the period are not so accurate as the
values shown for the later years when the station's observations were
taken at much closer intervals. The series unfortunately is not of suf-
ficient length or continuity to determine whether or not a correlation
exists between the volume of the Labrador Current and the num-
ber of icebergs south of Newfoundland. If there be any direct rela-
tion, it apparently is masked by frequent and irregular fluctuations,

79920—37 10

140 MAKION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

which, as might be expected near the turning point of a discharge,
are greater than farther upstream in the trunk. The volume of the
Atlantic Current according to the table also shows considerable varia-
tion, but this of course is due to the position of the stations, some
sections extending deeper into the margin of the warm, salty stream
than others. The values are recorded in order to demonstrate that
the Grand Banks sections in most cases intersect the Atlantic Cur-
rent itself and not a secondary tongue or eddy.

ANNUAL CYCLE

The bulk of the subsurface observations that have been made in
the Grand Banks sector have occurred in spring and smnmer. A few
stations, however, have been taken by the ice observation cutter dur-
ing winter (Smith, 1922, 1923). The United States Coast Guard
also made a brief physical survey of the waters around the Grand
Banks in October 1923 (Smith, 1923). The Challenger ran a line of
stations across the Grand Banks in November 1932 (Conseil Per-
manent International, 1933), and the Atlantis a line of stations south
of the Tail of the Grand Banks in September 1935 (Conseil Perma-
nent International, 1936) . These data, although scanty for the colder
months of the year, provide a basis, however, for describing the annual
cycle.

The only two winter surface temperature maps of the Grand Banks
sector, February 19-March 11, 1921, and February 19-20, 1922 (Smith,
1922 and 1923), record temperatures less than 32° F., and thus indi-
cate that the Labrador Current at the time extended southward along
the east side of the Grand Banks to the vicinity of the Tail. In fact,
the isotherms on the two above maps, when due allowance is made
for the annual cycle of insolation, correspond in their main features
to those on the maps of the Ice Patrol's large collection for spring
and summer. Corroboration that the Labrador Current was present
in the Grand Banks sector in the winter of 1922 is found in the :
computed volume of the cold current, between stations 172 and 173 i
(Smith, 1923, p. 70) of 6.2 million cubic meters per second. This;
figure based upon only two stations is believed somewhat inaccurate, i
since it is about double the average volumes previously found.

The dynamic topographic map for October 21-26, 1923 (fig. 105), ,'
when compared with the distribution of temperature and salinity
(Smith, 1923), clearly shows that the Labrador Current with negative
temperatures in its axis flowed southward in autumn around the
Grand Banks to slightly west of the Tail. The computed volume of
the cold current was 3.4 million cubic meters per second near the
forty-fourth parallel and 2.9 million cubic meters per second at the 1
Tail, discharges which according to the table (p. 143) agree with thei
volumes of the Labrador Current at other times of the year. The
computed volume of the cold current at the Tail of the Grand Banks
from observations in November 1932 and also in September 1935 tend ;
to corroborate the foregoing. ^^ j

Reference has already been made (p. 63) to the strength of the]
West Greenland Current as found by the Meteor around Cape Fare- i
well the winter of 1935 and also to the major proportions of the West j

"Smith (lf>24, p. 65) reported the drift of an iceberg southward around the Tail of the ;
Grand Banks in August and September 1923. '

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

141

Greenland Current which enter into the composition of the Labrador
Current. Again in late August 1928 the Marion found the Labrador
Current to be flowing with a volume of 4.6 million cubic meters per
second. At the rate of 8.2 miles per day this discharge should have
reached the Grand Banks sector the following December. Thus
the evidence contained in the above quantative data strongly indi-
cates that the Labrador Current prevails in the Grand Banks sector
the year round.

If, on the other hand, an acceleration of the dynamically induced
circulation occurs in the northern part of the Labrador Sea as
hypothesized (p. 186), it would probably cause a subsequent augmen-
tation of the Labrador Current reaching its maximum in the Grand
Banks sector the following May.

-

k

/^

\

A

r^^^

^\

-

//

^\

<

K ^

//

\

'■^'•i^-i

(

(

/

I

-

-

■

OCT NOV DEC. JAN FEB. MAR.

M 0 N T H S

Figure 101. — The normal atmospheric pre.ssure gradient, October to March, over the
Labrador Sea. The solid line represents the Belle Isle-Julianehaab gradient and the
broken line the Nain-Ivigtut gradient.

The seasonal change both in the velocity and the direction of
the prevailing winds over the Labrador Sea appears to be one of
the most logical factors, if a spring freshet of the Labrador Current
is a reality. Fig. 101 indicates that the prevailing winds, which pro-
duce a tangential w^ind current, the main component of which is
southerly, attain their maximum effect in January. If a current is
thus formed, it will proportionately augment the prevailing dynamic
current wdiich has been found there in summer and described as the
Labrador Current. At the rate of 8.2 miles per day, the estimated
velocity of the sununertime current, such a flood wave would appear
in the Grand Banks sector in April and May. This coincides with
the date of the commonly supposed spring freshet.

The foregoing raises the broad question whether or not such cur-
rents as the East Greenland and the Labrador exhibit a seasonal
variation. There is a well-established view that the Labrador Cur-

I

t

142 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

rent swells to maximum volume in the spring and dwindles or dis-
appears from the Grand Banks region in the fall and winter. Tht
underlying factor is attributed to summertime insolation with th^
consequent release of water from melting snow and ice, the Labradoij
Current acting as a freshet overflows southward deeper into the North!
Atlantic.^* But a spring freshet in the Grand Banks sector, con-
sidering the distances from the source region and the rate of trans j
port of such a flood wave, comes much too early to connect with
summer or even vernal warming.

The common impression that the Labrador and the East Greenland
Currents display a seasonal variation may have been largely abetted
by the drift of the sea ice and the icebergs south of Newfoundland,
a well-known phenomenon which is subject to a conspicuous annual
cycle. Any marked correlation between the abundance of sea ice
south of Newfoundland and vernal warming is discountenanced
however, by the fact that the seasonal maximum of the former pre
cedes the latter. The cycle in the sea ice is traceable apparently tc»
a seasonal rate of production during winter and the consequenll
southward drift from its source. The sequence of events is quite ir
harmony, moreover, with a uniform velocity of the currents pre-
viously described.

The seasonal cycle of icebergs south of Newfoundland which
reaches a maximum usually in May is also somewhat too early to be
caused by a freshet of the cold current predicated on vernal warming
The iceberg cycle, on the other hand, as proven by Smith (1931)
correlates with the cycle of the pack ice, and is believed primaril}
dependent upon a "fence" of pack ice along the Labrador coast dur-
ing late winter and early sprmg. This also is a condition obviouslj
quite unrelated to a cyclical phase, if any, in the Labrador Current.
An annual cycle of the Labrador Current based upon the cyclical
drift of pack ice and icebergs south of Newfoundland is, therefore,
in view of the above, considered a delusion.

The impression that Arctic currents, noticeably their southerr
extensions, dwindle and in many places disappear during late sum-
mer and autumn, may have been gained from the temperature oil
the water. Naturally different temperature criteria for the axis ol
the cold current must be employed during late summer and autumn
than at other times due purely to solar warming and mixing to
which the upper layers are subject. The East Greenland polar con-
stituent of the West Greenland Current, for example, along the coast
north of Cape Farewell, often loses its negative character in late
summer, yet comparison between the velocity and temperature pro-
files proves its presence nevertheless. Higher average subsurface
temperatures were noted in the axis of the Labrador Current ini
Grand Banks sector by Smith (1924, p. 102) and attributed not to
any slacking in the cold current but primarily to a milder 1923-24
winter.

Surface temperature maps of the Grand Banks sector compiled by
the Ice Patrol in June and July have proved quite misleading regard-

" Bigelow (1027) found that thn Noia Scotian Current experiences freshet charac-
teristics when during a few weeks in spring it flows into the Gulf of Maine.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

143

ling the circulation, when, due to solar warming, the presence of the
Laorador Current is more or less screened from view. This condition
is accentuated in summer as still warmer surface water of the At-
lantic Current is spread in toward the Grand Banks' slopes by the
prevailing southwesterly winds.

The seasonal range in minimum temperature of the Labrador Cur-
rent in the Grand Banks sector may be wide. Temperatures as low
as —1.6° C, have been recorded at a depth of 100 meters, and as
high as 2.9° C., at 150 meters along the east side of the Grand
Banks in the axis of the cold current. The seasonal range of the
temperature of the Labrador Current has been commented upon by
Smith (1924, pp. 160-165).

The minimum wintertime temperatures over the Grand Banks,
surface and bottom, are approximately —0.3° C. and —0.8° C, re-
spectively. The Grand Banks column at the end of winter is usually
in thermal homogeneity except where the Labrador Current has in-
,truded on the bottom. The maximum surface temperature recorded
by Smith (1924, p. 148) was 13.2° C., but a summer temperature
more commonly attained is 11.0° C. The maximum bottom tempera-
ture was approximately 2.0° C., but such relatively high temperatures
may often be displaced even during summer by negative-tempera-
tured water from the Labrador Current.

The Grand Banks sector, embracing as it does the discharge of
the Labrador Current, subject to wide and rapid fluctuations, even
ceasing to flow at times, represents a verj^ poor field to determine
the question of an annual cycle. The quantitative data on the
Labrador Current, at least up to the present, fail to reveal any
annual cycle in its flow. If an annual cycle does exist, it is probably
relatively slight, being outweighed by shorter irregular pulsations.

Volume of Labrador Current and Atla^itic Current in Grand Banks sector
Millions of cubic meters per second

Section

R

S

T

u

v

W

X

Year and month

LC

AC

LC

AC

LC

AC

LC

AC

LC

AC

LC

AC

LC

AC

1910, June

0.6

40.3

1922:

February

6.2

12.0

May

3.3
2.9
6.0

24.8
21.3
12.7

1923, October

3.4

34.5

1926, May

1927, June

1931, June

4.2

3.6

4.1

1932:

April

3.4

November

35.0

3.9

1.2
1.6
1.0

1.1
3.9

1934:

April.

1.8
1.5
1.5

2.1
4.1

6.7
8.4

'V.h'

.1

6.6

May

1.1
1.5

3.1

June

2.7

1935:

April-

11.8
8.9

3.7

May

16.3

June

4.5

7.4

July

1.5

September

4.0

31.8

DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

GRAND BANKS SECTOR

1922-1935

(Figures 102-121)

14S

53° 52* 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44°

FiQCEE 102. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, April 11-May 5, 1922.

147

148

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

fi3° 52" 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45°

FiGDRH 103. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, May 3 30. 1922.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

149

53" 52° 51

47° 46° 45°

53° 52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45°

Figure 104. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 declbar surface, May 23-June 18, 1922.

J 39°

150 MARION AND GENERAL. GREENE EXPEDITIONS

54'

53° 52° 51° 50° 49° "^ , , , , f^V , ^\

53' 52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46°

Figure 105.— Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface. October 21-26, 1923.

39*

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

151

53° 52° 51° 50° 49° 46* 47°

54° 53° 52° 51° 50° 4 9° 48° 47°

Figure] 106. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, April 29-May 5, 1926.

152

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

54 53

52

51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46°

54° 53° 52° 5? 50^ 49^ A^ AT 46^

Figure 107. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, June 25-29, 1926.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

153

54° 53* 52° 51* 50° 49° 48

47°

49° 48° 47°

Figure 108. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, April 6-10, 1927,

154

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

55° 54'

53° 52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47°

SS" 54° 53° 52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47°

Figure 109. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, April 21-25, 1927.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

155

5Z' 5 1° 50° 49' 48* 47* 46'

53° 5 2° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46°

Figure 110. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface. May 10-18, 1927.

79920 — 37 11

156

MARIOX AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

50 49° 48° 47° 46°

53 52 51 50 49 48° 47° 46°

Figure 111. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, May 29-June 3, 1927.

I

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

157

5 1° 50° 49° 4 8° 47° 46° 45° 44°

51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44°

FiouuE ]12. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, June 9-21, 1927.

158

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

46- 45°

53° 52° 51° 50° 49* 48° 47° 46° 45°

Figure 113. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface. April 19-May 5, 1932.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

159

52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44°

53° 52° 51' 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44°

FiGDRE 114. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, May 21-29, 1932.

160

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

54° 53° 52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45°

54° 53° 52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45°

Figure 115.— Dynamic topography 1,000-0 ciecibar surface, June 13-10, 1932.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

161

45° 44°

53° 52° 51° 50° 49° AS" A7° 46° 45° ' 44

Figure 116.— Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, April 19-26, 1934.

162

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

§3* 52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44°

>°*tT-i— r- + -T T f I I I I mm ■ 1 I ■ I ■ . t , T I r^^T^^ , ^ .- i "r- ■ ■ s^^^^m i i . r -,--,: t- ,— :;— n >■/

53° 52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44°

Figure 117.- — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, May 17-25, 19154.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

163

53° 52* 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44°

53° 52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44°

FiGDKE 118. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface. June 12-21, 1934.

164

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44° 43'

51° 50° 49° 48° 47' 46° 45° 44° 43°

Figure ll'J. — Dynamic topo^iraphy 1,000-0 decibar surface, April 10-20, ID-iij.

DAVIS STRAIT ANt) LABRADOR Sli:A

165

52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44° 43°

Figure 120. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface, May 8-18, l'J35.

166

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

52° 51° 50° 49° 48° 47° 46° 45° 44° 43°

FiGDRB 121. — Dynamic topography 1,000-0 decibar surface. Juno 4 10, 11»H5.

o

c-
)e
)-
n
h

r-
is
)f
is
I.

IS

a.
11
ic

I.
)f
r-
1-
h

r-
le

d
rl

c-

IS

l-
<n
le

)0

)

1-
n
n
le
7.

c-
)e
>-
!n
;h

0-

r-

is

Df

is
I.

as
a.

ai

ic
\^.
of
r-
n-
th

ir-
de
er
[id
>rl
ir-
as
;a-
on
he

m

ire

I)
id-
en
•rn
;he
W.

Chapter VIII

THE LABRADOR SEA

The discussion in previous chapters has been devoted to the cir-
culation and physical character of the waters in the shelf and slope
regions and has been largely confined to the upper levels, the tropo-
sphere. The present chapter treats the offshore waters between
Greenland and Labrador and southward to the vicinity of the fiftieth
parallel and with special attention to the deeper levels, the strato-
sphere.

SURFACE CIRCULATION

In figure 122 is shown the dynamic topographic chart of the sur-
face with respect to 1,500 decibars based on the Marion observations
taken m 1928. The more rapid currents immediately offshore of
the Greenland and Labrador coasts and in the vicinity of Davis
Strait have been illustrated and discussed in chapters IV,'V, and VI.
Figure 122 shows these currents and their interrelation as well as
the more slowly moving current in the central part of the area.
An area of weak current is shown southwestward of Cape Farewell
and the northward and eastward flowing borders of the Atlantic
Current is just discernible in about latitude 54° K, longitude 50° W
Immediately south of this is what is probably the northern end of
the closed whorl between the Labrador Current, the Atlantic Cur-
rent margin, and Flemish Cap. Regarding the drift of east Green-
land bergs which reach Cape Farewell, reference is made to Smith
(1931, pp. 74-78).

Figure 123 represents the dynamic topographic map of the sur-
face with respect to 1,500 decibars resulting from the survey made
by the General Greene in 1931. In this year the northwestern corner
of the Atlantic Current margin extended farther to the north and
west and was more pronounced than in 1928. The closed whorl
found in 1928 between the Atlantic Current and the Labrador Cur-
;; rent was not disclosed by the 1931 observations and probablv was
;i situated southeastward of the limits of the survey. A notable fea-
;j ture in 1931 was the branching and eastward recurving of a portion
; of the Irmmger Current south of Cape Farewell as indicated bv the
I ^^11?^ "* ^^^^ 1,454.56 isobath in that locality. (See p. 51, ch. IV.)
:j The dynamic topographic map of the surface with respect to 1,500
'i?o? '^l^ T*^^"^^ ^^ ^^^^ 6^m.em? Greene in 1933 is shown in figure
! 1^4. Ihe high salinities observed in the central area (see ch II)
I account for the more rapid circulation offshore of the usual bound-
aries of the Labrador Current. Neither the closed whorl between
the Labrador Current and the Atlantic Current nor the northwestern
border of the Atlantic Current were present within the limits of the
survey unless that portion of the map eastward of longitude 50° W.

167

168

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

southwest of Cape Farewell is to be interpreted as a direct contribu-
tion of Atlantic Current water to the outer margins of the Irminger
Current.

60" 55° "50^

Figure 124. — Dynamic topography 1,500-0 decibar surface, June 26-July 24, 1933.

In figure 125 is shown the dynamic topographic map of the sur-
face with respect to 1,500 decibars resulting from the 1934 observa-
tions obtained bv the General Greene. It will be noted that the

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

169

measurements extend farther to the eastward between latitudes 50°
55° than in the earlier surveys. These easternmost stations disclose
the borders of the Atlantic Current flowing in well-developed

60^ 5F 50^

FiGUUE 125.- — Dynamic topography 1,500-0 decibar surface, July 3-15, 1934.

strength. The closed whorl between the Atlantic and Labrador
Currents is more elongated than in the previous maps and can be
traced as far northward as about 58° N. This figure again brings
up the possibility that in some years water from the margins of the

170 MARION AND GENERAL. GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Atlantic Current may be contributed directly' to the offshore borders
of the West Greenland Current.

Figure 126 is a composite dynamic topographic map of the entire
region from Smith Sound southward to the Tail of the Grand Banks.
The Baffin Bay part is based on the observations of the Godthaah
made in 1928. From Davis Strait to the line between Cape Farewell
and Newfoundland the map is based upon the 1928 Marion observa-
tions. From this line southeastward to Flemish Cap the observa-
tions of the General Greene taken on the 1935 post-season cruise
have been used and that part of the map in the vicinity of the
Grand Banks is based upon observations taken during May 1935 by
the General Greene. Blank strips separate the various areas de-
scribed above. The common reference level is the 1,500-decibar sur-
face. It must be remembered that figure 126 is a composite combin-
ing observations from different seasons and different years, not strictly
comparable but with this reservation in mind it is useful in gaining
a more complete picture of the current system as a whole and
of the interrelation of the component parts of that system. Figures
127 and 128 are similarly constructed composite horizontal sections
of temperature and salinity at a depth of 100 meters in summertime.

The subsurface circulation obtaining in 1928 is illustrated in
figures 129 and 130, which are dynamic topographic maps of the
600- and 1,000-decibar surfaces, respectively, referred to the 1,500-
decibar surface. The major patterns of the surface circulation seen
in figure 122 are reflected in the course of the dynamic isobaths at
the 600-decibar surface. Most notable, perhaps, in figure 129 is the
illustration of the contribution of the West Greenland Current to
Baffin Bay over Davis Strait Ridge. Figure 130 demonstrates the
weak but cyclonic character of the circulation in the intermediate
water, with the center of the basin in less active circulation than
the borders.

SUMMARY OF SURFACE CIRCULATION

The surface circulation of the Labrador Sea is summarized as fol-
lows : The East Greenland Arctic Current and a western branch of the
Irminger Current on rounding Cape Farewell are renamed the West
Greenland Current which flows northwestward. The West Greenland
Current branches, part crossing Davis Strait Ridge into Baffin Bay
and a part flowing westward south of the Davis Strait Ridge and
joining Arctic water flowing southward out of Baffin Bay to produce
the Labrador Current. The Labrador Current, composed of about
three parts west Greenland water to two parts of Baffin Bay water,
flows southerly along Labrador and Newfoundland and the eastern
edge of the Grand Banks, eventually turning in a general northeast-
erly direction along the northwestern borders of the Atlantic Cur-
rent. From the northern edge of the Grand Banks to the Tail of the
Banks parts of the Labrador Current are turned back to the north-
ward. The northernmost of these returned branches forms a closed
whorl between the trunk of the Labrador Current, Flemish Cap, and
mixed waters of the borders of the Atlantic Current which water
flows northward and eastward extending as far as 55° north.

W

I

i.%

-1

CU

m

60 50

'IGCRE 129. — Dynamic topography 1,500-600 decibar surface. July 22-September 11. 1928.

79920 — 37 12

172 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

KiGURB 130.— Dynamic topography 1.500-1 000 deciba

ibar surface, July 22-September H

1928.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 173

EXCHANGE OF WATER IN BAFFIN BAT

The volumes of flow derived from velocity profiles and described in
chapters IV, V, and VI are represented schematically in figure 131.
These investigations require certain conclusions which not only sup-
port the picture of the circulation which is represented here but offer
opportunity of estimating the exchange of water in Baffin Bay. It
was found that in 1928 about 1.0 million cubic meters per second' was
being contributed to Baffin Bay by the West Greenland Current at
Davis Strait. The southward flow of the Baffin Land Current
amounted to about 2.0 million cubic meters per second, thus indicat-
ing that the net contribution to Baffin Bay through Smith, Jones, and
Lancaster Sounds was about 1 million cubic meters per second subject
to correction for precipitation and evaporation.

EXCHANGE OP WATER, LABRADOR SEA

Similarly the inflow to and outflow from the Labrador Sea may
be balanced as follows:

Inflow: mVs x lO-'
West Greenland Current (average Cape Farewell) 5 0

Baffin Land Current- ~ 9" q

Hudson Bay discharge (net) ~ "___" ~SS_ 0 5

Total . "TZ

Outflow: " ''^

West Greenland Current to BaflSn Bay 10

Labrador Current (average South Wolf Id.) Z Z_I 4Q

Total __^ —

The fact that a part of the West Greenland Current is contributed
to and included in the listed volume of the Labrador Current does not
attect the above totals. Neglecting evaporation and precipitation,
then, the above totals indicated an unbalanced excess of inflow over
outflow of about 1.9 million cubic meters per second. Tlie foregoing
strongly suggests that about 1.9 million cubic meters per second of
West Greenland Current sinks into depths below 1,500 meters (the
reference surface of the dynamic computations) and eventually flows
out of the Labrador Sea at deeper levels into the North Atlantic,
thus maintaining a quantitatively balanced system of circulation.

EXCHANGES OF HEAT 12^ LABRADOR SEA

In the summer of 1928 the heat transported to the Labrador Sea
oy currents was as follows :

w i. r, "CmVs X 10-«

\Vest Greenland Current off Cape Farewell __ 17 k

Baffin Land Current at Davis Strait _'__ "" _l o

Hudson Bay discharge (net) ~_ ~_ ~~"1~"7"" 0 5

Total__. -^^

While the current-borne heat leaving the Labrador Sea was—

West Greenland Current to Baffin Bay_ _ 0 ^

r^abrador Current .^'^

14. o

Total ~77Z

15. 1

174

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

70° 70°

FiGUUB 131.-Volume of the currents in the "PPer water layers (tro^^^^^ exi

in millions of cubic meters per second. July 22-Septembei 11, i.»-b.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 175

This gives an excess of heat entering amounting to 1.7 billion kilo-
gram calories per second. If the average temperature of the water
sinking below the 1,500 meter level is assumed to be 3.2° C., the cor-
responding outflow of heat was about 6.1 billion kilogram calories
per second on the basis of the current balance tabulated on page
173. This figure of 6.1 compared with the above excess of current-
borne heat entering above 1,500 meters of 1.7 billion kilogram calories
per second leaves an excess of departing current-borne heat of 4.4
billion kilogram calories per second. It seems reasonable that this
represents the order of magnitude of the average summer rate of
absorption of insolation for it is estimated ^^ that, during the sum-
mertime, the insolation reaching the surface of the sea in this area
amounts to about 20 billion kilogram calories per second of which
perhaps more than 40 percent is lost, as far as the sea is concerned,
through reflection. If this figure for reflection is accepted, 12 billion
kilogram calories per second remain to account for radiation, evapora-
tion, and absorption. As radiation is probably small, approximately
two-thirds of the solar heat not reflected from the surface goes
for evaporation and only one-third is absorbed. This proportion
of absorption is probably too low because no account has been taken
of land drainage, compensating sinking, and consequent transport
of heat to depths below 1,500 meters.

CABBELING

The indicated sinking of approximately 1.9 million cubic meters
per second volume of current below the 1,500-meter level and also,
proportional quantities of heat, is substantiated by the position of
the axis of saltest water along the southwest coast of Greenland
for the summer of 1928. These data when plotted against depth
(fig. 132) show that the Irminger- Atlantic water sank from the 200-
meter level off Cape Farewell to about the 500-meter level off God-
thaab. The temperature-salinity curves representative of the West
Greenland Current (fig. 23, p. 48), if interpreted in terms of density,
also indicate the progressive increase of density along its course.
This sinking of the Irminger-Atlantic water is verified by the obser-
vations of Baggesgaard-Rasmussen and Jacobsen (1930) and those of
Riis-Carstensen (Conseil Permanent International, 1929) some of
the results of which are shown on figures 133 and 134, respectively.
The Dana's observations taken June to July, 1925 when plotted
on figure 133 show that the core of warmest water (Irminger-Atlantic
Current) sank from a depth of about 200 meters to a depth of about

"According to Davis (1899, p. 18) the rate at which unobstructed insolation is received
on the earth with the sun at the zenitli is 75,000 thousand kilogram calorics per minute per
square mile or 54 billion kilopram calories per 12 hours. If the length of sunshine per
day at the equator on March 20 be taken at 12 hours and the average rate of insolation

2
during that period be taken as - times the maximum then the daily rate would be about

34.3 billion kilogram calories per square mile. Davis (1899, p. 20) gives the daily inci-
dent radiation in latitude 60° on June 21 and September 22 as 1.09 and 0.50 times the
above, respectively. A conservative estimate for July-August then is taken as 0.8,
whence estimating the area in question to be 310,000 square miles the average summer

rate of insolation would be ^'*-^XQ-^^^'0'Q^ or approximately 100 billion kilogram calories per second.

86,400
According to Milhorn (1929, p. 41) about 60 percent is transmitted and of this about
two-thirds is absorbed by the atmosphere so that about 20 billion kilogram calories per
second reaches the ocean surface.

70

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

984

975

074 1079 1085

FlQUBB 132. — ^The position of saltest water July,;22-September 11, 1928.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

177

Figure 133. — The position of warmest water as shown by the Dana's observations,

May 5-20, 1925.

178

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

700 meters in traversing the West Greenland sector. Also the God-
thaaVs observations in the summer of 1928 reveal that the Irminger-
Atlantic water sank along its pathway north of Cape Farewell. Thus
the observations of the Dana^ Godthaab^ and Marion all are in agree-
ment in demonstrating the manner and rate of sinking of the

Figure 134. — The position of saltest water as shown by the Oodthaah's observations.

May 29-October 8. 1928.

Irminger-Atlantic water as it enters and pursues its course in the
Labrador Sea. This sinking of the water as it mixes in the West
Greenland Current is an illustration of what the authors consider
to be cabbeling. Although this phenomenon has been indicated by
the observations from several parts of the northwestern North At-
lantic (pp. 44, 48, and 136) its exposition has been reserved for the

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 179

West Greenland Current as it enters the Labrador Sea. The idea
of cabbeling was first published by Witte (1910) and depends
upon the nonlinear relation between the temperature and the den-
sity of sea water. Because of this nonlinear relation and the prac-
i tically linear salinity-density relation an adiabatic mixture of
two waters of equal density but of differing temperature and salin-
ity will have a greater density than its components. It is evident
that, in nature, horizontally adjacent bodies of water will have
very nearly equal densities. When such adjacent waters are of
differing temperature and salinity characteristics their intermixture,
with its attendant increase in density, will result in a partial sinking
of the mixture to an equilibrium density level from which level
further sinking is possible through further mixture with adjacent
water of dissimilar temperature and salinity characteristics. The
fact of the presence of two water masses of dissimilar types in juxta-
position is in itself an indication of the presence of horizontal cur-
rents. The intermixture of two such water masses along their border
may be aided at and near the surface by wave action but will be
effected by the horizontal motion which transported the water there,
not only near the surface but in deeper water as well. As a natural
result, then, there will be a decided and even preponderant horizontal
component to this mixed water as it sinks. Such is our conception
!of cabbeling as it occurs in the regions under discussion. The ver-
tical component of motion as initiated by cabbeling is in many parts
lof the Labrador Sea during the colder months of the year accelerated
by convectional chilling, but the latter factor is quite independent
of the former.

It may be noted here that areas such as the boundaries of the
Irminger- Atlantic Current and the Labrador Current have been called
polar fronts by some authors. This term, borrowed from meteor-
ology, may be considered synonomous with the mixing zones de-
scribed in this paper if it is applied not only to surface jDhenomena
but to subsurface current margins as well.

STATION DATA

In the following paragraphs the vertical distribution of the velocity
of the currents, the temperature, and salinity, will be discussed with
jfeference to two transverse and three longitudinal vertical sections,
the geographical locations of which are shown on figure 135.

i VELOCITY PROFILES OF THE STRATOSPHERE

I

I A statistical investigation of the dynamic height computations for
Ithe 1935 post-season cruise of the General Greene^ where all stations
were occupied to near the bottom, indicated from a consideration of
departures of differences of anomalies of dynamic heights from aver-
iges for 500-meter depth intervals, that in the Labrador Sea the 2,000
meter surface is probably close to the surface of most nearly motion-
less water. On the assumption that 2,000 meters represents the depth
Df motionless water velocity profiles for the complete sections, Reso-
ution Island to Fiskernaessett {Godthaab stations 18 to 28) and
South Wolf Island to Cai>e Farewell {General Greene stations 2026

180

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

to 2047) have been prepared and are shown in figures 136 and 137,
respectively. Because of the small density gradients involved, be-
cause of the possibility that no absolutely motionless surface exists
and because of the probably undulatory character of such a surface if
it does exist, no great reliance is placed upon the absolute values
of velocity thus derived. However, the indicated directions of flow
are believed to be reliable and are instructive regarding the circula-
tion of the deeper water. These two velocity profiles clearly show
the cyclonic nature of the circulation in the deep water (p. 186) of the
Labrador Sea and at the same time permit the southward outflow,

18 19 20 21

26 27 28

Figure 136. — Velocity profile Resolution Island to Plskernaessett, June 11-16. 1928
expressed in centimeters per second (from the Oodthaah's observations). The solid
lines represent southerly current and the broken lines northerly current.

along the American side, of deep water and bottom water (p. 187)
to the North Atlantic necessitated by the sinking of water from higher
levels.

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY

Resolution Island — Fiskemaessett. — The transverse sections of tem
perature and salinity shown in figure 138 represent summer con
ditions in 1928 between Resolution Island and Fiskernaessett based on
the Godthaah stations 18 to 28. In the upper levels the more rapid
currents can be recognized, the northward-flowing West Greenland
Current on the right and the southw&rd-flowing Labrador Current on
the left. The central part of the section from about 500 meters to
about 2,000 meters is occupied by intermediate water (p. 184), the
deeper limit of which is characterized by a temperature of about 3°
C. and a salinity of about 34.90%o. This intermediate water is con-
sidered to lie below the surface water and offshore of the more rapid

DA.VIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

181

?

182

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

currents. The intermediate water is in slow cyclonic circulation and
its core is seen in the temperature minimum, which will be considered
later, and in the salinity minimum of about 34.88%o.

OM

500

10-

20

25

OM

500

10

20-

25

0.13 050 0.41

5.83 4.00 447

18 19 20 21 22

32.95 3294 3304 3322 3388

2.30 \9\ 1 90 ^2.50

23 24 25 26 27 28

34.61 34.58 3405 34.31 3230 3087

3500

,34.90

4 92

Figure 138. — Temperature and salinity profile Resolution Island to Fiskernaessett, June
11-16, 1928 (from the Oodthaab's observations).

Below the intermediate water is to be seen the deep water charac-
terized by lower temperatures than the intermediate water and by
salinity maxima. Here again the circulation is cyclonic and weak.
The center of the salinity maximum shown in figure 138 is located
on the Labrador side. On the Greenland side at intermediate depths

ai

00 o o o

OC9 O C9 C3

1 6 o) 00 fl

N r^ ID (0 (f)

o !f;
q o

(0

1565 1147 1117 996 1037 1055 917 8.42 8.65 814 7.35

632

5.31

760

2 t5 o o

i i f s

7.00 241 2.07 099

o

o

o

4.01

o w

— O CO

2.81 2"i2o1i

,454

DAVIS STRAIT
RIDGE _oi)5

-039

B AF Fl N

-0.44

BAY BASIN

1.90

LABRADOR BASIN

55

60

65

50

70

75"

FiGURD 140.— Temperature profile, Labrador Sea to Baffin BJiy (composite 1928-35).

79920—37 (Face p. 183) No. 2

FiGUBK 141. — Salinity profile, Labrador Sea to Baffin Bay (composite 1928-35).

79920—37 (Pace p. 183) No. 3

I

o

O

o

(3

r^

(0

ir>

lO

Ci

0>

f^ — lO

14.97 127010.049.14 10.47

Si CVJ CJ CM ^

9.51 9.87 10.50 9.60 5.20

6.12 8.80

o

? 2 2 5

^ "l- CD CO CO
— CJ Oi (J) (^

690 538 8.0 850 530

0.06 2.05 -0.56

5.23

1 6?

- o 2

— — <j)

3.76 -0.54-0,41

lO-M

FiGDRE 142.— Temperature profile, Labrador Sea to Baffin Bay (composite 1928-35).

799iO— 37 (Face p. 183) No. 4

FlQUBB 143.— Salinity profile, Labrador Sea to Baffin Bay (composite 1928-35).

79920—37 (Face p. 183) No. 6

CD

C5

O

o

O

o

ID

m

a>

m

-0 31

— - <n
172 -063

0-M

•0.0

-00-

-0.4

BAFFIN BAY BASIN

■500

LABRADOR BASIN

50

65

7U!)20 -87 (Knoep. 18:t) No. 6

Figure 144.— Temperature profile, Labrador Sea to Baffin Bay (composite, 1028-35).

BAFFIN BAY BASIN

--;34.97

500

20

-30

34.90^
LABRADOR BASIN

.40

50

60

45

79920—37 (Face p. 183) No. 7

Figure 145.— Salinity profile, Labrador Sea to Baffin Bay (composite, 1928-35).

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 183

below the West Greenland Current is seen high salinity water which
will eventually become deep water through cabbeling as it progres-
sively sinks along its cyclonic path around the northern end of the
Labrador Basin,

Below the deep water is to be seen a small amount of bottom water
with temperatures of less than 2° C. This bottom water is in
very slow cyclonic circulation with a general southerly direction.

South Wolf Island — Cape Farewell. — Figure 139 represents verti-
cal sections of temperature and salinity between South Wolf Island,
Labrador, and Cape Farewell, Greenland, based on the 1935 observa-
tions of the General Greene., stations 2026 to 2047. As in figure 138,
the more rapid currents in the upper levels are recognizable at the
sides of the sections. In the intermediate water the isohaline of
34.90%o again serves to bound the lower surface at about 2,000
meters, although the temperature at this level is about 3.2 C, some-
what warmer than the lower surface of the intermediate water in
the more northerly section of figure 138. The temperature minimum
is again shown at about 1,500 meters. The deep-water salinity
maximum is shown more clearly than in figure 138, possibly because
the greater depth here permits a better development of downward
decrease of salinity below the maximum and possibly because since
the formation of these maxima is intermittent figure 139 may have
approached more nearly a horizontal maximum than did figure 138.
The bottom water, with temperatures lower than about 2° C, has
lower temperatures than those of the bottom water in the more
northerly section. This is probably explained by the greater depths
in figure 139, the greater thickness of deep water, and the better
chance of minimum temperatures surviving mixture with warmer
water from higher levels.

Figures 140 to 145, inclusive, represent longitudinal vertical sec-
tions of temperature and salinity along eastern, middle, and w^estern
courses through the Labrador Sea, Davis Strait, and Baffin Bay
from south of 50° N. latitude to Smith Sound. Attention is called
to the fact that these are composite sections based on observations
of the Godthaab., Marion, and General Gree^w made during the
summer months in 1928, 1931, 1933, 1934, and 1935. The location
and identity of the stations upon which these sections are based
are shown in figure 135. In examining these sections, the direction
of the horizontal currents should be borne in mind. In the upper
levels, at least, the sections are not along the axis of the major
currents and in some parts (for instance, just south of Davis Strait
Ridge) are nearly at right angles to the direction of flow. Con-
sidering the non-synoptic character of the sections, they demonstrate
very well the division between the intermediate water and the deep
water of the Labrador Sea as did the transverse sections, figures 138
and 139. At the southern end of the midlongitudinal section (fig.
143), in a depth of about 800 meters, there is shown a salinity mini-
mum typical of what Wiist (1935) has considered to be North Atlantic
intermediate water having a major meridional component south-
ward. An examination of the dynamic heights shows this water
to be moving northward. It is the view of the authors that this
is mixed water formed by cabbeling along the boundaries of the
Labrador and Atlantic Currents and moving in a direction similar

184 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

to that of the parent currents. This is borne out by the fact that
such water has been found from the Tail of the Grand Banks to
the northern limit of the Atlantic Current and its direction of motion
verified by dynamic heights (page 136). Confirmation of this view
is to be found in the shape of the isohalines in similar latitudes in the
east and west longitudinal sections, which may be looked upon as
the result of mixing but which do not indicate the intermediate
water of AViist. The difference between the intermediate water of the
Labrador Sea as designated in this paper and the North Atlantic
intermediate water of Wiist is threefold, embodying thickness,
direction and origin.

The salinity maxima in the deep water is to be seen in all three
of the longitudinal sections. Below the deep water the bottom
water of minimum temperature is found. The bottom water is in
slow southward motion, hugging the American side of the Labrador
Basin, where bottom irregularities do not interfere, and following
the deeper channels in a tortuous path at levels above which bottom
formations project.

THE INTERMEDIATE WATER

It has been defined as occupying the more central parts of the
Labrador Sea below the surface water and above the deep water.
As might be expected, the intermediate water is a mixture, the salty
component of which is the deep water from below. The fact that
the salinity of the intermediate water is much lower than that of
the deep water points to fresh components around the sides of the
Labrador Basin and in the surface layers. The salinity gradient
in the more central surface layers of the Labrador Sea is steepened
during summer by the addition of fresh water from melting ice
land drainage, and precipitation. This surface water becomes rela-
tively light as it absorbs heat from the sun and therefore mixef
little with the intermediate water. But upon being cooled in wintei
practically all of the summertime surface water in the region of
convection mixes and thereby freshens the intermediate water. A
greater and more enduring supply of fresh water comes from th(
Labrador Current which from its northern source to the Tail of th(
Grand Banks cabbels along its offshore margin to form intermediate
water. A secondary supply of the fresh-water component of th(
intermediate Avater arises from the East Greenland Current in the
eastern arm of the Labrador Basin.

The determination of tlie low-salinity component of the inter-
mediate water by means of temperature-salinity correlations is made
difficult if not impossible due primarily to its wide annual tempera-
ture range. The extension of a line from the center of the grouj
of symbols representative of the deep water (fig. 146) through the
square-shaped symbol representing typical intermediate water, indi-
cates in a general way the relationship of the questionable com-
ponent with values of salinity lower than 34.88%o.

One of the remarl^able characteristics of intermediate water is itf
thermal and haline homogeneity, the summertime temperature vary-
ing little from 3.2° C, whether it be off Cape Farewell or near th(l
head of the Labrador Basin as marked by the 3,000-meter isobath;
If a column of intermediate water be cooled to our lowest indicatec

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

185

bottom temperature of 1.35° C. (p. 188), greater warming of the
intermediate water will be necessary there than in other convectional

9

o

7

\

/

LlJ

y

CH 6

/

ID
5

1-

<4
QC

y

/f

A '

"^

V

a.
2

LU I

° y

/

/

?

H
0

/

/

1-
0

1
/

/

/

-1

/

t

/

/

34

80 34.90

35.00

3510

SAL

1 N 1 T Y

Figure 146. — Temperature-salinity correlations for the Labrador Sea: H, intermediate
water; X, boundary between intermediate water and deep water; — , Irminger-
Atlantic water off Cape Farewell in summertime; A, Irminger-Atlantic water off Cape
Farewell in March; <>. deep water.

regions of the Labrador Sea, if the nearly uniform regional tem-
perature which it has in summer is to be attained.

As a result of vertical convection in winter, it is probable that
steep density gradients are established to considerable depths be-

186 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

tween the more central regions of the Labrador Sea and the more
stable waters inshore. The consequent circulation reaching a maxi-
mum at the end of winter results in a corresponding intensification
of mixing between the heavy winter wat«r and the higher-tem-
peratured^ water from the margins. As mixing continues, accord-
ing to our view, density gradients flatten and the intermediate water
in such a self -compensating system is proportionately warmed, and
temperature differences rapidly disappear as thermal homogeneity
is approached. The volume of the current between GodthaaVs sta-
tions 24 and 22 at the end of Avinter was computed on the assump-
tion that station 24 (fig. 136) lay within the region of bottom- water
formation, and that station 22 was on the outer margin of same.
A volume of 33.5 million cubic meters per second toward the south
with a mean surface velocity of 14 centimeters per second indicates
that a current so hypothesized is of reasonable volume and velocity.

A temporary retardation of the frigid portion of the Labrador
Current during the colder months of the year when Baffin Bay
becomes ice filled may also be a factor involved in regulating the
thermal state of the intermediate water of the Labrador Sea.

The intermediate water is also apparently warmed on its under
side near the 2,000-ineter level where in several of the sections this
evidence is disclosed by slight temperature maxima (fig. 139). The
component of this mixture probably arises in the Irminger-Atlantic
water which on sinking spreads oiit in these depths more than in
others as the perennial deep water acts as a virtual bottom.

An area of temperature-minimum is found in practically all of
the vertical sections of the intermediate water centered at an aver-
age depth of 1,375 meters. The 3.17° C. isotherm (fig. 147) and
its corresponding 34.88%o isohaline, embrace what has been here-
tofore designated as typifying intermediate water. Particular im-
portance is attached to the temperature minimum in the interme-
diate water, it being considered reminiscent of winter chilling, this
core being farthest removed from the warmed sides and the under-
side remains the coldest. The minimum temperatures when plotted
in horizontal projection coincide with the shaded area shown on
figure 149 and extend eastward past Cape Farewell (if the Meteorh
observations are utilized) between the Atlantic and Irminger Cur-
rents. It is interesting to note that in the longitude of Cape Fare-
well where a temperature minimum of the intermediate water was
observed in March (see Meteor's station 121) it had entirely dis-
ai)peared bv August of the same year. (See General Greene's sta-
tions 2019-2009-2003-1996.)

THE DEEP WATER ^

That Irminger-Atlantic water as it flows cyclonically around the
Labrador Basin progressively sinks, has been demonstrated by figures
132, 133, and 134. After cabbeling to depths greater than 2,000 meters,
depending upon the depth of the basin, this water approaches the
region of heavier bottom water over which it apparently spreads and
into which it slowly mixes. This is the usual summertime distribu- ^

B AFFI N B AY BASIN

0 100 200 (MILES)

LABRADOR BASIN

50

55

60

65

70

75

FiGUBK 148.— Oxygen profile, Labrador Sea to Baffin Bay (composite, 1928-35).

79920—37 (Face p. 187)

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 187

tion of salinity which gives the water below 2,000 meters and above
the bottom water its character. This particular water is best typified
by salinity maxima, the presence of which has already been pointed
out on several of the vertical sections of the Labrador Sea. The
temperature-salinity correlation in the heart of such masses is repre-
sented by the diamond-shaped symbols plotted on figure 146, page 185.
Their position with respect to the broken line on the figure supports
our previous statement, namely, that this which is called deep water ^^
is a mixture of bottom water and Irminger- Atlantic water.

The saltiest of the deep water, which typifies it, is formed during
the colder months of the year when cabbeling is assisted directly by
convectional cooling. Outside of the region of convectional sinking
to bottom, the deep water is foinid adjacently above the bottom water
throughout the year. Within the area of bottom-water formation in
winter the deep water becomes mixed with the intermediate water
and surface water from above. Following a resumption of positive
stability of the water column, the deep water re-forms in position
similar to that which prevailed prior to convection.

THE BOTTOM WATER

As shown by the temperature sections (figs. 140-145) it is not
possible that the bottom water of the Labrador Sea is supplied across
Davis Strait Ridge in summer. Examination of the transverse sec-
tions, figures 138 and 139, also show that in summer the cold parts of
the West Greenland and Labrador Currents are separated from the
bottom water by intervening water of higher temperature. The low
temperature of the bottom water, therefore, is either a result of win-
tertime conditions or is a relic of conditions which no longer exist.
That the latter is not true is demonstrated by figure 148, a vertical
longitudinal section showing the oxygen distribution from south of
50° N. latitude to Smith Sound. Tliis section is a composite based
upon observations made on the GodthaaJ) in 1928 and on the General
Greene in 1935. The location and identity of the stations upon which
it is based are shown on figure 135 where the course of the section is
indicated by the broken line. It will be noted that the GodthaaVs
oxygen values (that is, those for stations north of the break in the
profile lines) are consistently higher than those of the General Greene
by about 0.4 cubic centimeter per liter. It is evident from the con-
centration of dissolved oxygen that the Labrador Basin is an area
of active mixing and that tliere is no water in it but what has been
at the surface comparatively recently. It is logical, therefore, that if
the activity of the water were different in different years even the
deeper observations might give different results in different years.

The relative values, however, are instructive and if the oxygen
profile is superimposed on the temperature and salinity profiles it
is found that the General Greene's oxygen values of greater than
6.2 and the GodthaaVs oxygen values of greater than 6.7 cubic
centimeters per liter embrace what has been designated as the
intermediate water of the Labrador Sea. The shape of the 6.0
line in the southern part of the section and the lines in the region

"Our depp water, which eventually drains out of the Labrador Basin into the North
Atlantic, embraces what Wust (1935) has designated as North Atlantic deep water.

79920—37 13

188 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

northward of Cape Farewell up to Davis Strait indicate that the
bottom water of the Labrador Sea is formed in the latter area and
moves southward. The low oxygen values in the upper layers at
the southern end of the section correspond to the northern border of
the Atlantic Current. The rapid downward decrease of oxygen in
Baffin Bay arises from the pocketing of water there by 600 to 700
meter thresholds.

As has been demonstrated by consideration of the distribution of
oxygen the cold bottom water of the Labrador Sea is the result
of wintertime chilling which affects the bottom water through
vertical convection. The salinity of the water in the region where
vertical convection may take place, however, is lower than that
of the bottom water actually observed in the summertime. The
bottom water must therefore be a mixture with saltier water, which
water is typified by the Irminger-Atlantic Current. In figure 146,
page 185, the temperature-salinity relation of the Irminger-Atlantic
water, based on summertime observations off Cape Farewell, has
been drawn as a solid line. The upper part of this line grades away
from the core into insolated surface water and the lower part grades
off into the colder water below the axis of the Irminger Current.
The apex has been taken as most characteristic of Irminger-Atlantic
water. If this is one of the components of the bottom water, the
other component will lie along a line through the characteristics of
the bottom water and Irminger-Atlantic water. Such a line has
been drawn on figure 146, page 185. In selecting the characteristic
point for the bottom water the lowest bottom temperature indicated
by our observation (1.57° C. at General Greene station 2033) has been
selected as having been least modified since formation, and the
potential temperature has been used in order to translate the mixture
into terms of shallow water phenomena. The other component then
must lie along the broken line in the salinities lower than 34.91%o.

If vertical convection, arising from winter chilling, accounts for
onej of the components of the bottom water, it must take place off-
shore from the more rapidly moving Labrador and West Greenland
Currents. Also, the density gradient prior to the beginning of winter
must not be so great as to require water temperatures lower than
about —1.8° C. to establish vertical convection. If complete hori-
zontal stagnation is assumed, the maximum temperature at which
vertical convection to bottom can occur may be found from the
average salinity of the water column and the density of the bottom
water observed in summer. Such computations of the maximum
temperature to which the water must be cooled in order to estab-
lish vertical convection from the surface down to successively deeper
levels have been made for a number of stations. The maximum
temperature values have been plotted for the GodtKcmVs section
from Resolution Island to Fiskernaessett and are shown in figure 149.
As has been mentioned above, the upper limit of salinity of the
bottom-water component produced through vertical convection is
34.91%o. The broken line shown in figure 149 connects points, the
average salinity of the column of the water above which is 34.91%o.
A similar line is shown for 34.81%o average salinity of the super-
posed column of water, since 34.81%o is the approximate salinity

I

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

189

corresponding to the minimum practically attainable temperature
of the bottom-water component shown on figure 146. Thus from
figure 146 it will be seen that if there is no horizontal motion, verti-
cal convection to bottom may be established at stations 22, 23, 24, 25,
and 26 when the water columns have been cooled by winter chilling
to temperatures of 2.65°, 1.35°, 1.75°, 1.60°, and 2.80° C, respectively.
However, the rapid horizontal circulation in the upper levels at
stations 22 and 26 eliminate the possibility of vertical convection
there, and, of the remaining three stations, 25 is close enough to
the West Greenland Current to make it uncertain whether or not
deep vertical convection is possible. Attention is called to the fact

0 M

18 19 20 21

0.13 0.50 0.41 0.75

22

3.06

23 24 25 26

488 5.38 531 5.83

27 28

4.00 4.47

\ • 1 1 :

^^^

=^v^^^=i=^o' y^^^/M

^^iy

500

\ :<-2o : A

\ ////

f

—-25- : ^^_„_i____^^ '^JlS

I . • 3.5< 1 . 'J

/. C L

/y<-2o

10

rr«

f

'

15

w

V

60 \

/^^ , r. 3491

20

\ Ik

C^-— -^ \i

25

n

V-^T ^;N

geo

60 50

^^is.....r— ^

MILES

1.35 l>5

0 25 50

30

'-

FiGDEE 149. — Maximum temperature to establish vertical convection, surface to bottom,
Resolution Island to Fiskernaesett. (From the Oodthaab's observations taken June 11-
16, 1928.) Inset shows area in which bottom water is formed in the wintertime according
to the authors' views.

that the average salinity of the water columns at stations 23, 24, and
25 lie between 34.81 and" 34.91%o, the range within which the bottom-
water component must fall. This indicates that a small central
part of this section lies in the area where the bottom water of the
Labrador Sea is formed. That this section passes close to the north-
ern boundary of the area of bottom-water formation is evident when
one remembers the horizontal components of the westward branch-
ing of the West Greenland Current south of Davis Strait. From
similar computations of the average salinity and maximum tem-
perature for vertical convection to bottom in the region of Davis
Strait Ridge two conclusions were reached — {a) that even if there
were no horizontal currents vertical convection to bottom could be
produced only at temperatures very close to the freezing point and

190

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

(h) that even if vertical convection were established the average
salinity of the water is so low as to require an impossibly low
temperature to become a bottom-water constituent as defined by
figure 146. In figure 150 is shown the temperature and salinity
distribution at Davis Strait leading to these conclusions. A lonei-

O O o
29.90

O O

30.41

2986

0 MILES 50

O ~ CM

a> o> o>
(j> (J> <j>

to ^

32 35

33.46

31.99

34.79/34.78

0-M

Figure 150. — Temperature and salinity profile across Davis Strait just soutli of Davis Stndt I

Ridge August 4-18, 1928.

tudinal section, on which have been plotted maximum temperatures
for vertical convection of the superposed water column, is shown in
figure 151. Here again the average salinity lines of 34.81 and fl
34.91%o have been drawn. All of the section from Marian station
984 just south of Davis Strait Ridge to General Greene station 1936
in the Atlantic Current border falls within the salinity limits of

I

w

o

o

o

(9

o

o

o

<o

OD

r-

m

in

lO

00

a>

0)

(J>

<J)

<T)

2; _ mm

O _ — Kl

0) 01 <T> r; i: CNJ

8.05 530

000 2.05

5.25 370 OOP

• 2.0—; !

LESS THAN MINUS TWO DEGREES

'^ h

'DAVISSTRAIT
RIDGE

BAFFIN BAY BASIN

-1.75

H97 LABRADOR BASIN

50

55

60

65

70

75

-il- Maximum temperature to establish convection, surface to bottom, Labrador Sea to Baffin Bay (from the observations made by the United States Coast Guard and the Oodthaai, 192S-35).

79920 — 37 (Face p. 190)

4.* C <.;

FiGHKB 152. — Temperature profile south of Cape Farewell March 7-11, 1935 (from the Meteor's observations, stations 118-125).

79920—37 (Face p. 191)

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 191

the bottom- water constituent. As has been mentioned, the northern
limit of the area in which vertical convection to bottom probably
occurs is only slightly north of Godthddb station 24 and is probably
closer to it than to Manon station 984 (fig. 135). A southern limit at
about 55° N. latitude might be postulated from a consideration of the
horizontal motion of the Atlantic Current border. However, be-
cause of the tempering effect of the more southerly latitude on the
severity of the winter, the southern limit of the area of vertical
convection to bottom lies more to the north and is estimated to be
between General Greene station 2035 and Godthaab station 10 (fig.
135). Such limits would seem to be borne out by a consideration of
the midlongitudinal salinity section (fig. 143) and the longitudinal
oxygen section (fig. 148). The area in question is shown shaded on
the small inset on figure 149. This shaded area is considered by the
authors to represent the region in which the bottom water of the
Labrador Sea is most probably formed in the wintertime. It is an
area whose size will vary from winter to winter and in some years
will certainly be smaller and in other years may possibly be some-
what larger than the area shown on figure 149.

An increase in the density through an increase in salinity resulting
from ice formation is a factor which assists wintertime convectional
sinking as has been pointed out by Helland-Hansen and Nansen
(1909) and Mosby (1934). The areas of ice formation in the north-
western North Atlantic, hoM^ever, are largely non-coincident with the
area in which we have assumed the bottom water of the Labrador
Sea to originate, and therefore this phenomenon of salt concentration
is considered inconsequential there.

Adjacent to our area of bottom-water production, particularly to
the north and east, are areas in which vertical convection probably
penetrates to considerable depths. Figure 152 shows the temperature
distribution found by the Meteor in March 1935 along a section ex-
tending southward from Cape Farewell, the data for which wer3
kindly supplied by the director of the Institut fiir Meereskunde an
der Universtiit von Berlin. An inspection of the section indicates
that stations 121 and 122 are in the comparatively quiet water north
of the Atlantic Current and south of the Irminger Current past Cape
Farewell. These stations then should be expected to be most favor-
able for the establishment of vertical convection in the wintertime.
Furthermore, as the date of the observations was probably onlj^
slightly past the coldest part of the winter, one might expect to find
evidence of vertical convection at stations 121 and 122 if it occurs
in this region. Such evidence seems to be present, for at station

121 between about 725 meters and about 1,650 meters and at station

122 between about 1,100 meters and about 1,850 meters, the tempera-
tures actually observed were slightly lower than the maximum tem-
perature necessary to produce vertical convection to those depths on
the assumption of no horizontal motion and on the basis of average
observed salinities and densities. The observed densities at stations
121 and 122 showed a very weak stability, the change in o-t from
surface to 2,000 meters being but 0.03 and 0.04, respectively. A
slight apparent instability was found at about 1,500 meters at sta-
tion 121. These densities combined with the foregoing indicate that
vertical convection extended to depths of about 2,000 meters shortly
prior to the Meteor's observations.

192 MAKTON AND GENERA!. GREENE EXPEDITIONS

I

The only other record of an observed temperature which was
lower than the maximum temperature to initiate vertical convection
to its respective depth in accordance with our assumptions, occurred
at Godthaah^s station 10 at 1,000 meters on May 3, 1928. The sur-
vival of this temperature value about 2l^ months subsequent to the
coldest part of winter indicates that the water in this region is sub-
jected to greater cooling and then less warming than is the water in
the vicinity of Meteor''s stations 122 and 121.

SUMMARY

The warm, salty west Greenland water progressively sinks as
it proceeds northward and westward and bends southward, spread-
ing as it goes to furnish the intermediate water of the Labrador
Sea between about 500 and 2,000 meters.

The most nearly motionless water, except perhaps that immediately
adjacent to the bottom, occurs at about the 2,000-meter level below
which lies the deep water and the bottom water.

The deep water, according to the foregoing view, is formed dur-
ing the colder part of the year largely by mixing of bottom watei
with water from the West Greenland Current which has sunk to deep
levels as it travels northward along the Greenland coast and west-
ward near the head of the Labrador Basin. The major flow of the
deep water is southward along the American side where, off southern
Labrador, there is probably some movement toward deeper levels
along the bottom, the water flowing down the slope at levels of about
3,000 to 3,500 meters. This deep water is probably absorbed into the
more central. North American Basin, and thus it compensates for the
loss of water at higher levels to the northwestern North Atlantic
from the northern branch of the Atlantic Current.

The bottom water, in our opinion, is formed by wintertime chilling
of the surface, intermediate, and deep waters in the northern part
of the Labrador Basin in the area off-shore from the rapid currents
and roughly bounded on the south by a line from mid-Labrador to
Cape Farewell. (See inset fig. 149.) It seems likely in this area
the severe winter chilling produces vertical convection to bottom
and results, with some mixture of Irminger-Atlantic water, in the
coldest bottom water found in the deepest part of the basin and
which in summertime is isolated from the cold surface currents by
warmer water. The vertical convection which takes place in winter
probably sets up steep horizontal density gradients to considerable
depths, with a correspondingly increased cyclonic system of circula- ^
tion. With the termination of vertical convection and its resulting JJ
heat losses the energizing force for maintaining this vigorous circula-
tion is removed and the summertime equilibrium conditions are
quickly restored as the marginal water of equal salinity and higher
temperature is mixed in to destroy the temporary density gradients "^^
and raise the temperature of the intermediate water to the remark-
ably uniform value of about 3.2° C.

If our hypothesis be correct, because of the intermittent nature of
the formation of the coldest bottom water and the higher salinity
deep water there are horizontal variations in these waters repre-

)S(

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 193

senting the annual cycles of their production. As the rates of south-
ward progress of these waters are most probably different it is not
to be expected that an exhaustive survey made in any one 'year will
show a correspondence, in a horizontal projection, between the loca-
tions of successive temperature minima in the deepest bottom water
and the location of successive salinity maxima in the deep water.
Furthermore, the gradual mixing with surrounding water masses
tends to erase the identity of these maxima and minima as they pro-
ceed further from their sources.

The arm of the Labrador Basin between southeast Greenland and
Reykjanes Ridge is a possible source of formation of saltier deep
water such as is formed in the colder parts of the year in the north-
west arm of the Labrador Sea, that is, that portion southward of
Davis Strait Ridge. The saltier deep water, if any, so formed in
this northeastern arm of the Labrador Basin, is contributed, at least
in part, directly to the southern part of the Labrador Basin. Some
of the deep water so formed at this source may occasionally round
the southern end of Greenland and enter into the deep-water circu-
lation of the central part of the Labrador Sea somewhat northward
of Cape Farewell. A part of the bottom water, some of which is
possibly formed in the wintertime in the northeast arm of the Labra-
dor Basin according to our idea, probably escapes into the Atlantic
Basin eastward of longitude 38° W. through possible deep channels
which may cross the southwestern end of Reykjanes Ridge. A minor
part of the bottom water of the northeastern arm of the Labrador
Basin may possibly enter the central part of the basin around the
southern end of Greenland.

The salinity maxima representing annual cycles of production of
deep water from the northeastern source are apparently, because of
the location of their sources nearer to unmodified Irminger Current
water, usually higher in salinity than the maxima of the deep water
produced in the northwestern arm of the Labrador Basin.

An assumption of no horizontal motion, which was made when
considering the area of wintertime vertical convection to bottom is
of course inaccurate and justifiable only because of the complete
absence of midwinter observations from the area in question. The
reality of such horizontal components is undoubted and, in fact, re-
quired for the reestablishment of summertime equilibrium. Their ef-
fect is to retard vertical convection and to restrict the area in which
it is produced. It is emphasized that their equalizing effect is de-
pendent upon the removal of their driving source with the cessation
of vertical convection, that driving source being the abstraction of
heat.

In conclusion the authors wish to call attention to the hypothetical
nature of many other parts of this chapter. Some of the main fea-
tures, however, such as the formation of bottom water during winter-
time in the Labrador Sea and its eventual run-off into the deeper
Newfoundland Basin, are certainly indicated by the observational
data already collected. Final confirmation awaits future surveys
when subsurface observations must be made during the coldest time
of winter in the Labrador Sea.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baggesgaard-Rasmiissen and Jacobsen, J. P. :

1930. Contribution to the Hydrography of the Waters around Greenland
in the year 1925. Meddelelser fra Koniniissionen for Haverunder-
soglser. Serie Hydrografi. Band II. No. 10. Copenhagen.

Bartlett, R. A. :

1935. Sea-water Temperatures of the Exploring Schooner Morrissey, 1934.

Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean. April. U. S. Hydro-
graphic Office. Washington.

1936. Id. February.
Beauge, L. :

1928. Rapport de Mission sur le Banc de Terre-Neuve. Campagne 1927.

Revue des Travaux de I'Office Peches Maritimes. Tome I, Fasc II,
III, IV. Paris.

1929. Rapport de Mission au Groenland et a Terre-Neuve. Campagne 1929.

Id. Tome II, Fasc I and II. Paris.

1930. La Peche a Terre-Neuve en 1929. Id. Tome III, Fasc I. Paris.

1931. Rapport de Mission a Terre-Neuve et au Groenland. Campagne 1930.

Id. Tome IV, Fasc I. Paris.
1982. Rapport de Mission au Groenland. Campagne 1931. Id. Tome V,

Fasc I. Paris.
1933. La Campagne de 1932 a Terre-Neuve et au Groenland. Id. Tome
VI, Fasc I. Paris.
Bessels, E. :

1876. Scientific Results of the U. S. Arctic Expedition Steamer Polaris,
C. F. Hall, Commanding. Vol. I. Physical Observations.
Bjerkan, Paul:

1919. Results of the Hydrographical Observations made by Dr. Johan Hjort
in the Canadian Atlantic Waters during the year 1915. Canadian
Fisheries Expedition, 1914-15. Ottawa.
Bohnecke, G. :

1931. Beitrag zur Ozeanographie des OberflJichen Wassers in der Dane-
mark-Strasse und Irminger See. Teil I. (zugleigh Bericht iiber
die Fahrt des Meteor, im Sommer 1930). Annalen d'Hydrographie
und Maritime Meterologie. Heft LIX, pp. 318-325. Berlin.
1935. Bericht iiber die Ozeanographischen Arbeiten wahrend der Fische-
reischutz-Fahrt des Vermessungsschiffes Meteor in Februar-Marz,
1935. (Mimeograph paper dated April 8, 1935). Berlin.
Bohnecke, G., Hentschel E., and Wattenberg, H. :

1930. tJber die Hydrographischen, Chemischen und Biologischen Verhillt-
nisse an der Meeroberflache zwischen Island und Gronland.
(Ergebnisse einer Fahrt mit dem VermessungsschifC Meteor in
August 1929). Annalen d'Hydrographie und Maritime Metero-
logie. Heft VII, pp. 2^3-250. Berlin.
Carpenter, C. :

1875. Report on the Physical Investigations carried out by the H. M. S.
Valorous during her return Voyage from Disko Island in August
1875. Proceedings Royal Society. Vol. 25, pp. 230-237. London.
Conseil Permanent International pour I'Exploration de la Mer :

1925. Bulletin Hydrographique pour I'Annee 1924, pp. 52-54. Copenhagen.
1929. Id. 1928, pp. 87-95 and pp. 108-111.
1933. Id. 1932, pp. 58-59 and pp. 70-71.
Davis, William Morris:

1899. Elementary Meteorology. Boston.

195

196 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Dawson, W. Bell:

1906. The Currents on the Southeastern Coasts of Newfoundland. Depart-
ment of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Ottawa.

1927. The Currents in Belle Isle Strait. Id.

Defant, A.:

1931. Bericht iiber die Ozeanographischen Untersuchungen des Vermes-
sungsschiffes Meteor in der Danemarkstrasse uud der Irminger
See. (Zweiter Bericht). Den Sitzungsberichten der Preussischeu
Akademie der Wissenschaften. Physics-Mathematics Klasse.
XIX. Berlin.

1933. Die Ozeanographischen Arbeiten des Vermessungsschiffes Meteor, in

der Danemarkstrasse uud in der Irminger See, in Februar-Marz,
1933. Forschungen und Forschiitte. Annalen d'Hydrographie und
Maritime Meteorologie. Heft IX. Berlin.

Ekman, V. Waif rid:

1928. A Survey of Some Theoretical Investigations on Ocean Currents.

Journal du Conseil. Vol. Ill, No. 3. Copenhagen.

1929. Dber die Strommenge der Kouvektionsstrome in Meere. Lund und

Leipzig.

Hachey, H. B. :

1934. Movements Resulting from Mixing of Stratified Waters. Journal of

the Biological Board of Canada. Vol. 1, No. 2. Toronto.

Hamberg, A. :

1884. Hydrographic Obsei-vations of the Nordenskiold Exiiedition to Green-
land, 1883. Proceedings Royal Society. London.

Helland-Hansen, Bjorn ;

1930. Report of the Scientific Results of the Michael Bars North Atlantic

Deep-Sea Expedition, 1910. Vol. I. Physical Oceanography and

Meteorology. Bergen.
1934. The Sognefjord Section. Observations in the Northernmost Part of

the North Sea and the Southern Part of the Norwegian Sea.

James Johnstone Memorial Volume, pp. 257-274. Liverpool.
Helland-Hansen, Bjorn and Nansen, Fridtjof :

1909. The Norwegian Sea. Its Physical Oceanography based upon the

Norwegian Researches, 1900-1904. Kristiania.

Hesselberg, H., and Sverdrup, H. U. :

1914. Beitrag zur Berechnung der Druck- und Wasserverteilung im Meere.
Bergens Museum Aarbok, 1914-1915. Nr. 14. Bergen.

Huntsman, A. G. :

1924. Oceanography. (From the Handbook of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science). University of Toronto Press.
Toronto.
International Ice Observation and Ice Patrol Service in the North Atlantic
Ocean, 1913-35, U. S. Treasury Department. Coast Guard Bulletins
1-25. Washington.

Lselin, C. O'D. :

1930. A Report on the Coastal Waters of Labrador, based on Explorations
of the Chance during the Summer of 1926. Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. 66, No. I. Wash-
ington.

1936. A Study of the Circulation of the Western North Atlantic. Papers
in physical oceanography and meteorology. Vol. IV, No. 4. Cam-
bridge.

Jacobsen, J. P. : . .

192!>. Contribution to the Hydrography of the North Atlantic. The Danish
Dana Expedition, 1920-22, in the North Atlantic and Gulf of
Panama. Oceanographical reports edited by the Dana Committee,
Nr. 3. Copenhagen.
Jacobsen, J. P., and Jensen. Auge J. C. :

1926. Examination of Hydrographicul Moasureinents from the Research Ves-
sels Explorer and Dana during the summer of 1924. Rapports et
Proces-Verbaux des Reunions. Conseil Permanent International
pour I'Exploration de la Mer. Vol. XXXIX. Copenhagen.

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 197

Jakbelln, A. :

1936. The Water Transport of Gradient Currents. Geofvsiske Publikasioner
Vol. XI, No. 11. Oslo. '

Knudseu, M. :

1898. Hydrography Danish Ingolf Expedition. Vol. I, No. 2. Copenhagen.

1923. Doctor Thoi'ild Wulff's Hydrographical Investigations in the Waters

West of Greenland. Report worked out by Martin Knudsen in
August 1918. Den II Thule Ekspedition til Gronland's Nordkyst,
1918-19. Nr. 3. Meddelelser om Gronland. Vol. LXIV, pp. 91-100.
Copenhagen.

LeDanois, p]. :

1924. Etude Hydrologique de I'Atlantic-Nord. Annales de I'lnstitut

Oceanographique — Nouvelle Serie, Vol. 1, No. 1. Paris.
Martens, E. :

1929. Hydrographical Investigations during Michael Sars Expedition, 1924.

Kapports et Proces-Verbaux des Reunions. Con.seil Permanent

International pour I'Exploration de la Mer. Vol. LVI, pp. 11-29.

Copenhagen.
Matthews, D. J. :

1914. Report on the work carried out by the S. S. Scotia, 1913. Ice

Observation, Meteorology, and Oceanography in the North Atlantic

Ocean. Darling and Son. London.

1928. Oeeanographic Observations Between Greenland and Nortli America.

Nature. Vol. 122, No. 3071. London.
Mecking, Ludwig :

1906. Die Eisdrift aus dem Bereich der Baffin Bai beherscht von Strom

und Wetter. Veroffentlichungen d'Institut fiir Meereskunde.

Heft 7. Berlin.
Milhorn, Willis Isbister:

1929. Meteorology. New York.
Mosby, Hiikon :

3934. The Waters of the Atlantic Antarctic Ocean. Scientific results of
the Norwegian Antarctic Expeditions 1927-1928 : instituted and
financed by Consul Lars Christiansen. No. 11. Det Norske Vi-
denskaps-Akademi i Oslo. Oslo.
Mosby, Olav:

1931. Oceanography. International Ice Observation and Ice Patrol Service
in the North Atlantic Ocean. Season of 1931. U. S. Coast Guard
Bulletin No. 21. Washington.
Moss, E. L. :

1878. Observations on Arctic Sea-Water and Ice. Proceedings of the
Royal Society. Vol. 27, pp. 545-548. London.
Nansen. Fridtjof:

1912. Das Bodenwasser und die Abkiihlung des Meers. International
Revue der Gesamte Hydroliiologie und Hydrographie. Vol. V.
Leipzig.
Nielsen, .1. N. :

1925. Golfstromen. Geografisk Tid.skrift. Bd. 28. Copenhagen.

1928. The Waters Arouud Greenland. Greenland. The Discovery of
Greenland, Exploration, and Nature of the Country. Vol. I, pp.
184-228. Humphrey Milford. London.
Newfoundland Fishery Research Laboratory :

1931. Annual Report. Vol I, No. 4. Ottawa.

1932. Id. Vol. II, No. 1.

1933. Id. Vol. II, No. 2.

1934. Id. Vol. II, No. 5.

Oxner, Mieczyalaw and Martin Knudsen :

1920. Manual pratique de I'analyse de I'eau de mer. I. Chloruration pour
la methode de Knudsen. Bulletin Commission International Ex-
ploration Sci. Mer Med., No. 3. April.
Petermann :

1867. Das Nordlichste Land der Erde. Petermann's Mitteilungen.

198 MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Publikationer fra Det Danske Meteorologiske Institut:

1926. Isforholdne i de Artiske Have ; samt Havets Overflade Temperatur
i det Nord Atlanterhav og Davis-Strade. (The State of the Ice
in the Arctic Seas and the Surface Temperature of the Sea in the
Nortli Atlantic Ocean and Davis Strait.) Danish Meteorological
Institute. Copenhagen.

Rieketts, Noble G., and Trask, Parker D. :

1932. The bathymetry and Sediments of Davis Strait. The Marion Ex-

pedition to Davis Strait and Baffin Bay under the direction of the
U. S. Coast Guard, 1028. U. S. Treasui-y Department, Coast Guard
Bulletin 19, Part 1. Scientific Results. Washington. i

Riis-Carstensen, Eigil :

1931. The Oodthaah Expedition, 1928. Report on the Expedition. Med-

delelser cm Gronland. Bd. 78, Nr. 1. Copenhagen.
1936. The Godthaab Expedition, 1928. The Hydrographic Work and Ma-
terial. Meddelelser om Gronland. Bd. 78, Nr. 3. Copenhagen.
Sandstrom, W. J. :

1919. The Hydrodynamics of Canadian Atlantic Waters. Canadian Fish-
eries Expedition, 1914-15. Ottawa.
Schott, .G :

1897. Die Gewiisser der Bank von Newfundland und ihrer Weitern Umge-
bung. Petermann's Geographische Mitteilungen. Vol. 43. Gotha.
Schulz, B. :

1934. Die Fahrt des Vermessungsschiffe Meteor nach dem ostlandischen

Gewiissern in Sommer 1933. Annalen der Hydrographie undi
Maritime Meteorologie. Heft I. Berlin. k

Smith, Edward H. :

1922. Report of Physical Observations. International Ice Observation and

Ice Patrol Service in the North Atlantic Ocean. Season of 1921.
United States Coast Guard Bulletin No. 9, pp. 48-60. Washington.

1923. Oceanographer's Reports. Season of 1922. Id. Bulletin No. 10.

Washington.

1924. Oceanographer's Reports. Oceanographic Cruise, October 21-26,

1923. Id. Bulletin No. 11. Washington.

1924a. Oceanographer's Reports. Season of 1924. Id. Bulletin No. 12.
Washington.

1926. A Practical Method for Determining Ocean Currents. U. S. Coast
Guard Bulletin No. 14. Wajshiugton.

1931. Arctic Ice; with Especial Reference to its Distribution to the North
Atlantic Ocean. Tlie Marion Expedition to Davis Strait and Baffin
Bay under the direction of the U. S. Coast Guard, 1928. U. S.
Treasury Department, Coast Guard Bulletin No. 19, Part 3. Scien-
tific Results. Washington.
Soule, Floyd M. :

1933. Note on the Practical Correction of Deep-Sea Reversing Thermom-

eters and the Determination of the Depth of Reversal from
Protected and Unprotected Thermometers. Hydrog. Rev., Vol. X,
No. 1. Monaco.

1935. Oceanography. International Ice Observation and Ice Patrol Service

in the North Atlantic Ocean. Season of 1934. U. S. Coast Guard
Bulletin No. 24. Washington.

1936. Oceanography. Id. Season of 1935. U. S. Coast Guard Bulletin

No. 25. Washington.

Stocks, Theodor und Wiist, Georg :

1935. Morphologie des Atlantischen Ozeans. Erste Lieferung. Die Tief-
enverhaltnisse des Often Atlantischen Ozeans. Begleitworte zur
tJbersichtskarte 1 : 20 mill. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der
Deutschen Atlantischen Expedition auf dem Forschungs- und Ver-
messungsschiffe Meteor 1925-1927. Band III, Erste Teil. Berlin.

Sverdrup, H. U. :

1933. Vereinfachtes Verfahren zur Bereehnung der Druck- und Wasserver-
teilung im Meere. Publikasjoner fra Chr. Michelsens Institutt.
No. 26. Oslo.

DAVIS STEAIT AND LABRADOR SEA 199

Thorade, H. :

193S. Methode zur Studium der Meeres-Stromraengen. Handbuch der
Biologisclien Arbeits-Methoden. Abt. II, Teil 3, Heft 3.

Wandel, C. F. :

1891. Om de Hydrografiske Forhold i Davis-Straedet. Meddelelser oni
Gronland. Vol. 7. Copenhagen.
Wenner, Frank ; Smith, Edward H., and Soule, Floyd M. :

1930. Apparatus for the Deteruiination Aboard Ship of the Salinity of Sea-
Water by the Electrical Conductivity Method. Bureau of Standards
Journal Itesearch. Vol. 5, pp. 711-732. September. Washington.
Werenskiold, W. :

1935. Coastal Currents. Geofysiske Publikasjoner Vol. X, No. 13. Utgivtt
av det Norske Videuskaps-Akadenii i Oslo. Oslo.
Wilson, A. M. and Thompson, Harold :

1933. Notes on the Physical Conditions in 1932. Reports of the Newfound-
land Fishery Research Conunission. Vol. 2, No. 1. Plymouth.

Witte, Emil:

1910. Aspiration infolge der Mischung von Wasser. Geographischer An-
zeiger. Oktober.
Wtist, Georg:

1935. Schichtung und Zirkulation des Atlantischen Ozeans. (Zweite liefe-
rung). Die Stratosphare. Wissenschaftliche Ergebuisse der Deut-
schen Atlantischen Expedition auf dem Forschungs- und Vermes-
sungsschiffe Meteor, 1925-1927. Band VI. Erste Teil. Berlin.

STATION MAPS AND STATION TABLE

DATA

stations 93G to 1127 were taken July 19 to September 11, 1928,
from the United States Coast Guard cutter Marion. Stations 1220
to 1341 were taken July 4 to August 8, 1931, from the United States
Coast Guard cutter Gen-eral Greene. Stations 1487 to 1598 were
taken June 26 to July 24, 1933, by the United States Coast Guard
cutter General Greene.

Parentheses have been used to designate where the value of either
the temperature or the salinity has been interpolated from the station
1 curve of that variable.

In 1933 when pressure thermometers were employed both the ob-
served and scaled values of temperature and salinity have been
printed.

The depths except at the shallowest stations refer to soundings
obtained by means of the fathometer.

201

202

MARION AND GENERAL, GREENE EXPEDITIONS

60 50

Figure 153. — Station map, July 19-September 11, 1928

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

203

60 50

Figure 154. — Station map, July 9-Au^st 8, 1931

79920 — 37 14

204 MA.RION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

60" ^55^ 50

Figure 155. — station map, June 16-July 24, 1933

MARION, 1928

Station 936; July 19; depth, 112 meters;
N., long. 55°16' W.

lat. 52»02'

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<n

7.90

.68

-1.35

-1.56

-1.67

29.77
32.40
32.84
32.99
33.00

23.67

26.01

26.43

26.55

100 meters

26.57

Station 937; July 19; depth 145 meters; lat. 52°06'
N., long. 55°26' W.

0 meter. --
20 meters.
50 meters.
80 meters.
100 meters
110 meters
140 meters

7.30

29.97

3. .37

30.62

-1.25

32.88

-1.46

33.01

-1.57

33.09

-1.57

33.12

-1.67

33.17

23.30
23.71
26.46
26.57
26.64
26.66
26.71

Station 938; July 19; depth 110 meters; lat. 52°10'
N., long. 55°33' W.

7.70

3.68

-1.06

-1.56

-1.57

30.02
31.23
32.83
32.93
33.02

23.27

20 meters . -

24.16

26.42

26.51

100 meters

26.58

Station 939; July 22; depth 82 meters; lat. 53°33'
N., long. 55°40' W.; dynamic height 1,454.887
meters:

0 meter..
15 meters
35 meters
55 meters
75 meters

6.90

29.75

5.48

30.19

4.37

31.63

-. 55

32.67

-.86

32.72

23.25
23.78
25.09
26.26
26.32

Station 940; July 22; depth 275 meters; lat. 53°45'
N., long. 55°16' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.836
meters

Ometer

5.50

3.17

-1.34

-1.34

-1.45

-1.06

.14

.73

32.16
32.38
32.40
(32.61)
32.80
33.53
34.00
34.14

25.39

25 meters

25.80

50 meters

26.08

75 meters

26.25

100 meters

26.40

150 meters..

20. 99

200 meters

27.31

250 meters

27.40

Station 941; July 22; depth 165 meters; lat. 53°56'
N., long. 54°52' W.; dynamic height 1,454.787
meters

Ometer..

5.20

4.79

-1.33

-1.24

-.24

32.21
32. 27
33.03
33.46
33.82

25.47

25 meters

25.57

50 meters

26.58

100 meters

26.93

150 meters

27.18

Station 942; July 23; depth 175 meters; lat. 54°07' • .,
long. 54°28' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.779 meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
CC.)

Salinity
(96o)

fft

0 meter.

5.00
4.60
-.62
-1.33
-.93
-.34
-.24

32.28
32.33
32.97
33.37
33.65
(33. 79)
33.92

25. 55

20 meters

25.62

45 meters

26.51

85 meters

26 87

125 meters ._.

27.08

150 meters

27.20

165 meters

27.26

Station 943; July 23; depth 210 meters; lat. 54°17
N., long. 54°03' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.75!
meters

0 meter

4.90

2.49

-1.02

-1.03

-.44

.36

32.40
32.71
33.28
33.59
33.76
34.02

25.65

25 meters

26.12

26.78

100 meters

27.03

150 meters ..

27.14

190 meters

27.31

Station 944; July 23; depth 235 meters; lat. 54°26'
N., long. 53°38' W.; dynamic .height, 1,454.734
meters

0 meter...
15 meters.
30 meters.
80 meters.
130 meters
180 meters
190 meters
230 meters

7.00

32.64

5.20

32.74

4.59

32.97

1.17

33.87

1.17

34.11

2.16

34.46

2.36

(34. 47)

3.05

34.58

25.59
25.88
26.13
27.14
27.34
27.55
27. 55
27.57

Station 945; July 23; depth 415 meters; lat. 54°33' N .,
long. 53°22' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.664 meters

Ometer...
25 meters-
50 meters..
100 meters
200 meters
230 meters
300 meters
400 meters.

7.00

33.18

3.79

S3. 71

2.39

34.10

2.78

34.51

3.47

34.72

3.47

(34. 76)

3.46

34.78

3.46

34.79

26.01
26.80
27.24
27.53
27.64
27.66
27.68
27.69

Station 946; July 23; depth 868 meters; lat. 54°40' N.,
long. 53°00' W.; dynamic height 1,454.648 meters

Ometer

20 meters.
50 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
300 meters
400 meters
500 meters
800 meters

7.10

33.58

4.90

33.91

1.88

34.32

3.39

34.60

3.39

34.71

3.48

34.73

3.48

34.79

3.47

(34. 82)

3.57

34.81

3.67

34.85

26.31
26.85
27.46
27.55
27.63
27.65
27.69
27.71
27.70
27.72

205

206

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 947; July 23; depth 2,535 meters; lat. 55°20'
N., long. 53°30' W.; dynamic height 1,454.561
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

fft

9.50
6.88
4.37
3.86
3.56
3.35
3.25
3.15
3.05
3.14
3.04
2.93
2.93

34.03
34.48
34.71
34.87
34.87
34.87
34.86
34.86
34.86
34.87
34.87
34.88
34.90

26.29

27.05

27.53

27.71

27.74

27.76

300 meters . .

27.77

27.78

800 meters - .

27.79

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,800 meters

27.79
27.80
27.82
27.83

Station 948; July 24; depth 2,997 meters; lat. 55''51'
N., long. 54°00' W.; dynamic height 1,454.591
meters

0 meter ;

8.70
8.00
4.57
4.06
3.56
3.45
3.35
3.24
3.03
3.13
3.13

34.37
34.38
34.68
(34. 83)
34.86
34.86
34.87
34.86
34.86
34.87
34.88

26.70

26.81

27.49

27.66

27.73

200 meters

27.75

300 meters - -

27.76

27.77

800 meters - .

27.79

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

27.79
27.80

Station 949; July 24; depth 2,745 meters; lat. 55°40'
N., long 54°42' W.; dynamic height 1,454.582
meters

0 meter.

9.00
7.39
4.27
3.76
3.55
3.45
3.54
3.53
3.23
3,12

34.33
34.39
34.88
34.87
34.86
34.86
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.88

26.62

20 meters

26.91

50 meters

27.68

100 meters

27.72

150 meters

27.74

200 meters

27.75

300 meters

27.76

27.76

800 meters

27.79

1,000 meters

27.79

Station 950; July 24; depth, 2,013 meters; lat. 55°22'
N., long. 55° 13' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.663
meters

0 meter

20 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
1.50 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters

8.20
7.18
4.36
3.35
3.36
3.36
3.35
3.44
3.43
3.43
3.32

33.96
34.05
34.28
34.41
(34. 56)
(34. 69)
(34. 79)
(34. 86)
(34.89)
(34. 89)
34.90

26.44
26.66
27.20
27.40
27.52
27.62
27.70
27.74
27.77
27.78
27.79

Station 951; July 24; depth, 271 meters; lat. 55°16'
N., long. 55°21' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.743
meters

0 meter

5.50
-.84
-1.05
-.54
-.04
1.14
(3.50)

32.50
33.04
33.43
33.73
33.90
34. 21
34.63

25.66

20 meters

26 58

60 meters

26.90

110 meters

27.12

160 meters

27.20

210 meters

27. 43

260 meters

27.56

Station 952; July 24; depth, 265 meters; lat. 55°W
N., long. 55°42' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.778
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

n

0 meter

5.60

1.37

-1.15

-1.05

-.44

.16

1.96

32.30
32.71
33.27
33.53
33.74
34.00
34.32

2S.4»
26l»
26.78

aigg

27. U
27.31

20 meters

60 meters

110 meters .

160 meters

210 meters

260 meters .

27. 4«

Station 953; July 25; depth, 353 meters; lat. SSW
N., long. 56°07' W.; dynamic height, l,46t77«
meters

0 meter

6.00

3.58

-1.25

-1.04

-.24

.56

1.67

1.87

2.37

2.77

32.43
32.83
33.18
33.46
33.69
34.02
34.33
(34.36)
34.52
34.63

2S.M

20 meters .

26iU

50 meters

2171

100 meters

atiM

150 meters . .

27. n

200 meters

27. ao

27.48

260 meters

27. «

300 meters

27. n

27. t3

Station 954; July 25; depth, 159 meters; lat. 64W
N., long. o6°34' W.; dynamic height, 1,464.821
meters

0 meter.

5.70
3.38
-.84
-.43
-.03
1.17

32.38
32.60
32.92
(33.08)
33.27
33.56

KS4

25 meters

SfcM

60 meters

2148

70 meters

a&a

100 meters

21.73

150 meters

26.90

Station 955; July 25; depth, 80 meters; lat. M°4i'
N., long. 56°52' \V.; dynamic height, 1,451844
meters

Station 956; July 25; depth, 50 meters; lat. M£
N., long. 59°34' W.; dynamic height, 1,4S4.W
meters

0 meter...
10 meters.
20 meters
30 meters,
40 meters

.5.10

31.86

4.79

31.92

2 68

31.90

1.87

31.96

1.87

32.11

25.*

ft« tin
2BL4i

K.9

Station 957; July 26; depth, 600 meters; lal- 55°M'J[-
long. 59°14' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.888 mwn

0 meter —
20 meters..
40 meters..
50 meters..
100 meters.
150 meters.
200 meters.
300 meters.
400 meters
450 meters
600 meters

5.20

32.61

3.19

32.80

2.78

(32.92)

(1.30)

32.93

.56

33.04

.96

33.18

.65

33.35

.96

34.04

2.26

(34.50)

2.76

34.63

2.%

34.71

AM

».»

27. »
J7.S
27.0
27. •

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

207

station 958; July 26; depth, 425 meters; lat. 56°13' N.
long. 59°09' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.864 meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

fft

4.80
2.47
-.86
-1.15
-1.05
-1.15
-1.25
-.85
(-.20)

32.57
32.66
33.15
33.27
33.37
(33. 45)
33.50
33.81
34.03

25.79

26.08

26.67

26.78

150 meters

26.86

26.93

200 meters

26.97

27.20

27.35

Station 959; July 26; depth, 195 meters; lat. 56°20' N.,
long. 58°49' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.781 meters

0 meter...
10 meters.
25 meters.
SO meters.
SO meters.
130 meters
180 meters

5.10
5.00
3.07
.76
-.94
.36
.56

33.03
33.05
33.10
33.21
33.46
33.83
34.02

26.12
26.15
26.38
26.64
26.91
27.15
27.30

Station 960; July 26; depth, 238 meters; lat. 56°27' N.,
long. 58°24' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.783 meters

0 meter...
15 meters.
30 meters.
60 meters.,
100 meters.
150 meters.
180 meters.
225 meters.

6.00

33.10

26.07

5.49

33.15

26.17

3.58

33.24

26.45

2.37

33.42

26.70

.76

33.60

26.96

.76

34.00

27.27

.95

(34.06)

27.29

1.35

34.08

27.30

Station 961; July 26; depth, 1,759 meters; lat. 56°34'
N., long. 68°03' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.612
meters

0 meter

20 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters,.
150 meters .
200 meters..
225 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters-
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters

7.20

34.15

26.74

6.79

34.36

26.97

3.95

34.42

27.35

3.65

34.58

27.50

3.64

34.80

27.68

3.64

34.85

27.72

3.64

(34. 85)

27.72

3.64

34.85

27.72

3.63

34.85

27.72

3.53

34.86

27.74

3.43

34.86

27.75

3.23

34.86

27.77

Station 962; July 26; depth, 2,233 meters; lat. 56°57'
A., long. 57°28' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.618

meters

0 meter

20 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters
200 meters
300 meters
500 meters
800 meters
1,000 meters
1,200 meters

34.09
34.64
34.76
34.84
34.84
34.85
34.85
34.85
34.88
34.87
34.87

26.33
26.87
27.59
27.68
27.68
27.71
27.73
27.74
27.77
27.79
27.79

Station 963; July 27; depth, 1,550 meters; lat. 57''22'
N., long. 57°02' W., dynamic height, 1,454.602
meters '

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

0 meter..

10.10
8.78
4.63
4.22
3.72
3.51
3.31
3.10
3.10
3.00
2.90

34.11
34.48
34.58
34.76
34.80
34.83
34.85
34.85
34.85
34.86
34.87

26.26
26.77
27.40
27.59
27.68
27.71
27.75
27.77
27.77
27.79
27.81

20 meters

50 meters..

100 meters...

150 meters

200 meters...

300 meters

500 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

Station 964; July 27; depth, 3,276 meters; lat. 57°56'
N., long. 55°40' W.; dynamic height, 1,454 635
meters

0 meter

20 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters

Station 965; July 27; depth, 3,386 meters; lat. S8°04'
N., long. 54°39' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.603
meters

0 meter

9.70
7.98
6.06
4.23
. 3.93
3.53
3.32
3.12
3.01
3.01
2.91
2.91
2.81

34.45
34.55
34.72
34.80
34.82
34,83
34.83
34.84
34.84
34.87
34.88
34.89
34.90

26.61
26.94
27.34
27.62
27.66
27.71
27.73
27.76
27.77
27.79
27.81
27.82
27.83

20 meters

50 meters

100 meters

150 meters

200 meters

300 meters

500 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,600 meters

2,200 meters

Station 966; July 27; depth, 3,459 meters; lat. 58°38'
N., long. 54°06' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.631
meters

0 meter

9.30
7.68
.5.35
4.34
4.14
3.73
3.63
3.32
3.22
2.92
2.92

34.89
34.62
34.77
34.85
34.85
34.86
34.86
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.89

27.00
27.04
27.47
27.64
27.67
27.72
27.73
27.77
27.79
27.81
27.82

50 meters

100 meters

150 meters...

200 meters

300 meters

500 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters...

1,200 meters

1,500 meters...

208

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

QtaMnn 957- Julv 28; depth, 3,386 meters; lat 59°18'
N , "oag" Si'y W : dyaatnic height, 1.454.602
meters

Depth

0 meter

20 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
900 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

9.30
8.38
.5.96
4.34
4.14
4.03
3.83
3.32
3.32
3.12
3.12
3.02
3.02

Salinity
(96o)

34.50
34.58
34.72
34.85
34.86
34.87
34.87
34.87
34.87
34.87
34.89
34.89
34.89

26.69
26.91
27.36
27.64
27.68
27.70
27.71
27.77
27.77
27.79
27.80
27.81
27.81

Station 971;'July 29; depth, 2,745 meters; lat. 6W1'
N., long. 55''02' W.; dynamic height, l,4M.(ao
meters

Station 938; July 29; depth, 3,340 meters; lat. 58°58'
N., long. 54°30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.576
meters

0 meter

20 meters...
50 meters.. -
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters

9.90

34.80

26.83

9.19

34.84

26.98

5.77

34.84

27.47

4.54

34.86

27.63

4.34

34.87

27.66

4.13

34.88

27.09

3.73

34.88

27.73

3.53

34.89

27.77

3.12

34.90

27.82

3.12

34.90

27.82

2.92

34.90

27.83

2.92

34.90

27.83

Station 939; July 29; depth, 3,065 meters; lat eo'sr
N., long. 54°44' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.660
meters

0 meter

20 meters. --
50 meters. -.
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters

34.40
34.41
34.55
34.70
34.80
34.87
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.90
34.90

26.55
26. 62
27.35
27.50
27.58
27.64
27.69
27.72
27.74
27.77
27.81
27.82

Station 970; July 29; depth, 2,983 meters; lat. 60°57'
N., long. 55°02' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.648
meters

9.40
7.98
5.96
5.35
4.94
4.74
4.53
3.93
3.52
3.32
3.22
3.02
3.02

34.46
34.42
34.65
34.82
34.88
34.93
34.94
34.90
34.89
34.89
34. 89
34.89
34.90

26.66

20 meters

26.88

27.30

100 meters

27.51

160 meters . .

27.60

200 meters

27. 68

300 meters .

27.70

27.73

800 meters

27.76

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

1,800 meters

27.78
27. 79
27.81
27.82

Depth

0 meter

20 meters

50 meters

100 meters...
150 meters...
200 meters...
300 meters.. .
500 meters...
800 meters...
1,000 meters.
1,200 meters.
1,500 meters.

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

9.80
8.78
4.13
4.03
4.13
4.33
4.13
3.93
3.52
3.32
3.12
3.02

Salinity
(96o)

34.37
34.35
34.55
34.80
34.88
34.91
34.92
34.90
34.89
34.89
34.89
34.89

28.51
3ILX
27.43
27.0
27. «
27.70

27.n

27. 7«

27.78
27.80
27.81

Station 972; July 30; depth, 2,882 meters; lat. 61'M'
N., long. 54°40' W.; dynamic height 1,4M.6S0
meters

0 meter

20 meters...,

50 meters

100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters

9.50

34.35

26.55

8.59

34.37

26. :i

5.05

34.57

27.35

4.84

34.82

27.5:

4.74

34.88

27.0

4.63

34.91

27. «

4.33

34.92

27.?ti

3.93

34.90

27. n

3.73

34.89

27.74

3.62

34.89

27.77

3.42

34.89

27.80

2.92

34.89

27. K

Station 973; July 30; depth, 2,791 meters; lat. ffi'*^;
N., long. 54°07' W.; dynamic height, J,«4.m.
meters

0 meter

20 meters

50 meters

100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
800 meters..
1 ,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters

9.60
8.59
6.36
4.74
4.33
4.33
4.13
3.93
3.52
3.52
3.12
3.02

34.46

26.e

34.44

217:

34.72

27.30

34.82

T..»

34 83

27. «3

34.88

r.x

34.89

T,.y'

34.90

27. n

34.89

27. r

34 89

27. r

34 88

27. »

34.88

27.81

Station 974; July 30; depth. 2,755 meters; lat. C*^
N.. long. 53°22' W.; dynamic height, l,wt"
meters

0 meter

20 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters

8 .V)

33.65

7.57

34.24

4.95

34.69

4.64

34.81

4 74

34.87

4.74

34.89

4.53

34.93

4.63

34.92

3.73

34.89

3.42

34.87

3.32

34.87

3.12

34.88

»:<

27. «

?:«
37. :>

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

209

station 975; July 30; depth, 2,745 meters; lat. 62°24'
N., long. 52°47' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.676

meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

7.30
5.67
4.35
5.36
5.15
5.15
5.05
4.54
3.73
3.42
3.32
3.12

33.49
33.96
34.47
34.82
34.88
34.93
34.95
34.93
34.92
34.90
34.89
34.89

26.21

26.79

27.33

27.51

27.58

27.62

27.65

27.69

800 meters

27.76

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.78
27.79
27.80

Station 976; July 30; depth, 2,150 meters; lat. 62°37'
N., long. 52°12' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.804
meters

0 meter

20 meters.. -
50 meters.. -
100 meters..
150 meters.-
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters. -
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters

5.70
2.76
2.16
2.96
4.37
4.89
4.99
4.88
4.37
3.97
3.77
3.26

33.04
33.04
33.30
34.20
34.59
24.72
34.83
34.91
34.93
34.91
34.90
34.89

26.06
26.37
26.62
27.27
27.44
27.49
25.57
27.64
27. 71
27.74
27.75
27.79

Station 977; July 31; depth, 329 meters; lat. 62°45'
N., long. 51°46' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.869
meters

0 meter

5.80
4.79
3.79
2.38
3.18
2.78
3.38
3.18
4.38

32.42
32.47
32.88
33.46
33.85
34.11
34.34
34.45
34.67

25.56

15 meters ..

25.71

30 meters . .

26 15

60 meters

26.73

100 meters.

26.97

150 meters

27.22

200 meters.

27.34

230 meters .

27 45

300 meters

27 50

Station 978; July 31; depth, 275 meters; lat. 62°54'
N., long. 51°20' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.926
meters

0 meter

7.70
3.97
2.96
1.76
1.55
1.65
2.55
3.55
3.35

32.08
32.15
32.25
32.43
33.02
33.30
33.76
34.29
34.45

25 04

15 meters

25 54

30 meters

25.71

50 meters

25 95

80 meters

26 43

100 meters

26.65

130 meters

26 95

180 meters

27.28

230 meters...

27 44

Station 979; Aug. 1; depth. 111 meters; lat. 64°01'
N., long. 52°25' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.949
meters

Ometer...

7.30
4.78
4.07
3.45
1.74

30.75
32.07
32.83
33.08
33.25

24 07

15 meters

25 39

30 meters

26 08

60 meters...

26 34

100 meters

26 60

Station 980; Aug. 2; depth, 819 meters; lat. 63°50'
N., long. 53°15' W.: dynamic height, 1,454.797
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

0 meter

7.00
3.56
2.35
2.64
3.54
4.54
4.94
4.54

32.47
33.04
33.65
34.15
34.64
34.79
34.90
34.92

25 45

20 meters..

26 29

50 meters

26 88

100 meters

27 26

200 meters ...

27 66

300 meters

27 58

500 meters .

27 62

750 meters..

27 68

Station 981; Aug. 2; depth, 1,336 meters; lat. 63°41'
N., long. 53°53' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.700"
meters

0 meter. ..

7.50
7.00
6.38
4.84
4.13
4.13
4.33
4.33
4.13
4.03
3.63
3.33

33.68
33.73
34.43
34.61
34.70
34.76
34.88
34.94
34.94
34.94
34.91
34.88

26 33

20 meters

26 45

50 meters

27.07

100 meters . .

27 40

150 meters

27.55

200 meters

27.60

300 meters

27.67

500 meters

27.72

750 meters

27 74

800 meters

27.75

1,000 meters

1,200 meters.

27.77
27.78

Station 982; Aug. 2; depth, 1,335 meters; lat. 63°34'
N., long. 54°36' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.705
meters

0 meter

7.70
4.65
4.43
4.53
4.54
4.43
4.33
4.03
3.73
3.23

33.41
33.42
33.98
34.54
34.70
34.77
34.86
34.90
34.91
34.88

26.09

20 meters ..

26 48

50 meters..

26.95

100 meters.

27.38

150 meters

27.50

200 meters

27.57

300 meters..

27.66

500 meters

27.72

800 meters

27.76

1,000 meters

27.78

Station 983; Aug. 2; depth, 1,446 meters; lat. 63°25
N., long. 55°28' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.754
meters

Ometer

20 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters. .
1,000 meters
1,200 meters

33.42
33.44
33.88
34.43
34.63
34.71
34.83
34.93
34.92
34.91
34.90

26.11
26.30
26.73
27.27
27.49
27.55
27.62
27.69
27.73
27.76
27.78

Station 984; Aug. 3; depth, 2,253 meters; lat. 63°10'
N., long. 56°32' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.669
meters

0 meter...

8.00
6.26
3.84
3.73
3.73
3.93
4.33
4.33
3.73
3.63
3.42
3.12

33.47
33.60
34.16
34.65
34.75
34.82
34.90
34.95
34.94
34.92
34.91
34.91

26.09

20 meters

26.36

50 meters

27.15

100 meters

27.64

150 meters

27.62

200 meters -

27.66

300 meters

27.69

500 meters...

27.73

800 meters.

27.77

1,000 meters

1,200 meters.

1,600 meters

27.78
27.79
27.82

210

MARION AND GENER.\L GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 985; Aug. 3; depth. 2,187 meters; lat62W
N., long. 57''34' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.688
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
CC.)

Salinity
(96o)

o-t

8.20
7.79
3.43
3.33
3.53
3.73
3.93
4.03
3.83
3.62
3.32
3.12

33.62
33.63
34.21
34.59
34.71
34.75
34.82
34.89
34.92
34.91
34.90
34.89

26.18

26.24

27.23

27.54

27.62

oQO meters

27.63

27.66

500 meters

27.71

27.76

1,000 meters

1,200 meters -

1,500 meters

27.77
27.79
27.80

Station 986; Aug. 3; depth, 1,280 meters; lat. 63°48'
N., long. 57°30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.747
meters

8.50
5.98
1.13
3.03
1.73
3.43
3.73
4.13
4.03
3.82
3.62
3.22

33.53
33.54
33.79
34.18
34.47
34.58
34.69
34.83
34.85
34.90
34.90
34.88

26.07

26.42

27.08

27.33

150 meters

27.45

27.53

300 meters . - -

27.59

500 meters

27.65

600 meters

27.68

27.74

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

27.76

27.78

Station 987; Aug. 4; depth, 641 meters; lat. 64°34'
N., long 57''30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.770
meters

Station 990; Aug. 4; depth 630 meters; lat. 65»43' N
long. 56°22' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.746 meters '

8.50
8.30
6.78
4.74
3.13
2.52
3.12
3.32
3.12
3.12

33.68
33.76
33.91
34.08
34.21
34.35
34.62
34.75
34.81
34.81

26.18

20 meters .

26.27

26.61

100 meters

27.00

27.27

200 meters

27.43

300 meters

27.59

400 meters

27.67

27.74

600 meters.

27.74

Station 988; Aug. 4; depth, 659 meters; lat. 65°17' N.,
long. 57°27' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.754 meters

0 meter.

4.20
5.20
1.36
-.25
.05
1.05
2.16
2.46
2.46
2.46

32.35
33.28
33.68
34.00
34.16
34.33
34.53
34.59
34.59
34.60

25.67

20 meters

26.31

50 meters

26.98

100 meters

27.33

150 meters .

27.44

200 meters

27.53

300 meters .

27.60

400 meters.

27.62

500 meters

27.62

000 meters

27.63

Station 989; Aug. 4; depth 650 meters; lat. 65°27' N.
long. 56°55' \V.; dynamic height, 1,454.741 meters

0 meter

5.30
5.20
2.09
1.48
1.89
2.49
3.29
3.79
3.79
3.89

32.80
33.36
33.94
34.21
34.35
34.49
34.65
34.76
34.76
34.79

25.92

20 meters

26.38

50 meters

27 14

100 meters . .

27 41

150 meters

27 49

200 meters

27 54

300 meters

27 60

400 meters

27 63

500 meters

27 63

000 meters

27 64

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

»t

7.00
6.38
3.57
1.46
1.56
2.46
2.76
3.56
3.96
3.96
4.06

33.25
33.63
33.95
34.23
34.37
34.48
34.52
34.68
34.76
34.76
34.78

26.06
26.45
27.01
27.42
27.52
27. M
27 55

20 meters

100 meters

175 meters

200 meters

300 meters

27.58
27 61

400 meters

500 meters

27 61

600 meters . ..

27 62

Station 991; Aug. 4; depth, 206 meters; lat. 65°5»' N.,
long. 55°40' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.765 meters

0 meter

15 meters.
30 meters.
60 meters.
100 meters
120 meters
150 meters
175 meters

4.80

33.46

4.49

33.42

2.98

33.45

1.97

33.67

1.77

33.95

1.97

34.08

2.57

34.27

2.87

34.37

28.50
26.50
26.68
26.03
27.17
27.26
27.36
27. «

Station 992; Aug. 5; depth, 200 meters; lat. 66°13'30"
N., long. 55°05' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.750
meters

0 meter .

5.10
5.10
4.18
(3.32)
2.56
1.86
1.96
1.76
1.76

33.59
33.62
33.73
33.90
33.92
34.09
34.18
34.23
34.28

28.5;

26.5V

30 meters

26. 78
28.W

60 meters

2!.»

100 meters . ...

71. T

120 meters

27. M

150 meters

27.40

175 meters

27. 4<

Station 993; Aug. 5; depth, 55 meters; lat. e6'W N.
long. 54°15' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.810 meten'

5.70
5.70
5.39
3.98
3.17
2.87

31.46
31.52
32.53
33.05
33.28
33.38

2171

10 meters

2iH

25^60

30 meters

26.2;

40 meters .

KB

%«

0 meter

4.80
4.70
4.40
4.30
4.19

31.99
32.07
32.35
32.40
32. 41

5 meters

15 meters

_

Station 994; Aug. 5; depth, 20 meters; lat. 66°22' N
long. 53°50' W.; dynamic height, 1.454.803 mettf>

2Sl»
2&41
2&6I
25.71

Station 995; Aug. 7; depth, 461 meters; lat- 68°]', X
long. 55°14' W.; dynamic height, Liw'"^
meters

»■>

26.'
26'

r--

27. V

27. »

v.a

J7.SS

r.-"-

0 meter...

4.90
4.79
-.25
-.25
.66
1.37
2.07
2.57
2.67
2.67

33.22
33.27
33.55
34.01
34.22
34.33
34.42
34.47
34.48
(34.48)

20 meters

100 meters

200 meters

300 meters

400 meters .

430 meters

450 meters

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

211

station 996; Aug. 7; depth, 500 meters; lat. 68°25' N.,
long. 54°23' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.728
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
CC.)

Sah'nity
(96o)

fft

5.10
5.20
4.89
2.76
-.24
.95
.95
.95
1.56
1.66
1.86

33.14
33.18
33.30
33.30
33.61
33.92
34.10
34.20
34.28
(34. 29)
34.32

26.22

26.24

26 37

26.58

27 01

27.20

150 meters . .

27 35

27.43

300 meters . . -

27 44

27. 45

475 meters . -

27 45

Station 997; Aug. 7; depth, 316 meters; lat. 68°30' N.,
long. 53°30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.781
meters

0 meter...
15 meters.
30 meters.
60 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
300 meters

4.60
4.80
4.19
3.18
2.28
1.77
1.47
1.57

32.72
33.19
33.28
33.47
33.68
33.90
34.08
34.18

25.93
26.29
26.41
26.67
26.91
27.13
27.29
27.36

Station 998; Aug. 7; depth, 799 meters; lat. 68°55' N.,
long. 53°25' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.756
meters

0 meter. _.
20 meters.
50 meters.
100 meters
200 meters
240 meters
300 meters
400 meters
600 meters.
750 meters.

7.40
3.97
1.35
.64
.74
1.45
1.15
1.55
1.85
1.95

32.76
33.08
33.32
33.66
34.08
34.22
34.24
34.32
34.35
34.36

25.62
26.29
26.69
27.01
27.34
27.40
27.44
27.47
27.48
27.48

Station 999; Aug. 7; depth, 250 meters; lat. 69°09' N.,
long. 53°32' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.781
meters

0 meter. .

8.20
3.97
3.46
1.32
.92
.72
(.70)
.92

32.70
33.00
33.25
33.55
33.88
34.06
34.08
34.14

25 46

15 meters

26 23

30 meters

26 45

60 meters

26 88

100 meters

27 17

150 meters ..

27 32

180 meters

27 34

240 meters .. .

27.38

Station 1000; Aug. 8; depth, 557 meters; lat. 69°12'
N., long. 52°49' W.

0 meter...
20 meters.
30 meters..
50 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
240 meters
300 meters
■iOO meters.
450 meters.
525 meters.

7.30
3.96
2.15

.34
-.07

.13
1.14

.94
1.44
1.74
1.84
1.94

31.53
33.13
33.42
33.71
33.89
34.01
34.15
34.17
34.23
34.29
34.30
34.33

24.67
26.32
26.72
27.06
27.23
27.32
27.37
27.41
27.42
27.45
27.45
27.47

Station 1001; Aug. 8; depth, 492 meters; lat.
69°12' N., long. 52°13' W.

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

fft

0 meter...

9.60

3.54

.11

-.09

.11

.71

1.52

1.82

1.92

32.45
33.22
33.61
33.85
34.00
34.13
34.26
34.31
34.33

25.05
26 43

20 meters

50 meters

27 00

100 meters

27.20
27 31

150 meters

200 meters

27 38

300 meters..

27 44

400 meters

27 46

450 meters

27 48

Station 1002; Aug. 8; depth, 410 meters; lat.
69°11' N., long. 51°42' W.

0 meter...
15 meters.
50 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
250 meters
300 meters
350 meters
400 meters

9.60
5.77
-.07
.42
1.32
1.72
1.62
1.42
1.62
1.72

32.45
33.41
33.83
34.02
34.14
34.20
34.22
34.23
34.26
34.28

25.05
26.35
27.18
27.31
27.35
27.38
27.40
27.41
27.42
27.43

Station 1003; Aug. 8; depth, 250 meters; lat.
69°12' N., long. 51°10' W.

0 meter

1.00
-.22
-.02
1.19
2.19
2.19
2.08
.79
.79

32.29
32.52
32.94
33.44
33.71
33.93
34.04
34.15
34.15

25 89

15 meters

26 14

30 meters

26 47

60 meters

26 81

90 meters

26 95

140 meters...

27 11

190 meters

27 21

240 meters

27 40

250 meters

27 40

Station 1004; Aug. 11; depth, 131 meters; lat.
70°14' N., long. 52°42' W.

0 meter. . . .

3.60
1.98
1.08
.57
.37
.17
.17

31.03
32.20
32.79
33.16
33.43
33.66
33.83

24 60

15 meters

25 75

30 meters

26.28

50 meters...

26 61

75 meters

26 84

100 meters

27 04

125 meters

27.17

Station 1005; Aug. 11; depth, 500 meters; lat.
70°12' N., long. 52°51' W.

0 meter

3.20

3.10

2.18

.67

-.04

-.04

.47

.67

.77

31.08
31.49
32.50
33.61
33. 83
33.97
34.13
34.21
34.22

24.67

20 meters

25.00

50 meters

25 98

100 meters

26.97

150 meters .

27 18

200 meters

27.29

300 meters.

27.40

400 meters

27.46

475 meters

27 46

Station 1006; Aug. 11; depth, 150 meters.; lat.
70°09' N., long. 62°65' W.

0 meter

3.80
3.30
1.39
.98
.17
.07
-.03
-.03

32.35
32.68
33.20
33.55
33.69
33.77
33.83
(33.87)

25.72

15 meters .

26.03

30 meters

26.59

50 meters

26.91

75 meters

27.06

100 meters.

27.13

125 meters

27.18

150 meters

27.21

212

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1007; Aug. 13; depth, 60 meters; lat.69°20' N.,
long. 54°08' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.737 meters

Depth

0 meter...
10 meters
25 meters
40 meters
50 meters
55 meters
60 meters

Temper-
ature
(°0.)

5.30
5.40
4.79
3.98
2.97
1.86
1.66

Salinity
(96o)

33.22
33.36
33.41
33.50
33.61
33.66
(33. 73)

26.25
26.36
26.46
26.62
26.79
26.93
27.00

Station 1008; Aug. 13; depth, 127 meters; lat 69°12'
N., long. 54°46' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.7.^0
meters

0 meter —
20 meters -
40 meters.
60 meters.
80 meters.
100 meters
115 meters

5.50
5.70
1.75
-.56
-.66
-.26
-.16

33.38
33.45
33.61
33.75
33.81
33.90
33.92

26.35
26.38
26.89
27.14
27.19
27.25
27.26

Station 1009; Aug. 13; depth, 187 meters; lat 69=05'
N., long. 55°23' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.722
meters

0 meter —
20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters.,
100 meters
115 meters
140 meters
170 meters
180 meters

5.20
5.60
1.54
-.37
-.47
-.37
-.27
-.17
-.07

33.46
33.49
33.58
33.68
33.83
(33.85)
33.88
33.90
33.91

26.46
26.43
26.88
27.07
27.20
27.21
27.24
27.25
27.25

Station 1010; Aug. 13; depth, 177 meters; lat. 68°56'
N., long. 56°10' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.716
meters

0 meter —
20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters..
90 meters.
130 meters
170 meters

33.61
33,62
33,67
33.74
33.86
33.91
33.94

26,59
26.58
26.85
27.12
27.22
27.25
27.26

Station 1011; Aug. 14; depth, 205 meters; lat 68°49'
N., long. 57°07' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.712
meters

0 meter —
20 meters..
40 meters.,
60 meters.,
90 meters.
125 meters
150 meters
170 meters
200 meters

5.10

5.00

2.56

1.35

.84

.64

.54

.54

.54

33.61
33.62
33.80
33.90
34.01
34.07
34.08
(34. 08)
34.09

26.58
26.61
26.99
27.16
27.28
27.34
27.36
27.36
27.36

Station 1013; Aug. 14; depth, 216 meters; lat. 68°1S'
N., long. 57°50' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.708
meters

Station 1012; Aug. 14; depth, 275 meters; lat. eS'Sl'
N., long. 57°28' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.716
meters

0 meter

20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters..
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
250 meters

4.80

33.33

26.40

5.00

33.37

26.41

2.96

33.66

26.84

-.06

33.81

27.17

-.17

33.98

27.31

.54

34.12

27.38

1.14

34.22

27.42

1.74

34.31

27.45

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

fft

3.60
4.40
1.36
-.46
-.66
.96
1.76

33.30
33.48
33.71
33.83
34.02
34.13
34.24

26.49

26.56

27.00

60 meters

27.20

27.36

150 meters

27.37

27.40

Station 1014; Aug. 14; depth, 495 meters; lat. 67°58'
N., long. 58°13' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.747
meters

0 meter

15 meters..
30 meters..
50 meters..
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
300 meters
375 meters

4.30
4.30
4.10
2.97
1.07
1.96
1.57
2.17
2.37

32.40

25.72

32.87

26.09

33.18

26.35

33.60

26.71

33.91

27.19

34.16

27.39

34.28

27.44

34.42

27.51

34.47

27.53

Station 1015; Aug. 14; depth, 659 meters; lat. 67<'31'
N., long. 58°48' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.743
meters

0 meter

20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters..
100 meters.
150 meters.
200 meters.
300 meters.
375 meters
400 meters
500 meters
625 meters

2.00

30.79

26.23

.08

32.66

26.24

-1.64

33.40

26.89

-1.74

33.60

27.06

-1.44

33.80

27.21

-.73

33.99

27.34

-.12

34.11

27.41

.59

34.28

27.51

.69

(34. 33)

27.56

.79

34.36

27.57

(.00)

34.38

27.62

(.30)

34.44

27.65

Station 1016; Aug. 15; depth, 1,270 meters; lat. e^S'
N., long. 59°20' W.; djraamic height, 1,454.7^5
meters

0 meter

20 meters...
40 meters...
60 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters

1.50

1.10

-.81

-1.22

-1.21

-.61

.61

.83

.35

.45

.30

-.10

-.21

30.94
32.57
33.31
33.64
33.86
34.00
34.12
34.30
34.39
34.45
S4.49
34.49
34.49

24.68
26.11
26.80
27.08
27.25
27.35
27.38
27.52
27.62
27.66
27.70
27.72
27.73

Station 1017; Aug. 15; depth, 935 meters; lat 66°^
N., long. 59°3r W.; dynamic height, 1,454.<
meters

0 meter

20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters..
100 meters.
150 meters
200 meters
300 meters,
500 meters
700 meters
900 meters

1.50

29.50

.29

31.60

-.71

32.00

-1.82

33.40

-1.82

33.65

-1.62

33.84

-1.32

33.96

-.81

34.20

.18

34.42

.01

(34. 47)

-.20

(34.49)

23.52

25.29

25.73

26.90

27.11

27.25

27.34 '

27.61

27.65 I

37.70 I

27.72:

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

213

station 1018; Aug. 15; depth, 750 meters; lat. 66°36'
N., long. 59°34' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.839
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<ri

-0.20

-1.81

-1.81

-1.81

-1.81

-1.01

-.40

-.40

.00

.40

.40

29.39
31.60
(32. 67)
33.22
33.48
33.68
33.86
34.08
34.24
34.35
34.41

23.50

20 meters

25.32

26.31

60 meters

26.75

26.96

150 meters

27.12

200 meters

27.25

300 meters

27.38

400 meters

27.50

500 meters

27.58

700 meters -.

27.63

Station 1019; Aug. 16; depth, 530 meters; lat. 66''12'
N., long. 59°47' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.870
meters

-0.10
-1.21
-1.61
-1.71
-1.81
-1.81
-1.61
-1.01
-.50
-.10

29.19
31.97
32.60
32.92
33.27
33.57
33.76
34.00
34.16
34.26

23.36

20 meters

25.72

26.24

60 meters

26.49

100 meters

26.79

150 meters...

27.04

200 meters

27.19

300 meters

27.36

400 meters

27.47

500 meters

27.53

Station 1020; Aug. 16; depth, 570 meters; lat. 65°54'
N., long. 59°26' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.889
meters

Ometer

0.20
-1.11
-1.51
-1.71
-1.81
-1.81
-1.61
-.80
-.60
-.50
-.30

29.36
31.72
32.70
33.03
33.33
33.58
33.76
33.99
34.15
(34. 20)
34.25

23.41

20 meters

25.43

40 meters.

26.32

60 meters .....

26.60

100 meters

26.84

150 meters

27.04

200 meters

27.19

300 meters

27.35

400 meters

27.47

425 meters

27.48

500 meters

27.54

Station 1021; Aug. 16; depth, 448 meters; lat. 65°37'
N., long. 59°05' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.759
meters

Ometer

3.40
3.70
.58
-.83
-.93
-.32
-.22
.79
1.40
1.70
2.00

31.85
32.72
33.30
33.54
33.77
33.96
34.09
34.23
34.34
(34. 54)
34.58

25.27

20 meters

26.02

40 meters

26.72

60 meters

26 98

100 meters

27.17

150 meters

27.30

200 meters

27.38

250 meters.

27.46

300 meters

27.52

400 meters..

27.64

425 meters

27.65

Station 1022; Aug. 16; depth, 425 meters; lat. 65"'23'
N., long. 59°04' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.845
meters

Ometer...
20 meters.
40 meters-
60 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
250 meters
300 meters
425 meters.

2.00

2.90

.70

-.93

-1.13

-.83

-.52

-.22

.19

.69

30.69
31.49
33.11
33.44
33.72
33.85
33.95
34.03
34.10
34.24

24.45
25.02
26.56
26.90
27.14
27.23
27.30
27.36
27.39
27.47

Station 1023; Aug. 17; depth, 450 meters; lat. 65°01'
N., long. 59°04' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.760
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

Ometer

2.70

2.30

-.52

-1.23

-1.33

-.93

-.21

.98

2.20

2.60

30.99
32.49
33.35
33.57
33.77
33.92
34.09
34.26
(34. 45)
34.53

24.68

20 meters

25.96

40 meters

26 82

60 meters

27.02

100 meters

27.19

150 meters

27.32

200 meters

27.40

300 meters

27.47

400 meters

27.54

425 meters

27.57

Station 1024; Aug. 17; depth, 510 meters; lat. 64°35'
N., long. 59°03' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.663
meters

Ometer..

0.30

-1.42

-1.72

-1.72

-1.83

-1.11

-.40

.90

.90

.90

29.86
33.00
33.56
33.70
33.90
34.09
34.23
34.42
(34. 50)
3153

23.88

20 meters

26.56

40 meters

27.02

60 meters

27.14

100 meters

27.31

150 meters

27.44

200 meters

27.52

300 meters

27.61

425 meters

27.68

450 meters

27.70

Station 1025; Aug. 17; depth, 625 meters; lat. 64'07'
N., long. 59°06' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.701
meters

Ometer.

5.20
6.12
-.35
-.25
.45
2.76
2.86
3.27
2.90
2.56
1.86

32.61
33.43
33.77
33.93
34.14
34.34
34.49
34.62
34.65
(34. 66)
34.67

25.68

20 meters.

26.32

40 meters

27. 15

60 meters

27.28

100 meters

27.40

150 meters

27.47

200 meters

27.51

300 meters...

27.58

400 meters

27.63

450 meters

27.66

600 meters

27.73

Station 1026; Aug. 17; depth, 407 meters; lat. 64°01'
N., long. 60°02' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.779
meters

0 meter

2.90

1.06

-.84

-1.45

-1.65

-1.75

-.34

1.06

1.36

2.36

30.64
32.66
33.24
33.44
33.66
33.86
34.06
(34. 20)
3135
3154

2134

20 meters

26.18

40 meters

26.74

60 meters ....

26.93

100 meters

27.11

150 meters

27.27

200 meters

27.38

270 meters

27.42

300 meters

27.52

400 meters

27.58

Station 1027; Aug. 17; depth, 290 meters; lat. 63°56'
N., long. 60°46' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.826
meters

0 meter

3.00

4.80

-1.15

-1.26

-.24

.88

1.28

1.78

30.41
32.07
32.80
33.37
33.63
33.87
3106
3124

24.15

20 meters

25.40

40 meters

26.39

60 meters

26.86

100 meters

27.03

150 meters .. ..

27.17

200 meters

27.29

270 meters.

27.41

214

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1028; Aug. 17; depth, 210 meters; lat. 63°52'
N., long. 61°25' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.827
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

at

0 meter

3.60

3.40

.44

-1.46

-1.56

-1.56

- .95

.56

31.52
31.95
33.03
33.25
33.37
33.45
33.56
33.66

25.06

20 meters

25.44

40 meters .

26.52

60 meters

26.76

80 meters..

26.87

100 meters . ...

26.93

150 meters

27.01

200 meters.

27.01

Station 1029; Aug. 17; depth, 210 meters; lat. 63°48'
N., long. 62°11' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.856
meters

0 meter..

2.30
2.40
1.68
—.64
-1.26
-1.26
-1.16
-1.06

30.18
31.51
32.70
33.16
33.28
33.39
33.62
33.79

24.02

20 meters...

25.17

40 meters

26.17

60 meters ..

26.67

80 meters

26.79

100 meters

26.89

150 meters

27.06

200 meters -

27.19

Station 1030; Aug. 17; depth, 250 meters; lat. 63°44'
N., long. 62°44' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.871
meters

0 meter .

3.10
1.58
-1.25
-1.67
-1.77
-1.77
-1.67
-1.46
-1.26
-1.16

31.03
31.65
32.75
32.81
33.12
33.26
33.34
33.47
(33. 52)
33.59

24.70

20 meters...

25.34

40 meters

26.36

60 meters

26.41

80 meters...

26.67

100 meters

26.78

125 meters.

26.85

175 meters

26.95

200 meters

26.99

225 meters

27.03

Station 1031; Aug. 18; depth, 200 meters; lat. 63°41'
N., long. 63°21' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.937
meters

0 meter

3.50
2.38
-.74
-1.64
-1.85
-1.75
-1.44
-1.24

29.90
31.06
32.36
32.90
32.96
32.97
32.98
32.98

23.78

20 meters

24.71

40 meters .

26.04

60 meters

26.49

100 meters

26.54

125 meters

26.54

150 meters

26.55

175 meters

26.54

Station 1032; Aug. 18; depth, 201 meters; lat. 63°29'
N., long. 62°43' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.908
meters

0 meter..

2.90
1.28
-1.23
-1.64
-1.84
-1.74
-1.64
-1.54

30.92
31.02
32.07
32.79
33.06
33.18
33.28
33.37

24.57

20 meters

24.76

40 meters

25.81

60 meters

26.40

100 meters

26 62

125 meters

26.71

150 meters

26.80

175 meters

26.87

Station 1033; Aug. 18; depth, 263 meters; lat. 63°17'
N., long. 62°05' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.850
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

at

0 meter

2.90
1.79
-1.13
-1.63
-1.73
-1.53
-1.33
-1.13
.38

30.98
31.58
32.80
32.95
33.19
33.47
(33. 63)
33.76
34.04

24.68

20 meters

25.27

40 meters..

26.40

60 meters

26.53

100 meters . .

26.73

150 meters

26.96

175 meters .

27.07

200 meters

27.17

250 meters .

27.33

Station 1034; Aug. 18; depth, 302 meters; lat. 63°05'
N., long. 61°35' W. dynamic height, 1,454.799
meters

0 meter

3.60

2.78

.77

-1.03

-1.44

-1.44

-1.24

-1.04

-.93

-.83

31.24
31.50
33.00
33.24
33.28
33.53
33.87
34.16
(34. 36)
34. .•)3

24.85

20 meters

25.13

40 meters

26.47

60 meters

26.75

80 meters ..

26 88

100 meters

27.00

150 meters

27.26

200 meters

27.51

250 meters

27. 65

300 meters..

27.78

Station 1035; Aug. 18; depth, 650 meters; lat. 62°48'
N., long. 61°11' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.777
meters

0 meter

5.60
5.39

3.78
1.16
.55
.85
1.16
1.75
2.16
2.66

32.09
32.44
33.15
33.51
33.83
34.11
34.32
34.58
34.69
34.74

25.26

20 meters

25.63

40 meters

26.36

60 meters

26.86

100 meters

27.15

150 meters

27.36

200 meters

27.51

300 meters

27.67

400 meters

27. 73

600 meters ...

27.72

Station 1036; Aug. 18; depth, 1025 meters; lat. 62°32'
N., long. 60°20' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.756
meters

Ometer.

8.40
8.10
2.33
1.72
2.23
3.23
3.93
4.03
.3.83
3.73
3.63

33.78
33.74
33.80
33.89
34.09
34.59
34.77
34.83
34.85
34.86
34.87

26.27

20 meters

26.29

40 meters.

27.00

60 meters.

27.12

100 meters .

27.24

200 meters

27.55

300 meters.

27.63

500 meters

27.67

700 meters.

27.71

900 meters

27.72

1,000 meters

27.74

Station 1037; Aug. 18; depth, 1,500 meters; lat. 62°19
N., long. 59''30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.742
meters

0 meter.

8.40
8.30
7.69
3.74
3.53
3.73
4.04
4.04
3.84
3.63
3.43
3.23

33.95
33.97
34.15
34.44
34.63
34.74
34.82
34. 85
34.87
34.87
34.88
34.88

26.40

20 meters

26.44

50 meters . ...

26.67

100 meters

27.39

150 meters

27.55

200 meters

27.62

300 meters

27.66

500 meters

27.68

800 meters

27.72

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.74
27.77
27.79

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

215

station 1038; Aug. 19: depth, 2,377 meters; lat. 62°07'
N. long. 58°41' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.677
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

fft

8.70
8.70
(4. 70)
3.72
3.72
3.92
4.12
3.92
3.62
3.42
3.32

33.82
34.18
34.43
34.65
34.75
34.81
34.86
34.87
34.88
34.89
34.89

26 26

20 meters

26.54

27.10

27.56

150 meters

27.63

27.67

300 meters

27.68

27.72

800 meters

27.75

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

27.78
27.78

Station 1039; Aug. 19; depth, 2,377 meters; lat. 61°55'
N., long. 57°58' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.673
meters

0 meter

20 meters. - -
SOmeters--.
100 meters. -
150meters.-
200 meters. -
300 meters. .
500 meters. .
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters

9.30
9.10
6.57
3.94
3.52
3.72
3.93
3.72
3.52
3.42
3.32
3.22

34.41
34. 41
34.49
34.67
34.75
34.80
34.84
34.86
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.89

26.64
26.67
27.10
27.55
27.65
27.67
27.68
27.72
27.75
27.77
27.77
27.78

Station 1040; Aug. 19; depth, 2,277 meters; lat. 61°23'
N., long. 58°49' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.657
meters

0 meter

20 meters...
SOmeters...
100 meters. .
150 meters,.
200 meters. .
300 meters. .
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters

34.38
34.37
34.41
34.64
34.77
34.83
34.88
34.89
34.89
34.89
34.89

26.64
26.65
26.96
27.52
27.64
27.68
27.71
27.74
27.77
27.78
27.79

Station 1041; Aug. 19; depth, 2,300 meters; lat. 61°
26' N., long. 59°32' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.685
meters

0 meter

9.10
9.00
7.28
3.93
3.72
3.72
4.04
3.93
3.62
3.42
3.32

34.17
34.18
34.35
34.66
34.77
34.81
34.87
34.88
34.89
34.89
34.88

26.48

20 meters . .

26 50

50 meters .

26 89

100 meters

27.54

150 meters.

27 65

200 meters

27 68

300 meters

27.69

500 meters...

27 72

800 meters

27.75

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

27.77
27.78

Station 1042; Aug. 19; depth, 950 meters; lat. 61°
32' N., long. 60°26' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.759
meters

0 meter

8.10
8.00
7.38
6.57
3.33
3.13
3.33
3.93
3.93
3.83

33.75
33.74
33.90
34.20
34.44
34.60
34.70
34.82
34.85
34.85

26 30

20 meters

26 31

40 meters

26 52

60 meters

26 87

100 meters. .

27 28

150 meters.

27 57

200 meters..

27 63

300 meters

27 66

500 meters

27 69

800 meters

27 70

Station 1043; Aug. 20; depth, 574 meters; lat. 61°
30' N., long. 61°17' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.727
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

0 meter

6.20
5.88
4.34
2.33
1.93
3.24
3.54
3.74
3.74

33.71
33.79
33.90
34.03
34.35
34.61
34.73
34.79
34.82

26.53

20 meters

26.62

40 meters

26 89

60 meters

27.18

100 meters

27 48

150 meters

27.57

200 meters.

27 63

300 meters

27 66

500 meters

27.69

Station 1044; Aug. 20; depth, 600 meters; lat. 61°
31' N., long. 62°00' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.749
meters

0 meter...
20 meters.
40 meters.
60 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
300 meters
500 meters

4.90

4.59

3.37

.96

.36

.46

1.77

3.27

3.47

33.34
33.32
33.42
33.60
34.00
34.35
34.53
34.72
34.79

26.39
26.41
26.61
26.94
27.30
27.58
27.63
27.66
27.69

Station 1045; Aug. 20; depth, 635 meters; lat. 61°
35' N., long. 62°45' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.735
meters

0 meter .

7.30
6.78
4.07
1.13
.93
1.24
2.64
3.04
3.44
3.54
3.64
3.64

33.74
33.72
33.79
33.94
34.12
34.27
34.53
34.64
34.72
34.77
(34. 80)
34.80

26 41

20 meters

26.46

40 meters

26 83

60 meters.

27.20

80 meters

27.36

100 meters

27 47

150 meters.-

27.56

200 meters

27.61

300 meters...

27 64

400 meters

27 67

500 meters

27.68

600 meters

27.68

Station 1046; Aug. 20; depth, 535 meters; lat. 61°
39' N., long. 63°18' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.744
meters

0 meters

6.20
5.89
4.97
1.24
.64
2.35
3.15
3.55
3.55
3.65

33. 69
33.67
33.67
33.79
34.18
34.49
34.62
34.73
34.75
.34.81

26 51

20 meters

26.54

40 meters

26 64

60 meters

27 07

100 meters.

27 43

150 meters

27.56

200 meters

27.59

300 meters

27 63

350 meters

27.64

500 meters-

27 69

Station 1047; Aug. 20; depth, 365 meters; lat. 61°39'
N., long. 63°58' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.772
meters

0 meter.

5.30
3.38
2.05
.44
-.17
1.15
2.65
2.85
3.05
2.55

31.72
32.75
33.45
33.71
34.02
34.30
34.52
34.58
34.66
34.67

25 06

20 meters

26.07

40 meters

26.75

60 meters

27.06

100 meters

27 34

150 meters

27.50

200 meters

27.55

2.50 meters

27.58

300 meters

27.62

350 meters . .

27.68

216

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1048; Aug. 21; depth, 262 meters; lat. 6ri7'
N., long. 64°39' W.

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<ri

0.90
.38
.28
.29
.29
.23
.13
.19

32.63
32.83
32.95
33.05
33.22
33.40
33.47
33.53

26.16

26.35

26.46

26.54

26.67

26.83

26.89

26.93

Station 1049; Aug. 21; depth, 360 meters; lat. 61°04'
N., long. 64°46' W.

0 meter

20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters..
80 meters..
100 meters.
150 meters.
200 meters
250 meters
300 meters
325 meters

1.00

.80

.38

-.12

-.43

-.73

-.73

.18

.18

.38

.48

32.37
32.31
32.66
32.88
33.04
33.18
33.51
33.77
33.95
34.10
34.13

25.96
25.92
26.22
26.42
26.56
26.69
26.96
27.12
27.26
27.38
27.40

Station 1050; Aug. 21; depth, 575 meters; lat. 60°53'
N., long. 64°43' W.

0 meter

20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters..
100 meters.
150 meters.
200 meters.
300 meters
400 meters.
475 meters

1.90

1.79

1.38

.97

.16

-.34

-.24

-.24

.36

.36

32.40
32.39
32.55
32.77
33.09
33.45
33.69
33.97
34.05
34.06

25.92
25.92
26.07
26.28
26.58
26.89
27.08
27.30
27.34
27.35

Station 1051; Aug. 24; depth, 65 meters; lat. 59°40'
N., long. 63°52' W.

0 meter...
10 meters.
20 meters.
30 meters
40 meters
50 meters
60 meters

3.90
3.69
3.08
2.47
1.56
-.54
-1.84

32.02
32.05
32.10
32.17
32.42
32.88
33.36

25.45
25.50
25.58
25.69
25. 96
26.43
26.87

Station 1052; Aug. 24; depth, 43 meters; lat. 59''43'
N., long. 63°38' W.

0 meter...
10 meters
20 meters
30 meters.
35 meters

2.80
2.29
2.18
2.08
1.98

32.30
32.33
32.47
33.00
33.40

25.77
25.83
25.95
26.38
26.72

Station 1053; Aug. 24; depth, 152 meters; lat. 59°38'
N., long. 63°09' W.

Station 1054; Aug. 25; depth, 102 meters; lat.5 8°62'
N., long. 62°52' W.; dj-namic height, 1,464.882
meters

0 meter

20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters..
80 meters..
100 meters
125 meters
150 meters

3.30

32.34

25.76

1.90

32.37

25.90

.76

32.51

26.08

.05

32.75

26.31

-.55

32.87

26.43

-.85

32.91

26.47

-.95

32.91

26.48

-.95

32.92

26.49

Depth

Temper-
ature
CC.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

3.20
2.68
1.86
1.45
.96
.75
.55

32.29
32.27
32.35
32.45
32.50
32.55
32.56

25.73

10 meters

25.76

25.88

25.99

40 meters

26.06

26.11

90 meters

26.13

Station 1055; Aug. 25; depth, 195 meters; lat. 58°53'
N., long. 62°23' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.917
meters

24.95
25.30
25.60
25.79
26.07
26.23
26.30
26.36
26.48
26.60
26.62

0 meter

20 meters..
30 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters..
80 meters..
90 meters..
100 meters.
125 meters
150 meters.
180 meters

7.60
4.96
2.45
.72
-.08
-.48
-.58
-.68
-.68
-.68
-.68

31.93
31.96
32.05
32.14
32.44
32.63
(32. 71)
32.78
32.93
33.08
33.10

Station 1056; Aug. 25; depth, 149 meters; lat. 58°53'
N., long. 61°54' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.881
meters

0 meter

20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters.
80 meters.
100 meters
125 meters

5.40

31.99

25.26

4.88

32.01

25.33

2.34

32.38

25.87

.34

32.64

26.20

-.37

32.82

26.39

-.77

33.00

26.54

-.87

33.03

26.57

Station 1057; Aug. 25; depth, 150 meters; lat. 58°M'
N., long. 61°27' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.889
meters

0 meter

20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters..
80 meters..
100 meters.
125 meters.
140 meters

6.00

32.09

25.28

5.39

32.01

25.29

2.33

32.28

25.79

.13

32.51

26.11

-.37

32.71

26.29

-.57

32.88

26.44

-.67

33.08

26.60

-.67

33.14

26.65

Station 1058; Aug. 25; depth, 190 meters; lat. 58°55'
N., long. 60°54' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.840
meters

0 meter —
20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters.
80 meters.
125 meters
140 meters
175 meters

4.80
3.47
1.14
.34
.14
.04
.04
.14

32.05

25.38

32.19

25.63

32.62

26.14

32. 83

26.36

32.94

26.47

33.18

26.65

33.17

26.68

33.37

26.81

0 meter

20 meters..
40 meters..
60 meters..
100 meters.
150 meters.
175 meters.
200 meters.
300 meters
450 meters

3.00
3.00
2.49
1.18
(-.50)
1.18
1.98
2.28
2.98
3.38

32.78
32.91
33.11
33.36
33.83
34.29
(34.41)
34.48
34.66
34.73

Station 1059; Aug. 25; depth, 475 meters; lat. 59°09'
N., long. 60°18' W.; dynamic height, l,454.73.i
meters

26.14
26.24
26.44
26.74
27.20
27.49
27.52
27.55
27.64
27.66

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

217

station 1060; Aug. 25; depth, 1,650 meters; lat. 59°27'
N., long. 69°48' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.717
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(960)

<Ti

6.30
6.30
6.09
6.28
4.91
4.66
4.36
3.85
3.55
3.35
3.25
3.15

33.93
33.99
34.15
(34. 39)
34.63
34.72
34.78
34.86
34.89
34.89
34.89
34.89

26.69

26.74

26.89

27.18

150 meters

27.41

27.51

300 meters

27.58

27.71

27.76

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,300 meters

27.78
27.79
27.80

Station 1061; Aug. 25; depth, 1,350 meters; lat. 59°44'
N., long. 59°21' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.718
meters

0 meter

20 meters...
40 meters.. -
60 meters.. -
100 meters..
150 meters. -
200 meters..
300 meters..
450 meters..
500 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters. -
1,000 meters
1,200 meters

9.30
9.00
8.38
7.85
6.34
5.63
5.13
4.52
4.12
4.02
3.82
3.52
3.32
3.12

34.50
34.54
34.56
34.58
34.64
34.71
34.77
34.83
34.87
34.87
34.89
34.89
34.89
34.89

26.71
26.77
26.89
27.04
27.24
27.38
27.49
27.61
27.68
27.69
27.73
27.78
27.78
27.80

Station 1062; Aug. 26; depth, 2,150 meters; lat. 60°03'
N., long. 58°52' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.640
meters

0 meter

8.60
7.68
5.57
4.97
4.58
4.32
4.12
3.92
3.62
3.32
3.22
3.12

34 48
34.60
34.68
34.63
34.73
34.80
34.85
34.86
34.87
34.88
34.89
34.88

26.80

20 meters . .

26.95

40 meters

27.29

60 meters

100 meters

27.81
27.54

150 meters

27.61

200 meters

27.67

300 meters

27.70

500 meters.

27.73

800 meters

27.77

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

27.79
27.79

Station 1063; Aug. 26; depth, 2,745 meters; lat. 60°2r
N., long. 58°24' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.683
meters

Ometer.

9.00
9.10
7.36
5.13
4.62
4.42
4.32
4.12
3.86
3.56
3.36
3.21
3.06

34.50
34.49
35.53
34.56
34.64
34.73
34.78
34.82
34.86
34.88
34.89
34.89
34.89

26.74

20 meters

26.73

40 meters

27.02

60 meters

27.33

100 meters.

27.45

150 meters

27.54

200 meters.

27.59

300 meters

27.65

500 meters.

27.70

800 meters

27.75

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.78
27.79
27.81

Station 1064; Aug. 26; depth, 2,964 meters; lat. eO°U'
N., long. 67°20' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.649
I meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(%o)

<rt

0 meter

9.40
9.20

7.57
5.74
4.82
4.52
4.37
3.92
3.61
3.41
3.26
3.11
3.06
3.01
2.91
2.96
2.91
2.70
2.50

34.51
34.47
34.53
34.64
3174
34.81
34.85
34.86
34.86
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.89
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.91
34.91
34.91

26. 68

20 meters

26.70

40 meters

26.98

60 meters .

27.32

100 meters

27.50

150 meters

27. 59

200 meters

27.64

300 meters

27.70

600 meters

27.73

800 meters

27.75

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,700 meters

1,900 meters

2,000 meters

2,100 meters

2,400 meters

27.79
27.80
27.81
27.82
27.83
27.83
27.84
27.85
27.87

Station 1065; Aug. 26; depth, 3,248 meters; lat. 60°06'
N., long. 56°13' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.663
meters

Ometer

9.90
9.49
9.38
6.03
6.02
4.72
4.52
4.16
3.71
3.31
3.21
3.11
3.06

34.46
34.44
34.53
34.62
34.72
34.78
34.84
34.86
3187
3187
3188
3189
3189

26.59

20 meters

26.64

40 meters

26.70

60 meters

27.27

100 meters

27.46

150 meters

27.55

200 meters

27.62

300 meters ..

27.67

500 meters

27.73

800 meters.

27.77

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.79
27.81
27.81

Station 1066; Aug. 26; depth, 3,430 meters; lat.
59°57' N., long. 55°14' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.623 meters

0 meter

20 meters...
40 meters...
60 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters
1,800 meters
2,400 meters
3,000 meters

3164
3158
3154
3162
3172
3181
3185
3185
3185
3186
3189
3189
3189
3190
3191
3192

26.88
26.82
26.96
27.26
27.61
27.62
27.69
27.71
27.75
27.78
27.81
27.81
27.81
27.82
27.83
27.91

Station 1067; Aug. 27; depth, 3,431 meters; lat.
60°00' N., long. 64°1.5' W.; dynamic height,
1,464.605 meters

0 meter

20 meters...
40 meters...
60 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters

9.20

3166

26.76

9.10

3156

26.77

8.38

3160

26.92

7.04

3178

27.26

5.72

3190

27.53

192

3194

27.66

161

3195

27.72

111

3192

27.73

3..')6

3191

27.78

3.21

3190

27.80

3.11

3190

27.81

3.11

3191

27.82

3.06

3190

27.82

218

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1068; Aug. 27; depth, 3,200 meters; lat.
60°07' N., long. SS"!?' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.664 meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

ft

0 meter

9.30
8.99
7.76
5.55
4.62
4.02
3.82
3.61
3.31
3.11
3.06
3.01
2.99
2.96
2.91
2.50

34.62
34.58
34.58
34.72
34.86
34.92
34.91
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90

26.79

20 meters . . .

26.82

40 meters

27.00

60 meters

27.40

100 meters

27.62

150 meters..

27.74

200 meters

27.75

300 meters

27.76

500 meters.

27.79

800 meters

27.81

1,000 iiieters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

1,800 meters

2,400 meters

3,000 meters

27.82
27.82
27.83
27.83
27.84
27.86

Station 1069; Aug. 27; depth,
60°10' N., long. 52°06' W.
1,454.682 meters

3,248 meters; lat.
dynamic height.

0 meter.. . - .

8.40
7.78
5.95
5.43
4.93
5.03
4.92
4.77
4.47
4.02
3.77
3.62
3.32

34.52
34.55
34.68
34.82
34.88
34.92
34.94
34.94
34.92
34.92
34.91
34.91
34.90

26.85

20 meters

26.97

40 meters.

27.32

60 meters

27.49

100 meters ...

27.61

150 meters..

27.63

200 meters .

27.65

300 meters

27.67

500 meters

27.69

800 meters

27.72

1,000 meters.

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.75
27.77
27.79

Station 1070; Aug. 27; depth,
60°13' N., long. 51°14' W.
1,454.610 meters

3,376 meters; lat.
dynamic height.

0 meter

9.20
7.66
5.94
,";.43
5.12
4.86
4.71
4.41
3.96
3.51
3.31
3.21
3.11
3.01
2.91
2.60

34.55
34.53
34.55
34.74
34.91
34.96
34.96
34.94
34.92
34.92
34.92
34.91
34.91
34.91
34.90
34.90

26.76

20 meters

26.97

40 meters

27.22

60 meters..

27.43

100 meters

27.60

150 meters.

27.67

200 meters. .

27.69

300 meters

27.71

500 meters . . .

27.74

800 meters

27.79

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

1,800 meters

2,400 meters

3,000 meters

27.81
27.81
27.82
27.83
27.83
27.85

Station 1071; Aug. 27; depth,
60°23' N., long. 50°48' W.
1,454.575 meters.

3,230 meters; lat.
dynamic height,

9.20
8.58
7.36
6.06
5.35
4.87
4.53
4.17
3.71
3.31
3.16
3.06
3.01

34.67
34.68
34.73
34. 8S
34.99
35.01
36.00
34.98
34.94
34.91
34.90
34.90
34.90

26. 85

20 meters

26. 95

27.17

60 meters

27.47

27.64

27.71

200 meters

27.75

300 meters

27.77

500 meters

27.78

800 meters

27.80

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,600 meters

27.81
27.82
27.83

Station 1072; Aug.
60°34' N., long.
1,454.679 meters

28; depth, 3,120 meters; lat.
60°26' W.; dynamic height

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

0 meter

9.20

8.98
8.28
7.67
5.71
5.21
4.91
4.41
3.61
3.41
3.21
3.11
3.01

34.61
34.68
34.90
34.99
35. 04
35.04
35.03
34.99
34.94
34.93
34.91
34.92
34.91

26.81

20 meters .

26.89

40 meters

27.17

60 meters

27.34

100 meters

27.63

27.70

200 meters. .

27.73

300 meters

27.75

600 meters

800 meters

27.78
27.80

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.81
27.82
27.83

I

station 1073; Aug. 28; depth, 2,972 meters; lat. 60°45'
N., long. 60°10' W.; dynamic height, 1,464.577
meters

9.40
9.19
8.66
6.74
6.03
4.21
3.91
3.61
3.41
3.10
3.00
2.95
2.90

34.68
34.78
34.88
34.89
34.89
34.90
34.90
34.91
34.90
34.90
34.89
34.89
34.89

26.82

20 meters

26.93

40 meters

27.10

60 meters...

27.38

100 meters

27.60

27.70

200 meters

27.73

300 meters.

27.77

500 meters

27.79

800 meters

27.81

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,600 meters

27.82
27.82
27.82

Station 1074; Aug. 28; depth, 2,818 meters; lat. 60°57'
N., long. 49°46' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.620
meters

0 meter...

8.70
8.70
8.59
8.08
6.15
5.29
4.93
4.53
3.91
3.51
3.31
3.18
3.11

34.68
34.70
34.73
34.78
34.91
34.98
35.01
34.99
34.94
34.92
34.91
34.90
34.90

26.94

20 meters

26.95

40 meters

26.99

27.11

100 meters

27.48

27.64

200 meters

27.71

300 meters

27.74

500 meters.

27.76

800 meters.-

27.79

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters.

27.80
27.81
27.81

Station 1075; Aug. 28; depth, 316 meters; lat. 61011'
N., long. 49°30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.840
meters

0 meter

20 meters.
40 meters.
60 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
275 meters
.300 meters

25.13
26.62
26.31
26.74
27.24
27.30
27.36
27.39
27.39

Station 1076; Aug. 28; depth, 120 meters; lat. ei'lS'
long. 49°08' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.925 meters

0 meter

20 meters.
40 meters.
60 meters.
80 meters.
100 meters

30.44
31.01
31.63
32.33
32.84
33.14

24.07
24.47
25.19
25.81
26.24
26.47

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

219

station 1077; Sept. 1; depth, 165 meter.s; lat. 60°39'
N., long. 48°39' W.

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

Oi

4.10
3.49
3.29
3.28
3.38
3.38
3.90
4.20

31.47
32.51
33.28
33.62
33.72
33.82
34.02
34.06

24.98

20 meters

25.88

26.51

60 meters . . . .

26.78

26.85

100 meters

26. 93

27.04

150 meters. ...

27.04

Station 1078; Sept. 1; depth, 249 meters; lat. 60°24'
N., long. 48°23' W.

0 meter...
20 meters.
40 meters-
60 meters-
80 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
225 meters

4.10
3.50
3.60
4.70
5.00
5.20
5.40
5.50

33.25
33.45
33.88
34.23
34.45
34.50
34.59
34.64

26.41
26.62
26.96
27.12
27.26
27.28
27.32
27.35

Station 1079; Sept. 2; depth, 2,972 meters; lat. 60°
N.. long. 48°04' W.

Ometer.

8.90
8.60
8.19
7.78
6.26
6.05
6.74
5.63
5.22
4.12
3.71
3.51
3.41
3.31

34.94
34.97
35.00
35.02
35.06
35.09
35.10
(35. 10)
35.06
34.93
34.91
34.91
34.92
34.93

27.10

20 meters

27.18

27.27

60 meters

27.34

100 meters

27.51

150 meters.

27.63

200 meters.

27.68

27.69

300 meters..

27.71

500 meters

27.73

800 meters

27.76

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.78
27.80
27.81

Station 1080; Sept. 2; depth, 175 meters; lat. 59°40'
N., long. 44°20' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.707
meters

Ometer...
20 meters.
40 meters.
60 meters.
80 meters.
100 meters
125 meters
150 meters

4.60
4.30
4.35
4.70
5.00
5.10
5.15
5.20

33.28

26.38

33.61

26.67

34.03

27.00

34.22

27.12

34.42

27.24

34.52

27.31

34.70

27.43

34.73

27.46

Station 1081; Sept. 2; depth, 462 meters; lat. 59°32'
N.,long. 44°50' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.671
meters

Ometer

7.10
7.20
7.20
6.93
6.18
6.37
5.17
5.17
5.17

34.77
34.79
34.81
34.83
34.84
34.83
34.82
34.86
34.93

27.25

20 meters

27.25

40 meters

27.26

60 meters

27.31

100 meters .

27.42

150 meters

27.51

200 meters

27.53

300 meters

27.56

425 meters

27.62

Station 1082; Sept. 2; depth, 2,150 meters; lat. 59°22'
N., long. 45''13' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.601
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

fft

0 meter

7.60
7.20
6.98
6.16
5.45
5.05
4.70
4.24
3.94
3.63
3.23
3.13
3.13
3.13

34.65
34.81
34.84
34.87
34.91
34.93
34.91
34.91
34.90
34.89
34.88
34.89
34.90
34.91

27.08

20 meters .

27.26

40 meters

27.32

60 meters

27.44

100 meters

27.57

150 meters

27.63

200 meters ...

27.65

300 meters.

27.70

425 meters .

27.73

27.75

800 meters

27.79

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.80
27.81
27.82

Station 1083; Sept. 3; depth,
59°12' N., long. 45°37' W.;
1,454.636 meters

2,251 meters; lat.
dynamic height,

Ometer

8.70
8.80
8.59
8.08
5.85
5.23
4.93
4.33
3.72
3.31
3.11
3.11
3.11

34.61
34.67
34.79
34.89
34.95
34.96
34.94
34.92
34.88
34.88
34.89
34.90
34.90

26.89

20 meters

26.91

40 meters

27.04

60 meters

27.20

100 meters

27.55

150 meters

27.63

200 meters . ...

27.65

300 meters

27.70

500 meters

27.73

800 meters . .

27.77

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.79
27.81
27.81

Station 1084; Sept. 3; depth, 2,562 meters; lat. .'58°57'
N., long. 46°11' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.615
meters

0 meter

8.80
8.80
8.58
7.45
5.53
4.93
4.57
4.02
3.51
3.31
3.11
3.01
3.01

34.83
(34. 83)
34.81
34.89
34.94
34.95
34.93
34.91
34.89
34.90
34.90
34.89
34.89

27.04

20 meters

27.04

40 meters

27.05

60 meters .

27.28

100 meters

27.58

150 meters

27.66

200 meters...

27.69

300 meters

27.72

500 meters .

27.76

800 meters. .

27.79

1,000 meters

1,200 meters. _

1,500 meters

27.81
27.81
27.81

Station 1085; Sept. 3; depth, 2,791 meters; lat. 58°36'
N., long. 46°44' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.614,
meters

0 meter. ..

8.70
8.80
8.58
7.77
5.64
5.03
4.73
4.22
3.71
3.31
3.11
3.01
3.01

34.75
34.75
34.75
34.84
34.99
35.02
34.99
34.94
34.89
34.89
34.89
34.89
34.91

26.98

20 meters...

26.98

40 meters

27.01

60 meters .

27.20

100 meters

27.61

150 meters

27.70

200 meters

27.71

300 meters

27.73

500 meters

27.74

800 meters

27.78

1,000 meters

1.200 meters.

1,500 meters

27.80
27.81
27.83

79920—37-

-15

220

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1086; Sept. 3; depth, 3,431 meters; lat. 68°12'
N., long. 47''16' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.582
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

ff»

8.90
8.80
8.39
6.95
5.13
4.72
4.52
4.27
3.61
3.26
3.11
3.11
3.11
3.01

34.82
34.79
34.78
34.83
34.94
35.01
35.02
35.01
34.93
34.90
34.89
34.89
34.90
34.91

27.01

20 meters

27.01

27.06

60 meters - . .

27.31

100 meters

27.63

150 meters .- .

27.73

27.77

300 meters..

500 meters

27.78
27.79

800 meters

27.80

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

2,000 meters

27.80
27.80
27.81
27.83

Station 1087; Sept. 3; depth, 3,493 meters; lat. 57°50'
N., long. 47°48' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.584
meters

0 meter

20 meters...
40 meters...

60 meters

100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters

9.50
9.10
8.99
6.03
4.92
4.41
4.21
3.81
3.40
3.10
3.10
3.10
3.00

34.73
34.71
34.75
34.81
34.91
34.95
34.94
34.93
34.91
34.88
34.89
34.89
34.90

26.84
26.89
26.94
27.41
27.63
27.72
27.73
27.76
27.79
27.80
27.80
27.81
27.82

Station 1090; Sept. 4; depth, 3,840 meters; lat. 56*22'
N., long. 48°48' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.565
meters.

Station 1088; Sept. 4; depth, 3,566 meters; lat. 57''27'
N., long. 48°23' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.572
meters

0 meter...

9.40
9.10
8.28
5.32
4.11
4.01
3.71
3.50
3.30
3.10
3.05
3.00
3.00

34.75
34.73
34.75
34.83
34.91
34.93
34.92
34.90
34.89
34.88
34.88
34.89
34.90

26.87

20 meters

26.91

40 meters . .

27.05

fiO meters

27.51

100 meters .. . . .

27.72

150 meters

27.75

200 meters .

27.77

300 meters

27.77

500 meters...

27.78

800 meters

27.80

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.80
27.81
27.82

Station 1089; Sept. 4; depth, 3,721 meters; lat.
56°55' N., long. 48°64' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.606 meters

0 meter

20 meters

40 meters

60 meters

100 meters...
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters,
1,200 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters
2,400 meters
3,000 meters

9.70

34.64

26.73

9.60

34.63

26.74

9.29

34.64

26.80

7.56

34.82

27.21

4.31

34.90

27.68

3.75

34.86

27.72

3.50

34.84

27.73

3.30

34.83

27.74

3.10

34.83

27.76

3.05

34.86

27.79

3.00

34.88

27.81

2.95

(34.88)

27.81

2.90

34.88

27.81

2.80

34.90

27.84

2.70

34.91

27.85

2.14

34.92

27.91

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<ri

0 meter . .

9.90
9.90
8.98
5.12
3.91
3.60
3.35
3.20
3.04
2.99
2.99
2.99
2.89
2.79

34.63
34.63
34.68
34.80
34.87
34.89
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.90

26.70
28.70
26. gS
27.52
27.71
27.78
27.77
27.79
27.80
27.81
27.81
27.81
27.82
27.84

40 meters..

60 meters . .

100 meters.

150 meters

200 meters

300 meters

500 meters .

800 meters.

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

2,000 meters

Station 1091; Sept. 4; depth, 3,800 meters; lat. 65''47'
N., long. 48°53' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.586
meters.

0 meter

20 meters.. -
40 meters. -.
60 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters. -
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters
2,050 meters
2,550 meters
3,100 meters

10.60
10.40
10.20
5.42
3.89
3.63
3.48
3.28
3.18
3.08
3.03
3.03
3.03
2.98
2.98
2.88
2.78

34.66
34.66
34.68
34.76
34.85
34.89
34.89
34.88
34.88
34.87
34.88
34.89
34.88
34.89
34.90
34.91
34.92

26.63
26.68
27.45
27.66
27.75
27.76
27.77
27.78
27.80
27.81
27.81
27.81
27.82
27.82
27.83
27.86

Station 1092; Sept. 5; depth, 3,800 meters; lat. SS'IS'
N., long. 49°06' W.; dynajiic height, 1,454.599
meters.

10.20
10.10
9.78
5.12
3.80
3.69
3.49
3.29
3.19
3.09
2.99
2.99
3.09

34.47
34.47
34.50
34.68
34.83
34.87
34.88
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.89
34.89
34.89

26.54

20 meters

26^56

40 meters

26.64

27.42

100 meters . .

27.69

150 meters

27.73

200 meters

27.75

300 meters

27.76

500 meters

27.79

800 meters

27.60

1,000 meters.

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.81
27.81
27.82

Station 1093; Sept. 5; depth, 3,724 meters; Ist. 54'>37
N.. long. 49''16' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.595
meters.

26.57
26.60
26.69
27.14
27.63
27.72
27.75
27.77
27.7V
27.81
27.80
27.81
27.82
27.82
27.83
27.85

0 meter

20 meters...
40 meters...
60 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters.
1,900 meters.
2,400 meters.
3,000 meters

10.30

34.55

10.20

34.58

9.68

34.66

7.55

34.72

4.14

34.80

3.49

34.83

3.39

34.85

3.29

34.87

3.13

34.88

2.98

34.88

3.08

34.87

2.98

34.88

2.88

34.89

2.88

34.89

2.83

34.90

2.68

34.91

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

221

station 1094; Sept. 5; depth, 3,340 meters; lat. 54°00'
N., long. 49°26' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.627

meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

at

10.40
10.10
9.77
5.93
4.91
4.00
3.69
3.49
3.49
3.29
3.19
3.09
2.99

34.38
34.39
34.47
34.72
34.81
34.84
34.86
34.87
34.87
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.89

26.43

26.49

26.62

27.35

27.55

27.67

27.72

27.76

27.76

27.78

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.79
27.80
27.82

Station 1095; Sept. 5; depth, 3,639 meters; lat. 53°27'
N., long. 49°38' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.626
meters.

0 meter

20 meters...
40 meters...
fiO meters ...
100 meters..
150 meters.
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

11.20
11.00
9.65
5.82
4.92
4.20
4.00
3.69
3.28
3.17
3.07
3.07
3.02
2.97

90

26.32
26.38
26.53
27.41
27.57
27.66
27.69
27.75
27.77
27.79
27.80
27.80
27.81
27.82

Station 1096; Sept. 6; depth,
53015' N., long. 50°46' W.
1,454.643 meters

3,474 meters; lat.
dynamic height,

0 meter

10.20
9.79
6.12
4.51
3.81
3.70
3.60
3.60
3.50
3.30
3.24
3.19
3.09
2.89

34.29
34.30
34.35
34.56
34.75
34.84
34.85
34.87
34.87
34.87
34.87
34.87
34.88
34.89

26 38

20 meters

26.46

40 meters

27 04

60meters

27.40

100 meters

150 meters

27.62
27 70

200 meters.. .

27 72

300 meters

27 75

500 meters

27.76

800 meters....

27 78

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

2,000 meters

27.78
27.79
27.80
27.83

Station 1097; Sept. 6; depth, 2,115 meters; lat.
53°07' N., long. 51°14' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.657 meters

n meter

20 meters...
40 meters...
60 meters.. -
100 meters,.
150 meters
200 meters..
300 meters..
500 meters..
800 meters
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1.500 meters
2,000 meters

10.40
10.30
6.73
5.10
3.89
3.68
3.68
3.68
3.68
3.48
3.18
3.08
2.88
2.88

34.18
34.20
34.25
34.51
34.74
34.81
34.82
34.85
34.86
34.87
34.87
34.87
34.88
34.89

26.26
26.29
26.88
27.29
27.60
27.68
27.69
27.71
27.72
27.75
27.78
27.79
27.81
27.82

Station 1008; Sept. 6; depth, 855 meters; lat. 52"'55' N.,
long. 51°36' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.648 meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity

mo)

<ri

0 meter ..

7.00
7.20
7.00
4.15
3.17
3.12
3.52
3.67
3.72
3.62
3.52
3.42

33.70
33.82
33.97
34.05
34.46
34.59
34.74
34.81
34.85
34.86
34.87
84.88

26 42

20 meters

26 48

40 meters

26 64

60 meters

27 03

80 meters

27 46

liTO meters

27 56

150 meters

27 65

200 meters

27 68

300 meters

27 71

400 meters

27 73

600 meters

27 75

800 meters

27 77

Station 1099; Sept. 6; depth, 300 meters; lat. 52°43' N.,
long. 52°04' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.685 meters

0 meter...
20 meters.
40 meters.
60 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
225 meters
275 meters.
300 meters.

6.80
6.19
-.19
-.39
1.02
2.12
2.72
2.93
3.13
3.13

33.13
33.28
33.52
33.66
34.04
34.38
34.58
34.67
34.67
(34. 69)

26.00
26.19

26.94
27.06
27.29
27.48
27.59
27.60
27.62
27.65

Station 1100; Sept. 7; depth, 243 meters; lat. 62°30' N.,
long. 52°32' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.679 meters

0 meter...
20 meters.
40 meters.
60 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
225 meters

33.11
33.09
33.76
33.80
34.11
34.44
34.61
34.70

25.84
25.86
26.85
27.16
27.35
27.55
27.63
27.68

Station 1101: Sept. 7; depth, 250 meters; lat. 52'='20'N.,
long. 53°04' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.714 meters

0 meter.. -
20 meters.
40 meters.
60 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
225 meters

32.76
32.85
33.22
33.56
33.90
34.24
34.44
34.50

25.51
25.61
26.64
26.99
27.25
27.44
27.52
27.53

Station 1102; Sept. 7; depth, 260meters; lat. 52»12' N.,
long. 54''07' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.771 meters

0 meter...
20 meters.
40 meters.
60 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
225 meters.
240 meters.

9.90

9.28

7.15

5.54

3.10

.89

-.91

-1.11

-1.21

32.77
32.80
33.00
33.30
33.62
33.91
34.22
(34.31)
34.39

25.25
25.37
25.84
26.29
26.79
27.20
27.53
27.62
27.69

222

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1103; Sept. 7; depth, 380 meters; lat. 52°15'
N., long. 53°30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.759
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

at

0 meter

9.70

7.14

3.92

.90

-.21

-.31

-.02

.59

.79

2.30

3.00

32.77
32.78
32.87
33. 09.
33.49
33.85
34.15
34.37
34.43
34.64
34.80

25.28

25.66

40 meters

26.12

26.53

26.91

27.21

200 meters

27.43

27.55

250 meters

27.57

27.67

27.74

Station 1104; Sept. 8; depth, 152 meters; lat. 52°05' N.,
long. 54°38' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.718 meters

0 meter

6.80
4.96
-.09
-.89
-.79
-.59
-.39
.01
-.09
-.08

32.42
32.76
33.00
33.30
33.45
33.52
33.75
(33.85)
33.93
(34.00)

25.43

25.92

26.51

60 meters

26.79

26.90

100 meters

27.00

120 meters-

27.13

130 meters

27.20

27.27

150 meters

27.32

Station 1108; Sept. 8; depth, 175 meters- lat in»i-
N., long. 65°23' W. ' '

Station 1 105: Sept. 8; depth, 145 meters; lat. 51°57' N.,
long. 55°08' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.824 meters

0 meter

20 meters..
40 meters-
60 meters..
80 meters..
100 meters
120 meters
130 meters.

6.40

31.40

5.47

32.00

3.62

32.45

.61

32.68

-.28

32.83

-.59

32.86

-.69

32.90

-.69

32.94

24.66
25.25
25.81
26.21
26.39
26.42
26.46
26.49

Station 1106; Sept. 8; depth, 139 meters; lat. 51''46'N.,
long. 55°13' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.816 meters

0 meter

7.00
6.35
3.12
-.29
-.69
-.89
-.89
-.89

31.30
31.62
32.40
32.61
32.73
32.81
32.88
(32.89)

24.52

20 meters

24.84

40 meters

25.81

60 meters

26.21

80 meters.

26.32

100 meters

26.39

125 meters

26.45

130 meters

26.46

Station 1107; Sept. 8; depth, 130 meters; lat. 51''38'N.,
long. 55°16' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.928 meters

0 meter...

10.00
9.58
8.16
6.74
4.91
3.60
1.68

31.16
31.20
31.41
31.62
32.03
32.49
32.65

23 88

20 meters...

24 06

40 meters

24.43

60 meters

24 79

80 meters

25 34

100 meters

25.84

125 meters..

26 13

Depth

0 meter

20 meters -
40 meters.
60 meters..
80 meters..
100 meters
125 meters
160 meters

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

8.97

6.35

2.70

-.31

-1.31

-1.21

.09

Salinity

(96o)

»i

31.28

21 If.

31.57

2144

32.48

25. a

32.96

2S.30

33.17

2El«

33.30

%.»

33.44

26.(1

33.55

2(.t3

Station 1109; Sept. 8; depth, 272 meters; lat jij'i;'
N., long,54°58'W.; dynamic height, l,454.7Mraet«n

0 meter

20 meters.
40 meters..
60 meters..
80 meters.,
100 meters
150 meter.s.
160 meters
200 meters
250 meters
260 meters

8.90

31.75

7.97

31.87

1.50

32.80

-.70

33.01

-1.21

33.09

-1.51

33.17

-1.30

33.33

-1.20

(33.45)

.70

33.57

.30

(33.68)

.20

33.79

2i«l
24.86
26.21
21 S5

26. Q
2171
26.S
2111
26.M

27. W
27.13

Station 1110; Sept. 8; depth, 272 meters; lat. S0^5
N., long. 54°22' W.; dynamic height, l,154.:ii
meters

0 meter...
20 meters.
40 meters.
60 meters.
80 meters -
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
250 meters

9.30
8.68
1.90
-.20
-.81
-.92
-.21
.59
1.39

32.03
32.07
33.05
33.26
33.42
33.57
33.88
34.09
34.31

21 :«
H.»
26l44

217)
26. S

27.00

r.24

27.38
7!.«

Station 1111; Sept. 9; depth. 283 meters; lat.50-"J'
N., long. 53°46' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.74;
meters

0 meter

20 meters.
40 meters.
60 meters.,
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
250 meters

Station 1112; Sept. 9; depth, 423 meters; lat.50'4i'
N., long. 53°13' W.; dynamic height, 1,4447*
meters

2S.»
25.»
%*

16.S
%.*
27. U

r.r
».•

V.9

9.10

8.18

-.12

-1.21

-1.21

-.71

.79

1.70

1.80

2.10

32.36
32.44
32.95
33.18
33.43
33.73
34.00
34.22
34.37
34.45

20 meters .

40 meters

100 meters . .

150 meters

200 meters

250 meters

300 meters

375 meters

DAVIS STRAIT AN© LABRADOR SEA

223

station 1113; Sept. 9; depth, 270 meters; lat. 50°49'
N., long. 52°32' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.751
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

at

9.90
9.38
6.65
2.90
-.32
-1.12
-.92
.18
1.32

32.24
32.30
32.68
33.26
33.39
33.48
33.75
33.99
34.20

24.83

24.96

25.65

26.52

26.83

26.94

27.15

27.30

27.41

Station 1114; Sept. 9; depth, 230 meters; lat. 50°45'
N., long. 51°49' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.721
meters

10.00
9.68
2.91
-.52
-.72
-.82
-.22
-.02

32.18
32.29
33.00
33.26
33.55
33.87
34.16
34.20

24.77

24.90

26.32

26.74

100 meters

26.98

27.25

200 meters

27.45

27.47

Station 1115; Sept. 9; depth, 275 meters; lat. 50°34
N., long. 51°11' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.628
meters

9.80
8.48
2.70
1.49
1.09
1.09
1.09
1.29

32.90
33.09
33.68
33.89
34.16
34.45
34.58
34.68

25.37

25.72

26.87

27.13

27.38

150 meters

27.62

200 meters

27.72

250 meters

27.78

Station 1116; Sept. 9; depth, 810 meters; lat. 50°33'
N., long. 50°32' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.603
meters

0 meter

8.80
8.40
6.05
4.23
3.60
3.50
3.45
3.40
3.40
3.30
3.20

33.65
33.77
34.29
34.62
34.82
34.85
34.86
(34. 86)
34.86
34.87
34.87

26.11

20 meters

26.27

40 meters

27.08

60 meters

27.47

100 meters

27.70

150 meters

27.73

200 meters

27.75

250 meters

27.76

300 meters

27.76

500 meters

27.77

geometers

27.78

Station 1117; Sept. 9; depth, 1,284 meters; lat. 50°28'
N., long. 49°54' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.617
meters

0 meter.

9.00
8.79
6.35
4.43
3.50
3.45
3.40
3.35
3.30
3.30
3.20
3.10

33.71
33.75
34.36
34.72
34.82
34.84
34.84
34.85
34.86
34.87
34.88
34.88

26.13

20 meters

26.19

40 meters... .

27.01

60 meters

27.53

100 meters..

27 71

150 meters...

27.73

200 meters

27.73

300 meters .

27 75

500 meters

27.76

800 meters

27.77

1.000 meters

1.200 meters.

27.79
27.80

Station 1118; Sept. 10; depth, 2,900 meters; lat.
60°24' N., long. 49°16' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.617 meters.

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

0 meter... .

10.20
9.79
8.48
5.12
4.00
3.59
3.39
3.28
3.23
3.18
3.08
3.08
3.08
3.08

34.16
34.21
34.31
34.53
34.81
34.86
34.86
34.86
34.86
34.87
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.88

26.29

20 meters...

26.38

40 meters...

26.68

60 meters.-

27.31

100 meters

27.65

150 meters

27.73

200 meters

27.75

300 meters .

27.76

400 meters.-

27.76

600 meters .

27.78

800 meters . .

27.80

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,500 meters

27.80
27.80
27.80

Station 1119; Sept. 10; depth,
49°45' N., long. 49°19' W.
1,454.623 meters

1,5C0 meters; lat.
dynamic height.

0 meter

10.20
9.79
8.88
6.12
4.50
3.89
3.68
3.28
3.18
3.08
3.08
3.08

34.08
34.26
34.44
34.69
34.82
34.86
34.86
34.87
34.88
34.87
34.88
34.88

26.22

20 meters. . .

26.44

40 meters

26.72

60 meters

27.23

100 meters

27.60

200 meters

27.70

300 meters .

27.73

400 meters . ...

27.77

500 meters

27.79

800 meters .

27.80

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

27.80
27.80

Station 1120; Sept. 10; depth, 560 meters; lat. 49°25'
N., long. 49°47' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.641
meters

0 meter...

10.20
9.68
8.17
5.72
4.61
4.20
3.90

(3. 74)
3.59
3.28

33.95
33.96
34.10
34.65
34.83
34.84
34.85
(34. 85)
34.86
34.86

26.11

20 meters

26.21

26.56

60 meters

27.33

100 meters .

27.60

150 meters

27.65

200 meters - ..

27.69

260 meters

27.71

300 meters

27.73

600 meters

27.76

Station 1121; Sept. 10; depth, 274 meters; lat. 49°06'
N., long. 60°14' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.774
meters

0 meter .

8.80

8.38

.58

-1.62

-1.52

-1.22

-.12

1.40

2.40

2.80

32.67
32.72
33.13
33.36
33.48
33.69
33.80
34.00
(34. 10)
34.19

25.36

25.45

40 meters

26.59

60 meters.. .

26.87

80 meters

26.96

100 meters

27.04

150 meters . . . ..

27.16

200 meters

27.23

250 meters.

27.24

260 meters

27.28

224

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1122; Sept. 10; depth, 210 meters; lat. 48°51'
N., long. 50°36' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.814

meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

at

0 meter

11.00
10.39
-.83
-1.13
-1.63
-1.73
-1.73
-1.73
-1.53

32.97
32.99
33.02
33.14
33.22
33.29
33.44
(33. 46)
33.55

25.18

20 meters.

25.33

40 meters ...

26.56

60 meters.

26.67

80 meters

26.75

100 meters

26.81

150 meters..

26.94

160 meters

26.95

200 meters

27.02

Station 1123; Sept. 11; depth, 168 meters; lat. 48°37'
N., long. 51°00' W.; dynamic height, 1.454.852
meters

0 meter

11.20
10.58
1.08
-1.13
-1.53
-1.63
-1.43
-1.43
-1.33

31.70
31.77
32.92
33.17
33.20
33.29
33.31
(33. 35)
33.37

24.19

20 meters.

24.35

40 meters

26.44

60 meters ....

26.69

80 meters

26.73

100 meters . . .

26.81

125 meters.

26. 82

140 meters .

26.85

160 meters ...

26.87

Station 1124; Sept. 11; depth, 155 meters; lat.48°22'
N., long. 51°21' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.848
meters

0 meter

12.00
11.58
.36
-1.14
-1.54
-1.64
-1.64
-1.54

31.78
31.83
32.93
33.24
33.30
33.34
33.38
33.41

24.11

20 meters

24.25

40 meters.

26.44

60 meters

26.76

80 meters...

26.81

100 meters ..

26.85

125 meters

26.88

140 meters ... .

26.91

Station 1125; Sept. 11; depth, 170 meters; lat.48°07'
N., long. 51°44' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.851
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

ffi

0 meter

12.10

11.59

2.88

-.34

-1.34

-1.64

-1.74

-1.74

-1.64

31.66
31.72
32.94
33.05
33.25
33.31
33.33
(33.35)
33.35

23 99

20 meters

24 13

40 meters

26 28

60 meters. . . . _.

26 Si

80 meters

26 77

100 meters.. .

26 83

125 meters

26 85

140 meters ...

26 85

150 meters

26 86

Station 1126; Sept. 11; depth, 180 meters; lat.47''52'
N., long. 52°06' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.899
meters

0 meter

11.60

10.90

3.50

.46

-.54

-.94

-1.14

-1.34

-1.34

31.33
31.38
32.20
32.81
33.00
33.10
33.15
(33. 15)
33.17

23.90

20 meters...

23.99

40 meters

25.63

60 meters

26.33

80 meters.

26.53

100 meters

26.63

130 meters .

26.68

140 meters

26.68

170 meters . .

26 70

Station 1127; Sept. 11; depth, 142 meters; M.iVW <
N., long. 52°30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.900
meters

0 meter

12.40
12.10
3.50
.96
.96
.96
1.06

31.36
31.38
32.43
32.80
33.01
33. 07
33.13

23.79

20 meters

23.84

40 meters..

25.81

60 meters.

26.30

80 meters

26.47

100 meters

26.52

130 meters . ...

26.56

GENERAL GREENE, 1931

Station 1220; July 4; depth, 168 meters; lat. 47°40' N.,
long. 52°32' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.817
meters

Depth

0 meter...
25 meters..
50 meters.
75 meters,
100 meters
150 meters

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

10.60

3.22

.45

-1.30

-1.22

-.75

Salinity
(9Co)

32. 04
32.23
32.69
32.91
32.98
33.17

24.56
25.68
26.24
26.47
26.54
26.68

Station 1221; July 4; depth, 185 meters; lat. 47°56'
N., long. 52°13' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.801
meters

0 meter

9.90

2.23

-.68

-1.14

-1.20

-1.02

31.83
32.45
32.93
32.94
32.98
33.26

24 51

25 meters

25 93

50 meters

26 485

75 meters

26 51

100 meters

26 54

ISO meters

26 77

Station 1222; July 4; depth 192 meters; lat. 48»18'
N., long. 51°S4' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.789
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

ffi

0 meter... ..

8.29

5.37

-1.07

-1.49

-1.43

-.99

32.20
32.54
32.94
33.04
33.12
33.36

25.06

25 meters

25.71

50 meters

28.505

75 meters

26. sa

100 meters _ . . .

28.66

150 meters.

28.85

Station 1223; July 5; depth, 170 meters; lat. 48^
N., long. 51°39' W.; dynamic height 1,454.795
meters

0 meter

8.30

5.12

-.22

-1.10

-1.02

-.96

32.20
32.55
32.99
33.03
33.07
33.23

25.06

25 meters

25.74

50 meters . .

28.51

75 meters

38.58

100 meters..

28.61

150 meters .. ..

36.74

-

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

225

station 1224; July 5; depth, 247 meters; lat. 48°44'
N., long. 51°21' W.; dynamic height 1,454.782
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

7.10
.51
-1.02
-1.33
-1.41
-1.36
-1.07

32.07
32.50
32.88
32.89
33.03
33.26

25.12

26. 085

26.46

26.47

26 59

150 meters

26.78

Station 1225; July 5; depth, 321 meters; lat. 49°00'
N., long. 51°05' W.; dynamic height 1,454.760
meters

0 meter...
25 meters.
50 meters.
75 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters

6.90
4.96
-1.29
-1.65
-1.31
-.07
.92

32.02
32.17
32.86
33.20
33.22
33.37
34.11

25.11

25. 465

26.45

26.73

26.74

26.82

27. 355

Station 1226; July 5; depth, 320 meters; lat. 49°24'
N„ long. 50°45' W.; dynamic height 1,454.676
meters

Ometer

6.90
6.18
-.41

(4. 47)

.04

.79

1.83

2.78

32.73
32.93
33.27
33.58
33. 61
34.19
34.37
34.82

25. 665

25 meters

25.91

50 meters ...

26 75

75 meters

26 99

100 meters.

27.005

150 meters .

27 435

200 meters

27. 505

300 meters

27.77

Station 1227; July 5; depth, 497 meters; lat. 49°38'
N., long. 50°25' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.628
meters

Ometer

5.32
3.06
-.39
.79
1.67
2.51
2.80
3.20
2.88

32.82
32.91
33.83
34.04
34.13
34.39
34.58
34.86
34.89

25 93

25 meters... .

26 235

50 meters

27 195

75 meters

27 305

100 meters. .

27 32

150 meters

27 46

20O meters

27 60

300 meters.

27.77

400 meters

27 82

Station 1228; July 5; depth, 997 meters; lat. 49°58'
N., long. 50°00' W.; dynamic height 1,454.600
meters

, Ometer...
1 25meters-
' 50 meters.

100 meters

150 meters
' 200 meters,

300 meters.

400 meters.
. 600 meters

700 meters,
' 300 meters.
i MO meters.

5.02
2.72
.68
1.87
2.67
3.11
3.41
(3. 38)
3.36
3.36
3.32
3.32

32.80
33.36
34.05
34.45
34.56
34.72
(34. 90)
34.90
34.91
34.91
34.91
34.91

25.95

26.63

27.32

27. 565

27.58

27.67

27.78

27.79

27.80

27.80

27.80

27.80

Station 1229; July 6; depth, 1,792 meters; lat. 50°42'
N., long. 49°21' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.562
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<ri

Ometer

7.10
4.81
3.16
3.23
3.41
3.41
3.39
3.35
3.34
3.32
3.32

33.61
34.18
34.47
34.79
34.90
34.91
34.91
34.91
(34.91)
34.91
34.91
34.91
34.91
34.91

26 33

25 meters..

27 07

50 meters

27 47

100 meters

27 71

200 meters

27 78

300 meters

27 79

400 meters

27 79

600 meters

27 80

800 meters

27 80

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters..

27.80
27.80

1,500 meters..

1,600 meters

Station 1230; July 6; depth, 1,189 meters; lat. 50°40'
N., long. 50°00' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.569
meters

Ometer.. .

7.00
3.41
3.25
3.38
3.37
3.41
3.50
3.44
3.43
3.38
3.39
3.39
3.40

33.26
33.79
34.58
34.88
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90

26 07

25 meters

26 90

50 meters..

27.54

100 meters

27 77

150 meters

27 78

200 meters .

27 78

300 meters

27 78

400 meters

27 78

500 meters

27 78

600 meters..

700 meters.

27.78
27.78

800 meters

27 78

900 meters.

27 78

Station 1231; July 6; depth, 951 meters; lat. 50°41'
N., long. 50°23' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.595
meters

0 meter

6.42
4.99
3.01
3.39
3.42
3.42
3.47
3.45
3.44
3.43
3.42
3.42
3.40

33.02
33.63
34.58
34.80
34.81
34.82
34.86
34.87
34.90

(34. 90)
34.91

(34.91)
34.91

25 95

25 meters

26.61

50 meters

27.57

100 meters

27 70

150 meters

27.71

200 meters.

27. 725

300 meters

27 745

400 meters

27. 755

500 meters .

27 78

600 meters

27.78

700 meters

27.79

800 meters .

27 79

900 meters

27.79

Station 1232; July 6; depth, 268 meters; lat. 50°37'
N., long. 51°12' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.727
meters

0 meter

6.30
4.01
-.88
-.79
-.79
1.43
2.03

32.72
32.72
33.05
33.36
33.56
34.18
34.36

25. 735

25 meters...

25. 995

50 meters

26.58

75 meters

26.84

100 meters...

27.00

150 meters.

27.38

200 meters . .

27.48

226

MAKION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1233; July 7; depth, 210 meters; lat. 50°35'
N., long. 51°49' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.753
meters

Station 1239; July 7; depth, 165 meters; lat. 50°44' N .
long. 55°16' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.774 meters

Depth

0 meter

25 meters..
50 meters..
75 meters..
100 meters.
150 meters.
200 meters.

Temper-
ature
{°C.)

7.00
5.33
1.15
-.75
-.71
.95
1.85

Salinity
(96o)

32.49
32.72
32.94
33.17
33.33
33.92
34.35

25.47
25.85
26.40
26.68
26.81
27.19
27.49

Station 1234; July 7; depth, 227 meters; lat. 50''32' N.
long. 52°30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.765 meters

0 meter

6.70
6.40
1.96
.88
.91
.65
1.73

32.48
32.62
32.94
33.62
33.68
34.30

25.49

25 meters

25.64

26.345

75 meters

27.05

100 meters

27.10

150 meters . ..

27.60

Station 1235; July 7; depth, 432 meters; lat. 50°31' N.,
long. 53''08' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.692 meters

6.80
4.61

-.86
-1.28

-.90
1.79
2.78

32.72
32.88
33.45
33.66
33.91
34.50
34.62

25.67

25 meters

26. 055

50 meters

26. 915

27. 095

100 meters

27.28

200 meters

27.61

300 meters

27.62

Station 1236; July 7; depth, 355 meters ; lat. 50°28' N .
long. 53°38' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.684 meters

0 meter .

6.90
3.30

-.78
-1.37
-1.17

-.34
1.53

32.30
32.70
33.35
33.63
33.63
34.19
34.52

25.33

26. 045

50 meters

26.83

75 meters

27. 075

100 meters ..

27.15

150 meters

27.49

27.64

Station 1237; July 7; depth, 245 meters; lat. 50°26' N.,
long. 54°13' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.708 meters

0 meter . .

6.90
1.78
-1.15
-1.31
-1.25
-1.11
.74

32.06
32.58
33.23
33.56
33.70
34.10
34.28

25.14

25 meters

26.07

50 meters

26. 745

27.02

100 meters

27. 125

150 meters

27.45

200 meters

27.51

Station 1238; July 7; depth, 299 meters; lat. 50°24' N.,
long. 54°56' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.751 meters

0 meter .. ..

6.01
2.36
-1.13
-1.46
-1.47
-1.11
-.66

31.95
32.39
33.20
33.39
33.48
33.79
33.93

25.17

25 meters

25. 875

50 meters .

26.72

75 meters

26.885

100 meters

26.96

150 meters

27.19

200 meters

27.285

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

0 meter

5.55
1.72
-1.18
-1.67
-1.67
-1.33

31.59
32.35
32.87
33.19
33.38
33.61

24.93

25.89

50 meters

26.45

26.725

100 meters

26.88

27.06

Station 1240; July 7; depth, 66 meters; lat. 51°40' N.,
long. 55°22'30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.772
meters

0 meter .

7.09

6.45

2.34

.46

-1.09

31.73
31.71
32.19
32.75
33.17

24.86

10 meters

24.92

25.72

35 meters

26.335

50 meters

26.69

Station 1241; July 8; deptL, 81 meters; lat. 51°46' N.,
long. 55°25'W.; dynamic heights, 971.006 meters,
1,454.754 meters

3.90
2.81
-.31
-.95
-1.34

31.20
32.35
32.75
33.08
(33. 09)

24.81

10 meters

25.81

26.32

26.615

65 meters

26.635

Station 1242; July 8; depth, 71 meters; lat. 51°50' N.,
long. 55°25' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.760 meters

3.00

1.40

-1.16

-1.21

-1.30

31.58
32.15
33.03
33.07
33.09

25.18
25.75
26.58
26.61
26.63

25 meters

35 meters

Station 1243; July 8; depth, 101 meters; lat. 52°00' N.^
long. 55°24' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.760 meters

4.60
1.32

-.87

31.27
32.29
32.87
33.09
33.28

24.79
25.87
26.44
26.63;
26.79;

10 meters

25 meters

-1.45
-1.57

50 meters .

Station 1244; July 8; depth, 170 meters; lat. 52''05' N.
long. 55°29' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.780 meters

0 meter

5.45
2.17
-1.29
-1.51
-1.57
-1.53
-1.44

(31. 54)
32.54
32.99
33.16
33.17
33.25
33.26

(24.905)
26.015
26.55
26.695
26.705
26.77
26.775

50 meters

125 meters

Station 1245; July 8; depth, 101 meters; lat. 52°10' N.
long. 55°33' \V.; dynamic height, 1,454.854 meters

0 meter . .

4.50

4.88

2.45

.82

.16

-.68

29.94
29.94
30.97
31.88
32.37
32.79

23.74
23.70
24.74
25.57;
26.00
26.37

75 meters

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

227

station 1246; July 10; depth 61 meters; lat. 53°33' N.,
long. 55°40' W.; dynamic height, 1,4.')4.687 meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

o-i

0 meter

5.60

3.69

.04

-1.41

30.01
32.00
32. 14
32.92

23.68

10 meters

25.46

25 meters .

25.82

50 meters .

26.50

Station 1247; July 10; depth, 280 meters; lat. 53°41'
N., long. 55°14' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.671
meters

0 meter.

4.35

2.79

-.86

-1.22

-.97

.18

1.05

31.76
32.19
33.10
33.56
33.89
34.29
(34. 37)

25.20

25 meters.

25. 685

50 meters

26. 625

75 meters .,

27.02

125 meters .

27.27

200 meters

27.55

250 meters

27.56

Station 1248; July 10; depth, 163 meters; lat. 53°54'
N., long. 54°47' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.648
meters

0 meter

5.00

1.54

-1.32

-1.35

-1.18

-.76

.36

32.07
32.59
33.47
33.56
33.70
33.80
34.27

25.38

25 meters ..

26. 095

50 meters

26. 945

75 meters

27.02

100 meters ..

27. 125

125 meters

27.19

150 meters

27.52

Station 1249; Julv 10; depth, 176 meters; lat. 54°06'
N., long. 54°23' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.643
meters

0 meter

4.40
-.11
-1.36
-1.34
-1.08
-.73
.82

32.07
32.74
33.42
33.48
33.72
33.90
34.43

25.44

25 meters

26.31

50 meters .

26. 905

75 meters

26. 955

100 meters

27.14

125 meters

27.26

150 meters

27.62

Station 1250; July 10; depth, 207 meters; lat. 54°19'
N., long. 53°57' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.716
meters

0 meter

3.71

.97

-1.36

-1.29

-1.25

-.88

-.51

32.30
32.60
32.87
33.34
33.65
33.79
33.87

25.69

25 meters

26.14

50 meters

26. 455

75 meters..

26.84

100 meters

27.09

125 meters

27. 185

150 meters.

27.23

Station 1251; July 11; depth, 284 meters; lat. 54°33'
N., long. 53°31' W.; dynamic heights. 97.374
meters, 970.929 meters, 1,454.673 meters.

0 meter

3.05

.10

-1.19

-.72

-.24

.51

1.36

32.26
33.05
33.27
33.69
34.00
34.21
34.47

25.72

25 meters.

26. 545

SO meters

26.78

75 meters

27.10

100 meters

27.33

150 meters

27. 465

200 meters

27.62

Station 1252; July 11; depth, 631 meters; lat. 54°44'
N., long. 53°10' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.618
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<r\

0 meter. . . .

3.50
4.02
.44
2.02
3.32
3.60
3.63
3.65

33.79
(33. 95)
34.08
34.48
34.67
34.74
34.83
34.87

26.89

25 meters

26.96

50 meters.. .

27 36

100 meters..

27. 575

200 meters..

27.61

300 meters

27. 635

400 meters

27. 705

500 meters

27. 735

Station 1253; July 11; depth, 2,231 meters; lai. 54°58'
N., long. 52°48' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.573
meters

0 meter

6.30
5.39
3.61
3.50
3.55
3.59
3.57
3.43
(3.34)
3.26
3.21
3.21
(3. 13)
3.06

34.33
34.32
34.66
34.77

(34. 86)
34.86
34.87
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.88

(34. 89)
34.89

27.01

25 meters

27. 115

50 meters

27.57

100 meters .

27 67

200 meters

27. 735

300 meters

27. 735

400 meters

27. 745

600 meters

27. 755

800 meters

27. 775

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,800 meters..

27.78
27. 785
27. 785
(27. 80)
27.81

Station 1254; July 11; depth, 2,680 meters; lat.55°24'
N., long. 53°38' W.

0 meter

7.20
4.61
3.90
3.47
3.57
3.57
3.53
3.39
3.32
3.26
3.20
3.12
2.96

25 meters

50 meters

100 meters

200 meters

400 meters.

600 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters.

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,600 meters..

2,000 meters

Station 1255; July 11-12; depth, 2,98
lat. 55°52' N., long. 54°26' W,

0 meter..

7.15
5.96
4.14
3.66
3.54
3.58
3.54
3.46
3.42
3.31
3.24
3.21
3.18
3.10

25 meters

100 meters

200 meters

400 meters.

600 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1 ,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters..

2,000 meters

228

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1256; July 12; depth, 2,652 meters; lat. 56°16'
N., long. 55°17' W.; dynamic lieight, 1,454.587
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

0 meter

8.10
6.36
3.59
3.62
3.67
3.67
3.57
3.33
3.28
3.19
3.18
(3. 18)
3.18
3.08

34.02
34.51
34.72
34.77
34.87
34.88
34.89
34.89
34.89
34.89
34.89
(34. 89)
34.89
34.89

26.52

25 meters.- -

27.14

50 meters ..

27.62

100 meters

27.65

200 meters

27. 735

400 meters

27.74

600 meters

27.76

800 meters

27.78

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters.

2.000 meters

27.79
27.80
27.80
(27. 80)
27.80
27.81

Station 1257; July 12; depth, 2,362 meters; lat. 55°55'
N., long. 55°51' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.585
meters

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters.. -
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters .
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters
2,000 meters

7.70

34.36

5.49

34.48

3.57

34.70

3.54

34.79

3.59

34.86

3.56

34.87

3.55

34.88

3.38

34.88

3.29

34.89

3.30

34.89

3.15

34.89

(3. 15)

(34. 89)

3.15

34.89

2.84

34.89

26.84
27.23
27.61
27.69
27.73
27.74
27.76
27.77
27.79
27. 795
27.80
(27. 80)
27.80
27. 825

Station 1258; Julv 12; depth, 2,150 meters; lat. 55°44'
N., long. 56°10' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.603
meters

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters

100 meters...
200 meters...
400 meters.- .
600 meters...
800 meters. . .
1,000 meters.
1,200 meters .
1,400 meters.
1,500 meters.
1,600 meters.
1,800 meters.

7.70
4.60
4.42
3.42
3.59
3.62
3.62
3.45
3.38
3.23
3.18
(3. 18)
3.18

34.48
34.51
34.54
34.66
34.83
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.89
34.89
34.89
(34. 89)
34.89
34.89

26.94
27.35
27.39
27.59
27.71
27.74
27.75
27.76
27.78
27.79
27.80
(27. 80)
27.80

Station 1259; July 12; depth, 800 meters; lat. 55 °34
N., long. 56°31' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.706
meters

0 meter...,
25 meters..
60 meters..
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
300 meters
400 meters
500 meters
600 meters
700 meters

4.60

32.79

-.20

33.32

.73

33.85

1.57

34.37

2.11

34.49

2.73

34.56

3.48

34.77

3.55

34.79

3.68

34.84

3.65

34.87

3.60

34.88

25.99

26.78

27.15

27. 525

27. 575

27. 575

27.67

27.68

27.71

27. 735

27.75

Station 1260; July 12; depth, 137 meters; lat. 55°25'
N., long, 56°50' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.767
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

0 meter . .

4.90
4.75
1.68
-1.17
-1.22
-.76

32.01
32.07
32.51
32.79
33.05
33.58

25.34

10 meters

25.405

25 meters

26. 025

50 meters

26.39

75 meters

26.60

100 meters .

27.02

Station 1261; July 13; depth, 190 meters; lat. 55°18' N.,
long. 57°05' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.812 meters

0 meter

25 meters.,
50 meters.
75 meters -
100 meters
150 meters

4.10

31.83

.87

32.52

.47

32.69

-1.27

32.79

-1.30

33.08

-.88

33.37

25.28
26.08
26.24
26.39
26.62
26.85

Station 1262; July 13; depth, 259 meters; lat.
55°11' N., long. 57°19' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.839 meters

4.30
1.03
-.82
-1.31
-1.27
-.88
-.66

31.92
32.33
32.57
32.77
32.92
33.15
33.36

25.33

25 meters

25.92

50 meters .

26.20

75 meters

26.38

100 meters

26. 495

150 meters .

26.67

200 meters

26. 835

Station 1263; July 13; depth 267 meters; lat.
55°05' N., long. 57°34' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.851 meters

0 meter

4.30
.52
-1.39
-1.37
-1.15
-1.05
-.87

31.66
o2.34
32.55
32.61
32.95
33.11
33.21

25.12

25.96

50 meters . .

26.20

75 meters

26.25

100 meters

26. 515

150 meters

26.64

200 meters

26.72

Station 1264; July 15; depth 110 meters; lat.
57°07' N., long. 60°39' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.778 meters

4.10

2.01

-.49

-1.08

-1.19

31.75
31.81
32.25
32.28
32.44

25. 22

25.44

25 meters

25.93

25. 975

75 meters

26. 105

Station 1265; July 15; lat. 57°12' N., long. 60°18' W,
dynamic height, 1,454.765 meters

4.00

1.72

-.25

-1.16

-1.01

31.98
32.53
32.62
32.89
33.67

25.41

25 meters ... .

26. 035

26.22

100 meters

26.47

150 meters .

27.10

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

229

station 1266; July 15; depth 130 meters; lat.
57°17' N., long. 59°47' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.750 meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

3.80

.07

-.63

-.93

-1.01

31.96
32.63
32.77
32.98
33.02

25.42

26. 215

26. 355

26.53

26.57

Station 1267; July 15; depth, 188 meters; lat.
57021' N., long. 59°20' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.723 meters

0 meter. --
25 meters.
50 meters.
75 meters.
100 meters
150 meters

3.70
1.32
-.54
-.52
-.05
1.35

31.88
32.89
33.20
33.21
33.48
34.23

25.36
26.35
26.70
26. 705
26. 905
27.43

Station 1268; July 15; depth, 914 meters; lat.
57°25' N., long. 58°57' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.617 meters

0 meter

25 meters-
50 meters -
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
300 meters
400 meters
500 meters
600 meters
700 meters
800 meters

3.90
2.57
2.58
2.79
3.19
3.58
3.84
3.74
3.82
3.72
3.71
3.71

32.94
34.05
34.35
34.55
(34. 67)
34.79
34.89
34.88
34.90
34.91
34.92
34.92

26.18
27.18
27.41
27. .565
(27. 62)
27.68
27.73
27.73
27.74
27.76
27.77
27.77

Station 1269; July 16; depth 1,920 meters; lat.
57°29' N., long. 58°32' W.; dynamic height.
1,454.609 meters

0 meter

25 meters. --
50 meters.-.
100 meters..
200 meters- -
400 meters..
600 meters-.
800 meters. -
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters

6.30
5.40
3.92
3.41
3.62
3.76
3.68
3.61
3.46
3.34
3.29
(3. 24)
3.19

33.92
34.15
34.52
34.78
34.84
34.89
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.92
(34. 92)
34.92

26.67
26. 975
27.43
27.68
27.71
27.74
27.75
27.76
27.78
27.79
27.81
(27. 81)
27.82

Station 1270; July 16; depth, 2,560 meters
N., long. 57°58' W., dynamic height
meters

lat. 57°35'
, 1,454.608

0 meter

6.50
5.36
3.99
3.53
3.45
3.58
3.60
3.47
3.39
3.26
3.19
(3. 17)
3.15

34.32
34.44
34.54
34.72
34.87
34.89
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.91
34.91
(34. 91)
34.91

26.98

25 meters - . .

27.21

50 meters

27.44

100 meters..-

27. 625

200 meters

27.75

400 meters

27.76

600 meters

27.765

800 meters

27. 775

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

27.78
27. 805
27.81
(27. 81)
27. 815

1

Station 1271; July 16; depth, 3,610 meters; lat. 57°41'
N., long. 57°23' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.565
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(%o)

<rt

0 meter- ...

6.90
6.33
3.52
3.42
3.59
3.63
3.59
3.49
3.47
3.30
3.22
(3. 22)
3.22
2.97

34.45
34.52
34.73
34.81
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.92
34.92
(34. 92)
34.92
34.92

27.03

25 meters-..

27.15

50 meters

27.63

100 meters

27.71

200 meters

27.76

400 meters

27.76

600 meters

27. 765

800 meters.

27. 775

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.78
27.81
27.82
(27. 82)
27.82
27.84

Station 1272; July 16; depth, 2,634 meters; lat. 58°34'
N., long. 57°52' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.589
meters

0 meter. -

7.00
5.80
3.48
3.42
3.60
3.66
3.62
3.52
3.51
(3.40)
3.28
(3. 25)
3.21
3.06

34.48
34.48
34. 62
34.82
34.88
34.89
34.90
34.90
34.90

(34. 90)
34.90

(34. 90)
34.90
34.90

27.01

25 meters

27.19

50 meters-

27.55

100 meters

27. 715

200 meters

27.75

400 meters.-

27.75

600 meters ....

27.76

800 meters

27.77

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.77
(27. 78)

27. 795
(27. 80)

27.80

27.82

Station 1273; July 17; depth, 2,630 meters; lat. 59°26'
N., long. 58°28' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.580
meters

0 meter

8.00
5.51
3.52
3.44
3.72
3.71
3.65
3.49
3.40
3.22
3.20
(3. 19)
3.19
2.97

34.37
34.37
34.67
34.76
34.82
(34.91)
34.91
34.91
34.91
(34.91)
(34.91)
(34. 91)
34.91
34.91

26. 805

25 meters .

27. 14

50 meters

27. 585

100 meters

27. 665

200 meters

27. 685

400 meters ....

27.76

600 meters

27. 765

800 meters

27.78

1,000 meters.

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.79
27.81
27.81
(27. 81)
27.81
27.83

Station 1274; July 17; depth, 2,240 meters; lat. 59°20'
N., long. 59°10' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.604
meters

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters
2,000 meters

8.27
5.42
4.13
3.59
3.70
3.70
3.65
3.58
3.50
3.27
3.17
(3. 13)
3.10
2.83

34.48
34.48
34.55
34.68
34.80
34.88
34.91
34.91
34.90
34.91
34.90
(34.91)
34.91

26.85
27.23
27.43
27.59
27.67
27.74
27.77
27.77
27.77
27. 805
27. 805
(27. 81)
27.81

230

MARION AND GENERAI. GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1275; July 17; depth, 1,400 meters; lat. 59°16'
N., long. 59°51' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.646
meters.

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

o-t

0 meter. .

6.70
4.64
3.93
3.58
3.89
3.94
3.81
3.69
3.67
3.52

34.24
34.26
34.40
34.57
34.76
34.89
34.90
34.91
(34. 91)
(34. 90)

26 89

25 meters...

27.15

50 meters

27.34

100 meters

27. 505

200 meters

27.63

400 meters.

27.72

600 meters

27.75

800 meters

27. 765

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

27. 765
27.77

Station 1276; July 17; depth, 257 meters; lat. 59°12'
N., long. 60°27' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.728
meters

0 meter

3.30
-.37
.23
.03
.47
1.44
2.18

33.05
33.07
33.37
33.66
33.79
34.03
34.33

26.32

25 meters

26.58

50 meters

26. 805

75 meters

27.05

100 meters

27.12

150 meters .

27. 315

200 meters

27.45

Station 1277; July 18; depth, 201 meters; lat. 59°13'
N., long. 60°58' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.880
meters

0 meter

3.10
-.22
-.79
-1.05
-.62
-.32

31.55
31.88
32.22
32.74
32.76
33.47

25.15

25 meters

25. 575

50 meters

25. 915

75 meters

26. 345

100 meters

26. 345

150 meters

26.88

Station 1278; July 18; depth, 173 meters; lat. 59°13'
N., long. 61°30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.896
meters

0 meter . .

3.80
-.32

-.58
-.57
-.61
-.47

31.26
31.77
32.22
32.64
32.79
33.20

24.86

25 meters

25.495

50 meters

25.91

75 meters .

26.25

100 meters

26.37

150 meters

26. 695

Station 1279; July 18; depth, 144 meters; lat. 59°13'
N., long. 62°00' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.878
meters

0 meter

4.15
.33
-.70
-.90
-1.06
-.75

31.73
32.00
32.55
32.72
32.85
32.99

25. 195

25 meters .

25.70

50 meters

26.18

75 meters

26.325

100 meters

26. 435

125 meters

26. 535

Station 1280; July 18; depth, 123 meters; lat. 59°14'
N., long. 62''29' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.872
meters

0 meter

4.23

3.20

.29

-1.44

-1.45

31.93
31.90
32.12
32.62
32.72

25.35

10 meters

25.42

25 meters

25. 795

50 meters...

26.25

75 meters

26.34

Station 1281; July 18; depth, 137 meters; lat. 59''12'
N., long. 62°53' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.896
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<ft

0 meter. ..

5.20

.90

-.31

-1.08

-1.13

31.64
31.87
32.22
32.51
32.75

25 01

25 meters

25.565

50 meters..

25.90

75 meters

26.16

100 meters

26.355

Station 1282; July 23; depth, 154 meters; lat. 69°54'
N., long. 63''11' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.890
meters

0 meter . .

3.50
.78
-.48
-.71
-.82
-.70

31.74
31.99
32.23
32.62
32.64
32.68

25. 265

25 meters

25.67

50 meters

25.91

75 meters..

26.235

100 meters..

26.26

125 meters.

26.285

Station 1283; July 23; depth 139 meters; lat 59°55' N.,
long. 63°28' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.892 meters

0 meter

2.30
1.03
-.49
-.75

-.82
-.70

31.74
31.82
32.35
32.61
32.71
32.72

25.325

25 meters .

25.515

50 meters

26.01

75 meters.

26.23

100 meters .

26.315

125 meters

26.315

Station 1284; July 23; depth, 113 meters, lat. 60°O7'
N.,long. 63°48' W. dynamic height, 1,454.899 meters

0 meter .. ..

1.50
.78
-.09
-.14
-.20

31.94
31.86
32.32
32.40
32.46

25.58

25.56

50 meters.

25.97

75 meters

26.04

100 meters

26.09

Station 1285; July 24; depth, 274 meters; lat. 60°46' N.,
long. 64°52' W.; dynamic height, 1, 454.925 meters

0 meter .. .

1.95
.94
-.03
-.67
-.71
-.28
-.93

31.22
31.81
32.10
32.66
33.36
33.58
34.02

24.98

25.51

50 meters

25.795

75 meters

26.27

125 meters

26.84

175 meters

26.995

250 meters

27.28

Station 1286; July 24; depth, 485 meters; lat. 60"'58'
N., long. 64°46' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.879
meters

0 meter

0.80
.43
.06
-.20
.38
1.31
1.52

32.49
32.63
32.74
33.32
33.78
33.98
34.15

26.06

25 meters

26.195

50 meters

26.30

100 meters.

200 meters

26.785
27.115

300 meters

27.22

400 meters.

27.35

Station 1287; July 24; depth, 320 meters; lat. ei^OS'
N., long. 64°45' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.901
meters

0 meter.

1.50
1.51
.13
-.40
-.85
.49

32.49
32.67
32.73
33.07
33.41
34.02

26.02

25 meters..

26.16

50 meters .

26.29

100 meters

26.585

150 meters

26.88

200 meters

27.31

-11

I

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

231

station 1288; July 24; depth, 402 meters; lat. 61°00'
N., long. 64°04' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.805
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

fft

2.00

.76
.32
-.16
.36
1.92
2.06

31.77
32.83
33.07
33.34
33.81
34.26
34.32

25.41

25 meters .

26.34

26.55

26.80

150 meters

27.14

200 meters . - -

27.41

300 meters

27.45

Station 1289; July 24; depth, 503 meters; lat. 60°57'
N., long. 63°23' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.861
meters

0 meter.

1.90
.03
-.23
-.13
-.52

3.12

31.20
32.44
32.77
32. 95
33.78
34.55
34.76

24.97

25 meters

26.06

50 meters .

26.34

100 meters

26.48

200 meters.

27.16

300 meters...

27.53

400 meters

Station 1290; July 25; depth, 595 meters; lat. 60°55'
N., long. 62°42' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.809
meters

0 meter ..

1.10

.44

.32

.50

1.79

3.39

3.82

31.66
32.49
32.90
33.44
34.21
34.63
(34. 78)

25.38

26. 075

50 meters

26.42

26. 845

200 meters

27.30

300 meters

27.57

500 meters

(27. 64)

Station 1291; July 25; depth, 604 meters; lat. 60° 50'
N., long. 62°04' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.705
meters

Ometer.

1.45
1.10
.26
.55
2.41
3.49
3.91

33.41
33.46
33.71
34.00
34.37
34.66
34.79

26.76

25 meters

26.83

50 meters

27.07

100 meters

27.285

200 meters . ..

27.46

300 meters ..

27.58

500 meters

27.64

Station 1292; July 25; depth, 572 meters; lat. 60''51'
N., long. 61°25' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.662
meters

Ometer

4.31
3.83
3.45
1.44
3.37
3.74
3.82

33.48
33.87
33.87
34.02
34.74
34.86
(34. 88)

26.57

26.92

26. 955

100 meters

27.235

200 meters

27.66

300 meters

27.72

500 meters . . .

(27. 725)

Station 1293; July 25; depth, 1,509 meters; lat. 60°56'
N., long. 60°43' W.

' 0 meter

6.80
3.91
1.96
2.05
3.91
3.97
3.99
3.93
3.80
3.71
3.62
3.43

50 meters

100 meters ...

200 meters

400 meters

600 meters

600 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1

Station 1294; July 25; depth, 2,103 meters; lat. 61°02'
N., long. 59°46' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.606
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

(ft

0 meter

7.40
7.27
3.54
3.12
3.85
3.83
3.83
3.84
3.66
3.48
3.33
(3. 31)
3.30

33.98
34.29
34.58
34.66
34.89
34.91
34.93
34.93
34.92
34.92
34.91
(34. 91)
34.91

26.57

25 meters...

26.85

50 meters

27. 515

100 meters . .

27.62

200 meters

27.73

400 meters.

27. 745

600 meters

27.765

800 meters

27. 765

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

27. 775
27.79
27.80
(27.80)
27.80

Station 1295; July 26; depth, 2,405 meters; lat. 61°08'
N., long. 58°5r W.; dynamic height, 1,454.572
meters

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters. -
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters

34.43
34.57
34.70
34.83
34.90
34.92
34.92
34.93
34.93
34.92
34.91
(34.91)
34.91

26.72
27.20
27.59
27.71
27.75
27.76
27.76
27.79
27.79
27.81
27.81
(27.81)
27.81

Station 1296; July 26; depth, 2,580 meters; lat. 61°13'
N., long. 58°03' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.615
meters

Ometer

25 meters.. -
50 meters...
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters
2,000 meters

34.15
34.48
34.73
34.79
34.97
34.96

(34. 94)
34.92
34.91
34.91
34.91

(34. 91)
34.91
34.90

26.58
27.32

27.57
27. 595
27.73
27.74
27.74
27. 745
27.76
27.79
27.80
(27. 80)
27.81
27.835

Station 1297; July 26; depth, 2,700 meters; lat. eril'
N., long. 57°11' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.583
meters

0 meter.

8.99
6.10
3.30
3.53
3.82
3.78
3.77
3.72
3.63
3.40
3.26
(3. 24)
3.21
2.98

34.26
34.33
34.59
34.78
34.88
34.91
34.94
34.93
34.94
34.92
34.92
(34.93)
34.94
34.92

26.56

25 meters .

27.04

50 meters

27.55

100 meters

27.67

200 meters

27.725

400 meters

27.755

600 meters

27.78

800 meters

27.78

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27. 795
27.80
27.815
(27. 825)
27.835
27.84

232

MARION" AND GEXERAl. GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1298; July 26; depth, 2,790 meters; lat. 61°05'
N., long. 56°03' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.650
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

fft

7.20
3.40
3.78
4.02
4.23
4.53
4.31
4.24
4.05
3.69
3.42
(3. 34)
3.26
3.13

34.22
34.36
34.62
34.75
34.90
34.94
34.94
34.94
34.93
34.91
34.91
(34.91)
34.90
34.90

26.80

25 meters

27.36

50 meters

27.52

100 meters

27.60

200 meters

27.70

400 meters

27. 705

600 meters

27.72

800 meters

27.73

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.74
27.765
27.79
(27.80)
27.80
27.81

Station 1299; July 27; depth, 2,800 meters; lat. 60°56'
N., long. 54°57' W.; dynamic height, 1,464.610
meters

0 meter .

8.21
5.26
4.35
3.14
3.86
4.05
4.07
3.78
3.61
3.39
3.29
(3. 25)
3.22

34.29
34.43
34.64
34.68
34.88
34.94
34.94
34.92
34.90
34.90
34.90
(34. 90)
34.91
34.91

26.71

27.215

50 meters

27.48

100 meters.

27.63

200 meters

27.72

400 meters

27.75

600 meters.

27.75

800 meters

27.76

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.76
27.785
27.79
(27. 80)
27.81

Station 1300; July 27; depth, 2,950 meters; lat. 60°46'
N., long. 53°46' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.599
meters.

0 meter . .

8.00
6.48
5.33
3.61
4.25
4.04
3.93
3.74
3.51
3.30
3.28
(3. 23)
3.18

34.51
34.49
34.71
34.72
34.92
34.94
34.95
34.93
34.92
34.90
34.92
(34.91)
34.90
34.91

26.91

27.11

.'iO meters...

27.42

100 meters. .

27.62

200 meters

27.71

400 meters

27.75

600 meters.

27.77

800 meters

27. 775

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.79
27.79
27.81
(27.81)
27.81

Station 1301; July 27; depth, 3,018 meters; lat. 60°40'
N., long. 52°40' W., dynamic height, 1,454.639
meters

0 meter

6.95
6.93
4.82
4.94
4.66
4.34

(4. 18)
4.02
3.72
3.59
3.32

(3.25)
3.19
3.16

34.27
34.52
34.61
34.76
34.96
34.97
34.96
34.94
34.91
34.89
34.90
(34.90)
34.91
34.91

26.88

25 meters

27.20

SO meters

27.40

100 meters

27. 505

200 meters

27. 695

400 meters

27.74

600 meters

27.75

800 meters

27.75

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.76
27.76
27.79
(27. 80)
27.81
27. 815

Station 1302; July 28; depth, 3,109 meters; lat. 60°40'
N., long. 5r47' W., dynamic height, 1,454.596
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

ot

0 meter . . .

6.79
4.70
3.87
3.98
4.19
4.14
4.04
3.79
3.60
3.48
3.29
(3. 26)
3.23
3.21

34.44
34.60
34.80
34.84
34.96
34.95
34.94
34. 91
34.89

(34. 90)
34.88

(34. 89)
34.90

27.03

27.41

50 meters

27. 655

100 meters

27.68

200 meters

27.75

400 meters .

27.75

600 meters .

27.75

800 meters

27.75

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.755
27.775
27.78
(27.79)
27.80

Station 1303; July 28; depth, 3,000 meters; lat. 60°41'
N., long. 50°56' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.639
meters

0 meter

3.72
4.35
4.96
5.53
5.06
4.58
4.41
4.19
3.89
3.56
3.33
(3.29)
3.25
3.06

32.94
34.49
34.73
34.98
35.00
34.96
34.96
34.95
34.94
34.92
34.91
(34. 91)
34.90
34.90

26.19

25 meters

27.36

50 meters. . .

27.48

100 meters

27.61

200 meters

27.69

400 meters .....

27.71

600 meters

27.73

800 meters

27.745

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters.

1,500 mters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.77
27. 785
27.80
(27. 80)
27.80
27.82

Station 1304; July 28; depth, 2,900 meters; lat. 60°44'
N., long. 50°15' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.629
meters

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters
2,000 meters

34.67
34.60
34.71
35.00
(34. 98)
34.96
34.92
34.91
34.91
34.91
34.89
(34. 91)
34.92
34.90

27.06
27.11
27.40
27. 669

(27. 675)
27.69
27. 715
27.765
27.78
27.79
27.79

(27.81)
27.82
27.83

Station 1305; July 28; depth, 2,697 meters; lat. GO'bl'
N., long. 49''42' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.622
meters

0 meter

25 meters.. -
50 meters...
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters. -
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters
2,000 meters

7.10

34.61

6.43

34.61

6.30

34.66

5.52

34.80

4.66

34.99

4.33

34.96

4.30

34.96

3.94

34.94

:^.7i

34.93

3.45

34.93

3.29

34.91

(3. 26)

(34.91)

3.23

34.92

3.00

34.90

27. 11

27.205 '

27. 26 '

27.47

27. 725

27.74

27.74

27.76

27.78

27.805

27. 81
(27.81)

27.815 i

27. 82

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

233

station 1306; July 28; depth, 503 meters; lat. 60°58'
N., long. 49°29' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.706
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

0 meter

2.50
.76
1.90
3.24
4.96
5.03

31.80
33.58
33.93
34.30
34.93
34.97

25.40

25 meters

26.94

50 meters . ..

27.14

100 meters

27.33

300 meters

27.64

500 meters

27. 665

Station 1307; July 28; depth, 136 meters; lat. 61°06' N.,
long. 49°09' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.808 meters

0 meter...
25meters-
50 meters.
75 meters.
100 meters

3.30

31.67

.28

32.38

-.27

32.74

.65

33.41

.77

33.61

25.22
26.00
26. 315
26.81
26. 965

Station 1308; July 31; depth, 132 meters; lat. eCSS'
N., long. 48°47' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.729
meters

0 meter

25 meters..
50 meters..
100 meters

1.60

31.47

.29

32.39

.60

33.27

4.32

34.26

25.19
26.01
26.70
27.50

Station 1309; July 31; depth, 613 meters; lat. 60°20'
N., long. 48°46' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.656
meters

0 meter...
25 meters.
SO meters.
100 meters
300 meters
500 meters

4.49

34.16

3.62

34.14

3.80

34.34

5.03

34.72

4.85

34.93

5.03

35.02

27.09
27.16
27.31
27. 465
27. 655
27. 705

Station 1310; July 31; depth, 2,798 meters; lat.
59°58' N., long. 48''52' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.626 meters

0 meter.

7.30
7.05
7.45
6.73
5.11
4.51
4.50
3.91
3.61
3.41
3.28

34.78
34.77
34.87
34.96
35.05
34.98
34.98
34.95
34.93
34.92
34.89

27 22

25 meters

27.245

50 meters

27. 265

100 meters ...

27 44

200 meters

27.72

400 meters

27.73

600 meters

27.73

800 meters . ..

27.77

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

27.79
27.80
27.80
(27. 80)

0

station 1311
N., long,
meters

Aug.
44° 16'

1: depth, 200 meters;
W.; dynamic height

lat. 59°37'
, 1,454.698

0 meter

0.75
.21
1.02
1.31
2.14
3.79

31.69
32.38
33.45
33.80
34.17
34.80

25.34

25 meters

26.005

50 meters

26 82

75 meters

27. 075

100 meters

27.32

200 meters.

27. 665

i

Station 1312; Aug. 1; depth, 1,737 meters; lat. 59''28'
N., long. 44°46' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.614
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(?6o)

(Tt

0 meter

6.90
6.91
6.86
6.82
5.67
5.51
5.26
4.54
3.80

34.84
34.81
34.81
34.88
34.94
35. 07
35.03
35.05
34.96
34.97

27 31

25 meters

27 295

50 meters...

27 305

100 meters .

27 365

200 meters

27. 565

400 meters

27 69

600 meters

27 69

800 meters ...

27 79

1,000 meters.

1,200 meters

27.79

Station 1313; Aug. 2; depth, 2,150 meters; lat. 59''18'
N., long. 45°37' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.600
meters

0 meter

25 meters. . .
50 meters. . .
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters.
1,200 meters

7.60

34.93

7.69

34.93

7.71

34.90

7.60

34.95

5.41

35.05

4.72

35.03

(4. 60)

35.05

4.02

34.99

3.91

34.97

3.58

34.95

27.29

27.28

27.25

27.31

27. 685

27.75

27.78

27.79

27.79

27.81

Station 1314; Aug. 2; depth, 2,423 meters; lat. 59°08'
N., long. 46°04' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.578
meters

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters. -
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters
2,000 meters

7.29

34.78

7.19

34.73

7.18

34.75

5.11

34.91

4.61

35.02

4.18

34.97

3.86

34.97

3.60

34.94

3.47

34.93

3.30

34.91

3.28

34.90

(3. 25)

(34. 90)

3.22

34.90

2.88

34.93

27.22
27.19
27.21
27.61
27. 755
27.76
37. 795
27. 795
27.80
27.80
27.80
(27. 80)
27.80
27.85

Station 1315; Aug. 2; depth, 2,652 meters; lat. 58°48'
N., long. 46°40' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.557
meters

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1 ,600 meters
2,000 meters

7.50

34.75

7.16

34.76

7.17

34.76

4.31

34.93

4.20

34.98

4.08

34.97

3.67

34.95

3.57

34.94

3.35

34.92

3.22

34.91

3.14

34.90

(3. 13)

(34. 91)

3.11

34.91

2.74

3193

27.16
27.22
27.22
27.71

27.77
27.77
27.80
27.80
27. 805
27.81
27.81
(27.81)
27.82
27.82

234

MARION AND GENEK^L GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1316; Aug. 2; depth 3,201 meters; lat. 58''22'
N., long. 47°08' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.566
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

7.45
6.62
6.06
4.14
3.92
3.94
3.72
3.60
3.37
3.32
3.21
(3. 20)
3.20
2.92

34.63
34.68
34.71
34.88
34.95
34.96
34.93
34. 92
34.92
34.92
34.91
(34. 91)
34.91
34.91

27.08

25 meters

27.23

27.33

100 meters

27.69

27.77

400 meters . .

27 78

fiOO meters .

27.78

800 meters --.

27.78

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.80
27.81
27.81
(27. 81)
27.81
27. 825

Station 1317; Aug. 2; depth 3,484 meters; lat. 57°53'
N., long. 47°52' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.573
meters

0 meter.

7.15
6.76
5.71
3.95
3.88
3.89
3.68
3.51
3. 36
3.31
3.22
(3.21)
3.20
3.09

34.64
34.69
34.74
34.88
34.94
34.96
34.93
34.91
34.90
34.90
34.89
(34. 90)
34.90
34.89

27.13

27.22

27.40

27.71

200 meters

27.77

400 meters . .

27.78

27 78

800 meters - .

27.78

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.79
27.79
27.79
(27. 80)
27.80
27.81

Station 1320; Aug. 3; depth, 3,428 meters; lat. 59°00'
N., long. 51°40' W.; dynamic height 1,454 565
meters

Station 1318; Aug. 3; lat. 58°24' N., long. 49°00' W.;
dynamic height, 1,454.570 meters.

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters.. -
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters
2,000 meters

7.19
6.97
5.79
3.90
3.86
3.74
3.59
3.42
3.31
3.25
3.21
(3. 20)
3.20
3.11

(34. 64)
34.66
34.69
34.86
34.93
34.94
34.92
34.91
34.90
34.90
34.90

(34. 90)
34.90
34.90

27.12
27.17
27.35
27.70
27. 765
27.78
27.78
27.79
27.79
27.79
27. 805
(27. 805)
27. 805
27.81

Station 1319; Aug. 3; depth, 3,383 meters; lat. 58°55'
N., long. SO^or W.; dynamic height, 1,454.587
meters

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters
2,000 meters

34.65
34.66
34.70
34.92
34.94
34.93
34.93
34.91
34.91
34.89
34.89
(34.90)
34.90
34.90

27.07
27.215
27.41
27.70
27.75
27.76
27.78
27.78
27.78
27.78
27.78
(27. 79)
27.80
27.81

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

at

0 meter.

7.70
6.99
3.83
3.96
3.94
3.77
3.59
3.42
3.36
3.29
3.23
(3.23)
3.23
3.14

34.67
34.65
34.70
27.89
34.92
34.93
34.91
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
(34.90)
34.90
34.90

27 07

25 meters

27 16

50 meters .

27 58

100 meters

27 72

200 meters ....

27 745

27 77

600 meters.

27.775

800 meters . .

27 78

1,000 meters __

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.79
27.80
27.805
(27.805)
27.805
27.81

Station 1321; Aug. 4; depth, 3,338 meters; lat. SQW
N., long. 53°00' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.558
meters

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters. .
800 meters. .
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters
2.000 meters

7.80
7.37
4.94
3.79
3.68
3.71
3.62
3.37
3.31
3.28
3.24
(3.23)
3.22
3.12

34.67
34.67
34.81
34.88
34.89
34.93
34.92
34.92
34.91
34.91
34.90
(34. 90)
34.90
34.92

27.06
27.12
27.545
27.73
27.75
27.78
27.78
27.80
27.80
27.80
27.80
(27.80)
27.80
27.825

Station 1322; Aug. 4; depth, 3,566 meters; lat. Si'W
N., long. 53°44' W.; dynamic height, 1.454.663
meters

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
100 meters. -
200 meters. .
400 meters. .
600 meters. .
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters
2,000 meters

7.90
7.48
4.56
3.72
3.69
3.58
3.43
3.33
3.30
3.24
3.21
(3. 20)
3.20
3.13

34.63
34.63
34.75
34.88
34.91
34.91
34.91
34.89
34.89
34.89
34.90
(34.90)
34.91
34.91

27.01
27.076
27.64
27.7S6
27.785
27.775
27.7V
27.795
27.795
27.80
27.805
(27.8051
(27.801)
27.82

Station 1323; Aug. 4; depth, 3,700 meters; lat. 58''00'
N., long. 54°30' W., dynamic height, 1.454.628
meters

0 meter

7.94
5.72
3.99
4.09
4.15
4.30
3.81
3.76
3.65
3.51
3.32
(3.28)
3.25
3.18

34.66
34.78
34.86
34.87
34.88
34.90
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.88
(34.88)
34.88
34.88

37. OS

25 meters

37.43

50 meters

27.09

100 meters

27. «»

200 meters

27.60

400 meters ...

27.69

600 meters

27.725

800 meters

27.735

1,000 meters

1,200 meters -.

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27.745
27.755
27.77J
(27.78)
27.78
27.79

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

235

station 1324; Aug. 4; depth, 3,800 meters; lat. 57°30'
N., long. 53°31' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.564
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

Cl

7.97
6.76
4.69
3.67
3.86
3.77
3.56
3.33
3.30
3.24
3.21
(3. 20)
3.19
3.14

34.57
34.59
34.72
34.82
34.92
34.92
34.91
34.88
34.89
34.88
34.88
(34. 88)
34.88
34.89

26.96

27.15

27.65

27. 695

27. 755

27. 765

27. 775

27. 775

1,000 meters.-

1,200 meters

1,400 meters.

1,500 meters

l,fi00 meters

2,000 meters

27.78
27.78
27.79
(27. 79)
27.79
27.80

Station 1325; Aug. 5; depth, 3,502 meters; lat. 56°58'
N., long. 52°29' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.564
meters

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters.. -
100 meters..
200 meters..
100 meters..
600 meters. .
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters,
1,600 meters
2,000 meters

8.12
7.75
6.23
3.58
3.31
3.29
3.27
3.24
3.24
3.19
3.15
(3. 14)
3.13
3.05

34.58
34.59
34.70
34.85
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.90
34.90
34.90
(34. 90)
34.90
34.90

26.94
27.00
27.30
27. 725
27. 775
27.78
27.78
27.78
27.80
27. 805
27.81
(27. 81)
27.81
27.82

Station 1326; Aug. 5; depth, 3,612 meters; lat. 56°.58'
N., long. 50''32' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.577
meters

Ometer

7.65
7.35
5.54
4.01
3.81
3.70
3.55
3.52
3.49
3.48
3.36
(3. 32)
3.29
3.22

34.61
34.62
34.77
34.86
34.93
34.92
34.91
34.91
34.92
34.92
34.91
(34.91)
34.91
34.91

27.035

25 meters

27.085

50 meters

27. 445

lOOmeters

27.69

200 meters

27.77

400 meters

27.77

600 meters

27.78

800 meters

27.78

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

l,400meters

; 1,500 meters

i 1,600 meters

1 2,000 meters

27.79
27.79
27.80
(27. 80)
27.805
27.81

:}j Station 1327; Aug. 5; depth, 3,630 meters; lat.
i) N., long. 48°40' W.; dynamic height, 1,'

meters

56°58'
454.555

1

Ometer

7.80
7.58
4.97
3.86
3.61
3.51
3.51
3.35
3.36
3.33
3.29
3.20
3.11
2.81

34.52
34.53
34.81
34.87
34.91
34.91
34.91
34.92
34.92
34.92
34.92
34.91
34.93
34.96

26.94

25 meters...

26 985

50 meters

27.54

lOOmeters .

27. 715

200 meters

27.77

400 meters

27.78

600 meters

27.78

800 meters .

27 805

1,000 meters

1,200 meters..

1,500 meters

2,000 meters..

2,500 meters

3,000 meters

27. 805

27.81

27.81

27.81

27.84

27.89

79920—37
1^

16

Station 1328; Aug. 6; depth, 3,820 meters; lat. 56°26'
N., long. 48°56' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.551
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity
(%o)

ffi

0 meter

7.30
7.57
4.64
3.47
3.41
3.38
(3. 35)
3.33
3.31
3.25
3.20
(3. 19)
3.18
3.13

34.58
34.56
34.82
34.88
34.89
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.92
(34. 92)
34.92
34.92

27.06

25 meters ..

27.01

50 meters

27.585

100 meters

27.76

200 meters

27.76

400 meters

27.79

600 meters

27.79

800 meters ... ..

27.79

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2.000 meters

27.79
27.80
27.82
(27. 82)
27. 825
27.82

Station 1329; Aug. 6; depth, 3,530 meters; lat. 55°40'
N., long., 49°11' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.571
meters

0 meter

8.30
8.03
5.48
3.40
3.36
3.35
3.33
3.31
3.19
3.20
3.19
(3. 14)
3.10

34.54
34.62
34.69
34.83
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.89
34.89
34.89
34.90
(34. 90)
34.89

26.88

25 meters .

26.91

50 meters

27.39

100 meters .

27. 725

200 meters

27. 765

400 meters

27.77

600 meters ..

27.77

800 meters . .

27. 785

1,000 meters. _

1,200 meters _

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

27. 795
27. 795
27.80
(27.80)
27.80

Station 1330; Aug. 7; depth, 3,450 meters; lat. 54'='52'
N., long. 49°25' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.569
meters

0 meter.

8.20
8.07
5.44
3.70
3.61
3.49
3.40
3.38
3.28
3.26
3.21
(3. 18)
3.16
3.10

34.47
34.46
34.63
34.81
34.91
34.91
34.90
34.91
34.90
34.90
34.91
(34.90)
34.90
34.91

26.86

25 meters

26.87

50 meters.-

27. 345

100 meters

27.68

200 meters

27.77

400 meters

27.78

600 meters

27. 785

800 meters

27.79

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

2,000 meters

27. 795
27. 795
27.81
(27. 81)
27.81
27.82

Station 1331; Aug. 7; depth, 3,270 meters; lat. 54 "05'
N., long., 49°41' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.585
meters

0 meter. .

9.55
8.99
5.58
3.47
3.46
3.46
3.34
3.28
3.28
3.26
(3.25)
(3. 24)
3.23

34.41
34.40
34.58
34.78
34.88
34.89
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.90
34.88
(34. 89)
34.89

26.60

25 meters

26.68

50 meters .. '

27.29

lOOmeters

27.68

200 meters

27.76

400 meters..

27.77

600 meters

27.79

800 meters

27. 795

1,000 meters

1,200 meters _.

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

27. 795
27. 795
27. 795
(27. 795)
27. 795

236

l^I/^RION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Station 1332; Aug. 7; depth, 3,590 meters; lat. 53°32'
N., long. 49°36' W.; djmamic height, 1,454.691
meters

Depth

Temper-
ature
(°C.)

Salinity

(96o)

at

11.25
10.32
9.48
5.04
3.98
3.65
3.56
3.56
3.51
3.45
3.26
(3. 26)
3.25
3.14

34.63
34.63
34.67
34.68
34.78
34.87
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.88
34.87
(34. 88)
34.88
34.89

26.46

26. 625

26.79

27.43

27.63

27. 735

27.75

27.75

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters..

2,000 meters -

27. 755
27.76

27.77
(27. 78)
27.78
27.80

Station 1333; Aug. 7; depth, 3.440 meters; lat. 53° 19'
N., long. 50°30' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.574
meters

0 meter

25 meters. --
50 meters ...
100 meters..
200 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters. .
1,000 meters
1,200 meters
1,400 meters
1,500 meters
1,600 meters

Station 1334; Aug. 7-8; depth, 2,900 meters; lat.
53°11' N., long, 51°01' W.; dynamic height,
1,454.563 meters

8.00
6.52
4.32
3.58
3.53
3.52
3.51
3.50
3.34
3.32
3.30
(3. 20)
3.10

34.42
34.48
34.48
34.83
34.88
34.92
34.92
34.92
34.91
34.91
34.94
(34. 95)
34.96

26.85

27.09

27.36

100 meters

27.71

200 meters

27.75

400 meters - - .

27.79

600 meters .

27.79

800 meters

27.79

1,000 meters

1,200 meters

1,400 meters

1,500 meters

1,600 meters

27.80
27.80
27.83
(27. 84)
27.86

Station 1336; Aug. 8; depth, 273 meters; lat. 52°53'
N., long. 52°05' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.654
meters

Station 1335; Aug. 8; depth,
53°00' N„ long. 51°40' W.
1,454.603 meters

1,006 meters; lat.
dynamic height.

6.18
5.34
3.58
3.37
3.63
3.63
3.63
3.52

33.34
34.15
(34. 53)
34.70
34.86
34.87
34.90
34.88

26.24

26.98

27.48

100 meters .. ..

27. 625

200 meters

27.73

400 meters .. ..

27. 735

27.76

800 meters ..

27.76

Depth

Temper-
ature

(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

ox

5.35
5.13
1.50
.99
1.12
2.13
2.71

32.53
32.73
33.63
33.89
34.23
(34. 46)
34.63

25.70

10 meters

25.88

26.93

27.19

100 meters .

27.44

(27.55)

250 meters

27.63

Station 1337; Aug. 8; depth, 216 meters; lat. 52»45'
N., long. 52°38' W.

0 meter

25 meters.
50 meters-
100 meters
125 meters
175 meters

5.50

-.71

-.94

-.28

.30

1.67

33.28
33.41
33.72

26.775
26.89
27.105

Station 1338; Aug. 8; depth, 317 meters; lat. 52^2"
N., long. 53°17' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.714
meters

5.19

.86

-.73

-.39

1.56

32.61
32.84
33.31
33.61
34.33

25.78

25 meters

26.34

26.80

100 meters

27.025

200 meters . .

27.495

Station 1339; Aug. 8; depth, 194 meters; lat. 52°23'
N., long. 53°56' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.710
meters

6.51

-.25

-1.01

.07

.67

32.34
32.96
33.28
33.68
34.10

25.42

36.49

28.78

27.06

27.36

Station 1340; Aug. 8; depth, 232 meters: lat. 52° If
N., long. 54°23' W.; dynamic height, 1,454.. W
meters

as. 46
S&95

36.71
37.02
27.345

6.50

3.29

-.88

-.09

.56

32.40

32.58

33.20

33.62

34.07

Station 1341; Aug. 8; depth, 209 meters; lat. SW
N., long. 54°50' W.; dynamic height, 1,4S4.7»
meters

6.20
4.27
-1.10
-1.15
-1.20
-0.84

32.10

32.49

33.06

33.28

33.38

150 meters

33.60

ft3(

3&eo

38.87
37. W

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA
GENERAL GREENE, 1933

237

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
CO

Salinity
(%o)

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(%o)

<Tt

Station 1487; June 26; lat. 47°40' N., long. 52°33' W.; depth, 165 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.693 meters

0 meter. _-
26 meters..
52 meters..
78 meters..
104 meters
157 meters.

8.64
-.61
-1.12
-1.36
-1.58
-1.31

31.53
32.26
32.55
32.74
32.85
33.12

0 meter

25 meters..
50 meters..
75 meters..
100 meters
150 meters

8.64
-.60
-1.05
-1.35
-1.55
-1.40

31.53
32.26
32.52
32.72
32.84
33.08

24.48
25. 94
26.17
26.34
26.44
26.63

Station 1488; June 26; lat. 47°58' N., long. 52°16' W.; depth, 190 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.677 meters

0 meter...
24 meters -
48 meters-
72 meters-
96 meters-
143 meters

-.93

-.85

-1.61

-1.65

-1.42

31.06
32.49
32.82
32.86
32.94
33.12

0 meter

25 meters-
50 meters..
75 meters..
100 meters
150 meters

8.08

-.98

-.85

-1.65

-1.65

-1.40

31.06

32.50

32.83

32.86

32.96

33.14

24.19
26.15
26.41
26.46
26. 54
26.68

Station 1489; June 27; lat. 48°14' N., long. 51°58' W.; depth, 170 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.674 meters

0 meter...
26 meters..
52 meters..
79 meters..
104 meters
157 meters

7.65
.59

-.95
-1.47
-1.49

-.72

31.48
32.40
32.73
32.86
32.98
33.32

0 meter

25 meters-
50 meters. .
75 meters..
100 meters
150 meters

7.65

.60

-.90

-1.45

-1.50

-.85

31.48
32.39
32.71
32.85
32.96
33.28

24.58
26.00
26.32
26.44
26.54
26.77

Station 1490; June 27; lat. 48°30' N., long. 51°41' W.; depth, 192 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.646 meters

Ometer.

6.47

.81

1.20

-1.17

-1.35

-.46

31.58
32.51
32.96
32.98
33.27
33.75

0 meter

6.47
.85
1.20
-.80
-1.35
-.70
-.20

31.58
32.45
32.92
32.97
33.16
33.67
33.87

24.82

28 meters

26.04

55 meters ...

50 meters

26 38

83 meters

26.52

109 meters

100 meters... .

26.70

165 meters...

150 meters

27 09

(200) meters .. .

27.23

Station 1491; June 27; lat. 48°47' N., long. 51°24' W.; depth, 210 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.636 meters

Ometer

5.49

-.58

-.65

-1.14

-1.32

-.74

1.48

31.86
32.84
32.86
33.00
33.12
33.63
34.34

5.49

-.55

-.65

-1.05

-1.35

-.90

1.10

31.86
32.74
32.86
32.99
33.09
33.56
34.28

25.16

26 meters

26 33

52 meters ._

50 meters

26.33

78 meters.

26.55

104 meters

100 meters.-

26.64

155 meters

150 meters

27.01

■ 207 meters

200 meters ... .

27.48

1

Station 1492; June 27; lat. 49°03' N., long. 51°08' W.; depth, 302 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.609 meters

Ometer..

6.14

1.47

-.13

-1.42

-.76

.01

.97

2.47

32.05
32.80
32.89
33.11
33.38
33.79
34.16
34.60

6.14

1.45

-.45

-1.40

-.65

.30

1.25

2.25

32.05
32.81
32.93
33.19
33.47
33.97
34.27
34.69

25.23

23 meters

26.29

45 meters

26.48

68 meters

26 72

91 meters

26.93

136 meters... _

27.28

181 meters

200 meters

27.47

272 meters

(300) meters

27.72

238

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature

ec.)

Salinity
(96o)

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

"t

Station 1493; June 27; lat. 49°27' N., long. 60''42' W.; depth, 326 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.562 meters

0 meter...
22 meters.
44 meters..
66 meters..
88 meters..
133 meters
177 meters
265 meters

4.07
1.58
.56
-1.07
-.26
1.07
2.24
2.87

32.73
3'3. 06
33.08
33.36
33.70
34.16
34.50
34.69

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters

75 meters....
100 meters...
150 meters...
200 meters..
(300) meters

4.07
1.50

.00
-.80

.15
1.60
2.50
2.95

32.73
33.06
33.09
33.53
33.84
34.30
34.58
34.72

26.00
28.47
26.58
26.97
27.18
27.46
27.61
27.69

Station 1494; June 27; lat. 49°52' N., long. 50°16' W.; depth, 302 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.523 meters

0 meter

4.33
7.60
4.35
1.00
1.94
2.46
2.94
3.17

33.08
33.48
33.87
34.17
34.38
34.53
34.72
34.84

0 meter

4.33
7.60
4.35
l.CO
1.95
2.45
2.95
3.15

33.03
33.53
33.87
34.17
34.38
34.54
34.72
34.84

26.20
26.20
26.87
27 40

25 meters

50 meters.. . .- ..

75 meters . .

75 meters

100 meters

27 50

149 meters

150 meters.

27 58

200 meters

27 69

298 meters

300 meters ..-

27.76

Station 1495; June 27-28; lat. 50°17' N., long. 49°50' W.; depth, 960 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.408 metas

0 meter...
24 meters.
47 meters.,
71 meters..
95 meters..
142 meters
197 meters
296 meters
394 meters
691 meters
788 meters

5.31
3.20
2.93
3.09
3.18
3.28
3.26
3.28
3.27
3.22
3.23

33.69
34.64
34.70
34.77
34.84
34.87
34.89
35.00
35.00
34.99
35.02

0 meter...
25 meters..
50 meters..
75 meters..
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters.
300 meters
400 meters.
600 meters.
800 meters.

5.31
3.20
2.95
3.10
3.20
3.30
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.25

33.69
33.64
34.71
34.78
34.84
34.87
34.89
35.00
35.00
35.00
35.02

26.62
27.60
27.68
27.72
27.76
27.78
27. 7«
27.88
27.88
27.88
27.90

Station 1496; June 28; lat.

50°40' N.,

ong. 49024

W.; depth, 1,326 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.380 meters

0 meter

5.67
4.69
3.39
3.28
3.24
3.24
3.25
3.25
3.19
3.22
3.23
3.23

34.32
34.39
34.77
34.83
34.89
34.90
34.95
34.96
35.00
34.98
35.06
35.09

0 meter

5.67
4.70
3.35
3.30
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.20
3.20
3.25
3.25
3.25

34.32
34.40
34.78
34.84
34.89
34.91
34. 95
34.99
34.99
35.01
35.08
35.09

37.08

24 meters

25 meters .

27.25

47 meters

50 meters...

37. N

71 meters

75 meters

27.75

94 meters

100 meters .

37.79

143 meters

27.81

190 meters

200 meters

37.84

244 meters.-

300 meters

27.88

330 meters

27.88

505 meters

600 meters ..

27.89

688 meters

800 meters

27.94

877 meters

(1,000) meters

37.96

Station 1497; June 28; lat. 60°39' N., long. 49°57' W.; depth, 1,207 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.454 meters

0 meter

6.25
5.36
3.03
2.96
3.04
3.20
3.26
3.25
3.27
3.26
3.26
3.23

33.90
34.04
34. 65
34.78
34. SO
34.87
34.89
34.95
34.96
34.96
35.00
34.97

6.25
4.60
2.95
3.00
3.15
3.25
3,25
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.25

33.90
34.11
34.74
34.80
34.84
34.88
34.96
34.96
34.96
34.98
34.97
34.98

28.71

20 meters.

27. W

40 meters

27.70

69 meters

27.75

80 meters

27.76

119 meters

27. 7S

159 meters

200 meters

27.85

170 meters

300 meters

27.85

232 meters

27.85

366 meters

600 meters

37.86

613 meters

(800) meters

37. W

670 meters

(1,000) meters

37.86

-

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

239

Observed values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°0.)

Salinity
(96o)

Station 1498; June 28; lat. 50°37' N., long. 50°32' W.; depth, 923 meters;' dynamic height, 1,454.367 meters

0 meter.— .
28 meters.
56 meters..
84 meters -
113 meters
169 meters
179 meters.
274 meters
373 meters
582 meters
808 meters.

3.92
4.58
3.82
3.48
3.29
3.30
3.27
3.33
3.33
3.33
3.28

33.61
34.81
34.91
34.94
34.98
34.97
34.98
35.03
35.04
35.10
35.11

0 meter

25 meters-
50 meters..
75 meters..
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters
300 meters
400 meters
600 meters
800 meters

3.92
4.55
4.05
3.60
3.35
3.25
3.30
3.30
3.35
3.35
3.30

33.61
34.63
34.90
34.93
34.96
34.97
35.00
35.03
35.04
35.10
35.11

26.72
27.45
27.72
27.79
27.84
27.86
27.88
27.90
27.90
27.95
27.97

Station 1499; June 28; lat. 50°35' N., long. 51°09' W.; depth, 256 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.481 meters

0 meter.-..
32 meters..
62 meters..
83 meters..
126 meters
189 meters
251 meters

3.95
.71
-.14
.07
.50
1.99
2.61

32.94
33.28
33.81
33.91
34.24
34.54
34.82

0 meter....
25 meters.
50 meters..
75 meters..
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters

3.95
.65
-.10
-.05
.25
1.15
2.05

32.94
33.17
33.61
33.87
34.05
34.37
34.59

26.17
26.62
27.01
27.22
27.35
27.55
27.68

Station 1500; June 29; lat. 50°33' N., long. 51''44' W.; depth, 238 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.489 meters

4.43
1.11
-.45
-.60
.23
1.11
2.17

32.82
33.15
33.62
33.80
33.97
34.34
3168

0 meter.

4.43
1.20
-.40
-.60
.15
1.10
2.10

32.82
33.14
33.48
33.80
33.95
34.31
34.65

20.03

26 meters

25 meters

26.57

51 meters...

50 meters...

26.92

77meters-

75 meters

27.18

102 meters

100 meters

27.27

153 meters ..

150 meters...

27.51

204 meters

200 meters...

27.70

Station 1501; June 29; lat. 50°31' N., long. 52°20' W.; depth, 214 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.497 meters

0 meter

4.44
1.28
-.14
-.97
-.41
1.26
2.38

32.62
33.04
33.25
33.67
33.96
34.33
34.70

0 meter.. ..

4.44
1.30
-.15
-.95
-.40
1.25
2.30

32.62
33.04
33.25
33.67
33.96
34.32
34.69

25.87

25 meters

25 meters.

26.48

50 meters

50 meters

75 meters..

26.72

75 meters...

27.10

100 meters

100 meters... .

27.31

151 meters

150 meters

27.61

201 meters...

200 meters .

27.72

Station 1502; June 29; lat. 50°30' N.; long. 52°58' W.; depth, 274 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.488 meters

0 meter

4.18

.71

-1.10

-.65

-.14

.95

1.75

32.75
33.18
33.28
33.76
34.04
34.34
34.60

0 meter

4.18

.70

-1.10

-.65

-.10

1.00

1.80

32.75
33.18
33.29
33.76
34.06
34.34
34.60

26.00

25 meters

25 meters .

26.62

49 meters

26.78

74 meters

75 meters

27.16

99 meters

100 meters .

27.37

148 meters

150 meters. .-

27.53

198 meters

200 meters

27.69

Station 1503; June 29; lat.

50''28' N.,

long. 53°39

' W.; depth, 348 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.494 meters

Ometer

3.55

.21

-.99

-.69

-.21

.93

1.84

2.76

32.74
33.08
33.40
33.78
33.98
34.32
34.66
34.86

3.55

.20

-1.00

-.70

-.30

.90

1.80

2.70

32.74
33.08
33.40
33.78
33.97
34.31
34.55
34.85

26.06

25 meters

25 meters

26.57

51 meters

50 meters

26.88

76 meters

27.17

102 meters.. .

100 meters.

27.31

152 meters

150 meters

27.52

203 meters

200 meters ...

27.65

305 meters...

300 meters..

27.81

240

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

Depth

Tem-
perature
CC.)

Salinity
(960)

ffi

Station 1504; June 29; lat.

50°26' N.,

long 54°21

W.; depth, 274 meters; dynamic he

ght, 1,454.530 meters

3.68

1.78

-1.04

-1.03

-0.49

0.41

1.04

32.72
33.08
33.17
33.54
33.78
34.21
34.35

0 meter

3.68

1.80

-1.00

-1.10

-.60

.30

.95

32.72

33.07

33.16

33.51

33.75

34. 16 .

34.33

26.03

25 meters..

26.46

50 meters.

26.68

75 meters..

26.97

100 meters

27.14

150 meters

27.43

200 meters..

27.52

Station 1505; June 29; lat.

50°25' N.,

long. 55°00

' W.; depth, 229 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.581 meters

3.36

.00

-1.10

-1.37

-1.29

-.61

.27

32.30
32.68
32.97
33.13
33.40
33.76
34.06

0 meter

3.36

.00

-1.10

-1.40

-1.30

-.60

.30

32.30
32.68
32.96
33.13
33.40
33.77
34.06

25.72

25 meters.

26.26

50 meters

26.52

75 meters

26.67

100 meters

26.89

150 meters.

27.16

200 meters...

27.35

Station 1506; June 30; lat.

50°37' N.,

ong. 55°27

W.; depth, 180 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.632 meters

2.39
-.79
-.10
-1.37
-1.53
-1.28

31.45
32.55
32.72
32.92
33.10
33.40

0 meter

2.39
-.80
-.10
-1.35
-1.55
-1.30

31.45
32.54
32.69
32.90
33.09
33.38

25.12

25 meters

26.18

50 meters

26.26

75 meters .-_

26.48

100 meters

26.64

150 meters

2687

Station 1507; June 30; lat.

51°41' N.,

long. 55''24

' W.; depth, 82 meters;

dynamic height, 1,454.646 meters

0.68
-.12
-.62
-.83

30.91
31.26
31.99
32.38

0 meter

0.68
-.20
-.70
-.90

30.91
31.31
32.05
32.50

24.81

25 meters

25.17

50 meters

25.78

(75) meters

26.15

Station 1508; June 30; lat. 51°47' N., long. 55°22'30" W.; depth, 96 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.629 meters

0 meter

1.93

.32

-1.02

-1.23

30.71
31.58
32.21
32.58

0 meter

1.93
-.30
-1.15
-1.30

30.71
31.82
32.35
32.70

24.57

25 meters

25.57

50 meters

26.03

26.32

Station 1509; June 30; lat. 51°52' N., long. 55°22' W.; depth, 86 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.621 meters ^

1.14
.60

-1.08

30.98
31.84
32.56

0 meter.^.

1.14

.60

-.80

-1.25

30.98
31.80
32.45
32.90

24.82

26 meters

25 meters

25.52

53 meters

50 meters ...

a&io

(75) meters

a&48

Station 1510; June 30; lat. 52°06' N., long. SS^Se' W.; depth, 78 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.600 meters

0 meter

0.53

-.86

-1.41

-1.47

31.35
32.10
32.67
32.90

0.53
-1.25
-1.45
-1.45

31.35
32.40
32.85
33.03

25.16

13 meters

%08

34 meters

50 meters.

»44

55 meters .

(75) meters

%5t

Station 1511; June 30; lat. 52°04' N., long. 55°27' W.; depth, 183 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.618 meters

0 meter

25 meters..
49 meters..
73 meters..
97 meters..
146 meters.

-0.04
-.21
-1.41
-1.47
-1.40
-1.24

31.78
31.84
32.60
32.87
33.02
33.24

0 meter

25 meters..
50 meters..
75 meters..
100 meters.
150 meters

-0.04
-.20
-1.40
-1.45
-1.35
-1.20

31.78
31.85
32.62
32.88
33.03
33.26

26. so

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

241

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature

(°C.)

Salinity
(%o)

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

fft

Station 1512; June 30; lat. 52°02' N., long. 55°18' W.; depth, 119 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.646 meters

0 meter. .
17 meters
34 meters
51 meters

1.41
1.13

-.48
-1.21

30.86
30.98
31.78
32.38

0 meter

25 meters,. _
50 meters...
(75) meters.
(100) meters

1.41

.50

-1.15

-1.45

-1.40

30.86
31.40
32.32
32.80
33.00

24.72
25.21
26.03
26.40
26.56

Station 1513; June 30; lat. 52°05' N., long. 55°00' W.; depth, 183 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.629 meters

1.19

.94

-1.31

-1.41

-1.29

-.38

31.05
31.13
32.77
32.94
33.14
33.83

0 meter

1.19
.95
-1.20
-1.40
-1.30
-.45

31.05
31.13
32.70
32.91
33.09
33.75

24.88

25 meters

24.96

50 meters

26.32

75 meters

26.49

104 meters . ..

100 meters

26.64

150 meters _

27.14

Station 1514; June 30; lat. 52°14' N., long. 54°25' W.; depth, 192 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.541 meters

0 meter. . .

28 meters..
55 meters..
83 meters..
Ill meters
166 meters

2.20
1.80
-.88
-.47
-.02
.54

32.42

32.48

33.48

33.61

33.96

34.13

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
75 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
(200) meters

2

20

1

85

—

85

_

75

—

25

40

85

32.42
32.46
33.35
33.56
33.72
34.09
34.20

25.91
25.97
26.82
27.00
27.11
27.37
27.43

Station 1515; July 1; lat. 52°22' N., long. 53°49' W.; depth, 238 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.528 meters

Ometer

2.16
1.62
-.74
-.93
-.55
.93
1.75

32.50
32.76
33.22
33.55
33.80
34.28
34.49

Ometer.

2.16
1.70
-.50
-.90
-.65
.75
1.65

32.50
32.75
33.17
33.51
33.76
34.22
34.46

25.98

26meters

25 meters

26.22

52 meters . .

50 meters. .

26.67

78 meters

75 meters...

26.97

104 meters

100 meters.

27.16

157 meters ...

150 meters

27.46

209 meters

(200) meters

27.59

Station 1516; July 1; lat. 52° 30'N., long. 53°12'

W.; depth, 192 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.479 meters

Ometer .

2.90
2.76
-.45
.09
.66
1.88

32.93
33.04
33.70
34.04
34.26
34.54

0 meter

2.90

2.80

-.45

.10

.60

1.75

2.60

32.93
33.04
33.65
34.03
34.23
34.51
34.75

26.27

26 meters . .

25 meters

26.38

52 meters.

50 meters

27.06

77 meters

75 meters

27.33

103 meters

100 meters

27.46

154 meters

150 meters .

27.62

(200) meters

27.74

Station 1517; July 1; lat. 52°39' N., long. 52°36' W.; depth, 229 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.472 meters

0 meter....

2.73
.72

-.34
.07

.78
1.79
2.79

32.80
33.23
33.73
33.98
34.24
34.60
34.80

0 meter

2.73
.80
-.35
.05
.65
1.65
2.60

32.80
33.22
33.70
33.96
34.19
34.58
34.78

26.18

26 meters

25 meters

26.65

52 meters

27.09

78 meters

27.29

104 meters

100 meters

27.43

155 meters

27.68

206 meters

200 meters

27.76

Station 1518; July 1; lat. 52°47' N., long. 51°59' W.; depth, 274 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.471 meters

Ometer. _

2.18

2.18

-.55

.03

.85

2.35

2.90

33.12
33.11
33.77
34.10
34.32
34.63
34.82

0 meter

2.18
2.20
-.55
-.05
.70
2.25
2.80

33.11
33.11
33.65
34.06
34.29
34.59
34.79

26.46

27 meters

25 meters

26.46

53 meters...

27.06

79 meters

27.37

105 meters

100 meters

27.51

159 meters...

27.64

211 meters

200 meters

27.75

242

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Observed values

Depth

Tem-
perature
CO.)

Salinity
(96o)

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(%o)

Station 1519; July 1; lat. 52°58' N., long. 51''22' W.; depth, 1,280 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.352 meters

0 meter

4.47
4.83
3.74
3.50
3.41
3.37
3.37
3.39
3.35
3.35
3.34
3.31

34.43
34.67
34.92
34.94
34.98
34.99
35.08
35.08
35.04
35.07
35.08
35.11

4.47
4.85
3.90
3.65
3.45
3.40
3.40
3.40
3.40
3.35
3.35
3.35

34.43
34.65
34.91
34.93
34.96
34.99
35.04
35.05
35.06
35.07
35.08
35.10

27.30

28 meters.

25 meters

27 44

56 meters

50 meters .

27 75

84 meters

27 79

Ill meters

100 meters

27.83

167 meters

150 meters

27.86

225 meters

200 meters

27 90

336 meters

300 meters

27.91

411 meters

400 meters

27.92

629 meters

600 meters

27 93

845 meters

800 meters

27.93

1,089 meters. i

1,000 meters

27.95

Station 1520; July 1-2; lat. 53''09' N., long. 50°47' W.; depth , 2,743 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.362 meters

0 meter

20 meters

40 meters

15 meters

35 meters

76 meters

116 meters. .-
197 meters...
433 meters...
652 meters...
873 meters...
1,096 meters.
1,662 meters.
2,165 meters.

6.55
5.73
5.26
5.75
5.57
3.51
3.38
3.33
3.25
3.26

3.20
3.15
2.87

34.73
34.70
34.73
34.71
34.70
34.89
34.94
35.00
35.00
35.08
35.08
35.06
35.08

0 meter

25 meters

SO meters

75 meters

100 meters

150 meters

200 meters....

300 meters

400 meters

600 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters..
1,500 meters..
(2,000) meters

6.55
5.70
4.40
3.55
3.40
3.35
3.30
3.30
3.30
3.25
3.25
3.20
3.20
2.95

34.73
34.70
34.78
34.88
34.93
34.97
35.00
35.00
35.00
35.07
35.08
35.07
35.08
35.08

27.28
27.37

27.58
27.75
27.81
27.85
27.88
27.88
27.88
27.94
27.94
27.95
27.95
27.97

Station 1521; July 2; lat. 53°22' N., long. 50°08' W.; depth, 3,246 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.325 meters

0 meter

26 meters...
51 meters...
77 meters...
101 meters..
153 meters..
204 meters..
305 meters..
349 meters..
526 meters..
741 meters..
928 meters..
1,411 meters
1,833 meters

7.07
7.10
5.44
4.34
4.19
3.90
3.51
3.79
3.63
3.48
3.37
3.34
3.30
3.22

34.77
34.81
34.89
34.91
34.94
35.00
35.02
35.09
35.11
35.13
35.12
35.16
35.15
35.16

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters

75 meters

100 meters

150 meters

200 meters

300 meters

400 meters

600 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters..
1,500 meters..
(2,000) meters

7.07
7.10
5.70
4.35
4.20
3.95
3.55
3.75
3.65
3.40
3.35
3.35
3.30
3.20

34.77
34.81
34.89
34.91
34.94
35.00
35.02
35.09
35.12
35.13
35.13
35.16
35.15
35.16

27. 25 i
27.28
27. 52
27. 70
27. 74
27. 81 '
27. 87
27.90
27.94
27.97
27.97
28.00

28.00;

28.02;

Station 1522; July 2; lat. 53°35' N., long. 49°30' W.; depth, 3,6587 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.340 meters

0 meter

27 meters...
54 meters...

81 meters

109 meters..
163 meters..
217 meters..
325 meters..
417 meters..
641 meters..
877 meters.-
1,125 meters
1,727 meters
2,354 meters

7.25
7.36
6.12
5.54
4.96
4.45
4.13
3.90
3.50
3.58
3.49
3.37
3.25
3.06

34.91

34.88
34.90
34.94
34.95
34.94
34.99
35.09
35.08
35.17
35.17
35.16
35.20
35.22

0 meter.

25 meters

50 meters

75 meters

100 meters

150 meters

200 meters

300 meters

400 meters

600 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters..
1,500 meters..
(2,000) meters

7.25
7.35
6.35
5.65
5.15
4.50
4.25
3.95
3.50
3.55
3.50
3.45
3.30
3.20

34.86

27.29

34.88

27.29

34.90

27.45

34.93

27.66

34.95

27.64

34.94

27.70

34.97

27.76

35.08

27.87

35.08

27.92

35.16

27.98

35.17

28.00

35.17

28 00

35.18

28.02

35.21

28.06

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

243

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°0.)

Salinity
(96o)

Depth

Tem-
perature

rc.)

Salinity
(960)

fft

Station 1523; July 3; lat. 54°15' N., long. 49°14' W.; depth, 3,658 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.278 meters

0 meter

29 meters...
68 meters...
87 meters...
116 meters..
174 meters..
232 meters--
348 meters..
434 meters..
659 meters..
888 meters..
1,124 meters
1,719 meters
2,336 meters

6.80
6.80
4.77
4.13
3.74
3.31
3.30
3.34
3.38
3.40
3.30
3.26
3.23
3.05

34.85
34.86
34.96
35.04
35.05
35.08
35.09
35.08
35.15
35.13
35.16
35.16
35.19
35.18

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters.. -
75 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters.-
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

6.80
5.10
4.35
3.95
3.45
3.30
3.30
3.35
3.40
3.35
3.30
3.25
3.15

34.85
34.86
34.93
35.02
35.05
35.07
35.08
35.08
35.13
35.13
35.15
35.16
35.18
35.19

27.35
27.36
27.62
27.79
27.85
27.92
27.94
27.94
27.97
27.97
27.99
28.01
28.02
28.04

Station 1524; July 3; lat. 54°58' N., long. 48°56' W.; depth, 3,790 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.270 meters

0 meter

27 meters...
54 meters...
81 meters...
108 meters..
162 meters..
216 meters..
324 meters..
407 meters..
622 meters..
848 meters..
1,081 meters
1,674 meters
2,299 meters

6.85
6.73
4.92
4.50
4.19
3.95
3.74
3.51
3.45
3.38
3.27
3.24
3.24
3.15

34.91
34.92
34.97
34.98
35.01
35.02
35.07
35.09
35.15
35.17
35.18
35.18
35.21
35.20

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
75 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters-
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

6.85
6.75
5.40
4.60
4.25
4.00
3.80
3.55
3.45
3.40
3.30
3.25
3.25
3.20

34.91
34.92
34.96
34.98
35.01
35.02
35.06
35.08
35.15
35.17
35.18
35.18
35.20
35.21

27.39
27.41
27.62
27.72
27.79
27.83
27.88
27.91
27.98
28.01
28. 02
28.02
28.04
28.06

Station 1525; July 3; lat. 55°40' N., long. 48°42' W.; depth, 3,612 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.285 meters

0 meter

29 meters...
57 meters...
86 meters...
115 meters..
172 meters..
229 meters..
345 meters..
387 meters..
597 meters..
817 meters..
1,049 meters
1,629 meters
i 2,246 meters

6.30
6.23
4.40
3.92
3.74
3.88
3.66
3.52
3.43
3.29
3.23
3.22
3.22
3.13

34.80
34.80
34.91
34.96
35.08
35.10
35.11
35.11
35.12
35.13
35.14
35.15
35.16
35.14

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
75 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

6.30
6.25
4.65
4.05
3.80
3.85
3.75
3.55
3.40
3.30
3.25
3.25
3.20
3.15

34.80
34.80
34.89
34.94
35.02
35.09
35.10
35.11
35.12
35.13
35.14
35.15
35.15
35.15

27.38
27.38
27.65
27.75
27.85
27.89
27.91
27.94
27.97
27.98
27.99
28.00
28.01
28.01

Station 1526; July 4; lat. 56''20' N., long. 48°40'

W.; depth, 2,834 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.341 meters

0 meter ....

6.27
6.04
4.10
3.65
3.52
3.34
3.45
3.34
3.32
3.24
3.25
3.22
3.23
3.16

34.82
34.81
34.90
34.98
34.99
35.02
35.05
35.06
35.08
35.08
35.09
35.10
35.11
35.12

0 meter

6.27
6.10
4.95
3.85
3.60
3.40
3.35
3.40
3.35
3.30
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.20

34.82
34.81
34.86
34.94
34.98
35.00
35.03
35.05
35.07
35.08
35.08
35.09
35.11
35.11

27.40

31 meters

25 meters . .

27.41

61 meters

27.59

92 meters

27.77

122 meters

100 meters .. .

27.83

183 meters

27.87

244 meters

200 meters.

27.89

366 meters

300 meters

27.91

456 meters

27.93

691 meters

600 meters . . .

27.94

929 meters

800 meters

27.94

1,170 meters . .

1,000 meters

27.95

1,782 meters...

1,500 meters

27.97

2,407 meters

2,000 meters

27.98

244

MARIOlsr AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(960)

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

"^t

Station 1527; July 4; lat. 56°56' N., long. 48°36' W.; depth, 3,610 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.304 meters

0 meter

31 meter.s...
62 meters...
93 meters.. -
124 meters. -
186 meters..
248 meters. -
372 meters..
458 meters..
694 meters..
933 meters.-
1,178 meters
1,790 meters
2,412 meters

6.06
5.74
3.92
3.65
3.40
3.57
3.61
3.45
3.30
3.26
3.23
3.20
3.22
3.10

34.78
34.78
34.89
34.93
34.97
35.08
35.10
35.11
35.12
35.11
35.11
35.13
35.15
35.14

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
75 meters...
100 meters. -
150 meters..
200 meters--
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

6.06
5.85
4.45
3.80
3.65
3.45
3.60
3.60
3.40
3.30
3.25
3.20
3.20
3.20

34.78
34.78
34.85
34.90
34.93
35.03
35.09
35. 10
35.11
35.11
35.11
35.11
35.14
35.15

27.39
27.41
27.64
27.75
27.79
27.88
27.92
27,93
27.96
27.97
27.97
27.98
28.00
28.01

Station 1528; July 4; lat. 56°57' N., long. 50°10' W.; depth. 3,475 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.295 meters

0 meter

30 meters---
59 meters...
90 meters...
120 meters. _
179 meters..
239 meters. -
358 meters..
450 meters..
684 meters. -
923 meters..
1,168 meters
1,776 meters
2,319 meters

5.96
4.90
3.91
3.47
3.30
3.37
3.53
3.32
3.28
3.23
3.22
3.21
3.22
3.17

34.83

34.86

34.96

34.97

3.5.00

35.02

35.06

35.09

35.08

35.13

35.13

35.12

35.13

35.12

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters. --
75 meters. -.
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

5.96
5.10
4.20
3.65
3.40
3.30
3.45
3.50
3.30
3.25
3.20
3.20
3.20
3.20

34.83
34.84
34.95
34.96
34.98
35.01
35.04
35.08
35.09
35. 11
35.13
35.13
35.13
35.13

27.44
27.56
27.75
27.81
27.85
27.89
27.89
27.92

Station 1529; July 5; lat. 57°00' N., long. 52°30' W.; depth, 3,292 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.293 meters

0 meter ..

6.04
5.49
4.06
3.66
3.85
3.56
3.48
3.35

34.84
34.79
35.00
35.05
35.11
35.10
35.10
35.10
35.10
35.13
35.15
35.12
35.13

0 meter

6.04
5.65
4.40
3.80
3.65
3.75
3.55
3.40
3.35
3.30
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.20

34.84
34.79
34.92
35.02
35.06
35.10
35.10
35.10
35.10
35.13
35.13
35.13
35.13
35.13

27.44

31 meters... -

25 meters . .

27.45

60 meters... ..

50 meters

27.70

91 meters .

75 meters. .

27.85

122 meters... .......

100 meters

27.89

182 meters

150 meters

27.91

243 meters

200 meters...

27.93

300 meters..

27.95

389 meters...

400 meters.

27.95

611 meters

3.25
3.21
3.22
3.2?

600 meters ...

27.98

850 meters .

800 meters _.

27.98

1,106 meters ...

1,000 meters

27.98

1,711 meters

1,500 meters

27.98

(2,000) meters . .

27.99

Station 1530; July 5; lat.

57°29' N.,

ong. 53°28'W.; depth, 3,566 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.344 meters

0 meter

5.66
5.54
3.82
3.69
3.53
3.42
3.39
3.35
3.31
3.23
3.23
3.22
3.24
3.07

34.81
34.82
34.93
34.98
34.98
35.03
35.03
35.08
35.06
35.08
35.08
35.07
35.09
35.10

0 meter

5.66
5.60
4.10
3.75
3.65
3.45
3.40
3.35
3.35
3.25
3.25
3.25
3.20
3.20

34.81
34.81
34.89
34.96
34,98
35.00
35.03
35.06
35. 08
35.07
35.08
35.08
35.08
35.10

27.47

25 meters .

27.47

61 meters

50 meters

27.71

93 meters

75 meters

27.80

100 meters

27.82

185 meters

150 meters

27.86

200 meters

27.89

370 meters

300 meters

27.92

448 meters

400 meters

27.93

600 meters

27.94

915 meters. ..

800 meters

27.94

1,155 meters

1,000 meters

27.94

1,762 meters

1,500 meters

27.95

2,387 meters

2,000 meters

27.97

I

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

245

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(%o)

o-t

station 1531; July 6; lat. 57°56' N., long. 54°23' W.; depth, 3,319 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.341 meters

5.90
5.62
3.66
3.51
3.52
3.44
3.42
3.40
3.27
3.24
3.21
3.20
3.25
2.94

34.83
34.83
34.91
34.98
34.98
35.06
35.07
35.07
35.06
35.06
35.08
35.07
35.08
35.11

0 meter

5.90
5.75
4.00
3.60
3.55
3.50
3.45
3.40
3.40
3.25
3.25
3.20
3.20
3.20

34.83
34.83
34.87
34.95
34.98
35.02
35.06
35.07
35.07
35.06
35.06
35.08
35.07
35.08

27.45

25 meters -. .,

27.47

63 meters .

50 meters ._

27.71

75 meters

27.81

127 meters

100 meters

27.83

150 meters

27.88

253 meters

200 meters

27.91

380 meters - -

300 meters

27.93

400 meters...

27.93

763 meters

600 meters

27.93

1,019 meters --.

800 meters

27.93

1,276 meters _-

1,000 meters

27.95

1,923 meters .

1,500 meters

27.95

2,573 meters.

2,000 meters

27.95

Station 1532; July 6; lat. 58°28' N., long. 53°28' W.; depth, 3,429 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.261 meters

0 meter

33 meters...
65 meters...
99 meters. .-
132 meters..
197 meters..
263 meters..
394 meters..
518 meters..
778 meters..
1,039 meters
1,299 meters
1 ,950 meters
2,600 meters

6.12
4.67
3.74
3.52
3.60
3.47
3.36
3.29
3.23
3.20
3.18
3.20
3.25
2.93

34.82
34.96
34.98
35.06
35.08
35.14
35.14
35.13
35.16
35.14
35.14
35.13
35.16
35.16

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters...

75 meters

100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

6.12
5.10
4.15
3.65
3.50
3.55
3.45
3.35
3.30
3.20
3.20
3.15
3.20
3.25

34.82
34.93
34.97
35.01
35.06
35.10
35.14
35.14
35.13
35.14
35.14
35.14
35.14
35.16

27.42
27.62
?7.77
27.85
27.91
27.93
27.97
27.98
27.98
28.00
28.00
28.00
28.00
28.01

Station 1533; July 6; lat. 59°00' N., long. 53°00' W,; depth, 3,603 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.355 meters

0 meter

33 meters...
65 meters...
98 meters...
131 meters..
196 meters..
261 meters..
392 meters..
513 meters..
774 meters..
1,038 meters
1,305 meters
1,958 meters
2,610 meters

6.83
3.24
3.52
3.94
4. U
4.06
3.95
3.57
3.45
3.31
3.24
3.20
3.27
2.91

34.61
34.63
34.84
35.00
35.05
35.04
35.08
35.10
35.08
35.08
35. 08
35.11
35.12
35.12

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
75 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

6.83
3.30
3.35
3.70
4.00
4.15
4.05
3.85
3.55
3.40
3.30
3.25
3.25
3.25

34.61
34.63
34.71
34.90
35.00
35.05
35.04
35.09
35.10
35.08
35.08
35.08
35.12
35.12

27.15
27.58
27.64
27.76
27.81
27.83
27.83
27.89
27.93
27.93
27.94
27.94
27.98
?7.98

Station 1534; July 6-7; lat. 58°58' N., long. 51°30' W.; depth, 3,521 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.296 meters

Ometer.

6.01
4.41
3.66
3.85
4.22
4.08
3.93
3.70
3.68
3.34
3.33
3.48
3.25
3.06

34.61
34.64
34.86
35.00
35.11
35.14
35.14
35.15
35.15
35.14
35.16
35.14
35.15
35.16

0 meter...

6.01
4.75
3.75
3.70
4.00
4.20
4.00
3.80
3.70
3.50
3.35
3.30
3.25
3.20

34.61
34.62
34.79
34.94
35.05
35.13
35.14
35.14
35.15
35.14
35.14
35.15
35.15
35.15

27.27

30 meters

25 meters

27.43

59 meters

27.66

89 meters...

75 meters.

27.79

119 meters

100 meters

27.85

178 meters

150 meters

27.88

237 meters

200 meters

27.92

355 meters

300 meters

27.94

466 meters

400 meters

27.96

701 meters

600 meters

27.97

935 meters...

800 meters

27.98

1,172 meters..

1,000 meters

28.00

1,797 meters

1,500 meters

28.00

2,448 meters ..

2,000 meters ..

28.02

246

MARION AND GENERAL. GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
CC.)

Salinity
(%o)

Depth

Tem-
perature
{°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

Station 1535; July 7; lat. S&'dT N., long. 50°16' W.; depth, 3,429 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.265 meters

0 meter

6.00
6.85
4.42
3.72
3.73
3.82
3.97
3.69
3.61
3.41
3.25
3.23
3.21
3.24

34.72
34.73
34.86
34.92
34.98
35.07
35.13
35.16
35.15
35.16
35.14
35.16
35.15
35.17

0 meter..

6.00
5.85
4.85
3.75
3.75
3.80
3.95
3.70
3.60
3.45
3.25
3.25
3.20
3.20

34.72
34.73
34.85
34.91
34.97
35.06
35.12
35.16
35.15
35.16
35.14
35.15
35.15
35.17

27 36

27 meters

25 meters .

27 37

53 meters...

50 meters .

27 59

79 meters.

75 meters

27 76

106 meters

100 meters

27.81

158 meters .

150 meters ..

27 88

211 meters

200 meters

27 91

317 meters

300 meters

27.97

400 meters

400 meters...

27 97

608 meters

600 meters

27.99

823 meters...

800 meters

27 99

1,044 meters

1,000 meters. . .

28 00

1,619 meters

1,500 meters.

28.01

2,227 meters

2,000 meters

28 03

Station 1536; July 8; lat. 57°26' N., long. 47°40' W.; depth, 3,200 meters; dynamic height 1,454,324 meters

0 meter

32 meters...
63 meters...
95 meters...
127 meters..
189 meters..
252 meters..
379 meters..
453 meters..
687 meters..
925 meters..
1,168 meters
1,780 meters.
2,406 meters.

6.24
5.89
6.06
4.69
4.52
4.38
4.37
3.91
3.77
3.43
3.31
3.26
3.27
2.80

34.96
35.00
35.08
35.12
35.12
35.15
35.16
35.13
35.16
35.15
35.11
35.10
35.10
35.13

0 meter

25 meters....
50 meters...
75 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

6.24
6.00
5.40
4.85
4.65
4.45
4.35
4.25
3.85
3.55
3.35
3.30
3.25
3.20

34.96

27.50

34.99

27.56

35.05

27.69

35.10

27.80

35.12

27.83

35.13

27.86

35.16

27.89

35.14

27.89

35.14

27.93

35.15

27.97

35.13

27.97

35.11

27.97

35.11

27.97

35.11

27.98

Station 1537; July 8; lat. S7°45' N., long. 47°13' W.; depth, 3,500 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.394 meters

0 meter

5.94
5.76
6.14
5.03
5.02
4.94
4.87
4.64
4.47
3.61
3.37
3.22
3.24
3.01

35.00
35.00
35.09
35.09
35.12
35.11
35.10
35.12
35.10
35.10
35.08
35. 08
35.08
35.10

0 meter

5.94
5.75
6.10
5.40
6.00
5.00
4.90
4.80
4.50
3.65
3.40
3.25
3.26
3.10

35.00
35.00
35.08
35.09
35.10
35.12
35.11
35.12
35.10
35.10
35.08
35.08
35.08
35.09

27.58

30 meters

25 meters...

27.60

60 meters

50 meters...

27.62

90 meters...

75 meters

27.72

121 meters

100 meters

27.78

181 meters

150 meters

27.79

200 meters

27.80

362 meters.

300 meters

27.82

409 meters

400 meters

27.83

625 meters

600 meters _

27.92

849 meters

800 meters...

27.93

1,080 meters

1,000 meters.

27.94

1,676 meters

1,500 meters

27.94

2,306 meters

2,000 meters

27.97

Station 1538; July 9; lat. 58''07' N., long. 46°35'

W.; depth, 3,063 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.302 meters

0 meter

6.07
5.82
4.55
4.47
4.24
3.94
4.04
3.66
3.61
3.34
3.25
3.21
3.13
2.51

34.91
34.93
35.00
35.03
35.08
36.11
35.14
36.16
35.13
35.14
35.12
35.15
35.12
35.13

0 meter

6.07
5.90
5.10
4.60
4.45
4.10
3.96
4.00
3.60
3.45
3.30
3.25
3.20
3.10

34.91
34.92
34.97
35.01
35.03
35.09
35.11
35.16
35.15
35.14
35.13
35.12
35.14
35.12

27.53
27.53
27.66
27.76
27.78
27.87
27.90
27.93
27.97
27.97
27.98
27.98
2&00
28.00

33 meters

25 meters

65 meters

50 meters

98 meters .

75 meters

131 meters

100 meters

195 meters

150 meters

260 meters

200 meters

391 meters

300 meters

510 meters

400 meters

765 meters

600 meters

1,020 meters

800 meters

1,275 meters

1,000 meters

1,921 meters

1,500 meters

2,670 meters

2,000 meters

DAVIS

STEAII

AND LABRADOR

SEA

247

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

Station 1539; July 9; lat. 58°26' N., long. 46°05' W.; depth 2,424 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.251 meters

6.36
5.97
5.58
4.80
4.88
4.57
4.46
4.08
3.95
3.56
3.31
3.26
3.01
2.31

35.00
35.06
35.05
35.26
35.24
35.27
35.27
35.23
35.19
35.18
35.15
35. 17
35.19
35.20

0 meter

6.36
6.00
5.70
4.90
4.80
4.70
4.45
4.25
4.00
3.70
3.40
3.30
3.10
2.70

35.00
35.06
35.05
35.20
35.25
35.26
35.27
35.25
35.21
35.18
35.16
35.16
35.19
35.20

27.53

25 meters..

27.61

50 meters

27.65

75 meters

27.87

100 meters

27.92

150 meters

27.94

200 meters

27.98

300 meters

27.98

400 meters...

27.98

600 meters.. _ .

27.98

895 meters

800 meters

28.00

1,000 meters

28.01

1 688 meters

1,500 meters

28.05

2,000 meters

28.09

Station 1540; July 9; lat. SS^SO' N., long. 45''22' W.; depth 2,488 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.368 meters

6.05
5.17
4.80
4.91
5.39
5.34
5.20
4.83
4.74
4.22
3.64
3.50
3.18
2.46

34.52
34.52
34.89
35.02
35.22
35.26
35.26
35.24
35.23
35.20
35.17
35.10
35.13
35.15

0 meter

6.05
5.25
4.80
4.85
5.20
5.40
5.30
5.00
4.75
4.50
3.85
3.60
3.30
2.75

34.52
34.52
34.80
34.99
35.16
35.25
35.26
35.25
35.24
35.21
35.18
35. 14
35.12
35.14

27.19

25 meters

27.29

50 meters

27.56

75 meters

27.70

113 meters ..

100 meters

27.80

150 meters

27.84

!29 meters

200 meters

27.87

300 meters

27.89

150 meters

400 meters

27.91

600 meters .

27.92

105 meters

800 meters

27.96

1,000 meters

27.96

1 ,704 meters ..

1,500 meters

27.98

!,274 meters

2,000 meters

28.04

:5tation 1541; July 9; lat. Sg^H' N., long. 44=49' W.; depth, 1,692 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.378 meters

6.31
5.75
5.41
5.76
5.70
5.87
5.33
5.19
5.02
4.76
4.14
3.70
3.38

34.67
34.68
34.69
35.04
35.16
35.31
35.25
35.31
35.26
35.25
35.23
35.16
35.16

0 meter

6.31
5.80
5.40
6.75
5.70
5.85
5.55
5.20
5.05
4.85
4.30
3.80
3.40

34.67
34.68
34.69
34.90
35.13
35.30
35.26
35.29
35.27
35.25
35.24
35.18
35.16

27.28

25 meters

27.34

i4 meters

50 meters. . .

27.40

75 meters

27.53

08 meters

100 meters

27.71

150 meters ..

27.83

17 meters

25 meters

200 meters

27.83

300 meters

27.90

29 meters

400 meters .

27.90

600 meters

27.91

55 meters

800 meters

27.96

,070 meters

1,000 meters

27.97

1,500 meters

28.00

Station 1542; July 9; lat. 59°25' N., long. 44°35' W.; depth, 153 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.416 meters

meter

2.02
2.67
2.69
2.95
2.99
4.44

33.31
33.94
34.01
34.38
34.66
35.00

0 meter

2.02
2.65
2.70
2.95
3.00
5.15

33.31
33.90
34.01
34.39
34.68
35.13

26.64

4 meters .

25 meters ..

27.06

8 meters...-

27.14

'3 meters

75 meters

27.42

7 meters

100 meters ..

27.65

136 meters

(150) meters

27.78

jtation 1543; July 10; lat. 59°55' N., long. 50°10' W.; depth, 3,182 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.292 meters

meter

4.50
4.74
6.07
5.18
5.02
5.14
4.69
4.26
4.21
3.86
3.56
3.42
3.02
2.54

34.04
34.62
34.94
35.08
35.24
35.31
35.25
35.23
35.24
35.21
35.21
35.24
35.19
35.19

0 meter

4.50
4.60
4.90
5.10
5.15
6.05
5.15
4.50
4.25
4.05
3.80
3.55
3.30
2.95

34.04
34.48
34.80
34.99
35.09
35.28
35.31
35.24
35.23
35.23
35.21
35.21
35.23
35.19

26.99

i meters

25 meters .

27.32

5 meters

27.55

27.67

!1 meters— -

100 meters

27.75

*5 meters

27.90

iO meters...

200 meters

27.92

•1 meters

300 meters

27.94

•6 meters

27.96

11 meters

600 meters

27.98

017 meters

800 meters .

28.00

274 meters

1,000 meters

28.02

919 meters

1,500 meters

28.06

572 meters

2,000 meters

28.06

248

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity

(9rTO)

Depth

Tem-
perature

(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<n

Stationl544; July 11; lat. 60°32' N., long. 49°34' W.; depth, 1,811 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.450 meters

3.50
4.48
5.10
5.22
5.22
5.01
5.03
4.56
4.33
4.01
3.71
3.50
3.25

33.46
34.50
34.79
34.95
35.01
35.12
35.20
35.13
35.08
35.13
35.08
35.09
35.08

3.50
4.40
5.05
5.20
5.20
5.10
5.00
4.80
4.40
4.15
3.85
3.60
3.35

33.46
34.30
34.72
34.89
34.98
35.07
35.18
35.16
35.11
35.11
35.11
35.08
35.08

26.63

25 meters _..

27.21

50 meters

27 47

87 meters

75 meters . .

27.58

27.65

150 meters

27.74

232 meters

200 meters

27.84

347 meters

300 meters

27.85

27.85

693 meters

600 meters

27.88

923 meters

800 meters - - . . .

27.91

1,152 meters

1,000 meters

27.91

1,500 meters ...

27.93

Station 1545; July 11; lat. 60°50' N., long. 49°20' W.; depth, 91 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.560 meters

0 meter

0.62
.87
1.35
1.61

32.17
33.78
34.01
34.08

0 meter

0.62
.85
1.30
1.60

32.17
33.65
34.00
34.07

25.88

26.99

50 meters.

27.24

75 meters

27.28

Station 1546; July 13; lat. 61°15' N.,

ong. 49°10' W.; depth, 174 meters;

dynamic height, 1,454.726 meters

0 meter.

4.99
.30
-.10
-.08
-.07

31.81
32.44
33.14
33.39
33.40

0 meter .

4.99
.35
-.10
-.05
-.05
.00

31.81
32.44
33.11
33.39
33.40
33.41

25.18

25 meters

26.05

50 meters .

26.60

76 meters

75 meters ..

26.83

102 meters .- . .

100 meters . .

26.84

(150) meters

26.85

Station 1547; July 14; lat

61°20' N.,

long. 50°07

W.; depth, 177 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.720 meters

1.84
1.02
1.30
4.16
2.61
2.45

32.25
33.22
33.79
34.30
34.30
34.34

0 meter . ..-

1.84
1.00
1.30
4.15
2.60
2.45

32.25
33.22
33.79
34.30
34.30
34.34

25.80
26.64
27.07
27.23
27.38
27.42

25 meters . .

50 meters

50 meters ..

75 meters

75 meters

100 meters. .

150 meters.. ..-

Station 1548; July 14; lat.

31°25' N., 1

ong. 50°53' W.; depth, 2,560 meters; d

ynamic he

ight, 1,454.550 meters

4.06
5.49
5.43
5.44
5.37
5.11
5.00
4.75
4.55
4.05
3.77
3.49
3.21
2.72

33.32
34.60
34.86
34.96
35.04
35.11
35.07
35.08
35.00
35.02
35.01
35.02
34.96
35.01

4.06
5.40
5.45
5.45
5.45
5.25
5.10
4.95
4.70
4.30
3.95
3.70
3.35
3.05

33.32
34.25
34.80
34.91
34.98
35.09
35. 10
35.07
35.06
35.01
35.02
35.01
34.99
34.98

26.46
27.05
27.48
27.57
27.62
27.74
27.76
27.76
27.78
27.78
47.83
27.85
27.86
27.88

25 meters

50 meters.--

92 meters

75 meters

122 meters -..

100 meters

150 meters

245 meters

200 meters

300 meters

400 meters .

707 meters

600 meters

800 meters...

1,000 meters

1 ,766 meters .

1,500 meters.

2,366 meters

2,000 meters

Station 1549; July 14; lat. 61°30' N., long. 51°47' W.; depth, 2,835 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.510 meters

0 meter - .

6.37
5.01
5.03
5.39
4.75
4.63
4.46
4.43
4.23
3.83
3.56
3.35
3.08
2.48

33.97
34.38
34.72
.34.96
34.97
35.04
.35.06
35.07
35.07
35.00
35.00
35.02
35.03
35.06

0 meter

6.37
5.20
4.95
5.15
5.40
4.70
4.65
4.45
4.40
4.10
3.80
3.60
3.25
3.00

33.97
34.30
34.56
34.81
34.96

34. 99
35.04
35.07
35.07

35. 05
35.02
35.00
35.03
35.03

26.72
27.12
27.35
27.53
27. 62
27.72
27.77
27.82
27.82
27.84
27.85
27.85
27.90
27.93

25 meters

50 meters

100 meters

150 meters

260 meters

200 meters.-

300 meters

509 meters

400 meters

000 meters

1,020 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters

1,927 meters

1,500 meters

2,580 meters

2,000 meters

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

249

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(%o)

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(%o)

<rt

Station 1550; July 14; lat. 61°30' N., long. 52°32' W.; depth, 2,926 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.512 meters

0 meter

32 meters...
64 meters...
96 meters...
128 meters..
192 meters.-
256 meters..
384 meters..
512 meters..
770 meters..
1,030 meters
1,292 meters
1,948 meters

5.65
3.66
3.45
4.96
4.79
5.10
4.48
4.27
4.33
3.92
3.60
3.37
3.20

33. 30

34.06

34.56

34.95

35.02

35.05

35.07

35.07

35. 08

35.08

35.04

35.03

35.02

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters

75 meters

100 meters

150 meters

200 meters...

300 meters

400 meters

600 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters..
1,500 meters..
(2,000) meters

5. 65

3.80

3.50

4.15

4.95

4.85

5.05

4.35

4.30

4.20

3.90

3.65

3.30

3.15

33.30
33.80
34.29
34.71
34.96
35. 02
35.05
35.07
35.07
35.08
35.06
35.04
35.03
35.02

26.27
26.87
27.29
27.56
27.67
27.73
27.73
27.83
27.83
27.85
27.87
27.87
27.90
27.91

Station 1551; July 14; lat. 61°30' N., long. 53°17' W.; depth, 2,935 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.456 meters

0 meter ...

7.24
3.66
4.82
4.81
4.83
5.10
4.94
4.42
3.91
3.60
3.39
3.21

33. 80
34.36
34.86
35.00
35. 05
35.13
35.14
35.12
35.08
35.09
35.12
35.13

0 meter

7.24
3.75
4.60
4.85
4.80
4.95
5.10
4.85
4.70
4.30
3.90
3.65
3.30
3.15

33.80
34.20
34.60
34.92
35.00
35.08
35.13
35.14
35.13
35.11
35.08
35.09
35.12
35.13

26.46

32 meters. .

25 meters

27.20

64 meters

27.42

97 meters .

27.65

129 meters .

100 meters

27.72

193 meters

27.77

257 meters..

200 meters

27.78

519 meters

300 meters

27.83

781 meters

400 meters ..

27.83

1,043 meters

27.86

1,306 meters

800 meters

27.88

1,964 meters

1,000 meters

27.91

1,500 meters . ..

27.98

(2,000) meters

27.99

Station 1552; July 14-15; lat. 61°29' N., long. 54°05' W.; depth, 2,853 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.502 meters

0 meter

6.90
3.48
4.08
4.62
4.67
4.57
4.69
4.46
4.34
3.86
3.51
3.36
3.20

33.66
34.31
34.78
34.96
35.04
35.08
35.09
35.10
35.10
35.06
35.01
34.97
35.05

0 meter

6.90
3.60
3.75
4.30
4.65
4.60
4.60
4.60
4.45
4.15
3.80
3.55
3.30
3.10

33.66
34.10
34.58
34.86
34.97
35.06
35.08
35.09
35.10
35.09
35.04
35.01
34.99
35.05

26.40

32 meters.. .

25 meters

27 13

63 meters...

50 meters

27.49

96 meters . ...

27.66

128 meters .

100 meters

27 72

191 meters . . .

150 meters

27.79

254 meters. . . .

200 meters ...

27.80

382 meters ..

300 meters

27 81

504 meters

400 meters

27.84

757 meters. .. .. .

27.86

1,012 meters. -.

800 meters

27.86

1,266 meters . .

1,000 meters

27.86

1,905 meters

27.87

(2,000) meters .

27.94

Station 1553; July 15; lat. 61°28' N., long. 54°49' W.; depth, 2,798 meters; dynamic height,l,454.510 meters

0 meter

7.05
,3.91
4.19
4.66
4.80
5.00
4.89
4.34
3.91
3.60
3.38
3.11

33.96
34.41
34.74
34. 93
34.99
35.01
35.06
35.06
35.07
35.04
35.01
35.02

7.05
4.00
4.00
4.45
4.70
4.90
5.00
4.75
4.60
4.20
3.90
3.60
3.30
3.05

33.96
34.30
34.61
34.84
34.95
35.00
35.03
35.06
35.06
35.06
35.07
35.04
35.01
35.02

26.61

31 meters

27 25

61 meters.

50 meters

27.50

92 meters

27.63

123 meters... ...

27 69

184 meters

150 meters

27.71

245 meters

200 meters

27.72

511 meters... .

300 meters

27.77

768 meters

400 meters

27.79

1,025 meters

600 meters .

27.83

1,282 meters

27.88

1,929 meters

1,000 meters

27.88

1,500 meters

27.89

(2,000) meters . . ..

27.92

M

250

MARION AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
CC.)

Salinity
(.%o)

Depth

Tem-
perature
CC.)

Salinity
(96o)

fft

Station 1554; July 15; lat. 61°27' N., long. 55°35'

W.; depth, 2,808 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.515 meters

7.05
4.41
4.53
5.07
4.74
4.84
4.65
4.19
4.32
3.76
3.55
3.45
3.23
2.63

33.92
34.24
34.91
34.96
35.00
35.00
35.01
35.00
35.00
35.00
35.01
35.01
35.02
35.02

0 meter

7.05
4.45
4.50
4.80
5.05
4.85
4.80
4.35
4.25
3.80
3.60
3.50
3.35
3.15

33.92
34.10
34.82
34.93
34.97
35.00
35.00
35.01
35.00
35.00
35.01
35.01
35.01
35.02

26.58

25 meters

27.04

50 meters

27.61

75 meters

27.66

100 meters

27.67

150 meters

27.71

200 meters- ---

27.72

300 meters

27.78

400 meters --

27.78

600 meters

27.83

800 meters -

27.86

1,000 meters

27.87

1,500 meters

27.88

2,000 meters

27.91

Station 1555; July 15; lat. 61°26' N., long. 56°20' W.; depth, 2,817 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.494 meters

0 meter

33 meters...

65 meters

98 meters

131 meters...
196 meters..
261 meters..
392 meters..
516 meters..
774 meters...
1,031 meters
1,289 meters
1,935 meters
2,581 meters

6.90
2.92
3.04
3.72
3.95
4.08
4.12
3.98
3.97
3.72
3.45
3.31
3.11
2.30

33.96
34.30
34.70
34.88
34.94
34.95
35.02
34.96
35.00
35.01
35.02
35.00
35.00
35.00

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters.. -
75 meters...
100 meters—
150 meters..
200 meters- -
300 meters..
400 meters. -
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

6.90
3.15
2.95
3.35
3.75
4.00
4.05
4.10
3.95
3.90
3.70
3.50
3.25
3.10

33.96
34.19
34.51
34.76
34.88
34.94
34.95
35.00
35.00
35.00
35.01
35.02
35.00
35.00

26.63
27.24
27.62
27.68
27.73
27.76
27.76
27.80
27.81
27.82
27.85
27.88
27.88
27.90

Station 1556; July 15; lat. 61°27' N., long. 57°05' W.; depth, 2,835 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.518 meters

0 meter

7.17
4.91
4.30
4.30
4.33
4.32
4.42
4.23
4.03
3.66
3.40
3.28
3.21
2.44

33.94
34.25
34.77
34.94
34.95
35.00
35.01
35.02
35.01
35. 00
34.98
34.96
34.98
35.00

0 meter -

7.17
5.40
4.35
4.30
4.30
4.30
4.35
4.40
4.20
3.90
3.60
3.40
3.25
3.20

33.94
34.14
34.55
34.88
34.94
34.97
35.00
35.02
35.02
35.01
35.00
34.98
34.96
34.98

28.68

25 meters -

26.97

62 meters

50 meters-..

27.41

94 meters .

75 meters ---

27.68

100 meters.-- ---

27.72

188 meters

150 meters --

27.76

250 meters

200 meters -

27.77

376 meters

300 meters

27.78

499 meters

400 meters

27.80

600 meters

27.83

1,005 meters

800 meters

27.86

1 ,261 meters

1,000 meters

27.85

1,901 meters

1,500 meters

27.86

2,548 meters

2,000 meters . .-

27.87

Station 1557; July 15; lat. 61*25' N.. long. 57''43' W.; depth, 2,633 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.486 meters

0 meter

7.06
4.84
2.76
3.31
3.70
3.87
3.93
3.85
3.75
3.63
3.51
3.46
3.13
2.18

34.14
34.15
34.54
34.73
34.87
34.91
34.95
35.01
35.02
35.02
35.05
35.04
35.03
35.00

Ometer

7.05
5.45
3.10
2.90
3.40
3.80
3.90
3.90
3.85
3.70
3.60
3.50
3.30
3.10

34.14
34.14
34.33
34.61
34.76
34.88
34.91
34.98
35.01
35.02
35.02
35.05
35.03
35.02

26.75

32 meters

25 meters -..

2S.96

63 meters

50 meters -.

27.36

95 meters

27.61

127 meters.. -

100 meters

27.68

191 meters -.

27.73

254 meters

200 meters

27.75

381 meters

300 meters ..

27.80

503 meters..-

27.83

756 meters . . .

600 meters -

27.88

1,010 meters

800 meters

27.87

1,265 meters. _- -.

1,000 meters

27.90

1,901 meters

1,500 meters

27.90

2,540 meters

2,000 meters

27.92

-

DAVIS STRAIT AXD LABRADOR SEA

251

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature

(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(%o)

Station 1558; July 16; lat. 61°24' N., long. 58°22' W.; depth, 2,551 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.531 meters

n meter

:u meters.. -
lil meters. - -
92 meters.-.
122 meters..
1S2 meters..
243 meters..
3ti4 meters..
47-1 meters..
713 meters..
953 meters..
1.192 meters
1,794 meters
2,399 meters

6.20

.77
1.91
2.81
3.28
3.57

33.87
34.04
34.24
34.55
34. 68
34.87
34. 93
34.97
34.98
34.97
35.03
35. 02
35.05
35.05

0 meter

25 meters. --
50 meters...
75 meters. --
100 meters--
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters. -
400 meters. -
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

6.20
1.00
1.55
2.40
2.95
3.40
3.65
4.00
4.05
3.85
3.70
3.60
3.35
3.00

33.87
34.00
34.18
34.35
34.59
34.78
34.89
34.96
34.97
34.96
34.99
35.03
35.04
35.05

26.66
27.26
27.36

27.44
27.58
27.69
27.75
27.78
27. 78
27.79
27.83
27.87

::7.90

27.95

Station 1559; July 16; lat. 61°23' N., long. 59°00' W.; depth, 2,423 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.513 meters

0 meter

26 meters —
51 meters —
77 meters —
101 meters...
153 meters...
205 meters...
306 meters...
397 meters...
600 meters...
806 meters..
1,014 meters.
1,551 meters.
2,10S meters -

5.80
4.72
2.08
2.58
3.02
3.66
3.92
4.27
4.07
3.87
3.71

3.25
2.72

33.95
34.06
34.37
34.54
34. 65
34.86
34.91
35.02
35.01
35. 00
35. 03
35. 03
35.02

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters

75 meters

100 meters.. -
150 meters. .-
200 meters.. -
300 meters...
400 meters.--
fiOO meters-- -
800 meters- --
1,000 meters-
1,500 meters.
(2,000) meters

5.80
4.70
2.05
2.55
3.00
3.65
3.90
4.25
4.05
3.85
3.70
3.60
3.30
2.85

33.95
34.07
34.34
34.53
34.64
34.85
34.91
35.02
35.01
35.00
35.03
35.03
35.02
35.02

26.77
27.00
27.46
27.47
27.62
27.72
27.75
27.80
27.81
27.82
27.86
27.87
27.90
27.94

Station 1560; July 16; lat. 61°22' N., long. 59''48' W.; depth, 2,423 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.477 meters

5.91
5.21
3.49
2.57
2.68
3.54
3.84
4.02
3.86
3.68
3.59
3.49
3.22
2.68

33.90
34. 10
34.37
34.46
34.65
34.89

34. 94
35.00

35. 02
35.02
35.03
35.05
35. 04
3.5.04

0 meter ... -

5.91
5.20
3.50
2.55
2.70
3.55
3.85
4.00
3.85
3.65
3.55
3.45
3.20
2.55

33.90
34.10
34.38
34.47
34.66
34.89
34.94
35.00
35.02
35.02
35.04
35.05
35.04
35.04

26.72

24 meters

25 meters

26 96

49 meters - - -

50 meters

27 36

73 meters -

75 meters .

27 53

98meters... .. ... .. -.

27.66

147 meters

150 meters

27 76

27 77

294 meters

27.81

378 meters

400 meters

27.84

568 meters

600 meters

27 86

758 meters

800 meters

27.88

948meters . .. ...

1,000 meters ---

27.90

1.432 meters.

27.92

1,923 meters . .

(2,000) meters

27.98

Station 1561; July 16; lat. 61°20' N., long. 60°41' W.; depth, 960 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.435 meters

0 meter

29 meters. .

58 meters..

88 meters..

116 meters.

174 meters.

234 meters.

349 meters.

463 meters.
■694 meters.
■925 meters.

4.62
1.49
.88
1.95
2.39
3.46
3.75
4.25
4.17
3.71
3.75

33

19

33

92

34.31

34.48

34

60

34.85 1

34

91

35.06 1

35

07

35

11

35

10

0 meter

25 meters..
50 meters—
75 meters..
100 meters.
150 meters.
200 meters-
300 meters.
400 meters-
600 meters-
800 meters-

4.62
1.70
.85
1.60
2.10
3.05
3.60
4.10
4.25
3.80
3.70

33.19
33.80
34.24
34.42
34.53
34.77
34.88
34.99
35.06
35.10
35.11

26.31
27.05
27.46
27.56
27.60
27.72
27.75
27.79
27.83
27.91
27.93

79920— SI

252

IMARIOX AXD GEXER.VL GREEXE EXPEDITIONS

Observed values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinitj'
(%o)

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature

(°C.)

Salinity
(9oo)

Station 1562; July 16; lat. 61°20' N., long. 61°31' W.; depth, 549 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.445 meters

0 meter

32 meters-.
62 meters. .
94 meters..
121) meters.
188 meters.
251 meters.
377 meters.
501 meters.

3.90

2.56

1.97

2.11

2.71

3.46

3.67

3.77

3.81

34.04
34.05
34.19
34.50
34.67
34.80
34.90
34.96
35.02

0 meter

25 meters..
50 meters. -
75 meters..
100 meters
150 meters.
200 meters
300 meters
400 meters.

3.90
2.50
2.15
1.95
2.20
3.10
3.50
3.70
3.75

34.04
34.01
34.11
34. 29
34.53
34.73
34.82
34.93
31. 97

27.05
27.18
27.27
27.43
27.60
27.68
27.72
27.78
27.81

Station 1563; July 17; lat.

61°19' N.,

long. 62°20

W.; depth, 549 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.497 meters

3.03
2.49
1.76
.96
1.28
2.28
3.29
3.57
3.58

33.20
33. 44
33.84
34. 15
34.35
34.59
34. 79
34.93
34.94

0 meter . ..

3.03
2.65
2.15
1.30
.95
1.60
2.55
3.50
3.60

33.20
33.37
33.68
33.99
34. 18
34. 46
34.64
34.87
34.93

26.47

25 meters . ...

26.64

50 meters ..

26 93

75 meters . . ...

27 23

100 meters

27.40

150 meters

2" 59

200 meters ...

27.66

300 meters

27.76

400 meters ......

27.79

St.ition 1564; July 17; lat. 61°2r N., long. 63°07' W.; depth, 594 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.551 meters

1.64

.46

-.47

-.57

-.33

1.37

2.82

3.50

3.59

32.04
33.34
33.46
33.92
33.97
34.36
34.62
34.92
34.98

0 meter

1.64

.75

-.15

-.50

-.55

.10

1.45

3.15

3.50

3.60

32.04
32.95
33.41
33.60
33.92
34. C4
34.37
34. 72
34.92
34.99

25. (i<

25 meters ...

26.44

50 meters

26.86

75 meters .

27.0.'

132 meters

100 meters

27. 2^

150 meters.- . ...

27.34

200 meters

300 meters

27.53

27.67

400 meters... ......

27. NO

(600) meters . . ..

27. M

Station 1565; July 17; lat.

50°21' N.,long. 60°27'

W.; depth, 1,829 meters; d

v^namic hei

ght, 1,454.4

78 meters

5.30
4.40
3.37
3.22
3.63
4.00
3.97
3.91
3.76
3.58
3.52
3.44

34.09
34.22
34.43
34.52
34.88
34.96

34. 97
34.98
35.04

35. 03
■35. 05
35.06

0 meter

5.30
4.50
3.60
3.20
3.40
3.90
4.00
3.95
3.85
3.65
3.55
3.50
3.40

34.09
34.19
34. 37
34.48
34. f«
34. 94
34.97

34. 97
35.00
35.04
35.03

35. 05
35.06

26.91

25 meters .... _.._..

27.11

50 meters

27. 3,-

75 meters ._ ..

27.4:

100 meters .

27.57

150 meters

27.77

200 meters

27.79

300 meters . .

27.7^

400 meters

27. ^.'

600 meters

27. >7

800 meters. ..

27. >7

1,183 meters

1, COO meters

27.9"

(1,500) meters

27.'/."

Station 1566; July 18; lat. 59°28' N., long. 58°40' W.; depth, 2,560 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.456 mrters

0 meter

7.04
4.44
3.88
3.20
3.50
3.98
4.02
3.82
3.84
3.58
3.39
3.28
2.92
2.18

34.28
34.27
34.37
34.62

34. 91
34. 98
35.00

35. 02
35.04
35.05
35. 03
35. 00
35. 05
35. 04

0 meter

7.04
4.60
4.05
3.40
3.20
3.80
4.05
3.95
3.80
3.70
3.50
3.35
3.10
2.80

34.28
34.27

34. 3:!

34. 4^
34.71
34. ',"'

35. H'
35. (H

35. a;

35. (I.'
35. ().'•
35. 01
35. (tt
35. a5

30 meters

59 meters .. .

50 meters

119 meters ....

100 meters

178 meters

150 meters ...

23S meters

200 meters

357 meters

300 meters

474 meters

400 meters

600 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters

1,500 meters

2,000 meters

715 meters .. .

956 meters

1,199 maters

l.SOi meters

2,417 meters

26. V'
27 17

27. ».

27. y>

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

253

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(9bo)

Depth

peTatTre Salinity
(°C.) (96o)

<rt

Station 1567; July IS; lat. 59°22' N., long. 59°10' W.; depth, 2.716 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.454 meters

0 meter

31 meters—
61 meters—
92 meters...
122 meters..
183 meters..
244 meters..
366 meters..
460 meters..
703 meters. -
952 meters..
1,208 meters
1,812 meters
2.414 meters

5.20
3.72
2.87
3.19
2.98
3,76
3.94
3.94
3.83
3.66
3.50
3.37
2.94
2.08

34. 01
34.22
34.32
34.55
34.72
35.00
35. 00
35.01
35.05
35.06
35.05
35.06

35. 07
35. 08

0 meter

25 meters .

50 meters

75 meters

100 meters

150 meters

200 meters

300 meters

400 meters

600 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters

1,500 meters

2,000 metsrs

5.20
3.60
2.95
3.00
3.15
3.40
3.85
4.00
3.90
3.75
3.60
3.50
3.20
2.80

34.01
34.19
34.27
34.40
34.59
34.90
35. 00
35.01
35.02
35.06
35.06
35. 05
35.07
35.07

26. 89
27.20

27. 33
27.43
27.56
27.79
27.82
27.82
27.84

27.90
27.95

Station 1568; July 18; lat. 59°18' N'., long. 59°40' W., depth, 1,792 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.544 meters

0 meter

27 meters.. -
.V2 meters...
79 meters...
105 meters..
158 meters..
210 meters..
315 meters..
414 meters..
fil9 meters..
!S26 meters..
1.034 meters
l,.5.5fi meters

4.91
2.17
1.45
2.20
2.42
3.10
3.51
3.93
4.17
3.83
3.72
3.57
3.38

33.58
34.01
34.17
34.46
.34. 56
34.75
34.77
34.88
34.98
34.97
34.99
35.05
35.04

0 meter

25 meters.. -
50 meters...
75 meters..-
100 meters--
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1„500 meters

4.91
2.40
1.45
2.10
2.40
3.00
3.45
3.90
4.15
3.85
3.75
3.60
3.40

33.58

33.97

34.04

34.43

34.55

34.74

34. 80

34.86

34. 97

34.97

34.99

35.04

35.04

26.58
27. 14
27.26
27.52
27.60
27.70
27.70
27.71
27.77
27.80
27. 82
27^88
27.90

Station 1569; July 18; lat. 59°14' N., long. 60°14' W.; depth, 686 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.638 meters

0 meter.-..
2s meters.
.i.S meters.
H:i meters.
ill meters
167 meters
222 meters
291 meters
389 meters
582 meters

0.76

0.81

-.42

-.05

.35

1.36

2.86

3.66

3.96

3.94

31

26

33.01

33

68

33

90

34

14

34

27

34

72

34.84 1

34

96

34

97

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters

75 meters

100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
(600) meters

0.76
.80
-.40
-.25
.15
1.00
2.25
3.70
3.95
3.95

31.26
32.70
33.55
33.85
34.05
34.24
34.57
34.85
34.96
34.97

25.07
26.23
26.98
27.21
27.35
27.45
27.63
27.72
27.78
27.79

Station 1570; July 18; lat. 59°11' N., long. 60°46' W.; depth, 198 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.786 meters

0 meter....
10 meters..
3.') meters.
00 meters..
S.5 meters..
135 meters
185 meters

-0.46

-1.16

-1.53

-1.48

-.95

-.87

-.72

30.93
31.76
32.49
32.93
33.18
33.26
33. 43

0 meter

25 meters...

50 meters

75 meters...
100 meters. -
150 meters..
(200) meters

-0.46
-1.50
-1.50
-1.05
-.90
-.80
-.70

30.93
32.20
32.75
33.08
33. 21
33.30
33.48

24.87
25. 92
26.37
26.62
26.73
26.78
26.93

Station 1571; July 19; lit. 58°26' N., long. 58°55' W.; depth, 1,865 meters: dynamic height, 1,454.491 meters

0 meter

7.02
4.67
3.87
3.57
3.33
3.15
3.24
3.38
3.59
3.52
3.40
3.30
2.94

34.33
34.50
34.52
.34. 50
34.57
34.70
34.78
34.94
34. 99
35.02
35.02
35.00
35.02

7.02
4.95
4.00
3.65
3.45
3.20
3.20
3.35
3.50
3.60
3.50
3.35
3.10

34.33
34.48
34.52
34.50
34.53
34.65
34.74
34.88
34.98
35.01
35.02
35.02
35.02

26.91

29 meters...

25 meters .

27.29

•57 meters....

27.43

^O meters...

27 44

11.5 met jrs .

27.48

172 meters

27.61

229 meters

200 meters....

300 meters

27 68

344 meters

27.77

VA meters

400 meters

600 meters

27.84

699 meters

27.86

935 meters..

27 88

1.171 meters...

1,000 meters

27.89

Ii764meters-

27.92

.

254

MARIOX AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(9oo)

Tem-
Depth perature

(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<'t

Station 1572; July 19-20; lat. 57°47' N., long 57°35' W.; depth, 2,5fi2 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.469 meters

0 meter

31 meters---
61 meters,. -
92 meters. --
123 meters..
185 meters..
246 meters..
369 meters..
486 meters. -
732 meters..
981 meters..
1,233 meters
1,876 meters
2,535 msters

7.90
5.87
3.21
3.43
3.73
3.86
3.87
3.70
3.60
3.48
3.38
3.27
3.09
1.99

34.38

34.44

34.63

34.73

34.90

34.96

35. 01

35.04

35.03

35.02

35.01

35. 02

35. 00

34.97

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters.. -

75 meters

100 meters..
150 meters--
200 meters.-
300 meters..
400 meters--
600 meters..
800 meters..
1.000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

7.90
6.80
3.45
3.25
3.50
3.80
3.85
3.80
3.65
3.55
3.45
3.40
3.20
3.00

34.38

34.42

34.52

34.68

34.77

34. 93

34.97

35.03

35.04

35. 02

35.02

35.01

35.01

34.99

26.82
27.01

27.85
27.87
27.87
27.88
27.88
27.90'
27.90

Station 1573; July 20; lat. 57°41' N., long. 5S°00' W.; depth, 2,240 raetsrs; dynamic height, 1,454.476 meters

0 meter

28 meters.. -
54 meters...
82 meters...
108 meters..
163 meters..
217 meters..
325 meters..
398 meters --
601 meters--
810 meters. -
1,021 meters
1,548 meters
2,087 meters

7.85
5.54
3.61
3.21
3.27
3.40
3.61
3.67
3.61
3.54
3.48
3.39
3.14
2.58

34

50

34

52

34

54

34

75

34

78

34

84

34

95

34.96

34.96

34

96

35.00

35.04

35.04

35.07

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters.-.
75 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters-.
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
eOO meters..
800 meters. -
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

7.85

5. 80

3.85

3.

25

3

25

3.

40

3.60

3.

70

3.

65

3

55

3.

45

3

40

3

20

2

70

34

50

34

52

34

54

34

65

34

77

34

82

34

94

34

96

34

96

34

96

35.00

35.04 1

35

04

35

07

26.92
27. 22 i
27. 45 j
27.60
27.70
27. 73 I

27. 80
•:7.81

27.81 ,

27. 82 '

27. 90 I
27.92

Station 1574; July 20; lat. 57°32' N., long. 58°33' W.; depth, 2.057 meters; dynamic height. 1,454.454 meters>

'

'. M

0 meter

24 meters...

48 meters

72 meters. .-
96 meters...
145 meters. -
193 meters..
289 meters..
347 meters..
524 meters..
704 meters..
889 meters..
1,361 meters
1,852 meters

5.74
5.60
3.95
3.55
3.32
3.43
3.66
3.74
3.70
3.58
3.53
3.46
3.22
2.69

33.88

34.48

34. 55

34.63

34.78

34.86

34.93

34.96

35.02

35.03

35. 01

35.05

35.04

35.05

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters

75 meters

100 meters

150 meters

200 meters....

300 meters

400 meters

600 meters

800 meters....
1,000 meters. -
1,.500 meters..
(2,000) meters

5.74
5.60
3.95
3.50
3.30
3.45
3.60
3.75
3.65
3.55
3.50
3.40
3.15
2.35

33.88

34.48

34. 55

34. 64

34.79

34.87

34.94

34.97

35.02

35.02

35. 03

35.05

35.04

35. 05

20.7
27.21
27. M
27.5'
27.71
27. 7(
27. 8C
27.81
27. 8f
27.8;
27. 8S
27.91
27. %
28. 0(

St-ation 1575; July 20; lat. ,57°24' N., long. 59°00' W.; depth, 1,143 meters; dynamic height, 1,4.54.506 mettis

0 meter

27 meters..
52 meters.,
79 meters.,
105 meters
15^ meters
211 meters
316 meters
379 meters
577 meters
781 meters
992 meters

3.06

.99

.46

1.76

1.96

3.04

3.52

3.76

3. 86

3. 89

3.86

3.69

33.43
33.74
33.97
34.32
34.42
34.75
34. 83
34.84
35.07
35. 02
35.06
35.07

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters.. -
75 meters...
100 meters. -
1.50 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters. -
600 meters. -
800 meters..
1,000 meters

3.06

1.15

.45

1.65

1.90

2.95

3.45

3.75

3.85

3.90

3.85

3.70

33

43

33

69

33.95

34

25

34

39

34

72

34.82

34.86

35. 02

35

02

35

06

35.07 1

26,
27. 0(
27.2;
27.4;
27.5!
27. 6S
27. 7:
27.7:
27.8
27.84
27.
27. 9(

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

255

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature

rc.)

Salinity

(9t>o)

Depth

Tem-
perature

(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

<rt

Station 1576; July 20; lat. 57°19' N., long. 59°33' W.; depth, 200 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.597 meters

0 meter —
14 meters.
38 meters.
61 meters..
85 meters..
132 meters
180 meters

-.50
1.12
1.02

32.00

32

75

33

38

33

64

33

81

34

20

34

30

0 meter

25 meters...

50 meters

75 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
(200 ) meters

1.57
-.90
-.85
-.55
-.25
1. 15
1.00

32.00
33.00
33.54
33.74
33.90
34.25
34.32

25.62
26.56
26.98
27.13
27.25
27.45
27.52

Station 1577; July 20; lat. 57°13' N., long. 60°05' W.; depth. 137 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.615 meters

0 meter

2f) meters..
.ii> meters..
77 meters..
103 meters

1.92
.64
.55
.22
-.44

31.

59

33.09 1

33

51

33.

73

33.81

0 meter

25 meters..
50 meters.
75 meters.
100 meters

1.92
.65
.55
.30

-.25

31.59
33.00
33.48
33.70
33.80

25.27
26.48
26.87
27.06
27.17

Station 1578; July 20; lat. 57°03' N., long. 60°35' W.; depth, 238 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.671 meters

0 meter

24 meters.
49 meters..
73 meters..
97 meters..
146 meters
194 meters

1.76
-.93
-1.42
-1.14
-1.27
-.96
-.46

30.

71

32.

74

33.03

33.

18

33.

25

33.

58

33.82

0 meter

25 meters.
50 meters -
75 meters..
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters

1

76

_

95

-1

40

-1

15

-1

30

—

90

—

40

30.71
32.75
33.04
33.18
33.25
33.60
33.83

24.58
26.36
26.60
26.71
26.76
27.04
27.20

station 1579; July 20; lat. 57°01' N.. long. 60°43' W.; depth, 151 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.715 meters

0 meter.

-0.60
.25
-1.44
-1.34
-1.26

29.17
32.33
33.02
33. 19
33.26

-0.60
.25
-1.45
-1.35
-1.25
-1.10

29.17
31.90
33.01
33.18
33.25
33.33

23.46

26 meters

25 meters ..

25.62

52 meters

50-meters _.

26.57

77 meters. .

26.71

103 meters

26.76

(150) meters ... ..

26.82

Station 1580; July 21; lat. 55°00' N., long. 57°47' W.; depth, 110 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.772 meters

0 meter

26 meters-
52 meters..
77 meters..
103 meters

7.53
-0.75
-1.45
-1.39
-1.28

28.89

32

U

32

58

32.

66

32

76

0 meter

25 meters.
50 meters.
75 meters..
100 meters

7.53

-.75

-1.40

-1.40

-1.30

28.89
31.70
32.55
32.65
32.74

22.57
25.50
26.20
26.28
26.35

Station 15S1; July 21; lat. 55°09' N., long. 57°20' W.; depth, 238 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.717 meters

0 meter...
30 meters.
61 meters.
90 meters-
15C meters
212 meters

4.73
-.80
-1.22
-1.00
-1.01
-.34

30.94

32. 65

32.84

33.00

33.40

33.78

0 meter

25 meters.
50 meters-
75 meters.
100 meters
150 meters
200 meters

4

73

—

20

-1

20

-1

15

-1

00

-1

00

—

50

30.94
32.40
32.79
32.91
33.05
33.40
33.71

24.52
26.04
26.40
26.48
26.60
26.88
27.11

Station 1582; July 22; lat. 55°19' IS;., long 56°55' W.; depth, 176 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.700 meters

0 meter

4.23
-1.10
-1.21
-1.27
-1.17
-1.05

31.84
32.66
32.85
33.05
33.12
33.29

0 meter

4.23
-1.10
-1.21
-1.27
-1.17
-1.05

31.84
32.66
32.85
33.05
33.12
33.29

25.28

26 meters

26 28

50 meters .

26 44

75 meters .

75 meters

26 60

100 meters

26.66

150 meters...

150 meters

26 78

256

MAPJOX AND GENERAL GREEXE EXPEDITIONS

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(9oo)

Depth

Tem-
perature

(°C.)

Salinity '
(960) , "'

Station 1583; July 22; lat. 55°28' N., long. 56°33' W.; depth, 1,353 to 1,463 meters; dynamic height 1,454.516

meters

0 meter

31 meters...
61 meters. --
92 meters...
122 meters..
183 meters—
244 meters..
334 meters.-
445 meters. -
667 meters. -
878 meters..
1,107 meters

5

30

3.08

1

44

2

12

2.73

3

44

3

64

3

76

3

80

3.85

3

83

3

55

33.86

34

14

34

21

34

44

34

58

34

79

34.88

35. 00

35

01

35. 02

35.03

35.05

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
75 meters. -.
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters

5.30
3.60
1.65
1.60
2.30
3.15
3.55
3.70
3.80
3.85
3.85
3.70

33.86
34. 09
34.18
34.30
34.48
34.69
34.82
34.97
35.01
35.02
35.03
35.04

26.76
27. 12 ■
27. 36 ■
27.46
27.55
27.64
27.71
27.82

27.

Station 1584; July 22; lat. 55°38' N ., long. 56°08' W.; depth, 2,241 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.462 meters*

7.70
4.20
3.23
3.28
3.43
3.80
3.73
3.64
3.58
3.51
3.48
3.43
3.24
2.65

34.34
34.42
, 34.62
34.76
34.82
34.96
34.97
34.97
35.01
35.03
35.04
35.01
35.02
35.03

0 meter ...

7.70
4.50
3.30
3.20
3.40
3.80
3.75
3.70
3.60
3.55
3.50
3.45
3.30
2.80

34.34
34.40
34.57
34.74
34.80
34.93
34.97
34.97
35.00
35. 03
35.03
35.02
35. 02
35.03

26. 82

25 meters... .

27.28

50 meters . . .

27.54

75 meters.- ...

27.68

100 meters

27.71

160 meters

150 meters . ...

27. 77

200 meters

27.81

300 meters

27.82

423 meters

400 meters .. . .

27.85

600 meters

27.87

800 meters

27.88

1,056 meters

1,000 meters

27.88

1,500 meters

27.90

2,112 meters

2,000 meters

27.94

Station 1585: July 22; lat. 55°50' IS; ., long. 55°47' W.; depth, 2,607 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.422 meteit

0 meter

30 meters...
60 meters...
90 meters. --
120 meters..
180 meters. -
240 meters..
360 meters..
486 meters..
730 meters--
973 meters..
1,218 meters
1,827 meters

8.10
5.42
3.48
3.68
3.78
3.76
3.65
3.49
3,45
3.38
3.23
3.22
3.13

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
75 meters ...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters. -
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

8.10
5.75
3.80
3.50
3.75
3.80
3.75
3.55
3.50
3.40
3.35
3.25
3.20
3.10

34. 45

26

34.60

27

34.76

27

34.85

27

34.92

34.97

34.99

34.99

35.00

35.03

35.02

35.04

35.06

35.06

27

85
29
64

74
77
81
82
27.84

Station 1586; July 22; lat. 56°03' ISl ., long. 55°28' 'VV.; depth, 2,770 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.447 meten

8.44
6.37
3.72
3.63
3.50
3.67
3.61
3.53
3.39
3.31
3.24
3.20
3.13
2.44

34.53
34.58
34.78
34.82
34.90
34.96
34.97
35.01
35.03
35.02
35. 02
35.03
35.01
35.02

0 meter

8.44
7.40
4.60
3.65
3.60
3.55
3.65
3.60
3.50
3.40
3.30
3.30
3.20
3.10

34.53
34.56
34.69
34.79
34.83
34.93

34. 96
34.98

35. 02
35.03
35.02
35.02
35.03
35.01

26.85

25 meters

27.04

27. 49

95 meters

75 meters

27. 67

127 meters . ...

100 meters

150 meters

27. 71

27. 79

254 meters

200 meters

27. 81

300 meters..

27.83

511 meters

400 meters

27.88

600 meters

27. 89

1,023 meters

800 meters...

27.90

1,280 meters

1,000 meters

27.90

1,919 meters ...

1,500 meters

27.90

2,560 meters

2,000 meters

27. 91

DAVIS STKAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

257

Observed values

Depth

perlt™re I ^^^^'^^
CC.)

(%o) '

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature

(°C.)

Salinity

Station 1587; July 22; lat. 56°16' N ., long. 55°10' W.; depth, 3,072 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.429 meters

0 meter

33 meters. --
(i4 meters -.-
!i7 meters-. -
130 meters. -
m meters..
25S meters. -
3S8 meters..
.iU) meters. -
7f)7 meters..
1.023 meters
1,279 meters
l.y21 meters
2,560 meters

8.14
4. 10
3.63
3.76
3.79
3.63
3.57
3.45
3.40
3.27
3.29
3.20
3.16
2.56

34.54
34.78
34. 81
34.88
34.93
34.98
35.01
35. 04
35.02
35.02
34.99
34.98
35.00
35.02

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
75 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters --
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1.000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters

8.14
4.90
3.75
3.65
3.75
3.75
3.60
3.55
3.45
3.35
3.25
3.30
3.20
3.15

34.54
34.75
34.79
34.83
34.88
34. 95
34.98
35.02
35.04
35.02
35.01
35.01
35.00
35.00

26.91
27.51
27 66
27.70
27.73
27.79
27.83
27.87
27.89
27.89
27.89
27.89
27.89

Station 15S8; July 23; lat. 55"53' K., long. 54=21' W.; depth, 2,761 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.469 meters

0 meter

33 meters...
t)5 meters...
Si7 meters...
130 meters..
195 meters..
259 meters..
390 meters..
.512 meters..
768 meters..
1,024 meters
1.280 meters.
1,923 meters.
2.565 meters.

8.17

34.53

6.00

34.79

3.75

34.80

3.64

34.92

3.63

34.93

3.39

34.96

3.41

34.96

3.35

34.95

3.35

34.96

3.25

34.96

3.20

34.96

3.19

34.97

3.20

35. 00

2.75

35.01

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
75 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters. -
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1 ,000 meters
1,500 meters
2,000 meters.

8.17
6.85
4.30
3.75
3.65
3.55
3.40
3.40
3.35
3.30
3.25
3.20
3.20
3.20

34.53
34.72
34.80
34.85
34.92
34.94
34.95
34.95
34.95
34.96
34.96
34.96
34. 98
35.00

26.90
27.24
27.62
27.71
27.78
27.80
27.83
27.83
27.83
27.85
27.85
27.86
27.87
27.89

SLitlon 1589; July 23; lat. 55°30' N., long. 53°36' W.; depth 3,017 meters; .lynamic height, 1,454.466 meters

0 meter

30 meters...
59 meters...
90 meters...
120 meters..
179 meters..
239 meters..
359 meters..
■187 meters..
734 meters..
983 meters
1,236 meters
1,866 meters
2,503 meters

8.38

34.60

5.27

34.73

3.63

34.81

3.63

34.88

3.77

34.92

3.67

34.93

3.61

34.98

3.43

34.99

3.37

34.98

3.33

34.97

3.23

34.96

3.20

34.97

3.24

35.00

2.70

34.99

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
75 meters...
100 meters. -
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters.
1,500 meters
2,000 meters.

■ 8.38
5.90
3.65
3.60
3.70
3.70
3.65
3.55
3.40
3.35
3.30
3.25
3.20
3.20

34.60
34.71
34.79
34.85
34.89
34.93
34.95
34.99
34.98
34.98
34.97
34.97
34.99
35.00

26.92
27.36
27.67
27.73
27.75
27.78
27.80
27.84
27.85
27.85
27.86
27.86
27.88
27.89

■^t^tion 1590; July 23; lat. 55°09' N., long. 52°50' W.; depth, 2,917 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.479 meters

0 meter

31 meters...
•52 meters...
S3_meters...
125 meters..
187 meters..
249 meters..
374 meters..
■*97 meters.,
"■is meters..
1,000 meters
■•255 meters
I'^'Ji meters
2.540 meters

8.65
5.41
3.61
3.54
3.68
3.59
3.53
3.45
3.36
3.33
3.34
3.25
3.18
2.65

34.32
34.71
34.78
34.79
34.90
34.96
34.97
34.96
34.95
35.01
34.99
35.00
34.97
34.96

0 meter

25 meters...
50 meters...
75 meters...
100 meters..
150 meters..
200 meters..
300 meters..
400 meters..
600 meters..
800 meters..
1,000 meters
1,500 meters.
2,000 meters

8.65

34.32

26.66

6.20

34.65

27.27

3.80

34.76

27.64

3.60

34.78

27.67

3.55

34.81

27.70

3.65

34.94

27.79

3.60

34.96

27.82

3.50

34.97

28.84

3.40

34.96

27.84

3.35

34.96

27.84

3.35

34.99

27.86

3. :34

34.99

27.86

3.20

34.98

27.87

3.15

34.97

27.87

258

I\rAR10X AND GENERAL GREENE EXPEDITIONS

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature
(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

Depth

peTaS're Salinity
(°C,) (96")

't

Station 1591; July 23; lat. 55°00' N., long. 53°10' W.; depth, 2,195 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.509 meters

0 meter

25 meters...
49 meters...
74 meters...
99 meters...
148 meters..
197 meters..
296 meters..
397 meters..
593 meters..
789 meters..
983 meters. -
1,476 meters
1,968 meters

8.40
5.76
4. 03
3.63
3.59
3.62
3.59
3.51
3.46
3.37
3.27
3.27
3.21
3.07

34.45
34.60
34.71
34.78
34.81
34.82
34.88
34.89
34.95
34.95
34.96
34.94
34.94
34.97

0 meter.-

25 meters

50 meters

75 meters

100 meters

150 meters

200 meters

300 meters

400 meters

600 meters

800 meters

1,000 meters..
1,500 meters...
(2,000) meters

8.40
5.75
4.05
3.65
3.60
3.65
3.60
3.50
3.45
3.40
3.25
3.25
3.20
3.05

34.45
34.60
34.71
34.78
34.81
34.82
34.88
34.89
34.95
34.95
34.95
34.95
34.94
34.97

26.8(1
27. a
27.57
27. 6B
27.70
27.70
27.75
27.77
27.82
27.83
27. M
27. M
27.84
27. 8S

Station 1,592; July 23; lat. 54°50' N., long. 53°30' \V.; depth, 686 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.658 meters

0 meter

25 meters..
49 meters.
74 meters.
99 meters.
148 meters
198 meters
299 meters
395 meters
581 meters

5.06
2.16
2.94
2.61
2.79
3.44
3.74
3.82
3.83
3.73

32.

15

33

59

34.32 j

34.45

34

60

34.

70

34

78

34.

85

34.86

34.88

0 meter

25 meters

50 meters

75 meters

100 meters. .
150 meters...
200 meters...
300 meters...
400 meters...
(600) meters

5.06

32.15

2.15

33.59

2.95

34.32

2.60

34.45

2.80

34.60

3.45

34.70

3.75

34.78

3.85

34.85

3.85

34.86

3.75

34.88

2S.43
26.86
27.37
27.50
27.60
27.62
27.65
27.70
27.71
27.73

Station 1593; July 24; lat. 54°40' N., long. 53°52' W.; depth, 252 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.727 meters

0 meter . .._

6.22

-0.94

-1.03

, -.90

-.73

.08

2.10

32.15
33.11
33.31
33.44
33.52
34.00
34.41

0 meter

6.22
-0.90
-1.05
-.95
-.80
-.25
1.15

32.15
33.10
33.28
33.40
33.48
33.80
34.29

25.30

28 meters

26.63

55 meters

26.78

83 meters ......

75 meters

26.88

110 meters

100 meters

26.«

165 meters

27.17

222 meters ...

200 meters

27.48

Station 1594; July 24; lat. 54°30' N., long. 54°13' W.; depth, 229 meters; dynamic height, 1.454.708 meters

0 meter

27 meters..
52 meters.
79 meters..
104 meters
157 meters
209 meters

6.50
-.03
-.72
-.61
-.35
.53

1.75

31.85
33.12
33.51
33.70
33.81
34.12
34.42

0 meter

25 meters. -
50 meters..
75 meters..
100 meters-
150 meters.
200 meters.

6.50

31.85

.35

32.95

-.75

33.47

-.65

33.68

-.45

33.78

.40

34.05

1.60

34.39

25.(0

36.n
27.»
27. 1<
27.34
27. 5J

Station 1595: July 24; lat. 54°19' N., long. 54°33' W.; depth, 192 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.713 meien

0 meter.

6.50
-.69
-.96
-.89
-.42

1.06

32.12
33. 05
33.33
33.56
33. 78
34.22

6.50
-.60
-.95
-.95
-.75
.65

32.12
32.90
33.29
33.48
33.68
34.10

25.14

28 meters

2645

56 meters

X.1%

84 meters

J6W

111 meters

100 meters

27. »

167 meters

27. »

-

DAVIS STRAIT AND LABRADOR SEA

259

Observed values

Scaled values

Depth

Tem-
perature

(°C.)

Salinity
(96o)

Depth

Tem-
perature

(°C.)

Salinity
(9oo)

Station 1596; July 24; lat. 54''06' N., long. 55°01' W.; depth, 174 meters; dynamic height, 1,454.711 meters

0 meter..-.

27 meters..
52 meters..
79 meters..
104 meters
157 meters

6.48
.09
-.78
-.72
-.29

1.26

31.88
32. 98
33.32
33.55
33.78
34.26

0 meter

25 meters..
£0 meters..
75 meters..
100 meters
150 meters

6.48
.25
-.75
-.75
-.45

1.10

31.88
32.90
33.28
33. 51
33.73
34.21

25. 06
26.42
26.77
26.96
27. 12
27^43

Station 1597; July 24; lat. 53°53' N., long. 55°26' W.; depth, 167 meters; dynamic height. 1,454.741 meters

0 meter.. -.

25 meters..
51 meters..
76 meters..
101 meters
152 meters

6.00

31.56
32.88
33.10
33.32
33.56
33.78

0 meter.

-.83

25 meters .

-.96

50 meters

-1.06

75 meters .

-.83

100 meters.. .

-.24

150 meters.

31.56
32.88
33.09
33. 29
33.54
33. 77

24.86
26.45
26.62
26.78
26.98
27.15

Station 1598; July 24; lat.

53°43' N.,

long. 55°45

W.; depth. 144 meters- dynamic height, 1,454.772 meters

0 meter .

6.75

-.82

-.93

-1.04

-1.00

31.10
32.69
33.16
33.33
33.41

0 meter

6.75

.20

-.90

-1.00

-1.05

-.60

31.10
32.30
33.06
33.24
33.35
33.48

■'4 41

.■fl meters .. .

25 meters

25 94

tiO meters

9(5 go

91 meters . ... ..

75 meters

26 75

120 meters

100 meters

•>6 S4

(150) meters

26 92

o

/ ■■ -

U. S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT
COAST GUARD

THE MARION EXPEDITION

TO

DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

UNDER DIRECTION OF
THE UNITED STATES COAST GUARD

1928

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS
PART 3

I -/:-

U. S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT

COAST GUARD
Bulletin No. 19

THE MARION EXPEDITION

TO

DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

UNDER DIRECTION OF
THE UNITED STATES COAST GUARD

1928

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS
PART 3

Arctic Ice, with Especial Reference to its
Distribution to the North Atlantic Ocean

EDWARD H. SMITH

UNITED STATES

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON : 1931

tte no loe qo So 70^05040 30 20 /e «

The ice and hydrographical Survey of Davis Strait by the Marion

Expedition

FiGunB 1. — Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, and tbe waters around the Grand Banks '
embrace the iceberg regions of the western North Atlantic. Tlio waters surveyed ;
by the Marion expedition in 1928 form a connecting link in the liistory of icebergs
from the time they leave the glaciers on the wi'st side of Baffin Bay until they
Anally melt in the'(iulf Stream south of Newfoundland. Tbe track of the MiirwiH
from the time of leaving the Strait of Belle Isle unlil the arrival at St. Johns.
Newfoundland, is shown on the shaded area.

I

EHRATA

The following changes have been found necessary since the pub-
lishing of this volume :

Figure 1. — Change the word " west " in the fourth line of legend to

read " east."
Page 2. — Change the word " Joseph " in the twenty-sixth line to

read " Josef."
Page 17.— Add the word " North " after the figures " 85° " in the

fourth line of the tenth paragraph.
Page 19. — Figure 9 ; add the word " erroneously " after the word

"■ sometimes " in the legend.
Page 25. — Figure 13 ; change the name " Ellesworth " in legend to

read " Ellsworth."
Page 38, — Change name "Angmagissalik " in lines 14 and 25 to read

"Angmagssalik."
Page 55. — Figure 28 ; change the word " floes " in the last line of

legend to read " glacons."
Page 64. — Figure 33 ; change the words " north side of Bennett
" Island " in second line of caption to read " south side

of Bennett Island."
Page 87. — Change the word " as " in seventh line to read " so."
Page 93. — Change the word " water " in the third line of the legend

to Figure 54 to read " reader."
Page 152. — Change the name " Placentia Bay " in tenth line to read

" the Miquelon Islands."
Page 169. — Change the spelling of word " seperate " in forty-sev-
enth line to " separate."
Page 170. — Change the word " sunk " in the last paragraph to read

" sank."
Page 185. — Subparagraph (c) ; change the words " November to

April " to read " December to March."
SubjDaragraph (d) ; change the words "August to Jan-
uary " to read " October to January."
Page 188. — Change the name "Julianahaab " in twenty-ninth line to

read " Julianehaab."
Change the equations c' and d to read as follows :

, 6(2XDec.+2XJan.-|-Feb.-|-Mar.)J-Bt+(2XDec.+2XJan.+Feb.-H\lar.)i
^~ 26

, (Oct.J-B+Nov.i-B+2XDee.i-B+Jan.i-B)
d= ^

120860—31

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ^^^

Introduction "" j

Historical survey '_'_ 2

Marion expedition '_'_ ^

Floating ice — sea and land l__l 7

Sea ice c

The physical properties of sea ice -~"-"I~~I 8

Ice terminology ~ -ia

Classification of sea ice ~ -ij

Three forms of sea ice ~"~"_~~ 21

Fast ice "~ oj

Polar cap ice [III 25

Pack ice 09

The Spitsbergen pack l.ll//._ 34

The east Greenland pack 35

The eastern North American pack 40

Baffin Bay pack 42

Hudson Bay pack 49

Pack ice along Labrador and Newfoundland coasts 51

Pack ice on the Grand Bank 53

The Gulf of St. Lawrence pack 55

Annual variations in the limits of pack ice__ 57

Land ice gQ

Glaciation in Arctic Eurasia -ll.lllll 62

Glaciation in Ellesmere Land g5

Glaciation in Axel Heiberg Land gg

Glaciation in Devon Lsland gg

Glaciation in Bylot Island gg

Glaciation in Baffin Land gg

Glaciation in Greenland 70

East Greenland glaciers 73

Drift and distribution of east Greenland icebergs 74

The north Greenland glaciers 78

The glaciers Cape Alexander to Cape York 81

The glaciers Cape York to Svartenhuk Peninsula _ " I 82

The glaciers of North East Bay and Disko Bav 85

Jacobshavn Fjord and glacier ' 9I

The south Greenland glaciers 94

Rate of productivity of west Greenland glaciers 94

Manner in which icebergs calve 97

Form and size of bergs XOO

Structure and color and density of icebergs 108

The disintegration and melting of icebergs 112

Visibility and mirage 127

Current and wind control drift of icebergs 128

The general drift and fate of icel^ergs in the western North Atlantic " 136

Distribution and drift of bergs in Baffin Bay and Davis Strait 138

Drift of bergs south of Newfoundland 150

Methods employed to jirotect trans- Atlantic shipping from "the ice

menace lg§

Seasonal character of the ice invasions to the North" Atlantic ] 176

Annual variations in the number of icebergs past Newfoundland . 180

Annual amounts of glacial ice and sea ice 189

Effect of northern ice on temperature and circulation of "the wat"e"rs

of the North Atlantic 191

Bibliography 205

Index :_::::::::: 217

V

PREFACE

Over each polar region of the earth lies a great cap of heavy ice.
During winter it grows and builds, expanding to a maximum volume ;
spring and summer witnesses its melting and retreat to a permanent
central core. Throughout the year, however, cold ocean currents
from out of the north bear the fragmented ice border to lower lati-
tudes. This pa})er embraces a study of Arctic ice from the freezing
of the water and its accumulation of snow through the various stages
of development and re-formation to its final melting and distribu-
tion to the North Atlantic Ocean. The present treatise is mainly
prompted by the writer's interest in the ice as it constitutes a grave
navigational menace to the North Atlantic Ocean.

Our knowledge regarding the regional distribution of the ice, its
state, behavior, and paths of drift has been accumulated over a long
period of years; first, through the early voyages of exploration as
maritime countries searched and pressed on for new territorial
possessions and trade enrichment. These masters and navigators,
finding the northern regions so commonly inaccessible, mainly on
account of the dangers and barriers of ice, naturally recorded their
experiences, gradually building up a history of the subject. Many
of the early explorers were also endowed with scientific attainments
and a keen appreciation of the value of accumulating all possible
knowledge on the ice problems of the Arctic. The development of
science later led to combining voyages of exploration with those hav-
ing scientific objects and finally, in the more recent pages of history,
we find expeditions setting forth equipped with excellent laboratories
and a highly trained scientific staff, solely to gather knowledge free
from economic bias.

Legends and sagas of the Scandinavians and other northern people
devote much space to the struggle with ice. Historical records com-
mence with the early gropings of the British and the Dutch to the
seas north of Europe, and clos<?ly on the heels of northeastern dis-
coveries came the unfolding of the northwestern North Atlantic.
The sea ice and icebergs drifting southward out of Baffin Bay and
Davis Strait were phenomena known to sailors and men of science
even before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. Even after the Revo-
lutionary War of the American colonies European enterprise was
still actively engaged in discovering a northwest passage and a short
route to the Orient. The early attempts at finding a northwest
passage to India were followed by fur trading and whale fishing
activities in the West Greenland and Canadian Arctic sectors. Much
of our knowledge regarding the sea ice of Baffin Bay and the Ameri-
can Arctic Archipelago has been contributed by the whale industries
of the Dutch, the English, and the Americans which flourished over
a period of two centuries. The northwestern section also experienced
great activity during the middle of the nineteenth century as a result
of the prolonged search for Sir John Franklin and his ill-fated

vn

VIII PEE FACE

expedition. Interest during the following years, kindled by inter-
national rivalry centered on the discovery of the pole, and this
activity brought Davis Strait and Baffin Bay world attention during
the latter part of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth
century, after the decline of the whaling fisheries.

We now come to a history of the scientific investigations which
have been carried out in connection with the great procession of ice
which invades the North Atlantic along its western side. Naturally,
one of the most important pieces of information on the southward
distribution is information of the current which transports the ice
to lower latitudes. The material is based on the following expedi-
tions: Scotia, 1913; Michael &\ars, 1924; Dana, 1925; Chance, 1926;
Marion, 1928; and Godthaah, 1928. In addition to these investiga-
tions, confined solely to the inaccessible w^aters in summer time, we
have the records of the international ice patrol for a period of several
years, 1913 to 1929, covering the ice season, March to July, in the
regions south of Newfoundland. As a result of the work of these
expeditions we now are able for the first time to construct a fairly
accurate picture of the system of oceanic circulation and therefore
the paths taken by Arctic ice from its region of formation to its
ultimate fate in the North Atlantic.

The international ice patrol w^as established in 1913 as a result of
the tragic loss of life and property when the steamship Titanic sank
April, 1912, off the Grand Bank. Besides the practical work of
scouting for ice and warning all approaching ships of its position i
and drift, there has been the scientific program of collecting observa-
tions which would lead to an intelligent knowledge of the best
manner in which to cope with the ice problem. During the course
of its 16 years of service the ice patrol has accumulated a vast store
of knowledge regarding the behavior of Arctic ice at its southern —
melting end. An account of the ice from its northern sources
to Newfoundland, based upon similar scientific methods as car-
ried out by the ice patrol, became a universal demand, resulting
in the sending out of the Mariorv expedition. The Marion, during
the summer of 1928, completed a current and ice survey of the entire
waters of Davis Strait from Newfoundland northward to the seven-
tieth parallel of latitude, and during the same months the Danish
ship Godthaah carried out a similar reconnaissance of a large por
tion of Baffin Bay. We are now ready (historical records combined
with the oceanographical and ice observations of the Godthaah \
Marion, and international ice patrol), to present a comprehensive
exposition of Arctic ice, its state, behavior, and distribution to tlit
western North Atlantic.

The w^riter first became associated with ice work when he joined
the ice patrol in 1920. He has been a member of the scientific stall
ever since and participated in the ice patrol cruises every wintei'
and spring in the ice regions off Newfoundland from 1920 to 1924.
inclusive. During the off season his time has been spent in study
and compilation of the annual published reports at Harvard Uni-I
versity, working under the supervision of instructors in oceanog-!
raphy and meteorology. In order to apply certain technical methodsi
of oceanography and meteorology to the North Atlantic ice problem,
he spent one year at the (jeophysical Institute, Bergen, Norway, audi

PREFACE IX

a few months at the British Meteorological Office. London, Eno;land,
returning to the ice regions for the seasons of 192G and 1927. In
1928 he was the leader of the Manon expedition to Davis Strait and
Baffin Bay.

Two of the i)rincipal problems u})on which the ice patrol has been
working in order to provide greater safety for lives and ships on the
trans-Atlantic routes luive been {a) the forecasting of the annual
number of icebergs which are liable to drift south of Newfoundland
during the year, and {h) the construction of hydrodynamic maps to
trace the behavior of currents and ice south of Newfoundland as well
as to ])redict to approaching vessels the general movement of the
ice. Much progress of an encouraging nature has been made in
!(t'l)erg forecasting as a result of the statistical work at Harvard
I'niversity just mentioned and at the British Meteorological Office.
Since the establishment of this service four successes out of five years
have been the record. The value of this work is obvious if North
Atlantic steamship navigators can be warned in February or March
that a heavy ice year, such as 1912. is soon in store, or they can be
assured that little danger will exist, such as characterized the year
1!>24. The latter problem of constructing frequent current maps
lias resulted in a greatly increased knowledge of the movements of
ice and ocean currents around Newfoundland, subjects even 10 years
ago considered rather liazily. The present practice of two weekly
()!■ monthly maps of the circulation furnishes the best available
information to the ice-patrol ships.

A comprehensive and connected account of Arctic ice has only now
been made possible as a result of the Marion expedition to Davis
Strait the summer of 1928. Part 1 of the present bulletin is an
exposition of the bathymetry of Davis Strait. Part 2 treats the
physical oceanography of Davis Strait with especial reference to the
circulation of those waters. The present section deals with the drift
of the ice in the established currents out of Davis Strait into the
North Atlantic.

During the course of the researches of the international ice patrol
many problems of a scientific nature regarding ice and ocean cur-
rents have arisen from time to time, and are presented in this thesis
as original contributions; among them are the following: What is
the prevailing circulation in the north polar basin? Do pack ice and
icebergs from east Greenland ever contribute to the supply to North
American shores ? What is the cause of " north water '' in Baffin
Bay? In what proportion does the pack ice from the Polar Basin,
Baffin Bay. and Hudson Bay mix to supply the North Atlantic?
AVhat effect does Hudson Strait exert on the Labrador current and
its freight of ice? What is the cause of the annual variation in pack
ice limits in the North Atlantic? In what proportions do polar
glacial lands contribute to the North Atlantic iceberg quota ? Of all
the tidewater glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere, which ones are
iceberg producing? What is the density of icebergs and their pro-
portions of mass flotation? In what proportions do the wind and
current enter to control the drift of the berg? What is the normal
quantity of pack ice Avhich melts annually, and what is the normal
number of icebergs drifting south of Newfoundland ? Is the Labrador
current subject to a seasonal variation, and if so, what are the causa-

X PREFACE

tive factors? What proportions quantitatively of the North Atlantic
are cooled by northern ice and by cold water, and which of these
agents is the more effective ? Is the effect of ice melting in northern
waters sufficient to account for the main system of oceanic circulation?
Does the Labrador current extend down the east coast of the United
States?

This affords me an opportunity to recognize the helpfulness (^f
the following in connection with the compilation and treatment of the
subject matter: Dr. Henry B. Bigelow, of Harvard University: Dr.
C. E. P. Brooks, of the British Meteorological Office. Those in the
Coast Guard to whom I am indebted are Lt. Comdr. X. G. Ricketts,
Mr. Olav Mosby, and H. Addingtoii.

THE MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

ARCTIC ICE— WITH REFERENCE TO ITS DISTRIBUTION
TO THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Edward H. Smith

Spread over the top of the world is a hiitre white coverino; of sea
ice about 3,500,000 square miles in area, which during winter expands
outward until at maximum, 27 per cent of the North Atlantic (the
polar sea included), is ice decked. Add to this total 805,650 square
miles of land areas, which in many places are submerged by several
thousand feet of solid ice and we begin to realize the great extensions
of this solid state of water.

The great polar ice cap covering 1,800.000 square miles of the sea

never melts. During winter the basin becomes greatly congested

: through freezing and rafting of the fields and little open water is to

be found. Lanes of open water appear along the coast for a few

i brief weeks in summer, and leads and pools appear throughout the

ipack. Two great icy arms extend from the central polar core, one

along the east side of Greenland, the other down the American shore.

Every year hundreds of stjuare miles of ice fields perform journeys

1.500 iniles or more in length, projecting barriers halfway from the

pole to the Equator.

The annual discharge and summer melting amounts to about 1,100,-
000 square miles of northern sea ice. The great chilling effect at-
tending the latent heat of melting combined with the cooling of
northern currents are two of the Arctic's major geophysical factors.
Annual variations in tlie amount of ice and cold water discharged
into the North Atlantic are known to be a significant control of
European weather.

The berg, of all ice forms in the polar regions, is the most spec-
tacular. Greenland produces somewhere between 10,000 and 15,000
icebergs every year. Literally thousands of bergs are scattered at
times in Greenland coastal waters.

The wanderings of the bergs are freer than those of the sea ice
Ix'cause. with their massive proportions, they sometimes survive long
journeys. The icebergs that achieve farthest south are those travel-
ing the 1,500-mile pathway down the Labrador coast.

Arctic ice, particularly "the stream past Newfoundland, penetrates
deeper into the North Atlantic, due partly to the shape of the latter,
than into any other ocean. This invasion, moreover, for about four
months of spring and summer creates a distinct menace to the main
arteries of commerce on the most frequently traveled ocean of the
world. The fact that the regions embracing the largest number of
bergs are those enveloped in fog a large percentage of spring and
summer, greatly accentuates the danger from ice.

i

2 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

HISTORICAL SURVEY

It is impossible to state who were the first ])eoples to direct their
ships northward into the frozen seas, but Norse legends and sagas
as early as the tenth century credit their viking navigators with
several such adventures. The first historical records are of a voyage
of discovery to Davis Strait in the year 1500. under the joint leader-
ship of Scandinavians and Portuguese. Willoughbv's voyage to the
sea north of Europe, and Frobisher's to Baffin Land, then followed
heading a list of Arctic explorations that is still continuino;

The central polar cap of sea ice has been deeply penetrated by but
few ships or men. Since this region is the site of and maximum
development for all sea-ice forms, it has attracted the interest and
attention of many explorers and scientists. Our knowledge of the
polar cap is largely due to the following : Hayes, Hall, Weyprecht
and Paver, Scoresby, Kane. Bering, Nordenskiold, DeLong, Nansen.
Cagni, ' Peary. Toll, Kolchak, Stefansson, Bartlett. MacMillan.
Storkerson, Vilkitski, Amundsen, Nobile, Byrd, and Wilkins. Ber-
ing in three voyages. 1728-1741. explored northward from the Pacific,
discovering the strait bearing his name and surveyed the land of
either continent, in the oj^en water of the polar sea. The Scoresbys.
Scotch whalers, in 1806 determined to see how far north they could
go and forced their ship to latitude 81° 30', in the longitude of
Spitsbergen. Wey2:)recht and Payer. Austrian naval officers, em-,
barked in 1872 on a voyage of discovery on the Barents Sea and
eastward. They were caught in the heavy polar ice and carried froii!
Novaya Zemlya to newly discovered islands which were named Fraiii',
Joseph Land. Weyprecht (1879), as a result of scientific observa-;
tions, wrote a treatise on the various forms of polar ice. Norden
skiold, in 1878, commanded the Vega which made a complete passage
along the Russian edge of the polar sea. entering the Arctic Oceai ,
around the northern end of Norway and emerging through tin
Bering Sea into the Pacific. The fruit of this voyage was a greai
addition to our knowledge of the sea ice and the Vegah also stil
bears the unique distinction of being the only complete west to eas
navigation. Pettersson (1883) one of the Vef/a's scientific staff,
made many important studies on the physical properties of sea ice i

The ill-fated DeLong expedition, which was aimed for the pole!
met disaster when the Jeannette sank in June, 1881, nearly 300 mile;
north of the New Siberian Islands, at a point deeper in the polai
cap ice than ever a vessel had penetrated before. The westerly
drift of several hundred miles along the Siberian shelf revealed foi
the first time definite information on the movement of the grotv^
sea-ice cover. The exi)edition, however, which stands out above al,
others in Arctic annals was the Norwegian north polar expedition |
1893-1896, led by Nansen. The Fraui was forced into the polar
cap ice north of the New Siberian Islands in September, 1893 1
For nearly three years she remained tightly surrounded by heavy ic(j
fields, all the wliile valuable observations were being taken on thil
drift, behavior, and })hysical state of the ice. This is the only crafi,
that has ever been carried across the deeix'r i)art of tiie north polaij
basin, and mainly as a result of Nansen's observations we havtj
learned it to be one vast central expanse of ice interi-upted only b^j
temporary leads and pools. Nansen's observations that the ice con I

SCIEiSTTIFIC EESULTS 3

tisteiitly drifted to the right of the direction of the wind led to
oreaterknowledge of the general laws for the frictional eliect of the
wind on free moving bodies as affected by earth rotation.

The sledge excursions of Cagni and Peary out onto the polar ice
had for their main object spectacular and historic dashes for the
pole. The scientific accomplishments, therefore, from the nature of
the expetlitions, are not as valuable as otherwise might have been
the case, but considerable infornuition regarding the state and move-
ment of the cover, nevertheless, resulted. The Russians, amongst
whom might be named Toll. Kolchak. Liakhof. Wrangel. Makarov,
and Vilkitski. have all made noteworthy contributions on the ice of
the Arctic Ocean. One of the most brilliant students and keenest of
observers of the group is Kolchak, whose daring journey of several
hundred miles in an open whaleboat to Bennett Island, far nortli-
ward in the icebound ocean, was a notable achievement.

To Stefansson. Storkerson, Bartlett, and MacMillan during the
period 1913 to 1917, we owe our knowledge of the ice conditions
around the American margin of the polar cap, the tumbled, chaotic
condition of which suggested for it the name of paleocrystic ice.

Lastly we wish to mention Annindsen who, in the Maud., attempted
to repeat the original exploit of Xansen, and after several years,
1918-1925, abandoned further efforts to be caught up by the drifting
pack. This period meant no inactivity, however, as Malmgren's

(1928) ol)servations on the jH-operties of sea ice, and Sverdrup's

(1929) discussion of the hydrography and the movements of the
ice with wind and current greatly clarify many of the ice problems.
Amundsen was the first to intro(Uice aiul eniplo}^ aircraft for Arctic
exploration. In 1925 his uncompleted flight with planes fi'om
Spitsbergen to Alaska awakened interest and opened new oppor-
tunities to study Arctic ice from the air. Byrd, Nobile. Wilkins,
and now the proposed program of aero-Arctic, just in the stages
of preparation, as well as navigation by a submarine, mark the
dawning of a new day in northern exploration.

Our knowledge of the ice in the regions of the northwestern North
Atlantic; i. e., the region of Baffin Bay; its tributaries; Davis Strait;
and south to Newfoundland, has been gained as these countries have
passed through the following eras : The early voyages of exploration
represented by Frobisher, Davis, Hudson, and Baffin ; exploitation of
whaling, fur trading, and missionary colonization ; international
commercial rivalry seeking: a northwest passage to India ; the
traverse of explorers on their way to and from polar regions; and
finally, the present era of scientific investigation. Martin Frol)isher,
^n-oping for the elusive northwest passage, made the first historical
crossing of Davis Strait, when in July, 1576, under the shores of
southern Baffin Land, he came amidst drifting icebergs and dense
fogs. The largest iceberg was measured and found to be 330 feet
high. Next appears Davis, combining: the qualities of an able
British seaman and a patient, scientific observer, and carrying out a
series of explorations of Davis Strait, following the ice from the
southern end of Baffin Bay to well south on the coast of Labrador.
As a result of his voyages cartographers were able to draw the first
inteUigent maps of Davis Strait ancl in a general way indicate the
drift of the ice. Returning from a voyage of discovery to New^
York. Hudson was commissioned in 1610 to seek a passage by the

4 MAEION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STEAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

wide opening pointed out by Davis as " furious overfalls," ^ throuo;h
which Hudson eventually sailed. The first record of navigatino-
Baffin Bay w^as in IGIG Avhen Baffin successfully followed along the
Greenland coast as far northward as Kane Basin before turnin*'
back and sailing out along the Baffin Land shore. Baffin's voyages
to the northwestern extremes of the North Atlantic showed the
hitherto unknown openings from the polar ocean into Baffin Bay.

The Dutch whalers being partly forced out of Spitsbergen by rlie
keen competition of the British Avere alert to adopt Baffin's sugges-
tion of fishing in Davis Strait, which they entered as early as 1()2().
The British followed later, and heeding the reports of Ross and
Parry, extended their fishery northward to the very headwaters of
Baffin Bay, and in a short time became exceedingly proficient at ico
navigation. The designation of the pack as " middle ice " and " west
ice," and the description of the movements of the pack Ave owe to
Captain Marshall and Doctor O'Reilly (1818) of the whalers. The
long mysterious disaj^pearance of Sir John Franklin and his slnps
and men, 1845-1851, brought forth no less than nine relief expedi-
tions to the Canadian Arctic over a period of 10 years. Much knowl-
edge regarding the icy character of the waterways in the archipelago
was obtained through tlie drift of ice-beset ships of these expeditions
and in consequence it was learned that a surprising amount of ice
formed in the Arctic Ocean is drawn into Baffin Bay yearly.

Smith Sound, also Kennedy and Robeson Channels, have often
been designated the American route to the pole, followed by Kane.
Hayes, Hall, and finally successfully on ship and sledge by Pearv.
The results of these activities, separated from each other by a num-
ber of years in the nineteenth century, increased our knowledge of
the state of the ice at the head of Baffin Bay. Whaling has practi-
cally ceased in the northwestern sector. Fur trading, however, is '
still carried on by the Hudson Bay Co. but the returns are small
compared with years ago. Denmark still continues her colonization ;
of the Greenlanders along the eastern side of Davis Strait. Except
for the annual visit of the Canadian Government ship Bcofh'w to tlie '
mounted police and Hudson Bay posts in Ellesmere Land and Baffin
Land, and the regular steamers as far north as L^pernivik, Baffin Bay
is to-day quite deserted. The recent interest being displayed by '
Canada to establish a shipping port on the west side of Hudson Bay •
at Port Churchill is the only activity in the region of Davis Strait f
and to the westAvard. If this project is successful, much informa- •
tion on the ice and currents of this region is, in time, bound to
accumulate.

Greenland supports the greatest reservoir of land ice in the J
Northern Hemisphere. The German geologist Giesecke, in the course
of a mineralogical survev beginning in 180(), described manv of the "
ice fjords. Rink, the Danish geologist, and later governor oi
Greenland, 1848-1851, studied the motion of glaciers and the calving '
of icebergs, his publications receiving a Avide distribution and arous- 1
ing liA^ely interest in scientific circles. The names of the other scien- '
tists who have carried out investigations on the ice fjords, the gla- j
ciers, and the calving of icebergs, practically all on the Avest coast of i

1 Chart of Davis Strait published Apr. 20, 1875, by the British Admiralty. I.oudmi.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 5

Greenland, are: Steenstriip in 1883 (for a number of years) ; Hel-
land, Norwegian geologist, in 1S72-187(); Rabot and Fries in 1875;
Hammer in 1879-80; Ryder in 1886-87; Astrup in 1893; von
Drygalski in 1891-1893 ; Engell in 1902 ; Porsild in 1918 ; and L. Koch
over a period of recent years. The results of the labors of the fore-
going men, especially Steenstrup, Drygalski, and L. Koch, have per-
mitted us in this paper to name the glaciers which are iceberg-
producing and estimate the relative numbers which are normally
released every year. Our knowledge of the shape and thickness of
the ice cap is furnished by several crossings of the great inland ice,
first by Nansen in 1888, and then by DeQuervain in 1912 ; Rasmussen
in 1912 : J. P. Koch and Wegener in 1913 : and more recently by Lauge
Koch. Several others have also made important incursions, for in-
stance, Jensen in 1878, Nordenskiold in 1883, Garde in 1893, Mik-
kelsen in 1910, and lately Hobbs and Wegener. The only other
trlaciated area in the northwest sufficient in size to contribute any
considerable supply of icebergs is Ellesmere Land, the inland ice
of which has been explored bv Greely in 1883; bv Sverdrup in
I 1902-1904; and by MacMillan in 1914.

j As a by-product of early exploration, whaling, and trading, as
ijwe previously described, there has been assembled a great deal of
j,;knowledge on the behavior and regional distribution of floating ice
lin the western North Atlantic. Later scientific expeditions concen-
ijtrating mostly along oceanographical lines have considerably ad-
rlvanced our understanding of drifting ice. A large number of accur-
jate oceanographic observations regarding the system of circulation
hvhich prevails, for example, in the waters of Davis Strait and over
|the Grand Bank, means greater enlightenment on the movements of
jthe ice. Baffin Bay, due to inaccessibility, has witnessed few sub-
surface investigations : Hamberg in the Sofia 1883, Nielsen in the
.iTjalfe 1908-9; and a more thorough and systematic oceanographical
pjexamination by Riis-Cartensen in the Godfhaah in the summer
.of 1928 complete the local list. The account and results of this last
, jwork have not yet been published but from the printed data appear-
iing in the International Hydrographic Bulletin we have here in-
|terpreted some of the indicated movements of the water and the ice.
The hvdrographv of Davis Strait is known from the following inves-
|tigations : Wandel in the FyUa, 1884, 1886, 1889; Knudsen in the In-
: if/olf, 1895 : Nielsen in the fjaJfe, 1908-9 ; Mathews in theScotia, 1913 ;
.Hjort in the Michael Sars in 1924; Jensen in the Dana, 1925; Iselin
' jin the Chance, 1926 ; Riis-Cartensen in the Godthaab, 1928 ; Ault in
the Carnegie, 1928; and our own voyage in the Marion, 1928. The
iresults of the earlier of these expeditions threw little light on the
scheme of oceanic circulation there and on the drift of the ice, wdiile
Jthe work of the Scotia and of the fJarnegie was only incidental to
much larger fields of operations. The most intensive work in Davis
Strait has been accomplished by the Tjalfe, Crodthaah, and Marion.
As a result of these latter operations we now possess a fairly clear
jPicture of the paths that the ice follows from Baffin Bay to New-
foundland and also of the approximate rate of its southern dispersal.
Various aspects of the ice problem in the North Atlantic south of
' Newfoundland have been the subject of exhaustive investigation by

6 MARION EXPEDITIOIv^ TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BArFIN BAY

the international ice patrol.^ This service was established as a
result of the f^reat number of sea disasters which occurred around
Newfoundland and culminated in the tragic loss of 1,500 lives and
Ihe steamer Titanic in 1912. Besides the practical work of locat-
ino- the ice and warning ships of its presence, the ice patix)l in
its'' 16 vears of service, especially since 1921, has assembled a
large amount of ice and oceanographical data. The area so fre-
quently surveyed includes the Grand Bank from the forty-eighth
parallel southward to 39° latitude and east and west between merid-
ians 45 and 55. As a result the behavior of the ice south of Xew-
foundland can now be treated in great detail.^ , ,■ i j

Usino- the available data several researches have been published
on theliubiect of Arctic ice and its drift into the North Atlantic
Ocean Thus Rodman (1890) published a report on the ice and its
movement to the North Atlantic. Howard (1920) prepared an
article for the Monthlv Pilot Chart issued by the British Meteom-
locrical Office, and Hennessey (1929) has continued the work in the
Marine Observer. Mecking (190G-7), with the assistance of the
Deutsche Seewarte, made a special research of ice conditions in Davis
Strait and with especial reference to the effect of meteorological
conditions on distribution of the ice in the Atlantic. Bowditch |1
(19'>5) and the Newfoundland and Davis Strait and the Arctic
Pilots (U S Hvdrographic Office, 1884, 1909, 1921), all contain
chapters devoted to drift ice and icebergs for the information of sea-
men Smith (192Ta) for several vears published a paper devoted
to ice on the back of the Monthly Pilot Chart, United States

Hydrographic Office. • i , v i i

All of the foregoing accounts have been seriously handicapped b}
the lack of a sufficient knowledge of the cold currents north of New-
foundland and of the consequent behavior of the ice there.

"MARION" EXPEDITION

The need for ice and oceanographic observations, from Newfound-
land northward to Baffin Bay. had been felt by many s-cientists for a
number of years. Accordingly, in June, 1928, the United States
Coast Guard, in charge of the ice patrol, assigned the patml boat
Marlon for a northern expedition. The iMarwn sailed from Sytlne>^
Cape Breton, on July 16. (See narrative account m Part 1 of
this bulletin.) A total of eight weeks was devoted to a detailed
ice and ocean-current survev of the waters from the latitude ot
St Johns, Newfoundland, to the mouth of Baffin Bay. and ex-
tendino- ail the wav east and west between North America and
Greenland. The success or failure of any mission to the wateis ot
Davis Strait and Baffin Bay depends upon the ice conditions pre-
vailinf*- in these waters during the brief warm period of the year, anc
the Mari07i expedition, the summer of 1928, was very much tavcrea

from the liortb." .lolllisfon, i;il.>, p. ^l.) diik ruinaifi.v Ji-.t "".- .1 ... . •■ I yy
aftor proccciliii}; about liOO miles north of St. .Ii.lms. the .senrca cam.' into ue >o iicu*.
and berirs so numerous that it was daniierous to atttiiipt further proiires?-.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 7

Ithat the ice was scarce. Another circumstance which greatly
anced the vahie of the observations of the Marion expedition w^as
fact that the Godthaab expedition simultaneously carried out an
anographic survey in the more northern waters of Baffin Bay,
)wing direct comparison.

^he princijjal task of the Marion expedition was the collection of
?cord of temperature and salinity — the raw data — from as many
•cted points of observation and depths as possible in the waters
Davis Strait. This material, consisting of over 2,000 surface and
surface observations, has been subjected to Bjerknes's (1910, 1911)
h'odynamic formulae according to the methods employed on
!rnational ice patrol and described by Smith (1926, pp. 1-50).
ls a result of the Marion expedition the prevailing oceanographic
■ulation of Davis Strait has been mapped from the lower end
Baffin Bay to the latitude of St. Johns, Newfoundland. A com-
be report on the dynamic oceanography is to be published in Part
I this bulletin, entitled " The Marion Expedition Under the Direc-
1 of the U. S. Coast Guard, 1928. Scientific Results. The
y^sical Oceanography of Davis Strait."' (In press.)
'he dynamic topographic maps which are described and illus-
ed in Smith (1931) have been used in the present paper as
basis of describing and interpreting the direction and movement
he icebergs in Davis Strait. (See especially in this connection fig.
p. 147, in the present paper.) Our conclusions on the general
cement of icebergs in Baffin Bay have been based on the dynamic
ographic map (fig. 91, p. 139) constructed from the GodthoaVs
jrvations. The dynamic topographic map showing the stream
s of the gradient currents furnishes an excellent presentation of
normal courses taken by the icebergs, if we assume that the deep-
fted long-life icebergs outside coastal promontories are in the
n controlled by ocean currents. On several previous occasions I
e found a good agreement between the stream lines of the
rents as represented by the dynamic topographic maps (see figs.
, 104, 105, 106, p. 162) and the movement of the bergs in the Grand
ik region. See, in addition. Smith (1927, p. 118) (1927a, pp.
93). Since the current maps of the Marion expedition are similar
3very respect to those constructed on ice patrol, there is every
son to believe the agreement between calculated currents and ice
Pts holds equally true for Davis Strait and Baffin Bay.
'he Marion's 2,000 observations of salinity and temperature, cov-
ig the waters of Davis Strait (see station table data. Part 2 of
; bulletin), thus constitute original basic data from which to
uce the circulation and the behavior of the ice. By synthesis
h the various earlier data it is now possible to present a connected
:ure of Arctic ice and of its southward drift.

FLOATING ICE

ce which is sighted floating at sea may have been formed either
the salt water itself or upon the land. Floating ice, therefore,
it is pertinent to the present discussion, separates into two great
isions as it hails from independent sources namely, land ice and
120860—31 2

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 7

in that the ice was scarce. Another circumstance which jjjreatly
enhanced the vahie of the observations of the Marion expedition was
the fact that the Godthaah expedition simultaneously carried out an
oceanoo-raphic survey in the more northern waters^ of Baffin Bay,
allowing direct comparison.

The principal task of the Marion expedition was the collection of
a record of temperature and salinity — the raw data — from as many
selected points of observation and depths as possible in the waters
of Davis Strait. This material, consisting of over 2,000 surface and
isubsurface observations, has been subjected to Bjerknes's (1910, 1911)
iiydrodynamic formulae according to the methods employed on
'international ice patrol and described by Smith (1926, pp. 1-50).
i As a result of the Marion expedition the prevailing oceanographic
jcirculation of Davis Strait has been mapped from the lower end
'of Baffin Bay to the latitude of St. Johns, Newfoundland. A com-
'])lete report on the dynamic oceanography is to be published in Part
'2 of this bulletin, entitled " The Marion Expedition Under the Direc-
'lion of the U. S. Coast Guard. 192s. Scientific Results. The
Physical Oceanograi)hy of Davis Strait."" (In press.)
' The dynamic t(jpographic maps Avhich are described and illus-
'trated in Smith (1981) have been used in the present paper as
'the basis of describing a_nd interpreting the direction and movement
!of the icebergs in Davis Strait. (See especially in this connection fig,
195, p. 147, in the present paper.) Our conclusions on the general
^movement of icebergs in Baffin Bay have been based on the dynamic
topographic ma}) (fig. 91. p. 139) constructed from the GodthaaVs
observations. The dynamic topographic map showing the stream
'lines of the gradient currents furnishes an excellent presentation of
Jtlie normal courses taken by the icebergs, if we assume that the deep-
drafted long-life icebergs outside coastal promontories are in the
main controlled by ocean currents. On several previous occasions I
have found a good agreement between the stream lines of the
currents as represented by the dynamic topographic maps (see figs.
103, 104, 105, 106, p. 162) and the movement of the bergs in the Grand
^Bank region. See, in addition. Smith (1927, p. 118) (1927a, pp.
70-93). Since the current maps of the Marion expedition are similar
in every respect to those constructed on ice patrol, there is every
reason to believe the agreement between calculated currents and ice
drifts holds equally true for Davis Strait and Baffin Bay.

The Marion's 2,000 observations of salinity and temperature, cov-
ering the waters of Davis Strait (see station table data. Part 2 of
this bulletin), thus constitute original basic data from which to
Vleduce the circulation and the behavior of the ice. By synthesis
jwith the various earlier data it is now possible to present a connected
picture of Arctic ice and of its southward drift.

FLOATING ICE

Ice which is sighted floating at sea may have been formed either

ion the salt water itself or upon the land. Floating ice. therefore,

jas it is pertinent to the present discussion, separates into two great

divisions as it hails from independent sources namely, land ice and

120860—31 2

8 MARION EXPEDITION TO DA.VIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

sea ice.* The former when found drifting in the ocean, is usually in
the form of icebergs -syhich from their relatively great mass and I
density, form especially dangerous obstacles in the paths of naviga- I
tion. Sea ice of course is the ice formed of salt water, and because
of its great horizontal proportions, covers a fairly wide expanse in
the northern hemisphere.

The Properties of Sea Ice

Sea ice differs from fresh-water ice because of the presence of salt
in the former and on account of this attribute great contrasting dif-
ferences occur between the physical j:)roperties of the two kinds of ice.

We may learn much regarding the physical properties of sea ice '
by observing what happens at the boundary between ice and water
when the water approaches freezing conditions. Water, accordinjr
to Johnstone (1923, p. 185). is composed of H^O molecules mixed
together in single, double, and triple combinations. The triplex
molecule, is the one closely associated with the formation of ice.
It is believed these triplex, so-called ice molecules, are present in
water in varying proportions, even above the freezing point, de-
pending upon the particular temperature of the liquid at the time.
They, therefore, lie suspended in the water, similar to salt in solu-
tion, until the saturation point is reached, which occurs at a tempera-
ture of —1.85° C. (28.7° F.). for common sea water (salinity
34 0/00) when the liquid is transformed to a solid state. The
subtraction of an amount of heat energy equivalent to the heat of
fusion of that given mass of sea water, often the addition of a '
minute piece of ice itself, is sufficient to initiate actual freezing.
The first sign of a change of physical state under the microscope is a
cloud of small disklike particles which floculate and grow, finally
passing from an original colloidal state into true crystalline form.
If they are allowed to develop in quiet water, the crystals assume '
most beautiful feathery designs, but more often they collect in a
network of fine spicules and elongated prisms, which extend down
and out as streamers and plates. If the water be exposed to a very
sudden chilling by the wintry atmosphere, such as often occurs within '
the bounds of the polar ice cap, the colloidal stage of ice growth is
masked by the direct creation of the more familiar crystalline
structure.

The processes of solidification of sea water differs in one important
particular from that of pure fresh water. The first crystals to ap-
pear in salt water are comparatively fresh because the pure H2O
molecules tend to separate and to congeal first. As freezing temper- ^
atures continue, the process spreads to the unfrozen liquid lying
between the strings and plates of the initial ice crystals. This brine,
which has now become more or less imj^risoned, tends to sink by
virtue of its greater specific gravity, causing a sagging of the entire
pulpy mass, and much of the brine in this manner actually drains out.
Gradually, as the fabric attains a firmer structure, the remaining
salty liquid is completely entrapped and so prevented from escaping
out of the ice body. Therefore, we have finally a solid mass con-
sisting of innumerable pure ice crystals frozen together, between

* Fresh-water ice formed In rivers and later discliarged downstream into the sea exhibits
a maximum field of dispersal in the Sil)erian oiling of the Arctic. Even liere. ho\vi'Vt'r.
river ice is of such comparatively limited extent, compared to tlie niauiiitiule of toe
regions under discussion, that no discussion of it is needed.

SCIENTIFIC ItESULTS

9

whirli are caught a smaller luimber of salt crystals, to«;etlicr with an
aj)preciable quantity of concentrated brine. The relative amount
of the latter is dependent upon the temperature; the colder, the more
brine is imprisoned in the cellular structure.

It is an interestino- question whether all the salts contained in
>cii water are to be found in sea ice; also if the salts in the ice are
combined in the same relative proportions as they are in the sea
water from which the ice was frozen. Laboratory experiments to
tost the solubility of its various salts recpire a supercooling; and
aptation of the liquid, seldom, if ever, experienced under natural
conditions, but such investigations furnish interesting information
reo-arding the eutectic point of the salts and also regarding the salin-
ity of the resulting solid. According to Johnstone (1923, p. 186)
every sea-water salt has been found to possess its own individual
temperature of solubility which if depressed, causes that particular
salt to precipitate from the mother liquid. First to crystallize, as
i)reviously stated, are the water molecules wdiich for a sample of 33
per mille salinity takes place at -1.8° C. (28.8° F.). When
-8.2° C. (17.3° F.) is reached NagSO^ begins to precipitate, and at
-23° C. ( — 9.4° F.) solid XaCl separates from the remaining brine.

The behavior of sea water when supercooled has led to the estab-
lishment of a theory that yearly great quantities of SO., are removed
from polar regions and deposited in the Atlantic as ice floes saturated
with that substance move out of the north to melt in lower latitudes.
Malmgren (1928, p. 7) had an excellent opportunity to test this
theory by determining the ratio of SO3 and CI, for samples of sea
water and of sea ice from several of the freezing zones of the polar
sea. If a selective process of salt crystallization prevails, SO3 and
CI would be the substances first to exhibit variations. In all cases,
however, the sample pairs of ice and mother liquid showed almost
the same ratio of SO3 and CI.

Wiese (1930) reports Liakionoff's investigations of this phe-
nomenon in the Barents Sea the summer of 1930. Liakionoff found
contrary to Malmgren that a deficit of CI and a surplus of SO3
actually prevailed both in the melting water and in the sea ice
itself. The ratio ranged from Krummel's value of 0.1150 for ordi-
nary sea water to a maximum of 0.1700 in old sea ice. These results
agree moreover w^ith those of Ringer and Pettersson, and therefore
it appears that a selection of the salts in sea water occurs upon
freezing. Future investigations will determine this with more cer-
tainty. The freezing point of sea water is defined as that temperature
at which the first ice crystals appear in the liquid.

The freezing points of samples of water of varying salinity are
given herewith :

Salinity
0/00

Freezing point

Salinity
0/00

Freezing point

° C.

° F.

° C.

° F.

25

-1.35

29.6

32

-1.74

28.9

26

-1.40

29.5

33

-1.80

28.8

27

-1.45

29.4

34

-1.85

28.7

28

-1.51

29.3

35

-1.91

28.6

29

-1.59

29.2

36

-1.97

28.5

30

-1.62

29.1

37

-2.02

28.4

31

-1.68

29.0

10 MARIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY

The point of solidification of sea ice: i. e., the temperature at
which it becomes a true solid, is lioweA'er. quite different frf>m the
freezing point of sea water. The fact that sea ice is a conglomera-
tion of pure ice crystals and of particles of brine, combined in vary-
ing proportions, due to varying temperature and salinity, naturally
prevents one single definite point of solidification. Strictly speak-
ing, the solidification process in such ice can not be considered
completed until the last salt solidifies, namely CaCL, the eutectic
point of which is —55° C. ( — 67° F.). For general purposes of
calculation, therefore, the freezing point of sea ice is assumed to
occur at the eutectic point of its major salt XaCl (about 77 per cent
of the salt content of sea water), i. e., at approximately —22° C.
( — 7.6° F.). The closer the solidification point of a sample of sea ice
lies to the freezing temperature of sea water, the more homogeneous
will be the composition of the ice, and the less the deposition of brine
and salt. The lower the temperature to which sea water is exposed,
the more rapidly will the net of ice crystals form.

One of the most astonishing things about sea ice is the fact that it
is so fresh. Malmgren (1928, Tables 4 and 5), has made several
determinations of the salinity of the ice of the polar cap, showing it
to be subject to a relatively wide range — 0.05 0/00 to 14.59 0 00. A
salinity of 7 0/00, therefore, may be taken as the salt value of ordi-
nary sea ice.^ It would be interesting to learn what is the average
salinity of the Arctic water from which ice of 7 0/00 is formed. The
salinity of the surface layers of the north polar ocean, outside of the
continental slope, as Nansen (1928, p. 11) has pointed out. are greatly
diluted by the land drainage from the Eurasian side. Xansen esti-
mates that the inflow of fresh water from Siberian rivers alone is
sufficient to cover the ocean from the Asiatic coast to the pole each
year, with a surface film 3i4 feet thick. The distribution of salinity
of the water as found along the Frani's track was 28.40 0/00 to 29 0/00
to a depth of 30 meters, 90 miles north of the New Siberian Islands,
and only 31.7 0/00 to 33 0/00 at 30 meters, within 300 miles of the polo.
In view of these observations we may conclude that the surface hivei>
in the polar basin, i. e., the water subjected to freezing, vary little from
a mean salinity of 31 0/00." The average salinity of sea ice. ai)i)roxi
mately 7 0/00, shows, therefore, that only about one-fourth of the ^
total quantity of salts of sea water enters its ice. Xansen. on the
drift of the Fimrn^ made no determinations of the salinity of sea ice.
but from our information on the distribution of the salinity in the
Arctic Ocean, the MamVs ice experiments can. without criticism, be
compared directly with the Frains hydrographical observations.

The rate at which sea Avater freezes is a very important factor
in determining the percentage of salt imprisoned in the ice. The
more rapid the process, the more sudden the pure ice crystals im-
pregnate the water, catching wathin their meshes a large quantity
of brine drops. The saltiest piece of ice that Malmgren (1928, j).

\

" Weyprwht (1897, p. .58) during the drift of the rajctihoff found the salinity of a
piece of thin iee formed rapidly under low temperature in the Arctic to he 25 000, nnil
this is probahly as salt as sea ice ever is.

"No otlier ocean in the world can show sucli low salinities more than a few miles o"'
from land. The inflow of land water around the basin's border fails to explain a salinl'.^
uniformly so low ovei- the entire expanse. Probably the absence of evaporation and tlj''
I)resence of ice are the two factors chiedv respdusi'ble, combiiKHl with the seasonal oycl''
of freezing and melting, repeated throughout the years since the present ca|i liecanic
permanent.

SCIENTIFIC EESLTLTS H

11) found ill the Arctic Ocean was 14.59 U/UO, tliis beinj;- a sample
cut from a sheet of thin ice that had been exposed to the very low
temperature of al)Out -40° C. (-40° F.). It is ti-ue that the ice
cover is continually 1 icings rended apart exposing the water to ex-
tremely fri<rid temperatures. But the total amount of the salty ice
thus produced is comi)aratively small, because in relatively few in-
stances tloes ice form under supercooled conditions.

The two principal rejiions of ice formation in the Arctic Ocean
are:

(a) The shallow waters of the Eurasian shelf and in the north-
ern North American country.

(b) The underside of the ])ermanent polar ice cap.

In the case of {<() the sea surface normally becomes covered early
in the autumn before the atmosphere has ^reatly cooled, and tends
to remain more or less screened duriii<r the winter. Cases (a) and
(b) are now similar and new ice is added throu<rhout the colder
months of the year, on the underside of the cover, where tiie water
is beyond the reach of severe atmospheric chillin<jf.

The fact that the amount of salt in sea ice varies directly witii the
rate of freezing (inversely as the temperature), causes the toj) of a
•rlacon or floe, the part exposed to the coldest temperature, to be
• composed of the saltiest ice." Several writers on polar phenomena
I have reported the presence of solid salt on the surface of ice sheets,
i which sometimes coats them so heavily that it has l)een likened to
j the early morning collection of hoar frost." The growth in thickness
I of yoimg sea ice from the top surface downward proceeds at a
I slower and slower rate the further the underside retreats from the
source of freezing. Similarly the insulating etfect of a snow cover
in retarding the freezing processes is proved by the formation of
I fresher ice on the underneath sides of those floes that are heavily
jsnow decked. The heat conductivity of ice is very poor, about one-
hundredth part that of iron. The upper surface of old ice l)eing com-
iparatively fresh is a much jioorer heat conductor than is young, salty
I ice, and similarly, retards freezing. A set of salinity observations by
jMalmgren (1928, p. G) through the vertical cross section of a young
sheet, gives the following distribution of salt with depth:

Depth of ice from surface (cm.) (► 6 i;3 25 45 82 95

Salinity of the ice (0/00) (i. 74 5.28 5. :31 3.84 4.37 3.48 3.17

{ The fact that the surface layers of the sea are normally fresher
than those deeper down appears to have no appreciable efl'ect in

I varying the salinity of the ice, top to bottom, because its thickness
includes only a very small part of the range of salinity with depth
of water.

Since the underside of the cover is not only the freezing surface
hut the plane of contact between the ice and the concentrated brine,
one might naturally reason that the thicker the ice became, the
richer it would gi-ow in salts. The fact that the salinity of ice
decreases with the depth, hoAvever, indicates (a) that the processes
of precipitation are more than sufficient to counterbalance the increase
in salt concentration of the mother liquid: (h) that the mother

'A thin veneer of new ice may often overlay young ice formed early in autumn from
tne thaw water of the Arctic pack.

"^Weyprecht (1879, p. 58) states that the salt is not pure, but consists of fine needles
or ice tipped with small salt crystals.

12

MARIOK EXrEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

liquid undergoes dilution continually as a result of mixing with the f
surrounding waters; or (c) that freezing is retarded to a very slow '
rate.

One of the most interesting features connected with the physical
properties of sea ice is the seasonal change in salinity which develops '
with age. Young ice; that is, the variety which has formed durin-T
the auhnnn and winter, is observed to decrease slightly in salinity
at all depths shortly after freezing; it then continues nearly constant
in this respect throughout the winter, with a second and greater
loss on the arrival of the succeeding summer. When air tem])era-
tures over northern seas rise above —4° or —5° C. (24.8° or 23" F.)
the minute brine particles and salt crystals that have lodged throush-
out the interstices of the pure ice crystals begin to melt away from
the more solid structure. Since the heat which comes from the
sun is too feeble to melt the ice crystals in the permanent polar
cap, at least to any great exent. the brine tirains off and down leav-

Oxn

Z50

J X 3 4

> 6 7 8%«

The Change in the Salinity of Sea ice With age

FiGUKE 2. — Young ice formed in October iu tlie north polar
basin has a thicl?ness of about 45 centimeters and contains
approximately eight parts per thousand of " salt." The
same ice by the following summer has increased about
three times in thickness, but its salinity has decreased
about four times the original proportions. (Figure from
Malmgren, 1928.)

ing the tops of the floes of a composition closely approaching that
of fresh ice. The structure at tlie same time gradually becomes
granular and after a few years it is diiHcult to di.stinguish an old
floe from glacier ice. The penetration of solar warmth into the
ice in the Arctic regions by the end of summer, is suHicient to reduce
the salinity 2 or 3 parts i)er thousand to depths of 3 to 5 feet. The
pressure ridges so prevalent in the regions of paleocrystic ice are
found to be more completely washed free of salts than any other
northern sea ice. The brine "that drains out of the uppermost layer'^ i
is prevented from settling directly downward by the bottom layers^
which, constantly immer.sed in cold water, remain so solid that the,
only drainage is tlii-ough tlie many narrow-cut i-hannels that furrow j
the floes. If a series of careful measureiin'iits of the thickiu'ss t)i
the ice cover be made during the early part of summer when nu'ltiiiil.
begins, they wall show at flrst a gradual dei-rease. then a brief thick- 1
oning as the water thawing from the tops of the floes and from the f

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS 13

snow freezes upon reachino; the frigid sen. But as increased solar
warming- raises the temperature, so it increases the rate of melting,
and the floe fintJly becomes thinner.

The loss of salts during the warmer months of the year leaves the
polar cap mantled Avith fresh ice possessing a higher melting point
and therefore greater permanence. Old sea ice accordingly survives
much longer than the young, i)rovided both samples be of the same
volume, when ex])osed to similar melting conditions. Many people
have regarded with considerable skepticism the statement that sea
ice furnishes a supply of very good drinking water. Experienced ice
navigators, however, are well aware of the freshening of sea ice with
age, since the fresh-water pools on old pans have long been utilized
as a never-failing supply. The rule is to moor the ship with ice
anchors to a well-selected old floe and then run a hose to a near-bv
pool, where water has collected either from the weathered side of'
the ice itself or from the preceding winter's snow cover. It is im-
jiortant to pump only from pools located well in from the edge of
[he floe to avoid the possibility of contamination by salt spray.^

The physical behavior of salt water wdien subjected to freezing
temperatures is dilferent from that of fresh water under similar con-
ditions, because the former contracts right to the freezing point."

The fact that salt-water ice is formed when the freezing mass is
at maximum density, causes it, therefore, to be slightly heavier than
fresh-water ice. The fact that it does not float lower is due mainly to
the considerable quantity of air which is in the water when it freezes.
The density of pure, fresh- water ice, according to Barnes (1928, p.
•25) is 0.91676, and that of sea ice formed from the water of the salin-
ity that normally comes under freezing conditions ranges from 0.857
to 0.924.1^

The relatively great range in the specific gravity of sea ice is due,
according to Malmgren (1928, p. 17), partly to large quantities of
air or water which the ice may absorb during the summer directly
from the atmosphere. The reason that water is not sucked up from
below into the spongelike vacuoles (caused by the escape of salts) is
because much of the lower layers of the sea ice in polar regions remain
unmelted even in summer and, therefore, waterproof. If, however,
sea ice drifts out of the Arctic into waters warmer than 0° C. (32°
F.), melting will begin below the water line, causing ingestion and
a drowning of the ice. Arctic pack ice, therefore, in the North
Atlantic floats lower than it did nearer its source.

As a corollary to the above, if sea ice is exposed to temperatures
as low as -20° C. (-40° F.), nearly all the brine globules freeze
into salt crystals, causing the ice to swell to a maximum volume.

The physical appearance of sea ice is quite different from that of
fresh-water ice; the former exhibiting an opaque slaty whiteness.

° Pettfisson (]8S3, p. 304) coUected sea ice floating in the polar drift current nortliwest
of Spitsbergen which contained less than one-fourth the amount of chlorides found in the
unnking water of Stocicholm.

'"As a matter of fact the saltiest water, i. e., pure ocean water, seldom reaches a
ireezing temperature, because it is usually protected by warm convectional currents. The
ireezing regions of the hydrosphere are confined mostly to the shallow waters of conti-
nental shelves and to epi-continental seas, where the salinity of the surface layers rarely
'"Sf'^pfls 33 0/00; so tliat freezing takes place at a temperature of —1.8° C. (28.8° F.).

vVe performed the following experiment : A quart of sea water of salinity 34.3 0/00
was frozen into a cake of solid ice, with no opportunity for any of the salts to escape,
""" "Pspite its high specific gravity the block floated in a .iar of fresh water. The height
Hofi -f 1'^°'^ ^^^ noticeably lower than in the case of fresh-watei- ice, but the experiment
uennitely shows, nevertheless, that ordinary sea ice has reserve buoyancy. It is often
oDServed, for instance, floating off river mouths where the water is comparatively fresh.

14 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

kSea ice has none of the hardness and extreme brittleness that char-
acterizes fresh ice under similar coldness. The fact that salts lodge
between the pure ice crystals prevents the latter from interlocking
tightly, materially reducing the tensile strength, and permitting a
maximum amount of bending without fracture. ^-

IcE Tekmixology

The folloAving definitions are apparently more or less standard in
ice terminology :

S/ush or sludge. — The initial stages in the freezing of sea water
when it is of a gluey or soupy consistency and when the surface of the
water takes on the appearance of cooling grease, with a peculiar steel-
gray or lead tint.

Pancake ice. — Small cakes of new ice approximately circular with
raised rims. The rims give them a striking resemblance to pancakes.
The diameter of the cakes is from 1 to 3 feet and their thickness is up
to 2 to 4 inches.

Young ice. — A compact sheet formed by the repeated freezing to-
gether, breaking up, and refreezing of cakes of pancake ice. Its
initial thickness is 1 to 3 inches and this may increase to a maximum
during a Avinter in the Arctic regions of 6 to 9 feet.

Fast Ice.- — Horizontal ice formed by the freezing of the sea out from'
the shore. The 12-fathom contour is approximately the outer limit
of the spread of fast ice along open coast lines in the polar basin. ,

Ice foot. — That part of the fast ice which forms and builds on the
.shore itself and therefore is unaffected by vertical motions such as the-
tides.

Anchor ice. — All submerged ice attached to the bottom irrespective!
of its mode of formation.

Pack ice. — Sea ice which has drifted from its original position.

Polar cap ice. — Oldest and heaviest of ice pack, characterizing the
central portions of the north polar basin.

Ice field. — An area of ice other than fast ice of such an extent that,
its limits can not be seen from the ship's masthead.

Ice floe. — An area of ice other than fast ice from one-third of a
mile in diameter to the size of an ice field.

Glagon. — Any piece of pack ice ranging in size from a cake 2 to 3i
feet in diameter to a floe.

Hummock. — A piece of ice formed by marginal crushing and
heaping up of the sea ice.

Hummocking. — The process of pressure on sea ice resulting in a
heaping up of the sea ice.

FJoehei'g. — A massive hummock; the results of great jn-essur-- anii|
piling up of the heaviest forms of sea ice.

Rotten ice. — Any pack ice Avhich has become much honeycombed
through the latter stages of melting .so that it lacks the strength of
other ice.

Crack. — Any fracture oi- i-ift in sea ice but not sufficiently wide to
])ermit navigation. Kinds: (c/) Tidal; (A) temperature; \r) shook
and pressure.

'2 WpypredU (1870, p. 40) states that so.ui after tli.' formation of young ice in the
antuiiiii it iccdids every t'ootiiriiit as <>asily as newly fallen snow.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

15

Slush and Sludge Begins to Form

•'iGPRB 3. — The initial staues in tlie freezing of sea watei-. Slusli and sludge of
sonpy consistency is forming in the spaces between the old glagons. (Photograph
liy H. G. Ponting in the Scientific Reports of the British Antarctic Expedition.)

Young

I'.i UE 4. — Glagons of young ice which will soon cement together again in a con-
tinuous sheet with the further advance of winter temperatures. The several small
circular cakes with the raised rims which compose the glagons are called pancake
ice from their close resemblance to " pancakes.'' This form represents the inter-
mediate step in ice formation between slush and young ice. (Photograph by
H. G. Ponting in the Scientific Reports of the British Antarctic Expedition, i

16

MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Ice Floes and ice Field

Figure 5. — A view of sea ice to illustrate the terms " ice floes " and " ice field."
A floe is any ice area from one-third of a mile in diameter to as far as can be
seen from a ship. An ice field is an area so great that its limits are beyond the
vision of the masthead lookouts. This scene has all the appearance of the
southern edge of the pack which reaches the Grand Bank, south of Newfoundland
every spring. (I'hotograph by F. A. Matisen in Kolchak. 1909.)

Glacons

Figure C. — Sea ice in the form of ghu.'ous ; the term used lo designate any piece of
sea ice ranging in size from a cake 2 to 8 feet in dianieter to an ice area of
one-third of a mile in diameter. (Photograph from Arctowski (I'.tOSa).)

SCIENTIFIC ItESULTS 17

Lead or lane. — A navigable passage throiigli any kind of pack ice.

Pressure ridge. — The marginal elevation and heaping up of any
kind of pack ice when opposing forces press it together.

Polynya {Russian) . — Any sizeable Avater area, not a crack or a lead,
which is surrounded by sea ice.

Pool. — A depression in the fields, tloes, or gla(,^ons that contains
fresh water.

Frost s^moke. — The foglike clouds that form over newly opened
water areas in sea ice in the far north.

Water sky. — Dark streaks on the clouds due to the reflection of
polynyas, or of the open sea, in the vicinity of large areas of ice.

Ice hi ink. — The whitish hazy glare on the clouds or near the
liorizon produced by the reflection from large areas of sea ice in the
ivicinity.

1 Iceherg.- — A large mass of glacier ice found in the sea.
I Growler. — A low-lying piece of glacier ice not so large as a berg.

Classification of Sea Ice

The ice cover that spreads over northern seas, for clearness and
simplicity, may be classified in accordance with its distribution, i. e.,
in the form of concentric belts, focused around a center called the
ice pole, normally located in the vicinity of latitude 83° to 85°,
longitude 170° to 180° west. The southernmost boundary of the
outer circumpolar region coincides with the southernmost sea area
which becomes ice covered, either because of freezing temperature or
through drift of the ice from colder regions. The southern limit
{of sea ice naturally deviates from the latitude parallels because of
imany varied conditions, such as the distribution of land and sea
biasses, the bathymetrical features of the ocean basins, the ocean
currents, and the winds. All these factors tend to modify a sym-
metrical arrangement which otherwise would designate the geo-
graphical pole as the iciest spot on the earth.

The ice cover of northern waters may be classified as follows :
{a) Fast ice; {h) north polar cap ice; (c) pack ice.

Fast ice (Transehe 1928. p. 99), or winter ice (Koch 1926, p. 101),
refers to the sheet that forms in coastal zones during winter, and that
is rendered immobile b}- attachment through the ice foot to the shore.
jNorth polar cap ice is the ice which throughout the year covers
the deep central, major portions, of the north polar basin. It is
ichiefly distinguished by great solidity ; by the great size of its fields ;
land by the massiveness of its rafted hummocks. Pack ice consists
jmostly of fast ice that has broken away, supplemented in certain
jregions by minor additions from the polar cap ice. It is found
iaround the outer borders of the Arctic Ocean; dominates its marginal
'seas, the sounds of the American Archipelago, Baffin Bay, Davis
Strait, and the waters of east Greenland.

The annual cycle which witnesses the formation or depletion, as
the case may be, in the varying areas occupied by the three types —
fast, polar cap, and pack^ — displays the following features. We start
with the formation of fast ice in winter, as well as the solidification
iof and accretion to both the already existing pack ice and the polar
|cap. The approach of spring and summer causes the fast ice to

18

MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

A Crack in Pack Ice

Figure 7. — Winds and currents often open cracks in the pacli ice such as shown
here. A crack differs from a lead in respect to its width, a crack not being of
sufficient width to permit navigation. A crack i.s the antithesis of a pressure
ridge. (Photograph by H. G. I'onting in the Scientific Reports of the British
Antarctic Expedition.)

A LEAD

Figure 8. — A lead in pack ice. Sliips in tlie pack are conned by the ice navigator
from a station aloft. This is tlie best vantage point to study the system of leads
and the location of open water. (Photograph by II. (i. I'onling in the Scientific
Reports of the British Antarctic Expedition.)

I

SCIEXTIFIC RESULTS

19

A POLYNYA

Figure 9. — A small polynya in pack ice. From its small extent it is sometimes
referred to as a pool. (Photograph by H. G. Fonting in the Scientific Reports of
the P.ritish .Antarctic Expedition.)

" If" Iri ilMWil

Frost Smoke

FlGCRE 10. — A polynya from which frost smoke is rising. The faiimus "" North
Water" in the northern part of Baffin Bay remains open throughout many winters
despite the very low temperatures and the presence of surroujidin<„' ici'. (I'hoto-
graph by H. G. Ponting in the Scientific Reports of the British Antarctic-
Expedition.)

20

MARION EXPEDITIOlSr TO DAVIS STEAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

break up and partly melt, with the siirvivinoj portions augmenting
the still larger areas of pack ice. Narrow margins of fast ice, how-
ever, may remain unbroken throughout a summer or perhaps for sev-
eral summers, in which case, of course, they maintain their identity

i

40 20 0

The Regional Distribution of Sea Ice and Land Ice

Figure 11. — I^X^ North polar cap ice.

I'ack iC(>.

Fast ice. The polar

cap ice is the hub of all northern sea ice. ("

, I Glacial ice. The largest areas

of land ice reaching sea level are : Greenland, Ellesmere Land, Baffin Land,
Melville Island, Patrick Island, Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land, and Nicholas
II Land.

for that particular year. Pack ice has three methods of disposition
in the Arctic Ocean, (a) it rafts and solidifies, inserting itself as a
part and parcel of the heavy polar cap, or (h), it joins one of the ice
streams which are always slowly moving, with little interruption, out

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 21

of the north into lower latitudes, or (c), it melts and disintegrates
during summer near, or at, its source. Polar cap ice comes tinder
the influence of powerful conflicting forces which causes it sometimes
to persist for four or five years, and possibly longer, before leavino-
the polar basin. ' "^

Three Forms of Sea Ice

FAST ICE

Tlie ice coyer of northern seas thousands of years ago probably
liiul its genesis in fast ice fringing polar shores. Once tlie nucleus of
the permanent cap was built from the dismemberment and offshore

j^cattering of the fast-ice belt — and survived the first few summers

the latter lost much of its geographical importance. The wide dis-
tribution of fast ice in coastal waters, however, serves to make it
representative for such zones.

The initial appearance of slush and sludge takes place in water
lanes of the Arctic early in September, first in the sounds of the
American Archipelago, then in the marginal Arctic seas, and in
Baffin Bay in swift succession. Small pancakes soon cement, rim
to rim, in a continuous sheet of young ice and preparations are made
hy man and beast to meet the rapidly approaching grip of winter.
Hudson Bay and Fox Channel in the American sector see their first
fast ice during October, with freezing spreading to Newfoundland
and to the Gulf of St. Lawrence late that same month, or early in
Xovember.

Fast ice continues to " make " until it reaches a maximum area in
December after which, until May, it builds very little farther out
from the coast, but continues steadily to increase in thickness.

The regions of groAvth for fast 'ice largely reflect bathymetrical
conditions. Other important influences are the degree and" duration
of low air temperatures; the decrease of salinity due to snow melting;
to river discharge and to precipitation; the amount of storminess;
and the presence of grounded hummocks, icebergs, and floes of
pack ice.

The seats of fast ice are the broad continental shelves and the
flat spacious embayments. The most striking example of such a
region is the remarkably wide Siberian shelf which has a mean w^idth
of 400 miles and a depth of 12 to 50 fathoms, its outer edge forming
a "steep" slope facing the polar ocean. ^^ These regions produce
a vast amount of fast ice (see fig. 11, p. 20) because (a) the shallow
depths favor early chilling, and (&), the sea freezes more rapidly
where it has been diluted by Siberian rivers." It is estimated that
approximately 150,000 square miles of fast ice form everv winter
from Wrangel Island to Northern (Nicholas II) Land. It has an
average thickness of 61/2 feet, ranging all the way from 0 to 9 feet.

Another large area of fast ice, second only toSiberia, is the sheet
covering the labyrinthlike waterways of the"^ American Arctic Archi-

rnnJ^l^'*''^? (1928. p. 102) states that fast ice extends about 275 miles out from the
coast opposite the Yana River, longitude 135° E.

torvV,*^^^ (1922, p. 271) calls the Siberian shelf and the fringing Arctic seas "The fac-
Sihprior, "° 1^'"° P^''*^"" *^^-" According to his theory the air temperatures along the
intprvni ^^^ ^^ '°^'''^ of the size of the Greenland Sea pack 4V, years later. This

shnrpe t ""^Pyesents approximately the time required for a piece of ice to drift from Arctic
contention '-•reenland Sea, and a high correlation of 0.83 appears to support such a

22 MARION EXPEDITIOlSr TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

pelago. While small openings over some of the deeper channels
and straits may remain clear for longr or short periods, the proximity
of the large number of islands, combined with their irregular out-
lines, promotes a maximum amount of freezing. Solar warming of
these same land masses during summer, on the other hand, tends
to accelerate melting and disintegration of the ice, but summer in
the Arctic is a brief period, and practically three-fourths of the year
the temperature is below freezing. The ice is held fast in the archi-
pelago region longer than in many localities by the narrow constric-
tions, the straits, and the sounds. Kane Basin and Smith Sound,
waterways separating EUesmere Land from Greenland, freeze fast,
shore to shore, every winter. The southern limit of this solid sheet
forms a bridge opposite Etah over which the Eskimos cross to hunt
caribou in EUesmere Land.

Melville Ba}^ in winter is normally covered by fast ice, its seaward
edge extending in a curve from Cape York to Wilcox Head, a dis-
tance of 800 miles, and out from the Greenland coast 30 to 40 miles.
This ice sheet exerts a very important influence on the progress of
icebergs out of Baffin Bay to the Atlantic when it often seals the
inner part of Melville Bay (see fig. 43, p. 85) imprisoning not only
the bergs calved from local glaciers but also thousands of others en
route. Melville Bay fast ice in this manner may interrupt the berjr
supply to the Atlantic for one year and possibly for several years.
Hudson Bay is fringed every winter by a belt of fast ice, but rarely
if ever are its central portions completely frozen over. Hudson
Strait in winter exhibits a fringe of fast ice 5 or 6 miles in width
except that opposite .steep cliffs, where the water is deep and remains
open throughout most winters.

Fox Channel, situated immediately west of Baffin Land, is a region
believed to be prolific in the production of fast ice. This e.stuary i<
broad and flat and noted for the great daily rise and fall of the tide.
In many shallow bays the fast ice by resting on the bottom is broken
up and therefore is more easily carried away by the currents. As soon
as the floes move offshore the Avater is uncovered to freeze again, and
in this manner large quantities of pack ice are believed to be manu-
factured there during winter.

Fast ice forms in the vicinity of MacKenzie Bay. Alaska, as early
as August 15, and at Point Bari-ow it bridges from the shore to the
pack by the last of September. The large fast ice area off the mouth
of the MacKenzie and the rapidity with which it disappears on the
arrival of the spring fre.shets has long been known to tlie whalers.

Fast ice, according to Helland-Hansen and Xansen (1909, p. 307).
extends considerable distances into the Greenland Sea during severe
winters but our information of this particular region, due to the
great hazards attending wintertime navigation, is meager.

Varying meteorological conditions cause similar Avide variations
from year to year in the area and thickness of fast ice. Under this
heading may be listed the duration and degree of low air tempeni-
tures; pi-ecipitation in the form of rain or snow; the prevaihng
atmospheric circulation; and the amount of storminess. The maxi-
mum production of fast ice takes place during cold quiet winters,
while greater areas of water remain open from November to Apnl
during windy years. Storminess and rough water associated witii

SCIENTIFIC RP^SULTS

23

warm Avinters not only prevents the formation of the .sheets but also
(oiitinually break and loosen them from the shore. Melville l^ay
remained well covered Avith fast ice during? the years 1915 and 19l"()
larti-ely on account of favorable weather conditions. If a cold, quiet
winter be preceded by an unusually wet autuiiui. conditions are
ideal for tiie producti<m of a nmxinium amount of fast ice. Copious
|)ieci})itation not only freshens the surface layers, thereby i-aisinir
the freezinir point, but it also establishes a very pronounced state of
stratification in the surface layers causin<r ice to form as in a saucer.
Xo correlations have ever been published, to our knowled<^e, on the
relation between rainfall and fast ice, but it is loirical to assume that
the fresher are the surface layers, the moiv swiftly will l^-ow tiie ice.

An Ice foot at low t ide

FUjUre 11*. — The ice foot is deflned as tbe ice formation winch builds up along the
water lines of the northern shores during (he colder months of the year.
(Photograph by C. Wagner.)

The outer limit of fast ice is usually determined by waves in the
sub- Arctic and by butfetino; and frictional pressure in the Arctic.
Tran.^ehe (192!S. p. 112) hi this connection, has called attention to
the important role played by the rafted masses of sea ice called
"stamuklii.'' These old tjrounded hummocks Avith a draft of about
l"i fathoms, which become strewn along the slopes of the Arctic basin
(liuinfr the summer, serve in winter as a seaAvard rampart protecting
the fast ice from destruction. The outer bounds of the fast ice in
the polar sea. therefore, coincide quite closely Avith the 12-fathom
I'athymetrical contour. The shore Avard border of fast ice Avhich
iiiulds out from the land, iinmoA^ed by tides or waves, is called the
i<e foot. The beaches, ledges, and cliffs of northern lands are
■laturally chilled to very Ioav temperatures during Avinter. causing the
nnosixi— Ml 3

24 MARION EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

ice line to climb as high as the spray dashes and to i)enetrate down
as far as the frigid temperature of tlie land is below freezing. Tliis
thickening of the sheet combined with the rise and fall of its seaward
side, causes it to fracture first in one tidal crack running adjacent
and parallel to the shore and later in several.

Fast ice not only '' makes " first in autumn but it also is the earliest
of all sea-ice forms to melt. Beginning in the early part of si)ring
in the latitudes of Newfoundland, and sweeping northward with the
advancing sun. disintegration reaches along Arctic shores during
]\Iay. The land snow, in melting, flows out on top of the fast ice
collecting in large i)ools and lagoons of '" offshore water." The fast
ice platform, for a few weeks, holds tightly until the heat from the
sun penetrating downward opens up the floes, and allows these pools
to drain away. Then sand and detritus from the land now bare,
honeycomb the ice. Soon the sheet gains a slight movement along
the coast, uncovering a lane of open water which persists there for
the entire smnmer. The so-called famous Siberian Sea Road of the
Russians, has this origin.

Fast ice is of particular importance as it exerts a direct inflnencT
upon the rate of production of icebergs, and also upon their subse-
(pient movement once they have calved from the glaciers. The
effect runs all the way from entirely preventing production to
blocking, temporarily, the passage of the bergs toward the open
sea. Several fjords in northern (Ireenland, Frederick Hyde, and
Bessels, for example, are covered between the glacier front and the
fjord entrance by a very old, heavy ice which Koch (1926. p. 100)
calls " sikussak."' which effectually prevents the glaciers from ever
discharging any bergs into the fjord. The word " sikussak " is
Eskimo, meaning " very old ice," and was first used by Rasmusseii
(1915, p. 358) for sea ice which after two to five years has graihiallv
become fresh throughout, and roughly granular in structure, so that
it is indistinguishable from glacier ice. Sikussak has a very limited
geographical distribution and is found only in calm, undisturbed
fjords of the north (ireenland type. It is at least 25 years old.
therefore the oldest fast ice known.

Fast ice which has not acfpiired the age of sikussak may lie in
front of glaciers, penning uj) the icebergs for an indefinite j)enod.
(See fig. 89, p. 80.) The (ireat Humbohh (ilacier in northwest
Greenland experiences such a blockade Avhich may last 20 to 8<> years,
or Avhich may be broken by an especially favorable summer when the
accumulation of hundreds, possibly thousands, of bergs is freed to
drift southward. Some of the rich iceberg 3^ears in the Xorth
Atlantic may reflect some of these events.

Along other coast lines and in other ice fjords fast ice may bhu^.ket
the bergs for only a part of the year. Tims the iceberg fjords of
AVest (ireeidand. particuhtrly those in Disko and Xoitheast Bays
that supi)ly so nuudi of tlie North Atlantic (juota. are normally cov-
ered b}' fast ice only during the colder months, fi'om November to
June. When the ice breaks away, usually in May or dune, the win-
ter's collecti(m of bergs is released to float out into Disko Bay-
Fast ice, therefore, causes a seasonal ])ulse in the presence <>f ice-
bei'gs in Davis Strait where otherwise the regular Mow from the ice
i-ap itself would cause a more or less .steady distribution the year
roujid.

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS

25

XORTII I'OI.AH <-AP ICE

rolnr cai) \rv is the end product of all the forces wliicji (Icvcloi) a
very stroii<:-, massive ice cover in the central north ])oljir sea. This
(overiii^^ constitutes about 70 })er cent of tiie pohu- basin: ap|)i-oxi-
mately 2,000,000 square miles. Fields and fioes break away from the
iiiaiii polar core, either to mix with the inshore ice over" the conti-
nental shelves, or to be discharoed thr()u<>:h one of the several ocean
straits. The <rreat sea-ice ca]). upon closer examination (see fi^r n
p. -20). has the same «:eneral shai)e as the polar basiu. with its mar<rin
closely i)arallehn<r the course of the l.OOO-meter isobath. Like the
deeper ])art of the polar basin, the elliptical-shaped cap lies nnich
closer to the Greenland-North American side than it does to Europe
and Asia, with its lon<j: axis runnino; from Spitsbero-en to Point
Barrow, its center, often called the pole of inaccessibilitv (see fio- 14
p. L'T). offset about 400 miles toward Alaska. '^' '

Polar cap Ice

■m,ii -fl^e polar cap ice at the North Pole on May 11

jm.iii pdlyiiyas are stated to be toiiiul every 5 to ^ "^
from fh(. dirigible Xorcje by L. EHesworth )

l'H:ri(i-: i:;.

10 miles.

1!»2G. In summer,
(I'botograph taken

Ihis hub of the permanent sea ice is continuallv fed bv pack ice
''••uuml Its i)eriphery, ami reinforced bv accreti()nal freezin<-- and
Miowlall all at a rate durino- the last centurv at least, equal to the
'•oiHbined processes of melting, crushin<r, and* discharge through the
Mirums exits. Freezing on the underside of the cap progresses
tiuonghoiit nine months of the year, most rapidly during the winter,
ivxaimnation shows that the underside of an ice "sheet is often rough
:"'« brush-like in character. This is the transition zone between ice
■iiKl water. The thickness of the solid sheet depends niainlv upon
;\o tactors, viz, the condition of heat and the ma<:nitude" of the
'••rces that raft and i)ile up the ice. Sea water solidities in the
-VKtic ()cean to an average depth of Cy. feet.^-' But winds and cur-
was ll*'f^f^V?V.';^d'l'*^F"!^^ "* hummoeked ice observed by Nansen in the Arctic Ocean
""■ fntire cm-a- it V "^ '^•^ ^^*^'' tl^«" ^^^'^ of 8 feet ns the estimated mean thickness of
Mds frep of n..'p...„!. ^"P°" n<)T2). north of Banks Land, reports the thickness of old
i'f-e ot piessure ridges and ratting, as 12 to 14 feet

26 MAltlOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STEAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

rents may telescope the fields and Hoes, layer u})on layer, to a liei<>iit
of 30 to 40 feet, and to depths of 100 to 200 feet.

Onr knowledge re<i:ardin<>: the nioyenient and behavior of the <!:reat
polar cap, is confined, with few exceptions, to observations along its
frontier from the following sources: (a) From the drift of ships
which have been imprisoned in the margin: (h) from a few ex-
tended sledge excursions of polar explorers: and (c) from the records
of drift objects released at various points. These are tabulated
below :

(a) Drift

i^hip :

Jeannette (DeLoiia) T-">0 miles. (From the vit-inity of AVraniiel Island

westerly to stt miles northeast of IJennett Island.)

Fram (Xansen) 1.400 miles. (From north of the Xew Silieriaii

Islands westerly to north of Spitsherjieii. )

Tem-*^thoff ( Wc.vprcclit ) Li.lO miles. (Ice Cape. Xovaj'a Zemlya westerly t<i
soiitiu'iist coast of Franz Josef Land.)

St. Anna (l>rnsilov) <s.jU miles. ( Southern part of Kara Sea via its east-
ern side to north of Ice Cape. Xovaya Zendya.)

Yonny I'hoenix Slo miles. (From Point Barrow easterly to Return

Reef, thence westerly past Point Barrow, and
finally disapi>eared in the northwest. )

Karluk (Bartlett) .'>(»(> miles. (From I'oint Barn^v westerly to T>

miles nortli of Herald Island. )

;Maud (Amundsen) 7">0 miles. ( Fiom ^^2~) miles northwest of Wransel

Island westerl.v to ■">'• miles north of Xew
Silii ri.-m l<l:iiiils. i

(6) Sledging journeys out on to the jjolar cap ice from their
very nature do not give as good opportunities for observation on the
movement of the ice as do the more accurately measured tracks of
imprisoned vessels. Peary, on dashes to the northward of Ellesniere !
Land to>yard and to the ]>ole. believed that the ])ack outside the
continental edge was sliding eastward. Cagui, i)ushing ])oleward
from Franz Josef Laud was carried steadily toward the we.st. j
JStorkerson and AVilkins on the oi^jiosite side of the polar sea also
experienced a westerly drift.

(c) In 1898 the Cieographical Society of l*hiladel})hia supported a
project to release a number of drift casks or buoys at various points I
north of Berling Strait in order to learn the set and drift of the ice. |
Three of the buoys, which we will call "a," *' b." and "• c."' were I
recovered as follows :

Cask ''a." — 1,400 miles. Set adrift August in, Ii»01. in 7-2° 18'
north, 175° 10' west, about Sa miles northeast of Wrangel Island,
was recovered August 17, 1902, near the nuxith of Kolyuchiii Hay on
the Siberian coast.

Cask ^'b."— 3,500 miles. Set adrift September 13, 1899, on the
pack ice west-northwest of l^oint Hairow in 71° 53' north, 1()4° 50'
west, was recovered June 7, 1905. 1 iniie east of Cape Kauda Xu|)roii
the northern coast of Iceland.

Cask " c.'"— 3.500 miles. Set adrift Jidy 24, 1900, at Cape Hathurst
in 71° 00' north. 12S° 05' west, was recovered November 3, 190S, on
Storo Island, Fimiiarken, Norway.

Wreckage from the Jcdiiiicttc drifted from the vicinity of Heiiiu'tt
Island, to .Fulianehaab, ( Greenland, a distance of about 3.()00 miles.
Siberian tree truidcs and other objects of Asiatic oi'igin are <iuite

The recorded Drifts of Beset Ships. Floe Parties, and Wreckage

IN THE Arctic

H.ntE 14. — 1. Wreckage of whalcship J)ainiflrss. 1817. 2. Floe pai'tv from (jenuan
|iol;ir rxpcdition. 18()9-70. 8. The Dutch whaling fleet. 1777. 4. Wreckane of
rile .hiiHiKtU-. 1.S70-1881. 5. 6. and 7. Casks released near Point Barrow. 1898.
N. Till' '/(U'ttlioff. '.). The St. Anna. 1(1. The Frain. 11. The Kariuk, 1918-14.
11'. Th.' Yoinin-riioenix. 13. The Fox. 18.J8. 14. The Polaris floe party. 1871-
1^":!. l.">. The Kcsolnto. 18r>4. 16. A tool box incased in ice. The outline of
til.' ceutijil area of polar cap ice is obtained by recording- the distance to which
\(sscls liave forced their way toward the pole. The pentagonal figure located
lietwecn the geographical pole and Alask;' is known as the ice pole or pole of
iii:iecessibilit3'.

28 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STBAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

frequently washed ashore alon<r the eastern and southern parts of the
Greenhmd coast.

The total amount of observational data collected to date is so small
that no comj>lete and relial)le account can yet be tjiven of the move-
ment of the ice in the ])olar cap. Xearly all of the data, as can be
seen, pertain to the Siberian sector, and practically no satisfactory in-
formation is available for the Amei'ican side of the orreat interior.
The known indraft of water throu«i;h Bering Strait and the well-rec-
ognized discharge of ice through Greenland Strait, when considered
in conjunction with the above records of drifts, just mentioned, defi-
nitely establish, however, a westerly movement of the ice on the
Siberian side. Since the course of the ice can be traced with reason- '
able assurance from Point Barrow around the Siberian continental I
siielf. and finally out into the Greenland Sea, it is logical to believe
that the American margin assists in feeding what would otherwise
become ice-deficient regions immediately to the west. All of the
drifts that have been recorded were from east toward west, except
Peary's, and the route over which he traveled toward the pole un-
doubtedly lay within the area of active drainage to the North Atlantic.
It seems, therefore, difficult to escape the conclusion that the outer ■
margin of the polar cap ice, on the Siberian side at least, participates
in a slow, but definite, anticyclonic movement.^''

Cum sole motion in the Northern Hemisphere is, however, not in
harmony with the theory which, as Xansen points out. holds that
gradient currents flow as a rule with the land on their right hand.
Why should the Arctic Ocean ice drift in a direction opposite to the i
current? The drift of flat ice, as proved by observations in many
parts of the world is well known to be largely controlled f rictionalh "
by tlie wind and in a region of weak gradient currents, such as the
north jiolar basin; the wind is probably dominant.^'

Two different types of circulation, belonging to the planetary windi
system, affect north polar regions. A central polar dome of residual
high atmospheric pressure causes anticyclonic winds around the pole.
But the southern margin of the Arctic extends into the belt of cy-
clonic westerlies, and as modified by the distribution of land and
water and by the seasonal cycle, these prevailing conditions are oftein
interrupted. The polar cap of high atmospheric pressiu-e nuist tend'
to give a westerly and northwesterly drift to the ice, and the siil)-'
arctic westerlies would tend to impart an east and soutliea.sterly com-
ponent to the fields wiiile the congestion in various parts of the cover.'
as noted by Sverdrup, must exert a third modifying effect. Until i
we secure a greater amount of meteorological, ice, and oceanographi-
cal data from these regions w^e shall be unable to state conclusively
the actual movement of the polar ice caj) and to explain its causes. •

The accei)te(l views tliat the general drift of the ice is anticvdonif
does not necessarily contradict the theory of gradient currents foi
the Northern Hemisphere because the winds or various conchtionM
within the pack itself may constitute the deciding factor. All the

'0 Wp should not lose si^hf of Aiiuiii(istMi"s unsiicoossful attempt to be carried from oust
to west atM-oss the polar liasiii in the M<iti<l. I'.ilS-liiU.-.. Tli.' early part of the dritt iwm
auspiciously and the vessel was carried as f;ir as tin- Xew Silierian Islands, tint w'>''""'1*
owiii};' to linfavorahle loc.il condilions. or actually to some tenipor.iry suspension of tlu'|
normal <'ast to west movement of the ice. mi further headway was made. \

"On the Siherian shelf the winds. acc(»rdinK to Sverdrup (T.rjs, p. 4.'.) are the niflHi^
control, with the ice driftini; approximately .•{:{" to the riuht i>f the wind. Tlie.se coiiclih
.sions are based on a we.ilth of observational data obtained durini; the drift ot the il(i«<'i
with tile recorded winds in the Siberian sector. t See Sverdrup lOl'S. IKl'lt.) L,

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 29

current data and drift records, except the Fram''s, so far secured in
polar retrions have been confined to the shelves inside the continental
edoe. The circulation of shelf water, as confirmed by studies olf
Newfoundland (Smith. 1924a) are controlled by the wind, by the
tidal currents, and by other dynamic forces in irreoular succession.
Gradient currents, on the other hand, consistently hug the steepest
part of the continental slopes, and their influence, we have found,
ceases with astonishing abruptness as shallow depths are entered.
Since the total collection of data to date, except the Fra?n^s, has been
made on coastal shelves, they furnish little or no evidence for or
against the presence of a gradient current of cyclonic direction in
the north polar sea. On the other hand, we have every reason to
believe, that with the large amount of land (h-ainage from Siberia,
such a current is developed there. The fact that the Fran/ remained
on the edge of the continental slope — the seat of gradient currents —
at only two points and briefly. Aveakens the evidence favoring the
nonexistence of a current. It is of interest to note that the two
points Avhere the Frani approached nearest the slope, viz, (a) into
the basin north of the New Siberian Islands, and {h) north of Franz
Josef Land, coincide with the two most toi-tuous parts of her di'ift.
These irregularities may indicate the etfect of the gradient current,
which is probably not strong enough to overcome the wind-driven
movements of the pack.

The main escape of polar caj) ice toward the Atlantic is through
the opening between Spitsbergen and Greenland. Ice streams much
more attenuated and distinctly secondary in size emerge aroimd the
southern side of Spitsbergen!; through the Ellesmere-Greenland
Strait to Baffin Bay: and by still more minor passages through the
sounds of the American Archipelago. The aggregate volmne of
these several discharges and their relative proportions are still
matters of conjecture. Observations on the rate of drift of ships
and other objects together with a consideration of the age of the ice,
leads to an estimate of four to five years for the average period that
a given sample of cap ice remains in the Arctic Ocean.

Few who have visited the north polar regions can fail to appre-
ciate the great magnitude of the forces that are constantly at work,
forcing the cap together in some places but rending it apart in
others.'^ The momentum often attained by the fields, hundreds of
square miles in area, driven forward by a gale is great. Small won-
der that in meeting the edges are tossed high aloft by the impact,
and that along the line of collision veritable embattlements are
formed in a confusion of ribs and ridges. The rugged features found
in one sector, contrasted wdth the flat sheets prevailing in another,
mirror the effects of wind and current. Whether the polar cap ice
suffers its greatest dynamic deformation in the winter wdien the ice
is knitted the tightest, or during the autumn when it is loosest, is an
open question.^^

'^Makarov (1901) has carried out some very interesting investigations on the state of
concentration of the cover and estimates that approximately 10 per cent is continually
in the process of opening, closing, or freezing.

"Transehe (1028. p. 97) states that the hummocked. telescoped condition is best
neveloped in late summer and autumn. Open water is most plentiful then, permitting the
tields to travel across leads with maximum momentum. It is claimed that during winter
and spring the battering and buffeting diminishes on account of the close, tightly knit
condition of the cover. Sverdrup (1928. p. 106) regards the sub.iect in a different light,
pointing out that when the ice cover is open it affords one floe which is being struck an
opportunity to give wav to the next floe, and so on. the ensuing shocks being propor-
tionately reduced.

30

MAItlOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY

As a result of the ])revailin«r winds, currents, and of the confiLnuii- '
tion of the basin, certain parts of the polar cap ice are characteiis- '
tically cono;ested. These are known as the re^rions of ))ale(>crystir '
ice. In this resj)ect the uiost famous district is north of (irreenhuKl
and Grant Land, while other sections are alon<j: tlie east coast of
Xovaya Zendya. around Franz Josef Land, and oil' the southeastern
coast of the Beaufort Sea. The term " ])aleocrystic ice '" was first
used by Nares in llSTC) to describe the tumbled, chaotic nuiss of
blocks and domes of old sea ice, developed after many years of shock
and ])ressure. A welLknown area of ])aleoci-ystic ice is the sector i
on the northwest coast of (ireeidand. whei'e the ])()lai' caj) ice is
forced tlirou^h the funnellike ()j)enin<r in Baffin P)ay.

l^aleocrvstic ice lyin^- across the so-called American route to the
pole proved a <ri"eat obstruction to the early northern ex})l()rers.

A Paleocrystic Ice REGION

FiciiRE 15. — The horizontal fields of cap ice in certain regions undei-jro treiiuMiilnus ■
sliocks and pressures due to the pi-evailins winds, cui-renls. and the contiaurati'in
of the liasin. The rosultinj; form is called paleocrystic ice. This photourapli was
taken in April. 1002, north of Cape Ilelca. (irant Land, tlir northern extremity
of Ellesmere Land. (See tits. 11.) ( rhotoiiruiih. d by Kcar Aihniral U. K. lVa;y.)

Sled<re progress across such upheaved scar})s is suaillike. full of
toil, and frauiiht with dang-er, both to dogs and men. After several
years of pressure ridging and hummocking with successive layers
of snow increasing the bulk, floebergs deveh)p. These when Ho.it-
ing, attain heights as great as ;^() feet above the .sea. and they often
show a striking resemblance to icebergs. Several Arctic explorers
have mistaken floebergs for icebergs: even Peaiy, seeing them north
of (irant Laud, thought he luid evidence of undiscovered gla -iatioii
in that directiou. It is an intei-estiug (luestion whether or not luaiiy
floebergs actually join the supply of icebergs drifting into the Nortii
Atlantic. Liformatioii on this subject is negligible becaii.-e tlu'
])ro])er i)lace to distinguisii the one ice form from the other and to ilo-
tei-mine theii- relative numbers is at the head of Baffin Hay. where
few or no observations have ever l)een taken. The presence ol Hoo-

SCIEXTIFIC RESULTS

31

berg!^. however, at the extreme northern end of the soiitli llowin;^
current phiees them in a favoral)k' position eventually to drift to
Xewfoiindland.

In contrast to the reo-ions of hummocks and of pressure rido-es,
large areas of open water, known as polynyas. also form within the

' The Different Types of Sea Ice in the North Greenland sector

Fig. 16. - |v '^ /. sea-Ice discharged Into the Gwenland Sea. f?n . sea-Ice, congested
^itte paleocrystic region, /yn^ , paleocrystlc area in some years. v;;/;/3 , fast ice.

^^ , nany years old ice. ^^ , Sikussak. , Peary's "Big Lane" marks the line

of shearing in the sea-ice cover. (Map after Koch, 1928).

I

jpolar cap ice ; these tend to occupy certain characteristic positions
lin the ])olar basin, two regions now definitely established being:
i («) A belt, or belts, several hundred miles long, parallel and just
|northward of the New Siberian Islands.

I (?>) Peary's " Big Lead," north of Grant Land and (Ireenland.
I The fact that ))olynyas are best developed otl' the Xew Siberian
(Islands in winter when high atmos])heric pressure prevails over

32 MAUIOX EXPP:DITI0X to DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY

Siberia indicates that the wind is a major factor in keeping the
polar cap ice in motion.

The second famons polynya was discovered and described by Peary
(1907. p. 97) as the " Bi<r Lead "' (see fig. 16, p. 81), It coincides iii
position very closely with the continental edge running along the
eighty-fourth i)arallel from Grant Land to Cape Bridgeman. Green-
land. The " Big Lead ** is smaller than the Siberian polynya. being

seldom over a mile or more in width vet having an estimated length
of at least 300 miles.-°

PACK ICE

Although seamen usually refer to any flat ice drifting at sea a^
"■ field ice,'' such a practice is not reconnnended because it tends to
confuse one not thoi'oughly familiar with ice terms. It is better to
follow the classification of Priestley (19-J-J. p. 398). who defines pack
ice as any sea ice which has drifted from its original position under
the influence of winds and currents. The word " ])ack " iloes not
necessarily mean the ice is tightly packed together, because the pack
may have large or small areas of open water, as the case nniy be,
within its bounds. Its northern sources are the fast ice and the

V,... „. iilniu" wiis (.hsfi-vcd t).v liiin south of the •' Itii; Load." Koch also ohservfii n *'''="'
erly furrcut runiiiim in hcrwceii the ice Iloes aloiiu tlu' luii'thcrn coast of (JrciMilaiul Wf"
of Cape Bridyciiiaii.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

33

reworked, possibly several years old pack that has survived several
summers.-^ In the north polar ocean the pack ice occupies a belt
intermediate between the fast ice and the polar cap ice. The pack
on its ort'shore side may add to the i)olar cap or it may remain in the
intermediate zone, or it may freeze again in the re<iion of fast ice.
Outside the polar basin, however, pack ice never builds into heavier
forms, but eitlier drifts southward to melt or remains in the north to
survive lon<rer. Pack ice is distinouiylied from the polar cap ice
by its liahtness.

"Outside the Arctic Ocean the qualities that distinguish pack from
jiolar cap ice are not so apparent and the farther south we go the

Summer in the north polar Basin

Figure 18. — An old field of pack ice in the polar regions showing the disentegratlve
effects of the heat that comes from the summer sun. Note the hummocked
moutonee contour of the ice surface and also the fresh-water pools in many of the
depressions. (I'hotograph from the lUissian hvdrographical expedition, 1910—
191.5.)

smaller is the difference. Pack ice is distributed from the Arctic to
lower latitudes in two main streams which reflect not only the ocean
currents but also the general trend of the coastal shelves. The fact
that these shallow waters are more effectively chilled than deep
permits the ice to survive instead of melting near its sources. The

='A source of limited supply, not often mentioned, is anchor or bottom ice. As its
name implies, it forms on the bottom in those regions where swift-running frigid currents
prevail, and at depths seldom exceeding 40 to 45 feet. During clear cold winter nights
radiation causes a loss of heat even from the bottom, and anchor ice will form. The first
'•ays of the morning sun loosens this, allowing it to rise to the surface. Barnes (1928.
p. lO.'n states that thi)usands of tons of this tvpe are added each year to the Gulf of
''{•Lawrence, and similar contributions must be signiticant in all northern seas. Rodman
(1890. p. 16) relates an instance where anchor ice brought a tool box to the surface in
ine vicinity of X.un, Labrador, the box being recognized as one belonging to a ship lost
.years before in Iludsi n Strait, several hundred miles to the northward (see fig. 14, p. 27).

34

MARIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

bathTmetiical influence, inasked the <rreater i)art of the year in polar
seas, becomes more noticeal)le furtlier south, where in temperate
hititudes at the end of winter the bouiuUiries between the warm deep
ocean and the cold shallow shelves are very clearly marked.

Most all pack-ice streams show the following features in cross sec-
tion: (1) An outer zone of scattered loose glacons; (2) a mid zone of
heaviei- floes more compact but with occasional cracks and leads: and
(:5) an inner heavy band, possibly ]K)lar cap ice. pressed closely
against the shore ice. Offshore winds broaden the stream, and
scatter the outer floes, while on-shore breezes narrow the ice and
])ack it against the coast. In summer a lane of open water often
develops adjacent to the shore, the warm drainage from the land
overflowing along the coast breaks up tlie fast ice and speeds the
forward movement of the pack.

The ice streams are most voluminous and extend farthest south-
ward during spring or early summei" and shrink toward their sources
during late summer or early fall. This recession is due not only to
the iieat of summer melting the ice but also the absence of the favor-
able winds and the strong currents which ])revail in spring. Since
the sup])ly of pack does not immediately increase on the resumption
of freezing air temperatures, due to the specific heat of the water,
there is consequently a lag in the swelling of the ice streams, and
this interval marks the minimum of pack. The seasonal variations
in the limits of pack ice are also dependent upon the amount of fast
ice that is contributed.

Pack ice invades the North Atlantic along two main routes,
(a) along the eastern side of (ireenland and (h) along the eastern
side of North America. (See fig. 11, p. 20.) The P^ast (ireenland ice
stream in its upper reaches is split by Spitsbergen. Its nuiin trunk,
bearing the heaviest of all sea-ice forms, pours directly through the
(xreenland Sea, while an eastern arm from the cachments of the
Barents and Kara Seas moves toward Greenland roughly along the
seventy-fifth parallel. The ice stream to the western Atlantic is fed
thi-ough the tortuous waterways of the Arctic Archipelago, which
not only lengthen the journey l)ut materially reduce the volume of
contribution. Neither ice stream depends solely on its Arctic Ocean
connections for its supply, as two of the most prolific- regions of iee
production are in the (ireenland Sea on the east and Baffin Hay on
the west.

The following table gives the approximate length, velocity, etc.
along the two main ice paths to the North Atlantic:

itii

f

Ice stream

From—

To-

Distance,
miles

Velocity,

miles per

(lay

11>. 5

Ap^^

East Greenland pack

Eastern North American pack

75° N., 0°W.
74° N., 70° W.

62° N.. 51° W.

45° N., 49° W.

1,850
1,960

5'i

-

THK Sl'irSI'.KlUiKN I'ACK

Spitsbei'gen uiai'ks the transition between Arctic and Atlantic
influences — to the northeast intense Arctic cold pivvails. whilf <>ii
llie southwest the coast is warmed by the (iiilf stream (h'ift. I his

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 35

waiiu ciuTeiit makes accessible tlie harbors of the west coast for a
period of about four of the warmest months of the year. Spitsber-
\m\ pack refers to the ice which in the winter moves westward ])ast
fhe south cape of Spitsbergen, and which generally blocks the north-
eastern quadrant throughout the summer. Such of the pack as lies
southward of a line Si)itsbergen-Franz Josef Land to Nicholas II
Land, including the Kara Sea. and east to Cape Chelyuskin, drains
into the Atlantic through the northein part of the Barents Sea and
youth past Spitsbergen. During winter and early spring the Spits-
bero'en pack is swollen by the bi-eak-u[) of fiekls in the Barents Sea
and is, therefore, at its flood. During this season the pack may
s[)read so far to the south as to inclose Bear Island for a montli or
more at a time. But the continuity of the Spitsbergen pack is always
threatened by the inthrust of warm waters from the Atlantic. The
Hrst encroachment of s})ring .severs the pack and forms open water
in the offing of the west coa.sf. The ice in Barents Sea with the
proii'ress of spring and summer retreats steadily northward until
it persists only in the shelter to the northeast of Spitsl)ergen. In
this last region, on the line of conflict of such opposing forces, ice
conditions are subject to wide fluctuations. Despite the w'arm current
the great productivity of the area to the eastward guarantees in most
vears a generous supply of ice to the gi-eat east Greenland pack.
Those i)articularlv interested in the Spitsbergen area are referred to
Hoel (IIM)) : Iversen (li)L>7) : Kolchak (1909) : and Makarov (1901).

The East Gkkexlaxd Pack

Pack ice is seldom, if ever, absent from the waters of northeast
(ireenland and the Greenland Sea. The east Greenland pack is
tiMl by {a) the direct discharge from the Arctic Ocean; (h) by the
Mc from the Barents and Kara Seas: (r) by winter ice formed in
die Greenland Sea; and (d) by fast ice made locally along the coast.
The ice from all these separate regions is alike in general character
iind a})pearance, except tluit from the polar basin which, as already
ilescribed, is easily distinguishable. This old, heavy ocean pack
lill> the northwestern sector of the Greenland Sea but the nnijor
pnition of the covering of the latter consists of vounger, lighter

lri( s.

^Vinter Avitnesses the influx of heavy pans and floes into the
'neenland Sea reinforced by great quantities of ice formed locally.
\\\\> accunudation si)rea(ls gradually southward along the coast of
'■:ist (ireenland initiating in successive months the beginning of the
ice .^eason. Throughout the winter and spring large masses of the
oi'dinary jjack, together with some of the Arctic Ocean type, con-
tinue to push southward, and to spread away from the coast. Den-
mark Strait is normally more or less choked in spring, while in
a bad year the ice comi)ietely encircles the northern coast of Iceland
at that season. The boundary of the ice cover in spring displays a
diaracteristic tendency to spread eastward innnediately north of
Iceland where it probably comes under the control of the east Ice-
and current. An equally imi)ressive featin-e is a V-shaped re-
trenchment immediately west of Spitsbergen, an unmistakable effect
"f the warm Gulf sti'eam drift. The average outer limit of the
east Greenland |)ack in sprinii' runs from the eud)ayment near

36 MARIOjST expedition to DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

r

The Varying Bounds of Pack Ice

1 FiGUHE lil. — TIsc annual iiiaximnin, iniiiinniin. and mean limits to wiiicli jiack in' in sub-
stanrial v(iliini<' lias liccn iTconlrd over a i)eri()<l of years. Tlie data for the pack ii't' lu
the cast (irccnlaiid current lias been taken from a IH-vcar record of the Danish Mete-
oroldfAual Institute. The data for the ice in the Labrador current conies freiii the
international ice patrol an<l other sources.

36

MARIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIlSr BAY

40 Zo

The Varying Bounds of pack Ice

1 Figure 10. — The animal maximum, minimum, anii mean limits to wiiidi pack ici> in sul
stanrial vdliimc lias been rcc-nrdcti over a iieriixl of .voars. The data tor tlic i)a<k i<'
the east (ireenland tuireiit lias been taken from a ITi-yeai' record of the Danish Met'
orolosieal Institute. The data for the ice in the Labrador curicnt comes from tl
international ice jiatrol and other sonrces.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

37

Spitsbergen to Jan ^layen, in latitude 71° N., lonjxitiule 8° W. ;
thence soutlnvestward toward the coast of Icehuid, thence westward
across Denmark Strait toward Angniajijssalik, thence, narrowing, to
Cape Farewell Avhere the ice tends to congregate around Farewell.

The first of the east Greenland pack appears at Scorsby Sound in
October, at Angmagssalik in Xoveniber, and off Cape Farewell in
December or January. But it seldom sets northward around the
cape to blockade Julianehaab Bay until the strong northerly winds
abate in A])ril.-- The wind is an imi)ortant factor in its distriljution.
Thus during northerly winds a strij) of o})en water will appear next
to the coast, while the outer edge of the })ack may lie 75 to 100 miles
offshore. Xormally, however, during the ice season the outer edge
of the pack around Cape Farewell lies about 00 miles out from the
coast. If the prevalent south wind is blowing, the " storis " -^
reaches Ivigtut in March, Fiskernses in April, where in bad ice years
it may reach as far north as Godthaab. 360 miles north of Cape
Farewell, from ^Nlay to August. The pack, in a light ice year, how-
ever, will not reach further north than Ca})e Desolation, 140 miles
northwest of Cupe Farewell. The ice tongue which so often stretches
northwest from Cape Farewell tends to bend slightly away from the
coast if undisturbed by the wind, and sailing directions from Ivigtut
advise going north around it, unless the wind is on-shore, and coast-
ing back inside. The pack around Cape Farewell consists of glacons
of all sizes, and also of old hummocked floes as great as 100 feet in
width and 10 to 20 feet thick. In June and July when the " storis "
reaches its greatest abundance around Ca])e Farewell the edge of the
fields has been met 100 to 200 miles otfshoi'e. The best evidence of
the rate of |)rogress of the east Greenland i)ack i.s the drifts of ships
which have been caught within its clutches. Such an experience
befell several vessels of the Dutch whaling fleet in June. 1777,
which, according to Irminger (1856, p. 36), drifted southward from
76° north, parallel to the coast throngh Denmark Strait at the
average rate of 11 to 12 miles per day (see fig. 14, p. 27). The
Harisa, one of the vessels of the German north polar expedition
1869-70, was crushed October 23, 1860, in latitude 70° 50' X.. well
within the grip of the pack ofl' northeast Greenland. The sur-
vivors drifted on the ice and in a whaleboat all the way down
the coast, and around Cape Farewell, and finally landed the follow-
ing year at Frederickshaab, in southwest Greeidand. The average
rate of drift was 4 to 5 miles per day. A bottle thrown overboard
from a ship near Denmark Harbor, latitude 77° 12' N., longitude
16° 00' W., in northeast Greenland, was recovered a year later in the

^Brooks and Quennell ( lOiiS, p. 9) show the monthly variation in the amount
ice drifting past Iceland during the period 1901 to 1924 :

if pack

Jan.

Feb. Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

4.0 4.3 ' 8.2

1

7.5

7.3

7.3

3.8

1.0

0.0

0.2

0.1

0.2

These figures show that the ice season at Iceland normally extends from January to
July, with March. April, May. and .Tune heing the four heaviest ice months.

-'Storis, literally "large ice," is the term used by the Danes to refer to the pack in
the east Greenland" current which is heavier than the floes that have formed locally.

38 MAKIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

••stoiis" near (jodtliaab. west Greenland. Xsinsen di'ifted on tlu*
pack in fluly. USS.S, from near An<rniao:issalilv. latitude i')')° 85' X__
lon<ritude 3.S° W. to 61° 35' X., 42° W.. near Cajie Farewell at the
rate of '24: miles ])er day. (See Helland-Hansen-and Xansen. 1909.
p. 300.) Wreckaiie of the famous Jea/ieffr after leavin<r the polar
basin must have drifted southward alon<>- (rreenland because several
])ieces have been recovered on the southwest coast. Siberian tree
trunks and many other unmistakable types of oriental driftwood
have been picked up along- the shores of southern Greenland — addi-
ti(Hial evidence of the drift of the ice.

U])()n the ai)])roa(di of summer the east (ireenland })ack lecedes
inversely as it advances. The southwest coast otf Julianehaab is
usually free from ice l)y early Au<>ust : Ga])e Farewell in late August
or early September: and Angmagissalik during September.-*
Score.sby Sound district is more likely to be free in late September
than at any other time, but in severe ice years it may not imcover
at all; or other parts of the east Greenland coast, for that matter.
During late summer or fall, when the ea.st Greeland ice pack
shrinks to a miniuuim. ojxui water may be found close in. or even
along the coast in favorable ])laces. Angmagissalik. in latitude Wi
north, on the other harul. has occasionally been isolated by ice the
entire year. The sup})ly shij) usually finds comuuinication easiest
during the months of September and October, but sometimes it ha>
not been able to land there until early Xovember, while in one year.
Wandel (1S93. ]). 252) mentions that the coast around Angnuigis.salik
was free of ice from Sej)tember 10 until Xovember 25. It is inter-
esting to know that Angmagissalik was selected in 1894 as Denmark'.-
chief trading ])ost in east (ireeidand because the ice belt at this point
is most ])enetrabl('. It is rare indeed for the pack ice to retreat
as far north as the Arctic Circle, but there are records of such
occurrences.

The fact that (rreenland is one of the earliest discovered land>.
affords opportunity to investigate possible changes that have slowly
developed in the character and behavior of the drift ice. The leireud-
ary accounts of the early voyages of the Xorsemen during the eleventh
century suggest that (xreenland waters were icier then than they are
to-day. These adventurous colonizers apj)ai-ently cruised directly
from Iceland to (ireenland in their o])eu ^^ikiug shii)s and followed
the coast southward to Ga|)e Farewell on coui'ses to-day completely
bh)ckadeil. The eaidiest reports, in the first century of the
young colony, mention good pasturage and large Hue farms ir.
Greenland, but latei-. conditions apj)arently (dianged foi- the worse
and we learn about the advance of great nmsses of ice. Recent
archeological excavations in southwest Greenland -' have disclosed
the root-entwined frozen bodies of souu' of these early settlers, evi-
dence of a i-ecord of a (diange of (diuuite. In the thirteenth century
the slow advance of the pack is again corroborated by the southward
migi'ation of the Eskimos; the chain of evidence being traceable ni
the economic ridation between the gradmil encroatdnueut ot the pack
and the conseipient disappearance of seals and of man.

=' Xo pack ice whatsoever was sifihted around Cape Farewell V)y tlie Marion expe«llli""
cruisinsi in Hint vicinity. Soptcniber. I'.tl's.

-■■See IlDV^aard dliLM. p. CUi. I'oixild. in discussing the archcolonical linds. tola ni'
that til." roots were those of annii;ils. not perennials': therefore tlie evidence 19 """
eonilusive.

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS 39

There has been much discussion whether any of the pack ice whicli
drifts southward to Cape Farewell continues' either toward Flemish
Cap. or westward to join the eastern North American jiack. Ap-
parently no direct observations have been made to support such a
conclusion. Nevertheless, statements to this <jeiieral effect continue
to appear in literature. The possibility that ice may journey from
Cape Farewell to Labrador or to Newfoundland is worth reviewinfi^.
Chamberlin (1895, p. 653) in describino- the Arctic current which
curls around Cape Farewell and sets northward along the west coast,
says : " Then oradually the current recurves to the west and south,
and descends the Labrador coast, its burden of ice beino- progressively
melted and dispersed." On his own voyage to Greenland, however,
he left the pack at a point no farther north than the Frederickshaab
Glacier in latitude 62° 30' N. Johnston (1915, p. 40) is of the
opinion that a branch of the east Greenland current invades the
Xorth Atlantic to the forty-third parallel east of Flemish Cap, and
that ice sighted east of longitude 44. is from east Greenland. Jagdt
(1928. p. 9) believed that parts of the east Cireenland pack some-
times break away, off west Greenland and subsequently are carried
over to the American side. Schott (1904, p. 305) investigating the pos-
sible relationship between the pack ice off Newfoundland and off east
Greenland, found that bad ice years in the one area coincided with good
ice years in the other. For example, in 1881, enormous masses of ice
swelled the east Greenland pack to capacity, while at the same time
Labrador saw little ice. If east Greenland ice feeds the waters of
Labrador or of Newfoundland, why did those regions lack ice that
year!' Mecking (1906, p. 102) after an exhaustive investigation of
Davis Strait, concludes that the east Greenland pack never joins the
American. Jensen (1909, p. 32) on the Tjalfe expedition, June 5,
I'.'IIN. encountered the seaward edge of the pack in longitude 56° 30'
W.. on the sixtieth parallel, at a position halfway between Greenland
aiil Labrador. The National Greographic Magazine for November.
1!*'25. published on a supplementary map of the Arctic regions the
luaxinuim limit of ice, indicating a complete bridging of Davis
Strait. But the westernmost record in the tiles of the Danish Me-
teorological Office, however, an institution which keeps in close touch
with ice conditions in Grreenland, is at longitude 54° 30' W., July,
I'.'ls. when the pack barely reached halfway across Davis Strait.
Irminger (1856, p. 41), says " there does not exist even a branch of
the current which runs directly from east Greenland toAvard the New-
foundland banks." And Wandel (1893, p. 255) in speaking of the
east Greenland packs, says, '' elle ne se renuit jamais avec celle du
Courant du Labrador ou le Vestis, quand, par exception, le detroit de
Davis est barre c'est sans aucun doiite le derniere qui a ete pousse vers
rEst."

The most favorable time for pack ice to cross to the American
>ide is in Avinter, i. e., at the season when it is at its minimum. And
in July, when the pack is most abundant. Davis Strait waters are
^<» warm it can not long survive there. It seems safe to conclude,
therefore, that pack ice from the east Greenland current never crosses
to American waters.

. The pack ice in the Arctic Ocean, around Iceland, in Kara Sea,
in Barents Sea, and in the Greenland Sea has been studied by
120860—31 4

40 MAIIION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Meinardiis, by Breimecke. by Wiese, and by I^rooks and Queiinell
Mith the object of deteriuininf; Avhat effect variations in these ice
areas have on the weattier of Enrope. Meinardus (1906, p. 151)
compifed a table giving the deviation and severity of tlie pack on
Iceland from 1801 to 1904, and since that time similar data have
been compiled monthly by the British Meteorological Office. The
basis of Meinardus 's figures were the number of days that ice was
sighted from the coast of Iceland — when the masses Avere particu-
larly heavy the values received double weight. The investigation
discloses a very clearly marked periodicity in the character of the
east Greenland jiack of -liX) years. -'^' The annual variations in the
ice off Iceland are associated with similar variations in the wind;
for example, in a winter with unusually strong, fair winds more ice
than normal is to be expected to drift past Iceland. The data
selected by Meinardus to demonstrate this were the difference in
atmospheric pressure between Stykkisholm, Iceland; and Vardo.
Xorway, which, if large, forecasts more ice than usual in the east
Greenland current the following spring. Wiese (1924, p. 289), in-
de})endently investigating the variations in ice conditions in the
Barents and Kara Seas, found an excei)tionally high correlation be-
tween autumn air temperatures there and the volume of pack ice
along east Greenland 41/0 years later — a low temperature presages
much ice and vice versa. The well-marked periodicity of 4io yeare
is explicable when we realize that it represents the interval necessary
for the ice to complete the journey to Iceland from its sources.
Brooks and Quennell (1928, p. 3) have collected a long series of
statistical data on sea-ice conditions in the following regions: Off
Iceland; (xreenland Sea; Barents Sea; Kara Sea: and Arctic Ocean.
The work of these meteorologists constitutes the most thorough inves-
tigation to date on the effect of northern ice on European weather.
More ice off Iceland, or in any one of these several seas than normal,
causes in the same months an excess of pressure around Iceland and
a deficiency of pressure from Paris to the Azores. One of the most
interesting discoveries was that heavy ice conditions during sprinji
in northern waters are liable to be followed by a deficiency of pres-
sure the following autumn around the British Isles. The cause is
in the liberation of more water than normal, by melting, to mix
with the Gulf stream during the sunnner. The regional variiitions
in sea temperature j^roduce corresponding thermal variation> in the
atmosphei'e bringing stormy weather to northern Euro})e. It seems
well established, therefore, from the foregoing that variations in
the pack ice of the northeastern North Atlantic exert an important
control over European weather, the effect of the ice on the atmos-
])heric pressures for the countries north of the l^ritish Isles bein},'
stronger even than that of the Gulf stream.

Thk Eastkun Nokth Amkuicax Tack

One of the largest streams of ice that emerges out of tlie north
follows a path ah)ng the east side of Baffin Land, along the Labrador
coast, and eventually spreads out ])ast Newfoundland. (See HiT- !!'•
p. JiG.) The geographical positions of the North American lands ami

-"Brooks and QuenneU (19281, p. Ci recalculating make this lisure 4.7G years*.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 41

tlie bathyiiietiical iVatures of the :-helvos are iiiii)()itaiit factors in the
track of this stream of jKick ice. Baffin Bay, a shallow elon<i-ated .
basin covering 650 miles of latitude, connected with the Arctic Ocean
by the narrow openinoj between Greenland and Ellesmere Land, and
in a less direct way thron<rh the maze of Arctic sounds to the west-
ward, is one of the chief reservoirs of the ice. Davis Strait is the
bottle neck tbroufrh which a o-jvat ])roi)()rti()n of the ])ack emerges
into the Xorth Atlantic. Another i)robable source is the reirion of
Hudson Strait and Fox CMiannel. 'I'be Labrador current is the
irreat ajrency of transportation southward alono; Labrador, past
Xewfoundland, and over the Grand Bank. It is the low temperature
I of the water over the continental shelf from Baffin Land to the
iGrand l^auk. ai)proximatelv 150,000 s(|uare miles, the surface layers
lof which, are cliilled to 0° C. {'S2° F.) or lower, that permit \he
isoutbward drift of the i)ack. Fhe extent of these fri<):id shelf waters
land of those of Baffin J^ay furnishes a clew to the aii;<.n-e<T:ate annual
loutput of sea ice. If two-thirds of the total 4()T.0(»() s(|uare miles of
Ithe ice area is normally covered to a depth of 6 feet, the eastern
IXorth American pack consists of approximately 450 to 475 cubic
Iniiles of ice yearly. (See fig. 121. p. 200.)

I The several tributary sounds located on the western side of Baffin
jBay and Davis Strait contril)ute relatively great (piantities of pack
Ito the eastern Xorth American ice stream. During the colder
imonths these oj)enings su])i5ly -' ice to the southward moving
imasses. l)ut in summer their discliarges create areas of o})en water.
(These chamiels from north to south are as follows: Smith Sound,
Jones Sound. Lancaster Sound. Hudson Strait, and Strait of Belle
Isle. The sounds of Baffin Bay contribute the greatest quantities of
ice, wdiile the straits to the south are responsible for the greatest
iunoimt of dissipation and Avastage. Summermeltingisusually viewed
las a phenomenon spreading from south to north. Hut in case of the
iXorth American i)ack. account must be taken of the disrui)tive infiu-
'ences along its western flank. Thus the discharge from Hudson
Strait very much hastens the dismemberment of the pack in tliat
'offing. The Marion expedition in 1!)2<S had an excellent o])i)ortunity
jto survey the i-esults of these disintegrations. As early as June 11 the
fiodthaah expedition arrived and found the Avaters open off Hudson
Strait and the ice lying quite far back both to the north and to the
Uuth. Sometime shortly prior to the (lodtliaah's visit, the strong
Ku-rents pouring in and out of the strait had api)arently severed
die ice stream and isolated the large Labrador field. On August 18,
{ibout two months later, the Maiioii ex])editi<)n found the offing of
he strait still clear; and tlie Labrador field had disappeared by that
ime, though the southern edge of the Baffin Land pack remained
ibout the same as it had been a month earliei'.

In 192s the pack around Cape Dier, Baffin Land, consisting of
18,000 square miles of ice, never penetrated farther south than Cum-
perland Gulf after June, showing that the rate of its southward
idvance Avas offset by the rate of melting in the sun-heated waters
lischarged through Hudson Strait. The isolated Labrador field of

1 "Meckins (1906, pp. 22-31 and appended map) after consulting the accounts of the
larious early explorations of the American Archipelago has constructed a map showing
he prevailing circulation. Mecking shows that practically all of the currents flow, and
nerefore the ice masses move, from west to east ; that is. from the polar regions into
iaffln Bay and Davis Strait.

42

MAEIOX EXPEDITIOISr TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

some 15.000 square miles disappeared through melting and diffusion
soon after it was cut off from its northern su])ply. The current and
temperature maps of Davis Strait compiled by the Manon expedi-
tion indicate a communication between Atlantic water from Cape
Farewell and water from Hudson Strait, and it is this mixing across
the main pathway of the polar current that interrupted the ice stream
sometime during May, 1928. The dissipation of ice by the active
discharge through Hudson Strait exerts a heretofore unsuspected
influence on the character of the east North i^merican ice stream.
The increasing warmth of summer combined with the depletion of
supply are the underlying factors that prevent the march of arctic
ice from continuing })ast Newfoundland throughout the year, but

The East Coast of Ellesmere Land

Figure 20. — One of the iciest of shores lies on the west side of Smith Sound. This
is a 12-mile-wide margin of the pack photographed on August 15, 1928. off the
east coast of Ellesmere Land just north of Cape Faraday. The pack is composed
of ice formed both locally and that brought here from farther north by the cold
current. Some summers the pack never uncovers the Ellesmere Land coast in the
Smith Sound region. (,1'hotograph by Commander B. Riis-Cartensen of the
Godthaab expedition.)

an important accessory is the disruptive influence of Hudson Strait
Were the Baffin Land-Labrador littoral not interru]:)ted, the amount
of pack ice carried into the western Atlantic would be much greatei
than is actually the case.

I5AFFIN 15AY PACK IfE

Except for the traverses of occasional jiolar ex])lorers our knowl-
edge of the ice of Baffin Bay has largely been derived from the logs
and records of the whalers. Pursued flrst by the Dutch, the industry
received added impetus after Ross's voyage, to reach the height of it;|
pros))erity in the middle of the last century. To-day little or no:
whaling is done in l^allin Bay. According to the experience of the'

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS

43

whalers the bay is characterized by two distinct areas of sea ice,
respectively called ** west ice "' and '' middle ice '' from their loca-
tions. Mecking (1906, p. 104) basing his assumptions largely upon
the drift of the Fox describes the baj^ as split by two packs. The
easternmost is composed largely of ice from Melville Bay and from
the east side of Smith Sound. The Avest ice is said to come from the
west side of Smith Sound, from Jones Sound, from Lancaster Sound,
and from the Baffin Land coast. The '' middle ice '' loomed espe-
cially large in the eyes of the whalers because it often obstructed their
path, and threatened their profits. The separation of the sea ice of
Baffin Ba3% however, into two definite sections is not borne out by a
careful analysis of conditions as a whole, nor woidd it logically

Baffin bay Pack ice

FiGUUE 21. — The t>astorn edge of the Baffin Land pack .July 3. 1928. in latitude 67°
N., longitude 58° W.. 70 miles east of Cape Dier, Baffin Land. At this time the
western half of the neck of Davis Strait being ice decked and the eastern half,
open water, reflects the underlying circulation of these interesting waters. The
fact that the ice rises above the main deck of the Godthanb is striking evidence
of the great thickness of the pack ice in Baffin Bay. (Photograph by Commander
E. Riis-Cartensen of the Qodthaab expedition.)

result from the behavior of the ice or from the factors influencing
Ihe latter. What the whalers called west ice is the most tightly
ll)acke(l part of the cover, naturally to be found hugging the Baffin
iLand coast. ^Middle ice probably refers to that part of the pack that
;the w^inds and slow^ cyclonic circulation of the bay tend to collect in
jthe central and even in the Melville Bay section. The designation of
r middle " to the position of the pack is, moreover, somewhat accentu-
ated by the widening of a lead of open w^ater around the shores of
Baffin Bay in late summer. The west ice represents the heavy back-
bone of the pack, while the middle ice is merely the outer fields sub-
ject to Avider annual variations. The supply for both comes from the
upper reaches of Smith Sound, from the Avater arms of th'^ Ameri-
can Archipelago via Jones Sound, Lancaster Sound, and Eclipse

44 ZMAiaOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

Sound, and from the fast ice formed locally around the shores of
Baffin Bay. The floes converge as they feed into the narrow neck of
Davis Strait, and passing out to the soutli. relieve the congestion in
the up]:)er waters.

If large quantities of fas^t ice break up in ^Melville Bay. and if the
winds drive across additional masses, tlie navigation that particular
spring and summer will be greatly hampeied, and the only means of
proceeding northward in such a year is to hug the Greenland shore
to Cape York, hence to steer westward. There are records of ships
which required several weeks to nuike the passage under conditions
such as these, or even suffered the misfortune of becoming ni})i)e(l in
the jjack.-'* If little ice is formed or if the normal amount fails to
break out of ^Melville Bay. Smith Sound, and the Arctic Archipelago,
the pack will l)e of small extent and the so-called North AVater will
enlarge. In such years whale sliips have reported crossing Melville
Bay in the incredibly short time of '20 hours. The pack-ice covei
normally is believed to fill four-fifths of Baffin Bay. with an area about
165,000 square miles, and often it is so extensive that it reaches ove:
to the west coast of Greenland in some |)laces north of Davis Strait.-'
In occasional winters pack ice is said to fill Baffin Bay solidly from
shore to shore. •"

The Baffin Bay pack has its greatest extent in March and its leas!
in August and September. In some Avinters tlie ice area may grow tf
a size that completely fills Baffin Bay. while in other years polynyib
are numerous and extensive: for example, off Smith Sound, Jones
Sound, and Lancaster Sound. Lancaster Sound is, however, occa
sionally frozen solidly from shore to shore,"^ but at such times ever
the natives deem any attempt to cross to North Devon an extremely
hazardous undertaking l)ecause a sudden shift of the winds o:
the currents may break the bridge. The neighborhood of Cape War
rander on Lancaster Sound is said to have more o])en water thai
any other locality in Baffin Bay. But only a short distance farthe
west Barrow Strait becomes covered as early as September. Baflii
Bay has never been crossed by sledge but many experienced ex
plorers have held the opinion that such a feat would be possible din-
ing an exceptionally icy winter. It is of interest to learn also tha
the ice cover of Baffin Bay is more or less comi)letely renewed ever^
year.

One of the most widely discussed featuies of Baffin Bay is tht
ice-free area at its head called North AVater. Coming suddeidy upoi
this opening after a week or more of strugiiling through the heav;
■ middle pack, it is not surprising that North AA'ater has excited tin
curiosity and interest of explorers for two centuries. (See fig. IC
p. 19.) The earliest and still most common explanation which hasnov
become (juite firndy established in the minds of many connects Nortl

28 The Canadian Government steamer Beothic strussled with ice for 20 days during th^
summer of 1916 on its passage from Godhavn to Cape York, hut strangely enough muc |
open water was found farther north in Smith Sound. . •

■"This is the " vestis " of the Danes. Its soutlieastern edge reaches over to Ilolsteirj
borg in severe winters. . '

3" Capt. E. Falk of the steamer Beothic. who has made several summer cruises int ;
Baflin Bav during recent years, states to me that Davis Strait never freezes all the wa .
across, Init Baffin Bay does in severely cold winters. Xorth of the seventy-tiftli parallel
except for North Water ;nid off the entrance to .Tones and Lancaster Sounds, the bai
freezes solidlv evcrv winter from llie heginiiiug of Deceml)er to the tirst of .Tune. |

•" .\c(iPidiiiu t(i a' st.iti'uifiit '<{ C.ipl. K. I'alk. master Ciiiadian (iovcriinieiit steame|
Beotliir. I

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

45

Water witli a warm ciiiTent from the Atlantic, which. divin<'- beneath
the cold water of Davis Strait, is thoui>ht to emero-e on the surface to
lueit the ice from the head of Baffin Bay (see Nielsen, 1928, p. 221).
jTliere is no definite evidence of such a phenomenon contained in the
johservations of either Xielson (1928) or Annually (1929, pp. 87-95).
|lt seems more likely, however, tliat instead of a warm northward
inflow, this |)ei-sistent polynya in I^affin Bay is nuiintained hv a set

foo go flo 7o 6o

75

p

\ ^vv

^

r

.

'c:;

'h

i

70

Ks

\

/•

( \

J

"/v)

Ml

'■ f

y

/ \

/ ♦ '

/ ^

Sv

/ • '

^

(>5

^' /

"^

: 1
1 ■ /

^%y

/'-•"S.

))/ •• ^

7^

. (v

i/J ■ '

/

*^ \

)^ : /

/

^c^ /

/ 1. ,

/

v^>c

■' /

/

^

'^ .' /

t

z

••/ /-^

\ t .,.!

7o

60

50

Pack Ice Areas in Baffin Bay

13

7o

FiGtRE I'l'. — Thp (lashed line represents the normal
maximum limit to which pack ice extends at the end
(if a ncirthern winter. The dotted line is the averase
July boundary of the main body of the pack. The
solid liiu' represents tl:e normal minimum area and
position to which the Battin I'.ay pack ice shrinks —
usually in September. Note the narrow shore lead
along the Battin Land side which isolates the pack
and may be the reason for designating this area of
ice as " the middle pack."'

I in the opposite direction. The fast ice in Smith Sound is so strong
f that it resists the current, but that formed just to the south is swept
away, leaving open water beiiind it. This explanation is supported,
linoreover, by the recorded drifts of several ships and ice floes. Sev-
'lal observers in the vicinity of Etah have described looking south-
westward across the zone of fast ice over the open sea. The break
lip of the fast ice in Smith Sound during June and July temporarily
•hokes Xorth Water, but eventually the latter clears, and its area
s irreatest in late summer. The ice in Kane Basin, if it breaks loose

46

MAFJOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY

at all. does so in Aiifrust. but the predominant circulation >oou carries
it across North Water. The inirnolnlity of the fast ice in the northern
tributaries of Baffin Bay. often foreshadows a secondary maximum of
l)ack ice to the head waters some times in late summer.

The ice cover of Baffin Bay varies greatly in size from year to
year, or over a group of years.^- During some summers the central
portions are well open to navigation and reasonably safe for the
metal hulls of ordinary ships of commerce. During these years the
only pack is the west ice. shrunk to a narrow belt close to the shore
(except for the normal shore lead), from Cape Kater to Cape Mercy.
Such conditions were found in the summer of 1928 by the Marion
expedition when the 3G-mile wide pack off Cape Dier occupied a total
area of only 18,000 square miles. Nevertheless the ice was heavy and
thick enough to prevent the passage of the Marion to the coast. '- At
this time the pack consisted of glagons 5 to 10 feet in diameter and

Open Pack ice in Summer— West Side of Davis strait

Figure 2'A. — The open summer condition of tlie pack oft: Cape Dier. Baffin Laiul. as
found by tlie Marion expedition in August. 1928. Note the small pool of water on
the glagon in the foreground, formed by the melting of iee. Fresh water is thus
always to be found during summer, even great distances at sea in the polar
regions. (Official photograph, Marion expedition.)

of larger glacons up to 50 to 75 feet across. The fact that the ice was
quite thick, rising 2 and 3 feet above the surface and extending down
8 to 10 feet, testifies to a much more northern source. The outer
edge of the pack was fairly open, but 15 miles inside, there was very
little open water in which to naviirate. The southern edge was met
in the offing of Cumberland Gulf, latitude 64° 30' N.. louiritudp
59° 10' W.

^Munn (1923, p. 65) comments on the annual variations of the middle ice in Baffin
Bay, where there was a very small amount in tlio summers of 1920 and 1!'21. and practi-
cally none in 1922. The three years' deticiency, >Uinn suggests, may have been diii^ to an
ice jam in some of the ice-choked entering sounds, viz, .Tones Sound. Smith Soumi, and
Lancaster Sound. He claims that when such jams l)r(iak away a heavy and extensive
"middle pack" may be expected in BafHn Hav. and to a less extent to the southward.
He is also of the opinion that a smooth, quiet summer allows the middle ice to spread
farther abroad, causing a surface layer of cold water and favoring the formation of more
ice freezing the following winter. " , ,

^'"The Danish .Meteorological Institute (Annually. 1928. p. 3) states that pack-iCC
conditions in Davis Strait and Baffin Bay the summer of 1928 were favorable.

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS

47

The rate of wastage of pack ice in the Arctic during the summer is
well shown by the records of the Godthaab and the Marion expedi-
tions for the summer of 1928. On Jul}^ 3, the west ice of Baffin Bay
extended halfway across to the Greenland coast; on August 15 it
occupied only one-fourth of the strait; and on September 15 it had
withdrawn from the Baffin Land coast as far as Cape Broughton, a
promontory 90 miles north of Cape Dier. Again the average rate of
retreat of the southern bounds of the west ice in Baffin Bay during
the sunnner of 1928 w^as approximately 1 mile per day. Iii gcueral
the shrinkage of pack ice in the far north is a phenomenon which
accelerates to a certain period during the summer, after which it is
•.q-adually retarded, until freezing begins.

The circulation of the waters of Baffin Bay and the movement of
the pack is known only in a general way. The first systematic ocean-
ographic survey of the bay w^as made by the Godthnah expedition
which took a large number of observations there in the suuuner o^
1928.^^ These data were published in the Hydrographic Bulletin
(Annually, 1929), and I have used them to construct a map of the
l)revailing circulation as shown by Figures 91 and 92. pages 139-14U.
In addition to this dynamic topographic map of Baffin Bay, some
of the best available information is contained in the drifts of ships
caught by the ice in various parts of the bay. These follow :

Ship

North Star (Saunders)

Advance (DeHaven)

Enterprise and Investigator

Kesolute (Kellett)

Rescue (Griffin)

Fox (McChntoclv)

Polaris Party (Tyson)

Greely's Boat (Greely)

Distance

Miles

150

900

290

1,020

900

1,194

1,700

65

Drift from

Latitude Longitude

60 50

93 00

92 30
99 30

93 00
62 16
72 00
72 00

Drift to

Latitude Longitude

64 30

67 00

63 47

55 00

78 45

71 05

60 30

73 00
()2 30
60 30
56 36
52 00

74 00

Icebergs have been observed to drift northward along the east side
of Baffin Bay. On the other hand the Marion expedition mapped a
southerly current along its southwest side with a rate of 7 miles ])er
day, (See fig. 96, p. 148.) Thus it seems well established that a gen-
eral cyclonic circulation prevails, so that the w^estern (iciest) zone
evacuates through Davis Strait, while a compensating indraft follows
northward along the Greenland side.^^

What proportions of the pack that moves out through Davis
Strait into the North Atlantic originate in Baffin Bay itself is an
interesting question. Consideration of the above table and other
available data throws some light on this problem. The first of the
pack that emerges through Davis Strait, on the resumption of

=^ Riis-Caitpnsen (1929) gives a preliminary account of the expedition, the published
reports of which have not yet appearecL , . , .

^Mecking (190G, supplementary map) has drawn a southbound current and ice band par-
allel to the eastern shore of Baffin Bav, its axis closely coinciding with the 600-meter iso-
liath. Such a representation is based largely on the drift of the Fox in I808, and to a less
i ixtent on the behavior of the middle ice. this feature of the circulation is. however, n<;t
\ confirmed by the recent oceanographic observations of the Oodthaah expedition nor is
Mecking's southerly current supported by the general laws for dynamic gradient currents
iu the Xorthern Hemisphere.

48

MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY

freezing, may be credited to ice tliat has entered the bay from more
remote sonrces during the })receding sunnner to mix there with the
local })rodnction. Heavy masses of liaffin Bay origin follow, eon-

Recorded Drifts in Baffin Bay

FuiUKE 24. — The drifts of ships ht^sct in ioe and also rtoe parties. sin-h as (hat of the
Polaris, tlirow considerable liylit en the <;eneral movement of tlie watiT and ice.

, the Poltiiis Hot' part.v. xxxxxxxx. the North t^tar

the Fox. , the Adroiirr and the Rescue. , tlie Rvsoliitc.

. tlie fhitcriirixv and the Intextunittir. (See Tabh>. p. 47.)

stituting the bulk of the pack that characterizes at that season. The
ice of late summer and fall comes mostly from regions quite remote.
Baffin l^ay acting as a cacliment l)asin Avith the only escajie through
file h)wer cud.

SCIEXTIFIC RESrLTS 49

Til'' (lniina<re area of sea ice to Baffin Bay extends hundreds of
miles into tlv tributary sounds and straits of the American Archi-
])elafr<>- Oiie <*f the largest streams of pack is discharged into Baffin
Bay through Barrow Strait and Lancaster Sound. The drift of the
two ice-beset ships Advance and Rescue of the U. S. (Iriuuell expe-
dition in 18oU (see tal)le on p. 47) shows the general direction of
their courses. Kane (1854, p. :\±1) states that the rate of drift of
these ships with the pack was approximately 2.5 miles per day during
October in the west end of Lancaster Sound. It increased to 8 miles
per day during December in the mouth of the sound and attained a
niaxinunn rate of 5 miles per day otf the northeast coast of Baffin
Land in January. The British ship Remlute beset in the same
waterway was carried halfway across the archipelago to Davis
Strait in one season. Mecking (IDOG, p. '27), after examining the
records of nuiny of the searchers for Franklin shows that nuich ice
must be carried through the archipelago into Baffin Bay and Davis
Strait, and Figure 24, page 50. shows the circulation of the water in
the Arctic Archipelago as deduced by Mecking. AVe conclude in
view of the foregoing data that not more than two-thirds of the pack
that drifts out of Baffin Ba}' is actually formed within the latter.

HUDSON BAY PACK

Ice begins to form in Hudson Bay during October and by the
end of the month most of the harbors are frozen. The bay itself
remains comi)aratively free from ice during winter except for a
5 to 6 mile wide fringe. According to Lowe (1906. p. 293) fast ice
continues to nuike even up to the 1st of June, but when it begins
to break up it does so rapidly, sometimes early in July. During
a boisterous winter the ice is liable to raft, in which condition its
melting time is much lengthened. Aerial observations of ice condi-
tions in Hudson Strait have been reported l)v McLean (1929, pp.
12-13). The appearance and disappearance of the ice is from west
to east. It arrives at the western end of the strait in November and
two Aveeks later is found at the ocean entrance. February records
only 15 per cent of open water, the congestion remaining until the
montli of ^Liy when a noticeal)le decrease is observed. The middle
of July normally records 90 per cent of open water and a navigable
Hudson Strait. Hudson Strait is deemed safe for navigation dur-
ing normal years froju the latter i)art of July or first of August
until the latter part of October. Navigation of this region is an
important connnercial problem for Canada, the principal difficulty
lying in the blocked condition of the eastern end of Hudson Strait
; (see McLean, 1929). Congestion there during spring and early sum-
mer is caused by ice from Hudson Bay and Fox Channel mixing with
that from Davis Strait. Not only does the Davis Strait pack cross
the mouth of Hudson Strait, but it is also carried by the current in
along the north side for a distance of 120 miles or more before it
recurves to pass out parallel to the opposite shore. Lnder such
conditions it is very difficult to distinguish between the arctic ice
and the heavy floes of local derivation. The thickness of Hudson
Strait and Fox Channel glacons may vary from 7 to 19 feet.

Hudson Bay and Fox Channel, with their wide shallow areas,
have often been described as ideal regions supplying the main
stream of pack ice which moves southward into the western Atlantic.

50

MAEIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

The Currents in the Arctic Archipelago

Figure 25. — The basis for the currents indicated li.v the arrows has been
obtained from a number of observations on the drift of tlontinK objects,
such as ships, wreckage, buoys, ice. etc. The arrows show quite' conclusively
that the seneral movement of the water and the ice Is from the northwest
out into i'.alliii I'.av and Davis ^^trait. (Tlie map is talu'u from Meckins:.
1000.)

50

MARIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

T^i>riy;»^gs; --^i^J'-gg^

The Currents in the Arctic Archipelago

Figure 25. — The basis for tho currents indicated bv tlie arrows bas been
obtained from a number of observations on tbe drift of floating objects,
sucb as sbips. wrecl^ase. buoys, ice. etc. The arrows show quitt>' conclusively
that the general movement of the water and tbe ice is from the northwos"t
out into BafHn P.ay and Davis .Strait. (The iiiaii is taken from MeckiuLT.
loot).)

SCIEXriFIC RESULTS 51

Besides the local ice, additional masses of pack from more northern
sources are discharged into Fox Basin through Fury and Hecla
Strait. Mecking (1906, supplementary map) (fig. 25/p. 50) shows
that the pack ice from the Arctic Ocean enters the northern end of the
Gulf of Boothia and amasses in the lower end of the latter. The con-
gestion is partly relieved by the escape through Fury and Hecla Strait,
from Avhence the pack continues southward through "Welcome Souncl
and Fox Channel. The escape of ice from all of these cachments
is greatly hindered, nevertheless, by obstructing islands and narrow
channels.

The famous ice-choked condition of Hudson Strait itself may be
due not wholly to the ice from Hudson Bay and Fox Channel but
partly to the great floes of Baffin Bay ice, which from our knowledge
of tlie currents are certainly brought to this locality. Hudson Bay
itself, due to the fact that its fast ice rapidh" dissipates, being only
2 to o feet thick, does not contribute such large quantities of pack
to the Atlantic as it first might appear. The major part of the pack
which hampers Hudson Strait during the spring, moreover, con-
sists largely of the Baffin Bay varietj^, augmented by smaller con-
tributions of fast ice which have formed in Fox Channel (see
McLean. 1029. p. 13) and along the sides of Hudson Strait itself.

It is interesting to speculate in what proportions the pack drift-
ing out through the lower end of Baffin Bay and the ice setting out
of Hudson Strait contribute to the total mass that drifts southward
to the Grand Bank. Mecking (190G, p. 106) shows that the most of
the pack to Xewfoundland comes from Baffin Bay, it having formed
there or brought to the bay through the waterways of the Arctiic
Archipelago. Munn, on the other hand, stresses the sea-ice discharge
through Hudson Strait.^'^ If the pack to Labrador be divided ac-
cording to its sources — (a) Baffin Bay ice. (6) Arctic ice via Baffin
Bay, and (c) pack ice through Hudson Strait, we believe the
iollowing respective weights are representative : 60, 30, and 10.

PACK ICE ALONG COASTS OF LABRADOR AND NEWFOUNDLAND

Ice appears at the mouth of Fox Channel and in Hudson Strait
in October and Xovember, the time varying somewhat from year to
year, depending on meteorological and oceanographical conditions.
The pack ice out of Hudson Strait, and the first of the glacons and
floes Avhich have begun to swell southward from Davis Strait join
off Cape Chidley, the northern extremity of Labrador. The com-
bined packs, first in narrow strings and strips, and then in a much
broader, heavier stream, reach the northern Labrador shelf early in
November. December witnesses the advance along; the coast and
its arrival oft" Newfoundland in January. Fast ice during this
period makes inside the headlands and harbors, the freezing time
for the northern section being Xovember. and for the southern
estuaries December. Xewfoundland harbors freeze in January but
the ice is seldom very heavy and readily breaks up in April." Sea
ice, it is said, will make in open water on cold calm nights in the

'"The drift of a tool box incased in ice from the inner waters of Hudson Strait out and
down the Labrador coast to Nain proves ice for Newfoundland comes from this outlet.

''The harbor of St. Johns is often blockaded by the northern pack during the months
of February and March at the time when the sealing steamers wish to depart. Exit is
sometimes only accomplished by means of much cutting through the sheets, and often
blastinj; when the pack is especially heavy.

52

IMARIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

latitude of St. Johns. NewfoiiiullaiKl. 1 to li iiR-hcs in thickness, aiul
out from the coast for a distance of several miles. Kodman ( L'SDO
p. 2()) has published a table showinji; the ap])roximate dates of ap-
pearance and disappeai'ance of ice along' the Labrador and New-
foundland coasts.

On several previous occasions in discussing certain regions we have
called attention to the im])ortant influence which bathymetrical con-
ditions have on ice distribution. The Labrador shelf is no exception
to the rule, })roviding a high road, so to speak, along which the pack
may easily advance to lower latitudes. The bathymetrical ma]) of
Davis Strait shows that the Labrador shelf is much wider than that
along the other coasts of this region. It maintains an average width
of 80 miles, as determined by the 5(K)-fathom isobath, from Cape
Chidley, Labrador, southward to Hamilton Inlet, thence to the lati-
tude of Cape Race it spreads out very wide; for example, off St.
Johns it measures nearlv 'iSO miles. The l^readth and ireneral oiit-

The Offing of the Labrador Coast in June

FniURB 2(!. — Tlie procession of pack ice which is continually hcing Ikuiic sout'iwaril
along the Labrador coast for seven months of the year by the cold current. This
coastal belt of pack ice is claimed to play an important role in the sourh\v;iril
distribution of the icebergs, they being fended off the coast and kept out in tlio
Cold current. (I'hotograph by B. M. Kindle.)

line of the east North American pack along this coastal stretch is
largely a reflection of the depths. In years of abundant ])a(k. the
outer edge of the field off St. Johns has been recorded a hundred or
two hundred miles from the coast.

As summer advances, the ])ack melts back toward its luirthern
roots uncovering first the Newfoundland and then the Labiador
coast lines. The Strait of Belle Isle is usually o})en to navigation
from July to December, the first of the trans-Atlantic steamers en-
tering June 15 to July 1 and the last passing out the first week in
December. The Labrador coast is often free of ])ack ice. at least for
navigation, during .July, while in other summers the coast ha> been
continually hann)ered.'''

^* An excellent example of the rate of dissipation of the Labrador pack is afforded by < k
the fact that the (lodtliaoh expedition in early .Tune. 3;il2S. found a field of pack ice «• '
tending along a large part of tlic Labrador slielf of IS.uoe s«|iiare niib's area, ''"f *'*
weeks later the Marion exjx'dition found these waters clear and all ice disappeared. "af»
ice in the western Norlli Allanlic was niarkedlv ImIow imrTnal tlie year of I'S-S.

52

MARIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STItAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

latitude of St. Johns, Newfoiindlancl, 1 to 2 inches in thickness,
out from the coast for a distance of several miles. Rodman ( 1
p. 20) has published a table showino; the a]ii)roxiinate dates of
pearance and disai)])earance of ice alono- the Labrador and >
foundland coasts.

On several previous occasions in discussino; certain rc<rions we
called attention to tiie important inHuence which l)athymetrical
ditions have on ice distribution. The Labrador shelf is no excej
to the rule, providing a high road, so to speak, along which the
may easily advance to lower latitudes. The bathymetrical ma
Davis Strait shows that the Labrador shelf is much wider than
along the other coasts of this region. Tt maintains an average ^^
of 80 miles, as determined by the r)()()-fathom isobatli. from '
Chidley, Labradoi-. southward to Hamilton Inlet, thence to the
tude of Cape Race it spreads out very wide: for example, ol
Johns it measures nearly 2.S() miles. The breadth and ireneral

The Offing of the Labrador Coast in June

Figure 26. — The procession of pack ice whicli is continually bcins' borne south
along the Labrador coast for seven months of the year by the cold current,
coastal belt of pack ice is claimed to play an important role in the south-
distribution of the iceberss. they being fended off the coast and kept out ii
cold current. (Photograph by E. M. Kindle.)

line of the east North American pack along this coastal stre i
largely a reflection of the depths. In years of abundant pac
outer edge of the field olf St. Johns has been recorded a hundi
two hundred miles from the coast.

As summer advances, the i)ack melts back toward its iku
roots uncovering first the NewfouiuHand and then the Lai
coast lines. The Strait of Belle Isle is usually open to navi^
from July to December, the first of the trans-Atlantic steame
tering June 15 to ,Iiily 1 and the last i)assing out the first w«
December. The Labrador coast is often free of ])ack ice. at lea
navigation, during July, while in other summers the coast ha; x
continually hampered.-^**

^8 An excellent example <if the rate of dissipation of the Labrador pack is affo
the fact that the (J<nJth(uih expedition in early .Tune. Ji'l'S. found a field of pack
tending along a large i)art of the Labrador sh<'lf of IS.ndo square miles area,
■weeks later the Marion expedition found these waters dear and all ice disappeared
ice in the western North Atlantic was markedly below normal the year of 1928.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

53

PACK ICE ON THE ORAXD BANK

The pack roaches tlie northciii part of the Grand rjiink hite in
January or early in Febrnarv. where the Avater. still cold as a result
(if the 'precedin<2: Avinter's chilling, keeps it from meltin<2: rapidly.
The Newfoundland Banks ((irand. Green, and St. Pierre), a<jgre-
.rating some (iO.OOO square miles, are the submerged continuation of
tlie North American Continent, Avhich slopes here soutliAA'estward
far out on the Atlantic sea floor. Oif southern NeAvfoundland the
pack tends to part as the current meets the northern buttress of
the (irand l^ank, around AA'hich it sAveeps. The inshore arm no longer
Hanked by the coast line moves southwestAvard past Cai)e Kace in the
Mihniarine ravine known as the (iulley. but the larger, heavier tongue

6+ 61 5a 55 5Z 49 4(3

The Distribution of pack Ice South of Newfoundland

4-3

Figure 27. — Tlie Hinits to which tlie m;;in liody of pack ice ha^: liecii iccoi'dcd south
of Newfouiidlaiid is shown above. The short licavy lines represent the positions at
which fields of pack ice have been sighted during the height of the ice season.
(Figure after Huntsman. 1930. |

foUoAA^s southAvard along the eastern side of the Grand Bank. The
western fields in years of great abundance may block the bays and
harbors along the south shore of NcAvfoundland as far Avest as tlie
Miquelon Islands'^'' and send scattei'ed floes even out to the edge of
the Atlantic slope. The field Avhich drifts doAvn along the eastern
bide of the bank is interesting, not only on account of its intimate
association Avith the icebergs but also because it attains the southern-
most point to Avhich .sea ice from high latitudes drifts in the Northern

="The waters of southern Newfoundhind have often been described as dominated by a
current which sets westerly from Cape Kace along the coast and which rounds Cape Ray
entering the gulf. Much data, however, such as current meter measurements, the distri-
bution of salinity and temperature, the results of hundreds of drift bottles, the general
configuration of the bottom, and the tidal movements, show that the current and ice after
rounding Cape Race do not .set any farther west than the Miquelon Islands.

54 MAEIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STEAIT AND BAFFIX BAY

Hemisphere. In heavy ice years the pack lengthens out in h^ng strips
(see fig. 5, p. 16), and chains paralleling the edge of the bank. i. e.. the
direction and flow of the current, as far south as the " Tail " on the
forty-third parallel. The farther southward the pack drifts the
more open it becomes and likewise the shorter time it lasts. South of
the forty-fourth parallel it is very patchy and dismembered, surviv-
ing only a day or two. The latter part of March and the first of
April witness the deepest southern invasions.*"

Scattered floes from the ice tongues are continually being broken
away Ijy the prevailing westerly gales and driven across the continen-
tal edge into deep water, where the ocean swell and warm surround-
ings rapidly melt them away. A ship may report sighting patches of
pack in the morning, while another vessel passing the locality in the i
afternoon may see no signs of it at all. It is a well-established fact
that pack ice rarely, if ever, extends Avestward around the Tail of the
Grand Bank. Although the cold current might tend to carry the
ice in such a direction the strong westerly winds prevailing at this
time of the year are dominant. A floe of pack ice was reported to the
ice patrol in March, 1924, as 120 miles southeast of the Tail of the
Grand Bank.

The fields on the Grand Bank reach a maximum during April,
after which they recede, and by the latter part of the month or the
first of May extend no farther south than the northeastern part of
the Grand Bank. Under favorable conditions small fields of pack
may be sighted occasionally along the northern slopes of the Grand
Bank throughout May, but finally summer temperatures cause its'
complete disappearance. The distribution of pack ice tends to follow
the primary circulation of the water, which over the N^ewfoundland
Banks progresses as a number of vortices, one spilling over into thei
other. The winds always exert a great effect, tending to mask that
of the currents. A characteristic emliayment in the pack ice on
the Grand Bank is nearly always to be observed over the southwest-
ern slojDe, as shown on Figure 2T, page 53, where unmistakably
warmer Avater floods in from oif-shore.

Altliough in the open Atlantic the pack tends to scatter and'
many floes to drift away from the main fields, the ice, nevertheless,
retains considerable strengtli and is still an imposing spectacle. On
the Grand Bank, even as far south as the forty-fifth parallel, ships
may easily become imprisoned, with no water from tlie masthead asj
far as the eye can see.

If we examine a few of the glacons in more detail, we find that
all exhibit a more or less tabular shape, with some of the older pieces
hummockecl in round uneven contours. The glacons on the outen
edge of the pack, and scattered here and there in the open water, i
show evidences of the greatest deteriorations. ^Melting, however, of i
all the ice ]>rogresses much faster at the water line than above or
below, resulting in characteristic tabular and hourglass shapes. Thei
thinner, suialler ])ortion is always U])permost, not only on account
of e(|uilibrium but also because tlie ])ortion exposed to the air amli
to the sun in the cold water of spring melts faster than the parti
below Avater. The outward sloping form of the submerged under- 1

<» According to the Doutsche Sccwarto the most soutlioiiv iiciietration of pack ice was
in .\pril. 1S87, May. ISSr., and June, ISSi.' and ISS."., wlien it was sighted on the fortieth
paralli] near lona:itiide 40°. I

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 55

body easily exphiins its most serious threat to tlie propellers of ships.
Ill advanced sta<j:es of ineltino- the jilacoiis show many gracefully
rounded erosions, and continual licking of warm waves sculptures
the ice into fantastic shapes.

GTLF OF ST. LAWRENCE PACK

Pack ice from along the coast of Labrador enters through tiie
Strait of Belle Isle into the (nilf of St. Lawrence. How much enters
is problematical I)iit undoubtedly the indraft is greatest with easterly
winds when a continuous flood current has been observed for the
])eriod of a month. Westerly winds on the other hand tend to drive
the ice oil' into the Atlantic and to set n\) an outflow^ of the water.

^^u^uj^M

'^^Mg.l.*«wiy*t!g-

Pack ice Spreads Over Grand Bank South of Newfoundland

Figure 28. — Pack ice is carried ovei- a tliousaiul miles southward out ot Davis
Strait and into the North Atlantic every spring. The duration of pack ice so
far south is a matter of a few weeks only. This photograph was taken April 9,
1921. in latitude 4.">'' 50' N.. longitude 49° 20' W. A seal can be seen in one
of the floes. (Official photograph, international ice patrol.)

The normal circulation in the Strait of Belle Isle is an indraft
along the Quebec shore, and an opposite set along the Xewfound-
land side. From December to July, however, pack ice is liable to be
carried into the gulf, the largest contributions tending to hug the
Labrador coast on the northern side of the strait. Huntsman (1930,
p. 6) relates an occurrence in June, 1897. So much of the pack was
brought through the strait by favorable winds that Ashing was inter-
I'cred with for a distance of 150 miles around, although the wdiole
gulf had previously been open. If this can happen in summer, a
natural query is, how much greater quantities must enter during
winter, when conditions are probably more favorable?

River ice, gulf ice, and Davis Strait ice are mixed to form the
liulf covering. But in wdiat proportions these mix there, is not

720860—31 .-.

56 MAKIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

known. According to Huntsman (1930, p. T) the frigid character |
of the gulf is ahnost wholly due to the Davis Strait ice. either di-
rectly as it drifts in or indirectly as it cools the inflowing water.
The fact that the contributions from Davis Strait through Belle
Isle bestow an ic}'^ character on the Gulf of St. Lawrence is clearly
demonstrated by comparing the conditions there w'ith those of Hud-
son Bay. Although the latter is much farther north it remains com- '
paratively open except around it shores while the Gulf of St. Law-
rence is ice congested. The Strait of Belle Isle is ordinarily open
to navigation from July to December. The summer route through
the strait is much traveled because it provides a short ocean journey
to Europe. The mileage from Montreal to Liverpool, including two
days on inland w^aters, is 2,785, against 3,100 from Xew York.

Some of the patches of pack ice reported earliest in the season in
the western North Atlantic, sighted on the northern part of the
Nova Scotian shelf, have drifted out of the St. Lawrence through
Cabot Strait. The main body of this pack moves out past Cape
North and Scatari Island, on the Cape Breton side, and spreads
southerly toward Sable Island. (See Huntsman. 1930, p. 7.) An-
other branch, consisting mostly of sludge moves southwesterly
along the Nova Scotia coast, even as far as Halifax. But since its
presence is mostly due to favorable winds, its existence is brief.
Gla^ons and sludge in very small quantities have been known to
drift at rare intervals southward past Cape Sable, but such ice is '
rapidly melted and, according to Bigelow (1927, p. 698), never'
drifts into the Gulf of Maine. Strings of the St. Law^-ence pack
are often blown considerable distances ofl'shore. sometimes reaching '
the vicinity of Sable Island (as shown on fig. 27, p. 53). or even sur-'
rounding the island, but very seldom is any of this ice considered a'
menace to navigation. The ice patrol usually advises trans-'
Atlantic ships for Halifax to select a course south of Sable
Island, whereby they will avoid all dangerous ice.*^ Not only'
may the St. Lawrence pack be the first to drift out into the'
Atlantic during spring, but in the face of approaching summer'
it is usually the latest to disappear from the latitudes south of
Newfoundland. Its persistence is partly due to the tem]ierature of"
the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and of the inflow from the -
latter. The St. Lawrence pack may spread out from Cabot Strait
occasionally, over an arc from St. Pierre to the Cape Breton coast
in February to April, then gradually shrink to the mouth of Cabot '
Strait during May. The position and extent of the St. Lawrence'
pack attracts attention from the latter part of April until the middle
of May, due to the large number of steamships which are attempting
to force ])assage through it. The field may be described as follows:
(a) An outer zone consisting of loose sludge and glacjons broken by
numerous leads of open water and bounded ofl'shore by an arc from
Miquelon Island to Cape Canso; (h) an inshore zone of heavy pack
ice without leads, and wdth its outer edge following a convex curvef
from Cape Kay to Scartari Island; (c) the innermost zone, consist-|[(
ing of heavy rafted ice packed tightly in an effectual barrier. Cape( -

<i SmaU fiuantitios of pack ice of local oris'in foiin in certain sheltered areas along the'
eastern coast of the Ignited States as far st)wth as New York diirins unusuallv severe win
ters; e. «.. m Cape Cod Ray, in Vineyard Sound, and in Long Island Sourd. But tlit
extent ol tliese jiacks is very limited and their existence brief.

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS 57

Ray to Cape North. The ice is usually tiohtest on the Cape Breton
side of Cabot Strait, and loosest on the Newfoundland side. In light
ice years open water often extends northward from Cape Ray to tlie
Bay of Islands.

TThe St. Lawrence pack recedes in much the same manner that it
advanced, the lower gulf being blockaded longest by the ice floes.
After the river ice is broken up by the Canadian Government ice
breakers, an ice patrol of the gulf is established in order to furnish
the best information possible to entering ships. The ice conditions
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence are of great economic importance to
Canada, practically all of her overseas trade passing through this
waterway on its course to and from the river ports of Montreal and
Quebec. The gulf is usually safe for navigation by the first half
of May. and in some years even as early as the latter part of April.
N^avigation to Montreal and Quebec normally closes in the month of
December.

ANNVAL Variations in the Limits of Pack Ice in the Western North

Atlantic

The pack ice which drifts southward along Labrador blockading
the coast and often encircling Newfoundland is subject to great
annual variations. In some years the amount may be so small as
to be almost negligible while during others the fields are extensive.
Records for the past 350 years report important variations in the
annual limits of j^ack ice in the western North Atlantic. Martin
Frobisher, searching for a northwest passage to India in 1576,
encountered great floes and huge icebergs off southern Bafiin Land,
but in 1588 John Davis landed without difficulty at several points
along this normally icebound coast. Kane in 1853 found ice condi-
tions very favorable and thus was able to sail farther north between
Greenland and Ellesmere Land than any previous explorer, but
McClintock. four summers later, in the Fo,r following the usual
track across Melville Bay was nipped and held tightly in the pack
until released the next spring. The annual abundance of pack has
also been closely followed by the NcAvfoundland sealers who realize
that a scarcity of ice usually means a poor catch and small profits.
Trans-Atlantic ships have for years been re])orting ice sighted to
the hydrographic offices of their respective countries in the hopes of
greater common safety. The seventh international geographical con-
gress held at Berlin designated the Danish Meteorological Institute
at Copenhagen as the official repository of reports on ice conditions
in the Arctic regions. That institution publishes annually a digested
report on ice conditions, together with maps showing the pack-ice
limits by months. The Canadian signal service, from its posts in
Labrador and Newfoundland is keeping shipping advised daily of
ice conditions past these stations. The international ice patrol has
also recorded the boundaries of the pack south of Newfoundland
since 1913.

The variations in the limits of the pack ice ofl' Newfoundland have
been studied by Meinardus (11)06) ; Mecking (1906 and 1907) ; Schott
(1904 and 1904a) ; and Smith (1925 and 1926a). Meinardus (1905),
investigated what relationship prevailed between the annual amounts
of pack ice in the western North Atlantic and certain contemporary

58 MARION EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STltAIT AND BAFFIX BAY

changes in the intensity of the North Athuitic atmospheric circula-
tion, coming to the conchision that a weak circnhition of air from
Aiignst to February is followed by a relatively small amount of
pack ice off Newfoundland during the succeeding spring. After a
strong circulation during the fall and early winter months more
pack than usual spreads over the Grand Bank. His studies are
especially important because they are based on a series of yeai-s,
running back to 1S60. The scale is +'2 for a year of much ice. and
-2 for little ice, a closer comparison probably being impossilile due
to the nature of the material for the early years.

flecking (1906 and 1007) has published two important papers as
a result of a carefid study of ])ack-ice conditions in the northwestern
North Atlantic, and an investigation into the possible causes of the
annual variations for the period of 1880 to 1900. His data are
obtained from the following sources : United States Army Signal
Service, United States Hydi'ogra]ihic Office. United States Weather |
Bureau, and Deutsche Seewarte.

The records of these offices consist of the rei)orts of ice sigiited bv
trans-Atlantic ships on their regular voyages through the ice regions
off Newfoundland. The adoption of prescribed lane routes acros.>
the Atlantic in 18T5, their modihcation in 1898, and the present
method of seasonally shifting the tracks wdienever ice conditions are '
:i serious menace, are all modifying factors which must be given due ,
consideration in arriving at an accurate ice record over a period of '
many years. The fact that many reports often refer to the same '
Held or floe may result in duplication and so caution is needed for a i
correct compilation. Mecking has conclusively shown that the factor
chiefly controlling the variations in the limits of the spring pack ice
in the northwestern North Atlantic is the barometric gradient dur- _
ing the previous winter across the ice stream in the vicinity of the
Labrador coastal shelf. The assumption is that favorable winds
and currents during the colder months of the year over Labrador
will drive more pack ice than normal past Newfoundland in the
following spring. The agreement between the values of the iee ^
curves and the pressure gradients on his graphs is close. The sprint: i
of 1887 was, however, an exception when a great quantity of pack^
appeared off' Newfoundland, although the ])ressure gradient had aver-
aged weak during the preceding winter. This inconsistency. Meckiui: :
thinks, Avas due to the scarcity of icebergs which normally tend to
break up the pack ice, allowing it to drift freely. Also the year of,
1889 was ])eculiar in that j)ractically no pack ice drifted south of,
Newfoundland during the spring despite a favoi-able pressure gradi-
ent. INIecking attributes the inconsistency to the extremely warm
sunnner of 18.S.S which melted so much ice as to produce a deticienov
in the following spring. And in this respect this is the only case
recoi'ded when the temperature in one sunnner was noticed in the
crop of i^ack ice the succeeding spring.

Schott (1904, p. 305), with the aid of ship reports contained in
the files of the Deutsche Seewarte. icviewed the period 188(^-1891.
comparing each year of the series with icgard to (juantity of pju'k
ice off' Newfoundland. He agrees with Mecking that 1889 was an
umisual year, but lie points out that the pack appeared in Septem-
ber, to remain for the balance of the vear.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

59

Meckin^^ (1907. p. 11) fouiul that the pack ice off Xewfoundlaiul
in normal years reaches its maximum in Febniarv and then dimin-
ishes to a secondary, much lower maximum in May. The monthly

jjercentages during a normal year are :

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

9

37

18

13

14

5

2

1

0

0

0

0

The chief maximum results from the arrival ofi' Newfoundland
(if the accumulation of ice from Davis Strait in February. And by
calculating the rate of drift and the distance, he concludes that the
winds most effective in its transport ai'c those of December. A year
characterized by winds stronger than normal will not only advance
the date of this maximum but will also bring a greater abundance of
ice; weaker winds not only
postpone the maximum but
drive down less ice. The
date of the maximum may
vary from February to
May. or to even June in
some years. The second
inaxinuun he believes rep-
resents the ice which be-
came entangled among the
relatively slow m o v i n g
body of bergs, which may
delay the pack as much as
two or three months.

Ill the course of an in-
vestigation on the annual
variaticm of icebergs, con-
ducted by the international
ice patrol, data were com-
piled on the monthly rec-
ord of pack ice. Xo un-
mistakable evidence of a
<loul)le maximum of pack ice appears in the.se records, and in view
of the dispersal that takes place, especially *'- in the case of the ice-
bergs, in the course of a 1,500-mile journey, it seems unlikely that
^uch a secondary maximum should develop.

My own studv of the meteorological and ice conditions for the
period 18S0 to 1920 (Smith 1925. p. 229 and 1927. p. :^1), was based
on the data on file at the British ^leteorological Office and on the
ice records collected by Mecking (1907). by Schott (1904). by the
United States Hydrographic Office, aiul subsequent to 1913 by the
international ice patrol. The period investigated embraces 47 years,
a series of sufficient length to permit mathematical correlations and

K)D

Seasonal Variation in Pack ice in the
Western North Atlantic

FiiiUKE '2Q. — A graph represt^uting tlie rolative vol-
ume of pack ice by months "normally drifting
south of Newfoundland. This graph is based upon
ice sialited liv traiis-.\tlantie shipping. (Com-
piled i)V Mocking. IHOT.)

60

MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

thus to avoid any liability to bias. The correlation between the '
winter atmospheric oradient, Ivi<itut to Belle Isle, and the spring '
crop of pack ice south of Newfoundland was found to be +0.86.
(See pp. 180-189.)

Brooks and Quennell (1928, p. 33) besides investijjatin^^ the effect
of Arctic and Greenland Sea ice on European weather also studied ■
the effect of varying masses of pack ice and cold water introduced
off Newfoundland. They found :

1. Much pack ice off Newfoundland in the sprin^r. April to June,
tends to occur with low atmospheric pressure for the same period at
Iceland and hio;]i pressure at the Azores.

2. Much pack ice off Newfoundland in the sprino- tends to be fol-
lowed nine months later by high pressure over northern Norway and
low pressure over southern England. '

3. Much pack ice off Newfoundland in the spring tends to be fol-
lowed 15 months later by high ])ressure at the same places as (2).

Finally, the effect of ice off Newfoundland on the pressure over i-
western Europe is generally similar to that of the polar cap ice and '
of the (ireenland Sea pack, but as might be supposed, is much less
pronounced. The correlation coefficients between ice off Newfound-

■

""

^

'

""

"

"

"

"

'

~

7^

1

\

j

^

\

-

^

1

\

j

/

\

)

\

/

1

t^

-'

/

j

\

1

'

\

1

V

j

/

N

T 1

/

\

\

}

\,

/

\

>

\,

j

N

/

\-*

'^

/

\

\

/

^

^

\

/

'

a

■t

S '

i

) r

S ■<

V

»

)

1

s •<

i

1

i '

c

S 4

k ~

3

c

^ 4 .

i>

i 1

<»

Pack-Ice Graph for the Western North Atlantic

Figure 30. — A graph representing the rehitive fimouuts of pack ice south of New-
foundlauci by years, 1880-1927. The data upon which this graph is based was
taken from Mecking (1906) for the years 1880-1900. and since then from the
records and the researches of the international ice patrol.

land, April to June, and pressures at Vardo, Valencia, and Berlin,
June to March, of 30, 20, and 31, respectively, are not high, yet may
have some small value for forecasting European weather.

LAND ICE

Glacier ice, formed from precipitation on land, is of great impor-
tance as the source of icebergs. Under the present distribution of
temperature and snowfall over the earth, the permanently ice-
decked lands lie mostly within the polar regions. The greatest single
ice sheet in the Nortliern Hemisphere is that which overlies (ireen-
land, in area equal to all lands east of the Mississippi River and south
of the St. Lawrence River. Greenland is the ])rincipal source of tlio
icebergs that are found drifting in the North Athintic ami in its
tributary seas.

The treatment of icebergs must necessarily include their general
distribution in time and i)lace. their form, size, color, markings,
volumes of flotation, manner of disintegraticm. etc.. all dependintj to
a great degree upon conditions which existed long before the ice- |
berg was l)orn. Chamberlin. Drygalski. Koch. Priestley, de Qiier- j
vaiu. llobbs. iiud uiauv otlici-s have carried out notable observations

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

61

and studies on polar g]aciolo«iy. It is mainly from this literature
that the follo\vini>- classification is taken. Practically all the various
forms in which ^-laciers have been observed may "be classified as
follows :

(a) Cachment, hatiging, eirqtic^ or <"vr//v., a glacier occuj)ying a
small depression on a slope.

(b) Alpine. — The common valley glacier.

{(') Plateau or highJand.- — Spreading from one or- moi-e cachment
basins over a level plateau.

{(l) Piedmont. — A coalescence of ice masses in cachment basins,
or of glaciers at the foot of a descent.

[e) Inland ice. — All land forms hidden.

(/) Ice-foot or snoic-drJft glacier. — Wrapped about foot of
mountains.

{g) Shelf ice. — Accumulation of snow on fast ice of protected
coastal shelf.

A Comparison Between the Antarctic and the Arctic Ice Sheets

Figure 31. — The profile oi' Antarctica, above, when compared witli that of Greenland,
below, reveals a striking dissimilarity in the general form of the ice sheets. The
fcrmer with its marginal overflow, causes the ice to calv>2 many huge tabular Ice-
bergs. In the north, however, the ice edge characteristically ends on land, and
glaciers plowing across the uneven foreland produce irregular, pictun sque-shaped
icebergs. (Figure after Priestley and Koch.)

The first five forms have a wide distribution in polar regions, but
the last belongs to the antarctic. The ice-foot or snow-drift glacier
should not be confused with the ordinary ice foot which is so com-
mon in the north, the latter consisting of salt-water ice formed on
a chilled shore line near the tide line. (See p. 23.) The ice-foot
glacier is seldom found in the north. Dift'erences in certain underly-
ing factors specific to the region develop corresponding differences in
the features of the ice. As an example of one of these agencies we
can point to the low mean annual air temperature which prevails
in the Antarctic. The warmth of the arctic summer has no parallel
in the far south and mainly because of this thermal difference the
ice sheets of the north polar regions are unlike those of the south-
ern. The margin of Antarctica's cap. overflowing its land support,
is free to spread over the sea until fracture detaches huge strips,
sometimes including 10 to 20 miles of its front. In Greenland, by
contrast, the edge of the inland ice ends on land, and glacier tongues
are deformed as they plough across the uneven foreland so that their

62 MAlilOX EXrKDITlOX TO DAVIS STltAIT AND BAFFIX BAY

icebergs are irregular in shape. The box-shaped berg is. therefore,
in general, characteristic of the Antarctic, as tlie pinnacled, pictur-
esque type is of the north.

We have called attention to the fact that Greenland is the only land
of continental size in the Northern Hemisphere which supports an
ice sheet.^^ At first thought it may seem surprising that other
extensive land areas, some of Avhich lie much nearer the pole tlian
does this seat of glaciation. remain nevertheless quite bare. Thus the
northern sections both of Greenland and of Ellesmere Land are desti-
tute of an icy covering. The white colored areas on Figure 11,
j)age 20, indicate regions of glaciation. Similarly the American
Arctic Archipelago is for the most part ice free, notwithstanding its
frigid climate. Labrador, with its low mean summer temperature
of 6.9° C. (44. r>- F.). and its position in the summer path of low
pressures, might also be expected to exhibit an ice covering, lint
actually shoAvs only a few small cirque glaciers in the T<»rn<];at
Mountains. High latitude, obviously, is not the only glacial require-
ment; there are several other fundamental climatic factors involved
such as precipitation, elevation, distribution of land and Avater. pre-
vailing Avinds. and ocean currents. Also, from a topographical stand-
{joint. a region must not be exposed to prevailing winds of a Aclocity
that the snow is blown away before it has had time to accunudate and
build an ice sheet. Another glacial proldem awaiting solution, in the
case of the ice caps of Antarctica and of (ireenland is. hoAv can they
be continually renewed when the ice itself tends to create a cushion of
high atmospheric pressure, thereby tending to decrease the precipita-
tion and so to lessen its own source of replenishment ? Several theo-
ries have been advanced by Simpson, Hobbs, Meinardus. and othei».
but as yet no observations or conclusive eA'idence has been collected.

The snoAV and neve material, as they gradually accumulate, form
a nucleus, and increasing in mass and thickness until finally the
topographical features of the hinterland may be entirely obliterated,
while the force of gravity causes the edges of the ice sheet to creep
forAvard and outAvard along the paths of least resistance. This, in
brief, is the history of the present 700,000 square mile Greenland
Dome, and also of other similar areas of glaciation on the earth.

Greenland contains 90 per cent of the land ice of the north polar
regions Avith the remaining 10 per cent lying largely around the
shores of Baffin Bay. Smaller i.solated areas are found on Prince
Patrick Island and Melville Island, in the direction of the Beaufort
Sea. Ice covers the Eurasian polar sectoj- in Spitsbergen. Franz
Josef Land. Novaya Zemlya. Nicholas II Land, the Ncav Silu'riiUi
Islands, and the DeLong group. The ice sheets of Iceland and Nor-
way, the only other glaciated lands Avithin the Arctic ciicde, are con-
fined to the momitain plateaus, never reaching the sea.

Glaciation in Arctic Eurasia

In discussing the distribution of land ice, Si)itsl)ergeu deserves
special mention as possessing two types of coA'er. Its nortliAvestern
part has numerous alpine glaciers separated by ridges and peaks:

" Stofansson (1022. p. l^ii in leiuarkinj: on tlu' proportion of northorn lands that are
glaciated, a(i<ls tliat most people visualize rlie far north as eoniplelelv eovered with gla-
ciers. He itoints out. however, that Oreenl.-ind is the only laud that really is e.xtremeiy
glaciated, and the total animal snowfall of Ellesmere Land, the sei-ond hupst island in ^„
the polar refjions, is barely one tenth of that of St. Louis, Mo.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 63

while North East Land is almost conii)letely ice covered (see Hoel,
1929). The ice tonoues in Spitsl)er^en move very slowly, finally de-
bouching" into the bays and fjords with glacier front Avails not higiier
than 50 feet, and this slow rate combined with the low front yields
only rather small icebergs. There are practically no glaciers in north-
western vSpitsljergen which produce icebergs. Tlie most productive
berg glacier known in Spitsbergen discharges at the head of Storf jord
and is called Negri, but nothing is know^n regarding the number of
bergs that are calved. There are several glaciers on the eastern coast
of North East Land w hich are productive ; and King James Glacier on
tlie eastern extremity of Edge Island contributes a number of bergs

A Spitsbergen iceberg

FiGUEE 3:2. — An icebers ralved from a Spitsljcr^vn jilacier. sighted May 31, 1929, on
the northward side ot Bear Ishmd. This is said to he one of tlie largest hergs
sighted in the Siiitsbergen or North East Land regions in several years. Its
dimensions of Z<- feet high by 150 feet long place it as only about one-fifth the
size of the largest bergs found in the northwestern Atlantic waters. (Photograiih
by Capt. Thor Iversen. l

annually. Very little is known regarding the number of berg?
that are released each year from Spitsbergen waters because they are
far removed from the paths of navigation and therefore do not
elicit especial interest. Capt. Thor Iversen. of the Norges Fiskeries,
who has spent several summers in Spitsbergen waters, writes me that
the small Ijergs typical of the region drift southwestward. and nor-
mally can be found in fair numbers from May until October around
Bear Island. ^^ The hydrographical observations of the Norwegian

"Captain Iversen says in a letter that the summer of 1929 was quite unique in that
bergs and pack ice were much more plentiful than common. It is seldom for bergs to be
sighted from the northwest coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula, but several strayed there
in 1929. The drift of such ice south of Bear Island and along the Murmansk coast must
nave been due to the unusual winds and currents that w'ere experienced that year. It is
also Captain Iversen's observation and opinion that many bergs are detained temporarily
in their drift bv the ridge which runs between Bear Island and Edge Island and Hoce
Island.

64

MARIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Fisheries Department are now being prepared for publication, and
wlien completed they will materially increase our knowledge of the
movement of the pack ice and icel^ergs in Spitsbergen and adjacent
waters.

Franz Josef Land (recently renamed Fridtjof Xansen Land),
lying at tlie extreme end of the North Atlantic atmospheric depres-
sion, is wholly glaciated and several of its tidewater glaciers produce
icebergs stated to reach a height of 60 feet, but the number of bergs
is small. The northern half of Novaya Zemlya is also ice decked,
with high and wide ice fronts reaching the sea at many points along

A Tidewater Glacier of Siberia

FiGuiJR 3:>. — TIkx only lceberg-producii)g glacier in tlie eastern Eurasian sector.
'I'liis liiacit r is located on the nortli side of Bennett Island, north of the New
Silii^riau Islands, and discharges a few small icebergs. (Photograph taken from
the Itussiau hydrographical expedition, 1910-1915.)

the coast, though its bergs are usually small. Nothing is known
regarding the iceberg procluctivity of the west coast of Nichohis II
Land. Its east coast, however, is known to have glaciers which pro-
(hice icebergs, two or three score having been observed along the
sliore, even south wai-d to Chelyuskin Strait in 1913 by the Russian
hydrographical e.xpcdition.

Nicholas II Land, therefore, according to our present limited
knowledge, i-anks higher than Spitsbergen and Franz ,Iosef Land
as regards iceberg ])roductivity. Bennett Island, made famous by
the loss of Baron Toll, is glaciated in its southern half where along
the coast few glaciers reach the sea. There is one ice tongue sorae-
wliat larger than the others, which ])i-()bably accounts for the few

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 65

small iiisi,<j;nili<'ftnt bergs observed near Bennett Island by the Rus-
sians in the summer of 1912. The New Siberian Islands, while not
ice covered, are the site of several clilfs of fossil ice which is, of
course, without movement. The DeLong Islands and Wrangel
Island, whose glaciers produce no bergs, completes the list of land-
ice areas in Eurasian polar regions.

"With the exception of the one small glacier on Bennett Island,
not a single iceberg is produced along the Eurasian coast east of
Cape Chelyuskin.*^ From our slight knowledge of the currents, the
Franz Josef Land bergs should be carried westerly toward Spits-
bergen, and the Spitsbergen bergs should, in turn, contribute to the
total (juantity of ice feeding into the east Greenland current. On
the otlier hand the comparatively weak character of the circulation,
especially in the eastern part of this area, argues that neither Franz
Josef Land or Spitsbergen bergs are carried far. Many of these
bergs, therefore, remain in the fjords and strand along the coasts.
Compared to the great volume of glacial ice discharged from east
Greenland, the possible contributions from Spitsbergen are minute.

The total area of tidewater glaciation of the northeastern sector of
the North Atlantic is approximately 4 per cent of that of Greenland.
On the basis of a productivity of 15,000 bergs for Greenland the
northeastern sector contributes a total of 600 bergs annually.

Glaciation in Ellesmeke Land

One of the previously mentioned factors which determines the
extent of glaciation ; the altitude ; is clearly revealed on the American
side of Baffin Bay and Davis Strait. Ellesmere Land, deeply in-
trenched in the polar regions, presents only its east and south coasts
for cursory view. From the decks of their ships, often kept away by
menacing floes and fields. Ross, Kane, Hall, and others have recorded
the general coastal picture. Due to its natural inaccessibility, the
interior of Ellesmere Land has been seen by few explorers, among
whom are Greely, 1881-1884; Peary, 1898-1902 ; Sve'rdrup, 1898-1902;
MacMillan. 1917: and Byrd and MacMillan by airplane in 1925.
The main glaciation is grouped about two reservoirs, one in the
central and the other in the southeastern cjuarter of Ellesmere Land.
According to Greely (1886, p. 273), Grant Land, the northern fourth
of the island, is ice free, except for a few small glaciers in the United
States Riinge, which are not tidewater. Grinnell Land, the subdivi-
sion next south, embraces a shield of ice called " Mer de Glace
Agassiz." traced from near Archer Fjord across to Greely Fjord
and tlience southeastwards where the ice discharges around the shores
of Princess jNIarie Bay. The vicinity of Bach Peninsula, and a belt
to the westward, is unglaciated. The discharging points for the
northern reservoir, in order north to south, are Eugenie, Parish, Sven
Hedin. and Benedict Glaciers.

The southeastern cjuarter of the Ellesmere Land, a plateau of some
thousand or more feet in elevation, is known to be glaciated from
the explorations and reports of Sverdrup (1904). Beginning at the

*-Tiansehe (1025, p. 396) has discussed the question whether a large proportion of the
jceberKs sighted around Nicholas II Land in 1913 and 1914 did not consist of bergs that
had Ikm'h c;n-ri(nl th(>re from Novava Zemlya and Franz Josef Land by an extension of tlie
Nortli Cape current. The evidence being so meager causes the discussion, although stimu-
Inting, to be more or less hypothetical.

66

MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

head of Beistad Fjord and proceedinjr out along the south side oi
Hayes Sound we pass Sands. Bjorne, Soesterne, Sty<rge. Svarte, and
Fram Glaciers, the latter of Avhicli caps the point oi)])osite Sabine

The Tidewater Glaciers of Ellesmere land

FuiUkE 84. — Ellesmere Laud supports two uialn reservoirs of iuland ico from which ai
total of 24 sizable glaciers discharge along the eastern coast. The numlier of sizable >
icebergs calved annually is estimated to b? the relativel\ siiiall number of l."0.

Island. The mountain peaks alon<2: this coastal foreland rise highi
above a dozen or more unnamed smaller valley glaciers oiving the sec-
tion a very beautiful ali)ine landscape. jMaciMillan (1918) (1928)
states that he counted and mapped 42 tidewater glaciers between Capei

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 67

Sabine and Clai-enee Head. Unfortunately no map of his work has
■\ cr been published, but from various other sources (Peary, 19(J3) and
(Sverdrup. 1904) we have been able to locate several which in order,
north to south are: Lefferts. Alfred Newton, Bliss, James, Sparks,
American Museum, John Ross, American Geographical Society, and
scNcral unnamed aiaciers. Three unnamed glaciers lie soutli of
( larence Head. Mac:Millan (1918, p. 302) states that the whole
•oast line around Boger Point, latitude 77° 25' N., is one vast pied-
mont glacier, this the one named in honor of the American Geo-
graphical Society (see fig. 35) ; it measuring about 20 miles across
the front. Deeply penetrating the coast Between Boger Point and
(Marence Head. Constable Makinson of the Royal Canadian Mounted
Police (see Annually. 1928) has recently discovered and mapped a
-pacious inlet (see fig. 34). Inside of Clarence Head, that is in a
iiortliwesterly direction, the coastal foreland is low and covered with
several unnamed glaciers. The southern coast of EUesmere Land,
forming the northern side of the 35-mile wide Jones Sound, is more
or less glaciated but few, if any, tongues extend to the sea except the
I^otn Glacier neai- South Caj^e. The east and south coasts of Elles-

V^'//?'

Afj Ellesmere Land Glacier

Figure 35. — The l,ir,nt'st known ti.l'W.itcr ;ilaciei- in Elle8mere Laud, which oceasion-
aUy disoharjifs a few iceberjis uC small size into Smith Sound. This ghicier, named
In honor of the American (ico^raphical Society and located in latitude 77° 30' N..
has a low front 20 miles in length. Its iceberg productivity when compared with
some of the glaciers of west Greenland is negligible. (Photograph by D. B. Mac-
Millan. I

mere Land, accordin<r to the foregoing survey, contains an estimated
total of about 60 tidewater glaciers.

The extent of the Ellesmere Land ice caps with the number, size,
and rate of movement of its glaciers is an important question. It
Avould be very interesting to know, for example, whether or not
Ellesmere Land contributes materially to the supply of North At-
lantic icebergs, and also in wdiat proportions. The fact that the
eastern coast of this island is located at the northern end of the
great ice stream to lower latitudes, offers any icebergs that are dis-
charged there a direct route for 1,700 miles downstream to the
Grand Bank. Little or nothing has ever been published on the ice-
berg productivity of Ellesmere Land. MacMilian who follow'ed the

68 MAIIIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

entire coast from Sabine Island to Clarence Head has informed me
that in his opinion only one jilacier in this district is sufficiently active
to discharge any bergs, namely, the American Geographical Society
Glacier, located at Boger Point. But even this one is quite sluggish
and of low front.*" MacMillan (1928, p. 429) also gives an estimate
of 3 feet per day as the rate of an Ellesmere Land glacier. Except
foi' one clue, we are also equally ignorant of the iceberg productivity
of the glaciers from Cape Sabine northward. Sverdrup (1904, sup-
plementary map) and Peary (1903, supplementary map), both of
whom have visited the region around Buchanan and Princess Marie
Bays, report the presence of a considerable number of scattered bergs.
The general funnellike configuration of Smith Sound, and the
consequent course of the circulation, more or less precludes the
drift of bergs to this locality from points south of the seventy-
eighth parallel. And, if that source is eliminated, the only other
distant point of discharge from which these bergs could have come
is the Humboldt Glacier on the opposite side of Kane Basin. But
the probability of bergs from that quarter is also slight, for the
Humboldt is penned in by sea ice for several years at a time. It
appears from the foregoing that the most logical sources of the
icebergs found scattered in Ellesmere Land coastal waters are the
local glaciers. It would not be surprising, therefore, to learn that
Ellesmere Land contributes a significant number of bergs to the Xorth
Atlantic quota. According to MacMillan (1918, p. 302) one Elles-
mere Land glacier, in latitude 77° 10', is advancing, as ice was found
spreading out from the shore there, overriding Saunders Island,
which on the British Admiralty Chart of 1853 is separated by 4
miles from the coast.

Glaciation in Axel Heiberg Land

The southern part of Axel Heiberg Land, called Easter Land, is
ice capped on the National Geographic map of tlie Arctic regions
(1925), but Mecking (1928, p. 227) states that glaciation is almost
entirely lacking there. Our present-day knowledge of this land is
very meager, but it is doubtful if any icebergs are produced. Its
inaccessibility to the Labrador current, moreover, makes it of little
interest in the present discussion.

Glaciation in Devon Island

The eastern third of Devon Island, rising to an altitude of 3.000
feet, is glaciated. According to Low (1906. p. 50), the glaciers are
most numerous around Croker Bay on the southeastern coast, where
a few discharge into Lancaster Sound, even as far west as Cununin<r
Ci-eek. Further west the inland ice recedes from the coast. In the
|)ai)ers relating to the search for Sir John Franklin, compiled by the
British Govei-nment, references are made to a glacier on the north-
western extiemity of the island, also to three others along the west-
ern coast. It apj)ears, therefore, that Devon Island is ice (•ai)j3ed
in its central portions, sufficiently at least, to send out a few glaciers

^« Lauge Koch in a letter to me says: "The Eskimos iu tlie Cape York district informed
me from observations made diirint; l)ear luintin;; aloiii; tlie east coast of Ellesmere Land
(hat iipposilc Cape I'arry (Creenland) there is a rather larue, fairlv productive ,i,'lacier.
This piiMT ,,( iiil(irniation asr«*s fairly well with MacMillan"s account. Cape Parry. Oreen-
land. Iieinn in aliout the same latitude as llie American (;eoi;rai)hical Societv (ilacier. The
Eskimos, liowever. apparently believe the American Oeojjraphical Societv (ilacier to be
more productive than does MacMillan.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 69

to the Avestern shores. But i:)ractically nothing is known regarding
the productivity of these. It is safe, however, to say that its western
<rlaciers are of little consequence as far as contributory bergs to
Baffin Bay, but the berg character of the glaciers debouching into
Croker Bay is not so certain. The British Admiralty Chart of the
Arctic Sea dated 1853 shows a tidewater glacier on the east coast of
Devon Island, just north of Philpot Island.

Glaciation in Bylot Island

The proximity of this island to Baffin Land really makes it fall
in the same class as the latter, as far as glaciation is concerned.
Mountain ranges 2,200 feet in altitude slope north and south, provid-
ing a central ice cap and valley glaciers. It is almost certain, how-
ever, that none of these reach sea level, thus eliminating Bylot Island
as a possible source of iceberg discharge.

Glaciation in Baffin Land

Northern Baffin Land between Admiralty and Navy Board Inlets
supports an ice cap but the chart of this region does not show any out-
let of tidewater glaciers. Low (1906. p. 60) describes a glacier at the
head of Erik Fjord, in Eclipse Sound, a mile in wndth. Its motion
is said to be slow and despite its 100-foot high front, the few bergs
calved are small. Rasmussen (1926, p. 554) has reported the presence
of an ice cap in the highlands east of Albert Harbor, and according
to the Eskimos, there is a still larger glaciated area back of Scott Inlet
in longitude 71° W. This ice is aj^jjarently wholly inland, as no
glaciers are known to extend down to sea level. Small local glaciers^
however, have been observed in a few places, for instance, north of
Low Point and at Oliver Sound which faces southeastward toward
Eclipse Sound. The ice cover of Baffin Land proper is heaviest on
the eastern side of the midland ridge which runs lengthwise of the
island, but even here the glaciation is deeply serrated in places, and

' many bare lower areas lie in the foreground. Several glaciers, accord-

I ing to Mecking (1928, p. 216) descend on each side of the backbone
of ice on Cumberland Peninsula, but no icebergs of consequence are
produced. Stefansson (1912, p. 13) says "the glaciers of Baffin
Island are comparable in size to the glaciers in British Columbia."

I Capping the ridge between Frobisher Bay and Hudson Strait, lies the
81-mile Grinnell Glacier from which, in longitude 68° W., one barren

. alpine tongue descends to Hudson Strait. This is the southernmost
glacier of any size on the American side of Davis Strait, Labrador

I having only small patches of ice in the high mountain cachements of

' its northern section.

Summarizing the American side of Baffin Bay and Davis Strait ;
none of the areas of glaciation there, viz. Ellesmere Land. Axel Hei-
berg Island, Prince Patrick Island, Melville Island. Devon Island.

' Bylot Island, Baffin Island, or Labra'dor are important sources of

I iicebergs, *' except Ellesmere Land, and little information is available
as to the rate of productivity of the latter. It is estimated that 150
bergs are produced annuallv from the American side of Baffin Bay
and Davis Strait.

"Mecking (1906, p. 62) comments as follows: "In Americanischen Arktischen Archipel
sind zwar auch einige Gletscher gefunden, welche Eisberge abwerfen, so Z. B., Von Kane
''•'^^^ornwallis, von Sverdrup im Heureka-Sond und del' Westseite des Smlth-Sund, aber
auch diese Quellen tieten ganzlich in deni Iliiiteigrund."

70

MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Glaciation in Greenland

Greenland, sixtli lar<i:est of continents. (lischar<2:es every year some-
thin*;: like ir).000 sizable iceber^js. The continent, with the American

Arctic Archipelago, is so
placed that it nearly blocks
off polar commnnication on
the west, but w^ith Spitz-
ber^ren to the east it forms
a connection between the
Atlantic and the polar
basins. 245 miles in width.

The (reneral j^hysiography
of Greenland and of its ice
sheet, the ]K)ints of iceberg
dischar<re. and the approxi-
mate number of bergs pro-
duced in time and place are
discussed in the following
pages but other subjects not
so closely related to ice-
bergs, such as the origin of
the inland ice. its tempera-
ture, structure, snow limits,
mechanics of motion, etc..
are omitted as leading too
far afield.

Our }u'esent knowledge of
the inland ice comes from
the records of various short
excursions toward the in-
terior, and also from nearly
a dozen complete crossings
between the east and west
coasts. If we exclude the
northern unglaciated sec-
tion, composed of sedimen-
tary layers, practically all
of ' the plateau on which
the inland ice lies is of
gneiss, sloping gently to-
ward the northwest. Basalt
outpourings of the Tertiary
l)eriod are visible around
the unglaciated fringe on
the western side at Disko
Hay and on the east coast
in the vicinity of Scoresby
Sound and Jameson Land.
Koch (1028. 1). 488) con-
structed h)ngitudinal eleya-
ti(ms of the continent, using
as ordinate values the heights of the land along each coast. These
profiU's plaiidy show the general sliai)e of tlie hind border as it slopes
tVom the soutli toward tiie north, but prol)al)ly the most imi)ortant
physiographical point revealed on them is the V-shai)ed cut midway

5

The Topography of the Greenland Ice
AND A Transverse Section

Fkuue o(i. — Thf ice cap is composed of two
and possibly tlirci^ domes. aU of wliicli obtain
the fii-catest altitnde In the south, with inoiv
;;ra<lually decending slopes facing the nortli.
( I'Mgurc after de Qnervain and Mercantoii.

SCIEN-TIFIC RESULTS 71

between Cape Farewell and the opposite northern extremity. A top-
oora})hic map of the ice sheet, moreover, shows a fairly good agree-
luent with the coast jn'ofiles. establishing beyond reasonable (bubt
that Greenland, as well as its ice cap. is crossed from Disko Bay to
near Angmagssalik by a great transverse depression. This conti-
nental crease is believed to be of great imp<n-t;uice in converging the
ice and in concentrating the maxinnnu discharge of icebergs near
the seventieth parallel of latitnde on both coasts.

Knowledge of the topography of the ice sheet is not yet complete.
Apparently there are two main domes of glaciation, one in the north-
central part and the other in the south-central part with altitudes of
9.750 and 8,775 feet, respectively. A third center of doubtful alti-
tude and position is believed to lie in the region north of Angmags-
salik, but in any case it does not interfere with the major depres-
sional feature which appears to be well established. An accurate
east to west profile of the ice cap made by de Quervain shows a con-
vexity from the thickest portions which lie slightly to the eastward
of the continental median line. The ice is fed mostly in the high
mountains of the east, which are themselves submerged by inland ice
even to their tops. The west side of Greenland, on the other hand,
is the region of dissipation, both because of the topography and
of the warm climate, the mean annual temperature of the west: coast
of Greenland being much higher than is that of the east. In general
contour, the cap is noticeably flattened in the interior, but near the
edges the slope is steeper, the eastern descent being short while the
western slope is longer. Thus the main mass of ice moves toward
Baffin Bay and Davis Strait. Preliminary seismic soundings made
on the inland ice of west Greenland (see Wegener. 1930) indicate
that although the ice rises toward the interior, the continental bed-
rock is depressed there. The fjord systems of Disko Bay and
Xortheast Bay, between parallels 69 and 72, extend inland under the
cap for a known distance of at least 100 miles and perhaps farther,
the formative effect of this topography being clearly traceable in the
configuration of the ice surface. The movement of the ice upon
reaching these drainage basins is noticeably increased through the
various valley systems, as many active glaciers feeding into the sea.
The volume of the annual discharge from the west coast fjord system
is estimated to be equivalent to that of the river system before
glaciation prevailed. ^-

Brooks (1923, p. -145) using de Quervain's and other data con-
cludes that the Greenland ice cap is not a relic of the ice age, but
is fully maintaining itself at present. He shows that the snow line,
situated about 50 miles in from the western edge, divides the cap
into a central interior called the accumulator, and a marginal dissi-
pator. The accumulator is estimated to receive annually through
Drecipitation an increment of ice 36 centimeters in mean thickness.
The reduction of thickness in the dissipator ranges from a maximum
of 2 meters around the edge of the cap to zero at the snow line, or an
average of 95 centimeters over tlie whole width of the 50-mile margin.
The wastage takes place in two ways — 75 per cent is al)lation by in-
solation and wind and 25 per cent is attributed t<i calvings of the tide-

*niecking (1928, p. 251 » gives an exceUent description of the actual appearance of the
surface features of the inland ice.

120860—31 n

72 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

water glaciers. Little definite change in the extent or thickness
of the inland ice appears in historic records, but there is geological
evidence in the position of erratics around Disko to indicate that
glaciation was once much stronger there than it is to-day. Tlie
marginal advances and retreats of the inland ice are slow with no
two localities exhibiting exactly the same characteristics. Jacob-
shavn Glacier, in Disko Bay for example, has, except for one
interruption, shortened by about 10 miles, in 22 years, 1880-1902.
wdiile during this same period. Brother John Glacier in northwest
Greenland lias been reportetd as advancing. Wegener (1930) found |j|
that during the last 35 years a considerable retirement had occurred |
along the fronts of the Disko and Northeast Bay outlet glaciers from
the inland ice, but small isolated glaciers, e. g., those of Nugsuak
Peninsula, had not changed materially.

The topography of the land bordering the outer margin of the .
ice cap governs the general form, size, and rate of production of
icebergs. The inland ice. in some places, worms its way down to |
the coast through deep-carved fjords while in other sections it j
overflows all land features directly into the sea. The outward ex- ,
pansion from the vast central reservoir results in marginal wastage,
ranging from melting by the sun and air to the calving of huge
masses, millions of tons in weight. Notwithstanding the great
length of the fragmenting periphery, we on the Marion expedition
w-ere struck by the relatively few definite iceberg producing points.
Quantitatively, it is estimated that 10 to 20 per cent of the solid
annual output from the ice cap is released as sizable icebergs.
Along the coast of west Greenland, for example, only 22 of the
100 and odd glaciers are known to be iceberg producing with one
group of these, 6 in number, accounting for 70 per cent of the j,
total annual output. As yet we know very little about the con- i
ditions that would transform a tidewater glacier wdth a small dis- I
charge into a point of great productivity, or vice versa. This is
not wholly a question of mass or of rate of motion, since the 'y
Ekip-Sermia Glacier we had the opportunity of visiting in the
Igclloluarsuit, Disko Bay, west Greenland, possessed both these quali-
fications, yet no sizable pieces of ice Avere calved. An important part
must be played by the ice fjords themselves, because some of the best
known iceberg producers are characterized b}- spacious, well-worn beds
that mold themselves smoothly into easy, outer embayments across the
coastal foreland. The boldly cut incisions along the western side of
Greenland l)etween the sixty-ninth and seventy-second parallels, the
heart of the iceberg country, provide deep-draft channels from which
the bergs have easy access to Davis Strait and to Bafhn Bay. The pro-
(hiction of icebergs we believe does not necessarily follow from the
presence of an ice cap even that the size of Greenland's; an essential
condition is topography of a sort providing favorable debouchment.

In studying the degree and rate of iceberg productivity of tide-
water glaciers it is convenient to divide Greenland into six districts,
as follows :

East. GiTonlaml Northeast Foreland te Caiie Faiewell.

North Greenlaiid Indeiiendeiice Fjord to Cape Ah'xander.

Wesleriunost Greenland Cajie Alexander to Cajie York.

Melville Bay Cape York to Svarlenhuk Peninsida.

Northeast and Disko Bays Svartenhuk I'eninsula to Kiredesniiiule.

►South Greenland Eiiedesniinde to Cape Farewell.

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS 73

The oiitstandino; feature of the east Greeuhind district is the
(leoree to which to])o<rrai)hy interferes with the moveiuents of the
ber<r«. The east coast <.daciers, many of wliich are rejjorted as
i('eher<r }jr()dncin<r. are ureatly modified by a snbnier<^ed threshohl
which bottles \\\) all but the very small bergs until they have partially
or completely disintegrated. Icebergs which are discharged froiii
the deeper fjords of east Greenland are also often blockaded by pack
ice which prevents their escape during a large part of the year.
Lastly the wind (Greenland lies on the northwestern side of the great
"Icelandic mininuim") tends to blow the pack ice and to hold the
liergs on shore.

The north Greenland glaciers average large, but dammed up by
])ack ice and frozen solid by " sikussak " (p. 24) no large bergs can
calve. Most of the ice streams are backed by a flat, slow, spreading
ice sheet which naturally has little tendency toward movement. The
cap itself ends along miles of high precipitous walls, but where the
glaciers extend out. they do so in broad, flat tongues the floatinuf ends
of which merge into the fast ice. Xo icebergs are ever foi'med under
such conditions.

The westermnost district is characterized l)y a great number of
small glaciers which have little movement. Tiiis sluggishness is due
not so much to blockades from the sea. as lack of a head from the
inland ice reservoirs.

Melville Bay glaciers are numerous and the ice fronts the sea in
greater proportion than in any other region. A few of the glaciers
exhibit a high rate of productivity but the littoral is beset by many
off-lying skerries, and many years have been recorded wdien fast
ice completely barred egress to the sea.

The Northeast Bay and the Disko Bay district is characterized
as the most ]>roductive region of icebergs in Greenland. It is like-
wise known for three distinctive types of ice fjords:

{a) Glaciers which slope steeply down to the fjord. Example :
Sermilik Glacier.

(6) Glaciers which flow down on to a foot forming a short .step
on the foreshore. Example: Great Karajak Glacier.

(c) Glaciers having a continuous easy descent from the inland
ice to the sea. Example : Jacobshavn Glacier.

The bottom of tlie Jacobshavn Valley and upper fjord is featured
by an easy gradual slope, an important condition w^e believe, which
favors the production of large icebergs. The noted oscillation of
(he glacier, often stretching far out before calving, is another indica-
tion of the lack of disorderly fracturing. A glacier flowing down a
steep and uneven declivity, on the other hand, suffers many interrup-
tions to the stream flow, and only small pieces of ice float away. The
many small-size fjords of southern Greenland usually have one or
more glaciers discharging at their head. The narrowness and shal-
lowness of most of this class, however, forms only small insignificant
bergs, scarcely larger than growlers that seldom escape from the
fjord.

EAST GREENLAND GLACIERS

Owing to the inaccessibility of the east coast of Greenland, our
knowleclge of its iceberg-discharging glaciers and of their productiv-
ity is less complete than for the west coast. First, many of the

74 MARIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

bergs are held near their sources by intricate coastal cachnients, and
secondly, those that do escape seldom, if ever, drift so deeply into
lower latitudes that they attain the more populated tracks of ships.
There are also some basic differences in the ice line of the two coasts.
The inland ice crowds closer to the sea along the southern half of the
east coast than it does along the west; on the other hand, the east
coast north of the seventieth parallel exhibits a wider land fringe
than does the other side in the same latitude.

The largest and most productive glacier in east Greenland is said
to issue from Kangerdlugssuak Fjord, near latitude 68' X., but the
size and the number of icebergs it produces is unknown. Garde
(1889, p. 228) lists the six most productive glaciers south of parallel
06 north, i. e., Angmagssalik, on the east coast as follows: Sermilik.
Ikerssuak, Pikiutdlek. Igdlutarssuk. Tingmiarmiut. and Anoritok.
Here again there are no data on the annual volume of discharge or
the number of icebergs. All the glaciers between Kangerdlugssuak
Glacier and Germania Land, a distance of over 500 miles, according
to Kayser (1928, p. 414) terminate at the head of deep fjords. Many
glaciers in Scoresby Sound produce massive box-shaped icebergs, but
tlie sliallow threshold across the fjord mouths imprison many
and few escape to sea. Xorth of Hudson Land and the seventy-
fourth parallel the rate of marginal discharge of the galcial ice de-
creases rapidly parth' on account of the slower movement of the
inland ice and partly on account of the sea ice, sealing the glacier
front. The interiors of some of the larger fjords, however, protected
from the direct force of the pack, open up regularly every sununer.
and many icebergs break away from the glacier fronts. There is,
nevertheless, only one glacier of this character in the northeast sector
which rivals the production of the greater glaciers of the west coast,
namely, Storstromen Glacier, in Dove Bay. The most active berg
glaciers are well distributed along the coast from Cape Billie, latitude
62' 10', to Scoresby Sound, in 70°, while northAvard the productivity
markedly decreases. Apparently there is little difference in the total J
annual volume of discharge between the east and west coasts (7,500
bergs from the west coast), but the closer blockade of sea ice in the
east greatly diminishes the berg supply to tlie Atlantic.

f

Drift axd Distkibitiox of East Greenland Bergs

The general drift of the icebergs from their source is sontlnvest-
ward along the coast to Cape Farewell, and the bergs may drift as
far nortliward around the latter as Godthaab, just as the pack ice
does. Those which remain out in the current along the continental
edge travel the fastest, but vary in speed with the week-to-week or
even the day-to-day pulsations of the current.^^ East Greenland bergs
gather in greatest numbers during the summer; off Cape Farewell
several hundred having been reported in sight of a ship at one time.
The pack ice tends to hold them olf the coast, but the effect of the
earth rotation being in the opjjosite direction keejis them from spread-
ing out to the North Atlantic. The van of berirs arrives at Capo

n

:(i

<" Nielsen (1928, p. 226) states that the pohir current on the continental siiie of
Greenland Sea is 10 to 1-4 miles per day, while closer in to the coast it is only hal
great. Summer velocities are ijreater than winler ones. In autumn off .Viis^maiissal
sp(>ed of 5 to lU miles per day lias been recorded.

the

half us

Ilk 11

SCIEXTIFIC RESULTS 75

Farewell in April, where they are plentiful until August. They then
decrease rapidly in numbers with autumn, and winter sees these
waters more or less free. The only deviation from a course generally
parallel to the coast is a string of bergs that are caught in the east
Iceland current, to be carried to the vicinity of northern Iceland and
possibly farther southeastward. They come mostly from the coastal
glaciers north of Scoresby Sound, but a few of them may be from
Spitsbergen. The number annually borne east of Iceland, however,
is very small, partly because few are jn-oduced either in Spitsbergen
(tr in northeast Greenland.

There are records of occasional bergs. " erratics " that wander
from the better recognized paths of travel to be carried hither and
thither in irregular tracks. Being relatively large and massive
the ])rocesses of melting and erosion often fail to affect their de-
struction until they have completed long journeys. The greatest
distance that east Greenland bergs have been reported off the coast
by the Dauish Meteorological Institute is 240 miles southeast of
Cape Farewell. Probably several of the reports of ice sighted in
the vicinity of the British Isles, or the Faroe Islands, rare phenom-
ena but nevertheless authentic, refer to bergs that have drifted from
northeast Greenland via the East Iceland current.

The IS icebergs observed along the Greenland coast in the summer
of 192S by the Marion expedition between Cape Farewell and Disko
Bay can be assumed, because of their position with regard to the
current to have come from east Greenland and none to which that
source could most reasonably be ascribed were found northw^ard of
Godthaab. The east Greenland bergs were distributed as follow^s:
2 lay about 20 miles southwest of Cape Farewell: 7 off' Arsuk Fjord;
8 off Fiskernaes : and the nortliernmost one off' Goclthaab. Compar-
ing this distribution with the track of the Marion (fig. 1), it wdll
be noted tliat a few bergs were sighted at each point where the
course ap|)roached the coast, but none offshore. The coast sectors,
south of Godthaab. not visited ])robably contained icebergs also,
so that a total of 50 bergs is probably a conservative estimate of the
number of such bergs then present along that part of the coast. The
total absence of any bergs more than 80 miles out from the coast
was striking, as typical of their on-shore tendency.

Our knowledge regarding the probable movements of such bergs
after passing the meridian of Cape Farewell has been placed on a
far more certain basis as a result of the current survev which w^e
carried out on the Marion expedition during the summer of 1928.
According to Figures 95 and 96, pp. 147-148, bergs less than 30 miles
off Cape Farewell will be carried northwestward, parallel to the coast,
at a rate of about 14 miles per day. Their rate of travel would con-
stantly increase until, off Cape Desolation, they are being borne north-
ward along the coast at 22 miles per day but with the increase in the
velocity the width of the current decreases somewhat. Bergs on the
outer edge of the current will, of course, not move as rapidly as those
nearest its axis and off Cape Desolation. The ice receives its first op-
portunity to leave the coastal lielt off' Cape Desolation where a branch
turns off' to tlie left, developing into a broad, tortuous drift and losing
speed proportionally. Icebergs so deflected will move slowly to ths
westward along these paths at only 4 to 6 miles per day. The chart
shows that anv ice wdiich holds to the coast continues northward in

76 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

a current band about 2o miles in width at an average rate of 11 nuies
l^er day. Off Fiskernees the water on the outer side of the current
again diverges in a narrow band about 15 miles in width and with a
velocity of 6 miles per day finally reaching across to the American
side of Davis Strait. The Marion found the current to run at 113
miles per day just off Godthaab but a short distance farther north
there was less dynamic tendency toward movement, suggesting a gen-
eral slackening and expansion near the latitude of Sukkertoppen.^"
The northern terminus of the ice and current at Sukkertoppen is
probably due somewhat to the broadening of the continental shelf of
Little Hellefiske Bank, which tends to scatter the current and hold
back the ice. Our hydrographical survey indicates that icebergs in
the current will be carried northward along the west Greenland coast
at the average rate of 1."") miles per day. or in one month travel from
Cape Farewell to Sukkertoppen.

According to these calculations icebergs travel much faster along
the west Greenland coast than they do along tlie Laljrador side or,
according to previous scanty information, than they do along the
east Greenland coast. At the same time it should be remarked the
current along west Greenland is narrow, and unless a berg remains
within its bounds it will not follow this drift. The boundary be-
tween the main current and the main body of water to the west of the
latter is sharply defined, and since it is unlikely that a berg will keep
within such limits because the disturbing factors, such as the effect
of sea ice, of coastal })romonotories. of cachments. of gales, etc.. we
may assume that many east Greenland bergs are carried inshore, to
strand, while many others scatter out from the outer side of the cur-
rent. In the latter case they come into a sort of dead water where
they will disintegrate eventually without having made any material
progress one way or the other. Only at two points, at Cape Desola-
tion and near Fiskerna^s. is there any branching of the ice. and even
there such a tendency is slight. Bergs which follow such otfshore
dispersals lose speed very rapidly and wind along tortuous trails.

It should be noted that the positions of bergs as sighted by the
Marhon. expedition along west Greenland are all practically within
the bounds of the current, and places where our dymanic map shows
no current, those areas were for the most part berg free.

The conditions under which one particular berg was sighted by the
Marlon, off Godthaab afford instructive evidence as to the behavior
and distribution of east Greenland bergs, supporting the conclusions
first reached from the dynamic current map. As we stood out into
Davis Strait from Godthaab Fjord, a medium-sized berg was sighted
dead ahead, distance 20 miles from the coast. AVe noticed on ap-
proaching that the course had to be altered continuously to the left
in order to counteract an apparent set of the ship northward. The
depth of 60 fathoms at that spot indicated that the berg was either
grounded or at least that it extended downward very nearly to the
bottom so that it was difficult to escape the conclusion that a surface

■^^ In constructing a dynamic toposraphic map tlie motion on tlio chosou .surface (in tbo
case of tig. 1)5). tiu- sea surface is compared witl) tliat on a plane where tlie water is at
rest. If the water, tlierefore, surface to hottom. is moving at the same or nearly the same
velocity, no basis of comparison Is possible and the dynamic topographic map will show
no isobaths where in fact tliere is a current. There is of course tlie possibility such miiy
liave beiMi the condition in tli(> vicinity of S\iUkertopiieii tlie first week in August. IH'JS. '

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

77

•iiii-ent was setting strongly toward the north. This hevg, therefore,
1 11(1 the 17 others seen to the southward, could not have drifted there
from the northern or western sides of Davis Strait but must have
•oiiie from the east coast of Greenland via Cape Farewell.

We occasionallv read statements such as the following translated
from the Deutsche Seewarte Segelhandbuch (1910, p. 296): ''The
icf girdle along the west coast of Greenland spreads out north west-
ward crossing over Davis Strait and then sets south along the Labra-
\(>v coast following the path of the current toward the Newfoundland
]^)anks." Johnston (1915, p. 40) says that many of the icebergs
lighted east of Flemish Cap in the North Atlantic are east Greenland
bergs carried there by one of the branches of the cold current. In
iliscussing the behavior of pack ice it has already been shown that
there is little likelihood of any east Greenland ice reaching over to

The Westernmost limits of East Greenland Icebergs

Figure 37. — The most westerly positions iu wiiieh i(>el)ergs from tlie
glaciers of east Greenland have been sighted around Cape Farewell.
The heavy line marks the position of bergs in July, 1922, and the
slender liiie. bergs in .Tune, 1917. (From records over a long period
kept by the Danish Meteorological Institute.)

American waters. The main obstacle to such a journey is not so
much lack of transportation as inability to survive long enough in
the relatively warm off-shore waters. Icebergs being of large bulk
and mass are, however, able to withstand the process of melting for
I a much longer time than is sea ice and therefore are occasionally
'found in places very remote from their sources. Thus the files of the
Danish Meteorological Institute show, such as April, 1913. a berg was
sighted about 200 miles west-southwest of Ivigtut, Greenland, a
]><)sition about halfway across Davis Strait. Again in June and
Jiilv, 1917, bergs were sighted in latitude 59° 30', longitude 51° 00',
iui(l latitude 59° 30', longitude 52° 00'. These positions when plotted
' on the dynamic current map. Figure 95, directly coincide with one of
the southwestern branches and while the extraordinary long jour-
neys accomplished by icebergs in rare instances forbids any positive

78 MAEIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

denial, the current maps of the Labrador Sea now made avaihi]>lf
as a result of the Marlon expedition, permit ns to state definitely that
for an east Greenland berg to cross Davis Strait is certainly an ex-
ceptional occurrence. The westerly drifts, it will be seen, profrifs^
in broad tortuous bands at the very sluggish rate of approximately Ti
to 6 miles per day. In othei" words, it would take four months to cro^v
Davis Strait opposite Ivigtut and tw^o months opposite Godthaab.
If the first of the season's bergs which arrive at Cape Farewell in
April were to remain in the axis of these currents, some of them
might reach Labrador, near Nain. or opposite Hudson Strait by the
middle of August; if following the northern route, by the first of
July. But the likelihood of such " strays " keeping always in the
currents is so small that probably they would be " lost " somewhere in
transit. Furthermore, the surface water in the central part of
Davis Strait is then so warm that any berg coining into it would
soon melt. As for east Greenland bergs penetrating directly south
of Cape Farewell into the Atlantic, no such distribution is sup-
ported by our present knowledge of current or of winds. The tem-
perature of the oceanic water, furthermore, through which bergs
would have to travel for a distance of more than !H)0 miles in order
to appear off Flemish Cap precludes any such behavior of the ice.

NORTH GREENLAND GLACIERS

Considering how large and numerous are the north Greenlanc
glaciers, their production of icebergs is insignificant. Probably th(|
greatest barriers to the discharge and distribution of bergs for their
is the heavy pack ice which tightly seals these glacier fronts foi'
years at a time. This ice blockade may run in age all the way fron:
sikussak. to paleocrystic forms tightly held in the regions on thi
northwest coast : or simply to old sea ice that has been lodged in th(
fjords and across the entrances. The constant pressure of sea ic(
against the glacier fronts, the low mean annual temperature, the
shallow gradient of the ice, and the amount of precipitation combine
on many of the ice tongues to develop a floating end Avhich whik
common in the Antarctic is not found elsewhere in the Arctic.

There are 13 glaciers in this district, as follows, from east to west
Academy. ]Marie Sophie, Astrup, Hobbs. Jungerssen, Ostenfeldt
Ryder. Steensby. Sigurd Berg, Porsild, Petermann. Humboldt, and
Hiawatha. The glaciers of Independence Fjord — Academy, Marit
Sophie, Astrup, Hobbs, and Steensby — detach a considerable numbei
of icebergs wdiich lie packed and cemented together perhaps foi
several years and then, once in 15 or ^0 summers or so, break loose.'
Jungerssen Glacier, in Nordenskiold Fjord, like Academy is featured
by a stream of coalesced icebergs. A few short alpine glaciers face
the polar sea in Peary Land. Practically all of them are sealed bj
heavy pack ice but Koch (11)28. p. 326) believes that one small gla-'
cier just east of Cape Cannon calves a few bergs. Discharge is
assisted by occasional changes in the thrust of the sea ice, which for
this particular place is sometimes athwart the glacier end. The rate
of discharge is, of course, very meager and our interest lies mainly
in the fact that this is the northernmost iceberg-producing glacieU
in the world. The four north (ireenland glaciers with their floating
ends are: Petei-mann, Steensl)v. Kvder and Ostenfeldt. Pi^terniann.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

79

iiieasurin*^ over 100 miles from the front. l)ack to the 2,200-foot con-
tour of the inland ice, is the longest glacier in the Northern Hemi-
.s])here. Its outer front in some places is only a few meters in height,
or in other places it merges so gradually into the sea ice that the boimd-

jury can not be detected. It is estimated that the length of the floatin<>-
lend of Petermann Glacier is about 20 miles. The ascent of the
glacier is so slight in the great distance between its outer end and
tne inland ice at the fjord head, that early explorers were led to
Ijeheve that a sound divided this northern section from the mainland

I

80 MARIO X EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Though enormous in size, these glaciers with floating ends produce
no icebergs, Humboldt Glacier with its 60-mile wall of ice fronting
on Kane Basin is tlie largest glacier in the Northern Hemisphere
in fact for many years after its discovery, it was believed actually
to be the wall of the inland ice itself. This glacier is only productive
over a short breadth of its northern side, where Koch in 192
observed a collection of icebergs, probably a thousand in numbe:
strewn out for a distance of 3 miles. They were so closely packec
against the front in some places that it was difficult to determine
where the glacier ended and the bergs began, and also they were
apparently aground, sulfering continual melting and disintegration
during the summer. Throughout the year fast ice completely covers
the glacier wall and stretches forward to a line from Cape Forbes

The largest Glacier in the Arctic

I'KiURE 39. — A section of the largest tidewater glacier in the north ; Humboldt Glacier,
With its 6U-mile wide front of ice facing the waters of Kane Basin, northwest
Greenland, early explorers first mistook it for the inland ice itself. This photo-
graph shows a group of several hundred icebergs that are penned against the
front of the glacier by the fast ice. Once in 20 or 25 years the fast ice is said to
break up, allowing many of the bergs to move away in the currents. (Photograph
by L. Koch. 1928.)

to Dallas Bay, but occasionally, perhaps once every five years or so
the sea ice more or less completely breaks up in Kane Basin, allow
ing many of the bergs which are not permanently grounded to drift
abroad. Although the Humboldt is the largest glacier in Greenland
only a few of its bergs are believed ever to reach Baffin Bay, a con-
clusion wliich is supported by the fact that very few icebergs hav(
ever been found adrift north of the seventy-eighth parallel. Hia-
watha Glacier, the last one included in the north Greenland group
is merely a small tongue extending out from the inland ice intc
Ingleheld Land, its end not even approaching close to the sea. In
the north Greenland district we estimate that on an average 15(
bergs are ])rodu('ed annually, most of them calved from one glacier—
the Hiiml)oldt.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

81

The Glaciers. Cape Alexander to Cape York

The <:laciers situated between Cape Alexander and Cape York
are so far north that the most of them are blocked by sea ice but

IS 'Syntt.H Xi^^rt^^i &l«.c.;f »-»/

The tidewater Glaciers from Cape Alexander to Cape York

FniiRE 4<i. — There is a total of 54 tidewater glaciers in this section of which only I'S
are known as occasional iceberg producers. Most of the glaciers are sluggish and
small. The important iceberg-discharging glaciers numbering only five are : Morris
•Tessup, B( wdoin, Melville-Tracy-Farquar, Moltke, and Pitugflk. The annual produc-
tion is estimated to be 300 icebergs.

11 the vicinity of Wolstenholme Sound this is not the case except dur-
11^- the winter months. A grand total of 161 glaciers, large and
11 ill, extend out from the ice cap along this highly irregular coast

82 MAEION^ EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAEFIX BAY

line. But of these, lOT — two-thirds of the total — do not even reach|
the sea, while the remaining 54 are at present classed as tidewater
giaciers.^^ About 29 of these are apparently without motion, leaving
25 that may on occasions j^roduce icebergs. The glaciers met from
Cape Alexander to Cape York, are in order : Brother John. Dodge,
Storm, Chield, Bu, Banse, Markham, Diebitsch, Morris Jessup.
Meehan, Verhoeff, Sun, Bow^loin, Hubbard, Hart, Sharp, Melville-
Tracy-Farqhar, Heilprin, Marre, Liedy, Knut Rasmussen, Moltke.
Pitufig, and Nos. 1 to 16, Conical Eock to Cape York. Five of tlie
foregoing, only 3 per cent of the grand total, account, furthermore,
for the discharge of 80 per cent of all the bergs in northwest Green-
land, namely: Morris Jessup, Bowdoin, Melville-Tracy-Farqhar,
Moltke, Pitufig. The Eskimos, in commenting on the productivity
of the glaciers in this district, Cape Alexander to Cape York, state
that nearly all are stationary, hence little productive of bergs, and
that condition has prevailed as long as they can recollect or learn
through legends. We estimate that 250 to 300 bergs, about 5 per
cent of the grand total drifting toward the Atlantic, are supplied
from the glaciers of northwest Greenland.

The Glaciers, Cape York to Svartexhuk Peninsula

The west Greenland foreland is by nature divided transversely
into two parts, the southern half, Cape Farewell to Disko Bay char-
acterized, except for the Frederickshaab ice lobe, by a relatively wide
land fringe, while the northern end, Upernivik to Cape York, is ice
walled. The southern section owes its ice-free conditions largely
to the decidedly higher mean temperatures which accompany the
great warm-water masses from the Atlantic. As soon as we pass
across the Davis Strait sill, however, into the region of icy Baffin
Bay, climatic conditions abruptly change and Greenland's coast
becomes extremely glaciated.

The inland ice reaches the sea in the northern section at more
than 80 different places and so icy is the coast that all the principal
land features are completely hidden for approximately ISO miles.
The glaciers named in order from Cape York southward are : Hel-
land, Wulff, Yugyar Nielsen, Mohn, John Ross, Gade, Docker-
Smith, Rink, Peary, King Oscar, Nordenskiold, Nansen, Dietrich-
son, Steenstrup, Kjaer, Hayes, Giesecke, lodhulik, and Ui)ernivik.
Some idea of the massiveness of these ice streams can be olitained
when it is stated that nine of them, viz : Steenstrup. Xansen, King
Oscar, Peary, Mohn, John Ross, Wulff. Giesecke, and Upernivik
are more than 5 miles wide across their fronts. Those which are
especially productive of icebergs are : Steenstrup, Dietrichson, Nan-
sen, King Oscar, Hayes, Giesecke, and Upernivik. The most produc-
tive one of them all, King Oscar, is believed to discharge as many
as 500 icebergs a year.

Steenstrup glacier ranks largest with a front of iC miles, the
northern third of which is stated to be very productive. On accoun.t
of the smooth contour of the marginal land, across wdiich the glacier

^1 Koch (1922, p. 216) states that there are 16 alpine slaciers located along the slopes
of Crimson Bluffs, Conical Rock to (^apc York, bnt owing to their small size and slow rate
of movement their yield is not ecjuivalent in volume to that of more tlian one good-sized
berg a year.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 83

Hows, itb icebei'g.s have a strikingly flat-topped, tabular appearance,
,1 \era<i:in<r about TO feet in height when floating. Nansen Glacier pro-
duces similar shaped bergs, even loftier. And Steenstrup and Nansen
( rlaciers are peculiar from any of the glaciers of the west coast in dis-
charging such large blocks.^'- The coast between Hayes Glacier and
( iiesecke Glacier contributes very few icebergs, while the production
j of Giesecke and Upernivik Glaciers, it is also stated by Porsild °^ and
Koch (1923, p. 53) has been unduly emphasized in early literature.
I'pernivik Glacier discharges a fair number of bergs, but they are
mostly small and often ground in the offing of the skerries.

INfelville Bay is furthermore marked Avith many banks which are
sufficiently shallow to strand the bergs and thus detain them from
<lriftinir out of Baffin Bav. Such shoals are known to exist off Diet-

A Greenland iceberg Fjord

KiGiui; -11. — Umanak Fjord looking east from the north shore of Nugsuak I'eninsula.
Umanak is one of the most imiiortant iceberg fjords on the west coast of Green-
land. The fjords north of the seventieth parallel of latitude are normally
covered bv fast ice during the colder months, causing the icebergs to be held in
the fjords until the break-up of the fast ice in June. (Photograph hy A. Heim
in Meddeleleser om Gronland, vol. 47.)

richsoii and King Oscar Glaciers because of the great number of
bergs held there for protracted periods. The coast from Wilcox
Head to Svartenhuk Peninsula is famous for its maze of ofi^-lying
islands, rocks and skerries, and the irregularity of the offshore ground,
by tending to prevent the bergs from drifting out to sea greatly off-
sets the productivity of the glaciers in this section. It is estimated
that the district Cape York to Svartenhuk Peninsula annually con-
tributes about 1.500 bergs to the quota of Baffin Bay.

^=The characteristic tabular forms often sigliti d by the ice patrol off Newfoundland have
probably come from these two glaciers in Melville Bay. Ricketts (1930, p. 118) observed
that the tabular-shaped bergs south of the forty-fourth parallel were as numerous as the
more irregular-shaped liergs in 1929. As a rule the Hat-topped ones are in the minority.
Since 1920 was a rich berg year off NewffUindland, a possible cause may have been the
ri'lcasp of larger than normal numbers of Melville Bay icebergs.

^^ In conversation.

84

MAETON EXPEDITION" TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY

Tlie condition of the fast ice vitally affects iceberg production in-
Melville Bay. Diirin<r a normal winter, fast ice will make out there
to a line from Wilcox Head to Cape York, and it often happens that
the ice does not completely break up during the next, or possibly
during several summers. Thus the icebergs are free to drift out into
Baffin Bay in some years from July to October, but in other years

The Tidewater Glaciers from Cape York to Svantenhuk Peninsula

Figure 42. — There is a total of 19 sizable tidewater glaciers in this section, out of whicli i
8 constitute the principal producers of icebergs. They are in order north to south :
Gade. King Ostar, Nansen, Dietrichson, Steenstrup, Hayes, Giesecke, and Upernivik.
It is estimated that there are 1,500 sizable icebergs discharged annually from this '
Melville Bay region.

they may lie penned against the glaciers. Thus, Koch (10:28, p. '200)
in 1916 and 1917 observed many bergs jammed against the fronts of i
Steenstrup and Dietrichson Glaciers. In 1920, however, conditionsi
changed, the fast ice broke up, and more than 20 square miles of«
densely packed icebergs were set free to drift offshore. Allowing ai
lag of one year for the bergs to drift from Melville Bay to Xew-

I!

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 85

Ifoiindland, Koch's observations are compared with these of the ice
patrol off tlie Grand Bank (see Smith. 1927. p. 76) in the following
table :

lYear

Melville Bay ice

Lag of 1 year at New-
foundland

Berg value

Berg count

1915
1916
1920

2.8
2.5
6.8

54

Do

38

746

It would be interesting to have a longer series of ice observations
from Melville Bay to test this indicated relation between fast ice
conditions there and icebergs a vear later in tlie North Atlantic.

^%^X'^^

Fast ice Holds Icebergs

Figure 43. — Many icebergs are imprisoned in fast ice which may postpone their
progress in tlie ocean currents throughout one or perhaps several winters in the
far north. This photograph, which was taken about 2 miles west of Cape York,
in northwest Greenland, shows several of the icebergs of Melville Bay securely
lield in the grip of the fast ice. Eskimos in the foreground are members of the
famous Cape York tribe. (Photograph from Chamberlin, 1895.)

The Glaciers of Northeast Bait and Disko Bay"

The Greenland coast, in this stretch of 160 miles, from latitude
71° 40' to 69° 00', includes its two deepest embayments marking the
deltas of great river systems, the region pouring out over one-half of
the total annual supply of North Atlantic icebergs. There are
perhaps 100 glaciers, large and small, to be counted along these
shores, the majority being small ones on Nugsuak Peninsula, but
14 are better known and important. These are (north to south) :
Umiamako. Rink. Kangdlugsuak, Kangerdluarsuk. Kamarujuk,
Ingnerit, Itivdliarsuk. Sermilik. Little Karajak. Great Karajak,
Torsukatak, Ekip-Sermia, Sikuijuitsok, and Jacobshavn.

Northeast Bay extends diagonally inland in two arms; into the
head of the northernmost, called Karrat Fjord, Umiamako and Rink

86 MAEIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY

Glaciers discharge. °* Umanak Fjord, the southeasterly fork, re-
ceives the combined outputs of Ingnerit, Itivdliarsuk. Sermilik, and
Little and Great Karajak.

UMIAMAKO
gtNK

A,. KAN&DLU&5UAK

GREAT KA^^A.IAK

72

71

7o

69

The Tidewater Glaciers of Northeast Bay and Disko Bay

Figure 44. — There is a total of over 100 glaciers in this section of the west coast of
Greenland, of which 1- are important iceberg producers. These 12 are estimated
to discharge annually .5,400 icebergs, or more than any other coast line of similar
extent in the Northern Hemisphere.

Disko Bay receives two very active ice streams, Torsukatak and
Jacobshavn, the latter (accoi-dino- to Helland 1876, p. 108) producing)

3* Koch states in a letter that in the summer of 1928 he met more icebergs off Umia-i
maljo Glacier at the mouth of Karrat Fjord than at any other place in west Greenlandl
so he believes this is, at present, the most productive point on the west coast.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

87

about twice as many bergs as tbe former. There are two small
glaciers just south of Torsukatak which flow into Igdloluarsuit, called
EkiiD-Sermia, but they calve only in small pieces and growlers, and
therefore are termed harmless ends. Jacobshavn was formerly be-
lieved to be the greatest producer of icel^ergs, but in the last few
years, Umiamako according to Koch, has been more productive, hence
Disko Bay probably does not produce as great a quantity of icebergs
as Northeast Bay.

Drygalski (1895, p. 369) states that the fjords of west Greenland
freeze over in winter and that fast ice then prevents the bergs from
drifting out into Davis Strait. While the inland ice itself has prac-
tical! v a uniform movement the release of the icebergs, on account of

Summer in a West Greenland Fjord

Figure 45. — A typical summer iceberg in a nortliern fjord ol west Greenland. It is
during this period when the fjord fast ice disappears that the bergs are free to
drift out to sea. In the productive iceberg fjords several hundred icebergs are
often simultaneously in view. (Photograph by A. Heim. )

winter fast ice, has a distinct seasonal period, the whole year's pro-
duction being carried out of the fjords in this district during the
open period July to December. In late spring, under increased solar
warmth, the belt of fast ice which all winter has sealed the fjords
begins to narrow and weaken. Finally the band breaks and the
accumulation of ice and bergs pours out of the fjords so that the
. waters of Disko Bay and of Northeast Bay are choked with glacial
flotsam for several weeks following such events. Drygalski (1895,
p. 370) observed that in 1893 ^^ initial iceberg discharge occurred at
Jacobshavn about June 10; at Torsukatak 10 days later, and in
Northeast Bay about July 1. During this period great swarms of

I ^» I'orsild n910. p. 1.50) has described this phenomenon as more or less characteristic
of all Dislvo Bay and Northeast Bay ice fjords, but in particular he identifies it with the
> behavior of Torsuliatak Glacier.

120860—31-

88 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STEAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

berjrs were met, so thickly iiifestin<j: the coastal waters that a small
boat had difficulty in navigating through the Vaigat. Upernivik
district w^itnesses the release of the bergs about two weeks earlier
than Disko Bay because, owing to its exposed position, the fast ice
breaks earlier there.

The iceberg fjords of Disko Bay and of Northeast Bay and their
discharging glaciers have been the object of more scientific study
than have any other similar parts of Greenland. Hannner (1893).
and Helland (1876), have made investigations of Torsukatak and
Jacobshavn Fjords. Drygalski (1895) devoted more than two years"
study to the glaciers in this district, especial attention being paid

A WEST GREENLAND GLACIER AND ITS ICE-STREWN WATERS

Figure 46. — Ekip-Strmia Glacier, which discharges into a tributary of the Atta Sound,
west Greenland, latitude 69° 40' N., longitnrte 50° 05' W. As we approached this
localit,v the color of the surface water took on a shade i f light, milk.v green, due
to the" great amount of "'rock flour" ground out along the glacier bed. A darker
earth material lay suspended in the deeper layers of the fjord, leaving a nuuldy
brown wake stirred up bv the passage of the ship. TlKuisands of kiltiwakcs led in
the ice-strewn waters. 'This glacier, unlike (ireaf Kara.jak and several others, is
known as calving no ice of berg size. ( L'hoti graph by Ibiatswain .1. K. Kresteiisea. 1

to Great and Little Karajak. Itividliarsuk. Sermilik. Kink, and
Umiamako.

Great Karajak Glacier, which debouches into the fjord of tiuit
name, exhibits a front about 3 miles in width, and rises approxi-
mately 'i()0 feet — in the middle. ;500 feet — above the surface of the
fjord. The ice moves fastest at the outer end of the tongue, near its
middle, where rates as high as GO to 75 feet ])er day have been re-
corded, but ;)5 to (')() feet is more representative. The rates of each
])articiilar glacier, of course, vary, but some idea of tiie rapidity of
flow of the west (ireenland ice streams m;iy be gained when tJK'y an'
comiJareil witli the fastest glaciers of the Alps. \vhi(d> travel about

u

S. Coast Guard Patrol Boat -Marion" in Front of a
West Greenland Glacier

FiGUEE 47. — Tl^e United States Coast patrol boat, Marion, Auuust it. lOliS, a few
hundred yards off the glacier shown on Figui-e 46. The front wall was estimated
to rise about To feet above the level of the fji rd. The rough and ja-^ged top
surface of the glacier indicates the formative stresses and strains set up by the
ice stream as it moves across the foreland to the fjord. Several projectiles were
tired from the Marion's 3-inch gun causing little apparent fragmentation of the
front wall. (Official photograph of the Marion expedition.)

Side View of a West Greenland iceberg

Figure 48. — a side view of the glacier shown on Figure 40, looking northward. The
Marion can be seen far behw in the left foreground. This aiirlioragc is known as
Quervainshavn, in memory of the leader of the Schweizerischen-cJronland expedi-
tion, who departed from this point to cross the Greenland ice cap in the summer
of 1912. A rock cairn in the foreground just below the brow of the hill marks the
encampment of the expedition. (Official photograph, Marion expe<lition. )

90

MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Front view of a Tidewater Glacier at a Distance of One- half Mile

Figure 49. — A view of about one-lialf mile distant from the same glacier shown on
Figure 46. The heights of the front wall in this view is dwarfed hy the altitude of
the upland, about 700 feet, from which the glacier in a distance of a mile or more
descends to the level of the fjord. Note also the manner in which the glacier
spreads out fan shape after passing through the gateway of the headlands. (Photo-
graph by Boatswain J. B. Krestensen.)

The Discharge of the Inland ice

FiGUBE 50. — Ekip-Sermia Glacier near Atta Sound, west Greenland, visited by the
Marion expedition the summer of 1928. In the right foreground lies a lateral
moraine formed by the sweep of the glacier on its path to the fjord. (I'botograpli
by Boatswain J. B. Krestensen.)

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

91

4 feet per day. Many of the great Greenland glaciers, in other
words, move ten to fifteen times faster than those in the Alps.
About four times a month during the summer, usually accompanying
spring tides, 800 to 1,000 feet of the fjord end break off in great
calvings: Drygalski (1895, p. 401) estimates that the output of
Great Karajak is approximately 15.3 cubic kilometers per year, and
we have estimated the annual number of sizable bergs calved as ap-
[jroximately 1.200. This figure is believed to be conservative, but,
of course, somewhat speculative although it can be hardly over 25 per
cent in error.

JACOBSHAVX FJORD AND GLACIER

Jacobshavn is one of the best known and interesting of all Green-
land's glaciers. The Marlon^ in August, 1928, cruised in amongst the

Jacobshavn Glacier

Figure 51. — Jacobshavn Glacier, locateil on the west coast of Greenland, is estimated
to discharge annually 1,350 sizable icebergs info Disko Bay. It is one of the most
productive iceberg glaciers in the world. The position of the front wall is shown
from 1850 to 1902. Recent observations indicate a general retreat of many of the
glaciers in this section of Greenland. (After Hammer and Engell.)

bergs that clogged the mouth of the fjord: as those within were
joined so closel}^ together that not even a ship's boat could pass be-
tween them. We had another view of these l^ergs when we landed
at Jacobshavn and crossed the hills to look down from a height into
the fjord itself. Jacobshavn Fjord is a more or less straight trough-
like depression, possibly a rift valley, 3 to 4 miles in width and
extending inland a distance of 15 miles where it meets the high front
of the glacier. As far as the eye could see in the fjord icebergs
were |)acked tightly row upon row, a majestic ])rocession marching
toward the open sea. It is estimated that on August 9, 1928, 4,000
to 6.000 bergs, 3 or 4 years supply, perhaps more, which had calved
from the glacier front, lay in the Jacobshavn Fjord.

At uncertain intervals, approximately ten times a year, and with-
out warning, so say the natives, this iceberg train moves. It starts

92

MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN B\Y

Hundreds of bergs Jammed in the Mouth of jacobshavn Fjord

Figure 52. — Tlie iwtrol boat Marion ciuisins in among the icebergs that clogged the
mouth of Jacolishavn Fjord August 8. 192S. The bergs were pacljed so tiglitly
together that it was impossible to penetrate much beyond the outermost i nes.
(Official photograph, Marion expedition.)

TRAIN OF ICEBERGS MOVING OUT OF JACOBSHAVN FJORD

Figure 5a. — Looking southward across the ;{-mile-wi(le Jacobshavn Fjord about 2
miles above its mouth. Jacobshavn Fjord empties into Disko Bay. latitude GO" 10'
N., longitude ~A>° 10' W.. on the west coast of (Jrcenlaiid. This train of icebi>rgs
packed closely end to end and side to side is continually passing down the fjord
and out to sea. (Official photograpli. Marion expedition.)

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

93

slowly but rapidly gaining niomentuni. the ice attains the incredible
speed of 5 to 8 miles per liour — as fast as a fox can run, affirm the
Greenlanders — to the accompaniment of a deafening roar that can
be heard for miles, and that sometimes lasts for days. Sealing nets
that the natives stretch under the water between the bergs are
quickly torn asunder, thus in a few moments a great part of the
ccnnnunity's investuient in fishing may be swei)t away. Xobody
can foretell tlie api)r()acli of the catasti-ophe. This ])lienouienon
unique to the Jacobshavn Fjord is termed an " outshoot " by Porsild
(1919. p. 151), who attributes it to the pent-up melt water, and
which like a spring freshet, breaks the ice dam to discharge hundreds
of icebergs out into Disko Bay. Jacobshaven ice fjord also differs
from many of the others in that it expels icebergs even in the winter
desi)ite the barrier of shoi-e ice unless, of course, the latter is unusu-
ally heavy and of great width. But outshoots are most liable to
take place in summer and in June at spring tide, while they are
rarest, of course, in midwinter.

The Mouth of Jacobshavn Fjord

Figure -51. — Looking eastward toward the fault in the foreland which marks the pro-
file of .Jacobshavn Fjord. In the foreground and being pushed outward in the
direction of tlie water are hundreds of tightly packed iceberss. (See tia. 52 for a
close-up view.) This sketch was made as the Marion approached Jacobshavn Fjord
on August 8, 1928.

! The icebergs discliarged from the Jacobshavn Fjord appear to be
retarded at its entraiice. Haminei- (1893, p. 27) observing this fact
believed that the temporary halt was due to the presence of a bank
at the mouth of the fjord, which he likened to the stopper in a bottle.
But the presence of a shoal there, however, has never been proved
Jby soundings, for none of the depths recorded on the charts, viz,
200. 210. and 240 fathoms, are in the position of the supposed bank.
The Marion expedition took several fathometer soundings among the
outer icebergs that crowded the mouth of the fjord August 8, 1928,
but the depths of 195 to 215 fathoms, considerably greater than
130 fathoms, the figure assumed by Hammer (1898). do not sug-
gest any shoaling. The presence of a bank, nevertheless, is not
entirely disproved, inasmuch as the Marion succeeded in penetrating
only to the outer margin of the iceberg cluster, and therefore may
not have got in far enough to be directly over the shallowest spot.

94 MAEION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Jacobshaven Glacier, about 250 feet high and about 4 miles wide, is
reputed to produce the largest and most picturesque bergs in tlie
north, ranging from 130 to 325 feet in height. Helland (1876. p. KHi)
measured one 396 feet to its top, and Drygalski (1895, p. 381) re-
corded another 425 feet high, but the usual dimension of a large
berg is given as 220 feet. Many of the bergs in Jacobshavn Fjord
according to reports, tower higher above the sea than does the glacier
front from which they calved, all of which is considered proof of
buoyancy as the cause of calving. The bottom of Jacobshavn valle\
and upper fjord has a relatively easy, gradual slope, two important
features leading to the production of large icebergs. The glacici
front during the period 1880 to 1892 suffered several oscillations, the
final result of which has been a retreat of approximately 6 miles.
The rate of movement is 45 to 65 feet per day: faster in the middle
than on the sides, and swifter on the top surface than on the under-
side. Our estimate of the number of sizable bergs now emitted from
the fjord mouth is 1,350 annually.

SorxH Greenland Glaciers

The heads of nearly all the fjords in southwest Greenland are
filled with ice tongues which, after the fast ice has left the fjord,
calve growlers and small lumps throughout the summer. The twc
southwest fjords in which the Marion cruised. Arsuk and Godthaab
contained a few scattered growlers, and without doubt the other!
fjords between Cape Farewell and Disko Bay were similarly char-
acterized. The fact that the southern fjords are so much narroAvei,
and shallower near their heads than those in Disko Bay and north-i
ward is one of the principal reasons that no sizable masses of ice aro
discharged.

The outstanding glacial feature of the southern section is the hugt;
ice lobe which protrudes from the inland cap and fronts the sea foil
11 miles in the vicinity of Frederickshaab. Despite its large pro
portions no icebergs are produced, because the end melts at the samd
rate as it moves forward, the two processes thus maintaining a more
or less fixed state of equilibrium. With the description of Freder i
ickshaab Glacier we complete the accoimt of the tidewater glacier
points from the northern extremity of Greenland down its west
side to Cape Farewell. There are 150 to 175 sizeable glaciers in thij
distance, of which only about 15 per cent contribute icebergs to thti
North Atlantic

Rate of Productivity of Iceberg Glaciers

In the following list is an estimate of the number of sizable ice-
bergs that are discharged annually from the so-called dangerous
tidewater glaciers. By the term " sizable " we mean bergs that ii
unhinderecl are sufficiently large to complete the long journey out oi
the Arctic into the western North Atlantic. The data are taken froir
all available sources mentioned in the text.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

95

Region

Iceberg glaciers

Annual
number of
icebergs

Eastern North America:
Ellesmere Land

American Geographical Society, and
others.

Humboldt .

150

iJreenland:

North Greenland . _

150

Cape Alexander to Cape York . _

Morris Jessup--- .

Cape York to Svarten Huk_ ... . _

Bowdoin.. .

Melville-Tracev-i'arcjhai. .

\ 300

Moltke

Pitufig

Gade .

Northeast Bav and Disko Bav... .

King Oscar

Nansen

Dietrichson. _

Steenstrup..

> 1, 500

Haves.

Giesecke.

Upernivik. .... .

Umiamako

[ 1,500

Rink

Itividliarsuk . |

450

Sermilik.

150

Great Karajak. ...

Little Karajak

Torsukatak..

750

Total

Jacobshavn

1.350
7,500

Due to the scantiness of data the foregoing estimate of 7,500 size-
able icebergs calved annually from west Greenland may be criticized
as speculative. It is justified, however, even if it does no more than
roiivey a general idea of the i:)oints of discharge and of the relative
proportions in which their glaciers combine to make up the grand
j total. The figures of 1,350 bergs for Jacobshavn, 750 for Torsuka-
itak, etc., are largely based on Helland's (1876, p. 108) measurement
1 5.8" kilometers and 2.3" kilometers as the total annual calvings of
Jacobshavn and Torsukatak fjords, respectively. It has further been
assumed that the average of sizeable bergs has a volume of 50,000,000
cubic feet (0.00145^ kilometers) and that such bergs constitute one-
third of the total calved ice, the other two-thirds consisting of smaller
pieces and detritus. In other words, if Jacobshavn calves 5.8^ kilo-
meters a year, then 1.93' kilometers are in the form of sizable bergs^
which, in 50,000,000 cubic-foot sizes, totals 1,350.^'^

The number of bergs frojn the respective fjords and glaciers is also
subject to a slow change within certain limits over a series of years.
For example, the retreat of Jacobshavn Glacier, first observed in
1850, is being reflected in the rate of its berg productivity.^*'

According to the foregoing table nearly 70 per cent of the North
Atlantic bergs come from Northeast Bay and Disko Bay; about 20
per cent from the Melville Bay district; and only 2 per cent from the

55 Di-ygaiski (1895, p. 402). after careful measurements, found Great Karajak Glacier
calved 13. S'' kilometers annually and he criticizes Helland's estimate of 5.8^ kilometers as
far too low for Jacobshavn. If Drygalski is correct, then the output of Jacobshavn ac-
cording to the relative weights given, page 95, would be 25.5^ kilometers. But this seems
too great, and does not agree with de Quervain"s estimate of HP to 100=* kilometers for the
entire wastage in solid form from the western side of the ice sheet. Surely Jacobshavn
can not account for approximately one-fourth the total yearly output of west Greenland.

^^ Lauge Koch told me that he had not visited Disko Bay for 15 years, although he had
passed it several times, but tliat he never saw so few bergs as in 1928. Umiamako Glacier
in Umanak Fjord, on the other hand, appeared to have increased in activity, for the fjord
was simply littered with bergs in 192S, very similar to conditions prevailing in Disko Bay
Bevei'al years ago.

96 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

»S «)o as BO 7S 70 SS 60 Sf So 45 4o ZS 30 25

The Principal Iceberg Glaciers Which Discharge into Baffin bay

Figure 55. — The 20 fil;ici(M's namrd and I'Dcatt'd on the map above mark the origin of
practically all of the icebergs that drift to lower latitudes in the western North
Atlantic.

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS

97

American shores. If 7,500 bergs be representative then normally
only 1 berg in 20 finally succeeds in drifting out of Davis Strait and
south of Newfoundland. The Mar'io)! expedition's estimate of 2,200
bergs south of Disko Bay in the summer of 11)2<S in conjunction with
the numl)cr of bergs south of Xewfoundland during the preceding
spring indicates tliat the crop is not entirely destroyed during one
summei'. but that one. two, and ))ossible three year age groups per-
sist in Baffin Bay and Davis Strait.

Manner in Which Icebergs Calve

The so-called calving process by wdiich end portions of a glacier
break away from their main nuiss creating icebergs is a ])h(uiomenon

Great Karajak Glacier Prior to a Major Calving

Figure

GLEE .JC. — The fn>iit wall of Gie:it Kaiaink Glacier in T'manak Fjord, west Green-
land (lat. 70° L'.")' X.. long. 50" '60' W. ) before a major calving. August 13. 1892.
(Jrcat Kai'ajak is one of the most productive iceberg glaciers in the north. (Photo-
graph by E. von Dr.vga!ski.)

which has been under discussion for many years. The original con-
ception held tliat the glacier end protruding out across the threshold
of its molded bed lost support and through the continual accumula-
tion of weight finally exceeded its structural strength and broke off.
Such a process assumes, of course, that the bed on which the glacier
slides has a steeper slope than the ice stream, which is not invariably
the cai.e.

A later theory introduced by Rink (ISSI), p. 276), maintains that
icebergs are formed when the downward, slanted axis of the glacier
prolonged into the greater dei)ths of the fjord is more and more
buoyed up until finally the end fractures, the iceberg rising to the
surface. Rink qualified the foregoing by admitting that small
pieces of ice are also calved by splitting away and falling dow^n

98

MAEION EXPEDITIOIST TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Great Karajak Glacier Just after a Major Calving

FiGUHE 57. — Tlie front wall of Great Kara.iak Glacier immediately after a great
calving that took place on August 18. 1892. The major calvings, when several
hundred yards of the glacier end breaks away, occur on the average of twice a
month, during summer, near or at the dates of spring tides. The icebergs floating
in the f.iord were calved from the right and left of the glacier's front, as can be
seen by comparing this view with that taken sometime previously. (Thotograph
by E. von Drygalski. )

Great Karajak Glacier Eight Days after a Major Calving

KiUUE r>S. — The front wall of Great Karajak Glacier eight days after the major
calving of August 13, 1S92. A comparison of Figure 5S with Figure 57 strikingly
portravs (be rapid rate which the end of Great Karajak Glacier in eight days has
pushed" outward into the fjord. The west Greenland glaciers, with a recorded rate
of 05 feet per day, are probal)Iy the fastest moving ice streams in the world.
(Photograph by E. von Drygalski.)

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

99

from the glacier front. Hellftiid (187G, p. 99) actually witnessed
the buoyancy process of calving —

ail iiiiiiieuse dentate piece of the glacier turning over and over, and rearing on
its edge liigli up in tlie air in front of tlie glacier, then the moment it rose, large
towerlike jiarts of the latter fell down. On the following day one of the newly
formed icebergs was measured and found to he 89 meters in height, wiule the
height of the glacier wall hardly exceeded 4I> meters.

These observations were made on Jacobshavn Glacier, wliich it
will be recalled is one of the few glaciers whose front is lower than
many of its icebergs. Drygalski (1895, p. lOS), in agreement with
the buoyancy theory divides the calving into three classes. The first
class includes large detachments of the front, from top to bottom,
unassisted by previous fragmentation, and described as follow^s :
The front face of the glacier slowly rises above the main portion,
sways back in the direction of the ])arent body, the foot of the berg
shooting forward and then settling down in the fjord, rolling back

The Manner in Which Glaciers Calve

Figure 59. — The glacier in profile is usually grooved at the fjord water
line, causing an overhanging upper and a jutting lower under-
portion. The ice of the upper ledge detaches by its own weight,
while the underwater shelf is continually broken away by its own
buoyancy. (Drawing after Russell in Kayser, 1928.)

and forth several times. Calvings of the second class refer to the
breaking away of a submarine toelike underbody which protrudes
into the fjord. Drygalski states that he heard a tremendous roar
and suddenly saw an iceberg breach out of the water beneath and
directly in front of the glacier wall. The underwater projection of
the glacier front is presumably formed by the many disintegrating
processes which proceed during summer at a faster rate in the air
above, than in the water below. Calvings of the third class are
simply pieces of ice breaking off and falling down from the upper
body of the glacier. The third class of calvings produces only
small bergs; the second class medium to large bergs: while the
first class calvings account for the largest run of bergs.

Steenstrup (1883, p. 92) warns that too much emphasis should
not be placed on calving caused by the submergence of the outer end
of the glacier, calling attention to the sensitive balance that he has
found out on the bottom of the fjord. The outer end of the ice

100

MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

toiioiie, o'l'adiially freed of its upper |)art. tinally acquires the reserve
buoj^ancy necessary to initiate calving.

It seems most likely that the two principal factors responsible]
for calving can be defined as disintegrative processes due to (1) the
static position of the glacier end, and to (2) the dynamic form of
the glacier. Following the general lule for ice and water in contact,
melting proceeds fastest at the water line, the profile of the glacier
fronts tending to 1)? deeply grooved at the surface of the fjord,
with an overlianging upper and a jutting underportion. The upper
ledge is broken back solely by its own weight, while the underwater
ledge is continually broken away by its own buoyancy. Superim-
posed on this type of wastage and of first importance in the case of
the very active glaciers is the continu.al fraction and disru]:)tion due
to the forward movement of the alacier.

Foior AND Size of Bergs

Icebergs in the northwestern North Atlantic vary greatly in form;i
they nuiy be ]iinnacled, domed, roofed, or ledged : but si)ired. min-

The Blocky Precipitous-Sided Class of Icebergs

Figure 60. — Second only to the roundt'd and pinnacled class of bert,'s is the blocky,
steep-sided type which often reach the waters south of Newfoundland in the same
plane of equilibrium that they left the glacier. This class of beriis is calved mostly
from points where the topography permits the ice cap to directly face the sea. An
example of such a locality is Nansen Glacier in Melville Bay. (Official photograph,
international ice patrol.)

areted l)!?igs. or bergs clustered Avith icicles are rarely seen outside of
the school geogra])hies. Their irreguhir sha])es are not surprising
wdien one considers how calving from the glacier takes place, and
the many subsetjuent })rocesses of disintegration that are constantly
wasting the berg away. I)es])ite the many agencies which tend to
destroy uniformity, there are however, in any unassorted run of
bergs several which bear a common resemblance.

Tn this res])ect the irregidar. douie-shaped bergs wliich constitute
the largest grouj) are strikingly distinguished from the thit-to])i)e(l

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

101

|)iecipitous-sided type. The glaciers of Disko Bay and Northeast
Hay discharge most of the picturesque forms, while northward in
Melville Bay, where the ice sheet itself is thrust directly out into the
sea. many of the square, blocky icebergs are produced. The marked
difference in form, therefore, may be largely attributed to the type
of tlie coastal land underlying the margin of the inland ice. Plateau-
like bergs may maintain their ecjuilibrium for a year or longer, for
such have been sighted even off Newfoundland with the oiiginal
dust and wind-blown sand of Greenland coloring their tops.

But the triangular, dome-shai^ed berg and the straight-sided
type enter the Atlantic as bulky, massive bodies, worked upon hence-
forth by the various agencies of destruction. Bergs in the far north,
with few exceptions, maintain their oi-iginal outlines but after in-

The Dome-Shaped Class of Icebergs

Figure 61. — A Davis Strait bera observed liy tbe Marion expedition the summer of
1928. Its domed and rounded shape is characteristic of the hirgest class of bergs
to be found in the northwestern North Atlantic. Its proportions of air-exposed
body to be submerged are 1 : 5 to 1 : 4. (Official i.hotograph. ilarion expedition.)

vading the warm oceanic waters of the Atlantic they melt so rapidly
that they change a])})earance often. The boxlike berg is first washed
and melted around the water line, and this continual undercutting
of the peri)endicular sides results in a corresponding breaking away
of the })r<)mineiices above. After a time the unequal detaciiments
rause the ice to lose equilibrium and the roof tilts, forming a
V-shaped berg. The absence of the square, upright types after mid
season at the Atlantic terminus is noteworthy.

The well-known girdling incision at the water line is a common
characteristic from which few bergs are free. Overhanging ledges
strained beyond the structural strength of the ice detach, causing
the berg to roll, so that it floats in a new plane, leaving the old
water line clearly visible for miles. We have seen bergs off' the
Urand Bank wath as many as three or four old water lines marked

102 MARION EXPEDITION" TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

diagonally across them. The surface of the berg above water is
often sculi^tured and chiseled in marked contrast to the part below
surface which has been smoothed and rounded in contour by the
effect of the sea. The continual shifting of stabilitv in the irregu-

The Pinnacled Class of Bergs

FiGUUE G2. — The fact that many ieehergs in the north are
pinnacled and irregular causes the question of mass flota-
tion to become a subject of mostly academic interest, and
as a result the attention becomes focused on the proportions
of height above tlie sea to draft. The berg in tlie photo-
graph has a draft equal to about twice its height above
water. (Official photograph, international ice patrol.)

lai--sha])ed Greenland bergs often results in reefs jutting out a hun-
di'ed feet or more underwatei- beyond the visible contour of the ice.
These submerged ledges usually stand out beneath the waves as
clearly as a coral reef in southern climes, yet they may prove ex-

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

]03

The Dry-Dock or Valley Type of Berg

Figure 63. — An iceberg sighted by the international ice patrol ab'out 25 miles south-
west of the Grand Bank floating in water of 30° F. The •"valley" or dry-dock
Iterg is one of the common types sighted south of Newfoundland during the ice
season. The continual surging of the waves and swell develop a central bore and
later a deep, wide valley such as depicted here. Compare the water-washed
polished surface of the underportion of the berg with the rugged air-exposed
upper parts. (Official photograph, international ice patrol.)

A Characteristic Form of Melting

Figure 64. — All liergs drifting into the North Atlantic melt
most rapidly at the water line, as shown above. This
small berg was first sketched April 13, 1913, in the mixed
water around the Grand Bank. The second sketch shows
the effects of three weeks of melting.

120860—31-

104 MARIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFriX BAY

eeedingly dangerous to a ship passing close by. The British steamer
Nessmore was severely damaged by such a projection, and it is com-
mon report that a similar obstruction caused the tragic loss of the
White Star Liner T'/tanie.

The bergs which penetrate far south in summer, or dee])ly intc
the Gulf Stream, often assume a comi)letely Avater-washed. i)()!ishefl
form, like a beach-worn stone. (See fig. 74. p. 114.) No sharp i)rom
inences are visible anywhere and such bergs are usually low. hencf
very difficult to detect. The most striking form is given to iceberg.-
entering the North Atlantic by washing. The continual surging ol
the waves and swell back and forth finds the zone of greatest weak-
ness developing a central bore and later a deep, wide valley. Such
bergs are a familiar sight south of Xewfovmdland and are called b\
various names : "" Valley." " dry-dock," '' winged.*' " bicuspid." " sad
die-back." and "' double-horned." (See fig. 68. ]>. 103.)

Steamers often report two bergs close together when correctly
speaking, it is simply one old eroded iceberg whose valley bottom i^
submerged beneath the sea. Blowholes and reentrant caves are noi
uncommon features through which the swell sometimes spouts
hundreds of feet in the au\ The valley berg, fragile in its las
stages, consists of thin walls, that eventually break off, and in period:
of smooth weather beautiful, curved, and slender "swan's necks"
are carved by the sea. High arches are on rare occasions sighted
In most instances they represent the washing of the waves tha
started with a small cave and wore it larger and larger, but in soim
cases they may be relics of caves formed in glacier fronts by tli-
escape of glacial thaw water.

The icebergs are largest in the vicinity of the fjords soon afte
their birth and diminish in size the farther they are carried into th'
Atlantic. The highest berg of a group of 87 measured bv Drvaalsk
(1895, p. 401), in Northeast Bay was 447 feet. Hellaiid ( 187(), i
106). measured bergs to a height of iJl}2 feet and Steenstrup (188;^
p. 90). 249 feet. Again Helland measured 8 bergs in the montl
of Jacobshavn fjord, 142, 14."). 146, 181, 198. 201, 343, and 3.56 feet
the largest of which contained 718,000,000 cubic feet (17.01)0,00 ■
tons), with 230 feet as a common lieight for a large iceberg. Dry
galski measured a group of 70 bergs assorted as follows : Four wer
over 325 feet high, 14 were between 230 and 325 feet, 25 were betweei^
160 and 230 feet, and 27 were less than 160 feet. The figures foi
bergs in the vicinitv of the large glaciers are as follows:

Great Karajak : 250. 253. 207. 211. 250, 241 feet. Height of glacie
front, 160 to 330 feet. The average height of bergs from (h-ea
Karajak is 180 to 250 feet.

Itividliarsuk: 194, 192, 214, 224, 230, 230, 95. 125 feet. Height o
glacier front, 227 to 260 feet.

Jacol)shavn : 69, 105, 135. 214. 330, 336, 447 feet. Height of glacie
front, 277 feet.

The f()re<:oing shows that Jacobshavn cahes the higliest ice
bergs in the north with (ii-eat Karajak following a ch)se second
The icebergs of east (jreenland are ap[)arently not so high as thos
of the west coast, as Amdrup (1900, p. 243), estinuites the largest o
these as 160 to 215 feet u\ height aiul about 3.280 feet in lengtli. Th'
loftiest berg observed by the international ice patrol south of Xew

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS

105

The Tilted. Flat-Topped Berg

iiHRE G5. — Flat-topped Ijergs wliich roll into a new plaiir of flotation form
V-sliaped bergs, a common sight south d Newfoundhmd. On the right-hand side
of this berg, tilted at an angle of 45°, can be seen the original top surfaco' when
the lerg was a part of the Greenland ice cap. (Photograph l)v Lieut. Commander
N. G. Rickctts.)

A Common Iceberg Form South of Newfoundland

FiGtRE 66. — After floating some time without changing equilibrium, a large portion
of ice was calved from the left-hand side of this berg. This caused the right-hand
side to sink and the left to rise. The old water line is plainly discernible, inclined
at an angle of 25° to the water. (Official photograph, international ice patrol.)

106

MARIOIs^ EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STItAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY

ICEBERG With an Arch

FiGUKE 67. — Occasionally itebergs are observed in the western North Atlantic pierced
by a large hole or bore through which the waves continually surge and spout.
Such holes or bores develop from the gradual enlargement of a slight depression
or embayment. Caves are developed by waves in a fashion similar to those along
the sea cliffs on shore. (Photograph by Lieut. Commander N. G. Ricketts. )

The -Twin' berg

FuiURE 68. — A moditieation of the ordinary "dry dock" or " vallry ' shaped Imm l;
is the type shown here. Such ice is soiui'timi's reported by vessels at sea as t\\ •
bergs or twin bergs. It, however, is simply one berg tliat has 1)een disiiitegrateil
by wave action until the mid section has retreated below the surface of the sea.
The U. S. Coast (iuard cutter Tampa eaii be seen through the gap. standing iiy
the berg, warning liy radio all approaching steamships. (Official ph'otograpb.
international ice patrol.)

I

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

107

foiindlaiid was 262 feet, while the h)ii<i"est hero- measured ISVM) feet-"
This Last was of the tabular type, with an almost level top, 65 feet

50 )Oo ^

A

2O0 loo

e>

HCCOH

ZiMOX.

4006 H.

£coo M-

<Sooo ^

loo&o

Great Karajak Glacier

icuRE G9. — Four cross sections of Great Karajak Glacier taken at various distances
from its outer end. A. The front wall 100 meters above sea level in its middle.
B, Section taken at the point of its steepest descent. C, At the Taisuak Step.
(Figure from Drygalski, 1897.)

LITTLE Karajak Glacier

FicrnE 70. — A longitudinal section through Little Karajak Glacier and out onto the
lit'd of the fjord." Scale 1:100.000: the depths in m-tei's. (Figur.:' from Lrvgalski.
1S97. »

ihove water, and was estimated to contain 90;). 000,000 cubic feet
(l'2,800,()0!) tons) of ice. The averag'e berg in the Davis Strait

■ One of the largest icebergs ever recorded in the western North Atlantic was sighted
\iiL;ust 28, 1928, by the steamer Idefjord as an "ice island." A verified report was
iiiiitt'd in the Hydrograpbic Bulletin 1'055 of February 23, 1929. by the U. S. Lydro-
-lapliic Office as "follows : "At 8.30 a. m. (ship time) the northwestern point of the ice
isl.iiid was abeam to port, distant 9 miles by 4-point bearing: the ship ran 4 miles before
tlir northwestern point was abeam. When the ship was abreast the middle of the island.
Vertical angles were taken which showed a height of 80 feet, but there were peaks which
were about 20 feet higher. After passing the island a very good view was obtained and
rill' ice extended as far as could be seen. There was a li^ht southwest breeze and the
visibility was very good, but it was hazy over the ice." Several other steamers reported
passing this huge mass of ice during the succeeding few weeks. The U. S. Coast Guard
patrol boat Marion was ordered to investigate this report and searched the vicinity two
weeks after the ice island was originally reported. Several bergs were found : the largest
one, 775 feet wide and 825 feet long, however, did not even approach the dimensions of
the " ice island." If the report be authentic, this huge iceberg exceeds in size anything
previously encountered in the" North Atlantic. Kriimmei (1907. p. 520) relates a report of
an ice island sighted near Cumberland Gulf, Baffin Land, in 1882. It measured 50 to 65
feet high. 7 miles long, and 3i/^ miles broad.

108 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

region is estimated to have a volume of oO.OOO.OOO cubic feet, while
the average for the Grand Bank is about G,UOU,()00 to 8,00;),000 cubici
feet. The average being around Newfoundland is about 100 feet
high. The average berg in Disko Bay was estimated by the Marion^
expedition to be twice as high as the average Grand Bank's berg}
but it is very difficult to judge accurately, because the height of the
land surrounding Disko Bay dwarfs them. The general form of thel
Disko bergs api)ears bulkier, and there are few of the deep-valleyed|
forms that are so connuon around Newfoundland. The usual melt-
ing signs which also appear on the underwater surface of the bergsj
in lower latitudes are less apparent in Disko Bay.

Structure, Color, and Density of Icebergs

It is well known that the ice composing icebergs is formed from
snow crystals which have gradually sublimated into large granular
ice. This process of ice formation entangles and imprisons a vast
quantity of air in the mass producing a structure which is quite
different from ordinary pure ice. Barnes (190(3) shows that the
material is relatively hard below temperatures of 15° to 20° F.. but
if it be warmed, its power of resistance rapidly decreases, giving
away almost entirely at the melting point, wiiere it is soft indeed.
An iceberg which invades the Atlantic and comes under summer tem-
peratures, becomes pudgy and soft on its outside. A projectile
plunges into the berg with a " chug " but in cold weather it only
shakes down a shower of dustlike crystals. Steenstrup (18S3) ob-
served that by reducing the ten;perature of berg samples the air
bubbles inclosed in the ice were subjected to a strong comi)ression,i
and in that condition ])ricking by a needle Avas sufficient to burst the
ice with the crack of an explosion. Barnes (192Ta, p. 93). however,
from his observations upon the size of the air bubbles in the ice, and
after they have been released, claims that under natural conditions
the air imprisoned in iceberg ice is under no greater than atmospheric
pressure. It is also interesting to note that Barnes found that the
air imprisoned in iceberg ice probably thousands of years ago has
the same composition as the atmosphere of the present day. lie has
published the results of some recent experiments (Barnes 1928;
]). 345) to determine the amount of air contained in berg ice, and
although the work is preliminary, it was found that 7 to 15 per cent
with an average of 10 per cent of the co-volume was air.^^ Small
fragments of iceberg ice floating in sea water have been observed ta
effervesce with a s))uttering sound ])lainly audible a foot distant quite
similar to the frying of bacon. Such a reac-tion would ]^r()l)al)ly indi-
cate furthermore the release of innumerable minute air bul)ble-; under
greater than atmosi)heric j)ressure. Lieutenant Gonnnander Ricketts
informs me that he has observed large bubbles of air rising to thei
sea surface on calm days near the sides of icebergs. I^ndoubtedly the'
melting of the ice under water causes many of the small bubbles toi
collect and arrive at the sea surface as large aii" bubbles. The -ize of
the bubbles jjernu'ating the ice may vary considerably froui a diam-i
eter of one-fourth inch or more to a nunuteness invisible to the nakedi
eye. The average is less than the size of the head of a connr.on pin.

ss Thunis (1014, p. 08) found a rontont of 1 per cent, but, he adds, the ice used for the
experiments was uniistiallv clear and prohaUlv contained a ininininin amount of air.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

109

Bei'of ice melts slower than the aitificial variety and the water
obtained from it is fresh and pure. The color of the ber<.>;s is
a peculiar opa(iue flat white, often mistaken by the inexperienced for
snow, often with soft irridescent hues of jzreen and blue. Many
beru's are also tinged in places with a bi'own. yellowish stain, due
pi()bal)ly to diatoms and other forms of planktonic life in whicli our
northern seas are so richly abundant. The snowy white appearance
IS caused by surface weathering of a few inches to a foot or more
in de])th, and also to the effect of the sun's rays which release in-
numerable air bubbles; the ice underneath this surface film is stated
to remain a clear deep, green color. If a sample be examined closely
it will be seen to be covered with innumerable white threadlike lines

A Close-up View of iceberg ice

FiGUHE 71. — Tlin e samples of iceberg ice. Tlie two largest pieces of slaty opaque
whiteness emphasize the ph.vsical character of iceberg ice. a mixture of sublimated
snow crystals and air brought together under great pressure. The smallest piece
was taken from a vein of clear ice often to be found in many icebergs. The veins
are probably old cracks and fissures that have filled with thaw wati r either in the
berg itself or when it was a part of the glacier. (Photograph after H. T. Barnes.)

etched all over the surface. A melting surface on close examination
^reveals the disarticulation of the intHvidual glacier grains which
average about three-sixteenths inch in diameter and which are
'sejiarated one from another by depressions sometimes one-fourth to
oin'-half inch across. This .structure gives the ice a roughened,
l)ebbly surface. Few icebergs are structurally homogeneous through-
out, most of them being striped by one or more blue or green veins,
or ribbons, of compact, transparent ice which stand out strikingly
lagainst the porous-white background. These ranging in width
from an inch or more to several feet are formed by crevasses filling
the water and then freezing as clear, blue ice while the berg was still
a part of the margin of the ice cap. Other blue bands are also pro-
duced by the pressure and shearings that the glacier streams expe-

110 MAEIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

rience flowing outward tlirough the foreland. The blue-green
veins often give a very illusive effect as if the iceberg were cleft
from top to water line, and, instead of ice, one were lf)oking directly
through the gap at the sky beyond. Another feature of interest is
the rock and earth debris which has become imbedded in the mass.
In this manner, doubtless, melting bergs drop considerable detritus
along their paths of drift. The earth usually lies in streaks and
veins striped across the sides and occasioiuilly stones and bowlders
the size of a man's body are seen imbedded in the top.

The ununiform distribution of air and the banding of the ice
through melting and freezing are all processes which tend to vary the
density from place to place in an ice sheet. Take one example: The
bottom layers of a glacier being inider greater pressure than the upper-
most few meters, results in the former being much denser than the

Earth Veins in a Greenland iceberg

Figure 72. — Many of the bergs drifting out of Davis Strait are marlced with one or
more veins of soil and debris which were taljen up from the underlying bed when
the ice was a part of the glacier in Greenland. Icebergs may thus transport such
debris from the Arctic to the tropical regions of the Gulf Stream. (I'hotograph
by Lieut. Commander N. G. Ricketts. )

latter. Ahlmann. the Scandinavian giaciologist, I am informed, has
made several determinations regarding the density of glacial ice in
the Norwegian mountains, from the up})er surface of a glacier down
to depths of several meters, and has found values which vary within
wide limits. The density of the interior of a glacier, according to
Ahlmann, differs little from the density of ice formed by fresh water
freezing in the ordinary manner (0.9167), but surface samples of
glaciers may be so porous as to give density values as low as 0.6.
The density of an iceberg being no more or less than a detached por-
tion of a glacier depends, therefore, on that ])art of the glacier from'
which it calved. A berg composed mostly of the lower layers of an
ice sheet will be denser than one which broke away from the upper
surfaces of the same sheet. On the other hand, a given berg in
calving may embrace the entire glacier fi'oiit. top to bottom, and in

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 111

-uch cases the specific gravity of the ice in one part of the body will
differ from that in another. Such bergs will exhibit a marked sta-
bility, at least in their early stages, and the frequent number of flat
hergs observed floating with the original Greenland, sand-covered
tops, still uppermost, may be a corroboration of tlie above-described
cniiditions.

The density of the ice in an iceberg may change after it has
detached from the ice sheet. This development is due to surface
wcatliering, a process which does not normally extend to a depth of
more than a few feet. Sverdrup has suggested to me that, accord-
ing to this view, an iceberg is probably composed of a core which is
densest, surrounded by layers in which the density decreases towards
tlie surface, depending upon the degree of porosity of the ice there.

Wright and Priestley (1922) found the density of a sample of
ice taken from the Antarctic ghicier to be 0.897. Barnes's (1928
p. 345) flgure of approximately 10 per cent covolume of air taken
Irom an iceberg stranded off Twillingate, Newfoundland, should give
a density flgure of about 0.825. Barnes, however, points out in a
letter to me that the density value of berg ice varies by a wide margin,
dejiending upon wiiat part of the berg the sample was taken.

The Coast Guard cutter Tampa in ]\Iarch. 1930. brought to Boston
la piece of ice taken from a berg found (>fi' Xewfoundland. Determi-
nations of the speciflc gravity were made by means of the displace-
ment method in a bath of kerosene at the Jefferson Physical Labora-
tory, Harvard University. From two trials with samples taken from
v.irious parts of the piece the lowest density was 0.8977, the highest
0.9045, and the mean 0.8977. This flgure agrees quite well with that
(»f Wright and Priestley for Antarctic glacial ice, but it is greater
tlian Ahlmanns's or Barnes's results. It is hoped that several more
den-ity determinations will be made from a number of samples to be
collected by the ice patrol from various parts of a berg as it disinte-
giates. Until more such data is assembled we can not state deflnitel}'
what is the figure representative of the mean density of an iceberg.

X common question met in connection with the subject of icebergs
is : What proportions of a berg are above, and what proportions
ai'c below, the s\irface of the sea? If we assume that the mean
>i)eciflc gravity of iceberg ice is 0.8997, as compared with 0.9107
for pure fresh-water ice, we may arrive at the following estimate
of mass buoyancy."^ The submerged portion of an iceberg floating
in sea water f)f 1.02690 density, a figure representative of the average
density of the surface layers along the continental edge, is then about
O.,s760 of the entire mass or, in other words, one-eighth of the mass
of a berg is above and seven-eighths below the surface of the sea.
These figures do not agree with Barnes (1927a, p. 98) who emphasizes
the amount of air imprisoned in glacial ice, and states that because
of this a berg will float with about one-third of its mass above water.
It will require a greater number of density determinations than are
now available to ascertain this flgure with accuracy.

The fact that the icebergs typical of the Xorthern Hemisphere are
as a rule irregular in shape causes the question of mass flotation to
become a subject mostly of academic interest, and as a result atten-

'" A cubie foot of iceberg ice weiglis approximately 55 pounds.

112 MARION EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

tion becomes focused on the proportions of the height to which a
berg towers above the sea, as compared with the depth to which it
extends beh)w the surface. Obviously, mass for mass, a pinnacled
berg will rise to a greater height above the water than a more uni-
form or blocky shaped one. In the majority of cases of icebergs,
therefore, calved from glaciers in the north, height tends to ap-
proach draft. Steenstrup, we find, gives 1:7.4 or 1 : 8.'2 for the
approximate proportions of a floating berg, height to draft; and a
square blocky berg as 1:7 to 1:9 of its mass. The figures offered
by Krummei (1907, p. 520) are 1:8 as cne extreme and 1:4 as the
other, with the common run equaling 1 : 5 to 1:6.

There are several records of actual measurements made on ice
l)ergs as follows: The Denmark expedition observed a berg off the
east Greenland coast which measured 108 feet high and "270 fee',
draft, or proportions about 1 to ?). Dawson (1907) mentions meas-
uring an iceberg August 7, 1894, stranded in the Strait of Belle
Isle. It rose 105 feet above the sea in a depth of 342 feet of water,
or proportions of 1 to 3. Rodman (1890, p. 7), describes a tall,
spired berg 100 feet in altitude that was grounded in IG fathom.s
of water in the Strait of Belle Isle: proportions almost 1 to 1.
The international ice patrol (Smith. 1925, p. 81) measured a berg
east of Xewfoundland by sextant angle as 106 feet, and its draft
by means of a wire drag was 200 feet; proportions 1 to 2. The fol-
lowing table of approximate i)rop()rtions (height to draft) for bergs
south of Newfoundland has been compiled with consideration for
density values and also the results of actual measurements of bergs of
various shapes.

TvTX-' : rroportions (exposed to submerged)
Blocky. preeii)it(;U8 sides 1 : ~)

Komided 1 : 4

I'icturesiiue, Greenland 1 : 3

Pinnacled and ridged 1:2

Last stages, horned and winged 1:1

It is seen that the (xreenland bergs, characteristically pinnacled
and domed, have a much smaller draft than has heretofore been the
connnon impression. It is not surprising, therefore, that sizeable
bergs can drift in relatively shallow waters, as over the Grand Bank]
or across the sill of Davis Strait.

DiSIXTEGHATION AND MeLTING OF ICEBERGS

As soon as an iceberg cleaves from the glacier front and is water
borne, the processes of wastage ronnnence. This phenomenon pro-
ceeds in the following three ways: (1) Melting, (2) erosion,"" and*
(3) calving.

It is seldom, under actual conditions met at sea, that all three
methods of disintegration are not at work, but one type is oftem
more active than the other two until a change of the sea or a changei
in the shape of the ice causes a rearrangement of the three agencies.

*" The word "erosion " is used here to designate the accelerated rate of meUinj? thati
takes place when icebergs are washed by waves, by swell, or by rain. Any motion which i
carries away the water which is in contact willi the ice and brings a fresli supply of:
warmer water to the ice surface materially liastens molting. Erosion, then, as used, re-
fers not only to the fi'icrioiial action of tlie water lint it also includes the f.ir greateri
melting eflVct.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

113

The processes of disintefiration are best observed at sea near the
southern nieltin<>- end of the berii's journey, and for this reason the
ocean south of Newfoundhind provides an excellent region to carry
out such studies.

— - ---51..

The Rugged Surface of Recent Cauvings

Figure 73. — A tower of ice 150 feet high which the international ice patrol observed
grounded on the Tail of the Grand Bank in 19i;2. When approached within a mile
or less, a berg of this size creates a distinct feeling < f impress! veness. The photo-
graph also strikingly reveals the planes of cleavage from which tons of ice have
calved. The proportions of exposed to submerged body of pinnacled berg, the
group in which this one is classed, is 1:1. (Official photograph, international ice
patn I.)

Meltino; processes are always at work on all bergs, but they
are slowest in winter and Avhen the berg is far north or on the conti-
nental shelf. AVastage speeds up during the warmer months and as
the ice drifts farther and farther soijtii into the open Atlantic. If
the water is warmer than the air, a condition sometimes met in early

114

MAEION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

spriiia' Avhen iceberf>:s drift into the Gulf stream southeast of Xew-
foundland, then the underwater body of a berg melts faster than
the above part. If, on the other hand, the air is warmer than the
water — for example, during summer in the cold waters around the
Grand Banl: — the air-exposed portion of an iceberg will melt the
faster. But in each case account nuist be taken of the specific heat
of the water as compared with that of air. ]\Ielting usually pro-
ceeds fastest at the water line of icebergs, the engirdling furrow
being a common sight on bergs in the ice regions. Acceleration of
the rate of wastage is also affected by the size of the ice body. The
smaller a berg becomes the greater is the ratio between exposed sur-
face and mass, and therefore the faster is the rate of melting at a
constant temperature. Also the smaller a l;erg becomes the more

^^g-^^niMac^ '---ir»?--'-t ' -f^^^"*^

^"■^^

A Water-Washed Berg Melting Rapidly

Figure 74.— This berg on May 9, 1921, in latitude 41° 45' N., lonj;itudt! 47° 3U' W.,
liad been two days in the Gulf Stream south of Newfoundland : water tempera-
ture 63° F. Its surface is completely water washed, due to the frequent chanires
in equilibrium, and it has acquired a polished surface, looking much like melted
glass. On close inspection the berg could be seen " steaming," like an ice cake
on a hot summer's day. A flow of water also, due to the excessive rate if
melting, bathed the entire surface. (Official photograph, international ice patrol.)

it comes under the control of the surface layers, which by virtue of
the'r greater warmth and more rapid motion accelerate the rate of
Avasting of the ice.

The most advanced stages of melting are observed on bergs which
drift into the Gulf stream off the Grand Bank in summer, when
during the warm, calm days of late June they become furrowed by
hundreds of rivulets from every side. lender these conditions they
melt so rapidly that the plane of equilibrium is constantly altering,
so that the bergs roll over and over. The constant washing jxjli.shes
the sui'face and smoothes off all sharp prominences, and the ice that
reaches these subtropical surroundings fairly steams like an ice cake
on a hot summer's day.

One more factor Avhich may further the jirocess of nu'lting is
the descent of warm aii' near icebergs. The atmosphere in the vicin-

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 115

ity of the Grand Bank dnring summer and northward on the Luh-
rador shelf, as over other bodies of cold water, is usually much
warmer at an altitude of a few hundred feet than it is close to the
siii'face of the sea. An iceberg which rises a hundred feet or more
will form an obstruction to the wind, tending to stir up the air to a
I still greater altitude. Around many bergs, therefore, one might
I expect the air to be much warmer than in the immediate neighbor-
hood, and fact sustains theory, for a surprisingly warm blast of air
has often been experienced by the ice-patrol ship when passing close
hy and just to the leeward of an iceberg. On the other hand, under
(litferent atmospheric conditions, cold air is experienced in the
vicinity of the ice.

Krosion, washing by the waves and ocean swell is most effective
of all destructive agents for North Atlantic bergs. The erosion
piocesses are always at work from the time the ice drifts any appre-
ciable distance out from the juotection of harbors and bays. As the
seas continually wash back and forth thev find a crevasse, an irregu-
lar shape, or a slight depression, all of which they enlarge. The
ceaseless surging of the swell, iDouring back and forth through the
small channels, soon erodes valleys, which in turn grow larger and
larger, until they develop into the main features of the berg. The
inner slopes retreat until only two thin side walls remain, and eventu-
ally the valley bottom deepens and disappears below the waves, thus
giving the impression of two separate pinnacles or towers of ice.
Finally in the later stages of Avasting, far south in the Atlantic,
calving and fracture outstrip erosion with the falling of the fragile
side walls. Calving is then in turn superseded by melting agencies
which turn the last ])age in our iceberg's history. It is interesting
to note that the attacks of erosion are always directed at the middle
of the mass of ice that is above water. If the sea sculptures too
much away from one side, that rcLnon through loss of weight is
lifted out of reach of the waves, which then concentrate on the other
side, the midsection always receivinir the brunt of the attack.

During early season around the Grand Bank, February to INIarch,
icebergs are subjected to a severe washing by waves wdiich some-
times dash completely over them, causing a great deal of wastage.
The long ocean swell which makes up during a gale also sets up
stiesses and strains in the above-water portion, causing much rend-
ing, cracking, and fracture. But only in the small-sized bergs, even
in such gales, can one detect a perceptible roll and sway. The ordi-
nary run of bergs remain as immovable as the Rock of Gibraltar.
Calving begins when the melting and erosive ])rocesses have set up
strains that exceed the structural strength of the ice. Prominences
and overhanging ledges calve away, sliding down from the steepest
])arts of the berg's sides and slopes. Unequal detachments around
the edges interfere with equilibrium and occasionally initiates calv-
ing on a major scale. The berg begins to roll slowly and deeply to
and fro, and when some bulging prominenc^^ swings far away from
the perpendicular thousands of tons of ice rupture to fall, avalanche-
like, down to the sea. In the case of many tons of ice, the effect
is very curious; it seems to fall much more slowly than really is the
case. Stability is, of course, seriously disturbed, and the berg may
again suffer one or more successive calvings of its irregular j^arts

116

MAKIOiSr EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

until equilibrium is reestablished. Then the cycle of destruction is
reenacted.

Bergs which calve frequently, producing numerous growlers,
naturally expose a greater and greater ice surface, and therefore
Avaste faster than those bergs Avhich resist fracture because of their
particular sl^ape. or of calmer seas, or of other causes. Bergs which
are completely water washed present fewer overhanging prominences
than others, and are. therefore, less lial)le to calve. Such shaped
bergs exposed to the same conditions survive hmger than any other
kind.

The natural |)rocesses of disintegi'ation that attack a (Treenland
berg when it reaches the warm ocean south of the tail of the (xrand

An Iceberg Buffeted by Winter Gales

Figure 75. — Bergs drifting; south of Newfoundland in early season (February to
March) leave pr'otective coast lines far lichind. Tlien they are subjected to a
severe buffeting by gales and ocean swidl which sometimes "shoot the spray hun-
dreds of feet in the air. Only the sniallrr-sized bergs, however, display any per-
ceptilile motion ; ice bodies as large as the one shown here remain as immovable
as a rock. This lierg measured l."i(i feet above the water and 400 feet in length.
(Official photograph, international ice patrol.)

Bank are interesting to follow. Thus when one i)articiilai- her<j
which on April 4. 11)24. emerged from arctic surroundings of 3*2 - F..
to enter mixed water of 35° F.. was then of medium size, consisting
of a low ridge at one end sejiarated by a shallow channel from a
peak approximately 125 to 150 feet high at the other. The wind
remained light for the next two days and the water warmed from
34° to 38°. while a slight swell Avashing the base of the berg ma-
terially assisted the melting processes. A groAvler A\'as observed to
calve occasionally, but disintegration Avas not rapid. By the next
day the temperature of the sea had risen to 40° F., and a heavy sAvell
makinir up about noon initiated rapid wastage. AVhen the ber^
crossed the "cold wall," early the morning of the 8th, and floated in

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS

117

wiiim Avater of 56° F., it l)e<ran to dwindle fast. calvin<r and rollin<Tj
continuously. The swell subsided somewhat in the afternoon, but
the tropical water combined with a moderate buffeting caused calv-
in<r to continue. The most rapid disinte2ration took place on April
10; loud crackings were then continually heard, and the retreat of
each wave exposed a surface appearing blistered, with the next wave
crashing away the loosened covering, to be followed by another
(haining and more blistering. During this stage the wind was light
southerly, a moderate southerly swell was running, and passing rain
-(| nails Avere experienced, typical of Gulf Stream weather. It was
api)arent by nightfall that the effects of warm air, the warm Avaters,
the rain shoAvers, and the constant pounding of the seas would shortly
(omplete the destruction of the berg, uoav rather small. It Avas not
surprising, therefore, next morning that we found no traces of it.

Rapid Wastage of Icebergs in Oceanic Surroundings

FiiiUiiE 7(!. — The lapUl rate of disintegration of this berg can be road in the excessive
rurliulencp of the surrounding " white water."' The seas in surging through the
nild section liave left the eartli vein remaining only in the two side walls. A berg
MS smaU as this one — 40 feet by 150 feet — reacts to the motion, riding the swells
like a slii]). (Photograph by Lieut. Commander X. <!. Uicketts.)

The rate of Avastage of about 30 feet of height per day is one of the
most ra]:»id ones on record.

From the foregoing and from other similar observations it is
clear that the rapidity Avith Avhich a berg that has drifted out of
jDavis Strait and reached North Atlantic Avaters around NeAvfound-
■land disintegrates depends upon the temperature of the air and
water and on the state of the sea. A berg Avhich drifts southAvard
along the east side of the (Irand Bank, except late in season, is sur-
rounded by Avater of a temperature loAver than 35° F. (2° C.) until
after it passes the Tail of the Bank. Such cold surface layers are
primarily due to winter chilling further north, but they are partly
due to the presence of pack ice Avhich assists to keep the surrounding
water frigid and thereby alloAv the bergs to penetrate farther south.
Disintegration under such conditions is rather sIoav, but in the mixed
Avaters and in the Gulf Stream south of the Grand Bank it is accel-
erated. At 36° melting it quite noticeable: at 50° the changes can be

118 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STPiAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

observed from hour to hour. A berg of average size, 70 to 90 feet in
height, in mixed waters south of the Grand Bank will survive as a
menace to navigation for a period of 1'2 to 14 days during April.

A Clcse-up View of an Iceberg at Sea

Figure 77. — A close view showing the three processes of wast-
age— melting, erosion, and calving — of an iceberg at sea. The
warm ocean swell, as it ceaselessly pours across the ledge
of ice in the foreground, is the most potent factor in the
disintegration of icebergs off Newfoundland. (Photograph
by Lieut. Commander N. G. Ricketts.)

May, and June, but will not survive longer than 10 to 12 days there-*
after. This repiesents a reduction of height at the rate of 5 feet pel
day in April and 0 feet per day in iNlay and June. An equal sized
berg farther south within the conhnes of the Gulf Stream, 05^ to

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

119

7(1 ' F.. will survive approximately 7 days, with considerable varia-
tion, equivalent to a heio;ht reduction of about 10 feet per day.

On April 11, 1921, we measured a large berg floating in water
34° F., between Flemish Cap and the Grand Bank, as 248 feet high.
(Smith. 1922, Chart H.) AVlien it was sighted again 10 days later
in 33° F. water, it was 190 feet in height, and again 80 feet high on
May 9 in water of 44°. When last seen on May 12 in water 63° F.,
it had shrunk to 60 feet. This indicates a rate of wastage in altitude
of about 6 feet per day until the last few days, when the berg was
^-urrounded by warm tropical waters, and then it lost height at the
late of 10 to 12 feet per day. Naturally, the bergs waste faster in
the summer time south of tlie Grand Bank than in any other region
of their occurrence; about six times faster tlian in the Arctic. In
June, 1926, a large berg, 382 feet in length, floating in the northern
ediie of the Gulf Stream soutli of Newfoundland, completely melted

A Major Cauving of an iceberg

Figure 78. — While approaching this berg, 1 mile distant, a part of the pinnacle on
the left broke ofC. The detached piece weighing hundreds of tons dropped into
the sea with a great roar. The white circle on the water around the berg is the
broken ice, and growlers. (Official photograph, international ice patrol.)

away in 36 hours. On the other hand, during the same year and
month there is the authentic report of a piece of ice sighted near
Bermuda. (U. S. Hydrographic Office, Hydrographic Bulletin No.
; 1944, December, 1926.') Icebergs on the northern part of the Grand
Bank sometimes survive as long as four to six weeks. And a large
berg stranded south of Belle Isle in April, 1924, did not completely
break up until August. These observations on the rate of wastage
agree with those of earlier investigators. Thus Drygalski (1895,
p. 420) measured some of the icebergs in Northeast Bay, Greenland,
during the summer months and found that in a period of 7 days two
of them decreased by 10 and by 13 feet, respectively, in height, while
another in 6 weeks diminished from a height of 320 to 244 feet, a
loss of 20 per cent in altitude. Johnston (1913, p. 23) estimates that
bergs floating in water 50° F. or warmer suffer a 5 per cent reduction
of mass per day.

120860—31 9

120

MARIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Assuming that an average run of large bergs for the Arctic lose
one-half their altitude before they reach the Grand Bank — i. e.. 250
feet to 125 feet — at a daily rate of 6 feet,"^ than an uninterrupted
journey of about five months is suggested. An average-size berg in
the Arctic regions is estimated to contain 50,000,000 cubic feet
(1,500,000 tons) of ice Avhile an average berg south of Newfound-

Rate of Melting of an Iceberg

FiGUKE 79. — This berg when first sighted on the east side of the
Grand Banli, April 11. 19-;i. was 250 feet high. Ten days later
it was 19U feet ; 18 days later. 80 feet ; and finally on May 12 it
was only 60 feet above the sea. The average loss of height per
day for icebergs around the Grand Bank is 6 feet ; and in the
Gulf Stream this accelerates to 10 feet per day.

land has a volume of approximately 0,000,000 cubic feet (150.000'
tons), figures which upon comi)arison rei)resent a reduction of mass
from 8 to 1, Greenland to Newfoundland. These estimates of a
mass reduction of seven-eighths agree very well witli the height loss
of one-half.

*i A rough approximation of reduction of daily altitude is 2 feet. BaflSn Bay : 4 feet,
Davis Strait ; 6 feet, Newfoundland and Grand Bank ; and 10 feet, south of Grand Bank.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

121

Mention should be made of published reports appearinfr from
time to time re^^arding the sudden breaking up even of laro;e ber<j[s
as a result of bursting, or of a resonant sound. Bowditch (1925, p.
264) states that bergs have sometimes been split by the single blow
of an ax. The top of an icel)erg has been described as often being
"rotten" when it will topple down if a shot be fired at it, or even
if a voice be raised in the neighl)orhood. Eskimos are said always to
keep perfectly quiet when obliged to pass a berg at close quarters.
The phenomenon is said to be due to an unequal contraction of differ-
ent parts of the berg by which the imprisoned air is compressed
beyond the structural strength of the ice so that it explode:^. But we
have not been able to produce any such effects, either by the ship's
whistle or by the report of a G-pounder gun fired close to a berg,

An Iceberg in the Advanced stages of disintegration

Figure 80. — June 15, 1922, in latitiulo 42° 43' N., longitude 51° 27' W., the water
temperature was 48° F. Tlie brulseu ice and small growlers can be seen Hoating
I away to leeward. (Official photograph, international ice patrol.)

though we ha AC carried out many such experiments under various
conditions.

Barnes (1927, p. 162), after carefully observing a large iceberg
for a period of two weeks off NeAvfoundland, states that the greatest
calving and cracking occurs in the early morning at and immediately
after sunrise. Closer examination showed -'- that the water which
had been melted on the expo.sed surface of the ice during the day
ifroze again at night. The sun's rays of the following morning pene-
jtrating the ice before surface melting started, he believed to be the
factor res])onsible l)y which the ice ex|:)ands unequally. This does
not happen later in the day l)ecause the heat from the sun is absorbed
by the great quantities of melt Avater l)athing the entire surface.

'- Zeusler (1925, p. 38) states that the greatest amount of disintegration was noticed at
110(111 and shortly after sunset. Ricketts (1930, p. 113) iwints out that the air-exixised sur-
face of the bergs does not always freeze at night since he (Ricketts) observed water pour-
ing from all visible surfaces of a berg on a cloudy night southeast of the Grand Bank.

122 MARIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

This theory was first suggested by Barnes as a result of liis observa-
tions on ice formations on rivers. Anchor ice, for example, in the
St Lawrence River is known to rise to the surface at the first early
rays of dawn. If such relatively feeble light waves are capable of
loosening great masses of anchor ice from its moorings, they niin;lu
easily play an important part in breaking up icebergs.

Barnes (1927. p. 16'2) impressed with the belief that a small
amount of i)enetrating energy from the sun sets up disruptive strains

THELASTSTAGESOFAN iceberg NEARTHESTEAMSHIPLANES

Figure 81. — This berg, on .Tune 22. 1922, in latitude 41' *^-*' •^•■
longitude 49° 45' W., south of the Grand Bank in the northern
edge of the (Julf Stream, l)roke up completely within a few hours
time. The disintegrated part, now in tli<' torm ot growlers,
entirely melted witliin 12 hours, and the menace was removed
from the ice patrol broadcast. lOfiicial photograph, interna-
tional ice patrol. )

in icebergs, carried out a number of experiments to test the ertects o
large quantities of heat. During the summer of 192(5 (see liarneN
1927a) several icebergs were boarded along the east coast ot M ■
foundliiud near Twilliiigate. and a slow-burning explosive tjuuni
thermit was buried to a depth of 3 feet and more in the ice. lar^^
of a lai-ge plateau forming a major portion of one of the iceneri.-
disintegrated when a charge of I'Oi) pounds of thermit ^^'^^ /f""? '
Lond cracks and loai-s continued throiiiiliont that night aiul l».v t"

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

123

(ime the bei<: was revisited in the mornin«r. 400 feet of the phitcau
had been lost k^avin«f a <rreat liole surr()nndin<j: the spot where the
mine had been phiced. Two days htter, tin- bei<r had faded to only a
shadow of its former self. From this he concludes that the nse of
thermit, or other means of thermal expansion, also offers a practical
method of controlling: the iceber*! menace to the North Atlantic.
Barnes, however, does not discuss the difficulties connected Avith plac-
in<r a sizable charfje of thermit at a vulnerable point in a berff at
sea. and those Avho have had considerable exi)erien('e around icebei'<rs
in the North Atlantic re^^ard this problem just as difficult as deter-
mining the proper reactive type of explosive. The niinin<r of ice-
berfifs. as develo]-)ed at present, is considered justifinliU* in tlie case

Wrecking Operations and small-Boat Dangers

Figure 82. — The career of bergs which drift across tlie trans-Atlantic steamship
lanes and into the Gulf Stream south of the Grand Bank, such as this one did
ill Ma.v. 1923. can lie shortened by the use of high explosives. The small boat
from the U. S. Coast Guard cutter Tampa has just placed a 250-pound TNT mine
below the water line 'of this berg. This is one of the most difficult and dangerous
parts of the wrecking operations. (Official photograph, international ice patrol. I

of only a few bergs which lie across the main trans-Atlantic steam-
ship tracks, and then only in periods of smooth sea.

Demolition experiments have been carried out by the international
ice patrol, 1924 to 1926, on iceljergs drifting far south into the Gulf
Stream in order to hasten their removal as a menace to navigation.
Owing to the swell and the smooth surface of the ice, such oi)erations
always entail danger, such as members of the mining crew s]ii)ping
into the sea or falling onto ledges from precipitous heights, lience
such Avork should never be attempted except at most favorable times.
On May 20. 1928. a large iceberg floating in water warmer than G0°
F. was mined Avith 250 pounds of T. N. T. on four different occasions,
first on May 20; next on the 21st and finally on May M. with the
result that "its life Avas .shortened by only one or more days. The

124 MARIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STUAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

first explosion occurred during a dense fog which sliut off all view,
but repeated heavy calvings were heard from time to time following
the blast. Another mine suspended from one side to a deptli of 10
feet brought down much loose ice. but a second charge placed at 20
feet below the surface of the water jarred the berg most of all. The
last mine, being against the side wall of the berg at a depth of 80 feet,
detached great cpiantities of ice, causing the berg to rise and then fall
sideways and to break s(iuarely in two at the point where the mine
had been placed.*'^ Gunfire has no material effect, but only shakes
;lown a few tons of ice from the point of impact.

The Effect of Explosives on icebergs

FiGiKE 83. — On .Tune 5. 192;{, the IT. S. Coast (iuanl cutter Modoc cxploiled four
yO-pound gun e'otton mines suspended from this l)er<>- at a depth of 00 feet. The
berg was observed t'> quiver perceptibly the instant of tlie explosion, and several
growlers were detached from the niaiii liudy. hut no other residts were observed
nor did the berg change in equililiriuin. (Ofiicial photograph, international ice
patrol.)

The melting of icebergs induces a circulation of the water in which
they float. Pettersson (1904, p. 286) and Saiidstrom (191.-). p. 245)
found l)y laboratory experiments that fresh ice melting in a tank
of salt water tends to induce three currents: (1) A cold surface cur-
rent of low salinity away from the ice; (2) an intermediate current
of relatively warm salty water toward the ice; and (H) a cold cur-
rent sinking diagonally away from the ice. Pettersson in several pub-
lications has offered these experiments as an exi)lanation for many
(»f the circulatory features of the world's oceans. Barnes (1910) as
a result of ice investigations in the St. Lawrence River believes that
the detection of such movements around bergs by means of precise

'•' Zeusler (1025, p. 41) gives a good description of mining operations as occasionally
carried out by the ice patrol.

SCIEXTIFIC RESULTS 125

measurements of the temperature may be made to give warnino; of
the proximity of berths. An electrical resistance thermometer frrad-
iiated to one-thousandtli of a degree centigrade called a microthermo-
gram Avas experimented with on a trip to Hudson Bay in July, 1910o
Barnes (1910. p. 131) shows that a typical thermograph upon ap-
proaching a berg begins with a slight rise and then drops from 4.6° C.
at 1 mile, to 2.2° C. at onedialf mile. The primary peak and then the
fall in temperature Avere explained as due to Pettersson's No. (1)
current, i. e., to the thaw water spreading out on the surface, the outer
fringe l)eing heated most by the sun. was warmest. But Barnes's
(1913) further investigations from the Canadian Pacific steamship
Mont calm near the Strait of Belle Isle the summer of 1912 found,
contrary to his earlier experiments, a continuous rise of temperature
as bergs were approached suggesting the drop in the thermographs
noted in 1910 Avas actually due to the generally Ioav temperature of
the cold Labrador current in Avhich the bergs floated. Barnes con-
chules therefore that Pettersson's current Xo. (1) does not prevail
under actual conditions at sea, but instead that there is an infloAving
surface current toAvard a berg. Aitken (1913. p. 501) carried out a
laboratory experiment similar to Pettersson's, finding that fresh
ice melting in salt Avater induces a circulation Avhereby all of the thaAV
comes to the surface. Taylor (1914. p. 05). employing a microther-
mogram similar to Barnes's, failed to secure any definite reliable tem-
perature graphs Avhen the Scotia approached close to icebergs on the
Grand Banks in the spring of 1913. Sometimes there Avas a rise,
sometimes a drop, and usually the record Avas masked by fluctuations
in the temperature due to causes other than icebergs. Thuras (1915.
p. 67) approached bergs on the ice ])atr<)l ship using a thermometer
graduated to one-tenth of a degree centigrade, finding that no definite
rise and fall of the instrument Avas re])eated Avith regularity. Cruis-
ing past some bergs the instrument Avould remain quite steady, Avhile
at others it Avould be A^ery erratic. Aitken (1915, p. 561) criticizes
Barnes's Avork in vieAv of the contradictory results obtained by him-
self and by Taylor.

Barnes (1927, p. 92), in a recent article descrilies the circulation in-
duced by melting icebergs as folloAvs :

Every iceberg is a hydraulic pump sinking the surrouiuliiig sea water liy cool-
ing and drawing to itself the warm surface waters and thereby contributes to
its own destruction. The warmed surface layers flow more rapidly to the cold
ice surface than do the cool layers, hence the iceberg becomes the central point
for the collection of the warmer surface water.

By his vieAv the Avarmed surrounding Avater is an indraft from the
surface layers Avhich compensates for the sinking thaw water. This
horizontal movement keeps them uppermost and explains their
greater insolation and Avarmth near a melting iceberg.

Ricketts (1930, p. 119) discusses the conventional theory of circula-
tion around icebergs and he finds it difficult in vieAv of the stratifica-
tion and marked stability of the surface layers to belieA'e that melting
icebergs establish currents of any appreciable magnitude. He as-
sumes, however, for the sake of argument, that an aA-erage-sizecl
berg south of NeAvfoundland chills a 10-foot layer of the surrounding
Avater to a temperature of 20° F. He then shoAvs that under the given
conditions the resulting horizontal indraft Avill be 27 feet per day

126

MArtlOX EXPEHITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY

at a distance of 1,000 feet, and 270 feet per day (0.002 knot per lioiu)
at a distance of 100 feet from the bero;. Such a cnrrent is of such a
comparatively small magnitude that it is masked completely by the
passing surface movements due to the waves or the Avinds. As proof
of the above, Ricketts points to the drift of growlers that even on
days of light airs and breezes is away from the parent Ijerg.

I

The Melting of ice

Figure 84. — Fresh ice melting in salt water, according to laboratory
experiments. sets up a movement of water near the ice in much the
same position shown in the bottom sketch. The upper two draw-
ings show the di.-stribution of temperature and salinitj- after a few
moments of melting. (Sketches from I'ettersson and Sandstrom,
1915.)

With conclusions so contradictory it is evident that the picture is
far from clear. The experiments of Pettersson. Sandstrom, and
Aitken are all oi)cn to the criticism that the laboratory conditions
may not simulate those existing at sea. Barnes's conclusions are weak-
ened by the fact tliat neither Taylor or Thuras obtained similar re-
sults, though Thuras did not have sufficiently sensitive instruments.'

SCIEXTIFIC r.ESVLTS 127

From our own observations at sea in the ice regions we can remark
that the circulatory effect of icebergs is rehatively so weak, and the
many temperature variations in the surface waters so fluctuating that
even the most sensitive thermal recorder can hardly be expected to
-( rve as a relial)le iceberg detector. It is ho})ed. however, that purely
from the standpoint of scientific interest, information regarding the
circulation induced by melting icebergs Avill soon be more firmly
established.

Visibility and Mihage

Icebergs floating far out from shore in Davis Strait and in the
North Atlantic are sighted at various distances depending upon the
state of visibility, height of the berg, and of the observer.*'* Smith's
(192Ta) investigations in the ice regions south of Newfoundland state
that bergs can be seen on a very clear day by a crow's-nest lookout at
12 to 15 miles, and they have been picked up under excellent visibility
a maximmn distance of 20 miles by a masthead lookout.*'^ The bridge
usually sights a berg on ordinary days at 10 to 12 miles, in clear
weather, but with a low lying haze around the horizon, the tops of
bergs have been seen 9 to 11 miles. There is a tendency to over-
estimate the distance, believing that one can see farther than is actu-
ally the case. In a dense fog a berg can not be seen more than 100
yards ahead of the ship, where it takes form as a luminous white
mass if the sun is shining, otherwise it first appears close aboard as a
dark somber shape. In a light, low fog an observer can see ice first
near the surface of the sea. tlie initial signs being the lapping of the
water on its base. A V)erg may be seen at a consideral)le distance on
a clear, moonlight night, how far depending upon the altitude and
size of the moon, and on the relative position of the moon, berg, and
ship. Given a full moon at an altitude of 35°, a berg; can be discerned
at a distance of 8 miles, and is plainly visible to the naked eye as a
glistening, luminous spot at 5 miles.

Mirages at sea often create fantastic berg shapes, the images
appearing inverted and much larger than the actual berg proves to be
when alongside. Each new berg sighted afar looks much larger than
its predecessors nearer to, but upon closer approach both images
gradually shrink; the upper snaps off and disappears in space, while
the lower contracts until correct proportions are restored. Berg
mirages are very frequent in the waters around New^foundland, where
the plane of atmospheric discontinuity is well developed in summer,
a luindred feet or less above the water, the stratification of the air is
sometimes so sharp that berglike reflections rise and fall even with
the motion of the ship on the swell. There is a record of an iceberg
the image of which was sighted over 20 miles away in the mixed
Avaters south of Newfoundland; it first appeared as three bergs, one
set upon the other, Avith the mirage continually changing shape as it
was approached. An ice blink is a common phenomenon attending

«* Due to the flat opaque whiteness of icebergs and their consequent poor ability to re-
flect any particular color, a pair of binoculars fitted with amber sun shades are found a
great help in scanning the horizon. Amber-colored spectacles for navigators in ice regions
are also recommended. , ^ ^

<^Zeusler (1925, p. 37) reports an incident where a berg was sighted at a maximum
distance of 36 miles. Commander Roach from the cutter Modoc in May. 1930, reported
sighting a berg under conditions of unusual refraction at a distance of 50 miles.

128 MARIO ivr EXPEDITIOlSr TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFUST BAY

the presence of pack ice, Init rarely, if ever, seen in the case of an
iceberg.

Observations -svhich have been carried out on the reflection of sound
waves from icebergs emphasize the uncertainty of obtaining echoes.
If the sides are steep or perpendicular, an echo will probal)ly be
heard from some directions but not from others, depending whether
or not the face presented to the sound is normal or oblique. Echoes
have been obtained from icebergs at a maximum distance of 1.000
yards under favoral)le conditions, but as a rule are inaudible at a
quarter of a mile. A fantastically shaped berg Avith steep sides and
a high peak toward the center was found to give echoes and reechoes,
but on another occasion a similar-shaped berg gave none. An echo

An Iceberg in the Fog Off the Grand Bank

FiGL'nE 85. — May 31. 1928. an iceberg in a light, low fog. This ice was visible frcm
the crow's nest of the ice patrol ship when y> miles distant, but was not visible
less than 1 mile from the ship's bridge. Grave menaces to the trans-Atlantic
steamships are the icebergs which are often hidden in fogs of the Grand Banks
for weeks at a time. Bergs in light fogs and hazy weather often appear much
larger than they actually are. (Photograph by Lieut. Commander 2s\ G. Ricketts.)

around bergs during a fog may or may not come from the ice, as fog
banks under certain conditions are known to he good sound re-
flectors.*"^

CURRENT AND WIND CONTROL DRIFT OF ICEBERGS

The first question to be considered in this ('(niuection is the relative
importance of the two agencies, viz. the gradient current and the
wind, which are responsible for the drift of icebergs. The propor-
tion in which these factors combine may vary greatly and is ile-
pendent upon (a) the proportions above and below the surface of
the sea at whicli a berg floats, (b) tlie velocity and duration of the
wind, and (c) the velocity and depth of the gradient current.

'■" .lolinston (I'.il."., p. 22) relates a case where th(> Coast Guard cutter Seneca, lying be-
twi'cn a berg and a growler, blew her whistle and received au echo from the growler but
none from the berg.

SCIEXTIFIC RESULTS 129

There is little j^ublished on the effect of wind and curicnt in con-
trolling the drift of icebergs. Johnston (1915. p. -lO) is of the opinion
that the winds exert a very pronounced effect on the movement of
bergs. Quinan (11)15, p. 37) points out that although the wind has
some effect tlie ocean current is the controlling factor. Kriinunel
(1911, p. 434) calls attention to the deep draft of icebergs, about
5 to 1, and concludes therefore that the wind has little effect and the
deep-ocean currents are dominant. Drvgalski (1895, p. 286) states
that the fohn (east) winds drive the pack ice out of the west Green-
jland fjords in the spring and (p. 502) this frees the icebergs which
have been blockaded throughout the winter. He does not mention,
however, any tendency of the east winds to carry the bergs out into
'Davis Strait. Kane (1854, p. 104) speaking of the \wset ship Resolute
says, " their drift followed some system of advance entirely inde-
pendent of the wind."

Mecking (1906, pp. 12-18) discusses the relative importance of
currents and w^inds to drift the ice out of Baffin Bay. He quotes
from the accounts of several observers on this subject, viz, Xansen,
Greely. Blake. Drygalski, Xares, Kane, and "\Vey]:)recht. Most of the
observations, however. I'egarding the efficiency of the winds as a dy-
namic agency refer to the drift of pack ice or to icebergs that are
icntangled in the pack. Few if any of the observations cited by Meck-
ing refer to icebergs outside of coastal zones and consequently such
bergs have not the freedom of movement as those floating in deep
water. Mecking concludes that in regions where slope currents
[prevail the current is dominant, while in regions of weak currents the
j winds materially effect the drift of the bergs. He emphasizes this
point on page 67 of Mecking (1906), by stating that the offshore
Iwinds along the glaciers in west Greenland during summer are the
jindex of the numljer of icebergs drifting past Xewfoundland the
following spring.

j The inttrnational ice patrol has made many observations on the
relative effect of wind and current to govern the drift of icebergs.
I In 1922 we followed a number of bergs that drifted in the area south
of the Grand Bank during a period of about two months, May 2 to
July 13, with interesting results. The tracks of the different bergs
entering this region all conform in general characteristics, as can
be seen by examining the published charts (Smith, 1923, Charts 2
and 4), despite the fact that tlie winds varied much, both in direc-
Ition and in force. In May the winds prevailed from the west and
northwest, force 4, and during the latter half of the month were
equally divided between the southeast and southwest quadrants,
|force 2.5. The first two weeks in July the wind changed to south-
iwest with a mean force of 4. A striking example of this inde-
'pendence of berg drift and of wind direction was observed Mav 2
to 13, 1922, when bergs •' D *' and " E "' (Smith, 1923, Chart F) drifted
westw^ard a distance of 90 miles at the rate of 9.5 miles per
iday in the face of a head wind blowing at times with a force 6.
iThe fact that during this entire period of varying winds, the suc-
cessive bergs exhibited a similar direction of drift is strong evidence
against any appreciable effect of winds on icebergs. The general
adherence of the ice to the stream lines of the gradient currents as
shown by comparing the charts of berg drifts with the hydrographic

130 MARION" EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY

maps, which inchides «rradieiit currents only (figs. 103, 104, 105, and
106) is additional proof of the relative inefficiency of the wind.

This conclusion must be modified somewhat, however, when ice-
bergs nearing the last stages of their career become extremely pin-
nacled and Avinged. An excellent example of such a case was pro-
vided in the summer of 1924 (see Smith. 1924a. p. 80) by a berg east
of Newfoundland that we followed IVIay 26 to June 12. a period of 28
days, over a total distance of 220 miles. (See figs. (S6 and 87.) Dur-
ing the first two weeks wliile it was large aud bulky (measuring 187
feet high and 387 feet long) it drifted in the generally accepted
paths of gradient currents east of Newfoundland. The conclusion
is corroborated b}' the salinity and the temperature of the water in
which the berg was floating on June 5, as follows :

Depth

Tempera-

(meters)

ture

°C.

0

2.3

32.92

25

1.3

33.00

7S

0.2

33.04

1 150

-1.2

33.28

'i

1 Bottom.

The upper 25 meters (14 fathoms) of the water column was of
coastal origin subject to considerable fluctuation from the frictional
effect of the wind. In the deeper layers was cold Arctic water, the
general movement of which was toward the south. During the
period May 26 to June 13 the berg drew at least 120 meters (396
feet), proof that its underwater body must then have been under
the control of the deeper northern currents. On June 13. 1924,
however, large quantities of ice were calved, the main body greatly
changing form and reducing the draft. The drift froui that date
until the berg entirely melted on June 23 was irregular, not in con-
formity either with its former track or with the generally accepted
direction of the main current. Such an erratic course can be best
explained as due to control by the wind.

This view is corroborated by measurements taken of the berg's
height, length, and draft on June 18 when its exposed body had a
pinnacle at one end 106 feet high which sloped to a mound 30 feet
above the sea at the other. Below water there were two large peaks
extending downward 160 feet and 200 feet, respectively.'^'

While the foregoing measurements were being taken the salinity
and temperature of the water in Avhich the berg floated Avere also
observed.

Depth

Tempera-

(meters)

ture

°C.

0

5.6

45

4.4

90

0

a 130

0

Salinity

32.80

32. 82
33. 09

33. 52

o Bottom.

""The moasuremeiits uiulor water were carried out by two small boats loworins a heavy
weight to a desiKuated dcptli, the weights beinj; connected by a fine wire about 4.50 feet
long. I'assing on either side of tlie lierg the wire span was"pullcd taut and tin
lowered until the wire passed undci tlio ice.

;hts

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

131

The transition in the charcU-ter of the water rohmin at a depth of
III tout 75 meters a<;rees well Avith the stratification found June 5,
w ith the exception that now the deepest pinnacle, "200 feet, fell just
short of reaching- down into tlie cold Arctic water on the bottom
of the bank. These data clearly show that the berir was then floatinoj

y la?' N.

2.3

r i x.-^"^

,

' ^ 370- IJ. Jt 1

o

- / X J -

1.3-

^^«' 1 Y^

o°e-

"^^ J ' ^

(-)f.e-

^ >^RC T 1 C ( ^^^VVAT E R -ITT,

i.

k^^^^^^^

32.02 Z
-33.00 ^0

-53.0^ "4.
-33.20 Z

33.52.^0

Forces Controlling the Drift of an iceberg

FiGUBE 86. — A berg uu .Tune .j. 1924 (see position on fig. 87), with its drift controlled
by the deep-seated Arctic current. The lower sicetch represents the same berg after
a major calving on June 18, 1924 (see position on fig. 87).

wholly in the upper strata of the coastal waters, and being so shallow
easily came under the control of the rapidly changing winds.

Many other berg tracks that we have followed to the melting end
f a berg's life, similar to the case just described above, have eventu-
ally become very irregular, plainly indicating the loss of control by

132 MAEIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT A?7D BAFFIN BAY

53

48

47 ^

52

51

^^C^.

May 26^

June 5* ^.

3
o.C)

.tiJ

Wind x^
FbRCB4-6

Wind 3-4

4I£

1

9 6'

,th

//

0.35

.til

^'•••cx«o^

9M

18

17 o

;^ci'

O.

€>//

9^f

.41

^7-8

6ia

,tb.

:lo.7

WliMO /

5-6

14^

48

47

5T ST

Forces Controlling the Drift of an Iceberg

51

Figure 87. — The drift track of a large iceberg sighted May 20. 10i;4. under the
control of the cold Arctic current. On June i;5. 1924. it underwent u major
calving, greatly reducing its draft. The marked change in the direction of its
drift, as shown above, is attributed to the assumption of control by the wind and
surface layers.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 133

the ocean eiirrent and its replacement by the winds.*^** As a berg
melts, the increasing irregularities of its contours gi^e the wind a
greater and greater hold.

The effect of the wind on icebergs is of two kinds, (a) the direct
force of the wind as applied to the exposed surface of the berg itself
and (h) the indirect effect of the Aviiid as it tends to set np a fric-
tional current in the surface layers of the sea.

(a) Few data, if any, are available regarding the force exerted
by a wind on the sides of an iceberg. The pure wind effect on the
patrol ship in the ice regions, exclusive of frictional wind current
generated, is therefore employed as a guide. This is estimated to
amount to IT miles per day. Avith a Avind force of (5 to 7 on the Beau-
fort scale and 11 miles per day with a wind force of 4 to 5. The ratio
of exposed portion of the ship to submerged is about 2 : 3, while in
the case of icebergs we have show^n on page 112 this varies from
1:5 to 1:1, largely depending upon the form and state of disin-
tegration. The following table gives the wind movement for the
various type of bergs, based on that of the ship, assuming that the
direction of its drift is the same as that of the wind and disregardino-
the coefficient of surface friction :

Blocky

Rounded and domed

Picturesque Greenland

Pinnacled and ridged

Last stages, winged and horned-

Drift of Ice '

Wind Beau-

Wind Beau-

fort 4-5

fort 6

-7

1.5

2.3

1.8

2.H

2.2

.■■i. 7

3.7

5.7

7.3

11.3

^ Miles per day.

(h) Since Ekman (1905) has published his epoch-making theory of
wind currents in the sea as deflected by earth rotation, much attention
has been paid to the subject by dynamic oceanographers.'^^ Admit-
ting that the stratification of the Avater column and also several
other conditions greatly modify the ideal theoretical development of
a Avind current, it may be estimated that a moderate to fresh Avind
bloAving for a day or tAvo in the ice regions Avill establish a movement
of the Avater layers to a depth of 200 feet, and a strong breeze to
moderate gale in the same interval to a fricti(mal depth of 300 feet.
The mean velocity of movement, moreover, Avill be that at the 80
and 120 foot levels, respectively, and the direction at that same level
will be approximately 72° to the right of the Avind. Under such
conditions icebergs in the deep Avater off Newfoundland Avould be
borne by the frictional current alone 72° to the right of the Avind
at a rate of 3.7 miles per day in the case of a 6 to 7 wind, and at 2.5

^'•.Tohnston (191.5. p. 40) remarks that he has occasionally observed a berg with one or
moro high pinnacles catch the wind and sail along to leeward at the rato of 1 knot per
tiour._ He claims that these " sailers " are capable of crossing the Gulf Stream. Quinan
UJiij. p. rfi ) IS ot the opinion also that the winds have a marked effect on icebergs indi-
rectly by influencing the current and directly, but in a less degree, on the bergs them-
selves IIi; points out that, although the current is the controlling factor, it is not true
that the wind has no effect. He says (p. 37l : "Had northerly winds continued, there is
a«Iv[iV/"t ')f far south this berg would have traveled, but fortunately the southerly wind
asseited it.self and the bergs started northward with almost as much velocity as when
tney came south.' '^ ^y.i'.j aa wucn

EkmJniu'osT' *^^"'' ''^'' ^^-^^'0) ^'^*^ •'^'^"1^ '192G, pp. 46-50). Most recently

134 MARIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY

miles per clay with a wind force of 4 to 5. There is, however, one
modifyino; factor, namely, the deep draft of the ice, 500 to GOO feet, i
which exceeds the depth "of the wind current. The bottom portion of
the body drag;<iino- in tlie deep, dead water will, therefore, retard
the ice probably as much as '20 per cent. In the case of the bulky
and boxlike type of ber<>: it will reduce the drift to 2 and :5 miles
per day for 4 to 5 and G to 7 winds, respectively, but the smaller-
wintjed and ]>innacled berirs float entirely in the wind current and |
develop no dra<j: whatsoever. f

Now, combinin«r (a) and (h) {p. Vy4), we arrive at a resultant
drift which for the deeper-draft type of ber<is is 40° to the right of

Wind Effect on the Drift of large icebergs

Figure s8. — In Uie case of a wind with a velocity of 4-5
Beaufort scale, the berg will drift 40° to the right of
the wind (in the Northern Hemisphere), at the rate ot
2.8 miles per day ; line A in this figure. In the case ot
a wind velocity of 6-7 Beaufort scale, the berg will drift
40° to the right of the wind at the rate 'of 4.:! miles per y_

day : line B.

the wind. Column A represents the drift that the wind would im
part to the berg if it did not affect the water and column B represent'
the mean f rictional current for winds of the given strength. We havei

Wind strength

Beaufort 4-5-
Beaufort 6-7.

A B

KesultanI
Direct J Frictional ; drift'
force 1 I current ' I

1.6
2.5

1 Miles per day.

In the case of the lighter draft bergs, i. e.. those of i)n)i)()rti.)ns 2:
and 1 : 1, drift 54° to the right of the wind as follows :

Wind strength

Beaufort 4-5-
Beaufort 6-7 -

Direct
force '

5.5
8.5

Frictional
current '

2.5
3.7

Resultant
drift >

1 Miles per day.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

135

These tables tend to corroborate earlier findings that the bulky,
full-contoured bergs are moved but little by the varial)le winds, force
4 to 5, Avhich ordinarily prevail south of Newfoundland during the ice
season, while the light-draft bergs, many examples of which come
south of the Grand Bank during spring, are appreciably affected by
the winds just as the tables show. In certain other regions, on the
other hand, the winds may exert an important effect. Along the
Labrador and Newfoundland coast during winter, for example, a
series of northwesterly gales such as sometimes last for days at a

Wind Effect on the Drift of Small icebergs

Figure 89. — In the case of a wind with a velocity of 4-5
Beaufort scale, the berg will drift 54" to the right of the
wind (in the Northern Hemisphere), at the rate of 6.7
miles per day ; line C on this figure. In the case of a
wind velocity of 6-7 Beaufort scale, the berg will drift
54° to the right of the wind at the rate of 10.2 miles
I5er day ; line D.

time must move the ice, especially the pack, both forward and to the
right, tending to cany it in on the coast. Mecking (1906, p. 12)
states that in order to move an iceberg as ordinary currents clo, for
example, 10 to 12 miles per day, a wind must have a force of 6 to 7
Beaufort scale. According to our observations, the only bergs that
approach any such wind movement are the winged and fragile types
in the last stages of disintegration. The deeper draft bergs common
to Baffin Bay are moved only 4 miles a day by a Avind. force 6 to 7.
In the case of the deeper bergs drifting w ithin the bounds of an
ocean current such as the Labrador current, small influences due to

120860—31-

-10

136 MARION EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

frequently shifting winds are masked by the simultaneous movements
imparted by the much steadier and more enduring; slope current.
The berg may be likened to a chip floating down a swift-running
river with small eddies carrying the object in revolutions, or other
tortuous paths, the while it progresses downstream.

An opportunity to compare the variations in drift due to the winds
frequently becomes available on international ice patrol duty when a
group of bergs is encountered at sea. During a period of even mod-
erate to fresh wnnds the shoaler berg will drift about 14° to the right
of the heavier ones in 24 hours and leave the latter some 4 miles
astern, the bergs altei-nately separating and congregating with the
play of the winds.

THE GENERAL DRIFT AND FATE OF ICEBERGS IN THE WESTERN

NORTH ATLANTIC

The general drift of the icebergs, once they have left the Arctic
fjords and reach open water, is governed chiefly by the general direc-
tion and rate of flow of the ocean currents. Pack ice in heavy floes
driven for days with tremendous force by gales must tend to sweep
many bergs into regions Avhieh they might not otherwise enter, leav-
ing drift tiacks not conforming to the average. Many bergs may also
be detained by the contours of Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, such
as shoals, capes, and off-lying skerries. Belts or bands in the cur-
rents sort out the bergs; if a berg be in one of these it is assured
rapid transportation, while another berg within plain view may float
in dead water. The Gateway to the Atlantic, off the Tail of the
Grand Bank, marks the major turning point in the iceberg journey,
because, no longer guided by the continental slope of North America,
the ice is borne directly into the easterly moving masses of the Gulf
Stream. The variations in the drifts of icebergs are many; two de-
tached from the same glacier on the same day maj' be separated by
one or two years in their Atlantic arrival. The length of their total
pathway, 1,500 to 1.800 miles, and the average velocity of the cur-
rent, 10 to 12 miles per day, suggests that a berg meeting no hin-
drances completes the journey in four or five months. As a matter
of fact, this can not often happen and the usual history is to be re-
leased from the fjords in the summer, to reach the region of Hud-
son Strait in autumn, to *' winter " there, and to appear off New-
foundland the following spring. A berg calved from its glacier
during the winter might be released from the fjord in June and
spend the summer drifting out to sea, winter in Melville Bay. be
released there in the following summer, reach Cape Dier by that
October, and arrive south of Newfoundland with the main body of
bergs the next May. The sorting of this kind to which the bergs
and other flotsam are subjected in the far north is well illustrated
by compai-ing the drift of the Polaris floe party with that of the
British steamer Fox. In seven months the foi-mer drifted directly
down through Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, making a southing of
approximately 1,740 miles, averaging 9 miles per day; while in 1
eight months the Fod\ also drifting helplessly in Baffin Bay, made!'
less than one-third that direct distance (510 miles), averaging only
2 miles per day. The Fo,i\ however, was carried on a very ser{)entine
track that really amounted to 1,194 miles.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

137

A major factor slowin<r the soiitlnvard progress of iceber<js is the
deeply indented, broken character of the North American coast line
fiom Ellesmere Land to NewfoundLand. In the distance from Cape
York to Cape Race the continnit}- of the shore line is interrupted
]n five places; and while three of these interruptions are so far
north they have little effect on the icebero; stream, the 50-mile breach
at Hudson Strait and the 15-mile openin<>; at Belle Isle have an
important effect. The c(miplex movements of the water masses
athwart the ber<j; stream, as indicated by the irregular courses of
the isotherms and isohalines of the Manon.s survey, extending far out
in the Labrador Sea. mark Hudson Strait as the source of much turbu-
lence. The great indentation in Newfoundland which stretches from
Ca]5e Bauld to Cape St. Francis is a natural cachment for bergs, and

Icebergs Moving Out Into Baffin Bay

Figure 90. — Icebergs discharged from the Great and Little Kara.iak Glaciers drift
westward through Unianak Fjord into Baffin Bay. Great Karajak, one of the most
productive glaciers in West Greenland, is estimated to discharge 1,200 sizable ice-
bergs annually. The little native settlement of Umanak lies in the foreground.
(I'hotograph by A. Bertlesen.)

hundreds of other small coastal configurations also catch the wan-
dering bergs. Lady Franklin Island, a small rocky eminence lying
about 30 miles northeast of Frobisher Bay on the southeastern coast
of Baffin Land, forms a spur in the side of the ice stream. During
certain parts of the year the northern side of the island and the long
thill line of reefs to shore catch hundreds and hundreds of icebergs.
Had Labrador and Newfoundland a bold, clear coast line or one
similar to that of east Greenland, the annual supply of bergs to
the North Atlantic would be manyfold greater.

The fields of pack ice which for four months of the year obscure
all coastal contours also greatly modify the effect of the shore lino
on the berg drift. At a normal rate of 10 miles per day for the cold
current, a band of water 1.200 miles in length will pass a given
point during this 4-month period. Normally a total of about 400

138 MAEIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

icebergs scattered alonfj this 1,200-mile train are carried past Xew-
foundland annually. Then the withdrawal of the pack from south to
north bares the coast and the iceberg file is severed.

Such bergs as escape these traps are embraced in the 90-mile-wide
shelf waters fringing the American side of Davis Strait, Baffin Bay
to the Grand Bank; this zone provides an ideal straightaway sea
road on which the ice travels Atlanticwards.

Distribution and Drift of Icebergs ix Baffin Bay and Davis

Strait

Any study of the geographical distribution of ice in the Arctic em
phasizes the peculiar character of the northwestern arm of the Atlan
tic that separates Xorth America from Greenland, for Davis Strait
is flanked on one side, and Baffin Bay on both sides, by high walls
of land ice making it unique for the Xorthern Hemisphere. Con-
tinual cleavages from the ice walls discharging into Baffin Bay and
Davis Strait mark these regions as the most important iceberg waters
of the north.

Along its eastern shore for a distance of 500 miles Baffin Bay is
continually receiving a supply of icebergs, and no other body of
water of this restricted size and inclosure becomes so charged with
land ice. The iceberg crop which characterizes the waters of Baffin
Bay and Davis Strait is believed to be completely renewed there
every three or four years, and the fact that Baffin Bay does not be-
come choked and clogged shows that the movement of its water
masses are sufficient to elfect the dispersal of the ice. The eastern and
northern section of the ba}^ present the densest berg concentration and
the offing of the glaciers is the zone of greatest scattering.

Our knowledge regarding the circulation of Baffin Bay was greatly
extended as a result of the Godtliaab expedition in the summer of
1928. The Godthaah occupied about 100 oceanographic stations dis-
tributed more or less uniforndy throughout the bay except along its
southwestern side, off the coast of Bylot Island and Baffin Land,
where pack ice made those Avaters inaccessible. In the absence of the
text report of the scientific results of tlie Godthaah expedition we
have employed the station data already published in the Bulletin
Hydrographique (see Annually 1929, pp. 36-43), to construct a dy-
namic topographic map in accordance with the methods described
by Smith (1926). The map has been used strictly to learn the gen-
eral movements of the heavy deep-drafted icebergs once they have
drifted away from the land and come under control of the ocean
currents.

The map (fig. 91) which indicates the general direction and flow
of the gradient currents is especially interesting and important in
that it corroborates earlier assumptions of a cyclonic circulation for
Baffin Bay, i. e., a northerly flow along the Greerdand side and a
southerly one along tlie American shore, the latter being the stri)nger
and the more volumiuous.

The surface topography of Baffin Bay in the summer of 1928 was
featured by an elongated depression occupying the major central por-
tion of the bay, while around the sides the sea surface in all places
stood the highest. This picture we have no reason to doubt, is more

Relative Topography — 1,000 Decibars

Figure 91. — The dynamic topoj^raphy of the sea surface of Baffin Bay. The
map has been constructed from the observational data collected by the
Godthaab expedition (Commander E. Eiis-t'artensen ). and published in the
Bulletin Hydrographique pour rAnnee, lVi:i8, pp. 87-05. The reference
station is Xo. 55, the dynamic height of which above the l.UOO-decibar
plane is 971.01753 dynamic meters. The is'obaths are drawn for every two
dynamic centimeters. ■. oq

140 MAEIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STEAIT AXD B AFFIX BAY

90 60 ~I0 60 5o

- o5

The Surface Currents of Baffin Bay

I'KiiTitK !t2. — Tlu- nriows iiidicatt' tlie direction of tlu' surlai-*' currents, ami the
numhcrs on tlu' map indicate the velociij in miles per djiy

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS 141

or less representative of oceonofjraphic conditions in the bay as they
normally tend to prevail. The trou<i;hlike depression extended from
Disko Island northwesterly to the entrances of Jones Sound and Lan-
caster Sound, with the lowest points centered in two pools, one about
100 miles east of Lancaster Sound Entrance and the other about the
i^-duie distance west of Disko Island. The highest elevation of the
sea surface was found in Smith Sound, where off Etah, Greenland,
it rose 26 dynamic centimeters above the lowest central areas of the
bay. The steepest slope, according to the calculations, was in the
lower end of the bay off Cape Dier where a gradient of 17 dynamic
( cntimeters in a distance of 30 miles was recorded.

The slope currents on the Greenland side resulting from the
above described topography took form as a sluggish set moving north-
ward along the front of the principal iceberg fjords at the rate of 5
miles per day. This circulation provided for the immediate removal
(/f the bergs that had been carried out of the fjords into the open
coastal zone. The ice which remained inside the headlands, how^ever,
was subject to another sort of behavior.

About 1,000 bergs were observed by the Marlon expedition the
summer of 1928 distributed in Disko Bay. In whatever parts of
these waters the Mariori cruised, 100 to 200 bergs were constantly in
sight from the ship but they appeared to be most numerous along the
southeastern shore of Disko Island and around the mouth of Jacobs-
havn Fjord. A particularly interesting sight was the row of bergs
always to be observed strewn along the southern shore of Disko
Island, where they appeared to ground temporarily, awaiting the
airival of an unusually high tide or an offshore wind to start them
again on their westward journey out into the open sea. During the
Mano7i?s excursion of the Vaigat, the 6 to 10 mile wide strait which
separates Disko Island from the mainland, about 60 bergs were always
in sight from the ship at once, most of them in the vicinity of
Torsukatak Fjord, where they were noticeably drifting out of its
northern side. A comparison of the areas of greatest iceberg abun-
dance in Disko Bay with the current maps. Figures 91 and 92, shows
good agreement in the main with the southern, major, portion of the
bay as far as Claushavn dominated by an indraft from Davis Strait.

The Mario)i'>< section across the Vaigat did not indicate such a
northwesterly discharge but the Godthaah''s data, consisting of two
sections, one not far from Jacobshavn and the other at the outer end
of the Vaigat, both indicate it, and prove, therefore, that once the
bergs clear the coastal waters they will be set slowly but definitely
northward. This statement is contrary to the belief of Mecking
( 1906, p. 68), who stresses the importance of east winds to drive the
.icebergs across Baffin Bay into the south-flowing current along the
American shore. While the bergs are still in the quiet fjords, off-
shore w^inds, no doubt, play a definite part in hastening the ice out to
sea, but once they have drifted away from the inshore waters they
will normally move northward. Laider a 5-knot-per-day gradient
current, moreover, the ordinary deep-drafted berg will be governed
chiefly by the current, even if a continuous easterly gale prevailed.
(See p. 134.)

The currents as drawn from the physical data collected by the
Godthaah expedition are further supported by the distribution of
the icebergs in the waters north and west of Disko Island. Vessels

142 MARIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY

bound south through Baffin Bay in September report bergs as espe-
cially luunerous in a rectangle bounded by parallels 72 and 69 and
meridians 62 and 57. and south of this very little ice is seen. The
position of this field north and Avest of the most productive berg dis-
trict is an indication of the direction of drift of the glacial ice.
Since other parts of the bay at this particular time of the year
nsuallv have fewer bergs, this group, therefore, in all probability
represents the summer crop.

f

ICEBERGS

Fk.tke 9."!. — The (listribution of ic-eberj.'!^ i" Davis Strait as
oltseived by tho Marion expedition tl.e suuinicr of 1928.

Immediately north of Uj^ernivik the current and bergs spread out
and the entire exi«anse of the surface Avaters from Upernivik to
Cape York, and offshore for a distance of 90 miles, partakes of a
slow movement toward the northwest, averaging about 5 miles per
day. The direction of the current is generally parallel to the coast
but its C(HU-se is winding and. therefore, a berg arriving at Uper-

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

143

iiivik in June will not reach Cape York in the circuit of Melville
Bay until aacII alonof in Aunfust. The current embraced by tliis
stretch of coast line appears quite uniform in that it is free from
bands and the ice floating in its inner margin is carried along at
approximately the same velocity as that many miles farther out
from the coast.

The inner side of the current, and the distribution of bergs, upon
reaching the meridian of Cape York accelerates to T miles per day
and the map of this particular locality (fig. 91) as noted in the
crowding of the isobaths, clearly indicates the tendency of the cur-
rents to divide into parallel bands. Off Cape Alexander the map
shows the flow fans out to the westward and at the same time the

Procession of Bergs Moving Past Disko island

FiGiRE 04. — One of the main routes followed liy the icebergs after discharge from
.Tacobshavn Fjord is westerly along the southern shore of Disko Island. Past the
radio masts of the little Arctic village of Godhavn there is always a procession of
icebergs drifting into Baffin Bay on the start of a long journey toward the Atlantic.
(Official photograph, Marion expedition.)

current slackens to 5 knots per day, corroborating MacMillan (1928)
(p. 429). One branch winds slowly across toward Lancaster Sound,
another flows Avestward toward the entrance of Jones Sound, while
the major portion of the water masses proceeds in the longer,
circuitous route of Smith Sound at the rate of 7 miles per day. If
bergs remain in this latter set, and there is little doubt but what they
do, such ones will be carried northward as far as the seventy-eighth
parallel of latitude before being turned sharply to the southwest
and south to follow down the American side. Observations regard-
ing the distribution of bergs, it is interesting to learn, corroborate
the current map. fig. 92, constructed from the GodtlxaaVs data, since

144 MAEIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

ber^is are often reported as abundant in Melville Bay and in the
northern part of Baffin Bay, where they congregate around the
Carey Islands.

The cyclonic movement which has been traced along the eastern
and northern side of Baffin Bay is augmented by inflowing currents
from Jones Sound and Lancaster Sound. The dynamic topographic
map (fig. 91, p. 139) plainly indicates that there is an indraft along
the northern side of each of the above straits, which combines with a
discharge out along the southern shores. When the Godthaab took its
observations each of the straits, Jones and Lancaster, were dominated
by a west to east current, from the Arctic into Baffin Bay, moving
at the rate of 7 to 10 miles per day. A very narrow counterflow not
over 2 or 3 miles in width hugged the north shore of each opening.

Bergs in the current would at first enter for a short distance on
the north side of Jones Sound and then be carried out southeastward
into Baffin Bay, thence through the same general movement in the
eastern entrance of Lancaster Sound. In neither one of these straits,
moreover, would the bergs succeed in setting very far to the west-
ward because they would soon meet the strong discharge which
normally flows out into Baffin Bay.

The closely packed position of the isobaths and a current of T to 10
miles a day (fig. 92, p. 140) out along the southern side of Lancaster
Sound indicate this as the swiftest flow recorded by the Godthaah and
also mark this region as the source of the icy current to the Xorth At-
lantic. If we should be asked to point to the headwaters of the famous
Labrador current which flows to lower latitudes, we would unhesi-
tatingly select this locality as the fountain head. After the bergs
have slowly been carried in the circuit of Baffin Bay and they have
entered the discharge from Lancaster Sound they take on hence-
forth a swifter, more definite transportation heading directly toward
Davis Strait and the Atlantic.

The gradient currents in the waters along the Baffin Land coast
between Lancaster Sound and Cape Broughton, Baffin Land, in lati-
tude 67° 40', have never been surveyed so thoroughly as the other parts
of Baffin Bay,'" but from various sources of information, such as the
drift of ships beset by the pack, example (Resolute, see p. 48), and
the behavior of other waters under similar conditions, a well-marked
southerly set paralleling the coast is definitely established. The
most northerly observations on the Baffin Land side, near Cape
Broughton in latitude 67° 40', were made bv the Godthaah the sum-
mer of 1928. The stations 160 to 165 (see Annually, 1929, p. 42) indi-
cate a continuation of the current previously mentioned and recorded
farther north off Bylot Island.

This flow, whicii we shall call the Baffin Land current, embraced
a band of water 15 miles in width, the axis of which lay about 12
miles out fi'om the coast. Icebergs keeping in this belt would have
been transported soutliward at tlie rate of 12 miles per day, but
farther offshore such bergs would not be carried faster than 4 miles
a day, yet such southward progress would be guaranteed, neverthe-

™This unexplored oceanograpliic region, so marked on fls. f*!, is made iuaceessible to
naviRatinn by pack ice which persists thei"e except in only an occasional sHmmer when for
a brief week or more these waters may be entered. The Gudthaoh found this stretch off
the Baffin Land shelf unpenetrable the summer of 1028.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 145

less, to ice even 60 or TO miles out from the Baffin Land side. Off
Cape Dier, Baffin Land, in latitude 66° 30', the swiftest, inner side of
the cold stream split, one branch coursing in under the land, and
the other maintaining its distance from the coast and continuing in
a more or less parallel direction. Between these two branches the
Godtlmab found a counterclockwise eddy.

The position and rate of flow of the Baffin Land current as found
by the Godthaab in September, 1928, off southern Baffin Land, were
further substantiated by the oceanographic observations, and the map
(fig. 95) compiled by the Mavfon expedition in mid August of the
same year. A winding floe, 50 miles in width, is clearly indicated on
Figure 95, curving around Cape Dier and thence continuing south-
ward toward Hudson Strait. Tlie bergs on the inner side of this floe
are borne along at the rate of 10 miles per day, and probably faster,
12 miles per day, farther inshore where the Marion was unable to
buck the pack ice. The Manon found that the ice in the outer,
eastern, side of the Baffin Land current moves slower the farther out
it is from land, but the current is so broad that bergs even halfway
across Davis Strait are slowly but definitely transported southwest-
ward by it.

One of the most interesting parts of Baffin Bay from the viewpoint
of its circulation and the behavior of the ocean currents is the lower
end of the bay where its waters escape southward through the nar-
row neck of Davis Strait. Considerable importance attaches itself to
the movement here, not only as it vitally affects the drift of icebergs.
but also as it indicates whether or not masses from the North Atlantic
flow into Baffin Bay and to what degree. Consideration of the
observations made by the Michael Sars in 1924, and the Godthaab
and Marion in 1928, regarding the position and form of the isobaths
drawn from the foregoing data (see fig. 91) clearly show^s two main
forces present. There is the light water along the Greenland coast,
and over the off-lying banks Sukkertoppen to Egedesminde, which
initiates a dynamic, northward movement of the water particles;
while on the American side, 180 miles to the westward, similar forces
are at work developing a gradient current in the opposite direction.
The important feature, well portrayed by the observations, is the
fact that the steeper and larger dynamic gradients belong to the
western side of this narrowest part of Davis Strait.

A comparison of the data collected by the three expeditions, viz,
Michael Sars in 1924, Godthaab in 1928, and the Marion in 1928, re-
veals plainly that there is a continual fluctuation in the position and
velocity of the two opposing movements in this narrow neck of Davis
Strait. As one current swells, the other retreats, but as a rule, the
Baffin Land flow appears to be the stronger and the more voluminous.
For example, the first week in August, 1928 (see fig. 95), the w^est
Greenland current was found to have little movement, while the
Baffin Land set had a width of 40 miles and a rate of 12 miles
per day. Early in September, however, about a month later, the
Godthaab (fig. 91) found the Baffin Land current had overflowed
more than halfway across the strait, and the west Greenland stream
had been pushed over against the Greenland coast and now had a
width of only 12 miles. The eastward encroachment of the Baffin
Land current is planily discernible in the form and the position of the
isobaths between parallels 67 and 68. (Fig. 91.)

146 MAEIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STEAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY

The behavior of the currents in this particular region has been
investigated with considerable interest because interactions of the
tAvo flows must naturally exert an important effect on the number of
bergs that are carried southward out of Baffin Bay, The fact that
the cold Baffin Land current at times spreads out nearly three-
quarters of the distance across to Greenland indicates that some of
the bergs at that time must be carried eastward awa}^ from the axis,'
and the swiftest part of the current, and therefore diminish their
chances of reaching the Atlantic. On the other hand, during such*
l^eriods of flood of the Baffin Land current, more bergs are liable-
to be carried southward through the neck of Davis Strait than other-
wise, and a heavy ice year may be expectecL off' Newfoundland. How-
ever, if the west Greenland current experiences an abnormal intensi-
fication, it will tend to dam the cold polar stream and thus reduce the
number of bergs which are borne soutliAvard out of the Arctic.

The general bounds of the currents in lower Baffin Land and Davis
Strait as determined from the oceanographic observations of the.
Marlon and Godthaah are more or less confirmed by the distribution
of the icebergs noted by the Marion. The striking feature of their
distribution in the narrow neck of Davis Strait in August. 1928. was
that no bergs were sighted three hours, i. e., 25 to 30 miles, after the
Marion had departed from Godthavn to cross Davis Strait. Xo ice
whatsoever was sighted out in the central part of the strait, nor until
the ship had arrived within 40 miles of the Baffin Land coast, off
Cape Dier. The absence of bergs in the middle of the strait at that
time strongly indicates that the ice does not follow a direct path
from the glaciers across to the south-flowing current under the
American shore. Tliis condition, combined with the fact that only
very fcAv bergs Avere sighted to the south Avard in Davis Strait, cor-
roborates the oceanographic observations, namely, that the Avater and
the ice tend to folloAV a cyclonic circuit of Baffin Bay. The general
behavior of the pack ice as described on page 47, also fits in "welL.
with the picture of the prevailing currents as shoAvn on Figure 92. h*

According to the Manon''s survey, the Baffin Land current con-
tinues doAA-n the coast tOAvard Hudson Strait at a speed of (3.7 miles
l)er day. spreading to a AA'idth much greater than the AA'idth of the
compensating stream t)n the Greenland side. Scattered bergs sighted
90 miles out from the Baffin Land coast AAcre moving soutiiAvard in
the set. As the flow approached Hudson Strait, aa'c found it narroAV-
ing to only 20 miles in Avidth and simultaneously accelerating to 20 !
miles per day, to turn into Hudson Strait close under Resolution
Island, an indication of the most probable course for the ice. ]McLean
(1929, p. 13) says icebergs also enter Hudson Strait via (rabriel
Strait, betAA'een Resolution Island and Baffin Land. This agrees,
furthermore, Avitli MacjMillan's Aerbal statement that he has Avit-
nessed bergs drifting into Hudson Strait in narroAV roAvs along
the northern side for a distance of 150 miles, as far as Big Island,
Avhere nearly all of them recurve, to drift out again past Cape Chidley
on the Labrador side. Not infrequently bergs drift up the strait as
far as Sali.sbury Island before being caught in this current and very
rarely, according to Huntsman (1930, ]). 3), one is reported in Hud-
son Bay itself. ^

As previously remarked, the berg stream becomes nuich dispersed|J^
in the offing of Hudson Strait. The outer ber<rs mav for a time lie in

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

147

Relative Topography— 1.500 Decibars

Figure 95. — The d.vnamlc topography of the sea surface of Davis Strait,
July 19 to September 11, 1928. as determlued by the Marion expedition.
The sea-surface relief has been obtained by comparing it with that of
a plane at a depth of 1,500 de(Mbars. The dynamic height contours
(isobaths) are drawn for every two dynamic centimeters. The survey
is based on 191 oceanographic 'stations represented by the small circles
on the map. The reference station is No. 947. the dynamic height of
which above the 1,500-decibar plane is 1454.54y90 dynamic meters.

148 :MARI0X EXPEDITIOX to DAVIS strait and BAFFIN BAY

dead water, but eventually they are likely to be carried ao:ain to the
southward alonfr the Labrador shelf. The inshore bero;s that enter
the strait foUoAv a longer and more circuitous route but a more cer-

[■f-f'>H^th!l I n

\ \ \ \ \ \ \

The Surface Currents of Davis Strait

FiGrkE 9t5. — The arrows indicntt." the direction of tlie surface currents
and tile nuniliers on tlie map indicate the velocity in miles per day.

tain one. Probably the most important feature in this locality is the
narrow bandina of the current in the offinir of Hudson Strait.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 149

The chief high road for the Arctic ice to h)Aver hititudes is along
tljc Labrador and Newfonndhind shelves, and knowledge of the state
of sea ice and currents in these waters during the winter and early
s])ring is essential for corroborating the iceberg menace to the south-
ward in the Atlantic during later spring and summer. The Labra-
dor coast is seldom free of icebergs, an intermittent procession of
Avhich moves slowly southward. The ice. due to the effect of the rota-
tion of the earth, tends to hug the coast, working in, out of the axis of
tlie current, and much of it strands, sometimes permanently, but some-
times floats again and continues its southward journey. That hydro-
static forces, acting locally, are sufficient to maintain a southward
current here, along the continental shelf, independent of additional
momentum from the north, is clearly proven by the dynamic topo-
graphical maps. Iselin (1930), employing Bjerknes's formulae, calcu-
lated that the current off Nachvak Fjord w^as confined to a breadth
of 25 miles over the steepest part of the continental edge, moving at
20 miles per day but farther south off' Sandwich Bav, the stream was
broader 80 miles and slower. 8 miles per day. He observed further-
more that the bergs were characteristically strung out in lines more
or less parallel with this part of the coast, moving fastest out near
the continental edge, slower inshore. The Marion also found the
Labrador current clearly banded, with the belt over the continental
edge, about 20 miles wide. floAving off Xachvak at the rate of 20 miles
per day. (See fig. 96 p. 148.)

Tracing the stream southward we find it approaching the coast
in mid-Labrador, where it slows to 14 miles per day, while 60
miles farther out, it flows at the rate of 11 miles per day. As avb
proceed southward to the offing of Hamilton Inlet we note that the
current widens to a breadth of 120 miles off Sandwich Bay, and
changes in velocity so that the outer edge progresses at the rate of
14 miles per day, while inshore it is only 3.7 miles per day. This
condition agrees well w^ith those found by the Chance (see Islein,
1930), wdio describes the entire breadth of the water over the coastal
shelf off Sandwich Bay as being in movement. (See our fig. 96.)
Farther south there is an indraught to the Strait of Belle Isle and a
band of the current on the continental edge off Newfoundland is
observed to flow at the rate of 13 miles per clay. The banding of
tlie current and its importance on th eiceberg drift is clearly shown
on Figures 95 and 96. From an examination of these figures a mean
velocity of 12 to 14 miles per day is indicated for the Labrador
current.

The undulating course of the stream lines on Figure 95 emphasizes
(that the Labrador current does not flow straightaway soutliAvard,
'and the well-marked inshore swirl there indicated between parallels
o5 and 57, where the shelf shows its only major embayment, is cer-
tainly more than a mere coincidence but almost certainly a prevailing
characteristic of the current and one which normally deflects a num-
ber of icebergs inward to the coast where they become trapped at this
place. Years characterized b}' fcAv icebergs south of Newfoundland
will record an abundance of icebergs in this section of Labrador.

In fact, it is knowm that more bergs strand in this locality than at
any other point along the Labrador shelf, and the summer of 1928
was an excellent time to reveal such behavior. This appears clearly
from the distribution of bergs along the coast plotted from the

150 MAEIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

Marion'' s records and from other various sources: Cape Chidley
to Hebron. 12 bergs; Hebron to Cape Harrigan, 500; Cape Harrigan
to Cape Harrison. 200; Cape Harrison to Belle Isle, 0; Belle Isle
offing, 14. This shows that TOO out of the total of T2G bergs were
stranded on the coast in precisely the region where the Marioii's
current map shows the prominent inshoreencroachmentof the stream
lines. Our repeated experience with a similar inshore swirl of the
current in the Grand Bank region and the resultant drift of the ice
emphasizes the importance of hyclrographical features of this sort.

Pack ice Avas noticeably scarce in 1928, as proved not only by the
observations of the ice patrol during the spring but also W early
reports along the Labrador coast." ^ The failure of the pack to appear
in normal quantity and blockade the coast line permitted the Lal)ra-
dor current to set the icebergs farther inshore than usual so that
more stranded.

The course of the current and of the ice widens off Xewfoundland.
The form of the dynamic isobaths, on figure 95, page 147, in the offing
of the Strait of Belle Isle, indicates the presence of an anticyclonic
eddy which often controls the movement of icebergs especially in
summer and early fall. There is also indicated some inflow into
the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and for that reason bergs
in considerable numbers pass through the strait during the season.
A few bergs are even carried far into the gulf along the Quebec
shore; they have even been sighted off Cape Whittle, 200 miles in.
Such ice rarely, if ever, reaches the Atlantic again, but disintegrates \
in the gulf, a process helping to cool these watei's.'- A few bergs
also linger during the summer in the offing of the Strait of Belle Isle.

The current that skirts the east coast of Xewfoundland sets a con-
siderable number of bergs and growlers on that shore during the
late season after the pack ice has disappeared. The observations
of the ice patrol during a cruise in May, 1924, to this region illus-
trate the drift of ice in this great coastal bight. (Smith 1924a,
p. 76.) Farther south the current, and probably the bergs to a
certain extent, reaches the northern part of the Grand Bank region
in two belts, one following along the steep part of the continental
slope and the other close in to the coast. This inshore stream
carries ice as far south as Cape Eace and even farther Avestward
around the latter through the Gully, between the coast and the
banks.

Drift of Bergs South of Newfoundland

The drift and fate of icebergs in the region south of New-
foundland have been intensively studied by the ice patrol for the
l)ast 15 vears. The published reports : Chiswell (1923, 1924);
Fisher, (i920, 1926, 1927); Fries (1922, 1923); Gamble (1922);
Johnston (1913, 1913a, 1915, 1915a, 1920): DeOtte (1921); Mollov
1930); Quinan (1915); Kicketts (1929, 1930): Smith (1922, 1922a,
1923, 1924, 1924a, 1925, 1926, 1926a, 1927, 1927a, 1927b, 1927c, 1929,
1929a) : Thuras (1915, 1916. 1921) : and Zeusler (1926, 1926a, and
192(;b).

The various paths which the icebergs are most liable to foHow in
this region is diagranuiiaticallv shown bv Figure 97, constructed from

^'MacMillan, wintoiitiK lu Labriidor 1027-28. reported a remarkable absence of pack ice.
'- Huiitsiiian (r.>2r>, p. 2) found an indraft of '.) miles and an outflow of 8 miles, but the
circulation is lary;ely coiitroUed bv the winds.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

151

all available data. The separation of the ice stream around the north-
ern buttress of the Grand Bank, as represented by branches a, D, and
c. is referred to on page 53. The first two paths head the icebergs
into shoal waters, where they meander. The ice closest insliore is dis-
ptTsed via the Gully along the current lines between Cape Race and

5o 49 43 4 7

I HE PATHS OF ICEBERGS

FiGL'RE 07. — The main paths that icebergs are most liable to follow in
the western North Atlantic when advancing southward toward tem-
perate latitudes. Branches d, e, f, g, h, and i are variations in the
drift once a berg has embarked along path c. This illustration is
purely diagrammatic, but it contains information where icebergs are
apt to be found.

the Grand Bank proper. Sometimes bergs are carried through this
gully at rapid rates; at other times they remain there nearly sta-
tionary while, for short periods [)rior to a decided change of wind,
the current has been known to reverse and such bergs to move back
northward. The behavior of the currents along the coast from St.
120S60— ^^ n

152 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Johns, around Cape Kace, and as far west as the Miquelon Ishmds,
has been studied by Dawson (1906, p. 21), by Huntsman (1930, p.
11). by Matthews (1914, p. 32), by Smith (1924a. p. 131), and by
Iseliii (1930, p. 3). The outstandiuii: features as affecting; the dis-
tribution of arctic berfrs are (a) the <ri"eat variations and occasional
i-eversals of the curi'ent and (h) the Avestern and southern limits of
tlie ciiirent as marked by tlie outline of Green Bank and the conti-
ni'utal edije. Icebergs have been si<i:hted at various distances to the
southwest of Cape Race, but never, to our knowledge, farther Avest
along the coast than Placentia Bay. (See Huntsman, 1930, p. 4.)

Hundreds of bergs ground on the northern part of the Grand
Bank, where processes of accumulation and disintegration proceed
throughout tlie entire season. The coldness of these shelf waters pre-
serves the ice longer than if it had continued southward; and so in
August bergs may still be on the northern part of the bank long after
most of the suri'ounding localities are clear. As they disintegrate
and grow smaller bergs may again be carried oil' the bank to resume
their southward journey or occasionally they may be driven farther
in the shoal waters of the bank itself. The central regions of the
latter, as a rule, are free from bergs.

Branch c. the richest of all the berg streams south of Newfound-
land, follows soutliAvard in the deep Avater along the eastern slope of
the Grand Bank, as shown on Figure 97 and also by the actual drifts
on Figure 102. The behavior of bergs once started along path c
depends primarily on the manner in whicli the Avater masses of
this northern discharge meet and conflict Avith the Avarm easterly-
moving oceanic masses. The axis of the icy current tends to hug
the eastern slope of the Grand Bank and curve westAvard around
the " Tail " of the latter but the outer edge of this floAV is continually
sending out temporary offshoots, offshore. The mixing zone of the
currents which carry the ice has the form of an undulating front
extending from soutliAvest of the Tail of the Grand Bank to some-
what northeast of Flemish Cap. This demarkation is called the
cold wall or temperature Avail. Whenever and Avherever the bound-
ary shows a salient, there similarly a vortex tends to develop (similar
in many respects to the "polar front " of meteorology), but usually
the chief point of discharge is near the Tail of the Grand Bank. When
the Arctic current saa'cIIs, the mixing zone betAveen the tAVO Avaters often
moves farther and farther offshore, and in consecjuence the bergs fan
out along the northern edge of the (lulf Stream. During late sum-
mer, however, according to our observation, the Labrador current in
this region probably (hvindles and there are times during the autumn
and Avinter, as proved by the observations of the ice patrol (see Smith
1923, ]). 85 and also fig. 99) when the icy current is not traceal)le at
all to the southAvard of the Grand Bank. At this season, largely
reflecting these oscillations, few icebergs drift far south or east of
NeAvfoundland, though an occasional berg may be reported south of
Newfoundland in any month of the year. They are at a mininuun
during November, December, and Jainiarv. and at a maximum
during April, May, and dune.

In Mareh there is a marked tendency for the bergs to take the off-
shore path (branch d, fig. 97) just south of Flemish Cap. Such a
<lisi)ersal is due to several factors: (a) The ])resence of pack icei
fai-thei- north along the American coast. Avliich ])revents the bergs

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

153

from following the miiiii drift: (A) a shoulder of warm Atlantic
watei- often deflects tlie outer part of the cold current with its ice
out jiast Flemish Cap (see fig. 10:3): and (r) the continual north-
Avesterly gales drive off great fields of })ack ice and whatever l)ergs
are entangled therein.

An}' retreat of the warm salty inthrust between Flemish Cap and
the bank, any change in atmospheric circulation, or the dissipation
of the pack ice may initiate the file of icebei-gs down the east

Gr^EENLAND BERGS IN TROPICAL WATERS

Figure 98. — While the crew of the ice patrol ship dive
into troiiieal waters of 72° F., (ii- ^-u and icebergs
float in the offing. It has lieen found that the liergs
which enter the warm confine.'^ of the <Julf Stream,
south of Newfoundland, .seldom survive more than
a week or ten days. (C)fficial photograph, inter-
national ice jiatrol.)

side of the Grand Bank. The fir.st bergs reach the Tail of the
Grand Bank early in April. These are believed to be the rem-
Inants of the previous season that have survived the summer's heat
in high latitudes and have remained frozen in the pack ice along
the American shore over the winter and started south again in
tlie spring. Bergs of tliis group usually show much disintegra-
tion, therefore they do not as a rule survive long in North Atlantic
Waters. The pack ice which has held them in the far north over

154 MAKIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

winter, drifts south faster in s])rin«r tlian do the bergs, hence the
latter arrive as the fields and floes are disappearino;.

Upon approachin*; the Tail of the Grand Bank the ber^js either
wheel abruptly to the eastward, to drift northward along the north-
ern edge of the (lulf Stream, or they follow around to the westward.
If the bergs ground on the southern part of the bank, as many do,
they usually disintegrate there, and thus do not menace navicra-
tion farther south."' Some bergs, however, which drift westward
around the Tail, continue northward beyond the forty-third parallel,
where they are usually caught in the large counterclockwise eddy
which characterizes the water mass of this region.'* (See fig. 101.)
Still other bergs of this groui? may be cari-ied directly north-
westward, where they eventually ground well in on the Grand
Bank, even as far as 120 miles from the Tail, and survive for sev^eral
weeks before finally disintegrating. Occasionally a berg is ev^en
carried as far west as longitude ^A' or T)')" W. in this way. Shortness
of drift, together with a slow rate of travel, probably reflecting the
weakness of the northern current, are the outstanding features of the
drifts of early April bergs.

Bergs drifting southward toward the Tail attain maximum abun-
dance during May, reaching a normal total of 130 south of Xewfound-
land. At this, the height of the season, they tend to drift along paths
h and / (fig. 97). provided the cold current is normally tleveloped.
The prevailing drift is thence soutlnvesterly to a region bounded by
the forty-second and forty-third parallels and the fifty-first and fifty-
second meridians, in which vicinity most of the bergs of May swing
sharply to the eastward, paralleling the northern edge of the Gulf
Stream. As a modification of this type, the ice may set more to
the soutlnvard and even southwest of the Tail (see figs. 105 and 106),
but in most cases it does not drift deeply into the Gulf Stream before ij
being borne ofl' eastward, and finally northeast, where it rapidly
melts. However, in a year when arctic influences are weak, or the
Gulf Stream abnormally strong, bergs do not reach the Tail but are
deflected eastward along paths c/ or e. Figure 97. (See also figs 100,
101, 103, and 104.)

June Avitnesses a decline from the season's maximum iceberg crop.
The nornuil number is 68 bergs south of Newfoundland. The first
week of this month may not show any apparent slacking in the
stream of bergs, but by the latter part of June, as a rule, the drift of
the ice past the Tail of the Grand Bank noticeably diminishes, due
to any one or all of the following causes, the relative inii)ortance of
each still remaining to be determined :

{a) The encroachment of warm oceanic water northward in the
surface layers toward the Tail of the Grand Bank.

(h) The Avestward encroachment of the inner side of the Gulf
Stream toward the eastern sloi)e of the Grand Bank.

(c) The Avithdrawal of the pack ice along the coasts and shelves to
the northward allowing the bergs to work inshoi-e and strand.
. — I

''^ During: the ice season of 1!»22 wo s;uv several bersjs float asain after several days
delay in on the southwest slope of the bank, su to resume their journev southward.
(Smith, 192:',, p. 58.)

■"In l!»l.'l (see Smith, IOL'2. Cliart II) the lar^e elliptical track taken by an icebers off
the western slope of the (Jr.iml r.aiik i;ave the lirst iiikliiiu: that such phenomena pievalled
in ni(> current system. Hut several times since then i see Smith. 11)27. p. SC. .uid l!)27b,
l>. 70) the dynamic topourapbic maps of tbi^ sea surface have proved ■.■onclusively the
existence of such a cycb)iiic depressiou.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

155

{d) The seasonal cessation of tlie pi-e\ailin<r nortlnvesterly Avinds
and the consequent removal of this fiictional effect to build up a
slope current alon<r the North American coast to the northward of
the Grand Bank.

The first advanced information on the impendin«j: failure in the
supply of ice conies from an increase in the number of bergs
which be<»;in to set down past St. Johns close in alono; the Newfound-
land coast. Iceberfrs also about this time collect in the <rreatest num-
bers on the northern slopes of the Grand Bank. The «iradual swing
in the axis of the berg stream from out near Flemish Cap in March
to in close to Caije Race in .June and ,July has been likened to the
sliding of grain to a bin. as the chute is slowly deflected the supply

Characteristic Types of Circulation East Side of the Grand Bank

Fi(;i;nK !)!t. — Tlio ice patiol (iyiiamic topographic iiiaiJs liavc disc'oscd two charac-
teristic forms of circulation which often prevail on the east side of the Grand
Bank. The one on the left shows how the (iulf Stream presses in toward the
eastern slope of the (irand Hank, blocking off the bergs, and guaranteeing the
safety of tile T'nited States-Europe lane routes. Thf map on Ihe right shows a
cyclonic depression in wliich bergs have often been i liseivrd.

is likewise cut oif. The fact that few or no icebergs drift south-
ward past the Grand Bank and Newfoundland during the balance
of the year, August to December, seems in no way due to the lack
of icebergs in the north Avhere they are continually calving from the
ice cap and drifting out into Davis Strait and Baftin Bay.

July witnesses a still further slackening in the number of bergs
south of Newfoundland: the normal number by months is: July. 25;
August, 18; September. S): October. 4: November. 3; and December, 2.
The bergs that do succeed in drifting past Newfoundland are found
hugging closely to the edge of the shelf and Avorking inshore to the
shallow waters, where the ice usually breaks up and disappears.
Bergs in the area south of Newfoundland during the summer dissi-
pate very ra]:)idly. due to the warmth of air and water.

156 MAKION EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIN" BAY

Many direct observations on the rate of movement of icebergs
south of Newfoiindhmd have been made by the ice patrol, and, siip-
j)orted by niimei'ous current surveys run simultaneously, furnish us
with accurate information. Any student interested in examining
this matter in detail is referred to the tile of annual reports of the
l)atrol. (See p. 150.) The records may be summarized as follows:
During March the average rate is 0 to 7 miles per day, and 10 to 17
miles per day from April to June around the soutliern parts of the
bank. The bergs on the northern edge of the Gulf Stream move
fastest of all, i. e., at rates of 19 to :^>() miles per day. In late summer
the ice drifts more slowly, but at all seasons the rates are subje;-t to
considerable variations from week to week or even from day to day.
The velocities of ocean currents, especially at this junction region, are
constantly changing, changes reflected by the drifts of the iceljergs.
For examj)le. on one occasion a group of bergs on the east side of the
(xrand Bank just north of the Tail suddenly increased their rate of
drift overnight from 7 miles to 28 miles i)er day. (Smith. 1921, p.
7().) If the current can accelerate suddenly to such a high rate off
the Grand I^ank. may not such events occur equally along the Lab-
rador shelf (

The ice patrol's investigations have revealed the following features
in the circulation south of Newfoundland affecting the behavior of I
icebergs :

(a) An elliptical depression in the sea surface nuikes a slow
cyclonic vortex in the surface layers off the southwest slope of the
Grand Bank west of the Tail. This '• low.'" covering an area of over
2.000 square miles, was fii-st discovered l)y chance in 1921 by follow-
ing an iceberg as it made tlie circuit. 192() the " low," apparently
similar in character to an atmosphere cyclonic depression, was accu-
rately charted by several successive dynamic surveys (see Smith,
1927. pp. 109. 112, and 115) prevailing throughout the season. It
was present also in April. 1927. but disappeared early that May.
Bei'gs are often carried northwestward along the slope in the north-
ern semicircle of this eddv and sometimes a complete circuit of H65°
in its pei'iphery. (See fig. 101.)

(h) Sometimes the counterclockwise eddy is wanting: displaced by
the Gulf Stream encroaching toward the Tail of the bank. An
earlier series of current maps (Smith 1927b) shows the development
of such a phenomenon in the first week in May, 1927. As long as
the Gulf Stream maintains this position ice is blocked from pursu-
ing a course west of the Tail. (See lower riglit-liand sketch, fig.
101. also overlay figs. 105 and 106.)

{(■) The cold and warm curi-ents after meeting off the Tail of the
Grand Bank [)roceed southeastward in a parallel set to tlie vicinity
of latitude 41 \ longitude 47°. where the streams bend sharply to the:
left. The existence of this cul-de-sac of the current, and occasionally
for bergs, 150 miles southeast of the Tail shows evidently tliat the
drift is affected bv tlie bottom configui-ation. even to as gi-eat a depth
as 4.000 meters. " (Sec Smith 1922. Chart H and lowci- Icft-iiand
sketch, fig. 100.)

{(I) The ice patrol suspected for several years that the (Julf
Stream after turning sharjjly northward on the forty-seventh merid
ian pressed in toward the baidv up the submarine emliayment between

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

157

47
-46

45
-144

43
■AZ

A\

40

~^2r

39 L

39

SZ 5\ So ^g -43

Characteristic Types of Circulation Around the Grand Bank

Figure 100. — The two upper maps show X\w L;iIn-a(lor curteiit hugsiiis the (jrand Bank
slopes. The type on the left often prevails in earl.v season, while the one on the right
is associated with a stronger cold current and a relatively weak Gulf Stream. The
lower left-hand sketch reveals a Labrador current developed to maximum ; a con-
dition often found in mid ice season. The last map shows the primary circulation
which prevails over the Grand Bank. The various systems of circulation as shown
aliove have been obtained from many ice patrol surveys in accordance with the
Bjerknes's method of hydrodynamics. Iceberg tracks have also been found to agree
with tlie stream lines of the currents.

158 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

54 33 52 51 50 49 At '^1 46 54 3h 52. 51 SO 49 48 47 46

Characteristic Types of Circulation at junction of Labrador
Current and Gulf stream

FuuniE 101. — Tho two upper maps and tlic lower left one feature a cyeluiiie vortex
in tile cirenlation at the Tail of tlie (irand I'.ank. where the I.alaador eiirrent
meets the Ciilf Stream. The lower rijiht-hand map shows the Gulf Stream erowd-
ing well in over the southwest slope (d' the (irand Hank, while a stronj: l.alirador
eurrent penetrates deeply toward the south. All thesi. types of eireulalion have
heen mapped by the ice patrol, and iceherys also have many times hei
in tile control of these systems.

oh:

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 159

(lie forty-fourth and forty-fifth parallels. The current surveys of
1!)2G and 1927 (see Smith 1927 and 1927b) proved such is the case
wiien the cold current is weak or the warm alinormally voluminous.
In some years this phenomenon is more j^ronounced than in others,
hut whenever well developed it definitely blocks the path of the
l)('r<rs from reachin<^ the Tail of the bank, and deflects them out
southward and to the eastAvard. An excellent illustration of this
is to be seen in the charts for 1920. (Smith 1927b, pp. 86 and 90,
and fi<>: 99, p. 155 of this paper.) For several years past this inshore
development of the Gulf Stream on the east side of the bank in June
and July, insuring safety to the steamship tracks, has been thou»>ht
to warrant the discontinuance of the ice patrol for the year.

{e) The chan«:e in alternation in direction of flow between the
warm and cold Avater masses takes place about 25 miles shoreward
fi<mi the "cold AvalP' or temperature wall. (See fig. 122, p. 204.)
It is for this reason that icebergs are seldom sighted offshore of the
cold-water area south of Newfoundland and that they often drift
along parallel to the Gulf Stream, though lying many miles within
tlie offshore boundary of the cold, mixed waters.

Icebergs around NcAvfoundland have been trailed by the ice pati'ol
as they drifted many hundreds of miles in the current ; in fact the
compilation of individual berg drifts in the area south of the Tail
of the Grand Bank constitute the most positive evidence to refute
the old belief that the Labrador current floAved southAvard along the
Tnited States coast. (See figs. 102 and 107.) The first attempts to
folloAv the movements of an iceberg near the Grand Bank Avere by
dohnston (1913, p. 23) Avhen the /Seneca kept in touch Avith tAVo bergs
for over a period of live Aveeks. finding that they drifted in a large
cyclonic vortex off the east side of the Grand Bank. The next in-
stance was in 1915 Avhen a berg Avas foUoAved for 17 days Avhile it
(hifted 195 miles in a Avide semicircle south of the Tail, first to the
AvestAvard at the rate of 12 miles per day and then eastAvard in the
( iulf stream at 24 miles per day. In 1921 on the ice patrol Ave began a
l)olicy of tracking the bergs Avhenever possible, and the composite map
of drifts (fig. 102 ) so compiled has noAv become very instructive. Some
of these folloAv: A])ril 11 to May 12, 1921, a large berg drifted from
the northeastern edge of the Grand Bank to a point 90 miles south-
soutliAvest of the Tail at an average rate of 15 miles per day; thence
it Avas carried eastAvard on the Gulf Stream for 10 days at the rate
of 28 miles per day. March 19 to April 15, 1922, a berg drifted Avest-
ward past the Tail of the Grand Bank, then south and east, a total
distance of 315 miles at an average velocity of 12 miles per day.
May 2 to 20 three bergs set southAvestAvard past the Tail of the Grand
Haiik in a large anticlockAvise eddy at the speed of 10 miles per day
and a total distance of 175 miles. March 16 to April 11, 1924, a
I .'erg on the northeastern part of tlie Grand Bank drifted south into
tiie Gulf Stream a total distance of 450 miles. The rate of drift Avas
sloAV to the forty-third parallel, but south of the Grand Bank it
increased to 24 miles per day. May 19 to June 30, 1925, a berg Avas
folloAved over a distance of 492 miles as it drifted from the forty-
fifth parallel southAvard along the east side of the bank to the Tail
and thence southAvesterly until turned easterly by the Gulf Stream.
May 2() to June 2, 1928. a berg Avas traced 265 miles in a semicircular

160

MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

path sontlieast of the Grand Bank. A ma}), such as Figure 102, show-
ing the conii)iled drifts of the foregoing bergs, and many more be-
sides furnishes the best information avaihible as to their general
])aths in the currents. Its most instructive feature is its demonstra-
tion that the heaviest ice stream is past the Tail of the Grand Bank
to the vicinity of latitude 42^ 30', longitude 51' W. where the bergs

The Drift Tracks of Icebergs. 1900

Figure 102. — The courses that icebergs have foUowed south of Newfoundland is a
record compiled by the international ice patrol, as it has tracked bergs for distances
of 400 miles and more in the ocean currents.

tend to tui-n nbi-nptly to the left, and thereafter follow an easterly
course until they perish.

We have on the ice i)atrol also collected over a jjcriod of several
years the physical data needed for the dynamic computation of the
oceanic ciirulation in the region of the Grand I?ank in accordance
with Bjerkness theory of free motion. (See Smith (192(>).) Dur-

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 161

ing tilt' years 192G and 11)27 the circulation of the water masses in the
iceberg region south of Newfoundland was kept constantly under
surveillance by means of frequent current surveys covering areas
of several thousand s(iuare miles. The general results have been
discussed in earlier ])ublications (Smith 1927 and 19271)), to which
are referred any students interested in the details of the circulation
Ml special regions.

Ill general the agreement between the berg tracks that have ac-
tually been followed (figs 103, 104,105, and 106) and the gradient
currents for the same periods, respectively (overlays for figs. 103,
104. 105. and 106), is so close as to indicate that dynamic projections
<.f this sort may be used as a basis for predicting the tracks that
individual icebergs are most likely to follow (see p. 176).

Occasionally icebergs survive relatively long periods, even when
floating in Atlantic Ocean water of high temperature, and they
may then make phenomenal journeys. Thus icebergs have been
-ighted near the Azores, near the British Isles, and even near Ber-
muda, such events usually taking place late in the season and during
bad ice years such as 1890 and 1912. These drifts, however, do not
indicate a direct extension of the Labrador current into low lati-
tudes but simply that the bergs in question have been caught up in
oceanic vortices that are c(mtinually forming over the Atlantic basin
111 which the ice is borne southward instead of following the normal
drift.' ' The emphasis that has often been laid on bergs drifting
exce|)tionally far southward is apt to give an exaggerated impression
of the frequency of such events. As a matter of fact, it is unusual
for a berg to drift south of the fortieth parallel of latitude in the
western Xorth Atlantic, the records for the past 20 years showing
only one such occurrence every one to three years.

The Deutsche Seewarte (1902, tafel 3) ])ublished a map showing
the positions in Avhich shi])s have reported ice far south in the At-
lantic. During May and June of the year 1890 some bergs attained
the thirty-seventh meridian between latitude 44° 30' and 46^ N.
During the period 1904-1913 ice was sighted at least once south to
latitude 37^ 50' north and east to longitude 38° ; with one exceptional
journey to the thirtieth parallel. In May, 1905, a few bergs pene-
ti-ated the Atlantic to latitude 39° 07' directly south of the Grand
Bank. In 1912. the year the Titanic was lost, a berg reached lati-
tude 39'. longitude 47°.

Hennessy (1929. p. 84) has ])ublished a list of extraordinary berg
drifts which shows that only 24 bergs during the past 20 years have
been sighted south of the fortieth parallel.

Some of the positions in which ice has been reported seem hardly
credible — due to errors in observation or in transmitting radio re-
ports— had they not been verified. One of the most astonishing inci-
dents is the report made by the British steamer Baxtergate and
^orified by the Ignited States Hydrographic Office that on June 5,
1926. she passed a large piece of ice 30 feet \o\\fr^, 15 feet wide, and 3
feet above Avater in the latitude 30° 20' N., longitude 62° 32' W., near
Bermuda. Such an occurrence is the more mysterious when it is

"■' It has already been pointed out that the outlet for icebergs departing on extrasoutherly
tUifts is noticeably confined between meridians 46 and 50, almost directly south of the
(iraiid Bank. (Smith, 1027. p. 68.)

162

MAKION FAPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY

Iceberg Drifts Compared With Ocean Currents

FICUKK 1().'{. — Tlic observed drifts of six icelierus, June 9-25. l'.)27. on the northeastern
side ol the (irand Hanls compared with the direetion and velocity of rile slope cur-
rents conteinp<n'arily determined by means of IJJerknes's fornnihv" of livdrodvnamics.
i he iinnibers on both tlie base map and the overlay indicate the rate" of niMVemcut
ii'id the water, respectively, in miles per dav.

of tb

'

Yj»ii9vo &ij^ : aa JDi •{

jBsr

KiGLKE 103 oveilay

Currents

FiocRK 104 overlay

Yfilievo i-Of anjin'i

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

163

Iceberg Drifts Compared With Ocean Currents

Figure 1(14. — The observed drift of :in iceberg May 27 to June 8, 1927, on the east
side of tile (Jrand Bank, compared with tUe direction and velocity of the slope
currents contemporarily determined by means of Bjerlcnes's formulae of hydro-
dynamics. AA refers to two bergs April 13-16, 1913, which drifted in a similar
system of circulation. B refers to a similar drift of a berg April 30 to May
23, 1925.

164 MAKION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

z ;;r--

tr =~ >-.

z - ^'S

< r = a.

UJ — X

0 IS .

-10 i ~ V- ^

- :^ ^

$ ii

n

7-5^

iji

— 7" "^

10

a:
<

Q.

0

c^

U)

S"S5

10

h

Ll

■F- >.'3

rr

>-.~ ■«

D

«r 1

10

0
q:

III

all

m

III

^ U '"'

u

- -'w

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS

1 6.">

<: =".-

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

165

— 3

^J= >-■

h

- ic-i;-

7

C3~ i

LU

tr

D

u

5 o5

z
<

()

^V^

0

gj O &

T

H

■- a,-"

LiJ

<

^ = n

^ Q-

2

•■ = ^

0

u

li':

(/)

~ 1-

i^ ^

'f* p s

cc

■-I E >

Q

S-2 2

CD

lO W

lO CQ

bti!^-^

UJ

- cs n

U

Oj f- h

" c

a, ao

?'+-' <u

to

C C C3

166 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

=^

1' \\':J'

■4 4 .--

^ ' , -i ' -

>^.

ml'

"[

■^»-c = ?• '

u. -5 £=■=■?

0 -iissS

q: _£■* '-

< o '^^ ~ r .

H 25as =:

IT — * :

_ .^ K 1) t£-

1 ?irf|= ■■
I- li-Jt/.

ire 3 ;

— r o = :

•- -" o o - .^

H -Oo-J

^ _ a i 5

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

167

realized that no other ice was si«rlited tliat year within a thousand
miles of the Baxtergate's position, althoujj^h "the i(;e pati-ol had been
maintaining a vigilant guard upstream, olt' Newfoundland, the
entire sprino-.

An investigation of the records of the United States Hydrographic
Office and of the international ice patrol for the period 190010 192(i
regarding the southward distribution of icebergs in the western
North Atlantic shows that a total of about 886 drift south of New-
foundland during a normal year, and that 51 of these on the average
(about 15 per cent) are carried south of the Gi-and Bank. The dis-
tribution in the three main paths, viz, around Cai)e Race, down the

Phenomenal Iceberg Drifts

Figure 108. — The above positions were compiled from 21 authentic and verified
reports from ships at sea sighting icebergs, 1900-1916. (From Jenkins. 1921.)

east side of the Grand Bank, and southeastward between the bank
and Flemish (?'ap. is \\ per cent. 67 per cent, and 19 per cent,
respectively. The distribution by months is as follows :

Nontial imniber of icebergs south of Newfoundland

Jan.

Feb. Mar.

Apr.

May

June July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

3

10 1 36

83

130

68 25

13

9

4

3

2

Xornial

numher of ieeber<j.-i south of Grand Bank

Jan.

Feb. ^ Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July
3

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

0

1

4

9

18

13

2

1

0

0

0

These data indicate that the iceberg season off Newfoundland may
be said to cover a period of four months, from March 15 to July 15.
The bergs decrease in numbers noticeably after the middle of June

121)860—31-

-12

168 MAEIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAY

and from the middle of July until the followin<r sprino; the area south
of the Grand Bank is practically free. An isolated berg or two may
drift southward to the Tail of the Bank, but not often south of the
latter, as late as October, after which month bergs are sighted rarely
in the latitude of the Grand Bank until the following February.

It is interesting to note that of the fifty-odd icebergs which may be
expected to drift south of the Tail during a normal year, only three
will ordinarily be carried across the westbound steamship routes
which run between Eurojje and the United States. The bergs which
drift south of the lanes located along the latitude of 40° N. do so
in April, May, and June; May being the month which is most danger-
ous to shipping. The total number sighted along the tracks south

VtOr

JKA FER rm APR m m JOL ^U6 SiP ACT NOV PEC

I*— ICE. SEASON—*

The Normal Seasonal Distribution of icebergs

FiGUUF, 100. — The uppei- curvo represents the normal
monthly number of icebergs south of Newfoundland in the
western North Atlantic. The lower curve represents the
normal number of bergs south of the Grand Bank. The
number of bergs are at a minimum during November,
December, and Januai-y, and at a maximum during April,
May, and June. The ice patrol has interpreted the normal
iceberg season as extending from the middle of March
to the middle of July.

of the fortieth parallel during the decade 1918 to 1923 was 33, dis-
tributed as follows : 3 in April, 25 in May. 5 in June.

Methods Employed to Pkotect Trans-Atlaxtic Shippixg from

THE Ice Mexace

Where the cold northern currents carry Arctic ice on to the Xorth
Atlantic lanes of commerce, there it becomes a distinct economic
menace to life and property. The protective measures taken every
spring against this danger are (a) a system of prescribed routes
south of the normal ice barrier, and (h) a ship patrol to warn ves-
sels of the position of the ice.

The interesting accounts of the early Arctic explorations by the
British, the Dutch, and the Scandinavians relate to dangerous sit-
uations in which vessels Avere often surrounded and crushed within
the vast fields of ])ac'k ice. Thus in the year 1777 the Dutch Avhaling
fleet was unexpectedly caught in the heavy ice floes ofl' east (Green-
land and 12 vessels were swept away and sunk in the dangerous wa-
ters of Denmark Strait. The tragic loss of the famous Jeannette
and practically all of her crew was due to the great ])ressure of the

Al

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 169

ice-cap where :^lle ^v;^^ beset northwest of Wran<iel Ishuid, Siberia.
The latter part of the nineteenth century on four different occasions,
viz., 1871. 1876. 1888. and 189G. witnessed a series of unexpected
" freezes." when the American whalino- fleets were crushed in the
|);ick ice east of Point Barrow. Ahiska. with a total loss of more than
.")(• sliips. Whalin<r. fur tradin<:-. and scientific explorations have
(lone mucli to educate tlie nuiny able seamen of both steam and sail
j]j the art of ice navioation. Bartlett (1028). one of the best known
(}f present-day sailin<r masters, has discussed some of his rich and
\ aried experiences in northern seas and published a few valuable in-
structions on the art of ice navigation.

But the state of the ice in the Arctic is far different from such
((•nditions in the more open, yet ice-infested waters of temperate
hititudes. The pack ice and the beset ship of tlie far North gives
way in the Nortli Atlantic to the massive iceberg and the sudden
impact of disastrous collision. Modern attainments in the art of
shipbuilding have ])laced in commission enormous hulls, aggregat-
ing r)0,()0(t tons, costing $5,000,000 to $15,000,000, and driven at rail-
} oad speeds of 20 to 25. or more, knots per hour. On board one of
these new-day leviathans travel 8,000 to 4,000 people, as many souls
as constitute a fair-sized village on shore: 1,500 to 2,000 total indi-
A dual passages are made through, or ])ast, the ice regions off' Xew-
foundhmd every season, and this represents approximately $10,000,-
()0(i,0(i0 of property and 1,000,000 lives that come each year within
tjje sha(U)w of the ice menace.

The icebergs off' Xewfoundland have for centuries been one of the
ii.ost dreaded dangers of trans-Atlantic navigators. John Cabot
describes sailing past these towering monsters shrouded in Grand
liank fogs on his first voyages to America early in the six-
teentli century. Pioneer navigators of the Xorth Atlantic soon
learned to determine their latitude approaching western shores by
the sharp line of Arctic waters tlirust southward along the forty-
seventh meridian. (See fig. 110.) Benjamin Franklin through his
lelative Capt. Peter Folger of Nantucket, pointed out the Gidi
Stream and a path to avoid most of the Newfoundland fog and ice,

A perusal of trans-North Atlantic sailing ship disasters impress
(tne with the great numl)er of casualties that befell those vessels
which followed the shortest route (great circle course) across the
ire longitudes. Strange to relate, however, the risk of collisions
between ships, bound on opposite courses, especially in the fog
regions south of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, first elicited more
anxiety tlian did the dangers of the ice. Early in the nineteenth
tentury an unusually appalling disaster about 50 miles east of Cape
Kace, between the French steamer Vesfa and the American ship
Arctic with the loss of 300 lives brought an acute realization that
lemedial measures must be taken. Lieut. M. F. Maury of the United
States Navy was the first to pro})ose seperate lane routes in his Sail-
ing Directitms. published in 1855. Another active advocate of sepa-
rating the east and Avest bound traffic was Mi'. K. B. Forbes, of Bos-
ton, Mass. whose proposal to run the westbound lane diagonally
across the Grand Bank just south of Cape Race, while the eastbound
(lacks were to cross about 15 miles north of the Tail of the Grand
Bank (latitude 43"^ at longitude 50° W.) was the one eventually
adopted.

]70 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Although collisions between ships were materially reduced after
the inauguration of prescribed tracks, the dangers incident to navi-
gating without due regard for the menace of icebergs and pack ice
remained unmodified and therefore accidents continued to prevail.

It is to the credit of the Cunard Steamship Co. that in 1875 the first
real steps were taken to reduce the number of casualties due to drift-
ing Arctic ice. The Cunard Line order its shipmasters to follow
lane routes across the Atlantic that were laid south of the zone into
which northern ice normallv drifted. The westbound lane was rim

Arctic. Mixed, and Gulf Stream Waters

FiGi'EE 110. — The distribution »if tlie tliree main t-lasses of \vati»r iu tlie reuion of the
Grand Bank south of Newfoundhmd. The solid black area indicates the position of
the coldest water, ca. 84° F.. and the mcst liable retreat of Arctic ice. The wavy,
parallel lines mark the region of warmest water, the northern edse of the (iulf
Stream, about 60° F., and the least probability of harboring Arctic ice. The
stippled ana is the intermediate zone of mixed waters, about 4.'>° F., and represents
an area liable to contain icebergs. The marked difference in temperature between
the cold, icy water on the one hand and the warm oceanic water on the other
provides the greatest liability of fog over the mixed and the icy waters, while clear
weather prevails over the (Julf Stream.

to the point, latitude 43^ X. longitude oO- AV.: and the eastbound
route was placed GO miles to the southward.

A few of the other large and more jjrogressive passenger lines
followed the policy of the Cunard Co.. and as a result the number
of accidents due to ice showed an encouraging decrease from the
former high rate. They still, however, continued to l)e of too fre-
quent occurrence, since (hiring the decade isso to ISiX), according to
Rodman (LSDO), there were no h'ss than 14 vessels lost and over 40
seriously damaged oil' Xewfoundland. For example we note the
following:

June 2, 1882, the steamship Ashdruhul >tnirk a berg 20 miles
south of Cape Race and sunk.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 171

March 15, 1883. the bark General Birch was found fast in pack
ice in Latitude 45^ N.. longitude 48° 30' W.. with bows stove in and
ihe vessel abandoned and full of water.

January 2. 1884. steamship Nottiix/ Hill collided with a bero;
and was s(t seriouslv daina<red that she had to be abandoned in
latitude 46" N.. lonf^itude 46' 20' W.

May 7. 1885. the brig Annie CJirist'/ne struck a berg on the Grand
Bank and foundered.

February 17, 1890. the bark Meteor spent nine days in a large
ice field south of Cape Hace. The ice crushed in her bow, opened
her seams, and she sank. The creAv were rescued in an exhausted
condition.

The majority of tlie trans-Atlantic traffic, however, continued to
follow courses through the ice longitudes (forty-five to fifty-tw^o
meridians) despite the added safety that it had brought to the
Cunard Line and a few others navigating farther to the south. The
increase in distance caused by following the safer route of about
100 miles has always been the incentive for the navigator to " cut
the corner.*"

Noting the insui-ance of safety inherent to circunmavigating the
ice regions, the United States Hydrographic Office in 1891 urged
the several principal steamship companies to meet and discuss fur-
ther lane route recommendations. In 1898 the trans-Atlantic Track
Conference was formed with all of the established passenger com-
panies agreeiuL^ to the present svstem of prescribed tracks (see fig.
112, p. 175) ; ^

Lane route A runs between tlie United States and Europe. It
is effective o\\\y during ice seasons when bergs are numerous south
of the Grand Bank. The eastbound route crosses meridian 47 at
latitude 39" 30' N. ; the westbound route crosses meridian 47 at lati-
tude 40" 30' N.

Lane 7'oufe B runs between the United States and Europe. It is
effective normally February 15 to August 1. unless .severe ice condi-
tions require lane route A. The eastbound route crosses meridian
47 at latitude 41" 30' N. ; the westbound route crosses meridian 47
at latitude 40° 30' N.

Latie route V runs between the United States and Europe. It
is effective normally August 1 to February 15. The eastbound route
crosses meridian 50 at latitude 42° N. ; the westbound route crosses
meridian 50 at latitude 43° N.

Lane route L> runs between Canada and Europe. It is effective
normally February 15 to April 10. The eastbound route crosses
meridian 50 at latitude 42° N. ; the westbound route crosses merid-
ian 50 at latitude 43° N.

Lane rexite E runs between Canada and Europe. It is effective
normally April 10 to May 15, or until the Cape Race tracks are clear
of ice. The eastbound route crosses meridian 50 at latitude 45° 25'
N.; the westbound route crosses meridian 50 at latitude 45° 55' N.

Lafne rovte F runs between Canada and Europe. It is effective
normally May 15 to July 1, or until the vStrait of Belle Isle is navi-
gable. After the strait becomes closed vessels may revert to route D.
The eastbound route crosses the meridian of Cape Race 25 miles
south of the latter ; the westbound route crosses the meridian of Cape
Race 10 miles south of the latter.

172 MAltlOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Lane route G runs between Canada and Europe via the Strait of
Belle Isle. It is effective normally from the first week in July until
the first week in Decemljei'.

The })reseribi'd tracks between the United States and Europe are
shifted southward during- the spring on the advice of various steam-
ship masters, the international ice patrol, or the United States
Hydrographic Office, and in accordance with the severity of the ice
season. It is worth noting that the extra-southerly tracks (lane
route A), which are employed in severe ice years only, lengthen the
voyage about 50 miles more than lane route B and about 200 miles
more than the great circle course close under Cape Race, Newfound-
land. Practically all of the passenger ships now observe the letter
of the agreement of prescribed tracks and also numy of the freight
vessels, especially those belonging to well-known lines. Many mis-
■ •ellaneous freighters, " tramps," however, persist even to-day in cut-
ting through the ice regions unnecessarily and thereby they invite
disaster. Shipping on the routes between Canada and Europe, dur-
ing the ice season, finds it impossible, of course, to avoid the ice zone,
and consequently those vessels run a greater danger despite the
exercise of much care by their officers.

It has been remarked that if icebergs and pack ice always remained
within their normal limits, then nothing further would be necessary
to insure sufficient safety to most of the ships, but unfortunately such
is not the case. There have been, however, several accidents to trans-
Atlantic ships since the prescribed tracks ha\e been in force. Some
of them are :

May 25, 1919, the passenger steamship ('ai^mndrn in latitude 47°
3U N., longitude 51° 22' W.. northeast of Cape Race in a dense fog,
struck a berg filling her forward com])artments with water, l)ut Avas
able to make St. Joliiis. Newfoundland, unassisted.

April 8, 1921, the steamer Castle Point was beset in pack ice on the
northern part of the (xrand Bank. It was necessary for the ice-
patrol ship to go to her assistance and tow her into open water.

June 23, 1925, the steamer Saugus collided with a valleytype of
berg, running her forefoot out on the base platform, where she
remained for some hours. Fortunately the damage extended i)nly to
straining the vessel considerably, and there was no loss of life.

In the spring of 192.S the ])assenger steamship Montrose struck an
iceberg while navigating in the vicinity of the northern ])art of the
(TraiKl Bank. Two of the crew were killed by many tons of ice which
fell on the deck, and the forecastle head of the ship was badly
battered in.

July 20, 1929, the steamer Vimeea collided with a berg near the
Tail of the Grand Bank, badly ciushing in luu- bow plates and totally
(Hsabling her ])ro])ellei".

The most appalling of ice disasters occurred on the night of" April
11—15, 1912, when the AVhite Star liner Titanh\ on her maitlen
voyage to the United States, struck a berg in latitude 41° 4G', longi-
tude 50° 14' (off the Tail of the (xrand Bank), and sank with the
loss of 1,513 lives. The toll of 300 souls early in the nineteentli
century preceded the adoption of trans-Atlantic lane routes; one
of the worst marine catastroi)hes of the twentieth century resulted
in the establishment of the international ice patrol.

SCIENTIFIC RESULT3

173

r/y/#

^ ' ^

t.O

-,«1

/

40

7o

60

So

The General circulation in the Northwestern north Atlantic

Figure 111. — The general system of circulation wiiich prevails in the northwestern
North Atlantic, from the northern end 'of Bafflu Bay to the Gulf Stream south of
Newfoundland. This map is hased upon the separate dynamic surveys of tilt;
Godthaah. the Marlon, and the international ice patrol. The principal trans
Atlantic lane routes are also shown crossing the southern end of the ice-beariiiK
ocean currents.

174 MAKION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

In the remaining dangerous months of tlie ice season succeeding
the Titanic disaster, the United States Navy patrolled the waters
south of Newfoundland, and in the following year the United
States Coast Guard took up the duty. In the autumn of 1913 a Con-
vention for the Safety of Life at Sea was called in London, where
the principal maritime nations of the world provided, among othei-
things, to establish a continuous ship patrol of the eastern, south-
ern, and western limits of drifting Arctic ice during the most dan-
gerous part of the year. The continuous guard is inaugurated with
ihe first appearance of icebergs around the Grand Bank, usually the
latter part of Mai'ch, and the service is discontinued after the dangers
largely disappear, usually about the 1st of July. Twice daily a de-
tailed broadcast by radio informs all approaching ships the up-to-
the-hour position and behavior of the ice. Extensive scientific stud-
ies are conducted which lead to a better treatment of the ice problems
and a greater safety guaranteed to life and property on the North
Atlantic. The Marion expedition to Greenland in 1928 is an exam^jle
of the work being carried out by the international ice patrol. Lender
the London convention the United States Government assumes the
operation of the patrol, the expenses being annually divided among
the nations a party to the pact, each paying a quota based on its pro-
portional ocean tonnage. The Coast Guard is the service in the
United States which supplies the ships and men, and the United
States Hydrographic Office cooperates to give publicity and its aid to
the project.

The ice patrol during the first 15 years of its service has estab-
lished an excellent record. Not a single life has been lost on the
United States-Europe tracks since the patrol's establishment, and
no vessels have been sunk as a result of collision with icebergs.
Although the entire ice regions embraced by the lane routes are
the pix)vince of the ice patrol the area is much too large for one
vessel alone to properly patrol it. The Ignited States-Europe lane
routes being the most populous are therefore the ones most carefully
guarded, and the more northerly routes between Canada and Europe
(the most hazardous), can not unfortunately receive such close
attention. A perusal of the effective dates of the various lane routes,
moreover (p. 171), shows that prior to April 10. all trans-Atlantic
steamship tracks cross the ice regions south of the Tail of the Grand
Bank, but after that date the Canada-Europe routes separate from
the United States-Europe ones, so that during the ice season when
bergs menace navigation in greatest numbers, there are two paths
of ocean travel separated by a distance of several hundred miles.
Almost every year witnesses the damage to some craft on the Cape
Race routes, and occasionally a loss of life. If the international
ice ])atrol system is not extended to the northern steamslii]i lane
I'outes another serious marine disaster similar to that of the Titanic
is liable to occur.

In 1929 the second Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea met in
Loudon and provided for a thii-d, additional vessel for the inter-
national ice patrol.

Each year the United States Coast Guard publishes a report of
the season's events. A descrij^tion of the technical methods and
tlie ])roblems of the ice })atrol are discussed and desci'ibed. These
bulletins clcai-ly sliow that tlie work lias been inci-easing rapidly in

SCIENTIFIC KESULTS

175

recent years. The fact that the vohiine of radio traffic handled by
the patrol in the last five years alone has increased '3(K) per cent, is
eloquent testimony of the use of this ice service by North Atlantic
sliipping.

LANE Routes and the Critical iceberg area

Figure 112. — The location of the principal traus-Atlantic
lane routes which are explained in tlie text, pajie 171. The
shaded portion of 20,000 square miles represents the ice-
berg area which receives the international ice patrol's
most vigilant attention. Bergs in this area are potential
menaces, liable at any time to drift southward across the
paths of the trans-Atlantic traffic. The ice patrol during
the past few years has attempted to keep on board an
up-to-date current chart of this area. A satisfactory
map. according to Bjerknes's method, can be constructed
from a total of 18 points of observation, as shown above.

One of the most interesting scientific aids which the patrol is
using with considerable success is that of current mapping according
to the Bjerknes theory of dynamic oceanography. The patrol by
keeping an up-to-date current map of a 20,000 square mile area south
of the Grand Bank, at the junction of the Labrador current and the

176 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Gulf Stream (immediately iiortli of the United States-Europe
tracks), is able to intelligently follow the devious movements of
icebergs in this critical area and thereby more effectively protects
approaching steamships. The critical area sliown on Figure 112, for
the duration of the ice season, is the one always under the ice
patrol's most watchful guard. When the southern terminus of the
icebergs has been thoroughly searched by the ice patrol, or during
a light ice year, then, and only then, the patrol ship is free to scout
northward to find the next southernmost threatening ice.

The current maps obtained by dynamic surveys have been found
to remain reliable for a period of 7 to 15 days around the Grand
Bank. Minor fluctuations of short duration have often been ob-
served, however, especially along the boundary of mixed waters and
Gulf Stream. Such swirls or vortices appear to be secondary super-
ficial tongues 5 to 10 miles in width and sometimes several times that
in length and the tracks of icebergs, especially the small shallow-
draft ones, are often modified by such departures. In this connec-
tion, Eicketts (1930, p. 94) calls attention to the value of surface
isotherms in predicting the behavior of icebergs.

Summarizing, the two methods now employed to safeguard Xorth
Atlantic commerce from the great dangers incident to Arctic ice
are : (a) Prescribed tracks laid south of the normal ice zone : and
(h) a continuous ship patrol south of Newfoundland during the
ice season.

Seasonal Character of the Ice Invasions to the Xorth Atlantic

The four principal factors controlling the seasonal incursions of
ice into the Xorth Atlantic (plus several minor ones) are wind,
current, pack ice, and wdnter temperature. They show an inter-
relationship so complex that each must be considered in connection
with all the others.

In ice regions where steep atmospheric gradients prevail for a
month or more at a time, the resulting steady winds may pile up
large masses of water against shore lines, or against other
hindrances, and thereby establish a deep, slope current.'*^' A change
in the character of the winds, due sometimes to the succession of
winter and summer, may result, therefore, in seasonal variations in
the size and velocity of the related ocean current.

A study of atmospheric conditions the year round shows that
during the colder months when high pressure spreads over North
America the northwestern North Atlantic is dominated by a strong
northwesterly air streauL The exchange of tem]>erature character
l)etween the land and the ocean, accompanying the increase of insola-
tion in spring, calls fortli a similar exchange of atmospheric pressure,
and the northwesterly winds are replaced in spring by those from the
southwest as well as variable ones. Thus the northwesterly winds
from December to March amass great quantities of the surface water
of Davis Strait against the 1,000-mile continental slope, from Baf-
fin Land to the Grand Bank. Although the direction of the wind
trends slightly off the coast, the dellecting effect of the earth's rota-

'" An excellent exposition of currents cstablisliod hv winds is contained in Eknian (19"2S),
to whicli the rcMdi'i- is ri'fi'rrod.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

177

tion is to the right — its force directly in proportion to the depth
(»f the water at that particidar |)hice — causing the resulting gradient
(iiri'ent to parallel the coast. The time required to develop a current
of this sort must be calculated in weeks or months depending upon
the magnitude of the wind and the width of the current. The ])re-
\ailing wind system of December and March, over Labrador, cor-
related Avitli the observed increase in tlie strength of the Labrador

The LABRADOR Current

FiGiKE ll.'I. — Que of the fundamental factors causing a slope
(urrent to be built up along the Labrador coast is the pre-
vailing northwesterly winds. The long cui'ved arrows indi-
cate the average wind direction December to March, and the
short double arrows show the general movement of the
water as a result. The diagram AB — CE represents the
relative position of the Archimedian and the Ferrelian
forces and the direction of resultant flow.

current off the Tail of the Grand Bank, from March to July, may
represent the lag in the development of such an increase in flow.
The dwindling of the cold current which is believed to occur in
summer south of Xewfoundland may be traced partly to the sub-
sidence of the northwesterly winds in the preceding spring.

The volume and velocity of the Labrador current is also effected
by purely hydrographical factors such as land drainage, and hy the

178 MAKION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

meltiii<r <>i^ ice alonji; the coast or over the coiitineiital shelves. The
expansion and recession of reservoirs of lifj^ht water ahing- the
inar<»:in of the current are especially sirrnificant in this connection.
The greater the quantity and the lower the specific <>ravity of these
masses, the steeper becomes the gradient and the greater the velocity
and volume of the flow. The principal sources that contribute this
coastal supply of light water are the melting ice/' and the drainage
from the bordering land areas. Since contributions are at their
maximum in sj)ring and summer, their effect in imparting, therefore,
a seasonal variation to the fringing ocean current is cunudative
Avith that of the wind. Such oceanographic observations on the
Labrador current as are at hand have been collected mostly in sum-
mer, and in the region south of Newfoundland. Tlie investigations
of the ice patrol, which embrace 1)5 per cent of the total, have been
very scanty in February and March, but voluminous and in detail
from May to July, wath only one survey in October. 19'23. Few
observations have been taken of the current north of Newfoundland,
excej^t for those collected by the Chance in the summer of 11>26. and
by the Mar'ion expedition and the Godthaah expeditions in the sum-
mer of 1928. The volume and strength of tlie Labrador current
around the (xrand Bank, as shown by comparing the ice })atrors data
of temj^erature, salinitv, and dynamic topography from vear to vear
(see Fries 1922, p. GlfSmith 1923, p. 84; 1924, p. 109: and 1924a, p..
98), indicates the occurrence of seasonal variations. In normal
years, at least according to the foregoing observations from around
the Grand Bank, the cold current appears to reach a nuiximum
during spring and early summer, after which it dwindles to a
minimum in fall and winter. The fact that little Arctic ice drifts
into the Atlantic during fall and early winter may also indicate that
the Labrador current is then interrupted. It should be noted,
however, that no year-round observations have yet been made from
several sections distributed over the entire length of the Labrador
current, and until they are collected we can not reach final
conclusions.

The Labrador current is also marked by fre(iuent irregular pulsa-
tions occurring witliin the interval of a few weeks, or of a month or
two, all of which tends to mask the more important major cycle.
(See figs. 99. 100, and 101.) These secondary short-term fluctuations
may hark back to corresponding excesses or deficiencies developing in
the light water along the continental slope from time to time. For
example, a period of warm, wet weather around Xewf<Huidland may
appreciably accelerate the melting of the coastal ice and the discharge
from the rivers, increasing the supply of light water, thus swelling
the mass and the velocity of the southern end of the cold current.
Under such conditions any ice in that particular locality will move
south faster than will the ice situated farther north, although the

■' Many statements have appeared in print tliat tho cold Arctic currents are auamented
b.V Rreat quantities of ice wliieli are melted every sum'mer in the far north. Tlio impres-
sion is therefore s'iven that excess masses of lis'ht water or a hijih level at a rivcrlike
source (in Baffin Bay for the Labrador current) constitutes the n(>ct'ssary head to dis-
charge the water downs! rram into the Atlantic. It is hiirh time that the river idea be
discarded when considcrini; unrestruted lUovenKMits on a rotatin.u spliere. under which
class behuig (jcean currents. The pressure gradient which impels I lie stream tli>\v of water
lies on tlie right-hand side of the current in the northern hemisplierc. Th(>reton'. in order
for thaw water to assist the flow of the I.al)radoi- current, the ice must lie distrilaited and
melt, not in Baffin Bay or the I'olar Basin, hut along the shelves ot Baffin Land. Labrador,
and Newfoundland.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 179

total mass transport of the water, considering the entire breadth of
the slope, may remain more or less uniform. The speeding up in
one place along the slope, or retardation in another may cause the
current, as noted on the dynamic topographical maps, to divide
longitudinally into a series of bands or belts. In general the current
i-^ swift Avhere narrow and sluggish where wide; for example, in
July. 1928. as illustrated by the conditions met by the Marlon, expe-
(Htion described on i)age 149. (See fig. 95.) Off Nain, under the con-
ditions then existing, only the ice along the continental edge could
liave been receiving an appreciable southward set, while practically all
of the ice then floating off Belle Isle was making southward progress.
That an iceberg observed drifting southward at a moderate rate may
suddenly accelerate to double, or sometimes to treble its former
rate, is not evidence that the current throughout its entire lenjjfth

""^.

-*^'.-r.- - -r

,^

»

i

'^r-

• > .-.^^^T

»:>■■

-.,

Icebergs Caught in Pack ice

Fkure 114. — An iceberg tsurrounded by pack ice on the northern part of the Grand
Bank, February. 1921. The majority of the flr.st bergs appearing s'outh of New-
foundland in early season, are sighted relatively wide off-shore, far to the east-
ward. An important factor of this seasonal variation in the course of the bergs
is the entangling pack ice which, driving before the westerly winds, exerts a
pronounced easterly component to the drift of the bergs. (Oflicial photograph,
international ice patrol.)

has also increased but rather suggests a contraction in breadth along
the particular pathway that the ice is then following and this is an
important point as yet little appreciated in oceanography.

The effect of pack ice on the .seasonal distribution of icebergs is
of two kinds: (a) AVhen driven before the wind it entangles the
bergs and tends to carry them along; or (b) it acts as a fender along
the shoreward side of the Labrador current during a critical period,
from Xoveinber to July, tending to prevent the icebergs from
I drifting toward the coast and grounding as they are borne south-
ward. This last assumption is corroborated by the fact that it is
at the beginning of the season, from February through March,
when the pack-ice belt is Avidest that the bergs are distributed
farthest to the east of the Grand Bank.

If the velocity of the south-flowing current along the Labrador
and Xewfoundland continental edges, as suggested by the Marion
?xpedition observations, of 1'2 to 1-1 miles per day be multiplied by
the number of days of the normal iceberg season around the Grand

180 MAEIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

Bank (120). we arrive at an estimate of 1,200 to 1.500 miles as the
length of the iceberg train on March 15 (an average date for the
arrival of the van on the northern edge of the Grand Bank). On
this date according to the assumption the rear icebergs would be
about off Cape Dier, Baffin Land. It is not likely that any bergs that
are still farther north at that date w^ill drift past Xewfoundland dur-
ing the following summer because the coast line and adjacent shelf
waters begin to be bared from south to north, as the spring advances,
Avith the bergs tending to set on-short after June and so to become
trapped. If pack ice were to blockade the Lal)rador and Xewfound-
land coasts the year round as it actually does from January to April,
icebergs would drift into the North Atlantic throughout the year.

Pack ice may also tend to keep the icebergs moving faster in the
currents than would otherv/ise be the case by holding them just
outside the edge of the continent where the drift is most rapid.
This banding of the current is well shown in the dynamic topo-
graphical map of the Marion expedition for the coasL" of Labrador.
(Fig. 95.'^) If, on the other hand, there is less pack ice than usual,
the shelf waters are open to receive the bergs, under which condi-
tions few of the latter ever return to the main current path. It is
apparent, therefore, that the distribution of the pack ice exerts a
great influence on the drifv and numbers of icebergs coming out of
the Arctic. An example of the foregoing effect was observed in
the spring of 1924, a year Avhen no pack ice was sighted south of
Newfoundland, and when only 11 icebergs drifted south of that lati-
tude, instead of the normal 380 to 400 bergs. This was not due to
any lack of glacial ice to the northward as the Tampa on her north-
ern cruise that May discovered a large numl)er of icebergs, undoubt-
edly the spring crop headed for the Grand Bank, trapped and stranded
along the coast from Cape St. Francis to the Strait of Belle Isle.

ANNUAL VARIATIONS IN THE NUMBER OF ICEBERGS PAST
NEWFOUNDLAND

Great variations have been observed in the number of icebergs
drifting out of Davis Strait into the North Atlantic — in 1929 there
were over 1,300 to only 11 in 1924. As scientific observer, attached
to the ice patrol, I have been concerned with the possibility of de-
veloping from these known factors, some method by which a prac-
tical forecast of the number of bergs which would drift past New-
foundland during the spring might be arrived at. The first part of
this investigation centered on a thorough study of similar investiga-
tions in the past and a decision of what methods were the most
promising.

Schott (1904), long ago drew attention the the great number of
icebergs that came south of Newfoundland during 1903 and dis-
cussed the resulting effects. Campbell-Hepworiih (1914), investi-
gating the annual variations in the Labrador current compiled a
table of the annual amount of icebergs for a 10-year period.

Mecking (1907, p. 3), with the records of the Deutsche Seewarte,
the United States Signal Service, and the United States Hydro-
graphic Office, as previously discussed, compiled a record of the

" Hclland-IIansen and KoefoKl (1909, p. 269) stato that th." sfjiliiis vessels aloiis rlie
east coast of Greenland, by forcing themselves into the border of the pack, inside the
continental edge, escape the brnnt of the southward current, which i)assed in plain view
farther out.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

181

11 limber of icebergs sighted eacli year in the western North Athmtic,
1S80-1897. AVhen the yearly number of icebei'gs in the various tab-
ulations were compared with mete()rok)gical conditions, it proved
that (hiring the years of record, a summer cliaracterized by a greater
than normal auKnint of offshore winds over the ice fjords, had been
succeeded the following s})ring by more icebergs than usual off New-
foundland. The atmospheric pressure distribution suggested there-
by as favorable for a great crop of icebergs is any one or two or more
of the following conditions: A strong Baffin Bay low: a somewhat
strengthened east Greenland high: a suppression of the Icelandic
low; the west Iceland low, only an appendage of the Baffin Bay low;
the east Iceland low is replaced by a high.

Mecking concludes that while tlie control of the ocean currents
is fundamental for the berg drift out of the Arctic, the strength and
intensity of the winds from year to year is the chief agency that
causes the variation in the number of icebergs drifting into the
western North Atlantic. He divides the important Avinds into two
classes (a) the summer winds over the glacier fronts; and (h)
the winter winds over Davis Strait. Mecking places most emphasis
on the direction and force of the summer winds over the ice fjords
of west Greenland between Jacobshavn and Upernivik. A summer
characterized by an abnormal amount of east winds, according to his
opinion, will blow more than an ordinary number of bergs out into
Davis Strait, and this event is of proportions sufficient to cause a
heavy iceberg crop off Newfoundland the following spring. With so
few data from this little-known region for the period investigated
Mecking's conclusions can only be regarded as tentative.

I have therefore continued with the iceberg figures where Mecking
left off. bringing the records up to 19H0. a total series of 50 years.
(For iceberg anomaly talde see Smith. 1927. p. 76.)

Numbc?- of iceberc/s south of Neirfoundland (fortji-cighfh iKiralUJ ) in tvestern

North At] antic

Year

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dee.

Annual

1900..

10
1
3
0
0
3

14
0
1
0
0
0

1

2
1

14
0
0
0
3
6

17
0
0
3
0
0
4
0
0

14

0
0
0
2
0
2

11
1
0

55
0
8
0
4

41

72
0
0
0
4

43
5
3
3
0
3
3

10

0

0

116

0

0

1

400

12

168

77

11

7

147

0

41

34

37

32

67

0

13

12

5

20

43

35

28

6

5

15

26

14

45

87

5

4

1

166

63

373

49

162

39

134

34

112

395

109

27

96

0

3

23

25

5

210

71

65

2

8

58

93

156

332

89

32

13

13

151

82

109

133

248

82

321

10

72

34'5

292

419

97

25

3

26

75

211

198

245

83

0

58

168

153

190

460

101

33

29
5

52

89
100

87
138

51
181

_3

159
71
71
71
29
9
37
56
86

175
83
42
0
22
85
95
87

376
62

6
22
16
23
14
50
18
64

2
121

3
21
63
14
22
28

0
10
27
26
18
53
21
10

0
13

4

5
55
107

3

1
6
1

3

9

16

11

2

45

0

40

19

4

46

17

0

0

34

36

5

24

11

3

0

0

6

3

5

1

1

1
5
0
0
2
8
0
0
20
19
0
3
0
7
52
5
0
0
22
69
18
4
6
2
0
0
2
0
0
0
1

1
1
1
0
0
8
0
0
15
1
0
0
0
0
13
0
0
0
1
2
19
10
27
0
0
0
3
0
4
0
1

0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
8
3
6
1
1
0
0
14
12
10
1
21
0
0
0

1

0
4
18
0

0
5
0
1
0

15
0
3
0
0
0

14
0
4
6
0
0
0
3
4
4
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

12
0

89

1901

88

1902

41

1903

802

1904

265

1905

845

1906.. '

405

1907

1908

1909 .

638

222

1,024

1910

50

1911

396

1912

1,019

1913

550

1914-.

731

1915

468

1916 .

54

1917...

38

1918-

199

1919

317

1920.- .. .-

445

1921

746

1922

523

1923-

236

1924

11

1925

109

1926..

345

1927

389

1928

515

1929

1, 351

1930

475

182 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

The correlations publishetl as a result of these investigations at
the British Meteorological Office in 1925 (Smith, 1927, pp. 45^8),
lacked an actual count of the icebergs from 1900 to 1906, but in its
place the value of the atmospheric pressure gradient Ivigtut to
Belle Isle was substituted. As soon as access was had to the files of
the United States Hydrographic Office a new table of iceberg values
was constructed for this gap of seven years, and correlations were
recalculated. The results of this work changed slightly the values
of the correlations based upon the original variates.

The next task of the investigation centered upon a correct arrange-
ment of the iceberg data, the period 1880-1926 being divided by years
into six groups depending upon the relative number of icebergs
])resent in the western North Atlantic south of Xewfoimdland. For
example, the lightest iceberg vears were found to be 1881, 1889, 1893,
1900, 1902. 1917. and 1924, and the heaviest iceberg years, 1903, 1909,
1912, 1914, and 1915.'^ The six groups were next arranged in ac-
cordance with a scale 0 to 10, but it was found by plotting a dis-
persion diagram that the iceberg values failed to follow the require-
ments of a variable ; that is, the greatest number of deviations did not
fall proportionately near the mean average. The fact that a value
either too great or too small had been assigned to the iceberg years
showed that too great weight had been given the extremes. In order
to correct this error, it was necessary to arrange the years in con-
formity witli the shape of a probability curve, and then from a trans-
formation curve to obtain fresh relative values of the icebergs. The
following table gives the values weighted according to scale 0 to 10 :

Year

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1880

4.7
8.6
3 0

2.4
3.1
3.0
4.6
6.8

6.1
4.0
2.5
8.6
5.9

4.7
4.4
7.3
5.7
4.1

6.4
6.1
4.1
6.8
2.0

7.4
3.0
7.4
5.4
3.3

4.0
3.8
4.6
2.8
4.3

5.0
6.1
6.4
2.5
4.8

4.3
5.1
3.8
3.7
5.6

3.5

1890

5 4

1900

8.6
4.2

1910

2.8
5.1

1920 -

9 0

The meteorological material was next arranged in a form con-
venient for correlation with the iceberg values, which was made
possible by the material and the assistance furnished by the British
Meteorological Office. The best comparison between a series of
years or months is afforded, not by pressure values direct but by the
departures from normal. Station normals were obtained by arrang-
ing a long series of observations, and with the aid of these data
isanomaly maps were constructed for the months October to March,
for the years 1880-1926, inclusive. A classification Avas then at-
tempted based upon a grouping of the monthly anomaly maps,
October to March, for the northwestern North Atlantic region, from
which it was apparent that two types of pressure distribution stood
out clearly, one showing an excess of pressure centered in the region
of Iceland and more or less dominating the ocean ; the other, show-
ing a dominance by the reverse condition. The first or "plus"
type is subject to further classificaticm into gi-oups 1 and 2, depend-
ing upon a i-elative intensity of the excess mass of air. Combination

'"The year 1!»2'.), with over l,;iOO bergs south of Newfoundland, exceeds anything on
record.

SCIEXTIFIC RESULTS

Less icebergs Than Normal

I'KJIRK 113. — An ritiiiospheric pressure iu;ii> ((Mistructed In" averaging the pressure
anomilies f(.r the period Deceniljer to March in the years IS.sl. 1891, 1895, 1900. 190-,i,
.•iiul 1917. These years are noted for the less than normal number of icebergs that
drifted southward out of Davis Strait into the North Atlantic Ocean.

MORE Icebergs Than Normal

imKE lit). — An atmospheric pressuri^ map constructed by averaging the pressure anom-
alies for the period December to March in the years 1885, 1890, 1903, 1912, and 1921.
These years are noted for the greater than normal number of icebergs that drifted
southward out of Davis Strait into the North Atlantic Ocean.

120860—31-

-13

184

MAEIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

of these weather-majD values with the values of icebergs, shows that
an excess of air over the northern Xorth Atlantic has been reflected
either in a very light, or at least a moderately light, iceberg season
off Xewfoundland during the following spring. The opposite type
of pressure distribution is unmistakeable in showing a greater num-
ber of bergs than normal, but it does not permit of subgrouping.
The plus type of pressure map. in other words, exhibits a higher
correlation Avith poor iceberg years than does the minus type with
correspondingly rich years. This indicates that there are other in-
fluences at work, such as variations in the air temperatures and in the
water temperatures in the far north ; variations in the precipitation,
or perhaps sporadic phenomenon, such as an ice jam in the Arctic
Archipelago.

It Avas found that pressure differences between various points
furnished the most useful values for purposes of correlation, because
in this method there is no room for the per.sonal bias which may
enter when charts are classified according to the types. "We corre-
lated first the annual variations of icebergs past Newfoundland with
the pressure gradient for the previous summer over the ice fjords
of west Greenland, the actual values employed being the pressure
differences, Jacobshavn minus Upernivik. as obtained from the
previouslv constructed isobaric maps of the Davis Strait region,
1880-1920.

Lag, in years

Correlation
coefficient
between ice-
bergs and
summer
winds

1
2
3
4

-0.10
+.05
-.15
-.26

The months were then examined separately as follow:

Lag, in

Correlation coefficient between bergs and winds

years

June

July

August

September

1
2

-0.11
+.02

-0.02
0

-0.11
-.33

-0. 16
+.06

Tlie negative value of the correlation is in the right direction,
namely, that with ]H'essure lower at Jacob.shavn than I']iernivik. the
winds are directed offshore, and therefore tend to drive an abnormal
number of icebergs into the current that eventually bear them past
Newfoundland. The magnitude of the correlations are. however,
insignificant and therefore we must conclude contrary to .Mccking
(1J)0()). that ahliougli the offshore summer gradient is real, it is
uevei'tlieless of little ini])ortance, so far as effecting the dispeisal of
bergs south of Ncwfouiidland.

I

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 185

In view of the fore^roinii-. it was considered desirable to investigate
(juantitatively the effects of the foUowino- variates. beginning with
those which appeared to bear the closest relationshij) to the nnmber
cf icebergs so far as available data might allow:

(a) Represents the number of iceberg's south of Newfoundland
( tlie forty-eighth parallel of latitude).

We also have :

(/>) Amount of pack ice off' Xewfoundland. February to ^lay.

{€■) Atmospheric pressure differences (mb) Ivigtut minus Belle
Isle in November to April, preceding the iceberg season off' Xew-
foundland.

(d) Atmospheric pressure diff'erence (mb) Stykkisholm minus
Bergen. August to Janiuirv. preceding the iceberg season off Xew-
foundland.

(e) Cross gradient pressure Ivigtut uiinus Belle Isle, December
to March.

(/) The jii'essure anomaly at Stykkisholm. December to March.

((/) The monthly ])recipitation at Uperuivik. Greenland.

(A) The temperature during June. July, and August at Uperuivik.

The correlation coefficient between (a) and (h) was found to be
very high, +0.86, proving the correctness of the theory that pack ice
is a vital factor in the dispersal of icebergs to the North Atlantic.*"

If the assumptions previously set forth, viz, that an abnormal
amount of northwesterly Avinds during the Avinter on the American
coast south of Baffin Land results in a heavy iceberg season past
Newfoundland, then we should expect to find good correlation co-
efficients between (o) and ic): actually they are as follows:
Between (a) and (e) —

Nov. Dec. Jail. Feb. Mar. Apr.

—0.12 —0.45 —0.26 —0.22 —0.31 —0.09

Several other natural factors were tested in the hopes that coeffi-
cients found in the case (a) and (c) might be further raised, with the
result that a correlation of —0.49 existed between (a) and (/'). In
order to test this effect when divorced from the Ivigtut-Belle Isle
influence, partial correlations were calculated as follows:

rac.f= —0.30 and raf.c= —0.11
and the regression equation for bergs on a scale 0-10 :
(^0 = 0-33 (V) - 0.05 (/)+ 4.8

The foregoing equation indicates that the Ivigtut-Belle Isle gra-
dient has al)Out six times as strong an influence upon the southward
distriVmtion of icebergs as have atmospheric pressure conditions at
Stykkisholm. Both factors, however, are real and were employed
in the following ^proportions :

6(e) + (/)

un

"A correlation between numbers of iceberg.s and sun spots gave negligible results.

186 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

The iiiontlily values for {c') were then (orrelated Avith (a) giving
the following coefficients :
Between («) and (<?') —

Nov.

Dpc.

Jan.

Fell.

Mar.

Apr.

-o.os

— 0.4S

—OA'A

— 0.2G

—0.34

-0.1.

It is ai^parent from this that the November and Ai)ril gradients
have little effect on the iceberg dispersal. i)robably because in Novem-
ber the berg train is just putting in its appearance while in April
the character of the drift is well established. The values of 0.48 and
0.43 in Decend)er and January respectively indicate, furthermore,
that those two months exert twice as strong an influence on the ice
as do any of the other months of the year. When the value of (c')
was expressed in monthly units and combined with the following
weights :

2 X Dec. + 2 X Jan. + 1 X Feb. + 1 X Mar.

tlie 4-monthlv group values of {(■') correlated with (a) vielded
the high coefficient of -0.5S for the i)eriod 18S0-192G.

The Stykkisholm-Bergen pressure gradient gave the following
coefficients which sliow that its iceberg effect does not connueuce until
October and is mostly ended })y February.

Between (tr) and (<■/) —

Aug. Sept. Ocr. Nov. Dee. Jan. Feb.

-0.07 -0.09 -0.26 -0.22 -0.53 -0.28 -0.10

The months were accordingly arranged in the following manner:

1 X Oct. + 1 X Nov. + 2 X Dec. + 1 X Jan.

Emi)loving seasonal values combined as above, we obtained a coeffi-
cient of -0.62 for the series 1880-1926.

A study was also nuide of the degree to which the angle that the
isobars make with the Labrador coast (see (e)) affects the number of
icebergs passing Newfoundland. It had been assumed that the pres-
sure gradient between Ivigtut and lielle Isle was nearly at right
angles to tlie most effective direction of the wind; an angle of about
38° Avith the Labrador coast. Correlation values indicate that 30' off
the general coastal trend is the most effective direction, and since
the run of the wind in high-pressure centers is about 30° across
the isobars, the most effective wind diiei-tiou is. therefore, approxi-
mately 60°.

'J'he remaining vai'iates tested in the investigation were (</) and
(//). with a lag of one yeai". which gave the following coefficient-!:

Between (r/) and (r/) —

Jan. Feb. Mar. .\pr. May June

-0.14 -0.29 -0.27 +0.19 -0.33 -0.22

July .\UB. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

-f0.19 -0.17 -0.15 -0.23 -0.07 -0.03

i

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

187

The coefficients of -0.20. -O.'iT, and - 0.;3;3 in February. :March,
and May appear quite hijjfh, but the precipitation at Upernivik in-
volves other factors such as the distribution of the pressure, and of
course, attendino; winds. The hist variate considered was the tem-
perature durino- tlie sunnner months at Upernivik, (h) gixiuir, the
following correhition coefficients:

Between (a) and (//), hiji; one year-

Juue
-0.11

July

-o.o;

Aug. f-'ept.

-0.11 0.16

Between {a) and (//). hi <:: two years

June
+ 0.02

July Aug. Sept.

0.0 -0.33 +0.06

These vahies are so small tluit we may discard any effect of summer
temperatures alon<i: the ice-fjord coast of west (Treenland. so far as
an}' effect of the iceberg distriljution is concerned.

10

9-

8 -

7 -

<» -
5

4 -

3 -

Z -

xl*

i« i«-ib^

^9h

.Qft

Ojf

.««

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n 11 1 1 M I M 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I

-2o S-lo 5 O 5+IO S 2o 5 50

ICEBERGS AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURES

Figure 117. — Thi^ graph clearly shows a definite relation between the annual num-
ber of icebergs south of Niwfuundland ( tlie ordinate scale 0-10), and the depar-
tures from the normal atmospheric iiressure conditions over the northwestern North
Atlantic. The abscissa values were obtained by substitution of the pressure data
in the regression ciiuation on p. 188. The numbers on the graph indicate the par-
ticular year investigated.

The correlation coefficients determined by the foregoing methods
indicate that of all the variates considered, the atmospheric pressure
difference between Ivigtut, Greenland, and Belle Isle, Newfound-

188 MAEIOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STEAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

land, is the most important in causing yearly variation in the number
of icebergs. The agency of next importance, about one-third of the
Greenland-Newfoundland factor, is the pressure difference. Stykkis-
liolm-Bergen. The other yariates exert so little effect that they
warrant no further attention.

Both factors (<?') and (c/) were found to l)e real as shown by the
following partial correlations:

= -0.32 r„A.. = -0.39

acf.d

This leads to the development of a regression equation for fore-
casting purposes, on the basis :

(«) = -0.08 (c')-0.12 (^/)+4.8

When the calculated value of (-7) was plotted for the -t" years.
18S0-1026, against the actual value of recorded bergs it was found
that only in 8 instances did the calculated value differ by more than
±2. on a scale 0—10. The years exhibiting the greatest departures
were 188.5, 1901, 1905, 1908, "1909, 1912, 1911, and 1924. Such occa-

[

ni

1 , i\

-^ IC

^^^^ ^t 1\ tx

^^^"C it "T

ir^t ,^II I3vv JK t\

IZt^^'X 'II IGV

2^'^^ J^tXtXtX t^^ ^£^ ■ ^ I

^7^' 3Z^^LJ' ■ t\

t 5 t^ %'A4 % ^" ^ '^ -A

Xt ±^3^ ^7-->^

<- 3„^r -^L ^^11' \±-

1r ^

^ - -<^ \~^--

1

|/^^•»56789§/^J4i67898/^J•<5«7895/2^<'567a9^/^JI^J6789'n

Icebergs South of Newfoundland 1880 1930

FiGUKE 118. — The full line reijreseut.s the iiuiiilier uf icebergs smith of NewfouiulUinJ
each year on a scale of 0-10, mean value 4.8. The dashed line is the forecasted
number of berg.s obtained by substitution of the necessary meteorological data in
the regression equation (p. 188).

sional abnormalities may be due to any one or all of several causes,
for instance, ice jams in the Arctic Archipelago; variations in pre-
cipitation; winter storms: sunimer calms; the breaking away of the
fast ice of ^Melville Bay and. })ossibly, of that fronting the great
Humboldt Glacier.

The foregoing correlations, and the regression equation con-
structed therefrom, have been employed by the international ice
patrol to forecast the number of icebergs that may be expected to
(h-ift into the North Atlantic during the spring. The recent estab-
lishment of meteorological stations in (ireenland and northern Can-
ada, and the prompt receipt of their reports by radio permits the
nse of monthly mean values and the immediate construction of iso-
baric maps. In using snch in the ecpiation (r?) = — 0.08(r') — 0.12
(«:/)+4.8, Tsafjord (Iceland) has been substitnted for Stykkishohn,
and Julianaluiab ((ireenland) for Ivigtut ; c', therefore represents:

^, ^ 6[(2XDec.J-'"-t-Dec.i)-|-(2XJan.J-B'-t-Jan.')-KFeb.J-Bi+Feb.')+(Mar.J-»'+M:>r. ' ) )

5

^ (Oct.'-B+Nov.'-B-|-2XDec.i-B+2XJan.i-B)

Where'=Isan<)nrily prBsstire value for Julianahaab; BIsIsanomaly pres.sure value for Belle Isle;
I = Isanoinaly pressure value for Isafjord; and B = Isaru)inaly pressure value for Hergeii.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

189

A service of ieebero- forecastiii<>% covering the spring season for
the Avestern Xorth Atlantic based upon the above correlations, was
instituted in 1I>20 and has been continued through 1929. Forecasts
compared with actual records have been as follows:

ACTX'AL

Berss

345
390
515

,1926, below normal 150

1927, normal 386

1928, above normal 500

1929, below normal 350

1930, iibove normal 520

T.t2G. below normal

i;»27. normal

1928. above normal

1929 (estimate(P^), far above

normal 1, 300

1'.>M0. above normal 475

A comparison of the actual number of icebergs with those fore-
liisted a month prior to the inauguration of the berg season, shows
four successes out of five predictions. We are able, apparently, to
predict quite accurately the smaller deviations from normal from
year to year, but the occasional great iceberg seasons such as 1909,
1912. and 1929 come without meteorological warning. As our knowl-
(■(Ige of ice, meteorology, and oceanography of polar conditions
increases we have good cause to expect improvements in iceberg
forecasting.

ANNUAL AMOUNTS OF GLACIAL ICE AND SEA ICE

Considerable (juantitative data have been compiled by comparing
(lie relatives volumes of glacial ice and of sea ice discharged into the
northwestern North Atlantic annually. The material discharged
from the iceberg fjords, set forth in the foregoing discussion (p. 95),
at J:.6 cubic (nautical) miles (29^ kilometers), more or less is estimated
to amount to 70 per cent of the annual outj^ut. The total wastage for
the entire coast of west Greenland is something like 7 to 10 cubic
miles (42" to G^"* kilometers). The American shores are believed to
contribute al)out 0.3 cubic mile (1.9- kilometers).

The total area of sea ice which is fed into the northwestern Xorth
-Vtlantic during any one season, and which melts annually, may be
calculated quite closely from a map of these regions (see fig. 121, p.
200). upon which is plotted the ice and water temperature records of
the northwestern North Atlantic. The shelf area included between the
coast line on one side and the 200-fathom depth contour on the other
ajjproximates the bounds of melting sea ice. The area in which we
j'.re particularly interested is equal to 467,300 square miles, and on
Figure 121 it is the shaded portion })ounded by the full black line.
Occupying the same general inclosure but spread out somewhat
farther on its outer side, to and including the dotted line, lies the
Hieltincr area. The fact that sea ice remains on the whole wnthin the

^1 The single failure occurred in the year 1020. The critical months for Davis Strait—
I>i'<ember to March — showed December pressure normal, but .Tanuar.v was made notable
by one of the greatest excesses of atmospheric pressure over Iceland ever recorded.
Kurope. in consequence, suffered a severel.v cold winter and Davis Strait one of the
w.umest Decembers on record. This s.vstem of winds distinctly forbade the southward
transportation of ice. February witnessed a "high" over the Canadian Maritime Prov-
imes and a "low" southeast of Cape Farewell, thus initiating a northwesterly air stream
w liich proved as favorable for the invasion of ice as conditions the previous month were
1' I] favorable. The fact, however, that December is given twice the weight of .Tanu-
aiy in the equation employed makes the former much outweigh the latter in the forecast.
March was only moderately favorable to ice importation and therefore it failed materially
tn effect the final prediction of a berg year below normal. The presence of over 1,300
ii I bergs south of Newfoundland in 1929 can not, therefore, be explained by meteorological
factors, but must have resulted from some other cause, perhaps one of those listed on
;.. 188.

190 :\rAr.iox expeditiox to davis sti;ait axd baffix bay

limits of the shelf waters is tlie reason for the areas of accumulation
and dissipation bein^- practically one and tlie same. The meltini:- area, »
it will be seen, includes not only the waters inshore of the continental
edjre, but a marginal mixing; zone. This strip naturally varies in
width depending to a great extent on the particular contour of the
slope, the direction of the current, and like factors at any given
locality. For example, off the Tail of the Grand Bank the belt of
mixed waters spreads out sometimes 60 to 100 miles or more in
width; a zone much broader than is found farther north in Lal)rador.
A conservative estimate of the average width of the mixed water
zone along the North American shelf is 30 miles. The greater
size of the melting area over that of the ice area is balanced,
however, by an area along the east coast of Baffin Land which
extends from Barrow Strait to Cumberland Gulf. Pack ice is
never absent from this region except for a week or two the first
})art of September, and tlien seldom more often than once in fom-
or five years. It is safe to designate this region as one in which no
melting prevails. The fact that it is in size just about equal to that
of the mixing zone causes ice area and melting area to be approxi-
luately equal, viz, 467.300 s(|uare miles.

The estimate of 467.300 square miles of pack ice as the annual crop
is believed to be somewhat high, but it adds conservatism to our 1
figures on the magnitude of the ice-chilling effect to be introduced I
later. It should be also remarked that the pack ice area does not *"
jiresent a solid, unbroken surface, since leads and polynyas prevail
in the ])ack just the same, or to a greater degree, as they do in the
])olar ocean. The figure of 10 per cent of open water for the polar
cap ice is believed to be also fairly representative for the pack ice
of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay. The 10 per cent value of open
water in the pack does not, however, materially effect, for |)urposes
of comparison, the roughly equivalent size of melting area and ice
area.

In order to compare the annual amount of sea ice and glacial ice
in this interesting arm of the northwestern North Atlantic we have
assumed the average thickness of the pack ice to be 6 feet. Naturally
the floes and fields are thicker at the northern extremity of liaffin
Bay than they are much farther south near the melting end off
Newfoundland. Also Avhere rafting and hummocking has occurred f
the pack will be thicker than where young ice lies. But an average
of 6 feet is believed to be a fairly close approximation. The total
volume of sea ice melted annually is therefore 467 cubic miles.
Since over a long period of years there has been no tendency toward a
persistent increase or decrease in the geograjihical i)ositi()n of the ice
boundaries, it follows that during the course of a normal yeai- 467
cubic miles of water are frozen into ice and a like amount of ice is
melting into water.**- Compare this figure of 467 cubic miles of sea
ice Avith that of 7 to 10 cubic miles as the annual output of glacial
ice for Davis Strait and r)affin Bay. Though our figures nuiy only
be approximate, they unmistakably reveal, nevertiieless, that sea ice
aiiimalhj (/rcath/ e.cceedx (jlacidl ice in vohitne, the latter cqadliiig
only O.fll') to 0.02() of the foi i)>ei'. In fact evaporation of the inching

*•- Specrsfhneidei- (1026, p 74) estimatfs an annual discharge fnniT the polar sea ofv«-i
2fi,0(i(».(Kio.(HMi fuhic yards. This is far tno small siiu-e. if n ft-et thick, it wctild :im(niiit
to an area iMiveiiiij; only 1° of longitudi' ami .■'.° of latiliidc off iioiilirasl < Irrcnlaiul.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

191

area also exceeds in effect tliat of the <rlacial ice crop and the annual
volume of snowfall even, that falls on tlie waters in question, if
expressed as ice. closely apjH'oaches the annual ^hu-ial discharge
of west Greenland.

In the case cited for couii)arison we selected one of the most prolific
glacial dischai-ging regions in the north. If the annual ])roduction
of all sea ice from all sections in the north had been com})ared with
the total glacial discharge from all Arctic lands, the relative insig-
nificance of the latter's mass would become still more emphasized.

The anmial iceberg discharge appears much greater in volume than
it relatively is. for one reason, on account of the conventional method
of recording the positions of icebergs on a map as small circles or
triangles. These symbols necessarily can not be drawn to scale: if
so, they would be invisible, so actually they appear on the chart
greatly exaggerated. If all the glacial discharge from west (xreen-
land for one year could be amassed in a single berg and then drawn
to the scale of Figure 121, page 200, it would be represented by the
minute black rectangle off Cape Farewell, Greenland, marked " M."'
If the arnnnd amount of glacial ice be spread out to a thickness of 6
feet (the same dimension as that assumed for the sea ice), and then
drawn to scale on Figure 121 it will equal the area of the shaded
rectangle south of Greenland marked " N.'" ""'^

We have estimated that about one-twentieth of the sizable icebergs
calved from west Greenland each year (400) find their way south of
Xewfoundland. If it were possible for the annual production of
sea ice to form itself into se])arate sizable bergs, and the same rela-
tive distribution prevailed, the North Atlantic would be invaded
every spring by approximately 230.000 icebergs.

EFFECT OF NORTHERN ICE ON TEMPERATURE AND CIRCULATION
OF THE WATERS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC

Among the most im])ortant, far-reaching events in northern seas,
according to many oceanogra])hers and meteorologists, are the ther-
mal effects which accompany ice formation and its dissipation. That
energy necessary to lower by 1° F. the temi)erature of a surrounding
volume of water about eighty times the size of the ice is a common-
place.®* The relatively great number of units of heat energy needed
for the foregoing process represents the energy required to overcome
the cohesion of the solid ice molecules as the com})act crystals are
changed into liquid form.'''' ]More than 1.000 cubic miles of ice. it is

*" Ricketts (lOoO. p. lO'.M has similarly emiiliasizert the exaggerated notion regarding
icebergs by stating that if the whole season's l)crgs south of Newfoundland for the year
1929 (1350) lie spread out over the Newfoundland shelf region they would make a uni-
form layer of ice only about one-eighth inch thick. If glacial ice did not take form as
massive iceberg bodies, such ice would be a rarity south of Labrador.

*•* Heat of fusion in case of sea-water ice is approximately 67 calories.

^ The heat of fusion is defined as the energy consumed or liberated upon transition of
matter from a solid to a liquid state, or vice versa, at a constant temperature The com-
position of sea ice, it will be recalled, is a conglomeration (not unifornr) of pure ice crys-
tals, salt crystals and brine, and theoretically, theri'forc under natural conditions, sea ice
never can exhibit a definitely fixed melting or freezing point. The heat of fusion of sea
ice in its commonly accepted solid state is found to vary inversely as the salinity. Pet-
^ersson (1883, p. 268) gives the following data:

Salinity, 0/00 __ __ .

0

10

20

30

35

40

77

67.5

60.5

54.5

52

49.5

192 MAEIO^^ EXPEDITIOlSr TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

estimated, are annually transformed from solid to liquid and then
back to solid again in the northern Xorth Atlantic along a front
from Spitsbergen to Labrador, and a phenomenon of such mag-
nitude must bring into play a seesaw of enormous quantities of heat
energy.

Several theories have been advanced, based on this effect of the
latent heat. Pettersson (1904), and (1927), as a result of laboratory
experiments with ice melting in a tank of salt water see fig. 84, p. 126),
having reference to the distribution of temperature and salinity in
the world's oceans, has presented a very fascinating theory explain-
ing (a) the major oceanic system of circulation, and (h) the source
of the great reservoir of cold bottom Avater. In order to test the
extent of the latent heat effect he placed a block of ice in a tank of
salt water and colored the water in such a manner that it would
clearly show any signs of circulation. Soon after the ice began to
melt three distinct movements were perceived, viz. an indraft of
relatively warm water in the mid-depth of the tank and two cold
outflows from the ice, one on the surface of the water and tlie other
toward the bottom. Applying this to the general circulation of
the North Atlantic (the tank representing the Atlantic Basin, its
contents the ocean, and the block of ice the real front of the melt-
ing ice stretching from Spitsbergen to Xewfoundland), he concludes
that the current toward the ice, at mid-depths, corresponds to the
warm layer which, depending on the total depth, is actually found
in most northern seas. The outward expansions of melting ice, sur-
face and bottom, correspond, respectively, to the cold icy surface
currents. Labrador and east Greenland, that flow into the Atlantic
and to the great reservoir of cold bottom water that fills most
of the North Atlantic. The fact that the circulation established in
the laboratory has so striking a counterpart in the longitudinal
distribution of warm and cold water in the Atlantic is ]iroof for
Pettersson that the latent heat of melting ice is, (a) the main ener-
gizing agent responsii)le for Xorth Atlantic circulation, and (h) the
chilling effect which initiates great downpourings of cold bottom
water.

Nansen (1909) (1912), on the contrary, is of the opinion, after
many years of careful observation at sea and in the polar regions,
that ice melting does not greatly affect the major processes of circu-
lation nor cliill the supply to the great bottom masses of the ocean.
He believes :

(a) The phenomena should be considered as action and reaction.

(h) The i^rocesses are distinctly superficial when one considers
the relatively great average de]ith of tlie ocean.

(c)The stratified condition charac^teristic of the ocean prevents
the influence of melting ice from extending any significant field of
forces downward into the deeper strata.

(d) The fact that ice in northern seas is usually separated from
the cold bottom water by a warm insulating layer precludes the
possibility of any relationship between the ice and the bottom water.

(e) The winter freezing is from top, downward: the summer
melting is in similai- order.

Finally Nansen (1909, ]). 321) claims to have discovered the source
of the great bottom water, not in the cooling effect of melting ice but

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 193

in the winter chillino; of the surface hiyers in certain oceanic locali-
ties, notably from northeast of Jan Mayen to east of Cape Farewell
as shown by Wiist (1928, Tafel 35). /

The heat of fusion exhibits itself in two forms, (a) when ice is
melted into water, as previously described, heat energy is consumed,
and (b) when water is frozen into ice heat energy is liberated. The
ice molecules represent a phase of less energy than the water mole-
cules, the difference l)etween the two phases being measured as heat
energy in terms of heat of fusion. If a gas be transformed to a
liquid or a liquid to a solid, heat energy is released and such heat
exchanges, for example, have been known to constitute one of the
main energizing components of cyclones. A rise in temperature
has also actually been observed at cloud altitudes when water vapor
has been rapidly precipitated into the rain of thunderstorms. In
the case of freezing, Avhen a quantity of homogeneous water mole-
cules are aligned into the compact uniform arrangement of ice crys-
tals, the heat energy released produces a material retardation in the
freezing processes -" and this phenomenon, moreover, is of such mag-
nitude in the polar regions that it tends to stabilize the seasonal
fluctuations. In other words, without the heat of fusion acting and
reacting, more ice would be formed in the colder months of the year,
and more and greater areas of open water would be found in summer
than is actually the case.

Pettersson, in his laboratory experiment, has purposely stressed
the importance of the effect of ice melting rather than that of water
freezing, because in the first case the currents set up by the relatively
great immersion of the ice itself causes the cooling effect to spread
more comj^letely into the water itself than into the air. On the
other hand, when water in the sea is frozen as Pettersson points out,
the release of heat energy is not absorbed by the water but by the
atmosphere. It would be interesting to determine by tank experi-
ment what currents are really established in the water mass as a
result of freezing of the surface layers of salt water. It is difficult
to see why there should be any material difference over an extended
period in the disposition of heat in the case of these two ])rocesses —
radiation and absorption — regardless of the high specific heat of the
water, provided that the freezing and melting takes place in the
same general region. The recipients or contributors of the energy
are the surrounding media, i. e.. the atmosphere above and the sea on
all other sides.

In order to obtain a clear insight into the extent to which the heat
of fusion may spread, it is necessary to take into consideration the
position and size of the areas of ice production and ice dissipation in
the North Atlantic and the physical state of the water which fills
the northern basins. The principal regions of ice formation and
dissipation agree well with the distribution of cold water. The ice
nucleus is centered in the heavy polar cap extending from which are
two arms one along the east coast of Greenland, the other along the
east coast of Arctic North America. This ice covers about one-

■'■'' Barnes (1928. p. 2) describes the process of fusion as molecules of wattr are passing
from the liquid to molecules of ice in the solid state, each ice crystal Ijeing covered by a
heat mantle.

194 MAltlOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIX BAT

fourtli of the total surface of tiie Xoitli Atlantic. Arctic Ocean in-
cluded, of which ab!)ut one-sixth is nonnally frozen and melted each
year, so tliat one-thirtieth of the entii'e surface of the Atlantic is
annually exposed to the latent heat ])lienoniena. A comparison of
vertical dimensions shows that only about 0.001 of the mean depth
of the Atlantic is ice filled and if volinnes are matched, only 0.0005
of the entire ocean is <j:iven over to ice. It is obvious from this tiiat
the proportions, horizontal to veitical. definitely prove the ice proc-
esses as wholly superficial.

The principal reofions of ice i)roduction are the coastal seas of
Pvurasia and the oflin<r of the latter, of east Greenland, and of
Arctic Xorth America. The ])rincipal rejjfions of ice ])ro(hiction are
also the oeneral retjfions in which the ice melts in greatest amount
(hii'in<i: summer. It follows that the life cycle of nearly all the ice
is s])ent in waters whose outer bounds are the continental edfres, and,
althoufjh a certain quantity of ice is carried out into the deep
ocean basin, this forms only an exceedino'ly small ])roportion of
the wliole.

Tlierefore, the raw materials, so to sj)eak. out of which the irreat
mass of ice is created, and back to which it returns, are the irreat
reservoirs of shallow coastal waters of the north. Durino- the colder
months of the year, dependin<r ui)on the severity of the air tempera-
tures, these become readily chilled (from the top down to dei)ths
of 100 to 200 meters) close to the freezing point and ice forms in
large amounts on the surface. Thus the actual appearance of the
ice marks the release of heat energy, partly to the atmosphere and
partly to the water, but the creation of the surface covering of ice
tends to insulate the dee])er waters and thereby protects them from
further ra])i(l freezing. The low temperature of the atmosj^here,
therefore, i)roduces over shelves and northern seas, at the end of
winter, a relatively deep frigid body of w^ater, in the upper few
feet of which then floats a covering of ice. It is obvious that prac-
tically no melting, hence no withdrawal of heat energy from the
water, can take |)lace even on the underside of the ice, as some have
claimed, while it lies insulated in such boreal surroundings.

Witii the api)roach of summer increased radiation from the more
])er])en(Hcular rays of the sun becomes a])|)lied to (a) the top of
the ice cover, and (h) to the surface water where this is exposed.
The ice and water are thus warmed sinudtaneously, but due to the
far greater capacity of the water to absorb heat and also to spread
the heat rapidly downward to 10 to 25 meters, the ice is soon com-
pletely enveloped, even on its underside, by relatively warm water.
The sun-warmed surface layers, moreover, due to their great specific
heat, are uuich more effective as a melting agency than are the
direct rays of the sun on the ice itself. The latent heat of melting,
it is true, tends to retard the ablation of the ice but continued solar
radiation striking its suid'ace more than counterbalances this. As the
ice melts it loses draft and, floating higher and higher, it becomes
more and more confined to the sliallowest and warmest stratum
which materially accelerates the rate of its dissipation. All this is
made evident l)y the shrinkage of the floes, by the expansion of tlie
areas of oix-n water between the fields, and by the growth of char-

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 195

Mcteiistic leads along tlie shore line with which visitors to the Arctic
J! re familial-. The heat cansing the melting comes from the sun
above and not from warm ocean currents beneath.*'

Observations also show that the upper '20 to 40 meters of the water
column in sub-Arctic seas at the end of summer is relatively warm
and fresh; actually it is heated thaw water. (Helland-Hansen-
Koefoed. 1900. Pl.'LXVI: and Smith lO-JG. [). 3.) This top film
rests on a shar})ly contrasting icy substratum whicli in reality is a
relic of the previous winter's chilling. The l)()un(h»ry suiface
spreads out more or less horizontally at 20 to 40 meters; the German
so-called sprungschicht, or discontinuity layer, represents the limit
to which the summer heat has been directly carried down by mixing
by the waves, etc. Proof that this icy underwater is reminiscent
of winter cooling and is not produced by the ice is shown during
summer by po.-^ition of the upper surface of the cold bottom layers,
it lying below the deepest draft of the ice, while the latter is
actually melting.

Any ocean in vertical cross section i)resents no homogenous basin
content but is composed of a great number of horizontal layers, the
thinne><t and lightest floating on the top and the thickest and
heaviest resting on the bottom.'^* The most ])ronounced stratifica-
tion of the oceans in high latitudes is generally over the slopes of
the basin and near the shore where the density gradient above the
" sprungschicht '' in the upper 100 meters becomes aln'upt in suin-
mer. The stable arrangement of the water particles under such
conditions resist any force that may tend to cause a vertical ex-
change between two different layers, for which reason both the latent
heat of melting and the direct chilling effect of melting ice are pre-
vented from proceeding to any appreciable depth. The thaw water
both of land and of sea ice is mucli lighter than the upper 20 to 25
meters in which the ice floated before it thawed, therefore, the thaw
water remains to mix with surface layers. ^^

As ])roof that the effect of ice melting does not extend to any
appreciable depth in the ocean, the reader is referred to a series of
records of temperature ami .salinity obtained February 28, 1921,
within a few hours of each other at two stations on the Grand Bank,
respectively about 60 and about 120 miles southeast of Cape Race,
Newfoundland. (Smith 1922. p. 64). Conditions at these two sta-
tions normally differ little from each other but on the morning in
question there was open water at station 141 while station 142 lay
just within the edge of an ice field that extended northward as far

*'■ Helland-Hansen-Koefoed (1909. PI. L-VI), by means of deep-sea thermometers seri-
ally spaced at various uoints in the east Greenland current, recorded the temperatures of
the pools of warm surface formed In summer araonsst the ice cakes and also the rate at
which the solar radiation penetrated downward from the surface. Malmjiren (1928,
p. 14). from the Maud, within the Arctic Ocean pack, observed the suni nielring the surface
ice. while on the underside of the cover new ice was making. The thaw water with a high
freezing point, it is claimed, runs down from the top of the ice cover, but freezes upon
encountering the sea water with its normal summer temperature of about —1.6° C In this
manner a considerable part of the top cover of the ice is transported as an increment to the
underside.

^ Defant (1929, p. 13) has emphasized the stability of the layers in the water nrasses of
the oceans.

8»Pettersson (1883. p. 252) was apijarently of the same opinion. He wrote. " that part
of the ice which melts in the Arctic Sea leaves the water in a condition little favorable for
immediate diffusion. The density of the ice water at the melting point being inferior to
that of salt water beneath the ice, the melting process will tend to produce a thin super-
ficial .stratum of fresh water."

196 :\IAEIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

as the eye could reach. The physical state of the water column was
as follows:

Station 141 (open water)

Station 142 (in ice field)

Depth, meters

Temper-
ature

Salinity

Density

Temper-
ature

Salinity , Density

0

-1.1

-.8
-.5
-.8
-.8

32.97
33.04
32.93
32. 96
32.95

26.53
26.65
26.61
26.73
26.80

-0.5
-.5
-.5
-.6
-.6

32. 80 26. 37

15

32. 86 26. 49

30

32. 99 26. 67

45

32. 99 26. 75

60

33. 04 26. 86

While the temperatures, surface to bottom, was practically alike,
the salinity of the upper 15 meters was very much lower in the melt-
ing ice field than it was to the southward, causing the density of the

PACK

2657

t c e

^653

The stability of a Water Mass in the Ice Regions

Figure 119. — The distribution of density which was found on February 28, 1921, near
Cape Race, Ncwt'oundhuid, alons the southern edge of a field of melting pack ice.
The marked stability of the water layers, at the time, precludes any interchange of
light-thaw water from the surface with the heavier water near the "bottom. J

surface layers — a mixture of thaw water Avith sea water — to be
correspondingly lower.-"^^' The fact that these results show no such
distribution of temperature and salinity as would follow from Pet-
tersson's tank experiment is evidence that natural conditions
were not fully simulated in his laboratory experiment. The pro-
portions of thickness of ice to depth of" sea, the distribution of

^"'Ulckotts (19.30, p. 1201. in discussing the conditions around a moltinu' iccVu-rg observed
i.v the ice patrol soutli of Ni'wfoundland, concludes that the prevailing dislnbution of tcui-
o ature and salinity in tlie .sea with depth hydrostaticall v prevents the cstablislinivnt of
a vertical circulation.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 197

temperature and salinity, and the stratified condition of the water
under natural conditions are all difficult to reproduce exactly and
failure to do ,so ma}^ be vital. For instance, Pettersson used a block
of ice in his tank experiment which extended one-third the depth
to the bottom, while under natural conditions the proportions of
mean draft of ice to the average depth in the North Atlantic is 1
to 1,000.

In the formation of land ice the liberation of the latent heat of
freezin<r is due to the atmosphere: wliile the meltino; of land ice (as
icebergs) in the sea, withdraws tlie latent heat energy mostly from
the water. The reaction, therefore, is somewhat ditl'erent from that
in case of sea ice where the processes of latent heat, both freezing and
melting, begin and end in the sea itself. While the mean draft of
icebergs is about sixty times greater than the mean draft of the sea-
ice cover it is only one-fifteenth that of the mean depth of the
Atlantic, consequently the thermal effect of the melting of tli,e
icebergs is similarly confined to the upper stratum.

If the effect of the two phases of latent heat, as we just qualified,
were always exerted within the same general region, heat energy
would be liberated and consumed in the same place. It is because
of the transportation by the w'inds and the ocean currents of (a)
the ice itself, and (h) the surrounding chilled thaw water that
distant temperate climes are actually affected. As preAdously stated,
the pack ice, drifting southward in two prominent streams, the East
Greenland and Labrador, seems to exhibit a marked tendency to
remain inside the continental edges of the respective shelves. This
may be i^artly illusory, for any ice wdiich drifts out across into
warmer oceanic w^ater quickly disappears through rapid melting,
but only partly so, for both the ice and the current trend on shore.
Icebergs are no exception to the above rule, despite the phenomenal
drifts occasionally reported, the number of such are comparatively
few. This coastal concentrati(m of icebergs in Davis Strait was
strikingly emphasized in the sunnner of 1928 when out of a total
of over 2,000 bergs sighted by the Marion expedition, only 3 were
observed outside the 5t)0-fathom contour (see fig. ?-3, p. 142). Thus
only a very small percentage of the northern ice actually floats out
into the Atlantic basin to melt directly in contact with the ocean
water itself. Consequently, while the ice melts in the surface layers
of the coastal zone, it cools oceanic waters only indirectly by the
mixing of the two waters, and the extent of this mixing, considering
the ocean generally, is surprisingly small.

We found (see p. 190) that glacial ice in the Davis Strait-Baffin
Bay region is only about 2 per cent of the volume of sea ice. In
this connection the ice area and the melting area of these regions
were calculated as 467,300 square miles. (See fig. 121, p. 200.) Em-
ploying the foregoing data we are uoav ready to determine quantita-
tively the magnitude of the chilling effect of ice melting on the w^ater
masses of the North Atlantic. The fact that melting area and ice
area are approximately equal (see p. 190) allows a direct comparison
between the relative thickness of the ice and the depth of the surface
layer through which the chilling effect of ice melting directly per-
meates. We have taken 80 feet as the depth of the surface layer
which is continually kept in turbulence by waves and local currents.
Assuminc; that the meltine: of 1 cubic foot of ice will cool 80 cubic

REPRESENTATIVE TEMPERATURE CURVES OF WATER COLUMNS IN DAVIS STRAIT

AND Baffin Bay

FiGUUB 120. — The degree of solar wanning of the surface hi.vers, to a depth of I'lC
meters or less, in vari'ous parts of Davis Strait and Bafflii Bay, is shown on ilif
sliadcd aifas al)ovo. 'I'lif temperature ("I'litisrade is reeoi'ded as the alicissa and
{\u' (liplli ill meters as tlie ordinate. The srealest inrrease in' lemperatni'i\ as nat-
urally slionid be expected, occurs in tlie .soutliern stations of lliis region, sncli .is
llliri' and 055, while the least affected are Haffln Bay stations, .such as l(i<i anil
1015. The jicofrraphical position of the stations is shown on Figure ll!l. p. l-'OO.

198

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 199

feet of Avater 1° F., we have, in the case o-iveii, SO feet of water to
(> of ice. or the 467 cubic miles of paclv ice in the western North
Atlantic (shown shaded in fig. 121), will counteract the warming
of the 80-foot surface layer of the sea a total of 6° F.

Let us now investigate the amount of solar warmth that is absorbed
by the water masses of the melting area in the western North At-
lantic, beginning with the first rise in temperature of the southern
section in early spring and continuing until the entire area at-
tains its maximum heat absorption in late August or early Sep-
tember. The mosti accurate method of determining the amount
of thermal absorption and the depth to which it extends is ob-
tained by examining several temperature curves (see fig. 120,
p. 198) for the water column of stations scattered throughout
the melting area. Marion stations 911, 9-17, 957, 963, 1058, 1062,
1041. 1046, 986, 1029, 1015, 1100, 1097, 1108, 1115, and 1125 have
been employed. (See Smith, 1981, for station table data of the
Marlon- expedition.) Other stations examined were the GodthaaVs
Nos. 51. 60, 71, 78, 131, 111, and 100. (See Annually 1929.) Two
ice-patrol stations were selected, 58 (see Nightingale, 1915, p. 54) and
355 (see Smith, 1924, p. 100). The position of these stations at which
subsurface observations were made are plotted on Figure 121, p. 200.

The shape of the temperature curves (fig. 120) show that the
sun during the summer months warms the uppermost 15 to 20 meters,
the greatest and passing from that de])th downward the seasonal gain
in temperature decreases directly with the depth until the 150-meter
(approximately 480 feet) level is reached, where more or less con-
stant year-round conditions prevail. A comparison of the tempera-
ture curves, one with another, also shows that the farther northward
w^e proceed the thinner and less heated is the sun-warmed surface
strata. The thickness of the isolation layer has been taken as the
limit to which the sun's heat has penetrated, or a layer having the
horizontal dimensions of the melting area and a uniform thickness
of 150 meters. The melting area as drawn on Figure 121 has been
divided into six subdivisions, viz. A, B, C, D, E, and F. Division
A being the southernmost area is most noticeably affected b}^ the
sun and the oceanographic stations in this region record a seasonal
increase in temperature equivalent to 5° F. throughout the 480-foot
layer. Division B warms up equivalent to 4° F. surface to a depth
of 480 feet. Division C, 3° ; division D, 2° ; division E, 1° ; and the
most northern one in Smith Sound only 0.5° F. Combining these
values of the degree of summer heat in the 480-foot layer, and spread
uniformlv over the melting area, we obtain a mean temperature ri-e

of2.rF;

The annual melting of pack ice was found to counteract the warm-
ing of an 80-foot surface layer 6° F. The same agency will oppose
the warming of a 480-foot layer 1° F., or, in other words, the chilling
of the northivestern North Atlantic as a result of ice melting amounts
to af proximately one-half the solar heating this same region receives
during summer.*^^

»i RlcketTs (1930, p. 109) estimates that the total cliillins effect of 1.350 icebergs tliat
dnfted soutli of Newfoundland in 1929 was not sufficient to nuUify more tlian two hours
of tlie average vernal warming to these regions. The relative insignificance of icebergs
cooling the Xorth Atlantic agrees well with the very small proportion that annual volume
of glacial ice bears to annual volume of sea ice.

120860—31 -14

The Ice Melting Area in the Western North Atlantic

Fi<!UHE llil. — This fluure lias l>eeii employed to express quantitatively a iiiiiiilier of com-
])arisons hetweon the ice-iiieltiiiK- effect an<l other related phenomena. The shaded area
bounded by the full line is the normal pack-ice area. The dotted line boundary marks
the mi.xinf; zone. Stations 1125. 1097, 1041, etc., are selected points of subsurface tem-
perature observations mentioned in the text and shown graphically in Fi,!,'nre ^-^K The
entire melting area, with a uniform thickness of 150 meters, is divided into six parts;
the southernmost in summer being heated an average of 5° F., the iKirthernmnst only
0.5° F. The spot " M " off Cape Farewell ri'iiresents the annual crop of glacial ice
expressed in the same scale as the pack i<-e and as on<' large berg. The shaded area
"N" represents the total annual discharge of glacial ice into I'.aHin I'.ay, expressed to
scale and in terms of pack ice G feet thick.

200

SCIEXTIFIC r.ESULTS 201

The heat from the sun (hiiin<i- the wuruier months of the year heats
a rji'eater mass of water than is shown in the case cited above, because
the cokl current is continually briufiino; cold water from a far-
northern unheated source. It is assumed that the current has an
average rate of 7 miles per day. so that during the period of summer
the surface layers of the northern half of the melting area will have
been completely replaced, partly by water from west Greenland and
partly by still colder masses from the Avaterways of the Arctic Archi-
pelago. The total amount of heat received by the melting area
might, therefore, be conservatively increased 50 per cent more than
what is shown.

The fact that nearly all of the ice tends to remain in coastal
waters from formation to dissipation also allows expression of this
cooling factor of the North Atlantic Ocean masses in terms of the
two cold currents — the east (ireenland and the Labrador. The low
temi)erature of these is due chiefly to (a) back radiation to the air,
accompanving the dimunition of solar radiation during winter and
(h) the chilling effect of melting ice.^- If we could determine the
respective volumes of ice and water that are carried annually out
into the North Atlantic by the cold currents, we would obtain an
approximate quantitative estimate of the relative importance of
each factor. The processes of mixing between the frigid coastal
waters and the much more temperate oceanic masses, takes place
along the entire continental edge, but in some places to a greater
degree than others. The only sector for which quantitative infor-
mation is yet available is the discharge of the Labrador current as
it flows southwestward past the Tail of the Grand Bank into the side
of the Gulf Stream.

According to the data collected by the international ice })atrol,
the volume of this discharge at its maxinunn is about 62.4 aubic
miles per day (5,000,000 tons per second). The basis for the stated
value of 62.4 cubic miles is the observations collected by the ice
patrol, stations 195 to 211. and 217, and 223 to 228. inclusive. May
3-30, 1922, around the Tail of the Grand Bank. (See Smith, 1923,
pp. 74-80.) After calculating the dynamic potentials of these 23
stations according to Bjerknes" formulae, a map showing the topog-
raphy of the sea surface was drawn. (See Smith. 1926. p. 39.) At
the time and place the Labrador current measured 68 miles in width
from its inside edge in on the Tail to latitude 41° 55', in longitude
50° 19', and had a mean depth of about 600 meters. Its velocity was
then the greatest on the surface and in its middle, least along its

^-The chlllins effects of melting snow and evapoi'atlns surface water are agencies which
also withdraw significant amounts of heat energy from' the northern waters. It is also
well known that a great deal of evaporation takes place directly from the ice and snow,
the latent heat per unit volume being almur eight times that in the case of melting ice.
Probably 75 per cent of the total annual snow that falls on northern coastal shelves and
seas goes to cover the sea ice which has already spread over these regions, but the remain-
ing 25 per cent is lielieved to fall in the water and thereby directly to cool the latter, m
the Gulf of Maine, by Bigelow's (1027. p. 60tV) calculations the chilling effect of melting
snow is equivalent to that of an ice cover 2 inches in thickness, ni the Arctic, with
roughly equal snowfall, its effect equals only about 2 or 3 per cent that of melting ice.
Evaporation is most rapid with low atmospheric pressure, low humidity, high temperature,
both of water and of air, and with high winds — conditions which in combination seldom
obtain in northern regions — therefore, evajjoration as a chilling factor is of small impor-
tance there as compared with lower latitudes. Even so, however, the effect is greater than
that of melting snow, for in the Gulf of Maine, according to Bigelow's calculations, cooling
by evaporation in the course of a year is equivalent to the cooling effect of an ice cover 2
feet in thickness. Thus, assuming equal evaporation in the Xorth. the chilling effect of
evaporation would then equal about 30 per cent of that of the melting of ice.

202 MAJtlOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

sides and near the bottom. If the current map of May. 19'22. be
compared with others constructed in 1926 and 1927 (see Smith. 1927
and 1927b), we find it representative of normal conditions during
spring when the Labrador current is believed to be most voluminous.
The opposite extreme, when there is only a weak flow of the cold
current south of Newfoundland is represented by observations of the
ice patrol made October 21-26. 1923 (see Smith. 1924. pp. 151-161) :
P>bruary. 1922 (see Smith, 1923, p. 94) ; and even June 9-25. 1927
(see Smith, 1927b, pp. 87-93). At such times it is estimated that
the discharge past the Tail of the Bank may fall to 10 cubic miles
or so per day (0.8 million tons per second). As pointed out on
page 156. the flow and volume of the Labrador current shows wide
fluctuations. The current may not only show a seasonal variation
within the year, but at the same time alter irregularly in velocity
and size over periods of a month or even less. With maximum and
minimum rates, in terms of daily volume of about 70 and 10 cubic
miles, respectively, a value of 40 cubic miles (3.2 million tons per
second) may be assumed to be approximately the year round mean.
According to this figure the total yearly discharge is, therefore,
.something like 14,600 cubic miles.

The mean temperature of the cold current in cross section, which
we have calculated above, is 37° F., and it discharges south of New-
foundland into the North Atlantic at latitude 43°. The normal
surface temperature for the latitude at which the Labrador current
discharges and mixes wath the ocean masses off the Tail of the
Grand Bank is approximately 54° F.^^ The drop in temperature
from the surface to a depth of 600 meters (the thickness of the
circulatory layers) is about 9° F. The mean annual temperature of
this 600-meter ocean layer is therefore approximately 47° F. This
value not only includes the chilling effect of the Labrador current in
the vicinity of the forty-ninth meridian but it also takes into con-
sideration the warming effect of the Gulf Stream farther eastward
in the same latitude and therefore the two effects are more or less
counterbalanced in the temperature value of 47° F. Assuming the
average temperature of the Labrador current is 37° F., the mean
annual cooling effect of this discharge off' the Tail of the Grand
Bank is therefore 10° F. Consideration of the melting ice volume
of 467 cubic miles and annual volume of Labrador current discharge
of 14,600 cubic miles indicates that the cooling effect of the latter
would counteract an amount of ice about four times as great as
normally is melted in the northwestern North Atlantic; or to put
it another way, the branch of the Lahmdor current nrkick dis-
charges at the Tail of the Grand Bank has four times the cooling
effect as that of the annual melting of Arctic ice for the western
North Atlantic.

The Marion expedition measured a section across the continental
shelf opposite Hamilton Inlet and from a preliminary calculation of
these data the cubical daily transport of the main trunk of the
Labrador current is approximately 130 cubic miles (10.5 million
tons per second). If we assume, therefore, that the branch of the
Labrador current that passes the Tail of the Grand Bank amounts

<"' KriinTinol (1907, p. 400) lias calculated the mean annual surface of ocean water f'H'
both HDi'th and south latiuidcs. At 4:5° north latitude it is 11'° t^. i.":5.r.° V^.

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS 203

to about one-third of the cold discharge between Cape Race and
Flemish Cap, then the cooling e-ffect of ice melting amounts to only
10 fer cent of the total cooling that the Atlantic receives from the cold
irater masses of the Labrador cun-ent.^'^ The fact that the relative
proportions of ice and water are roughly similar at the other prin-
cipal ]:>oint of discharge — the east Greenland current — makes this
figure applicable to the entire Xorth Atlantic. Obviously, the low
temperature character of the Lahrador and east Greenland currents
is not due to the melting ice with which these streams are charged
in spring and summer. These ocean c-urrents are cold because of the
small amiou/nt of ahsorption of solar radiation at the earth'^s surface
in the polar regions.

The foregoing corroborates Campbell-Hep worth (1912, p. 4), that
the ice in the western North Atlantic is not the agency chilling the
surrounding ocean masses but it is largely the Labrador current.
Helland-Hansen-Xansen (1920, p. 266) conclude that the variations
in temj^erature noted in the unperiodic coolings of the North Atlantic
Ocean are due to the changes in the distribution of air pressure, i. e.,
the northerly winds. Schott (1904, p. 279), in the course of remarks
on the intensification of the Labrador current in 1903, adds that
the cooling effect of Arctic ice in the Atlantic is negligible. While
our own researches do not find that the ice-melting effect is negligible,
they do prove it is of secondare- magnitude.

It is interesting to note in the quantitative treatment of these
northern seas phenomena that the cooling factors, viz, chilling by
the winter atmosphere, ice melting, snowfall, and evaporation, when
totaled, outweigh the solar warming of summer. We have found
that the ice-melting effect counteracts about one-half that of seasonal
solar warming, and mounts to approximately one-tenth the cooling
effect of the annual discharge of the cold currents. The great major
warming effect therefore tending to maintain more or less of a con-
stant counterbalance over a long period is the warm currents from
the Tropics. We conclude that the major controls of the thermal
equilibrium of the North Atlantic Ocean are the ocean currents^
lohile the direct action of vernal warming in the ice areas themselves.,
and the opposite effect of chilling by Arctic ice., are secondary.

The fact that the latent heat of melting ice as a chilling agent
amounts to only about one-tenth that of the cooling effect of the
ocean currents from the north also proves conclusively that melting
ice is far from being an important factor assisting to maintain the
present scheme of oceanic circulation. According to Pettersson
(1904, 1907), the melting northern ice, which we have shown takes
place almost entirely in relatively shalloAv waters, sets up a certain
system of oceanic circulation. The waters of the Grand Bank, how-
ever, even when no ice is present, have been found to exhibit a similar

'"Huntsman (1930), in discussing tlie Arctic ice whicli is brought into tlie Gulf of
St. Lawrence via the Strait of Belle Isle, states that in his opinion its melting is the
chief cooling agent in the Gulf. He points out that if the branch of the Labrador current
that enters the Gulf has a velocity of 1 knot per hour for the three winter months, enough
ice might be carried in to cover half the Gulf of St. Lawrence. He also adds that were
this ice to melt it would chill by 8" C. a 30-foot layer of water equal in area to the entire
Gulf. As a matter of fact, however, the inflow through Belle Isle is not believed to main-
tain such a high rate as assumed in the above example. It is estimated moreover, that the
Gulf of St. Lawrence normally cools 8° each year throughout a mean depth of about 300
feet, and if this be a fact, the chilling effect of the ice importation amounts to less than
one-tenth that of the other agents. Here, apparently, as in the Atlantic, the cold-water
masses are the deciding factors.

204 MAltlOX EXPEDITIOX TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

l3'pe of circulation. (Smith liJi^la. p. 133.) A similar type of cir-
culation has been observed bv Mathews (1914. ]). 32); bv Hunts-
man (1924, p. 280); and by 'Bi<,^elow (1927, p. 921); it is also in
fact a characteristic feature of practically all of the coastal waters
along those parts of the northeastern American shelf that are boreal
in character but ice free at the time. We must conclude from the
above that the oceanic system of currents, at least in the higher lati-
tudes of the northern seas, characterized by oH'shore exi)ansion in
the surface hn'ers and a salty indraft beneath is set in motion not l)y
the ice but by the belts of water around the sides of the basin, oceano-
graphically known as '" coastal."

Perhaps it is because the ice catches the eye and the imagination
more than do the coastal water masses with which it is ordinarily

The Cold Wall off the American Coast

Figure 122. — A remarkable photograph taken March 27, 1922. .'iouth of Xewfouiul-
land, in latitude 41° 40' N., longitude 51° U7' W.. looking westward along the
meeting zone of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador current. The surface water
on the cold side 'of the wall (to the right) with a temperature of 34" F. was
smooth and glassy. The warm water (to the left) with a temperature of 50^ F.,
choppy and rippled. There was a range of 22° F., therefore, in less than a ship's
length. This important oceanographic boundary marks a critical point in the
disintegration of the icebergs that drift out of Davis Strait into the western
North Atlantic. (Official photograph, international ice patrol.)

associated that its relative importance in the picture of oceano-
graphic circulation has been overemphasized."' The regional dif-
ference of density between coastal and (X-eanic waters is the main
springs for the convectional currents. The winds, also, by their
direct frictional effect, combined with the presence of coast lines
or other liindrances, develop significant slope currents. In any case,
however, we can not refer the impelling forces to a riverlike source:
in fact, thev work along the entire extent of flow.

Ihe transition zones, i. e., the continental slopes, the continental
edges, and the ridges, mark the belt of greatest energy, and in the

""Tettersson (1927. p. 7) has even stated that the force that deflects the Gulf Stream
towards the north and west, against the effect of earth rotation, is to be explained as an
effect i)f noi-tlicrn ice.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 205

>ca energy is synonymous with current. The smooth curving trend
I if the eastern Xorth American slope, from Florida to Nantucket,
tor example, is responsible for the riverlike character of the Gulf
Stream described in such striking terms by Maury. The Gulf
Sti'eam parallels the coast of Xorway, because a dynamic gradient
prevails between light coastal waters and the off-shore oceanic water
there also. The energy that is imparted in moving the water par-
ticles of the Gulf Stream olf Sognefjorcl, Norway, is just as vital for
the survival of the current as is the impetus that was given to these
>;ime particles during their sojourn in the Caribbean. It has been
estimated that the forced momentum of the current pouring north-
ward out of the Florida Strait would die one-quarter the distance
to Cape Hatteras were it not sustained by gradient forces. When
the Gulf Stream, on its inner side, after passing the Grand Bank,
bends to the northward (in toward Newfoundland), it does so
because at that time and place there exists a contrast in the density
of the oceanic masses. (See Defant 19^9, p. 16.) Ice melting over
the North i^merican and east Greenland shelves helps to accentuate
the contrasts between coastal and oceanic waters, thereby intensify-
ing the currents, but emphatically it is not the main cause of propul-
sion nor is it even a necessary attribute thereof.

In conclusion the energizing forces resulting from melting ice are
not adequate to produce the circulatory mechanism of the world's
oceans; nor is the water directly chilled by melting ice — the chief
source of the ocean's bottom water.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AlTKEN. .T.

1913 The lutluence of Icebergs on the Temperature of tlie Sea. Nature,
Vol. 90, pp. 513-515. London.

1915 The Intluence of Icebergs on the Temperature of tlie Sea. Ibid,
Vol. 94, pp. 561-562. Loudon.
Amdrup. G.

1900 Hydrografi fra Skibsexpeditionen til Grr.nlands Ostkyst, 1900. Med-
delel.ser om Gronland. Vol. 27. pp. 1-351. Copenhagen.
Ajiundsen, R., and Ellsworth, L.

1925 Our Polar Flight. Mead and Company, pp. 1-373. New York.

1927 First Crossing of the Polar Sea. pp. 1-319.
Annually.

1874 Reports of the Royal ("jin.idian Mountain Police, F. C. Aclaud,
Ottawa.

lS94-Isforholdne i de Arktiske Have. (The State of the Ice in the Arc-
tic Seas.) Special reprint from the Nautical ^Meteorological An-
nual. (In Danish and English.) Danish Meteorological In-
stitute, Copenhagen.

1929 Bulletin Hydrographique pour I'Annee 1928. Conseil Permanent
International pour I'Exploratiou de la Mer. pp. 87-95. Copen-
hagen.
Armstrong, A.

1857 A Personal Narrative of the Discovery of the Northwest Passage,
with Numerous Incidents of Travel, etc. Hurst and Brockett.
pp. 616 with fold map. London.
Arctowski. H.

1908 Geologic. Les Glaciers, Glaciers Actuals et Vestiges de leur An-
cienne Extension. Resultats du voyage du S. Y. Belgica en 1897-
1899. Rapports Scientifique publics aux frais du government
Beige, sous la direction de la Commission de la Belgica. pp. 1-74.
Antwerp.
1908a Oceanographie. Les Glaces, Glace de Mer et Banquises. Ibid,
pp. 1-55. Antwerp.

206 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Baknes, H. T.

lil06 Ice Formation with Especial Reference to Anchor Ice and Frazil.

John Wiley & Sons, pp. 1-250. New York.
1910 Marine Microthermograms and the Influence of Icebergs on the

Temperature of the Sea. Nature. Vol. 85, pp. 131-138. Loudon.

1912 The Rise of Temperature Associated with the Melting of Icebergs.

Nature, Vol. 90. i)p. 408-410. London.

1913 Report of the Influence of Icebergs and Land on the Temperature

of the Sea, as shown by the use of the microthermometer, on
a trip of the Canadian Government Ship Montcalm on the Gulf
of St. Lawrence and the coast of Laln-ador. Supplement to the
49th Annual Report of the Department of Marine and Fisheries
for the Fiscal Year 1911-1912. pp. 1-37. Ottawa.

1914 Icebergs and Their Location in Navigation. Proceedings of the

Royal Society. Vol. 20, pp. 161-168. London.

1927 Some Fliysical Properties of Icebergs and a Method for Tlieir De-

struction. Proceedings of the Royal Society. A. Vol. 114, pp.
161-168. London.
1927a Experimenting with Icebergs. The Marine Observer. The Meteor-
ological Committee. Air Ministry. Vol. IV, No. 41, pp. 91-93.
London.

1928 Ice Engineering. Rehouf Publishing Co. pp. 1-364. Montreal.
1928a Ice Destruction. The Marine Observer. Tlie Meteorological Com-
mittee, Air Ministry. Vol. 5, No. 59, pp. 234. London.

Bek^^ier. J. E.

1909 Report on the Dominion Government Expedition to Arctic Islands

and the Hudson Strait on Board the Canadian Government Ship

Arctic, 1906-07. pp. 1-127. Ottawa.
Baktlett, R. a.

1928 Ice Navigation. Problems of Polar Research. A Series of Papers.

The American Geographical Society. Special Pulilicatiou, No. 7.

pp. 427-^42. New York.
BiGELOW. H. B.

1924 Physical Oceanography of the Gulf of Maine. Bulletin of the U. S.

Bureau of Fisheries.' Vol. XI, Part II, pp. 511-1027. Washington.

B.TEKKNES, v., AND OTHERS

1910 Dynamic Meteorology and Hydrography. Part I Statics (with

J. W. Sandstrom). Carnegie Institution of Washington. Publi-
cation No. 88. Part I, pp. 146. Washington.

1911 Dynamic Meteorology and Hydrography. Ibid. Part II. pp. 175.

Washington.
Blake, E. V.

1874 Arctic Experiences ; containing Captain George E. Tyson's wonder-
ful drift on the ice floe, a History of the Polaris Expedition, the
cruise of the Tiorcss, etc. Harper Brothers, pp. 486. New
York.

BOWDITCH, N.

1925 American Practical Navigator : An Epitome of Navigation and

Nautical Astronomy. Chapter 22. " Ice and its Movement in the
North Atlantic Ocean." U. S. Hydrographic Ofiice. Publication
No. 9. pp. 261-270. Washington.

BOYLE. R. W., AND ReID. C. D.

1926 Practical Experiments on the Detection of Icebergs and on Sound-

ing by Means of an Ultra Sonic Beam. Proceedings anii Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of Canada. 3d Series, Vol. XX. Sec.
Ill, pp. 233-243. Ottawa. d

Brennecke; W. "

1904 Beziehungen zwischen der Luftdruckverteilung und den Eisverhiilt-
nis des Ostgronlandischen Meeres. Annalen d. Hydrograpiue und
maritimen Meteorologie. Vol. 32, pp. 49-62. Berlin.

British Admiralty.

1922 Ice Charts of the Northern Hemisphere. Charts D-31 ti. D-42

(January to December) bound as an atlas. Hydrographic Depart-
ment. London.
Brooks, C. F.

1923 The Ice Sheet of Central GrtH>nland. Geographical Review. Vol.

13, pp. 445-153. New York.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 207

Brooks, C. E. P.

1925 The Problem of "Warm Polar Climates. The Quarterly Journal of

the Royal Meteorological Society. Vol. 41, No. 214, pp. S3-94.

London.
Brooks. C. E. P. and Quennei-l, W. A.

1928 The Influence of Arctic Ice on the Subsequent Distribution of Pres-

sure over the Eastern North Atlantic and Western Europe. The
Meteorological Committee, Air Ministry, Geophysical Memoirs
No. 41, pp. 1-36. London.

Brown. R. N. R.

1927 The Polar Regions. A Physical and Economic Geography of the
Arctic and Antarctic. Sea Ice and Its Natural History, pp.
50-65. E. P. Dutton cV: Co.. New York.

Bryant. H. G.

189S Drift Casks to Determine Arctic Currents. Bulletin of the Geo-
graphical Society of Philadelphia. Vol. 2, No. 3. pp. 71-75.
Philadelphia.

Byri), R. E.

1925 Flying over the Arctic. National Geographic Magazine. Vol. 48,

pp. 519-532. New York.

1926 The First Flight to the North Pole. National Geographic Magazine.

Vol. 50. pp. 351-376. New York.
Campbell-Hepworth, M. W.

1912 The Effect of the Labrador Current upon the Surface Temperature ;

and of the latter upon the Air Temperature and Pressure over

the British Isles. The Meteorological Committee. Air Ministry.

Geoph.vsical Memoirs No. 1, pp. 1-10. London.
1914 The effect of the Labrador Current upon the Surface Temperature

and of the latter upon the Air Temperature and Pressure over the

British Isles. Ibid. No. 10. Part II, pp. 210-220. London.
1917 The Seaman's Handbook of Meteorology. 3rd Edition. No. 215,

pp. 202. The Meteorological Committee, Air Ministry. London.
Chamberlin, T. C.

1895 Glacial Studies in Greenland. Journal of Geology. Vols. II to V,

1894-97, especially 1895. Chicago.
1923 Significant Ameliorations of Present Arctic Climates. Journal of

Geology. Vol. 31, No. 5, pp. 376-406. Chicago.
Chiswell. B. M.

1923 Summary of Jce Patrol. Season of 1922. International Ice Observa-

tion and Ice Patrol Service in the North Atlantic Ocean. Season
of 1922. United States Coast Guard Bulletin No. 10, pp. 50-53.
Washington.

1924 Summary of Ice Patrol. Season of 1923. Ibid. No. 11. pp. 01-64.

Washington.

COPLANS, M.

1912 A Method for the Detection of the Proximity of Ice at Sea.

Nature, Vol. 89, p. 295. London.

1913 Atlantic Currents and Icebergs. Pilot Chart, North Atlantic Ocean.

January. U. S. Hydrographic Office. Washington.
Dawson, W. B.

1906 The Currents on the Southeastern Coasts of Newfoundland. De-

partments of Marine and Fisheries, pp. 1-32. Ottawa.

1907 The Currents in Belle Isle Strait. Department of Marine and

Fisheries, pp. 1-43. Ottawa.
Defant, a.

1929 Stabile Lagerung ozeanischer AVasserkorper und dazu gehorige

Stromsysteme. Veroffentlichungen des Instituts fiir Meereskunde

Neue Folge. A. Geographische-naturwisensehaftliche Reihe. Heft

19. pp. 1-33. Berlin.
DeLong, G. W. (Edit).

1883 The Voyage of the Jeanncttc. The ship and Ice Journals of

George W. DeLong. Vols. I and II, pp. 1-911. Houghton,

Mifflin & Company. Boston.
Deutsche Seeavarte.

1902 Atlantischen Ozean. Ein Atlas von 39 Karten. usw. 2d. Edition.

Hamburg.
1910 Segelhandbuch fiir den Atlantischen Ozean, pp. 1-561. Hamljurg.

208 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Urygalski, E. Von. r^ -^ , •^... i ,, n i 4.v 4^-

1892 Groiilaiuls Gletscher uiid Inlaudeis. Zeitschift der Gesellsclaatt tur

ErdkuiKle. Vol. 27, pp. 1-62. Berlin.
1897 Groiiland Expedition der Ge.sell.^cliaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin,

1891-93. Vol. 1, pp. 1-555. Berlin.

Ekaiajn', V. "\V. . ^ ^, , , .

19U5 On the Influence of the Earths Rotation on Ocean Currents. Arkiv

for Matematik, Astronomi. och Fysik, utgivet af Konigliua

Svenska Veienskapsakademien i «tockliolm, Baud 2, No. 11, pp.

52. Upsala and Stockholm.
1928 A Survey of Some Theoretical Investigations on Ocean Currents.

Extruit du Journal du Conseil International pour I'Exploratiou

de la Mer. Vol. III. No. 3- Copenhagen.
Engelt.. yi. C.

1901 Undersouelser og Opmaalinger red Jacobshavn Isfjord og i Orpig.-^-

suit i Sommern 1902. Meddelelser om Gronland, Vol. 26, pp. 1-70.

Copenhagen.
1910 Beretuing om Undersogelserne af Jacobshavn-Isfjord og dens

Omgivelser. Ibid. \ol. 34. pp. 157-212. CopenhagiMi.

Fisher. H. G.

1920 Summary of the Ice Patrol. Season of 1919. International Ice Ob-
servation and Ice Patrol Service in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Season of 1916 and 1919. United States Coast Guard Bulletin
No. 7, pp. 33-35. Washington.

1926 Report of Ice Patrol Commander. Ibid. Season of 1925. Bulle-

tin No. 13, pp. 33-35. AVashington.

1927 Summary Report of Ice Patrol Commander. Ibid. Season 1926.

Bulletin No. 16, pp. 17-20. Washington.
Fries. E. F. B.

1922 Report of Scientiflc Ob.servations and Operations. International

Ice Observation and Ice Patrol Service in the North Atlantic

Ocean. Season of 1921. United States Coast Guard Bulletin
No. 9, pp. 61-78. Washington.

1923 Report on Scientiflc Observations and Operations. Ibid. Season

of 1922. Bulletin No. 10. pp. 67-83. Washington.
Gamble, A. L.

1922 Summary of Ice Observation and Ice Patrol. Season of 1921.
International Ice Observations and Ice Patrol Service in the
North Atlantic Ocean. Season of 1921. United States Coast
Guard Bulletin No. 9. pp. 46-47. Washington.
Garde, T. V.

1889 Den Ostgronlandske Expedition. 1883-85. Meddelelser om Gron-
land. Vol. 9, pp. 53-233. Copenhagen.
Graah, W. a.

1832 Undersogelses-Reise til Ostkysten af Gronland. pp. 1 21(i. J. D.
Qui St, (,'openhagen.
Greely, a. W.

1886 Three Years of Arctic Service. An account of the Lady Franklin
Bay expedition of 1881-1884 and the attainment of farthest ninth.
Vols. I, pp. 1-144. and II, pp. 1-428. New York.
1910 Handbook of Polar Discoveries. 4th edition, pp. 1-336. Boston.
Hambeho, a.

1895 Studien iil)er Meereis und Gletschereis. Bihang till Kongl. Sveuska
VetensUapas Akademiens Handlinger. Band 21. ( Avd. II, No.
2). Stockliolm.
Hammer, R. E. J.

1889 Undersogelsen af Grilnlands Vestkyst fra 68-20 to 70° N. B. Med-
delelser om Gr(»nland. Vol. VIII. pp. 1-33. Coi)enhagen.
1893 Undersogelsen ved Jakobshavns Isfjord og naermeste Oniegii Vin-
tern 1879-80. Meddelelser om GriMila'nd. Vol. IV. pp. 1-68.
Copenhagen.
Hei.lani), a.

1876 Om de isfyldte Fjorde og de glaciale Dannelser 1 Nordgronland.
Archiv for Mathematik og Naturvidenskab, pp. 1 24. Christiania.
Heiland-IIansen, P... a.M) Koekokd, E.

1909 IIydrograi)hie. In Due d'Orleans-Croisieie oceanographitiue dan
la Mer du Grcinland en 1905. pp. 275-343. Brussels.

I

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 209

1 Ikllaxd-Haxsen, B., and Naxsen, F.

1909 The Xor\yegiau t^ea. lieiiort on tlie Norwegian Fisheries and Ma-
rine Investiiiation. Vol. II, No. 2. pp. 1-390. Bergen.

1920 Temperature Variations in the North AtUvntic Ocean and in the
Atmosphere. Smithsonian Miscelhineous Collections. No. 4, pp.
1-341. Washington.

1926 The Eastern North .Vtlantic. Geofysiske Pnblikasj(;ner. Vol. IV,
No. 2, pp. 1-7(5. pi. 1-71. Oslo.

JlENNESSY, J.

1929 Ice in the Western North Atlantic. The Marine Observer. Vol. VI,
No. 64, pp. 81-91. The Meteorological Committee, Air Ministry,
London.
IlKXKY, A. .7,

1929 C. E. P. Brooks and W. Quennell <ni the infltience of Arctic ice on
subsequent distribution of pressure over the Eastern North Atlan-
tic and AVestern Europe. ^lonthly Weather Review. Vol. 57,
No. 3, pp. 99-102. I'. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington.

HOEL, A.

1929 The Norwegian Svalbard Expeditions. 19()(;-1926. Itesultater av de

Norske .Statsunderstr)tte(le Spitsbergeneksped.tioner. Det Norske
Videnskaps-Academi i Oslo, pp. 1-104. Oslo.

HOVGAARD, W.

1925 The Norsemen in Greenland : Recent Discoveries at Hai\iolfnes. The
Geographical Review, Vol. XV, N^o. 4, pp. 605-617. New York.
HowAKi). A. G. W.

1920 Ice in the North Atlantic. 3Ionthly Meteorological Chart for Feb-

ruary, N^o. 268. The Meteorological Committee, Air Ministry,
London.
HrNTSitAx, A. G.

1925 The Ocean Around Newfoundland. The Canadian Fisherman for

January, pp. 5-8. Gardenvale, Province of Quebec.

1930 Arctic Ice on our Eastern Coast. Biological Board of ('anada under

the control of the Minister of Marine and Fisheries. Bulletin
No. 13, pp. 1-12. Toronto.

IliMINGER, E.

1856 The Arctic Current Around Greenland. .Journal of tlie Royal Geo-
graphic Society. Vol. 2(!, pp. 36-43. London.

ISELIN, C.

1930 A Report on the (^'oastal Waters of Labrador, based on explorations
of the Chance during the summer of 1926. Proceedings of the
American Academy of Ai'ts and Sciences. Vol. 66. No. 1, October,
pp. 1-37. Washington.

IVERSEN, T.

1927 Drivis og Selfangst. Saertrykk av Aarsberetning vedk. Norges

Fiskerier, heft 1. Bergen.
Jacobsen, J. P., AND A. .J. C. Jensen.

1926 Examination of Hydrograiducal ^Measurements from the Research

Vessels Explorer and Dana during the sunnner of 1924. Rapports
et Process — Verl>aux des Reunions Conseil Permanent Interna-
tional pour I'Exploratiou de la iler. Vol. 34, pp. 31-84. Copenhagen.
Jagdt, N.

1928 Vejledning for Sejlads i gronlandske Farvende til Ivigtut. Fdgivet

of Aktieselskabet Kryolith Mine og Handels Selskidiet. pp. 1-18.
Godthaab.
Jenkins, J. T,

1921 A Textbook of Oceanography. Constal)le & Co., pp. 83-90. London.
Jensen, A. S.

1909 Indberetniug om Fiskerundersogelserne ved Gronland i 1908. Sae-
tryk af Beretningen og Kundgorelser vedroende Kolonierne i
Gronland No. 2, pp. 13-32. Copenhagen.
JOERG, W. L. G.

1930 Brief History of Polar Exploration since the Introduction of Flying.
(To accompany a physical map of the Arctic and a bathametrical
map of the Antarctic.) American Geophysical Society. 2d
revised edition, pp. 1-95, with 2 maps. New York.

210 3IARI0X EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STEAIT AXD BAFFIX BAY

Johnston, C. E.

1913 North Atlantic Ice Patrols. Patrol by U. S. K. C. Seneca. Pilot
Chart. North Atlantic Ocean for October. U. S. Hydrographic
Office. Washington.
IDloa Report of Patrol Cruises. Statistics and Deductions from Observa-
tions and Reports on tlie Ice Situation, Season of 1913. Inter-
national Ice Observation and Ice Patrol Service in the North
Atlantic Ocean. United States Revenue-Cutter Service Bulletin
No. 1. Washington.
1915 Summary of Observations and Operations. Ice Patrol, Season of
1914. International Ice Observations and Ice Patrol Service in
the North Atlantic Ocean. From February to Augusr. 1914.
United States Coast Guard Bulletin No. 3, pp. 38-42. chart 5.
Washington.
1915a Special Cruise — Ice Observation. Ibid. Bulletin No. 3, pp. 33-35.
Washington.
1920 Notes on the Ice Patrol. Seasons of 1916, 1919. Ibid. Bullt-riu No.
7, pp. 36-37. ^Vashington.
Johnstone, J.

1923 An Introduction to Oceanography, pp. 1-351. University I'ress.
Liverpool.
Kane, E. K.

1854 The U. S. Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin.
Harper Bros., pp. 1-552, with 1 map. New York.
Kayser, O.

1928 The Inland Ice, Greenland. Vol. 1, pp. 357-422. Oxford University
Press. London.
Koch, L.

1922 Note to Maps of Melville Bay from Wilcox Point to Cape York

and of North Greenland from 81° to 83° 30' N.. 38° to 56° W.
Den. II Thule Ekspeditiou til Gronlands Nordkyst. 1916-1918.
No. 2, pp. 79-88. Copenhagen.

1923 Some New Features in the Physiography and Geology of Green-

land. Journal of Geology. Vol. 31. No. 1, pp. 42-65. Chicago.

1924 The Physiography of the Interior of Greenland. The Geographical

Review, Vol. 14. p. 175. New York.

1926 Ice Cap and Sea Ice in North Greenland. The Geographical
Review, Vol. 16, pp. 98-107. New York.
1926a Report on the Danish Bicentenary Jubilee Expedition North of
Greenland. 1920-1923. Jubilaeumskespeditionen Nord om (iron-
land. 1920-1923, No. 1, pp. 1^232. Copenhagen.

1928 Contributions to the Glaciology of North Greenland. Den. II
Thule Ekspedition til Gronlands Nordkyst, 1916-1918. No. 15,
pp. 191—464. Copenhagen.

KOLCHAK, A. V.

1909 Led Karskago i Sibirskago Morei (The Ice of the Kara and Siber-
ian Seas). Resultats scientifique de TExpedition Polaire Russe
en 1900-1903. Section B : Geographic physique et mathematique,
Livraison Meraoires Academie Imperial des Sciences de St. Peters-
bourg. Series 8, Classe Pliysico-Mathematique, Vol. 26. No. 1,
St. Petersbourg.

1928 The Arctic Pack and the Polynya. Problems of Polar Research.
(Being Chapter II of Kolchak, 1909. translated by George and
Transche). The American Geographical Society Special Pub-
lication No. 7, pp. 125-141. New York.
Kr I'm MEL, O.

1!K)7 Handbucli der Ozeanographio. Vol. I. pp. 1-526. Leii)/.iL:.

1911 Ilandbuoh der Ozeanographie. Vol. II. pp. 52(>-766. Stuttgart.
Lecky, S. T. S.

1917 Wr nkles in Navigation. D. Van Nostrand Compnnv. 18rli edition,
pp. 1-814. New York.
Levis. F. A.

1916 Summary of Observations and Operations, Ice Patrol. Season of
1915. International Ice Observation and Ice Patrol Service in
the North Atlantic Ocean. Fiom February to July. 1915. United
States Coast Guard Bulletin No. 5. pp. 21-23. Washington.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 211

Levis. F. A. — Coiitiiiued.

1920 Sunuuary of Ice Observation and Ice Patrol, Season of 1916.
Ibid. Seasons of 191G and 1919. Bulletin No. 7, p. 16. Wash-
ington.

Low. A. P.

1906 Report on the Dominion Government Expedition to Hudson Bay

and the Arctic Islands on board the Dominion Government ship
Xeptune, 1903-4, pp. 1-354. Ottawa.
MacMillax, D. B.

1917 Reports of the MacMillan Expedition. The Geographical Review.

Vol. 4, pp. 320-321. New York.

1918 Four Years in the Wliite North. Hariier Brothers, pp. 419. New

York.
1928 Geographical Report of the Crocker Land Expedition, 1913-1917.
Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. LVI,
Art. YI, pp. 379-435.
Makarov. S.

1901 Yermak vo Idakli (The •• Yermak " in the Ice). St. Petersburg.
Malmgrex, F.

1928 On the Properties of Sea Ice. Tlie Norwegian North Polar Expedi-

tion with the MuKil, 1918-1925. Scientitic Results. Vol. 1, No.
5, pp. 1-67. Bergen.
Mai;kham. C.

1926 The Lands of Silence, pp. 1-539. Cambridge University Press.
Cembrldge.
Matthews. D. J.

1914 Report on the Work carried out by the S. S. Scotia. 1913. Ice
Observation, Meteorology, and Oceanography in the North Atlan-
tic Ocean, pp. 4-47. (Miips and diagrams in separate volume.)-
London.
192S Oceanographic Observations between Greenland and North
America. Nature. Vol. 122, No. 3071, pp. 373-375. London.
McLean. N. B.

1929 Report of the Hudson Strait p]xpodition. pp. 1-221, with maps and

photographs. F. C. Acland, Ottawa.
Mecking, L.

19(16 Die Eisdrift aus dem Bereich der Bafiin Bai beherscht von Strom
and Wetter. VerofEentlichungen des Instituts fur Meereskunde.
Heft 7, pp. 1-132. Berlin.

1907 Die Treibeisercheinungen bei Neufundland in ihrer Abhangigkeit

von Witterunggsverhaltnissen. Annalen d'Hydrogrgaphie und
Maritimen Meteorologie. Vol. 35, pp. 348-355 and 296-409.
Berlin.
1928 The Polar Regions. I'art II. Reg Onal Geography, pp. 93-259. The
American Geographical Society. Special Publication No. 8. New-
York.
Meixardvs, W.

1905 Uber Schwankungen der Nordatlantischen Zirkulation und damit

zusammenhangende Ersciieinungen. Meteorlogische Zeitschrift.
Vol. 22, pp. 398-412. Wien.

1906 Periodische Schwankungen der Eistrift bei Island. Annalen d.

Hydrographie und maritimen Meteorologie. Vol. 34, pp. 148-162;

227-239; and 278-285. Berlin.
Melmlle. G. W.

1898 A Proposed System of Drift Casks to Determine the Direction of

the Circumpolar Currents. Bulletin of the Geographical Society

of Philadelphia. Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 41^5. Philadelphia.
MOLLOY. T. M.

1930 Summary Report of the Commander, International Ice Patrol.

International Ice Observation and Ice Patrol Service in the North
Atlantic Ocean. Season of 1929. United States Coast Guard
Bulletin No. 16, pp. 12-15. Washington.
MUNN. H. T.

1923 Davis Strait in 1922. The Geographical Journal, Vol. 61, No. 1,
pp. 65-66. London.

212 MAEIOX EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD BAFFIN BAY

MUNTER. W. H.

1027 .Summary Report of Commiuukn'. International Ice Patrol. Inter-
national Ice Observation and Ice Patrol Service in the North
Atlantic Ocean. Season of 1927. United States Coast Guard
Bulletin No. 16, pp. I^-IT). Washington.

1929 Summary Report of Commander. International Ice Patrol. Il)id.
Season of 1928. Bulletin No. 17. pii. ofi-38. Washington.
Nansen. F.

1902 The Oceanography of llie Nor Hi I'ular Basin. (The Norwegian

North Polar Expedition 1893-1896.) Scientific Results. Vol. 3,

No. 9-10. p. 427. Christiania.
1912 Das Bodenwasser und die Ahkiihlung des Meeres. International

Revue der gesamten Ilydrobiologie und Hydrographie. Vol. Y,

pp. 1-42. Leipzig.
1928 The Oceanographic Problems of the Still Unknown Ai'ctic Regions.

pp. 1-14 vtith maps. (Prol)lems of Polar Research.) A series of

Papers. The American Geographical Society. Special Pul)lica-

tion No. 7. New York.
National Geographic Magazine.

1925 Map of the Arctic Regions. Vol. 48. Supplement. Noveml:ier. New

York.
Neilsen. ,T. N.

1910 Bretning om Fiskeriundsogelserne ved Grfmland i 1909. pp. 1-46.

Saetyrk af Beretninger og Kundgorelser vedroende Kolonierne

i Gronland. Copenhagen.
1928 Tlie Waters Round Greenland. Greenland. The Discovery of

Greenland. Exploration, and Nature of the Country. Vol. I. pp.

184-228. Humi»hrey Milford. London.
Nightingale. H. W.

1915 Preliminary report on Oceanographic Observations conducted on

the U. S. Revenue Cutter Setieca in 1914. International Ice

01)servation and Ice Patrol Service in the North Atlantic Ocean.

Season of 1914. United States Coast Guard Bulletin No. 3.

pp. 43-78. Washington.
1928 The Waters around Greeidand. Greenland. Vol. I. pp. 492-518.

Oxford University Press. London.

NOEDENSKIOLD, O.

1928 Polar Nature. A General Characterization, iip. 1-90. In Geography
of the Polar Regions. The American Geographical Society,
Special Publication No. 8. New York.
O'Reilly, B.

1818 Greenland, the Adjacent Seas, and the Northwest Pas.sage to the
Pacific Ocean. ]ip. 1-293. London.
Otte. D. F. a. De.

1921 Summary of the Ice Patrol. Season of 1920. International Ice
Observation and Ice Patrol Service in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Season of 1920. United States Coast Guard Bulletin No. 8. p. 22.
Washington.
Peary. R. E.

1903 Report of R. E. Peary. C. E.. V. S. N., on w^irk done in the Arctic

in 1898-1902. Bulletin of the American Geographical Society.

Vol. 35. pp. 496-533. New York.
1907 Nearest the Pole. (A Narrative of the Polar Expedition of the

Peary Arctic in the S. S. Roofifvcit 1905-1906.) pp. 1-411.

Doubleday-Page. New York.
1910 The North Pole. pji. 1-365. Fred A. Stokes Company. New York.
Pettersson, O.

1883 On the Properties of Water and Ice. Vega Expeditions Vetevsk.

iakstogelser. Band 2, pp. 249-323. Stockholm.

1904 On the Influence of Ice Melting upon Oceanic Circulation. The

Geograpliical Journal. Vol. 24. pp. 285-333. London.
1907 On the Influence of Ice Melting upon Oceanic Circulation. Ibid.
Vol. 30. No. 3. pp. 273-303. London.
1907a On the Influence of Ice Melting upon Oceanic Circulation. Ibid.
Vol. 30. Nt). 6. pl». (i71-675. London.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS 213

] 'ETTERSSON. O. — Continued.

1927 Apei'Qii fl'orientation vors la conception actuellc dc la circulation
oceani(iue dans TAtlantique. Svenslva Hydrogratisk-Biologiska
Konnnissionens Skrifter. Ny serie : Hydrografi, V, pp. 1-21.
Goteborg.

1929 Changes in the Oceanic < "iiculation and their Climatic Conse-
quences. The Geographical Review. Vol. 19. Xd. 1. iip. 121-131.
New York.

PORSILD. M. P.

1919 Om de grondlandske Isf.iordes saakaldte Udskydning. Geogra-

fiska Annaler. Vol. 1. pp. 149-158. Stockholm.

Ql'ERVAIX. A. DE. ET MERCANTOX. P. L.

1920 Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Gronland-Expeditinii. 1912-13.

Denksche Schweizcrischeu Naturforschenden (iescllschaft. Vol.
53, pp. 1-402. Zurich.
192.1 Rcsultats Scientitiques de TExpedition Suisse an (iroenland, 1912-13.
Vol. 51. p. 55. Meddelelser om Grunland. Copenhagen.
QUINAN. J. H.

1915 Summary of Observations and Operations. Ice Patrol. Season of

1914. International Ice Observations and Ice Patrol Service in

the Nf)rth Atlantic Ocean. From February to August, 1914.

United States Coast Guard Bulletin No. 3. pp. 30-37. Washington.

Rabot, C.

1S90 Une Exursion au Groenland. Le Glacier de .Tacobshavn. Le Tour

du Monde.
1929 Glace Polaire sur les Cotes de Norvege. La Nature. No. 2822.
Paris.
1929a Des Icebergs pres du Cap Nord. L'lllustration 87 Annee, No. 4.502,
p. 747. Paris.
Rasmussex, K.

1915 The First Tliule Expedition. 1912. :Meddelelser om Gninland. Vol.

41. pp. 357-360. Copenhagen.
1925 Preliminary Report of the Fifth Tbule Expedition. The Geographi-
cal Review. Vol. 15. pp. 521-562. New York.
Redfield. W. C.

1863 Memoir of the Dangers and Ice in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Bureau of Navigation. Navy Department, lltli edition, pp. 12-20
witli map. Washington.
RlCKETTTS. N. G.

1929 Weather. Ice Observation. Oceanography. International Ice Ob-

servations and Ice Patrol Service in the North Atlantic Ocean.
United States Coast Guard Bulletin No. 17, pp. 50-55 and 60-90.
Washington.

1930 Weather. Ice Observation. Oceanography. Ibid. Season of 1929.

Bulletin No. IS. pp. 1-5 : 67-74 : 7.5-122.

1931 The Bathymetry and Sediments of Davis Strait. The Marion Ex-

pedition to I»avis Strait and Baflin Bay under the direction of the
U. S. Coast Guard. 1928. Scientific Results. Bulletin No. 19,
Part 1, with illustrations. (In press.) Wasliington.

Riis-Cartexsen, E.

1929 Nogle Bemaerkninger vedr0rende Godthaab Expedition 1928. Geo-
grafisk Tidsskrift Bind 32. Hefte 2/3. pp. 127-136. Copenhagen.

Rink. H.

1889 Nogle Bemaerkninger om Inland Eisen og Isfjeldenes Oprindelse.

Meddelelser om Grfmland. Vol. 8. pp. 27.3-276. Copenhagen.

RODMAX. H.

1890 Reports on Ice and Ice Movements in the North Atlantic Ocean,

U. S. Hydrographic Office. No. 93. pp. 1-26. Washington.
Ryder. C. H.

1889 Undersogelse af Grr.nlands Vestkyst fra 72° til 74° .35' N. B.
Meddelelser om Gr(inland. Vol. 8. pp. 203-271. Copenhagen.
Salisbury. R. D.

1895 The Greenland Expedition of 1895. The Journal of Geology. Vol.
3, No. 18. pp. 875-902. Chicago.
Sandstrom. W. J.

1919 The Hydrodynamics of Canadian Atlantic Waters. Canadian Fish-
eries Expedition, 1914-1.5, pp. 221-243. Ottawa.

214 MARION EXPEDITIOISr TO DAVIS STRAIT AXD B AFFIX BAY
SCHOTT. G.

1903 Die .Tahrige grosse Eistlrift an der Ostkaute der Xeufundlandliaiik.

Annalen d. Hydrographie und maritimen Meteorologie. Vol. 31,
pp. 204-206. Berlin.

1904 Die Grosse Eistrift bei der Neufundlandbank und die Wiirniever-

liitltnisse des Meerwassers im Jahr. 1903. Annalen d. Hydro-
graphie und maritimen Meteorologie. Vol. 32, pp. 277-287.
Berlin.
1904a Uber die Grenzen des Treibeises bei der Xeufundlaud Bank .sowie
liber eine Beziebung zwischen neufundlandiscben und ostgron-
landischen Treibeis. Annalen d. Hydrographie und maritimen
Meteorologie. Vol. 32, pp. 805-309. Berlin.

Simpson. E.

1890 Report of the Ice and Ice Movements in Bering Sea and the
Arctic Basin, pp. 1-25. U. S. Hydrographie Office. Washington.

Smith. E. H.

1922 Some Meteorological Aspects of the Ice Patrol Work in the Xorth

Atlantic. The Monthly Weather Review. Vol. 50, Xo. 12.
Washington.
1922a Report of Physical Observations. International Ice Observation
and Ice Patrol Service in the Xorth Atlantic Ocean. Season of
1921. United States Coast Guard Bulletin Xo. 9, pp. 4.8-60,
Charts B-H. Washington.

1923 Oceanographer's Reports. Discussion of Profiles 1-14. Ocean-

ographic Summary. Season of 1922. Ibid. Bulletin Xo. 10, pp.
54-56 and 84-97. 14 charts. Washington.

1924 Oceanographer's Reports. Discussion of Profiles 1-15. Oceano-

graphic Summary. Oceanographic Cruise, October 21-26, 1923.
Sununary of Oceanographic Cruise. October 21-26, 1923. Bid.
Bulletin Xo. 11. pp. 70-160. 8 charts. Washington.
1924a Oceanographer's Report. Discussion of the Subsurface Investiga-
tion. Oceanographic Summary. Season of 1924. Ibid. Bulletin
Xo. 12, pp. 63-147, sketches and figures, charts A-M. Washington.

1925 The International Ice Patrol. The Meteorological IMagazine. The

Meteorological Committee, Air Ministry, Vol. 60. Xc. 718.

1926 A Practical Method for Determining Ocean Currents. United

States Coast Guard Bulletin Xo. 14, pp. 50, with illustrations.
Washington.
1926a Oceanography for the Ice Patrol. Bulletin of the Xational Re-
search Council, vol. 11. Part 2, No. 56, pp. 106-112. Washington.

1927 Weather. Ice Observation. Oceanography. International Ice Ob-

servation and Ice Patrol Service in the Xorth Atlantic Ocean.

Season 1926. United States Coast Guard Bulletin Xo. 15. pp.

31-48, 53-124. Washington.
1927a The Drift Ice in the North Atlantic. Pilot Chart of the North

Atlantic Ocean for March. U. S. Hydrographie Office. AVash-

ington.
1927b Weather, Ice Observation, Oceanography. International Ice Ob-
servation and Ice Patrol Service in the North Atlantic Ocean.

Season of 1927. U. S. Coast Guard Bulletin No. 16, pp. 33-50,

52-119. Washington.
1927c Oceanographic Investigations of the International Ice Patrol.

Bulletin of the National Research Council, No. 61, pp. 212-217.

Washington.

1929 The North Atlantic lee Menace and the Work of Protection Con-

ducted by the U. S. Coast Guard. United States Naval Institute
Proceedings. Vol. 55, No. 315, pp. 393-400. Annapolis.
1929a Expedition of the U. S. Coast Guard Cutter Marion to the Region
of Davis Strait in 1928. Science. The Science Press. Vol. 58,
No. 1768. New York.

1930 Some Preliminary Results of the Coast Guard's Mtirioii Expedition

to Davis Strait. National Research Council. Transa<'tions of
the American Geophysical I'nion eleventh meotin"-'. May 1-2, 1930,
pp. 245-251. Washington.

1931 The Physical Oceanography of Davis Strait. The Mmion Expedi-

tion to Davis Strait and Ballin Bay under the direction of the
U. S. Coast Guard, 1928. Scientific Results, r.ulletin No. 19,
Part 2, with illustrations. In press. Washington.

SCIENTIFIC EESULTS 215

Smith, H. T.

1925 Marine Meteorology, History and Progresf?. Part III, Present I>ay.

The Marine Observer. Vol. II. No. 23. The Meteorological Com-
mittee. Air Ministry. London.

SOVIEl Rt'SSIA.

1930 Album of Ice Forms. 40 figures. Hxdrcigraiihic Deiiartment.
Hydro-Meteorological Section. Leningrad.

SPEEK SCHNEIDER. C. I. H.

1926 Arctic Ice. The Marine Observer. Vol. 3. No. 29, pp. 73-77. The

Meteorological Committee. Air Minstry. London.

1927 Om Isforholdne i Danske Farvende: aarene 18.S1-191I6, Fortsaettelse

at" meddelelser No. 2, Publikationer fra Uet Danske Meteorologiske
Institut Meddelelser No. 6. Copenhagen.
Steensteup. K. J. V.

1893 Bidrag til Kjendskab til Braeerne og Brae-Isen i Nord-Gronland.
Meddelelser om Grcinland. Vol. 4. pp. 71-112. Copenhagen.
Stefansson, V.

1917-1925 Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-1918. 14 vols.

Ottawa.
1922 The Friendly Arctic. i)p. 421. The Macmillan Co., New York.

SVERDRUP. O.

19U4 New Land : Four Years in the Arctic Regions. Vol. I, pp. 1-504 :
vol. II. pp. 1-490. Longmans Green & Co.. London.

SVERDRUP, H. U.

1928 The Wind-Drift of the Ice on the North Siberian Shelf. The Nor-

wegian North Polar Expedition with the Maud. 1918-1925. Sci-
entific Results. Vol. IV. No. 1, pp. 1-46. Bergen.

1929 The Waters on the North Siberian Shelf. Ibid. Vol. IV, No. 2,

pp. 1-75. Bergen.
Ta^-eor, G. I.

1914 Report on the work carried out by the G/S Scotia, 1913. Ice Ob-

servations, Meteorology, and Oceanography in the North Atlantic

Ocean, pp. 48-68. London.
Thayer, A. H.

1913 Invisibilit<v of Icebergs at Night. Pilot Chart North Atlantic Ocean.

January. V. S. Hydrographic Office. Washington.
Thuras, A. L.

1915 Report of Physical Observations. International Ice Observation

and Ice Patrol Service in the North Atlantic Ocean. From Feb-
ruary to August. 1914. United States Coast Guard Bulletin No.
3, pp. 63-68. Washington.

1916 Ocean Currents at the Southern End of the Great Bank of New-

foundland. From February to July 1915. Ibid. Bulletin No. 5,

pp. 25-50. Washington.
1921 Report of Scientific Oliserver. Season of 1920. Ibid. Bulletin No.

8. pp. 14-15. Washiugtor..
Transehe, N. a.

1925 Th«^ Siberian Sea Road. The AVork of the Russian Hydrographica)

Expedition to tlie Arctic, 1910-1915. Geographical Review. A'ol

15. No. 3, pp. 367-398. New York.
1028 The Ice Cover of the Arctic Sea. with a Genetic Classification of

Sea Ice. pp. 1-124. Problems of Polar Research. A series <if

Papers. American Geographical Society. Special Publication

No. 7. New York.
Tkoixe. a.

1913 Hydrographical Observations from the Denmai-l: Exiiedition II.

Meddelelser om Gronland. Vol. 41. pp. 275-468. Copenhagen.
U. S. Hydrographic Office.

1915 Arctic Pilot. Vol. III. pp. 518. British Admiralty. London.

1919 Newfoundland Pilot, including the coast of Labrador from Cape

St. Lewis to Long Point. Publication No. 73 ; 4th edition.
pp. 671. Washington.

1920 Nova Scotia Pilot, including the Bay of Fundy and all of Cape

Breton Island as well as the olf-lying banks and the Grand
Banks. No. 99. pp. 494. U. S. Hydrographic Office. Washington.

1921 Arctic Pilot, Vol. II. 3d edition pp. 372. Washington.

1924 St. Lawrence Pilot. Gulf and River of St. Lawrence to Montreal,
No. 100. pp. 590. U. S. Hydrographic Office. Washington.

120860—31 -15

216 MARION EXPEDITION TO DAVIS STRAIT AND BAFFIN BAY

Vahl. M. Amdbup. G. C. Bode, L.. axd Jensen. A. S.

1928 Greeiilaml. Vol. 1, The Discovery of Greeuland. Exi)l()rati()ii and
Xatiiie nf the Country, PP- 1-575. Copenhagen.

\'.\LLAUX. C

1926 Le Danger des Icebergs siir les Routes Maritime de I'Atlantique
Nord. (Materiaux pour I'etude des ("alamites. deuxieme ainiee
1925-26. No. 6. pp. 283-307. Paris.
Waidner, Dickinson, and Crowe.

1912 Observations on Ocean Temperatures in the Vicinity of Icebergs
and in Other Parts of the Ocean. Pilot Chart Nortli Atlantic
O can. Ausiusr. T'. S. Hydrographic Office. Washington.
Wandbx. C. F.

1893 Sur les Hydro;;raphiques du Detroit de Davis. (Resume des Co-
munications sur le Groenland. Septieme partie. ) Meddele'.ser
om GrMidand, Vol. 7. pp. 2.13-263. Copenhagen.
Ward, R. deC.

1924 A Cru'se with the International Ice Patrol. The Monthly Weather
Review. Vol. 52. No. 2, pp. 50-61. Washington.
Wegkner, A.

1930 Deutsclie Inlandeis-Expedition nach Gronland sommer 1929, under
leitung von Alfred Wegener. Vorlaefiger Bericht iiber die Ergeb-
nisse. Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin. Nr.
%, pp. 81-124. Berlin.
Weyprecht. K.

1897 Aletanioipliosen des Polareises. Verlag von Moritz Perles, pp.
1-284. Wein.
Wheeler, W. J.

1924 Summary of Ice Patrol, Season of 1924. International Ice Obser-
vati<jn and Ice Patrol Service in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Season of 1924. United States Coast Guard Bulletin No. 12,
pp. 59-61. Washington.
AViese. W.

1922 Die Einwirkung des Polareises im Gronlandisehen Meere .luf die
Nordlantische zyklonale Tiitigkeit. Annalen d'Hydrographie und
Maritimen Meterologie. Vol. 50, pp. 271-280. Berlin.
1924 Polareis und atmospharische Schwankungen. Geogratiska Anna-
len. Vol. 6. pp. 273-299. Stockholm.
1930 Zur Kenutuis der Salze des Meereises. Annalen d'Hydrographie
und Maritime Meteorologie. Vol. 58. Heft VIII. pp. 282 2S6.
Berlin.
WiLKINS, G. H.

1928 The Flight from Alaska to Spitzbergen, 1928, and the Preliminary
Flights of 1926 and 1927. The Geographical Review. Vol. 18.
No. 4, pp. 527-555. New York.
Wright, C. S. and Priestt.ky, R. E.

1922 Glaciology. (Scientific Reports of the British (Terra Nova) Ant-
arctic Expedition 1910-13.) Chapter 2: Antarctic Pack-Ice by
Priestley, pp. 39.3-394. London.
AVright. F. G.

1896 Greeuland Icefields and Life in tlie Ninth Atlantic. D. Appleton &
Co., pp. 1—107. New York.
WfsT, G.

1924 Florida-und-Antillenstrom : ein hydrodynamische I^ntersuchung
Veroffentilchungen des Instituts fiir Mereskunde. Neue Folge.
Geogra]ihisch-natnrwissenschaftliche Reihe. Heft 12, pp. 1—48,
Berlin.
1928 Der Ursprung der Atlantischen Tiefenwiisser (ans den Ergebissen der
Deutschen Atlantischen Expedition) Sonderabdruck aiis dem
Jlibiljiums Sonderbrand der Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir
Erdkunde. j)p. .")1h;-."»34. Berlin.
Zeitsi.eb, F. a.

1926 Ice Observati(»n. Miscellaneous. International Ice Observation

and Ice I'atrol Service in the North Atlantic Ocean. Season of

1925. United States Coast Guard Bulletin No. 13. pp. 36-44 and

61-66. Washington.

1926a The Ice Drift in the North Atlantic Ocean. X(U-th At hint ir Pilot

Chart for March. U. S. Hydrographii- Ofiice. Washington.
1926b Standing Ic«>berg Guard in the N(n-lh At]anti(\ The National Geo-
graphic :Maii;izine. Vol. .")0, No. 1. pp. 1-28. Wasliiniiton.

INDEX

Academy Glacier, 78.

Advance, 47.

Ahlmann, H., 110, 111.
Aitken, J., 125, 126, 205.

Alfred Newton Glacier, 67.

Alpine Glacier, 61.

Amdrup, G., 104, 205.

American Archipelago. {See Arctic Archipelago.)

American Geographical Society Glacier, 67; pro-
ductivity, 68, 95.

American Museum Glacier, 67.

American whaling fleet, Freezes, 169.

Amundsen, R., 2, 3, 26, 28.

Amundsen, R., and Ellsworth, L., 205.

Anchor ice, 14, 122; regional formation, 33.

Angmagssalik, 37, 38.

Annie Christine, 171.

Annually, 205.

Anoritok Glacier, 74.

Arctic, 169.

Arctic Archipelago, 17; ice jams, 188: current map,
50; pack ice, 44, 51: glaciation, 62.

Arctic explorations, 168; history, 2

Arctic, ice, cooling effect on North Atlantic, 191, 192,
193; menace to ships, 168, 176.

Arctic Ocean, 17, 20; circulation, 28: ice, 29, 33, 51;
ice thickness, 25; regions of ice formation, 11;
salinity of sea ice, 11; salinity of surface layers, 10.

Arctowski, H., 205.

Armstrong, A., 205.

Ashdrabal, 170.

Astrup, 5.

Astrup Glacier, 78.

Ault, T. P., 5.

Axel Heiberg Land, glaciation, '68, 69; Easter Land,
68.

Azore Islands, 161.

Baffin, W., 3, 4.

Baffin Bay, 17, 42, 51; currents, 136, 145; description,
138; distribution of icebergs, 141; drift of icebergs,
145, 146; dynamic topography. 138. 139: North
Water, IX, 44, 45.

Baffin Bay pack ice, description, 42, 43, 44; distribu-
tion, 43, 44; drift, 44, 45. 46; limits, 46; west ice, 44.

Baffin Land, 176; current, 144, 145, 146; glaciation,
69.

Banse Glacier, 82.

Barents Sea. jiaek ice, 34. 39. 40.

Barnes, H. T., 33, 108, 111, 121, 122, 125, 126, 193, 206.

Bartlett, R. A., 2, 3, 26, 169, 206.

Bay of Islands, .57.

Bear Island, 63.

Beistad Fjord. 66.

Belle Isle, 60, 112, 150, 179. 182, 185. 186, 187.

Belle Isle Strait, 125, 150, 172. 180; ice conditions, 55:
navigable dates, 52, 56.

Bennett Island, 26; glaciation, 64.

Bergen, 188.

Bernier, J. E., 206.

Bermuda, 161.

Bering, V., 2.

Bering Strait, 26.

Beothic, 44.

Berlin, 60.

Bigelow, H. B., 133, 201, 204, 206.

Big Island. 146.

Bjerkn^s's formute. 149, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 175.

Bjerknes, V., 160, 175, 201.

Bjerknes, V., and others, 206.

Bjorne Glacier, 66.

Blake, E. V., 129. 20fi.

Bliss Glacier, 67.

Boger Point, 67.

Bowditch, N., 121, 206.

Boyle, R. W., and Reid, C. D., 206.

Brennecke. W., 40, 206.

British Admiralty, 206.

British Meteorological Oflice, IX, 6, 59, 182.

Botn Glacier. (i7.

Bottom water, 192.

Bowdoin (ilacier, 82, 95.

Baxtergate, 161, 167.

Brooks, C. F., 206.

Brooks, r. E. P., 71, 207.

Brooks, C. E. P., and Quennell, W. A., 37, 40, 207

Brother John Glacier, 72, 82.

Brown, R. N. R., 207.

Brusilov, 26.

Bryant, H. G., 207.

Bu Glacier, 82.

Bylot Island, glaciation, 69.

Byrd, R. E., 2, 3, 207.

Cabot, John, 169.

Cabot Strait, ice conditions, 56; navigable dates, 57.

Cagni, v., 2, 3, 26.

Calving, glaciers, 97, 98, 99, 100; icebergs, 115.

Campbell-Hepworth, M. W., 180, 203, 207.

Cape .Alexander, 143.

Cape Alexander to Cap3 York, glaciers, 81, 82; ice-
berg productivity, 82, 95.

Cape Bathurst, 26.'

Cape Breton, 56.

Cape Broughton. 47.

Cape Cannon, 78.

Cape Canso, 56.

Cape Chidley, 51, 146, 149.

Cape Desolation, 37, 75.

Cape Dier. 41. 46, 136, 141, 144.

Cape Farewell. 37, 74. 75. 76, 78, 193.

Cape Ilatteras, 205.

Cape North, .56.

Cape Race, 52, 53, 59, 150, 151, 155, 169. 171.

Cape Rauda Nupr, 26.

Cape York, 142, 143.

Cape York to Svartenhuk Peninsula, fast ice, 84;
glaciers, 82, 83, 84, 85; iceberg productivity, 83, 95^

Carey Islands, 143.

Carl Ritter Glacier, 65.

Carnegie, 5.

Cassandra, 172.

Castle Point, 172.

Chamberlin. T. C, 60, 207.

Chance. VIII. 5, 149, 178.

Chield Glacier, 82.

C his well, B. M., 150, 207.

Clarence Head. 67, 68.

Classification, sea ice, 17.

Climate change, 38.

Cold wall. 159. 204.

Collisions with ice, 170, 171, 172.

Color of icebergs, 109,

Convention for the Safetv of Life at Sea, 174.

Coplans, M., 207.

Crack, 14, 18.

Croker Bav, 68. 69.

Crimson BhilTs, 82.

Cumberland Gulf, 41.

Gumming <'reek. 68.

Cunani Line. 170, 171.

Curreiit.s Ballin Bay, 1.38, 145; Baffin Land, 144;
calculated compared with iceberg drifts, 162, 163,
164, 165: dynamic mapping of, 176; dynamic
topographic maps, 139,147, 155, 1.57, 158, 162, 163
164. 165; East Greenland, 34, 74; effect on icebergs
128, 136; gradient, 28; Grand Bank region, 151-161;
impelling forces, 204; induced by icebergs, 124,
125, 126; Labrador, 149, 150, 161 {see also Drift of
icebergs, and Gulf Stream); Smith Sound, 143;
West Greenland, 76, 77.

Cwm, 61.

Dana, VIII, 5.

Dangers of ice, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172.

217

218

INDEX

Danish Meteorological Institute. 77.

Davis, J., 3, 4, 57.

Davis Strait, 6, 7. 17, 24, 39, 47, 129, 144, 181; cui rents.
42, 45, 117, 145; distribution of icebergs, 146, 149;
dynamic topographic maps, 147; early explora-
tion, 3; ice. 55, 59, 77; oceanography. IX, 176.

Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, .solar warmmg, 199.

Daw.son, W. B., 112. 151.207.

Defant, A., 195, 205, 207.

Dellaven, 47.

DeQuervain, A., 5, 60, 71, 95.

DeLong, G. W., 2, 26, 207.

DeLong Islands, glaciation, 62, 64.

Demolition of icebergs, 122, 123, 124.

Denmarlv Harbor, 37.

Density, fresh-water ice, 13; Grand Banli's water,
196; icebergs, 108, 110, 111, 112; sea ice, 13.

Deutsche Seewarte, 54, 58, 161, 180, 207.

Deutsche Seewarte Segelhandbuch. 77.

Dietrichson Glacier. 82. 83, 84. 95,

Diebitsch Glacier. 82.

Dislco Bay, 24, 70, 71, 72, 101, 108.

Docker-Smith Glacier, 82.

Dodge Glacier, 82.

Devon Island. 68, 69.

Disintegration of icebergs, 112, 115. 116: effect of
explosives, 122, 123, 124; rate, 117, 118, 119; split
ting, 121.

Drifts, anchor ice, 33; Advance, 47; beset ships, 26,
27; casks, 26; Dutch whaling fleet. 37; Enterprise
and Investigator, 47; floe parties. 27; Fox, 47;
Greeley's boat, 47; Ilansa, 37; Jeannette, 38;
North Star, 47; Polaris party. 17; Rescue. 47;
Resolute, 47; wreckage, 27.

Drift casks, 26.

Drift of icebergs, annual variations. IsO. 181; BafFm
Bay, 136, 137; compared with (•ali'ulate<i currents.
162. 163. 164. 165; correlati(in factors, 1S5, 1H6, 187.
iss. IS'.t; controlled bv, 77; KasI Greenland. 75. 76
IhKlsdii Strait. 146; Labraili rcoast, 149. 150; map,
160; pack-ice effect, 179. 180; iihenonienal. 161. 167:
rate south of Newfoundland. 1.56, 1.59; recorded by
ice patrol, 159, 160, 161; seasonal variation, 176, 177,
178. 179; seasonal variation south of Newfound-
land. 154. 155; seasonal wind effect. 176, 177; south
of Xt>\vfoundIand, 150, 16S; variable, 136; western
North .Vtlantic. i:56; wind and current control.
128. 136.

Dutch whaling fleet, 37. 168.

Drygalski, E. von. 5, 60, 85, 91, 95, 99, 119, 129, 208.

East Greenland icebergs, distribution, 75, 76; drifts
74, 75, 76, 77; location, 73. 74; phenomenal drifts,
75.

East Greenland pack, advance. 37; description, 35,
37, 38; drift, 37, 38, 39, 40; East Iceland Tongue, 35;
isolation from Laborador current. 39; limits, 37;
map, 36; meteorological effect, 40: retreat, 38;
Storis, 37, 38.

Easter Land, glaciation, 68.

Eastern North American pack, annual volume, 189;
annual variations, 57, 58, .59, 60; cooling effect, 199:
description, 40, 41, 42: effect on icebergs, 179,
limits, 190; sources, 41.

Eclipse Sound, 43.

Edge Island, glaciers, 63.

Edgedesminde, 145.

Ekip-Sermia Glacier, 72, 85.

Ekman, V. W., 13.3. 176, 208.

Ellesmere Land, 26; glaciation, 65; glaciers, 65, 66
67, 68; glaciers, iceberg productivity, 95; snowfall
62.

Engel, M. C, 5, 91, 208.

Enterprise and Investigator, 47.

Erik Fjord, 69.

Erosion of icebergs, 112, 115.

Eskimos, 22, 68.

Etah, 22.

Eugenie Glacier, 65.

Explorations, 2.
Falk, E., 44.

Fast ite, 14; Alaskan sector, '22: classification, 17:
dale of disinle^'iatidii, 21; date of formation. 24:
description, 21; disti ilnuion, 21 ; eiTeci on icebergs,
24, 188; Fox Channel, 22; (Jreeidand Sea, 22:
limits, 23; Melville Bay, 22, 84, 85; meteorological
effect, 22; regions of growth. 21; Siberian Stielf, 21,
Sikussak, 24; "Stamuhki," 23.
Fisher, H. (};, ,50, 208.
Fiskerna's, 37, 63, 76.

Fjords, Academy, 78; Beistad. 66; Bessels, 64; Erik,
69; Frederick Hyde, 24: Godthaab, 76; Jacobshavn,
91, 93, 141: Kangerdlugssuak, 74; Karrat, 85;
Nachvak, 149; Nordenskiold. 78; Sognefjord, 205;
Stor, 63: Torsukatak, 141; Umanak, 86.

Flemish Cap, 39, 77, 78, 152, 1.53, 167.

Floating ice, 7.

Floeberg, 14; origin, ;30.

Florida, 205.

Folger, P., 169.

Forbes, R. B., 169.

Forecast, icebergs south of Newfoundland, 189.

Form and size of icebergs, blocky, 99; dome shaped,
100; height at glaciers, 104; largest in North At-
lantic, 107; valley type, 103.

Fossil ice, 64.

Fox, 43. 47, .57, 136.

Fox Channel, fast ice, 22; ice conditions, 49, 51;
pack ice. 41.

Fram, 2. 10, 26, 29.

Fram Glacier, 66.

Franklin, B., 169.

Franklin, Sir John, VII, 6S.

Franz Josef Land, 26, 29; glaciation. 62, 64.

Frederickshaab, 37.

Frederickshaab Glacier, 94.

Freezing of sea water, effect on North Atlantic, 193;
extent of temperature effect, 194; table, 9.

Fresh water ice, density, 13.

Fries, E. F. B., 150, 178,208.

Fridtjof Nansen Land(se« also Franz Josef Land),
64.

Frobisher, M., 2, 3, 57.

Frost smoke, 17, 19.

Fury and Hecla Strait, 51.

Fylla, 5.

Gabriel Strait, 146.

Gade Glacier, 82, 95.

Gamble, A. L., 150, 208.

Garde, T. V.. 5, 74, 208.

General Birch, 171.

Geophysical Institute, Bergen, VIII.

Germania Land, 74.

Giesecke, 4.

Giesecke Glacier, 82, 83, 95.

Glacial ice, annual amount, 189, 19); compared with
volume of sea ice, 190, 197; density, 110; land ice,
60; regional distribution, 20; terminology, 14.

Glaciation, Arctic Eurasia, 62; Axel Heiberg Land,
68, 69; BaflSn Land, 69; Bylot Island. 69; Devon
Island, 68; Easter Land, 68; Ellesmere Land,
65, 66, 67, 68, 69; Franz Josef Land, 64, 65; Grant
Land, 65; Greenland, 70; Nicholas II Land, 64;
Novaya Zemlya, 64 (see also Land ice, 62); Spits-
bergen, 62, 63, 65.

Glaciers, Alpine, 61; Antarctic type, 61; Arctic type,
61; Boger Point, 67; cachment, 61; Cape Alexander
to Cape York. 81, 82; Cirque, 61; Cape A'ork to
Svartenhuk. 82; Cwm. 61; Ellesmere Land. 65, 66,
67, 68, 69: Edge Island. 63; East Greenland, 73;
iceberg productivity, 94; manner of calving, 97,
98, 99, 100; Melville Bay. 73; Northeast Bay and
Disko Bay. 73. 85. 94; Northeast Land. 63; north
Greenland. 78, 79, 80, 83; plateau, 61; Piedmont,
61; south Greenland, 94; shelf ice, 61; snowdrift, 61;
type, 73; westernmost Greenland, 73.

Glacon, 14, 16.

Godthaab, vm, 5.

Godthaab Expedition. 41, 47, 52, i:38, 141, 145, 199.

Godthaab Fjord, 76.

Graah, \V. A., 208. .

Grand Bank pack ice; description, 54; distribution,
.54; limits, .54; movements, ,54.

Grand Bank region, currents, .53, .54; distribution of
pack ice, 53. .54, .55; (iensity of water. 196; distribu,
tion of icebergs, 151, 1.52; drift of icebergs, 1.52, 1.5;i-
1,54; drift of pack ice, 53, .54. .55; dynamic topo-
graphic maps. 162. 163. 164. 165; .seasonal distribu-
tion of icebergs. 168; stability of water layers. 195,
196; types of circulation. 1.56. 157. 1.58, 1.59.-

Grant Land, 30, 65.

Great Karajak Glacier, 73, 85, 88; annual discharge,
91; calving, 97, 98; cross sections, 107; height of
icebergs, 104; iceberg productivity, 91. 95; rate, 88.

Greely, A. W.. 5, 47, 65. 129. 208.

Green Bank, .53, 1.52. ,

Greenland ice cap, 4, 60; accumulation, 71; .uinual
discharge. 95; dissipation, 71; glaciation. 62, 70, 71,
72, 73; inland ice, 70; topography, 70, 71, 72.

INDEX

219

lireenland inland ice. 70; annual discharge, 72; dis-
sipation, 71; topographv, 72.

(irifTin. 47.

I irinnell Glacier. (i9.

(imwlor. 17.

I iiilf of St. Lawrence, 33; ice conditions, 55, 56, 57.

liiilf Stream, 34. 40, 104, 114, 117, 136, 152, 154, 156,
l.-.il. 169, 176, 201. 205.

I inn fire on icebergs. 124.

Hall, 2, 4, 65.

Ilaiiiherg, A.. 5, 208.

[I;iniiitnn Inlet, 149,202.

Iliiiiinier. K. E. J., 5, 93. 91, 85, 208.

liausa, 37.

Hart Glacier, 82.

Harvard University, VIII. IX, 111.

Hayes, 2, 4.

Hayes Glacier. 82. 95.

Hebron, 149.

Heat of fusion, 193.

Heilprin Glacier. 82.

Helland, A., 5, 85, 95. 99, 208.

Helland fJlacier. 82.

Helland-IIunsen. B., and Koefoed, E., 180, 19.5, 208.

Hellanci-Ihinsen, B., and Nansen, F., 203, 209.

Hellefiske Bank. 76.

Hennessev. J.. 6. 161, 209.

Henry, A. J.. 209.

Herald Island. 26.

Hiawatha Glacier, 78, 80.

Hjort, J., 5.

Hobbs, W. H.. 5, 60, 62.

Hobbs Glacier, 78.

Hoel, A., 35. 209.

Hope Island. 63.

Hovgaard. W.. 38. 209.

Howard. A. G. W.. 6. 209.

Hubbard Glacier, 82.

Hudson. II., 3, 4.

Hudson Bay. ice conditions IX. 49, 51; icebergs, 146.

Hudson Bay pack, description. 49; distribution, 49,
51; movement. 49, 51.

Hudson Strait, 41. 78: ice conditions, IX, 49, 51,
137; currents, 146: drift of bergs, 146.

Humboldt Glacier, 24. 68. 78. 80. 95. 108.

Hiininiock. 14.

Humniocking. 14.

Huntsman, A. G.. 53, 55, 56. 146. 150, 151, 152, 203,
204, 209.

Ice area, 190; limits. Davis Strait and Baffin Bay,
197; map, 200.

Icebergs, 17; annual number south of Newfound-
land, 181; .\ntarctic type. 61; Arctic type, 61;
circulation induced by, 124, 125. 126: calving, 115;
current and wind control drift, 128, 136; comjjared
with volume of sea ice, 191; dangers from, 168;
disintegration and melting, 112-127; distribution
and drift in Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, 138;
distribution on Grand Bank, 152; distribution
south of Newfoundland, 166, 167; drift around
Grand Bank, lf.2: drift tracks. 159, 160, 161; ex-
plosives, eft'ect upon, 124, 123, 122; East Green land,
24; East Iceland, 75; forecast, 189: form and size,
100, 108: general drift and fate, 136; gimfire, effect
on, 124; height at glaciers, 104: influence of sea ice,
24; largest in North Atlantic. 107; mirage, 127,
128; menace to shipping. 168-176; manner of calv-
ing, 97, 98. 99. 100; normal number south of New-
foundland. 167: phenomenal drifts, 75, 161, 167;
reflection of sound waves, 128; structure, color,
density, 108-112; seasonal variation around Grand
Bank, 154. 155; seasonal distribution, 168; seasonal
invasion of North Atlantic, 176, 177, 178; visibility
127, 128.

Ice blink, 17.

Ice caps, 26.

Ice field, 14, 16.

Ice floe, 14. 16.

Ice foot, 14. 23.

Ice jam, 188.

Iceland, 26, 38; pack ice. 39, 40.

Ice patrol, VIII, IX, 104, 123, 136, 173, 174, 175,176,
201.

Igdlutarssuk Glacier. 74.

Ikerssuak Glacier, 74.

Inglefield Land, 80.

Ingnerit Glacier, 85.

Internationa] ice patrol. (6'ff Ire patrol.)

Irminger, E., 37, 39, 209.

Isafjord, 188.

Iselin, C, 5, 149, 152, 209.

Itivdliarsuk Glacier, 85, 95; height of icebergs, 104.

Iversen, T., 35, 63, 209.

Ivigtut, 37, 60, 183, 185, 186, 187.

Jacobshavn, 184.

.lacobshavn Fjord, 141.

Jacobshavn Glacier, 73, 85, 91; coloring, 99; descrip-
tion, 91, 94; iceberg productivity, 91, 94, 95; size
of icebergs, 94, 104.

Jacobsen, J. P., and Jensen, A. J. C, 209.

Jagdt, N.,209.

James Glacier, 67.

Jan Mayen, 37, 193.

Jeannette, 2, 26. 168.

Jenkins, J. T., 167, 209.

Jensen, A. S., 5, 39, 209.

Joerg, W. L. G., 209.

John Ross Glacier, 67, 82.

Johnston, C. E., 77, 119, 128, 129, 1:33, 1.50, 159, 210.

Johnstone, J., 8, 210.

Jones Sound, 41, 43, 44, 67, 143, 144.

Jolliffe Glacier, 65.

Julianehaab, 188.

Jungerssen Glacier, 78.

Kamarujuk Glacier, 85.

Kandlugsuak Glacier, 85.

Kane, E. K., 2, 4, 57, 65, 129.

Kane Basin, 4, 22, 45.

Kangerdluarsuk Glacier, 85.

Kangerdlugssuak Fjord, 74.

Kangerdlugssuak Glacier, 74.

Kara Sea, 26, 34, 39, 40.

Karluk, 26.

Kayser, O., 74, 210.

Kellett, 47.

Kennedy Channel, 4.

King Oscar Glacier, 82, 83, 95.

Kjaer Glacier, 82.

Knudsen, M., 5.

Koch, J. P., 5

Koch, L., 5, 17, 24, 60, 68, 70, 80, 82, 85, 86, 95, 210.

Kolehak, A. V., 23, 35, 210.

Kolyuchin Bay, 26.

Knut Rasmussen Glacier, 82.

Krummel, O., 9, 107, 112, 201, 210.

Labrador current, X, 135; effect of melting ice, 178;
effect of seasonal winds, 176, 177; irregular pul-
sations, 178; temperature, 202; variations, 149, 161,
177, 178; volume of discharge, 201, 202.

Labrador and Newfoundland pack ice, description,
51; distribution, 52; limits, 52; movement, 52.

Ladv Franklin Island, 137.

Lancaster Sound, 41, 43, 44, 68, 140, 144.

Land ice, classification, 61; DeLong group, 62; dis-
tribution, 60; Franz Josef Land, 62; Melville
Island, 62: melting of, 97; Novaya Zemlya, 62;
New Siberian Islands, 62; Nicholas II, Land, 62;
Prince Patrick Island, 62; regional distribution,
21; Spitsbergen, 62 (see also Glaciation, 62).

Lane routes, 171, 172, 174, 175.

Latent heat of ice, 191, 194, 195, 197.

Lead or lane, 17, 18; Pearv's "big lead," 31, 32.

Lecky, A. S., 210.

Lefferts Glacier, 67.

Levis, F. A., 210, 211.

Liakhof. 3.

Liakionoff, 9.

Liedv Glacier, 82.

Little Karajak Glacier, 85, 95, 107.

Low, A. P., 68, 69, 2li.

MacKenzie Bay, 22.

MacMillian, D. B., 2, 3, 5, 66, 68, 146, 1.50, 21 1 .

Makarov, S., 3, 29,35, 211.

Malmgren, F., 9, 10, 195, 211.

Markham, C, 211.

Markham Glacier, 82.

Marie Sophie Glacier, 78.

Marion, VIII, 5.

Marion Expedition, IX, 5, 6, 46, 47, 52, 72, 75, 7.j,
93, 137, 141, 174, 197, 199, 202.

Marre Glacier, 82.

Marshall, 4.

Matthews, D. J., 5, 151, 204, 211.

Makinson, G. T., 66, 67.

Maud, 3, 10, 26, 28, 195.

Maurv, M. F., 169, 205.

MeClintock, L., 47, 57.

McLean, N. B., 49, 211.

220

INDEX

Mecking, L., 6, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49, 51, 57, 58, 69, 71, 129,
141,180,181, 184,211.

Meehan Glacier, 82.

Meinardus,W., 40, 57,211.

Melting area, 190; limits, Davis Strait and Baffin
Bav, 147: map. 200.

Melting of icebergs, 112; diurnal, 121; rate of, 120.

Melting of sea ice, depth of temperature effect, 195;
effect on Nortli Atlantic, 192, 193, 199, 203, 205;
extent of temperature effect, 194, 201; origin of
bottom water, 192.

Melville, G. W., 211.

Melville Bav, 44, 57, 101, 188; drift of icebergs, 142;
fast ice, 22". 23, 84, 85; glaciers, 73; iceberg condi-
tions, 83, 84; middle ice, 43, 44; pack Ice, 43, 44, 57.

Melville Island, 62.

Melville-Tracy-Farahar Glacier, 95, 182.

Meteor, 171.

Michael Sars, VIII, 5, 145.

Middle ice, 43, 44.

Miquelon Islands, 53, 56, 151.

Mikkelsen, E., 5.

Mirage of icebergs, 127, 128.

Mi.xed water, 190, 201.

Mohn Glacier, 82.

Molloy, T. M., 140, 211.

Moltke Glacier, 82.

Montcalm, 125.

Montrose, 172.

Morris Jessup Glacier, 82, 95.

Munn, II. T., 51, 211.

Munter, W. H., 211.

Nain, 51, 78, 179.

Nansen, F., 2, 3, 5, 10, 26, 129, 192, 212.

Nansen Glacier, 82, 95.

Nantucket, 205.

Nares, G., 30, 129.

National geographic map, 212.

Nessmore, 104.

Newfoundland, 58, 66, 155, 205; harbors freeze, 51.

Newfoundland Banks, 53.

New Siberian Islands, 26, 29; glaciation, 62, 64;
polynya, 31, 32.

Nicholas II (Northern Land), 21; glaciation, 62, 64.

Nielsen, J. N., 5,74, 212.

Nightingale, H. W., 199, 202.

Nobile, U., 2, 3.

Nordenskiold Fjord, 78.

Nordenskiold, O., 2, 5, 82, 212.

North Atlantic Ocean, thermal control, 203.

Northeast Bay, 24, 71, 101, 104.

Northeast Bay and Disko Bay Glaciers, iceberg
productivity, 73, 95; location, 85, 86; manner of
discharge, 87, 93.

Northeast Land, glaciers, 63.

Northern Land. (See Nicholas II Land.)

North Greenland glaciers, 78, 79, 80; iceberg pro-
ductivity, 73, 80, 95.

North polar cap ice, 25. (See also Polar cap ice.)

North Star, 47.

North water IX, 19, 45.

Netting Hill. 171.

Novaya Zemlya, 26; glaciation, 62, 64.

O'Reilly, B., 4, 212.

Ostenfeldt Glacier, 78.

Otte, D. F. A. de, 150, 212.

Back ice, 14, 17; Baffin Bay pack, 42; cross section,
34; description, 32, 33, 34; disposition, 20; drift,
35; east Greenland pack, 35; east North American
pack. 40; Grand Bank pa.ck, 54; Hudson Bay
pack, 49; influence on drift of icebergs, 179; Labra-
dor and Newfoundland pack, 51; regional distri-
bution, 33, 34, 35; Spitsbergen pack, 34; St. Law-
rence pack, .56.

Paget Point, 67.

Paleocrystic ice, 30, 78.

Pancake ice, 14.

Parish Glacier, 65.

Pearv Glacier, 82.

Peary, R. E., 2, 3, 4, 65, 67, 68, 212.

Peterinann Glacier, 78, 79.

Pettersson, O., 2, 9, 13, 124, 125, 126, 191, 192, 193, ]9.5,
196, 197,203, 204, 2)2.

Piedmont, 61.

Pikutdlek Glacier, 74.

Pitufig Glacier, 82, 95.

Plateau, 61.

Point Barrow, 22, 25, 26, 169.

Polar cap ice, 14; area, 1; description, 25; movement,
28, 29; pole of inaccessibility, 25; pressure ridges.
30; paleocrystic regions, .30; rafting, 29; regional
distribution, 25. 30; thickness, 25; wind effect, 28.

Polaris party, 47.

Pole of inaccessibility, 25, 27.

Polynya, 17, 19; New Siberian. 31. 32; north water,
44. 45; Peary's "big lead," 31, 32; position, 31.

Pool, 17.

Porsild, M. P., 5, 38, 83, 87, 212.

Porsild Glacier, 78.

Pressure ridge, 17, 30.

Priestley, R. E., 60.

Prince Patrick Island, glaciation, 62, 69.

Protective measures, safeguarding shipping. 16S-
176; lane routes, 171, 172.

Quervain, A. de, and Mercanton, P. L.. 213.

Quinan. .1. H.. 129, 133, 150, 213.

Rabot, C, 5, 213.

Rasmussen, K., 5, 24, 69. 213.

Redfield, W. C, 213.

Rescue, 47.

Resolute, 47, 129, 144.

Resolution Island, 146.

Ricketts. N. G., 83, 108. 121, 125, 1.50, 176, 191, 196,
199, 213.

Riis-Cartensen. E., 5, 47, 213.

Ringer, W., 9.

Rink, H., 4, 97. 213.

Rink Glacier, 82. 85, 95.

River ice, 8.

Roach, P. F., 127.

Robeson Channel. 4.

Rodman, IL. 6, 33. ,52. 112. 170. 213.

Ross, J., 65.

Rotten ice, 14.

Ryder, C. H.. 5. 213.

Ryder Glacier, 78.

Sable Island, 56.

Salinity, Arctic Ocean, 11; sea ice, 8, 9; selectivity, 9.

Salisbury, R. D., 213.

Salisbury Island, 146.

Sands Glacier, 66.

Sandstrom, W. J.. 124, 213.

Sandwich Bay, 149.

Saugus, 172.

Saunders, 47.

Saunders Island, 68.

Schott, G., 39, 57, 180. 203, 213.

Scoresby, W., 2.

Scoresbv Sound, 2, 74.

Scotia, VIII, 5, 125.

Scott Inlet, 69.

Sea ice, 17; anchor ice. 33: annual amount, 189, 190;
annual cycle, 17; change of salinity, 12; compari-
son with volume of glacial ice. 190. 197; cooling
effect on North Atlantic. 191. 192, 193; danger
from, 168; density, 13; forms, 21; fast ice, 21, 22,
23,24; fresh-water pools, 13; pack ice. .32; physical
appearance, 13; properties. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12, 13, 14;
regional distribution, 20; salinity. 10: salinity
with age, 12; salinity, with depth. 11; snow cover,
11; terminology. 14; types in north Greenland, 31.

Sea water, freezing, s; solidification, 10.

Seneca, 128, 159; northern voyage of. 6.

Sermilik Glacier, 73. 85. 95.

Sharp Glacier. 82.

Shelf ice, 61.

Siberia, 28.

Siberian shelf, fast ice, 21.

Sikussak, 78; description, 24.

Sigurd Berg Glacier, 78.

Sikuijuitsok Glacier, 85.

Simpson, E.. 208.

Simpson, G. C, 62.

Slush or sludge. 14. 15. 21.

Smith, E. H., 6, 59, 85, 112, 129. 130. !:«. 1.50. 151. 1,M.
156, 159, 160, 161, 178. 181. 182. 195, 201. 202, 204. 212,
214.

Smith. H. T., 214.

Smith Sound, 22. 41. 43. 44. 55. 143. 144.

Snow Drift Glacier, 61.

Soesterne Glacier. 66.

Sofia, 5.

Sognefjord Fjord, 205.

Solar warming, Davis Strait and Biulin Bay, 198,
199, 200.

South Greenland glaciers, 94.

INDEX

221

.^peerschneider, C. I. H., 190, 214.

Spitsbergen, 26, 29, 64; pack ice, 34; explorations, 63;

glaciation, 62, 63.
Spitsbergen pack, description, 34, 35; movement, 35.
St. Lawrence pack, description, 55; distribution, 56;

movement, 57.
St. Joiin's, Newfoundland, 16; ice conditions, 51.
St. Anna, 26.
St. Pierre Bank, ,53.
Stabilitv of the ocean, 195. 196.
Stamuhki, 23.

Steenstrup Glacier. 82, 83, 84, 95.
Stefansson, V., 2, 3, 62, 69, 214.
Steensbv Glacier, 78.
Steenstrup, K. J. V.. 5, 99, lOS. 112, 214.
Storis, 37, 38.
Storfjord, 63.
Storkerson, S.. 2, 3, 26.
Storm Glacier, 82.
Storstromen Glacier, 74.
Strait of Belle Isle. (See Belle Isle Strait.)
Structure of icebergs, 108, 109.
Stykkisholm. 185, 188.
Stvgtie Glacier, 66.
Sukkcrtcippen. 76, 145.
Sun (_i lacier. 82.
Svarte Glacier, 66.
Sven Hedin Glacier, 65
Sverdrup, H. U., 28, 29, 111, 215.
Sverdrup, O., 5, 65, 67, 68, 215.
Tail of the Grand Bank, 136, 152, 153, 154, 156, 170,

174, 201, 202.
Tampa, 111, 180.
Taylor, G. I., 125, 126, 215.
Tegetthoff, 26.
Terminology of sea ice, 14.
Thayer, A. H., 215.
Thuras, A. L., 126, 150, 215.
Tingmiarmiut Glacier, 74.
Titanic, VIII, 6. 104, 161. 172, 174.
Tjalfe, 5, 39.
Torsukatak Fjord, 141.

Torsukatak Glacier, 85; iceberg productivitv, 95.
Toll, E. von, 2, 3, 64.
Trolle, A., 215.
Trans-Atlantic shipping, ice menace. 169; lane

routes, 172, 174, 175; i)rescribed tracks, 171, 172;

volume of trafBc, 169.
Trans-Atlantic Track Conference, 171.
Transehe, N. A., 17, 23, 29, 65, 215.

Tyson, G. E., 47.

Umiamako Glacier, 85, 95.

Upernivik, 142, 184, 185, 187.

Upernivik Glacier, 82, 95, 183.

United States Coast Guard, 7, 174.

United States Hydrographic Office, 6, 58, 59, 107,
119, 161, 167, 171, 172, 174, 180, 182, 215.

United States Navy, 174.

United States Signal Service, 58, 181).

United States Weather Bureau, 58.

Vahl, M., Amdrup, G. C, Bode, L., and Jensen,
A. S., 215.

Vaigat, 141.

Valencia, 60.

Vallaux, C, 215.

Vardo, 60.

Vega, 2.

VerhoefT Glacier, 82.

Vesta, 169.

Vilkitski, B. A., 2, 3.

Vimera, 172.

Visibility of icebergs, 127, 128.

Waidner, Dickinson, and Crowe, 215.

Wandel, C. F., 5, 39, 215.

Ward, R. DeC, 215.

Water sky, 17.

Wegener, A., 5, 71, 72, 216.

West Greenland currents, limits, 76, 77; rate, 76, 77.

Westernmost Greenland, iceberg productivity, 73.

West ice, 44.

Weyprecht, K., 10, 26, 129, 216.

Weyprecht and Payer, 2.

Wheeler, W. J., 216.

Wiese, W., 9, 40, 216.

Wilkins, G. H., 2, 3, 26, 216.

Willoughby, H., 2.

Winds, effect on icebergs, 128, 136; effect on Lab-
rador current, 176, 177.

Winter ice, 17.

Wrangel, F. P., von, 3.

Wrangel Island, 21, 26, 169.

Wright, F. G., 216.

Wright, C. S., and Priestley, R. E., 110, 216.

Wulff Glacier, 82.

Wiist, G., 193, 216.

Young ice, 14, 15.

Young Phoenix, 26.
Yugyar Nielsen Glacier, 82.
Zeu.sler, F. A., 121, 124, 127, 1.50, 216.