i OS i - Y . ~ MIAMI BEACH, FLORIDA a JUNE 11-13, 1952 ST. MORITZ HOTEL REPORT OF marine borer conference SPONSORED BY THE WILLIAM CLAPP LABORATORY THE MARINE LABORATORY, UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI THE MARINE LABORATORY UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI teal CORAL GABLES 46, FLORIDA ML 4719 APRIL 1953 WON Ki VIVA 0 0301 0029555 3 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS REGISTERED AT THE MARINE BORER AND PREVENTION OF DETERIORATION IN WATER- FRONT STRUCTURES CONFERENCE, HELD AT MIAMI BEACH JUNE 11-12-13, 1952 Alexander, Allen L. Naval Research Laboratory Code 3220 Washington 25, D. C. Alumbaugh, Robert L. U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Lab. Port Hueneme, California Allen, Henry Allen Cathodic Protection Pe O. Box 386 Harvey, Louisiana S, Je Re ynolds Metals Company 00 S. 3rd Street uisville, Kentucky "EWS, Je Ve » Se Steel Company search Laboratory 3, Atwood Street ittsburgh 13, Penna. ell, H. We merican Lumber & Treating Co. 132 So. Michigan Avenue shicago, Illinois acle, Bowman F., President The University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida Barnes, A. He, Lite Bureau of Yards & Docks U. S. Navy Department Washington 25, D. C. Beal, James A. Ue. Se Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Center Beltsville, Maryland Bernuth, E. P. Bernuth Lembcke Co., Ince 20 Lexington Avenue New York, New York Boynton, HE. Pe National Cylinder Gas Company 80 N. Michigan Ave. Chicago 11, Illinois Chuck, Frank Creole Petroleum Corp. Cabimas, Mstado Zulia Venezuela, South America Colley, Reginald H. Bernuth Lembcke Company 20 Lexington Avenue New York, New York Collier, J. T. The Barrett Division Allied Chemical & Dye Corp. hO Rector Street - New York, New York Davis, ©. Hubbard Sub-Tropical Testing Service 3371 SW. Ist Avenue Miami, Florida Dickie, Roy Ne U. S. Coast Guard 2610 Tigertail Avenue Miami 33, Florida Fuller, 2. Glen Battelle Memorial Institute 22uli S. Halifax Drive Daytona Beach, Florida Fulton, Clarence 0. B. GC. Research Council U. B. C. Campus Vancouver, Be Ceo Galler, Sidney R. Head, Biology Branch Office of Naval Research Department of the Navy 17th St. & Constitution Ave. Washington 25, D. C. CT], eee ty ee hy + iY Bh CAST die 1 a A Sr eee 3 ey CE RON F “ne i yh ; hia Oieies ye ; “pd : apes ore Lean ¥ in peg j ; 1 i ; i ° A fis Ty ta H oa ; f it ' + we { rx; Me ox % poy gad Mr | pele es it i { j . > 5 4s _ cyt + {« aul dts if i unl " ry 4 5 - { i i j 1 { aites ‘ Lj 4 1 ro i ‘ S ’ Las oo) 4535 Mite sf 4 7 § ee or 1 ‘ee te - * wahia Vae > ’ ‘4 bi 7 bd ‘ ' 14) wid ke ‘ el ae nt, Na aay Ua Uh @ a 8 Spee wmie, ah | rane poe ae Maye a ye A ovat cone erie 4 aye Honipi 4 fy" 7 ke: ama ay iad tieaeit sat Bee ‘quent if aig Garrett, John H. Research & Development Board The Pentagon Washington 25, D. C. Gehrke, Walter A. U. S. Navy Department Naval Station New Orleans, Louisiana German, J. P., Comdr, U. S. Coast Guard 2610 Tigertail Avenue Miami, Florida Gifford, Charles A. The Marine Laboratory University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida Gordon, E. S., Comdr. U. S. Coast Guard 2610 Tigertail Avenue Miami 33, Florida Greenfield, Leonard J. The Marine Laboratory University of Miami Goral Gables, Florida Greenwald, J. A., Jr. Cuprinol Division Darworth Inc. Simsbury, Conn. Harrington, Jr., Karl W., LCdr. U. S. Navy Department District Public Works Office Fifth Naval District Norfolk, Virginia Hearst, Peter J. U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Research and valuation Laboratory Port Hueneme, California Heiks, Ray Ee Battelle Memorial Institute Columbus, Ohio Hennacy, Richard A. The Marine Laboratory University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida oy os Hill, He Ge British Joint Services Mission Main Navy Building Washington, De Ce Hinchman, Wm. He De The Hinchman Corp. 1207 Francis Palms Bldg. Detroit, Michigan Holden, dward R. U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Research and Evaluation Laboratory Port Hueneme, California Hood, Donald W. Texas A & M College College Station, Texas Isham, Lawrence Be The Marine Laboratory University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida Jelley, J. F., Rear Admiral Chief, Bureau of Yards & Docks U. S. Navy Department Washington 25, D. Ce Jones, Morris T. Office of Naval Research 8h No. Rush Street - Chicago, Illinois Jones, We Awe, Jre Ue S. Stoel Company Coal Chemical Sales 525 Wm Penn Place Pittsburgh, Penna. Kaeser, F. Le Todd Shipyards Corp. 1 Broadway New York, N. Ye Kartinen, Ernest Signal Oil & Gas Company 811 West 7th Street Los Angeles, Calif. Kelly, No Woy JLe Wood Treating Chemical Co. 5137 Southwest Avenue St. Louis 10, Missouri ta) “eh Tatil ued LAR ae dae ee i i Vi And! Me De Nie Teeny Tp aS A MAY ety rH Rat ied Niahe cv east ie ae * ‘ ast ¥ natal 2 ae ui Knox, George Fe Bureau of Yards & Docks U. Se Navy Department Washington 25, D. C. Lane, Charles Ee The Marine Laboratory University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida Lambert, W. Pe U. S. Navy Department 13th Naval District Seattle, Washington LaQue, F. Le The International Nickel Co., Inc. 67 Wall Street New York, New York Larrick, Lewis Office of Naval Research U. S. Navy Department Washington 25, D. C. LeMay, Edwin P. Captain Edwin P. LeMay & Associates llth Floor, Pacific Bldg. Miami, Florida Loose, Hugo Je Captain Edwin P. LeMay & Associates llth Floor, Pacific Bldg. Miami, Florida Wann, Ralph H. American Vlood Preservers AsSSsoCe 60 Be. li2nd Street New York 17, New York Mark, ‘/illiam R., Jr. U. S. Navy Department Sth Naval District Norfolk 11, Virginia Mayfield, P. B. Barrett Division Allied Chemical & Dye Corp. hO Rector Street New York, New York McKennis, Herbert U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Research and Evaluation Laboratory Port Hueneme, California es ee Meyer, Fred Je The Dow Chemical Company Midland, Michigan Meyers, James Fe Port of New York Authority 111 Eighth Avenue New York 11, New York Otley, Ve C. The Barrett Division Allied Chemical & Dye Corp. hO Rector Street New York, New York Parson, A. F., LtCdr. U. S. Navy Department D.P.u.0. 13th Naval District Seattle, Washington Paterson, H. Te The International Nickel Co. P. O. Box 262 Wrightsville Beach, N. Ce Reed, W. De Dept. of Army Fngineers Office of the Chief of Engineers Bldg. T-7, Room 20h1 Washington 25, De Ce Reside, James T. Bureau of Yards & Docks U. Se Navy Department Washington 25, D. C. Richards, A. Pe W. F. Clapp Laboratories Duxoury, Massachusetts Ritter, Je Re U. 5S. Navy Department D.P.17.0. 12th Naval District San Bruno, California Roche, James N. Creosote-—Pitch Sales Koppers Company, Inc. Pittsburgh, Pae Sedlack, Frank United States Steel Pittsburgh, Penna. i ‘ ran d i Pa ey TY tizy hy 7 ages of f ‘iy * bays . r F. i | rel? a i 1 3 act i - os ‘ ait i i a ai an Lk a ij 1} | i j ” Pi Mae ai Sate ave yy Pia a ry eo nr} VERA UE le ; ) oii Ma ee Mat @ e h BY ! NA Mit Nee Maen ae Pah 1 : rf who hy F et thay iq i Hii Nha ae P om city Dee et a mR ME Te ag 1 it ih i, rh t ‘ vi at ii om : nin if A i ny Scheltema, Rudolf S. Chesapeake Biological Laboratory Solomons, Maryland Sharpnack, E. V., Sr. Reynolds Metals Co. 2500 So. Third St. Louisville , Kentucky Shaver, A. He Bureau of Yards and Docks U. 5S. Navy Department San Francisco Naval Shipyard San Francisco, Calif. Shoemaker, Tom L. Philadelphia Naval Shipyard Philadelphia 12, Penna. Sims, Rudolph W. The Marine Laboratory University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida Smith, F. Ge Walton The Marine Laboratory University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida Sprugel, George, Cdr. Asst. Head, Biology Branch Office of Naval Research U. 5S. Navy Department Washington, D. C. Stokes, Ralph C. Bureau of Yards & Docks U. S. Navy Department Washington, D. C. Sturrock, Murray G. Koppers Company, Ince 1246 Koppers Bldg. Pittsburgh, Penna. Sweeney, T. Re Naval Research Laboratory Washington, D. C. Swildens, Lawrence Timber, Inc. 15 N.v. South River Dr. Miami, Florida Thomas, Arlo Hdgtrs., llth Naval District San Diego 30, California Thompson, A. Je 6th Naval District P. O. Box 365 Charleston, Se C. Tonneson, Russell S., Cdr U. S. Navy Department 3rd Naval District 90 Church Street New York, New York Yan EHtten, Frank lM. Bureau of Ships U. S. Navy Department Washington, D. C. Volkening, V. B. Dow Chemical Company Freeport, Texas Voripaieff, A. N. A. M. Byers Company 30 Rockefeller Plaza New York 20, N. Y. Voss, Gilbert Le The Marine Laboratory University of Miami Coral Gables, Fla. Voss, Nancy The Marine Laboratory University of liiami Coral Gables, Fla. Wangaard, F. F. Professor of Forest Products Yale University 205 Prospect St. New Haven, Conn. Warren, J. Re Duke University Durham, North Carolina Weber, Carl 4.20 Lexington Ave. New York, New York a sige wu eyo Wessel, Carl J. National Research Council 2101 Constitution Ave. Washington 25, D. C. Wright, Ke Ee Bureau of Yards & Docks U. Se Navy Department Washington 25, D. C. Wymer, W. He U. Se Navy Department Box "P'" Hdqtrs, 15 Naval Dist. Navy No. 121, F.P.0O. New York, New York % Roe, Thorndyke, Jr. Ue S. Naval Civil Engineering Research & Evaluation Laboratory Port Hueneme, Calif. i wa ny i Hy ‘ie Bb Wits eth i iy iy (ane 0 i LAR A as yet FOREWORD eine Success of the Marine Borer Conference held at the U. S. Naval Givil Engineering Research and Evaluation Laboratory on May 10-12, 1951, led to a general agreement that similar conferences should be held annually. Accordingly, arrangements were made for a meeting to be held in 1952 at Miami Beach. The program was subsequently organized by The Clapp Laboratories, in cooperation with the Marine Laboratory of the University of iliami, The generous assistance of many persons contributed to the success of the program and especial credit is due to lir. George Knox of the bureau of Yards and Docks for his energetic and valuable cooperation. Limited time and clerical assistance have not only delayed publi- cation of the report of the 1952 meeting, but, in order that this delay should not be further extended, manuscripts have been pro- cessed without submission to the authors for correction, ilinor changes have been made in order that all papers should be presented uniformly, in the third person, and in written rather than spoken form. The editor accepts full responsibility for errors, and ten- ders his apologies to the authors for mistakes that may inadvertently have crept in. a Av] F.C. ‘alton Smith The Marine Laboratory University of wiami Coral Gables, Florida et OE Re aan i q Saar 34 ae? beilacoets: hs emi Biv OWN re rats ee fitey*)i whan Agente bs en GHD AD 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page IN MEMORIAM, Dr. Bowman Foster Ashe, President of the University of Miami @eeeerroegeeooceaocernagpeeeoseeeoeoeeoerneeeeaneeseeeseeee A-1 SCROLL, Dr. William F. Clapp, &@ Wemordal...cevcecrvcscecssseeses Bel OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCH INTEREST IN PREVENTION OF DETERIORATION IN MARINE STRUCTURES, by Rear Admiral ©. M. Bolster .sscocceces O-l DETERIORATION PROBLEMS IN i:ARTNEG STRUCTURES, by J. T. Reside e. D-1 CORROSION AND PROTECTION OF STEEL IN SHORE LINE AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES , by F, L. LaQue @eaneerveseseeeosceoeeeseeevoeoeueeoeeeenee298e2e08 E-1 SPECTAL PROBLEMS OF DETERICRATION IN ARMY WATERFRONT STRUCTURES , by Je A. Beal, BG lo Kowal, and W. D. Reed eoveeooe Fol DESIGN FACTORS ATFECTING DETERIORATION OF MARINE STRUCTURES, by nhe C. Stokes @evescesceeoeooevoovoeoevtreoaeveogeeeevoevneoeaeeeeoeoeoeeeseeoeoeae G-1 LIFE HISTORY OF TEREDO, by Le Be Isham cecencccccccccceccceccce Hel x, THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE AREAS OF MARINE BORER ATTACK TO POLLUTION PATTERNS IN LOS ANGELES - LONG BEACH HARBORS, by Je L. Mohr e@oeeneeeseeooeeeeoesceseeosceoeessesceeseoeeeaeeneesegeeeoeeeed T-1 ACCELERATED TEST METHOD OF ANTI-MARINE BORER TREATMENTS , by IG CromNaleGone masculine ielelelelolelelelalele/elelelelelelelelelelelelelelelelelelaleielelclelelelelelere J-l FURTHER INVESTIGATION OF INHIBITION CF MARINE BORERS BY TREATING WOOD WITH INSOLUBLE COMPOUNDS OF THE HEAVY METALS, ~ by E. R. Holden and H. McKennis , Je eloleleleleveleieloioielelelelcrelelclateleleleletonn i: RESPIRATION OF TEREDO LARVAE, by C. Be Lane COFCO ELCEE SELES ELECE L-1 THE USE OF CHLORINATION AND HEAT IN THE CONTROL OF MARINE BORERS, by A. Pg Richards SOCHCHECHOHCHHOHEETTHOHOHCHOHHO HASH OHHOTOSS M1 TOXIC EXTRACTIVES OF GREENHEART, by P. J. Hearst, R. W. Drisko, ae Roe, Jey and He McKennis, JLe COKCCCECEHLOL LOE OSEOHDOOLOECOC CELE N-1 STUDIES ON SYNTHETIC PHENOLS AND ARYLAMINES FOR MARINE BORER INHIBITION, bye T. Roe, Jr., R. L. Alumbaugh, and H. McKennis, Jr. O-1 OTS ?¢ ih es a eee ea ie ee ee eh meh me eae = i \ ee ctu a ee b eve ves se 9 ae { rs Ue ee en arp \ 1 i 4 a ee ee ce) ee oe 2 Trictadh rien Hie me My Pst "4 Po ote oe ar ae ay eK Wee ahs: thar ea aE te aS, MEA, Fe | Pas ohn ae, Peer wae ConA wy Myr! ig HEY ARTS NN, 7 TT ee oa en | Page OBSERVATIUNS ON THE NITROGEN AND GLYCOGEN CONTENT OF TEREDO (LYRODUS) PEDICELLATA DE QUATREFAGES AT MIAMI, FLORIDA, by L. Je Greenfield COHOKRHOSHHOEHOHLCOHCEHDECHHOHOHOEHHTFTHHFBHHHASOBHBEHTHH SHEER P=1 THE ORIGIN AND DISTRIB: TION OF NITROGEN IN TEREDO, by Reuben Lasker ecccoccccccccc revere cee cece eser errr oles eee soneeces Q-1 RESEARCH ON HYDROCARBON OTLS, by Ite. Jha Heiks @0000000000000800 R-1 INVESTIGATION OF THE PHENOLIC FRACTION OF CREOSOTE, by i Re Sweeney and Cc. Re Walter , JLo eocrececesosoeoroseeosseoesee S=-1 TROPICAL AMERICAN 100DS FOR DURABLE WATERFRONT STRUCTURES, by F. F. Vangaard CPOCHHOCHCHOHHHOLHOHHTHOHDFHHHCOHOSEHHHOHHHHEHBOTOR T-1 eee of AT Be ROR, a - 5 seit Medtech ats aC ln Di et ed : hoa i ay Hares SA AUB) fe Sah) Bie) iat eh Gee a, er Se ea ' z * Pil te ke rae ar By: AY ee y . ! : rt j) , I i f P ‘i ' "i y i ian) 3 , j rr ae > . yi : 1 f ; My 0 % j ] ’ i oh ! i ty ; palit By i i iit eh} : it i ' vel ii } i Me tho | | De iy vt I ' i : | WW PU ier L i) \ { wit vy i ; i} a yy i k , ‘ } i Waid nu i} iI i ADDRESS OF WELCOME by Dr. Powman Foster Ashe President of the University of Miami OBITUARY The death of Dr. Ashe on December 16, 1952, was a great loss to the whole field of education as well as to the University of iiiami, in which his personality is firmly implanted. ~ The opportunity is taken of paying a special tribute to the memory of Dr. Ashe for the part he played in developing research in the marine sciences, Under his leadership and aided by his constant encourasement, the ilarine Laboratory of the University of Miami came into being in 1943 and has grown continually in the past decade. The field of underwater deterioration including the control of marine borers, has been of especial interest to the Laboratory since its inception and it is fitting that one of Dr. Ashe's last official acts should have been to welcome delegates to the Marine Borer Conference, Obituary A scroll with the following text was introduced by Frank L. Latue and George E, Knox and by unanimous resolution of the assembled delegates was presented to Iirs. Clapp. DR. WILLIAM F. CLAPP WHEREAS, Dr. William F. Clapp,renowned educator and marine biologist, whose death occurred on December 28, 1951, was a member of our group wd the winner of many merited honors during his activities in tre studies of marine borers; and VHER"AS, Dr. Clapp's distin7uished record as a marine biologist, and his enthusiasm and devotion to the interests of this group have contributed greatly to its success during five years of its organization; and “HEREAS, in his death the group has lost not only an old and valued member but a true friend whose memory will be long cherished by all who knew him; therefore be it RESOLVED, that the Marine Borer group in its Fifth Annual Meeting - assembled expresseg-its-profound sorrow at the loss of its esteemed member and friend; and be it RESOLVED, that the Marine Borer group extend to Dr. Clapp's family its deepest sympathy in their bereavement; and be it RESOLVED further, that this resolution be published in the Journal of the Sea Horse Institute and other suitable scientific publications and that copies be sent to iirs. Clapp Frank L, LaQue George E. Knox Miami, Florida. June 11, 1952. Bel ih ay ‘ a 4 ¥ , Per \ Wee “patie iy hal ‘ G i Deore eee wee , Mourn Tt mest oa aed | +h ee ‘earn 1. Beret i cea Ged ie oy eae ; spies a oe #6 Tete Wath " coe cilia, Z by, eT die Pere i iy ae a Hin ry We re nN } fa wah 7 ea ao 10 ‘ot . ry nt a ‘a (Contribution from the Office of Naval Research) OF ICE OF NAVAL RESEARCH INTEREST IN PREVENTION OF DETERIORATION IN MARINE STRUCTURES by Rear Admiral C. IM. Bolsterl The interest of the Office of Naval Research might be stated thus: "The Navy encounters deterioration of its wooden marine struce_. tures; the prevention or alleviation of this deterioration requires research effort; that is our business." But this is oversimplification; it will be better to trace the development of our interest. Let us start with the basic Act of Congress establish-- ing the Office of Naval Research (ONR). Paraphrasing that Law slightly, it is charged with the encouragement, promotion, planning; initiation, and conduct of naval research in augmentation of and in conjunction with the research and development conducted by the respective bureaus and other agencies of the Navy Department. Research interest is not born full blown as Venus was thought to be but grows at a recognizable pace, usually as research scientists develop ideas. In developing the background and growth of our interest it is not neces~ sary to go back to the day when man first went down to sea in wooden ships nor to claim that when John Paul Jones founded the U. S. Navy he encoun- tered this deterioration of his vessels and harbor structures. There is no need to return even to 192), when the National Research Coun- cil (NRC) published Atwood and Johnson's book, MARINE STRUCTURES - THEIR DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION. Instead, a start will be made with the forerunner of the Office of Naval Research. In those crucial early days of orld .ar IT, the Navy Coordinator for- Research and Development requested the President's Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) to establish working groups to assist in overcoming the terrific problems being encountered in the deterioration of materials in the tropics. The OSRD Tropical Deterioration Center (Glenn Greathouse, Director) operated from 192 to 195. ‘hen OSRD was disbanded in 19:5, the Navy contracted with the National Academy of Sciences through the newly established Office of Research and Inventions for the establishment of the National Research Council - Prevention of Deterioration Center (N°C-PDC), The date of this contract, our first official venture in this field, was 1 December 19)5. Delivered by Dr. Lewis Larrick, Office of Naval Reeearch. Cc-1 j - A, "ty : spent 7 ie ; ‘ dem Po snats! ‘4 beat Fae ; decks. “ait , ' One of the first actions of the NRC-PDC was the initiation of a contract with the ‘lm. Clapp Laboratories for marine-borer studies. In August 198 direct administration of this contract project was assumed by what is now the Organic Materials Branch of ONR. Another early activity of the PDC was the formation of the National Defense Deterioration Prevention Committee, an important sub-group of which was the Marine Borer Panel. If it is recalled correctly, George nox served as Chairman of the Panel until the disestablishment of the whole committee. One result of the several valuable meetings of this Panel was the establishment of a project by the Organic Materials Branch of ONR with the University of Miami on Marine Borer Research, in coopera~ tion with the Bureau of Yards and Docks. The Prevention of Deterioration Center has sponsored, under its ONR con- tract, a number of conferences in the broad field of prevention of deter- jioration of materials. Of particular importance to this discussion are the followings July 199, West Coast Conference, in cooperation with the California Academy of Sciences. June 1950, Wrightsville Beach Marine Conference, in coopera- tion with Prank LaQue's groupe 1951 est Coast Conference, May 1951, Pt. Hueneme, sponsored by BuDocks. Immediately following the 1950 vrightsville Beach Conference, a series of internal Navy conferences were held on a question raised there - the creosote problem. A Navy research program on creosote was initiated at these conferences in 1950. Dr. Alexander started a project at NRL on the characterization of creosote. He reported on progress last year at Hueneme; Dr. Sweeney has a further report to make later in this con- ferencel, In setting up this program back in 1950 (and the plans agreed on them are still being followed), a biological assay phase of the creo- sote program was planned, to be initiated when Alexander's and Sweeney's characterization studies warranted; this biological assay phase is now active at the Marine Laboratory of the University of Miami. Dr. .alton Smith and his colleagues are going to discuss work pertinent to the creosote program during this conference‘, In this historical sketch, the fact should not be overlooked that the Marine Borer Panel considered reports about the extraordinary marine- borer resistance of some tropical woods. Accordingly, the ONR Tropical soods Project at Yale School of Forestry, directed by Professor F. F. ISe0 Section § He See Sections J, Ly P, Q te Pl Wb y Three + Th lee Pa A otars toe ” 4 ia Re amare be att gs, oy i ed Riallting EOP a T Seen al Citi, Rar 4 cu shi eat | fapegpits ly #4 dey con MORE “or bers Mt. Me av 4 inet 0 hi TN ih tial ae een mee Pay j i ooirs a Ms An fg e i ve AY: af : vat" a . attest | f teh ea 4 li eo! ww. aa a ay Rot ore oF i ’ : = : Soke 7 WH ) ceytat ane yea E , VikaeNe iP ey on “ft tie eh i a, ma ie AB IOGRs \ = iw my i v's 4 “ee Wangaard, was brought into this program. He ill probably mention the durable tropical American woods that are available. Perhaps he will be able to give some indication why some of them are resistant to marine borers~. The background chronology has been sketched in order to show you how research interest grows and how diverse methods of attack are employed on the problem: direct laboratory work such as at NRL, conferences and scientific meetings such as this, contract projects with outside agencies, and bringing into participation other investigators who may have been working in other related areas. Before discussion of ONR's current pro- gram and plans, it may be well to mention the organization and method of operation. Nstablished on 1 August 196 by Act of the Congress, ONR is the immediate successor of the Navy's Office of Research and Invention, and its pre- decessor, the Office of the Navy Coordinator for Research and Development. The pertinent section.of our basic charter has already herein been para= phrased. Two units ot the Office are involved in the problem of this Conference. It is unnecessary to say mich about the Naval Research Lab- oratory. It is a large laboratory with about 1000 people devoted to the conduct of basic and applied research for the Navy Department. The other unit is what is called, by those belonging to it, the Research Group, perhaps because the nearest to an official title is "The Assistant Chief of Naval Research for Research." Its primary mission is to encour- age, support, and coordinate research activity in augmentation of and in conjunction with the research and development conducted by the bureaus and other agencies of the Navy Department - in other words, to operate the contract research program of ONR, Operating with research scientists in the universities, nonprofit and industrial laboratories, and other government agencies (including Naval laboratories), the staff of the Research Group is composed chiefly of individuals selected from the scientific disciplines: physics, mathema- tics, chemistry, biophysics and biochemistry, and other divisions of biology, including ecology. There is also a staff of specialists (not called engineers) in such fields as electronics, acoustics, power, and materials. In addition, the Navy keeps a group of line and engineering officers on duty in the Research Group as liaison with the problems of the Fleet. In operating this broad contract research program the Scientific Officers try to keep abreast of current and anticipated Naval problems and of the research activity and potential of the Nation. They do not originate research ideas, plan projects, or direct research activity. They consult with research scientists, review proposals, administer the scientific aspects of approved projects, and interpret research results for colleagues Isce Section T ~ ui} tour 3 - y i : oa : Ces spol caw tah ity . Go as . : 5 oe ree an : % . 2 t . . mia) ~ . 1 Cian . p SBE caer . ‘ 0) 4 . mo ie ‘ . i Da nae ws zie 5 ‘ . . ‘ ' : : OF at coc Dials . ‘ toe © " . pt . A fo ¢ we sie he . ace ony Putte! - : . on Wun 500 + 2 tne ron ee : . ' Ye, . ihe . . ee > ra “ . o . i . Sut ne i ol . ve ‘ . CA ca . , o x Dae . SONS: f a ony won Gh Chee SAS pours é eC M ' “ pg - 2 ° ais . y « 0 Cie, Broad . 6 : - SETS aes ‘ So Re Gs A ; ‘ 7 . x fee eal oe) Hy i ee Lacy ' , c Nae, , ’ BF SEG . Do 6 , ‘ 5 iy 5) poe a . t av. - ‘ ” vie . a = ' v . £ t in the Navy Bureaus and other agencies of the Department of Defense. Any qualified scientist may present a proposal for a research project, but certain information is required before it can be considered (copies of the Research Proposal Guide are available here for interested persons), Each proposal received is reviewed by the staff of the Research Group and by their consultants and advisory committees, for scientific merit and poten- tial, If the proposal - the property of the investigator - meets ONR standards, if the proposed work fits into the planned program, and if there are funds available, a contract is negotiated with the business organization with which he is affiliated. It is important to note that "a contract is negotiated," not "an award is made." Progress is maintained not only through ONR's own private meetings with the investigators and internal reports but also through publication and presentation of papers. Early dissemination of research information to the scientific profession is considered necessary and his colleagues! discussions are used in measuring an investigator's progress. The source of ONR's concern with this problem lies in the materials group and, since wood is an organic material, in the Organic liaterials Branch. However, it is felt that research projects should be administered, as well as conducted, by individuals skilled in the arts and techniques required. Accordingly, the most of the contract projects in this area are, and will continue to be, administered by the Biology Branch. Dr. Galler and Dr, Sprugel are both here to participate in this conference. Returning to the direct subject of this talk, the interest of ONR in the Prevention of Deterioration in liarine Structures and, specifically, in marine borers, is materialistic: ONR is trying to help the Navy obtain the most durable wooden structures possible, to find the most durable woods available in the /estern hemisphere, to improve the methods of treatment (impregnation) of wood, to improve the treating agents and to obtain better and cheaper treatments. The problem is approached from several angles, keeping in mind that parti- cipation will be principally in the basic research phases of the program, and contributions will be from the sciences and technologies whence the research ideas originate. Among the elements of the ONR contract research program which may be called upon are: Organic chemistry: the synthesis of toxic and/or repulsive compounds Physical chemistry: characterization of the world standard = creosote - and identification of its active constituents Enzyme chemistry: investigations of the enzyme systems of the destructive organisms and enzyme inhibitors 7; b} —~ Nee + Me ramna Se nding A ead Per # i Ia hea.) unio elit Oa i inti hf Ue EM Lee ag 0 Aina “ sen Drea ol LANs he, ee Pi dee, or Loeherged aureus: col ey 2 wa nis 2H : . ; Bess yee mauec or heed y av Maris MPL a a acre sa ee - i & ny fy! aes 5 litte. ne when i Yeni Se ia im) Oe ay Lice ee eee + dain mineaH adaitg Bio ah ite HF OM bic: ip bes ie | ety Ut a mle we \ 7) he Fee web 2 a * wisi ral ri Les bxape 5 : ~ psy % (ates o “oh owe zat as Me halite rt wt web Oreey Teyllt tants wi ee TBIY od) d se GURTD Le Rear hia 'ay AO Wrap as Poin if sy i ; me eencky OF he ehonta yd surgery ou he ii » ae ! ; Ab ceo NR ><) ; i i : rene ‘ i i He fi mairi i i p 1 f at TALLY Physiology: functions of normal organisms Ecology: habits, geographic distribution, and population fluctuations~ of sarine pests Oceanography: physical, chemical, and biological character- istics of infested areas. Organic materials: tropical woods, protective coatings, etc. Interest is not limited to the shipworm; he is merely the start. Before he has been finally eliminated as an enemy, attention will be turned to the other "borers," as scientific interest among research investigators and availabilily of funds make it possible. To return to an earlier statement, ONR has a definite interest in the problem of the prevention of the deterioration of marine structures, A number of angles of attack are proposed and the problem is considered to be 1. to learn why and how marine organisms attach themselves to or damage wood; 2. to learn why and how such chemical complexes as creosote protect wood from attack; 3, to synthesize or develop agents or methods of protection which will keep the pests away from wooden structures. ONR's objective is to prevent deterioration whether such prevention is obtained mechanically, biologically, or through toxic action, Cras Wee eg Rewer mre, Needy, aie ey Re platnaties ~D “ ae Pew | eat I | le ‘ome 3 art ef) : —— Ceaevnt. Mo ya ‘| ai eno ete). \ o : ves - teil Py aie, Fae rite haute ‘ oe os _ wy 2a ee ‘: ? | . te & tain i i al tii ¥ y CTE Ae a (Contribution from the Bureau of Docks) DETERIORATION PROBLEMS IN MARINE STRUCTURES by J. T. Reside The following paper should be classed as that of an experienced mainte- nance engineer who looks over everything that comes along but who must be very careful not to be led astray by some conscientious but probably overenthusiastié : salesman or scientific fellow who thinks he has the last word in some process or gadget. Money for new construction and maintenance comes hard these days. ‘When dealing with a plant like BuDocks, the value of which aggregates several billion dollars it is necessary to take the "doubting Thomas" attitude because of the damage which can be done by a wrong move. This should not be carried to the point, however, where new and helpful processes and materials would be unduly ignored because sometimes they can be the means to big savings in manpower and cost. Although by no means ignorant about new construc- tion, the author does not propose in this talk to get into that field too deeply because one of the Bureau's staff who follows is well quali- fied and prepared to set into certain phases of that and it is probably best left to himl, Therefore, this paper will be given from the view- point of a maintenance engineer who has perhaps something worth while and interesting in the way of personal experience to offer, who is willing also to listen to others, and who is looking for information. This line of approach will vive a quick picture of some of our fields of interest and some idea of our typical problems and the remedial measures adopted by BuDocks. The interest and help of the delegates present is sought in fields where satisfactory solutions to our problems have not yet been obtained. Field of Interest The field of interest is extremely broad technically including as it does as examples, piers, wharves, graving and floating dry docks, marine railways, floating cranes and floating power plants, pile drivers, dredges, buoy, anchor and chain moorings, etc, This field of interest is also world-wide in scope also and thus it is possible to give only a quick and brief picture of it in the time available here. It should, however, be enough to show what our problems are and where, if possible, members of this group may be of help. BuDocks is always willing, of course, to exchange information with anyone with similar problems and does do quite a lot of this with other Bureaus and offices, commercial concerns and also foreign countries, particularly the British. By rarine structures is not necessarily meant only those structures which are actually in the water but rather all structures, whatever lsee Section G hie rs pes Chee my TT i i aly Pies: a ~ i Oye ait th, nie fe host “bevy ty ia uty Ke a EnOw ORE ‘le seaside hat Mabe ie, ‘l : te i ny eh Wisea fine hls cc ae Le (i inh i, a a VES in a eli their character, which are exposed to severe water front conditions. For instance, a radio tower exposed to salt spray and wind—blown sand might give just as much if not more trouble than, let us gay, a moore - ing buoy with its ground tackle which is actually in the water all the time except when it is lifted and taken ashore for overhaul. BuDocks has had actual examples of just such cases. There are paint coatings which are readily anplied to moorings and which will hold them in reasonably good condition for quite some time but these same coatings are not practicable for application to radio towers and probably would not hold up even if they could be applied. Incidentally, it has been found that the only thing to do with towers so exposed is to paint them more frequently with our standard structural steel paint coatings with a higher content of zine oxide to harden the surface of the paint. Typical locations where this has been necessary are Portsmouth, N. Hey and Key Jest, Florida. This same tower problem occurs in buildings, vehicles, cranes, railroad stock, etc. Getting right down to structures directly exposed to wind and waves, however, and with particular reference to salt water exposure, there are many problems running from the attacks of marine organisms on treated and untreated timber structures, both fixed and floating, with which this body is probably most concerned, to those having to do with corrosion of steel and deterioration of concrete and again, strange to say, in both fixed and floating structures. Taking up the first of these subjects, long personal experience in Navy construction work has amply testified to the terrible damage done by marine borers. These pests are to be combatted all the time, but it is when they invade new areas as they are apt to do at any time, that they probably give us the most trouble, There are cases like the sud- den attack on the timber structures at the iMare Island Naval Shipyard in the 1920's when vrolonged up-country dry spells changed the salinity of the upstream waters thus permitting the borers to invade and live in waters not formerly suitable for their existance. Such an attack could and does literally put a Navy Yard water front out of commission and if it should come during a period of emergency a very serious situa- tion would result, Sometimes too, like at New York, where the harbor waters are so polluted by sewage and industrial wastes as to eliminate the action of borers when and if anti-pollution measures are put into effect and are effective, it is necessary to watch out for tinber water- front troubles of all kinds. ‘These examples point to the need for continuous study of new construction and applications to existing structures to render them immune to borer action which will be well covered later. At the same time, studies on marine borers must con- tinue to seek the best means of limiting their depredations where it is not practicable or economical to build such applications into the structure originally, A typical problem of this type is the protection of the interiors of timber floating dry docks. The permanently exposed exterior salt water surfaces can be and are protected in the conven- tional manner, i.e., by the application of tar, Irish felt and creosoted sheathing. these measures are not very practicable internally, of course, D-2 oe) eeeth 5 { Oe ga. eam aie: EMP IRL jo: ape Fhe ae bine ee te sneha on. Be er Fiakeey a MD. gkttartyure “a ee ints, Sues fron desi eh koaih >i of 4 OP nets ‘ekeut 1 ROA eit ‘al RAGE dete ery f : ig a sion ee ys] att [séneden i yas. dete : ] ee “OF Somos awd Rie oe ai a0 Sok-pen 1 ae i enevey tin Sty. os ort) PPRVEL/ Ke ooh ay y 5 RABRORE te Om LnewIE BRIO ke ulead ‘ ( ety. cate ee eek a S28 | hia , *. ‘Aebion: i re he hi el oh. art thay me ra Pay og are ‘38 ‘i tala iy a TBR, ae i beak ion pa tedlg var, OVIT Kets sopartint pwdtte, me phere: igen tees Mmsan iia fag Sema, ae ¢ we Sere) Betyg Ne Beas coe ey ari evade ation 5 SPRNONALS OT be ERAS)! ids tome hoe, ets mer aESti, etn ee “Ok. dom: ‘dade b a Pega ee. Rise sPLish i venily Bat iii Bia: ee: dal Set Fabthe oF ene thee ioe wai mobiaietenay.. Wises to ‘etal A meede — lglg tists I Werte Kerred ad exmemhiae. Yoho ud ‘wets SOS NAW. € rey. inh acpi write te Eine pati Oty ga- erated he aé WHO) SHOAL ip rio. “or a ie aie faut te. igs eae vga and pre ae i ees Opie 4: ith diets teres ‘Beta ache: tht: Sie digenien 6 * ey); ofelinn kao nag ron RE oone ent nt mcwt wled “Ye 7 sitios byekeet i. og ifents ive, winded bend idee i scien Livin tap Ce Sitoan dy ep be ey he te . semen eine, ict ah Beep” ra baa eee Gpoe Bins 4 gant To ‘henson Dain eh , geome % ‘ ae We bial _ + : : ck OM Ce the uy, daann. Fh) » FEE dy) OTS ST as beet SOON AS precw remy station SaGtenne-w: ive - boensf i Pa uii: ; Pe Ug. nt ROI Es J sdann if ®> vol TVWEe i] (Contribution from The International Nickel Company, Inc.) CORROSION AND PROTECTION OF STEEL IN SHORE LINE AND OFF SHOR! STRUCTURES by F. L. LaQue This discussion of corrosion of steel is offered as a supplement to the many other papers presented at this Conference which are concerned pri- marily with the action of marine organisms on tinbers. For many purposes, steel has structural advantages over timber and, for some of these, it is the only vood choice. Its principal disadvantage is its susceptibility to corrosion which, unless arrested by appropriate means, can occur at rates that will destroy the structure well before the desired life has been reached. It is appropriate, therefore, that some attention be given this subject at this Conference. From measurements on test niles installed at Kure Beach, N. ©. over a period of several years a typical profile of corrosion in clean sea water has been established-, liaximum attack occurs in the wave splash region just above high tide level. ‘ere it is about five times as great as under- water and about twice that in the atmosphere above the splash zone. Mini- -mtum attack occurs towards the bottom of the tidal zone where it is from one- half to three-quarters that well below low tide. This distribution of attack has been confirmed by similar measurements on piles withdrawn from actual installations. The greatest variation in rates of attack are observed at the mud line, in the splash zone and above it and, to a lesser extent, within the tidal rance. Tt will facilitate discussion to consider each of the five zones of attack separately: Zone 1 — Below the ilud Line As compared with attack in some of the other zones, that below the mud line is not likely to occur at a serious rate. Ordinarily, the rate of corrosion will not exceed that in the water below low tide. In some in- stances, as where sulfate reducing bacteria are present to stimulate corrosion, there may be accelerated attack at and just below the mud line. The steel in this region may become anodic to the steel in the water and, thereby suffer extra damage to the extent of two to three times that which occurs in the waterand elsewhere in the mud. The area affected is some~ what uncertain, but ordinarily will not extend more then a couple of feet below the mid line were the location of this remains substantially fixed. Where there is cyclic tuilding uo aid washing away of mud from around the bottoms of piles, the area effected will vary accordingly. here no other Ay, A, Humble, "The Gathodic Protection of Steel Piling in Sea Water," Corrosion, Vol. 5, No. 9, September 199. RPG RCO ES Mae maps ye aap ath Toa "Oi 4i* | i =TOAW Ad eae SG wtih iter md: Opt rie a “ia ee WOMEIE. Tee fry PET a el tow re “ qe! *) : a 7 7 ’ . ® * - ae SORT BU ei Leabii ltrs * . . . mid, ely ai ' Ly We oy * ; 6 a>" i fe ES 3 » Q Me aoe Ho bile sen9 i oe t A is *. eeney xi fet "ee fer j %/ ' i ‘ we “(2 i = Pt J ' . ‘ ‘ a ‘ ; j ' ; J ee ' remedial measures are to be used, this extra corrosion just below the mud line may be provided for by applying pads of extra metal before driving the piles if the ultimate location of the mud line can be determined accurately enough in advance. Otherwise, it may be possible to install reinforcing shields or collars after the piles have been driven. The actual ned for these steps will be difficult to determine in advance unless there is some direct exnerience with other steel piles in the same locality to serve as a guide, The most effective way to prevent corrosion underground will be the a plication of cathodic protection, preferably as a supplement to an organic coating which will be helpful. in reducing the current requirements and achieving distribution of the protective current throughout the buried length of the nile. Coal tar enamels and vinyl coatings represent good choices of coating for this purpose. Since cathodic protection of the underground surfaces will always be associated with cathodic protection of the underwater surfaces, the current requirements will be established for the combined areas and it seems safe to assume that the criteria of protection used for the underwater areas will automatically include the underground surfaces as well. Zone 2 — At the ifud Line In addition to the accelerated attack in the region just below the mud line already discussed, there may be very severe erosion at the mud line itself, This will occur on viles driven in shallow water on a beach where the action of the waves will cause severe scouring by sand held in sus- pension. This may proceed at rates of thinning as high as 0.05 inch per year from each surface exnosed to the scourins action. Such rates have been observed on sheet steel piling in the jetties at Mure Beach and in certain groins at Palm Beach as described by CG. ', Ross! of the Beach Erosion Board, Although this attack probably involves considerable corrosion of surfaces freshly exposed by abrasion, there is so imch simple mechanical wearing away that it seems unlikely thet cathodic protection would prevent this scouring action. Nor are ordinary protective coatings likely to survive long enough to be effective. ‘iooden and concrete shields have been used > with spotty success. Jood, of course, would have to be treated with pre- servatives against marine borers. Concrete is subject to cracking and spalling - especially if corrosion of the underlying steel is not arrested completely. Experience with piles in such a location as described by Kartinen® of the Sienal 011 & Gas Conmany demonstrated an amazing effect of the shape of the nile in reducing mud line erosion. ‘The wasting of a tubular section was found to be only a small fraction of that of corventional 'H! pile le. W. Ross, "Deterioration of Steel Sheet Pile Groins at Palm Beach, Florida," CORROSION, Vol. 5, 199, p. 339. on Kartinen, “Discussion at Sea Horse Institute Informal Conferences, 1951-52. nS 2 ee a D a | Sosnanta ran Bb few Seue 2 n ‘ibe ; _ » r , : oe" pation PEA ‘ Nev lg he b. ‘ es i we =f ; ; yuk t iat ae | ite ein . , int tay a oles wi) i , a 4 ay: = . - CH , I VP ot Veace = t. 4 thy A sy Bile Pi ws 4 ee i ; 7s grams mle t 24. wick va) af? : , “a Ny!) ut ,, ik Lh AMIN GT « ue i rs oe ; Pil be Mi in } (omy a sections. It was found to be practical to protect 'H' piles effectively simply by encasing them in tubular shields in the mud line recion. here heavy 'H!' pilesections were eroded through in less than 20 years, tubular shields only 3/16 inch thick were able to survive. In the practical in- stallation the space between the tubular shields and the 'H' piles was filled with concrete grouting. In some instances, also, tubular piling was given satisfactory protection by a silica sand reinforced somastic coating which also exhibited good resistance to sand scouring. Since the steel in the tubular shields was inherently no more resistant to erosion then the steel in the 'H' piles, the better performance of the tubes must have been due primarily to their more favorable shape. lwvidently, the pattern of flow of water and suspended sand around a smooth cylinder aS accompanied by much less severe erosive forces than are associated with the impact of currents and eddies on the 'H! pile shape. This suzgests that this favorable property of tubular piles should be given considerable weight in choosing such a shape rather than an 'H' section fore piles) to) be driven where sand scouring may be anticipated. It seems likely also that the tubular shape would have an additional mechanical advantage because of the lower stresses resulting from the lesser impact of waves. In any event, in the light of these experiences, it would be well to pro- vide 'H! aflles with tubular shields to prevent excessive wastage by sand scouring where this may be expected to occur. Zone 3 - Below Low Tide Corrosion below low tide is not likely to be a major factor in determining the life of a steel nile. 4s measured by weight loss, the rate of attack is not likely to exceed 0.005 inch per year - local attack by pitting may reach a maximum of three times this rete over an extended period. In tropical waters where calcareous deposits are likely to coat the steel, even lower rates of attack may be anticipated. vhen some steel piles were being removed from ah offshore structure con the Pacific Coast recently i. Karvinen of the Signal Oil & Gas Company observed very peculiar and severe corrosion of surfaces near the bottom, This took the form of keep hemispherical pockets, each of which was occupied by a living sea urchin of the species Swvrongylocentrotus purpuratus. The surface of the steel below these organisms was bright as though it had been suffering continuous active corrosion, possibly as a result of the action of the sea urchin in keeping the metal abraded slightly so that no protective corrosion product films could develop. Presumably this would require the activity of a series of successive inhabitants of the pockets with the size of the occupying organism increasing with size of the pocket. Apparently this association of sea urchins with corrosion is rare, since there are no previous reports of similar occurrences on record. eG OG we ty baat ip witt ’ Se "Maesare> OL 4 Lone satied wat 2 : ee y ‘ * eek ; 2 . Ab he ret y We ¥ tit vlbgrek cy 4 ‘ i Ta ee eden nt Coa vrai BS i aman AWE These data not only account for the peculiar distribution of corrosion but point to the necessity of using specimens large enough to extend through the zones of interest in studying corrosion and protection of steel piling. The exposure of small specimens below low tide and between tides will not give the proper answers. In some harbors, also, corrosion in the tidal zone may be reduced by the protective effect of oil wd grease films deposited on the metal by falling tides where the surface of the water is regularly covered with oil. From the standpoint of protection, the tidal zone presents a difficult problem. Cathodic protection cannot be depended upon to extend much above half tide level except where the tidal range is so small relative to the common height of waves that the whole tidal range is kept submerged most of the time. Organic coatings, such as coal tar enamels and vinyl systems are effective for a time, but it seems unlikely that they would survive for the desired life of the structure and their replacement involves many practical dif- ficulties. Chief among these is the proper preparation of the surfaces to receive new coatings during the short time between tides that these surfaces can be kept dry - especially if there is any wave action or spray to contend with. The soft coal tar enamels are also subject to penetration by barnacles which can embed themselves in the enamel and eventually expose the underlying steél. Developments are underway to reinforce such enamels against barnacle penetration by the incorporation of sand or the application of cement slurries, These steps may suffice to avoid this form of deterioration of enamels. The inadequacy of organic coatings and cathodic protection for long time prevention of corrosion in the tidal zone has led to interest in metallic coatings for these revions. Frotective metal sheathing may be applied in the. form of rolled sheet metal made to conform to the shape of the piling. This is obviously easiest with tubular piles, more difficult with structural shapes, such as 'H!' pile sections, and very difficult with interlocking sheet piles where covering the knuckles would require butt straps and a complicated method of sealing the lower end of the sheathing to keep water from rising and falling along the knuckles and under the butt straps. ‘'H' piles may be sheathed with conforming shapes or the sheathing may be wrapped around. The Latter practice requires that the lower ends of the sheathing be sup- plemented by a previously formed metal box which can be inserted to fill the space between the sheathing and the web. ‘hen this has been accomplished, the space between the sheathing and the web can be filled with sea water to which caustic soda has been added to raise the pH to 11.5. ‘his requires about l ounces of NaOH per cubic foot of sea water. The air free alkaline sea water prepared in this way is not harmfully corrosive to steel under the conditions that exist inside the sheathing: the rate of corrosion observed in a particular test was only 0.0002 ipy. wa int aca! "i, 2 eiirn: yas ‘ ié« ". ' Bash ho Sain ae DOG iss EASON fhe ah hh Ee orsast of. Pay, OE oe). eee IY ag ay ‘ 7 ah ia TRE 0 Way ie, vi ai) SAS phat fa: i: mB hs SPIE Pern ei Hae haee! enh DANS, 53 MER 32 50 : ROTI 4 i gd on irila Sris "S25 SHY Wwe Laed: A WS YT ey | hy 4 ie, Wereeting Ws osen, wth: iit Pe See) tiie fis ty Gees EMM In the case of conforming sheathing, it is possible to seal the joints at the top and bottom by welding. However, there is a question as to whether this sealing is actually required, It would be expected that even if these joints ere left open the first water to seen between the sheathing and the steel would soon form sufficient rust to occupy the space and thus prevent access of any additional water or oxygen to cause further corrosion. The danger of corrosion here can be reduced consider- ably by applying a coat of coal tar enamel to the piling or the sheathing just before the latter is applied and withovt letting the coating dry before the sheathing is put into place. Some tubular piles have been sheathed experimentally with light gauge Monel sheets held in place only by Monel bands applied in the same manner as box strapping. Other Monel sheaths have been applied by the use of wire bands. Monel is a logical choice for this sheathing because it demonstrates ex- cellent resistance to corrosion under these conditions of exposure. Monel sheathing has been applied to tubular sections in offshore drilling struc- tures+. Tne presence of numerous cross braces in the region to which the sheathing had to be applied complicated this operation. for this reason, it would be desirable, if at all possible, to design braced structures so that the bracing would either be below half tide level where it could be protected by cathodic currents, or above une splash zone where paints could be applied readily. ‘ It has been discovered that the cathodic polarization characteristics of lionel as compared with steel in the tidal zone are such that the cathodic protection of the associated steel is accomplished more readily with Monel in the tidal zone than if the tidel zone were left as bare steel. lleasure- ments of the galvanic current betvreen steel, below low tide and Monel in the tidal zone as compared with steel below low tide and steel in the tidal zone have shown less galvanic effect of the Monel than the differ- ential aeration cell effect between steel and steel. In applyine l’onel sheathing in connection with cathodic protection as is recommended, the sheathing should start at about half tide level and extend through the splash zone where the periodic renewal of organic coatings would be very difficult, if not impractical. Some attention is being given the use of metal protection in the form of sprayed metal coatinres applied to previously sandblasted surfaces. Of the two metals proposed for this service, zinc seems to be preferred over aluminum. ‘The applied thickness should be from 10 to 15 mils and the sprayed metal should be suxplemented by a plastic sealer in the form of a chlorinated rubber vehicle carrying a very small amount of pigment. Presumably the sprayed metal need be applied only above half tide level, since cathodic protection will take care of the lower surfaces. ly, L. LaQue, "Protection of Steel in Off-Shore Structures," DRILLING, June 1950. e3) L} (ee) ) aiatot ot! ; “ph es Stove LPs: | A * popes PH oen; yh ; meat enn - bd i art) Wau ees Wetiee ne rs Cop ace Bie Te, OSuszs 3 s Tam wu WES atte hs 6 aoe : si Pe Gad B ‘as peed tin Tigre 7? gyihi sos ij it Sayre STEN: p ghee: Mike: F “ty Zone 5 - Splash Zone The splash zone is where the sreatest attack will occur unless protective measures are taken. The extent of corrosion in this zone may vary through wide limits, denending on the locality. Attack will be greatest where there is considerable wave action, and especially where breakers kick up a great deal of corrosive spray. By and large, the means of protection proposed for the tidal zone vill also be best for the splash zone and for the same reasons. The principal difference will be that penetration of soft coatings, such as coal tar enamels, by barnacles will not be a pro- blem e Practical tests, especially on offshore drilling structures, have shown that vinyl systems have particular merit for this service. The steel surfaces must be prepared carefully by sandblasting and the metal must be dry when painted. ‘The first coat should preferably be a washcoat primer plus successive coats of vinyl paint so as to yield a total paint film thickness of at least 6 mils. ‘The common pigments, such as red lead, zine chromate and iron oxide, have performed satisfactorily with the in- hibitive pigments being preferred at least for the first coat over the washcoat primer. Aluminum may be used as wel], as zine as a sprayed coating above high tide level. The thickness of either metal should be about 0.008 inch and the metel spray should be supplemented by a coat of primer and tivo top coats of aluminum flake in a vinyl vehicle. Composition of Steel The composition of the steel. used will have no great effect on corrosion or the facility of protection in the mud and up to half tide level. How- ever, by suitable alloyine, it is possible to effect considerable improve- ment in the resistance of steel to corrosion in the upper part of the tidal zone, and especially in the splash zone and above. The possible extent of this improvement in corrosion resistance is indicated by results of tests of steels exposed near the breakers at Kure Beach where the rate of corrosion of a 5% nickel steel was only 1/20 that of steel which con- tained only 0.01,;; copper. It is not suggested that steel for this service should contain as much as 5% nickel - these data are included merely to illustrate the extent of improvement that is vossible. Research is currently underway with the object of developing steels of much lower alloy content, e.g. 0.5, - total made up of a combination of such elements as nickel, copper andthosphorus which show promise of effecting considerable imorovement in corrosion resistance with only a small increase in cost of steel. ‘hile this property will increase the life of the steel without supplementary protection, it will be of particular value in increasing the durability of organic coatings which can be expected to show improved performance on the more corrosion resistant steelse 1). iM. Thornton and M, L. Bilhartz, "Protection of Offshore Production Equipment" - Paper presented at NACR Meeting, Galveston, March 1952. H-9 OPUS utes sf: POE Peis eyes. ae @ ; | PERS tithe ema ofeesy OVO! nf lnegsts LGRLT oY Yo 4 ft BE derane Ws see Maes - VBS Rites £ Beth ge, ; 2 Js00 Ae ser. OWOSE + Cagys - ONS yithenennr: Fee, Dave a geLe a es Sb NERS atty og ie : ae 7 ay! iy y ROLSODWOS Gaia erty ; ; » . i KSL8Aehe4 ov ‘ Sees Sar Bei Reinforced Concrete and Concrete Protection Before closing this discussion, some remarks re the use of concrete are in order. Assuming a proper mix of conerete and adequate coverage of the steel, there should be little deterioration of concrete below low tide level. A proper mix of concrete based on requirements for the most severe exposure in the tidal zone may be defined as one made tp to contain not. less than,7 sacks of cement per cubic yard of concrete with a maximum total water content of 5 gallons ner sack of cement carefully measured as recommended by the Portland Cement Association. In waters where marine borers of the pholad types may be encountered, the use of hard silica sand to form a concrete of high strength, e.g. 4,000 pound minimum test, will be required to resist penetration and deterioration of the concrete by these borers. There is some controversy as to the minimum thickness of coverage of con- crete over the steel. The most conservative recommend a minimum of 3", with " at corners. Others believe that with the best grades of concrete properly applied the coverage can be reduced to 2", Avparently, there is ereater latitude with respect to coverare and grade of concrete for those surfaces that are always under water. Requirements become more stringent in tthe tidal anc splash zones where the concrete is alternately wet and dry. Here the chance of deterioration of the concrete and penetration of water to corrode the steel is greatest. If any appreciable corrosion occurs, the accumulated corrosion products will induce cracking and spalling of the conerete and deterioration will proceed at an accelerated rate. Even with good grades of concrete there are difficulties due to spalling and cracking in northern climates where the concrete is subject to wide fluctua- tions in temperature, with freezing during the winter months. Attention is being given the application of cathodic protection to the steel reinforced concrete. However, such protection is likely to be effec- tive only below low tide where it apparently is least required. There is a considerable question as to the benefits to be gained from cathodic pro- tection of reinforced concrete in the most critical tidal and splash zones. In addition, there have been reports of deterioration of the concrete when the applied current or voltage have been too high. Several years ago, the National Bureau of Standards observed weakening of the bond between the concrete and the reinforcing steel when current was applied to the steel as a cathode on specimens immersed in Jashington, D. C, tap water-, Protection of Steel Hardware and Fittings Steel in such forms as bolts, tie-rods and the like is used frequently in the assembly of timber structures. It is desirable to give such steel ir, B., li. licCollum, and 0. S. Peters, Technologic Paper i168, 'Slectrolysis in Concrete," National Bureau of Standards, 1919. E-10 oe Kis Sey me Pe WG oo et aaa mip Bs x a ae iy ais sili dipii Se) em Pree, Biecdaborios) dats my x a - aay Duce eaaaay* CA aie f Be sastprnn Up. cafes a thy pinesst.e = ge hs 20 pablas Be API Ao watgen ye Fis q ie | eoneuinnh: "2 ow : | wioey <7) arenliag wes haus P BA Br oxo antsh cet water eit mist & hme Lene SRA NE atensy ay! . Beeaase is Sih afetais: veo 0 neue WO TRS Sh Qh coe nee tas MAO ss, allb be) 4 ee be leretani, oh ta. ty Pele Oh ee aie SW Lh re feta i re , hk tl) i et ; bas v ooh es Se ee ae Ben A WEED oF i hoster, Serra nmarreee Fails! alo Hye ch a ate Bibel PONS oh ht EL Yah: sheath Ray Lote, Wit MDAe pt Satemep sgh Is is Ty ‘. pat: ata Diy) and ty yh ORT chick WTA, {es yire ow pependi Peal tn) Le 3 r BUCA Gd CH Dd RvR Wied ahve yn wit ‘ Sweedan GAs. 1S fats * #1 ohh ar: " a ca , we wr sine. titi Was Wart | .. 7 x a Pak iS ioe ete wl si fale; ‘i ay Biavtes BE ‘arby MAPS: | : = ne, . S) ueiiee Me oo Ae okbiddinh weeters) feu biete piel foes ee) ‘ biszy a ip oy F se ‘ve Fi Pa £ a Htaupeie. he ote Bae OMIA 3x! al ia, 3 d ‘ roe ld iy J ia eal parts some protection, as by the application of organic coatings, such as coal tar enamels, or metallic coatings, such as zinc, Cadmium has also been used in place of zinc and there has been some controversy as to the relative merits of zinc and cadmium for protecting steel in marine atmospheres. Results of tests in progress at Kure Beach show a considerable advantage of cadmium over zinc. Specimens carrying different thicknesses of electro- deposited coatings have been exposed to the sea spray atmosphere near the breakers. ‘he dataassembled in Table 2 indicate the greater durability of the cadmium coatings and the advantage of using coatings of adequate thickness, especially in the case of zinc, Some interest has been shown also in the use of Monel for fastenings in this service. Tests indicate that such Monel fastenings will have an extremely long life. TABLE 2 PROGRESS OF RUSTING OF ZINC AND CADIIILUM PLATED STEEL SPECIMENS EXPOSED TO SEA SPRAY ATMOSPHERE AT KUR® BEACH, N. C. Coating Percentage of Rust after Thickness 58 days 176 days 36 days 4.83 days 51 days Inch Zn Cd 2n Cd Zn Cd Zn Cd Zn (Cd 0,000050 100 60 100 80 100 100 100 100 100 100 0.000100 Ney ah 100! 10 100 60 TOON G3 TOO) eH 0.000200 (el » 5 681019) Co) 7 CO mine o 0.000500 oO © OmO BQ lO) Be ifah &, 2 0.001000 oo ® © as @) a Al ae Nie! 0.002000 © © € i @ iy) fl ee m= 10 PPMAH IO Th Rese ings eft VE PA, nat isons ie D tthe ns Hoye Raine oti lator ax Eispscaeseel say ; PASS Ow NGA: ge tanibt bra, ch: te seat 83 a a ie wet —_ ati nt oir lea fas. aan Vag iia Pi athe eS | ea j Biases sean w woe Apaek weet sa Hci aie a aint Sei nal bo sel a Fina yh wile wi MH gia lose: Pisce ative nite ma Vette oe: si a: we awed. So fh apart dann Baty eat etroliy By Sin Fe ett els A ste atl ‘matteo whines ot] qadnnves het is gene = Miva: 8" oywer Het ~ Md = forall Me see) go ft ind eee [eG Teen at: DEB oa eo Renees Co toute” Mh? ah ieee Bet _ >= . = iene ants eis hess xh Of SR page Sed na tek erie NSH i | : PY ze | | | 7 4 os one: eta sate om ms 1 0 A . 2 sete ee: ean entdins i 7 a 7 ay A Ha out ay! 2 . : >| 5 ic 4 “ate liepas fot 21.) © ey eet i Ay f 7 eu oe ae owe aS a 3S Me : . vit } pole s ', 3 oY ae ‘ ene Gee mar > Gor dor ne’ tor 8 anit ee eee Oh Or oh ee wy "3 for - 8 $2 ; i, > » Se a a tt, i é oe | pe a . Ae > ae ee OF bs iy a ns Ki | f 0 ia PeAtoin ; ae y i a Me “ . ; a * : | | aa 7 : re es . (Contribution from the U. S. !rmy Ingineers and the Department of Agriculture) + | ae SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF DETERIORATION IN ARMY WATHRERONT STRUCTURES by J. A. Beal, R. J. Kowal, W. D. Reed INTRODUCTION During recent years there has been an increased interest in the deteriora- tion of wood and wood products and particularly in the damage caused to buildings. This has been due, to a considerable extent, to the increasing values of properties and the high cost of their maintenance, Costs for some grades of lumber and structural timber have increased approximately 200% since 192. There have been other reasons for this interest, however, The wide use of second-growth timber as a structural wood has resulted in losses greater than heretofore known, due to insect damage, decay, and other forms of deterioration. Such woods, particularly second-growth southern pines, con- tain little heartwood and a considerable volume of sapwood which lacks resistance to deterioration. Changes in style of building construction have also created conditions favor2zble to insects. The practice of erecting structures upon concrete slabs, for example, favors termite activity, and the use of heating systems in cold climates has had a marked influence--large central heating and humidifying units serving to create conditions, even inthe substructure of buildings, that enable insects to continue their destructive activities throughout the entire year rather than on a seasonal schedule as they would normally doe Estimates of current losses due to such organisms as subterranean and non- subterranean termites, wood borers, powder-post beetles, marine borers, and decay, are astounding. In the Canal Zone alone, the Corps of Ungineers was until recently spending almost .500,000 annually for repairs to build- ings damaged by subterranean termites; establishment of m effective termite control program has reduced these losses greatly. Losses caused by non- subterranean termites, although not so great, are very high also, particu- larly in the semi-tropics and tropics. In certain areas, such as the Florida Keys and the Jest Coast, they are far more severe than subterranean forms. There are a large number of wood-boring insects which in the aggre- gate annually destroy finished products valued at several million dollars. Accurate estimates of these losses are unavailable due mainly to the fact that because of the insidious nature of the insects! activities, they have attwacted less attention, and as a result have been less intensively investi- gated. In recent years revolutionary advances in the field of pest control, particularly in the development of synthetic organic insecticides and the equiyment for applying them, have opened possibilities for insect control never before realized, The velue of these new chemicals should be tested for the protection of wood by surface treatments, soakage, and the use of the pressure-vacuum process. In the discussion that follows, it should be kept in mind that the various groups of insects mentioned, as well as the wood-rotting fungi, reach their optimum development urder conditions existing in shore environments. ‘This is due mainly to the high welative humidity and heavy rainfall occurring in such areas, and in warm climates to the prevalence of high temperatures. A brief discussion follows on the various groups of organisms and the nature of their habits, distribution, and the destruction they cause. Termites Termites are the most destructive of all woodboring insects attacking wood structures, Distributed the world over, they have attracted a great deal of attention and study by both scientist and layman. Thus, there is a wealth of literature surrounding these interesting forms, some of it truly scientific, but much of it erroneous and bordering on the fantastic. For many years termites were known as white ants, a misleading nomencla- ture which ~ersists to this day, Actually, they are not even remotely related to ants nor are they necessarily white. Rather, they are a pri- mitive group of insects, related to the cockroach, and comprise a distinct order of their ow. However, like ants, they are social insects living in large colonies organized in a caste system, the castes usually consisting of winged adults and wingless soldiers and workers. Although there are innumerable species of termites with wide variations in character and habit, only two general tyoves need be considered from an @conomic viewpoint-- namely, the subterranean and drywood termites. Subterranean termites are so called because of their habit of maintaining the nenter of their activities, the colony, below the soil. The castes normally consist of dark-colored winged adults and soft-bodied, white or cream-colored soldiers and workers. The normal activity of termites of economic importance is that of consuming and decomposing cellulose materials , such as dying and dead plant life, back into organic constituents of the soil. However, if they are deprived of this and buildings occupy the site, the termites are capable of infesting the structures either by direct entry into readily accessible structural wood, or, if the wood is some distance away, by means of earthen shelter tubes built over obstructions. Thus, by means of these humidified and ventilated tubes, termites can progress from their colony deep in the earth over brick, concrete, or masonry, or through tiny cracks in these units, and even over treated wood, until they reach the untreated wood or other cellulose products they desire. ‘hile they normally confine their activities to wood in the foundation structure, it is not unusual for these insects to extend their activities into the second F-2 ee a Va nih Mela gy yt lee albg Stith ee a atau MA ons Ade ho eieipet Ne was W baie te laine eae, hie oat HAE NS ey Woes Mar ae eager ue Great vA Hi een eile BE) & be duane or third story in order to reach suitable food, this being particularly true in shore areas, where high humidities prevail. The key to successful control of subterraneen termites therefore lies in foundation structures which eliminate from the building site all scrap wood, which will serve as food for termites and permit an increase in ter- mite populations. It involves construction of impenetrable foundations, and good drainage and ventilation to discourage termite activity, and requires that structural wood be well above the soil or, if it must be in contact, that it be pressure-treated with an approved preservative. How- ever, it must be remembered that while these recommendations are basic, they will not perform with equal effect under any and all conditions and in all localities, For example, on the upper Atlantic coast a structure on a chain wall or pier foundation properly ventilated and drained is in most cases amply protected. On the other hand, in the semi-tropics or tropics, where termites are favored by high humidities and their popula- tions are high, these precautions have little value, In recent years there has been an increasing trend toward construction of all-masonry or concrete structures with very little wood used. This would appear to be an excellent method of termite control, but at present the point is debatable. Unless the foundation is of monolithic construction and not subject to cracking, and unless all holes, pipe chases, ett., are properly sealed, hidden infestations can result which are more serious than those occurring in conventional structures. Studding, framing, and other wood can be destroyed, and such damage can be remedied only by tearing out units to determine points of termite entry and drilling the concrete floor to poison the soil. Even where no such wood is used, termites can still damage furniture, rugs, clothing, and other wood and cellulose products. It might be well to point out here that they may bore through products other than those containing cellulose. Lead, aluminum, certain plastics, natural and neoprene rubber, and asphalt are only a few of the materials sudterranean termites have been known to penetrate in their search for food. Where application of preventive structural methods fails to control these insects or where it is impractical, poisoning the soil at points where termites are entering a building may be a highly effectivé control measure. T’is procedure is widely used, but there is considerable misuse and mis- understanding about effective poisons and methods of application, The poisons used in past years are almost innumeradle, and many fallacies exist regarding some of them. It has frequently been claimed, for example, that salt will control ter- mites, and, on this premise, that waterfront buildings will not be readily infested. The fallacy of this notion was evident during a termite inspection in 190 at Ft. Hancock on Sandy Hook, New Jersey, practically every building including those built at the water's edge having infestations of varying severity. F - 3 bids aL yr. fy) . a ental vat yay iikbengow souk ea Ay # 35 Hostey ; ERS ate ce Fgh Damage ee adults of aused by sut tat he -4 subterranean termite Mat cies ergs There are very few chemicals that have the qualifications of a good soil poison, which are, primarily, permanency ani minimum toxicity to plants and animals. The opportunities for improved termite control opened up by the development of new insecticides and equipment now require considerable research to evaluate and adapt them to practical use as soil poisons, wood impregnants, and surface treatments, Nonsubterranean termites are more important as wood destroyers in certain localities than are the subterranean species, Further, they present a greater problem because of the preater difficulty of control. These termites are widely distributed over the world, reaching their opti- mum development in semi-tropical and tropical climates. In this country they are confined to the extreme southern region~-in fact, to a narrow c+ strip near the coast, from Virginia around to northern California. They are particularly severe in southern Florida and on the Florida Keys, and, to a slightly lesser extent, in southern California. As their name implies, nonsubterranean termites, which include drywood, damp-wood, and rotten-wood species, have no contact with soil but rather attack wood directly. It is for this reason that they are, in a sense, more difficult to combat than the subterranean forms. ‘here is little evidence of attack until damage occurs. There are no conspicuous colonizing flights, such as in the subterranean group, to indicate the presence of an infesta- tion. However, such flights are made, and during the flights males and females shed their wings, pair off, and bore into the wood, sealing the entrance with a plug. Tunneling of the wood is begun immediately and in- creases in intensity as the colony grows. There are only two castes represented--the reproductives and the soldiers. hile colonies are small compared to the subterranean species, considerable destruction is caused by the species before evidence of activity appears. One of the best signs of damage is the tiny pellets of partly digested food that the termites expel from their galleries. This may be of little value as an indicator, however, if the infestation is in inaccessible places. This group of insects, particularly the dry-wood termite, is probably best known for its damage to furniture, although:any cellulose material may be attacked, including woodwork of buildings, transmission line poles, lumber, paper, cloth, insulation board, etc. The problem is most severe in the Tropics--in Key West, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Panama, and Hawaii. Dry-wood termites are the Noe 1 problem in wood deterioration in these areas. Various methods of control have been tried for many years, ranging from the injection of insecticides into furniture with a hypodermic needle to the enclosing and fumigating of an entire building and its contents within a tent. Use of fine screen has been recommended to prevent entry of termites into buildings, and the application of Heavy coats of paint has been employed to deter outside attack. Inorganic stomach poisons or contact insecticides, principally dusts, have been largely used for controlling infestationse These measures have been effective only to a limited extent, have been of F-6 beictth 3 Sea aos] a), eed the WAR Aa) 1 be alte a ; iy Ue BL 9 aye a temporary nature, and often have been impractical in application, As in the case of subterranean termites, recent development of new insecticides and wood preservatives gives considerable promise of more effective and permanent control. There is much yet to be learned about the methods to use in obtaining penetration of residual insecticides into the wood in order to control active infestations and to prevent future attack. In localities where the problem is particularly severe, preventive treatments of a permanent nature may be applied to all wood used in new construction or for replacement purposes. Wood Borers Several species of wood-boring beetles, including largely the croups known as wood borers and the powder-post beetles, present special problems in the deterioration of wood in waterfront structures, Some may attack wood in the green log stage, or the green lumber upon which bark flitches remain. They may survive air-drying treatment and, if the wood is utilized within one or two years, will continue their activities within structures. ilost of the species complete their development from worms or larvae to adults within 2 years, emerge, and never reattack. A few will reinfest the wood and continue their destructive activities indefinitely. hile the extent of damage caused by this group of insects is not well known, it nevertheless creates undesirable problems. imerging borers make holes from 1/8 to 1/h inch in diameter in the surface of the wood containing them, and if panel- ing, wall board, flooring, or other material is laid over this wood, they will bore through it also in order to emerge, By far the most destructive beetles are those classed broadly as powder- post beetles which attack seasoned wood. These attack the wood directly either during storage on the lumber yard or in a structure and continue their activities, breeding one generation of progeny after another until the wood is completely destroyed. Some damage wood rapidly, others slowly but surely. Jhile most of the species are of world wide distribution, only a few have been studied sufficiently to determine their habits and controle The group known as Lyctus powder-post beetles has caused concern in the wood-using industry for many years. This tiny black or brown hard-shelled insect attacks principally the large-pored hardwoods such as oak, hickory, ash, walnut, etc. ‘Jhile the green wood may be attacked in the lumber yard, it is usually the finished product that is infested, and destruction is greatest when products are in storage. It is impossible to estimate accurately the total amount of destruction caused by these beetles to floor- _ ing, wood sunstock blanks, cots, furniture, tool handles, dunnage, and other items in this country alone. It is equally severe in other parts of the world and several countries have recognized the problem to the extent that legislation has been employed in an effort to prevent serious losses and keep the insects under control. Another powder-—post beetle known widely for its destructive activities and one which is becoming increasingly important is the old house borer or One Hylotrupes. The insect is rather large in both the larval and adult stages and makes channels and holes in the wood up to 1/h inch in diameter, It attacks all soft woods and is found principally in large timbers such as joists and beams. Due perhaps to the increased use of sapwood, pointed out earlier, it appears that this insect is becoming increasingly common in the United Stat.s. This very point is brought out in a recent report from Sweden which presents the findings of a survey of wood-destroying insects and also states that the cost of repairing existing damage caused by this borer in Sweden would amount to over .25,000,000. Reports from other parts of Europe, North and South Africa indicate a similar situation in these areas. The borer has not been so intensively studied in this country. However, it has been found in outdoor structures, such as in bridge timbers, poles, and piers, as well as in all parts of dwellings, warehouses, and like structures. The size of the insect added to its life cycle of from 3 to 7 years, means the rapid destruction of wood. Hich temperatures and humidity favor its optimum development. There are several other species of powder-post beetles which because of small size and inconspicuous activity attract little attention. Neverthe- less, as a whole, they likewise cause severe damage. it is unusual to find foundation timbers, particularly in basementless structures, free from attack by one or more of these species. Unfortunately, presence of the insect is not detected until failure of timber is noted and, as frequently happens, the causal agent is ignored, the timber is replaced, and the general infestation continues. One insect, known as the wharf borer,stands apart from the powder-post beetle in its relationship and habits. It is usually associated with decay fungi in very moist wood and under such conditioxs has been observed hasten- ing the destruction of piling, decks under wharves, boardwalks, telephone poles, fences, piers, and even buildings. It has been reported from numerous points in the United States, particularly along the coast, and from other parts of the world, and, although it has not received a great deal of study it is known to be capable of doing considerable damage. Very little is known regarding the biology and control of this insect. Treatment of wood with preservative deters its activity for a period of time, but it will attack wherewer impregnations are poor or leaching of chemicals has begun. There is much yet to be learned of the biology and practical prevention and control of wood-boring beetles. It is believed that the residual action of new synthetic insecticides offers considerable promise in this regard. However, the method of introducing these chemicals into wood to reach deep infestations remains a problem. Fumigation of small buildings, furniture, or tool stock vith methyl bromide is very effective but is limited because no protection from future attack is offered end this method cannot be used for large buildings or their contents. In some cases the impregnation of wood with a preservative by soaking or pressure treatment offers a worth- Po @ apg,’ #2 if ba #4, 10h if ; | ig va: 4 a4 ' 4 pete P ; | / ay braces U j 424 j j Pepe eG f Q fon % if i bi ¥, Jeaiys | yal a gh ’ ' aih 5 1 } se 0 ia vi) i i P } SS ~~ NMAC? MINNON E diaWinthy hersaed o1K% ow! wey MRED tacts, Selocpssivhewe Aes CI ae ty ie " a Fry ay AP | ; [ hei nett ) Be Psi vai us 2 - pas ye 4 a" ca “3 yO ¥ , \ ena ey Nil i ve a 2 5 4 7 Fs: es Uy an ¥ ‘ i q « } ign ae ye =] ape Toa ; | i e i - 4 j ¢o'¥ i fir mit? a | 4 i 2 <2 a. ie 4 } Reco ae ni é . x cs + ~ 2 , $ oe 4 ‘f . eS ‘ *, Ye at! on 2 7 Aes or / z ( ave aby see rs v } J ay Bw ' A ra , i : j A aa | \ i u ; 4 , i nv y Ke ; S } j : 4 f, his = re 3 % - fh Lite 3 fi j ‘ i} x ¥ ri i eA WA j ats a i i a ty ’ . he ane Lo , ’ i . ‘ s i &r j : , | i - qi A i Sut hy } k if i‘ ay ’ ‘D Saf rif Me | F ; ‘ ’ , } ti 4 4 \ be dl M ¢ m 4 ' ‘ J] ' o CRY , : ' s ‘ t ‘ q i \ Jazog esnoy PTO Aq pesneo while preventive approach. Chemical formulations and methods of applica- tion for control of these insects should be investigated. NEED FOR RESEARCH ON PROBLEM. OF DETERIORATION In the above discussions on various problems of deterioration, it has been repeatedly pointed out that there is a great need for additional research. In the recent past, wood has been a very plentiful commodity of high quality. Interest in the protection of wood products has therefore not been great. Consequently, until recent years research on wood-destroying organisms has been somewhat limited and in many cases appears to have failed to keep abreast of the need for the preservation and conservation of wood products for the building industries, With the decrease in the timber supply, the development of demand for innumerable wood products, and the high cost of such products due to increased cost of the raw material and its manufacture, there has come a realization of the need for research designed to protect this valuable reseurce. Mdvancements in the fields of chemistry and engineering have provided promising materials for study. During ‘orld ‘ar IT and since, there have been revolutionary developments in the chemical industry and in the pro- duction of potent residual insecticides, such as DDT, BHC, chlordane, toxa- phene, heptachlor, and others, which far exceed most of the older insecti- cides in effectiveness, Considerable progress has also been made in the development of new equipment, including numerous types of thermal fog gen- erators, mist blowers, and improved hydraulic sprayers, to be used in the surface application of these insecticides. There have been also marked improvements in methods and equipment for impregnating wood with preserva- tives. Outstanding though they are, these developments merely provide a tool for the control of the various organisms destructive to wood. ech insecticide must be investigated thoroughly to determine the formulation most effective and most practical in a particular situation. Hach formulation mist be compared with standard treatments and evaluated on the basis of performance and cost. A most important consideration, however, is the need for basic biological studies of the destructive organisms involved. In the haste to obtain results--a characteristic of much of our research in the past decade-- there has been a tendency to overlook the fact that development of effective con- trol measures is dependent upon a knowledge of the behavior of the organism for which the control is directed. Thus, it appears that much of the re- search of past years has followed a hit or miss pattern. Fundamental research on the biology of the organisms, including life history, habits, and the relationship to the environment, is essential in order that control measures may be effective and economical. Among the insects, a few species of our native termites and the powder-post beetles have been most extensively studied. Little is known, however, about many species of F — 10 : Hien sue pie uae Hehe (ho) ere ia een hoe Gily ‘a 4 hey Sta re eRe ‘ > At ea Sie * Mb, 3 a at ais ai ; 4: , ? aa A) ’ i t ly =f } cP it i 2 i af og 4 rs , Lee | ey 2) ce 1 "idee f Oy Je Bh it i , a ORAL arf): bile t ’ a - we) brid { ley eseeeteeiiee) 12 hat oe ae Pieler ry ade Ol byan ae 4. j Cee wilitty i Ue: lee em fh 7 iat J aD Pubuys Lf i if u's ; oy i Bites mie 4" ie 1 Lay 2 f i > i ? A il Ce ee i x it eh F fy : " au hee ; , Pane SAH ; “ ) . Dav t +2) \ ceperey West) Dif ‘lds : [ ty PUY MT: FL Ly he ’ 1 f WEALD i ; } i cu (Alelll N : URE Een) Con bie Pie § i ey is yi clk “hhite Meee ‘|S Wr ter en eee 7 : AD eee on tt Vy Pah siuteg), cst : termites, powder-post beetles, and the numerous wood borers found in this country. ‘The field of wood deterioration in the tropics is virtually unexplored. There has probably never been a period in our history when interest and progress in the utilization of wood has been greater than at present. Con- servation and protection are integral parts of this advancement, and re- search in these fields at this time can contribute much toward the progress being made. ay) (Contribution from the Bureau of Yards and Docks) DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING DET™RIORATION Of MARINE STRUCTURES by Ralph C. Stokes The engineer is acutely aware of the destructive forces which are ever at work on marine structures. liany eenturies of experience have demon- strated the severity of the attack which involves chemical, physical and biological processes. The battle to overcome the damaging effects has taken many different turns and made use of every known available con- struction material. None of these is exempt from the ravages of all types of deterioration, but each is vulnerable to one or more of the destructive processes. Much can be done to extend the useful life of waterfront structures by proper attention to arrangement of parts, selection of materials, choice of optimum shapes, and the use of protective applications. The three principal construction materials, timber, steel and concrete can all be used effectively if the results of experience are kept in mind. The purpose of this paper is to present some of the methods which have been adopted by the bureau of Yards and Docks to obtain maximum length of life at a minimum overall cost. ‘Timber Construction: No dovbt the first crude structures built to accommodate shipping were of wood. The rapid deterioration which followed probably led to the observa- tion that certain species were more resistant to decay than others. Per- haps the next discovery was made by the Fhoenicians, who practiced the charring of wood to obtain greater life expectancy. It is interesting to note that wood preservation, in a modern sense, did not begin in earnest until the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Although the present method of injecting creosote into wood under consid- erable pressure was devised by John Bethell in 1833, the method did not attain commercial importance until 1875. Hazards to Timber Construction: Timber waterfront structures suffer principal damage from the hazards of decay, marine borers, abrasion and fire. By far the greater portion of the damage done to timber results from the action of decay and marine borers. If timber is continuously submerged, there is no decay. However, marine borers must be considered a menace at most locations on salt water. Thus for marine structures, the borers threaten timber below water, decay is active above water, and both do damage in the tide zone. G-1 f Te, oe “he ricer : PEO artes “IAP (uper ee j ao oh Ain ‘ ‘ i; fh. Migs. rg! 4 we, ‘ ) Hu th P. prey ; - “, Wee tive A P ; 4 by academe i “ 5 = rev : | tava ty | pero ivi ; Ws i “ae oe e x wea Ant : Boy ROD ers hich 4 frye Ques stele ie! a fi at ‘ft Boa ce ® A: Areiay A iT’. fr ins,.! Fr) Ret - Pt Lae ee isan adil 4 7 ~ i = #0 My A; , Lin , aay ews ‘ ; bee 5 M - j %- ; o Methods of Protecting Timber: The three general methods used for the protection of timber are coatings, aymors and injected preservatives. No really effective coating has been developed to date. Armors give efficient protection so long as they remain unbroken and extend from a level above high water to one below harbor bottom sufficiently far to guard against the possibility of scour. The process of protection by injected preservatives is the most generally used because it has the advantage of affording protection against decay, insects and marine borers. The preservatives include soluble and. insoluble salts, creosote oil, and creosote coal tar solutions, Soluble salts are not reliable if the tinber is exposed to leaching. The best results are obtained from pressure treatments which produce complete penetration by the voreservative. Physical damage to piles during handling and driving must be avoided in order to realize maximum benefit of the preservative treatment. Boring and cutting of piles below high water encourages entry of marine borers. Deterioration is less rapid for pile bents capped with single timbers than for those framed by cutting the pile heads to receive a pair of cap clamps. Abrasion damage applies principally to exposed decking and to the outer faces of fender piles. There is often ample evidence to support the belief that no extended usefulness is obtained by treatment of deck timber to | prevent decay, on account of the physical destruction caused by wear. Covering of the exposed surfaces with more resistant materials is the only practical solution for abrasion. The life of wood fender piles can often be materially increased by the provision of metal rubbing strips on the contact areas. The fire hazard mist not be overlooked in design. The principal protection consists in segregating a structure into several wits by firewalls or bulkheads extendine from the underside of the deck to a level below the low water line. The provision of openings in the deck for foam nozzles are often vrovided for additional rrotection. Concrete Construction: Concrete is generally considered to be the most durable material available for the building of waterfront structures. This idea probably stems from the fact that cement was made in the time of the Romans that remained stable in seo water for hundreds of years, Modern Portland cement apparently lacks such chemical stability in sea water and its use in concrete require careful control. The Bureau of Yards and Docks has under test at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, prototype concrete pile specimens 14 inches square by 13 feet long. A total of 96 specimens were hung in the tide zone during the years 1925 through 1933. Each of these specimens varied in some particular, either in the kind of cement, provortions of the mix, type of aggregate, use of an admixture, surface treatment or special type of reinforcing. Various G-2 ahi , Ke B ran its ie shih hi vs nite f types of Portland cement, Alumina Canent and: superfine Portland cement were used in varying proportions from 3 bags per cubic yard to 9% bags per cubic yard. From the long time tests. at Portsmouth plus observations made on concrete Naval structures located in many parts of the world the following con- clusions have been drawn: The concrete appears to fail through disinte- gration of the cement which progressively loses its bond and cementing power. This disintegration occurs more rapidly in some Portland cements than inothers. of the same type. Alumina cement has not demonstrated a superiority over Portland cement. The admixtures which were used did not appreciably retard deterioration of the concrete nor did the use of silica sand improve the density of the concrete by chemical action with the cement. Improved density can be achieved by the use of well graded ageregates, Surface density is an important factor in the life of concrete piling. It can be improved by the use of very smooth surface formwork, plus form vibration. No appreciable advantage is gained by the use of corrosion resistant reinforcing. Increased clear cover over reinforcing is a more economical solution. Comaratively rich mixes of concrete are required to prevent the deterio- ration of concrete in the tide zone. It is interesting to note that the most verfect concrete pile specimen hung at Portsmouth contains a mixture of cements from four different producers. The concrete contains 65 bags of cement per cubic yard. Tio other specimens in excellent condition after 27 years contain 9 bags of cement per cubic yard of concrete, The water- cement ratio has a marked influence on the durability of concrete. This is evidenced by the fact that the less the slump the more resistant the nile specimens have been to deterioration. The selection of both fine and coarse aggregates that are knavn to be chemically stable with cement, in the presence of salt water, is essential. Steel Constructions: Although the process of smeltine iron has been known for thousands of years, it was 180 before the principal support of a waterfront structure was formed of cast iron. Solid wrought iron piles were installed about 10 years later, while steel shapes were not used until about 1870. Although service records indicate that cast iron, in the form of cylinders or piles, is the most durable material currently available for use in waterfront structures, it has received little consideration during the last 35 years because of its lack of tansile: strength and comparatively high first cost. Reports on solid wrought iron piles indicate a service life comparable to those of hollow cast iron. However, the wrought iron or steel bracing members required in connection with either wrought or cast iron piles and cylinders have required rather frequent replacement. This replacement cost, rather than the high first cost of cast or wrought G- 3 lag Maria 3 Dae by 1 Ola NOILONALSNOD Uald aaaWnil NOIS3IQ ABAOUdWI (9) NOISBQ TYNOILNAANOD (2) \ i | a fut | | 11 i) We ge te Se et aos. geeks = eee ee eee ee ree ie i le oa. | Woy U ' — — AS 9 peat = —~ — SSL SIS : YALE MOD DIE SIMA SSE = == | WLU! ost - 73a \ WOLLOR i Zl = im wald 40 4 ff vald 40 3 = Deel af ie x 2 e Ms Soe. e . oromerw iron supporting members, accounts for the disuse of an otherwise satis- factory material. Following the repid expansion of the steel industry from 1890 through 1912, many steel pipe piles and cylinders were used to support waterfront struc- tures. In the latter half of this era, steel deck framing was also used quite extensively. The comparatively rapid deterioration of these struc- tures by corrosion and the resulting maintenance or replacement costs soon curtained this type of construction. ith the introduction of steel sheet piling and the expanding use of steel "H" piles, much experimental work was done in an effort to develop a more corrosion-resistant steel. Copper bearing steel was introduced both in Europe and the United States as being at least a partial answer to the problem. Records, however, indicate that in many locations little increase in resistance was apparent, ilodern steel sections can be used to advanta-e in many locations where timber or concrete sections camot be used. The useful life of a steel structure can be materially extended by the adoption of a simplified design and the initial protection afforded by coatings or envelopes located in the zones of critic:1 corrosion. Cathodic »rotection, which is now under test, promises to retard corrosion in the tide zone on both old and new steel- work. However, it is not effective in or above the splash zone. In crder to illustrate better the design techniques which will aid in solving deterioration problems a series of illustrations are given of both pier and bulkhead construction. In general, all open tyne marine structures, with free tidal movement beneath, are subject to more severe exposure than those of the closed tvpe which are exposed only along the exterior faces of the structure. Figure 1 illustrates two fimber pier designs. Figure la is the conven- tional design wherein the lower level of bracing is located just above mean low water and is subject to maximum exposure in the tide range. Figure 1b shows an improved cesign. Here the bracing system is raised above high water level and the connections for the batter piles are made at the level of the main transverse timber caps. The life of the structure will thus be increased by removal of the bracing and fittings from the zone of critical exposure. A timber pier with composite deck is shown in Figure 2, In this example, there is no lateral bracing. Stability is provided by a system of A-frames. These are formed by embedding the outer vertical pile and the batter pile, in each transverse bent, in a concrete beam. The composite deck protects the timber caps from exposure to weather and the only members exposed in the tide zone are the round piles. Some piers require the use of very long piles. In this case, timber piles with concrete jackets can bc used to advantage as illustrated in Figure 3. The conerete jackets perform a dual function: First in providing a large increase in pile stiffness, thus eliminating the need for bracing, and second as armor, providing protection from marine borers. The jackets are applied on untreated piles prior to drivinz by depositing an encasement G-h % Old wWIaAI GLISOGWOD -aAald BIAQiL SayWldS Lalidn NOILDSS SSYSAGNVSUL ATVH QNY Sdado vaANad Bv3aHsS 40 ONIDVdS Ven i NX) \ | I) \ Ue we yee fi a | | 0 lo u 14 05 —iNaa 30 NvdS 40 2 | ' to 0 SY3BdOT3ASI AVAHS 7 az Al SavldS Laan P09 WADIA NAAL NOILDIAS dadOTvsA3a0 UVaHsS “—~3id 40 3 el 4 | LAWWP BLIUYINOD -Salld YABWniL : A Nolio3s- aSUaASNVaL 31H VYe-V¥ NOILDSES ee ete ag lh oe fh i ‘ ' (fA r= ! 1 0°S¢- 7a WCoLLos BawwdS HSaW 40 MVL4AG ald at een Y HSaW y ot -AMIW auynDSs AVLaW | BDvd De tet | = See a= ~ MAW AdvLS BAM FU- a _us Care Si 2 i aie ig g i | rP— wld JO % oH 4 cay ER he tenn piper rmimeibeatorees pv Ols 3UNd ALAYDNOD 3-3 NOILD3S ti rane epee Psaaa sniave 32 W-W NOILD3S WOWINIW € —— es ee ! aaLyvM A071 NV aw UBAOD BAILIBLOUd | ~~ Ne a a ore of cement mortar about 2" thick over the surface of the pile by means of pneumatic equipment, This type of protection for timber piles has been used with success on several large navy piers. Figure 4 shows a concrete pile designed for longer life in the tide zone. In the illustration, it will be noted that a two inch minimum thickness of concrete cover is provided over the steel for the lower portion of the pile. Above this level, the longitudinal steel reinforcement in the pile is bent so that the concrete cover is increased to a minimum thickness of 3 inches. Since square corners are more vulnerable to deterioration by both chemical and physical processes, the corners are rounded to a mini- mum radius of 24 inches. Figure 5 illustrates a conventional concrete pier. Unless the deck is located well above high water, the lower surfaces of beams and girders will be subject to the deteriorating effects of saltwater spray. The many corners involved in this design tend to promote attack on the rein- forcing steel. Figure 6 shows an ideal concrete pier design. The circular cylinders have optimum shape for resisting attack by saltwater and for minimum force from wave action. If the cylindrical shells are cast with the aid of smooth metal forms and adequate cover is maintained over the reinforcement, a long life should result. The number and area of vertical supports is held to a minimum. The flat slab construction has no deep transverse girders nor longitudinal beams exposed to salt water spray. Untreated timber piles may be safely used as supports beneath the cylinder bells. The conventional design of a steel pier is shown in Figure 7a. Lateral stability is provided by batter piles in combination with a system of cross bracing. Rapid deterioration of this bracing will occur even though the usual protective coatings are applied. By way of contrast, Figure 7b shows a steel pier without batter piles or bracing. Lateral stability is obtained by rigid-frame action. The tinber-concrete composite deck gives wide distribution of local lateral loads to several bents so that lateral deflections are reduced, The vertical piles have concrete jacket protec- tion in the tide zone for maxinum longevity, where additional stability is required, A-~frames can be adjed beneath the center of the pier. A practical method for installing jackets on either timber or steel piles is shown in Figure 8. It is equally applicable to existing viles or to new construction. The two halves of the form are separated by rubber gas- kets which are compressed as the form is locked together, thus providing for self-stripping when the pressure is released. Jith the form secured in position around the pile at the desired elevation, coarse aggregate is deposited to fill the form after which a special grout with admizture is intyoduced at the bottom of the form. As the grout rises to the top, the water in the form escapes through a series of vent holes and a complete filling of the voids with good grout is achieved. G - 8 a AY, sh oa! eA vi eas BLISOGWOD wald 40% ig ea ee ' P¥OAES DESiat t bi ¥ t | t * rd 1 i] j a i Ci} i { es SLAs Ms Va <¥ By - | a) 7 Poe tts : ears ig De & ; fu - ete | F te L | i n . ea | = } Ye ar Mit = ee. “sy { is hed, 5 LY * es b i 7 _ ry EL 2.6 Pd AOE) -SHUFT METAL ch CONCRETE CASING: @ PAGE THES, tl 109.5 = ru ‘ = ” % ’ eT PET REPOR CIS BARS - — _ 5 < — g- Fe we TPs ---— . a-Fy+ @ 14 Wy Pee A ROTHKY WIRE BRUSI BEFORT PAICTING With Bue PREVENTING PAT STEP NO. I GAO - REMOVABLE ‘ a at ———= rte 108.9 4 nm | 1s!) " oy = z a v f fics 2 _— v a 50 oy if + | . « a a a 4 o- 4% e it 4 ries oo ! é- 1% & MHS 6 rt tp as CS a i} - PE vw ew SecuBEeLY T OF P) = PRUETT DEINE CHES BAD S 5 ec 4 f | \ q od 0 al i — 4 \ ‘| f te h { et eat 4 (So ee | 1 3 i 2 | i ts | if = ae 1 Let : C= be i) ; “ i | U | l — ! ‘ y Q ' Ad . v - a (c, | ee le | ae tre ‘ ‘ A us = eB I nek ol caste +2 Timnee Tr FIT AROUND < SS 5 2 amour He 1A? sous UT MUSE 4 PLATE WASHERS “HeILED Tr TIMBER “LAMPS SECTION A-A SCALE 4y = 1-0 SECTION B-B ScALe Bozi-0 SECTION C-¢ scat Be FORM FOR CONCRETE PILE JACKET FIG. & i L athe ae v n> : k 7 ~ pat : te Ree ‘ ie : . }, ve . : af i j t f i 5 + j j \e 7 is a | “ "ste Sayed i Le i \ r > ‘ ay ane f i w : 3 } \ iy | \ - 7 , * : + Pa = - © 7 ‘ a ~. “Shes wderiae ; re aaa MAOF SUBAVOMAS ¢ - —: : A be . Ay, a i 4 : ie et ki i on as 7 oh ane : i nm Lo ; - aie if * “0 iy! : b “Oba NOILINALSNOD QGVSHWING ( ) J¥O33N ONM Id LAIHS 20 NOILVAINS P. LNAIWISVINS BLAYINOD (>) RDA BAe pao A RLS lot SAPD ERD: re a eee ett ame MHW a te = = =— SOS aS =O Sad ==: pes 7 6 a “al fy SSE PIELER et] 11, eye rand , ol S The last two illustrations relate to bulkhead construction. Figure 9a shows a section through a conventional bulkhead. The steel wale is located for erection convenience on the outside of the sheet piles above mem low water. A steel cap channel is used in forming the top curb. The steel wale is severely exposed and deteriorates rapidly. The channel cap shares a fate only slightly less severe. The tie-rod corrodes badly adjacent to the bulkhead, By the simmle procedure of transferring the wale to the inside face of the sheet piles and protecting the upper channel with con- concrete as shown in Figure 9b, the life expectancy of the wale is greatly increased. Critical corrosion of the tie-rods can be prevented by paint- ing and wrapping the 6 ft. length of rod adiacent to the sheet piles, or encasing it in concrete. A concrete cap and curb built along the top of the sheet piles is far superior to the conventional channel curb. Besides, it acts as a much better distributing beam for the bulkhead system. At locations where corrosion is known to be severe, encasement of the upper portion of the piling in a concrete envelope, as shown in Figure 9c, is necessary. A saving in weight of steel can be made by varyin: the length of alternate pairs of sheet piles, as shown in Figure 9d. Fizure 10 illustrates a bulkhead design which is adaptable to repair at a later date, after having served an initial normal life. In this case, the sheet piles are anchored at tivo levels because of the high backfill elevation. The lower wale is located on the outer face of the piling, but is about cne foot below mean low water to reduce tide zone exposure. At the "zone of failure" shown, the deteriorated areas of the sheet piles permit leaching and escape of backfill material which causes a lowering of the top grade. This type of failure does not endanger the stability of the bulkhead as a whole, because the lower wale and tie-rod system remain intact and retain the original alimment of the lower portion of the sheet piles. The upper vortion of the bulkhead can be repaired as shown in Figure 10b. A narrow relieving platform is built behind the sheet piles to reduce the lateral pressures and a concrete gravity retain- ing well is constructed above the platform. A bulkhead, reconstructed in this manner, will generally last longer than the original construction. Recommended Design Practices: The more important lessons learned from experience on the deterioration of timber, concrete and steel waterfront structures may be summarized as follows: a. Since maximum deterioration occurs in the tide zone the number of structural members located therein should be kept to a practical Minimum. The elimination of bracing within the tide range is the first step toward a better design. be Round members because of their smaller area and better flow character- istics for wave action generally have a longer life than other shapes. G- lh 2 ah es whe MTD Wk Ol Sl4 Sdlivdaa QVaHWIng Uivday 4O GOHLaW (49) NOILVAAVWLSNI AVILINT (2) o'si- 13 WCLL09 WOLLOS = +o st seers as pe ae ee hp 1 Ost - f AWIW | oe 73a MIW aanriva 40 BNOZ— 4 NHW YEE YI Neal RREEARS SL Lorol+ 7a vt flv SS! te tA! toe > . “etme en Mall ne he y pte bandana: Aue i ed ™ ew Se aac es (ee =a ~ Ter 4 os ? + - —F 1 Nt | ia i = Ar beet a , 17aGe - 4 ] F & * j c. 1t is imperative that all steel or concrete deck framing be located above normal spray level. d. Untreated timber piles should never be used in waterfront structures unless located below the permanent wet line and protected from marine borer attack. e. The most effective injected presermative appears to be creosote oil having a high phenolic content. For piles subject to marine borer attack a maximum penetration of creosote-coaltar solution is recom- mended, f, Salt-treated timber gives satisfactory service when protected from the weather. g. Boring and cutting of piles after treatment should be avoided. All surfaces so cut require special treatment. h, Single timber caps have a longer lite than pairs of cap timbers dapped into the piles. i. Untreated timber ~iles when encased in a eunite armor and properly sealed at the top will give economical service. Concrete to last in the tide zone must have a high cement content; a minimum of 6-1/2 begs per cubic yard is recommended. Cte ° k. The lower the water-cement ratio, the more durable concrete will be in salt water. 1. Care must be exercised in the selection of coarse and fine aggregates both for density of erading and to avoid unfavorable chemical reaction with the cement. m. iiaintenance of specified clear cover over all reinforcing steel is of the greatest importance. n. Smooth formvork and rounded corners improve the resistance of con- crete structures, o. All steelwork in and above the tide range requires the initial pro- tection of a coating or concrete envelope. Conclusions The battle against deterioration may never be completely won. However, the life of marine structures cen be significantly extended by applying the lessons learned from experience to their design. Further progress awaits the discovery of more effective protective materials and the development of new methods for marine borer control. The sad fact that little progress has been made in the last 75 years should be a challenge to us all, G -17 \ | ie ne (Contribution from the Marine Laboratory, University of iiiami) LIFE HISTORY oF TAREDO* by L, B. Isham Abstract Since so jittle is know of the early life history of larviparoug shipworms, the larval and early boring stages of Teredo (Lyrodus) pedicellata De Quatrefages were studied in some detail. This shipworm, the most common in the Miami area, was cultured in laboratory tanks and used as a source of larvae of known age. The anatomy of the larvae was studied and compared, in some respects, with other species of Tereco. The free swimming and crawling stages and the early boring stages were described in respect to anatomy anc behavior. The development of the siphons and of the early development of the shells and pallets were de- scribed. The mortality rate of these stages was discussed. The speed of swimmine and crawling was measured and descriptive data con- cerning locomotion were noted. *xThis paper appeared in full in the Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean 2(h):574-589, Way, 1953. . Copies of this may be ourchased from the Managing Editor, Marine Laboratory, University of Miami, Coral Gables 6, Florida. (Contribution from the University of Southern California) THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE ARUAS OF MARINE BORER ATTACK TO POLLUTION PATTERNS IN LOS /NGELES-LONG BEACH HARBORS by John L, Mohr Los Angeles and Long Beach Harbors comprise somewhat more than 7,000 acres of water of thirty-five foot average depth enclosed by a rock breakwater from the remainder of San Pedro tay. Terminal Island, built up from a line of mud waddens and low islands and supporting extensive naval and industrial installations, provides several enclosed anchorages opening on the Outer Harbor and protects the waters of the Inner Harbor. The Inner Harbor appears on the map as a six-mile arch of water with approaches from the Outer Harbor at east (Long Beach) and west (Los “ngeles) by thirty-foot channels. Although flushing and current patterns have not been adequately studied, it has been estimated that with roughly 250,000 acre feet (80 billion gallons) of water in the harbor, the daily tidal cycles move about a fifth or 50,000 acre feet of water in and out the breakwater. Accordingly, it might be predicted that any acute effects of pollution would be found in enclosed areas particularly of the Inner Harbor. Surveys on the effects of harbor pollution have been of two sorts. Under the aezis of the Los Angeles Regional ater Pollution Board, a coordinating agency of the State of California, some 17 agencies concerned with harbor conditions carried, mainly in 1951, an investigation into the sources and effects of pollution in Los Angeles~Lone Beach Harbors. Fifty-five stations in Los Angeles and eighteen in Long beach Harbor were made, An abridged report of the joint agencies is in press. In this investigation the study of bottom conditions made by analysis of samplings by a small orange-peel bucket was carried out by my colleagues of the Southern Cali- fornia liarine Horer Council for the Department of Fish and Game. Secondly, the Council has carried on studies with standard Douglas fir blocks and microscope slide carriers at firtteen stations ghosen to represent — a wide range of thermal, pollutional and other factas. From these specific data has been obtained on borer activity and fouling in the major areas of the harbor. Finally, the records of the decennial surveys of piling condition in Los Anzeles Harbor (the most recent being that of 1916) have been made available by lr. C. il, \jakeman, Testing lingineer of the Los Angeles Harbor Department. Degree of pollution in a harbor may be gauged in a number of ways. The actual quantitative determination of particular pollutants vould be most desirable. The chemists of the joint agencies' survey found, however, that with practicable survey methods it was not possible to demonstrate certain deleterious substances known to be entering the harbor in con- sidereble amounts at specific points. The effects of such pollutants may usually be noted by their depression of the dissolved oxygen index, in- I-1 #50 Pe) Nath? an Bi ends: apts! slnuas ae ume they wae oiaal Sawa eh aires. BS Z e PPA: IBN), ait creased biochemical oxygen demand, or even the presence of hydrogen sulfide. However, as with inland pollution, the alteration of the plant- animal associations of various types of waters constitutes the most generally reliable quick indicator both of deterioration and of recovery. With the harbors which our group has investigated, it is the animals studied rather than the more inconspicuous plants which have proved more useful in this respect. Not all of the harbor animals are likely to be significant in formulating a zoological index of harbor pollution. The floating population or plank- ton will be perceptibly altered, particularly diminished in a somewhat selective manner, but except where flushing is much reduced, the pollution effects will be rather minimized. Moreover, the mortality of plankton nets, which are both relatively fragile and expensive, is a deterrent to the use of a plankton index in those reaches seriously contaminated, The strong swimmers or nekton, in the harbor mainly fish, also could be ranged into a rough equivalent of the spectrum from trout to carp of inland waters, but a number of practical considerations gravitate against their use for harbor studies, Two important ecological groups remain which are inmediately affected by pollution: a) the forms fixed to or moving slugcishly about the bottom and b) the fauna of »ilings, floats and fenders, animals either attached or of limited movements, Of these two biotas, it is the bottom fauna or benthos which is the more profoundly modified by whatever toxicants occur. ft the bottom fresh supplies of oxygen are ordinarily farthest removed so that lethal levels are reached most quickly. Here, in addition to the killed animals belonging to this level, settle the victims of unfavorable conditions above and here the sulfur bacteria accumulate in any sludges which may result. Any hydrogen sulfide generated prolongs lethality be- yond the primary effects of contamination. Further, there is a strong possibility that pollutants which might otherwise be dissipated by tidal flushing may be incorporated in the sludge preventing re-occupation of the beds by animals from adjacent still productive areas. The findings of the joint agencies! survey are consistent with these generalities. Bight separate areas of the harbors may be considered to be derelict zones. From bottom samples of these areas no living animals were found by use of a low power dissecting microscope. One of these areas lies at the "keystone" of the arch of the Inner Harbor in Cerritos Channel. Here the movements of successive high tides meet so that each half of the arch in effect comes to a dead end. ‘The remaining seven are dead end channels only two of which face on the Outer Harbor, Zone 1 in watchorn Basin may be affected by neighboring naval establishments and presumably is polluted by domestic discharges from U. S. Coast Guard Moorings and three private establishments which together have an estimated maxicum population of 600 persons, The extent of the derelict bottom here is apparently very limited. Zone 2, Fish Harbor, has a concentration of fish-processing plants which at the peak of canning season turn Fish Harbor itself and acjacent waters into a virtually opaque, off-color, foul-smelling suspension. I-2 The remaining derelict zones are within the Inner Harbor where dead end slips receive large amounts of pollution, mainly of industrial origin, but in each case including domestic sewage some part of which is often raw or nearly so. It may be noted that next to some of the derelict zones very high numbers of living animals may congregate as though areas with just tolerable concentrations of pollutants are bordered by belts high in food for these forms or for the microbes on which they depend. In such beds it has been the marine worms or polychetes which have been most abundant. From work on the bottom faunas of Los Angeles=Long Beach, Avalon, New Port and San Diego Harbors, the Council's biologists conclude that the polychete worms provide more clear indications of conditions of marine pollution than do any other grown of animals. ‘This is consistent with the findings of Prof. Francis Filice in San Francisco Bay, In general the benthic arthropods and mollusks have proved to be enough more sensitive to be too reduced in numbers to be useful index animals. ir. C. M. Wakeman's periodic surveys have shown that at the peak of harbor activity in World War IL, poliution was g0 intense in the Inner Harbor that borer activity was checked in an area which would include and join Zones 3 to 7. Determinations of dissolved oxygen were frequently zero for much of the area and positive sulfide readings were obtained from the water, "in 1yhO the Industrial Hygiene Service reported excessive absences from work among fish cannery workers as a result of conjunctivitis caused by hydrogen sulfide." Throughout the war years complaints were made by military authorities about paint damage and corrosion of their harbor equipment, As late as 198 the U. S. Corps of sngineers estimated the “unnecessary damage" to harbor installations, shipping and industry would reach 2,000,000 annually. But by 198 the harbor was already less pol- luted and serious borer damage was observed again within the Inner Harbor, damage which has been increasing since that time. Conditions in the harbor during the joint agencies' surveys and those of the Eorer Council may perhaps be considered to be approaching a fairly stable baseline. Althouch pollution is high enough to raise corrosive action significantly above that of ordinary seawater, much further improve- ment will be won only by very persuasive measures, educational or other- wise. On the other hand, agencies now in existence and the balance of interest along the waterfront may be counted upon to hold the line against much additional pollution. With this background we may examine the results of the standard block sur- vey; lLimnoria tripunctata and Teredo diegensis had for the most part a parallel distribution in 1950-1951 and, from spot checks, have one today. In contrast with World ar II conditions when most of the Inner Harbor was free of borer activity, only Station C is now without either gribbles or shipworms. Station C receives the runoff of Dominguez Slough, practically an open sewer which drains industrial areas of Los Angeles, Vernon and Torrance inter alia and numerous oil fields. In 11 of 1 checks made during the 1950-1951 survey dissolved oxygen determinations were zero while in the remainder the reading did not go higher than one part per million. I- 3 \ HE PRE ras Pee oa se. iy rea e rea: ' DH GigE: Bed by 2 By It is notable that in a closeby area (Station B) with very little higher dissolved oxyzen (between 2-3 ppm. for much of the year) both Limnoria tripunctata and Teredo diegensis are present. The region of maximal activity (Station D or Zone 6 among the derelict areas) is both close by and highly polluted. Of the remaining borers of the harbor, Limnoria quadripunctata is found only in Fish Harbor of the zones of heavy pollution. While the major pollution here is of animal origin, lacking the toxicants of Inner Harbor pollution, and while flushing action from the Outer Harbor is probably strong and effective, the fact that this species of Limnoria is a cooler water species probably means that it would not in any case thrive in the warmer waters of the Inner Harbor, Therefore, the observations on dis- tribution in Los Angeles-~Long Beach Harbors cannot be taken necessarily to indicate a low tolerance for pollution. For the boring amphipod, Chelura terebrans, the same may be true although we believe that this is a generally less adaptable animal than our two Limnorias. It appears to be restricted to the waters of the Outer Harbor and the Naval Base. Bankia setacea, the larger, coldwater shipworm, has been more difficult to spot as its swimming young (veligers) are released only in the cold- est months in our harbor. The one flourishing center we know about is by the lighthouse at the entrance to the breakwater, the coldest area in the harbors. Other canters have been active, but all in cold waters. Therefore, the fact that these are also clean waters may not be signifi- cant and one cannot conclude from these observations that Bankia setacea cannot thrive under conditi»s of pollution. Council studies of fouling organisms have been carried far enough to show population patterns for the bryozoans, hydroids and tunicates. Of these the hardiest is the small colonial hydroid, Obelia dichotoma, which appears from time to time in small numbers even at Station © where all borers are absent. Like Limnoria tripunctata and Teredo diegensis it flourishes in derelict Zone 6 where industrial toxicants are a little less than maximal, SUMMARY 1. Surveys of the effects of pollution in Los Angeles-Long Peach Harbors have been made by means of orange-peel bucket sampling of the bottom and by standard block samplers for boring and fouling organisms. 2, Pollution in restricted areas of Los Angeles-Long Beach Harbors has for extended periods reached concentrations stopping all borer and fouling activity. 3, Lethal concentrations for borers have occurred only in parts of the harbor in which tidal flushing appears to be reduced. h, Bottom life (benthos) appears to be first affected and recovers slowly so that there are large derelict areas about the principal concentrations of pollution. > . . : ers ~ iF . . i. te O . . fe fe eet es m8, : ‘ C: . ei ‘ ; Ly wn = iw ort . e . var, gets one E ~ 5 2 z _ j Fae =n eee Saree =e per Heaiea Limnoria cece eee whitch thrives in Goals waters, is absent from areas of low dissolved oxygen (high pollution). Chelura terebrans is confined to relatively clean waters. Bankia setacea main- tains itself only in the coldest waters so that one gets no conclusive evidence of its relation to the pollution from observations at the iso- therms of Los Angeles. Linnoria tripunctata and particularly Teredo diegensis occur in great numbers and increase rapidly in an area of h high pollution. Fouline organisms also show a differential sensitivity to pollutants, the hydroid, Obelia dichotoma, appearing to be most hardy. Pollution adequate to check borer and fouling activity completely is paralleled by an accelerated corrosion of harbor equipment. MOET L Loy Te ws 16? Seer cumsttt Whe yo Tere OT OG yan: OM Toi fh) ys A " S, 4bfeoi Pare ee ak + ae ~ ares S25ic0 x cnet ind eat we OM ny: ' Pr ait t i , yy ; aN Servi nye ee Aad sg eh agin? ST Pe er i ie me Ae Cup y Ot i, a ee Bsr Ais 1° Dy al’ és ve i, CF OF eps tee ides Lee May is nan rit na tL UTS We We PRT s nO ie) Denon 7 ay tl. i iy are : : Ikal j i = es = voreat) a as i he jad hgh the effective life of such paints, Briefly, most of these paints owe their antifouling properties to the slow solution of a copper compound in seawater. In order to screen the numerous paint formulations an accelerated test methcd was devised, whereby the copper dissolves at approx- imately 100 times the average rate in seawater. This test thus provides a roughly quantitative measure of the period over which a paint may be ex~ pected to release copper in concentrations sufficient to maintain its anti- fouling qualities. In the case of antifovling paints it has been found that increasing the pH of seawater will bring about accelerated Leaching of theccopper. A‘similar test for wood preservetives designed to repel marine borers was sought, with its principal objective the testing of preservation by creosote and its chemical and physical fractions. In the initial tests creosote was used to impregnate slips of clear sourthern pine, 1/8 inch in thickness. The impreenation was made by Dr. Sweeney of the Naval Research Laboratory, as part of a cooperative project. A large supply of creosote was purchased in order that a rermanent standard could be used for this and all subse- quent experiments. ‘This is now referred to, at least informally, as U. S. Experimental Creosote Standard Number 1. The wooden slips were exposed to various treatments for the purpose of leaching out the preservative in order to simulate the natural loss of preservative under service conditions. By using thin slips of wood it was hoped that leaéning would be more-rapid, An attempt was made to further accelerate by varying the chemical and physical conditions of the leaching bath. The initial experiments were carried out in leaching baths at room tempera- ture. Hydrochloric aéid and sodium hydroxide wore both used to bring about considerable changes in pH of the seawater bath. Other treatments consisted of boiling in seawater and agitation in oxidizing solutions. Controls leached in standing seawater, running seawater and controls with no leach- ing at all were provided for comparison. Following the period of leaching, all of the thin woeden slips were immersed in the sea for exposure to marine borers. The results of a typical experi- ment are shown in Table 1. Boiling in seawater alone was successful in leaching out the active toxicant of the creosote treatment to the point where borer resistance was reduced. Acid, alkali, or oxidizing baths were surprisingly less effective. These experiments were confirmed by washing leached panels free of the leaching water and placing them in dishes of seawater to which shipworm larvae were added. The results , Table 2, substantially agree with those of the field exposure tests. Although boiling in seawater was the most effective method of accelerating leaching, it also had the obvious disadvantage that the rates of leaching of the various creosote comoonents might be quite different in the presence of steam than in water below boiling point. Later experiments were there- J-2 ae i i ta “ ea: Eisai i Pad en ee le bit 33 ery is 4 Sige ahd , OP eas [ The eae | one 4 rid i py? fal. a fe oll (2 bid Wea eae ra ee Ke V8 ey V fide Career : ay RAE iis Pole es) Moby ek is eee Ot i! iy mid hoe + bre sia bil , i FINALY ¢ fe Be Tere " pe idl pit TABLE 1. REDUCTION OF PROTECTRON AGAINST BORFRS AS A RESULT OF LEACHING, AS SHOWN BY FIELD EXPOSURE TES TS ee PERT Ppoiledor saris hem ae | ae ree ean TREATMENT! UNS tin #Potassium' chi.orict Held in sAerated [dear LEACHED SbawatersDichromateiAcid tSeavater|Seavaterjide Fouling 25 0 0 0 0 0 CREOSOTE -fLimnoria O O 0) (@) O O O Shipworms} 0 1 @) 0) 0 0 O Fouling h 2 oa 2 al 2 2 UNTREATED! Limnoria (0) 1 1 a aL al a Shipworms O a 2 al 1 2 iL STenenine period 18 days QO No attack 3 Moderate 1 Very light Heavy 2 Light TABLE 2 REDUCTION OF ANTI.BORER PROPERTIES BY LEACHING, AS SHOWN BY LABORATORY TEST WITH LARVAE, IN IMNUTES imeem ie On in © S © 2 is 0 4 ; ae “RIL i Hydro- | | Leaching |} Leaching jAerated ee Sodium Potassium {Held in | Boiled in Methods |} Methods (Seawater { Acid _ ‘Hydroxide | Dichromate | Seawater | Seawater =a Sa Exposure which Active prevents 115 50 50 50 50 300 swimming |; 115 50 _ 50 50 50 360 Bho. 360 prevents all motion |! a f py a ae rr haar Ol Seinen at | Pa) s)he Sen IE aS LA Sit eae OS ie etic ela) folantd TL eR tear ae hind Bd seb brad li? Atul Seeded re de fore carried out with water leaching at a temperature of 80°C, The results were similar to those in which boiling seawater was used. In a later series of experiments a leaching bath was used in which fresh water was maintained at 80°C, with a constant rate of inflow and outflow in order to remove the leached materials. Seven groups of 1/8 inch wooden slips treated with creosote to retention of from 2 to 30 lbs./cubic foot were prepared for this experiment at the Naval Research Laboratory. In each group panels were leached for periods varying from 0 to 8 days, and sub- sequently exposed to attack in the sea for a period of six months. The results are shown in Table 3. It will be noted that the borer resistance of the treatments decreases progressively with the duration of leaching. From the data of Table 3, it is clear that a low retention creosote treat- ment requires less leaching to reduce its anti-borer effectiveness to a predetermined degree than does a high retention treatment. There is thus a definite possibility that the period of leaching reouired to do this may be used as a rough index of the effective life of the treatment. In order to test this over a long period and for purposes of comparison and cali- bration, larger (2" x )") timbers wre being exposed to borer attack at the same location at Miami Beach. From data similar to that of Table 3, leaching ratings were derived — for various degrees of creosote retention. The ratings (Table ) are in terms of the minimum leaching period required to cause light borer attack when subsequently exposed to a 3-months! field exposure. As an illustration of the possible uses of the leaching test, an assay was made of preservatives developed by the Dow Chemical Company, with the kind permission of Dr. Fred J. Myers. ‘The data are reproduced here in Tables 5 and 6. Table 5 records the results of a leaching test carried out upon seven preservative treatments in a manner similar to that used for the creosote treatments recorded in Table 3. By comparing the data of Table 5 with the "leaching ratings" for the creosote panels, it is possible to rate the Dow treatments in terms of equivalent creosote retentions (Table 6). Aecording to this system of evaluation, the Dow treatment 7 is some- what superior in service life and effectiveness to a 30 1b. creosote treatment, while #5 and #6 approximate more closely to 20 1b. (15-30) creo~ sote treatment. It is not yet vossible to make any claims for the accelerated leaching test as an index of service life. On the other hand, the experiments conducted so far suggest interesting possibilities and they are therefore being con- tinued in the hope of developing a standard test protocol which will serve to evaluate the probable effectiveness and length of service life of chemi - cal wood borer preventivese Should such a test method be developed, proven, and calibrated, it should enormously shorten the time needed to evaluate experimental treatments. It should also be of great value in the difficult task of isolating the effec- tive ingredient or ingredients in creosote. I=) PrN Ss AY A mee Tf a i 1; PGCE A We LE, et “, oes cu ae aah Th a arate ,, i tine og POL a A ager eae ae a fale TABLE 3 a (S) [= Bln OLA EQION jo joita IIs os jr EC Diz ia oOj= [Es [Ele EI. SRO Say, OCT EFFECTS OF LEACHING IN ATER AT 80°C WITH SUBSEQUENT SIX-MONTH LX POSUR Days 2 bs 5 ibs “WOulbs) | WstillbsecOnlbsmc> es DsmmOnDs Control Leached 16 3h 18 eht mocerate heavy riddled, very heavy very light attack lig 1. Bo 3. he De F ~ Fouling L - Limnoria S - Shipworm J a vs) 14 7 . « span} | i * a he Fa 5 fhe wibevterniciy? mn eeg Et piven came add lima 5 fos Cnet Laas nm Pp he hg bw ain | RN i . ’ a 7 aa ive to: va] OS ke ~ \= x s ante Dwi eae 8 a ad wh hee tty 2 JS) Ra rt 4 4 Bg ee “ wy ‘ A Ee, me ee STEEL CAA pr riche eighty ale eyieb: he j rey | : iy WEE ot It 4) Ali ty } hearer ok xs Oey = trill ha cleelmes TABLE ) MINIMUM LEACHING PERIOD REQUIRED TO CAUSE LIGHT BORER ATTACK IN CREOSOTE PANELS WHEN SUBSEQUENTLY EXPOSED TO 3-MONTH FIELD TESTS Creosote treatment in 0 2 5 10 15 20 25 30 lbs./cubic foot Leaching period. Days 0 2 2 h 16 16 8 16 TABLE 5 MARINE BORER ATTACK ON DO./ CHEMECAL PANELS EXPOSED TO FIELD TEST FOR 3 MONTHS FOLLOWING ACCELERATING TREATMENT IN wATisR AT 9000, a Days Leached Control #1 we iD ry 75 #6 i? EM. Aim oR a ee FS F 3 P23 6h 253 PD Fl ip al F253 0) iy 2 % © i; ©) 1h 12 iy a LO ih © i, Oa S225 SO, $0 SO S| @-31 Ss © SO S @-al Fh DP in iP Shy 918 Th Fh 1 8) 3} F 3-) 2 ae 1 Oy ih © iy a Ty a, ih © 1h) ih © Silt 3 O53, 8’ oO Sou S QoL ) @a1L SO SiO=i! a) F 2 Sieh PB Fh F ) F 3 F 3 h iy Ty Opal ty al 1 a Aig iy @O=al, 1h © iy O=2, S 2 a, Spa S 0-1 S Oo 3) @xil S} Oa Ss Ou i Bah in 3) i 3} Fh BS) iy 3 Pies iP 2o3) 8 i 2 iy OL ty © th 2 Tat ih © ih © ih (6) Sh SO § 2 3 O-1 S 0-1 S\ Oual Sous S Ova m ® ” Og ip 2 F 2 Fl F 2 pal 16 Ge Ty Oak th Oth | Ah th ih 3) L 2 i, 2 ty Oat So, SG 8 Geil 8 7 Ss) at Sa, S OuaL ID 5) IP Silh ip 3} ip 3} F 3 3h nee a iy ab ity th 2 ae ih @ ity Th So, Sw Sa Sl S a) F 2 Fh F 3 iP Sh F 3 Fh F 3-) h8 ae ih © TRON Win we Th ©) iy ab Ih ab 1 a. S Ou, Sol 8 O2 S O-1 Sl G2 $2 ay nig | ‘ aie aera e & mi . 19 9 re ee ie al an Mee A bap ore kanes device ated, yard) Saye een se PA \ ‘ SMEL eae Satay nn ere Pama mtnieree : y eee Cee ee ee ere Seamer tel Galena eee xi Pade b eS eri Ht cS saat estos wpe ‘ ‘ Vie ; ae aa fate gee smn tay PTE water aeinn ate) onto Sa R66 ng sopra na raid mr dy pee Zia el ' a { le 7 ' <1 TABLE 6 SRT Tae eS ra een eee re nN er TEE Equivalent Panel Series Vehicle #1 #2 Panalene SN Panalene oN Panalene SN Dowanol SOB-101E Dowanol SOB~1O01E Dowanol SOB-1012 Active Ingredient lo Copper 3~phenyl- salicylate h% Copper 3-pvhenyl- salicylate 5% Copper pentachlor- phenate 5% Copper pentachlor= phenate 2% Copper pentachlor- phenate = ammonia Retention TSS MEGS 10) Sle. 20 - 20 ~ 20 = 16 - 30 = 25 25 25 10 20 ho Leaching Creosote Treatment Period in 1bs./ft.3 y 10 h 10 ¢) @) 0 @) 16 15 = 30 16 15 - 30 3h 30 plus gree ge eer eS RE Ne (Contribution from the Basic Sciences Research Department, U. S. Naval Civil Ensineering Research and Tvaluation Laboratory) FURTHER INVESTIGATION OF INHIBITION OF MARINE BORERS BY TREATING ~/OOD ‘ITH INSOLUBLE COMPOUNDS OF TH HEAVY IMETALS by 5. R. Holden and Herbert McKennis, Jr. In the field of inorganic treatments for the preservation of wood against the destructive activities of marine organisms, two groups of compounds, the various forms of iron oxides and the sulfides of certain heavy metals, are of special interest. The potential usefulness of the iron compounds is based primarily on the knavn fact that rusting iron nails afford effec- tive protection to wood (1,2). The second group of commounds, the heavy metal sulfides, have been selected as a subject of investigation because of the known toxicity of the compounds of the particular metals, the ex- tremely low solubilities of the sulfides, and their probable resistance toward losses through oxidation processes. In general, the wood is impregnated with a solution of a soluble salt and then treated with a second material to precipitate an insoluble heavy metal compound. The natural resins neve been observed to exert an influ- ence on, and sometimes appear to vrohibit, these reactions. In an effort to circumvent such difficulties, as arise from participation of wood, chemically or physically in these reactions, different methods and reactants which normally produce the same desired compound have been used. Pertinent basic studies relative to compound formation are being conducted also, so as to provide essential information for the rerformance tests, The standard test block for panels which are placed in harbor water is 2" x h" x 12" in size. In some cases splints approximately 24" x 2" x are treated simultaneously for use in a cooperative program wherein accelerated tests (3) are being conducted at the Marine Laboratory, Univer- sity of itiami, under the direction of Dr. F. G. ‘alton Smith. For a given treatment, nine blocks (2" x )" x 12") are vlaced in the water in order that blocks may be removed after intervals of time for internal inspection without terminating the test. in TRON OXIDES There are seven important allotropic forms of ferric oxide:g-, &~-, and -} -monohydrates, the corresponding anhydrous«- and ?< forms, the hydrous oxidel, and magnetite (considering magnetite to be a double oxide of ferric and ferrous oxides in a~-roximately equimolar ratio). In the normal "rusting" or slow oxidation of iron gradual step changes are believed to occur with 1the "hydrous oxide" may be, actually, a hydrozide (6). K-1 tan ee the followings substances formed successively: Ferrous hydroxide ---.-= ferrous oxide .—--> magnetite Ha ) -ferric oxide monohydrate ob x-ferric oxide monohydrate. There may very well be departures nom this schematic arrangement, but under the conditions with which this work is concerned, the limited oxygen supply and the 7. - 8.5 pH range of sea water ()) would be expected to favor this mode of chemical change, In X-ray diffraction studies made by lr. '. L. Starr of this Laboratory the major ultimate product was identified as the a ~monohydrate in scrapings taken from iron nails which had been immersed in sea water for several months (see Fizure la). This teing know, it would be very desirable to precipitate this form in the wood for test purposes, but unfortunately, the information available concerning its synthesis is insufficient to devise a method to accomplish such treatment with certainty. However, it has been possible to precipitate the intermediates in wood which may very well achieve the same purpose. The transformation of the intermediates to the ultimate condition of form and particle size may be somewhat slow because of the small energy differences (5) and low solubilities. An effort has been made to form all the other types in wood, as well, in order that the in- vestigation be as complete as possible. Hydrous ferric oxide (Hydrous FeO, or Fe(OH), +) In the first tests made a ferric salt was precipitated by ammonium hydroxide in wood. The protection afforded by this particular treatment was insuf- ficient to be of practical value. This method precipitates a hydrophilic sol usually referred to as "hydrous ferric oxide." The particles are too small to give an X-ray diffraction rattern until aged for many months at room temperature. The aged gel produces the anhydrous a -ferric oxide X-ray diffraction pattern. Prior to this change the hydrous oxide is much more soluble and readily subject to colloidal dispersion and, therefore, may very well undergo serious leaching. Phase rule studies by Jeiser and illigan (6) indicate that the initial form is a simple oxide or hydroxide, and the eventual product, as mentioned above, is the anhydrous <-forn, both forms being very different from that identified in rust scrapings both as to crystal type and particle size. Anhydrous «ferric oxide (+. ~Fe903) The conversion of the hydrous ferric oxide gel to the anhydrous x -form takes place rapidly at 600°C, or above. The product is a fine, very hard, brick red crystalline material identical to mineral hematite and commercial red rouge. It was found that this conversion temperature could be lowered to 120°C. by use of saturated steam (15 psi) which is known to reduce the temperature required in the dehydration of this as well as many similar hydrates. Under these conditions this tr.nsition would involve a time- pressure relationship in which pressure is a narameter of temperature, and it is possible that the change sould take place rapidly at a slightly lower pressure. However it could not be reduced to as low as atmospheric pressure, because the boiling of a suspension has been found to be very slow in bringing about the conversion to particles large enough to produce K - 2 hi ehionnetty et eareine't Ay wutewreendane 9 tbo Gf Pit? an ; Eka al ad “hye a) ety piaineed gray: wall “ay magi Oh wae Bay is \) (gee Liteon oat” Die SéLol F: TRA CRMC: MRE : " pnt yee Me 4% i ieecuaraa Sg BRON ea oun ari hea aa od © Bam hoishigs “5 ab: De Gites i. miss ME seecic: bh cme Bl Brie Te ie = Tuy itis 4 Na Bilis icisos br: Sirieona ou Oo a ed peta t $1325 a ee tte, © X-ray diffraction patterns. Since this temperature is low enough to avoid serious thermal decomposition or structural alteration of wood an effort was made to form the compound directly in wood. Southern yellow pine blocks were impregnated with 10% ferric chloride, treated with amonia and heat treated in an autoclave for a period of six hours. The wood became dark brown, presumably because of the formation of iron resinate. These blocks are now being studied for marine borer resistance. Currently no method is available for confirming the presence of the oxide normally obtained by this method. (\-ferric oxide monohydrate (45 -Fe00H) “nen ferric chloride solutions are heated to 80-1L00°C. an orange-yellow substance precipitates from solutions, which is considered, generally, to be an allotropic form of ferric oxide monohydrate and designated as she&-form. This same material sometives forms gradually in ferric chloride solutions when permitted to stand for long periods of time. X-ray dif- fraction patterns show that this substance has a crystalline structure which is distinctly different from the other oxides, Some question still exists regarding its true structure, since it always contains a large amount of chloride that may be leached out extensively without detectible change in X-ray diffraction ~attern. «hen the <~form is dehydrated by heat treat- ment, it changes to the anhydrous ,-form without any knowm intermediate. An attempt was made to treat blocks in such manner as would cause the formation of this oxide in wood. Blocks were impregnated with a 10% ferric chloride solution by means of the vacuum-pressure method and subsequently heated to 800C, for several hours while immersed in the same solution. The ferric chloride did not form a precipitate in this case at all. This fail- ure is attributed to the reaction of ferric chloride with the resinous acids in the wood. It was apparent that a considerable amount of the resins had steened from the wood, in that an appreciable quantity of a pummy mater- ial remained as a residue when the solution was concentrated subsequently. This occurrence is to be expected, since the temperature used is above the softening point of the resins. It is suggested, as explanation for the interference in the oxide formation, that much of the ferric chloride reacted with the resin in a manner such as is shown by the following equa- tion, which is, admittedly, an over-simplification: ferric chloride + resinous acids —-> ferric resinated + hycrocloric acid. ‘The formation of ferric resinate would decrease the ferric ion concentration markedly inas- much as it is fairly insoluble md the compound remaining in solution would be larcely undissociated, Thouch there is no evidence that the /~-form was actually obtained in the ood, the treatment had some definite effect on the constitution of the rood and for this reason the blocks were placed in the sea to determine their performance. It is vossible that some modi- fications in this method may be found so as to obtain suitable results. It is a further possibility that some types of wood other than the southern yelloy pine used in these experiments might not contain such prohibitive amounts of interfering substances. au (a 7" Eitraxt | - Ce sy ‘\edpepey — i a s= 9,4 aes. ce ores P “Bin a Y_ferric oxide monohydrate ( ¥—FeOOH) and magnetite (?e30), or Feo0q*Fe0) Synthetic > iret 2 e ihe Bh Ae 9. 10. ll. 12. SG lh. 15. Albrecht, J. H., Ber., 62, 197 (1929). Hahn, F. L., and Hertrick, M., ibid., 56, 1729 (1923). Latimer, /. M., and Hildebrand, J. H., "Reference Book of Inorganic Chemistry," p 390, New York,M:cmillan Co., 190. Litchfield, J. R., Jr., and J/ilcoxon, F.,J. Pharmacol. ixptl. Therape, 96, 99 (199). Ramage, /.D., and Burd, J. S., Ind. ng. Chem., 19, w23h (927). Kolthoff, I. M., J. Phys. Chem, 35, 2711 (1931). Ravitz, S. F., J. Phys. Chem., 40, 61 (1936). wu eh if peony rar! BH WAGs | YE 5, ‘ : i at Table 1. Effect of precipitate formed by the addition of 845 cc. 1M, NaOH to 200 cc, 0.5 M. FeSO) on pH after aging 20 hours at room tempera- ture. pH Filtered filtered after before Solution aging aging FeSO), with precipitate in suspension Bu -- FeSQ), after most of precipitate was removed 4.5 Boihh Precipitate in water suspension Goll Boll Se kM ap Ur oS Table 2. pH change with time for a solution containing 100 cc. 0.5 ill. FeSO), and 7.5 cc. 1 ii. NaOH, Colum 2 shows result when air is bubbled through solution, and Column 3 shows when solution is protected from air by a stream of nitrogen, Hach was agitated and readings were taken quickly to minimize instrument drift. Time hrs:min 0:03 0:15 0:30 Led Sol 0.5 O:h5 4.8 5.2 0.4 1:00 Le? bel Ooh 2315 Inga 4.9 0.8 e310) h.O 1.8 0.8 pins) 3.9 Le? 0.8 2:20 3.7 he? 150) 2:50 30 he? 18) 20:00 2.8 he? 1.9 30:00 207 = a= wa ne Pree ean ba ie) a vw ee : 4 es aaOUIB, as wlan Rockaway Wt 4 (\ ena Table 3. Solubilities of the heavy metal sulfides. Solubility Sulfide Temperature aan Aaa Calculated by Zns 250 1.47 x 10-7-0 Ravitz PbS 25 3.62 x 1071-0 " CuS 25 2odS) Ss 10715.0 " Cuys 25 1.19 x 10-14.0 i AgoS 25 2.48 x 107150 n cds 25 1.46 x 10710.0 " Fes (+) a x 19725-8 Kolthof£ CoS (x) 1 x 107793 " Nis (x) 1 x 10-94 " Hgo5 (3) 1x 10-19 -h Hes (x) 1 x 107227 " *Presumed to be at or near room temperature. K = 12 ‘ ‘ OS « . Ye i nt Q : ap od) eS oe ARN rand a iS : aii ak Ra i ie ‘ vy q a. nig © ts A tie il tsi) Ea) a CVE, f ; { rye on) ; + . edie ‘i 6 P a5 i : ith Wea a 4 + : 3 o = fy R he i . ~ onene ny : F fF: a ‘ oe S < "7 } i “i = ‘ see yo 6 6 Ae t 2 ‘es + % ie ; Dre ~ i ; p ‘ b ited y : 5 i : ie pes 36 Picts iy » Arig tH : f i és 3 < ¢ } ta t Pak = bee Get i ae ' i o 7 KS ; ‘ } eae ‘ i rah a , if m = rc } nes H Z ‘ iy i oe i i A] A le = i 4 i \ E u \ , M 5] i oe F ; ry ; a i Mit i r f he} i A al 2 Oe (oy \ (Contribution from the harine Laboratory, University of Miami) RESPITATION OF TEREDO LARVAE by Charles E. Lane Previous commnications from this laboratory (Lane, Posner & Greenfield, 1952, Lasker and Lane 1953, and Isham and Tierney 1953) have shown that the free-swimming, infective larval stage of Teredo in local waters does not significantly exceed seventy-two hours in extent. During this time the animals have not been observed to feed. The pre-attachment activities of the animal must be presumed to be powered chiefly by glycogen. This is deposited in the ovum in granular form during oogenesis. Additional glycogen may be contributed to the larva during the time that it is actually embedded in the maternal gill (Lane, Posner & Greenfield loc cit). At the termination of this transient free-swimming stage the larvae attach them- selves permanently to a wooden substratum within which they spend the rest of their adult life span. A cellulase enzyme system exists in both larval and adult Teredo (Greenfield and Lane, 1953). This enzyme complex may con- tribute significantly to the process of penetration of the woode The act of penetration of wood confers upon the larva a degree of immunity to environmental hazards except those in solution -=- either in the wood itself or in the water which constitutes the respiratory stream. Thus it is that preventive measures, to be effective, must be directed against the larva during the vulnerable first seventy-two hours of its life. A sensitive index of physiological condition, or of the effectiveness of sub-lethal concentrations of toxic substances, is provided by the rate of oxygen consumption of living systems. Thus it became of interest to de- limit some of the parameters of normal respiration in the free-living, pre- attachment stages of our local Teredo before beginning any study of the effectiveness of toxic materials. It is the purpose of this communication briefly to describe the methods and some of the results of this study of normal animals. The apparatus employed is a capillary microrespirometer, Fig. 1. It con- sists of a pear-shaped chamber blown in one end of 0.5 mm. pyrex capillary tubing. The volume of the chamber varied in different respirometers over the range of six to 125 microliters (laL sl mm?) The volume should be kept as small as possible to increase the stability of the system (Tobias 193). At the other end of the capillary tubing is an inside syringe-taper ground joint. This seats in the outer matching ground joint of the thermo- barometer or compensation chamber. This latter portion of the apparatus should be as large as is consistent with ease of manipulation. ‘le have generally sought to have its volume 1000 times that of the respirometer chamber. This insures maximum sensitivity of the system. The upper end of the compensation chamber is closed by a stopcock. The entire assembly is immersed in a constant temperature water bath maintained at 25.0°C, L-1 mt ey T BEE nes) ie Wty At thy dingend Paar i 7? kr. 2 =) bl Us Sesaat ee ou Bay a eee see Py ak Rien a ‘ite, : ah Paahe hs fee Fig. 1. Sketch of capillary microrespirometer components. Inset shows the respirometer changer with the droplet of medium and a contained larva. L-2 oe ae a an sendard ake am if ie freer he b| pilin oaeecing a ras a : " i aH Ete j ; ee RG rs i ay e fe HA “i : i y ‘ i if “yt i] is) ‘ j . ' i] id ME WN. .a ree renhented opine ya tne DPA lat is «© mk ithihe Ye edhboed Git We ‘ 1 In use the chamber is first charged with a single animal confined in 20 microliters of medium. This isolation and determination of volume of the medium can be effected most easily by making use of specially drawn micro- pipettes, actuated by a mouthpiece similar to that of a hemocytometer pipette. The loading pipette is calibrated to deliver 20 microliters. This droplet is delivered onto one wall of the respirometer chamber. The chamber wall is previously rendered hydrophobic by the application of a silicone coating, such as "Dessicote" or "Nalcote." Under these conditions the droplet of medium and its contained larva will retain its integrity over long periods of time. It has, for example, frequently been possible to make observations on a single larva during periods as long as twenty- four hours. After the respirometer has been charged with the animal and its medium, a droplet containing ten microliters of alkali, either 10 NaOH or 10% Ba(0H)»5 » is placed on the contralateral wall. A droplet of highly purified MeerRoen is placed in the capillary portion of the respirometer; the open end of the respirometer is sealed with a non-oxidizing wax. For best adhesion and complete sealing it is preferable to employ a wax of low melt- ing point. .Jith the upper stopcock of the compensation chamber open the two portions of the apparatus are united, seated and the joint is sealed with the same wax which was used to close the lower end of the respirometer. The assembly is then placed in the water bath and permitted to come to temperature equilibrium. Empty respirometers generally reach a steady state within thirty minutes. Our first concern was to determine the extent of the respiratory changes which occur during normal development and maturation of free-swimming larvae. Average results, secured from a study of 115 larval Teredo are shown in Fig. 2. It will be observed that there is a real, and statisti- cally significant, increase in oxygen consumption during the first twenty- four hours of development. Thereafter for the remainder of the normally infective, seventy-two hour period the rate of oxygen consumption drops abruptly and steadily. It may be recalled that Isham and Tierney (loc. cit.) denied larval T. pedicellata access to wood and found that after seventy-_ two hours involutional changes were initiated which terminated in death of all such forms by the end of three hundred hours, Our respiratory data supplement and confirm these observations. After seventy-two hours the curve of oxygen uptake shows a steady decline. It should also be recalled that larval Teredo have not been observed to ingest solid foods; they are provided with a finite slycogen store from the maternal organism. Decrease in voluntary activity, in oxygen uptake and in glycogen content are all related phenomena. A small series of ten 2h-hour larvae was studied in which the sea water medium was made 0.001 il with glucose. These results are summarized in Fig. 3. It will be observed that the addition of glucose to the medium resulted in a 13% increase in the rate of oxygen uptake. This must signify that dissolved nutrient materials may be extracted from the medium, even though the ingestion of solid food has. not been observed. pee iN ra ic ae ute cr i ; AEE, y ai abisy fi 7 iia Eat i S mL Gait . pret a ide x + Me gait nes See ~ 60 re) 50 i o——-o oO x< a 30 Xe oa is 24) \ \ = 26 \ ML O2 xX107-3 30 60 90 120 AGE IN HOURS Fig. 2. Oxygen consumption vs. age in larvae of Teredo. Each plotted point is the average of all observations. 100 Oo {o) co) (o) 40 i) (eo) — es 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 &0 90 TIME IN MINUTES Fig. 3. Average oxygen consumption rates during a ninety minute run of the respirometer. The lowest curve represents oxygen upteke by the gea water medium alone. The middle curve depicts the average oxygen uptake by normal twenty-four hour larvae. The uppermost curve shows the effect of O.001M glucose on the respiration of normal twenty-four hour larvae. Ih S Th 150 240 270 300 : “2eRUOH" mt aon Neos f nba, Diy Aaa) 1) oe ‘ge ae me Pecaaaes s sexe liewpeny: | 4 eg rei r 1M. ae ie (4 monies Yeiiy 6 aokyeh eres vi Reha Re wAalge Gee (xd A ieen i: ery “awed | io wyateve wid wiotyel erm alah ofk emie erin. Seomwidags off .weveml wes sadiaied feron Yo caltechquet am a ae 1940 Ye i aL eet { _ Using the data for the normal respiratory metabolism of Teredo larvae as a standard of comparison a beginning has been made in a study of the toxicity of whole, crude creosote. Known amounts of creosote were homogenized with sea water in a hand homogenizer. Aliquots of the initial homogenate were then further diluted and homogenized with sea water. It was found that a concentration of 0.5 x 107? em/ml produced approximately fifty percent reduction in oxygen consumption. 0.5 x 10-© gm/ml killed all the larvae tested within three hours In summary then, a method has been presented which permits the determina- tion of oxygen consumotion by a single Teredo larva. Results have been presented which detail the oxygen consumption of larvae at different stages of their free-living existence. Evidence has been presented which suggests that Teredo larvae may absorb dissolved nutrient materials from their medium. Finally creosote has been shown to effect a fifty percent decrease in oxygen uptake by twenty-four hour larvae «shen it is employed in a con- centration of 0.5 x 1077 pem/ml of medium. Further details and clarifying observations will appear in appropriate technical journals. LITERATURE CITED Greenfield, L. J. and CG. E. Lane 1953. Digestion of Cellulose by Teredo. J. Biol. Chem. (in press) Isham, L. J. and J. Q. Tierney 1953. Some Aspects of the Larval Development and Metamorphosis of Teredo (Lydrodus) pedicellata De Quatrefages. Bull. Mar. Sei. Gulf end Caribbean, 2(h):57h-589. Lane, C. E., Posner, G. S, and L. J. Greenfield 1952, ‘he Distribution of Glycogen in the Shipwornm, Teredo (Lyrodus) pedicellata de Guatrefages. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Caribbean, 2(2):385-393. Lasker, R. and C. &. Lane 1953, Origin and Distribution of Nitrogen in Teredo. Biol. Bull., Wood's "Hole. (in press) Tobias, Julian M. 193. liicrorespiration Techniques. Physiol. Rev., 23251-7156 4 Bast hs aa. nich a Fal snr dap lidelosbbed oon id dd ‘ My. al fe Pia erg Wee § may r vie ; a A eae? iW ie ba See oh Canes Sseia ty try 4 % ‘ Lf res aslo od se mae ie hae raeRE ed DO, fogees Ei a Pend eae fe ADEN hs ASL hone SU Speamyt | ' fe j x : iF 4 i ars ‘i 7 OY Eg MES, ORATOR OS Bia earns, ee = ToS Y AE rat iy tha \ is) al ; ue a Py he ais ch (Contribution from \lilliam F. Clapp Laboratories, Inc.) “THE USE OF CULORTUATION AND HEAT IN THE CONTROL OF MARINE BORERS. by Albert P. Richards A very definite problem has existed for some time in recard to the ac- tivities of marine orzanismsS, both the so-called foulint organisms and marine borers, in more or less confined areas containing sea water. These environments take such forms as sea water intake tunnels of metal or concrete, storage tanks, the interior of drydock pontoons, etc. The attachment of quantities of organisms to the walls of sea water conduits in many locations results in considerable economic loss due to the re- duction of flow of water, especially where the water capacity is needed’ for efficient. plant operation. In the case of one power=generating station on the North Atlantic seaboard, having a concrete condenser cool- ine water intake tunnel approximately 7 feet square and 250 feet long, 331 tons of mussels, lfytilus edulis, were removed, having accumulated from June to November* of oné year. Naturally the volume of these or- panisms reduced the effective cross section of the tunnel to a point where the flow of coolinc water was not sufficient to meet the require- ments. It is also interesting to note that the conditions in the tunnel were such that abnormal growth rates of Mytilus edulis were recorded. Studies made at the time of annual cleanin?s dt this site indicated a rate of growth of at least 1000 tons per acre per year, while the best yeild from crop farms for this organism under favorable conditions are of the order of 10 tons per acre per year. Similar conditions having been encountered at many locations, it is logical that a considerable amount of research has been carried out in an effort to develop methods of control. Two such methods which show considerable promise in this field involve (1) the chlorination of the sea water, and (2) the use of elevated temperature. rava. Curare active compounds induce flaccidity of striated muscle and have become increasingly useful in abdominal surgery and other applications where muscle relaxation is important. The chemical frequently used for this purpose is the quarternary alkaloid, tubocurarine chloride, It was originally obtained from tubo curare, one of three types of curare used as arrow poisons by the South Americon Indians. It occurs together with a closely related tertiary N-2 om ‘ yer ge, . Peg % . " By oy the ¥ an u - 49 . qd es 5 . Be Diy era 5 a Pie Sen EO te Fe! Q 2S. Gees 3 re I HO SCH, Q © fe) CH, CH) OH! © CH30 a5 CH oN OCH, OH N OCH, BEBEERINE BERBERINE ALKALOIDS ISOLATED FROM GREENHEART BY MACLAGAN IN _ 1840-1869 BARK |. An ether soluble alkaloid - Bebeerine 2. An ether insoluble alkaloid - Sipeerine WOOD |. Achloroform soluble alkaloid - Nectandria 2. Achloroform insoluble alkaloid 3. A third base was present CHO CH, HO x NS. HO CONS Hg CH, fo) CH, il Gli He CY © 2 le Chat enw 3 OCH, OCH; | = CURINE d - TUBOCURARINE Walfee, al Malleeg 2 ale, 3} as uh ee endl sg anieaAly aC mem iret ey elieNerwinaAot Bere uivh SA a | 4 | Ms lo aeternfncwrply, fa a . ‘ y FF ovat Sry bones ish eal hela TaN eh 7 a An) aH iis. Pia alt Pidlailiy alduhaw mmatnolite ay iy videal qpotewalals Ab ae Hh HP bias) aoAN i sata ie ee aD a tr i as é ‘ ™ - 7 H, | TAR it~ | : avTI ad alkaloid, curine. The latter was shown by Spathl0 to be identical with bebeerine. Spathll later suggested the correct formula, for which King gave experimental evidence in 1939, This involved a two-stage Hofmann degradation of dimethyl bebeerine to the methyl bebeerilene, subsequent oxidation to the two acidic fractions shown, and finally the synthesis of both of these molecules for comparison. The most direct way of attacking our problem wuld be to purchase some bebeerine and to test its activity against marine borers. Unfortunately, the matter was not quite so simple, as there were no suppliers. The best source for bebeerine still appeared to be pareira brava, However, the bebeerine content of this material varies from about 30) of the crude alkaloids to little or no bebeerinelO, and the bebeerine obtained can be the levorotatory, the dextrorotatory, or the racemic forn.13 Some pareira brava was obtained and the alkaloids were extracted esentially according to the procedure employed by Kingl4, which is shown in Figure 5, According to previous workers, 10s 13, 1h the ether-soluble alkaloids are dissolved in methyl alcohol, and, on standing, crystals of bebeerine separate. However, the pareira brava which we extracted contained little or no bebeerine, The crude alkaloids were separated into a large number of fractions, none of which, according to their properties, contained bebeerine. Similar results were obtained with a second shipment of vareira brava from a different supplier. After much letter writing 2a firm in Scotland was located which had available a one pound quantity of commercial "Bebeerine Hydrochloride." from this black material we obtained the free bases which were conspicuously similar to those which we isolated from pareira brava. In fact, it turned out that the "Bebeerine Hydrochloride" did consist of the hydrochlorides of the total alkaloids from the root of pareira brava. The crude bases from the "Bebeerine Hydrochloride" were extracted successively with benzene, methylene chloride, and methyl alcohol. The total solids from the benzene extract were dissolved in methyl alcohol. when the solution was cooled, a white precipitate (12% based on the crude alkaloids) melting at 2859 was obtained. The material remaining in solution was separated by the process of "fractional crystallization" into eight amorphous fractions, which according to their properties consisted of four or more compounds. The methyl alcohol extract was similarly separated into six fractions con- Sisting again of four or more compounds. The material melting at 2850 was recrystallized from methyl alcohol and chromatographed on alumina to give crystalline isochondrodendrine, melting at 302°, The material had the expected physical and chemical properties and its identity was confirmed by the preparation of the dimethiodide.t bidek MTENE Sha bao nt Nand te, hegre tat vy Dee j 4 ¢ > rity DEGRADATION OF DIMETHYLBEBEERINE GROUND PAREIRA BRAVA ROOT | extraction with Wea Ue Neat. 3 ‘extract } I% tartaric acid = 22. 3 Na,CO3 crude bases extraction with ether EXTRACTION OF THE CRUDE BASES FROM SOLVENT YIELD COLOR a solution of alkaloids | jalkaloid hydrochlorides : ether soluble alkaloids "BEBEERINE HYDROCHLORIDE" 2% precipitate, benzene 31% — light amber methyl alcoho methylene chloride 23% dark amber methyl] alcohol 32% brown white, m.p. 285°; 19% in solution 8 fractions con- sisting of 4 or more compounds —— 6 fractions con- sisting of 4 or more compounds residue 1% dark brown N-5 a Spats ees * % Ves ce Fee Pree De esi spthks Baa PU Aye | : ; ; ‘at Ei : ; , cw ihitaalitte ed eons Phd te pet oa MDE Sa te RN Mais lp bet aah Calm ear Viegeat Kadir Mati! CARER abbots beeline o> |: y eat pide gaa 4 ere amen ARBRE Reta ta yey 1c ile + ? ’ reoreyink Hiei Fai . : Gulizing The isochondrodendrine content of the commercial "Bebeerine Yydrochloride" was approximately twenty per cent of the total, but no bebeerine could be isolated. Isochondrodendrine is a structural isomer of bebeerine. It has the same number of atoms and the same functional groups and differs only in the position of one of the ether linkages. Due to this similarity, it is being further investigated for activity against marine borers. We next turned our attention to greenheart itself. Generous sam-les of bark and sawdust were received from the Willems Timber and Trading Company and the Greenheart and Wallaba Timber Company. To both of these companies we are greatly indebted. The nitrogen contents of dried greenheart samples show small differences which are not significant for Dumas determinations. Samples of greenheart bark from both companies were percolated in an appara- tus which had a capacity of nine pounds of ground bark. The extractions were carried out as in the case of the pareira brava. The ether-soluble alkaloids from the tvo samples were cream colored powders having specific rotations (E« Ip, cel.00. in methyl alcohol) of +1259 and +1299 respectively. Bebeerine is reported to have a specific rotation of +3009, Work on the separation of the crude alkaloids into pure components so far has been of a preliminary nature. The alkaloids are quite unstable and discolor slowly on exposure to light. A sample in methyl alcohol solution which was kept in a refrigerator changed its specific rotation from +125° to +789 in six months. A sample having a specific rotation of #1219 was subjected to chromato- graphic analysis. The results are shavn in Figure 9. The solvents used were progressively more concentrated solutions of methyl alcohol in methylene chloride. ‘There may be at least as many substances as solvent pairs employed. iiven in this chromatography some change apparently took place since the specific rotations of the fractions are considerably less than expected. The chemical and physical properties of the fractions isolated in our prel iminary study do not correspond with those reported for the alkaloid bebeerine, Until further evidence is obtained any mechanism which attempts to explain the resistance of greenheart to marine borers on the basis of the toxic action of bebeerine must be regarded as somewhat doubtful. The possibility remains that some other alkaloid or some other substance is responsible. An alcoholic extract of sreenheart sawdust was prepared essentially according to the method of Barger and Narrington.? This extract contains a large percentage of non-basic material and only a very smaJl amount of alkaloids. Pine blocks, impregnated with the total extract have been _ submitted to the Marine Laboratory, University of Iiami, for investigation of marine borer resistance. Similar test pieces impregnated with the crude N= 6 CH3O HO H3 ne) Hs (E shee oe I a OCH, OCH BEBEERINE ISOCHONDRODENDRINE NITROGEN CONTENT OF DRIED GREENHEART SAMPLES Fig. 8 SUPPLIER BARK SAWDUST Willems Timber and 0.83% N 0.54% N Trading Co. Greenheart and 0.58% N 0.41% N Wallaba Timber Co. CHROMATOGRAPHY OF GREENHEART BARK ALKALOIDS 200 180 _ 160 B 140 Fig. e) 3 120 £ 100 : ee (Rotation of Starting Material - 121°) ti 5 +64° +73° : ' ' H ' Fraction 1 y 2 mw GUG 27 BU TO Whi 1 Moms 6 wie ted a ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ' Solvent 1/4% MeOH in MeCl, 1/2% MeOH | 1% MeOH 2% MeOH 5% MeOH }25%MeOQH} MeOH jeer ney PANNE es ro dh eae rp aetna beg all eDth: aackitin RII ag Adrel waclid are EVs 2, SP enthonh 6, hte Hesdna iD | wap Haute md Ta A NRG TR iE 7 Pa ether-soluble alkaloids from greenheart bark and with isochondrodendrine also have been submitted. Je wish to thank Dr. F. G. alton Smith and his colleagues at the larine Laboratory for their kind collaboration. .e also wish to acknowledge the many excellent microanalyses carried out by lire Robert J. Brotherton of our laboratory. REF ERENCES 1, a) v. G. Atwood and A, A. Johnson, "Marine Structures, Their Deter- loration and Preservation," National Research Council, Washington, 192, p. 85; b) J. D. Brush, "Greenheart," (Foreign ‘oods Series) U. 5. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest ~ervice, ‘ashington, 19h; c) D, B, Fenshawe, Tropical ‘Joods, Noe 92, 25 (197). 2. G.van Iterson, Proceedings of the Fifth Pacific Sciences Congress, Canadawi92350 5592907 (1930). or) 3. C. &. Baldwin, The Dock and Harbour Authority, 17, 112 (1938). h. “Deterioration of Structures in Sea Water" Fourth (Interim) Report (192) of the Committee of the Institution of Civil Engineers (London), pe 2hs referred to again in the Fifteenth Report (1935), p. 22, and in the Seventeenth (Interim) Report (1939), p. 10. 5. Ibid, Second (Interim) Report (1922), pe 3h. 6. D. Maclagan, Annalen der Chemie, 118, 106 (183). 7. D. ilaclagan and A. Gamgee, Pharmaceutical Journal, (ii), 11, 19 (1869-70). 8, A. Wiggers, Annalen der Chemie, 33, 81 (130). 9, Fluckiger, Pharmaceutical Journal, (ii), 11, 192 (1869-70). 10. Spath, Leithe, and Ladeck, Chemische Berichte, 61, 1698 (1928). 11. Spath and Kuffner, Chemische Berichte, 67, 55 (193h). 12. Harold King, J. Chem. Soc., 1157 (1939). 13. li, Scholtz, Pharmaceutische Zentralhalle, 117, 68 (1906). 1h. Harold King, J. Chem. Soce, 7h (190). 15. James D. Dutcher, J. Am, Chem. Soc., 68, W19 (1915). N- 8 4 “+ (Contribution from the Basic Sciences Research Department, U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Research and Evaluation Laboratory) STUDIES ON SYNTHETIC PHENOLS AND ARYLAMINES FOR MARINE BORER INHIBITION By Thorndyke Roe, Jr., Robert L. Alumbaugh, and Herbert McKennis, Jr. One approach to the problem of deterioration of wooden structures by marine borers lies in economical synthetic pesticides which can effectively preserve woods over a long period of time. Synthetic organic chemicals have received wide usage in the preservation of tiribers where utilization is restricted to non-marine conditions. liany of these compounds bélong to the general class of aromatic alcohols called phenols. In Figure I, four conmon nitrophenols which have enjoyed some popularity as preserva- tives are shown. Introduction of the nitro group enhances fungicidal activity, but probably contributes to the corrosive action of the phenols on fastenings (1). Chlorinated phenols (Fig. 1), especially the familiar pentachlorophenol, have found wide application. Pentachlorophenol, while effective in many environments, is not recommended for conditions where wood will be immersed in salt water (2). It is interesting that Clapp and Richards reported that creosote which was low in phenols (cresylic acids) had lost some of its effectiveness as a marine borer deterrent (3). Phenols as a group are noted for the wide biological spectra of their toxic activity. The series of phenols currently under study in this laboratory are all derived from benzylamine and are illustrated in Fig. IV. Presence of the amino group may serve to inhibit corrosive action. This point, however, has not been investigated. The series is of further interest since many of the intermediates in the chosen synthetic routes have been shown to possess or are related to compounds with marked local anesthetic activity. Local anesthesia, according to the theory of Thimann, results from inter- ference with the production or utilization of acetylcholine (lh). The experimental work of Bullock establishes a close relationship between inhibition of cholinesterase and production of local anesthesia. Gy Many economic poisons may, in part at least, owe their effectiveness to interference with acetylcholine metabolism which is attributable to their inhibition of cholinesterase (6). Figure V shows the preparation of three para-substituted benzyl morpholines, The para nitro and the para anino compounds are both known to possess local anesthetic activity (7). O=-l OH OH OH NO» NOs OoN NO NO, NOD Fig. I. Nitro and 2,3-dinitrophenol 2, 4-dinitrophenol 2, 6-dinitrophenol Chloro Phenols Used in Wood Preservation O-Na OH OH OH ON CH3 cl cl cl cl cl cl cl CH 2 cl cl cl sodium dinitro-o-cresolate pentachlorophenol 2,4,5,6-tetrachlorophenol parachlorometacresol OH OH H CH, CH. Hi o-cresol m-cresol p-cresol OH OH OH CH f CH, Ino) & e 3 Figs. II & III. CHa CH. CH3 : : Some Common Phenols 1,3,4-xylenol 1,4,5-xylenol |,2,2-xylenol in Creosote Ou CH, OH OH a -naphthol B -naphthol 2-hydroxyfluorene 2-phenanthrol 4-hydroxydipheny| 0-2 J “ Piaee ay Vi ey UP aA Lasts ee Sieiiapay test OT ' LAG i ; ‘ f na t ae \ be ere LM iter Jeu heer tot tas Habe, eee a BY P 7 at ; i r ) . iis 1 : 3m ? / . ’ . , a ‘ ae { ORL HO oO :gerod: es : 5 7 Un es VEN Seo Pas Tie LBS Al, | healt Saar Ese? lyre heat evo yabey im Testi at, a oh. A methanol solution of commercially available p-nitrobenzyl chloride is refluxed with an excess of morpholine to yield N-p-nitrobenzyl morpholine. Leffler and Volwiler produced this compound from the same two reactants in benzene solution (7). The nitrocompound is reduced with hydrogen in the vresence of Adams' catalyst at three atmospheres yielding N-p-amino- benzyl morpholine. This method was found to be better than the iron- alcohol reduction enployed by Leffler and Volwiler (7). Our yields were 98% as apposed to a 76% yield obtained by the chemical method of the former workers. The amino compound is converted to the intermediate diazonium salt by reaction with sodium nitrite and sulfuric acid. Decom- position of this salt with a boiling 70% sulfuric acid solution gives a 38% yield of N-p-hydroxybenzyl morpholine. The preparation of N-p-hydroxybenzylaminoethanol is illustrated in Fig. YI. p-Hydroxybenzaldehyde is added to an ethanol solution of ethanolamine. The Schiff base, II, separates out almost immediately in 77% yield. The latter is readily reduced with hydrogen in the presence of Adams! catalyst at three atmospheres to give a 95% yield of N-p-hydroxybenzylaminoethanol , isolated as an oil. For malysis, the compound is converted to the 5-nitrobarbituric acid derivative salt. For comparison purposes with the benzyl morpholine compounds previously described, the nitro and amino analogues of N-p-hydroxybenzylaminoethanol were prepared as shown in Fie. VII. A methanol solution of p-nitrobenzyl chloride is refluxed with excess ethanolamine to give N-p-nitrobenzyl- aminoethanol in 58% yield. Barbiere reported the synthesis of this com- pound by mixing the t:7o reactants directly, but the reaction is very exothermic and considerable decomposition may occur (8). Reduction of the nitro compound with hydrogen in the presence of Adams! catalyst at three atmospheres yields N-p-aminobenzylaminoethanol in 83/5 of the theo- retical amount. The preparation of the diethanol compounds is shown in Fig. VIII. Barbiere synthesized 2,2'-(p-nitrobenzylimino) diethanol by mixing p-nitrobenzyl chloride and diethanolamine (8). However, the reaction, like that for the making of the monoethanol compound by this method, is very exothermic and considerable decomposition may occur. Again, our method consists of re- fluxing a methanol solution of p-nitrobenzyl]. chloride with an excess of diethanolamine to give 2,2'-(p-nitrobenzylimino) diethanol in 62% yield. Reduction of the nitro compound with hydrogen in the presence of Adams! catalyst at three atmospheres gives a quantitative yield of 2,2 '~(p-amino= benzylimino)diethanol, isolated as an oil. For analysis, the compound is converted to the 5—nitrobarbituric acid salt derivative, Conversion of the amino compound to the corresponding phenol has not yet been accomplished. In view of the knovm susceptibility of tertiary amines to nitrous acid under some conditions, the method used in going from 2,2'.(p-aminobenzylimino ) diethanol to the phenol may have to be modified. Fas hia) ig O CH, — O N-p-hydroxybenzy|lmorpholine H | CHy- N- CH= CH OH Fig. IV N-p-hydroxybenzylaminoethanol Nae © CH5—-N ern= CH»9—OH 2'-(p-hydroxybenzylimino) diethanol = {_ a V—_ CHo- Liane Newby 2 N CH, — N o+o NH- HCl I m.p. 79-79 .5°C PrO. U \ CHy - wn. ee + 6(H) See HN CH, —N O + 2H,0 atm. \ / Il m.p. 99.5-100.5°C Claas TTX CHy — Nees H 2804+ HNO, => HO3SON, CH, —-N {e} Fig. V IV H)S0, —~ HO, SON, cH, —N (Jomnoteito Chom N OFN, +250, ANALYSIS V m.p. 122-123°C Calc'd Found Il %N 12.6 12.4 Vi %C 68.4 68.54 %ti 7.8 7.60 COIN] ove Zot H \ =. =O + HyN-CH,CH,-OH —> HO LS encnjeron + H,0 Il m.p. 169-170°C H Pron { Cn- CHyCHy-OH + 2(H) ————» HO CH»-N-CHCH,OH 3 atm. Fig. VI 2 o% \\ me) \ we ANALYSIS H cores Calc'd Found HO CH -N-CH CH,OH -O=c CH-NO I %N 8.49 8.19 2 Sh} 4 , IV %N 16.6 16.5 sh IV m.p. 203d 0-4 ; ok | eee eon Lad ¥ Sieny mou td hey Crib enti AW ie ak Pa a WPA ies = %, ‘ 5 & Bie he Vitra vf i % Ftp COA a YR! , ohiiees Fae iG, ; ‘ j ‘ar v em taal mar fies Pay Te MR een i t% sea 4 \ 4 4 My aan 14 eta ae ( my, A A eee Reet Be Wag as: on emery Has Wt PD | ry Ay j | 4 ‘ tog ol a “ Laie sh , ‘Berets boghaty . ; ey tT i yh ON | ae ‘ a | ‘ae ; | Py a ; te * Sidi sl A ge H ont _\ CH)CI + HyNCH2CH,OH ON L_Souphengengos | Il m.p. 80-81°C + HOCH,CH,NH, HCI Fig. VII H PLO, H tl I m.p. M5116 °C ANALYSIS Calc'd Found iW %C 65.03 65.00 %H 8.49 8.11 %N 16.85 16.60 CH)CH,OH PEACH) CHCH,OH O,N {Nene + HNO ———- 0,N CHING 2-2 CH2CH20H CH2CH,OH Il_m.p. 76-77 A HOC HoCHo, HOCH CH NH-HCI + 2H,O Zee nOE cite Valilar I CH5CH,OH azn CL Seun ves CH)CH,OH CH,CH,OH HN CHING e ] | CH2CH2OH O=C CH-NO, m.p. 181-183°d 2 ee ; N i bon : . anid erat r Wg ear At IR REE: me ye! ae LSS Ad st) 5 ee bel Bh ater : At the present time, some of the compounds which we have described are under investigation at Port Hyenemes Dr, Jalton Smith of the iarine Lab- oratory, University of liami, has generously offered to study the action on blocks treated with some of these materials in the accelerated testing procedure which has been developed in his laboratory. Je are especially grateful to Dr. Smith and his colleagues for this work and to Mr. Robert J. Brotherton of the Basic Sciences Research Department, Ui 5. Naval Civil Engineering Research and valuation Laboratory for the microanalyses on the new compounds which were synthesized. REFERENCES 1. H. Broese val Groenou, H. ’. L. Rischen, and J. van den Berge, ood Preservation During the Last 50 Years, Sijthoff, leiden, oil ida BS Diesels jan LUI 3. W. F. Clapp and A. P. Richards, Cooperative Creosote Program Pre- liminary Progress Report of tiarine Exposure Panels (Port Aransas, Texas and Wrightsville Beach, N. C.), Proceedings of the Marine Borer Conference, May 10-12, 1951, U. S. Naval U, 5. Naval Civil Engineering Research and Evaluation Laboratory, Port Hueneme, Calif. 4, K. V. Thimann, Arch. Biochem. 2, 87-92 (193). 5. K. Bullock, Wuart. J. Pharm, Pharmacol. 21, 266-83 (1948). ©. A. Bh (ee 6. HH. B, Collier and D, C. Allen, Can. J. Research. 203, 189-93 (19h2). C. A. 37, 19h8, 7. WM. T. Leffler and =. H. Volwiler, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 60, 896-9 (1938). 8. J. Barbiere, Bull. soc. chim. 7, 621-6 (1910); 11, 170-80 (19Lh). ba We Ace tiles! Sas ee gal Pe ie) oe ae a sy Vien = FF Ion alee (Contribution from the ilarine Laboratory, University of Miami) VARIATION OF GLYCOGEN AND NITROGEN CONTENT OF SHIPWORMS ‘IT? GROWTH AND SEASON* by Leonard J. Greenfield Monthly analyses of the glycogen and nitrogen content of shipworms were accomplished between July 1951 and May 1952. The above components were selected as indices of stored protein and carbohydrate in the organisms. The average glycogen content of the shipworms over 25 mg. dry weight was found to be slightly above 30. From 0 to 25 mg. dry weight, a steady increase in the percent concentration of this component was apparent. Increasing nitrogen content was observed in the smallest of the speci- mens until a maximum value of 2.17% occurred in the 10-1).9 me. weight group. Sexual maturity of Teredo pedicellata was achieved in this weight group under the conditions observed. No seasonal change in the nitrogen and glycogen content was noted, and there was no apparent difference in the concentration of these components between gravid and non-gravid individuals of the same size range. A greater concentration of glycogen in the prenatal larvae than in the free-swimming larvae was recorded, and it was evident that a continued free-living existence would deplete the supply of this material to a minimum. This is based on the fact that liberated larvae do not feed and are dependent on the glycogen reserves passively obtained from the parent shipworm. Once attachment has taken place and feeding commences, the reserve supply of carbohydrate needed for the resumption of metabolic activity is replenished. The importance of wood used as a source of food in the diet of the organ- ism was also studied. In addition to wood polysaccharide utilization, indications are that wood contains sufficient nitrogen to account for that found in Teredo pedicellata. Utilization of plankton as a source of nitrogen was also apparent. This was demonstrated by growing the shipvorm in cellulose panels containing no nitrogen, xAbstract of article from Bull. Mar. Sci. of the Gulf and Caribbean, Vol 2, No. 3, pp. 486-96, March, 1953. P-1 i ee \ oe Mie Py ‘ 1 carn Hib i Daa nyu mn (1 Ae f Y 4 tr > ‘ ‘ y Sah — f Md s 4a) ry: Ly 4 Faery é Ul May hone a R ; Lae ay ath A t ‘ “ . 4 i , ji r i vba 3 ze ei Reon al ‘ | ‘ ' ; - bee ' a Wy Cad it. = y ia ¢ on se ; ; i = : eG ‘ S : { Bort : Ge 4H Y ' ae ; $ wis : ¥ 5 ae Aye eMine % Ny ih! bar } 1 a , we a : att . ; is : me ab ae } *3 oth | . Wiaaibe tl . ‘ ; j poy bit ‘ 4 x ‘ Cie a oi Peay oe | (Contribution from the Marine Laboratory, University of Miami) THE ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF NITROGEN IN TEREDO* by Reuben Lasker Abstract The amino acid content of acid-hydrolyzed Teredo bartschi Clapp of all ages has been compared chromatographically with hydrolysates of pine wood and of nannoplankton. ‘/ood appears to be deficient in the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine, in the heterocyclic amino acid proline, and in valine, all of which are found in Teredo. Hydrolysates of nannoplankton contain all of these missing amino acids except phenylala- nine. It is suggested that both wood and suspended nannoplankton are used as dietary sources of nitrogen by Teredo. This paper has been presented to the Editors of the Biological Bulletin for publication. (Contribution from the Research Department, Battelle Memorial Institute) RESEARCH ON MOCARBON OILS by Ray E. Heiks In order to investigate thoroughly hydrocarbon oils as wood preservatives, a wide variety of samples of creosote oils and petroleum oils were col- lected. The creosote oils included distillates from coke oven, vertical retort, and horizontal retort tars. The petroleum samples included fuel oils, recycled gas oils, and other oils described as "highly aromatic." The initial experimental work involved studies of the infrared spectra of all of the oils in efforts to determine whether the creosote oils dif- fered fundamentally from the petroleum oils. The results of these studies revealed that the creosote oils contained a greater predominance of aro- matic carbon-hydrogen bonds than the petroleum oils. The ratio of the optical density of aliphatic and/or naphthenic carbon-hydrogen bonds to aromatic carbon~hydrogen bonds varied from 11 to 36 for the petroleum oils and between 0.5 to 6.0 for the creosote oils. Comparison of the infrared spectra of all creosote oils indicates that they are quite simi- lar and significantly different from the petroleum oils. Many absorp- tion bands found in creosote oil are missing in the petroleum oils, whereas, all of the bands found in petroleum are also found in creosote oil. In an effort to study the oils more precisely, two samples of creosote were subjected to fractionation wider vacuum, in a column 39 inches long by 3/l. inches in diameter, packed with 1/8 by 1/8-inch stainless steel gauze, The column had an efficiency of 50 plates at atmospheric pressure. A 1500-ml. charge was cut into 1 percent volume fractions. The reflux fraction was 20 to 1, A total of 87 cuts were taken from the coke oven creosote and 70 cuts were taken from a vertical retort creosote, Fractional distillation under vacuum was considered to be a good means of separating sreosote into fractions containing a small number of individual components. It was found that very poor separations were obtained, probaoly because of the large number of azotropes that are formed in the mixture. An illus- tration of the poor separation obtained is shown by the fact that phenol was found in fractions boiling over a !3-degree temperature range and naphthalene in fractions boilins over a 53-degree temperature range. A mixture of phenol and naphthalene was found in Fractions 2 through 6, boiling between 183 and 211°C, It was concluded that distillation alone did not appear to be adequate in separeting creosote into its components. In comparing a vertical retort creosote with a coke oven creosote, infra- red spectra showed that phenolic OH compounds appeared in all fractions boiling up to 380°C., and there was even a trace in the last fraction boiling at 395°C., whereas in the case of the coke oven creosote, no significant amount of phenolic OH compounds were found in any fractions Rel ts § Te Mo: 43. ah Fe boiling above 2030C, Pyrene and phenanthrene were positively identified in both samples. This work is continuing. In an effort to further determine whether fundamental differences exist between petroleum oils and creosote oils, dielectric-constant measurements on three samples of petroleum gave values ranging from 2. to 2.69, whereas creosote oils gave values of ).56 to 7.9). “urther, velocity of sound measurements on two petroleum oils were in the range of 1h76 and 1507 meters per second, whereas two creosote oils gave values of 1530 and 1590 meters per second. Solvent extraction studies using“, <“'~oxydipropionitrile indicate that this solvent is very unique in its ability to separate aromatic compounds with a small amount of alkyl substitution from those containing a larger amount. It is also very sensitive to the presence of naphthenic groups in an aromatic compound. It is potentially valuable as a means of detecting the presence of petroleum products in creosote oils. a portion of this work is reported in the Proceedings of the American Wood-Preservers' Association, volume 48, pages 53 to 83, 1952, Addi- tional portions will appear in the Proceedings of the American Wood- Preservers' Association, volume 9, 1953. yah oi Los iss Ay tes tl tears AM OSS Seg ee we, ia was S hrs onic iy: wore da ah ts eet se oe ae vena ; pseu) ahd a = Bh Oe Bae foe ae dae. tis rand & ee “ 2 INS RNG: at stem aN wt, A 4 a Cah as uphin i ‘nodebeig chee’ fatty : A ae Ree sare pi: aeesyein ese : ‘atts haat, Ite 92 Noe Mis nts i BG) cE Peo fe Ser Bal a ue ery SH cand xy pee a a PD: bighmine 42 Liin SOU Be mia aa seit in ey ass boree 1h eee ae ‘ ; : ‘ * } y. Pe a i re ie Wiens teyeil set’ * adh .2¢6 ao - ”) . an - anos ann SON 2h Pen me hee Waco atAil ty ose ee En NY ve ata 1; br Y ~fol/iassruss toneetigest obras erect: bond ee Mart + f Spee Tir grote toe = eri Oy mor .oatietoona’ baie vif Ts Oe . i pr td ee (Contribution from the Naval Research laboratory) INVESTIGATION OF THE PHENOLIC FRACTION OF CREOSOTE” by T.-R. Sweeney and C. R. Walter, Jr. Abstract A study of the tar-acid fraction of A.i/.P./. Grade 1 creosote has been made by selective extraction of the latter with aqueous and Claisen alkali. This study indicated the presence of three groups of hydroxylic compounds: one extractabie with aqueous alkali, one extractable only with Claisen alkali, and one unextractable with either aqueous or Claisen alkali. Spectrophotometric measurements indicated the presence of un- hindered alkylated phenols in the aqueous alkali-soluble fraction and of unhindered phenols of higher molecular weight in the fraction extractable only with Claisen alkali. The presence of phenylphenols was indicated in both fractions. A material balance of the fractions showed that the quantity of vhenols extractable with Claisen alkali was about twice that extractable with aqueous alkali. Of the total oxygen of the original creosote, some- what more than half was extractable with Claisen alkali. A comparison of the oxyren content of the fractions as determined by difference with the oxygen content calculated from active hydrogen determinations indicated that the oxygen could largely be accounted for as hydroxyl. #This paper appeared in full in NRL Report No. 3940, 10 pp. & figse; February 6, 1952. s-1 ARM tote f ELT’ ‘aahw x (Contribution from the Yale School of forestry) TROPICAL AMSRICAN JOODS FOR DURABLT WATERFRONT sTRuctURES by Frederick F. Jangaard Unless vsiven a preservative treatment, only a limited number of domestic woods are adapted to uses that involve conditions favorable to the develop- ment of wood-rotting fungi or to marine borer activity. Through effective methods of preservative treatment, the life of domestic woods under these conditions can be effectively increased. A number of tropical woods, how- ever, have been employed without treatment for such purposes over prolonged periods and the question is raised as to the possibilities for making wider use of these and other naturally resistant species. Under the sponsorship of the Cffice of Naval Research and the Bureau of Ships of the Derartment of the Navy, the Yale School of Forestry has been engaged since 19h7 in a study of the properties and uses of woods from the American tropics. The scope of the over-all study includes determination of mechanical properties, density, shrinkage, decay resistance, rate of moisture absorption, resistance to weathering, and the characteristics of the wood in relation to seasoning, paint holding, machining, gluing, and steam bending. Through arrangement with the William F. Clapp Labora- tories at Duxbury, Massachusetts, certain of these woods are being subjected to exposure in infested waters to determine their resistance to marine borer attack. Other tests are conducted on. selected woods at the New York Naval Shipyard to determine resistance to fire and abrasion and at the Institute of Paper Chemistry, Appleton, Wisconsin, to determine the chemical composi- tion of certain of these woods... — The successful use of wood for durable water front structures involves, first of all, the selection of species combining the requisite mechanical properties to sustain applied loads with resistance to deterioration. Decay is the principal agency of deterioration above the water line, whereas sub-surface structural members are subjected to attack by marine borers in infested waters.. Other forms of deterioration to which certain parts of water front structures are exposed include weathering and mechanical wear. In addition to the qualities of strength and resistance to deterioration a wood showing low shrinkage would generally be preferred to another characterized by high shrinkage values, not only from the standpoint of dimensional stability of the structure, but also from the lesser warp that would ordinarily accompany lower shrinkage. he data presented in this paper were gathered as a part of a general study of the properties of tropical woods being conducted in cooperation with the Office of Naval Research and Bureau of Ships, U. S. Navy Depart- ment, under Contract N6ori-l, Task Order XV, Project No. NR-330-001. Dees al [oi wins Sed Wie tue On fos am Rida ot wie ae ora as Pin ak ted Mel BN Oh, Pee an ok ; f ACARIO bath , TO are ep iley | seat OD aerate, it P ee er Ere The woods shown in Table 1 have been selected from a large number of species for which mechanical testing in both the green and air-dry condi- tions has been completed. In addition to the more important me chanical properties, the table shows weight per cubic foot, radial and tangential shrinkage, resistance to checking and splitting upon weathering, decay resistance, and marine borer resistance. Helatively few of the species listed, however, have been subjected to marine borer testing. Species Suitable for Durable /Above-ifater Construction The most suitable ef these woods from the standpoint of durable above-water construction are grouped in three classes-- Greenheart——lJhite Oak--Southern Pine--Douglas Fir--on the basis of approximate strength properties and are discussed individually in this section. Most of these woods are considered in greater detail in other reports on this project (3, 5, and 8). Timbers of the New World (6) has been drawn on freely a@ a source of information relative to the distribution and character of the timber, Very strong woods (Greenheart class) LeAimendro (Coumarouna oleifera), Cumaru (Coumarouna odorata). These closely related species are combined here for discussion. Almendro is common to very plentiful in the lowland forests on the Atlantic side of Central America from Nicaragua to ranama, The tree is comonly large, sometimes reaching a diameter of 6 feet and a height of 180 feet. The bole of mature trees is virtually cylindrical and clear for 50-70 feet above the heavy buttresses to the first massive limbs. Because of their large size and the hardness of the wood, Almendro trees are frequently left standing in areas temporarily cleared for agriculture. Cumaru, the usual name for Tonka Bean in Brazil, is common in many: forest areas in Venezuela, the Guianas, and the Amazon region of Brazil. ‘the trees arc frequently 13 - 24 feet in diameter and 80-120 feet in height. The cylindrical bole is generally clear to heights of 60-380 feet. The wood of these species is similar to that of Greenheart in density and strength. Shrinkage is low relative to its density and resistance to checking and splitting is high. Timbers of this genus have a reputation for outstanding durability with respect to decay. Cumaru has proved to be one of the best crosstie woods in Brazil not only because of its dura- bility but also because of its freedom from splitting. Both woods are used for heavy construction especially where durability is a factor. Eecause of their somewhat oily nature and the ability of the wood to acquire a smooth, polished surface under conditions of heavy wear, Almendro and Cumarf’ have been tested as Lignum Vitae substitutes. 2. Bulletwood (Manilkara bidentata). This species is common in northern South America, Panama, and parts of the West Indies. Other species of Manilkara and closely related genera also occur throughout this range and extend through Central America. These related species are sometimes confused with Manilkara bidentata. The Bulletwood tree is typically large, Tie 5 a Pern “ w CU ehiey ie ey Me ‘ aie? cht Eien eee Ky well-formed, and tall. It commonly attains diameters of 3-) fect and heights of 100-150 feet. Buttresses are usually small or lacking, The wood is generally comparable to Greenheart in density and in mechani- cal properties. Shrinkage valves slightly exceed those of white Oak and the wood is rather prone to check upon weathering. leartwood of Bullet- wood has long been recognized for its high resistance to decay and insect attack, The National Park Service in Puerto Rico has reported that timbers of Ausubo (ijanilkara bidentata), still soind efter more than 00 years of service in buildings, have been re-used won the reconstruction of historical sites. The wood lacks resistance to marine borers. Bulletwood has a number of desirable characteristics that have resulted in a wide variety of local uses including flooring, foundations, bridge mei:bers, posts, poles, andrailway ties. Its sreat strength, high wear resistance, and durability recommend it for heavy and durable construction. 3. Guayacan (Tabebuia guayacan, T. heterotricha). lore than twenty species of Tabebuia have dark esreendsh-browm heartwood of high density, strength, and durability. These species range from southern liexico through Central America and South America as far south as Argentina. Tabebuia guayacan and T, heterotricha are here referred to srecifically. The former occurs in Central america, southern Mexico, and Colombia; the latter from Nicaragua to Venezuela, Guayacan trees areusually tall and straight, com- monly 2-3 fleet in diameter and 90-100 feet in height. The bole is cylindri- cal and free of branches for }0..50 feet. Heavy buttresses are usually limited to the basal 3 feet. Except for the lower stiffness of Guayacan, this wood compares closely with Greenheart in its mechanical properties. Density is slightly less than that of Greenheart. In shrinkage, Guayacdan is similar to -hite Oak. The wood is rated only fair in its resistance to the development of checks ion weathering. Guayacdn heartwood is extremely durable with respect to decay and resistmt to insect attack. It has been reported sound after 300 years! exposure in Panama. 4 . : Because of its durability and strength, Guayacan finds local use in house : : 2 : Baa Papaek ; ; construction, railway crossties, heavy construction timbers, mine timbers, and marine construction. h. Muira-juba (Apuleia molaris). This species is one of the larger trees of the Amazon valley forest of Brazil, sometimes exceeding 160 feet in height with a large bole. A related species, Apuleia leiocarpa, having a similar wood, is well known in Brazil and Argentina. Muira-juba attains its best development and is most commonly found on rich, moist but well- drained, clay soils. The wood is considerably lighter than Greenheart and correspondingly weaker although its strength properties exceed those of most well-known domestic woods. Air-dry bending and crushing strengths and stiffness of Muira=juba, for example, are about 0 per cent higher than corresponding values for T- 3 EOE wan) me aR ae Ay me ) pra: at SAR A Gl RING ai 8 White Oak. Shrinkage is low and resistance to weathering is excellent. Durability tests indicate high resistance to attack by wood-rotting fungi. The properties of liuira-juba recommend its use in heavy durable construction, flooring, and general construction, particularly where exposure to weather- ing is involved. Bo Acapu (Vovacapoua americena). The range of this species includes parts of Surinam and French Guiana, but it attains its best development in the state of Par&, Brazil. The tree is tall but the unbuttressed bole only occasionally attains diameters greater than 2 feet. The species reputedly produces the best timber of French Guiana but is of infrequent occurrence there. In Brazil much of the readily accessible timber has been cut although considerable supplies are still available. The wood is appreciably lower in density than Greenheart but, on the basis of available green strength values, only slightly lower than Greenheart in bending strength and stiffness and gemerally comparable in compressive strengths. Shrinkage is low in nroportion to the density of the wood. Heartwood is highly resistant to decay and insect attack, and has demon— strated a high degree of resistance to marine borer attack at Harbor Island, North Carolina, althoueh conflicting results have been reported from tests in Hawaiian waters (l1). é . _ . : The dark colored timber of Acapu is hichly esteemed in Brazil for a11 kinds of heavy durable construction, flooring, and marine structures. Strong woods (:hite Oak class) 1. lMylady (Aspidosperma cruentum). This species is found from southern Mexico through Central Sinerica to Colombia. The :ylady tree is moderate in size. In British Honduras few trees are larger than 1$ feet in dia- : meter, although attaining heights in excess of 100 feet. In other parts of Central America diameters of 2-3 feet are recorded. The clear bole commonly extends for more than two-thirds the total height of the tree. The wood is much stiffer than white Oak and is substantially stronger in most respects. Its shrinkage compares closely with that of Oak. Resistance to checking is fair. ‘The wood is rated extremely durable with respect to decay and adapts the timber for use in heavy durable construction, rail- way crossties, sills, and framing. 2. Mora Amarilla (Chlorophora tinctoria). The tree and wood of Mora — Amarilla are well known throughout tropical America. The species is widely distributed from southern Mexico to southern Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina. Under good growing conditions and particularly in the southern part of its range, ilora Amarilla grows straight and tall, frequently to 2 feet in dia- meter and 60-80 feet in height with a clear bole of 20-35 feet. In some areas the trees attain diameters of \(0 inches and heights of 90-120 feet. Although not azundant, the species is a constant fector in the forests of southern Erazil, Paraguay, and liisiones, Argentina. ics | 1 Ray’ Orety eta) - ‘ . ’ : ‘ ; ; / ‘) ’ 4] Fy re Pik Ay AUF \ Wh Zur ; gh AE 12 War , f Na , ch : ia Mire it ot vik Be ght Ae nN Ds oe | Coe aN we ont, ‘ is SN Sik ahs wey? Ear Fhe The wood is superior to White Oak in all mechanical properties. It is characterized by moderate shrinkage and excellent weathering qualities. Heartwood of Mora Amarilla has long been recognized for its high degree of resistance to decay and insect attack. It is not resistant to marine borers, however. Mora Amarilla is prized locally in the tropics for heavy durable construction, It is frequently used for viles, poles, foundation and bridge tinbers, culverts, crossties. 3. Brazilian Louro (Aniba Duckei, A. cf. riparia, Ocotea spe). In the Amazon recion of Brazil there are a number of species known as Louro. The above-named species represent three of these. They are similar in appear- ance and almost identical in physical and mechanical properties, These three species are therefore grouped for the purpose of discussion. The Brazilian Louros, based on descriptions of the trees from which test mater- ial was obtained, attain diameters of about 2 feet and heights of 100 feet or more with a clear bole extending about two-third of total height. Little information is available concerning their abundance although, together with closely related species of the Lauraceae, they constitute a significant part of the forest. - The wood of the Brazilian Louros is comparable to White Oak in density, but is considerably stronger and stiffer than Oak. Only in compression across the grain, are they approximately equal to White Oak. Shrinkage is less than that of Oak, and resistance to checking and splitting upon exposure to weathering is very high. The timbers of the group are extremely resistant to decay. Although their use has for the most part been limited to general construc— tion, the excellent properties of the Brazilian Louros recomended them for many purposes where Teak has previously been found satisfactory as well as for durable construct.on, flooring, and millwork. h. Goncalo Alves (Astronium graveolens). This species is a common tree in the dpland forests froin liexico and Central America through Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil. Gongalo alves attains diameters of 2-3 feet or more and a maximum height of 120 feet. Except for narrow buttress flanges extending upward from the ground for several feet, the tree com- monly has a clear symmetrical bole for two-thirds of its height. The wood of Goncalo Alves is very heavy, averaging 63 pounds per cubic foot when air dry. Strength is not high in proportion to its weight but is nevertheless greater than that of white Oak particularly in compression both along and across the grain. Shrinkage is appreciably less than that of Oak, weathering qualities excellent, and the heartwood is highly resis- tant to decay. The wood is used in the tropics for flooring and general construction and its properties indicate suitability for durable construction. iene iheny Wi oa ani a Silat Hi a yee i coe Rk te ore # orth yee pate ‘ a HERE | Rompe: ohn CHE 5 tea GA Nig Pre fit api oe nT el Ay : ie « aT) Tere eee ae iia ee 2806 gS 7 0 lt Bc a ‘ F y 1 , AN eh i ie’ ‘a : : t as a) Aden 1 i i f - Moderately strong woods (southern Pine--Douglas Fir class) 1. Yellow Sanders (Buchenavia capitata). This species attains its best development in the iJest Indies and on the northern edge of South America. Closely related species are found in the Amazon valley. Yellow Sanders reaches a diameter of 3 feet and a height of 80 feet. Log form is good above a basal buttress. The wood is slightiy heavier than Longleaf Pine but most strength proper- ties of Yellow Sanders are intermediate to those of Longleaf Pine and Douglas Fir. Shrinkage is exceedingly low, nearly comparable to that of Teak, and the wood shows good resistance to checking upon weathering. Decay resistance is very high. Tests in Hawaiian waters indicate that the wood lacks resistance to marine borers (1). Although present local use of Yellow Sanders is limited mainly to furni- ture, the wood has much to recommend its use in boat construction, flooring, and durable construction. 2. Angelino Aceituno (Nectandra concinna). This species is a medium-sized timber-yielding tree native to Costa Rica, Colombia, anc Venezuela. Little specific information is known concerning its abundance or availability. The wood is comparable to Longleaf Pine in density and strength. Shrinkage is low and weathering characteristics good. Heartwood is rated as very durable in resistance to decay orgmisms. Its moisture absorption is low, comparable to Teak. These properties together with its local use in tropical construction recomend Angelino Aceituno for durable construction as well as for many uses in boat and ship construction. 3. Andiroba (Carana guianensis), This species is found over a wide range from British Honduras and the ‘est Indies south through Brazil and Peru. In view of this wide geographical distribution, it is suggested that the data reported here should be limited to timber from the Amazon region, the source of the test material. Trees ar» straight and of good form, commonly 2-3 feet in diameter and 80-100 feet in height. Buttresses are low, leaving a clear bole length of 50 feet or more. Andiroba reaches its best development and is most abundant in the Amazon flood plains, on alluvial flats, and scattered along water courses. During a 6-month period, 12 per cent of the cut at a large sawmill on the Rio Tapajos is reported to have been Andiroba. Andiroba is comparable to Longleaf Pine in density and most strength prop- erties. It compares with Douglas "ir in compressive strength across the grain. Shrinkage is slightly less than that of Longleaf Pine. Care is required in seasoning Andiroba lumber to prevent checking and splitting, and slow drying under cover is recommended for best results in air season- ing. After it has been seasoned, however, the wood weathers well with only minor checking. Heartwood is very durable with respect to decay. i ae te aaa it Bae yeah leita tly a de ah Aerts) Uenhes! pxt,s.cuiok Lee Li « 4 ¥ Hear, se Rikdmanis dAlins Lieheower Pe eh SLAC Le! m ae ae Wl ae: Der ete Might ant ent: Pte i 1 Wei eistiate iE Corey Pv Do ate lah ee ea . At alte ig) Se he ne lente ya Presa Ben yts ISU Hike Andiroba has been used for both interior and exterior construction in the tropics and its properties recommend it for heavy durable construction. lh. Rajate Bien (Vitex Cooperi), Flor Azul (Vitex Kuylenii), These closely related species are mich alike in the characteristics of their wood and are combined here for discussion. Their geographical range includes Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and British Honduras. Flor Azul is generally small to medium sized but Rajate Bien occasionally attains large size. In weight per cubic foot these timbers compare with Longleaf Pine whereas their mechanical properties more nearly approach those of Douglas Fir. when air dry, stiffness is about three-fourths that of Douglas Fir, shrink- age is considerably below that of Longleaf Pine or Douglas Fir, and resis- tance to weathering is excellent. The wood is very durable in resisting attack by decay organisms. in Guatemala both species are used for general and durable construction, Rajate Bien being considered the better of the two and the more widely used. The timber should be suitable for flooring, planking, and uses involving exposure to weathering. Species Resistant to Marine Borer Attack Tests to determine the marine borer resistance of a number of Tropical American woods were begun by the J. F. Clapp Laboratories in 1948 at Kure Beach, North Caroline. A second series of specimens, together with a number of domestic woods, was exposed at the same site in June 199 and supple- mented by additional tropical woods in August 199. In April 1950, the test panels were transferred to Harbor Island, North Carolina, where the tests are continuing. The most recent inspection for which results are shown in Table 2 was made in July 1951. Since that time specimens of a considerable number of species have been submitted for testing as shown in Table 2 although, of course, no data concerning their resistance are yet available. Resistance ratings for 25 tropical woods and a few domestic woods, summarized from reports of the Clapp Laboratories (1, 2), are shown in Table 2, At each inspection period following 10-12 months, 16 months, and 2h, months of exe posure, each species was rated on the basis of the degree of resistance to attack by marine borers shown by smakl (2 x 3 x 18 inch) specimens of heart— stood. AS shown in a footnote to Table 2, ratings ranged from "A" indicating no marine borer activity to "E" representing very heavy marine borer activity. When deterioration of a specimen had progressed to a point of severe damage, it was removed from test end cut up for detailed examination. ‘jith the exception of Redwood and Bald Cypress, all domestic woods under exposure were completely destroyed within the first 9-month period and these species, together with the tropical wood Balsa, were consequently removed from test at that time. The least resistant of the other tropical woods had failed after 12 months! exposure, a considerably larger number by 16 months, and all but five of them had been subjected to fairly heavy attack at 2) months. T- 7 ee Po oe , bia coe i bon bo sa Reto, AEB wt * fri ie > te A age Me Meo Gara pars eaweseeny poy : “ ie J y { Ory} , ¢ ” rua t ee plete aera. Med Poe fo t ; ae tae) ug ens vi y shir y Atal, ? ro A Tr Fe OG hap ‘Failte Se Ot ae, i Nine Stora Inasmuch as a majority of these tropical wocds showed no effect, or only slight evidence of marine borer activity, at 12 months, it appears that this period is too short to permit of a reasonable evaluation of their resistance. At 2) months, on the other hand, species that had deteriorated at quite different rates were no longer distinguishable from one another. Consequently, it is suggested that the results of the 16-month inspection are most suitable for the purpose of rating the resist nce of individual species in these tests. It is not proposed to attempt to estimate service life of piling or timbers of structural sizes from these results on small specimens. However, it should be pointed out that Angélique (see Table 2) has an established reputation for long life in marine structures in French Guiana, France, and the Panama Canal. Little pholad and no simnificant Teredo damage had occurred after 15 years of service in marine borer infested waters at Balboa, Canal done, Interpretation of results shown in Table 2 for Msciweilera sp. is assisted by the knowledge that iianbarklak (Eschweilera lonsines) and the closely related species, #. subglandvlosa and E. corrug gaba, are widely recognized for their high resistance to marine borers. wanbarklak piles have been reported perfectly sound after 17 years in brackish waters in the Saramacca Canal, Surinam. This species also established the best record of a con- siderable number of species after 15 years of service in an experimental installation at Balboa, Canal Zone. An agency of the Netherlands govern- ment has reported piles of Manbarklak to be still sound after 75 years! service in the harbor at Nieuwediep, Holland. Edmondson, on the basis of similar specimens, has st-ted, "a wood that stands up well in Honolulu Harbor, which is a severe testing ground, for one or more years rates honorable mention." (4). Several of the species included in this category in his report are also shown here in a favorable licht either directly or by analogy with closely related species. Among these are Ocotea rubra, Eschweilera Sagotiana, Eschweilera blanchetiana, Eschweilera tenax, and Lecythis usitata. Best performance among the 25 tropical woods under test at Harbor Island, North Carolina, based upon the results of 16 months! exposure, is shown by the following: Acapa (Vouacapoua americana) MorrZ0 (ischweilera blanchetiana) Sapucaia (Lecythis veitata) Angélique (Dicorynia paraensis) Determa (Ocotea rubra Coco de Mono (Eschweilera tenax) Cumaru Preto (Taralea spe) Black Kakeralli (Eschweilera Sagotiana) Natural marine borer resistance of wood has been ascribed commonly to ite silica content. The woods of this study have been analyzed for total ash and silica content in three separate series of tests conducted at the T= 8 aad be bn Onn: ab mera eae mere Tit i s 99, rt jiseou ts penn peat a) ipl rai Rreabye ete Bot ees ov ey x aig © i aad muerte Faery iy ey fe " at pr ee oe eos PA. op pethag.o3 ds Cds tans eet Ley Sih akooks Lae “ Ha etig 7 ase at ue? af ; : aba 3 Sil da Dianta ” it r ul v8 au a “He ps witht Js ae tive ‘ Pon ans ; a 4 f ) o a eye pet? i Avent a ‘ ee a ir as = . v A ¥ , f 4 (ie nia macgnnnt iy Ciba Os heey eb Fy - i y v i, me . tig Seva ar il ‘ld babe sh me RLS Ay Aba Sith gh i Institute of Paper Chemistry (9), the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, and Yale School of Forestry (7). Results of these incomplete tests are summarized in Table 2. No specific correlation between silica content and marine borer resistance has been attempted inasmuch as samples for chemical analysis were not necessarily obtained from the same logs nor even from the same country of origin as were the exposure specimens. In a number of instances, chemical analysus were conducted upon composite samples of sawdust representing a mixture obtained from several different sources. Total ash content which generally amounts to less than 0.5 per cent of , oven-dry weight for domestic woods is seen torange as high as 2 per cent in some of these woods. In those woods for which spectrographic data on silicon in the ash are available, this element is seen to vary from weak to very strong, in the latter instances amounting to one-half to two-thirds of the total ash when expressed as silica (Si09) as showm inthe chemical analysis. It should be borne in mind that the svectrographic technique used here permits only of an estimation of the proportionate amount of silica in the total ash content. 4 strong indication of silicon in the ash of a species such as Greenheart, which is extremely low in ash, would therefore not be as significant as a strong line in a wood like Teak which is high in total mineral content. In the chemical analyses, silica is expressed as a percentage of oven-dry weight, ranging from 0.000 to 1.51 per cent among these species. Unfortu- nately these studies are not yet complete and only limited data are presently available, However, when allowance is made for variability within a species from one source to: another, the evidence appears to confirm the reputed influence of silica content upon marine borer resistance. Of several species that consistently show a silica content of 0.20 per cent or more in these analyses inclucing Angélique, Teak, anid Blaci: Kakeralli, only Teak was found not to have a favorable de-ree of resistance to borers. ‘ise (9) cites the work of Bromley and Rudge to indicate the wide variation in mineral content of Teak, On the basis of analyses of ten samples of this species, variation in total ash was found to range from 0.6) to 4.3 per cent with a silica range of 0.03 to 3.0 per cent. Looking at the negative side of this relationship, however, a number of the resistant species such as Acapi, Determa, and the :ell-known Greenheart are extremely low in silica and therefore must owe their resistance to other factors. Variability may be involved her: too. A specific example is that of Acapu (Vouacapoua americana) which was found by Edmondson to be lackinz in marine borer resistance in Hawaii (l), In the case of Green- heart, ise has suzzested that resistace to Teredo may be due to the appreciable amounts of alkaloidal material present in the wood (9). It would appear to be reasonable to anticipate favorable marine borer resis- tance for woods characterized by high silica content, even though resistance is not exclusively dependent uron silica content. High density of a wood is not an appreciable deterrent to marine borer activity as evidenced by ] Atoseoniee bie. fi 1 Rein fi Ain) irk ) _Teuee the rapid deterioration of Bulletivood in these tests and of Licaria canella iu tests conducted by Edmondson in Hawaii, A number of woods listed in Table 2 for which exposure data are not yet available would appear on the basis of their silica content to be highly resistant to attack. Among such woods are Licania buxifolia, Parinari excelsa, Licania macrophylla, Eschweilera odora, Parinari Rodolphi, Parinari campestris, and Eschweilera subglandulosa. ay The following paragraphs briefly describe the species that have shown best performance to date in these marine borer exposure tests. These species are arranged in approximate order of indicated resistance. While showing good resistance to marine borers, several of these species are not out- standing in their resistance to decay, suggesting the possibility that longer service life may be obtainable from them if they were given a preservative treatment to improve their performance in this respect. 1. Acapu (Voxacapoua americana). See description under Species Suitable for Above-Water Construction. 2, Morrdo (Eschweilera blanchetiana). This is one of about 80 species of medium-sized to very Large trees of the genus Eschweilera occurring from eastern Brazil through the Amazon basin to Trinidad and Costa Rica. Little specific intormation is available concerning the abundance or distribution of Morrdo, but the material used in these tests originated near Belem, Brazil. The wood appears to share the general characteristics of the Manbarklak group of Eschweilera. These timbers are extremely hard and strong with air-dry weights of 69-78 pounds per cubic foot. the wood is difficult to work and highly durable with respect to decay and, as noted previously in this paper, with an outstanding reputation for marine borer resistance. Record and Hess (6) report that the only damage to ilanbarklak after years of service in brackish waters infested by Neoteredo was a slight superficial injury in- flicted by the marine stone borer, #artesia cuneiformis. 3. Sapucaia(Lécythis usitata)., The genus Lecythis includes a large number of imperfectly known species which are widely distributed from southeastern Brazil through northern South America to Costa Rica. The name Sapucaia is applied to most of the Brazilian species of Lecythis. These trees are com- mon in both the Amazon lowlands and the coastal mountains. The trees are large, often reaching 5-6 feet in diameter with buttressed boles extending free of branches for 50-60 feet. The wood of Sapucaia is typically very hard, strong, and heavy, weighing from 53-69 pounds per cubic foot when air dry. The timbers of this group vary from fair to excellent in decay resistance. They are used in heavy construction, in bridges, and as railway crossties in Brazil. li. Angélique (Dicorynia paraensis). This tree is abundant in Surinam, French Guiana, and the Brazilian Amazon. It is reported to be one of the most common of the larger trees along the ltio Negro. The tree of Angélique is large, attaining diameters of 5 feet or more and heights up to 150 feet. T - 10 agree ‘v LOBE , ie rail | \ The wood compares favorably with Teak in its mechanical properties and is comparable to Teak in density. It is moderate in shrinkage and fair in its weathering characteristics as shown in Table 1. The wood is durable with respect to decay although not exceptionally so. Its reputation for high marine borer resistance has been referred to previously. These properties particularly recommend the use of Angélique for marine piling and submerged construction in marine borer infested waters, although it also eppears to be suitable as a Teak replacement for many purposes including boat and ship decking. 5. Determa (Ocotea rubra). This species, which is related to Greenheart (Ocotea Rodiaei) but is Se aoe similar to it, occurs throughout the lowlands of the Gaianas and the lower Amazon region. The tree is large and straight- boled reaching diameters of 3-4 feet, heights of 100 feet or more, and is free of branches for 40-70 feet. The wocd is lighter and weaker than white Oak as shown in Table 1. Shrinkage is moderate, and weatnering characteristics excellent. The wood is durable with respect to decay, although not outstanding in this respect, and is used in the tropics for both interior and exterior construction. Its comparative softness is not favorable for uses involving abrasion or heavy wear. In addition to its favorable resistance to marine borers shown in these tests, Determa did not deteriorate apgoreciably when subjected to marine borer attack in Honolulu Harbor for 13 months (i). ‘The wood contains no signi- ficant quantity of silice but does include considerable quantities of a characteristic wax (9). 6. Coco de Mono (“schweilera tenax). Coco de llono is the name commonly applied in Venenuela tc svecies of the genus Eschweilera., The wood used in these tests originated in the state of Portuguese. Venezuela. The general 1 properties of the '-anbarklak group of the genus Eschweilera, as given in the description of Morrao, are believed to apply to this species as well. 7. Cumaru Preto (T aralea sp.» ). No specific information is available con- cerning the particular Species in these testis. It is presumably one of severel species of the genus Taralea which includes medium-sized to rather large trees in the Amazon basin and possivly in eastern Peru, Venezuela, anas. The wood is extremely hard and strong. Its air-dry weight 75 pounds per cubic foot. Decay resistance is presumed to be ex- cellent, and the timber is suitable for heavy durable construction but not utilized at present to any extent. 8. Black Kakeralli (Eschweiler: Seectiana)., This species is closely related to the wanbarkl ok previously referred to, Although at least 15 species of 2tera, all know: as Kaxsralli, grow in British Guiana, at least three- ; -he total volume in most areas consists of Black Kakeralli. It is four.d ‘hroughceut most of the ciimax rain forests of British Guiana but is most abundant) in the western districts. These trees frequently attain Sc. diameters of 2 Zeet ov more and heights of 100 feet. Buttresses are small or absent, Timbers squared to 12 inches and )O feet long, and round piling up to 60 feet long, are obtainable. dec alae +t edie PDK Seema Chery pes he % = 0 7 ~~ s; ‘ = [vee Pa ee ; ( at wn Sel | Hf . £ iv r 3% i apuoladh A i Rie if hy F . Je ny , Ul The wood is very heavy, weighing 63 pounds ner cubic foot when air dry. Its strength properties approach those of Greenheart as shown in Table 1. The wood is highly decay resistant but prone to split and check upon weather- ing. In addition to the marine borer resistance shown in these tests, Black Kakeralli was only lightly attacked during 2) months of exposure to marine borers in Hawaii (|). Its strength, resistance to decay, and re- sistance to marine organisms adapt this wood to heavy durable construction both above water and submerged. -ihen used as piling it may be desirable to cap the butt end to avoid splitting. Acknowledgments Acknowledgment is eratefully extended to the various laboratories whose reports have been furnished an important part of the data presented in this paper. Particular personal acknowledgment is due to Ww. T. Mathis, R. A. Botsford, and Helen Kocaba, of the Connecticut Agricultural Experi- ment Station, for analyses of the ash of a considerable humber of these woods and to George T. Tsoumis, a graduate student at the Yale School of Forestry, who contributed much of the data on total ash content. Bibliography 1. Clapp, /illiam F., Laboratories. Tropical wood marine borer tests, Kure Beach, North Carolina. (Reports on work sponsored by the Bureau of Ships, Navy Dept., Washington.) Progress Report No. 1, Feb. 1, 199; No. 2, Dec. 30, 199; No. 3, Dec. 30, 19h9. 2. Clapp, /illiam F., Laboratories. Tropical wood marine borer tests, Harbor Island, North Carolina. (Reports on work sponsored by the Bureau of Ships, Navy Dept., ‘ashington.) Progress Report No. h, July 1950; No. 5, Dec. 28, 1950; No. 5, Sept. 17, 1951. 3. Dickinson, Fred E., Hess, Robert /., and Jangaard, Frederick F, Properties and uses of tropical woods, I. Tropical Woods 95:1-1h5. June, 19h9. h. Edmondson, Charles Howard. Reaction of woods from South American and Caribbean areas to marine borers in Hawaiian waters. Caribbean Forester 10: 1: 37-1. January 199. 5. Hess, Robert W., Wangaard, Frederick F., and Dickinson, Hred HE. Properties and uses of tropical woods, II. Tropical ‘loods 97: 1-132. November 1950, 6. Record, Samuel J., and Hess, Robert ‘J, Timbers of the New World. Yale University Press. Pp. 60. 193. 7. Wangaard, Frederick F, Tropical woods research at Yale University. Report of Symposium on Wood. National Research Council--Office of Naval Research, pp. 26-303. Washington, D. C. October 199.6 Tom 2 8e Fe Jangaard, Frederick F., and Muschler, Arthur F. Properties and uses of tropical woods, IJI, Trovical jJoods 98. (Approx, 160 pp.) In press, June 1952, Wise, Louis ™. Composition of ropical woods. (A report on work sponsored by the Office of Naval Nesearch, U. S. Navy.) Institute of Paper Chemistry, Appleton, ‘is. Pp. 82. 1951. Wo 33} Oy] 1 4 pectin: Pay. hs | oN Ay if rai hs Minn i i “Ve ULES a eae ae Piste fa) ath Rieter 3). ‘ , } 1 . \) i i oe) i { Hi 4 ot aed rt ' i j 7 » 7 r i } t i. , ! able 1. Comparison of selected Tropical American voods from the to dursble waterfront construction. Species Greenheart (Ocotes, Hodiaei) Almendro (Coumarouna oleifers) Cumaru f (Cownarouna odorata) Builetwood (wianiikara pidentata) calo Aives eo) a ee nium praveolens) Black Kakeralli (Bschweilera Sagotiana - , Guayacan (Tabebuia ayacan, (GE heterotricha) ESO oe Acapu (Vouacanoua americana) —————___ (Caryocar villosumn) H} 4 ( ity Lady a) Aspidosverma eruentum) 4 Br. Guiana Surinam, Br. Guiana, Puerto Rico Honduras, Venezuela Honduras, Panama Surinam Brazil Brzil Br. Hondure Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Ae Bry dition Wei cit 1b. Cul 718 68 81 67 odulus a Ruoture (Do Boal, 19,550 25, 500 1/59 25,840 16, 560 15, 360 20,960 12,459 17,060 14,5100 20,790 Modulus of Flasticity COO Morse. Maximum Crushing Streneth Do Souk 10,160 12,920 “8, 600 13, 660 standpoint of their adaptability Compression Grain Do Soak 2,00 1,970 1,970 2, 1,00 oh 1-2 Species Greenheart (Ocotee Rodiaei) Almendro (Cowasrouna oleifera) ¢ Cumaru (Coumsrouna Cdorata) Bulleti.ood (Menilkera bidentata) Goncalo Alves (Astronium graveglens) Black Kakeralli (Eschweilera Sagotiana) ’ C4 Guayacan m i. heterotricha) , Z Acapu (Vouacaooua americana) Uuira-juba (Apuleia molaris) Piaquia (Caryocar villosum) Mylady Aspidosperma_cruentum) Shrinkage 5.0 5k Tangential, oct. 9.0 7.6 &.7 \eathering Resistance to Checking & Splittine-/1 pesiatansele AA AA Marine Borer Resistance/3 10-12 months B(6 vo.) i6 months B-15 Svecies Courbe ril (Hymeraee courbaril) Mora fmerilla (Chlorophora tinctoria) tatajuba (Bagessa suianersis) Nargusta (Terminalai emazonia White Oak (Quercus elba) Srazilian Louro (Aniba Duckei, A. cf. rioaria, Ocotea sp.) ——_=* Angelim dos Amerelos (Hymenolobiun excel sum) o Angeli: ue (Dicorynia p2raensis) ———— Yellow Sanders (Buchenavia capitata) SS Brazil Nut (Bertholletia excelsa) Source Hondurss Surinam, Puerto Rico, Panama Guatemala, Honduras, Venezuela Brazil Br. Guiana, Br. Honduras, Panama United States Brazil Brazil Surinam Puerto Rico Brazil Condition Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Green Air Dry Weight lb.per cu.ft. Modulus of Rupture 1c Boat 12,940 19,400 14,840 19,560 14, 520 20,050 12, R20 17,750 8, 300 15,200 13,250 19,030 1H, JNO 17, 390 10,050 12,970 9,749 1i,, 680 Modulus of Blasticity 1000 p.s.i. Maximum Crushing Strength p.S.e1 As 5,800 9,510 Compression + Grain WoSo2ko 1, 640 1,880 I= 6 y i ae ' ' ur : ; ¥ 1 aaj ' 4 \ ’ ? i r hi H | t ek at's yi Species Courbaril (Hymenaea courbaril) SS Mora Amarilla (Chlorophora tinctoria) Tate juba (Bazassa guisnensis) Nargusta Term nalioa amazonia) Vhite Oek (Cuercus alba Brazilieéen Lovro (anibs | Dueke i; a os Angelim dos Amarelos (Hymenolobium excel sum) eee 4 Angelicue (Dicorynia paraensis) Yeliow Sanders (Buchenavie cavitata) ee eS Brezil Nut (Bertholletia excelsa) SSS Shrinkage i Radial, Tangential, oct. pet. 4.5 Se5 3.4 beh Dee 6.6 4.8 o9 BS) 9.0 4.6 7.0 Bal] 6.0 4.6 SigZ 2.8 Boll 369 8.3 Veatheri.n Resistance to Checking & Splitting/l _ IV Tit IEE IU Il Decay Resistance: A AA A AA AA [2 Marine Borer Rectisturines! = 10-12 months A “6 months E Ww 2h months ie) AY aby Viaximum Modulus Modulus of Crushing Compression Species Source Condition height of Ruoture Elesticity Scrength Grain MofNEFe Fo So2ko 1000 p.s.i. Do Sosa Do Boake cu.ft. Teak Burma Green 55 11, 380 1, 580 5,490 1,040 (Tecton: grardis) Air Dry 43 13,770 1,670 7,520 1,190 Angelino Aceituno Venezuela Green 66 10,440 1,540 5,020 710 Nectaucra ecneinna) Air Dry h2 14,230 1,650 7,260 © andiroba Brazil Green 60 aL SAMO) 1,560 15930 960 (Cerava guianensis Air Dry ral 15,620 1,850 7,900 850 Longleaf Pine United Green 55 8 ,'700 1, 600 4, 300 590 (Pinus palusuis St-tes Air Dry LL 1,700 1,990 &,4L0 1,190 Deterna Surinan, Green 61 7,820 1,460 3,760 550 (Ocotea rubrz ) Br. Guiana Air Dry Ad 10,479 1,820 5,0V0 640 Rajate Bien (Vitex Cooperi) Honduras, Green 66 95420 1,490 hy 780 1,180 Flor Azul Guatemala Air Dry Nf) (8S) 1,570 7,019 990 (Vitex Kuylenii Tauary Brazil, Green 53 9,240 1,720 1,260 560 (Couratari pulchre) Br. Guiana Air Dry 37 13,520 1,800 7 1,60 860 Douglas Fir United Green 38 7,600 ; 3,890 510 _ igen 1,55 (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) States Air Dry Bie e700 1,920 754.20 910 T - 18 Shrinkage Radial, Tangential, Species pet. Gia Teak Po 5} 42 (Tectona grandis) Angelino Aceituno Bath, 6.0 (Nectandra concinna) Andiroba 3.1 7.6 (Carapa guianensis) Longleaf Pine Boal. We (Pinus palustris) Determa 3.7 ee (Qcotea rubra) Rajate Bien | 3) 2 6.4 (Vitex Cooperi) Flor azul (Vitex Kuylenii) Tauary hol, Yo3 (Couratari pulehra) Douglés Fir 5.0 Hots) (Pseucotsuga texifolia) Se ee f. I-Excellent; II-Good; III-Fair; IV-Poor [2 i&-Average weight loss less than 3 per cent; A-Average weight loss 3-10 per cent; B-Average weight loss 11-24 per cent. Weathering Resistance to Checking Decay Jo SplittineLt Resistance’ I AA It AA II A Teta B 3 Martine Borer Resistance 10-12 16 2h months months months B D D E es = A B C B D D E - = 3 #-No marine borer activity; B-Light marine borer activity; C-lModerate marine borer activity; D-Fairly heavy marine borer activity; FE-Very heavy marine borer activity. Te 19 se ae Table 2. Marine-borer Svecies Source Tatajuba (Bagassa guienensis Brazil liora Amarilla (Chlorophora tinctoria Venezuela Tauary (Couratari oblonsifolia) Brazil Tauary Brazil,) (Covuratari British) oulchra) Guiana ) British Guiana 5 Pans Angelicue (Dicorynia paraensis) Surinam Sapupira (Diplotropis Era7il ourpurea) Surinam Morrao (Eschweilera blanchetiana) Erazil Specific Gravity a eS green vol. 0.68 0.71 Resistance Rating/tafter Exposure for 10-12 16 2h mos. mos. mos. A D E A D E B D D B D D A B C A E zs A B B Total Ash percencage of over-dry weight exposure ratings and analyses for miners] content of Tropical American woods. Silica Chemical Spectrographic Analysis Intensitv in Ash percentage of oven- dry weight 0.09 e\ Vy ead 0.2», Strone/3 O.215— a 0.11344 Pe Pp oe O.4 a), Very StrongL3 0.396 — j Ti +} CE Da Mey Fe.) OO CD a : : : 4 ee ea ba ‘ f 8 nye A ha! [ UY 7 7 .) i 4 he Cae SF ; f ee pad ip iy ; ; te ft. r . . r o i 5 hae a pa ‘ " ¥ ’ ¢ * Riviayes j 4 Fi i. J : i H ; . 4 hy j i j \ j if , 4 a — \ 7 > A, we A a 2 \ il i ~*~, ‘ : { = ox —— = an "7 \ ri i in bib ee ae os) <= Specific Resistance Rating/-"after Species- Source Gravity Exposure for Total Ash Saalbitceern ee eee preen vol. 10-12 16 Bh, Chemical Spectrographi basis mos. mOS. mos. | Analvsis Intensity in Ash percentage of over- ary weight Black Kekeralli ! / (Eschweilera British 0.6377 6) 1), Bicone? Sagotiana Guiana 0.82 B C-D D 0.49- 0.221: -- Coco de hiono ' (Eschweilera : I, /h tenax) Venezuela -- A-B Cc D 5 AGO Osos! = -~ ' Courbaril i (Hymenaea Panama, ! 0.6062 0.002L2 -— 13 courba?31) Surinan Ona A E == 1 0.854 =— Veak Br. Guie na Courbaril British ‘ (Hymenaea Davisii) Guiana 0.67 D B oe —— = -- Sapuceiz ; (Leevthis usitata) Brazil os A B B a a == Hububelli (Loxopterygium British i Segotti) Guiana 0.56 D E -- a -- -- Bulletwood 5 (Mani lic ra British 0.4802 0.06042 == fe bident: ta) Guiana 0.85 D E -- ; 0.5422 -- Weak— Balsa (Ochroma lagopus) Ecuador 0.12 D E See ee ee == -- T = 21 Tay ; 4 3 ‘ 7 a to 7 5 Bi e : " (etese my ¢ , 4 ~~ r a # 4 i Ss , , r ; t Ry te ‘ , z mAs } = t “ot ‘ if : ! , “4 a ir { & } i f P) re Sarre \ te = me Species Greenheart (Ocotea Rodiaei Determa, (OQcotea rubra) Timborana (Pintadenia suaveolens) c Faveiro (Pithecolobiur elegans) Uchi (Sacoglottis uchi} lahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) Cumaru Preto (Taralea sp.) Teak (Tectona grandis) SS Nargusta (Terminalia \ Source British Giziana Surinam Prazil Brazil Brazil Central America Brazil British Buiana Specific Gravit green vol. basis 0. 64 Resistance Rating after exposure for 10-12 16 2h, mos. mos. mos. ! B(6 mo.) -- = A B C A D D ; B E = A D E ; t A E = i B C D ; { B D D ' D E -- 1 Totel Ash percentage of oven-dry weight Silica Chemical Spectrographic Analysis Intensity _in Ash percentage = of oven-dry wei ght : = Siren [2 0.000— we -- Weak N N ! = ae a /3 8 0.0187), Weak to noaih 0.049 = 0.614, Very sree 0.892 == Gon es eat 2 won yds Pe OE, a 2-h, Specific Resistance Rating/t after Species source Gravity Exposure for Total Ash Silica green vol. HO=2 IG 2h, ; percentage Chemical Spectrograph basis mos. mos. mos. . Of oven-dry Analysis Intensity in Ash _ weight percentage A of oven- : dry weight =e aa H Fiddlewood British [2 ee (Vitex Gaumeri) Honduras 0.56 A C D 0.827 0.025— -- ? Acapu : (Vouacapoua , hh, Thy americana) Surinem 0.78 A A B Ook 0.002" -- ‘ So. Yellow Pine United (Pinus sp.) States On5 E -- — ; -- -- -- ae WN Douglas Fir ; t (Pseudotsuga United ' a taxifolia) States 0.45 E -- -- -- aan a | Lhite Oak United (Quercus albe) States 0.60 & = = -- -- -- Reduood (Sequoia United sempervirens) States 0.38 C -- -- -- -~ == Bald Cypress ' (Taxodium United distichum) States G.42 C -- -- ~~ -- a= Freijo ; (Cordia Goeldiane) Brazil -- -- -- -- -- oo -- Manbarklak ischweilera sub- eee / glandulosa) Surinam == a= os == ' 1.2244 @, bell se isin ated Ae a Pat ia te (pe * ; ; at } : a i 0 a ” s fi oe | | a, . A Wie su a) / Specific Resistance Rating after Species Source Gravity Exposure for Total Ash Silica ee green vol. 10-12 16 2h percentage Chemical Spectrogrephic basis mes. mos. mos. of oven-dry Analysis Intensity in Ash wei ght viata-mata (Eschweilera odora) Brazil -- a -- == risk! 0.619LH -- Kopie 0. A 0. os7ht ie (Goupie slabra) Surinam -- -- -- -- O.L22+ 0.03 £4 RS Jarana (Holenixidium Hi, jarana) Brazil -- -- -- -- 0. 75th ORO Sifax a Angelim dos Anarelos (Hyirenolobium by) /2 excel sum) Brazil 0.62 -- -- -- 0.37" 0.002- =e Sapuceia (Lecythis Lh, ji. peraensis) Brazil -- -- == a 0.41% 0.048 oe Marishiballi British ih ; ils (Licania buxifolia) Guiana == -- -- -- 0.63~" 364 32- oe tas /) Anaura _ 5 Beezalil, 1.7), 1G aS (Licania macrorhylla) Surinan a en — “= De Olle 1.54 a KaneeLhart Brouesiclh 0.08? 0.0042 = (Licaria cayen- Guiana 1,08) oe —_ ae 9.0343 -- het nensis) Ma nu Costa Lh (Winovartia guianensis) Rica =e 33 0.9324 0.03); -- Des eel a a oars 2-6 ee Specific Resistance Rating after Species Source Gravity Exposure for Total Ash Silica 10-12 16 2h p2rcentage Chemical Spectrographic mos. mos. mos. of oven-dry Analysis Intensity in Ash weight Ucuuba-rana (Osteophloeum platyssermum) Brazil -- — = == — — -- Witte Foengoe /t, Vie (Parinari campestris) Surinam — == oo = Loko 0.9027 -- ailomoradon British as i. (Parineri excelsa) Guiana == -- —— = 1.05 0.576 -- Parinari /t, Dh Parinari Rodolphi) Brazil -- -- = == Lge 0. &0Le -- Pau d'arco (Tabebuia Brazil, serratifolia) Surinem -_— = oo =o -~ ~— -- ——— a Zl A--No marine borer activity; B--Licht marine borer activity; C--Moderate marine borer activity; D--Feirly feavy marine borer activity; E--Very heavy marine borer activity. ieee Datong, He) Ansa analysis of some troxical woods. Unpublished thesis submitted for the M. F. cegree. Yale School of Forestry, Nev Haven. 1948. £3 vise, Louis E, Composition of tropical woods. Second technical report to Office of Naval Resec rch, Institute of Paper Chemistry, Appleton, Wis. 1951. Lh Total ash determins tions by George T. Tsoumis of Yale School of Forestry and analysis for silica by Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Nev Haven, Conn. p25 x ‘ rs ie t { . =] | ‘ — py “ — g me , = Pe;