er BIS a Pa aR ag AB ae a oe Se tant Sete ENN De Seared a ae ae ars . Segre are t a ‘i Rates 3. fee Feet sa Siegen Benin eee Ante Wath fe i i Pao Ox : < vii ono Cae ar Fae Ei elt Pee nal etal eae pede sc a eS ~ Pe Pa oe * Prot rs “ss Wis € 4 al alterna gee i te i ; yan iG itl) eal Be i fit ? iy es ee = A) Pe are Hit ba ood a pan WY ih i titel Pan ts) i te Hee 1! o it! te BOR Ee ihe ae ae ed i i tls h nia + i C . “ ‘ . a ¢ ' \ + é WV 7 U7 ‘ j ey fp ‘ 1 ay a : y ), if \ i ‘ ’ ott i ' , ye f 7 . hie ple \ f, y ‘Mi . y t ‘ { ‘ ‘ ‘ Ky 4 ' t i i / vie Pe a j ' i 4 | . 7 ; \ af OF THE TWELETH MEETING OF THE AUSTRALASTIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, HELD AT BRIS AN 1900. Sole Editor: JO ENS Seb Man os Bae C,, SENIOR INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS, QUEENSLAND. PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION. BRISBANE: BY AUTHORITY: ANTHONY JAMES CUMMING, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, WILLIAM STREET, 1910. Lice “ate 5, pit Mex Cake ‘ue es ie » ¥ nye Oh c >: pe ‘ ‘ i ¥ om Fi ioe at i aces Fs eet Pa TABLE, (Oh. CONTENTS. \4 Yndex of Addresses, Reports, and Papers Officers for the Second Brisbane Meeting Publication and Recommendation Committees Reception Committee for Brisbane Members of Council Nominated by Societies: Officers of Sections Objects and Rules of thes Aetosingionn: Balance Sheets, Brisbane Session, 1909. General Balance Sheet, Sydney Office Meetings of the General Council Meetings of the Recommendation Gomminee PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. Inaugural Address by the President, Professor W. H. Brace, M.A., F. R.S., “The Lessons of Radio-activity ” vy, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESSES IN THE SECTIONS. Section A.—Address by Proressor J. A. Pottock, D.Sc., on ‘‘The Tons of the Atmosphere” sf et : uae pepe Fa —Address by Prorrssor EASTERFIELD, M.A., Ph.D., F.C.S., “The Position of Chemical Research in Australasia” i wae Section C.—Address by Prorgssor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., oes F.G.S., on ‘‘ The Voleanic Rocks of Victoria” ; a6 ae aa Section D.—Address by Cuas. Heptry, F.L.S., Assistant Curator, Aus- tralian Museum, Sydney, on ‘‘The Marine Fauna of Queensland ae Section E.—Address ues AS HES: Lucas; MeA., BR: pe on ‘The Future of the Pacific” ‘ Section F.—Address by Aucustus G. Hamittron, Director, Dominion Museum, Wellington (not received at date of going to press) Section G (i.)—Address by G. H. EATERS, SiS.) Bt. AL Se one se he Problems of Statistics” e a: a Section G (1i.)—Address by H. W. Ports, F.C.S., F.L.S., on ‘‘ The Agrarian Industries: Their Development and Present Condition, with peo Reference to the Outlook for the Commonwealth of Australia”. : Section H.—Address by Prorgessor R. W. CHapMan, M.A., B.C.E., on “The Structure of Metals and Their Behaviour under Stress” wee Section I.—Address by J. Mason, M.D., on ‘*The Municipal Control of the Milk Supply” ia ae set See : , Section J.—Address by Prrer Boarp, M.A., Under Secretary, Depart- ment of Public Instruction, New South Wales, on ** Recent Dey gleD: ments in Education” a oe if ms vids ts REPORTS OF THE RESEARCH COMMITTEES. Report of the Committee on Seismology A Report of the Committee on Terrestrial Magnetism ae Report of the Committee on Structural Features and Glaciation ie “8513 613 703 41 50 237 hae EL AT on v r] y Sai bse Rea ay Dele & Med sah Sein AT) Te hal enone Ginny " 4 atte: ye Khe «* Sn “abs /gn ald lek 2 Ars eves tae wean oe va) dui dS Pate aly ; hin ; Wii aint herr ay CFM oe a Me Be | ) eit Sy iam ig a LS ibfekat stom Shel rAd en im ay Pa Pe, HN ds, Ve Peal. Yi te ONT A, Pat Wiel is ; dae “a 3 ; GE he Abe RAND e PROCEEDINGS OF SECTIONS (An asterisk (*) signifies that the title only is printed.) Section A.—ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, AND PHYSICS. . On the Quaternion Expression for the Co-ordinates of a Screw Reciprocal to five given Screws. By Sir Roberf Ball . Variable Stars of Long Period. By Professor E. C. Pickering 3 . Note on a Geometrical Illustration of the Convergence of the Geometrical Series. By Professor H. S. Carslaw . On Certain Surface and Volume Integrals of an Ellipsoid. Part Il. By Evelyn G. Hogg . On the Symmedian Point of a “Triangle, By Evelyn Hoge . Theory of the Alternate Current Generator. By Thos. R. Lyle . Experiments on the Behaviour of Iron under Periodic Magnetizing Forces. By Professor T. R. Lyle . Photographs of Arc Spectra of Metals under High Pacoret By W. Geoffrey Duffield . International Solar Research. iss Ww. Geotrey,. Duffield . Polar Lines in Arc Spectra. By W. Geoffrey Duffield . Elastic Solid Ether, with Two Moduli, Satisfying MacCullagh’s Crystalline Optical Conditions.* By Professor A. Macaulay . On the Radium Content of Certain Igneous Rocks from the Sub- Antarctic Islands of New Zealand.* By C. Mplondee Farr and 7 ©. cE. Hlorance) .-- Pe Resent Experiments on the. Viscosity ‘OE Water.* By Richard Hosking . The Spectrum of Silver Giger by a “Carbon. Tube Furnace,* Be Ww. G. Duffield . The Laws of Mobility. aad Tisteasiem of ile Tons) found in Ganseae Media. By E. M. Wellisch . The Theory of the Small Ion in Air.* By W. Sutherland. . The Bleeck-Love Electric Battery.* By W. A. Bleeck aa . On Some Observations with Selenium Cells.* By O. U. Vonwiller . The Electrodeless Discharge in Mercury Vapour.* By S. G. Lusby . A Note on the Electron Theory of the Carbon Arc.* By Professor . A. Pollock Xe eps a. k acte Mec oe Me ah ote : The Scattering of Beta Rays.* By J. P. V. Madson, ak . The Scattering of X Rays.* By Professor W. H. Bragg .. site . Short Notes on—I. Taylor’s Theorem, and—II. Envelopes.* By Professor E. J. Nanson . Universal Radio-Activity. New Experiments without Radium.* By J. W. H. Hullett . The Teaching of Mathematics.” By R. H. Bae. . The Proof of Projection of Certain Types of Ceereal ry iecinare By H. Tomkys Secrion B.—CHEMISTRY. . The Alkaloids of the Pukatea. By Bernard C. Aston . Notes on Dipping Fluids. By J. C. Briinnich ... ay hes . Euphorbia Pilulifera. By John Lunn... : Rel . Local Manufacture of Carbide of Calcium and. Caletuns Cyanimide. By E. Kilburn Scott wor VI. . The Occurrence of Starch in the Bangalow Palm. By W. E. Doherty . Brandy. By w. H. Pamlete . Note on the Reaction between Phosphorus Trichloride and Anhy- drous Oxalic Acid. By H. T. Revell . Note on the Physical Chemistry of Phosphorous INGEN Bul Ake H. Easterfield and H. T. Revell . The Occurrence of Podocarpic Acid in New Tenend Red and: White Pine. By Miss A. I. Slowey . Matai-Resinol. By T. H. Easterfield and Jones ecu . New Types of Ebbulioscopes. By Professor T. H. Fasterfield é . Oleone, The Ketone from Oleic Acid. By Professor T. H. Easter- field and Miss C. M. Taylor . Iso-Retene. By Professor T. H. @estencald ang. R. E. Rudman Sor . The Phases of Sulphur. By Clara M. Taylor . On the Detection of the Adulteration of Honey with Tayert) Supar* By W. Percy Wilkinson . The Detection of Added Waters: in Milk bel Ge Refractormersic Method.* By W. Percy Wilkinson . Probable Occurrence of Pitch Blende in New South Wales. * (By T. H. Laby . Glucosides and their Pharmaceutical Tmportance.* Bei R. C. Conley . The Influence of Certain aes on the Digestive eee. *. «By |G... dz Mackay . Modern Progress in Relation ‘to Ola Remedioa® By G. Merck . Acetanilide in Hydrogen Peroxide.* By Dr. J. M. Francis ; . The Freezing Point of Milk. Its use in the Detection of Aaaed Water. By J. Brownlie Henderson . Notes on Lecture and Laboratory / Apparatus. By "Professors A Schofield ‘Section C.—GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. . Reports of Research Committees on Structural Features and Glaciation. By Professor P. Marshall . Notes on Rock Phosphate Deposits of South Australian By Jele We ab: Brown . A Geologist’s Slide Rule. Be, W. G. WWeolaeaee The Alkaline Rocks of Southern Queensland. By le 1b aencen . Metamorphic Rocks of South-eastern Queensland. By H. I. Jensen The Study of Igneous Rocks. By J. P. Iddings ...... . The Klondike Gold District. By Robert Bell... Se es . Progress of Mining and Geology in Australasia. By W. Fryar . Tantalum and Niobium in Western Australia. By E. S. ed . Physiography of North Queensland. By W. Poole . Victorian Graptolites. By T. S. Hall . Petroleum.* By David Day ne aS as 350 Bei 6 . Gold Mining in West Australia.* By C. O. G. Larcombe ... . The Meteor Crater of Arizona. By G. P. ty . The Black Diamond Region of Brazil. By J. C. Branner Section D.—BIOLOGY. Torres Strait (abstract of lecture by C. Hedley) . Records of Queensland Botanists. By J. H. Maiden ... - Notes on the Ceratodus. By D. O’Connor Page. 142 145 151 153 373 583 “I Ankh W ayAanoahk ANH aAnfk WA NH Vil. . List of Birds occurring within a 12-mile radius of Brisbane.* By W. E. Weatherill . List of Frogs of the Brichane, District: is “By J. Lamb . Fishes of the Brisbane Watershed.* By J. D. Ogilby a oe . Principles of Scientific Classification in Natural History.* By Rev. T. Blackburn . Coleoptera of Fig-tree Pocket. * By R. E. Swan Section E.—GEOGRAPHY. . Distribution of Minerals of the Pacific Littoral. By R. Logan Jack ; South Australian Earthquakes. By D. F. Dodwell ... ale a . The Land of the Gods.—Its elton and eee By E. E. Edwards . Wallaces’s Line.* By Professor 8. B. J. Skertchly Z . On the Segamieh River.* By Professor 8. B. J. Skertebly .. . Island of Formosa.* By H. H. Vostien ... ; Ge . Frozen Mammoths of Siberia.* By A. Exley i: . Ocean Contours and Earth Movements in South- He Pantie: By Professor P. Marshall Section F.—ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. . Savage Life in New Britain. By Rey. B. Danks . Maori Religion.—The Religious Ideas, Rites, and Inv Beaton of the Maori People. By Elsdon Best . . Early Arabia and Oceania. By Rew De Mepenald tas . Manners and Customs of Dobuans of S.E. eae By Rev. We EK. Bromilow . Language and Sociology of the Kumbainggeri iribe. By R. lel Mathews . Rock Pictures and @aramonial Stones of the Maetralvan Aporieitce! By R. H. Mathews . Remains of the Stone Age in Whe sa, By C: aleys . Dolman Builders in North China.* By Prof. Skertchly . Jungle Life in North Borneo.* By Prof. Skertchly ... . Reasoning Faculties of Savages.* By Prof. Skertchly et . The Philology of Metals and Gem Stones.* By Prof. Skertchly Section G1r.—SOCIAL AND STATISTICAL SCIENCE. . The Limit of State Action. By Max Hirsch ak . Comparative Legislation relating to the Industrial Glneces oR J. B. Trivett . Inquiry into Pulmonary Aaberculects in esineinee” Bee 1 L. Cumpston . (Withdrawn.) . The Proxy Vote. By Prof. E. J. Nanson . Progress of Arbitration for the Pyaeention and Settlement 6 inter: national Disputes.* By H. Tardent Secrion Giu.—AGRICULTURE. . Milk Standards. By M. A. O’Callaghan . Tumours in Domesticated Animals. By J. Desmond’ Smut Experiments in Victoria. By D. McAlpine ODIRHAL — Aan ow onntan aa 10. He 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. life 18. 19. 20. VITl. . Some Neglected Points in Stock Feeding. By H. Ingle . Some Modern Viticultural Methods. By G. H. Adcock The American System of Transporting Wheat.* By S. Hodder . Australian Dry Karming.* By R. W. Peacock te . Scientific Breeding and Heredity.* By D. F. Teenie) Section H.—ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE. . Trussed Beams and similarly erect Braced Structures. By G. Higgins . Reinforced Concrate =the Strength of Bega: By W. J. Doak Water and the Engineer. By G. Phillips . Notes on Testing Wire Ropes. By R. Hunter = . Notes on Safe Railway Working. By T. W. Fowler = . The Possibility of Developing an Australian oe of Wrcwitecture: By G. H. M. Addison Section I.—SANITARY SCIENCE AND HYGIENE. . Typhoid Fever Mortality Statistics for Australasia. By H. ee . Collection and Treatment of Sewage. By C. E. Bernays . Prevention of Infantile Mortality. By B. Burnett Ham Section J—MENTAL SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. . Training of Teachers. By A. Mackie . Education in Queensland. By J. D. Story sls a sa . Evolution of Queensland Peery School iaadhes, By din edt Dempsey . The Educational alee of Wigan Callectenes By ‘Robert Hall, C.M.Z.S., F.L.S. . The Psycholopic Basis of Ethical Tie By Sites! Lilie A. Wright . Incidental Education. By D. R. McConnel, M.A. se : sat . The Scientific Study of the Child. By A. W. Rudd, M.A. ... . A Plea for the Australian Chiid Body. By Dr. J. D. C. Bllempten) . The Relation of a University to Primary and Secondary School Teachers. By R. H. Roe, M.A. Public Interest in Education. By J. Dennis, M. A. Notes on the Federal Conference on Education, 1907. By Estelle Cribb, M.A. Aspects of Technical Ranetion Sao a Queensland Point = View! By E. C. Barton, M.L.A. we The Place of Religion in the System be ‘State Sraucationt in New South Wales. By Alexander Lobban, Senior Inspector of § paahae New South Wales oo Secondary Teaching and the State.* os; Pp. Ey Bowland: M. me Aims and Difficulties of the Education of Girls.* By Helen White, M.A. Scientific Teaching of Temperance i in Buble Schools.* By Rey. 7 Williams a es The Lack of the Creative Spirit. a By F. ‘Bennett Some Defects in Queensland’s System of Education. By W. 'M. G. Tolmie Co-ordination of Science in Sehaale By R. H. Uericee e, B.A. The Purpose of Education. By Rev. D. J. Garland Page. 598° 606 612 612 612° OFFICERS FOR THE BRISBANE SESSION. JANUARY, 1909. 10) Patron : His Exckttency LorpD CHELMSFORD. President : Proressor W. H. Braae, M.A., F.R.S. Vice- Presidents : Srr Porr Cooper, K.C.M.G.; Str ArtHuR Moraan, K.C.M.G.; Hon. J. T. Bett, M.L.A.; J. W. Buarz, M.L.A.; G. H. Knrpss, F.S.S., F.R.A.S. General Seeretarn : JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sce., New Farm, Brisbane, Permanent Honorary Secretary: Proressor A. Liversipcr, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Honorary Treasurer: Hon. A. Norton, M.L.C. Bon. General Creasurer : Davip CarRMENT, F.I.A., F.A.A., Sydney. Local Secretaries : New Sovurh Wates.—J. H. Marpen, F.L.S., Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Victor1a.—T. S. Hatt, M.A., D.Sc. University of Melbourne. New ZEALAND.—G. M. Tuomson, F.L.S., F.C.S., Newington, Dunedin. SourH AvusTRALIA.—W. Howcutn, F.G.S., and J. P. V. Mapsen, B.E., B.Sc., University of Adelaide. West Avstratia.—E. A. Mann, F.I.C., F.C.S,, Government Analyst, Perth (Acting). TasMANIA.—Dr. ELKInGron, Health Officer, Hobart. xX. Publication Committee: How. A. Norton, M.L.C. JoHN THomson, M.B. A. J. Turner, M.D. W. Cameron, B.A. J. C. Brunnicu, F.I.C., F.C.S.. JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc. Recommendation Committee : FProressor W. H. Brace, M.A., F.R.S. Proressor E. W. Sxkeats, D.Sc., F.G.S. Proressor R. W. CHapman, M.A., B.C.E. PrRoressor EASTERFIELD, M.A., Ph.D. ProFessor J. A. Potiock, D.Sc. Hon. A. Norton, M.L.C. A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc. JoHN TuHomson, M.B. PrrerR Boarn, M.A. J. H. Marpen, F.L.S. W. H. Hamcet, F.1.C. JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc. Reception Committec: His Excetntency Lorp CHELMSFORD. Str Pork Cooper. Srr ARTHUR Mor@an, J. W. Buatr, M.L.A. Hon. A. Norton. Dr. A. Sutton. J. R. McConnet, B.A. R. H. Ror, M.A. W. B. Siape. L. Corrrg. THE Mayor or BRISBANE. THE Mayor or SovutH BRISBANE. Dr. E. HirscHrELD JAMES ALLEN. K. ff. Swanwick, B.A., LL.B. JOHN SHIRLEY, B.Sc. Dr. JOHN THOMSON. Members of Council Rominated by Societies : Cuas. Hepiey, F.L.S.; A. H. 8. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc. (Linnean Society, New South Wales). Proressor J. A. SCHOFIELD, A.R.S.M., F.I.C.; W. S. Dun (Royal Society, New South Wales). WiLiIAM BeEnson, B.Sc. (Royal Society, South Australia). W. H. Hamer, F.I.C.; E. J. Gopparp, B.A., B.Sc. (Sydney University Science Society). ‘CHARLES Datry (Geelong Field Naturalists’ Society). 7 OFFICERS OF SECTIONSbu Liaras (e) i t Ja Te A.—Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics. Or he ft «2 * President —Proressor J. A, Pottock, D.Sc., Sydney University. in Ec rt Vice-President—R. H. Ror, M.A. Secretary—K, ff. Swanwick, B.A., LL.B., Celtic Chambers, George street, Brisbane: B.— Chemistry. President—PRoressoR EAstTerFIELD, M.A., Ph.D., F.C.S., University College, Wellington. Vice-Presidents—J. B. Henprerson,. F.1.C., F.C.S., Government Analyst, Queens- land; A. B. Cuarer, President, Pharmaceutical Society. Secretaries—J. C. Brunnicu, F.I1.C., F.C.S., Department of Agriculture, Queens- land; Gro. WATKINS, Queen street, Brisbane. Cc. President—Proressor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., F.G.S., Melbourne University. Vice-Presidents—BENJAMIN DuNsTAN, Government Geologist ; R. A. WEARNE, B.A., Director, Technical College, Ipswich. Secretaries—LIONEL C. Batt, B.E., Asst. Govt. Geologist, Brisbane; WALTER E. CaMERON, B.A., Asst. Govt. Geologist, Brisbane. Geology and Mineralogy. D. President—Cuas. Heptey, F.L.S., Assistant Curator, Australian Museum, Sydney. Vice-Presidents—A. J. Turner, M.D.; W. J. Byram, President, Technical College ; C. W. Howianp, Hon. Secretary, Field Naturalists’ Club. Secretary—ROwLanpv Ixitnex, Union Insurance Co., Eagle street, Brisbane. Biology. E.—Geography. President—A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc., Sydney. Vice-Presidents—GkO. PHILLIps, Railway Engineer; JOHN MacpoNAtp, President, National Association of Queensland; A. A. Spowsrs, Surveyor-General, Queensland ; C. B. Lerxem, Institute of Surveyors. Secretary—ARTHUR EXLey, State School, Ithaca Creek, Brisbane. F. President—Avcustus G. Haminron, Director, Dominion Museum, Wellington, New Zealand. Vice-President—-Proressor S. B. J. SkKERTCHLY, Corinda. Secretary—J AS. JOHNSTON, State School, Kangaroo Point. Ethnology and Anthropology. G (i-)—Social and Statistical Science. President—G. H. Kyipps, F.S.8., F.R.A.S., Commonwealth Statistician, Melbourne. Vice-Presidents —THORNHILL WEEDON, F.S.8., Registrar-General, Queensland ; ALDERMAN J. CRASE. Secretary—J. F. Battery, Director, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. “ey 2.4 Bf G (ii.) President—H. W. Ports, F.C.S., F.L.8., Principal, Hawkesbury College, New South Wales. Vice-Presidents—ERNEST G. E. Scriven, Under Secretary, Department of Agricul- ture, Brisbane; LrEsirz G. Corriz, F.L.S., F.Q.LA.; F. W. Wooprorre, Secretary, Horticultural Society. Secretary—J. F. Battny, Director, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. Agriculture. H,— Engineering and Architecture. President—PROFESSOR R. W. CuHapman, M.A., B.C.E., Adelaide University. Vice-Presidents—N. G. Brett, M.Inst.C.E., Deputy Ch. Engineer of Railways, Queensland; G. H. M. Appison, Architect; W. Poorr, B.E., F.G.S., A.M. Inst.C.E., Director, Charters Towers School of Mines. Secretary—NorMan M. Bernt, Assoc, M.Inst.C.E., Queen street. I.— Sanitary Science and Hygiene. President—J. Mason, M.D., Health Officer, New Zealand. Vice-President—JoHN THomson, M.B., Wickham Terrace. Secretary—ALFRED Sutton, M.R.C.S. Eng., North Quay, Brisbane. J.—Mental Science and Education. President—PEvER Boarp, M.A., Under Secretary, Department of Public Instruction New South Wales. Vice-Presidents—Dr. Donaupson, Archbishop of Brisbane; J. S. BapcEer, Genera] Manager, Brisbane Tramways ; JOHN Morris, President, Queensland Teachers’ Union. Secretaries—D. R. McConnet, M.A., Technical College, Brisbane; J. J. DEMPSEY, State School, Junction Park, Brisbane. REPORT OF MEETING OF THE COUNCIL OF THE AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE- MENT OF SCIENCE. Hewp ty THE Boys’ GramMMAR ScHooL, BrisBANE, ON Monpay, THE 117TH JanuARY, 1909, ar 11 a.m. Professor W. H. Brace, M.A., F.R.S. presided, and the following gentlemen were in attendance :— G. H. Knibbs, F.S.S., F.R.A.S. (V.P.); John Shirley, B.Sc., General Secretary; Hon. A. Norton, M.L.C., Hon. Trea- surer; D. Carment, F.I.A., F.A.A. Hon. General Trea- surer; J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; Professor J. A. Pollock, D.Sc.; R. H. Roe, M.A.; K. ff. Swanwick, B.A., LL.B, ; Professor T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.C.S.; A. B. Chater; J. C. Brimnich, F.LC., F.C.S.; Geo. Watkins; Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., F.G.8.; R. A. Wearne, B.A.; W. E. Cameron, B.A.; Chas. Hedley, F.L.S.; R. Whdge's Ay Hf. “Ss. lucas,» MGA’. B: Se; ¢ A. Exley 5) Pro- fessor 8. B. J. Skertchly; Jas. Johnston; Thornhill Weedony V.S:8.5) J H. Batley; HH. “Wi Potts. CS, F.L.S.; E. G. E. Scriven; F. W. Woodrofte; W. Poole, B.E., F.G.S., A.M. Inst. C.E.; John Thomson, M.B.: A. Sutton, M.R.C.S., Eng. ; Peter Board, M.A.; J. 8. Badger ; John Morris; Professor J. A. Schofield, A.R.S.M., F-.I.C. ; W. M®-Hamilet; “F.1.C); J+-B.. Henderson; F.1.C., F:C:S:; Dr Walter Spencer; W. T. Gray; John George, B.A.; C. H. W. Thom; Geo. Sweet, F.G.S.; W. S. Dun (Sydney) ; Wm. Benson, B.Sc. (Royal Society, South Australia); E. J. Goddard, B.A., B.Sc. (Sydney University Science, Society); Chas. Daley (Geelong); R. L. Jack, LL.D.; Eugen Hirschfeld, M.D.; Dr. Storie Dixson; W. J. Beving- ton; R. Gailey. 1. Confirmation of 1907 Minutes.— The Presipent: The first business, gentlemen, is the confirmation of the minutes of meeting held in Adelaide in 1907, and as these have been published in the Proceedings I think we will take them as read.— Agreed to. 2. Confirmation of the Election of Sectional Officers.— Proposed by Professor Pontnock and seconded by Mr. G. H. Knipps—That the election of sectional officers, as per printed list, be confirmed.—Carried. (See list on p. XI.) 3. Resignation of Professor A. Liversidge, Permanent Hon. Secre- tary.— The Present read a letter from Professor Liversidge, conveying his resignation as Permanent Hon. Secretary. XIV. Mr. Hepiey moved that the letter be handed in, that the resigna- tion be accepted with regret, and that the Council express its grateful appreciation and thanks for the services rendered by Professor Liver- sidge in the foundation and organisation of the Association. Mr. Lucas: I should like to support the motion, and also that a copy of the resolution be forwarded to Professor Liversidge in England.—Carried. 4. Election of Permanent Honorary Secretary.— Mr. Surrey: I have pleasure in moving that Mr. J. H. Maiden be elected Permanent Honorary Secretary in place of Professor Liver- sidge, whom we have lost. I have known Mr. Maiden for a good many years, and have been in communication with him, and I feel sure that we could not elect a man more fitted for the post than the one I have proposed. Mr. Kyisss: I have much pleasure in+seconding the motion. It must be obvious that some person must have continuous charge of the affairs of our Association to hold the position and perform the duties so ably discharged by Professor Liversidge. Might I suggest in regard to the title that it would be a little clearer if instead vf Permanent Hon. Secretary the term ‘“ General” were used instead of “ Honorary.” The duties are all common to a general secretary, who has a clear oversight of the affairs of the Association, and will main- tain unimpaired all its traditions, and be in charge of what property it possesses, and its documents. It would be an advantage to change the title, which would make the distinction clear between the local secretaries, who are called Honorary Secretaries for the States, and the General Secretary, who must be a continuous officer of the Associa- tion. Professor Pottock: I would like to support the motion proposed by Mr. Shirley. Those of us knowing Mr. Maiden know his genius for organising, and there is the further recommendation that he was specially picked by Professor Liversidge as the one man admir- ably fitted to be his successor, and if he were here he would have had pleasure to propose him. I am strongly of opinion that the title should be “ Permanent General Secretary.” Mr. Suirtry: I would like the motion to be carried by itself, and the title dealt with by a further motion. I think it is better to unravel the title afterwards. The Presipent: The motion is that Mr. Maiden be elected as Per- manent Honorary Secretary. Is there any amendment? Motion put.—Carried nem. con. Mr. Maipen: I am very highly honoured by your electing me to this honourable office, and all I can say is, that I will endeavour to do my utmost to carry on the work the founder, Professor Liversidge, carried on so many years. I was one of the men whom Professor Liversidge consulted in regard to the foundation of the Association, when the idea crystallised in his mind, some time in the year 1886. I attended the first meeting of the Association in 1887, and on that occasion, and on subsequent occasions, I held the office of Hon. Secretary of the Royal Society in Sydney, and of a section, and also XV. of President of two sections. I further claim to have some estimate of the working of the Association, and my experience as Hon. Secre- tary of the Royal Society for eighteen years may be some guarantee to you who do not know me that I am not at all likely to run counter to the traditions of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. A Voice: How about changing the title?! The Presipent: According to our rules, the office is Permanent Honorary Secretary. Furthermore, we have no power to alter it. Mr. Maiden is, therefore, elected Permanent Honorary Secretary of the Association. Mr. Kyipps: The office was named General Secretary in order to submit another motion. The Presipent: Then such a title was not in order. Mr. Kyisss: In Professor Liversidge’s letter to you he mentioned that, strictly speaking, the rules do not provide for bringing in a general secretary, and he left a memo. in his papers desiring that the title be formally corrected to designate the office he held, and you will see by the resolution just submitted if the title is not “ Per- manent ” as construed in the rules it is not quite correct. What we have carried was that a general secretary shall be appointed, and that he shall be permanent. Mr. Suirtey: The best thing would be to give notice; it cannot be altered without giving notice. The Presipent: That the word “ Permanent ” be placed before the words “General Secretary.” 5. Election of Local Secretary for New Zealand.— Mr. Sarritey: I have received a letter from Mr. Thomson, Local Secretary at Dunedin, who has lately been elected to the New Zealand Parliament, resigning his position as local secretary. He has con- sulted with Dr. Coleridge Farr, who is willing to accept office, and I therefore propose that Dr. Coleridge Farr be elected Local Secretary for New Zealand. Professor EasTerFIELD: I have much pleasure in seconding. Dr. Farr is a very capable man.—Carried. 6. Reports of Research Committees.— Mr. Surrey: I will propose that the reports of Research Com- mittees be received by the Recommendation Committee at their first meeting, and that in the meantime the reports be deferred. Professor Pottock: I second the motion.—Carried. 7. Balance-sheet.— Mr. D. Carment: This is the balance-sheet from July, 1906, to the 36th June, 1908. In the June account there was a debit of £69 2s. 5d., but, owing to subscriptions having come im, there is a con- siderable difference. There is now a credit balance. The Research Committee Fund has a credit of £2,872 odd, of which the greater part is invested on mortgage, and the balance is in current account. The Mueller Memorial Fund is a separate account. This has a credit b DY balance of £492 odd, part invested on mortgage and part in current account. There was a balance of £191 4s. 3d. in the bank in June last. All the Research Funds are invested at 4 per cent. interest. The balance-sheet will be printed in due course and audited. It is open for inspection. _Mr. Kyisps: I move that the Treasurer's report be adopted, subject to audit. Seconded by Mr. Hamier.—Carried. 8. Appointment of Officers for the Sydney Meeting.— Mr. Maren: The Council have decided to nominate as President- elect of the Sydney meeting Professor Orme Masson, Professor of Chemistry in the Melbourne, University. I scarcely think it necessary to point out in a committee of scientific men the eminent and pecu- liar qualifications of Professor Orme Masson for an office like this. Therefore, without further ado, I nominate that gentleman as Presi- dent-elect of the Sydney meeting. Perhaps I may be allowed to remind you that Sydney has been fixed by resolution, in accordance with our rules, as the next meeting place. Professor Pottock: I beg to second it. Mr. Suirtey: I have much pleasure in supporting the motion. Professor Orme Masson was met at Adelaide by a number of Queens- land members, and we are strongly in favour of his nomination. I am sure his election as President will be very popular among Queens- landers. —Carried. Mr. Marmpen: The order of the meetings has been—Sydney, Mel- bourne, Christchurch, Hobart, Adelaide, Brisbane, and Sydney, then followed as before by Melbourne, Hobart, Dunedin, Adelaide, Brisbane, and now we come back to Sydney again. 9. Deciding the place for the meeting next following.— The Presment: We would like a Melbourne visitor to propose this. Professor Sknats: While I have no special permission to make a proposition, I am perfectly certain that the proper organisation in Melbourne will be extremely happy to extend an invitation to the officers of the Association to meet there, following the one in Sydney— that is, the one to be held in 1913. If it is acceptable, I move it be held in Melbourne. A Voice: Why is Perth left out? Mr. Surrtey: Simply because of the difficulties of communication. Mr. Maren: I received an unofficial letter from the acting local secretary in Perth. If his committee sent an official invitation it could be voted upon. So far as I am aware, no official invitation has been received. Mr. Surrnry: A proposal to hold the meeting in Western Australia was declined on one occasion. I think this was on account of the small number who would undertake the trip. Mr. Sweet: I have much pleasure in seconding that the next meeting after the Sydney meeting be held in Melbourne, in harmony with the previous and continuous routine.—Carried. XVII. ~ 10. Appointment of Recommendation Committee.— Mr. Hamwuer: I have much pleasure in proposing the following mames as members of the Recommendation Committee :—Professor W. H. Bragg, Professor Skeats, Professor Chapman, A. H. 8. Lucas, Hon. A. Norton, Dr. J. Thomson, Professor Easterfield, P. Board, Professor Pollock, J ohn Shirley, J. H. Maiden, and the mover. Seconded by Mr. Scriven.—Carried. 11. Appointment of Publication Committee.—— Professor Skears: I propose the following gentlemen :—Hon. A. Norton, Dr. J. Thomson, Dr. A. J. Turner, W. Cameron, J. C. Brin- nich, and J. Shirley. Seconded by Mr. Duy.—Carried. 12. Motions.— I. “ That a separate section be formed for Botany.” (Proposed -by Mr. J. H. Maiden, at Adelaide.) Mr. Maipen: I may say that I addressed the General Council at Adelaide on the matter, and it was remitted to the section who voted upon it, and they approved by a majority that it be remitted to Brisbane. I made a recommendation as follows:—As a rule, in the Biology section a man is either a zoologist or a botanist, and he listens (the zoologist for example) with oreat politeness to a paper on a subject he “has very little personal interest in. I think the botanists are in the reverse direction equally polite. I submit with all diffidence, as there is an objection to multiply the sections, that some arrangement could be made to separate the two subjects. Repre- sentatives of the two sciences could meet in different rooms, and if the thing did not work well they could be consulted after a year or two, and they could meet in regard to matters of mutual concern— that is to say, in regard to general Biological questions. Mr. Hever: The sections are all round too many. We do not want to have any more Presidential addresses than we have. I would like some loose federation adopted. Alternatively a botanist or a zoo- logist might preside over a particular section, and alternative days could be taken by each subject. By such a means we might get all the advantages without its disadvantages. Mr. Kyiszs: I beg to second the motion pro formd. I think there is very little to be said in favour of keeping the two subjects separate. There are certain sides which are common to both, and of wider benefit if they are included under one great heading. I am not sure of the wisdom of splitting into two. Mr. Batwzy: I think Mr. Maiden’s suggestion is a very good one. Zoology is not of interest to me; but, of course, | could attend the meetings. I think it would be a very good idea to separate the two into two different sections. Mr. Wezepon: I have no knowledge of the subject, but if we divide that, we might have other claims very shortly. It strikes me there is not so much difference between engineering and architecture as between botany and zoology. We want to ouard against the danger of multiplying the sections. XVIII. Mr. Roe: Will you inform us whether the work in this section as at present constituted is overloaded with work? Is it able to deal with the work it has? Has it a surplus of papers with which it cannot deal? Mr. Martpen: I have figured out the relative numbers of papers in the two subjects, and I find out of ninety papers for a period of nine meetings there are seventy on zoology. Therefore, there is a preponderance of zoologists’ papers, but I do not think that the volume of papers is a fair test. I am willing to accept Mr. Hedley’s double motion. I think it would stimulate the interest in both subjects—in fact, I have evidence at the present that both subjects are handicapped. A Voice: I would rather the section settle its own affairs. Mr. Maipen: We are following the wisdom of the British Associa- tion. They had to do it, but at the same time it is perfectly fair to point out that our position compared with the large number of workers. in Britain and Northern Europe is not quite analogous. Hon. A. Norron: I have a great deal of sympathy with Mr.. Maiden, and I heard his address on the subject, which received a great: deal of sympathy. At the same time, we are all bound to realise the difficulties which may be brought about by dividing into two sections. If such a system be adopted as suggested by Mr. Hedley, the two classes: would work as twin brothers, and in that way the work which both. decided to carry out might be just as effective without creating a new section. Mr. Hepiey: I move as an amendment—That in successive years: this section agree to elect as President a zoologist and botanist alter- natively, and that, as far as possible, zoological and botanical papers: be taken on alternative days. Seconded by Mr. Sweet. Amendment put.—Carried by a large majority. II. That the two divisions of Section G be made separate sections. (Proposed by Professor E. H. Rennie, at Adelaide.) Mr. Marien: I wrote to Professor Rennie, reminding him of this. motion, and he replied he could not attend this meeting, but that he had arranged for Professor Chapman to move it in his stead. Pro- fessor Chapman is not here. The Prestpent: Will some member move it! Mr. Knress: It requires no argument to support it. I move it. Mr. Porrs: I heartily agree with the proposal. Agriculture is now assuming such vast importance that it demands a section by itself. Its importance is such that it warrants us carrying this resoluion.— Carried. III. “ That subjects be selected for discussion two years in advance.” (Proposed by Mr. J. H. Maiden, at Adelaide.) Mr. Maen: If I had known that I should have been brought into such prominence: at this meeting, I would have been more sparing in my recommendations. As I explained at Adelaide, I submit that it is undesirable to make this Association too much of XIX. a society at which papers are read after the manner of local scientific societies. Here we have members gathered from all the Australasian States, and the opportunity would be lost if we could not obtain an expression of opinion in regard to matters of particularly Australian merit. In order to illustrate my proposition, I quote one instance— that is to say, the effect of the destruction of forests on the flow of streams in Australia. This is one which might be brought for- ward at next meeting, should the Council see fit to entertain the pro- posal. I think if men from all the States were to come armed with arguments and facts in regard to a subject like that, which is attract- ing very considerable attention at the present time in all Australia, we should obtain information which would be of exceedingly great value to the Forestry Departments and the heads of Government in all the States. I do not think I need say any more. Dr. Jack: I would like information as to the machinery with which it is intended to carry it into execution. Under what circum- stances are discussions to take place? Will they take place at meet- ings specially fixed? Taking this one, what time would be set apart for discussion? To what extent would the general business of the Association be interfered with? . The Presipent: There is nothing in our rules to guide me in making a decision. I presume it is within the power of the Council to decide what should be done. Professor SkeRTcHLy : I second the motion, if only for the sake of eliciting information. It would be worth while to devise machinery to carry it out. Mr. Surrey: J, like the original mover, think we should pro- ceed by the usual method, by means of papers; that the papers be written on the subjects selected; that then these papers be read together, and a discussion follow at the end of the series of papers. If we leave the discussion without defining the number of men taking part in it, we shall waste the time of the Association. I simply make this as a suggestion. Mr. Marpen: I would suggest that the details be left to arrange- ment by the local committee, but I think 1t might be desirable to have an afternoon meeting on subjects of great importance. My own view is that, as a rule, we come to listen to papers that through the machinery of the Association we know nothing about. We have got a number of papers here for reading to-morrow. The authors of these papers have not furnished us with any outlines. It would be incumbent upon us before bringing up any discussion to give some out- lines to the local secretary on which discussion could be obtained. I do not think that a paper quite meets the case, for this reason: Suppose I, for example, take up a subject, I should want to know what other people know about this subject—not what I know. I should want to elicit information in regard to the experience in Western Australia or Tasmania. Mr. Suieney: Could you not get that by a paper? Mr. Maren: Of course, that is simply a matter of opinion, I am afraid I do not think it would be an advantageous way of conducting our business. XX. Professor Easterrietp: The proposition is to some extent carried out by the British Association, although, as Mr. Maiden previously said, the conditions in Great Britain are absolutely different. Still, the fact that the system has worked well in Britain might be some guide to us. I remember ten or fifteen years ago hearing one of the most stimulating discussions I have ever heard carried on there. I consider it was one of the greatest privileges of my life to have been present on such an occasion, and I do hope that the same beneficial result will follow if such a system is adopted here for discussions. The Presipent: Would it not be best to affirm the general prin- ciple now, and consider the details later? A Voice: I would like to make a suggestion before affirming the proposition; is not this a matter for the sections rather than the General Council? ‘ The Presipent: I think not. The motion has been proposed and seconded. I will simply put it—Carried. Mr. Maren: It might be as well to remit it to the Recommenda- tion Committee. You do not want to bind the Local Committee too much. The Presipent: The Recommendation Committee has power to do that. Mr. Matpen: I do not know that I am quite prepared to do that. I purposely left it rather vague, so as to limit the local committees as little as possible. I wanted to establish a certain principle, and different centres might carry the scheme out in difierent ways. The Preswpenr: If there is no further motion we will simply pro- ceed to the next business. 13. Subjects Recommended for Discussion at Sydney Meeting.— Mr. Mamen: I move the following subjects be recommended for discussion at the Sydney meeting :— I. The effect of the destruction of forests on the flow of streams in Australia. II. The principles of scientific description in Natural History. (At Adelaide the Rey. Mr. Blackman moved the latter), _ Mr. Shirley seconded, Professor Skertchly supported. Mr. Lucas: I move as an amendment—* That the matter be post- poned until the precise method in which the general subjects are to be selected and considered be determined.” Seconded by Mr. Kyipss. Mr. Jounston: I move that we omit the following words in pro- position II.—viz., “on the flow of streams,” making it read “The effect of the destruction of forests in Australia.” Seconded by Mr. Swanwick. Mr. Johnston’s amendment put—Voting = 15 for, 13 against. Mr. Lucas’s amendment put—Voting = 22 for, 2 against. Mr. Lucas’s amendment put as substantive motion, and carried. XXI. A Voice: Has not each section the power to forward motions or suggestions to the Recommendation Committee during the course of a week? The Present: Certainly. 14. Motions.— IV. That the question of publishing bibliographies in the various branches of Science be considered. (Proposed by Mr. J. H. Maiden at Adelaide.) Mr. Matpen: I bring forward this subject in a representative character—that is to say, I was approached by several members, prin- cipally geologists, with the desire to spend various funds of the Associa- tion in publishing bibliographies. No doubt the scientific men who are here now can estimate whether a matter of that kind is desirable or not. Personally, I think it is very desirable. They do not propose to include the ordinary run of papers. Mr. Dun: The matter came before the Sydney section, and there was an unanimous feeling that such a course was extremely desirable. Mr. Suiruey seconded.—Carried ; 3 votes against. _V. That it is desirable to publish approved monographs. (Affirmed by the Association at Adelaide.) . Mr. Maipen: That also arises out of the Geology section. I pro- pose that it be reaffirmed. Seconded by Mr. Suiriey.—Carried. 15. Commemoration of the Work of Darwin and Wallace.— The Present: There is one suggestion I would like to make: that in such a very important scientific commemoration of the work of Darwin and Wallace taking place in the old world, this Association should take some steps to share in the recognition of the work of these two great men. Mr. Hepiey: I give notice at the next meeting I will bring for- ward such a resolution. 16. Mueller Medal Committee Report.— Mr. Marpen: On behalf of the Mueller Medal Committee, I have the honour to report that the committee has unanimously decided that the medal for this meeting be awarded to Professor David, in recognition of his work for the advancement of geology. 17. Deaths of Past Presidents and Appointments of Trustees.— Mr. Maren: Unfortunately, death has fallen very heavily upon our Past Presidents. I hope, Sir, that your life may be very long and happy, but within the last few years we have lost Russell, Ellery, Gregory, and, last of all, our friend Dr. Howitt, whom we hoped to have seen in the running for office as our President. These deaths have caused some vacancies in the list of trustees. Reference to trustees is in Rule 13, which provides that all sums received for life subscriptions, &c., shall be vested in the names of three trustees; therefore I move that Mr. Shirley be a trustee in the room of Mr. Ellery. Seconded by Mr. Bartzy.—Carried. XXII. Mr. WeEpon: Owing to the resignation of Professor Liversidge, there is another vacancy. I move that Mr. J. H. Maiden be appointed as a trustee. Seconded by Mr. Baitey.—Carried. Next Meeting of Council.— Professor Potiock: I suggest that the next meeting of the Coun- cil be held not on Monday as provided in the programme, but on Friday. A great many of the members might not be here on Monday. The Presipent: The next meeting will be on Friday at 11 o'clock. [Meeting adjourned at 12.45 p.m.] REPORT OF MEETINGS OF RECOMMENDATION COMMITTEE. Heip 1 THE GirLs’ GRAMMAR ScHooL, BRISBANE, ON THURSDAY AND FrRipay, THE 14TH anp 15TH January, 1909. Professor E..W. Sxeats took the chair, and the following gentle- men were in attendance :—Professor Pollock, Professor Skertchly, Messrs. Knibbs, Lucas, Maiden, and Shirley. The Minutes of Meeting of the Committee, held on the 14th instant, were taken as read, and confirmed. Section D. The sub-committee appointed at the previous meeting to redraft submission from this section, as to periodicals obtained by the Scien- tific Societies and Libraries in the State Capitals, presented the following :— “The Council is aware of arrangements made by the official libraries in some of the State Capitals with the view to the systematising the selection and purchase of scientific serials to be readily available to workers, and recommends that such arrangements be adopted in all the capitals to suit local requirements.” Proposed by Mr. Lucas, and seconded by Mr. Kyrsps, that the same be adopted.—Carried. Srgorion C. Section submitted the following :— “The Association respectfully suggests to the Government of Queensland the very great desirability of imposing on the Geological Survey ‘Department the duty of giving more attention to detailed inquiry in regard to the stratigraphy and general geological structure of the State.” Professor Skeats: The committee of this section and geologists from other States have been aware that the staff of the Queensland Geological Survey Department labours under considerable difficulties by more attention not being paid to the scientific side of its work, so that, together with the examination and recording of the economic mineral resources as now almost exclusively carried out by the survey, more detailed inquiry should be made into the stratigraphy and general geological structure of the State. In New South Wales XXIII. it is the recognised practice in the administration of the Geological Survey Department of the State, that priority be given to work of an economic character—but it is expected that officers undertaking: field work should spare no pains in the elucidation of the detailed geology of the district concerned. In all cases this principle has been followed, and in all examinations of districts substantial additions have been made to the knowledge of the structural geology of the State. At the same time, special attention is given to the nature and occurrence -of the igneous rocks and all questions of stratigraphy. As a particular example of work of this character, combining the economic aspect of ‘geology with the fullest details of scientifically conducted geological survey, the recently issued memoir on the Geology of the Hunter River Coalfield by Professor David may be referred to. This geological survey was the direct cause of the enormous development of coal- mining in the South Maitland Coalfield. As to geological work of purely scientific character, reference may be made to the recently completed geological survey of the Murrumbidgee Water Conserva- tion Area, in which the field work alone occupied over eight months. In Victoria, in recent years especially, the energy of the Geological Survey staff has been mainly concentrated in the mining districts, but geological and economic work have gone on hand in hand. The work of Mr. Dunn on the Bendigo Goldfield may be specially cited as an example of a piece of work in which considerations of structural and stratigraphical geology have been employed to determine the structure of the mining field, the occurrence of the saddle reefs, and the effect which the pitch of the anticlinal axes has on the prospecting operations in the district. This paper clearly demonstrates the great economic value of careful geological work in the development of the Bendigo Goldfield. In New Zealand the Geological Survey is a separate branch of the Mines Department, and the ‘Director is respon- sible to the Minister for Mines alone. The practice of the survey is to make complete examinations of districts selected by the Minister and Director. These districts are usually those in which mineral ‘deposits are known to exist, or are supposed to be present. The actual boundaries of the areas examined coincide with those of survey blocks. Within the blocks selected complete topographical survey is done, and the whole work is performed so as to enable the officers to issue a report as complete from the scientific as from the economic stand- point. The annual appropriation for this branch of the Mines Depart- ment amounts to £12,000. I give these details of the practice of the ‘Geological Survey Departments in the other States in the hope that the Queensland Geological Survey Department’s work will be strengthened in its scientific as well as its economic value. Proposed by Mr. Marpren, and seconded by Professor SKERTCHLY, that the same be adopted.—Carried. Professor Skeats: I wish to bring before this Committee another recommendation from Section C, viz. :— (a) “That a Committee of the Geology and Mineralogy section, consisting of Professor David, Professor Marshall, Dr. Jensen, and myself, be appointed to investigate the alkaline rocks of Australasia.” XXIV. (6) “That a sum of £50 be set aside for further investigation into the nature and origin of the alkaline rocks of Austra- lasia.” There is a question about this grant. Is there any difficulty in a Committee, where a grant is set aside, awarding part of the grant to a member of the Committee?) What is the practice of a research Committee ? Mr. Martpen: They have to submit vouchers for expenses. No: sum of money is to be used for personal expenses on any account, except a special vote is made for that purpose. Professor Skgats: That is very difficult in geological cases where the work is field work, and exceptional circumstances met with. The: point is this: If the Committee is appointed, can it award part, or all, ot the fund to a member of its committee for expenses in connection with investigation? Is there any difficulty in a member of the com- mittee taking any money which is set aside for research purpose? Mr. Marpen: I imagine it is a matter for the committee to make its own arrangements. Proposed by Professor Skertcuiy, and seconded by Mr. Maten,. that the same be adopted.—Carried. Section E. “That the South Australian Government be respectfully urged to establish suitable seismographs at Port Darwin and Alice Springs, in order to complete the system of seismic records. along the axis of disturbance in South Australia.” Mr. Lucas: A few years ago, when Mr. Chamberlain was in charge of the Colonial Office, the British Government approached the South Australian Government, and urged the establishment of a seismograph at Port Darwin. Later on the British Association also sent a recommendation to the South Australian Government to do the same thing. They have established a seismograph at Adelaide, which I think is working. We should follow up the action of the British Government and the British Association. It is a rather important matter. Proposed by Mr. Lucas, and seconded by Mr. Kyipps, that the same be adopted.—Carried. Section A. Solar Research. (a) “That the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science records its unanimous support to the movement for the establishment in Australia of an Observatory devoted to the study of Solar Physics, which has been so strongly advocated by the International Union for Co- operation in Solar Research, by the Royal Society, and by the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and which is essential to the scheme of solar study insti- tuted by the International Union. The practical possi- bilities, combined with the scientific value of solar re- search, make the project a matter of national as well as international importance.” XXY. Proposed by Professor Potnock, and seconded by Professor SKERTCHLY, that the same be adopted.—Carried. (0) “ That a copy of the above resolution be forwarded to the Prime Minister of Australia, with an urgent appeal that steps be taken to secure the establishment of a Solar Physics Observatory in Australia.” Proposed by Professor Poniock, and seconded by Mr. Lucas, that the same be adopted.—-Carried. (c) “ That a committee be formed to aid in the work of estab- lishing such an Observatory, to consist of—Professor Bragg, Messrs. Knibbs, Baracchi, and Cooke, Professor Pollock, and Dr. Duffield (Secretary).” Proposed by Professor PoLtock, and seconded by Mr. Surrzezy, that the same be adopted.—Carried. (d) “ That in view of the generous attitude of the British Asso- ciation in granting £50 towards the establishment of the Observatory, a similar sum be granted to the Committee by this Association.” Proposed by Mr. Surrey, and seconded by Mr. Hamxzr, that the same be adopted.—Carried. e Solar Eclipse, 1910. I. That a Committee of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science be appointed— 1. To organise, if possible, an expedition of Australian astronomers to witness the total solar eclipse of 1910, visible in Hobart. 2. To obtain from the Federal Government and State Go- vernments and private compas facilities for witness- ing this eclipse. 3. To arrange for the convenience of British and foreign expeditions. 4. To acquaint the leading astronomical societies of the world of such facilities and concessions as may be obtained. II. That the Committee consist of—Messrs. Baracchi, F.R.A.S. ; W. E. Cooke, F.R.A.S. (Perth); the Government Astrono- mer of N.S.W. (when appointed) : Professor Chapman ; Professor Pollock, D.Sc.; Dr. Coleridge Farr; Messrs. G. H. Knibbs, FS.S., FRAS.; R. H. Roe, M.A. ; Mr. Baldwin (Melbourne University) ; and Dr. W. E. Duffield, F.R.A.S. (Secretary). III. That a grant of £5 be made for postages, typing, «c. Proposed by Professor Pottock, and seconded by Mr. Kuyrsss, that the same be adopted.—Carried. XXVI. New Geometry. (2) “That this Association requests the University of Cam- bridge to form a committee of experts on elementary geometrical teaching for the revision of the scheme of the New Geometry, and for the better regulation of its teach- ing.” (0) That if the Cambridge University decline the task, the Council of this Association be requested itself to consti- tute such a committee from amongst the mathematical pro- fessors and schoolmasters of Australasia.” (c) “That the presentation of this recommendation to the authorities of Cambridge University in proper form be entrusted to the President of this Association, Professor Brage.” Proposed by Professor Potnock, and seconded by Mr. Kntsss, that the same be adopted.—Carried. REPORT OF MEETING OF THE GENERAL COUNCIL. Hep IN THE GIRLS’ GRAMMAR ScHooL, BRISBANE, on Fripay, THE 15TH January, 1909. Mr. G. H. Knibbs, F.S.S., F.R.A.S., Vice-President, was in the chair, and the following gentlemen were present :— Professor J. A. Pollock, D.Sc.; Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., Pe A250 BGs... Mr. ©." Hedley, HL.S8.. Mri A. HS. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc.; Professor P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.; Professor 8. B. J. Skertchly; Professor J, A. Schofield, A.R.S.M., F.1.C.; Messrs. W. S. Dun; W. M. Hamlet, F.I.C.; J. B. Henderson, F.I.C.; G. Sweet, . EG.S:; W. Poole,’ BE. .E-G:S;,, A.-M. Inst. CE. ;' J; ©: Brimnich, F.1.C., F.C.S.; T. Weedon, F.S.8.; R. H. Roe, M'A.; Dr. Goddard; F. B. Guthrie, F.LC.,-F.C.S.; W. Cameron, B.A.; J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; and J. Shirley, B.Sc. The Minutes of Meeting of Council, held on the 11th instant, were taken as read, and contirmed. The reports of Meetings of the Recommendation Committee, held on the 14th and 15th instant, were taken as read, and adopted, on the motion of Mr. Hamuer, seconded by Professor SKEATS. ALTERATIONS OF RULES. Mr. Sureiey: Professor Liversidge has written and asked me to bring before the Association the need of an additional rule, to the following effect :— Each Local Council shall be summoned by the Local Secretary to meet at least once annually (if possible in the month of July or September) to transact any business which may be brought before it, and to prepare for transmission to the General Council at its next Session a Report upon the local work of the Association since its last session. This is a very important motion. As a rule, in the several States, after the Session of the Association, the Association dies in that State, and has to be born again after a period of twelve to fourteen years. By this motion it is intended to give it continuity, so that some action may be taken each year to keep it before the public. I propose that it be recommended for adoption at the next meeting of the Council. Mr. Hamuer: I second it, because there should be a perfect_under- standing of work to be undertaken in each State. Professor MarsHALL supported.—Carried. Professor PoLttock: I move that it be a recommendation to the next meeting of Council that Rule 9 be altered to read as follows :— The President, five Vice-Presidents, a General Treasurer, a Permanent General Secretary, and Local Secretaries shall be appointed by the Council. Mr. Survey: I would like to point out that you cannot get five vice-presidents among past presidents. I second the recommenda- tion for consideration at next meeting of the Council.—Carried. XXVIII. JUBILEE OF “ ORIGIN OF SPECIES.” Mr. Hepiey: I move that— This Association offers to Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace its con- gratulations on the attainment of the jubilee of “ Origin of Species,” jointly introduced by Dr. Darwin and himself. I think a motion of this sort needs no further recommendation. Dr. Spencer: I second the motion. Mr. Maren supported.—Carried. VOTES OF THANKS. Professor Pottock: I beg to propose a vote of thanks to His Excellency the Governor. His Excellency has shown, not only during the meetings, but previous to the meetings, a great interest in the work of the Association, and during the meetings he has given us encouragement by his presence at and by addressing the meetings. I should also like to include the name of Lady Chelmsford in my motion. Professor Marsuati: I have much pleasure in seconding.—Car- ried. Mr. Kyreps: I need hardly say that we feel extreme gratitude to the Hon. the Premier and the Parliament of Queensland for grants in aid of the work of the Association. They clearly perceive that the work we are doing is of profound interest to Australia from the economic and higher standpoints. I move that the thanks of this Association be accorded to them. Dr. Gopparp: I have much pleasure in seconding.—Carried. Mr. Hamizr: I beg to move a vote of thanks to His Grace the Archbishop of Brisbane (Dr. Donaldson) for his cordial invitation to a Garden Party taking place to-morrow afternoon. Mr. Hepiey: I second the motion.—Carried. Professor Potiock: I rise with very great pleasure to propose a vote of thanks—more than as a mere matter of form—to the General Secretary, Mr. Shirley, who has made a splendid Secretary. I have attended most of the meetings, and we all feel sure that this has been one of the most successful. Personally, it has been to me the happiest meeting I have ever attended. We all know how much of success depends upon the efforts of the Secretary, and that in this connection we ought to pass an extra cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Shirley for the great efforts he has made and for the success it has been. Mr. Gururie: I cordially second and support the motion. Mr. Kyipps: I think we all appreciate and recognise how very much we are indebted to the arduous labours of Mr. Shirley for the success of this meeting.—Carried. Professor SKERTCHLY: I have very great pleasure in moving a vote of thanks to the Local Secretaries. We know their tasks are difficult ones, and that they have carried them out with the greatest care and attention. Dr. Gopparp: I second the motion.—Carried. “XXIX. Mr. Kyipps: I move that a hearty vote of thanks be accorded to the lecturers, who have done so much to occupy our time and give us pleasure. Dr. Spencer: I second the motion.—Carried. Mr. Lucas: I move that a hearty vote of thanks be accorded to the Minister and Commissioner for Railways, who have granted to us very liberal facilities for seeing the country, and making the trip from the South much less expensive, and for giving us an opportunity of going to Gympie, Toowoomba, Warwick, Killarney, and the Barrier Reef so easily. Professor PotLock: I second the motion.—Carried. Mr. Hamurr: I move that a hearty vote of thanks be accorded to Mr. Badger, of the Brisbane Tramways Company, for placing cars at the disposal of members for morning and evening rides around the city. Mr. Datzy seconded.—Carried. Mr. Maripen: I move that a hearty vote of thanks be accorded to the trustees of the Brisbane Grammar Schools, coupled with the name of Mr. Roe. The kindness of the trustees has been of a most substantial character. Mr. Roe has not only supported the Associa- tion in every possible way in his official character, but has been very kind to us, and has done his best to make us feel at home. Professor ScHoFIELD seconded.—Carried. Mr. Mamen: I move that the thanks of the Association be accorded to the Press for the services rendered us during the session. I wish that some of our members had been a little more considerate in providing them with abstracts of their papers, but notwithstanding this the Press has performed great service in recording the daily pro- ceedings of the session. Mr. Kyress: The Queensland Press has been noted for its intelligence, and it has undoubtedly distinguished itself with regard to the space made available for the reports of this Session. It would be well, indeed, if we could get the same space given to us in the other States. : Mr. Surety: I cannot allow this motion to pass without saying something in its support. We have had the help of the Press right through from the beginning, since we began to organise; they were only too anxious to publish what we were doing. From November, 1907, until we got nearer the Session, the space devoted to our Associ- ation grew larger and larger. We are greatly indebted to the Press for its assistance.—Carried. Mr. Suiruey: I have to propose a vote of thanks to the Editor of the Official Daily Journal, Mr. John George, for his work which was done well and done promptly. He has considerately taken work off my hands, and relieved me of much trouble. Seconded by Professor PonLtock.—Carried. Professor Pontock: I have great pleasure in moving that a special vote of thanks be given to Miss Shirley, for the great courtesy shown to us all, and for the work done, by her during this Session. She has attended at all the meetings, and rendered us great assist- ance. Seconded by Mr. Gururie.—Carried. XxX. 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CF iZe0 Sos ne iy: ie: te purpy{ ur yseg “ Zz Oo 6 ee ee oe os JOpPjO dO ysog “ SI ul - a si "* ouvgslLig 0} dDULATUNAY “ ZI I i actos TOUS puv uossnsio,.) AtouonNrys “ oS © ue tf * suivisojo, puv sdurvysg Ag Ss ¥ #) IN wo g TOO C1F real “+ (4st] tod sv) go61 ey SUOT}CIIOSqNS oATOM ], I * (4061 ‘AIENAGDAT ) SuIpuLrysInG, uoNdiiosqns “ ) : (4061 ‘Areniqa,y) puefyy ur oouryeg oy F ual AUOLIGNAdXG, UNV SidIowy AO ENANALV LS ‘ANVIVAZ MHUN—SONAIOS JO LNANAYONVACGV HHL YOHX NOILVIOOSSV NVISVIVALSAV OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. >-- — OBJECTS OF THE ASSOCIATION. The objects of the Association are to give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry; to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the Australasian States and in other countries; to obtain more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvan- tages of a public kind which may impede its progress. RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. 1. Members shall be elected by the Councii. 2. The subscription shall be £1 for each Session, to be paid in advance. 3. A member may at any time become a Life Member by one payment of £10, in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 4. Ladies’ tickets (admitting the holders to the General and Sectional Meetings, as well as the Evening Entertainments) may be obtained by full Members on payment of 10s. for each ticket. Ladies may also become Members on the same terms as gentlemen. SESSIONS. 5. The Association shall meet in Session periodically for one week or longer. The place of meeting shall be appointed by the Council two years in advance, and the. arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Local Committee. MANAGEMENT OF THE AFFAIRS OF THE ASSOCIATION. Council. 6. There shall be a Council consisting of the following :—(1) Present and former Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Treasurers and Secretaries of. the Association, and present and former Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the Sections. (2) Members of the Association delegated to the Council by Scientfic Societies; (3) Secretaries of Research Committees appointed by the Council. 7. The Council shall meet only during the Session of the Associa- tion, and during that period shall be called together at least twice. Locant ComMITTEEs. 8. In the intervals between the Sessions of the Association, its affairs shall be managed in the various States by Local Committees. The Local Committee of each State shall consist of the members of Council resident in that State. OFFICERS. The President, five Vice-Presidents (elected from amongst ‘ye Presidents), a General Treasurer, one or more General Sacre. taries and Local Secretaries shall be appointed annually by the Council. XXXVI. RECEPTION COMMITTEE. 10. The Local Committee of the State in which the Session is to be held shall form a Reception Committee to assist in making arrange- ments for the reception and entertainment of the visitors. This Cemmittee shall have power to add to its number. OFFICE. 11. The permanent office of the Association shall be in Sydney. Money AFFAIRS OF THE ASSOCIATION. 12. The financial year shall end on the 30th June. 15. All sums received for life subscriptions and from the sales. of back numbers of Reports shall be invested in the names of three Trustees appointed by the Council, and the interest arising from such investment shall be reserved for grants in aid of scientific research. 14. The subscriptions shall be collected by the Local Secretary in each State, and be forwarded by him to the General Treasurer. The Local Committees shall not have power to expend money without the authority of the Council, with the exception of the Local Committee of the State in which the next ensuing Session is to be held, which shall have power to expend money collected or otherwise obtained in that State. Such disbursements shall be audited, and the balance-sheet and the surplus funds be forwarded to the General Treasurer. 16. All cheques shall be signed either by the General Treasurer and the General Secretary, or by the Local Treasurer and the Secre- tary of the State in which the ensuing session is to be held. 17. Whenever the balance in the hands of the banker shall exceed the sum requisite for the probable or current expenses of the Association, the Council shall invest the excess in the names of the ae The whole of the accounts of the Association—+.e., the local as oti as the general accounts—shall be audited annually by two Auditors appointed by the Council; and the balance-sheet shall be submitted to the Council at its first meeting thereafter. Money GRANTS. 19. Committees and individuals to whom grants of money have been entrusted are required to present to the following meeting a report of the progress which has been made, together with a state- ment of the sums which have been expended. Any balance shall be returned to the General Treasurer. 20. In each Committee the Secretary is the only person entitled to call on the Treasurer for such portions of the sums granted as may from time to time be required. 21. In grants of moneys to Committees or to individuals, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the members or to the individual. XXX VII. SECTIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION. 22. The following Sections shall be constituted :— A.—Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics. B.—Chemistry. C.—Geology and Mineralogy. D.—Biology. H.—Geography. F.—KEthnology and Anthropology. G.—Economie Science and Agriculture. | H.—Engineering and Architecture. I.—Sanitary Science and Hygiene. J.—Mental Science and Education. SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. 23. The President of each Section shall take the chair and pro- ceed with the business of the Section not later than 11 a.m. In the middle of the day an adjournment for luncheon shall be made, and at 4 p.m. the Sections shall close. 24. On the second and following days the Sectional Committees shall meet at 10 a.m. 25. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sections shall be nominated by the Local Committee of the State in which the next ensuing Session of the Association is to be held, and shall have power to act until their election is confirmed by the Council. From the time of their nomination, which shall take place as soon as possible after the Session of the Association, they shall be regarded as an Organising Committee, for the purpose of obtaining information upon papers likely to be submitted to the Sections, and for the general furtherance of the work of the Sectional Committees. The Sectional Presidents of former years shall be ez cfficio Members of the Organising Committees. 26. The Sectional Committees shall have power to add to their number. 27. The Committees for the several Sections shall determine the acceptance of papers before the beginning of the Session. It 1s therefore desirable, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the several communications, that each author should prepare an abstract of his paper, of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions, Reports, or Proceedings of the Association, and that he should send it, together with the original paper, to the Secretary of the Section before which it is to be read, so that it may reach him at least a fortnight before the Session. 28. Members may communicate to the Sections the papers of non- members. 29. The author of any paper is at liberty to reserve his right of property therein. XXXVIIT. 30. No report, paper, or abstract shall be inserted in the volume of Transactions, Reports or Proceedings, unless it be handed to the Secretary before the conclusion of the Session. 31. The Sectional Committee shall report to the Publication Committee what papers it is thought advisable to print. 32. They shall also take into consideration any suggestions which may be offered for the advancement of Science. 33. In recommending the appointment of Research Committees all members of such Committees shall be named, and one of them who has notified his willingness to accept the office shall be appointed to act as Secretary. The number of members appointed to serve on a Research Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working. Individuals may be recommended to make reports. 34. All recommendations adopted by Sectional Committees shall be forwarded without delay to the Recommendation Committee ; unless this is done the recommendation cannot be considered by the Council. OFFICIAL JOURNAL. 35. At the close of each meeting of the Sections, the Sectional Secretaries shall correct, on a copy of the Official Journal, the list of papers which have been read, and add to them those appointed to be read on the next day, and send the same to the General Secretary* for printing. RECOMMENDATION COMMITTEE. 36. The Council at its first meeting in each Session shall appoint a Committee of Recommendations to receive and consider the reports of the Research Committees appointed at the last Session, and the recommendations from Sectional Committees. The Recommendation Committee shall also report to the Council, at a subsequent meeting, the measures which they would. advise to be adopted for the advance- ment of Science. 37. All proposals for the appointment of Research Committees and for grants of money (see Rules 19-21) must be sent in through the Recommendation Committee. PUBLICATION COMMITTEE. 38. The Council shall each Session elect a Publication Committee, which shall receive the recommendation of the Sectional Committees with regard to publication of papers, and decide finally upon the matter to be printed in the volume of Transactions, Reports or Pro- ceedings. ALTERATION OF RULES. 39. No alterations of the Rules shall be made unless due notice of all such additions or alterations shall have been given at one meeting and carried at another meeting of the Council held during a, subsequent Session of the Council. * Or Editor of Official Journal. INAUGURAL ADDRESS PROFESSOR W. H. BRAC WW OBA Loa) a shay Sete ADELAIDE UNIVERSITY, S.A.., BRISBANE, MONDAY, 11th JANUARY, 1909. ———o_—_- THE LESSONS OF RADIO-ACTIVITY. Before I address myself to the subject on which I would speak to you this evening, there is one matter to which it is my duty and my sad privilege to refer. Since the last meeting of our Association at Adelaide, in 1906, the occupant of the presidential chair at that gathering, Dr. A. W. Howitt, the man on whom we had been proud to confer the highest honour in our power, has passed away; and there is a deep sadness in the fact that he is not here to-night to perform the last duties of his office. Those of us who were present at the meeting of three years ago will remember with what vivid interest we looked up to our old and venerated president, as he spoke to us of the great work of his life, and told us of the difficulties and trials of exploration in a time gone by. It was an inspiration to have before us a veteran of the old pioneering days, one of the greatest of those famous old bushmen to whose labours we owe so much of the development of our country. Our Association will for ever treasure his memory; he was a man whom all Austral- asians honoured, and a scientist whose methods and aims we would all emulate. My choice of the subject of this evening’s address has been prompted by many considerations. The wonderful science of radio- activity must be, and is, a centre of deep interest to all lovers of know- ledge, inasmuch as it is at the same time lighting up new paths of deeply interesting inquiry, and throwing a fresh illumination on that with which we are already more or less familiar. Moreover, it is a fundamental science, on which other sciences ultimately rest; and _ every scientific worker has more than a kindly interest in its progress, for he knows that his own work may be, indeed must be, profoundly A 2 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. aftected by the new knowledge which we are acquiring. And, again, new as the science is, its advance is startlingly rapid, and it is well to review at comparatively short intervals the positions which have been attained by recent experiment. Besides these general considerations, I think it is not out of place to mention one which is of more particular interest to this meeting of Australasians. I doubt if there are many here present to-night who. realise that a very considerable share in the development of the new science is due to men born and educated in this country. LEasily first oi these stands Ernest Rutherford, the New Zealander, now Professor of Physics at Manchester. To him the world owes many of the funda- mental conceptions of the subject; and no investigations have been. so powertul and so brilliant as his. Perhaps it is only the student of radio-activity who can fully appreciate the excellence of his work, yet when he recently received a Nobel prize I am sure there was no member of the scientific world who did not appreciate the justice of the award. But he does not stand alone; there are other Australasians born and bred who have made worthy contributions to radio-active science. Dr. Pollock is to address one of our sections to-morrow, and besides his name I may mention Kleeman, Laby, Madsen, and Durack. When we consider the sum total of the work done by all these men, we have good reason to be proud of our country’s product; and we may well take a special interest in the subject which they have helped to investigate. With your permission, therefore, I propose to devote some time this evening to an examination of the great facts of the new science, and of the lessons which they teach. It is no easy task which I set myself, but I hope that the interest of the subject will to some extent hide my own inadequacy. I have just one more preliminary remark to make. I would warn you, before I begin, that I mean to stretch the compass of my address until it includes, with what plausibility it may, some reference to the general condition of research work in this country. As is implied by its name the new science deals with certain radiations of which those due to the constant activity of radium and uranium may be taken as typical. They differ, in some important respects, from the longer known radiations of light and heat. Their existence was practically unknown to us a few years ago, and the science of radio-activity may be considered to have come into existence when Becquerel first experimented on the action of uranium on a photographic plate in 1896. This is true in spite of the fact that the cathode rays and the Rontgen rays have been investigated for many INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 3 years past, and are of the same type as those emitted by the radio active substances; for the extension of knowledge which has followed on the discovery of the latter has been so great that previous investi- gations can rank only as an introduction to the new science. Never- theless, novel as the new radiations are in their origin and properties, it is important to observe that the recent investigations can be looked upon as the latest stage of a long inquiry of first importance, relating to radiation in general. For ages men have asked themselves, “ What is light?” When the ancient writer recorded as one of the great acts of creation the command of God, “Let there be light!” he testified truly of its importance to mankind, and bore witness to the extent to which the seers of his day had grasped that importance. When men bowed to sun and moon and stars, they did but recognise their debt to the radiation on which their whole lives seemed to depend. And though we can now look past these creatures of light and heat, yet still we recognise their vast importance in the universal scheme. Not only are they necessary to our life upon the earth, but they alone bring us intelligence from the infinities of space, and help our thoughts to rise from the earth and stretch themselves to worthier and greater comprehensions. It is no matter of surprise that the study of the character and properties of radiation has at all times filled the thoughts of men. There are two sides of this study to which I would particularly call your attention. We examine the properties of radiation in order to discover on the one hand the nature of radiation itself, on the other the nature and constitution of the atoms or molecules which emit it. For such information as we can obtain of the nature of atoms is of the utmost value since it is one of the main purposes of science, having once recognised the atomic composition of all material substances, to seek how to account for the properties of bodies in bulk from a know- ledge of the properties of the atoms of which those bodies are com- posed. We, therefore, try to judge the atom by that radiation which proceeds from it. We can never hope to see an atom in the sense in which we see objects generally; we must form our estimates by in- direct means. Yet the direct and the indirect are not so entirely different as might at first appear. We draw our conclusions as to the form, colour, and position of the objects which we see in this room by the aid of the radiation emitted by the artificial light. The radiation is reflected, scattered, and modified by the surfaces on which it falls ; and our seeing is really no more than the perception and interpretation of these effects. In fact, the objects in the room are emitting radia- tion, borrowed, it is true, and thereby we judge them. In this case ‘4 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. our perceptions deal immediately with the objects themselves, not the atoms of which they are composed. Can we ever perceive effects upon radiation due to individual atoms as apart from the effect due to their action in bulk? The answer is, of course, in the affirmative. We may pass a ray of white light through coloured glass or any substance which shows selective absorption, so that the rays of certain wave lengths are removed, and the rest pass on. The result is the sum of separate actions by the billions of atoms of which the body is com- posed, so that the light which emerges may be considered as repre- sentative of light proceeding from each atom after modification therein. Here, then, is a way by which we may hope to learn some- thing of the individual atom. These absorption effects have indeed been closely studied, and have, as is well known, yielded results of the utmost importance not only to pure scientific research but also to commerce and industry. But, as regards the matter we are especially considering, they serve more to open our eyes to the complexity and richness of the inquiry than to yield us laws of any precision or generality. In experiments of this kind we make use of sources of radiation external to the atoms, and permit the atoms to modify the original ‘rays. We can, however, force the atoms to become themselves the primary sources of radiation ; and, in doing so, we avail ourselves of a much more fruitful means of investigation. We may raise substances to incandescence by placing them in a flame, or subjecting them to the more intense heat of the electric arc or discharge; or we may turn cur instruments to the heavens, where glowing suns form furnaces which far exceed in temperature anything we can find on earth. The atoms are now addressing themselves to us directly; each kind sends us radiation peculiar to its nature and condition. If we could but read the messages! But we are overwhelmed by the complexity and infinite variability of the effects which we observe. From a bewilder- ing wealth of results we are able to disentangle a few fundamental truths, just enough to make us impatient of our inability to do more; the work required to elucidate one law successfully seems at the same time to add to the pile of facts yet unclassified and unexplained. The science of spectrum analysis grows year by year. It has taught us of the natures and motions of the stars, and revealed to us fundamental laws of physics; it has been a keen weapon of chemical research, and given powerful aid to industrial development. But, as to the constitu- tion of the atom, it tells us too much at once; there is a roar of sound from which we can hardly disentangle separate sentences. Not only are the radiations emitted by each atom of exceeding complexity, but INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 5° they vary, in a broad sense at least, with the condition of the atom and with its electrical state, with the temperature and the pressure of the gas of which the atom forms part, and so forth. We are staggered by difficulties of interpretation, and crave for some simple method of attacking the great problem. Spectrum analysis speaks a language which we barely understand as yet. Now you will understand the welcome which we give to a new science like radio-activity, which addresses us in simple phrases. We are here still concerned with radiations emitted by atoms, either directly or in a secondary sense; and still we try to gain from an examination of the radiations some knowledge of the atoms from which the radiations proceed. But we work under totally different conditions. Nothing marks the change more forcibly than the disap- pearance, complete or almost complete, of all dependence on physical and chemical conditions. The radio-active substances exercise their marvellous powers at. a rate which cannot be hastened or delayed by any known agency, such as heat or cold or pressure; not even if they are made to form chemical compounds with other substances. And, again, when the radiations which they emit pass through material substances, and are scattered or absorbed, as we find to be the case, the scattering and absorption are independent of the physical or chemical condition of those substances. We have, as it were, gone below the foundations of physics and chemistry to the simpler primor- dial conditions on which the more complex sciences are built. There are radio-active phenomena which go so far as to take no account of those fundamental distinctions between atoms on which chemistry is based. The most penetrating gamma rays, in passing through sub- stances, recognise no other property than that of mass; four atoms of aluminium afteet them no more and no less than one atom of silver, because the former weigh as much as the latter, and the names “silver” and “ aluminium” no longer convey a distinction. It is clear that we are dealing with the most fundamental charac- teristics of the atoms, with the building material, and not with the structure; with the inner nature of the atom, and not its outside show ; and it is this which differentiates radio-activity from the older sciences. You will remember how Jules Verne in one of his bold flights of imagination drives the submarine boat far down into the depths of the sea. The unrest of the surface, its winds and waves, are soon left behind; the boat passes through the teeming life below, down into regions where only a few strange and lonely creatures can stand the enormous pressure, and, diving still, reaches at last black depths where there is a vast and awful simplicity. Here, where no man “ hath come 6 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. since the making of the world,” the silent crew gazes on the huge cliffs which are the foundations and buttresses of the continents above. It is with the same feeling of awe that we examine the funda- mental facts and lessons of the new science. First and foremost of the lessons we must place the revelation that this underworld exists, the fact that there are processes in Nature which are utterly beyond the intervention of man so far as we have yet been able to learn. It may be said that this holds true in many ways already known; but there is a radical difference between the older and the newer knowledge. It is true, for example, that man cannot stay the action of the sun upon the waters of the globe, and prevent the vapours from mounting into the clouds ; but he can shelter any particular quantity of water from the sun’s rays, and check the evaporation of that quantity at least. He cannot understand how the seed grows to be a tree, much less manufacture a seed of the simplest plant; but he can keep water away from the seed, and render its latent powers abortive. On the other hand, the disintegration of the radium atoms proceeds at a rate which is entirely beyond man’s control, in the sense that the rate cannot be affected by any disposition which he may make, or, at any rate, has been able to make as yet. We know of only cne other phenomenon in Nature of the same simplicity. The action of gravity is also most extraordinary in being independent of physical and chemical conditions; and we are unable, except in the refreshing pages of a certain popular novelist, to hinder the mutual attraction of twe bodies by any arrangements of material such as the interposition of a screen between them. Hitherto gravity has stood alone. It is surely a most significant fact that we have now found other pheno- mena which resemble those of gravity in all these respects ; and a fact of additional significance that the most penetrating radiations of which we have knowledge, the so-called hard gamma rays of radium, take exactly the same cognizance of the various atoms as gravity does; the “mass” is the one and only feature which is of importance in either case. This, then, is the first great lesson of radio-activity : the revelation of the existence of phenomena which are not to be classed with the most of physical and chemical effects, but rather belong to a class of which gravity has hitherto been the only representative. Let us proceed to consider a second. We have only to move one step forward, and we are at once face to face with the wonderful theory of radio-active change which we owe to Rutherford and Soddy. Surely there never was a stranger or more unexpected realisation of an idle dream. The old alchemist. laboured to bring about. the trans- mutation of metals, and failed. Now we know that we can actually- INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 7 ratch the process taking place. There is, however, no clear evidence as gyet that we can be anything more than spectators; and this is a very important point. Sir William Ramsay does indeed describe cer- tain experiments in which the radium emanation seems to have played the part of the philosopher’s stone, but the matter is so new that science has not yet uttered her final decision on the point. It is strang® enough, however, that the transmutation should take place at all; and that we should have definite proof that the atom is not absolutely stable. Up to the present we are sure of the transmutation in one direction only, the break-up of larger atoms to form smaller ones. We have found no instance of the reverse process, but we may well imagine that it merely awaits discovery. Surely it must exist. This, then, is the second lesson—the instability of the atom. I will not discuss it at greater length, because it has already received such interested and full discussion in recent years; its importance has been recognised from the earliest times in the history of our, new science. The third lesson which may be drawn from the study of radio- activity follows naturally on the previous discussion. If such trans- mutations of atoms take place, there must be a certain uniformity of structure, or rather of building materials. This view is strongly sup- ported if we consider the character of the radiations from the various radio-active substances. Where uranium passes through one or two intermediate forms into radium, and this again disintegrates step by step to polonium, and the process continues to an extent as yet not wholly known, a number of substances of widely varying properties have existed each for its allotted time. But the various fragments which have been shed by the disintegrating atoms, and which consti- tute the radiation, are found to be of two forms only, known as alpha particles and beta particles. Rutherford has shown clearly that the former are atoms of helium, and owe their positive charge to the fact that each has lost two negative electrons. The latter have long been known to be negative electrons simply. Therefore, that which began as an atom of uranium proceeds to become atoms of other substances in succession, by an operation of which the main feature is the drop- ping of one or more of such particles; we conclude that these particles are integral portions of the atom—parts which go to the building of the whole. The helium atom is doubtless further divisible; but for some reason it seems to exist as a more or less self-contained portion of large atoms. Though this principle is clear in the case of the radio-active substances only, it seems illogical to deny it in the case of others. Thus we are led to recognise a certain sameness in the materials of 8 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. construction which was vaguely thought of a few years ago, but has only now acquired some degree of precision. The idea has recently received further support from the remarkable experiments of J. J. Thomson on positive rays. It seems that these rays, when formed in the vacuum tube, consist of atoms of helium and atoms of hydrogen, ro matter what other materials the tube contains, and even if hydro- gen and helium have been carefully excluded in the manufacture of the tube. This suggests that helium, as before, and now hydrogen also, are building materials used in the construction of atoms. But we cannot go much further as yet; if we try to do so we find ourselves in the midst of great uncertainties. We see that the alpha particle appears to be a frequent subdivision of the atom; and we know further that every atom contains electrons; but the number of the latter is doubtful, and is indeed greatly debated at the present time. On the one hand J. J. Thomson concludes that the number is nearly the same as the atomic weight; on the other it is said that this esti- mate must be thousands of times too small. When the atom is put together it has a certain mass; the uncertainty arises principally from ignorance as to how to allow for this mass. It is possible to explain mass as an electrical phenomenon, every negative electron has so much miass of this kind. Is this, then, the only source of atomic mass? If so the electrons must be many. But perhaps there may be mass which is not an electrical phenomenon, as we always used to think vaguely ; then a smaller number of electrons will be necessary. It seems un- likely, however, that there should be two sources of mass, one electric and one not. Or, again, the positive electricity in the atom may also be responsible for some of the mass in the same way as the negative electrons: but it. is well known that electrical charges must be con- densed into extremely minute centres before they can show “ electrical” mass: and there is a general tendency at present to suppose that the positive electricity in the atom is not condensed into centres so small as is the negative electricity, but is probably much more diffused. It is, indeed, one of the greatest puzzles of the subject that so hitle should be known of the positively charged constituents of the atom. The negative electron is comparatively a familiar acquaint- ance. The cathode rays of the vacuum tube, the beta rays of radium, the delta rays which issue frofm all atoms under the influence of any of the radiations we are discussing, are all negative electrons exactly lke each other, but endowed with different velocities. For years the negative electrons have been handled and investigated with ease. But no one has succeeded in handling the positive electron, if it exist, in the same manner. It is perhaps instructive to consider to what causes INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 9 we may ascribe our power to isolate the negative. If we do so, we see that it depends on certain relations between the speed mass and electrical charge. The delta ray is the slowest moving negative electron that can maintain an independent existence; it is scarcely set tree before its electrical forces attract it to some neighbouring atom to which it becomes attached. The cathode rays have usually a far higher speed, and can pass through many atoms without becoming entangled therein. The beta rays of radium move faster still, and can penetrate millions of atoms; in the open air they may move through comparatively long distances without being deflected, perhaps 2 or 3 feet on the average. The speed of the delta ray is of the order of a few hundred miles a second; that of the beta ray, 150,000 miles a second. Now, if the mass of the negative electron were less, if it were more easily turned aside, still higher speeds would be necessary to preserve it from incorporation into the atom. It might be, there- fore, that the positive electrons are lighter than the negative, and that their separate existence requires a greater speed than can be given them in such a process of expulsion from the atom as occurs when a delta ray is expelled, or can be communicated to them by artificial means. We know that the positive electricity exists; and exists in any atom to an amount just sufficient to neutralise the negative charge. It seems arbitrary to assert that the positive cannot be subdivided to as great an extent as the negative, and that we cannot conceive of so small an amount of positive electricity as is sufficient to neutralise one negative electron. It is convenient to make one other observation at this stage. Just as the electron is known to be a constituent of all atoms, yet is never obtained isolated, unless it is moving with suffi- cient speed, so the electron together with enough positive to neutralise it, the neutral pair or electrical doublet may be found in the atom, and may exist separately under suitable conditions, e.g., when endowed with sufficient speed, failing which it becomes incorporated. It will be seen, therefore, how scanty 1s our knowledge of the positive constituent of the atom. When it is necessary to adopt some hypothesis as a basis of calculation, it is only possible to choose one which is simple, and, probably, therefore crude. Thomson presumes a uniform sphere of positive electricity in which the negative electrons move freely ; through which it must also be suppesed that other similar spheres are able to pass, since, for example, the alpha particle traverses atoms of all substances, and the alpha particle is an atom of helium. | To sum up, we may take as the third lesson that there is a certain sameness in the materials of construction of the atoms; and 10 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. we realise, as we do so, that this is not going very far, for we know very little as yet of the way in which these materials are put together. So far, we have been considering the phenomena that attend the origiation of the radiations. Let us now turn our attention to the behaviour of the radiations during their passage through material substances. The so-called absorption effects are most extraordinary, and teach us further lessons of great interest. Let us, therefore, imagine ourselves able to project streams of ene or other of the new radiations through various substances, and to watch the result. And, before going further, I had better explain briefly how the watching is to be done. The fact is that as an alpha or beta ray passes through a gas it leaves behind a trail of electrons loosened from the atoms which it has traversed, and that it is a com- paratively simple matter to gather up these electrons, and so to follow up the track of the ray. The loosened electrons are the delta rays, and the mode of their unloosening is apparently just the same, no matter to what agent it is due. I may repeat that the delta rays start out from the parent atom with barely enough speed to enable them to get clear away. Inasmuch as they are electrons in motion, they are just the same as the beta rays of radium or the cathode rays in the X-ray tube, but their speed is too small to give them the distinguish- ing properties of these latter rays. When we consider the absorption effects we find that, in the first place, there is the most remarkable rectilinear propagation of radia- tions which are known to be material. A pencil of alpha or beta rays projected in a certain direction can maintain that direction, in a general sense, after having traversed many centimetres of a gas at ordinary pressure. But a straight line 10 centimetres long, placed in a gas, passes through something like a million molecules. If a stream of particles maintains its general direction after such a course, it follows that the particles have had no difficult passage through the atoms which they have met. They cannot have gone round them, that is to say, been ricochetted to and fro, and yet kept the main direction in view; that would only be possible if a guiding force acted all the time, or if the particles were endowed with intelligence. _We do indeed find that a scattering of the particles occurs; it has long been known that beta particles can be turned out of the main stream and shot into new directions, and Geiger, working at Manchester, has shown recently that the alpha particles, although enormously more massive than the beta, are also liable to be swung out of their course. But such deviations cannot be likely to happen frequently to a particle in INAUGURAL ADDRESS. il going such a distance, for a general direction is maintained through- out, as we have seen. We have but to picture in our minds the radia- tion of the boughs and twigs of a tree to realise that a very few successive deviations at random are sufficient to destroy all connection with an original direction. But if the alpha and beta particles re- coiled or were deflected in striking the exterior of the atoms which they met, they would experience perhaps a hundred thousand such deviations in the first centimetre. The particles, therefore, cannot have encounters with atoms as a whole; they must penetrate them, and usually without any deflection. Only occasionally they must come into encounter with parts of atoms, but probably this does not happen in the case of a beta particle once in a hundred or thousand atoms traversed. The actual figure depends upon its speed, because the so- called encounter of the flying particle with the part of the atom really consists in an approach so close as to permit a sufficient mutual action; and the faster the particle the nearer the approach has to be in order to produce a given deflection. The problem is exactly that of a comet flying round a sun; the course of the comet is the more altered the nearer the two bodies approach each other. All this amounts to saying that the atoms must be very empty things; something like solar systems in miniature, a few significant points or parts, and in between a relatively large amount of almost unmeaning space. We are almost out of sight of the original view of the atom, a circumscribed body, into whose interior nothing else could penetrate, occupying so much space to the exclusion of everything else. Such a view was all that was needed in order to explain to us the ordinary physical and chemical effects, such as, for example, the collision of the molecules of a gas. But now the interior of the atom is no longer a forbidden country, the new radiations pass through the atoms with ease. We may look on such transits as Journeys of ex- ploration, and hope to learn something of the nature of the interior of the atom from the way in which the motion of the particles has been altered in going through. In the older physics all the actions which we studied depended on the external presentments of the atoms to each other, and we, therefore, learnt only of their external charac- teristics. Now for the first time we can, as it were, insert something material into the interior of the atom and prove its contents. It may be useful to put the matter in a slightly different way. The molecules of a gas move rapidly to and fro, changing their directions and speeds at each mutual encounter. Each molecule of the air in this room moves on the average about one hundred thousandth of a centimetre between successive encounters. This distance we call “ 12 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. the mean free path. Now, in the same way, it becomes clear that these particles, the motion of which constitutes the new radiation, move rapidly to and fro, only their velocities are enormously greater than the velocities of the gas molecules. The molecules collide with each other with very little interpenetration, if any; these particles take no account of molecular boundaries, but penetrate within, and their collisions are with parts of atoms, not with the atoms as wholes. The mean free path of a molecule of an ordinary gas is a minute fraction of a centimetre. The paths of these particles between successive encounters at which the direction of their motions are violently changed, is immensely greater, varying from a millimetre or so in the case of cathode rays to a metre in the case of the beta rays, whilst the gamma rays can penetrate hundreds of yards of ordinary air without being turned aside. To some extent, we had already learnt to recognise the penetra- bility of the atom before the discovery of radio-activity. Hertz and Lenard had shown us that cathode rays could penetrate extremely thin metal sheets. But the new facts are a revelation to us in this direc- tion. The beta rays, which move five to ten times as fast as the cathode rays, have a thousand times the penetrating power. And more singular still is the penetration of atoms by the alpha particle, itself an atom. That two atoms can for a moment occupy the same space is certainly a novel and instructive conception. Of course, the singular penetrating power is due to enormous speed. In helium, at ordinary pressures and temperatures, the atoms do not penetrate into each other at all; it is only the helium atom which is ejected from radio-active atoms at terrific speeds which does not respect the atomic boundaries. Equally striking is the penetrating power of the Rontgen or gamma ray, whatever view may be taken as to its nature. The older hypothesis gives it the nature of a pulse or irregular disturbance of the wether. It has been modified in order to fit recent experiments; J. J. Thomson now conceives of it as a tiny * bundle of energy,” possess- ing almost all the properties of a material particle. I have, myself, ventured to take the simpler view that it really is a material particle, as I will explain a little later. For the present I will anticipate only V1zZ., so far as to assume what is consistent with either hypothesis that the ray consists of something in motion in a straight line, possessing energy, and having boundaries which must be far more restricted than those of an atom, and must, probably, be comparable with those of an electron. Now imagine such an entity passing in a INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 13 straight line through ali the molecules in, say, a hundred yards of air without suffering deflection, indeed without suffering any loss of energy at all, as can easily be shown to be the case. What can it have met “with on the way? It cannot have had an encounter with anything forbidding it admission into any region; it can hardly have pushed things out of the way, or it would have lost energy. If there were any centres at all in any of the atoms which were impenetrable, the ray would have met not one but many of them. Extraordinary as it may be, it really seems that penetration to the uttermost is only a matter of degree, that there is nothing, not even of the minutest kind which occupies a definite portion of space to the exclusion of everything else. Of course, a statement like this suffers from the vagueness which is almost unavoidable when new ideas are put into old words. But I am trying to show that we must put aside the older conception of the properties of matter. At one time two bodies could not fill the same space; with the recognition of atomic composition came the under- standing that there was space between the atoms of which bodies were composed ; later came the idea of the penetration of the atom, and there were only certain electrons within the atoms which kept portions of space to themselves. We have always been pushing the limits back, it does not seem unlikely now that there are no limits at all, and that we might conceive of radiation having any desired penetration. At the present time the hard gamma rays are the most penetrating of those that we know. As I have already said, they fly on the average through great thicknesses of matter, hundreds of yards of air, or inches of lead, before suffering serious deflection at some encounter with a part of the internal structure of the atom. Only an encounter is not merely a geometrical relation between spaces occupied by the two encountering particles. It is impossible to pass by the conception of penetrating radia- tion without considering two other problems which have led, or might lead, to the assumption of its existence. A long time ago the Genevan philosopher, Lesage, filled all space with a penetrating radiation moving in all directions for the express purpose of accounting for gravitation. The attraction of two bodies for one another was to be ascribed to the shelter which each gave to the other from the driving streams. Since the whole of a body counts in the attraction which it exerts, the inside of the body must contribute to the sheltering as well as the outside, and this requires a radiation of extreme penetration. Some fraction of the radiation is to be turned aside by any body through which it is passing, or there would beno sheltering, but it must be a very minute fraction indeed. It is not an impossible theory, and leads to results * 14 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. which are numerically accurate. But it has never been widely ac- cepted. It requires not only the excessive penetration, but also a velocity of radiation which is enormously greater than that of light, for astronomical calculations show that the actions between the heavenly bodies do not take an appreciable time to cross the space between them. Moreover, the energy of the radiation must reach an appalling amount. It is interesting to observe, however, that the penetration is no longer the difficulty that it used to be; and still more interesting, perhaps, is the fact that the more penetrating the new radiations are, the more nearly are their effects on different atoms proportional to those of gravity. In the case of the most penetrating gamma ray, the proportionality is almost exact, failing perhaps a little for the heavier atoms. When we take less penetrating gamma rays the effect 1s only exact in the case of the hght atoms. If we were to surround a number of small bodies with radium they would be driven together by the gamma rays in such a way that every pair would seem to exert an-attraction on each other proportional to the product of their masses, and inversely to the square of their distances apart, which, of course, agrees with the law of gravitation. It cer- tainly is very curious that we should actually be able to prove the existence to a small amount, at least, of radiation which fulfils the properties of Lesage’s radiation on a small scale. It is useful in that it illustrates the great difference between the new radiations and those- ot hght and heat, and the closer resemblance which they have to the more fwndamental phenomenon of gravitation. But I need hardly say that this is not enough to prove Lesage’s theory. And, again, there is another problem in which the existence of a very penetrating radiation has been considered as an aid to its solu- tion. It is now generally held that the energy which is set free when the various radiations are ejected from the radio-active atoms is derived from a store internal to the atom. It is a most important conception, for it is naturally extended to the case of all atoms, and we have a glimpse of the existence of great quantities of energy exist- ing within the atoms, and unutilised. Yet we have no warrant, as yet, tor the hope that we may some day succeed in unlocking these store- houses. For, in the first place, the substances which liberate the energy of their own accord are few and rare, and other substances, though they doubtless possess it, do not set it free. In the second place, the action is beyond our control in the few cases in which we know it to exist. A different view as to the origin of the energy was put forward by several great physicists in the early days of the science, notably by INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 15 Lord Kelvin. The energy was supposed to come from without, and the radio-active substances were merely transforming agents. But this view became discredited chiefly, I think, because it was found impos- sible to stay the radio-active action by surrounding the radium with screens which might be expected to ward off the action of the external agent. That objection can hardly be held to be final now. The gamma rays, though turned aside by all substances generally in proportion to their mass, yet are specially affected by heavy atoms, with an exces- sive transformation of energy. May there conceivably be a very penetrating radiation which is practically not to be observed by ordi- nary means, but acts especially upon the radio-active atoms? Theidea has its fascination, but there are many difficulties in the way of its acceptance. We have now considered, very briefly, the circumstances of the origin and progress of these new radiations. We see that they are ejected from certain atoms, of the disintegration of which they are the accompaniment; that they have no regard for physical conditions ; that they move with tremendous speeds, and that they penetrate atoms with ease. Let us go on to consider, as far as we can, what happens to them in the end. Again, only a little is known, but that little is very interesting. Take the alpha particles first. Their special pecularity may, perhaps, be best expressed by saying that something happens to them before they have made more than, perhaps, one collision causing deflection, perhaps none at all; so that after this event they are lost to view. Prior to it, their tracks through gases are abundantly clear on account of the clouds of delta particles which they leave behind. In consequence, the particles move straight through the gas for some distance, and then seem to disappear. This distance I have called the range; and I have shown that each radio-active substance sends out alpha particles of special range, so that it is possible to distinguish the different substances by the ranges of their particles. I find it possible to measure the range, which varies from about 3 to 8 centi- metres in the known cases, with a precision of about + per cent. The ranges in different gases depend for some obscure reason nearly on the square roots of the atomic weights; and it is to be observed that the range in a gas (or solid) containing a complex molecule is to be calculated from the knowledge of the ranges in gases containing simpler molecules formed of the same atoms. This, again, illustrates the absence of dependence of radio-active effects upon chemical con- ditions. With the aid of Dr. Rennie and Dr. Cooke, of the Adelaide University, I have spemt some time in the attempt to verify this 16 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. important fact with exactness. Our divergences from the law are under | per cent. so far, and it is not unlikely that, small as they are, they are due to some disturbing influence in the experiment. Now, the remarkable thing is that Kutherford has shown that the alpha particle, when it reaches the end of its range, is still possessed of enormous speed, some thousands of miles per second, about half what it started with. Then what has happened to it? Why can we no longer follow it? The best suggestion is that of J. J. Thomson, that it becomes neutralised by the attachment of an electron, and that when neutral it does not excite delta rays. But this only suggests a further question of interest: What are now its properties, and what its final end! Somehow its speed is reduced, for Rutherford finds hehum in the tubes containing radium in the quantity to be expected if it is derived from the alpha particles. Sometimes, perhaps, it is mcorpo- rated into an atom, helping to raise its atomic weight, and causing a process the reverse of the known process of disintegration. It is very curious that this loss of power occurs to the alpha particle, when its velocity has fallen to the same amount, no matter what gas it is moving through. Next let us consider the beta or cathode particle. In this case we can follow many deflections from an original track, so that the particle behaves more lke a molecule of an ordinary gas. But, apparently, it loses energy at every deflection, and, as it does so, deflections become more humerous and more serious, and we can imagine that after a very few scatterings it loses its speed and becomes incorporated in an atom or molecule, forming the ordinary zon of which Dr. Pollock will speak to you to-morrow. But there is also something else that can happen to it. Like the alpha particle, it may disappear from view, and in its place may appear a ray of different kind. When the cathode rays are driven against the metal plate in the Rontgen ray tube, the most of them dive into the metal and disappear; a few swing out and hit the glass wall of the tube, which they do not penetrate, but, in the case of a very few, we find their replacement by the famous Rontgen or X rays. So, also, I think we may argue, from analogy, that beta rays may disappear and be replaced by gamma rays, even though the actual effect has never been observed. For, I think, it is easy to show that the effect is too small to find. Not only is the number of particles in a beta ray stream small compared to that in the cathode stream of the X ray tube, but also the gamma rays which they produce are very penetrating, and escape without being made to reveal their existence. This transformation is, of course, a very remarkable thing. But the interest is increased when we find that the reversed transformation INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 17 can also take place. For, when we come to consider the life history of the Rontgen or gamma rays, we find that, like the cathode or beta rays, from which they may be transformed, they move in straight lines through many atoms, and yet may be deflected at last. The penetration is, however, enormously greater. Also, as in the case of the flying electron, these rays may be modified by the act of detlec- tion, and become Jess penetrating than before. The changes have been studied by Barkla in the case of X rays, and by Madsen in the case of the gamma rays. And, again, as in the case of the electron, the rays may disappear altogether; the reversed transformation then takes place, the X ray being replaced by a cathode ray, the gamma by a beta. It is to be remarked that when cathode rays are replaced by X rays, and in turn these disappear to be replaced by cathode rays, the last have nearly the velocity of the original cathode rays. Putting all these facts together, we have some idea of the life history of these rays, which we see cannot be considered separately. Of an original ‘bundle of cathode rays some, after a number of deflections, lose their energy altogether, some are for a time replaced by X rays, but pre- sently cathode rays reappear of rather less energy than before; and, finally, we have no longer a stream of cathode particles flying at high speed, but a number of negatively charged molecules scattered through the gas. ; This very curious alternation of forms leads us to ask of what nature the Rontgen and gamma rays must be to make the transforma- tion possible ? The orthodox view, due to Sir George Stokes, is, that they consist of wzther pulses; that they are the disturbances of the ether which spread away from the places where the motion of electrons is altered. In the original form of the theory the disturbance was supposed to disperse its energy over widening surfaces, as the energy of the splash where a stone enters the water distributes itseif in spreading ripples. But this view has necessarily been abandoned. It could hold only so long as the appearance of cathode rays from atoms struck by X rays was supposed to be due to radio-active explosions of the atoms, pre- cipitated by the X rays. This was imagined in order to explain why the cathode rays, which arise in this way, have precisely the same speed, no matter how much the pulses have spread before they origi- nate the rays. But it is found (1) that the rays have the same speed no matter from what atoms they arise, and we could not expect such uniformity as the result of explosions of widely different atoms; (2) that the rays, at least in the case of the gamma and beta sequence, move off at first in continuation of the line of movement of the gamma B ‘ 18 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. rays. For these and other reasons it is no longer thought possible that the energy of the electrons, which arise in this way, can come from the atoms themselves; it is simply derived from the Rontgen or gamma rays, as the case may be. But if the energy is derived irom this source, we cannot allow that the Rontgen rays spread as thought at first. The energy of a Rontgen ray must moye in a straight line without loss by the way, so that when it strikes the fatal atom it may have an undiminished amount to give to the electron which takes its place, and the velocity of the latter may not depend on the distance the ray has travelled from the tube. The X ray, in fact, behaves like a material particle, in that it moves from point to point, carrying a certain store of energy which does not diffuse over a larger space in the transit. Now, the ether, which is supposed to fill all space, and which has been postulated in order to carry the light and heat radiations, has hitherto been supposed to be quite uniform and isotropic. A disturbance which has its origin at any point spreads in widening spheres, diffusing and weakening as it eces. Our conception of the ether must be materially amended if we are to suppose it capable of carrying a pulse along a line without allowing it to spread. Thomson has not shrunk from making this very serious change, and has imagined the ether to possess a sort of fibrous er tubular structure; in other words, he has filled all space with lines or tubes, alone which the ether pulse is to travel undiffused. This carries with it corresponding changes in our conception of light and heat. We must replace our spreading waves by clouds of minute bundles of energy, tiny entities which move like material particles, but with the speed of light. It is a curious and most interesting return in the direction of the old Newtonian corpuscular hypothesis—a kind of compromise between two theories which were so long at war. . But the question arises at once: Is the amended hypothesis able to explain all the facts? In our ignorance of the nature of the ther it might, perhaps, just as well have such a constitution as not. Recent experiment has, however, added largely to our knowledge of the cir- cumstances under which the energy of a moving electron is converted into the energy of a pulse and back again, and it is right to ask whether they are in agreement with the amended theory. So far as I am able to judge, no satisfactory agreement is possible; but it is only fair to say that the experimental results to which I refer have been cbtaied so recently that there has not been time for the advocates of the pulse theory to make any serious attempt’ to explain them. I will describe some of these experimental results presently. Meanwhile, I would ask you to consider the Rontgen and gamma rays: INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 19 from a somewhat different point of view in order that I may be able to suggest an alternative hypothesis as to their nature. Let me take you back to the history of scientific research in the last century. The wave theory of light had completely triumphed over the corpuscular theory which Newton had advocated; and the progress of physical science for scores of years consisted in a long series of successful — explanations of new discoveries in terms of the undulatory theory. When, therefore, new radiations were discovered, it was natural that determined efforts should be made to explain them in terms of the winning hypothesis. For a long time many physicists claimed that the cathode rays were ether pulses, and Sir William Crookes had to fight hard for his idea of a fourth state of matter. The later investi- gations of J. J. Thomson established firmly the material view, and laid the foundation of the electronic theory. When Becquerel first experimented with the rays of uranium, some of his earliest tests were made in order to discover whether the new radiation possessed the characteristic properties of zther waves. Pioneering work is always difficult ; Becquerel’s experiments led him to false conclusions. He announced that he had found reflection, refraction, and polarisation ; it was, therefore, concluded that the rays were of the nature of light, and this view was accepted by most physicists for some years. Finally, Rutherford, in 1899, repeated the experiments, and reversed Bee- querel’s conclusions. Thanks mainly to his labours, we now know that two at least of the three forms of radiation which radium and uranium emit are material. The alpha rays are positively charged atoms of helium, the beta rays are negative electrons. There remain the gamma rays, and with these must be classed the Rontgen rays, which resemble them so closely. Many years ago Sir George Stokes, as I have already said, applied the pulse hypothesis to explain the properties of the newly-discovered X rays; and later it was naturally applied to the gamma rays also. But it is a very striking fact, I think, that the more closely these various radiations are examined the clearer does it become that there is a strong family likeness between the properties of them all. If for no other reason, we are forced to inquire whether they are not more nearly allied in Nature than is compatible with the classification into corpuscular and pulse radia- tions. The differences between the various rays—alpha, beta, gamma, and Rontgen rays—are rather differences in the degree to which various properties are exhibited; there is no very radical difference between the properties themselves. The most obvious difference at all stages of the inquiry has been, perhaps, the fact that the alpha and beta rays can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields, whilst the 20 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. gamma and X rays cannot. This shows that the former are charged electrically, and, since pulses cannot carry charges, we conclude that the rays are material. The gamma and X rays are not acted.on by electric and magnetic fields; they are therefore uncharged. This does not prove them to be immaterial—to be pulses, in fact; they may be material particles without charge. The simplest conception of such a material particle would be one negative electron with its positive counterpart. Again, it is important to remember that when X rays were first discovered nothing was known of material radiations capable of pass- ing through matter in straight lies, and the remarkable power of penetration which the rays were found to possess was sufficient to put out of court any suggestion that they might be material. That objection has vanished now. Even the electrified beta rays possess the property of penetration; some of the electrons in a stream of such rays, projected against a metal sheet, are found to have passed through, apparently without being affected in any way. When we remember that such electrons as have been swung aside out of the stream owe the effect to the strong influence of their electrical charges, it is natural to suppose that if the charges were neutralised by the attachment of the corresponding positives, the penetrating power would be greatly increased. Thus, the same simple hypothesis which ex- plains the independence of electric and magnetic fields explains also the extraordinary penetration of the gamma and Rontgen rays. Nor does it stop short here. The movement of the rays in straight lines, without dispersion of their energy, is at once made clear; the rays resemble material particles in their behaviour simply because they are such, and there is no need to invent a special wether to cover the case. And, again, the ease with which the energy of the cathode ray may change into that of the Rontgen ray, and back again, is under- stood. It is simply that the negative electron picks up its positive counterpart, and again puts it down. The electron of the cathode stream is driven against the surface of the anti-cathode, and pene- trates the atoms there. If the atom consists, as is generally supposed, of a number of similar electrons embedded in a quantity of positive electricity of little massiveness, it is easily to be imagined that in one of these deflections its temporary entanglement may be so great that it may pick up the neutralising amount of positive before emerging. Thus, instead of the negative cathode particle we now have a neutral pair, incapable of deflection by electric or magnetic fields and endowed with far more power of penetration than the original cathode particle. Yet the neutralising positive may be torn away again from the electron INAUGURAL ADDRESS. Phi s in some other transit across an atom, and the Rontgen ray become euce more a cathode particle, probably with less energy than at first, since some loss of energy might well occur at each change. And, again, the neutral pair has the further properties of the Rontgen ray in that it is incapable of regular reflection, refraction, or polarisation of the ordinary kind. Yet, as I have pointed out else- where, it can be made to exhibit the peculiar polarisation which Barkla has shown to be a property of the Rontgen rays. It is true that it can hardly be supposed to move with the velocity of heht, and that a famous experiment by Marx seems to have shown that Rontgen rays and light rays do actually move with the same speed. But I have pointed out that the quantitative conclusions of Marx’ experiment are incorrect; and the whole experiment has recently been seriously questioned by Franck and Pohl. Again, a very small diffraction effect is said to have been found by Haga and Windt as the result of a most difficult and delicate experiment. An effect of this kind might be expected if the rays were ether pulses. But this experment has also been questioned by Walter and Pohl, who have been unable to confirm it. It is often said that the X rays, like alpha and beta rays, cause electrons to be shed by the atoms through which they pass; but. the statement is not logically correct. The X rays disappear as they pass through matter whether sold, liquid, or gaseous, and cathode rays appear in their place: the latter certainly cause electrons to be set free. Unless it can be shown that the actual number liberated is more than can be accounted for as the result of the action of the secondary cathode rays, it is not right to assert that any of them are due to the direct action of the X rays themselves. The question may be settled by experiment; but I have not, so far, found it easy to obtain a decisive result. All that can be asserted is that the number of electrons set free when Rontgen rays pass through a gas is so near to the number which would be set free by the cathode rays formed by the gas as the result of the passage of the Rontgen rays, thai the burden of proof rests with those who would say that any are due to the Rontgen rays themselves. As a final result we have, therefore, a fairly simple picture of the progress associated with the Rontgen ray tube. The cathode particles impinge on the metal anti-cathode ; some ot these pick up the positive necessary to neutralise them, and so become X rays. In this form they cross the glass walls of the tube, the air outside, and any other substances which they may meet. The stream is continually, weakened, since pairs are always dropping out of it; because they are broken up into the negative electron and its 22 NAGE HAL TADUEESS. positive counterpart. The former is the secondary cathode ray, and perhaps is responsible for all the action in the gas by which we trace the progress of the X rays. The latter we may suppose to remain in the atom where the break-up of the pair has occurred. It is too hght to assume an independent existence. Simple as this conception is, it correlates the facts in a remarkably effective way. Moreover, it has led to new discoveries, as I will now explain. I have said that the radiations which are known to be material are capable of being scattered or deflected in passing through the atoms. It is most easy to examine the effect in the case of the beta rays. The flying electron which passes close to a centre of force within the atom is only deflected through a large angle when the degree of approach is very close indeed. Since close approaches are relatively rare, if a stream of electrons passes through a sheet of material so thin that any one electron is not likely to experience more than one deflection or so, then we find that the number of electrons which are only slightly deflected, and, therefore, appear on the further side of the plate, is much greater than the number which are so much de- flected as to be turned right back and emerge again on the side of the plate at which the original stream entered. The fact might be antici- pated; but it has actually been shown very clearly by Dr. Madsen in some experiments of which the account is to be read at this meeting. Now a certain proportion of a stream of X rays or gamma rays is scattered in passing through a plate; and the wether pulse theory has hitherto been held to show that there should be equality on the two sides of the plate in respect to the proportions scattered. Thus the two theories lead to different conclusions in this respect. When the experiment is made it is found that the X rays and the gamma rays behave like the material beta rays, and not in the rnanner to be expected on a pulse theory. Madsen has recently shown that when gamma rays are passed through a plate, the scattered rays: on the far side of the plate are sometimes five or six times as important as those which are to be found on the near side, that at which the original stream enters. I have myself found the effect to be clearly shown by X rays, though to a smaller degree. And, again, when the gamma: rays are replaced by beta rays the experiments of Madsen and myself show that the latter must at first travel straight on in the original direction of the former. This is easily understood on the neutral pair theory, since we may suppose the removal of the positive from the pair to be effected without seriously INAUGURAL ADDRESS. £3 interfering with the motion of the negative. The effect was not an- ticipated on the pulse theory. It is now proposed to modify that’ theory, so as to explain a certain amount of dissymmetry, but it seers to me that it will be very difficult to explain the completely unidirec- tional movement of the beta ray. On the whole, therefore, it seems proper to class the gamma and the Rontgen rays with the alpha and beta, the nature of which is more certain; and to ascribe a material character to them all. In this way they would stand entirely differen- tiated from the radiations which we call light and heat; and the absolute difference in the properties of the two classes of radiation would imply an absolute difference in their natures. In one we should see the travelling to and tro through space of those wether waves which we have been investigating for centuries; in the other a con- tinuous dance of atomic particles. Just as the theory of gases teaches us to think of the gaseous molecules moving rapidly from collision to collision with each other, and the seemingly quiet air to be the seat of the most vivid movement, so the lessons of radio-activity show us a continuous movement far finer still in which the parts of atoms torn from their normal places fly about at inconceivable speeds encounter- ing only each other. Though there is a strong family hkeness between all in their properties, yet there is also a most interesting variety in their natures and histories. Some may be set in motion in the vacuum tube under the action of electric forces, but the alpha, the beta, and the gamma rays arise from the disintegration of the atom. Certain forms are interchangeable as we have seen. The lite of each ray is very short, and it may be that as the appearance of the ray is the sign of an atomic breakdown, so in some cases the disappearance is really contributory to atomic growth. Some of the rays as they move through a gas cause the appearance of delta rays, and throw the gas for a time into a state of “ ionisation.” If we now ask to what extent this radiation exists, whether, for example, it is prevalent and influential enough to affect the events of our existence, it is not easy to give a satisfactory answer at present. Of the great scientific importance of our new knowledge there can be no doubt; of the magnitude of the part which it plays in the working of the universe our knowledge is insufficient as yet. We can see importance enough in a science which deals with the evolution and destruction of the atoms of which all materials are made.. We can grasp the significance of the fact that radio-active material exists in our earth and air in sufficient quantities to have great influence on the temperature of the globe and on the electric state of the atmosphere. But it also seems likely that in a thousand ways yet unsuspected the 24 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. strange motions which we have recently discovered are concerned with the working of the great machine, and with our very lives upon the earth. Such, then, are some of the conclusions to which the study of radio-activity leads us. No student of science woud deny their interest and importance, and i am sure that you will understand why I have wished to attempt their exposition. I trust that you will not think it inapposite if now in the short time remaining to me I ask you to turn your thoughts in a different direction. The discussion of any pure scientific research before an Australasian audience like this naturally brings forward the question as to how far Australasians are themselves justified in spending their time and money on such work. Or, is there any other research work which they should attempt in preference? And, again, if there is work which should be done, who is to do it? To all these questions I do not propose to attempt a full answer. But it seems to me that certain of them call for a very serious consideration at this present time, and, therefore, that as President of an Association for the Advancement of Science I ought to discuss them. For I am addressing not only those who are directly engaged or interested in scientific work, nor only our kind Queensland hosts who honour and delight us with their presence this evening, but also all Australasians who care to listen. First, then, as regards the study of pure science, the one all- important thing to remember is that pure science les at the root of wll applied science. The former throws up and nourishes the stems which bear the latter as their fruit. It is said that when an Indian durbar is to be held in some uncultivated spot the natives create in a single night the semblance of an established garden with its trees and shrubs, beds of bright annuals and winding paths. But it is only the garden of a day; even the flowers have been cut from plants grown on ether soil, and are but stuck in the ground; there is no root and no power to grow. Just so, if we are content in this country to import always the flowers of European or American thought, and to use them in the establishment of our industries and to grow nothing of our own, then we must continually be replenishing our ideas from abroad in order to maintain our position. That is neither an honourable nor an economical arrangement. We must ourselves encourage the spirit of pure research amongst our own peoples, and provide opportunities. for research within our own, borders, if the science of our crafts and industries is to have life and power to grow. There is another aspect of the question which I may illustrate from our own experience. In the history of every new country there INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 25 is a phase—it has not yet passed away in Australia—when the pros- pector and the surveyor traverse the land through and through mapping its features, investigating its riches and its possibilities. Their labour is absolutely necessary, though they set out on their quest in ignorance of what they shall find. Just so the workers of science cover the new fields of research; they are prospectors who must do their part before the new country can be made to contribute to the enrichment of mankind. Now it is true tnat there are branches of scientific research which have a more or less obvious relation to Aus- tralasian progress. But we may also aspire to do work which does not appear to advantage our own country more than the world at large. Indeed, if we wish to take our place amongst the progressive peoples of the world, to gain the strength and imspiration which come trom sharing in a common advance, and to shun the soul starvation which would follow on a selfish concentration on our own. immediate advantage, we must play our part in this sense also, and play it enthusiastically and well. Pure scientific research is necessary not cnly to Australasia but in Australasia; to bring in the spirit of the patient and reverent search for truth, to illustrate the searcher’s methods, to open up new fields, and to answer the questions that arise and will arise to an ever-increasing degree if the progress of the country is to be sound. Now as to research with more obvious application to the work of the country it is surely unnecessary to plead for it at length. Every- ene will admit the urgent need; and I will only point out that the present position is consequent not only on the increasing use of scientific methods which is made by all mankind, but also on the change of status of our own country. We did not feel the want in the early days. When gold was first discovered in Australia little science, though plenty of pluck, was required by the workers in the alluvial fields. But when the first pockets were worked out, and the greater though less obvious wealth of the quartz reefs was made plain, then all the resources of chemistry and physics, mineralogy and mechanics were called in to assist ; and now the student of the mining school receives a training which would have been beyond the power of the old digger to conceive much less appreciate. Just so with the other industries of the country; it is a fact of first rate importance that they must all pass through the same stages, though it may not always be so obvious. Is not, for example, the old farming passing away, yielding to the absolute necessity for more scientific methods? And are there not, in consequence, a host of agricultural questions pressing for investigation, the need of which has been revealed by 26 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. the adoption of the new procedure? I do not for a moment overlook the fact that State Governments have given serious attention to agri- culture, or that much excellent work has not been done by the men whom they have appointed. But no one is better aware, I am sure, than the directors of agriculture of how much there is to be done at once which may reasonably be expected to return a rich harvest. to the State. To one of them I am indebted for the infermation that there are still great opportunities for research in the field of wheat-breeding, especially in Australasia ; that we have, as yet, very insufficient know- ledge of the rusts and other cryptogamic pests, of the process of nitrification in the soil under Australasian conditions, of the inocula- tion of our soils with bacteria, of wheat diseases like “take-all,”’ of soil investigation, of pests like the lucerne-flea, and the parasitic insects which can be called in to war with the pests, and so on. We may take a few illustrations from other great industries. How much is known of coast disease in sheep? What great gaps are there not still in our knowledge of the fishes of our seas? Is there not a great field of inquiry as to tropical diseases, into which the school of tropical medicine to be found in your State is making honourable entry? Is there not still much profitable work to be done in connection with Australian forestry, indeed should I not in this case use much stronger terms? How lttie do we know of some orchard diseases, like bitter pit, in apples; how much there is to learn in respect to Austrahan viticulture, and so on. I am sure that if you ask any of those able men in the various States who are brought face to face with. these questions it will be your experience, as it has been mine, that he will tell you of numberless opportunities of useful scientific inquiry waiting only for the men to take advantage of them. We may indeed assume without hesitation the existence of work to be done. The question I would particularly bring to your notice to- might is this, “ Who is to do it?” It will be said that there are universities to do pure scientific work, and Government experts to take up the questions of appled science. But to this it is to be answered that the reapers are utterly insufficient for the harvest. Those who would lend enthusiastic service in the scientific work which the country demands are quite unable to cope with all that they see before them. It is possible, of course, to suggest that the number of experts might be increased; but it is also possible, I think, to adopt means which will increase greatly the effective value of those we already possess, and, at the same, time, provide the capacity of further growth. The point I would parti- cularly press upon your notice is this:—I think that we are falling INAUGURAL ADDRESS. eat far short of what we might do in the way of using the scientific powers of our own young people. Every year we are throwing away the ser- vices of highly trained university graduates who might do good work under the direction of older men, and who might at the same time relieve the experts of certain routine duties, setting their brains and time free for better work. Froude quotes a saying of Goethe to the effect that “ once a man has done a good piece of work to the satisfac- tion of the world, then the world takes good care that he shall have no opportunity of repeating his performance.” Goethe was certainly not speaking of Australasian conditions, to which nevertheless his words are singularly applicable. Is it not usual to find the scientific expert so loaded with routine duties, and with work which is not really scientific, that the country is being deprived of the best part of his powers! Let us see whether we cannot help him. My own experience of Australian university life has convinced me of several things which bear upon the question. In the first place there is good material to be had. In most of the States there is a more or less effective educational ladder from the primary school to the university which is much used already, and might be made more popular still. In the second place the training which is given in the universities is well suited for students who may afterwards take up research work under proper direction. And, again, there is generally nothing to keep the young graduates in their universities ; most of them must at once set to work to earn bread and butter, and they soon scatter far and wide. A very large proportion of our best students leave Australia altogether, tempted by travelling or research or other scholarships tenable else- where. And, lastly, the young graduate may be of inestimable help to the professor or technical expert who is trying to do research work. All such work involves a great deal of attention to details, long hours and days spent in observations or manipulations which are almost mechanical in themselves and yet must be closely followed by some one with enthusiasm and intelligence. The research which is almost a drudgery when the worker is alone, which moves with a halting gait, brightens up and begins to run when there is a willing assistant. And there is another most important consideration. The assistant soon becomes the separate worker, if opportunity allows. No better way has ever been devised of training young men into the spirit and methods of research than that of allowing them to work with those of greater experience. To what then does all this tend? In what direction shall we move! 28 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. In the first place, smce I am speaking in a State in which the university movement has not yet reached its goal, I would break down the ‘few barriers that still stand in the way. You must have a university in this State with a staff of men whose first quality shall be that glowing enthusiasm from which the students catch fire, and the second, a profound knowledge and the power to use and impart it. You need the final court of appeal in scientific matters; the example of research; the training ground of the young and eager minds whose services will be of more and more value to you as thought and know- ledge are brought to bear on your industries. I speak only of the scientific side of university work because it is directly related to my subject. I must be silent in respect to other sides about which I could gladly speak with equal earnestness. Having provided the means of traiming, let us keep our best students for a while trom the need to go out immediately into the commercial world. A moderate number of research scholarships would involve no great expense, and the country would be amply repaid if only in the greater effectiveness of the professional men under whom the research students would work. In our own country the Govern- ment of Victoria has already shown the way, in the provision of scholarships at the University of Melbourne. If we look abroad we can find other examples from which we can learn; for some countries have already realised the position which I am trying to explain, and made provision to meet its requirements. When I was trying to decide a few months ago as to what I should say to you on this subject, the scientific papers brought the text of Professor Kipping’s address to: the Chemistry Section of the British Association meeting in Dublin. Professor Kipping discusses with great ability the need to encourage voung research students in England, in order to meet the tendency of certain branches of chemical industry to leave English for German soil, and he had found in the preparation of his address that he was able to draw lessons from American experience. In the University of Kansas it is a practice for manufacturers, who require the solution of some problem of importance to their work, to maintain a special and temporary research fellowship at the State University. The results of the fellow’s investigations are the property of the manufacturer, but are also communicated to the university, which may publish them for the benefit of the world after three years have expired. Fuller details of the scheme may now be found in a new book by Professor Duncan, of the University of Kansas, “The Romance of Chemical Industry.” This is a very interesting and useful illustration, drawn from a scheme already in operation. You will see that it shows the university INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 29 in touch with industrial life. I consider that this is a lesson of fundamental importance; of all the mistakes that could be made in the management of the universities in these States I do not think there could be a greater than that of allowing them to shut them- selves up, or to drift away, or to be cut off from the daily life and tasks of the people. Not that the so-called “utilitarian” side of university life should be encouraged to abnormal growth; very much the contrary. The point is that pure science and technical science draw life each from the other, and must on no account be separated. Technical problems are most naturally and successfully attacked when there is constant touch with the professors and the methods of pure science; for the very novelty of the technical problem implies that some law of pure science has not been obeyed, or is perhaps yet undis- covered; and, on the other hand, the advances of pure science are often due to attempts to solve the problems which arise in industry and commerce. I know there are those who think that our universities should be kept free from the touch of sordid industry, and that their professors should teach only that which is * useless,” to use a historic phrase. I am convinced that this is not the noble view, but the narrow one. If the State university is to live its full life, it must not separate itself into the wilderness, like the hermit of old; but must mingle with the people and draw strength and inspiration from the.attempt to minister to their needs. Let us then do all that we can to keep our universities in touch with the applied science of the country. If I were to define too exactly my suggestions as to how this should be done, I might defeat my own purpose, since the circumstances are too varied to admit of uniform treatment. But in the first place let me repeat that research scholar- ships will induce young graduates to take up work for a while under the direction of those who are face to face with the problems to be solved, whether they are university professors or Government experts. The young men are in general only too glad of the chance to win their spurs. Again, let us try to keep the State expert in touch with the university ; sometimes it may be desirable that he should actually be a member of the university staff, sometimes that the connection should be less rigid. For example, he might from'time to time give special courses of lectures on subjects of interest and importance which he has met with in the course of his work. In some way the results of his own first-hand observations should be made to illustrate and give point to the subject of the university curriculum, and the student should become interested in what he is doing. 30 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. Or, again, the university may aim at becoming a court of appeal, or in forming standards of reference in certain industries. For example, some of our universities are considering schemes for the for- mation of electrical testing laboratories; so that the tests of the electrical companies may be carried out cheaply and efficiently, the students may gain experience, the companies and the students may become acquainted with each other, and pure science may benefit by the consideration of problems of special difficulty and interest. Whatever the means adopted, the end is clear. If I may sum it up, the scientific research work of the country is growing inevitably ; and the country’s welfare demands that we should grapple with it boldly and with enthusiasm. It is true that much has already been done by public and private enterprise, yet it is possible and desirable to do very much more. I have tried to show that we can make our research army a better fighting machine, by throwing into its ranks some of our own young men, trained in our own universities. I would assert the value of the help which such assistants can give to those already engaged in research, and the advantage which the country derives from the encouragement of research amongst its own people. Lastly, I would urge that the scientific expert work of the country should be kept in close touch with the universities as the centres of that pure research on which all technical work ultimately depends. It is rather the recognition of a situation for which I would plead than the expenditure of large sums of money. For I am confident that if we once understand our position and use the simple raeans of advance which lie immediately to our hands, we shall find ourselves entering on a course from which we can hardly stray. Section A. ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, AND PHY SICs. f ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, dae. PORMOC kK DSc, Professor of Physics in the University of Sydney... THE IONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. ee As one of the results of the recent development of electrical science, it is considered that throughout the air in its normal state, and in other gases in a similar condition, there exist a small number of molecules, or groups of molecules, which are distinguished from the yast host of their fellows in being electrified. Each of these electrified entities, whatever its structure, is called an ion, and of ions there are two main classes, the one containing those which are positively, the other those which are negatively electrified. The notion of the ion, in this connection, arises from attempts to reach a simple description of the facts associated with the conduction of electricity through gases, and the hypothesis admirably fulfils its purpose. The number of ions in the air can be greatly increased by exposing it to the influence of Rontgen rays, or to the radiations from radium or other radio-active bodies, and it is from investiga- tions connected with this artificially-produced ionisation that most of our present knowledge of ions is derived. For the most interesting account of these researches I refer you to the Address delivered before this Section at Dunedin in 1904 by the present distinguished President of the Association. For my immediate purpose I have to remind you of one result: in an electric field, in addition to the motion of molecular agitation shared by all the constituents of a gas, the ions, in virtue of their charge, acquire a velocity whose average value depends on the electric intensity and on the resistance which is offered to the movement; under the influence of the electrical forces the ions drift, as it were, in a definite direction, the positives travelling to the negative electrode, and vice versd, a motion in which the uncharged molecules have no part. Other things being equal, it is assumed that this drift velocity of the ions is directly proportional to the electric intensity, and, following the suggestion of M. Langevin, the term “mobility” has been adopted for the average velocity acquired by an ion under the influence of unit electric force. At the present time the mobility of a class of ions is its most readily deter- mined property, and it is principally to observations of the mobility ot the ions in different gases and under various conditions that we must look for a clue to the nature of the ionic structure.: In all cases 25 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS——SECTION A. I shall state the value of the mobility as that of the velocity, in centimetres per second, due to an electric force represented by a potential gradient of one volt per centimetre. Two types of ion are recognised as existing naturally in the air, the small ion, with a mobility of about 1°5 under normal conditions, and another, discovered by M. Langevin,* and called by him the large ion, which is characterised by the very small mobility of only 1/3000. To these I now add a third, which has a mobility of about 1/100 under normal circumstances. It may be called, for the present at least, the ion of intermediate mobility, or the mtermediate ion. M. Bloch? finds in air bubbled through water ions of mobility of the order of 0'1 or 0°2; these seem to form a fourth class of ions, and it would be interesting to know if they exist in air not specially treated. The small atmospheric ions are identical with those artificially produced in air by ionising agents which have been made the subject of such numerous researches as described by Professor Bragg in his address. There is now considerable knowledge, resumed in the beautiful kinetic theory of gases, of molecular movements and dimen- sicns, and when it is thought that an ion moves more slowly in an electric field than would a single molecule if charged, as the ion must be made of the stuff of the gas in which it is formed, what more natural than to consider it a cluster of a few molecules? This idea has been generally adopted. The small ions are thus assumed to be of somewhat greater size than their fellow molecules; but, as the mobility notably increases with decrease of pressure, and with rise of temperature, their diameter is apparently not a constant quantity. The direct argument, which is used to support this view, con- siders that in the numerous collisions which occur between the charged and uncharged molecules, in many cases the kinetic energy of the latter will not be great enough to carry them away, after impact, from the attraction of the charge. The charged molecule will thus collect other molecules around it; but, as the effect of the charge on the outer members of the cluster diminishes as the collec- tion of molecules increases, the growth will cease when the size is such that the attraction of the charge at the surface of the cluster, In grazing impact of ion and molecule, is just insufficient to hold the latter as a permanent member of the ionic system. The principle involved, in calculating the value of the limiting radius, is similar to that which determines whether a comet, in its close approach to the sun, shall become a permanent member of the solar system or wander into the space from which it came. The calculation of the ionic size which has been made on these lines assumes the ions as charged, the molecules as uncharged conducting spheres, and taking the radius of the molecules as 10° * centimetres, reaches the conclusion that the radius of the ion cannot exceed three times this value. * Langevin. C.R., t. 140, p. 232, 1905. + Bloch. C.R., t. 145, p. 54, 1907. a6 PRESIDENT’S SECTION A. 30 To account for the change of mobility gssociated with alteration of the pressure or temperature conditions, it is supposed that the clusters of molecules forming the ions consist of fewer members at low pressures and at high temperatures than under ordinary circum- stances. As the temperature rises, for instance, the ion may be imagined as shedding one by one its component molecules. The mobility, however, varies continuously, and not by jumps; it may, therefore, be considered, in addition, that a cluster at any tempera- ture does not always consist of the same number of molecules. In the numerous collisions, to which an ion as a constituent of a gas is subjected, a molecule of the cluster may be lost at one, to be gained at another impact, the cluster acting on the whole as if it contained the average number of members; it is this average number which, from this poimt of view, must be taken as decreasing continuously with rise of temperature. From a consideration of the slow movement of the ions in an electric field compared to that which it is assumed a single charged molecule would have in the same circumstances, it 1s possible, with the aid of the principles of the kinetic theory, to make an estimate of the number of molecules which go to make an ion. The argument is given in Mr. Phillips’. paper on “ Ionic Velocities in Air at Different Temperatures,”* and he calculates from his results that the positive ion at — 179° C. consists, on the average, of about four and a halt molecules (4°63), while at + 138° C. the average number is only about one and a half (1°52). For the negative ion slightly smaller figures are obtained. Such an idea of the small ion, based, either on the direct argu- ment in its restricted form already noted, or on the calculation just mentioned, cannot be considered satisfactory, and it is now shown to be unnecessary by two workers at opposite sides of the world, Mr. Wellisch, at Cambridge, and Mr. William Sutherland, at Melbourne. In this connection it is interesting to recall another physical problem which apparently also required for its explanation a shrink- age of the molecules with rise of temperature, that of the relation between the temperature and the viscosity of a gas. The solution of the problem was finally reached in 1893 by Mr. Sutherland, from a consideration of the influence of molecular force in bringing about collisions which would otherwise not occur, the investigation being published in his paper on “The Viscosity of Gases and Molecular Force.”t The result of mutual attraction, only sensible at small distances, is to make the molecules, considered forceless, behave as if they had a diameter greater than the true value. As the molecular force is less effective in causing collisions the greater the velocity with which two molecules approach each other, the apparent diameter to which it gives rise is less the higher the temperature. It is now shown by the writers I have mentioned that there is a similar effect due to the ionic charge. Owing to the influence of the electrical attraction, collisions between ions and molecules take place which * Phillips. Proc. R.S. ) bP) 6 33 7 39 14 3 29 39 5 > 6 99 3% 2 be) 93 3 99 4 99 2% 6 bi) bt} 2 bb) 3 39 6% Soli ass - ELA ny snl i 14% 68. 55 under 1 m/m ... ee Me a somal The numbers of the above recorded monthly were :— January .... 6 tremors. Juillven ues .« 16 tremors. February 4 ee August ree ti A. March 5 Pe September. ... 9 ¥ April ae 6 es October Saale May Vey, ne November th. _ June 4 a December sae eb ie From 1st January to 12th December, 1908, eighty-two tremors have been recorded on our instrument, as under :— 2 tremors between 6 and 7 m/m amplitude 2% 1 ” ” 4) ” 6 ” oe) 1% 1 99 39 4 33 D 99 393 1% 1 9 ” 3 ” 4 ” > 1% 3 ” ” 2 ” 3 ” om) 4% 14 > 1 ’ 2 ” ” 17% 60 i less than 1 m/m me i om a (es SEISMOLOGICAL REPORTS. 43 Monruiy Recorp or EartH TREMORS. January . 3 tremors. July see 22.) 9 tremors: February ... 4 its August ATA be | 7 March 8 ad September 13 ne April iG * October ie D Bs May ae Ps 3b . November xd 5 "i June ee el ES December ; 1 . You will thus observe that, during the period under review, more ee 70 per cent. of the disturbances are only thickenings of the light ine. Complete detailed measurements of all the records are appended hereto. MAGNETICAL. Although a magnetometer has been established at our branch observatory, Red Hill, Pennant Hills, under the charge of Mr. J. W. Short, for several years, owing to certain defects in the instrument, nd systematic observations were taken till late in 1907, when a new collimator magnet was received from the National Physical Obser- vatory, Kew, London, and placed in position. I forward you the results for February to November, 1908, those being the only observations on which any reliance can be placed. I have, &c., Wm. E. Raymonp, Officer in Charge. The Government Astronomer, Observatory, Melbourne. EARTHQUAKE RECORDS BY MILNE SEISMOGRAPH. As early as possible after 30th June and 31st December of each year, the Recorder is requested to fill up the sheets, and post the same to the Secretary of the Earthyuake Committee, British Association, Burlington House, London, England. These should be accompanied by copies of important seismogranis. Remarks exceeding six words should be entered on separate sheets. ‘At the end of each Register the equivalent of 1 min. of amplitude should be stated in seconds of are. P.T. = Preliminary Tremors. L.W.= Large Waves. Tine is Greenwich Civil Mean Time ; it is to be given in hours, minutes, and decimals of minutes ; 0 or 24 H = midnight. Register from Sydney Observatory—-W. Graham, Observer. | | PT. Com- |L.W. Com- 1 Max. ee ue Date. | mence. | mence. Max. End. | amplituae.| Duration. Remarks: ema ee wr ig ihe Hoa Wy ME ie ate 1907. 1 January... 0 23:2 0 23°6 0 28°4 1 18°2 | 1S. 0 55:0 1 PE 22AS Sele 2a aai7a 2252-2) | 25) ove = 125 0 36:2 2 2) eee eel, LACOM 120 33:4) ime Lo. aGwnile) 6:4 3 348 4 ; Le 4-58:°7 | 5 25d 5 27-7 7 536 5°85 2 549 Thickening of line on 8th January from 5 41°8 to 6 53°38. NAR ess os: 9 56:9 { 9 57-4 9 58:2) 10 11:2 | 15 0 143 3 February | 5 55:8 5 58°3 Cez ae 2271 O85 | O 26°3 Bae; 19 43-2 | 19 446| 19 49:2] 20538; 72 | 1 106 ae 21.215 | 21 221) 21 30:3] 22 15°5 | 185 | 0 540 CLUS Se 9173! 9 234) 9 268] 9 304) 0-55 0 116 29 March 20,5377 | 21 0-4| 21 11°31) 21 41:0 11 | 0 47:3 31 et lomo siale tlanercbi lt Lb) 8:01," Lop 23:3 O05 | 0 17:6 31 eee Oz ee oul O2e nor oul eon 473) 2) 30:3 1-0 | 0 35:0 Machine under repairs from 23 30 on 2nd April to 6 0 on 3rd April, 44 EARTHQUAKE RECORDS BN, MILNE SEI SMOGRAPH continued, SEISMOLOGICAL REPORTS. | ane P.T.Com-|L.W.Com-| y,, | Max. tere aa}| Date. mence. mence. | Max. | End. | Amplitude. Duration, | —} — = ie — — =| = H. BM. H. MM, A. MY) H. Me | MM. H. M. 1907. fail 193276) |) wile 34:oy(Gamleso son ae 51 ; 0 119 is 20 15:7 | 20 18:2; 20 31° Zale 25 2:5 | 0 46°8 19 O90) 780. 15:2) SRO aise mee 207a)) oes She leper G7 19 10 20°8 | 10 22:0 | 10 25°8 | i 41°5 O7 | 10) 2057, Thickening of line on 24th April from 23 13°7 to 23 37°6 4 May 5 57 6 47 6 12°8 6 47°6 3°55 0 50°0 Aine: 8 540 os 8 564 9 19°5 O7 0 25°5 Thickening of line on 12th May from 7 55 to 8 43. 13 ray By) Y 8:5 211672 22 3:4 274 0 58°2 ye 10:3 2163] 1 23:5 1 31:5 0°85 0 21:2 Thickening of line on 20th May from 8 7°3 to 10 7-0. Thickening of line on 23rd May from 16 41-6 to 21 11°3. 25 12 5-1 12 21:6] 12 208 12 49°7 | ~0°7 0 446 25 1422-4] 14 22-4) 14 22-4) 15 07 1-0 0 38°3 26 PES 220) 11 15°4 11 38:2 | OD 0 30°0 27 mY Gy alileg? Diet een ligiaey 5) 25738 0755 0 140 3 .| 12 49:6 | 12 51:0 | 18 24:3 | 14 12:9 | 1:0 1, 2333 Thickening of line on 2nd June from 14 59°7 to 21 39:1. 13 June ep a3} 12 60 12 88 12 13°5 O38 0 10°2 24. 3 55'1 3 58°8 A 23 4 22°6 Os 0 27°5 Clock stopped on 24th June at 12 43°8; repaired and restarted on 26th June at 5 lense 22 31:5 22 34°72 22 45°0 2°8 1 25°2 1 July 13 oor é 13 40°9 | 13 47°5 0-3 | 0 17°8 | 9 July ee ..{ 19 14s | Thickening of line on 5th July, 21 55 to 6th July, 5 59. Thickening of line on 7th July from 19°48 to 21°4. 8th July from 15°30 to 21°33. 19 9:5 | 19 14:2 . 19 30°5 | 20 2°6 05 () GRP | Thickening of line on 10th July from 0°41 to 8 240. 17 30°8 14178 | Hl 16)16;5: | 17 53-4 | 1A 4465 | 16 34:5 | 17 55-2 | 14 47-6 17 15°8 22 18-2 | 15 448 18 59-4 | 0°35 0°25 O-+ h 47-4 1 27-0 2 43°9 Thickening of line on 13th July from 20 54:2 to 22 43°5. 5 42°9 13 47:0 | 17 58°7 19 43°1 | 15 29°7 19 59:9 | 2 30°7 3 10°1 6 17°6 | 2 199 4615 54d By BpRs 18 104 19 546 15 47°5 20 13°3 273167, 3) 161 6 25°8 367 5 43:9 13 57-0 18 17°3 | 19 59°71 | 15 51°3 | 20 23°3 | 2 32:5 | 3 29°6 | 6 27-6 2 38:1 | 2 4 20°1 1 58°5 Thickening of 17 32:9 20. 20°5 13. 30°9 18 2) 29. SSe 4 27:0 | 25 er0;90! line on 17th August from 17 18 7:9 20 37-0 | 13 369 19 19°4 5 49-2 14 42°71 21 29°4 20 30°0 18 1:9 21 55:9 bo sT OA NTE bo ¢ — — te 18 23:9 20 58°7 | 13 42°9 19 46°3 O38 O5 Os 0°30 © US WONT eS) tw a ao — or WESw SENS san wnd) 15°5 to 22 1:9. Remarks. Max. amplitude at commencement of tremor 13°0. Clock stopped from 14°10 on Ist September to 23-48 on 2nd September. aReptember | 20 80 6 : i (0 43°8 9 { 10 10:9 ” | 22 57-1 1 =, il 3 +40 Lamp went out on 22nd September at 3°20. 20 41°0 | 1 18°6 10 27-9 | 23 34°1 | 4 176 | 20 53°9 | 1 235°0 10 39°5 23° 401 5 51-7 | 21 41°5 | 1 30:0 O45 Relighted at 23°30 on sume day. SEISMOLOGICAL REPORTS. 45 EARTHQUAKE RECORDS BY MILNE SEISMOGRAPH—continued. P.T. Com- | L.W.Com- ay ga a | Max. ssc : ¥ Date. | mence, meuce. Max. End. Amplitude. Duration. Remarks. AS eases | : le : eA Se Se H. M. H.- M: | H: M: H. MM. uM. H. M. 190 7. 24 September 0 29°3 0 50:71, 0 587 4 1373 O38 3 440 24 AA 5 59°6 6 46 Coase) 8 48.6 On’ 2 49:0 25 Y eid } 13 27-9] 13 316 | 13 42-9 06 0 15:0 30 a 23 45°9 | ahs ; a3 2 » ye 1October...| ... | 0 429| 0 445{ 7209/5 9 | 7 350 2 % eee 1 28°0 1 29:2 1 3371 Ds 4035)" 19 | 0 1275 2 i» zie 1 50°9 1 51:9 1 58°5 2 28-4 27 I O38%°5 Thickening of line on 3rd October from 7 44°3 to 16 53°65. 4 3 10 47°8 10559725 |e Is 1l 36°5 05 0 45°7 8 iy 6 340 6 41-0 6 51:0 7 118 0-5 0 37°38 9 “ ASS (ina! sei: 15 114] 15 12°9| 16 19:2 O-” 1 15°0 10 an see) 20 52°45) 21 55°7 21 57°6 | 22 59:9 50 les Oyo 11 iy ve | 14 35°0 | 14 36°7 | 14 463 Geb 78 edhe siaer 11 oh ach 20 37°38 20 39°4 20 40°3 21 19°5 oO-9 O 41°7 17 ab 4. 5:5 4 87 4.103) 4 161 10 0 10°6 7, “6 19, 54) 19 10°6 | 19 11:9) 19 204 07 | O 15:0 21 rs 4 42-0 4 45°3 5 10:0 6 32:0 o9 | 1 50-0 28 oA ses O 22-4 O 22°7 0 22°38; OU 27:2 0°75 0 4:3 3 November 19 47°6 |} 19 58:1; 20 19:1 PA Pe wiles) 1 266 12 A 7 88 *% 16°3 (20 7 49°3| 0°65 Q 40°5 19 3, 5 2:0 5 103 5 120 5 184; 0°6 | 0 164 19 A 21 46°6 | 21 48°1 21 53°38 | 22 O09 1 25 0 143 21 AA 9 12°5 9 15°75 9 19°8 9 26°6 | O-4 |} O 141 31 65 20 23°7 20 39°2 20 50:2 21 28°7 0-9 i= = 5:0) 24 a 14 15:7} 14 265] 14 29:9 14 59°7 0-6 | O 44:0 26 is 3 26 3 59 3 66 3 516 07 | 0 49:0 28 a pesca a ae y/ 19) 17-5" |, 199/209) || 19) 35:2 07 0 20°5 18 December 17 42:6} 17 51°5 17 52-4) 19 23-7 15°6 1 411 Thickening of line on 27th December from 3:16 to 15°49. SOMES ee | 0 874) eo 4e2 5 Aza 7 91-3) O-6 J 1439 | 1908. 11 January...| 3 43:2 3 447 3 48:2) 4 43:4 0°75 1 52 US Eg Oh hs 7 23°8 ih ee 7 268 7 48°4 1:0 0 246 omelets) 20)022;9 |, 20°31-1 | 20 34-8 “21 15-2 0-6 0 42°3 2 February 14 247) 14 27:9] 14 33:0] 15 7:8 1°15 0 43:1 ESO; -es:|| 267533) 16 57:9. |) 16 58;8 |) 17 11-3 0-3 0 18:0 a0 i 15 36:8 | 15 39°5 | 15 403 | 15 53-6 0°35 0 16°8 . a 23 48°38 | 43 53:3 | 23 542 ee ee ae Baie. |. Ay af 015515 22 0 26% 5 March .. 2 27-9 2 31-9 2362! 4 09 5:6 1 33:0 15 March ...| 9 146 9 23-4! 9 281) 10 10:8 0-9 0 5672 15 ease eles LO4n) SS) edi Ded) vil) 30:6 0°35 0 20°2 16 3 13 283 | 13 29] 13 29°9| 13 347 0-6 0 64 Te) aie 3. 14:0 3 147 3 19-0 33 yD 0°35 0 23-2 2 ae 4 91 4°30:8'| 4 33:1 4 57-4 05 0 48°3 23 x 12 30°] 12 42°9| 12 49-7 | 13 49-9 6:0 1 19:4 26 ‘ 23 23:5 | 23 40°38 | 23 45°5 e , 27 . a4 1 33:5 } 15 aNO'O 7 April 1 22:9 1 25°6 1) BRD 1 47-4 0-7 0 245 Ges 23 57°8 | age Oe = LOR: 4 0 68 0 S86 1104/5 6 1 126 iil 16 33°6 | 16 35:2 | 16 36°9| 16 42-2 ) 0 86 ee, 19) 1527 19 21-1 19 2372 19 49°4 270 0 33°7 IBY aa 0 10 0 13-4 0 243 1 32-0 1 1 31-0 es; ell Se a2 Pt mt 2) 21 540 af 3 40°83 | Thickening of line De ... | 13 69:0 Sng LS) 12503) 620) 58:5: 05 6 595 sh a 5 May ae 6 25°1 6 31:7 6 503 7 46°8 ges 1 21:7 ee: | 17 55°3 . | 19 21-0] 22 B56] o3 4 40°3 2 ye oh | 8811034 BH 9'Del! 28) 16 9 283 16 1 27-9 peas na) hl Bay Be | 20 148} 21 58-4 0°35 10 27-7) 31 ,, .| 3 20-4 Pe eee ome Teo) |sislae 05 0 10°8 | 3 June 10 51:9 | 19 21°6 | 21 58:0 0°55 i 620] “4 a 0 566 3 17:1} 10 43-2 On4. 9 46°6 + . a 17 13:8 ; ss, asin? Th , ui £531| 4 41-6 i 04 12 27°8 Lehi 0 42-4 aimee Gate 6 134 0-5 5 31:0) Dee. 12 301 | 12 331] 12 348) 12 566] 0:7 0 265 46 EARTHQUAKE RECORDS BY MILNE SEISMOGRA PH —continued. SEISMOLOGICAL REPORTS. } | ] P.T.Com- | L.W. Com- ees | Max. are Date. AGT || TE. Max. | Ena. | Amplitude. Duration. Remarks. | | rae | | | | | Lig aig | it LAE Ho ACS ] H. MM. MM. H, M. } 1908. Wieone 5... | 14 516:9))) 20 31°7 22 30°9 0-6 8 30°9 19 4 17-0 | 4 19°3 4 26-2 0-4 0 92 -| Thickness of line 19 14 2-7 | 15 467| 18 588] O-4 4 588) | Intermittent 21 to 21 36°7 | x . ) 0-5 41 17-4 thickening of 23 | 4 39} 14 54115 J line for néarly two days 3075; | 14 64 | 14 22°6 | 14 53-6 0-2 0 47°2 BO rss ao || ier aEl 21 14°: 22 55°8 Or“ 3 27 -| Thickening of line TWduly, 22.) 15 /56:40)| S 20 49-4] 21 50-4 0-5 5 540 Gore 8) 20 n nS) 25:2) 8 3071 8 47°3 165 0 27-2 10 16 251 . 19 29-4] 22 8-1 (es) 5 43-0 ns 163 5A 23 59°0 3s ied A ae . ie " 01274. 0° 401 (0 35:0'}s 2o 0 36:0. 21 18 6671 by pa Rey om 2 ise 0386] 6 303]5 3 Al 43:2 OP es Wi 18'404:691 21 18:1 | 22 41°8 06 4 37-2 | I: sy || Ute SRG) 19 12:8 | 21 32-7 05 9 56°7 + oe aS oGuee 16 26:3 | 16 40°3.| 18 21:8 0-2 1 565 2959) 5, ...| 15 49°9 21 19°3 | 22 42-9 05 6 53-0 2 August ...| 16 43°2 ey 18 346 | 22 2971 0°3 5 45°9 } Be 16)1 51957 16 16°2 16 17°2 16 36:0 10 0 26°73 i1Op) e 15 153:°5 | 15 57°83 16 1:0 3 30 lee 1 9:5 13 Teyposion 19 632208 19 13:5) | 20a 2°3 1 86 15 [GS Se Jl 13:6) 11 3475 0-3 0 25:7; 16 2 27-6 | 3 24-0 9 17°2 0°55 6 49°6 16 5 23 37°9 Be aa Payee re “fs 3? +4 7 : hee ey oy 2538 | 7 225|5 935 7 446) 7 10 52-3] li 25:0) 11 45-8] 13 1171 1-7 2 18°8 22 19 18:2} 19 24:2] 19 39°8 |. 20 17-5 11 0 59°3 25 13 42-2 ; 17 28:7 | 22 38:0 0-4 8 55:8 9 27 DSi eo iss 4 59-6 Beles 5 2-6 56:5 0-5 0 69 1 Septembor } 21, 35:2 ie ae we acs Ay 2 ets Ae ‘ 34:7 8 10°38 iy on 10 a be 55 cme Were: 0 18°7 ie ee 13 50°4 0:3 13 31-4 9 «,, ..| 18 363] 18 447 | 18 58:1] 19 26:6 0°55 0 50°3 ey oes | SB DHE? an 22 50°9 i Lo A aay) 20 ‘o ie ad 2 10 29°6 | 5 O's 1a Dera ae 12 59°6 13 496 | 15 96 0°25 2 10-0‘ x! x 20 oon | UE. ZS te cat ae Earp bite an ete coal 7 207] 10 11-9|5 9% MY 274 21 15 51} 15 97] 15 126] 15 36-2 15 0 3171 24 : 8 14-7 | 9 467} 10 3:0 0-2 1 483) 24 A Fey DB) || wg ote .on m Baer ie ae 25 Par 4144] 7 19-4 i 0°35 7 o464 25 se 13 27°6 £: 20 443 23) 672 0°25 9 38°6 ” 4 26 5 29-7 5 31:3 5 343 6 31-9 40 1go-2 oo 19 21°6 | 19 37°83 | 20 39°9 0-2 1 18°3) | 27 ; 23 9:9 | 23 13-9 i. oe ae 8 a ieee ag ena e me 0 43-7 \|5 8 Leo) 7 October ... 0 57-5 ib BER} 1 G3) OMS 3-2 1 50 8 : 3 189 = 4 44-9 6 26:0 O4 3 N71) 8 : 23 40-0 a see DS ayes 4! oF ae 1668] s 511is 98 9 itt) i 19 : 4 46°2 L371 14 19°5 0°25 9) 33'3'{ 19e =. 21 06 3 ms ae @ ay aot Cie Sone ae 2 so 2 62] 6 31/5 OF yee 2 November 5 340 5 50°7 5 52-0 7 '9-5 11 1 35°5 OMe nes 18 55°1 | 18 561) 18 57:4] 19 11°6 0-3 0 165 Tey Gs Pak OnE) Ob Bye il pal SB Il only Gi) 0-4 0 30°6 Tse} S2 1 51-0 1 57-0 2) 42:3 2 24:9 0°25 0 33:9 1Seiees i) 18456 13 15:6 | 13 18-9 0-4 0 43) ee 53 10 December | 12 14-4 12 15°71} 12 20°6 0°3 0 625 Mean Displacement Value 0°55” of are per mm. Booin Period 13°5.” SEISMOLOGICAL REPORTS. 47 SEISMOLOGICAL REPORT OF THE MELBOURNE OBSERVATORY. Observatory, Melbourne, Victoria, 1st January, 1908. The instrument employed at this observatory is a Milne hori- zontal pendulum, constructed by the firm of R. W. Munro, London. It is located in a dry and well-ventilated underground room in the main building. It records photographically. The average period of the boom ranges from 16s. to 17s., the time scale is 60mm. per hour, and the angular value of an amplitude of 1 mm. on the records is 0°4". The instrument has been kept in constant use throughout the period from Ist January, 1907, to date, and has registered satis- factorily. All seismograms have been measured, classified, and registered in appropriate ledgers, and the results will be sent shortly to Pro- fessor Milne for publication in the reports of the British Association, according to a standing arrangement. Unfortunately, the last record of the year 1908 is that of the disastrous Sicilian Earthquake of 28th December. P. Baraccat. SEISMOLOGICAL REPORT FROM ADELAIDE OBSERVATORY. The Observatory, Adelaide, 30th November, 1908. Dear Sir,—In reply to your letter of the 14th ultimo, asking for an account of seismological work at the Adelaide Observatory from January, 1907, to date, I send you herewith a list of reports received from country stations during that period. A Milne horizontal pendulum seismograph has been mounted this year at the observatory, in a building specially erected for the pur- pose, but the fitting and furnishing of the seismograph-room and developing-room have not yet been completed. It is hoped, however, that this will be done by the end of the year, and work will then he commenced with the instrument. The seismograph is of the latest pattern, and embodies several improvements on its predecessors. It has been set up with the boom in the meridian, the free end of the boom being to the north. Yours faithfully, G. F. DopwELL, Acting Government Astronomer. 48 SEISMOLOGICAL REPORTS. | | Time of | ‘Beginning | | ‘ Name of | of Shock, Apparent Apparent | eas Date. Place. | ade. 8.7. Dhrestton «| Daratice| De 9.30 E. of . | } G. | 1907. | | Seconds. 30 May... | Naracoorte 8°28 a.m. E. to W. | 20 Sharp. Crockery knocked down | | j and doors shook. People } | alarmed: rushed outside. No | | | | damage reported. Loud raumb- | | ling noise. 29 July... | Jamestown |12.15 a.m.| 8.W. to N.E. | Ses A rather severe shock. Many residents were awakened by the | low rumbling noise that imme- | | diately preceded it, and doors | | and windows were distinetly | shaken by the vibration. 14 December! Carrieton ... | 7°20 p.m. | N.E. to S.W. | 12 Sharp. Orockery rattlmg:; no 1908. damage. 10 April ...| Eurelia ... | 1:57 a.m. | N.E. to S.W. | 10 to 15 | Windows and doors and movable | articles rattled. Ome ... | Hookina...} 25 a.m. |S8.W.to N.E. | About 1 | Houses trembled and cracked, | minute Crockery, &c., moved rapidly. | A long rumbling sound before actual shock, and rumble after- wards. Three distinct shoeks | within the tremor. | ' Seconds. aK). As ... | Clare . | 1°55 a.m. a5 5 Small. Utensils on dressing-table shaken. 105 ... | Yunta sao |) BY Rigen. Me | 50 Severe. Windows rattled and houses shook: also hotel fixtures noisy. TOM ... | Carrieton 1°55 a.m.| N.W. to 8.E. 30 | Crockery rattled. 1k 2 ... | Yongala 1:50 a.m.| S.W. to N.E. | 10 | Beds were shaken, and crockery and windows rattled. TOmee ... | Waukaringa | 2°5 a.m. | N.E. to S.W. 8 Doors and windows shook, : crockery rattled, iron on roof trembled. Sound previous to shock resembled steam for | several seconds. : 29 October | Second Valley) 6°10 a.m.) S.W. to N.E. a Slight shock. 6 M4 Eudunda_ ... | 5°10 a.m. coh | 20 It was accompanied by a loud | | | rumbling noise like a heavy | | Wagon passing over hollow | ground. 6 - Sutherlands | 5 p.m. ane | ee The vibration cansed windows, | | furniture, and crockery to | rattle. It was xecompanied by | | | a loud rumbhng noise like | | | thunder. 6 a | Mount Mary | 5°10 p.m. E. to W. obs It shook buildings and made iron | roofs rattle. | | SEISMOLOGICAL REPORT FROM THE PERTH OBSERVATORY, WESTERN AUSTRALIA. My Dear Baraccui,—The Perth seismograph was ciected in September, 1901. It is of the Milne horizontal pendulum type. It is mounted on brick pillars with a marble table-top, and the pendulum is pointing true north. Both kerosene and electric lamps have been used at different times, and we now adopt an 8 c.p. electric lamp, covered with an opaque screen, in which is a small hole. The instru- ment is placed on a concrete floor in the basement of the astrograph building, about & ft. underground, and 200 above sea level. The instrument has worked uninterruptedly and_ satisfactorily since Ist January, 1908, with the following exceptions :—Five times the light went out. Once the paper was caught on the cylinder. SEISMOLOGICAL REPORTS. 49 The results are sent every six months to Professor Milne, and published in the circulars of the British Association. Accompanying this is a list of our earthquakes for 1908. You will find all the previous records in the printed circulars. As to dis- tinguishing between those recorded elsewhere, &c., you can probably do this better than I, as we only have the local Press reports to go by. I have, &c., Tth December, 1908. W. E. Cooke. EARTHQUAKE RECORDS BY MILNE SEISMOGRAPH. As early as possible after 30th June and 3lst December of each year, the recorder is requested to fill up the sheets, and post the same to the Secretary of the Earthquake Comuiittee, British Association, Burlington House, London, England. These should be accompanied by copies of important seismograms. Remarks exceeding six words should be entered on separate sheets. At the end of each Register the equivalent of 1 mm. of amplitude should be stated in seconds of arc. P.T. = Preliminary Tremors. L.W. = Large Waves. Time is Greenwich Civil Mean Time ; it is to be given in hours, minutes, and decimals of minutes; 0 or 24 H = midnight. Register from Perth Observatory—W. E. Cooke, Director. | | | | P.T. L.W. Max. poe Date. | Commence. Commence. Max. | End. | Amplitude. | - —| : | | | 1908. ie ed eas eed 8 Hastie lap is patsy | MM. 1 | 11 January 3 5277 3 564 Leto) Se 1-0 PI, 6, 7 21°6 77235 h 270 7 548 | 15 252 2). 20: 3458 20 54°3 20) 57'S 1 21 22:31 OD : a fl - jl4 370) | oan J | 10 4| 2¥February...; 14 30°0 14 33:0 14 42-0 J 14 sd 1-0 BO): ji «| 15. 502 | 15. 522 16 .(5:2 Cpls} eel 10 MOS 5, Cie Ore 2325 0 85 0; 14-5 0 155 | 1:0 io March ...| 2 25°2 2 30°77 2 43-2 3 39°7 3°0 S123; sn 12.287 1935275 |< 12 40°F 08| eS BlSiat| 4°75 One6. .., bvully PooEE LOD 2301980) be O) 2050 | 40 Fr 5s | ; 0 365 | 2 20 | 4°75 9 i 98 54:5 | 93 585 |) 10 ne =e 23 545 | ma 5 | eR ee! 2-0 | 40 ahh 16 27°5 16 29:0 1G S155 eG) 465 0°75 ie Oe 22'S, 30" 926'6 Oe | tf 410. 45 13 | 5 May 6) 2446 .29°9 6 369 7 45°0 | 45 i 1105 350) 9} ALI 54 AS Syed ce AD O4 7 ty 15 iit ;, 14 PAGs8i bests 2-8 14 78 14s 29:6 10 16120" ;, 7 466 7 51°9 T5826 All aS) 256°6) | 525 17 | 26 July 16°) 14:5) fp 169 19-5 AGPATIS | (h16l256"b 05 26" ., 17 260 17 29°5 17 41°5 18 18°0 0-75 19 | 9 August 16 13-0 16 195 16 200 16 330 | 10 la en D553 A 1S OHS :6 16 15°6 16 514 3°25 “A a 18 516 18 55°8 PO Sas he 80. A OrOte| 2°75 Jy a te 700 Th ee? 1 245. 18) 220 3:0 29°5 3-0 33'8 3°75 36°7 | 30 | 40°3 ts | 2°75 aD 1) 5; ee 19°229°8 19 45S | 19 48°3 JO. Nets 0°75 24/ 9September 20 28-2 20 2957s 720) S5s0 20 582 0°75 S126. ‘ 5 34:7 eS T Sie loeb ieddts lle 6 Song ot 1°25 26 | 7 October B52 Teall p> SN ie bes Tea sila 25 Lobaviget. | 225 27| 2November | 5 242 5 87 | 5 382 8 12°7 3°75 eae tne 40 23110 '°,, M a4 13'° 33") 18" 84-3 14 33-1 1°25 15, a LSE SON, ta Aneg 1) od ASF Pe Sb: a 0°75 23, a beso. 12-563 | 13 9°58 13) 43651 1:0 ‘ ) oC 50 SEISMOLOGICAL REPORTS. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. To tHe Presipent or Section A— Str,—I have the honour to report as follows on behalf of the Committee on Terrestrial Magnetism, viz. :— The magnetic observatory of Christchurch, New Zealand, and the Melbourne Observatory are the only stations within the scope of the Association where systematic registration of the magnetic elements has been and is being carried out. Some isolated absolute measure- ments have been made at Sydney Observatory during the last two years. The report from the Christchurch Observatory will very probably be presented to the section directly by Mr. Henry F. Skey, B.Sc., the director. An abstract of the Sydney observations, supplied by the officer in charge of the observatory, is appended. At Melbourne the usual routine work has been continued as in preceding years, and the measurement and reduction of the full series of records, comprising the period 1868-1908, have been practically ccmpleted, and the results are now being prepared for publication. It will be remembered that at the Sydney meeting of the A.A.A.S., in 1898, at the request of Section A, the Council urged upon the Government of Victoria to give means and facilities to the Mel- bourne Observatory for undertaking this important work, which were obtained in due course; and, if its progress has been unavoidably slow, yet, considering that it involved the measurement and tabula- tion of hourly ordinates of more than 40,000 day-curves, it should be gratifying to all concerned to know that such a task has now been br ought up to its final stage. It is expected that the results of the whole series will be ready in manuscript within the present year. The magnetic committee was created in 1898, uae the special object of promoting the following undertakings, viz. (a) The execution of a magnetic survey of Ae Zealand, and the establishment of a permanent magnetic observatory in that country. (0) The reduction of the Melbourne series of magnetic records. As these objects have now been accomplished, should a magnetic committee be re-elected? and, if so, on what grounds ? This question should be very carefully considered. It would not be difficult to suggest new undertakings of first importance, and even urgency, for the advancement of our knowledge of terrestrial mag- netism, such as the establishment of permanent magnetic observa- tories at Sydney, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, and Port Darwin, and the initiation of a magnetic survey of Australia and Tasmania. The assistance required for this kind of enterprise is, however, of the order of that which might be expected from a Carnegie institution, and, under present circumstances, it is extremely doubtful whether we in Australia could advance such proposals with any probable chance of success. I have, &c., P. BARACCHI. SEISMOLOGICAL REPORTS. 5E REPORT ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BY THE OFFICER IN CHARGE OF THE SYDNEY OBSERVATORY. MaGnetic ELEMENTS OBSERVED AT RED HILL OBSERVATORY DURING THE YEAR 1908. _ Declination. Dip. Intensity. Ba Awe | C.G.8.W. Total te eae Ae January ike ~ Ro | Werte i a a | Horizontal xh 5 | Rs { Total ae ROT | 5859 February a Oy): 4 63 7 41 Vertical ... an ANSS5 5226 Horizouatal Hee ‘oy 743 2648 | otal lias y Rie HIDE SS | ‘5872 March ... =" 99237 D2) we G3) (bo ul2 | Yooteat 2 ms 11°356 | 236 Horizontal a 5764 | 2658 Total oe Ae OZ “A819 JN orale ye BA 92418 | 63 5 52 v ertical ... 23 [pet 200% |i io oO \ Horizontal ae Belly 2633 | eri Gres mana (irs PATS ta kaise Mays =... ee 924 7 63 5 26 hee ; Di pale ts I aca) Horizontal ae 5731 | 2643 Total We DS. 12°649 5832 June... ae 9 24 9 63 6 0 Vertical . oc 11°280 | D201 1 Horia mtal Hee 5723 | 2639: lotal se dee 12618 | “D818 July ... ie 924 4 63 5 55 Loe . seal) 1E2b3o |) 189 Hor izontal ae 5709 | *2633. otal ie sesul ek2 OLA wt “D816 August... a 924 7 (Be {ver tical ... Pee dso le oss H orizontal a 5'703 2630 Potal sts Peale 2612 “5815 September... 9 23 32 63 7 38 {ve tical ... ale e2 50S coleg Horizontal ae 5701 | 2629 : Mvital. 0%, Mild 12BG! hy 7586 October a 9 28 23 63 7 46 1 Mente ‘ ee glee) 5206 Horizontal - 5'720 2638 ( Total a ae 12 663 5839. November $8, 9 24 9 63 6 23 Vertical ... £25 Pde 294 5207 Horizontal + 5728 2641 ' Total rx ee ek Ze SS} while: f (7) 72". bt oe Then = — 1 », for all points on the surface, and hence— P SSE ACen DS (ff etypeny (eter) 4” (26) Putting 2 zero in ra . . S 2 k iS Z 2k+3) | se aa ye Be ed eee en) From integral a we have— prdS=| j = (27) a 2a (ar) | 55 hence making 2 = 2 in (24) we have— ssf (PS iia eae) ee a =[{= (a) \t | 2 = (a') | eo (28) Jf in the fundamental equation of Part I.—viz., PyGetmet mds fii (Cteta lena @ dx dy dz wx b*, Cz we make wu — ee = Bo we obtain— Jet me SIS (Sre egy a Bi lf Case ann sey rae ennres d as (29) Using integrals (7) and (11), it follows that pia: ( (ey C.) Js jhe . f en mp ipl a* J} 35 +=(%) rd Fee MROAe UB Gas a BR. (BO) 60 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Hence making n = 1, k=2 im integral (23) we have— Sf f@+ert (= +e 4? ae" 2255) i=G ye = ant= (= ) (31) If in equation (4) above, we put— 2n 2n 2n he i arr er 5 then— (SSE ( (ce ee Feely cetera)! | : ze o+e “Fae (32) or, when 7 = 2, ré as I HALAS A, : : —— (4 2 2 2\2 Le SSS == (Z)SSSor tr ten: + 4 4b J gp? + y?-+ 2?) (2 +2 a a dV. ...(38) Using integrals 3 and 28, we obtain—- Spa —= (1) [fzeo}' eee] +2 (a) 47. (34) eee cesses ees eeeserres ser ree Hence making » — 2, k =1 in (26), we obtain— aval (#* + y? +27)? (24+¢+8)er = (4) [i= (a7) h° += (@) | oe tS () 85) If ip equation (4) we make— u = a*a, v = bty, w= c*z, the — at p (a2x? + b%y? + c2z?)dSH=S (at) V. sees (36) From integral a) f { pr? d S==s (a) V, we also have— S fras=Jf fr (= Pa a4) d= 3V. SYMMEDIAN POINT OF A TRIANGLE. 61 Hence we have the series of equations— a {pera S+ 0° f {eyras+ | { p2z2d S= = (a*) V, ; J {perd S+ { { py?d S+e { { peta S== = (a2) V, 1 > 7 Je il 7 ; 1 » . 4 sepa =| fre aS4—{ if py?d Saige 7 J peas —3V, from which we obtain the following :— ff pera reir al ie f feyas— b?V, f fpztd Se? Ve develo) Similarly by solving for { ie He ac f ve aS. ff eae , from e e P the a FPO SP! (CakeZ jena Bit fhe g an teeonon SSeS (fe ee ? a ft=(2 Vie +22(! a Hie An | oo= o (atte 5 ee S fe as _ ae (tie te)s f- Pia NSB) ae pel 14 Hedin 9p a 5 5.—ON THE SYMMEDIAN POINT OF A TRIANGLE. By EVELYN G. HOGG, M.A., Christ’s College, Christchurch, N.Z. 1. The axis of homology of any point P (a’f'y’) with respect to the triangle of reference ABC has for equation— ee: 7 =0. care he i If this line pass through the fixed point (a,8,y,), the locus of P is the conic Tn particular the circle ABC is the locus of points whose axes of homology with respect to the triangle ABC pass through the symmedian point S (abc) of that triangle. 62 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Tf now three lines be taken, viz. :— ee =la+m,p+ny=0 LZ" =la+m,B+a2,7=0 1°=1, a-- m, 8 -- ny = 0, then the conic ae ie Ae i! a WM ae where Zo =la,+m,B,+ NY. {Lp md FR a iPY OF | Deo U6 i = Isa, as m, 2, = NVes is the locus of points whose axes of homology with respect to the triangle formed by 4'/"”Z'” pass through the point a, B,7,. If we express that the conic C, is a circle, we obtain linear equations to determine the co-ordinates of the symmedian point of the triangle ~ UL ey Bee If the equation of the circle circumscribing ae triangle / LT Ye be known, the ratio a,: 8,:y, may be at once found by comparing similar coefficients in the given equation and the equation C,. . The equation of the circle passing through the three ex-centres ity L, Mt of the triangle of refere:.ce is— (a+B+y)(aat+bB+cy) +aBy+t bya+ caB=0. Tf this circle be written— B: ot ie) ° af a, a, a5 ° Sa iy eo Bry Vests c a + B where a,B,y, are the co-ordinates of the symmedian point of the triangle TL I,1,, we have, on comparing coefficients— Else Bo Yo=K4y Yo+ O,=kb, a, + B,=«e, ? whence a,: B,:y=b t+e—a:c+a—b:a+b—e A B © = cot 9 : cot 5 : cot ap In a similar manner it may be shown that the trilinear ratios of the symmedian points of the triangles I],],; IT,I,: I1,1, are, respectively, s:s—ce:s—b; s—e:s:s—a; s—b:8—a@: 8, or cot A, tany ==: fant Sota Guero fan ae tans tan ‘ B. cot oe 2 The four points thus found, together with their isogonal conju- gates with respect to the triangle ABC, he on the cubic— © pay) 4% yw) + % @-#) =0, a a ee aan” SYMMEDIAN POINT OF A TRIANGLE. 65 3. If any point 0 be taken and the lines AO, BO, CO meet BC, CA, AB in D, 5, F, respectively, then the equations of the lines EF, FD, DE are of the form —la+mB+ny=0 la — mB + ny = 0 la + mB — ny = 0. The equation of a conic cireumscribing the triangle formed by these lines will be r oi pe Vv a. ate" == 0), —la+mB+ny la—mB+ny lat+mB—ny and this will be a circle if / fm n m({n 1 n {ob m Met) y= — a1) ee Sone) ile cee) (Sg I) fel a a a (24 =), eae 6 + m + n? ~ 2mn cos A + 2nl cos B + 2lm cos C 6, =: F + m? + n? + 2mn cos A — 2nl cos B + 2lm cos C 6. = 2 + m? + n*? + 2mn cos A + 2nl cos B — 2lmcos C. II The co-ordinates of the symmedian point (af y) are given by —la+ mB + ny = kr la — mB + ny = kp la -+- mp — ny = kv, that is to say, a:Biy= (LEAL is RS AS al Pn ibe l : me n If l:m:n=cosA: cosB: cosC, then 6, = 0, = 0, = 1, and Mega = acos A :-b cos B : cicosiC: hence the co-ordinates of S', the symmedian point of the pedal triangle of the triangle of reference, are tan A cos (B — C) : tan B cos (C — A) : tan C cos (A — B). The equation of the line joining S’ to S (a 6) ce) is cos’A sin (B ~— C) a + cos’B sin (C — A) B+ cos’C sin (A — B) y = 0. This equation is satisfied by (sec A, sec B, see C): hence we derive the theorem— “The symmedian point of a triangle, its orthocentre, and the symmedian point of its pedal triangle are collinear.” Ti om 2 me a 5b 5c Phem0 Os, OL. ==7a se bine" a= Saeed anna A hence the co-ordinates of S’, the symmedian point of the medial triangle of the triangle ABC, z.e., the triangle formed by joining the middle points of the sides of that triangle, are— b? ae Ce : C? + a \ a + b a , b 2 64 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. . The equation of the line joining SS” is— a(’—C)at+tb(?e—a)B+cec(e—h)y=0; aera : LF pees Deka this being satisfied by ( eh he ), we derive the theorem— a . C “The symmedian point and centroid of a triangle are collinear with the symmedian point of its medial triangle.” The equations of the nine-poiut circle of the triangle ABC corresponding to these two cases may be written— a cos A n / 8b cos —acos A + Bcos B + ycos U acos A — BcosB + ycosC re e cos a) a cos A + B cos B - — Pe reone 2 h? 2 BUTS eos Jt Beet ie tees! 0. —aa + bB ae ey fie, = aye 4 cy aa. + 6B — cy 4. If three points (Aa, pb, ve), (pa, vb, ae), (va, Ab, wc), where A+p+v=0, be taken on the line— a B Pear the axes of homology of these points form a triangle A,B,C, inscribed in + 1 ( 1+2 sin’?B cot C cot A aa’ } Bp" t ; a 4142 sin’C cot A cot Bt = @ idee E 66 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. showing that the chord P’P” passes through the fixed point— a +2 sin’A cot B cot C 1+2 sin’B cot C cot A a, ? ’ sin A sin B 1+2 sin’C cot A vot BY sin C s and it may be easily verified that this point lies on the line joining the centroid and orthocentre of the triangle ABC. 7. If the axis of homology of any point P with respect to the triangle ABC be parallel to that of its isogonal conjugate P’, then the line PP’ always passes through the symmedian point of the triangle ABC. The locus of P is the cubic curve— aa(B'—y") + bB(y°—a*) + ey(at*—f')=0: the equation of PP’ is— aa (8"—y'*) + BB(y"—a") + yy'(a"—B") =0, whence the above result at once follows. This cubic curve passes through the vertices of the triangle A BC, the symmedian point, the centroid, the in- and ex- centres and the points in which the lines joining the vertices to the symmedian point meet the sides of the triangle. The tangents to the curve at the in- and ex- centres meet at the symmedian point. 8. If the extremities of the diameters of the circle ABC perpen- dicular to the sides BL, CA, AB are D,, D,: E,, EH, : F,, F,, then— the axes of D, and D,. SB and SC, the axes of E, and E,, SC and SA, the axes of F, and F,, SA and SB, form harmonic pencils. The locus of the centres of conics which are the isogonal trans- formations of lines passing through the symmedian point of the triangle of reference is— A A oe faa + /bB + /cy = 0. 6.—THEORY OF THE ALTERNATE CURRENT GENERATOR. By THOMAS R. LYLE, M.A., Sc,D., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Melbourne. It has been usual hitherto to ascribe the distortion of the wave form of the current given by an alternate current generator to :— 1. “Lack of uniformity and pulsation of the magnetic field, causing a distortion of the induced e.m.f. at open circuit as well as under load.” 2. “ Pulsation of the reactance causing higher harmonics under load.” 3. “Pulsation of the resistance causing higher harmonics under load also.”* and, as far as I have been able to find out, another cause has been overlooked—namely, the mutual reactions between armature and field, which when the generator is loaded is at least as important as any of the foregoing. * Steinmetz. Alternating Current Phenomena. ALTERNATH CURRENT GENERATOR. 67 If such is the case it can only be explained by the fact that the theory of the simple alternator has not hitherto been completely worked out. In the following paper this is done for an alternator with a uniform field, by means of a new application of the vector method in which all the harmonics of a periodic function are dealt with simultaneously. In the same is shown how to take account of hysteresis and eddy currents, and the theory of the action of dampers in reducing the heating in the field is also given. The theory of the alternate current synchronous motor is also dealt with. 1. Let two coils be arranged as indicated in Fig. I., one of them F, called the field coil, being fixed and having a battery of constant e.m.f. = 7 in its circuit, the other A, called the armature coil, fitted in the usual way with slip rings for connection to an external circuit, and being rotated by power at a constant angular velocity w round a fixed axis which is perpendicular to its own axis of figure and to the direction of the lnes of force of F and which passes through its own centre. It is required to determine completely the currents that flow in both A and F. Kre, 1: oh: OOOO OOOO O0 OOOOOOOOOO0GOOQ 68 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Let « and € be the currents at any instant in A and F respectively, and let the mutual inductance of A and ¥, when their axes are coinci- dent, be m, and hence m cos wf at the time ¢. Also let r and 7 be the total resistance and self inductance of the A circuit, and p, A, similar quantities for the F cireuit. Then when the armature is being driven at constant angular velocity », and w and € are flowing, the total number of lines linked on A is— la + m€&cos wt, and the number linked on F is— NE + mz cos wf. Hence— d , ra + Gy {lap me cos wt =0 d ¢ ) a) pot Gp UAE + mae Cos Ob ral where 7 is the applied steady e.m,f. in the F circuit. 2. If we assume as the solution of these equations— g=a,/2-+a, sin (wt--c,) + 2, sin (2 wf + ¢,) + 2, sin (8 wt-+-c,) + &e. = £,/2-+€, sin (wf+y,) + €, sin (2 wt + y,) + €, sin (8 wt-+-y,) + &e. we can see at once on substitution that p&, = 2, and that «, = 0, and it will be shown afterwards (section 15) that when wa, = 0, then €,, 2,, é,, w,, €, &¢., vanish; or, in words, when 2, = 0 only odd harmonics appear in « and only even ones in €. Let us therefore take— ex=x, sin (wt+ce,) +2, sin (8 wt-+c,) + «, sin (5 of-+e,) + &e. (I1.) £=6/2-+ & sin (2 wt-+y,) + €, sin (4 wt + y,) + &e. : Now any harmonic in either « or €, for instance 2, sin (gut + ¢q), being completely specified by w,, c,, and g, can, when its order q is known, be represented by the vector drawn from the origin in any reference plane to the point in that plane whose polar co-ordinates are £7, ¢q, the constant term €,/2 in € being represented in the same plane by the vector to the point €,, 7/2. The form of solution (II.) assumed may now be written— Ga Aaa oy a ae ee (IIT) €=a,/2 + a, + a, +0, + &e. irae (= where a,, a,, &c., a,, a,, &e., are Vectors whose orders are indicated by the subscribed numbers. Of these, one only, namely a,, is known, as it is drawn to the point whose polar co-ordinates are €,, 7/2, where £, = *y/p. The others have to be determined. Nore a.—In the sequel it will sometimes happen that a vector, say aq, originally assumed of order g will be used to represent a harmonic of a different order, say g 4+- 1. In such a case it will be written (a¢)gi1; thus ag = q sin (qot-+ cq) but (aq)q+1 = xq sin 4(q + 1) wot + ey}. Nore b.—The length of a vector a will be written as a (7.e., with the bar), thus 4, = «,, unless in cases where no ambiguity can arise, when a simply will be written for the length of the vector a. ALTERNATH CURRENT GENERATOR. 69 3. If we agree to indicate by the operation of rotating any vector to which it is prefixed through an angle 6 in the positive T 6 = direction, then “a= —a ore =—1,and: a= (cos 6+? sin d)a r) Tv or « = cos 0+ -? sin 8. Also, if # = Dv’, ta is the vector obtained by increasing a D times in length and then rotating the increased vector through an angle fin the positive direction. Plane operators such as ¢ are well known to be subject to the same rules as ordinary algebraical symbols. Again, the sum of two operators avs, a, o 6 > can be expressed as a single operator AW say, that is AwWa =a,1a + a, o g given above— 2a, where a is any vector. Using the expression for « T T us A (cosw + ? sin w) a = a,(cos 6,4 «? sin 6,) a+ a@,(cos 6,-+ v? sin ,) a so that— A cosw =a,cos 6, + a,cos6@,; Asiny =a, sin 6, + a, sin 6,. Thence— A? =a; +a, + 2a,a, cos (6, — 6,), ant dan eee a ae, ; a, cos @, + a, cos 6, Again, if a, = € sin (pwt + yp ), 5 a — zap - ‘ d ae ; T seeing that dt ( Op = pos sin (por ae Yp a = ): dé hence for x and € as expressed in section 2— dx a dé zB = wu? SGaq, =o Pap. dt 4. By means of the formula— 2 sin a cos 6b = sin (a + 6) + sin (a — J), it is easy to show that 2x cos wt, where « 1s the a series of odd order vectors in section 2, is represented by the series of even order vectors of which the one of the pth order is the vector sum of a, —1 and ap +1, or that— 2x cos wt = (a,), + (a, + a,), + (a, + a), + (a, + a,)6 + &e., (a,), being the resolved part vf a, along the y axis, that is along the direction of vecturs of zero order. (See note, section 2.) Similarly— 2E cos wf = (a, + a,), + (a, + cs + (a, + a5). + &e. dt Again, by means of the formula— 2 sin a sin 6 = cos (a — 6) — cos (a + J), it is easy to show that— T T 26 sinof =. # (a,—a,), ++ 7% (a,+4,),4+ &e. Tv =t 3% (ay—1 — aq¢+1)q (where g is odd). with a similar result for the product of x and sin of. * 70 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 5. If we now substitute the vector expressions from sections 2, 3, 4, in equations I., and equate separately to zero each set of vectors terms of the same order, we obtain the two series of vector equations— 715 = m i ie 10) a te 250 (agi + ag+) =" where ¢ is any odd number— — ; CIV) T pap + po 1 hap + =< (ap Sa ae 1) \= 0, (Ve) where p is any even number except zero, together with € = 2n/p. From IV. we get a series of equations of the type— T py let aq—1 ae ~ ag ar Qag+1 = 0, qain ag—1 ap fq ag aF ag+1 = 0, : — fi . : where ¢, is the operator Dy J , 10 which— l gh 2r Dy COstfg == 22—. sin fj 70 qwm that is— Similarly from V. we get the series— ap—l aa T pap =e Ap+1 = 0, where 7, is the operator A,u Pe , in which— r : 2p Ay COs pp — 2—.) A; sin op = am pom A= 5.(8 + 2.) tan by = 8. m pw por Note that the vector equations in this paragraph are equations connecting the different vectors, considered purely as vectors, with- out any referénce whatever to the order of harmonic they originally represented. 6. We have thus obtained the following infinite series of equations connecting the vectors used to represent « and €:— Z,a, + a, ==) a. apts TAG, te == a a,+t,a,+a, = 0) (VER Qs te 7,0, ae ay 1i(f) Oat) &e., &e. ALTERNATH CURRENT GENERATOR. a and, as it is well known that algebraic methods are applicable to plane vector operators of the type here made use of, we obtain the following infinite determinant vector solution for a,, namely,— faaty AON, 0 Oi Ob. nx: Terie Ol 0% 1.0 secs rele: OLN. 104. Smee Gaede 10 ¢O8s...2. Lt D0, Ono Oe ht 1 02.2.x sta O be red SOLO an: als eo. 0 Ts tt OO Ste ae Oe re: ids. OF A0CT Me, Oreo, Onwen ee te &e., &e. &e., &e or— Pa,;=— Ha where P, is the infinite determinant operator whose leading term is t, and II, that whose leading term is 7,. 7. P,, U,, P,, 1, &c., being the determinants whose leading terms are t,, 7,, t,, t,, &c., respectively, we find at once by expanding that— hence— BD) Bday [ey Bey g ni | I 1M ia; ip ne aa AE To Fe rege : — &e = §, say, so that— il he , Go Ss where §S, is the infinite continued fraction operator whose leading term 1s 7,. Again if— >, =7,— Z i = 1 Up — &e. y= f= a il T, a t le t ™T — &e. &e., &e., we find in a similar way, or by making use of equations VI., that— Oh == = (2, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. hence for the complete solution we have— a, = — Sa, = 8.2.0, = — S28, = &e., which gives a,, a,, a., &¢., a,, 0,, a, &c., in terms of the known vector a,, provided the continued fraction operators S,, =,,8,, &c., are deter- minate. It is easily seen that they are determinate, for when g becomes a large number— fa 2 i igee (See section 5.) m that is S,, &., 8,, 3,, &e., are recurring continued fraction operators, and the recurring elements when reached are simple numbers. bss NESS 8. The form of solution obtained is one very easy of practical application. In computing the continued fraction operators just so many ot their known ¢, 7, elements (see section 5) need be taken account of as are necessary to give the required degree of approxima- tion. Moreover, in the case of a practical alternator, as the resistance of the field coils is negligible relative to their reactance, all the 7 elements are practically simple numbers independent of the field resistance, while for the ¢ elements ¢ is never a large odd number when ¢,+2 differs little from ¢,. So that wé could obtain 8, with considerable accuracy by assuming the recurring stage to be reached, and, therefore— eee (oll ee . . . . > which gives the quadratic in Sq AJ be Sy cae tag ate ; : = O Tq+1 from which 8, can be obtained by ordinary algebra. [In solving this quadratic the two operators that come under the square root symbol will have to be reduced by the addition theorem in section 3 to a single operator a say, and the root of this is,/a 6/2. | If 8, obtained in either of these ways be sq — bo, then as— 1 & al = Tq—1 —_ om = Tq-1 — aA Y q S,-1 can be obtained by the addition theorem, and so on for Sq-2, Sg—3, &C. up to Sy. Let the results be written— Seeing by. >, =. B., S, = su 8s, &e., aH and in general S,=s Sie eee ae b] ALTERNATE CURRENT GENERATOR. 73 9. Asa, is the vector of length wl lying along the axis of y T (phase = 3): and as— OD; a= : (a, a a ; u (a,), Zn... x 2yn T y4= — — sn (w + — + »,) = Sin Okie a b, Sp 2 Sp 2 Again— ] lh B, — — a, —— a U a, 29 a= = = Oa) that is— 2 : 7 a “sin (207 =F Zs +6, + B). $,0,P - Similarly— 8), “1 sin ( Bn ee eee alee B.+ i). : $08.) 2 2n a, = sin (tor Ee ee Se Bi). §,7,8,0,p y 3 2n == ; §, 08,08. p &e. &e. 5 and substituting these values in— t=a,+a,+a.+ &e. f=7, +a,+.4,4+ &e. a ee yee we obtain the armature and field currents in the usual trigonometrical form of expression. It is worth while drawing attention to the fact that the period of the alternating current induced in the field circuit is half that of the armature current, and that it contains ail harmonics, both odd and even, relative to its own fundamental, and so its wave form will in general be unsymmetrical with respect to the time axis. sin (50 Siege igh 0, +B, +6,), 10. The total emf. E generated in the armature circuit being d equal to — ay (mm € cos wf) m a : E=— Se vy (Gy Si Og. ha)ig. (See section 4.) 2 dt T om 5 — t : Bg (Gq —1 + ag +1)o. 2 also as ag 1 + tf, ag + Og +1=0 be T z Sqtq aq - 74 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. and in either of these formule the trizonometrical expressions in Section 9 for the vectors can be substituted. In the first, however, it must be noted that both a,_1 and a, +1 are to be taken of order q (odd). Thus the fundamental harmonic of E is— = OR) sin (wt + b, + B.) ‘ p from the first expression, or— ee UD Oh a oar Paes from the second, ¢, being equal to D,. { sin wt + I 2 It Similarly the total alternating e.m.f H generated in the field circuit is given by either— 7 iT) > V l= — se ey =p (ap -1 + ap +1)» 5) or—— a =~ H os wom ; Dz =p Tp ap 2 so that the fundamental harmonic of H is equal to either— 2 wm [ sin (ot +b; + Bob seer) ] t sin (2u¢ + 6, + 7) + iL p s Ss s I I Bias Qwm : i Sumy As sin (20f + 6, + B, —¢, +7). p 8S, O2 F or 11. The mean value of the product sin (awt + 6) sin (bot + $) being zero when a and 4 are unequal, and 4 cos (6 — ¢) when a and 6 are equal, we find that the mean value of x#? where « = & aq is— ee a: ; and the mean value of €?, where £ = = + 3 ay is— =A, + > pole 7 9 Op Again, for the same reason, if a and 8 be any two vectors representing harmonies of the same order, and if V a B be the product of the lengths of a and £ into the sine of the angle from a to 8 measured in the positive direction, then the mean value of the produet— Tr a. into B — 3 1) 20, —)— Vem Applying these principles to determine the mean value Ex of the product of E and 2, that is, of the electrical power developed in the ALTERNATE CURRENT GENERATOR. 75 armature circuit, we find from the first expression for HE, section 10 that— = — AE SGV (ao- 1 + ag+1) Aq; 0 Ba es aa, eps. + 3 Va,a, —3 Va,a,+ sVaq=8Yan) + &e. F And from the second expression for E that— ep - wn IK Ex = A > G- iy (tq ag. Ag )= A > q Da Ve Jn Ag.Ayg. wm 1 J = ae g Da sin C) == ee > a2 4 2 : set hs 2r : Be he as 1, sin fa— —-.. (See section 5). qmw = the heat developed in the armature circuit. Similarly the total electrical power (H+ n)é developed in the field circuit is given by— 7th 5 7a, wm i) ¢ — 9 — on Sp V (ap_1 + Ap+1) op a” wm =p " ae = ee Va,a, + 4 Va,a, —4V a,a, + ae} or by— eo ie (aa +2444 &e. ) = total heat ie ane in the field circuit and made up of two paris, the first — pe eLdiie to the direct exciting current, and the second . 4 al a.+ 4+ &e. ) due to the induced alternating field current. 2 Adding the first expressions for Ee and (H + 7) €, and cancelling né against pie we find that— Er + E=— PS Vaa, + Va, + VaatVa,a,+ de. ; 2. The torque exerted at any instant in driving the alterna or is— é mat cos wt) = mx € sin wt m a Sim Sagex eres oan! — ogni ya (See section 4.) = — eae xe > (ag- 1—Gq+1) q. 76 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Taking the mean value of this product, we find that the mean driving torque 'T’ is given by— ~ ee {Vo,a, + Va, + Vaa, + Vaya, + &e.} which result, combined with the last obtained in section 11, gives the power equation— wl = Ex + Hé as it ought. Tasces) 1H 4 a, 2K ms SS Ss 1d ie , 7 he mS oa a. Parris = nals —-- 4 —f9 Se a d Se x \ 6 i \ i x C 7 etn / va oma SS SEA Ree ae 2 2 13. The solution obtained can be represented geometrically in an interesting way as follows :— Take two lines OX, OY (Fig. If.) at right angles. Measure off from OY in the positive direction the angles YO1 = 6,, 102 = 8£,, 203 = 6,,304 = 6, &c., where 6, 8,, 6,, 8, &c., are the angles determined in section 8. In OY take Oa, = 2n/p = 2 x exciting current. Produce 10 through O to a, so that Oa, = Oa, . In O2 take Oa, _ Oa, Produce oO, s; Oa, 30 through O to a, so that Oa, = —, and so on where s, ¢,, 8,, o,, &e., s 3 are the quantities determined in section 8. ALTERNATH CURRENT GENERATOR. he Then the vectors to a,, a,, a., &c., represent completely in ampli- tude and phase the different harmonics of the armature current, the subscribed numbers indicating the orders of the harmonies ; and those to a,,a,, a, &c., represent completely, in the same way; the different harmonics of the induced alternating field current. Again (see section 10) if we rotate the vector drawn to the middle point of a,a, backwards through a right angle we obtain the vector OE, that represents 1/mw into the first harmonic of the total e.m.f. E generated in the armature; and if we rotate backwards through z/2 the vector to the middle point of a,a, we obtain the vector OE, that represents 1/3mw into the third harmonic of E; and similarly for the other harmonics of HE. In the same way, by rotating backwards through 7/2 the vector to the middle point of a, a,, we obtain the vector OH, that represents 1/2 mw into the fundamental harmonic of the e.m.f. H induced in the field circuit, and so on for the other harmonies of H. Again, the mean torque exerted on the generator is equal to m/2 into the sum of the areas of the triangles a,OQa,, a,Oa,, a,Oa,, a,Qq,, &e., these triangles, in the case of any generator, being all taken as positive. 14. When, for any generator,: the ¢, 7, operators have been cal- culated for a particular load (see section 5) a geometrical solution can easily be obtained to a high degree of accuracy by aid of a ruler, seale, slide rule, and protractor. Thus, if we neglect the harmonics a, a,, &c., then, drawing any vector from the origin to represent a,, we can construct for a,, as a, = —t,a, (see section 6). From a, we can construct for 7,0,, and as a, + 7,0, + a, = 0, the triangle of vectors gives us a,. Proceeding in this way, we obtain in succession a,, a,, a, ,, 4, Which represent the harmonies of 2 and € correct as regards relative phase and relative amplitude. But, as a, is equal to twice the exciting current, we have a scale for our diagram, and hence obtain a complete solution. The fact that for a practical alternator the 7 operators are very approximately pure numbers (see sections 8, 22) renders this method of solution both easy and expeditious. 15. If a source of constant e.m.f. be included in the armature circuit as well as in the field circuit of the simple alternator indicated in Fig. 1, equations 1, section 1 become— d : Tx + ale + mé& cos ot) = 6 pé + ra + mx cos ot) =7 and both the armature and field currents will now contain harmonies of all orders, odd and even. 78 “PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Assume— 8 I S| ae + a,+a,+ a, + &c. Sa (ea Gin ae Cie ae ASS ro) £ —— ea— where a, is the veetor to the point whose polar co-ordinates are 2¢}, 7/2, and a, is, as before, the vector to the point 21/p, 7/2. The other vectors a,, a,, a,, a,, &C., a,, a,, a,, &c., have to be determined. On substituting for « and € in the above equations it will be found that the odd order vectors in wv, and the even order ones in &, are determined by the same equations VI, section 6, as when e— 0, and are completely independent of the even order vectors in x and the odd order ones in é, these latter depending only on e and vanishing with e. This being so, a,, a,, a,, a,, &c., are given by the solution already obtained. and a,, a,, a,, a,, &c., will be given by a similar set of equa- tions written duwn from symmetry. Thus the complete solution is given by— O.——s Shy IS OS ar reo a — >.a,=2,5,3, = — . pt, Og = nC. TL where a, is the vector to 27/p, 7/2, as before and a, the vector to 2¢/r = (2) = 9 9 Note.—In the former case (e=0) the ¢ operators were all of odd and the 7 ones of even order. In this case the operators of either class are of both orders. The translation from the above vector solution to the ordinary sine form follows as in section 10. 16. In the preceding solutions the magnetic fluxes have been assumed to be in phase with the magnetizing current-turns, and so iron loss due to hysteresis and eddy currents has been neglected. To take account of the latter the interpretation of the well-known relation B= pH connecting steady magnetizing torce and induction produced has to be modified. The induction produced by H = H, sin (wt + e,) is known to be of the form, B=~™m, H, sin (wt +c, — 6,) + higher harmonics, and attending only to the fundamental harmonic in B, if H be represented as explained in section 2 by the vector 2,, and B by the vector b,, then the above trigonometrical relation may be written 6, = p,h, where p, is the operator m,.—~ %, In a former paper* by me was shown how these permeability operators, as they may be calied, can be determined. They depend on the character of the iron and the thickness of the lamine, on the amplitude and period of the fundamental harmonic of the induction oscillation they refer to, and to some extent on the wave form of the latter. : * Variation of Magnetic Hysteresis with Frequency. Phil. Mag., Jan., 1905. ALTERNATE CURRENT GENERATOR. TD For the purposes of the following discussion we will assume that when the magnetizing foree— H=h, +h, +h, + &e., prod ces the induction— B=6,+6,+ 6+ &c., then 6, = p,h,, b, = p,h,, &e., where the u,s are operators of the type given by po= mt ~ Sq: | This assumption as regards all the harmonics of B but the funda- mental is not strictly in accordance with what is known concerning the behaviour of jaminated iron under periodic magnetizing forces, for b,, b., &c., depend, at any rate for large values of 6, more on 6, than 3 5 Pp 5 onh,,h, &e. At the same time itis hoped that the following discussion may be of some value. | In general if H = Sh, produce B=3,, as the total iron loss per § a | q : I e.c. per cycle due to both hysteresis and eddy currents is— noua i Hage = 2 ce ae 4ar . Aa 4 dt Where T is the period, the total iron loss per c.c. per second is— = = . Average value of peace a J iE iss = 4. product Sh, into wo? q by T @ =< { Vib, +3 VBh, + 5 VE,b,+ Se. ; (See section 11.) @ ati. < = 9° Bg bq hg sin Sq. Again, it is well known that if the steady magnetizing current- turns mx act on a magnetic cireuit composed of different materials, the flux F produced is given by— Anrnx where the L,As are the lengths and sectional areas respectively of the different portions of the circuit, and the ps are the permeabilities of these portions for the particular flux densities in them. If now the magnetizing current be an alternating one, that is, if “2 = x, sin (wt + ¢,) = a, (a vector), the same equation will give the corresponding harmonic of the flux produced, but the »s are now the permeability operators for the different portions of the circuit for the amplitudes and period of the flux densities in them. L St Si ean, by the addition theorem in section 3, be reduced to a single operator, so that if the flux f (vector) be produced by the 80 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. current-turns 7a, in any magnetic circuit, we have always a relation of the form— je Clie. 5 : = ae : where G, is an operator of the form g,. , which can be determined. Hence, following the assumption already made, if the magnetizing eurrent-turns— nz =n (a, + a, + a, + &e.) produce in a magnetic circuit a flux F=f,+ f+ f, + &e., then f, = nG,a,, f, = nG,a of, = nG.a,, &c., where the G’s are operators of the 04 ° type given by Gy = gy In the above the back e.m.f, e say, in the magnetizing coils due to change of flux is— aoe aE oe as e=n a7 Nwe 2 Sofa and the power absorbed, that is the total iron loss in the magnetic circuit, is the mean value of ew, that is of— Nx Fine that is of mwa, into. = Sg fy which igs’ = = 4 nwdg¢ Vfy aq (See Section 11.) 17. As an example, let us determine the G operator for a mag- netic circuit of uniform cross section = 100cm*? made up of 40cm length of laminated iron and two air gaps each 1 m.m. when B maxi- mum= 5000 and the frequency 30. In the paper already quoted we find for a sample of No. 26 iron, with good insulation between the lamine, when B max. = 5000 and frequency — = 30 qg.p. that p= 25000 (q.p.) Now— (pi _ far L >. A, Ap and— ii 1 40 30° Sees § Leas 2} “"Aje = 100 02500 ie 50 ~ dls + 200 | 10° ( te 210'6.8 18 a Oe Hence— ALTERNATE CURRENT GENERATOR, 81 18. Returning to the alternator, if x be the number of armature turns, v the number of field turns, and «= a,+a,+a,+ &., €= a 9) +a,+a,-+ &c., the armature and field currents respectively, the magnetizing current-turns M,, producing flux across the air gap and through the armature ina direction axial to its windings are given by— M, = nz + vé cos wt and the current-turns M_, producing flux across the air gap and through the armature in a direction parallel to the planes of the windings and behind that of M, by 90° are given by— M, = vé sin wf, or in vector notation (see section 4)— M, => [ + = (aq-1 t+ ayst)e | bo] > (art oa Og+1)q bo] = which produce the armature fluxes A, and A, given by V Ax = SG, | ma, + 5 (ag—1 + Gpet)y ] = Ay = ay ee: BG (aq—-1 — oG+1)¢ re] 9 —} where G, = g,+ ‘* and g any odd number. [Note that the directions of A, and A, are fixed in the armature. | Now, if magnetic leakage be otherwise taken account of, the flux im the stator must be continuous with that in the rotor, so that the flux F looped on the field windings at any instant is given by— F = A; cos wt + A;sin of which by means of the relations in section 4 can be reduced to— “= ; it, B= & | Gp ap + (Gp-1 1 + Gp+189+1)p where p is even and 2G, = Gy)_1 + Gpi1. re p p 19. If U' be the self inductance in the armature circuit either external to the armature or due to magnetic leakage in it, and if A‘ be a similar quantity for the field circuit, the equations for the two circuits are — da d dt cs Cig ° péE+ mr oe + a ha) a dt where r, p, 7, x and € have the same significations as in section 1. F re + 27 F=y 82 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Substituting in these equations from section 18, and then equat- ing separately to zero each set of vector terms of the same order, we obtain the two series of vector equations— Tw AN V Tag + a lz 2a, + ngor 7 Go 2 Nag + 9 (ta-2 +a,+1)¢=0 7 7 n pap + pou za, + vporyg {. Gp ay + 5 (Gp -1 ap -1 + Gp +14p+1) ; =0 with a, = 2n/p. where g is odd and p even. These reduce at once to the two series— Qj—1 + ty Gy ag + Oo41 —0 Gp=18p-1 + Ta Op + Gosrapia = 0 or, after putting a‘, for Gg ag, to— Ag—1 + tq aq + Ggs1 = O a'p—1 =e Tp ap =e a'p+1 = O equations of exactly the same form as those for the simple case, but in which the values of the ¢ and 7 operators are now given by— 2 ea ty = = f ie Ga + “h— Tal 2) ; nvGg ¢ qo 2 v1 Bele ort) Nv pe» These operators having ee calculated from known data, the solution for a’, an a’., &e., a,, a,, &e., proceeds exactly as in the simple case, and as a, = Gay a al, = renee &c., a,, a, a, &c., can then be obtained. 20. In section 16 it was shown that the iron loss (?.e., energy dissipated per sec. in the iron) in a magnetic circuit is— 2 i aie 5 od¢g — sin by 2 9a hence the loss due to the flux A,, section 18, is— 2 v O | 5 OLTIJq 8iN bg MAq + 5 (4q—-1 + % +1) and that due to the flux A, is-—— 5 ~ v2 5 OLqJq 8in by ri (ag-1 — Ag+) Adding these, we find that the total iron loss in the generator is— 2 9 |e ee i Vv i Vv? j > wD gaiisin 9, ditt =e i (ag—1 + @g41) ++ be (ag—1 — 4 +1) . iw) ALTERNATE CURRENT GENERATOR. 83 ixpanding and eee Ber Sea or, eg BB Sues: and that— Og—1 + ag41 = — ty Gq ag (see section 19), we find that the total iron loss is equal o— 1 oN ya _2 _2 > E 7T® Yq sin Og { ice (agai a Oy +1) = nay ‘ 2 — , r sin? oy + gol sin dy cos by t ay | where g is any odd number. 21. An approximate determination of the effect of iron loss on the performance of an alternator can be obtained by taking all the G operators for its magnetic circuit as equal to G,; that is, to the one for the fundamental harmonic of the armature flux. Making this simplification in the equations of section 19, we find that a,, a,, &e., a,, a,, &c., are connected by the two series of equations— Aaqg—1 + ty ag = ag+1 = O Ap—1 + Tp Op + ap+1 = 0 with a, = 2y/p in which— 7 ) 9 _ w+ ee jeapr fe | == je ib sg i nvG ( i a Y Vg» j ) 2 us g I a +6 2 a eee Bee eae) iP 2 < nvG ( pe an = gi Putting 7 for gn’, X for gv’, and m for gnv, and, remembering that 5 is a small angle (see section 17), unity for cos 6, we find that— : = D, aa ce Ap 7 Pn, where wie) ly oe we LOF Dt put tym m3} 2E Deen fa — abe ve 9 age ~fatxy Hee Deg aria pw p® 5) ) Dd Apsin d=? ae sin 6. pmo m The ¢ and + operators having been calculated from these formule, the rest of the solution for this case follows in every particular the course for the simple case fully explained in sections 8 and 9. 84 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 22. In order to illustrate the practical application of the foregoing theory, I will determine the performance of a small two-pole alternator when carrying a rather heavy non-inductive load. The details of the alternator are as follows :— diameter 12 em. length 8 em. turns 2 = 100 resistance *25 ohms. Armature ( Air gap=1 m.m. turns v — 400. “2 Field ¢ resistance p = 8 ohms. exciter three storage cells ; 7 = 6'6 volts. Frequency == 1/25 ¢.e>o— 200! Magnetic leakage — 5 per cent. Flux operator G = Gee where g = 5000, 6 = 3°. Let the external resistance in the armature circuit in. the ease in hand be 4:75 ohms so that 7 — 5 ohms. Hence (see section 21)— 1 = 5.10’, I! = 051 = -25.10' A=8.108, = ‘05A— 4.107 m=2.108, r=5.10", p=3.10", o=200, 5=3°, and a—=2n/ —'44 (abs.) Using these values for the constants and the formule in section 21, we obtain the ¢, 7, operators which are given in the following table: ty = Da ae 7 Ap i Pp q | Dy So P Ap dp Oo ' (e) y 1 592 24 51 2 $4: 0 22 3 ‘5385 8 48 4 S-4 8 Bei) 5380 5 18 6 So. ae hee *928 3 45 8 8:4 — 1 Of, 527 2 54 10 8-4 aD it | ‘526 2 21 12 8:4 — 3 13 | "526 1 57 14 ; 84 — 4 15 | 526 1 40 16 84. — 5 i "526 1 28 18 S'4 — 5 | [Note that the 7 operators are all practically equal and simple numerical multi- pliers. (Sce section 8.)] ALTERNATE CURRENT GENERATOR. 85 And from these, by the method explained in section 8, we obtain the S, 5, continued fraction operators which are given in the following table:— Sq = Sql E by Sp = pl iu. Bp | | g | Sq | bq Dee | Tp Bp | | | | | | | 12) ! fe) / hast | A5T | 36 32 2 5:82 7 46 | 366 | 15 32 4 | 5°63 548 | 353s 9 50 Gin. Po. 5 57 3 40 7 350 | 7 9 8 555 2 54 oe «| ‘348 | 5 34 10 5:53 Zaks gt | 346 | 4 30 ee 5°51 1S. et | ‘346 | 3.42 14 5°50 pl and from these, as explained in section 9, we obtain the different harmonies of both the armature current and the induced field current. These also are given in tabular form below :— # = Sx, sin (quot — 5 + ey) E=-22 + 3E, sin (pot + > + yp) q xq eq Pp Ep Yp (e) I} le / 1 ‘963 36 32 FL e's 44 18 3 "453 59 50 A |, 080 64. 58 5 228 74 48 6 ‘041 78 28 i TLe7: 85 37 Siw Pea 02k 88 31 9 ‘061 94 5 10 ‘O11 96 2: 1 “032 100 53 12 ‘006 102 44 13 ‘O17 106 26 14 | — 0038 107 47 The virtual armature current in amperes being equal to 10 / Sat? ya is 7°75 amps., and the terminal virtual voltage, being 4°75 times this, is 36'8 volts. The no-load voltage for the same exciting current is 62°2. The virtual value of the alternating current induced in the field circuit in amperes being— 10/332 is 184. The copper losses are— In the armature, 15 watts. In the field, due to exciting current, 12 watts. In the field, due to induced current, 5°4 watts. The total iron loss calculated by means of the formula in section 20 is 20 watts. | The total losses are, therefore, 52°4 watts, and, as the output is 285 watts, the efficiency is 84 per cent. 86 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Fig. III—Theoretical Armature Current (#) and Induced Field Current (€) in a Fully-loaded Alternator. In Fig. III. are plotted the wave forms of both the armature and induced field currents determined above, correctly as regards both their relative amplitudes and phases. ALTERNATE CURRENT GENERATOR. 87 23. In designing the field of an alternator, attention should be given to the fact that the conductors have to carry not only the exciting current but also the induced field current, which, as we have seen, may at full load attain a relativelv large value. In addition, it should not be forgotten that in the field magnet cores there is the associated alternating flax which causes some additional heat. It is well known that in a case of excessive heating in the field reduction of the heating is effected by the employment of heavy closed copper conductors, called dampers, embracing the field magnet poles. To explain this action let us consider a two-pole machine on each field pole of which is a damper. Neglecting magnetic leakage and iron loss, if ¢ be the current in each damper, the magnetic flux through the armature windings is— gine + (vé + 2€) cos wt} and that through the field windings and the dampers is— 9g vE+ 26 + nex cos wt} so that the equations connecting w, €, and ¢ are— re + gn 4 { naz + (vé + 22) cos wi =o d pail) 2 ) (1.) pé + gv i vé + 20-- nx cos wt 5 n 20+ 9 s: { vé + 2€-+-nx cos wt = ) a where z is the resistance of each damper and the other symbols have the same significations as in the previous sections of this paper. There is no constant term in ¢, and considering only the variable terms (harmonics) in € we see at once that— v2l = pf vé + 26 = vé (1 + k) = v&' say from which it follows that— where— «= — and that— Deli) Kpes. The first two of equations I. may now be written— ret gn \ nae +-v€' 0s ot} =o. p 1+k » being divided by 1-+« as the constant term in &, is equal to the constant term in €, that is to 7/p (¢ having no constant term). Bt go | re + necos wt } = —__— Now, « and &' determined from these equations will be very approximately the same as w and € determined from the equations in section 1 for the alternator without dampers, for a, the given vector is the same for both, as are all the ¢ operators. The 7 operators differ in p/1+« being substituted for p, but in section 8, and in notes, 88 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. section 22, it is shown that the value of p the field resistance has practically no effect on the 7 operators forfalternators as ordinarily constructed. Hence we see that & is the alternating field current if the dampers are absent, € its value when the dampers are attached, and these currents are connected by the relation— In addition as 220? = xp& i Dron. 1 Si Boiera ge ole (Le ye Hence, if H' be the copper loss in the field coils due to induced alternating currents when the generator is without the dampers, H the same when the dampers are attached, and / the loss in the dampers themselves— Te BE a Q+e?" Gx) 1x If we assume that the mean length of a field turn is equal to the length of a damper turn, it is easy to show that « is the ratio of the volume sf copper in the dampers to the volume of copper in the field windings when there is no resistance external to the windings in the field cireuit, and greater than this ratio if there is external resistance ; so the action of the dampers in reducing the heating in the field windings, due to induced current in them, has been determined. The magnetic flux in the field cores being g {vé' + na cos of} is practically unaffected by the presence of the dampers, so that the iron losses in the field magnets remain the same. 24. If a source of alternating e.m.f. E where— E=E, sin (of +h,)+E, sin (8 wt-+-h,)-+-E, sin (5wt+-h,)+ &e. =e,+e,+e, &e. (vectors) be included in the armature circuit, and, if the armature rotate in synchronism with this e.m.f., we have the case of the synchronous motor. The armature and field currents x and € are now connected by the equations (see section 1)— rxe + 2 | le+t-mé cos ot i = > Ey sin (qut-+h, ) 5 I pé + 5 { de-pme COs ot } ==") Assuming, as in section 2, that e=a,ta,+a,-+ &e. ALTERNATE CURRENT GENERATOR, 89 and proceeding exactly as in section 5 we obtain the infinite series of eq uations— t,a, =e a, Ty a., an K, “ 4 4 SOO a, =e T,Q, a a, = 0 kK a a, + £,a, + a, Se ay tes fey Dente Tne imaee =O me O, a tee. 1 Oe — — kK. &e., &e. , ‘ ; 2n eg 0. sii iy h, . in which a, = — the vector to the point —,—, as befoves- Pp Pp > a 2 5 i iG “ — qom : where Se, is the applied e.m.f:,and the ¢ and 7 operators have the same values as in section 5. Solving for a, we find that P.a, = — ,(a,-+ &,) — 11,4, — 11,4, — &e. where P,, U,, II, &c., are the infinite determinant operators whose lead- ing terms are ¢,, T,, 7,, &c., respectively as in section 6. Reducing to the continued fraction operators of section 7, we obtain— i i a eer a Cat he — S38, (43): — S3S,58, (,), — &e., and using the equations— a,——ta,—a,—hk,, STO a, = —t,a, —a, —k,, &e., the successive harmonies of the armature and field currents can be obtained. 25. If, in the last example, the e.m-f. inserted in the armature circuit be sinusoidal and equal to E sin (wt-+ h) = e (a vector), the solution will obviously be identical with that for the simple generator given in sections 5 et seq., when in the latter a,-+ « is substituted for a, where— T | $i. ae Le wn é 2 7) ; and in this ease it is important to know the condition which determines whether the machine will run as a motor and develop mechanical power. In section 12 the driving torque T was shown to be given by— Mae \ Vat, ST np at ae aban Ig ROE ; and T must be negative for a motor. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 90 ‘) is —~— (a,+ «), (see section 8), LG 2 re Vaa. = — — 3 Vas Vat? 6 Set mo ° © T wm 2 Tener ae MED Te h I ) = iS OL 18) Ses ORE Kila) ‘4 cite rT om? (8, + A) § Again as-— B H i C. == — sf a, = SO on sin B, sin 3 2 Via-e. == a? —= — ? ; tan oC, 820; (a, + «) similar] y— u sin ie Va,a,= — me (Gok) ay &e., &e. and as— —SSn ewes 2 2 a 4 4, ay, ath see SOACLCOS@/s Seale ag wm © wm We find, if— sin f, sin 6, msiny pS; Cay B= $20, a S20 78) 5. O28, 07 that— 4T sin } - 2 b, th si 2H te sali Goa = cs 4 OB cane ate m S, wm j 4 p2 ——— é wo mn which must be negative if the machine runs as a motor Now 850 to,, 0S), Oa .wes Sit b., sin 6, sin 06,, &c., are alll essentially positive, and, ‘therefore, B is so. So, in order that the machine Also a, and @ are essentially positive. may work as a motor Af, the phase angle of the applied e.m.f. must have such a value as to make the above expression for T negative. The power supplied by the source e being the mean value of the b product of e and «a, that is of e and a,, or of e and — ah (a, + «) Le is|= — ,_ 4,e sin (h — 8.) +5 ¢ « sin 6, (See section 11.) i eat sin (h — ie b, e ra Ae we ALTERNATE CURRENT GENERATOR. 91 It is interesting to note that the armature and alternating field eurrents which flow when an e.m.f. = E sin (wf + h) is acting in the armature circuit, the angular velocity of the armature is w, and the exciting current C would be unchanged if the e.m.f. E sin (wt +h) be removed, the speed maintained, and the exciting field-current changed from C to— WE he srs a/ cr+ — CE cos h + Le wom wo nv This fo!lows immediately from the vector equations in section 24 connecting a,, a,, a,, &c., with a, + « when k,, «,, &., are zero. 26. The case of the synchronous motor with sinusoidal applied e.m.f., discussed in the last paragraph, can easily be represented geometrically. Fig. IV. a, In Fig. IV. let Oa, taken in the axis of Y be equal, as in section 13, to twice the steady exciting current of the machine. Draw the vector OE' to represent in amplitude and phase 2/wm times the applied e.m.f.; that is if the latter = e' sin (wt + h) OE'= 2e'/wm, and the angle from OX to OE' measured positively is = h. 92 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Rotating OE' forward through 90° gives us «x of section 25, and completing the parallelogram a,Ox, its diagonal is a,-++« in the lineOY:. Knowing the motor circuits we can determine s,, },, o,, B,, s,, b,, &e., and then construct for a,, a,, a,, a,, &c., exactly as in section 13, unless that in this construction the vector a,-+- x takes the place of a, in section 13. Now the mechanical torque developed by the machine is (see section 12)— { Va,a, + Va,a, + Va,a, + Va,a, + &e. ; —— into the sum of the areas, attending to signs, of the triangles a,Oa,, a,Oa,, a,0a,, &e. But the triangles a,Oa,, a,Oa,, &c., are all essentially negative [their sum is equal to —5 Bu, +x» see section 25], so that if the machine is to develop mechanical power and run as a motor the phase of OE' must be such that the area of the triangle a,Oa, is positive (as it is in Fig. IV.), and numerically greater than the sum of a,OQa,, a,Oa.,, &e. The power supplied by the source is— 1 om — =F Se OE OE a,OE: -_ Wimt—-— - , = 4 ax sin a,Ox won : —-,- x area of triangle a,Ox And the power developed by the motor— == (ih > x sum of triangles a,Oa,, a,Oa,, a,Oa,, &c., attending to signs. Hence the efficiency is equal to— a,Oa, + a,Oa,-+ a,Oa, + Ke. a,Ox By rotating the vector from O to the middle point of a,a, back- wards through 90°, and doubling, we obtain OE,, which represents in amplitude and phase 2/wm times the first harmonic of the total e.m.f. of the motor. (Ses section 13.) This vector can now be compared with OE‘ which represents 2/wm times the applied e.m.f. Fig. IV. easily explains how by increasing the exciting current of an A.C. motor the phase of the armature current 1s advanced relative to that of the applied e.m.f. IRON UNDER PERIODIC MAGNETIZING FORCES. 93 7._EXPERIMENTS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF IRON UNDER PERIODIC MAGNETIZING FORCES. By PROFESSOR T. R. LYLE, M.A., Se.D,, and J. A, GRAY, B.Sc. 1. This research was undertaken for the purpose, principally, of finding out whether any simple relation as regards relative amplitude or phase holds either between the upper harmonics of an induction oscillation in laminated iron and its fundamental—or (as we cal] it) its first harmonie—or between its successive upper harmonics, when the magnetizing force is approximately sinusoidal ; it was hoped that some hint might thus be obtained concerning the link by which these harmonics, all of odd order, are bound together, and, hence, some con- ception rendered possible as to the nature of the oscillating system in an ultimate magnetic particle when excited by periodic magnetizing forces. Thus, if the sinusoidal magnetizing foree— == sin ad, —hbe applied toa laminated iron ring in the usual way, it is known that the induction B produced contains the full series of odd har- monies and may be written— - B=B, sin (wt — 6,) + B, sin 3 (wt — 6,) + B, sin 5 (wt — 6.) + &e. We wished to find out whether any simple relation connected B, B,, &e., 6,, 6,, 0., &e., either to B, or to one another or to the period of the oscillations. In this we were not successful, but we think that the results we obtained will be of value, especially to those interested in magnetic research. In addition to the above purpose we wished to test, in a more accurate manner than has hitherto been done, the correctness of some conclusions given in a former paper* by one of us, relating to—(a) what was called kinetic hysteresis; (4) the formula proposed in the same paper for the total iron loss I as a function of the frequency x, and what was called the effective induction 8, namely— [= (A+pn) B* where w is a number about 1:°5—1°6; (c) the modifications produced on the characteristics of a B wave by change of wave form of the magnetizing force H. 2. In the paper already quoted, it was found that when H was approximately sinusoidal B,/B,, B./B, were, after B, had attained a certain value, practically linear in B,; but it was pointed out that the values of B,, B., &c., obtained, were probably much modified by a peculiar action in the iron ring by which some of the energy trans- mitted to it by the magnetizing force H sin wt was reflected back to the magnetizing circuit in the form of currents, whose frequencies were 3, 5, 7 times respectively that of the exciting current. * Variations of Magnetic Hysteresis with Frequency. Phil. Mag., Jan., 1905. 94 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Thus when the induction— B=B, sin (wt — 6,) + B, sin 3 (of — 6,) + B, sin 5 (wt — 6.) + &e., is produced by— FCS isin os. B,, B., &c., cannot in any direct way be due to H, but must be due to B,, arising from the latter by means of some property of the oscillating system within the ultimate magnetic particle. We may, therefore, assume that with a fundamental harmonic B, of the induction there are necessarily associated magneto-motive forces m,, m,, &¢., of periods T/3, T/5, &e., which would produce inductions Te 3 eg oes provided no reactions due to induced currents in the circuits round the iron ring tend to modify these inductions. But as there must be at least one circuit there wil] always be modifying reactions. Thus, considering only the third harmonic, if aB, be the resultant flux of this order (a being the sectional area of the ring) variation of this will induce a current C, in the magnetizing circuit, and from C, we have the magneto- motive force (M. M.F.) dan C, acting round the ring. The resultant magneto-motive force is, therefore, the vector sum of m, and 4 C,, and B, is the induction produced by this resultant M.M.F. In ie simple case in which the copper circuit is non-inductive, and, when magnetic lag is neglected, the rejations between m,, C,, and a B,, can easily be expressed by a vector diagram, as follows :— Draw a line OF (Fig. I.), to represent in amplitude and phase the resultant flux /—aB, multiplied by the reluctance of the ring. M Rie ie Variation of F generates an e.m.f. whose amplitude is 8onF and whose phase position is 90° behind OF. [27/o=T=period of fundamental, and x=number of magnetizing turns on ring. | IRON UNDER PERIODIC MAGNETIZING FORCES. 95 This e.m.f. produces a current equal to 380n/ over r, where 7 is the resistance of the circuit, and hence the reacting M.M.F. is— 12z70n*? F 1270n'a bs = = 7 By —XuRay, , ? 3 and whose phase position is 90° behind B.,. Hence, from F, draw FM perpendicular to OF and equal to X. The vector MF completely represents X. Join OM. OM will represent the M.M.F. m, arising from B, in the iron, for the resuitant of m, and X is OF, which is the final M.M.F. producing the resultant flux F or aB,. From the above we see that B, is always reduced in amplitude and shifted in phase by this reflecting action of the iron, and more so as the resistance (and, therefore, in general, the impedance) of the magnetizing circuit is less. It is easy to show that the amount of reflected energy is propor- tional to the area of the triangle OMF. 3. In the above we saw that the M.M.F. due to reactions is— 12r0eva as MS r 3 and dividing by /, the length of the magnetic circuit, we get the mag- netizing force due to reactions— 127rwn’a 1276 n? 127w rl $ oaks ; where N is the number of magnetising turns per unit length, and V is the volume of the iron. Hence these disturbing reactions are, all other things being equal, directly proportional to the volume of the iron used, and in- versely as the impedance of the magnetizing or other circuits that may embrace the ring. The fact that the effect is proportional to the volume of iron used follows at once from general principles, if we admit that the effect is due to some peculiar action in each ultimate magnetic particle. [The above discussion will, with slight modifications, apply to the action of eddy currents in modifying the induction produced in iron by periodic magnetizing forces. | 4. In order to keep tnis disturbing action small, the experiments described in this paper were performed on a small single annular 96 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. lamina of annealed transformer iron of which the details are as follows :— Internal diameter 7°56 em. External diameter 10°16 em. Mass.) a2. 9°13 grams Density 776 Length of magnetio circuit . 27°86 em. Section of magnetic circuit . 04225 em’. Thickness : ‘03275 cm. No. of primary turns” 125 No. of secondary turns 10 or 20 Specific resistance of the iron at 15°C 13600. Its magnetic properties, Classen’s method, are given below. loss per c.c. per cycle— statically determined by Ewing and U representing the hysteresis Bas .| 8989 6431 9076 13200 3 ee esto 9-451 4321 | 11°65 pee fo hee eee 2604 5 | 2100 SP Baas U _ 930 2020 | 3830 7750 The values of ie which were required for values of Bes inter- mediate to and beyond the above four values of B,,,,., were obtained as follows :—On a large sheet of squared paper we plotted from the above the log U against log B,,,. The four poimts lay on a line nearly straight with slight but regular curvature. From this line, when extended, all the values of U, made use of in the tables that are to follow, were calculated. 5. The arrangement of the apparatus by means of which thé first three series of results given below were obtained was practically identical with that already described by one of us.* The magnetizing current was obtained from a four-pole rotary converter supplied with direct current trom storage cells. The speed was regulated by means of a rheostat in its field circuit, and by varying the number of cells used while it was continuously determined by means of a chronograph. The magnetizing current was adjusted to any required value by means of a Kelvin Balance and an adjustable inductance. The reducing factor of the galvanometer used with the wave tracer was determined by means of a Clark cell and a megohm. The second three series of results were obtained by means of a new wave tracer, the commutator of which was attached to the spindle of a }2-pole alternate current generator, whose armature is surface wound, and which was driven by a direct current shunt motor. The A.C. generator supplied the magnetizing current. The other details of the arrangement were exactly as for the first three series. From both these sources we obtained a magnetizing current of approximately sine wave form, but the variation from the sine form in the two was essentially different. Thus if the magnetizing force was— H = H,{sin of + h, sin 8 (wt — $,) + h; sin 5 (wt —$, )-+ &e.} in the case of the rotary converter 4, was negative while in that of the generator h, was positive. * Lyle. REELS of. M: agnetic Hysteresis. with Frequency. Phil. Mag., Jan., 1905. IRON UNDER PERIODIC MAGNETIZING FORCES. 97 In addition it was possible to insert a much larger inductance in the magnetizing circuit when the generator was used and so keep down the reactions explained in section 2. The procedure in any one experiment has also been described.* In every case a full wave was taken, the ordinates being 12° in phase apart. The wave forms having been analysed, the results were reduced to absolute measure by applying to them the proper factors} to reduce them to magnetic intensity and induction respectively, in the form— H =H, {sin ot + h, sin 3 (wt — $,) +h, sin 5 (wt — 6.) + &e.,}. B=B, {sin (of — 9) + 4, sin 3 (wt — 6,) + 6,sin 5 (ot — 6.) + &e.}. From these the value of I, the total iron loss per c.c. per cycle, was calculated by the formula— [= oe | sin 6, + 3h,b,sin3 (0, — $,) + 5h,8, sin 5 (0,— $, + &e. ‘ which can be shown to be— 1 = fre The eddy current loss E, which is part of I, was calculated, as in the paper already quoted from the formula— ree? — — —— E Gal = where « — thickness, p = specific resistance, T = period, and 8, which has been called the effective induction, is given by— §? =B? {1+ 962 + 2502 + 4967 +- &e.,}. U the statical hysteresis having been determined for each experi- ment as explained in section 4, the difference | — (E+ U), which Fleming has called the kinetic hysteresis, was also obtained for each experiment, and is given in the tables that are to follow. 6. Tables I., I1., III., which follow, embody the results, completely reduced, which were obtained when the magnetizing current was taken from the rotary converter, while tables IV., V., VI., those when the alternator was used. Frequencies up to 200 per sec. could be obtained with the generator, while about 60 per sec. was the highest frequency at which the rotary would work satisfactorily. The meanings of the different symbols in the tables are given by— T = period H =H, {sin of + h, sin 3 (wt — $,) + h, sin 5 (wt —¢,) + &e.} B=B_ {sin (wt—6)-+ b, sin 3 (ot — 6 — ¥,) + 6, sin 5 (wt — 6— ,)4- &e. } 1B we en) 2 4-7 a my == , {4B fo 7 = iar’. 3. nf 2a R.M.S. (3) - I = total iron loss per c.c. per cycle. E =ceaiculated eddy current loss per ¢.c. per cycle. U = statical bysteresis for B max. of experiment. * Loc. cit. +T. R. Lyle. Phil. Mag. [6] vol. VI., p. 549 (1903). SECTION A. OF PROCEEDINGS 98 | OF80E 0692 OFLE OOSOT/OELOT 209 | GGL | OGL! LG-6 | L9G0.| 60-6 1620 O81 OGL) 00-T | 8996.) 46-8 |OZG8T| TLC Gh.@ | TEL0.| GO Z| 6920. 69-76 8680. OB8BF_OGLT OOTS OFLL |OLGIT) POT | OST | OBTEL) GE-F | TL80.| SF-8 6120. 81-6 GOT.| 26-1 | F866.) S-ST |OOLGT| 90-1 08-0 | 6100-| 00-F | 0GE0.- 08-11 0680. OLE9T| 286 | SOT 06LF |0089 9811 | ZFIZ| OZEOT | 29-9 | 9FGO.| 26-4 8910. GPG 060. GL. | $91@-| $9.6 |OGTST 6LL-¢ | 2E-ZT | 0800-| 88-2 | 8080.) 649. 'ZZE0. | | | | FOLS 96 FOS SZ6L |8eS 116% | 6864 8!Z9 — 0-ST | LOLO.| G6 ZT 8420. 06-01 2990. SF-2 | S88T-| ST-88 OLTL | GhF-G 88-6 | GI00.) 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GEES SG68Z|OLGF | $8-GZ_8Z00-| 0-83 £900 | CO GE FEEO. 80 EL | S6ST | 06-09 SG6F E6L-L Z9-01 0800. 6-4 GL80.| TTL-1 L0Z0- 260% O1G/S0GZ | — T100. 10.88 | £900.) 40.96 | FLTO " LLLT | B901-| 08 SF IFSGe Bee. Gh-F | TgO0. 09 § | 61E0. OLL-1 2020. 990L SLT) F246 | c9.2F | 1200. G8. 0T0.| 28-18 | Te10 | e6.12 | 980. Chee 966 FIG. 89-81 | FOO. G6-F | SF80-| 6L8- 070. €1g 9g joTe | oF BF | 2C00. GFF | 1900-| 48-2 | eat0.| 26-e¢ | LoFO.| 29.12 ete 919. | e9.2- ZIO0. 12-8 | L1F0.| FSG. £020. } ° ° ° ° ° Nigel es —— el Seal See . : ees aed an sea sv. iE = A eens! see ra) of Pla 771) a7) “ph a7) sh a7) me 7) r) 'd Rte *h 5 tc) Re aE af “TILT 914% PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 100 OFS ST9S | OGLE 6S0T | S96T GhG | 009 a | SSF. 696.6 18l-1 916.1 9G8. ‘xvul ET 99-1T GE9-G GPCOO. 0209 0922 “96% 911g Ges | cG0s O8F | GFT sel | 1e9 4L | ger a |) 0 TeLl — | Foo. | 02-91 | 61z0. O18 |9.6 | 1900. | 46.8 | ETEo. San) if q m1 7) ‘TA 9TC%.L OLZET | 80.F | 2860. | FZ | 128%. OS90T | ST-2 | 120. | 88% E902. | | 0608 | ZT | 8880. | 22.2 | SFCT. JMG 6¢.6E | 9810. | 68.6 Y8OT- L608 OTT | 000. | 2F-8T e890. OLII 0182 | 2200. | LL-TT | ¢2go. ’ Oo Oo Sei: ial if “q Sn | “4 “A 9TCeL 86 GL S519 §1¢.6 896-6 60¢-T C06. eda GFT €5.6 Gz-8 SLL LF.8 g&-8 (o) ‘p 968-1 | P9900. 068-1 | TL900- @1400. IRON UNDER PERIODIC MAGNETIZING FORCES. 101 Attention will now be directed to a few of the more important results contained in the foregoing tables. 7. The influence of the wave form of H on the induction produced can be clearly seen by comparing Tables III. and IV. In these two series the periods of the oscillations were practically the same, but for the series in Table III., which was obtained by using the rotary con- verter, the average wave form of H is given by— L = sin of — ‘088 sin 3 (wt — 3°5°) — &e., while for the series in Table [V., obtained from the generator, the average wave form of H is given by— M = sin of + 028 sin 8 (wt — 15°) + &e. [L is of the peaked, while M is of the flat type of wave form. | It must be remembered, however, that in every case H is due to the magnetizing current which is produced by the resultant e.m.f: in the magnetizing circuit, and the components of this resultant are the em.f. of the source (converter or generator as the case may be), and the e.m.f. due to the reaction of the iron ring. In these experiments the latter was kept relatively small by using a small sample of iron (as explained in sections 3 and 4), and by using a high e.m.f of the source, the required magnetizing current being obtained by inserting ironless inductances in the circuit. L and Mare practically the wave forms of the e.m.fs. on open circuit of the two sources used. On Fig II. are plotted from Tables II]. and IV. the characteristics p,, 9, 6,, and the iron loss I, against different values of B,, the ampli- tude of the first harmonic of the induction, as abscisse, when these two wave forms of magnetizing current were used, the period being practically the same for both series. It will be noticed that though the iron loss points for both series fall practically on the same curve, yet there are considerable differences between corresponding values of the other characteristics. On referring to the formula for I in section 5, and to the values for h, , h,, &e., b,, b,, &c., in Tables III. IV., it will be found that in the series with wave form L, I,, I,, &c., the energies dissipated in the iron through the 38rd, 5th, &e., harmonics are negative, while in the series with the wave form Mi Lbs aernare positive. Thus, with wave form L, electric energy which had been received from the magnetizing circuit through the fundamental harmonic was reflected back to the circuit by means of the higher harmonics, while with the wave form M electric energy was received from the circuit through all the harmonics and dissipated as heat in the iron. As the total loss I is the same (g.p.) for both, I, (ze. energy received by the first harmonic), in the case of L must be greater than I, in the case of M, but (see section 5)— HB ain 0. a1 sin: 6 ene et ; 4. a cee and as we find that 6 and p, are both greater for L than for M, a small difference in I,, that is in sin 6/u, for the same value ot B, will cause, as we find, a large change in the corresponding values of 6 and p, for the two series. 102 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. It will also be seen in Fig. IT. that the values of 4, for the L wave form are less than corresponding ones for the M wave form. This result ix as would be expected from general considerations. In the case of M energy is received which becomes magnetic before © I. I io 5 n 3 NY a) ; %» © | Lo R) x= 15000 / / aoa O> HHH son wh + -028 sen Slat —15°) + 10000 - ia) 3000 IRON UNDER PERIODIC MAGNETIZING FORCES. 103 being dissipated as heat. To effect this b, the amplitude of the magnetic oscillation is made greater than its value due to B, alone— that is, than its value if H were of pure sine form—H, sin wt without upper harmonies. In the case of L some of the energy received from B, is sent out, and so less magnetic energy is dissipated in the iron, and this is effected by the amplitude of 6, being reduced. 104 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. The 4, curve for pure sine excitation must therefore lie between the two curves for 6, in Fig. II. 8. The most important of the magnetic characteristics of iron are p, and 6, as from these its behaviour is to the first order determined. The curves in Fig. IIT. show how p, varies under different condi- tions of induction density and frequeney, while$the curves in Fig. IV show the variations of 6. IRON UNDER PERIODIC MAGNETIZING FORCES. 105 As the induction B, approaches zero both p», and 6 seem to tend to definite small values which are independent of the frequency, while as B, gets very large p, again seems to tend to low values that are independent of the frequency. We have been unable to find any simple formula by which the relations of either p, or 6 to B, and T can be expressed. 13000 Bes 10000 ~-§000 9. The characteristics of the upper harmonics of the induction are plotted against B, (from Table III.) in Fig. V. It will be seen that 6, is not linear in B, as was suggested by one of us in a former paper. The present results were obtained in any one series with practically constant wave form for all inductions, while the former 106 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. were obtained with wave forms of H which steadily departed more and more from the sine form as the induction increased. It is worth noting, however, that in the series represented in Fig. V., 6, is concave to the B} axis, 6, is a straight line, and is there- fore linear in B,, while 6, is convex to the B, axis. On the same diagram the corresponding phase angles y,, W., w, of b,, 6., b, ave plotted, and the curves show the gradual slipping back- wards along the time axis of the rising points of the 6,, b., b, sine curves towards the rising point of the B, sine curve as the induction PHOTOGRAPHS OF ARC SPECTRA. 107 increases, until, at saturation, the rising points of all higher harmonies become coincident with that of the first harmonic of the induction. For purposes of more critical investigation, a series of 6. Ww, curves such as those in Fig. V., together with corresponding ones such as are given in Figs. III., 1V., for uw, and 6 for the same speed, would enable one to construct a series of induction waves for that speed from which the experimental errors and slips in reduction (which we can hardly hope are entirely absent from this work) would be partly eliminated. 10. With regard to the formula— Il =(a-+ bn) B proposed by one of us, we find that it is only an approximate represen- tation of the facts a the index of 8 is not mdependent of the frequency, and, probably, not of the wave form of H: That-it 1s a fairly close approximation, however, when one type of exciting current is used and the range of frequency not very large, is shown by Fig VL, in which log | is plotted against log 8 from Tables 1., II., and III. The points for each frequency are seen to fit closely to a straight line, and the three lines for the three frequencies are very nearly parallel, the slope showing a slight tendency to increase as the frequency increases. The formula— I = (00257 + -00006 2) 81'*%7 gives the values of I in these three series with considerable accuracy. For frequencies higher than 50 per sec. the above formula does not apply. For any one frequency, however, I is given by an expression of the form cB". Thus for series IV. in which— n= 00 (¢-p.) 1= 00571 B'*, for series V. in which— 2 = 100 A= U0424 Be 28. and for series VI. in which nr 9 eh ==FO0214) B28. Obviously further investigation on this subject is needed. 11. The former conclusions as regards the actuality of such a quantity as Kinetic hysteresis, and the general way in which it varies with induction density and frequency, are fully verified by the present investigation, as a glance down the columns under K in the tables will show. 8.—PHOTOGRAPHS OF ARC SPECTRA OF METALS UNDER HIGH PRESSURE. By W. GEOFFREY DUFFIELD, D.Sc. In 1896 it was discovered by Humphreys and Mohler* that when a souree of light was subjected to pressure, the spectral lines were in general broadened and displaced towards the red end of the spectrum ; that is to say, the rapidity of the vibration was diminished by pressure. The present research was undertaken in the physical laboratories of the Manchester University in 1904, at the suggestion of Dr. * Astrophysical Journal, vi., 161, 1896. 108 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Schuster, with the object of repeating and extending the work of Humphreys and Mohler, which then only concerned pressures as high as 144 atmospheres. In 1906 the writer showed to the British Association} photographs of the iron are under pressures of +3, +4, aD 10) 4 15,420, 425," 4:30, 4 40) 4-250; +60, (4260R and +100 atms., and presented in 1907 a detailed account of the work.t At the same time (1907) Humphreys§ published the displacements of lines of iron and various metals under pressures of 42, 69, and 101 atmospheres. Photographs have now been obtained by the writer of the spectrum of the copper,|| silver, iron, gold, and metal ares up to 200 atmospheres, and alloys have also been investigated up to the same pressure. The apparatus consists of a drawn. steel cylinder (designed by Dr. J. E. Petavel, F.R.S.), 2 ft. long, 3 in. internal, 5 in. external diameter. Heavy covers are bolted to the top and bottom, and these are furnished with insulated stuffing-boxes through which pass steel rods, to whose ends can be clamped the electrodes whose spectrum is required. ‘These were connected with the terminals of the corporation mains at 100 volts, and an are formed between them opposite a glass window in the side of the cylinder. The light was examined by means of a large Rowland grating spectograph (215 ft. radius), which, in the second order, gave a dispersion of I mm. = 1A. Us. Tron presents a spectrum whose lines exhibit most of the pheno- mena associated with pressure changes. The effects first noticeable as the pressure 1s increased are the broadening of the lines and their tendency to reverse, but careful examination also shows that they are displaced from their original positions by an amount which is greater as the pressure is increased. To compare the original and displaced lines it is usual to employ a comparison shutter, which allows the central strip of the plate to be exposed to the normal arc, and then covers that part of the plate and exposes the rest of it to the spectrum. given by the are under pressure. The two are then in close juxta- position, and the displacements are easily seen, and are measureable. Careful measurements of the displacements of the iron lines show that three groups exist with displacements in the ratio of 4: 2:1. The unsymmetrically reversed lines are anomalously displaced, the reversal being displaced half as much as the non-reversed part. From this we learn that the outer envelope of an are does not neces- sarily absorb the most intense vibration emitted by the central core. Forty thousand measurements of the displacement of sixty lines were necessary for the determination of the relationship of the displace- ment to the pressure up to 100 atmospheres. The plates a between 100 and 250 atmospheres are now being measured by a assistant at the Manchester University, and, as fur as has at oan been ascertained, there is no discontinuity throughout the whole range of pressure. The relation between the pressure and the dis- placement is im general a linear one, though some anomalous readings + Brit. ee TRenetE York, p. 481, 1906. + Roy. Soc. Proc., 1907; Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 208, in., 1908. § Astrophysical Journal, 26, 18, 1907. Roy. Soc. Proc., A., $2, 378, 1908. PHOTOGRAPHS OF ARG SPECTRA. 109 were obtained in the neighbourhood of 25 atmospheres, where some plates gave values for the displacement twice those found on other plates. This result has been discussed more fully elsewhere.* The evidence favours the probability of there being two values for the displacement of a given line at any one pressure. This point, how- ever, requires further examination before it is finally established. Between 100 and 215 atmospheres there is a marked increase in the number of reversals in the ultra violet part of the spectrum, which assists in the resolution of the spectrum into series of lines, and also into well-marked triplets. Copper.—Very few of the copper lines reverse under pressure besides the strong members of the principal series, 3247, 3274, but the broadening and displacement are pronounced; at 200 atmos- pheres the displacement being nearly 2 Angstrém units. The most striking feature is the disappear ance of the lines belonging to the first and second subordinate series within the region AA 4000-4600. The systems responsible for these vibrations do not appear to exist at high pressures. Gold.—Two rods of gold, 1} in. long, 2 in. diameter, were ob- tained from Messrs. imine ‘and Matthey, of Hatton Gardens, London, and these were screwed to the ends of the electrodes. The gold are burnt well under pressure, but not so brightly as other metallic arcs. The lower poles burnt away rapidly, the molten metal running down the sides much as does the wax from a candle. Slides are presented showing the behaviour of this spectrum at 200 atmos- pheres. Nickel.—Photographs have also been taken with the poles of this metal at pressures up to 200 atmospheres. Salver.—Under pressure the spectrum of this metal undergoes most remarkable changes. At atmospheric pressure silver gives a line spectrum closely resembling that of copper, save that the doub- lets are more widely separated; but, as the pressure of the surround- ing air is increased, this gradually vanishes, and gives place to a banded spectrum which is not unlike that obtained when silver is heated in a carbon-tube furnace, but actual identification of the bands is difficult since the latter spectrum was obtained at atmospheric pressure. + Increase of pressure up to 80 atmospheres effects the gradual change of the banded spectrum into a continuous spectrum, which may be regarded as being due to the broadening of each individual band. Another peculiarity is the structural appearance of the broadened lines of the first subordinate series (which, in the region, AA 4000 to 4600 seem responsible for the banded spectrum). A remarkable feature is the appearance on plates taken between 5 and 20 atmospheres of pronounced bands (of doubtful origin) in the neighbourhood of 3914. They present a unique phenomenon in that one of the two heads is displaced towards the violet. This is the first * Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 208, i11., 1908. + Duffield and Rossi, Astrophysical Journal, 1908. 110 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. record of—(1) The displacement of a band spectrum under pressure ; (2) a displacement being directed towards ‘the violet. This latter phenomenon is shared by some lines in the ultra-violet region. It is at present uncertain whether the banded spectrum is due to an oxide or to some molecular grouping of the atoms of silver alone. Hartley, in considering his fluted flame spectrum, inclines to the latter view; whichever be the case, the spectrum at high pressures is that characteristic of a molecular or compound substance, and it is in- teresting to note that at the high temperature of the silver are such a spectrum c can be produced. The existence of banded spectra im sun spots has generally been accepted as evidence that they are regions ot low temperature, but it is not out of the question that they are areas of high temperature, and of great pressure, since the latter agency seems capable of counterbalancing the tendency to dissociation occasioned by the former. Whittaker pointed out, before he was aware of these results, that, from theoretical considerations based on Willard Gibbs’ work, this effect was to be expected. 9.—INTERNATIONAL SOLAR RESEARCH. (Abstract of Paper presented to Section A of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Brisbane Meeting, 1909.) By W. GEOFFREY DUFFIELD, D.Sc., F.R.A.S. An account is given of the work carried on at the Mount Wilson and South Kensington Solar Physics Observatories, and slides, kindly suppled by Professor Hale, illustrate a portion of the equipment of the Mount Wilson Observatory, and show the nature of the sun’s surface when photographed in the hght emitted by hydrogen, calcium, and iron vapours. The investigations into solar radiation, solar rotation, and the spectrum and nature of sun spots are discussed, and the work of the International Union for Solar Research is detailed, and an account given of the steps that have been taken to secure Australian co-operation in the international scheme, which is especially desirable, for the following reasons :— (1) Australia’s position in longitude is such that an Australian station would fill a gap at present existing in the chain of observatories round the earth, and ena ble the sun to be kept under continual observation throughout the whole of the 24 hours. (2) Australia’s position in latitude makes her co-operation especially valuable, because no station devoted to solar physics exists south of the equator, where one is necessary to examine the question of solar radiation, and to deter- mine if the fluctuations recorded by the American Observatories are due to local or solar changes. (3) Australia’s climatic conditions are uniquely favourable, both because her skies are clear and the sunshine is almost unfailing, and also because observations would be possible at a time when the rainy season in India, America, and Western Europe prevents observations from being satisfactorily made. POLAR LINES IN ARC SPECTRA. Ju Besides the theoretical importance of solar study in its relation to the problem of stellar and inorganic evolution, there is the reason- able hope that a knowledge of the relationship between solar and terrestrial phenomena may prove of practical service to mankind. It is interesting to note that India has erected a solar observatory, in the belief that it will ultimately prove of value in famine prediction. 10.—POLAR LINES IN ARC SPECTRA. By W. GEOFFREY DUFFIELD, D.Sc. Several writers have chronicled the occurrence of “spark” lines in are spectra. Fowler* has described the appearance in the spectrum of an iron are of lines which are strongest at the poles, and diminish in intensity as they approach the centre, being, however, stronger on the positive than on the negative pole. He investigated the region F to C, and pointed out the identity of these lines with the enhanced lines of iron and with those lines that are weakened in sun spots. The ultra-violet region of the spectrum of the iron are has been investi- gated by the writer, a vertical image being focussed upon the vertical slit of the 214-ft. Rowland er ating spectograph in the Man- chester University, the length of the arc being so adjusted that the tip of each pole was just included upon the slit. The astigmatism of the grating was not sufficient to mask the phenomenon. Many lines appear only on the tips of the poles in these photographs, but they differ from Fowler's in that they are of nearly the same intensity on the two poles. The arc was supplied with current from the cor- poration mains at 110 volts; this was continuous, but, to ensure that a superinduced alternating current was not disturbing the continuous current and producing a weak spark discharge, several photographs were taken when the are was run from the storage batteries, and the same phenomena were again observed. It should be added that the exposure was not begun until the are had been struck, and that it burned steadily until the shutter was closed. In view of the fact that these lines occur in a normal iron arc, it is the writer’s conviction that the term “ spark” line is misleading. The term “polar” lines is suggested to distinguish those occurring most strongly at the poles of the are or spark from those occurring most strongly at the centre, for which the term “median” lines seems suitable. The phenomenon does not seem capable of being referred to a “temperature” effect, a conclusion which has been strengthened by Dr. G. A. Heinsalech’s notable research upon spectra emitted by flames at different temperatures—he finds, for instance, that the lew-temperature Bunsen flame gives a spectrum consisting almost entirely of the enhanced polar lines of iron, and that, as flames of higher temperature are employed, these lines diminish in intensity relatively to the median lines, at the highest temperature many having completely disappeared. A list of 202 polar lines in the iron spectrum between AA 2350> and 3,500 has been compiled, the polar lines becoming rarer * Fowler.--Monthly Notices, Royal Astronomical Society, 67, 154, 1907. + Duffield. Astrophy sical Journal, xxvii., 260, 1908. 112 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. as the wave-length increases. Direct comparison with the spectrum from a spark discharge shows that below X = 2350 and A = 2630 all lines have their counterparts in the polar lines in the arc, but with increasing wave length the arc becomes richer in median lines, some of which now correspond to lines from the spark discharge, and the polar lines decrease, as already stated, in number and intensity. The origin of the polar lines and the bearing of pressure, density, temperature, and potential gradient wpon the phenomenon are dis- cussed. The distinctive character of the polar lines should assist in the resolution into series of the iron are spectrum. In the copper are spectrum there are differences between the lines, which admit of classification into polar are lines (those strongest at the poles of an arc) and polar spark lines (those strongest at the poles of a spark discharge). These behave differently under different external condi- tions. * In the iron are in the extreme ultra-violet the median lines are diffuse and nebulous, the polar lines sharp. Instances are given of median jines losing in intensity in the are when polar lines appear near them. 11.—ELASTIC SOLID ETHER, WITH TWO MODULI, SATISFYING MacCULLAGH’S CRYSTALLINE OPTICAL CONDITIONS. By PROFESSOR A. MCAULAY, M.A., University of Tasmania. 12.—ON THE RADIUM CONTENT OF CERTAIN IGNEOUS ROCKS FROM THE SUB-ANTARCTIC ISLANDS OF NEW ZEALAND. By C. COLERIDGE FARR, D.Sc., and D. C. H. FLORANCE, M.A. 13.—RECENT EXPERIMENTS ON THE VISCOSITY OF WATER. By RICHARD HOSKING, B.A. (Camb.), B.Sc. (Sydney). 14.—THE SPECTRUM OF SILVER GIVEN BY A CARBON-TUBE FURNACE. By W. G. DUFFIELD, D.Sc., F.R.A.S. 15.—THE LAWS OF MOBILITY AND DIFFUSION OF THE IONS FORMED IN GASEOUS MEDIA. By E. M. WELLISCH, M.A., Emmanuel College, Cambridge, Eng. ABSTRACT. Expressions have been deduced from the kinetic theory of gases for the mobility and coefficient of diffusion of an ion, allowance being made for the increase in collision frequency due to the polarisation of the neutral molecules by the charge associated with the ion. This charge is shown to be replaceable, as far as collisions are concerned, * Dutteld, ‘‘ Effect of Pressure on Arc Spectra, No. 2 Copper.”—Phil. Trans. Roy. Society. MOBILITY AND DIFFUSION OF IONS. 113 by an extension of the sphere of force of the ionic nucleus. The expressions given involve only known physical constants of the gas, and are, therefore, directly comparable with the values as determined experimentally. It is found that the observed values of the mobilities and diffusion coefficients, as well as certain deviations from the mobility-pressure law, can be approximately explained on the supposi- tion that the icn consists of a single molecule of the gas, with which is associated a charge equal to that carried by the monovalent ion in electrolysis. 16.—THE THEORY OF THE SMALL ION IN AIR. By WILLIAM SUTHERLAND, M.A., B.Se. 17.—THE BLEECK-LOVE ELECTRIC BATTERY. By W. A. BLEECK, Brisbane. 18.—ON SOME OBSERVATIONS WITH SELENIUM CELLS. By O. U. VONWILLER, B.Sc., Sydney University, N.S.W. 19.—THE ELECTRODELESS DISCHARGE IN MERCURY VAPOUR. By S. G. LUSBY, M.A. 20.—A NOTE ON THE ELECTRON THEORY OF THE CARBON ARC. By PROFESSOR J. A. POLLOCK, D.Se. 21.—THE SCATTERING OF BETA RAYS. By J. P. V. MADSEN, B.Sc., B.E. 22.—THE SCATTERING OF X RAYS. By PROFESSOR W. H. BRAGG, M.A., F.R.S. 25.—SHORT NOTES ON—I. TAYLOR’S THEOREM, AND II. ENVELOPES. By PROFESSOR E. J. NANSON. 24.—UNIVERSAL RADIO-ACTIVITY. NEW EXPERIMENTS WITHOUT RADIUM. By J. W. H. HULLETT. 25.—THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS. By R. H. ROE, M.A. 26.—THE PROOF BY PROJECTION OF CERTAIN TYPES OF GEOMETRICAL THEOREMS. : By H. TOUKYS. Section B. C.HEIMIS.T RIY. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, Proressor .T. H. EASTERFIELD, M.A., Pu. D. Victoria University College, Wellington, N.Z. THE POSITION OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH IN AUSTRALASIA. In the drawing up of an ideal course of study the inclusion or rejection of any subject must be eventually decided by the question of usefulness. Not that subjects which have no direct monetary value must be discarded, but rather that only those may be retained which are likely to develop the intellect and intelligence of our citizens. Amongst the studies which will obtain greater and greater recog- nition from our educational authorities, [ believe that chemistry stands pre-eminent, for there is none which touches human interests at so many points, has a greater power of exciting enthusiasm or of developing clear methods of thought. Like all other subjects of sterling value, such as literature, history, or mathematics, chemistry may be so badly taught as to lose its value, a fact which has had much to do with the tardy recognition given to the educational worth of the science. Too often the teaching of chemistry has been restricted to the imparting of so-called useful facts dealing with metallurgy or chemical manufactures. Such teaching, without a good foundation of philosophical chemistry, can be of little use even to the student of technology, and to the seeker after general culture it is practically valueless. Useful facts are rapidly forgotten, but the student who learns to “think in a chemical way” acquires a habit of thought which will be of value in any calling which he may follow. More than two centuries ago Robert Boyle pleaded for the study of chemistry as an independent science, and not as the handmaid to any art or pro- fession ; with all humility I would recall to Australasian chemists the soundness of the attitude which Boyle took up. That the skilled technological chemist is of great value to the community is well recognised by our State authorities. In Australia and New Zealand together there are about 100 men holding State appointments as analysts, assayers, and Government chemists. These men are doing a most important work in protecting the public from fraud, and in helping on the development of the natural resources of the States in which they are employed. There is, moreover, in Australia and New Zealand a large number of men engaged in the teaching of chemistry. Each State has its own arrangements, and in 116 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. some States the work is more effectively carried out than in others. I will make no comparisons, but merely state that all the secondary boys’ schools in New Zealand which have come under my notice possess laboratories, and that personal observation has convinced me that in these schools a good foundation of chemical knowledge is being laid. From the above statements, which it would not be without interest to amplify, it would appear as though the position of Chemical Science in Australasia is a satisfactory one. Careful examination of the facts has, however, led me to the conclusion that in one most important particular our chemical affairs are by no means as they should be. I allude to the attitude of our chemists towards research, the spring from which our science takes its source, and without which the province of chemistry must become a barren and thirsty land. If we examine the transactions of the various Australasian learned societies, we find that the number of chemical investigations recorded is small compared with the papers dealing with other sciences. This cannot be explained by the assumption that much of the work carried out in Australasia is published in European rather than local journals. From each of our universities and university colleges there appears from time to time in the journal of the Chemical Society the record of some investigation or research, but the length of time which elapses between the appearance of these papers seems to show that chemical research has not yet got a serious hold of our laboratories, and th-* the importance of original investigation is not realised by our edv2.- tional authorities, our teaching staffs, or our students. Now, no branch of study can be considered to be in a healthy state if the exponents of the subject are contented to watch with interest the work which is done by outsiders, and to reap the benefits accruing from their labours without themselves contributing to the advancement of the science by active research work. It is, therefore, surprising that public opinion has not long ago recognised the im- portance of a research atmosphere in educational institutions, and in technical and State laboratories. Few will deny the economic import- ance of an exact knowledge of still unexplored chemical phenomena, for the history of the nineteenth century is largely a record of the discovery of apparently unimportant scientific principles, followed by the application of these principles as the foundation of important industries. The freezing industry, the coal-tar colour trade, and the modern development of the manufacture of sulphuric acid are typical instances, and the recognition of the importance of the exact study of the physical chemistry of our metallurgical processes is being attended with equally surprising developments. . Im a teaching institution the value of research work is largely psychological, and Jies in its influence upon the teaching staff and upon the students. It has been my privilege to work in many labora- tories, some magnificent, some extremely humble in their equipment ; only in those laboratories, however, in which the research spirit was dominant did I find that scientific enthusiasm was an important characteristic of the place, and IT have known beautiful laboratories in which the scientific ideal was sadly lacking. My own enthusiasm for chemistry dates from the commencement of my first research, begun PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION B. 117 when I was a very elementary student and a most indifferent. manipu- lator. The work made me realise my own incompetence, and caused me to approach the study of chemistry from a totally changed point of view. An objection which is often raised to modern rdaeareh work is that so much of it is apparently incapable of technical application. Two important points must, however, be borne in mind—(1) that scientitic discoveries which have no monetary value to-day may eventually be of the greatest service to mankind; (2) that to the student the development of the habit of investigation is of far greater importance than the value of the discoveries which he makes. To a young man who proposes to take up technological work, a year et at close application to research work under the guiding hand of < skilful and sympathetic investigator is of priceless value ; it will aes influence his mode of thought, and leave its mark upon all his future work. Were I requiring an assistant professor in my own laboratory I would not accept a degree of any kind from any university as a guarantee of fitness for the post. If, however, I had read with approval the candidate’s original papers, and convinced myself that he possessed tact, personality, and enthusiasm, I should have no hesita- tion in recommending his appointment, even though his examination record was poor. It may not be out of place to mention here that the two most brillant professors of chemistry in Germany have placed on record that they did very badly in their degree examinations. It would be of interest if we could ascertain the causes of the lack of enthusiasm for chemical research in Australasia. Is the Australian climate to blame? Undoubtedly there is a great call to an open-air life, to the cricket ground and the ocean beach, but as these attractions do not sensibly divert business men from the pursuit of wealth it can hardly be maintained tthat they would seriously hinder an enthusiastic investigator in his search after exact knowledge. (2.) Is the young Australasian unfitted by nature to take up research work? Certainly he is not! The success of Australasians who have gone to work in Europe has demonstrated that our best students are unsurpassed in research ability by the men with whom they come in contact in English and German laboratories. Rutherford, of Christchurch, is, of course, unique. Mellor, of Dunedin, and Steele, of Melbourne, have both done excellent work in physical chemistry. Of the younger men, the names of Wilsmiore (Melbourne), Denham and Prideaux (Christchurch), Allen and Worley (Auckland) arise in my mind as recent contributors of papers to the journal of the Chemical Society. Youngest of all is the case of P. W. Robertson, of Wellington, whom I find credited with inves- tigations on physical, organic, analytical, and technological chemistry. Of the work done by chemists holding official positions in Australia several have interested themselves with the chemistry of ‘the native flora. Of these the work of Mr. Henry G. Smith upon the eucalypts is particularly worthy of mention. In the agricultural laboratories I find that Mr. Briinnich (Queensland) and Mr. Aston (New Zealand) have carried out interesting work on plants which are poisonous to 118 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS-—SECTION B. stock ; these researches are the more welcome as coming from labora- tories in which the amount of routine work is so great as to compel all research work to be carried out under conditions of the greatest difficulty. The names which I have mentioned by no means conclude the list of our chemical investigators. They suffice, however, to show that our people are not lacking in the power to do good research work. (3.) Are our educational systems to blame for the compara- tively small amount of attention which has been paid to research } To a large extent I believe that they are to blame. The trail of the examination has ruined many courses of study. The Australasian is a great lover of examinations, and to many parents it seems more important that ‘their children should receive certificates of com- petency without being proficient rather than that they should possess the proficiency without the certificate. It is, to my mind, absurd that the degree of B.Sc. should be conferred upon any student until he has shown that he has the ability to carry out a simple investigation im some experimental science. I am not an extreme advocate of the heuristic method, but I do believe that very early in a student’s career he should learn that he has the power of finding out things for him- self, that these things are worth finding out, and that he commits an immoral act if he does not make it his business to find them out. To those who raise objections I would remark that the knack of investiga- tion, like dancing, can only be learnt by doing it. (4.) Are our professors and teachers responsible for the present state of affairs! Some portion of the blame undoubtedly rests at our door, for, with the exception of Orme Masson, none of us has succeeded in form- ing a recognised research school. Unquestionably, the most important function of a university professor is to set the ideal towards which his students must strain. In too many cases, however, teachers of chemistry have taken the path ‘of least resistance, and accepted as inevitable the lack of ideals on the part of their less privileged fellow- mien. I have even heard professors maintain that no student should be allowed to think about research work until after graduation; an attitude of mind calculated to destroy all youthful enthusiasm. The student whose attention is not directed to the importance of research work learns to look upon the text book and the examination as the two most important factors in a university education, and I fear that many of us have been satisfied that this should be the case. After all, research students cause some inconvenience to a professor; they stick so tenaciously to the laboratory, and they are for ever asking ques- tions. If we can postpone their research work until the time when they can have no opportunity for doing it we shall be saved much worry and inconvenience. If a professor does not himself engage in research work it is unlikely that his students wi!l wish to do.so.. In his early researches. a student needs much sympathy and encouragement. Apparent failures do much to discourage the youthful investigator, but a little sympathetic advice readily impresses the lesson that the failures teach as important lessons as the successes. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. 119 Having now cast a share of blame upon the teaching profession, let me say something in defence of our teachers. As a rule too much of a professor’s time is taken up in the organisation of his department and in the teaching of elementary students. In at least three cases which have come under my notice in Australasia the professor of chemistry held also the chair of physics, and was allowed only one demonstrator. Under such circumstances it is evident that the con- centration of mind necessary for successful research work is seldom possible; the mental overstrain deadens the intellectual ideal, and the professor may surely be pardoned, if, when the vacation comes, he shuns his laboratory as he would a plague-infested area. May I here be allowed to digress in order to make a few remarks upon the appointment of professors and university lecturers? It is unfortunate that the members of the governing bodies .of many universities have not yet been led to an appreciation of the value of research work, and, therefore, are apt to appoint men with a brillant examination record or with a great reputation for getting students through examinations rather than those who are known to surround themselves with an atmosphere of scientific enthusiasm. It is, I know, a matter of difficulty to find candidates with all the characteristics which we hope for in a university professor. When, however, we consider that nearly all great investigators gather around ‘them a research school, the members of which introduce the scientific habit into all work which they undertake, it becomes obvious that no man should be appointed to a professorship of chemistry unless he can show a good research record, together with evidence that he has the power of stimulating others to the undertaking of similar work. Such a professor will leave a profound impression upon the students who have been fortunate enough to come under his influence, and will benefit his generation to a far greater extent than the commonplace hack who succeeds in preparing crowds of students to dodge the traps laid by the university examiners. When it is remembered that a university professor, unless abso- lutely lacking in backbone, leaves a pronounced stamp upon the intellectual ideals of a whole generation of students, it must be admitted that every appointment to a professorial chair is an affair of national importance. It, therefore, behoves Australasians to work as one man to see that in the making of such appointments all personal and parochial considerations are eliminated, and that only men of the highest type are chosen as professors and university lecturers. Choose men with some Australasian experience, if possible, that they may understand our local conditions; let them be men who have worked also in Europe, that their outlook may be a broad one; insist that they be men of affairs with high intellectual ideals, and our universi- ties will become, as indeed they should, centres of the most leavening influence upon the life and aspirations of our citizens. In concluding an address which is already too long, and which has, I fear, wandered only too freely from the subject chosen, let me enter a plea on behalf of those who, having shown scientific ability and power of conducting investigations, find themselves unable from lack of funds to carry out their researches. The tendency in the past 120 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B has been to grant scholarships in order that schoolboys might get a university education, and to stop those scholarships as soon as the student hias graduated, 7.e., just at the time when with no more exami- nations before him he could, in the absence of financial worry, give his mind completely to the pursuit of higher work. The New Zealand Government has recently recognised this need, and has established in each of the four university “colleges of the Dominion a research scholarship of £100 per annum, tenable for two years. The University of Melbourne has also decided to spend £1000 per annum on research scholarships, and it is to be hoped that all the other universities will follow this good example. Such a policy would do much to develop the research ideal amongst our students, and would go far to stamp out the common error that university education ends when the degree examinations are passed. F ht \ B. PAPERS READ IN SECTION > 1—THE ALKALOIDS OF THE PUKATEA (LAURELIA NOVAE—ZEALANDI“Z). By BERNARD CRACROFT ASTON, Chief Chemist, Department of Agriculture, N.Z. The pukatea is one of the most characteristic trees in swampy forests of the North Island of New Zealand, but is rare and local in the South Island. Mature trees are easily distinguished by the radiat- ing buttresses at the foot of the trunk, which are of considerable size, sometimes doubling what would be the circumferance of the tree without them. The pale, almost white, bark, and the aromatic odour from the bruised leaves or branchlets, constitute additional means'-of recognition. The tree, endemic to New Zealand, originally described by Allen Cunningham as Laurelia, was subsequently referred by Hooker to Atherosperma, but has now been replaced by Cheeseman in its original genus belonging to the family Monimiacez, the nearest ally being a species of Laurelia, in Chili. According to Colenso and T. Kirk, the wood is soft, of great strength, extremely tough, does not split, allow- ing nails to be driven in any direction, is difficult to burn, and is not durable in contact with the ground. The pukatea is among the largest oft New Zealand trees, Gone tes reaching a height of 150 feet, aa a clear diameter of 5 to 7 feet, exclusive “of the’ immensely wide but- tresses at the base. The roots extend along the surface for a con- siderable distance, those of a tree measured at Day’s Bay being visible for fully 50 feet. It is related that upon one occasion a man, being chased in the bush by a bull, tripped over some pukatea roots and lay perfectly still, parallel and between two of them. The bull stood poking, pawing, and snorting, for some time, and at length, finding he could not come at his vzs-a-vis, withdrew. In the Marlborough Sounds these trees attain enormous dimensions. In one instance observed, a camp for fifteen men was made between two buttresses: of a pukatea. Colenso (p. 33, Essay, Vol.. I., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1868) states that the Maoris generally used the wood of the pukatea for. the earved figureheads of ‘their canoes and for boat-building, it being highly serviceable for the bottom boards of boats, as in case of strik- ing a rock only the spot so struck is staved. In the annual report of the New Zealand Department of Agri- culture for 1901 (p. 284), attention was first drawn by the author to the occurrence of alkaloids in the bark of the pukatea; and the peculiar property possessed by the bark when chewed of causing a tingling of the tongue—probably well known to bushmen and others ere this—was traced to a crystalline alkaloid of definite melting point. The presence of alkaloids makes it extremely probable that the tree contains medical properties of some value. The possibility of this was recognised so long ago as 1868 by Colenso (Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1868, Essay, p. 51), who says that from the aromatic leaves and bark of the pukatea a valuable essential oil might be extracted, seeing that 1199) PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. from a closely allied plant of Tasmania—Atherosperma moschata—an: essential oil called “sassafras oil” has been obtained, and Dr. F. Mueller has recently strongly recommended the bark of that tree as ‘deserving extensive adoption in medicine.” R. Stockman (Pharm. Journal, (3), xxill., p. 512), however, in 1892, concluded that neither the volatile oil nor any of the con- stituents of the bark of Atherosperma moschata is particularly active or poisonous, and, further, that the volatile oil has a close resemblance in physiological action to other volatile oils. Finally, Goldie, in a paper on * Maori Medical Lore” (Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1904, p. 118), states that the inner layer of the bark of the pukatea, i is boiled in water and the decoction thus prepared is apphed externally to tuberculous and chronic ulcers and various cutaneous diseases by the Maoris. A strong decoction held in the mouth relieves. odontalgia, and is also taken internally, and applied locally, in syphilis. Its nearest ally in New Zealand, Hedycarya dentata, is used in the medicated bath. Alkaloids occur throughout the vegetable kingdom in almost all the different plant families. Some families are noted for the number of alkaloids which they contain, among which are the Rubiacez: (yielding caffeine and quinine), the Apocynacee (alkaloids of alstonia and nerium), the Solanaceze (solanine and atropine), the Papaveracez: (the opium alkaloids), and the Leguminose (cytisine, sparteine, and the lupine alkaloids). In other families equally important, such as Labiatz, Rosacez,, and Orchidacez, no alkaloids have as yet been found (Pictet). Why some plants are able to produce alkaloids in abundance* while whole families of others produce none is one of those unsolved mysteries of plant chemistry which it may be the good fortune of future research workers to solve. At present one can merely recount facts and suggest hypotheses. If the function of alkaloids and poisons of plants were known.. some light might be thrown on their eccentric occurrence in nature. Pfeffer states that the poisonous substances which plants produce, including alkaloids, ptomaines, toxalbumins, certain glucosides, hydro- cyanic acid, &ec., have, for the most part, a biological importance, forming a protection against herbiverous animals “and against the penetration of parasites. They may also enable certain plants, especially bacteria, either to compete successfully with other organisms, or by killing the latter, to provide for their own growth. Peirce has shown that the penetration of cuscuta (dodder, the parasite- of clover) into a host plant is hindered by the presence of poison in the latter, and the same is the case with fungi. On the other hand, M. Treub (Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, 1907, p. 107) denies that. prassic acid has in general a protective effect—while some enemies. may be warded off by its presence others seem to be attracted by it, and the toxicity of the hydrocyanic acid plays no ré/e in the economy of the plant. * The P.R. standord for cinchona bark is 5—6 per cent. total alkaloids, and by artificial selection the plant may be made to produce a bark containing 10 per cent. of quinine, (Howard, J.8.C.I., 1906, p. 99.) ALKALOIDS OF PUKATEA BARK. 123 In the case of the Laurelia the theory of the protective function of alkaloids certainly has some evidence to support it. The leaves of the New Zealand species have not been observed to be attacked by leaf eaters, and Mueller (Select Extra-tropical plants, 1895) states that a Chilian species, Z. aromatica, a colossal tree in Valdivia, is the principle one used for flooring. The wood is never bored by insects, and is well able to stand exposure in the open air. Poisons are by no means essential products of metabolism. In the sweet almond the power of producing amygdalin has been entirely lost. Vogel was unable to detect ‘any quinme in cinchona plants grown in European hot-houses.t The hemlock may produce no conine in Scotland. It is stated that Indian hemp resin fails to produce toxic effects when grown in Europe (Easterfield and Wood, Camb. Phil. Trans., Proc. IX., 1896). Alkaloids found in the same plant generally bear the closest relation to each other; often they form a homologous series; fre- quently they are isomers or even stereoisomers. The same alkaloid is rarely met with in different families, but not infrequently an alkaloid is characteristic of a family or even of a species. The small family Monimiacez is best represented in tropical South America, but 1s also found in tropical Asia, the Mascarene Islands, Australia, and Polynesia. There are twenty-two genera, containing 150 species; the -genus Laurelia is cénfined to South America and New Zealand. , The family contains only a few species to which attention has been directed by pharmacists and others. The leaves of Pewmus boldus, an_ever- green Andean shrub, are used in medicine under the name Boldo. Bourgoin and Verne (Journ. Pharm. et Chemie, xvi., 191, also in Journ. Chem. Soc., 1873, p. 179) have obtained from Boldo an amorphous powder which they state is slightly soluble in water, giving alkaloidal reactions and a bitter taste; soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, alkali, and benzene; soluble in acid; precipitated by ainmonia, mercuric potassic iodide, and iodine solution. Concentrated nitric acid gives an immediate red colour, and sulphuric acid gives the same colour in the cold. There is no later reference in Beilstein to any alkaloid from boldo, but a glucoside, “an amber-coloured syrup,” is described. (Chapoteant, Bl., 42, 291.) No analyses are given. Pascalleti (Terapia Moderna, 1891) describes the physiological action of boldine—* When injected hypodermically, boldine paralyses both the motor and sensory nerves, and also attacks the muscle fibres. As’ a local anzesthetic he believed it to be superior to caffeine but inferior to cocaine. When given internally in toxic dose, it produces great excitement, with exaggeration of the reflexes and of the respiratory movements, increased diuresis, cramps, disorder of coérdination, con- vulsions, and finally death from centric respiratory paralysis, the heart continuing to beat. long after the arrest of respiration, finally stopping in diastole.” “ According to A. T. De Rochebrune (Toxicol. Africaine, 1., 1897) the tree Monimia rotundifolia of Australia, con- tains an abundant volatile oil, an alkaloid, and a glucoside, which are very similar to, if they be not identical with, those obtained from the Boldo, and may be substituted for the latter in therapeutics.” ' + Cf. also Howard (loq. cit.) ; quinine is only produced in favourable soil and environments, and at high elevations. 124 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. Bancroft (Proc. Royal Soc., N.S.W., Vol. xx., 1886, p. 69) records that the bark of Daphnandra repandula, F. von M., a small Monimiaceous shrub which grows in the Johnstone River district of North Queensland, possesses a bitter taste, and is decidely toxic. From experiments with the alcoholic extract on cats, guinea-pigs, frogs, and grasshoppers, Dr. Bancroft concludes that— — The poison paralyses the motor nervous system ; That it does not affect the sensory nerves ; © bo That it is not a muscle -poison. He finds that the same property exists in two other species of Daplinandra, D. muciantiha and D. aromatica. It, therefore, seemed desirable to investigate the chemistry of the compounds contained in the pukatea, and to isolate sufficient quantity to enable physiological experiments to be made. Dr. Malcolm, Professor of Physiology at Otago University, has kindly undertaken to do this. Accordingly, a small supply of the alkaloid melting at 200° was isolated and analysed. Analyses proved it to be a new alkaloid with a composition corresponding to the formula C,,;H,;NOs3, for which the name “ pukateie” is proposed. EXPERIMENTAL. Fresh bark, weighing 15 lb., from young and mature trees in the vicinity of W ellington, was obtained on 20th April, broken into small pieces, and steeped for twenty-four hours in 90 per cent. alcohol acidified with acetic acid. The alcohol was distilled off and the residue dissolved in water and filtered. The alkaloids were precipitated by the addition of sodium bicarbonate. The precipitate was dissolved in ether, the ether distilled off, and the residue dissolved in alcohol, which, upon spontaneous evaporation, deposited crystals. In this way about 8 grams of impure crystals were obtained, which on recrystallis- ing. from absolute alcohol were white, and melted sharply at 200° (uncorrected). A preparation was recrystallised from the solution of the acetate in water by the addition of sodium bicarbonate. The yield of alkaloid was smaller than was anticipated, judging from the previous experience of the bark extracted in the spring. It was found that if the bark was allowed to stand for some months in a dry room little or no alkaloid could be obtained by the above method. Pukateine is a white, crystalline alkaloid, melting at 200° G. (un- corrected), insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in light petroleum and absolute aleohol, more solabie in hot alcohol. The freshly pre- cipitated base is very soluble in ether and in chloroform. Pukateine is precipitated from its solution in slight excess of acetic acid by iodine in potassic iodide, picric acid, gold chloride, platinum chloride, bromine water, ammonia in slight excess, sodium bicarbonate, Mayer’s reagent, disodichydric phosphate, and phosphomolybdie acid. The following analyses were made :— B. Preparation.—Recrystallised from dilute alcohol dried at 110° C. Melting point, 200° C.— 0'0741 gram. gave 0°1964 grams. CO, and 0°0411 grams. H20. 72°279% carbon 6°16% hydrogen. ALKALOIDS OF PUKATEA BARK. 125. C. Preparation —Recrystallised from alcohol. Melting point 200° C.— . 0°1259 gram, gave 0°3319 gram. CO, and 0'0676 gram. H,0. 71°89% carbon 5°97% hydrogen. D. Preparation.—Recrystailised from water— 0°0776 gram. gave 0°20545 gram. COs and 0°0428 gram. H,0- 72°2% carbon 6°12°9% hydrogen. KE. Preparation.—Reerystallised from absolute alcohol— 0°2558 gram. gave 10°8 ce. nitrogen at 764 mm. and 22° C. whence 4°939% nitrogen. F. Preparation.— 02181 gram. gave 9°6 ce. nitrogen at 769 mm. and 20° C. whence 5°2% nitrogen. C,-H,,NO3 requires— Carbon ... as be ... (2°08 per cent. Hydrogen dt oe ea OU x Nitrogen ae ae Ra 4°95 a Oxygen ~~... 2 ae eee Lora 100°00 per cent. Molecular Weight Determinations. Calculated for CyzHy;NO3. M. equals 283. 0°1604 gram. depressed the mnelting point of 7°12 grams. phenol 0°6°. M. equals 277. 0°656 gram. depressed the melting point of 16°5 grams. phenol 0°925°. M. equals 303. It was found that pukateine behaves anomalously with pyridine, in which the aikaloid is very soluble., In the experiments pertormed with this solvent (B.P. 117°) to determine the molecular weight by the boiling-point method— 0°6188 gram. raised the B.P. of 11°05 grams. pyridine 0°05°. 0°54 gram. raised the B.P. of 74 grams. pyridine 0°05°. The research, which had been discontinued for want of material, was resumed on receipt of a supply of the bark collected in August, 1907, from trees in the Marlborough Sounds. A quantity of alkaloid has been obtained which has enabled me to supply Professor Malcolm with one of its compounds. His pre- liminary report is appended. In the following experiments the method of extracting pukateine (Cy,Hy;NO3) from the bark has been modified. It was found that chloroform will extract the pukateine acetate from acid solutions. Bark ‘fresh from the trees, weighing 166 Ib., was thoroughly reduced to a fine pulp in a heavy edge runner mill, and steeped for seven days in methylated spirit containing *5 per cent. acetic acid. The alcoholic solution was pressed off and the treatment repeated three times at the same interval. By this means 21°75 gallons of solution were obtained. The alcohol was distilled off and the residue taken up with hot water, cooled and filtered. The filtrate was shaken with choloroform: which extracted the pukateine acetate. On distilling off the choloroform 126 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. and taking up with alcohol the salt decomposes spontaneously, leaving white crystals of the pure base. An assay of the crushed bark yielded “7 per cent. pukateine, but nothing like this yield was obtained in practice, as from the whole 166 Ib. of bark, only 64 grams of ap- proximately pure pukateine were obtained. Dry Distillation of the Base—On heating pukateine to redness with soda lime, ammonia and unrecognisable fumes are given off. On heating with zinc dust no smell of quinoline or pyridine could be detected. Meth-oxy Groups.—Pukateine examined by Zeisel’s method for meth-oxy groups gave negative results. Hydroxyl Groups.—Pukateine, dissolved in pyridine, when treated with benzoyl chloride, gives a compound which is under in- vestigation. Nitro Derivative—Pukateine dissolved in glacial acetic acid is easily nitrated by the cautious addition in the cold of a few drops of concentrated nitric acid. The crystalline nitro derivative has strong acid in function and dissolves in alkalies to an orange red solution. Salts of Pukateiue—The hydrochloride, C);H,,NO3HC1, is easily prepared by dissolving the base in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid and rapidly filtering. ‘On cooling, a crystalline hydrochloride separates out. This is filtered off and dried on’a porous plate. ‘The anhydrous salt is obtained by drying at a temperature of 50°-60° C., under re- duced pressure. Titration of the hydrochloride— N “0751 gram. took 18°02 ce. 10 caustic soda= 11°37 % HCl. N : "1842 gram. took 5°80 cc. 10 caustic soda= 11°50 9% HCl. Calculated for C,,H,,;NO;HC1. 11°42 % HCI. Chlorine estimation— "1651 gram. gave ‘075 gram. AgCl. == 1122-0 Cis Calculated fon C)-H,,NO3HC1. LT. %cGe The platinum salt, which crystallizes in warty masses from alcohol, is prepared by the addition of platinum bichloride to a solution of pukateine hydrochloride in water. On washing with hot water, and drying in a desiccator under reduced pressure— 0°148 gram. of ue sale gave 0'0298 gram. platinum = 20°! per cent. Calculated for C;-H;;NO ).PtCl¢ = 20'1 per cent. Cotour Reactions oF PUKA'TEINE. If a solution of bichromate of potash in concentrated sulphuric acid, prepared as for the strychnine reaction, be brought into contact in not too great an excess, with a few crystals of pukateine, a per- ‘sistent purple colouration is produced. If excess of the reagent be applied, a greenish colour merely results. The colour which the reagent gives with strychnine cannot be confused with that given by pukateine. The former is a bright violet, quickly changing to purple, and finally to a bright red. At one stage the purple colour of the ‘strychnine reaction ‘closely resembles that of pukateine, but the ALKALOIDS OF PUKATEA BARK. 127 ephemeral nature of the one precludes confusion with the other. Con- centrated nitric acid dissolves pukateine with the formation of a dark red colour closely resembling that given by morphine. Action of Concentrated Sulphurie Acid. Pukateine dissolves slowly when macerated with concentrated sulphuric acid in the cold, and on diluting the syrupy solution with water an intensely insoluble amorphous white compound is formed, which up till the present has bafled all attempts to dissolve or crystallise it. It contains nitrogen. With gentle heating concen- trated sulphuric acid will produce a dull violet colour with pukateine. Action of Hydrochloric Acid in a Sealed Tube. A gram. of the base was heated in a sealed tube for three hours to 110° C. with 5 ec. of concentrated hydrochloric acid. On opening the tube there was no pressure. The product had a glassy appearance, and its powder was pure white. It was insoluble in alcohol, ether, glacial acetic acid, aniline, pyridine, acetone, or ammonia. On wash- ing with hydrochloric acid no pukateine could be recovered. The sub- stance does not melt below 240 degrees C. It is probably the same substance as that formed by concentrated sulphuric acid, and contains nitrogen. A gram of the base heated in a sealed tube with 10 cc. of water for two hours remained unchanged. Pukateine is soluble in caustic soda solutions, and on concen- trating the solution by boiling, the pure base crystallises out in characteristic prisms, melting at 200 degrees C. If a solution of pukateine in caustic soda be ailowed to stand in an open test tube for a few hours the solution becomes greenish, and upon acidifying with hydrochloric acid the colourmg matter may be extracted by ether, forming a purple solution. The experiment was repeated on the purest pukateine recrystallised from soda solution. The amount of colouring matter formed is too small to examine. If one drop of a very dilute solution of potassium nitrite be added to a solution of pukateine in slight excess of sulphuric acid a dark red-brown or greenish solution is developed. The base remains unchanged in dilute sulphuric acid solutions. It is perhaps too soon to say anything of the possible relationship ot pukateine to the other alkaloids. It may be pointed out, however, that in empirical formula it is only two hydrogens less than morphine (C,;HigNOs), while a derivative, Morphothebain* (M.P., 190-1°), Cr, H..NO 247 247 203 229 | 225 234 "247 240 238 \ 247 ‘241 | \ 230 49 J f °280 "289 | ( °288 "288 J °208 | .211 Percentage of As,O, determined. = E s ! = o Gravimetric cee as— =e 2 ro Mg,.As,0, o = a nae 4950 =*5010 1321 2320 465 | = 465 J 4650 °2458 “2310 ( “2893-2897 after permang. al Titration, | 2895 :2899 2900 °2902 +2180 134 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 8.—EUPHORBIA PILULIFERA, Linn. By JOHN LUNN, Pharmaceutical Chemist, Sandgate. This well-known plant, which grows freely on waste lands, has long had a reputation as a remedy for asthma. When Mr. Watkins asked me to prepare a paper for this conference, and suggested Duboisia or Luphorbia pilulifera as subjects. I found references to Duboisia in several books, ‘and the work of Ladenberg and others veferred to. Of Euphorbia, on the contrary, I found no mention, so I chose the latter, and commenced by gathering a bundle of the flower- ing and fruiting plant in April last. One hundred parts of the green plant gave twenty-five parts of sun-dried drug in three days. This lost a further three parts on being dried over a water bath and cooled over sulphuric acid for one day. That is, 100 parts of ereen plant lost 79 per cent. of moisture, and left twenty-one parts of dry drug, which, on incineration, left three parts of ash. Ten grammes of the finely powdered dry drug were macerated in 100 ce. of petroleum ether of a low boiling point, the resulting solution was a fine translucent yellowish green colour, and, on evaporation, gave a green residue, with a nauseous smell, equal to 1°85 per cent. This residue was in resinous drops, very tough and sticky when scraped with a knife. On being extracted with cold absolute alcohol most of it was dissolved, except a white opaque solid, which had a waxy character; an attempt to take the melting point showed that at about 140° Fahr. it softened, but did not completely melt. This waxy substance is probably derived from a deposit on the cuticular tissue, such as occurs in many plants as a protection from loss ot moisture. The alcoholic solution gave, on evaporation, a bright orange sticky resinous mass, equal to 1°35 per cent. ; Ether. The petroleum ether was filtered off and the mare dried. One hundred ce. of ether were used to macerate the marc, and dissolved an amount equal to 2°2 per cent., which, being treated with petroleum ether, suffered no loss. The ether solution contained much chlorophyll, being blood red by reflected light, and a fine bright green by transmitted light. After treating the ether residue with water the balance was extracted with absolute alcohol, and a pale green amorphous substance obtained on evaporation equal to 1°7 per cent. The direct product of the water from the ether solution was twice lost by accidents. I shook a portion out with acidulated water evapo- rated to dryness over a water bath; mixed with water and filtered, the tiltrate gave a sheht cloudiness with Mayer’s reagent, and on evapora- tion I obtained a brownish residue, which under the microscope showed a number of crystals, some with a tendency to elongated hexagon- shape, others like two lancet blades joined together. C sien ee I redissolved this in water, and added a drop of ammonia, and shook out with ether; from the ether I got a white residue equal to 0°1 per cent. of the dried drug. MANUFACTURE OF CARBIDE OF CALCIUM. 135 Absolute Alcohol. Aiter filtering off the ether and drying, the mare was digested in absolute alcohol. The portion soluble equalled 2°4 per cent. Of this a portion equal to 1°7 per cent. was soluble in water. The watery solution gave a greenish tint with ferrosoferric iron, indicating tannin. The balance of the alcoholic residue was completely soluble in 2 per cent. ammonia; this was acidulated with acetic acid and dried over a water bath, then washed on to a filter with water. The precipi- tate dried and weighed equalled 0°3 per cent. The filtrate did not reduce Fehling’s solution, but after boiling for about an hour with a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid Fehling’s solution was reduced. The reaction with Fehling’s solution was tried several times, at intervals, without result until the final experiment. As this solution gave no indication of tannin, it seems probable that a glucoside exists in this plant. Water. The mare previously treated with alcohol, &e., was washed with alcohol and dried, then treated with water, yielding on evaporation a residue equal to 22°9 per cent. This residue was not at all bitter, and gave no reaction, or only the faintest, for tannin. Summary ef Results. Petrol ether a 1°85 Consisting of resin “135 and impure wax. Ether Ae 4a ie cu 2°2 A pale green amorph ous substance. ey Alkaloid fea hlorophyll 0°5 Alcohol pa 2°4 Tannin, eon Ley, Phlobaphene 03 (1) Glucoside 04 Water Ae a ot 22°9 Total in all solvents 29°35 4.—LOCAL MANUFACTURE OF CARBIDE OF CALCIUM AND CALCIUM CYANIMIDE. By E. KILBURN SCOTT, A.M. Inst., C.E., MI-E.E. The amount of carbide of calcium imported into Australia during recent years has shown a remarkable increase. For example, the figures for 1904 to 1907 are as follows :— Imports. Exports. YEAR. =P el Pepa ey ae Veet Tons. Value. Price. Tons | Value. Price. £ Per Ton. £ Per Ton. 1904 2,404 42,649 VG; 111 2,475 2224 1905 2,882 46.902 16°27 162 Olt 20°42 1906 4,299 64,601 yal 294 5,847 19°3 1907 8,747 130,629 14°84 440 7,960 18:2 136 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. It will be seen that the value has trebled in four years, and it is, therefore, opportune to inquire into the question of its manufacture in Australia. At present all the imported carbide is used for making acetylene gas for illumination and working the Tyree spraying machine. The new fertiliser, calcium cyanimide, made from carbide of calcium, is, however, likely to be much used in the future, and there is no reason why it should not also be made here. Carbide is made in the electric furnace from quicklime and coke, the calcium and the carbon combining at about 5.000 degrees Cent., in accordance with the equation— CaO + 3C=CaCg + CO. When water is added acetylene gas is given off thus :— CaC. + H,0 =CaO + CoHo. Professor Moissan, of France, and T. H. Willson, of Canada, were the first to produce carbide. Moissan’s experiments were carried out in a small laboratory furnace, but Willson, who was quick to seize upon its commercial value, designed a special furnace. His American patent is No. 492,377, 21st February, 1893. The main item of expense in making carbide is the cost of power, and on this account most of the factories are situated near hydro- electric power-houses. The Barron Falls is well situated for the supply of current to a carbide factory, situated at, say, Cairns, and such a proposal has been under consideration for some time. In 1906 the Queensland Government commissioned Mr. Wm. Corin, the city elec- trical engineer of Launceston, to report on the amount of power at Barron Falls, and cost of harnessing same, &c. Briefly, his con- clusions were as follow :— That a minimum flow of 50 cubie feet per second with the avail- able head of 818 feet would provide 3,480 electrical horse-power at generator terminals for the full number of hours per year. The first cost of harnessing this power with the transmission line to Cairns he gives as £80,260, and the annual cost, with interest, sinking fund, reserve fund, and maintenance, £10,076. The 50 cubic feet per second allowed for in the above estimate is, however, very much below the average flow, since only on two days in the exceptional drought year of 1900 was the flow below that figure. With a certain amount of water conservation a flow of 150 cubic feet per second could be depended upon, and this would give 10,440 electrical horse-power. Mr. Corin estimates the first cost for this amount of power, including £10,000 for storage dams, at £128,710, and the annual cost at £15,164. One result of this investigation was that Mr. Tyree and others interested in the sale of carbide of calcium began to consider the question as to whether the establishment of a factory at Cairns would pay. Negotiations with the Queensland authorities induced the Government to make a definite offer to supply 5,000 electrical horse- power at Cairns for £2 15s. per electrical horse-power year. The writer, who has had some experience in connection with carbide manu- facture in Norway, was asked to report on the matter. The report MANUFACTURE OF CARBIDE OF CALCIUM. 137 showed that 5,000 to 6,000 tons of saleable carbide could be made at a cost of under £8 per ton for an initial expenditure of about £25,000. Expenditure included step down, transformer, switch gear, furnace, grinding plant, &e. Out put. The Electro Chemist for 1901 gave the production of carbide per electrical horse-power day as :—— 74 lb. in a continuous furnace. 10°0 lb. in intermittent furnace. 10°2 lb. in Gin and Lelense furnace. 9°5 to 10°7 Ib. in Deutsche G. and 8. Anstalt furnace. A test by C. F. Curtis at the Union Carbide Company plant at Niagara Falls gave 9°85 lb. Now, 74 lb. per day is equal to | ton per year of 300 working days ; it will be perceived, therefore, that, allowing for all manutactur- ing risks, a production of 1 ton of saleable carbide per electrical horse-power year is a certainty. With good management and first quality lime and coke, there should be a production of 14 ton when the factory has got into working order. Materials. As the anthracite in Australia contains a good deal of ash, it cannot be used for making carbide. Fortunately, however, a number of coke ovens have been built lately in New South Wales, and a good supply could be depended upon at a price not exceeding, say, 20s. per ton delivered. It may be mentioned that several of the largest carbide works in Europe depend on England for their supply of carbon: Thus the Alby carbide works in Sweden use South Welsh anthracite at 21s. a ton delivered, and the Meraker Works, sixty miles east of Trondheim, buy English gas coke at 25s. a ton delivered. Regarding the lime there, large quantities are available within easy reach of Cairns, and local coal for burning it could be obtained at 15s. a ton. Professor P. A. Guye’s Estimate of Cost per Ton of Carbide, without Packing. Frs. 1,000 kilos of lime at 15 frs. per ton ... aN eiGELS 700 kilos of retort coke at 25 frs. per ton ... eh ie aU 20 kilos of electrodes at 35 frs. per 100 kilos... 7 Electric power (1 kilo year) at 50 frs.; giving 2°1 tons Sh te oy ie cs ey eo OU Small expenses, wages (8 frs.), mechanical power for ac- cessory work, transports, grinding (30 frs.) ... 38 General expenses SiS Ash te ae 22 Depreciation at 8 per cent. on the plant, 75 frs. 6 Interest on the capital at 5 per cent. on 100 frs. invested = 5 Or £5 6s. 5d. per ton. 138 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. He gives £5 11s. a ton for the best situated works, and £7 6s. 7d. for those less favourably situated. { Approximate Estimate of Cost of Producing 5000 Tons of Carbide, by E. Kilburn Scott. £ Electric power, 5,000 E.H.P. £2) 150 ae 13,750 4 Coke, 4,000 tons ee OmO) My 4,000 Lime, 6,000 tons £0 18 O ae 5,400 Electrodes, per ton output £0" 10" 6 ps 2,500 Miscellaneous Items. Refractory bricks for furnaces, iron casings for electrodes, oil, waste, belting, &e., current for motors and lighting, at 10s. per ton out- RUG aes oe es ae Ws i. 2,500 Management and office expenses, skilled labour (foremen, furnace and crushing room men, smith and carpenter), unskilled labour, at 22s: 6d. per ton output... ope zie bi 5,625 Rates, taxes, and insurance, repairs and mainten- ance, at 15s. per ton output ... wie Ree 3,750 Allowance for depreciation, 5 per cent. on £25,000 1,250 ; £38,775 Equal to, say, £7 15s. per ton. It will be noticed that the price for power is taken at £2 15s. per electrical horse-power year, this being a firm offer by the Queensland Government to the promoters of the carbide factory. ‘ As a matter of fact, this price is higher than in Norway. At Sarpsfos, for example, the price is £2 7s. 6d., and at the new works of the Birkland Eyde Fixation of Nitrogen Works the record figure of 15s. per electrical horse-power year is said to be attained. Manufacture by Intermittent Furnace. There are three forms of furnace at present in use—namely, the Intermittent, as invented by Willson, and used at Foyers and Meraker in Norway, amongst other places; the Continuous furnace, by Dr. Rathenan, as used at Rheinfelden, in Germany; and the Rotat- eng furnace, invented by Bradley and Horry, and used at Niagara. The modern intermittent furnace consists of a steel truck lined with magnesite, and mounted on wheels. The upper carbon is drawn up automatically by a small motor, which is controlled by a solenoid MANUFACTURE OF CARBIDE OF CALCIUM. 139 mechanism not unlike that of an are lamp. Fig. 1 shows such a furnace made by Siemens and Halske, which the writer worked with in Norway about seven years ago. Alternating current at 65 volts 2,500 amperes was supplied to three furnaces from a three-phase FLEXIBLE Vy} CHUTE FO CONNECTION fS\. [pop =A. RAW MATERIAL MOVEABLE (aR Bon of ms [14 (CNS Nal) s ~ t 4 PING va 40) INGOT ‘ 2 ‘\ : ASS (OF CARBIDE (SS, ws Fees Vas hk Gar et A Z WZ on /, VE FALLS ALOR Fic. 1.—INTERMITTENT CARBIDE FURNACE. alternator. As soon as an ingot about a foot square and 2 feet high was made, the solid copper connections to the two carbon electrodes were disconnected, the truck withdrawn from the furnace chamber, and another substituted. The ingot is broken up and sorted by hand, the partly-burnt material being returned to the furnace. Continuous Furnace. In the continuous process there is a chamber lined with magnesite which takes the place of the moveable truck. It has a tapping hole at the bottom, and the raw materials have sufficient excess lime to make the resulting carbide run freely. On this account the carbide is uot so good as the best quality made in an Intermittent furnace, but it is very even in grade. Hand-picking is not required, and, if necessary, the ingots can be sold in the form in which they are cast in the moulds. 140 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. In the Continuous furnace care is taken to exclude air with a view to making the electrodes last longer. The price of electrodes is, however, much cheaper than in former years. They can be obtained for about 35s. a ton. Rotating Furnace. The rotating furnace consists of a wheel about 20 feet in diameter, which has an annular rim 3 feet in diameter. This rim forms the furnace, and it is closed in by semi-circular slats, which are readily removable. Only the lower half of the furnace has the rim completed with its slats. The carbon electrode hanes down into the centre of the rim, and as the carbide is made, the slow rotation of the wheel recedes it away, thus leaving room for new material. The rim becomes filled with a solid core of carbide, surrounded with some uncombined material. When the wheel has turned sufficiently to bring this carbide to the side of the wheel opposite to the electrode, the slats are taken off and the carbide removed. One of the great advantages of the rotating furnace is that no automatic adjustment of the carbon electrode is necessary. The rota- tion of the furnace and the supply of raw material are automatically controlled by an electric motor in such a way as to keep the current steady. About five days are required for the wheel to make a complete revolution. Calevum Cyanimide. The employment of carbide of calcium for the manufacture of the fertiliser cyanimide is an important development, and it will probably result in more carbide being used for that purpose than for acetylene lighting. The manufacture of fertilisers will gain more and more import- ance with time, because at the present increasing rate of consumption the Chili nitrate deposits will become exhausted in about thirty years. In twelve years, from 1895 to 1907, the consumption of Chili nitrate increased by 75 per cent., and the yearly rate of consumption is now approaching 2,000,000 tons. There are two reasons for this: The number of wheat-eaters in the world is steadily increasing, whilst the virgin land is as steadily decreasing. A few years ago the United States could take crops off her virgin lands without manuring, but the natural nitrogen in the soil has now become exhausted, and fertilisers have to be used. This will also take place with Australia’s virgin soil. In 1906 Australia imported Chili nitrate to the value of £36,000, the average price being a little over £10 per ton. With the increase of land under Cuiuimpeiea for wheat and cereals, and the intense culture which must follow the building of Barren Jack and Trawool dams, the demand for fertilisers will eventually be very considerable. The discovery of calcium cyanimide resulted from an experiment by Bunsen and Playfair, when they obtained cyanides by passing iitrogen across a hot mass of carbon and_ alkalies. Professor Frank, of Charlottenberg, and Dr. Caro repeated the experiment, and found that the production of cyanide was preceded by the formation MANUFACTURE OF CARBIDE OF CALCIUM. 141 ef carbide. They thereupon passed nitrogen across barium carbide and alkalies, and obtained barium cyanimide according to the equa- tion— BaC, + Ng= Ba(CN)p. As barium carbide is expensive, they substituted calcium carbide, and found that at a temperature of 1000 degrees C. it would fix nitrogen direct without any alkalies being present. The reaction is given by the equation— CaCg ae No= C+ CaCNo. And it will be noticed that free carbon is given off. Theoretically, the content of nitrogen in the calcium cyanimide should be 30 per cent., but on account of impurities in the carbide, and the changes which it undergoes during transformation, the actual content is about 20 per cent. When united with water under high pressure all the nitrogen changes into ammonia, thus— CaCNg + 3H2,0 =CaCO; + 2NH3. This suggested the thought that cyanimide would make an excellent manure, and such has really been the case. When the cyanimide is mixed in the soil the above reaction takes place slowly, and the nitrogen is taken up by the plants. The question is whether cyanimide can compete in price with Chili nitrate, sulphate of ammonia, and other manures. Professor P. A. Guye has investigated the matter, and the following is his estimate :— Professor P. A. Guye’s Estimate of Cost of Ton of Caleium Cyanimide that contains 20 per cent. Nitrogen. Carbide at— 140 Frs. 185 Frs. £5 lls. £7 68. 74. 1 ton carbide, containing 80 per cent. CaC, 140 Sen eet) 200 kilos nitrogen ... vee se 20 a 20 Manufacture, ‘pulverisation ot carbide, charge and discharge of retorts, heat- me ‘retorts. ... 20 ao 20° Necessary repairs of mills, retorts, liquefy- ing machines ... ce be) "ae 25 mr 25 General expenses... atria a 10 oe 10 Packing ae aN ee ome £20 bes 20 Transport 20 453 20 Depreciation and interest on capital i in- vested $3. Se oe ao 15 aa 15 270 I a LO Cost price per ton ... 2 Aa flO, do One Le 2 Price of 1 kilo of nitrogen ze sas “35 fo eo Tsei2G: thats ded. The price will partly be governed by the market price of Chili nitrate. Until artificial fertilisers came on to the market and began to threaten the position which natural nitrate had so long held, there was a tendency for the latter to increase in price. Farmers have to 1492 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. thank engineers and scientists for this, and it may be that the com- petition that is springing up will result in the Chilian Government _taking off some excise duty, and thus the price generally of fertilisers will decrease. The following figures are an attempt to compare the value of the various fertilisers according to the nitrogen content. They are, of course, only approximate, as the market price and nitro- gen content are both variable :— Value per Name. Ree Price per Ton. pias ath Nitrogen. am ER Gh d. Chili nitrate (natural) ee me in 2 16°5 D7 @) o'8L Sulphate of ammonia (from gas works) ... See 21°2 1210 0 6°59 Calcium nitrate (made by Birkland Eyde elec- aes 10 14 5 5°45 trical process) ‘Calcium cyanimide (made from carbide of cal- 20°0 10 14 0 6°36 cium) to 7°04 5.— THE OCCURRENCE OF STARCH IN THE BANGALOW PALM. By W. EB. DOHERTY, F.1.C., F.C.S., Department of Public Health, Sydney. In the whole vegetable kingdom, with the exception of the ‘Graminez, the order Palme is the most important to the human family. Manifold are the commodities produced by, and the uses of, this order. From the date palm of the East to the cocoa-nut, or, as 1t is now sometimes named, the koker-nut, of the South Seas, and right through the whole tropical, and even in temperate climes, members of this interesting and beautiful order contribute to the welfare and comfort of man. To give a history of the palm in its most interesting aspect would be to enter into a description of the manners and customs of a very great proportion of the human race from time immemorial. In some parts they supply man’s staple food, and in others, to say nothing of products of general utilisation, they yield a most essential addition to his dietary* Two well-known examples may be here noticed—namely, the before-mentioned date palm, which flourished in the gardens of the East long before our era, and which is now cultivated in all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, particu- larly in North Africa and Palestine, and also in Arabia and Persia. The Arabs of the desert depend upon it almost solely for their food supply, and in a very large measure for shelter. In India and the East Indies, palms supply the much-prized sago in enormous quantities. This valuable food, which is used by all civilised nations of the earth, comes chiefly from the Sagus Rumphi (Meirorylon Rumphai, Mart.) and from the Sagus Leavis Rumphi (M. lave, Mart.). Sago is said to be the only starch food derived from the palme, and this statement is of interest here, as I am about to show that the occurrence of starch in a member of the order is the object of this contribution. STARCH IN THE BANGALOW PALM. 143 In our own continent of Australia, the indigenous palms are not otherwise used than as ornamental auxiliaries in our gardens, or in miniature to decorate the interior of our dwellings. Certainly in the past the cabbagetree hat was a valued possession of our one-time beau monde, and later formed the headgear of the “fancy,” but beyond these uses I do not think they have had any notable place in the commercial world. The bangalow palm is ccnsidered generally to be of little or no utility, though the split and dried timber has been used as a covering for rural dwellings. Many years ago there was a small trade in the seeds, which were sent to Europe to be grown in the palm-houses of the various botanical gardens. How they got on, or whether the trade in these seeds continued, I have not been able to learn. Botanically the bangalow palm is known as the Archonto- phenix Cunninghamiana, Wendl. and Drude (Syn. Ptychosperma Cunninghamrana, Wendl., and Seaforthia elegans, Hook). “It is a very tall and beautiful palm, with leaves attaining a length of several feet, the segments being numerous and more or less toothed or irre- gularly jagged at the end. The panicles are lateral, 1 to 1} feet long and broad, branching into numerous spikes, very flexuose, the notches scarcely excavated. Male perianth about two lines long, the bud straight and obtuse, the outer segments about half as long. Stamens number from under ten to above twenty, the filaments shorter than, or, perhaps, ultimately as long as, the anthers. Female perianth spreading under the fruit to a diameter of about 3 lines, the inner segments not much longer than the outer. Fruit is ovoid-globose, nearly half an inch in diameter. Albumen deeply and irregularly ruminate.” It is a native of the coastal brushes of eastern New South Wales and Queensland, extending from as far north as Cape York in Queens- land to as far south as Milton (a town more than 100 miles south of Sydney) in New South Wales. A specimen from the stem of one ci these palms grown in a gully at Eurimba Creek, New South Wales, came into my hands in June last. It had been freshly cut from a rather large palm, but trom what position on the stem I omitted to discover, and have not since been able to obtain the information. It was quite fresh, and appeared somewhat like loose-grained timber until cut into with a knife, when it was found to be very soft and pithy, though it hardened on drying. Packed in between the fibres a whitish substance was seen on the dried portions, and this substance I found to be starch. I estimated the quantity of starch at 4°8 per cent. on the sample as received; but as the sample contained 70 per cent. of moisture, the dried stem would yield 16 per cent. of starch. The starch granules were of various shapes and sizes. Some appeared on first sight to be circular, and others ellipsoidal, but this regular, rounded appearance was due, I think, to the apex of certain truncated cells being turned towards the point of vision. A great abundance of truncated cells of the elongated kettle-drum and cone- shaped pattern were present. fell-shaped cells, symmetrically formed. were also seen, together with polygonal forms closely resembling those 144 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. derived from maize: Others, again, united the rounded and polygonal forms in the same granule. On most of the granules the hilum was situated at the apex of the rounded portion of the truncated form, and in some instances was very conspicuous, giving one the impression of an air-bubble or of some substance different in refraction from starch. Other granules had a dark spot, or a slit sometimes crossed, on the hilum. Concentric rings, formed round the hilum, were very distinct, though some of the cells were apparently devoid of structure. Polarised light gave the cross very distinctly on ‘all the granules. In the light field the cross showed faintly. The starch appeared to be more translucent than usual. The sizes of the cells varied from ‘005 uum. to ‘05 mm. (0002 inch to ‘002 inch) in diameter, the greater number being in the direction of the iarger dimension. Since writing the above I have received from the same Eurimba district another piece of palm wood. This was cut in October from a tree 60 feet in height over all, at a point 50 feet from the ground. This piece was much richer in starch than that previously examined, and contained less water (50 per cent.). The starch from this piece bore strong general resemblances to both tapioca and sago. (Sago, by the way, seems to be in process of replacement by tapioca, in Sydney, and what is generally sold as sago is really not such.) A writer on palms, probably without any special knowledge of those of Australia, has stated that there is no species which is not capable of being applied to some use. Now, this remark is probably true also in respect of our Australian species, though we have yet to learn the value of these beautiful but despised member: pf our forestry. We may be fortunate in some measure, perhaps, if we acquire this knowledge before ignorarice and vandalism have made it useless. I am speaking here generally, and do not mean to infer that this particular finding of starch is of any real value, but I think I might remark in this connection that we, as a people, do not seem to wish to know the true value of our inheritance, in the vegetable world at least. Such slight excursion into the subject as this simply indi- cates the desirability of making our indigenous vegetation a subject for serious and systematic research. Mr. J. H. Maiden, who was the President of our chemical section when this Association last met in Brisbane, eloquently struck the chord of which this is but an echo. If we except the valuable work on the Eucalypts by Mr. Smith, of the Sydney Technical College, but little or nothing has been done during the long years that have intervened. Those of us who have the will have seldom the opportunity, being compelled by the ever-increasing duties of office, or business, to spend our energies in matters of routine. The great value of such an Association as this is, that it brings these matters into prominence and sets the seed which may, like the palms of other lands, one day grow and flourish for the material benefit of mankind. Attached is a micro-photograph of starch on portion of slide from specimen first examined, for which I am indebted to Mr. Robert Grant, BRANDY. 145 of the Micro-biological Bureau. To Mr. Maiden, Director of the Sydney Botanical Gardens, for kindly giving me the botanical appellation of the palm, I tender my acknowledgment. PC Watt MIcRO-PHOTCGRAPH OF THE STARCH OF THE BANGALOW PALM. The concave or cup-shaped appearance of some of the cells is due to optical exaggeration. 6.—BRANDY. By WILLIAM M. HAMLET, F.1.C., F.C.S., State Government Analyst far New South Wales. For more than three centuries a certain form of alcoholic liquor or ardent spirits variously known as eau-de-vie, aqua vite, brannt- wein, or brandy has been world-famous as a stimulant, restorative, and intoxicant, particularly that special variety named after its place of origin, Cognac, in the Charente district of France, where manufac- turers exist to-day proudly dating their foundation from 200 to 250 years ago. Such are Augier Fréres, 1660; Martell, 1715; Hennessy, 1760; Sazerac de Forges, 1782; and Otard Dupuy, 1795. So deep an impression has this famous drink made upon English-speaking peoples, that it has been scoffngly remarked that Cognac is the only French word properly pronounced by the average Briton, American, or Australian. The demand for this concentrated alcoholic beverage is still enormous, notwithstanding the fashion that set in some forty years ago, when its great rival—whisky—took the lead—a vogue led off by the medical profession, who are now veering back again to- wards the introduction of Cognac on account of its greater virtues K 146 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. and supposed instantaneous action. So enormous is the present demand that more brandy comes from Cognac than can be legiti- mately accounted for. In the year 1876 a great disaster befell the trade in the wholesale destruction of the vines of France by the Phyllozera vastatrix, but still the world was supphed with Cognac! Sir Charles Cameron and Professor Smith, President of the Royal Institute of Public Health, give some very interesting statistics on this aspect of the supply of French brandy. They say: “Jt is both interesting and instructive in this connection to con- sider certain figures which have been obtained from official sources relative to the extent of land under cultivation, and the amount of wine produced in the Charente Inferior, from which it will be seen that since 1876, when the vines were attacked by Phylloxera, the amount of wine produced has been seriously diminished, whilst in parallel columns will be seen the amount of brandy produced in those districts and the amount of brandy shipped to England and other countries and consumed in France. The difference between the quantity of brandy produced and the amount sent to England speaks for itself, and gives rise to the natural question, From which source was the extra amount of brandy shipped obtained? Table showing the extent of land under cultivation, and the amount of wine produced therefrom, together with the quantity of brandy produced and the quantity exported, &c., in the districts of the Charente and Charente Inferior :— Abstracted from Wine Trade Review and Ridley’s . ev Wine and Spirit Trade Circular. ome ae >. Hectolitres of B ly Shi Year. Hect ioe Coletti Hectolitres of | Hectolitres of (aRcReeea Beene ee UN aUOr ae aWanevbroduced™ Brandy Produced} other Countries) | and Consumed | in France. 1875 Did not publish for this year | 12,662,944 2,355,682 | 1,883,766) _ 1878 256,961 6,686,261 wes ae Gls 1887 85,399 673,543 - ets 1892 Q ( 466, 464 78,881 | 1,720,450 isis 1893 | | 1,095,345 180,131 | 1,721,467 1894 ‘| Figures not published + 628,491 89,784 | 1,754,394) 1895 | | | 743,342 60,567 | 2,289,670) so | 1896 J) UY 1,182,913 48,947 2,347,086 | one 1897 56, 967 | 307,758 93,273 | 2,028,022 1 gan 1898 56,815 ) 845,592 40,267 | 2,349,980) p This shows a decrease under cultivation of over 200,000 hectares ; or, in other words, only about one-fifth of the land is now under culti- vation, compared with the pre-phylloxera period, when only genuine brandies were shipped. “In 1876 the vines were attacked by Phylloxera. “1893 was best vintage since Phylloxera. “1875: Wine made 12,662,944 hectolitres= 278,584,768 gallons. “1898: Wine made 845,592 hectolitres= 18,603,024 gallons. “ Deficiency ... uae ... 259,981,744 gallons.” Of the varieties of genuine Cognac, such as the Grand Cham- pagne, Petite Champagne, Fins Bois, Bons Bois, and Bois Ordinaires, I have nothing to say, more than this—namely, that the world’s con- sumption is now so large that other varieties from Les Borderies, Le BRANDY. 147 Midi, Armagnac in Gascony, Spain, and Algiers, have been brought into requisition to cope with the demand. No doubt for those who can pay for them these may be classed as genuine brandies, but there is also a large trade done in what, from the dealer’s point of view, is pleasantly called “blending,” but which, in blunt English, may be more fitly termed adulteration. Given some white spirit, eau-de-vie, silent spirit, clear spirit, Berlin spirit, neutral spirit, spirit of wine— for under these terms the alcohol-basis is known—and what is easier than to take some /aqueur and a vanishing quaiitity of real Cognac? and, hey, presto! you have commercial brandy ready for the wholesale market. The publican and bar-keeper have also a stake in the fraud, but, as a rule, nothing further than tap-water is added, distilled water being used by the better class of hotel proprietor. “Is protection calied for in the case of spirits?! Whatever may be said of whisky, rum, and gin, it certainly is, we maintain, in regard to brandy. Genuine brandy has jong been recognised by the medical profession and the public as possessing certain medicinal qualities not enjoyed by other spirits. Thus, if in illness a stimulant is indicated it is generally brandy that is employed. Indeed, probably the majority of people never drink brandy unless it is for medicinal use, and undoubtedly fine old brandy has been most valuable for this pur- pose, and the phrase “eau-de-vie” is not altogether an unjustifiable title. To this day good brandy is regarded as par excellence the medicinally valuable spirit. Its reputation in this regard has been founded on experience, and the composition of brandy shows important characteristics absent in whisky and other spirits upon which the medicinal value undoubtedly largely depends. This being so, when a person asks for brandy he ought to be supplied with the genuine article, a grape-derived or wine spirit, all else being regarded, in the words of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, as ‘not of the nature, quality, and substance demanded.’ In this sense we regard genuine brandy as a valuable drug which should be procurable in accordance with a standard.” It seems to me to be altogether doubtful whether the subject of this paper can, after all, be of much importance since the liquid sold to the consumer is so artfully imitated, and he is so ready to pay for what appears to him to be real brandy that he goes on his intoxicating way with the mental suggestion that what appears to be brandy, and is served out to him as the ancient product brandy, must really be so in fact. It will intoxicate, and that will suffice for the craving of the inebriate. But what of those medical practitioners who, though few, still exist in the present age when the dietetic or therapeutic value of alcohol is now much discounted? When he asks for brandy for a patient the genuine article should be forthcoming and obtainable as easily as any other medical comfort. The consumer asks for brandy, and he is certainly entitled to get it, and not be compelled to take a ' substitute, however much that substitute resembles the real article. So to the question, Do we get exactly the thing we ask for when we demand brandy? I think a negative answer must be given. In dis- cussing this subject, I have been met with the counter statement that it does not much matter so long as a fairly pure alcohol with an appropriate flavour is supplied. Then, all that will be required is for the hotel-keeper to have white spirit on tap, and have a series of 148 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION 8. flavouring essences near at hand with which he can—like the conjuror on the stage—draw forth gin, rum, whisky, and brandy from one and the same bottle! These are questions of ethical, chemical, physiological, and psychological importance, and I cannot attempt to do more than speak of the chemical side of the question. The mobile ethyl radical is at the bottom of all aspects of the liquor question, whether as the hydrate in ethylic alcohol or oxidised as ether and acetic acid or subtly combined as the ubiquitous ester, much to the mystification alike of judges and barristers trying a brandy case. With the rapid advance of carbon chemistry it is possible to make a pure ethyl alcohol betraying no sign of its origin. Here it .is, ready for whomsoever will buy it, to be used for a thousand different pur- poses. What is there to prevent the brandy-maker from flavouring, colouring, esterising, diluting, and electrically ageing the same until he has a product which so closely resembles brandy as to be called, as it is for that matter, synthetic brandy? Put it into bottles with the label bearing the design of a few bunches of grapes and a French name, and the thing is done. Al ysolutely there is nothing to prevent him. Nay, he may go further, and get it shipped from a French port, so that invoices, bills of lading, and Customs certificate, including the famous white certificate, all join in declaring it to be French brandy. Obviously no analyst can stand such an array of rebutting evidence, often as not regrettably backed up by a commercial analyst’s sworn testimony and the professional taster, who has been tasting synthetic - brandy all the time. Thus two sets of circumstances have conspired to bring spurious brands on the market: the Phylloxera and the synthetic essences, coupled with the commercial production of pure alcohol electrically aged and matured. In the face of such long odds, what can be said to be known about genuine brandy? Fortunately we live in a country where the vine flourishes, and wines are distilled for brandy production. In Australian brandy we have a sure basis to work upon, and it is open tor the inquirer to see the steps in the production of brandy from the grape to the finished product. What then are the characteristics of genuine brandy? A true brandy, an eau-de-vie-de-vin* is the matured middle distillate from wine, the earlier and the end-products being separated and rejected. The colour derived wholly from the cask, dark if from an old wine cask, and pale if from a new cask, hence the origin of the pale and dark varieties. The flavour is wholly and entirely derived from the impurities, and is largely dependent on the mode of distillation; if from the ancient pot-still, the ratio of impurities is relatively high; if derived from the patent still, it is low and sometimes so feeble that the art and ingenuity of the blender consists in the admixture of a certain volume or proportion of the pot-still variety with a larger quantity of patent-still brandy spirit. The resulting bouquet, aroma, flavour, and eusto are then and there determined, modified first by the variety of grapes used and the time the brandy is kept in store. The pro- fessional taster now passes his opinion, and the market value of the brandy is fixed. * By eau-de-vie is now meant mere colourless alcohol or silent spirit, the term eau-de-vie-de-vin being reserved for true brandy—the genuine grape product. BRANDY. 149 The precise scientific value of the flavour, however genuine the brandy may be, is an unknown quantity. Medical evidence is fre quently adduced in supporting the theory that the entire therapeutic value depends on the impurities. Against this we have also the medical opinion that it is the alcohol and the alcohol alone that is of value, and some go so far as to say that pure white spirit is just as efficacious and of equal value to the finest spirit ever produced from the grape. In fairness to those who incline to the latter opinion it is only tight to say that the conclusion arrived at by the Departmental Com- mittee on Whisky went to show that pure alcohol—that is to say, silent spirit—is, if anything, a more healthful beverage than the ordinary drinking spirits—barring the necessary flavour. Curiously enough the only thing the public seem concerned about is the mode of origin of the spirit, and not so much the flavour, so long as the traditional flavour of rum, schnapps, whisky, and brandy is apparent. Brandy, therefore, may be classed as to its origin as follows :— 1. It may be wholly derived from wine. 2. It may be entirely synthetic. 3. Or chiefly composed of grain or beet spirit, with ten, twenty, or more per cent. of real old brandy, the amount of the latter determining the price to be paid, the mark of value indicated by one star, two, three, or five stars, for which the consumer pays a few shillings, or a pound sterling, or more, per bottle. The consumer, therefore, pays more for the label in stars than for the alcoholic contents. In a word, he pays for the flavour. Now, the analyst cannot separate and estimate so intangible a phenomenon as a fleeting flavour and enter it among his results even in milli- grammes. Since ethylic alcohol is the same the world over, he can give the quantity by weight and volume pretty correctly, and must rely on the non-alcoholic contents or the alcohol derivatives to enable him to pronounce as to its genuineness or otherwise. He must look to the secondary products as the index of purity, and it is just here that his path is fraught with dangerous pitfalls. First, the absolutely genuine brandy is marked by a high co-efficient of impurity. Secondly, he is pitted against the synthetic brandy chemist, who is on the alert to satisfy the analyst with a clever admixture of alcohol and impurities known as “oil of Cognac.” With a sufficiency of burnt sugar and artificial esters the trick is done, and a brandy may be manufactured to suit any standard that any authority or Act of Parliament may devise. So that when the “trade” of any State welcome and even ask for a brandy standard, we shall be no further forward, for it will certainly happen that the brandy makers will export a brandy that will meet all the requirements of a standard. The only remedy I see 1s to track the brandy from its place of origin. Obviously, France, Spain, Portugal, and Algiers are, for economic and geographical reasons, beyond ordinary facilities. Fortunately, Australia is a wine growing country, and can produce genuine brandy beyond question or suspicion, and Australian brandy should, if properly made, rival the best output from Cognac. South Australia and New South Wales are already producing absolutely genuine brandy, and as prejudice disappears there will be PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 150 y from Europe. For comparison, I give here- Ye th some results of analys no need to import brand French brandy is of Australian, Spanish, and the famous wi . . aha ne Oe ee ee eS ee quads ured wee ane | wor fsnoyyory | poyeroyNpy | auinues) auinuary auINnt9 fy ApuBiq pavpuryzg “" SYIBULOY [R199 fF) ee yur | Ayia Aymay amopo ystp > | J snoesne NT pue ysnoy pue yoourg | pur queaseag | IMopo yuesveT ) WWeLseay YITA YZOOULS JOATIS T UL ONpIsat Jo aourivoddy ie ec CFT 0¢. 9%. GT 04 1.0 * oyooyt. jo % SOAR CZ ¢.99 | 09 03 02% 101 061 002 04 96 $1048] I'N 61.0 | 0.1 FT Gl Z 09 8.0 [ean gan iT TIN COT 08 06 O0OT 07 08 [040978 Jo 000‘OOT 49d sprow poxLy ; cg yoyooyr 1G 9! 9G Lg COZ OOF ©F 09 JO 000‘00T tod spre eyrfOA G SUIId} “r'0 @ an #) | EmOY Nie ‘a'n Loy ‘ao pL "I'D FL opeay yensn Ul yy3ue14s o1poqooly SOL o-26 g8 £9.88 1-68 9.18 quads yoord jo o8vqueo19g 8.86 C6. FF 00-0F O1-OF 08. $F 00¢.aF qySiom la) 3 ae 1°4 1°0305 13°5 4°9 86 068 | 540 | 3-4 te 28 nit 18 1:02995| 14114 | 56 8°54 ay O71 | 540 }, 4:0 & re fe 1°8 1°0295 ely 3°6 | 81 ‘444 | 0°66 | 537 | 9°0 47 Baie able? Die 1°0292 i4 374 80 “415 | 0°68 Dad 1 107! 59 2°9 70 27 1°0311 13°5 49 | 86 | 0°65 | 533 34 (el an ai 1°0305 2G yl Wosie|| x00 | 0° PDO. et Lore eas 3°3 10308 HEI 50 87 | OM 25304 F272 eS 26 1:0307 12°07 | 3°6 8°47 Bits | eye | SOZSa PAK 0°35 be + 4:0 1°0286 LZ) 378 7°92.| 422 | 0°63 | 528 | 11°0 6°38 10°0 | 15°6 40 1°0306 14:1 ao 8S a. OVO Ne acl $. nk ack 4°] 1:0274 10°6 3°0 76 *42 0°63 | d27 =| 14°5 10°5 10°0 | 16°0 41 1:0296 13°5 Hel | $24 0°66 | 525 | 56 alot SA ¥ 4°5 1:031 12°9 4°2 87 0°68 | *ADDH" |e *B:D it 2°8 4°5 10302 | 12°15 | 3:7 | 8°45 52 EROS © |e 50. O58 e2 4°8 1°0300 13°22 | 4°8 8°42 | 0°64 | 522 | 5:6 0-9 8°5 50 1°0298 1g 4°65:) 8555)... 0°68 |--b17 |! 3:9 ne 2°8 xt 54 1°0301 13:0 4°6 S-4 ee ORGS. eal a Ds o ESI 2°8 - 54 1°0292 TD, 3°2 8-0 "ey al 0°66 | 516 10°1 5°9 Dien, 63 1°0292 HESSD) | 1320 Dil| Ok 451 | 0°62 | 510 8°9 4°7 11°4 9°8 72 1°0298 12°63 | 4:3 8°33 ie 0°64 | °508 6°4 2°0 8°5 ; 76 1°0301 13°04 | +4°6 8°44 Pe NOG el hO2 51 07 12°8 : 8'°7 1:0291 12°55 | 4:2 8°35 | °445 | 0°63 | 502 6°2 ET, 10°0 ‘ 87 1°0280 TA | 40 774 | -440 | 0°58 | 502 13°0 89 if Zl ar 87 1°0272 10°24 | 2°8 7°44 | -413 | 0°63 | 502 | 16°4 12°4 10°0 | 17°4 87 1°0299 11-64 | 3:3 8°34 | 48 0°63 | *500 63 18 10°0 4:0 91 1°0289 13525 rD:0. 8°25 a 0°65 | 500 lao 2:9 71 es 91 1:0270 10°8 3°25 | 7°55 | °400 | 0°65 | -499 15:2 Ibs. 71 | 20°0 93 1°0285 13:07 | 4°95] 8:12 a 0°63 | 495 87 4°4 10°0 * 10°0 1°0279 10°8 31 (PX 445 | 0°63 | +492 13°6 9-4 10°70 | 11:0 | 10°5 1°0285 11°0 ail 79 “45 0°64 | -490 12, al 85 | 10°0 | 10°9 10284 12°2 4°0 82 "465 | 0°65 | °487 79 3°5 (73 WG0o | ake: 1°026 11°6 4:05 | 7°65 | °46 0°68 | °487 14°6 10°6 2°8 8:0 | 11°4 1°0291 eT 23:0 815 | -42 0°66 | *481 86 4-1 ays (al pa 8S 04 es es 1°0280 11°93 | 471 783 | 44 0°58 | 480 12°0 78 DON. 1947 10278 ialg3} Swale A cay |p ae: YY 0°56 | 480 14°0 10°0 20:0 | 16°0 | 12:7 1°026 10°2 29 fics “415 | 0°61%| °477 18°0 14:1 TAS m i ekeOnlh aioe 1°0272 HAST S |e OkD 7°63 | °426 |) 0°62 | °475 14°3 10°2 TAY | WSS) L386 1°0282 12°34 | 4°3 8:04 | ‘47 0°64 | 472 9°6 54 85 60 | 14°71 1:0273 11°0 333 eth “425 | 0°62 | 469 S25 9°4 ED a OM ea 1°028 TMI Sey 79 *434 | 0°62 | °467 11:2 fall Sa NSD Ne be 1°0260 | 12°2 4°7 Teo *422 | O61 | °455 Lat IDESrE a atojal ealltaey alr ee’ 1°0267 oe 2°4 es ae 0°62 | 455 18°0 14:1 11°4 hs Le3 1°0257 101 29 72 “416 | 0°60 | °451 19°1 15°3 14:2 | 16°8 | 17°9 1°0244 9°63 | 3°0 6°63 | °345 | 0°56 | -450 2555 22-0 20°0 | 31°0 | 181 1:0268 11°8 4°35 | 7°45 | °442 | 0°58 | -447 16:3 iS? 1771 | 11°64.) 18°7 1°0252 10°0 3°0 70 413 | 0°56 | 432 PALES} 17°6 20:0) | 17:4) Qik 1°0242 9°56 | 2°8 6°76 | ‘385 | 0.57 | 425 240 20°4 SEDI) or. | eonn 1°0244 8°9 22 6-7 *379. | 0°56 | 420 | 24:7 PASI 250 | 20:0 | 23°6 164 ment Agricultural Chemist, Mr. J. C. Briimnich, F.1.C., he undertook et as many abnormal milks as possible, and have them tested. The following results were practically all from samples analysed in It is interesting to note that the passing to o 5 Mr. Briinnicl’ s laboratory. ‘PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. In discussing the question of abnormal milks with the Govern- of the milk through the separator had, as expected, no effect on the freezing point. purity of the sample. The most striking feature of all these results, and the one which I specially wish. to call attention to, is that genuine milk from six different sources has been found to give less than the legal amount of solids not fat, but that while strong suspicion is thereby raised as to their genuineness the freezing point determination indicates the There is, ST eCoCone! no doubt whatever that TABLE C. oS . ae o ull ie 6 a = Se ae ° (o) . op - Herd. 22 Samples. - tS akg ae | bo | ate: | ee (reel iz a5 Da ss : Ss ety 5 || aes 20 = Pa) = BPS S Sf 8. eR a) het ee ie = =I s lo} i r = ~ 7; My isa) i MN A iss) Biol Re) & 50 = mo to = ° =o) CON 18> is > = ° 3 = ° oO a Sa mu on Ere (eros o- — oO” N =~ ° 5 Bil S| 21. S| Sy ol Sr elie lee Z ‘2 + qr pe) [MSE + + + + + (| No. 1, as received ... |—'306 |—'528/—"565 | | tee ... |—'685 |—"590 '| No. l,after] day’sstorage| ... |—°535 at 0° C. ; No. l.after 2 days’storage| ... eae) [507 0))) Aer AS ... |—'588}—-590 | at 25° C. No. 1l.after7 days’ storage | ... pei f= 1015) eee Ses ... |—'600! °607 at 25° C. (sour, Co ee (sour) : No, 2. as received —554 ; Half-bred 94 No. a after 1 day’ s storage ... |='529|=680/—-595| ... |... ote ... |—'560 | —569 Jersey at 0° C. | No. 2.after 2days’storage| ... ... |—'580|—‘590] ... es BAA ... |—°569 | —565 at 25°C. No. 3. as received —"550}| ... me “= a Ss a ... [7552 | —"555 No. 3. after 2 days’ storage |... rE fat {us ee au veg | eee 17552) shee at 25°C Pens Bintterctiaye wiofave by 3ei0 aes oe te Por ts ... |—'648 | —*550 le at 25° C : No. 4, as received —"d59| ... .. |—°592 |—"564 Mixed Herd 20 No. 4. after 1 day’s storage Be ies Es *600| 571 (Grass fed) at 25°C. (| No. 10, as received ... |—'556|—"525| ... |—*575|—-544|— 510 ,| No. 10, aft» r 1 day’s stor- Mee ws ww. =|—°575 |—"545 | —512 Full Bred |124 age at 0° C. Jersey || No. 10, sfter 2 days’ stor-| ... 1 ... |—°680 |—*544 | —-527 g age at 25°C. Summary.—tThe results recorded in Tables B and C show that the determination of the freezing point of a milk which has not fermented affords a ready means of determining whether water has been added to the milk or whether the milk is naturally poor. LECTURE AND LABORATORY PRACTICE. 167 293.—NOTES ON LECTURE AND LABORATORY APPARATUS. By PROFESSOR J. A. SCHOFIELD, University of Sydney. J— Apparatus FoR SHOWING THE Composition oF Nirrous anp Nirric This apparatus was devised for showing the relation between the volume of nitrous or nitric oxide, and the volume of the nitrogen left after the removal of the oxygen by heating sodium in the gas according to Sir Humphrey Davy’s original method. Attempts to carry out the decomposition in a bent glass tube, according to the text-book illustrations, always ended in a violent explosion; no explosion has occurred with the apparatus described, although it has been used for several years. Fig. I A (Fig. 1) is a glass tube 13 in. in diameter and about 12 in. long, drawn off at the bottom and connected by IR. tubing to the levelling tube D. . Aisclosed at the top by an I.R. cork through which pass two narrow glass tubes B and ©. The gas is introduced through Band _— escapes through C; each tube can be closed by a screw clip on a piece of pressure tubing. Through the cork also pass the stem of a deflagrating spoon (E) and a_ piece of stout copper wire (F); these are joined at the bottom, just above the level of the spoon, by a piece of platinum wire soldered to E and F about # in. above the spoon. In the apparatus the plane of these two wires is at right angles to that of the tubes, but for purposes of illustra- tion they are shown in the same plane. On attaching the terminals of a battery to the binding screws at E and F the platinum wire can be made red hot. The sodium is placed in the deflagrating spoon H. In the case of nitrous oxide the platinum wire is wound in the form of a spiral of about four turns, the diameter being about that of the inside of the 168 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. cup. To carry out the experiment mercury is poured into D until it is at the level of the lower end of the tube B in both A and D. A piece of freshly cut sodium (cube of about % in. edge) is then placed in the deflagrating spoon, and arranged in the case of nitric oxide so that the platinum wire touches it, but in the case of nitrous oxide in the centre of the spiral. The cork i is then introduced and the gas passed in through B, both clips being open, until it issues in a pure form from C; in the case of nitrous oxide this can be tested by a glowing splint, and in the case of nitric oxide by the absence of red fumes in the tube A. The clips on B and C are then closed, and wires from a battery connected to E and F. On increasing the current until the platinum wire is red or white hot, the sodium ‘takes fire and burns. Aiter the tube has cooled, in the case of nitrous oxide, the volume of the gas will be the same as at first, but in the case of nitric oxide it will be half the original volume. In the latter case H must be kept above half the distance between the Se level of the mereury and the cork. In this case also mercury must be poured into D to keep the level in both tubes the same, or else D must be lowered when starting until its open end is about level with the spoon in A, it being then about half full of mercury ; as the combustion proceeds, the tube D can be raised to keep the mercury at the same level in both tubes. The sodium ignites very readily in the nitric oxide, and once it has started continues to burn until the end of the experiment, but in the case of nitrous oxide ignition does not take place so readily, and it sometimes requires the application of further heat from the. spiral to keep the combustion going. Instead of an ordinary I.R. cork to close the tube A, it would be better to use an ebonite cork surrounded by a rubber ring, in order that the wires KE and F may not shift when introducing the cork into. the. tube. IT.—APPaARATUS FOR THY PREPARATION OF AMMONIUM HYDRATE SoLtution, ConceENTRATED AND DinutTE, From Liquip AMMONIA. Having experienced some difficulty in obtaining ammonium hydrate of sufficient purity in Sydney, the following apparatus, Fig. 2, was devised for preparing it from lhquid ammonia, largely used for refrigerating purposes. The ammonia cylinder is, of course, placed with the valve at the top. The gas is led through the } in. glass tube A into the wash-bottle B. At L is a side tube closed at the bottom with a piece of IR. tubing and a screw clip. Ammonia gas can be drawn off from this tube for lecture purposes. It is also advisable to leave the clip open if the apparatus is unused for a considerable period. The water in the wash-bottle B soon becomes saturated with the gas, and hence there’is little tendency for the water to be drawn into the tube A. From B the gas passes into the bottle in which the saturated solution of NH,OH is made. At the beginning this bottle should not be more than one-half full, since the solution increases consider- ubly in bulk as the NH; is absorbed. Fresh water is introduced into LECTURE AND LABORATORY PRACTICE. 169 this bottle through the tube D connected to the bottle E above. The saturated ammonia solution is drawn off for use through the siphon F. If the column in this siphon breaks it can be started by blowing through D with a pair of bellows. From C, after the solution is saturated, the gas passes into the second wash-bottle G, fitted with a valve opening downwards; this is to prevent non-saturated solution being drawn back into C and so weakening this solution. This happens if C is connected direct to H, C being completely filled with water from H as soon as the ammonia is shut off. From G the gas passes into H of about 10 litres capacity. In this, NH,OH of any required strength can be made. In this laboratory 5K (approxi- mately five times normal) NH,OH is the strength made in this vessel. The strength is indicated by a rough specific gravity bulb J, made from a piece of glass tubing and loaded with coloured water. The ammonia is passed in until this bulb sinks, the strength then being 5K. As the solution cools the specific gravity will rise, and more ammonia must be run in. When starting, the vessel H should be not more than three-quarters full to allow for expansion. The solution is drawn off, and fresh water added in the same way as in C. Ammonia escaping from H can be absorbed in another vessel of water, and this weak solution can be used for filling H. At the time the apparatus was fitted up liquid NHs could be purchased for 1s. 6d. per lb., making the price of “880 NH,OH about 6d. per Ib.; so-called “880 NH,OH could be purchased for 44d. per Ib., therefore the NH,OH made in the above apparatus was appar- ently dearer; but this, it is believed, is more than counterbalanced by the loss in transferring and diluting the purchased “880 NH,OH. On more than one occasion, in hot weather, the whole of a Winchester quart has been lost through the rapid escape of the NH3; the trans- ferring of the ‘880 NH,OH from a Winchester quart is also. an objec- tionable. operation. . isl The apparatus hag ‘been in use for several ‘years without any trouble being experienced. All the joints are made by means of LR. 170 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. pressure tubing, and I.R. corks are used in all the jars. Gaseous NH3 does not act rapidly on india rubber, although the solution acts very quickly ; hence siphons are better than openings in the base of the jars for drawing off the solution. I1].—A Rarip Form or ConpENSER FOR DistILLED WATER. This condenser was designed to give a rapid supply of distilled water with a boiler fed with hot water from the top of the condenser. With the ordinary worm condenser, even of | in. diameter, if the distillation was at all rapid, pressure was produced in the still, and water was forced back through the bent pipe into the condensa- tion vessel; the worm did not present sufficient cooling surface to rapidly condense all the steam. In this condenser, which is practically a reversed tubular boiler, nine 4 in. tubes (tin) 1 ft. long form the condenser, thus pre senting a large condensing surface. Section Through DP +-—/15-— — i ee el Distled Water Fig. }. Fig. 3 sufficiently explains the construction of the condenser. The drums A and B are of copper, tinned inside, the tubes connecting them are of tin, the outer vessel C is of copper. The only trouble experienced has been in the joints between the tin tubes and the copper drums, but these can be readily soldered again. The condenser will yield 7,000 cc.’s per hour without causing back pressure in the boiler. With gas at 4s. per 1,000, the cost is about 2d. per gallon, but no claim is made on the score of low cost; this depends more upon the effective jacketing of the boiler. LECTURE AND LABORATORY PRACTICE. wel IV.—A Curarp DemonstRATION BALANCE. This balance, Fig. 4, is an ordinary balance made to take a load of 1,000 grams (catalogue price £2 18s. 6d.) fitted with a light aluminium pointer A about 21 in. long playing over a cardboard scale B. The scale and pointer are turned towards the class, the ordinary scale and pointer being towards the lecturer. The pointer can be made of any length suitable to the distance between the lecturer and the class, and is counterbalanced by a binding screw C clamped on the ordinary index. The cardboard scale is made so that the readings of the pointer on the scale coincide with those of the ordinary index and scale. One arm of the balance is graduated for use with a ‘1 gram rider. Nuits nadia Fig. A. _ The balance is provided with a glass case, the aluminium pointer and support for the scale passing through the roof. The. balance has proved very useful in demonstrating, to large classes, the method of determining small weights by vibrations, as well as for general lecture experiments. The pointer and scale in no way inter- fere with its use for ordinary purposes. 172 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. V.—NickeL CrucIBLES FOR THE LAwREeNCE SmitH MprHop oF DETERMINING ALKALIES IN SILICATES. These nickel crucibles, Fig. 5 (price 3s. each) were obtained through Messrs. Gallenkamp and Co., of London. They are used by students in place of expensive platinum ones (about £8 each), for the determination of alkalies in silicates by decomposition with CaCO, and NH,Cl. The same Bunsen burner and stand are used as with the platinum ones. Ne Cap Fig. on The crucibles are acted on by the CaCO 3 and ‘NH,Cl during the heating, but all the nickel is removed in the first operation (dissolv- ing in water and filtering), and causes no further trouble. Duplicate determinations, using the nickel crucible in one case aud the platinum crucible in the other, give the same results. Section C. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, Proressor ERNEST W. SKEATS, D.Sc.,A.R.C.Sc., F.G.S. THE VOLCANIC ROCKS OF VICTORIA. Introduction. The Volcanic Rocks of Victoria cover an area probably exceeding 10,000 square miles. They form the level plains of the Western District, they occur as mountain masses near Warburton, Healesville, and Marysville in Central Victoria; the rugged areas near the Snowy River in Gippsland are largely composed of ancient voleanic rocks, while flows of Newer Basalt have been met with hundreds of feet below the surface in several of the deep lead mines. Not only have they a wide geographical distribution but among them are representa- tives of very varied geological age and distinct petrological types, giving rise to diverse types of scenery where they are exposed at the surface. The geological literature dealing with Victorian , volcanic rocks is now fairly extensive, and is scattered through a variety of _ publications. A general account is included in Murray’s work on the “Geology and Physical Geography of Victoria” (5), but the last edition was published 14 years ago, and the chemical and _ petro- graphical aspects receive scant treatment. The early work oi the Geological Survey laid firmly the foundations of our knowledge of the boundaries and stratigraphical relations of the volcanic rocks, and the work of Selwyn, Ulrich, Murray, and others is recorded in the Survey Reports and the official maps. Our knowledge of the chemical and microscopical characters of Victorian volcanic rocks has been mainly due to the remarkable work of the late Dr. Howitt. Commencing his investigations in the early seventies he was the pioneer. in Australia of scientific petrography, yet his work, both chemical and microscopical, was characterised by such accuracy and thoroughness that the great bulk of it will probably stand with scarcely any modification. In Victoria, in recent, years, the investigators in this branch of research have increased in numbers, and foremost in importance is the work of my predecessor, Professor Gregory. During the last four years my own research has been largely concerned with Victorian voleanic rocks. In this work, and in teaching the subject, I have felt the need of a modern general account which should summarise the present position of our knowledge. The present paper is an attempt to meet. this, requirement, and it is hoped that it will prove useful not only to workers in Victoria, but 174 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION C. also to others interested in volcanic rocks who may not have access to all the literature. During the preparation of this paper I have made a biblhography of the most important papers dealing with the subject, and this is added as an appendix. In the preparation of the biblio- graphy I have to acknowledge considerable assistance from Messrs. H. J. Grayson and H. 8. Summers, M.Se., of the Geological Depart- ment of the University, while Mr. Grayson and Mr. H. C. Richards, B.Sc., have also helped me in the preparation of the map and sections which accompany this paper. It is hoped that this account of the Volcanic Rocks of Victoria will not only serve to show in a general way what is at present known concerning them, but, by revealing the considerable gaps in our knowledge, will serve to direct attention to those rocks and areas in which further research is required before our knowledge of them can be regarded as even approximately complete. In order to emphasise their geological relations the volcanic rocks will be described according to their age, all those of a given geological period being grouped together. The oldest rocks in Victoria are probably two areas of meta- morphic rocks, consisting of schists and gneisses outcropping in the cne case near the Western boraer of the State in county Dundas, and in the other forming a belt of country in Gippsland, in N.E. Victoria. They have been regarded as altered Ordovician rocks, but, in recent years, the opinion has been gaining ground that they are not only Pre-Ordovician, but, probably, of Archzean age. Very little is yet known of their petrological characters or original composition, and, while it is possible that “highly metamorphosed voleanic rocks are represented among them, we have at present no evidence of their existence. (See Plate I., Fig. 2, and Plate II., Fig. 1.) BASAL ORDOVICIAN. (?) Tue “ HeatrHcotTian ” SERIES. Geographical Distribution (See Map, Plate 4). The oldest known voleanic rocks of Victoria consist of a series of diabasic rocks associated frequently with cherts. The best known and type locality is Heathcote, from which town a narrow belt of these rocks stretches northwards for about 30 miles, forming the Colbinab- bin Range, and ending near L. Cooper. Some miles south of Heath- cote and east of Lancefield similar rocks occur, and the same associa- tion is met with near Mount Stavely in W. Victoria (24), near Tatong (33), and Dookie in N.E. Victoria (17 and 22), and, according to Mr. Dunn (28), just N. of Nowa Nowa at the head of L. Tyers, in Gipps- land. A serpentinous diabase with chert occurs at the Hummocks, a few miles N. of Casterton in W. Victoria. The serpentine of Mount Wellington, Gippsland, and the diabase occurring W. of Geelong may belong to the same series, and the serpentine near the Limestone R. in Benambra is regarded by Mr. Dunn as probably Heathcotian (30), The cherty and slaty rocks of the phosphatic deposit near Mansfield, of Edi, on the King R., and on the Divide, W. of the Macalister R., as well as some rocks near Egerton, have been claimed by Mr. Dunn as probably Heathcotian (7). PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C. 175 Geological Relations (See Plate IL, Figs. 1 and 2). At Heathcote the diabase outcrops between the Silurian rocks which form high ground to the east, and the series generally regarded as Lower Ordovician, which forms undulating ground to the west. Black cherts are developed at intervals near the contact with the diabase. They generally occur to the W. of the diabase, but in one or two localities come between the diabase and the Silurian rocks. The age and stratigraphical relations of the rocks of Heathcote have been the subject of considerable controversy. Mr. Dunn (13), described the igneous rocks as in the main lavas and tuffs, and stated that they, with the black bedded cherts, formed a Pre-Silurian (Pre- Ordovician) series. Later (7) he refers to them as Cambrian. The late Dr. Howitt (19) claimed the bulk of the igneous rocks as altered intrusions, maintained that the black cherts were Ordo- vician sediments altered by the intrusion of the diabase, and stated that the diabase was also intrusive into the Silurian rocks along their junction with the Ordovician series. According to Howitt the cherts are altered Ordovician rocks, while the diabase he regarded as probably of Devonian age. Lidgey (16), who mapped the bulk of the area, at first agreed with Dunn’s interpretation, but afterwards sided with Howitt’s view. Professor Gregory (24) agreed with Howitt that the bulk of the igneous rocks are intrusive into the cherts, as to whose origin he expressed no opinion. In respect to the relations between the Ordovician and the cherty series he claimed that the evidence of the geological mapping of Lidgey and Whitelaw was inconsistent with Howitt’s view that the cherts were Ordovician rocks, and really showed that both cherts and diabase consist of an older series upon which the Ordovician was laid down unconformably. The absence of diabase dykes in the Ordovician he regards as evidence that the diabase is Pre-Ordovician. Lidgey had pointed out that chert fragments occur in the Silurian conglomerates, and Gregory stated that diabase fragments were to be found in the Silurian sandstones, thus demonstrating that both diabase as well as cherts are of PreSilurian Age and not Devonian as maintained by Howitt. Later (9) Prof. Gregory describes the ‘ Heathcotian” series as of Pre-Cambrian Age (p. 412), and also as U. Archzan (p. 596), but gives no reasons for stating that they are older than Cambrian. The fact that such competent observers as the above have come to such different conclusions as to the age of the series is no doubt partly due to the comparative poverty of exposures, especially near the contacts of different rocks, partly to the alteration which the rocks have undergone, but it is also a tribute to the inherent complexity of the problem. It will be noted that Howitt described the cherts as Ordovician, and the diabase as Devonian. Dunn describes both as Pre-Ordovician, while Gregory first states that both series are Pre-Ordovician, and later more pre- cisely defines them as Pre-Cambrian and Upper Archean. Recently (36) I have been led by evidence in the field and laboratory to the conclusion that both cherts and diabase are probably basal members of the Ordovician series. The reasons for this view are 176 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION C. briefly as follows :—The great bulk of the diabasic rocks near Heath- cote consist of two types. The most abundant is a somewhat platy or foliated rock which, both in the field and under the microscope, is fragmental and consists of an altered diabase tuff. Agglomerates occur in one or two localities, and north of Heathcote amygdaloidal altered lavas are abundant. Only minor bosses among the tuffs and lavas were recognised by me as intrusive, and the diabase, in the main, I regard as a series contemporaneous with the adjoining sedi- ments to the West. While the relations of the cherts to the diabase were not very clear, in several places there appeared to be a passage from one series to the other. The cherts are, in the main, finely bedded, and under the microscope several sections showed strong evidence that they are silicified tuffs. The presence of Radiolaria in the cherts was suggested. Later observations, confirmed by Mr. Chapman, have demonstrated their presence, so that I regard the cherts as silicified submarine tuffs, practically contemporaneous with the diabase, which I believe to have been partly subaerial, partly submarine in origin. The important question of the relation of the cherts to the normal Ordovician sediments I studied closely in view of their uncomformable relations suggested by Prof. Gr egory, largely on the evidence of the geological maps. I have elsewhere given reasons for regarding the mapping as misleading in part, for silicified fine- eiained diabase has been mapped as normal Ordovician. The aaleivone are, I maintain, such as one would expect to find if a basal Ordovician series of lavas, agglomerates, and tuffs of variable thick- ness gradually passed by cessation of voleanic activity into normal marine sediments, and were subsequently folded and denuded. It is significant that the Ordovician shales near the diabase contain nodules of magnesite indicating probably an admixture with diabasic material. If the cherts and diabase were Pre-Ordovician one would expect the cherts to differ from the Ordovician in dip and strike, and ene would expect to find a marked conglomerate at the junction between the cherts or diabase and Ordovician, such as one finds to the east at the junction of the Heathcotian and the Silurian, Close examination in the field led me to the conclusion that no such con- elomerate existed, and that while in going from 8. to N. changes in strike of both series were noticeable, at any one point the strikes of the cherty series and the Ordovician sediments were in substantial agreement. Furthermore in several places as one passed from the black cherts towards the normal Ordovician shales less and less cherty rocks were met with. In places where black cherts do not occur at the junction of the diabase with the Ordovician the .sediments are silicified, but to a lesser extent. The evidence in the field convinced me that the cherts as maintained by Dr, Howitt are simply highly altered Ordovician bedded rocks. state that Mr. Gilbert did not find such data as he felt warranted him im accepting any such conclusions, and he was forced to accept, tentatively, the alternative hypothesis of vulcanism, though the com- plete absence of voleanic products in the vicinity was recognised as unaccountable, excepting upon the ground that the crater was formed Slide 1. METEOR CraTER, DISTANT VIEW. Slide 2. LOOKING ACROSS AND INTO CRATER FROM THE NorTH. Slide 3. INTERIOR VIEW OF CRATER LOOKING NORTH. Slide 4. CraTER WALL—INTERIOR. METEOR CRATER OF ARIZONA. Spal simply by a steam explosion accompanied by none of the usual after effects of volcanic eruption. A few years ago, some enterprising mining men, tempted by the alluring thought of an abundant supply of nickel-iron which might prove of commercial value, began a systematic series of borings from the bottom of the crater, accompanied by the sinking of a few shafts and the digging of numerous trenches in the material forming the crater rim. ‘These operations afforded facilities for investigation not before available, and led the present writer to take up the subject anew. It is proposed here to give in brief, the results of these investi- gations, the details of which have been largely published elsewhere. The prevailing formations in the region are a carboniferous limestone (the Aubrey limestone of the U.S. Geological Survey), somewhat arenaceous, and of a buff colour; this is some 300 ft. in thickness; underlying this is a light gray, highly siliceous, saccha- roidal sandstone some 500 ft. in thickness, and under this again, a red-brown sandstone, the thickness of which at this immediate locality has not been determined. At intervals over the surface are small residual buttes of a red-brown sandstone that once covered the entire region. These rocks all lie approximately conformable and horizon- tally, and little changed by dynamic or metamorphic agencies. The crater-like depression is limited almost wholly to the Aubrey limestone and sandstone, though occasionally a little of the red or butte sandstone is involved. Ags seen from a distance, this crater appears as a low, very irregular ridge of light gray colour, sufficiently differentiated from the red buttes to be very conspicuous to the trained eye (slide 1). Nearer approach shows it to be composed mainly of fragmental material—limestone und sandstone—in masses varying from the finest dust to blocks weighing thousands of tons, all in a state of greatest confusion. This rim is at its maximum some 160 ft. above the level of the surrounding plain. Standing upon its crest one’s eye is greeted by the remarkable view shown (slide No. 2) —a nearly circular crater, some 500 ft. in depth and 4,000 ft. in diameter, with precipitous, in places overhanging, walls, and a floor of many acres covered around the margin by talus, and throughout the central portions by wind-blown sands and lake bed deposits. The crater walls as seen from the inside are formed of the sharply upturned edges of the limestone, capped by sand and loose blocks of the limestone, from the crater interior. Little of the underlying sand- stone is visible in these walls, owing to the friable nature of the same and to the talus fallen from above (slides Nos. 3 and 4). Owing to the aridity of the region, there is little vegetation, and the wild, barren ruggedness of the scene is impressive in the extreme. It is, however, the question of the origin of this remarkable, and apparently wholly unique feature that must concern us here. An examination of the outer rim, as above intimated, shows the same to be composed wholly of fragmental material which was plainly ejected from the crater itself. Huge, rugged masses of rock, thou- sands of tons in weight, down to particles of microscopic proportions, are scattered in wild profusion over areas of several square miles. The larger blocks are wholly of limestone, but this is due in large part to the friable nature of the sandstone, which causes it to dis- integrate rapidly under the trying conditions of a desert atmosphere v 322 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. and upwards of 5,000 ft. above sea-level. An important feature is the presence in this rim of enormous quantities of crushed and bleached sandstone, which will be referred to later under the name of “rock flour” and “ghost sandstone.” Trenches and shafts which have been ° sunk into the rim at various points bring to light only fragments of the lime and sandstone, all tumbled together in the wildest confusion, and wholly without order. On the north side of the crater there were uncovered in the trenches numerous masses of partially oxidised meteoric iron, of a nature so susceptible that their preservation in a moist climate has proved a matter of the greatest difficulty. These occur in such association with the rock detritus as to leave no doubt but that they were thrown out of the crater together and at the same time as the materials in which they occur. In the early stages of the exploring operations, two shafts were sunk in the bottom of the crater. These, aiter penetrating something hke 100 ft. of wind-blown material and lake bed deposits, passed into a mass of rock flour formed from the smashing of the sandstone, which presented such mechanical difficulties to the work that the shafts were abandoned and recourse had to borings. From _ these shafts there were, however, brought up occasional peculiar, white and platy or spongy masses of rock, which microscopic and chemical examination showed to consist of true quartz glass, resulting from the fusion of the crushed quartz, and of a completely recrystallised rock, consisting wholly of quartzes with a well-developed rhombohedral cleavage, and showing, optically, a condition of molecular strain. This er rystalline variety showed also a secondary platy structure, such as could be produced only by dynamic agencies. An intermediate stage of metamorphism was shown in the so-called ghost sandstone. The drilling was carried on by means of iron pipes some 3 in. in diameter, the cutting tool being a hardened steel bit. A series of twenty-eight holes was driven at various points in the crater bottom, the deepest extending to a depth of upwards of 1,100 ft. The character of the mater al passed through was made evident by means of a stream of water forced downward. through the pipe, and finding ~ its way to the surface again through the space immediately around the outside of the revolving drill. The implement was not such as to make the securing of a core in all cases possible, since not merely was the boring, as a rule, discontinued, when what was beyond doubt solid rock, was struck, but the weight of the column of water in the pipe was sufficient, on withdrawing the drill, to force out anything that might have been otherwise obtained. In seven cases out of the twenty- eight, however, small sections of cores were obtained, and such were submitted to microscopic examination with the results noted later. The general result of gene borings may be shown by the follow- ing record from Hole No. 17 Feet. (1) Surface material, coil, sand, and wash from cliffs OI (2) Lake-bed formations, lying horizontally, and con- taining diatoms, shells of mollusks, and abun- dant gypsum crystals... ie ESSE (5) A sand which gives reaction for nickel and iron and contains fragments of metamorphosed sand- stone, sandstone pumice, &e. ... wt. SY RR Bee METEOR CRATER OF ARIZONA. Bs (4) Sand and rock, sand grains crushed slightly, if Feet. any, and not metamorphosed, barren of meteoric material... 220-520: < (5) Sand and Peilicn” (rock-flour), ah abundant slag-like material containing iron and _ nickel, and metamorphosed sandstone ... ... 520-600 (6) Fine silica powder (rock-flour) and sand, no meteoric material 600-620 (7) Bed-rock, a grayish sandstone rapidly becoming yellow and harder, not metamorphosed ... 620-720 The material mentioned under 3 and 5, as reacting for nickel, ecntained nothing that could be identified beyond question as of meteoric nature. There were occasional minute magnetic particles which gave a reaction for nickel and phosphorus, and greenish sili- ceous particles resembling, under the microscope, furnace slag. There would seem to be no doubt as to its meteoric nature; but, as stated, this could not be absolutely proven. In all cases the drill passed through a variable thickness of the material called “ rock-flour,” of the same nature as that found outside on the crater rim, and which the microscope and chemical tests showed to consist of almost pure silica and derived from the gray sandstone. This material, it is important to note, was not the result of a simple mechanical dis- integration of the sandstone, but every granule had been shattered as though by a sharp, sudden blow from a hammer, or perhaps a shock such as might be imported by a blast of dynamite. As above noted, the drilling was stopped in nearly every case when firm rock was reached. The seven cores examined came from varying depths below the bottom of the crater up to 1,080 ft. They were in all cases of a brown-red sandstone, firm, tact, and wholly unchanged by any ot the forces that had operated on the overlying materials. Summing up then this all too brief résumé of the subject, it appears that if the results of these borings are to be considered as final, the phenomena of the crater are wholly superficial and lmited to the hmestone and gray sandstone; that both of these rocks have been shattered as by a mighty blow from extraneous sources, and. their material scattered about over the surrounding plain; that incidentally, a portion of the quartz sand has been fused, and con- verted into a silica pumiceous form and a portion actually rendered crystalline, this variety occurring in masses with a secondary, platy structure not conformable with ‘the original bedding. No meteoric material has been brought to light by the borings other than noted, nor in quantities sufficient to suggest a body of such size as could have produced the crater. If it were thus pr oduced, we are forced to the conclusion that the mass was practically all dissipated through the heat of impact and the subsequent weathering. It is felt that there is no doubt but that the meteoric irons—the shale-ball irons feund in the crater-rim—were thrown out together with the débris from the interior. Whether or not this indicates a steam explosion subsequent to the problematic impact, cannot be considered as settled. For a discussion of this part of the subject I have to refer to my original paper, as well as to a discussion of the relation of these buried forms to the iron masses found scattered over the surface of the plain. 324 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 15.—OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF THE BLACK* DIAMOND REGION OF BAHIA, BRAZIL. By JOHN C. BRANNER, Ph.D., F.G.S., F.G.S.A., &c. There seems to be a disposition the world over to suppose that diamonds are to be looked for only under those geological conditions under which they are found in South Africa. The object of the present paper is partly to point out to the geologists of Australasia that valuable diamonds and carbonados occur in paleozoic sediments in Brazil, and to suggest the possibility of similar deposits being found in other parts of the world. OccuRRENCE oF DiAmonps 1n Brazin.—Diamonds are found in Brazil in three widely separated districts. The first, and formerly the most important, is in the vicinity of the city of Diamantina, State of Minas Geraes; the second, and now the most important, is in the interior of the State of Bahia, about the city of Lengoes; the third is on the head waters of the Paraguay River, near the town of Diamantino, State of Matto Grosso. The writer has visited all three of these districts, and what he offers here is, therefore, derived from a personal knowledge of them. Most of the diamond washings in all three districts are in stream deposits, either ancient or modern. In the Matto Grosso deposits the stones have never been found save in alluvial or stream deposits, and nothing further is now known of their origin. In the State of Minas, however, one place was seen where the diamonds evidently came directly from disintegrated itacolumite. Professor Gorceix, who visited the diamond mines at Grao Mogor, some 300 kilometres north of Diamantina, says the stones at that place are derived directly from paleozoic conglomerates which he regards as a part of the series con- taining the itacolumitest—that is, in the Minas series of the table below. In the State of Bahia both the ordinary diamonds and the black diamonds, carbons, or carbonados are derived directly from palzozoic quartzites and quartzitic conglomerates, though many of the washings are in stream deposits of recent date. Tue Rocks or THe Diamonp Recron.—One of the chief difficulties in a study of the geology of the Bahia diamond region lies in the fact that none of the rocks of the several series represented contain any recognisable fossils. It is, therefore, impossible to give the ages of the rocks with certainty. There are, however, physical breaks and lithologic characters, which, taken in connection with the structure that has been worked out over large areas, have afforded satisfactory evidence of the relative ages of the various beds and throw much light + Gorceix, Bul. Soc, Géol. de France, XII., 538. Paris, 1884. BLACK DIAMOND REGION OF BRAZIL. 325 upon the geologic history of the region. The following table shows the sequence and the chief subdivisions of the rocks of the region in so far as they are now known :— Names. Thickness. Ages. Metres. Alagoas series ae Pe Sa eae P Tertiary Sergipe series eis OM Sie oe P Cretaceous Salitre limestones ... 3 Site Gy ones 350 | Jurassic ? Estancia red beds .. : - eae 350 | Trias ? Lavras series (diamond bearing)... ee 700 | Carboniferous ? Cambao quartzites zB ae sae 100 Caboclo shales oe hs Pe ase 500 | Devonian ? Jacuipe flints a sed We — 100 Tombador sandstones ... Mies dep 400 | Silurian ? Minas series be ae ...| 1,000 | Cambrian P Crystalline complex. Aa oe ae ae Pre-Cambrian in part ? In Mr. Derby’s paper on the Bahia diamond region he speaks of the Lavras series and of an underlying series which he calls the Paraguassu.{ The later work of the writer shows that the diamonds and carbonados are not confined to any one horizon, and that, therefore, the Paraguassu series of Derby can only be regarded as a local subdivision of the entire series. Mr. Derby’s name, Lavras, seems very suitable for the whole diamond-bearing series, however; and it is, therefore, retained for the entire series. It should be distinctly understood that, while the divisions here suggested are perfectly clear, the ages assigned all of those below the Cretaceous are without palzeontological warrant, and must therefore stand subject to such readjustments as future discoveries may require. The stratigraphic relations, however, are known to be correct, but the thicknesses vary as usual from one place to another, and in some places some of the memters are altogether wanting. It will be noted that the Cambao quartzites and the Jacuipe flints are not assigned to any age. This is because it is not clear whether these divisions belong with those above or below—that is, whether the Jacuipe flints are Silurien or Devonian. Tar Diamonp Brartnc Beps.—The diamonds ard carbonados are found in the Lavras series of this section. The rocks of the Lavras series are pinkish quartzitic sandstones and conglomerates with some interbedded clays. The coarser beds are strongly false-bedded, and the series is faulted in some places, and is everywhere folded and denuded. The rocks of the series are thus bunched as synclines in some places, and in others they are separated by denudation into isolated patches. There are no eruptives in the diamond-bearing beds as a whole, but there are some basic dykes cutting them at a few places. These dykes are diabase-like rocks, but, inasmuch as the diamonds are found more than 100 miles from any known dykes of this kind, these particular eruptives clearly have no genetic relations to the diamonds. + Economic Geology, I., 134-142, Deec., 1905. 326 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. The writer has never seen a diamond in place in the Lavras rocks. The evidence that they are derived directly from this series lies in the fact that they are taken from the disintegrated beds of this series. Many illustrations of this fact might be cited, but only a few typical examples will be mentioned. Near Andarahy, where the rocks of the Lavras series are at the surface, the soil and disintegrated rocks have been removed by the diamond miners with great care down to the hard rock, and the whole has been carefully washed for diamonds. At and about Morro do Chapeo the trenches in which the diamonds and carbonados are found are entirely in the rocks of the Lavras series. Diamonds and carbonados have been found in loose materials resting upon other rocks, but in every instance the stones are readily and directly traceable to the Lavras beds. For example, at Ventura the stones are found resting upon the underlying Caboclo shales, but this is because the streams flowing over and irom the Lavras series have carried them down into the channels cut into the underlying beds. Diamonds have also been found well away from the rocks of the Lavras series, but along or in streams flowing over and from the latter beds. The writer has seen a large number of both diamonds and carbonados from this Bahia region. Of the stones known to have been taken from the Lavras beds (we mean those not found in stream beds far removed from their original positions), not one showed any signs ot wear; of those taken in streams leading away from the Lavras beds, some showed a little wear. Of the carbons nothing can be stated with certainty. So far as examined, their surfaces were always smooth, but it was not clear whether this smoothness was due to wear in streams. ORIGIN OF THE DiAmMonps.—T'wo theories of the origin of the stones naturally suggest themselves: First, that they may have originated as independent crystals in the Lavras sedimentary beds; second, that they may have been produced, like the South African diamonds, in connection with peridotite effusions, and may have passed down from one series of sediments to another to find their resting-place inthe Lavras series. There seems to be nothing inherently impossible or improbable in such a theory, but it must be confessed that the satisfactory support for it is yet to be found. It is interesting in this connection to note that the diamonds are not confined to any one horizon, and neither are they evenly distributed throughout the Lavras series. When the field work was being done in this region it was supposed that support for the second theory was entirely lacking. Upon working over some of the rocks collected in the field by the writer, it was found that there is an area of serpentine at least . 3 miles long lying along the eastern margin of the diamond fields of Bahia. The rock is so altered that its true nature was not recognised when it was found, and it was only discovered to be serpentine after a microscopic examination and a quantitative chemical analysis. This serpentine was set down in the field as a part of the crystalline complex underlying all these sediments. It is possible, however, that BLACK DIAMOND REGION OF BRAZIL. 326 it may be of somewhat later age. In any case its presence in the vicinity of the diamond-bearing beds suggests that the diamonds of Bahia may have originated in the same way as those of South Africa, and that the cutting down of these old eruptives furnished the diamonds that are now found in the Lavras sediments. If -this latter theory is correct, the diamonds may yet be found in any of the more resisting portions of the newer rocks—that is, in the Minas series or in the Tombador sandstones and conglomerates. It should be added, however, that no such theory would have occurred to the writer in this case had it not been suggested by the well-known conditions in Africa. GrocrapHic Disrrinution Aas DrTERMINED BY GEOLOGIC STRUC- TURE.—The only other point of special geologic interest is the effect of structure and denudation upon the distribution of the diamond and carbonado bearing beds. Aside from certain patches of soft beds that are probably tertiary, the highest rocks found in the diamond district of Bahia are the Salitre limestones. These and the Estancia beds were laid down on top of the Lavras series. Aiter the deposition of the Salitre limestones, the region was folded and faulted and subjected ‘to denudation. In many places the folds are so closely appressed that the rocks stand on edge; at others the folds are but gentle. Denuda- tion has done what one would expect in such a region: In places the anticlines have been removed right down to the underlying Caboclo shales, thus leaving isolated patches of infolded or infaulted diamond- bearing beds around the main central synclinal area. Where the synclinal folds are large, the limestones are still the surface rocks, while the diamond-bearing beds are deeply buried. GOVERNMENTAL NEGLECT OF THE GEoLocy.—Of all the remarkable things about this remarkable region there is none more impressive to the geologist than the neglect it has suffered at the hands of the Government. Statistics of diamond production are necessarily defective, and especially so when the diamond mining industry is scattered far and wide among small operators and individuals. But when the Government places a heavy duty upon these small and easily concealed stones, the statistics of production must be accepted as but little more than suggestions of the total output. About all one can be sure of is that many millions of dollars worth of both diamonds and carbonados have been taken from the Bahia mines. These facts are mentioned merely to emphasise another fact of interest to scientific men; and that is that, though diamonds have been mined in this district since 1844 up to the year 1905, the Government had never made any geological study of the region nor even a map of it. The miners have been left to expend their money and their energies in the blindest ways imaginable. In 1905 the Secre- tary of Aoriculture of the State of Bahia, at that time Dr. Miguel Calmon du Pin e Almeida, had the courage to get Professor 0. A. Derby, formerly State geologist of Sao Paulo, to pay a visit to the diamond district. Mr. Derby spent a week or two there, and handed 328 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION @. in a short report which was afterwards published in the United States “Economic Geology,” Vol. I, pages 134-142. That is the first paper ever published on the diamond regions of Bahia that gives any clear idea of its geology. Professor Derby, however, did not have time to do more than determine the horizon from which the diamonds came in one part of the field, and to note that the diamond-bearing series of sediments, which he called “the Lavras series,” was underlain by another barren one, which he called “the Paraguasst series,” and that they were both somewhat folded. Though much remains to be done in order to give a full account of the diamonds of Brazil, this brief outline may be of some service to geologists in other parts of the world who may have occasion to study the diamond question under conditions that appear at first to be widely different from those under which they are found in Africa. It is hoped that it may be useful also in reminding intelligent citizens that every enlightened Government owes something to its mining industries in the way of scientific study of the geology upon which the success and existence of those industries depend. Section D. BIOLOGY. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, Cer ALR E'S +H EeDAL HY, «EF -L8: Assistant Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney. THE MARINE FAUNA OF QUEENSLAND. 1.—A PLEA FOR A BIOLOGICAL STATION. The occupant of this chair has the privilege of delivering an address on some subject with which his section is concerned. The nearer that subject is to speaker and audience the better, and I find a topic at hand for discussion in the Marine Fauna of Queensland. We will consider this fauna politically as a public asset, and scientifically as a field for investigation. The man of science, who is a good citizen, while indulging in the intellectual pleasures of his work, keeps watch on matters within his ken of public weal. So we will first discuss the advantage of establishing a biological station. Last year the Royal Caer gien which reported on the pearlshell and béche-de-mer industries, recommended that a competent staff of marine biologists should be stationed in Torres Strait to dis- cover and publish information on the pearlshell and béche-de-mer. In its marine fauna, Queensland has a great national asset. Few countries are so well endowed. Even without cultivation a rich harvest has been reaped of oysters, pearlshell, béche-de-mer, turtle, tortoiseshell, fish, dugong, and other products. The great extent of sheltered water offers facilities for the cultivation of these, and of foreign articles, such as sponge and precious coral. It is so simple to gather and to sell the produce of the sea, that we fail to realise how the fisherman’s earnings may be increased by exact knowledge and systematic research. But the reward which the miner has obtained, and which the farmer is reaping, is in store for the fisherman also. 330 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. For it was the science of metallurgy that raised mankind from the Stone Age. It was the science of the commercial and industrial arts that placed Europe in the lead of the world. The successful application of science to agriculture has been demonstrated in the Queensland sugar-mills, butter-factories, and frozen-meat trade. Last among industries to feel the fructifying touch of science are the fisheries. In Ceylon, for twelve barren years the pearl fisheries lay idle. Then the aid of skilled investigators was sought, and the industry placed on a sound footing. For the last five years an annual harvest worth £100,000 has been reaped. But for the last decade in Queensland there has been a steady decrease year by year. Thus :— Total Take for— Tons of Pearlshell. Total Take for— Tons of Pearlshell. SOM ne eas lees LOCOS se iy BOOS 18938... oh E068 EO Bae ae tH CMe Its hS) er el OG OOD pn Oeil EXO Os xe a ele OGO NO OG eee. ... 444 1901 @... es. 867 1X Of ee Shun DOM OO 2... 28 910 and, alas, the tide has not yet turned. Not only in Ceylon, but also in Japan and the United States of America, has the Government granted the means for the study of marine life. And these efforts have everywhere proved remunerative. A well-organised and liberally-endowed establishment is required. From time to time in the past, Queensland has met this call by appointing a single officer, without aid or equipment. Some of the problems of our fisheries are as difficult and intricate as any which confront science. Time and the combined efforts of skilled zoologists are required for their solution. Opinions delivered by the judge from the bench or the priest from the pulpit carry a weight which does not attach to an unofficial utterance. And so, speaking from this Presidential Chair, I express the earnest hope that the Queensland Government will soon give effect to the chief recommendation of the Royal Commission of 1908, and establish a biological station in Torres Strait. 2.—THE EVOLUTION OF THE QUEENSLAND COAST. The uniformity of the Indo-Pacific marine fauna is a theme of text-books. From the Red Sea to the Hawaiian Islands is an enormous distance, yet the marine fauna of this belt maintains a constant aspect and numerous species range throughout. This Indo-Pacific Province is subdivided into regions, among which the Solanderian, as I have termed that under consideration, is as distinct as any. On the south the Queensland fauna is limited by the cooler waters of New South Wales, and on the north the volume of fresh water issuing from the Fly and neighbouring rivers is an impediment to emigration and immi- gration. PRESIDENTS rSS—Ss 2 30 A considerable proportion of our fauna is as yet unknown abroad. Further research will, however, alter the proportion of endemic forms both by the discovery of Queensland forms beyond,our liits, and by the recognition in our waters of species described from Japan, the Philippines, and elsewhere. But the completed returns will follow the direction indicated by incomplete data. We note the absence trom our beaches of several genera, such as Harpa, which otherwise range over the whole Indo-Pacific area. Cyprea mauritaana, .ne of the commonest and widest-spread Indo-Pacific forms, is yet one of the rarest Queensland shells, presumably a recent immigrant not yet established. A glance at the physical evolution of the Coral Sea and east coast of Queensland, may suggest a clue to the isolation and peculiarity of our fauna, According to Neumayr (Denkschr. k. Akad. d. Wiss. Wien., Math., Naturw. cl. L., Abth. I., Karte I.), a meridional crease in the earth’s crust produced in Jurassic times a gulf, which he called the Gulf of Queensland, whose western shore transgressed the present east Aus- tralian coast (Map A). — Enlarging through geological cycles this gulf erew into what we now know as the Tasman and the Coral Seas. South of the Louisiades, and east of Cape Melville, there occurred a sink which I venture to suggest originated in the Mesozoic, and in- creased during the whole Tertiary Period. It developed into the Carpenter Deep of modern geographers. Our knowledge of this basin is drawn from the observations of the “Challenger.” In a traverse of 1,000 miles this great basin preserves an unbroken depth of more than 2,000 fathoms. Temperature readings show it to be enclosed by an unmapped rim, whose lowest point is 1,300 fathoms. As the Mesozoic sink enlarged its periphery it became a dominant factor in land configuration. First it broke through an older inner earth fold of which New Caledonia and the Louisiades are relics. Then continuing its work to the eastwards, it submerged a younger outer continental ridge on which the Soiomons stand. Westerly it «crumpled up the former coast of North Queensland, and, by a furthest western effort, broke open Torres Strait. While the Coral Sea was yet a prolongation of the old Gulf, and had more or less the appearance sketched in Map B, it offered a refuge to old forms of hfe. The low latitude afforded a warm un- changeable climate, and the surrounding continent secluded its inhabitants from the incursion and competition of other tropical fauna. When, however, continued subsidence to the east at last burst through the Melanesian Plateau, a flood of active competitors must have swept in from the open Pacific. This reached the Queensland coast either by creeping along the land round the Papuan Gali or by direct, usually larval, transit across the Coral Sea. With the opening of Torres Strait, and the consequent outgoing current, the Queensland fauna was spread along North Austr alia to the Moluccas. By this route there escaped such forms as J'rigonia, Nautilus, Meleagrina maxima, and Megalatractus. Had such been retained east of Torres Strait they would have greatly heightened the peculiarity of the Solanderian fauna. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION D. Map A. THE QUEENSLAND Coast IN Triassic TrMes, AFTER NEUMAYR. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. 333 Mar B. THE QUEENSLAND COAST AT THE CLOSE OF THE Mesozoic EpocuH. ORIGINAL. 334 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION D. 3.—HISTORICAL SKETCH OF INVESTIGATION. It is curious to reflect that, unless Flinders was over generous 1m ascribing his own discoveries to his predecessors, the first known part of Queensland was that with which the world is now least acquainted—viz., Batavia River, Pera Head, Duyfhen Point, and Cape Keerweer in the Gulf of Carpentaria. A naturalist first trod Queensland in 1770, when a party from the “Endeavour” under the command of Captain Cook landed at Bustard Head. Solander, a pupil of Linné and a marine biologist, was. there, and he doubtless made a collection of which history has left no record. Further opportunities were given him when the ship put mto Broadsound, when: she called at the Palm Islands, at Cape Grafton, when she grounded on the Endeavour Reef in Weary Bay, and, lastly, when she was beached for repairs where Cooktown now stands. A final visit was paid to Possession Island, but here etiquette would insist that all the gentlemen attend the ceremony in full dress and opportunity for collecting would be denied them. After Cook, Queensland lay long unvisited by men of science. The famous Brown accompanied Flinders in his exploration of the coast, but his record belongs to the botanical side of our science. Two French men-of-war, the “ Astrolabe’ and the “ Zélée,” then on a scientific mission round the world, sailed by way of Bligh Entrance into Torres Strait on 5lst May, 1840. They anchored under Darnley, whose native name they write “ Aroub,” and landed a party of observers. Proceeding through the Strait, both ships were stranded on the reef near Tut or Warrior Island. The “Canal Mauvais” of modern charts recalls the perils they endured. Finally they cleared the Strait on 12th June. Their dangers and discomforts were not conducive to zoological investigation, “but Hombron and Jacquinot, the historians of the voyage, have figured a fish and some shells from Queensland waters. Subsequent writers refer to numerous other species of their collection. H.M.S. “Fly” was detailed for the survey of the Queensland coast. She carried a brilliant zoologist aud ardent collector, J. Beete Jukes, the chronicler of the expedition. He was supported by two ether naturalists, John MacGillivray and Dr. Grays nephew, Lieu- tenant Ince. During 1843-4-5, the vessel traversed the coast from the Bunker Group to Darnley Island. Jukes’ account of the Great Barrier Reet has become classic. In appendices to his book, Owen dealt with the dugong; White describes two crustacea, and Gray named a sea- -snake, six marine shells, and five species of, Asteriadse. A few other notices of what was evidently a large collection are scattered in literature. In continuation of the work of the “Fly,” the hydrographic survey from Moreton Bay to Torres Strait was conducted by H.MLS. “Rattlesnake,” from October, 1847, to November, 1849. MacGillivray again acted as naturalist, and wrote an account of the cruise. Pro- fessor Huxley, who made a special study of the pelagic life, served on board as junior surgeon, and many of his sketches illustrate Mac- Gillivray’s book. In various appendices, two Queensland crustacea are figured and described by White ; Busk recorded twenty-seven Polyzoa ; and Professor-. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION D. 335 Forbes wrote an admirable account of the “ Bathymetrical Distribution | of marine Testacea on the Eastern coast of Australia.” This fragment suggests how great was the loss which science sustained through the waste of material carried to London. These explorers found the British official authorities indifferent and apathetic. London had no Lamarck to grasp the opportunity, to value what had been gathered with such difficulty and danger, and to infuse his zeal into others for the realisation of knowledge from the raw material. The naturalists of ‘the “ Endeavour,” the *“Fly,” and the “ Rattlesnake” had laboured hard, and accumulated important collec- tions. These seem either to have been thrown into the vaults of a museum, or to have been dissipated among fanciers and curio-mongers. The plants gathered by Captain Cook’s “party were lately published after a hundred years of neglect. Those brought home by Dampier in 1688 and 1699 lay undetermined for an even longer period. The shells of MacGillivray seem to have passed into the hands ' Cuming. Hugh Cuming was an illiterate sailor, whose history aee him as a man of strong character, a master organiser, and one born to success. He aimed to have the finest collection of shells in the world, and he reached it. Unfortunately his plans did not regard the advancement of science, and the strong man wastes no energy on aught but the attainment of his object. For purposes of sale or exchange an unnamed shell was of less value to him than one named, so names were needed for his wares. More time for determination and description was required by careful writers. But worse authors quickly supplied names good or bad, and doubtless better submitted to Cuming’s dictation as to what constituted a different species. So the leading conchologists of his generation in England, Gray, Woodward, Forbes, Hanley, “and Carpenter had little or no dealings with Cuming. Gray, indeed, seems to have quarrelled outright. The naming of Cuming’s huge collection fell to weaker men—Reeve, the Sowerbys, and the Adams. It has happened that these renamed the same species twice or thrice. The least amount of work necessary to carry the name satisfied them. Though “the exact locahty, depth, and character of habitat of each species of mollusk taken” by MacGillivray “were carefully noted at the time of capture,” these valuable field notes were despised by the dealer into whose hands they passed, and failed to attain publication. The name of Strange is one that occurs frequently as a collector of type specimens of Queensland shells. Frederick Str ange was a native of Aylsham, Norfolk, England. He was an early visitor to Brisbane, a friend and probably pupil of MacGillivray. He collected vigorously round Moreton Bay. In June, 1852, he returned to England after fourteen years’ absence, and sold the large natural history collection le had gathered. The shells were purchased by Cuming. On his return to Brisbane he renewed his zoological work by fitting out a small vessel to collect along the Barrier Reef. On 15th October, 1854, he landed on Percy Island No. If., in company with Mr. Spurling, a conchologist, and Mr. Walter Hill, afterwards Director of the Botanic Gardens ‘of Brisbane, and first Colonial Botanist of Queensland. Hill 336 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION D. pushed into the interior for plants, while his companions strayed along the beach for shells. On his return, Hill found the bodies of his comrades, murdered by the aboriginals. From October, 1853, to November, 1855, Samuel Stutchbury, then Government Geologist for New South Wales, travelled through extra-tropical Queensland. He apparently collected marine animals where opportunities occurred, but there is little record of his work. Melampus Stutchburyz, Pfeiffer, perpetuates his memory. Commodore Loring, C.B., when in command of H.M.S. “ Iris,” dredged off the coast. He obtained Nucula loringi, Adams and Angas; and Limopsis loringi; the date of his work is about 1856-7-8. About 1858, George French Angas, some time Secretary to the Australian Museum, Sydney, visited Queensland on a collecting and sketching expedition (vide autobiography, “The Little Journal,” London, May, 1884, Vol. I., No. 3, pp. 230-234). Some Queensland records are scattered through his conchological papers. . In 1868 an energetic lady, Frau Amalie Dietrich, visited Queens- land in the interests of the Godeffroy Museum in Hamburg. She collected at Brisbane, Rockhampton, Mackay, Bowen, Holborn Island, and Cape York, and remitted to Europe extensive series of fish, mollusea, crustacea, echinodermata, corals, and alcyonaria. An expedition to observe the solar eclipse of 1871 was organised by Australian astronomers. Mr. J. Brazier accompanied the party, and collected at Percy, Fitzroy, and No. VI. Claremont Group; the latter subsequently known as Eclipse Island. He described the col- lections then gathered in the Proc. Zool. Soc., 1874, pp. 668-672, P]. LXXXIII.; and Journ. of Conch., II., 1879, pp. 186-199. A new species was dedicated to each astronomer of the party. A new era was inaugurated by the visit of the ‘“ Challenger,” which, during her famous voyage round the world, spent a few days at Cape York, and passed through Torres Strait. On 31st August, 1874, a collecting party was landed on Raine Island, while the ship proceeded to sound and dredge in the vicinity (Station 185). A couple of hauls were taken in 135 and 155 fathoms respectively. For a week following Ist September the “Challenger” anchored under Cape York, while the scientific staff were engaged dredging and shore collecting round the Cape, Somerset, Albany Island, and Albany Pass. On 8th September the ship sailed for Wednesday Island (Station 186) and hauled the dredge in 8 fathoms north of the island. Meanwhile, Mr. J. Murray had spent the day dredging from a boat along Flinders Passage. On 9th September a party was landed on Booby Island, where the lighthouse now stands, while the dredge and trawl were worked in the vicinity (Station 187). The “Challenger” then left Australian waters, and proceeded on her voyage to the Aru Islands. Cape York proved a rich collecting ground, the results were exhaustively worked out, and afford a wealth of information on Queensland zoology. From Stations 185-187, nearly eight hundred marine animals are recorded, comprising the following groups :—Fish, 33; Tunicata, 6; Mollusca, 223; Bryozoa, 17; Crustacea, 119; PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION D. 3a Echinodermata, 41; Annelida, 4; Myzostomide, 5; Actinozoa, 35; Hydrozoa, 8; Spongid, 23; and Foraminifera, 268. Detailed descrip- tions of most of these appear in the various zoological reports of the expedition. ; Lat A voyage of zoological research was undertaken by Sir William Macleay, the results of which were published by the society he founded. Such expert collectors as Messrs. Masters, Petterd, Brazier, and Spalding were included in his staff. His vessel, the “Chevert,” touched first, 29th May, 1875, at the Percy Group. Then Brooke, North Barnard, and Fitzroy Islands were visited in succession. The coral cays of Low Woody and Turtle Reef engaged his attention. On 9th June the ship anchored at No. 4 Howick Group. Cruising north- wards by easy stages, the Flinders Group, Cape Grenville, and Cape Sidmouth were visited. From an anchorage near Somerset, the party spent more than a week in exploring Cape York and the Albany Pass. Leaving the mainland on 26th June, the expedition entered Torres Strait. Waraber [Sue] and Tut [Warrior] were visited, whence the “Chevert” steered for the Papuan coast. Becoming involved in the maze of reefs, she retraced her route south, and proceeded to Erub [Darnley] by way of Giaka [Dungeness], Sasi [Long], Burar [Bet], Waraber [Sue], Masig [Yorke], and Edugor [Nepean]. From 31st July to 13th August, the most profitable time was spent at Erub, dredg- ing and shore collecting. And here, as far as Queensland is con- cerned, the expedition terminated. The fish, estimated at 800, were studied by Dr. Alleyne and Sir W. Macleay in the early volumes of the “ Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales.” The Gasteropoda, exceeding 600, pro- cured by the “Chevert,” were catalogued by Mr. J. Brazier, in the first three volumes of the same serial. Professor Haswell’s “ Mono- graph of Australian Crustacea” (1882) include the “Chevert” cap- tures. Echini were determined by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods (P.L.S., N.S.W., I, pp. 145-176), who also dealt with the corals and polyzoa (op. cit., HI., 1878, pp. 126-135). And the Annelids were described by Professor Haswell (op. cet. III., pp. 341-347). A vessel of the German Navy, 8.M.S. “Gazelle,” circumnavi- gated the world on a scientific mission. She made a successful dredge haul in 76 fathoms, a few miles north of Cape Moreton, on 27th Sep- tember, 1875, and procured 10 mollusca, 9 crustacea, 4 worms, and a coral (“ Forschungreise Gazelle,” Zool. III., 1889, pp. 262-266). An enforced stay in quarantine gave the naturalists an opportunity of searching Moreton Bay and dredging round Peel Island. On behalf of the Australian Museum, Messrs. W. A. Haswell and A. Morton visited North Queensland in the spring of 1879, and col- lected round Port Denison and Holborn Island. Some of the species procured are noted by the former ; crustacea (P.L.S., N.S.W., IV., pp. 403-5) and polyzoa (l.c. V., pp. 33-43, Pls. I-IV.). Tenison-Woods dealt with a coral (lc. V., p. 460). The Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods visited Port Douglas in 1879, and wrote an interesting article on the ecology of the beach of that district (P.L.S., N.S.W., V., pp. 106-131). H.M.S. “ Alert,” during a cruise round the world, visited the coast of Queensland. From April to October, 1881, she examined the coast from Port Curtis to Torres Straits. Her naturalists, Dr. R. W. Ww 338 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. Coppinger and Prof. W. A. Haswell, lost no opportunities of dredging and shore collecting. A large series of marine animals were accumu- lated, on which the British Museum produced a special volume. From Queensland Dr. A. Gunther identified fifty species of fish, which he refrained from cataloguing. Three new fish were described and the Australian Cephalochorda reviewed. A valuable critical account of 180 species of Mollusca was contributed by E. A. Smith. Of Echinodermata, 97 species were treated by F. Jeffrey Bell; Crustacea, 150, by E. J. Miers; Alcyonaria, 30, by 8. O. Ridley; and Spongidae, 74, by the same. The Annelides taken on the Queensland coast were discussed by Haswell (P.L.S., N.S.W., VIL, pp. 250-295, Pls. VI-XI.). Icthyology is almost ene only i anch of marine zoology that has attracted the notice of residents in the State. From 1882 to 1892 numerous papers on it appeared in the “ Proceedings” of the Linnean Society of N.S. Wales and of the Royal Society of Queensland, from the pen of Mr. C. W. De Vis, Curator of the Queensland Museum. Since 1893 he has been succeeded in that study by Mr. J. D. Ogilby. Prof. A. C. Haddon, who had not then forsaken zoology for the charms of anthropology, visited Torres Strait on a collecting expedi- tion in 1888. During August and September he travelled from the Cockburn Islands oad: Boy dong Cays in the south, wd Albany Pass, Cape York, Thursday Island, Hammond Island, Wednesday Island, Jervis Island, Ormans Reef, the Brothers, ane Warrior Island, to Saibai, in the north, and to Murray Island in the east. The following contributions to marine zoology resulted from his labours :— Cephalochorda, A. Willey, Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci., XXXV., 1894, p. 361. Mollusea, Melvill and Standen, Journ. Linn. Soc., Lond., XXVII., 1899, pp. 150-206, Pls. X.-XI; M. F. Woodward, Proc. Malac. Soc., L, 1894, p. 143; J. Thiele, Zeit. f. Weiss, Zool., UXXIT., 1902, p. 249. Crustacea, W. T. Calman, Trans. Linn. Soc., VIII., 1900, p. 1; H. Coutiere, Bull. Mus. d. hist. nat., 1900, p. 411; E. H. Carpenter, Proc. Roy. Dub. Soc., VII., p. 552-8, Pl. XXII. Hydrometride, Carpenter, Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., VII., pp. 142-146, Pls. XU1.-XIII. Corals, Haddon, Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., VIL, pp. 127-136, Pl. XI. Hydrocorallinz, Hickson, Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., VII., pp. 496- 510, Pl. XVIII-XXII. Actiniz, Haddon and Shackleton, Sci. Trans. Roy. Soc. Dublin, fV., 1893, pp. 673-701, Ply LXL-LXIV.,. fd...) Vij eos: pp. 393-498, Pls. XXIL-XXIII. During the years 1889-90-91, the late Mr. W. Saville-Kent held office as Commissioner of Fisheries for Queensland. He studied the marine fauna with energy and enthusiasm, but his unconventional spirit did not produce the orderly and methodical work expected from a trained biologist. Various memoirs appeared as Parliamentary Reports, one on the Queensland Fishes, with figures of 65 species; others on the oyster, the pearl-shell, and the béche-de-mer, the latter with figures of five supposed new species. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. 339 His sumptuous work on the Great Barrier Reef was apparently intended for a popular rather than for a scientific audience. In it a number of marine animals are figured, but not systematically described. As a collector, Kent was very successful. The British Museum catalogues of the Reef Corals record 160 species brought by him from Queensland. The latter volumes of these coral catalogues are unhappily marred by the rejection of binomial nomenclature. That so staid and conservative an institution should suddenly plunge into scientific nihilism was a startling development. It is a temptation to speculate how a memoir would be received in London if written on the British Roses by a resident of the North Pcle, whose eyes had never beheld a living plant. Such study of the influence of environment on corals as the excellent work of Dr. F. W. Jones will show that with fuller knowledge the Linnean system is as applicable here as elsewhere. Kent was succeeded by Mr. J. R. Tosh as Government Marine Biologist. He published a memoir on the Whiting of Moreton Bay (Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, XVII., 1903, pp. 176-184, pls. VIII.-XIV.). Prof. Richard Semon, of Jena, visited Torres Strait in 1892. His chief object in Australian travel was the study of marsupial development, but he devoted some time to marine zoology. From 13th February to 14th April he dredged and collected around Thurs- day Island. The following results are published in his “ Zoologische Ferschungreisen” :— Prof. Max Weber names 18 Fish; Sluiter, 9 Tunicates; von Martens, 31 Mollusca; Meissner, 8 Bryozoa; Ortmann, 47 Crustacea ; Sluiter, 10 Holothuria; Déderlein, 40 other Echinodermata; Fischer, 1 Gephyrean ; Collin, 9 Polycheta; Kwietniewski, 2 Actinozoa; Bur- chardt, 8 Aleyonaria; Hentschel, 1 Gorgonia; Weltner, 7 Hydrozoa ; and Schulz, a Sponge. Prof. Alexander Agassiz chartered the s.s. “ Croydon,” and with Dr. W. MeM. Woodworth and Mr. A. G. Mayer as assistants, examined the Queensland coast. He cruised from Breaksea Spit to Lizard Island in April and May, 1896. The coral geology is fully discussed (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXVIII., No. 4, 1898), ‘but little seems ie have been written on the fauna. Piychoderma australiensis, Hall, noted from Dunk Island (p. 124). A medusa (Agassiz and ane Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXXII., 1898, p. 16) and three planarians (Woodworth, Joc. cit., pp. 63-67, Plate) are also published. In the years 1897-98-99, Mr. Stephen Pace was investigating the biology of the pearl-oyster on behalf of a Torres Strait shelling ¢ com- pany. He wrote a paper on a coral (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. VIL, 7, 1901, pp. 385-7), and another on a mollusc (Proc. Malac. Soc. IV., 1901, p. 202). Mr. A. E. Finchk, of the Sydney University, visited Lizard Island in January-February, 1901, and made considerable zoological collections. His foraminifera were described by Messrs. Jensen and Goddard. In July and August, 1901, Mr. E. C. Andrews and I examined the coast between Townsville and Cairns. The coral geology of the district was discussed by my friend. (P.L.S., N.S.W., XXVIT., 1902, 340 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION D. pp- 146-185). The foraminifera obtained off the Palm Islands were identified by Messrs. Jensen and Goddard (op. cit. XXIX., 1905, p. 827; XXXII., 1907, p. 296). Among the mollusca, especially from the Palms and Green Island, are several new and interesting forms. As the guest of Dr. W. E. Roth, then Protector of Aborigines for Queensland, I cruised down the Gulf of Carpentaria in May and June, 1903. Opportunities occurred for dredging off Mapoon and in Van Diemen’s Inlet, where interesting collections were made. Material was utilised in an article on Megalatractus (Rec. Aust. Mus., VI., 1905, pp. 98-100, Pls. XXI.-X XII.) In October, 1904, the writer organised a party to study the southern extremity of the Barrier Reef. The point selected was Mast- head Island. A large collection of crustaceze and mollusca has been worked out (P.L.S., N.S.W., XXXI., 1906, pp. 453-479, &.), and a few records of other groups have also appeared. Another party was formed in August, 1906, to search the reefs off Cooktown. An essay on their structure by Mr. T. G. Taylor and myself appeared in the last volume of this Association. Finally, Mr. A. R. McCulloch and I were despatched by the Aus- tralian Museum to collect in Torres Strait from August to October, 1907. All that may plant man’s lordship firm ‘ On earth, and fire, and sea, and air. Nation with nation, land with land, Unarmed shall-live as comrades free; ee a In loving heart and brain shall throb ned The pulse of one fraternity. Man shall love man with heart as pure x And fervent as the young-eyed joys Who chant their heavenly songs before y ~¢ God’s face with undiscordant noise. J New arts shall bloom of loftier mould, se And mightier music thrill the skies, And every lip shall be a song, When all the earth is paradise. 394 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. « ABSTRACT OF LECTURE DELIVERED IN THE ALBERT HALL, BRISBANE, JANUARY, 1909, ON SIR JOSEPH BANKS, THE FATHER OF AUSTRALIA. By J.H. MAIDEN, Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney Joseph Banks was born at Revesby, Lincolnshire, in 1743, and inherited considerable wealth. Aiter leaving Oxford, he became imbued with the desire for foreign travel, and, in 1766, made a botanical tour in Newfoundland and Labrador, then but little known. In 1768, Lieutenant James Cook having been appointed to the command of H.M.S. “ Endeavour,” 269 tons, Banks decided to accompany him, and, at his own expense, took with him his naturalist- librarian (Dr. Solander, a pupil of Linnezus), three accomplished artists, and a number of attendants and servants, besides supplying equipment for collecting naturai history specimens on a scale which was unprecedented, and which was destined not to be repeated for many years. : The “Endeavour” left England in August, 1768, and the east coast of New Holland having been sighted, and, indeed, discovered by Cook, the “ Endeavour’ put into Botany Bay (called by Cook Stingray Harbour) from 28th April to 6th May, 1770. This is, of course, now a suburb of Sydney. A number of interesting observations were made by Banks, who wrote a journal of the voyage, and duplicates of the identical plants collected by him at Botany Bay were presented by the, trustees of the British Museum to the Botanic Gardens in Sydney in 1905. The ship then headed north, and Cook named the principal features of the coast. She struck on the Barrier Reef, and was with difficulty brought into the Endeavour River, near Cooktown, but this delay was a blessmg in disguise, in that it gave Banks an opportunity of recording valuable information in regard to the botany, zoology, and aborigines of Northern Queensland. ‘This stay in modern Queensland was far longer than in Botany Bay. Cook and Banks left Austraiian shores on 27th August, and went home vid New Guinea, Java, Cape of Good Hope, St. Helena, and Ascension, arriving at Deal, England, on 12th July, 1771. Banks employed engravers to depict the Australian plants which his artists had drawn, and it is a remarkable fact that these fine engraved plates were not printed until eight or nine years ago. One cannot read Banks’ journal without being impressed with the fact that he was a most observant naturalist and a broad-minded man. The heir to wealth and luxury, he underwent the hardships and perils of the tiny “Endeavour” for the pure love of knowledge. In 1772 he went to Iceland with Solander, a far more formidable undertaking than it is at present, and this voyage also resulted fruitfully, while he secured the affection of the islanders. The matter of transportation of convicts being suggested, he attended a Committee of the House of Commons, gave evidence in regard to this great southern land, and, doubtless as a result of his advocacy, the colonisation of this country was decided upon. What followed is a matter of history. LECTURE ON SIR JOSEPH BANKS. 395 Banks was practically the founder of New South Wales, and, therefore, of Australia. He was president. of the Royal Society for forty-two years, an intimate friend of King George the Third, a persona grata with Ministers. He held a unique position in these early days, being habitually consulted on Australian affairs. He was a sort of general adviser of everybody on everything concerning the welfare of the young colony, and the early Governors wrote to him frequently, and deferentially asked his advice in regard to matters of importance. In the dark days Banks’ refreshing optimism in regard to the future of the colony was like a ray of sunshine, and was the more remarkable since his opportunities in the “ Endeavour” of penetrating the country had been very limited. He consistently advocated the exploration of Australia. His researches in regard to the botany of Australia would take too long to do justice to on this occasion. His purse was ever open for the advancement of botanical science, and thus he successively employed Solander, Dryander, the great Robert Brown (the most eminent botanist of his age), who was in Australia for four years, from 1801 to 1805, botanically exploring coastal Australia (but little of the interior had been explored then); also the Bauers, whose skill as botanical artists has never been excelled. Peter Good, George Caley, and many others were also botanical and horticultural protéges of Sir Joseph Banks. He died in 1820. His Australian collections formed the nucleus of the celebrated Banksian herbarium, practically a public institution, and freely open to’ scientific men, yet maintained by the purse of Banks, which, with the Banksian Library (chiefly botanical, and valued, for insurance purposes in 1827, at £7,300), is in the British Museum at the present day. As the years roll on Australian botanists will visit England to study it with increasing zeal. Banks virtually acted as director of the scientific operations of Kew, and appointed collectors of plants for that establishment on behalf of the King (George III.), whose personal property it was at that time. He appointed Allan Cunningham, afterwards in charge of the Sydney Botanic Gardens, and whose reputation as a botanist and a Australian explorer (he discovered the Darling Downs) will never le. In fact, Banks had the knack of making good appointments. He appointed Bhgh and Flinders to important offices, and when they got into trouble he was a good friend to their disconsolate wives. Banks was indeed the most loyal of friends. Banks is very definitely associated with Queensland. Reference to his journal shows what a careful observer he was in regard to the aborigines, the botany and natural history generally, of the Endeavour River, and thence to Cape York. Altogether, his personality was a unique one. His wealth, his great influence, his unbounded zeal, were ever called into requisition for the development of the struggling colony of Botany Bay. He was the only man of rank and wealth who, to use a homely expression, “stuck to” the place, and this at a time when the conduct of some of the colony’s responsible officers did not tend to lighten his labours, or to make Botany Bay a fashionable subject. ; 396 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. Australia was fortunate in having such an unselfish, noble minded patriot. to look after her interests in the early days, and I am sure that, when the situation is properly explained, she will not allow the man to whom she owes so much to be uncommemorated, especially as she has so honoured men of inferior calibre and achieve- ment. [The lecturer here announced that a committee had been formed with the object (a) of erecting a replica of the Chantrey statue of Banks in the Mitchell Library, Sydney, where so many of the Banksian manuscripts have found a home, and (4) of foundmg a Banksian University Prize in Botany. | A trait of Banks’ character which always charms me is the kindness and patience with which he deals with such of his friends as were in humble walks of life. He writes at greater length to a working man than to the Secretary to the Admir: alty. He had the knack of getting the best services out of a man for the benefit of Australia. His, indeed, was a fine character, and I am confident that my fellow-Australians admire a good man. He was corresponding member of the Institute of France, at a time when England and France were engaged in the fiercest struggles, but, throughout those starmy times, he Feared the respect and affec- tion of French scientific men. The eulogium of him by the eminent Cuvier was one of the noblest discourses ever pronounced by one scientific man upon another. He pointed out that on ten occasions Banks caused specimens collected by French scientific men, and which had been captured by British cruisers, to be transmitted to Paris un- opened. Napoleon declared that the name of Banks was spoken of with affection throughout France. We will let him rest with Cuvier’s beautiful tribute, the force of which is understood by every scientific man. (The lecture was illustrated by 51 lantern slides.) PAPERS READ IN SECTION E. ieee A a 1.—THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS ON THE PACIFIC LITTORAL, AND ITS INFLUENCE ON COMMERCE. (A Lecture to the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science— Brisbane Meeting—1dth January, 1909.) Bu R. LOGAN JACK, LL.D., formerly Government Geologist, Queensland. Food is the primary need of mankind, as of all animals. For civilised man clothing comes next; but to primitive man, in his struggle to procure food, while at the same time protecting himself from his enemies, implements must have been even more essential than clothing. There is plenty of evidence that considerable progress had been made in the arts in which metals are of service long before the want of clothing made itself acutely felt. Many great cities—London, for instance—owed their existence and progress to being favourably situated for the collection and dis- tribution of food stuffs. Others, such as Glasgow, rose into import- ance by reason of the proximity of iron and coal, a combination resulting in the manufacture, on easy terms, of the thousands of articles, great and small, comprehended in the term “implements.” I propose to call your attention to the distribution, over the area which concerns us most nearly, the Pacific littoral, of the prin- cipal items of raw material—fuel and metallic ores—required in the manufacturing industries, and to endeavour to estimate the influence of their actual geographical distribution on the various centres of population. The more valuable a commodity is in proportion to its bulk, tne less influence has it on the commerce of the producing country. Thus gold, of which the whole world’s annual production could easily be carried in a single ship of moderate tonnage, does little for the pro- ducing country’s export trade, although that country benefits to the extent of the purchasing power of the surplus remaining after the supply of its own requirements, and by the indirect advantages resulting from the ultimate settlement of the producers and their diversion to other industries. The same is true of silver in a less degree. I propose, therefore, rapidly to review the distribution and move- ments of the bulkier products—coal, iron, copper, and tin—in the region under consideration, as a preliminary to the discussion of the present and future effects of such a distribution on the commerce of the Pacific. COAL. In 1868 the United Kingdom was the leading coal producer of the world, with an output of 115,518,096 short tons, as against 398 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. Germany's 36,249,233 and the United States’ 32,861,960. In 1871 the United States produced 46,885,000 tons, as against Germany’s 41,736,361 tons, and the United Kingdom’s 131,434,271 tons. In 1899 the United States overtook and passed the United Kingdom, the figures being: United States, 253,741,192; United Kingdom, 246,506,155 ; and Germany, 149,719,766. 7 1906, the figures were: United States, 414,157,278; United Kingdom, 281,195,743; and Germany, 222,350,526.. For the same year (1906) the production of Japan was 12,980,103 tons, that of China 9,032,660 tons, that of the Australian Commonwealth 8,921,011 tons, and that of New Zealand 1,757,291 tons. In 1907, the coal production of the United States was 480,363,424 tons Against the overwhelming predominance of the United States, as producers of coal, there must be set their capacity for consumption. The geographical position of the principal coalfields, all situated in the eastern third of the country, limits the distribution of the surplus in a great measure to exports overland to the interior of Canada, and by the Atlantic seaboard to the east coast of South America. The only States that appreciably contribute to the commerce of the Pacific are Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California. AuAska produced in 1906, 5,541 short tons of coal. The coal- fields are both Tertiary and Cretaceous, but are of very limited extent. A large proportion of the coal is lignitic, but there are bituminous and semi-anthracitic coals on Controller Bay. The uses of the coal are chiefly local and for coasting steamers. Alaska imports more coal than it produces. In 1900 the import from the State of Washington was about 13,000 tons, and that from British Columbia was un- doubtedly larger. In 1306 the import of coal from Australia was 7,716 long tons. The State of Wasuineron produced in 1906, 3,276,184 tons. The coalfields, which are for the most part situated in the western and central districts, are small—probably not over 1,000 square miles. The coal is lhenitic, locally converted into bituminous. The local uses of the coal, and therefore the output, are greatly interfered with by the accessibility and cheapness of petroleum, but a considerable coast- ward trade is done north and south along the Pacific Coast. OREGON produced in 1906, 79,731 short tons, almost entirely from the one field, which is actively worked—viz., that of Coos Bay, in the south-western part of the State. The conditions affecting export are similar to those of Washington. CALIFORNIA is not a large producer of coal, and the area of its Tertiary coalfields is limited. The output of lgnitic or sub-bituminous coal for 1906 amounted to 50,497 short tons. On the other hand, San Francisco and other large cities are consumers on a great scale, and not only absorb the local product but import coal and coke from other States and countries. In 1907, according to Commonwealth statistics, the export of coal from Australia to the United States amounted to 539,880 long tons. There is understood to be little or no traffic in coal from the Commonwealth to the United States except that to Pacific ports. British Columbia is a still larger contributor. Japan contributed 11,966 tons in 1906. MINERALS OF THE PACIFIC LITTORAL. 399 The coal production of Brivis Cotumpia for 1906 was 1,541,652 metric tons, besides 202,424 tons of coke. On the Crow’s Nest branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway, the coal is all used up locally, chiefly in smelting, but further west, the products of the Cascade field, near Banff, begin to find their way to the Pacific. The coal of this field is of Cretaceous age and semi-anthracitic or anthracitic. There is bituminous coal on the eastern side of Vancouver Island. British Columbia is the most important source of coal for consumption in California, its contribution for 1900 being 766,917 short tons. It also exports a considerable amount to Alaska. In the Pacific States of Mmxico—viz., Oajaca, Michoacan, and Guerrero—coal is known to exist in considerable quantities, but the difficulty of transport to the coast has hitherto prevented the mines being seriously worked, and it is unlikely that in the near future, Mexican coal mines will become serious factors in the trade of the Pacific. In 1906, this country imported 74,737 long tons of coal and 3,245 of coke from Australia. In 1907, the coal import was only 50,516 tons. GuATEMALA figures in 1906 as an importer of 3,383 long tons of cecal from Australia, but is not a producer. NicaraGua possesses some coal deposits, but difficulties of labour and transport prevent their being worked. The import from Aus- tralia in 1906 amounted to 1,350 tons. Ecuapor produces no coal. In 1906 it imported 15,487 long tons from Australia, but in 1907 the import had fallen to 7,519. Perv produced in 1906, 77,209 metric tons of coal. The produc- tion is unable to meet local requirements, chiefly for smelting works. In 1906 the import from Australia amounted to 109,278 long tons. In 1967 it was 101,131 tons. Botivia is not a producer of coal, and does not appear in the list of importers from Australha. Its great mining industries, however, make it almost certain that it must import coal or coke. Probably it is supplied from British Columbia. Cuite produced in 1905, 793,927 metric tons of coal, the coalfields occurring in a narrow strip of country between the Pacific and the Andes, extending from the city of Concepgion to the Straits of Magellan. The greater part of the production was absorbed in local (chiefly mining) requirements, and 881,062 long tons were imported from Australia in 1907. Yet Chile sent a considerable. amount of coal to the San Francisco market, and the competition of Chilian coal and oil in the market of Peru is recognised as a formidable detriment to the importation of Australian coal. On the Western shores of the Pacific, coal occurs in the island of SacHanien. Some mines were worked by Russian convict labour, the output (which is not large) going to the bunkering of steamers. JAPAN has extensive coalfields, and produced in 1906, 12,980,103 metric tons, or 48 per cent. more than Australia. In 1907 the pro- duction had advanced to 15,362,467 tons. The coal, however, is of Tertiary and Cretaceous age, and for the most part is of a bituminous 4.00 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. type of inferior quality. The exports amounted to 2,500,000 tons in 1905. The bulk of the coal exported goes to Chinese ports and Singa- pore. The export to China (including Hongkong) for 1896 is stated to have been 994,000 tons. In i904 the export to California was 45,429 short tons, but in 1905 it had fallen to 11,996. Figures are not accessible for 1906 and 1907, but it 1s understood that the exports to California have greatly increased during these years. Australian coal has lately been able to compete to some extent successfully against Japanese in the Singapore market. In 1907 Japan actually imported 5,300 tons of coal from Australia. The local fuel require- ments of Japan are very great, including coal and coke for copper smelting, as well as for manufacturing and household purposes. The coal mines are worked by convict labour. Korea is a small producer oi coal. The amount for 1906 is given as 5,895 metric tons. StperiaA has extensive coal deposits along the line of the Russian railway, but the coal is said to be of comparatively poor quality, and it cannot hope to compete in Pacific traffic with the better coal of Manchuria, which has fallen under Japanese control, as it would actually have to pass over the Manchurian fields on its way to markets in the Pacitic, with the added drawback of long land carriage. Japan has now the coalfields of Fu Shan, near Mukden, and these can find ready access to the Pacific by rail to Korea Bay or the Gulf of Pechi-Li. These workings are of 1immense antiquity; supposed to be older than Chinese occupation, and since the Japanese took them over their importance has been triumphantly demonstrated. Cuina is destined to be the leading coal producer of the future. Our knowledge of this vast country is limited, but no reader of the literature of travel, from Marco Polo downward to Richthofen, Schechenyi, Hosie, Parker, Gill, and Little, can entertain any doubt of the value and wide distribution of its coal deposits. A recent writer speaks of China as “ one vast coalfield,” which is an exaggeration. A British blue book (“ Mines and Quarries”), little prone to enthusiasm, as a rule, refers to the coalfields of China as “incomparable,” and this is the right note. I have myself travelled slowly by river and road over an 80U-mile stretch, and seldom been a whole day without seeing the outcrops of seams of coal. The “ one vast coalfield” theory may indeed receive support, in time to come, by the discovery of seams of coal beneath the vast alluvial flats which form the eastern portion of the country. Where river navigation is possible, as on the Yangtse, the coal is distributed to great distances, but the difficulties of inland transport must be seen to be appreciated. An experience of my own may be related in illustration. At Takwan, 48 miles up the river from Cheng tu, the capital of Szechuan, a nearly vertical bed of shale, about 2 ft. in thickness, con- tained scattered through it films of coal up to the thickness of a knife blade, and aggregating at the most a thickness of 2 in. This seam was mined by a tunnel driven into the hillside. Air was supplied by a fan worked by hand. The miners picked the face, and sent out the whole in baskets carried by boys. The product was washed at the pit-mouth, and the coal having been separated from the clay was MINERALS OF THE PACIFIC LITTORAL. 401 partly briquetted and partly cokec aced on rafts and floated down the river to the city. When we saw for ourselves that really magnificent coal occurred along a main road within 300 miles of the city, and that the cost of coole labour to carry it turned the scale in favour of perhaps the poorest coal seam ever worked by man, we could grasp the importance of carriage as a factor in mining. China is a densely populated country, and all its cultivable soil has long ago been denuded of timber, so that coal is a necessity for industrial and domestic purposes. Such large quantities are obviously required for copper and iron smeiting and brine evaporation that I am inclined seriously to doubt the correctness of the British official estimate of the coal production of China (9,032,660 metric tons for 1906). Be this as it may, the needs of the mdigenous population will be the only limit of Chinese coal production until the—perhaps not far distant—time when a network of railways brings the interior into communication with the Pacific. A few foreign concessions are held, such as the coal mines of the Pekin Syndicate in Shan si, and those of the Chinese Engineering and Mining Co. at Kai ping, near Tien t’sin. The latter has six or eight seams of bituminous coal of workable thickness, one of them 35 ft. This colliery produced from 1881 to 1889 inclusive 6,552,570 tons. The German province of Shantung contains coal seams up to 24 metres in thickness. Although bituminous coal is plentiful, anthracite is still more widely distributed throughout China. I have seen immense deposits of lignite in the province of Yimnan extensively employed in the evaporation of brine. Our knowledge of the geology of China is naturally imperfect, but coalfields of Carboniferous and Triassic age have been recognised, and doubtless Cretaceous and Tertiary coals are represented. China, owing to difficulties of inland transport, is an importer of coal from Japan and Australia. The contribution of the latter,, through Hong Kong, in 1906, was 70,708 tons. In 1907, Hong Kong: only took 63, 623 of Australian coal, but Chinese ports took 41 058. Frencu Inpo-Cuiva is a considerable producer of coal. In 1906 the output of the Hongay Colliery (employing 3,000 men) was 230,980 tons, of which 106,289 tons were briquetted, some of the briquettes being sent to Hong Kong. The Kebao Colliery produced about 6,000, and the Schoebelin Colliery about 5,006 tons. The total output of the province is given at 315,000 tons, including 19,000 of lenite. The Dutch possessions of NerHeRLANDS-Inpr1a produced a total of 389,000 metric tons of coal in 1906; 277,097 of this came from the Government Colliery, at Ombilien, in Sumatra, which is connected by rail with Padang. Coal is also worked in the Sedan district of Java. Apparently the output does not supply home requirements, since Java was an importer of 66,542 long tons from Australia in 1906, and of 37,734 in 1907. Britisa Borneo produced 62,974 metric tons of coal in 1906, and Souts-EAst Bornzo (Dutch) 111,909 tons. A large proportion of the output is used for bunkering. 2A 402 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. The Puiiprine Isuanps (belonging to the United States) have large deposits of a black pitchy lignite south of Southern Luzon, sup- posed to beof Koceneage. Brown lignites, believed to be late Tertiary, are also known. The seams best developed (up to 18 ft. thick) are in Zebu Island. In Batan Island there is bituminous coal of Tertiary age. The group has scarcely taken rank as yet as a producer. The Philippines imported from Australia, in 1907, 313,100 long tons of coal and 713 of coke. Formosa (Japanese) produced 85,348 metric tons of coal in 1906. New CaLeponi4 is not quoted as a producer of coal, although the Nondou coalfield is only fifteen miles from Noumea, and is connected with the capital by rail. The position of this coalfield is of consider- able strategic importance. New Caledonia imported 12,294 long tons of coal from Australia in 1906, and 12,816 in 1907. AusTRALIA produced, in 1906, 8,731,965 metric tons of coal. This was made up as follows :— New South Wales ... 7,748,747 (In 1907, 10,510,961.) Queensland a 616,509 Victoria ae ate: 163,209 (All bituminous; 2o brown coal; 51 tons the previous year.) Western Australia ... 149,755 Tasmania ae? 53, (45 8,731,965 j Strange to say, Australia imported coke (for smelting) from the United Kingdom to the extent of 4,683 long tons, and from Germany 1,368 tons. Australia exported coal (in quantities of over 3,000 tons) to the following countries :— _ 1906. 1907. Long Tons. Long Tons. To Ceylon ... je Sc we 13,070 Fiji =e Sey 19,519 ie 33,114 Hong Kong .... 70,708 ne 63,623 China oF. ee. Bad 41,058 India oF Ee aes 52,835 New Zealand ... 216,213 la 2 aeaa Straits BA) ODED ee 142,795 Celebes sé 3,009 Si 4,560 Philippines fe oo 00 eeP 314,235 Hawaiian Islands 90,635 af 98,531 South Sea Islands 5,893 ee 4, New Caledonia 12,294 ae 12,816 MINERALS OF THH PACIFIC LITTORAL. Java Japan Chile Peru Ecuador Panama Guatemala Mexico aor U.S.A. (Pacific Ports) Alaska To New Zealand Mexico U.S.A. (Pacific Ports) British Columbia New ZEALAND’s coal production for 1906 was 1,757,291 metric 1906. Long Tons. 66,542 603,491 109,278 15,487 11,906 3,383 74,737 171,212 7,616 1906. Long Tons. 3,245 3,955 403 1907. Long Tons. 37,734 5,300 881,062 101,131 ¢,519 6,402 50,316 539,880 The exports of coke from Australia in long tons were :— 1907. Long Tons. 3,210 24,651 4,016 tons, and for 1907, 1,937,080. The most important coalfield is that of Westport, on the west coast of South Island. 610,759 tons. The State Collieries at Seddonville and Point Elizabeth It produced, in 1907, gave 240,773 tons, and the Tanpiri Collieries in North Island 161,046 tons. The West Coast mines turn out a high-class bituminous coal, and new mines are being opened in the Buller and Grey fields. About a third of the total coal production of the colony is brown coal, chiefly from the southern portion of South Island. The remainder is bitu- minous and semi-bituminous. New Zealand imported 216,213 long tons of coal from Australia in 1906, and 221,114 in 1907, and ex- ported in the same years 141,641 and 128,950 tons respectively. IRON. No country on the Pacific coast of North or South America has yet taken rank as an important producer of iron ores, with the excep- tion of CoLtompra, where extensive deposits are known to occur, but they are only used for local requirements owing to transport diffi- culties, and Lower Carirornia (Mexico), where it has recently been reported that a contract has been made for the delivery of 500,000 tons from San Isdrio, on the coast 50 miles south of Ensenado, to the Japanese Government. experiment is to hand. No information as to the outcome of this Other Mexican provinces, Guerrero and Durango, possess very large deposits of iron ore, which may rise into importance in the future. The Puinippryes contain several good deposits of iron ore, notably a belt of magnetite 12 to 15 miles south of Luzon. A high quality of 404 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. steel is made from this ore, and is made into ploughshares, which: locally command a high price. Probably the industry will disappear in consequence of the facility with which manufactured iron can be landed from the United States. In the eastern part of CeLeBEs iron ores are worked, and on the south coast of Java there are extensive deposits of iron sand. In Borneo a deposit of iron ore 35 miles from Maruda Bay has been estimated to be capable of furnishing 26,500,000 tons. In New Careponta there are superficial deposits of pisolitic iron- stone containing chrome oxide. Kora is estimated in British statistical tables to have produced. 4.524 metric tons of metallic iron in 1906. This amount may, for practical purposes, be added to the product of Japan. JAPAN is credited in American estimates with the production of 27,431 metric tons of iron ore in 1896. In 1905 British estimates put the Japanese production of pig iron at 53,210 tons, and in 1906 at 42,679 tons. The deposits of magnetite and micaceous iron ores are extensive, but a large proportion of Japanese pig iron is manufactured from. imported Chinese ores. China exported, chiefly to Japanese ports, 95,539 metric tons of iron ore in 1905, and 111,460 in 1906. Figures. tor 1907-8 are not available, but are no doubt greatly reduced by the international boycott. Cuina has for many centuries been entirely self-supporting in the matter of iron manufacture. Her achievements in the way of wrought iron, as exemplified in her bold suspension bridges, are the admiration of all who have seen them. Her cutlery ranges from razors to swords and ploughshares, and from the best to the worst. It is chiefly in art castings, however, that she excels. An extensive acquaintance with the interior of her temples leads me to the conclusion that in this branch of art she has no rival. China is credited in British statistics with an estimated output of 43,950 metric tons of irou—-presumably pig—in 1906. Another table gives the export of iron ore (mainly to Japan) as 95,339 metric tons in 1905, and 111,460 tons in 1906, and the export of pig iron as 25,115) and 34,305 tons respectively for the same year. The difference between the 1906 figures for 1s epee (43,950 tons) and those (34,305) for export leaves only 9,645 tons for local consumption, which, considering that at least 200. 000,000 of people must depend on lccally manufactured iron for all their needs, is obviously an under- estimate. The Provinces of Foh Kien, Kuang Si, Kwei Chow, and Shan-tung are the chief producers, and are dotted with furnaces of a primitive type, which, however, do good work on a small scale. China appears to have convinced herself, some time before she thought of applying the same reasoning to other matters, that her iron industry must be carried on by modern methods, and has established many furnaces replete with every modern equipment. : British China is said to have a valuable deposit of magnetite, free of the deleterious addition of sulphur and phosphorus, on the mainland opposite Hong Kong. Large smelting works are being erected. MINERALS OF THE PACIFIC LITTORAL. 405 New Zearanp has a good many occurrences of iron ore. The most promising appears to be a brown hematite at Parapara. An attempt was made last year to float a company to work. this deposit and to build a light railway, but was unsuccessful. : In Avusrrattia the chief use to which iron ores have hitherto been applied is for fluxing copper and other ores. In 1905 and 1906, the production is officially given thus :— 1905. 1906. Metric Tons. Metric Tons. South Australia—Flux ... ue (60,059 ioe 76,433 Queensland Cae et ad. 4,412 es 31,903 Tasmania et hee a) 0.401 se 2,642 New South Wales ,,_... 6,910 =e 950 New South Wales, Oxide depoeted 551 Hs 593 Victoria and Western Australia... Nil eae Nil The iron manufactured in Australia must have been made chiefly from imported raw material She imported, in 1906-7, in the form of pig, ingots, slab, bloom, and scrap iron :— | a | 1906. 1907. ‘ Long Tons. Per Cent. Long Tons. Per Cent. From United Kingdom ... e229] SaoSsnas ee! 91 56, 672 85 » Norway ae Se | A PS ope 1,567 2°3 >, India eo oe ae a , 4,319 6°5 7) Beloame 72: a x 3.445 5 2,782 4 5 Germany =.. Hg Ae 1,632 23 973 13 5, United States bl ae | 470 073 538 0°8 », Other small imports 67 ao a Total | 64,157 | = 66,873 Granting that the whole of this raw material was manufactured in Australia (with an inevitable loss in amount), it comes far short of her requirements. Consequently, she imported, in the form of manu- factured iron and steel :— — 1906. 1907. F ; Long Tons. | Per Cent.) Long Tons. | Per Cent. From United aes nie be Le 124,460 58 157,673 | 64 », Germany ao ie a 43,062 21 44,181 18 », United States ve a eae 29,276 13 26,447 11 » Belgium a Kr op 17,845 8 17,300 7 s Oiice small imports | oe see 59 ae 940 ee Total oe As ae 214,702 Xe 246,541 The Commonwealth’s imports of railway iron (under the head of “Rails, Fish Plates, Fish Bolts, Tie Plates, Switches, Points, Crossings 406 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. and Intersections for Railways and Tramways”), for which I am indebted to Mr. G. H. Knibbs, Commonwealth Statistician, were as. follow :— ° Country of Origin. 1906. 1907. £ £ United Kingdom e. = a0 ae ee 132,522 562,610 Belgium. Re ae a = us = 95,939 19,599 France Pe te ‘an — ee Bae a aes 240 Germany ... se ose a Br ore ao 36,575 37,969 Netherlands ae a6 Me oe sas Sos 255 808 U.S.A. fa be ne Ms, es — a 75,144 7,705 Total ae er ee - A 340,435 628,931 These figures would certainly not convey to a stranger the idea that Australia ought to rank among the greatest of iron-producing countries, and yet such is literally the case. COPPER. ALASKA only produced 3,592 metric tons of blister copper in 1905, and 4,342 in 1906, chiefly from Prince of Wales Island. The principal. fields are situated on Prince of Wales Island and Prince William Sound. These mines are favourably situated with regard to shipping facilities to smelting works on Puget Sound, Washington. In the whole of the coastal districts of British CoLumBra, and specially on Vancouver Island, copper mines are numerous. Again, the Boundary district (adjoining the State of Washington) is of great importance. British Columbia possesses some of the largest and best equipped copper smelters in the world. Its products could come to the Pacific if the demand lay in that direction, but as it is a large propor- tion of them goes east. The production in 1898 was 4,247 tons; in 1905, 17,097 ; and in 1906, 19,500 tons. Wasuineton (United States)—The Monte Christo Copper Mines (lat. 48 degrees 40 minutes east of the City of Everett, connected by KE. and M.C. Railway) is in the heart of the Cascade Range, just below the snow line. There are many other mines of considerable promise in the State. The production of blister copper from Washington in 1905 was 111 short tons, and in 1906 145 tons. OREGON produced, in 1905, 420 metric: tons of blister copper, and in 1906, 272 tons. CALIFORNIA is rich in copper mines. The first was opened in 1860. The local production of copper was 1,000 short tons in 1864, besides considerable shipments of ore to Swansea, Baltimore, and New York. The industry was closed from 1868 to 1896, when the “ Iron Mountain” Copper Mine rose into importance. The high-water mark of production was reached in 1901, when it amounted to 17,000 short tons of fine copper. In 1905, the production of blister copper was 8,326 tons, and in 1906, 14,076. In 1906, Mrxtco produced 51,000 tons of fine copper, but it is doubtful whether any great proportion of this reached or affected the Pacific. MINERALS OF THE PACIFIC LITTORAL. 407 NicaraGua has copper mines, but nothing has been done with them owing to adverse labour and transport conditions. In CoLomBra, copper was worked by the Spaniards for centuries, but the mines appear to be of no great importance, and are not now ir activity. Ecuapor has a little copper in conjunction with auriferous ores. Prru has been a small producer of copper for centuries, but the output dwindled almost to vanishing point in the middle of last century, beginning to recover in 1895. In 1890, it was 150 long tons; in 1899, 5,165; in 1906, 13,474 metric tons of fine copper. The chief drawback is the difficulty of transport, and this will no doubt be over- come, as over £3,000,000 of United States capital have lately been invested in the industry. In Bouivia, copper is associated with the silver and tin mines of Chlorolque (Potosi). The copper production of Bolivia advanced from 1,200 long tons in 1889 to 2,500 in 1899. It was 3,228 metric tons in 1906. At present the mines of Coro Coro are the most important. Copper was worked in Bolivia by the Incas, but the occurrence ot the mines in the high cordillera and the want of railway facilities were disabilities which interfered with their competition in the markets with mines better situated. In 1906 an arrangement was completed between the Peruvian and Bolivian Governments for the construction of a railway from Arica (Peru) to La Paz (Bolivia), with a branch to Coro Coro. Most of the Bolivian copper is now shipped from the Peruvian port of Mollendo. Some goes to the Chilian port of Antofo- gasta. The total weight of ingots, precipitate, matte, and ore shipped from these two ports was 6,708 metric tons in 1905, and 4,347 in 1906. Cute produced in 1891, 19,875 long tons of copper; in 1899, 25,000 tons; in 1904, 32,926 tons; and in 1906, 29,626 tons. It was the largest copper producer in the world in 1875, but it now ranks after the United States, Mexico, Spain, Japan, and Australia. There are rich mines near the coast, Copiapo being the principal producing district, as well as in the Atacama Desert, 140 miles by rail from the port of Antofagasta. The copper production of Japan has more than doubled since 1889. In 1906 it amounted to 38,515 lone tons, and 245 tons of ingots were imported from Australia. The requirements of the country in the way of machinery and art probably absorb nearly the whole production and import, with, no doubt, a margin of manufactured copper for China. Korea has for many centuries been noted for its artistic work in copper and brass. In the matter of bell-founding the Koreans of the middle ages had attained a degree of perfection unsurpassed in Europe. At present Korea is only a small producer, the output of 1906 being 186 tons, but its undoubted copper resources may be expected to be vigorously developed by the Japanese. There are many copper deposits in Srperta, but notwithstanding the facilities afforded by the Trans-Siberian Railway, nothing west of the Irkutsk and Trans-Baikal provinces is likely to find its way into the commerce of the Pacific. The entire production of Russia is estimated at 10,600 metric tons in 1906, and no great proportion of 408 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. this amount can have been mined east of Lake Baikal. Several of the copper mines of the Trans-Baikal are understood to be promising. The copper production of Curva for 1906 has been estimated at 2,500 short tons, the most notable producer being the province of Yiimnan, which is credited with one-half. Other producing provinces are Kiang Si, Kuang Si, Kwei Chow, Hu-peh, and Szechuan. The whole of the output, in addition to heavy imports, is required for domestic consumption. Australia contributed 373 tons of copper ingots direct to Chinese ports in 1906, besides 500 tons to Hong Kong; and in 1907, 2,030 tons of ingots to Chinese ports. From personal observa- tion, I am inclined to believe that the copper production of China is seriously under-estimated abroad. Shan-tung (German) and French Indo-China are known to possess copper mines, but their value has yet to be ascertained. In Formosa (Japanese) the exploitation of copper may be said to have only commenced in 1906, and not much is yet known about its success. Ores of copper are associated with the gold mines in the Keelung district. In the Putriepinges, the best known copper deposits are in Luzon, the northmost island. Here tetrahedrite was worked by the natives before the discovery of the islands by Spain, and almost continuously since by a Spanish company. Between 1864 and 1874, 1,116 metric tons were produced. Copper ores are also known in Mindanao Island, at the southern end of the group. There are some undeveloped copper mines in the north of Bornzo. New Gurvea may one day figure among copper-producing countries. An experimental shipment of 17 tons from a mine only 15 miles from Port Moresby, in 19u6, gave 26°8=352 per cent. of copper ; and in 1907, 135 tons of ore were shipped to Australia. New Z@ALLAND has, so far, produced no appreciable amount of copper, but there are signs of development in the Northern Island. She imported in ingots from Australia, in 1906, 52 long tons; and in Oi LL5: The AustTrRaLIAN CommMonweEattH (including Tasmania) ranks fifth among the copper producers of the world, being distanced, in the order named, by the United States, Mexico, Spain, and Japan. According to British statistics (“ Mines and Quarries”), the pro- duction of the various States in metric tons was as follows :— 1905: 1906. Queensland (copper) —... x el ooie acco POOR ae South Australia (copper and matte) . 6,814) 2) 650350 e (ore) a rah, oO NOR ges natn) New South Wales (ingots)... i 08,090) ee Sales (ore and matte) ... 640... 804 Western iAeweeereel m ey Ne eet Ely) Tasmania (copper and copper ore) eee OL Oot eee 535 Given in the above form it is impossible to estimate the copper con- tents of the ore. In the reports of the Mining Departments of the various States, the following information is given, but it is regrettable that the statistics, not havine been compiled on a uniform plan, cannot be compared or totalled. MINERALS OF THE PACIFIC LITTORAL. 409 QUEENSLAND gives the quantity of copper ore under the head of “Ore and Minerals won” as follows :— 1905. | 1906. | 1907. | | Longtons cwt. Value. Long tons. | Value. | Long tons cwt. Value. £ | | et > | re lod 7,220 15 503,547 10,077 | 916,546 | 12,756 5 1,028,179 SourH AusTRALIA gives the output of copper (including an estimate of copper contained in ore) for 1906 as 8,208 long tons, of the value of £718,609. New Sourn WatsEs gives the estimated production of copper as follows :— Year. Ingots, Matte, and Regulus. | Ore. | Total Value. | Et ad Ss a Tons cwt. | Value. | Tons ewt. | Value. | | } | | £ QOD Wy) <5. a 7,962 4 | 522,276 | 629 15 | 5,127 527,403 £906)" «.. Ate 8,964 0 | 781,645 | (oO | 7,882 789,527 WESTERN AUSTRALIA reports the amount of copper ore produced: —1906: 7,429°66 long tons; value, £50,337. 1907: 18,978°42 long tons; value, £180,387. ' Tasmania gives the following information :— Blister copper produced:—1906: 8,708 long tons; value, £862,444. 1907: 8,247 long tons; value, £832,691. Copper matte exported :—1906-7: Nil. Copper ore produced :—1906: 2,2344 long tons; value, £72,480. 1907: 7884 long tons; value, £36,975. The exports are given in the Commonwealth Statistics, without distinction of States, as follows :— 1906. 1907. Copper Ingots to— Long Tons. Long Tons. United Kingdom ... ce oe LORZOT AAs 9,304 Hong Kong es ee 500 5 251 China 5 ae et 373 fee 2,030 India mn ab ... 1,450 as 1,140 New Zealand ae 7 52 Are 115 Belgium et eanat 43(6) x 3,145 France , ae te ele UO is 1,239 » Germany a ae 1,449 ee 1,224 Italy ae eae zh 192 fe 296 Japan oe ee ate 245 26 1 Java ee Be ve 15 sae 10 United States Ets Che fae. 40 4 4,384 “Copper contained in matte to— United Kingdom ... a LACT hee TA STO United States uee she 6,453 ee 4,141 France ae Ls, Me 26 ake 14 Germany ... a Ree 32 set 62 Italy bg oes aed 48 Belgium... ce We: oe i 437 410 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. Copper ore to— Tone ods téie Tone United Kingdom ... =ae 1,628 ae 6,842 Germany ... as ee 34 ne 5d5d Japan oh? Le ae 10 cay 28 Belgium... 3 en a aN 25 Italy fee a ee a she 302 DINE The oxide of tin is distributed very unequally over the earth’s: surface, and its occurrence on the Pacific littoral is limited to a few localities. The world’s principal source of tin is what is loosely referred to- as the Straits, comprising the Federated Malay States, Penang, and Netherlands-India. The FeprraTrepD Manay Staves produced, in 1905, 50,991 long tons of ore, estimated to contain 35,693 tons of metal; and in 1906, 48,616 tons of ore, equal to 33,131 of metal. The imports (chiefly from Siam and Netherlands-India, but partly from Australia) amounted to 7,628 tons in 1905, and 8,078 in 1906. The exports, omitting insignificant amounts, in long tons, were :— 1905. 1906. To England 1) e at OOD, eG 34,434 Continent of Europe... ve 8,492 4% 7,437 United States are Se aaeyray) i 15,008 Netherlands-India ... a 95 Ae 160 India = ee ns 1,014 es 856 Japan eZ ee Ay 661 eee 561 China i ie Re 483 a 433 British Statistics (“ Mines and Quarries”) estimate the produc- tion of the BritisH Strairs SETTLEMENTS for 1906 at 51 metric tons. In the Nernerianps-Inpia, Banca and Billiton produced ores con- taining :— Banca Island.—1905, 8,979 metric tons; 1906, 11,744 metric tons. Billiton Island.—1905, 4,164 metric tons; 1906, 3,851 metric tons. Sinkep, a small island between Banca and the Malay Peninsula, produced—1905, 453 metric tons; 1906, 389 metric tons. The Straits (by which may be understood the Malay States). sent— 1906. 1907. Long Tons. Long Tons. To Europe and America cee tyre 3} nee 52,520 India and China ae de. 1,292 th 3,140 Banea sold in Holland es 9,286 ae 11,264 Billiton sold in Java and Hol- land Seth - ae 1,968 3) 2,229 Sram exported, in 1905 and 1906, 7,800 and 7,807 metric tons of tin ore estimated to contain 68 per cent. of metal. FrencH Inpo-Curna sent 24 long tons of tin ore to Hong Kong in ” 1906. Tin is mentioned as occurring in the Philippine Island of Negros. MINERALS OF THE PACIFIC LITTORAL. 41} Curva sent, in 1905, 4,462 long tons of metallic tin to Hong Kong, the product of the Ko Chiu mines in Yiinnan. Ausrratia (including Tasmania) is the greatest producer of tin on the western side of the Pacific. Tasmania, according to the Report of the Department of Mines, produced tin ore—1906; 4,473 long tons, valued at £557,266. 1907: 4,323 long tons, valued at £501,681. Queensland produced tin ore—1906: 4,823 long tons, valued at £480,283. 1907: 5,140 long tons, valued at £496,766. New South Wales produced ingots and ore—1906: 1,671* long tons, valued at £255,744. 1907: 1,914 long tons, valued at £293,305. South Australia (Northern Territory) is credited with a produc- tion of tin ore of the value of £36,907, but the weight is not stated. Western Australia produced, in 1907, 1,624 long tons of tin ore, valued at £158,648. Victoria produced 108 tons of tin ore in 1906. The exports of tin ingots from Australia is given in Common- wealth Statistics, without distinction of States, as follows :-— 1906. 1907. Long Tons. Long Tons. To United Kingdom cen re 5,086 aS 5,629 Canada ae ee bys, 122 Be rs: New Zealand ... Bat a 118 Belgium ey sey ee 490 es hee France sm ae ae - 149 .* 155 Germany an a a 38 ee 46. U.S.A. Cao Gee e.: Acie 498 ste 176 Canada a . ae ae ie 86 New Zealand ... aes oe ee xe 151 Belgium 4e8 oe ia nS Rey 315 italy) o... seh asf FLASHLIGHT PHOTOGRAPH OF THE MILNE SEISMOGRAPH AT THE ADELAIDE OBSERVATORY. THE SEISMOGRAPH UNCOVERED, SHOWING THE Various Parts OF THE INSTRUMENT. SOME AUSTRALIAN EARTHQUAKES. 417 Professor Milne wrote of it:—‘“‘I found... much to admire. In some directions the instrument embodies improvements on its prede- cessors. I have examined two sheets of records it has given, and on one I find a large earthquake, tie first, so far as I know, automatacally recorded in London.” Our seismograph has, therefore, something of historic interest attaching to it. A brief description may be here not out of place :— The seismograph consists essentially of two parts, (1) that which is sensitive to the earthquake waves, (2) that which records these waves. * The part which, so to say, “feels” the earthquakes is a light aluminium boom or horizontal pendulum, suspended from a short steel upright bar, and swinging to and fro on a pivot at the bottom of this bar. The bar itself is part of an iron stand which rests on a brick and concrete pier going down sonie distance into the foundations of the building, and quite separate from the floor, as shown in Diagrams 1 and 2. The boom is balanced by a weighted cross-bar, and supported by a thin silken tie to prevent sagging. Its tree end bears a lozenge shaped plate, shown in Diagram 3, in which is a slit which is just above and at right angles to a slit in the box covering a revolving drum—the recording part of the seismograph. Upon the intersection of these two slits light from a small lamp is reflected by a mirror, as seen in Diagram 1, and makes a straight line when the pendulum is at rest, and a wavy line when it moves (as it does when an earthquake wave reaches the pier) upon the photographic paper on the drum. Sudden and short defiections are, however, occasionally caused by the presence in the box of an “ undesirable immigrant,” such as a spider. The recording arrangement in the Adelaide seismograph is a new and improved gne. The light cylinder is mounted on a steel spindle,. one of the projecting ends of which has a deep-threaded spiral, on which the drum advances 6 millimetres for one turn in four hours. by gear connection with a clock, so that the bromide paper on the drum need only be changed once in four days. Another advantage is that only half the quantity of paper required for the original recorder is needed for this one; moreover it is easier to inspect and store the records, to recognise slight tremors, and to measure wave periods. The time is marked hourly by an electro-magnet, connected with the clock, moving a shutter on its armature across the slit in the box for a period of a few seconds. Some of the ends in view in the installation of the seismograph may be told in Professor Milne’s own words :—‘To determine the velocities in which motion is propagated round and possibly through the earth; to determine the foei of submarine disturbances, such as those which have interfered with ocean cables; and to throw new light on changes taking place in ocean beds.” It is to be hoped that the Australian contribution to this research may be a worthy one. The photographs of the Adelaide seismograph which accompany this paper will serve to illustrate the description given. Appended herewith is a list of earthquakes in South Australia since November, 1903, the last date for which the records have been 2B 418 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. published’ by the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. These records are necessarily incomplete. They are principally the reports of postmasters, a body of men to whom, I may say, we owe a very great deal for their observations of natural phenomena, especially those relating to meteorology. There are, however, such large areas of South Australia which are sparsely populated, and still larger stretches of country in the interior quite uninhabited, that many earthquakes must have occurred without having been perceived, and probably many which have been perceived, especially those of the feebler kind, have remained unreported. ; From the available information, which may be regarded as fairly representing the earthquake phenomena over, at all events, the settled portions of the State, we note that the South Australian earth- quakes during the period 1903 to 1908 were few and of small in- tensity. Their distribution, as is indicated by the accompanying maps, coincides with that of quakes and tremors recorded during the last quarter of century. On the maps, where the different colours denote different geo- logical formations, localities where earthquakes and tremors have been reported are marked in black, and the shading of the black on these maps, according to its lighter or deeper tone, illustrates the relative frequency of seismic disturbances. zm the last twenty-seven years the greatest number of reported earthquakes is at Beltana, which is situated in the hilly country east of Lake Torrens. This locality reported twenty-six more or less severe tremors during this period. Blinman, not far distant, reported twenty during the same period. ; Kapunda and Eudunda, in the Murray Range diétrict, 30 to 40 miles east of the head of St. Vincent’s Gulf, reported twenty-two and twenty-one respectively. An average of one earthquake per year, or less, in our districts of greatest seismic movement cannot be considered very formidable. The only two moderately severe earthquakes noted in this State were those of 10th May, 1897, and 19th September, 1902. These are specially indicated on Map II. Both, but particularly the 1897 quake, were followed by many after shocks in districts near the epicentre. In connection with the 1897 earthquake, tremors in the vicinity of Kingston, on our south-east coast, continued at intervals for some . months, and all appeared to point to a focus in the ocean somewhere | westward of that neighbourhood. It has, therefore, been more convenient to indicate the whole of the area affected by this and the 1902 earthquake by black stipple TKS. ae these earthquakes showed a large epicentral area, and were felt far and wide in all directions. They were recorded from Streaky Bay on our west coast, right across to Victoria. Most. of our seismic disturbances, however, have been of a com- paratively small intensity, on the average from IV. to V., on the Rossi Forel scale, and, with few exceptions, were not felt very far from the centre of movement. i. 4 eae : i. a 3° MAP | Showing Earthquake Distribution | (EARTHQUAKES SHOWN IN BLACK). ATCA, 4 & WESTERN, | | Australian |__| Eramfield “Sheringe emit “ns SS GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Scale of Miles 0 a0 GO BO 100 Sh vin QeNT ° 2 Perens REFERENCE @—W—————_ i Lower Cretaceous OZOIC Post Tertiary Pleistocene Pliocene Volcanic Uyyy fee Undetermined Ages ESS [durassie corer c= Mes: Secondary o| Tertiary or Cainozoic | Eocene* Cambrian and {Lower Tertiary (2) sltsne Silurian (7) ieee Cambrian, &c, (Metamorphic) aoe | Metamorphic and \ Plutonic okay imary or Pri Pal a | Upper Cretaceous G (EARTHQUAKES SHOWN IN BLACK). The dotted areas indicate regions affected by the Earthquakes of 1897 and’1902). AUSTRALIA * & WEE Sof E RON] Australian Bight —_ GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. a REFERENCE SSS ic Post Tertiary Lower Cretaceous Pleistocene Pliocene Mesozo Jurassic Undetermined Ages ea Cambrian and c Lower Silurian (?) © Cambrian, &c. neta ed Metamorphic and Plutonic Secondary o Volcanic Tertiary or Cainozoic | Miocene®* | Eocene* rth: ? J Lower Te jary (7) =a | Upper Cretaceous Primary or Paleozoic 3K PROBABLE EPICENTRE OF 1902 QUAKE. -++ PROBABLE EPICENTRE OF 1897 QUAKE. a. in aad OO aay: — e ae OL i oe ue , ; +o “= 7 —- s = rat SS —_— ~——_— aan OL — —— ee ia a tia 2 MAP II (a) Showing Earthquake Distribution in Northern Territory, 1882 to 1908. (EARTHQUAKES SHOWN IN BLACK). Note.—No Earthquakes were reported from the Northern Territory during the years 1903 to 1908. GECEOGICAL MAP _| SOUTH AUSTRALIA, s——————" REFERENCE &*“—— R and Tertiary — Eo (Uiceterminctiaces Upper Celaceous— ll) Undetermines Ares Upper and ) Lower Silurian Lower Cretaceous z = TF Undetermined Age — my (Cambrian Volcanic —_ Z [Metamorphic and G} Plutonic MESOZOIC | Metamorphic PALZOZOIC = Permo-Carboniferous | alge —— | te SOME AUSTRALIAN EARTHQUAKES. 419 South Australian earthquakes appear to illustrate very well the general laws enunciated by De Montessus de Ballore, who may be regarded as one of the best. authorities on seismic geography—viz., that :—“ Most earthquakes occur where the variations of topographic relief are greatest. (1) The most unstable regions are the muxt pronounced general slopes, the short and steep flank of a chain being the most unstable. (2) The unstable regions are associated with the ereat lines of corrugation of the terrestrial crust, either emerged or submerged.” Our South Australian recorded earthquakes seem to occur eee pally in the hilly and mountainous country east of Spencer’s and St. Vincent’s Gulf, extending northward to the Lake Torrens district. In the geological map on which they have been marked this country is coloured slaty grey, and the rocks are principally clay slates, calcareous clay slates, shales, sandstones, quartzites, grits, conglomerates, limestones, dolomites, and kindred rocks, with granitic and other igneous dykes, lodes, and mineral veins. They are metalli- ferous rocks of the Cambrian, and perhaps Lower Silurian, period. Lying uncomformably on them, and forming the bulk of the sur- rcunding country, are the following formations, which are marked pale green on the map :— Blown sand of the coast and interior, sand, clay, loam, gravel, marl, gypsum, mud, salt, travertine, and shell-limestone, calcareous, and peaty deposits of springs and swamps, sandstone, limestone, conglomerate, gravel, and boulder drifts, and kindred deposits. Alluvial deposits, auriferous cement, and “deep leads” of the goldfields. Lignite deposits. Limestone, clay, sand, calcareous sandstone, limestone conglomerate, and breccia of the coast. These are formations of Post Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Pliocene ages, for the most part sedimentary deposits laid down on the ocean floor. A large proportion of our earthquakes have been felt off the borders of these unconformable rocks. The character of the isoseismal lines of the 1902 earthquake in the whole of the districts east of St. Vincent’s and Spencer’s Gulf marks this region as one more delicately sensitive to seismic vibrations than other parts of our State. (Vide Map IV.) The question arises: What is the probable cause of our earthquakes? Our tremors seem to resemble in kind, though not in degree, quakes resulting from the dislocation of great masses of the somite crust, like that of Bengal and Assam in une, 1897, when re- markable faulting took place, relative changes in the heights of hills as great as 24 ft., and changes of 12 ft. in their horizontal distances having been observed. Investigations of the phenomena of this earthquake by the India ‘Geological Survey Department showed :— (1) “The absence of any strict epicentre, shocks of Number X intensity (Rossi Forel scale), being felt over about 6,000 square miles, 420 © ae PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. i (2) “ The- ‘great extent of the country affected, the shocks being distributed over an area of 1,750,000 square miles, (3) “A notable number of after shocks, the great quake being é followed by repeated shocks of less intensity than the ‘.. primary one.” Having due regard to the proportion of the force producing that powerful disturbance (the greatest then recorded), to the force pro- ducing even the most widespread of South Australian tremors, one cannot fail to note, in the latter as in the former, these three main features; and the geological conformation of the country affected supports this view—younger beds lying unconformably against the mountaim ranges, as previously mentioned. In South Australa no dislocations visible to the eye have been found accompanying earthquakes ; but the line of fault may lie m the direction of Lake Torrens, Spencer’s Gulf, and St. Vincent’s Gulf. The raised beaches of our coast are evidence of former small and sudden uplitts; and it is quite conceivable that such movement is going on to-day. The great Calabrian quake of 1783, which shook all Sicily, and which has found a parallel in the terrible catastrophe that so recently again devastated those unhappy regions, was plainly a tectonic or dis- location disturbance. Earthquakes clearly attributable to eruptions of Mount Etna, though violent near that voleano, have seldom been strongly felt across the straits in Calabria. The geography and geology of the district, as well as the seismic records, show that this is one of the regions illustrating De Montessus de Ballore’s general laws previously quoted. Professor oe Darwin’s thesis (Proceedings of the Royal Society, June, 1 881) gives some idea of the stresses caused by the transfers of load. The age-long denudation of the Mount Lofty and similar ranges, with the consequent deposit in our Gulf of the removed material, producing cumulative alterations of pressure and gravita- tion, may cause stresses and stress-differences sufficient for sudden down-thrust of the area of sedimentation and uplift of the denuded regions (about a local line of pivoting ?). Professor Gregory, writing to Sir Charles Todd, had little doubt that the shock of 1902, concerning which Sir Charles wrote a paper for your Association, was due to foundering under either St. Vincent’s. or Spencer’s Gulf like the 1897 earthquake. The epicentre of the former was indeed, by all appearances, in St. Vincent’s Gulf near the toot of Yorke’s Peninsula, and that of the latter, the 1897 one, was off our south-east coast, in the vicinity of Kingston and Robe, (vzde isoseismal Maps III. and IV.). Similar causes have been, and still are, operating on both sides of Bass Strait, and Professor David considered that “further cracking of the earth’s crust might have -caused the bed of the gulf to still further fall at the point where it meets the Mount Lofty Ranges, or it is possible that that point of the range may have been squeezed up.” (The “ Register,” 23rd September, 1902.) Isoseismals. Earthquake of 10 May 1897 (Reproduced from Map by M° Geo. Hogben) Note the direction of the lines in the ranges East of the) Gulf 131° T N) Gysit Wy tal eee IN § S AUS|TRAL 1S a Salt takes f [}) @ MAP OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA, EXCLUSIVE OF THE NORTHERN TERRITORY. Scale of Miles 40 BO Isoseismals. Earthquake of 19th Sept. 1902. (Reproduced trom Map by Sir Charles Todd ) Note the direction of the lines in the ranges East of the Gulfs a) QUEENS ee ONY & ae 1500 99 99 if [ex 2000 5, ,, 1 a ce Way meaalsioess as ate HG ae 5000. ., 6 Gazelle Basin 7 Fiji Plateau 44 Ridge 8 Tonga Kermadec Ridge 9 Tonga Deep 10 Kermadec Deep ae) Siete as dine ncdideaia hg ee ES oo SO a ee eer REGIONS of Earth Movements oon Depression(Darwin) (Forms of coral) =---Areas of no rapid depression (Darwin) o+ =e) Elevation(land forms) _.= Depression (land forms) re Se *+Active Volcanoes Volcanic Rocks Rhyolite Alkaline Andesite Basalt X A} “4 ie 7 - ms cn : ees zm = efi ee | i m +Plutonic Rocks --------Lines of rock folds -{* Section F. ANT TRORPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS BY | At the date of going to press, Mr. Hamilton's address was not to hand.| PAPERS, READ: IN SECTION F. io 1.—SOME NOTES ON SAVAGE LIFE IN NEW BRITAIN. By REV. B. DANKS, General Secretary 0; the Methodist Missionary Society of Australasia. Savage life is much more complex than many imagine. There are those who seem to think they have fully described the savage when they have applied such terms as ignorant, superstitious, cruel, &c., to him, forgetful of the fact that his life is as much the expres- sion of his beliefs touching the world, the present life, and his hopes and fears for the future, as the life and usages of civilised nations are the expression of their convictions upon the same things. There is breadth, depth, and contradictions even in savage life that baftle the anthropoijgist. These wiid men ask the momentous questions we ask, viz—Whence! Whither? Why! And the answers which satisfy them are found in the manners and customs of the people. The savage is aptly called a child of Nature. The animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, in so far as they come within the range of his observation, are known to him as it is given to'few civilised men to know them, and there is to him deep mystery in them all, which mystery he explains to himself by an intense belief in supernatural powers. Savages are the world’s most fervent spiritualists, believing that behind and in everything there is an appropriate spirit, to which it owes its corporate existence and which constitutes its powers for good or evil, its virtues or its vices. They fiercely express this conviction by eating the eyes and heart of their joes, hoping thereby to add to their own sight and courage the sight and courage of their late enemies. ‘I'he burial of spears, clubs, canoes, wealth, wives, and servants with the deceased chief or husband is founded on the same belief, and the elaborate funeral ceremonies of the ancient Egyptians, observed through thousands of years, testify to the fact that such spiritual beliefs are as old and as widespread as 452 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. the race. In this belief lies the power of the medicine man, the mesmerist, and the strong personality of savage leaders. Behind and in them all is believed to dwell the dread power of the spirit. world, and the lite of the savage is ordered and hedged about by. his conception of the attitude of that world to himself, im which he hiterally believes he lives and moves and has his being. This is am: aspect of savage life which is too frequently thrust aside by some as ot little value, while, in point of fact, it really gives direction and colour to every custom and every phase of savage life. Their ignorance of anything beyond their immediate surroundings leaves them to speculate as to what is beyond, and some of their speculations. are grotesque indeed. The horizon has its mysteries, and ali is a blank beyond it. The word tor it in the Duke of York language is Kalin a bual—z.e., “the beginning of places,’ and the puzzling question as to what became of ships when they reached this edge of the world was formerly often asked. Our own word horizon must have originally contained the same idea, being derived from a word denoting a circle, or a limit. On New Britain the word meaning horizon is Turuturu Bakut—.e., “the resting place or foundation of the clouds.” Much of the little world within this circle was not known to them, there were many strange places within it they dared not visit, and so even this limited area was to them full of mystery and full of things and people to be dyveaded and shunned. If that which is within the range of their own vision is so much the subject of superstitious speculation, we cannot wonder that the mystery of themselves, their life, the circumstances, and forces that influence them are ail of the first importance to them. Earthquakes are very frequent in New Britain; they terrify the people, and must be accounted for. Now on the island of Duke of York, the name for scorpion and earthquake is identical—viz., gurea, and the connection is this:—In the long ages ago a man was bitten oy a scorpion, and in his rage he stamped upon it and killed it, and immediately the first earthquake resulted. Hence the people of those parts will not kill scorpions willingly. All things were made by two mythological personages. One, whose name is Zo Kabinana, in both New Britain and on the island of Duke of York, made everything good and useful; he was also the founder of every art and trade. The rich soil, fruitful trees, and all useful animals were made by him, and he is the personification of wisdom and cleverness. To be named after this being, not in youth, but by reason of wisdom or cleverness, is to be paid the highest com- pliment. He is the pattern of a good worker in any direction, and to work neatly, strongly, and serviceably, is to be a Zo Kabinana. Cm the other hand, Zo Pulgo, in Duke of York, and on New Britain To Kovivuru, is credited with having formed all the useless barren and stony land, all high hills, and everything evil, hurtful, ugly, clumsy, or ill-formed, and to call a man Zo Kovivuru is to greatly zbame him. How these personages themselves came to be, there is no tradition to say. They seem to be, in the minds of the people, the zause of all things. The banyan tree is an object of special reverence and fear, and in this tree worship the New Britain savage is linked on to the savages SAVAGE LIFE IN NEW BRITAIN. 455 of the world and the ancient civilisations, as revealed on the cylinders of Chaldea, some of which date back to 4,0U0 B.c., and in the folk-lore of many peoples, and still lingering among us, as some assert, in our maypole and Christmas tree. The banyan tree is one calculated to arouse curiosity and wonder among a primitive race. Contrary to ordinary methods of vegetable orowth, instead of rooting first in the ground, it grows down to it. A seed carried by a bird or a breeze and lodged on some palm or tree, bursts into life, and sends down its routs to the earth in long rope-like tentacles. These each take roct, and develop into a trunk, and many others foilow, until the original tree on which it first sprouted is killed and hundreds of trunks, big and little, cover large areas of ground. Such deviation from the ordinary life of vegetable matter can only be accounted for, according to the savage mind, by supernatural agency, and the people regard ‘the tree with great fear. This tree is also held in fear by the Indians. “A Bengal folk-tale tells of a certain banyan tree haunted - spirits who had a habit of wringing the necks of ‘all who ventured to approach the tree at night. In another Indian story a tree thaz erew beside a Brahman’s Wouse was inhabited by a Saakehinni, a female spirit of white complexion, who one day seized the Brahman’s wife, and thrust her into a hole in the tree.”* It is, however, very difficult to learn what particular form of malice the Banyan tree spirit in New Britain favours. I am disposed to think the minds oF the people hold it in a genera] dread of illness and death rather thar as producing special forms of punishment for intrusion upon its sacred precincts, and it is one of the surest signs of growing enlighten- ment when a man dares its dreadful influence by approaching and handling the tree without fear and consequent illness. A shooting star is to the savage of New Britain a thing of fear. On Duke of York Group it is called a Wirua. Now, wirua means to die by violence principally, and @ wiruwa is the corpse for a cannibal feast. Hence, when a shooting star flashes across the sky, people cry out “A wirua, a wirua!” and the belief is that when the star flashes on its way a person has just been killed for cannibal purposes. In New Britain the name given to a meteor is tu/ugiat ra virua—i.e-, the soul of a body killed for cannibalistic purposes. Another name for meteor on one part of New Britain is pa/alzlivaz, the etymology of which is obscure. Zz/ivai means eitiier the kneecap or the calyx of the cocoanut or scoop. Pal may mean skin or house, according as to its context. Palalilivai also means the zqnis fatuus, the similarity of a meteor to which is clearly seen, and in all probability the word refers primarily to that. It is evidently a compound word, the true etymo- logical meaning of which is now lost. The words tulugiat ra virua, however, show how vitally connected in the savage mind are human affairs with the super-human world. The flying-fox is a favourite dish with the people, and is also an object of fear, especially in the islands of Duke of York. The word for a poor man is ganau, which is also the name for a flying fox, and again the connection of the human and the spiritual is denoted. This animal inhabits dens and caves of the earth, and becomes active only at night, a time which is full of terror for the savage. It is the * The Sacred Tree. Mr. J. H. Philpot. 454 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. playtime of spirits when they vent their spite or play their pranks on men. Now a poor man, according to a New Britain savage, finds no welcome in the better land, but is driven forth as useless and unfit for the eternal companionship of the successful, so there the poor ecase from troubling by not being admitted. For not being successful in securing earthly wealth, he is dashed against the trunks of the banyan tree, and then left to take up his abode in a flying-fox, if he can find one, and there are plenty of them. Should this creature be disturbed during the day and fly across country, the people are full of fear until it settles somewhere, and should it happen to do so on a tree overhanging a village, that village is greatly perturbed, especially if the inhabitants had taken part in killing and eating a person. Vengeance from a power they cannot successfully contend against is feared. So conscience makes cowards of us all, savage and civilised. Communication with the spirit world is held to be possible, and there are no more faithful and ardent spiritualists in the world than the New Britain savages. I was once present at a native séance, which was held in an open space in the bush. The surrounding trees cast a deep darkness on the spot, so that it was impossible to see more than a yard or so ahead. It was black unrelieved darkness. I knew by the sound of much whispering that a great crowd of people was there. In the space there were two companies of men, one com- pany at each end of the open space. They were ail dressed in white, the spirits being supposed to like that colour. At the sound of a whistle these two companies marched past each other across the open, and so changed ends, making a weird procession, amid a pro- found silence. I said something to my neighbour and was immediately warned to keep silent. In answer to the question put in the lowest of whispers, What are they doing? I was informed that Jngal, the spirit they sought, would presently be so pleased with their wooing in this way, that he would reveal himself to them. There was deep feeling and great expectancy on the part of the crowd, so much so that the murky atmosphere was charged with it, and under such circumstances one does not wonder that the people think they actually see what they came to see. In addition to the marching already mentioned, there were in a house close by a number of the leading spiritualists of the town muttering and chirping as men did in the ages past. Presently a sound was heard in the forest, and a great subdued sob went up from the multitude, for was not Zngal coming? I waited long, but he came not that night, and it was soon mentioned that I was the unbeliever who kept him away, and I was urged to leave, which after a while I did. I was told next day that after I left he came, a sure evidence that I was the hindrance, which added to my security, for if I was stronger than Znga/ I must indeed be strong. I was never again invited to a séance. This Zngal may enter into a man, and through him may be revealed the secrets of the malira, or charm either for good or evil use, and he is there fore much sought after. JZngal is supposed to live at the top of very high trees, and may be induced to come down and converse with men. _ It is believed that the spirit of man may leave his body for a time, and enter into animals, birds, or fish. But should the creature SAVAGE LIFE IN NEW BRITAIN. 455 into which the spirit of a man has entered be killed while he is in it, then the man’s body dies. On one occasion in my town a man was wounded by a spear thrust in the shoulder during the night. Next morning he was questioned about it, and declared that he had entered into a fish, and happening to come near the reef on which were some men with a torch and fishing spears, the fish was wounded close to the fore fin, and so his body received the wound. How this could be one cannot explain, but whatever his people may have thought, they accepted the story, and no more was said. In this way men are supposed to take long journeys as birds into the bush, and come back and tell travellers’ stories to their people as to what they have seen. Dreams are, of course, responsible for this belief, for dreams are to them real occurrences in the spirit world, hence the grotesque- ness of many savage superstitions. Charms are a great power with the people, and there are as many of them as there are clever or wealthy men. Every man may have (i.e.—buy) his own malira, or charm. These are believed to come originally from Jngal to some person who sells it to those who can buy. It is dear or cheap, according to its reputation. They are used for any purpose the purchaser desires. Now a love charm, now to secure acquiescence to indecent proposals, now to inflict disease, uow to prevent recovery, or any other purpose in view. They mostly censist of leaves, bark, or sap of trees, and are sometimes adminis- tered in the food of the person to be influenced and at other times are counted effective through the simple incantation of the wizard. It will, of course, be seen by this that the same charm may serve many, and even opposite purposes, according to the desire of the owner. It may be used to guard himself and hurt his foe. There are, however, specific charms for special purposes, such as the equora, which consists ie pricking in a certain manner the footprints of a person, with the barbed bone of a ray fish. This brings upon the person thus treated by a Tenaquaquar (wizard) the sickness or evil desired. Thedokadoko is a charm placed at the entrance of a fishtrap, and is supposed to induce fish to enter. Sometimes they, the malira or charms, are made out of anything that has had connection or contact with a person, such as remains of food of which she or he has partaken ; earth from a footprint, excrement, spittle, hair, or clothing. Any of these things may be buried with incantation ceremonies, and thus through the process afflict the people concerned in various ways. The name of this custom is puta and the articles used putaputana. This last kind of malira is much guarded against. Expectoration is in the form of infinitesimal spray. (Stooling is always in absolute secrecy, and with the greatest care.) When shaving or cutting the hair, every scrap of hair is carefully burnt, and the “crumbs of one’s food also burned. Now, all these charms work by the power of the spirit world, and through the spiritual connection of things and men, and day and night people live and move and have their being in a spiritualistic atmosphere. They fear each other less as men chia they do as men possessed of a powerful malira. To us this is ridiculous, but not so to them. There is no doubt with them; all is true, even the most incongruous and unreasonable statements in regard to these matters. They never think of the strife of spirit and power against spirit and power if these things are true, and, indeed, perhaps seeing they them- 456 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. selves strive against and jostle each other, it may but seem natural that the spirits also should so strive. The thief, for instance, has his charm for his purposes in the Turagan, and for the detection of theft is the palpalum. Now Turagan means a certain evil spirit. It also means the bones used by a thief and which he placed on the chests of the inmates of a house when asleep, and they are supposed to keep them asleep while the thief takes possession of the household goods. A cheap and an easy method of carrying on burglary. It is also interesting to note thar Tabaran also means an evil: spirit and a despised poor person, so that it would seem that the savages of New Britain have the same idea about poverty as Tennyson’s Northern Farmer, when he said to his son :— “ Proputty, proputty’s ivrything ’ere, an’, Sammy, I’m blest If it isn’t the same oop yonder, for them as ’as it’s the best. “‘Tisn them as ’as munny as breaks into ’ouses and steals, Them as as coats to their backs an’ takes their regular meals. Noa, but it’s them as never knows wheer a meal’s to be ’ad. Take my word for it, Sammy, the poor in a loomp is bad.” The spirit of a thief, then, guards the thief by the charm called tuUragan. The detection of. theft is an elaborate affair, and costs money. Again, the detective is a dealer in spirits, and is called Zo Palpalum, from the name of the charm. It is sometimes a tedious business. All the suspected persons may be got together, and, after an incantation has been muttered by Zo Palpalum, they are each in turn made to suddenly strike out with the fist or suddenly straighten out the arm, and he whose elbow joint gives out a cracking sound is the thief. No protest can save him from the c consequences or clear his character. Another process is to have all the town or village gathered on an open space. Zo Palpalum then passes in front of them all, his finger tips to lis lips, and his elbow at right angles to his body, and pointing to the people. Passing alone the line, he mumbles his incantation, and suddenly his arm involuntarily (so it is said) straightens out im front of some one, and that is the thief. Again, all believe the in- fallible sign, and the sooner he makes peace the better for himself. But should Zo Palpalum pass all and no indication ensue, there is yet another plan, which is to enter the house from which the goods were stolen. Standing in front of the place where the ooods were usually kept, finger tips to mouth, elbow at right angles to body, muttering incantations, suddenly the arm straightens, and the direction in which the arm straightened is the direction in which the thief went. On Z’o Palpalum goes still muttering to his finger tips. When he comes to a branch of the path he stops, and awaits direction, and only when given does he proceed. So he passes on under the direction of spirit guidance until he arrives at some house or person, and that person or ‘the persons of the house are adiudged guilty. There is no evading the charge, the process is infallible! The Kubak is a belief and a custom which illustrates a savage’s view of the solidarity of the race, and the oneness of human life. It alsa indicates their belief in the power of personality. All this of course is not put into words by the savage, but there is some reason given, NOTES ON MAORI RELIGION, 457 crude it may be, silly it may be,, but keenly felt and honestly be- lieved in, which really means this. Now, the custom of Aubak has to do with sickness. Should one feel ill, then all who stay a night in the same place must remain with him until he recovers, on pain ot doing the sick one what may prove a personal injury. If the visitor should leave and pass a night elsewhere, the sick one will become worse, which condition is said to be the kubak of so and so. Hence, it is customary to isolate the sick, and only those who can stay with them till they are better or dead, are allowed to sleep in the same house or in the same enclosure. This superstition has a great hold upon the people. It hampers work and progress. There are other traditions and customs of interest among the people, also beliefs of an interesting character, but those set forth in this paper are sufficient to establish that which I stated at the beginning—viz., that savages are the world’s most fervent spiritualists. One would like to get at the savage’s real mind, his philosophy of all these beliefs, and customs, for where we see root ideas striking so deeply into human life, and know that here we have the beginning ot ideas having the capacity for a profound and far- reaching develop- ment, the savage becomes to the man who knows him a personage of deep interest. He is not the fool some think him to be, neither is he without capacity for great things, and he often does them in depart- ments of human life and thought where we least expect to find it. He is worth deep study, but when the study is most searching we can no more fully understand and explain the savage than we can fully understand and explain the civilised man. He possesses, like other men, the mystery and majesty of personality which we clearly see when we have penetrated the outer husk of ignorance, and gained ‘a glimpse of the man himself. 2.—MAORI RELIGION.—NOTES ON THE RELIGIOUS IDEAS, RITES, AND INVOCATIONS OF THE MAORI PEOPLE OF NEW ZEA- LAND. By ELSDON BEST. Among a primitive people, religion and magic are inseparable. We may put it in this way, that religious rites are often rites of magic, or that black magic entered largely into the religion of these fclk, while ever as we fare on we note the firm belief in omens and the most absurd superstitions. There can be no line drawn between magic and religion, because the power that gives force and effective- ness to the rites of magic, or the milder ones which may be termed religious rites, proceeds in each case from the same source—namely, from the gods. This leads us to the fact that, in all primitive cults, morality is not a concomitant of religion, but is looked upon as having no connection with it whatever. It is well to remark here that the Maori did not worship his gods. He possessed a budget of charms, spells, inc antations, invocations, &c., that were numbered by hundreds, and were used in connection with almost every imaginable subject. None of these, however, would be termed prayers by any one studying them from our point of view. A small number of them may be eleesed As invocations, but the A458 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. majority do not appear to rise above the level of incantations. Im. many cases it is difficult to get at the meaning of much of the- phraseology used in these effusions. The whole Of such items, from: an invocation to the stars to give a plentiful harvest down to a: charm to cause a child’s top to spin, were known by the generic tern»: of Karaka. There was no worship of the gods. These gods (so-called) were- mostly malevolent beings, and the gentlest and best disposed of them: had the power to punish man for any neglect of the proper rites or observances due to them. And they used that power. At least the Maori will tell you so, and who am I that I should doubt him? The system was not one of worship, but of placation. The gods. were powers for evil. They could, and did, aitlict man in divers ways, hence they must be placated, even the ancestral gods, the deified human ancestors of the people. These remarks apply to all Maori gods I wot of, with possibly one exception. That exception was the mighty Io, of whom more anon. The native word that we translate as “ god” is atua. This term really means a demon, a malevolent demon possessed of supernatural powers. These powers were mostly inimical to man, only a system o1 placatory offerings and invocations saved him from the pit of destruc- tion. The power of the gods to preserve the life, health, and well- being of man, to cause plentiful crops, &c., was only exercised on the condition that the above offerings, invocations, rites, &c., were made or performed. Should these things be neglected, or any law of tapu. broken, then trouble followed, and such neglectful persons were made. to suffer. It seems rather unfortunate that the early missionaries selected: the term atwa to define the Creator. It does not bring to the native mind the idea of a beneficent deity, but rather that of a malevolent power. Maori religion was a good illustration of polytheism, for of a. verity their gods were as the sands of the sea shore. In the first place there were the principal gods, such as Tane, Tu, Tangaroa, Rongo, &e., that were recognised by all tribes of New Zealand and Polynesia, each having his own empire and functions. Thus Tane was the origin and tutelary deity of forests and birds. No tree might be felled, nor bird taken by fowlers, until certain rites were performed in order to: placate Tane If these rites were not gone through, for example, at the opening of the bird snaring season, then the forest would lose its “health,” that is to say, its vitality and productiveness, hence birds. would be scarce. Tu was the god of war, and to his service male children were: dedicated with much ceremony. Tangaroa was god of the ocean, erigim and tutelary deity of fish. Rongo was the god of peace, and’ presided over agriculture. Besides these primal and widely known gods there were many minor ones that may be called tribal gods, such as Tunui-a-te-ika, Te Po-tuatini, &e. Many of these were known to several, or many, tribes. But another class consisted of merely local demons, who were known only in one district, or by one tribe. The system of tapw was closely connected with Maori religion, indeed, was its most prominent feature. The extent to which “this NOTES ON MAORI RELIGION. 459 usage was carried was truly amazing. There were also different grades of tapu, some of which were most virulent, and disregard of such spelt death or disaster to man. Other forms again were much milder, and a transgressor of the rules of such did not endanger his life. The tapu pertaining to the dead, to burial places or mortuary caverns, to the god of war (as laid upon the members of a war party bent on blood vengeance), were of the strongest form. Also any spot where religious rites were performed was intensely sacred, and any ordinary person trespassing on such a spot was supposed to die, being slain by the gods. Another form of tapu, as that pertaining to a woman during the period of childbirth (and the period of segregation attendant thereon), and to those who handled bodies of the dead, may be likened to the “ unclean ” state of certain persons as mentioned in the Bible. Many persons were extremely tapu, such as priests, important chiefs, and the firstborn male of a family of rank. Again, any place, ov object, might be rendered tapw, if considered advisable. Birds, fish, fruits, crops, trees, &c., could be so treated, the result being that no one could touch them until they were made free and common again. Any road could be closed by being made tapu. A battle ground, or any place where human blood had been shed, was tapw for years. But a hundred pages would not detail all the aspects, causes, and effects of this strange system. One thing may be said of the system: The laws of tapu were respected, obeyed, upheld, as no other rules were in Maoriland. The cause of this reverence was a simple one. It was tear. Ancestor worship, or rather the deification of ancestors, was essentially a Maori cult. It was a form of necrolatry, or hero worship. A man would placate the spirit of his father, grandfather, or ancestor, and make offermgs to the same, that such spirit might protect his life principle, warn him of approaching danger, and give force or eftective- ness to his rites and charms of black or white magic. Another peculiar custom practised by the Maori was that by which the life principle of persons, lands, village homes, and forests was protected. Some object was selected, often a stone, and over it certain incantations were recited by a priest. This ceremony had the effect. of imbuing such object with the sacred life principle of the person, persons, land, hamlet, or forest that it represented. This object was termed a I/AU RI. It was carefully concealed, its hiding place being known to very few persons. So long as the tapw of this object was preserved, no arts or spells of black magic could affect the persons, land, or whatever it represented. It preserved, or protected, the HAU of such persons or lands, that is to say, the sacred life principle, the physical, intellectual, and spiritual vigour and well- being. This is a subject that might be described at great length. We give a few illustrations here. For instance, if the concealed mauri of a village community were found by an enemy, he would at once pollute its sacredness, destroy its tapu, whereupon it would no longer possess any power to protect the folk of the hamlet, and they would be open to the attacks of the magic arts of such enemy. Again, when travelling through the country of a hostile tribe, it is well to keep away from paths, and safer still to walk along the bed of a stream, so as to leave no footprint. Because to every footprint you leave there clings a certain amount of MANEA, which is the HAV of the human 460 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. footprint. An enemy could, and would, take this subtle essence simply by scooping up some of the earth on which the footmark was im- printed. This would be taken to a warlock versed in black magic, who, by means of certain magic rites, would soon cause your death, the soil being employed as an agent to connect the spells. with your- self, or your vitality. A shred of clothing, a lock of hair, or spittle can also be employed as such an agent. A person in a state of tapw was not able to mix freely with his kind. In some cases such a person led a most solitary and presumably irksome life, not even being able to touch food with his hands, and hence he would have to be fed by an attendant. When taking part in any religious rite, or engaged in any task that was tapu, a person was not allowed to return to his hut and family until such rite or task was completed, or until the tapu was lifted. On the return of a war party, with the tapu of the war god and of human blood on them, the members thereof had to undergo a “cleansing” performance before they could break off and disperse to their homes. What may be termed the primal or principal gods, such as Tane, Tu, Rongo, and Tangaroa, are not usually termed atwa by the Maori, but are looked upon as ancestors and personifications. Some of these would, presumably, be termed Nature gods by anthropologists. These primal gods were essentially originators, w hich the inferior or tribal gods, termed atua, were not. Thus, Tane was the origin of trees, plants, and birds, and represents that department of Nature, A god, sayeth the Maori, cannot be seen by man, but each of the inferior, or tribal, gods has its form of incarnation (ar za). Such a form might be a bird insect, lizard, dog, or some natural phenomena, as a anialeae meteor, or comet. Acain, the inferior gods, the atua or demons, have human mediums, termed waka, or kawwaka, or kaupapa. The human medium of a god would perform all the rites pertaining to its cult, rites of placation and invocation. It is a pecular thing that this word waka (HU ACA, as rendered by the Spanish chronicler s) was employed by the ancient Inca peoples of Peru to denote certain objects, or tigures, of wood, stone, or metal that “ Were regarded as veritable fetiches, that is to say, as the dwelling- places of spirits.”* It was also applied to priests by the Peruvians, as it was by the Maori. The primal gods, as Tane, Tu, &c., had no such forms of incar- nation as the above, but for each of them a peculiarly carved stick was employed as a sort of medium of communication between the priest and the god. We have mentioned one Io as a Maori god. Very little informa- tion can now be obtained anent this deity, but I was told by the last of the wise men of the Tuhoe tribe that Io was the first of all gods, and the principal one. The old man said—* The cult of Io was very ancient. He was a god of very ancient times. It was he who was the origin of all gods. He was the beginning (or first) of the gods.” Only priests of high rank were taught the cult of Io and its rites. No home was sacred enough i in which to perform such rites, or even to mention the name of Io, hence all such ceremonial performances took place out in the open and in some isolated spot. In fact, it looks as if Io was looked upon as a creator and supreme being. *The Hilbert Lectures, 1884. Native Religions of Mexico and Peru. By A. Reville. NOTES ON MAORI RELIGION. 461 A member of the Ngaitahu tribe once told me that Io was born of Rangi and Papa, the Heavens and Earth. It is evident that the cult of Io was a very ancient one, and was overlaid and partially obliterated by the introduction of a number of inferior gods. No invocations to Io are known by the Maori of the present time, nor would they have been divulged by the priests who knew them, when Europeans first settled here, to such persons ot an alien race. And why not! Because they were so intensely sacred, because everything pertaining to the cult of Io was so excessively tapu, that any divulg- ing of such matter would mean the death of the divulger, and also, probably, the affliction of his people by some dire calamity. The gods did not deal gently with those who broke the laws of tapu. Also, the Maori saw at once that the strange new people who came across the Great Ocean of Kiwa from unknown lands were absolutely devoid of tapu, x wondrous tribe in many ways, possessed of much power and knowledge, but as void of tapw as those who camp in cooking sheds. The few items pertaining to the cult of Io that have been placed on record are but fragments heard and remembered by the sons of some of the old priests of former days. Sir G. W. Cox, in his “ Introduction to Mythology and Folklore,” speaks of the Io of classical mythology as a lunar myth :—" Io, who is said to be the daughter of Inachos, is pre-eminently the horned maiden, whose existence is one of many changes and wanderings, and of much suffering. In fact, her life is that of the moon in its several phases.” This Io was changed into a heifer, the symbol of the young or horned moon. The late Mr. John White obtained another crumb of information concerning lo—* The principal god was Io, who formed the earth and the heavens.” He also obtained a fragment of what looks much lke a prayer to Io, a true invocation, not a primitive form, such as an incan- tation. T. G. Pinches, in his “ Religious Ideas of the Babylonians,” speaks ot * The identification of so many gods with A, Ya, Jah, Au, or Yau,” and gives the many names of Merodach as the god of planting, of streneth, war, wealth, rain, the moon, &c., &e. He adds that— * These are not the only indications of a tendency to monotheism, or to the idea that all the gods were but manifestations of one supreme deity.” We observe in the cult of Io, as practised in ancient times by the Maori, the idea of a creator who made the heavens and earth, and was the origin of all other gods, as old Tutaka, my informant, put it. This seems to point to a state of monotheism that clashes with our know- ledge of the very pronounced polytheism of the Maori in later times. It may be that, in times long passed away, the Maori Io also possessed many names as god of many departments, as we can see was the case with Tane. In later times these different names may come to have been looked upon as those of separate and distinct gods, a hint of the original belief being preserved in the statement that Io was “the origin of all gods.” The cuneiform inscriptions translated by Mr. Pinches have preserved the “many in one” belief of the old time folk of far Babylonia, but the Maori had no form of script whereby to conserve his ancient beliefs and history. Mr. Pinches seems to think that the Babylonian priests were really monotheists, but that the bulk 462 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. of the people were polytheistic. When reading Andrew Lang’s “Making of Religion,” I could not see my way to accept his idea that the original cult of primitive peoples was of a monotheistic type, and that these faiths later degenerated into polytheism, to again work towards monotheism among such races as made a considerable advance in general culture. There may, however, be some truth in this theory. @uren sabe? In a cosmological genealogy collected by Major Mair, Te Ahau o te rangi (the Ahau of the. Heavens) is given as another name of Io, who had Rangi and Papa. This word ahau (or aw), in the vernacular, is the first personal pronoun, singular. Maori religion was remarkable for its very numerous rites, its ritual or ceremonial fires, feasts, and offerings. Human sacrifices of a ceremonial nature took place at certain important functions, as at the erection of a large house, the launching of a large canoe, the tattooing oi a chiet’s daughter, the ending of the period of mourning for the dead, &c., &. In most cases of human sacrifice, the flesh of the victim was cooked and eaten at a ceremonial feast, but there were exceptions to this rule. The sacred or ceremonial fires, at which religious rites were performed, were kindled by the friction process ; they could not be made by procuring firebrands from any common fire. The priest or his pupil assistant must kindle a special fire. Any place where such a tapw fire had been kindled remained sacred, and must not be trespassed on by the people, or punishment would be inflicted by the gods. This state of sacredness pertained to any place where religious ceremonies were performed. Religious ceremonies were usually performed at the 7UAHU or sacred place of the hamlet, or at the sacred water. The former was aot a temple or building of any kind, but simply some secluded spot used as a place for ritual performances. The sacred water of a hamlet might be a stream, spring, or pond. At this water were performed many rites, including those wherein participants were sprinkled with water by the priests. Of these latter we may note peculiar ceremonies performed by priests over newly-born children, and over members of a war party before lifting the war trail and on their return from a foray. At the ritual feasts the food was prepared in different ovens, each of which had its distinguishing name. The food for the priest was cooked in a special oven (steam oven) by itself. That for the first-born male member of the leading family was also prepared in a similar one, as was that for the priestess employed in the ceremony. Another oven would contain food for the proved fighting men, the elder warriors, and so on down to the largest oven of all, which contained food for the common people. A Maori priest was termed a tohunga. This word simply implies an adept, not necessarily a priest, hence some qualifying expression is often employed to denote the speciality of the adept. A tohunga ruanukwu was a warlock, a wizard, one versed in the deadly art of black magic. approximately free from the effects of the beam’s own weight. This compounding is to be performed as follows, viz. :— (1) Subtract C! from the reading obtained with the spring balance at mid-span, and thus obtain a “corrected value for Ro. (2) Subtract B' and D? from the readings of the spring balances at B and D, and thus get a corrected value for Ry cos Oy (3) Add Al and E? to the weight applied at the ends, and thus obtain corrected values for Ry and Rg. Al, Bt, &c., are taken to be the averages of the values obtained with the bar in four different positions, these positions being obtained by turning the bar upside down and reversing, end for end. Strictly, the forces (R, —C'), (R, cos ee B*')and(R, dpe D?): ; 2 2 should be in the proportion cos 5 : 1: cos 5; and, if the results vary od 2 much from this, we may have to find, by repeated trials, values for the weights and forces, measured by spring balances, which will ultimately satisfy this condition. ConcLupING REMARKS. At the commencement of this paper, it was said that the use of trussed beams was likely to increase. This opinion was based upon the cheapness of structures of this type as compared with short braced composite girders, or with beam bridges whose piers are close together. A completely braced girder may contain less. timber and steel than a trussed beam of the same span; but the labour in constructing the girder is very much greater than that required to construct the trussed beam, and the material cut to. waste when shaping the smaller members of the braced girder might go far towards making up for the greater amount of material Pu into the trussed beam. Compared with a beam bridge, on pile pier when the weight of the piles and the labour in’ driving them are: considered, the advantage will frequently he with the trussed beam.. aes TRUSSED BEAMS, ETC. 645. In some parts of Australia the beams may be round trees, grown not far from the bridge site and rolled into position. The site may be ditficult of access—one to which the conveyance of a pile engine nught be a costly matter; and to cut up timber on the spot, in order to construct a pile engine, would involve nearly as much labour as building a completely braced girder. Even if it be urged that, when selecting pieces for a braced girder, heart and sap-wood may be avoided, yet, if timber is abundant, as it sometimes is, a certain excess of material may be permitted in the beam to be trussed, which will practically amount to ignoring the sap-wood in ecusidering the strength of the beam, if any sap-wood is left on it. Want of headroom may, of course, preclude the use of any structure i which the trussing is below the deck. If the roadway be wide, as compared with the length of span, and if an intermediate girder in the middle of the roadway is objected to, then the cross beams must be deep. It may be that the combined depth of stringers and cross-beams, m such a vase, would be quite as great as the depth of suitable trussed beams, placed longitudinally, but close together. The latter may be placed so close together under the deck that nothing but the planking need be placed on top of them. Shallowness, of course, involves severer stresses and greater weight of material, both of steel and timber, and the cost of this has to: be compared with the saving of labour claimed for the trussed beam. The detadls, in the case of a trussed beam, are of an exceedingly simple character. Two tension rods to one beam would be prefer- able to one rod if the boring of the holes for the latter would be attended with difficulty. Little need be said about the joint at the end of the beam, which can easily be designed. The joints at the feet of the posts need pins, or other firm attachments, to prevent slipping, if the posts are vertical, as in Figs. 2a and 8a. Other- wise, if the posts are caused to bisect the angles between adjacent sections of tension rods, the rods need only pass underneath the posts, being prevented from slipping sideways. If unusual vibration is expected, then special precautions must be taken to render this joint secure. Wooden posts, with tension rods under them, would be apt to split along the grain. Some shoe would then be necessary, or, in the case of a bridge, where several trussed beams are placed side by side, a piece of timber might be introduced, as at 7 in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 3a, transversely to the bridge, passing under the feet of the similarly placed posts. These would hold the trussed beams together, and, where wind bracing is necessary, these transverse timbers could be connected together by diagonal tie rods or timber struts. A simple joint for connecting the posts to the beams is shown at R on Figs. 2 and 3, where a small straining piece is introduced. This is preferable to notching the main beam, which would weaken it. Moreover, if the structure is to be a temporary one, it is desirable to avoid cutting the beam. Seeing that the posts always endure equal stresses, the bolts, which attach the straining piece to the main beam, are not called upon to take any part of the thrust in the posts. 644 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. It is clear that, if diagonals be introduced at the centre panel in Figs. 2 and 2a, the joints become very much more dificult to make, especially that at the top of the post, and the beam becomes con- siderably cut into and weakened. In trussed beams, then, so far as the taumber work is concerned, the bridge carpenters’ work is of a very simple kind. The steed or tron work would offer little difficulty to a blacksmith. If the rods would be unwieldy for transporting one length, pin-joints could be introduced at one or more points, but these add to the first cost. OrHER IMPERFECTLY-BRACED STRUCTURES. The reversed trussed beam becomes an unbraced Queen-post truss, the stresses in which can be calculated in a way quite similar to that explained in the foregoing pages. The tension member is here horizontal, and it is relied on to resist the bending action of the loads. In the first place, it may be laid down that no tension member should ever be made of timber, because no rehance can be placed upon its resistance to shearing along the grain, in consequence of the tendency of timber to open in longitudinal cracks. No ordinary factor of safety will allow for this. But, on the other hand, if we make the tension member of steel or iron, its section will not be a suitable one for a beam to resist bending. Stringers, placed on cross-beams, may be made strong enough to act as beams; but, in order that they may be most effective, they _maust be anchored down at the ends. In fact, to make the stringers behave, in relation to the Queen-post truss, in the same way as the beam in the structure called the “ trussed beam,” we should introduce a stout cross-beam under the feet of the batter braces at each end of the bridge, and we shculd securely bolt the stringers down to these. Or we may make the bottom member of the Queen-post truss composite in character, the tension being taken by metal and the bending by the beam, the two members lying side by side, or the steel on top of the beam. In all that has been written, it has been taken for granted that n® initial stress has been introduced, such, for instance, as that which would be caused by tightening up the nuts on the tension rods, or such as would be caused by leaving the nuts on the rods slack, thus producing initial bending stresses in the beam. These initial stresses would, of course, modify the results, Just as in the case of a braced girder, having pin-joints, if the members are not perfectly made, some may be too long, requiring to be compressed into their places, and others may be too short, so requiring to be stretched, thus modifying the values of the stresses calculated in the ordinary way. Should there be initial stress, it must be ascertained, or esti- mated as accurately as possible, and its amount added to, or sub- tracted from, those calculated, as may be necessary. The writer has to apologise for bringing a partially completed paper before the meeting. It was with difficulty that time was found for carrying the investigation so far even as it has been savried. He felt the need of some simple treatment of this subject, REINFORCED CONCRETE—STRENGTH OF BHAMS. 645 and he hopes that the little he has done may help to advance this branch of engineering science. He would especially invite criticism as to the assumption of inextensibility and incompressibility, 7.¢., as to whether or not the stresses calculated upon this assumption are sufficiently accurate for the determination of the dimensions of the members. In very shallow structures, an estimate may be made of the deflection of the whole by reason of extensions and compres- sicns throughout, using, for this purpose, average values of the moduli of elasticity. Then, in the case, say, of the double-post trussed beam, instead of equating the drop at one post to the rise at the other, we would introduce a term for the drop due to the said extensions and compressions. 2.—REINFORCED CONCRETE—THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS. By W. J. DOAK, B.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. I propose to consider the ordinary elastic theory of beams as modified for reinforced concrete. The well-established formula M == f : for beams of all sections, or M = 5 bd*f for beams of rectangular section, depends upon two principal assum ptions— 1. Navier’s hypothesis that a section of a beam normal to the neutral axis plane before bending remains plane after bending. 2. Hooke’s Law—that stress is proportional to strain within the elastic limit. From the first it follows that strains are proportional to distance from neutral axis, and from the second that stresses are also propor- tional to distance from the neutral axis. Experiments made by Talbot, Schule, and others show that Navier’s hypothesis does not hold absolutely for concrete beams, and Professor Warren’s tests at the Sydney University in 1906 also show that plane sections become slightly curved. It is generally conceded, however, that for purposes of calculation Navier’s hypothesis may be accepted. As regards Hooke’s Law, it may safely be said that it is not perfectly true for any known material. Even with steel, an experi- ment in bending, say, a piece of rail, with careful observation of deflections, will show that the stress strain line has a small curvature well within the elastic limit on the first application of the load; on gradually unloading and reloading several times it will be found that the stress strain diagram ultimately becomes straight. Concrete exhibits something of the same phenomenon, but in a much more marked degree. Tests made to determine the elasticity of concrete show that the elastic limit as ordinarily understood is either non-existent or else very small; that is to say, the stress strain dia- gram is curved from the beginning. Now there is no obvious reason why the only elastic law should be Hooke’s Straight Line Law. A material would deserve to be classed as elastic if it always within limits followed a law that stress was proportional to square of 646 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. strain, to square root of strain, or to any function of strain. The experiment then to make is to subject it to repetitions of stress to ascertaim whether there is any such law. The result will certamly be disappointing, for it has always been found that permanent deforma- ticus take place after each of the first few applications of load. Fortunately, however, if enough applications are made, the stress strain diagram settles down to practically a straight line, so that Hooke’s Law expresses the facts very closely up to the stresses to which the concrete has been loaded. Were this not so, concrete could not be called an elastic material, and engineers would hardly be justified in using it in structures intended to be permanent. It may be argued that timber is an impertectly elastic material, and is never- theless used without hesitation in first-class structures. Concrete, however, resembles in its crystalline structure metal much more than a fibrous organic material like timber. Possibly, too, experiment would prove that repeated applications of loading develop a true elasticity in timber; at all events, timber girders in railway bridges carry heavy loads for many years without visible increase in the per- manent set brought about by the first few loadings. In the November, 1908, number of “Concrete” I noticed a description of tests of an important wharf at Brocklebank, Liverpool. The following is a quotation from it :—* The whart was designed for a working superload of 6% cwt. per square foot, the test load being specified at 10 cwt. per square foot. The resulting deflection in the main transverse beam was } in., and the set immediately after removal of load £ in. only. In the four secondary beams the deflec- tions were }, 5%, $, and } in. respectively, and the Conese ee amounts of set on removal of the load 3, -3;, nil, and jin. At the iniddle of the two deck panels the deflections were 5%; mn, and + in., the corresponding set on removal of load being ~; and #4, in. respec- tively.” These tests show that a considerable permanent set, larger pro- portionately than we would care for in a steel or even in a timber structure, may be expected in reinforced concrete beams when loaded for the first time, but our knowledge of the elastic properties then acquired by the concrete justifies the belief that no further set will take place unless a heavier load is imposed. It is interesting to compare this with the behaviour of steel when stressed beyond its static elastic limit; it is well known that by doing so the elastic limit may be raised almost up to breaking point, and that so long as the stress never goes below a certain limit, it may be applied innumerable times up to the new elastic limit without fear of failure. It seems then that in concrete we do every day what no engineer would ordinarily think of doing in steel, and that is use it beyond its static elastic limit. As regards the value of the coefficient of elasticity either in tension or in compression, it depends upon the amount to which the ecnerete has been stressed becoming less as the stress increases. Many authorities claim that if a curve be plotted haying stresses as abscissee and moduli of elasticity as ordinates, it will ‘take the form of a parabola of the second degree. REINFORCED CONCRETE—STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 647 On this are based the formule of Talbot and Hatt for beams which necessarily are ultimate strength formule; that is to say, the load under which a beam will fail is calculated by these formule and «livided by some factor of safety to obtaim a working load. A more rational method is to adopt a safe working stress, and to consider the modulus as constant, as it practically is up to that intensity of stress in the extreme fibres, and in tact to adopt Hooke’s Law. To recognise the very small change in the modulus in beams which are not called upon to sustain a compressive stress of more than 600 or 700 lb. per square ich would be an unnecessary refine- ment. The important thing is that concrete can be regarded as an elastic material up to certain limits, imasmuch as repetitions of stress do not cause increasing deformations after the first few applications. Reinforced concrete beams, having the reinforcement placed so as to take the tensile stresses, are re: adily calculated from diagrams and tables published in many text books. The best of these neglect the tensile strength of the concrete, adopt Hooke’s Law, and use various ratios for the moduli of elasticity of steel and of concrete. Upon these ratios depend the amount of stress carried by the reinforcements, as it is clear that if conerete and steel are so com- bined as to under go the same strain, the stresses in each by Hooke’s Law will be proportional to its modulus of elasticity. Figure 1 will show the effect of this. To calculate the moment of resistance of any section, we proceed as follows :-— Total stress C in concrete = 3f x kd x b ss » Tin steel =a x f whence f, X a=if, x kd x b since total ten-ion must be equal to total compression. =nd (l— k) =nl —k by Hooke’s Law fe hd k x a a=tkd Me; De Ii a, d, n, and } are known, we can now calculate &. The amount of resistance may now be calculated in one of three ways— 1. By computing the moment of the compressive stress about the centroid of the tensile stress. 2. By computing in the same manner the moment of the tensile stresses. 3. By adding the moments of the conipressive and tensile stresses about the neutral axis. The third method is of but little use, since we must know both tensile and compressive stresses. The better plan is to first determine whether f, or f, first reaches its maximum value, and calculate resistance for that value. 648 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. If the compression side is the weaker— M,=4f, (kd) 6 (" ee z id) = 4, kd>d (: ee 3) Now, for any given beam of known reinforcement & is constant, and fis also constant, so that we may write— M,—-R, 6d? bd where R., depends. upon | and f.. If the tension side is the weaker — M,—«xf, C ae i) Uae, w( a Now if p represents the ratio, ry M,—pod*f, (: @ a): ) Il and we may write— Yai a bd?. In Figure 2 the values of R, and R, are plotted as curves for variable percentages of steel. The data assumed are— J, = 17,000 Ibs. per square inch. f, =600 ” ri) bb) be) anid) 72) 5: At the present time engineers have a wide choice of values for these three constants, and the result is that different designers will arrive at different results for beams to carry the same load. It would be very convenient if the engineers in Australia would meet in conference and decide upon standard data of calculation. In the meantime I should advise any one engineer to make up his mind to adopt always the same data, and keep all his designs con- sistent. : The working stress (17,000 lb.) gives a factor of 4 on an ultimate streneth of about 30 tons per square inch denoting a mild steel pro- curable under the British Standard Specification for Structural Steel ; 600 lb. per square inch is suitable for 1.2.4. concrete. The ratio E E : could, of course, be determined by careful experiments on the actual concrete to be used, but 15 is the value adopted by the R.I.B.A., the Prussian Government Regulations, and the Austrian Government. It will be seen that the curves for RK, and R, intersect at a common value of 91°5, which is obtained with 0°61 per cent. of steel. This signifies that the working stresses are reached simultaneously in the concrete and the steel. It does not obviously follow that this is the most economical reinforcement. To test this it will be necessary to assume costs of steel and concrete respectively. Taking steel laid 8 per cubic foot Cost § es a ie a a a i OL O2 O-4 OosEe os Lo 12 Lt fo Reinforcement 16 18 20 Se REINFORCED CONCRETE—STRENGIH OF BEAMS. 649 in place at £16 per ton, the cost of a cubic foot is 70s. Concrete may be estimated at 2s. per cubic foot, including labour and forms, so that the ratio of cost is 35 to 1. A curve may be drawn showing relative cost for various reinforce ments. The table below is calculated for a beam of constant width (12 in.) to carry 700 Ib. per lineal foot over a span of 10 ft., and the curve in Fig. 2 drawn from it. Two inches of concrete is allowed below the reinforcement. | Area of Proportion of | Moment Depth to Total Area ot Reintoraas Cost per Reinforcement. R. Inch Remforced.| Depth. | Concrete. aierit _ ¢. ft. p | | Lbs. d h | hxl2” | a __| in Pence. | | | ual a ac ‘Ge 0-004 fees} | | 105,000 12 | 14 168 OGyaeeoles 0°005 (em On, || ” 10:73'" | 12-78 152-76 | 0-64 29°2 0006 | 90:2 | it 9:86 }, 11:86 149390 18 0:71 27°9 oo006l | 91:5 | Ae 78 11-78 DIGS Hye) ae Ones 27°83 OF00GD 2% en s04e ss) 3 9687 :11°687 140:°24 | 9756. | 278 0°007 een Olen ” 9°547) | «11°547 138°56 | 0°802 27°9 0°008 | 100 = 9°35. | 11°35 136°20 | O89 | 27°9 0-009 | 105 | AS 9°13 ed aS, | 18356 || 0°98 28°0 0-010 Hy os) a 9:00) 1) 11:00) - | 132500, |, 1508 28°3 0°016 \) 124") oH $40 , 10°40 124°80 | 1°61 30°2 0°020 | 131 | 3 817 10°17 1220) a 1696 31°58 From this it will be seen that from ‘006 to “008 is the most economical proportion of reinforcement for these particular costs of steel and concrete. The curve also shows that if for any reason it 1s desirable to reduce the thickness of concrete it may be done without much extra cost by increasing the reinforcement up to, say, 1°2 per cent. On the other hand, it is clearly an extravagance to reduce the steel much below 0°6 per cent. To show that it is not obvious what percentage of reinforcement is the most economical, I have plotted a curve where ratio of steel cost to concrete cost is 20:1, from which it appears that 0°9 per cent. reinforcement is then the most economical. In any case if the percentage at intersection of curves for R, and Kk, is adopted, it will be usually the most economical, or very nearly 80. Having determined the necessary dimensions at centre of span, the shearing stresses should, in case the beam’ may fail under them before developing the strength at the centre of span, be examined. There is considerable difficulty in this owing to the uncertainty as to the actual distribution of stress in the beam, and especially in the neighbourhood of the reinforcement. Although it is a safe thing to neglect the tensile strength of the concrete in calculating the moment of resistance at the centre of span, we must recognise the tensile resistances if we wish to know something of the real stresses in the beam. I have endeavoured to investigate the stresses in a beam 10 ft. Icng, 10 in. wide, and 12 in. deep, with horizontal reinforcement of 1 sq. in. at 10 in. from upper surface. The load to be 700 lb. per lineal foot. 650 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. The central bending motnent is— 7,OWO x 120 Sere or 105,000 in. pounds. Allowing a working stress of 600 ib. per square inch in com- pression and an ultimate stress of 200 Ib. per square inch in tension, we have a diagram of stress as in Fig. 3. The diagram on the left apples as long as the tension at the extreme fibre is less than £00; the other diagram applies to the middle portion of the beam. The tensile stresses would no doubt be more accurately repre- sented by a parabola instead of a straight line, but the difficulty of celeulation is greater than the possible gain in accuracy would warrant. The total Compressive Resistance = C = $f, x kd x b=4600 x 10 x 10% = 30,0004. The tensile resistance of conerete T=} f, x ad x b= z x 10 ® 10 = 10,000 « But c= — x 208 2 600 3 T = 10.000 © 3 200 x tole The resistance of the steel is f, x a=/f, NiGWy s/n eps (oko =" G00 S15 lank — 9.0090 -=* hk ke k hence 30,000 %: = 10,000 : + 9000 / = and K = 0°436 «= 0 1453. Taking Loe about centre of SE Ca a M — 0 (@ ES =“) - T (« pa : a ‘) = 18,080 (10 — | 453) — 1,453 (10 - 436 — 0.97) = 111,795 — 6,785 = 105,010 inch lbs. The result shows that the tensile strength of 200 Ib. is reached at 1°453 in. below the neutral axis, or 5°81 in. below the upper surface. Below this depth the concrete must have previously cracked, but not necessarily in a visible crack, as Turneaure’s and other experi- ments show that the concrete is broken up into a number of small invisible cracks by the distributing action of the reinforcement. At any other point in the beam I have computed, the level at which the 200-lb. tension is reached by finding in the same manner as above the moment of resistance corresponding to various intensi- ties of compressive stress at the upper surface. The distance y from the centre where this moment is produced is calculated in the ordinary way. ee DE ‘EU FH = ‘é rf ak aH | II T= UT [ yequonsoyy sapeog ee (Itoh) a oY) QUCZ, Z eae S20 \7JALNAN AZAAMIUOD U2 sSeadIG B 8 | OALQLY PUBADHY SS IN TE ON i ‘SQ7TOOb UUs 79F1G U2 8630.49 QT OF -YauT iT REINFORCED CONCRETE—STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 651 The results of these computations are given in the following table, and plotted in Fig. 4:— fi i | oN) sea ils ali eae se eee Y c 600° 436 | 145 11,640 8,750 0 560 4°39 | 1°58 10,734 | 8,154 1°30 500 4°45 1°78 9,340 | 7,250 2°07 400 4:63 2°31 6,945 | 5,800 2-904 316 | 5:00 SoS aa 4,740 | 4,730 3°389 300 514 343 | Av983" 2 | 4,580 3°450 290 5:23 3°60 3,970 =| 4,500 3-484 280 5°33 3°81 | 3675 | 4,450 3°06 270 5°48 4:05 | 3,350 4,425 37516 260 | 566 435 | 3,000 4,450 3°06 250 | 5:87 4°70 2640) = | 4,525 3-47: 243 | 604 4°96 | ve | 4,625 3°434 232 | 6-44 556 | 15920), 4,960 3-291 200 | e | i | 1,655 4,275 3°577 100 | a | "927 2,137 4°346 | It will be noticed that from 3°29 to 3°52 ft. from centre tle neutral axis doubles back, so that we have an apparent ambiguity— that i8 to say, the moment of resistance at any intermediate point may be due to either one of the two diagrams or stresses in Fig. 3, one having a higher compressive stress and a higher level for the zone ot fracture; the other a lower compressive stress and no zone of fracture. A reasonable conclusion to draw would be that the latter diagram would be correct so long as the stresses represented by it were not exceeded, but if any slight extra load were added the concrete would immediately fail, and the former diagram would represent the stresses. : An examination of the diagram of stress in the steel leads cne to doubt whether the stresses arrived at in the above table are possible; from the diagram we would conclude that the stress in the steel rises rapidly towards the centre from about the ambiguous region referred to above. This increase of stress can only be imparted to. it by means of the shear in the concrete; now the conerete in this very region will be cracked, as shown by dotted line in figure, «nd con- sequently incapable of delivering any stress. Tf the concrete in the cracked zone were stripped away, we would have less difficulty, because the remaining concrete would ‘then be an arch of which the thrust would be supplied by the reinforeement. In Fig. 4 I have shown at @ — a the pressure line which -would be proper to such an assumption. It is appropriate here to remark that tests have been made at the Universities of Illinois «nd Wis- consin, in which the rods have been exposed for a considerable distance 652 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. along the centre of the beam. Measurements of extension made in such cases show little variation from those made on the ordinary beam. This is as much as to say that the stress in the steel is almost uniform along the greater part of its length, and is derived from the adhesion of steel to the concrete in the end portions; allowing 300 Ib. per square inch ultimate strength for adhesion, an area of 1 1640 300 a leneth of about 18 in., so that the total circumference of reinforce- ment must not be less than 2°15 in. In our beam the reinforcement of 1 square inch could be got approximately by four 8; in. bars, of which the circumference would be more than 7 in. The factor of safety is then about 3°28. Working from the pressure line a—a@ and admitting that the arch consists only of the concrete above the cracked zone shown in Fig. 4, there is no difficulty in finding the extreme fibre stresses in the concrete. hey are f= a =F oe : x . os bs” H=horizontal thrust= stress in reinforcement. =depth of sound concrete. b=breadth of sound concrete. e=eccentricity of thrust. The tension at the margin of the cracked zone will now be found to be less than 200 Ib. per square inch, except at the central section. I consider that the real conditions of stress are intermediate between those due to considering the piece as a beam and as an arch. The cracked concrete must press upon the steel, deflecting it downwards and inducing stresses in it as in a suspension cable; so that neither the diagram of stress in Fig. 4 nor a uniform stress in the middle portion truly represents the facts. A general formula for the intensity of the shearing stress at any level in a cross section is ae Sx G ESTEE Sis the total shearing force at the section. G is the moment of the area of the section above the level in question about the neutral axis. I is the moment of inertia of the whole section. 4 is the breadth at the given level. In calculatmg I it is convenient to replace the steel by an equivalent width of concreie. Thus 1 square inch of steel may be considered equivalent to a strip of conerete 15 in. wide by 1 in. deep at the same level as the reinforcement. The diagram of shear at the left end of beam is shown in Fig. 4. As the shearing streneth of concrete may easily be about 1,000 Ib. per square inch, it is clear that no failure is likely to take place in this beam owing to pure shear. are inches is required. This has to be provided in REINFORCED CONCRETE—STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 653 It is well known, however, that combination of shearing stresses with the horizontal stresses produces in the body of the beam oblique tensions and compressions similar to those which tend to buckle the webs of steel plate girders. To determine these oblique tensions and compressions and the angles of their inclination we may use the formula— pat hy eee ie Where p is tension or compression, according to the sign which is adopted—that is to say, if ; is tension the + sign gives us the maximum oblique tension and the — sign the oblique compression at right angles to it; on the other hand, if 7 is compressive, the sign gives us the maximum compression. The angle of obliquity is given by 2s ys It is not easy to determine where p becomes a maximum; the best plan is to calculate for several points and draw a curve. With shallow girders the shearing stresses will be small and dangerous tensions will occur at the extreme fibres where reinforce- ment is already provided; with deep girders it may be that heavy shearing stresses will produce tensions near the neutral axis, neces- sitating reinforcement. Continuous beams often have the heaviest horizontal stresses at the supports where the shear is also large. It is usual to specify that the shear in a beam shall not exceed 50 or 60 Ib. per square inch. This seems strange when the shearing Ben of concrete is about half its compressive strength, or, say, 200° Ib. per square inch. ‘This low stress is really intended as a F femiard against diagonal tension. A iogical plan would be to determine the actual diagonal tensions as far as possible and provide reinforcement for them, if necessary. A point which should be examined in an ordinary beam is one adjacent to the reinforcement just about the point where tension reaches 200 lb. per square inch in the concrete, and where the shear is of considerable amount. In a tee beam we should examine the web at Junction with table for shear, but the principal oblique stress will be there a compressive one, except in the special case of a tee beam continuous over supports. It is a very common practice to subject reinforced concrete con- structions to tests of one and a half or more times the working load. The effect of this is probably to raise the neutral axis and enlarge the zone of fracture. The method of calculation which neglects the tensile strength is then nearer the truth and still on the safe side. In conclusion, I would like to point out what is perhaps not realised by most Australian engineers, and that is the weakness of reinforced concrete as compared with our own hardwoods. For example, to carry | ton per lineal foot over a span of 20 ft. requires a concrete beam 12 in. wide by 3ft. deep, while an ironbark or spotted gum beam 12 in. by 18 in. (exactly half the size) is more tane2 0 == 654 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. than sufficient. The costs per lineal toot would be probably Ts. 6d. and 5s. 3d. respectively—that is, the concrete costs 27 per cent. more than the timber to do the same work. Possibly the concrete is often worth the extra money on account of its superior durability and freedom from troubles due to shrinkage and warping. In very many cases, however, timber will be preferable; it requires less headroom, iniposes less weight on foundations, and has a second-hand value if taken out of a structure. With the exception of arches, there is scarcely any engineering purpose to which reinforced conerete is put which cannot more cheaply and strongly be served by timber. ‘he considerations which make concrete appropriate are principally its permanency, freedom from maintenance, and its fireproof qualities. In Australian waters the failure of Muntz metal to protect timber from teredo has left an opening for the reinforced concrete pile, and time will tell whether it will come up to expectations. It remains to be seen whether the cracks which, visible or not, must often exist in the piles due to handling and in driving will not some day allow sea- water to reach and destroy the reinforcement. If any one will cal- culate the transverse strength of a concrete pile I think he will be prepared to concede that it is exceedingly likely to be cracked in handling, and perhaps also to be cracked below the level of the bracings in a wharf which is subjected to severe treatment by the cables of vessels attached to it. In my opinion concrete, plain or reinforced, is superior to all other materials in one thing, and that is in arches of large span. 3.—WATER AND THE ENGINEER. By GEORGE PHILLIPS, C.EH., Brisbane. Water always has been and always will be the friend, the servant, and the most powerful enemy of the engineer. From time immemorial it has provided him with employment— it has borne up his boats; groaned under the weight of his argosies ; turned his mills, and run through his pipes and channels. At his bidding it has come from distant hills to water and fertilise the valleys, to give drink to forgotten cities, and to be led hither and thither in the service of man. By his controlling hand it has been made to defend beleaguered cities, and it has drowned or defeated attacking armies. In later times it has toiled and sweated in his servic moved immense weights and raced at speed over land and sea. It has fought and defeated fires, has purged away dirt and disease, and has cleansed augean stables. Now and again it has turned in its wrath; wrecked his ships, destroyed his lighthouses, burst his iron bands, cut great gaps in his embankments, carried away his bridges, burst his reservoirs, silted up his docks and harbours, carried pestilence and death into houses and cities, mocked his sway, broken his heart and wrecked his reputation. WATER AND THE ENGINEER. Odd Volumes have been and many more might be written on the dealings of the engineer with water—and of water with the engineer —hbut in this necessarily short paper I must confine my remarks to a few detached aspects of the question that have come more pro- minently under my personal observation, whilst the formule that are given are such as I have found useful or have personally evolved in my practice. WaTER AND THE Rattway ENGINEER. One of the first problems that confronts an engineer engaged in the survey and design of railways is the question of waterways. Except in the very exceptional case where a railway is located along the summit of a watershed or divide, the railway engineer 1s continually confronted with the question of how to deal with, or how best to dispose of, the water that he knows, after each heavy rain storm, must cross the line of route here and there. What shall be the height and length and best location of this bridge? What shall be the sectional area of that culvert or drain? Shall this minor stream be diverted to a larger watercourse, or shall the water of the former be passed directly under the rails? Shall he allow, and to what extent may he safely allow, flood water to cross the line above the rails?) What shall be the character as well as the dimensions of the opening! Shall it be constructed of wood, stone, brick, concrete, or iron? Are the foundations satisfactory, and what steps should be taken to discover their nature? Unless these questions are dealt with in the hght of technical knowledge and trained experience the railway engineer is sure to make one of two possible mistakes— either he will underestimate the works, and, therefore, make insuff- cient provision for the safe disposal of storm water to the imminent risk of life and property, or, on the other hand, he may overestimate the provision required in the way of waterways, and thus load the works with unnecessary and useless expenditure. I could quote instances that have come under my _ personal observation where the grossest ignorance, if not the most culpable negligence, was shown in dealing with these important questions, and I could name at least one case where loss of life and great destruction of property was the result. I know a case where on the same section of railway and only : few miles apart, under identical climatic conditions, 10 ft. Maier circular brick culverts were provided at two places, one of which drained an area of 200 acres and the other 4,000 acres, whilst in the case of the lesser area the culvert was so situated that under any circumstances it could never run more than half full, as, at any greater height, the water would escape elsewhere down the line. The engineer responsible for such work would be hard put to it to justify his practice on any reasonable or technical grounds. When, more than thirty years ago, I was placed in charge of the railway surveys of the Southern Divison of this State, there were only 940 miles of railw yay in the division, and less than 360 miles in the whole of Queensland. One of the principal duties assigned to me was the determination of waterways on all lines to be con- structed in the Southern Division. At that time, although I had had considerable experience as a surveyor, both in the Northern and in the Southern Divisions of the colony, I had had no previous 656 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. experience of the determination of waterways on railways. The essen- tial problems governing the correct determination of waterways had not previously ‘been adequately dealt with by the engineers of Queens- land Railways, so that I felt the responsibility very keenly. I quickly saw, however, that the principal determining factors of the problem were (a) area to be drained in each particular case, and (b) maximum rainfall to be expected. There are, of course, other factors to be taken into account, such as porosity of the soil and slope of the ground, but the principal factors are the two I have especially named. I knew sufficient of the climatic conditions of Queensland to know that as a rule, and more especially in the coastal districts, provision for Jess than | in. of rain per hour would be inadequate, whilst it was apparent that to provide for unforeseen contingencies and exceptionally heavy falls of rain it would be wise to allow some what larger sectional areas than either the assumed maximum rain- fall or the areas to be drained would indicate. On this basis I prepared a table showing the sectional area and other dimensions of openings of various classes required to discharge 1 in. of rain per hour from areas of from one to one thousand acres, with estimated velocities at the point of exit of from one to six railes an hour when the openings were running not more than two- thirds full, thus affording a margin of one-third for contingencies. In. order that the information contained in the table might be correctly applied, I instituted the practice of having all the minor waterslieds traversed with prismatic compass and chain, this being near enough to ascertain the areas with sufficiently close approxima- tion to truth. With the help of the table I prepared in 1878, I have determined the waterways on something like one thousand miles of railway now in operation in Queensland, whilst the table is still used by the engineers of the Railway Department of this State. Whether the practice of traversing watersheds is in vogue in any other part of the world I cannot say, but I am in a position to state positively that it was not the practice of the Railway Depart- ment of New South Wales for several years after I instituted it in (Jueensland. In practice I have generally assumed the velocity of discharge through the openings, when running two-thirds full, at three miles an hour. This is a safe velocity to take in the great majority of instances that are met with in the coastal districts of Queensland. It will be found that for an assumed velocity of three miles an hour the sectional area of opening requiréd is one square foot for each three acres of area to be drained. For example, an area of thirty acres would, as a rule, require an opening having a sectional area of TO Msg: eits;. this sectional area might be obtained under a deep embankment by means of a brick, Rone. or concrete circular culvert of, say, 3 ft. 6 in. internal diameter, or in the case of a comparatively shallow embankment by means of a 5 ft. by 2 ft. timber culvert. Although the table is confined to minor areas, it is often advisable to traverse much larger basins, and I know several cases in my own practice where areas of from 5,000 to 10,000 acres have been traversed with distinct advantage and economy as regards the deter- mination of the necessary waterways. eal WATER AND THE ENGINEER. 657 The maximum flood levels of watercourses cannot alway be found, more especially in the case of large areas of flat country so often met with in Western Queensland, as the light débris left after each flood is soon destroyed by fire, leaving no permanent mark behind. I have observed, however, that the large red, meat-eating ants seldom, if ever, build below flood level, so that their beds may generally be regarded as above the influence of floods. Where heavy timber is brought down the evidence of very high floods often remains for many years in the burnt stems of trees where piles of heavy timber and débris have been left on the upper sides of trees growing on the banks or on adjacent flats covered by high floods. In the case of large streams where floods may rise 40 to 100 ft. it is always advisable to closely examine the upper sides of the large white gums that generally grow in such channels. It will often be found that the upstream sides of such trees exhibit marks or rough- nesses which, to the experienced eye, indicate bruises caused by large floating logs or trees coming down on the top of high water, and striking the growing trees with sufficient force to knock off or to badly bruise the bark. These marks remain visible for many years, mute evidence of former floods. I could cite cases in my own practice where the only reliable information regarding the height of floods was obtained in this way. When determining the height and sectional area of a large high- level bridge over a stream that has not previously been bridged at high level in the vicinity of the proposed structure, it is always advisable, in addition to such natural evidence as I have referred to, or that may be ascertained by inquiries from local residents of long standing, to investigate the discharge capacity of the proposed structure in relation to rainfall on the whole basin of the stream. Generally the area of the basin can be pretty accurately ascertained by reference to the official maps of the district, near enough, at all events, to enable a very close approximation to be made of the dis- charge capacity of a bridge of known sectional area. The data required are as follow :— Let “a’=the available sectional area of the proposed bridge in square feet, as measured at right angles to the direc- tion of the current. Let “b” =the estimated or computed mean velocity of the stream when in high flood in miles per hour. Let “c” = the area of the basin above site of proposed bridge in ‘square miles. Let “d”=the maximum rainfall that could be discharged by the bridge off the basin in inches per twenty-four hours at the estimated or computed velocity. In this no account is taken of absorption or evaporation, because if a heavy rain storm were to occur when the ground is thoroughly soaked by previous rains practically the whole of the water of the last storm may come down to the bridge. 2k 658 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. To obtain “d” by the ordinary rules of arithmetic would prove a long and tedious calculation, but “d” can readily be obtained by my formula 3a Oita Sep Having obtained “d,” the engineer should consider whether the result is such as to afford a reasonable margin of safety. It should be borne in mind that in the case of very extensive basins, such as those of the Fitzroy and Burdekin Rivers in Central and Northern Queensland, “d” might give satisfactory results if it only amounted to 1 in. or less of rain per twenty-four hours, whilst in the case of comparatively small areas comprised within the same general basin, anything less than 15 or 20 in. might not be sufficient to ensure good results. The following examples will illustrate my argument :— The quantity of water that passed down the Brisbane River during the maximum height of the great flood of 1893 was equivalent to a discharge of about 3 in. of rain off the entire basin per twenty- four hours. It would not do, however, to assume, in the case of a small tributary of the Brisbane River, draining, say, fifty square miles, that a bridge having a sectional area equal to a discharge of 3 in. per tw enty- four hours would give satisfactory results. With a mean velocity of five miles an hour, such a bridge would have a sectional area of only 550 square feet, whereas experience has taught me that the sectional area should be fully five times as great in the case of a high-level structure. Many formulas have been given to approximately compute the maximum discharge that may be expected from rivers of known area. One of the best known of these and the one most commonly used in Indian engineering practice is that of Colonel Ryves, namely, D=C (M2), where “D” equals the maximum probable discharge in cubic feet per second, “M” equals the area of the basin in square miles, and “C” is a co-efficient according to experience. It has been usual to limit “C” to 800, but from the experience gained in con- nection with the great floods in the Brisbane River of February, 1893, and from other records, I am of opinion that for the coastal rivers of Southern Queensland the value of “C” may be taken as follows :— Area of basin. Value of “C.” 1,000 square miles 3,000 2,000 _,, 3 2,750 35,000, Bs 2,500 4,000 _ ,, 3 2,250 5.000%... eA 2,000, aes 600055: i 1,750 In the flat country of Western Queensland, where the fall often does not exceed one foot per mile, the value of “C” is very much less than on the coast, and may be taken at about 600 for a basin ot 1,000 square miles situated in the rolling downs formation of Central Queensland. I would like to give more information on this subject, but I am writing this paper in the country away from the data available in my office. WATER AND THE ENGINEER. 659 The formule usually given in works on engineering to compute the mean velocity of water running in natural channels, are, so far _ as my experience goes, not well adapted to the conditions that obtain in Queensland, and I venture to give the following formula as better adapted and simpler than those I refer to :— V = (,/RS) (90+ ./R) where “ V” equals the mean velocity of the stream in feet per second —“R” equals the hydraulic radius or mean depth of the water in fall length In the design of railways intended to carry traffic at high speed in undulating or hilly country, too much care cannot be taken in the matter of waterways, so that the responsible engineer should be in the possession of the fullest and most reliable information to. enable him to determine the height at which watercourses, both large and small, should be crossed, and the sectional area of the various openings. There are cases, however, in even country so frequently met with in Queensland, where it is quite safe, for the small traffic at present available, to dispense with all except absolutely necessary waterways, such as at the crossings of well-defined creeks, rivers, or other watercourses where the drainage of considerable basins 1s con- centrated within definite banks or limits. Such places, of course, must be bridged, although not necessarily at high level. I constructed the railw ay from Normanton to Croydon (94 miles) on this principle, 1888-91, and, although the line has been open to traffic for nearly twenty years, no accident or derailment has resulted in consequence of the departure from usual engineering practice. At the present time I am surveying and. designing a similar railway in Central Queensland, where for 30 out of 40 miles I propose to allow storm-water to cro&s the rails without artificial conduits of any description, but the remaining 10 miles being in undulating country, culverts, proportioned to the areas drained, will be necessary. feet, and “S” equals the natural line of the slope, or PHENOMENAL RAINSTORMS. Rainstorms of great intensity and duration are not uncommon in Queensland, and are not confined to any particular district or locality. On the 21st January, 1887, 18°305 in. were recorded in Bris- bane. This storm wrecked the railway bridge over the Logan River on the South Coast Railway, as well as several bridges on the Killarney Branch Railway. It also severely tried the capacity of the ~by-wash at the Enoggera Reservoir, the water rising almost to the crest of the dam. The sectional area of the by-wash was largely increased in consequence. At Cardwell on two occasions in January, 1873, I measured with the official rain gauge more than 14 in. in twelve hours, the total record for the month being 63 in. The most remarkable storm of which I have any personal know- ledge fell in the month of February, some eleven or twelve years ago, on the resumed part of Bando station, on the western side of the 660 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. Warrego River, between Charleville and Cunnamulla. As I saw the evidences of this cloud burst in the following Movember I can only guess at the quantity of rain that fell, but from the close proximity or the watershed, the gentle slope of the eround, and the height to which the storm w ater rose as evidenced by débris in the Mulga forest, I would not be surprised if 10 or 12 in. fell in quite a short time. I am sure that. if any party had been.camped on the ground at the time they would have had great difficulty in saving their lives, and they must have lost their horses and effects. Although the watershed was only some two or three miles away, and the whole of the ground quite even and unbroken, with no indication of a watercourse, the. storm water rose 7 or 8 ft. deep over a considerable area. On the other side of the flat divide very little if any rain fell. It is not improbable that Leichhardt and his party may have perished as the result of a similar storm. Mr. Charles B. Steele, at present mining surveyor at Gympie, when, some twenty-two years ago, he was engaged upon the survey of the then proposed railway to Gayndah, lost nearly all his camp equipment, instruments, and*some of his horses at Wetheron, as the result of a similar storm. Experienced bushmen are sometimes vety careless where they camp for a night or two, and, although such storms as those I have referred to are uncommon, it.-would be wise to select the highest available ground even in the case of temporary camps. I must confess I have been rather careless myself in this respect, and have occasionally suffered inconvenience and loss in consequence, but the temptation to get as near the water as possible, for convenience sake, often proves too great. Tue Prorection of FORESHORES. The ‘successful protection of foreshores from wave action depends chiefly upon the means being adapted to the end, and no hard and fast rules can be laid down. I am of opinion that rigid structures such as concrete or timber walls, unless founded upon rock, are not suitable for the purpose, as they present much too steep or vertical faces, and generally fail by being undermined, (a) by the screw-like action of the waves as they run along the vertical face, stripping away the sand, &c., and (b) by the large quantities of water projected over the wall scouring out the backing. Where sand can be gathered and gradually bult up by wave action into banks, timber groynes answer well in most cases, but they should not be built either too long or too high. I know instances where long groynes have done “much more harm than good. I do not think the angle at which they are placed has much to do with their efficiency, and on the whole I would favour their being placed at right angles to the line of beach to be protected. ‘Rubble stone walls of suitable height and cross section generally give good results. The material is dur able, the construction simple, and the cost, where stone is procurable, not prohibitive. The weight of the stones should be proportioned to the force to be withstood, and may vary from 50 lb. upwards, according to circumstances. Pe, WATER AND THE ENGINEER. 661 As a rule rubble stone may be deposited on the natural bed, but where the ground is too soft or treacherous it may be laid on mattresses of mangrove well laced together with wire and pinned down at frequent intervals with piles of small diameter, say, 4 to 6 in. The best material for filling immediately behind rubble exposed to wave action is small stones such as quarry chips, or where these are not obtainable good stiff clay or gravelly soil well pinned in layers. Tea-tree bark laid between ordinary earth filling and the rubble ‘all will give the former time to settle down hard ‘and firm, before the bark decays. THe ConseRVATION. OF WATER BY MEANS oF Tanks AND Dams. I have seen many dams constructed by squatters and others that have failed in consequence of defects in location or construction, owing to the employment of the “practical man” in preference to engineers. Even where entire failure has not resulted I have frequently observed that the success achieved has not been commen- surate with the outlay. The embanking of large streams should never be undertaken except under professional advice and supervision. As a rule, areas exceeding 1,000 acres should be avoided, and, where it is necessary to provide tanks or dams in larger areas, care should be taken to locate the works to one side of the main watercourse where a sufficient supply of water can safely be led from the principal stream into the tank, so that when it is full the surplus water may safely escape down the main channel. Where a dam is so Iocated that a by-wash is required, a sectional area of about 1 square foot to each 3 or 4 acres of catchment area should be provided. A very safe method, for those who have no technical knowledge, is to make a simple hole in level ground in such a position that surface water can be led into the excavation by means of shallow trenches with but slight fall, so as not to cause much scour. Preferably, such excavations should have a depth of at least 12 ft., so that the inevitable loss by evaporation may not bear too great a proportion to the quantity of water impounded. The loss by evaporation may amount to as much as 4 ft. or 5 ft. per annum in vertical depth. The entrance for stock should be ramped down about 2 to 1, and roughly pitched with stone, the other sides being protected by fences. The excavated material may be run to spoil in any required direction, provided it is not laid so as to form a continuous embank- ment across the line of drainage. Where, as so often occurs in even country, railway embankments are formed from side cuttings, very useful waterholes might be con- structed at but little additional cost, by taking the material from such holes as I have indicated above. 662 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. Curves anp Wiptus or NaviGaBLE CHANNELS IN Rivers AnD CANALS. Recently I had occasion to pay some attention to the question of eurves and widths of navigable channels, in connection with a paper on the Port of Brisbane, which I read before the Queensland Institute of Engineers on the 25th June last. As the subject is one of more than local importance, the follow- ing extracts from the paper may be of interest :— ‘From an independent investigation I have made, I am satisfied that the law of curvature of rivers and canals that would permit of vessels of any given dimensions passing each other safely in opposite ‘directions on such curves, and in cuttings of ordinary width—270 ft. t» 500 ft.—may be stated as follows :— Let the length of the vessel, regarded as a chord of the required inner curve, be called A, then the versed sine at centre of chord should equal the cube root of A. From these simple elements the required curve can be readily determined as follows— Let B equal half the chord, that is, half the length of the vessel. Let C equal the versed sine, equal.to the cube root of A. Let R equal the radius of the required curve. B Then ror +C=2R=diameter of required curve. The width of deep water channels suitable for vessels of any given length is governed by the clearance that may be considered necessary ‘between two vessels of the same dimensions that are required to pass euch other in opposite directions on curved portions of the river or canal. By the term “clearance” I mean the distance from centre to centre of the ships, as measured along the tangent of ship A’s course at the moment when ship B is crossing that tangent. (Vide Diagrams Nos. 1, 2, and 3.) The clearance shoala never ‘be less than twice the length of the ship, and Pea should, I think, be Rome ae longer, extending to a maximum of, say, two and one-half (25) times the length of the ship. The table of w idths of ae nee for vessels of from 200 ft. to 1,000 ft. in length, given below, is based upon a tangential clearance of two and a-half times the length of the ship Where the cost of a channel corresponding in width with the tangential clearance of 2°5 times the leneth of the ship would be excessive, I am of opinion that a clearance of 2°1 times the maximum length of vessels using, or likely to use, the waterway would give economical and fairly satisfactory results. Assuming that the maximum length of steamships will be 1,000 ft., then the width of channel corr responding with my formula for curvature and with the tangential clearance of 2,100 ft., KF 1 times 1,000) would be 350 ft., or 22 ft. wider than the width (100 metres) now being provided at the Suez Canal. The width of channels may be computed by the following formula :— Let A equal the length of the vessel. Let B equal the number of times that A is contained in the clearance allowed. WATER AND THE ENGINEER. 663 Let R equal the radius of the inner curve by my formula. Let X equal the half-width of the required channel. (BA)? Z fee a eA 2R -+ X The above is a quadratic equation, and the formula may be more simply stated as follows :— ; The X = \/ (BA)?+ R2) — R, which contains no unknown quantities in the second part of the equation. The width of the channel is twice X. For ships of 200 ft. in length passing each other in opposite directions on the tabulated inner curve of 858 ft. radius, the width of channel would be as follows :— Tangential Clearance=B. Width of Channel=2NX. Ship’s length x2 — 400 ft. £55 178 ft. i Cte 22 42 0nit: ae 194 ft. i » Xx 2h = 450 ft. » 299 ft, = at 2s 1900 Fe. ie 270 4: Radius of finer Curve (Rad. of Outer Curve Length of Vessel. = Rad. of Inner Curve. plus Half Width of Channel). Tangential Clearance Wiatl ‘Ns : 2} Times ship’s Length. tel Coy ENS | Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet: 200 858 500 270 250 i 1,248 a8 Bt 300 1,684 750 320 350 | 277 x ~ 400 2,718 1,000 350 5U0 | 3,941 1,250 | 388 535 4,411 St aay GOO 5,340 1,500 | 414 700 6,903 1,750 436 7an 7,744 ee | EBS 77d 8,178 1,937°5 | 452 800 8,622 2,000 | 458 850 | 9,539 ee , 865 | 9,821 2,162°5 470 900 | 10,492 2,250 476 1,000 12,505 2,500 495 There are, of course, many other aspects of the question that I have not even referred to, such as the development and use of steam —water supply and hydraulic power for cities, &e.; and, to come nearer home, the vast natural reservoirs of excellent water stored in the great sandy islands that fringe the Southern coast of Queensland, but I have already exhausted the time at my disposal. 664 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 4.—SOME NOTES ON TESTING WIRE ROPES. By ROBERT HUNTER. In the middle of the year 1907 there was published at Pretoria the report of a commission appointed by His Excellency the Lieu- tenant-Governor of the Transvaal to inquire into and report upon the use of winding ropes, safety catches, and appliances in mine shafts. This report has, since its publication, been widely circulated and discussed among mining men, as it contains much valuable informa- tion. The majority of the witnesses examined by the commission with reference to winding ropes appear to have been interested in their manufacture and sale, the published evidence with regard to deterioration in ropes in actual use being extremely limited. This, perhaps, is not astonishing, when it is remembered that most of those competent to furnish information on this point are very busy men, who could ill spare the time necessary to enable them to place their knowledge before the commission in an acceptable form. The writer annually tests from 160 to 200 ropes, and it has occurred to him that others may be interested in the results obtained when testing ropes in use. Most of the ropes used in Queensland mines are of simple con- struction, that is to say, of six strands, each containing seven wires, of Lang’s lay, having an ultimate stress of from 17 to 35 tons. Frequently one wire in each strand is merely a core wire, being made of low grade steel or of iron. Unless the core wire is equal to the -other wires in the strand, it is not considered in calculating the ultimate stress of the rope. A few compound ropes are in use having an ultimate stress of from 45 to 60 tons. Manufacturers have adopted a classification of ropes presumably based on the composition of the steel, but this classification, judging by the results of tests, does not always present the uniformity that is desirable. In its report, the Transvaal Commission states “that the deterioration of a winding rope should be capable of being assessed by a competent person while making the customary examination is a most essential point.” In Queensland sets of rope-testing machines have been placed in centres most convenient to the inspectors of mines. With these machines wires are subjected to bending, torsion, and tension tests. The two first-named tests, of course, have reference to the temper of the steel. It may not, perhaps, be out of place to here describe the system of rope-testing adopted by the Department of Mines in this State. When a new rope is purchased, a piece is cut off by the purchaser, and sent by him to the inspector of mines, together with a copy of the manufacturer’s certificate. That officer then tests it, and enters the results in a register kept for the purpose, and also furnishes the purchaser with a copy of the entry in the register. Afterwards, whenever the rope is reshod, a similar test is made, the wires at the same time being carefully examined for signs of deterio- ration. The wires are tested singly, and in calculating the ultimate strength of the rope a deduction of 10 per cent. is generally made from the aggregate of the wires, experience having shown that when the result obtained by this method of testing is compared with the result obtained by testing a whole piece of rope this is a fair average deduction. In comparing tests of new ropes with the manufacturers’ TESTING WIRE ROPES. 665 certificates of the ultimate stress, it is found that a variation of 8 per cent. below the guarantee is permissible, as it is impossible to make steel wire perfectly uniform in temper, strength, and composi- tion. Exception has sometimes been taken to laboratory tests of wire ropes on the ground that there is no guarantee that the piece so dealt with will reveal the defects in the whole rope. This at ine first elance may appear to be a very strong objection, and there zre those who argue that the only way to test a wire rope is to attach to it a weight equal to about one and a half times its usual working load. Then, if it does not break, it is said to be safe. To this argument it may be replied that a dead-weight test is, if unintelli- gently applied, a source of considerable danger. The writer has known a new piece of rope 500 ft. long, when subjected to this test, to stretch 11 ft., and take three weeks to shrink to its former length. During this time it will be readily understood that the engine-driver was subjected to considerable annoyance. When applied to a rope that has seen service, the dead-weight test may be a death trap, since having stretched very much while working it will require very close observation to determine the amount of elongation, if any, under test. The rope’s limit of elasticity may be exceeded, and what may be called “a permanent set” put in it which may cause it to break in the near future. The customary examination of winding ropes at mines is generally made once a week, when the ropes are run through some cotton waste held in a man’s hands, and unless broken wires are found the rope is said to be in good order. As a rule, little notice is taken of the flattening of the wires, and no effort is made to ascer- tain the amount of corrosion. The chief causes of deterioration in winding ropes are wear, corrosion, and crystallisation. In a vertical shaft wear is caused by the rope coiling on the drum, and passing over the pulley wheel; this causes frequently a flattening of the wires, more especially when the drum is narrow and the rope coils several times on it. Sometimes also a new rope is damaged by being put over an old pulley wheel which has been grooved by a smaller rope. In an underlay shaft there is, in addition to these causes, wear due to the rope passing over rollers in the shaft, wear caused by changes of grade causing the rope to bang up and down between the hanging and foot walls of the shaft, and in a flat and underlay shaft wear is caused by the rope being dragged along the footwall. In many vertical shafts in metalliferous mines the shaft traffic is so small that after three or four years’ work the wires show hardly any flattening. Corrosion may be either internal or external. If the former, it is probably caused by water getting into the heart of the repe. This kind of corrosion is extremely difficult to find out, and frequently it is not suspected until the rope breaks. Water often finds its way into the centre of a rope owing to neglect to properly clean and oil it, and owing to the use of a stiff lubricant. which does not penetrate beyond the outside of the rope. Some lubricants that act very well in a cold climate become gummy in Australia. Outside corrosion may be caused by bad lubricants failing to protect the wires, or by water in the shaft. When selecting a lubricant for a rope, the greatest care is necessary, as acids in a lubricant may do great damage. Formerly a favourite lubricant consisted of Stock- kolm tar and castor oil. Since it was discovered that Stockholm tar 666 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. generally contains acetic acid, its use in lubricants has been largely dispensed with in Queensland: A graphite preparation has been largely used, which seems to be fairly satisiactory. Water is, of COULSE, eenerally met with in sinking shafts, and in some cases acids are associated with it. In wet sinking shafts, and in other shafts in which much water is hoisted, the ropes are often quickly rendered unsafe owing to corrosion. After ropes have been in use for some time they begin to show signs of crystallisation, probably to a con- siderable extent due to vibration, and as a rule it is found that the lower end of the rope becomes brittle first. It frequently happens that a rope has to be subjected to the torsion test several times until it is cut at a point behind the pulley when the cage is at the top of the shaft. A case recently came under my notice at a mine where the engines were kept bailing water continuously. Some 300 ft. or 400 ft. were kept coiled on the drums, as the bailing was not carried on from the bottom of the shaft. The engine- -driver. one day found a great many wires broken in that part of each rope that travelled in the shaft. A few days afterwards he found that the wires in the ropes coiled on the drums were also badly broken. Not having been much used these wires showed very little flattening or corrosion. These ropes were of simple construction, with a rather high ultimate stress, and the wires were of a large diameter, becoming brittle quickly, as is often the case in this class of rope. In the accom- panying schedule are some particulars of actual rope tests. In order to save space, and not make the list too tedious, the torsions have been averaged, and I am afraid this averaging may convey a wrong impression. It will, I think, be readily conceded that if 27 wires give only 3 to 5 torsions each, aud the remaining 9 wires give each 25 torsions, then the system of averaging does not convey a correct idea of the condition of the rope. It is occasionally found that when a wire rope has been in use some time its breaking stress is, especially in ropes of simple construction, slightly higher than when tested before being used. Two such instances were met with in com- pound ropes at the No. 1 South Oriental and Glanmire Gold Mine, tested on the 20th November, 1905, and 11th January, 1907. This increase in the tensile strength is often accompanied by a decrease in the torsion test. Again, sometimes, but not often, it has been noticed that ropes of simple construction seem to increase their ultimate stress as they are worked, while the torsion tests give worse results. A case in point is the north rope at the Columbia and Smithfield Gold Mine, included in the schedule. As a- rule, however, there is a steady decline in both the ultimate stress and the results of the torsion test, as instanced by the record of tests of the ropes at the South Glanmire and Monkland Gold Mine. When a rope begins to give bad results in either test, it is not condemned until sever mal tests have been made, and frequently, when the bottom 50 ft. or 60 ft. have been cut off, better results are obtained, especially in the torsion test. But if, after cutting off 100 ft. or 150 ft., satisfactory results are not obtained, the rope is condemned. Frequently a rope either brittle or corroded gives fair results under the tensile test, and ropes are more frequently condemned for these defects than for any other deficiencies when subjected to the tensile test. TESTING WIRE ROPES. 667 SCHEDULE. | } Pe Rel pe lee Name of Mine. | Date. as ae cae é | Remarks. ce iior! o° pie) ;/ oo | £5 me pete lees ne ES =e rm | | = Woke = pe } | - =< id reduce the labour at each station to one man and save the cost of conveying the sewage all the way to Myrtletown for treatment. In conclusion, it may be pointed out that, while there are many groups of houses around Brisbane that would be exceedingly costly to connect with a large system of gravitation sewers, there are no parts that could not be connected by either of the two systems referred to, at a comparatively low cost. 3._THE PREVENTION OF INFANTILE MORTALITY. By B. BURNETT HAM, M.D., D.P.H., Health Officer, Queensland. The tale of infantile mortality—the modern slaughter of the innocents—is an oft-told one. It has been told and retold by sani- tarians and medical men in almost every country of the world. All authorities are agreed that it is one of the gravest problems with which we in this 20th century have to deal. References to the mortality records of Registrars-General in various countries show that the mortality of infants—that is, of children under 1 year of age—is absolutely appalling, and that it does not decrease with the progress of civilisation in the same ratio as the mortality from other preventable diseases. Infantile mortality is perhaps the most important medical and social problem of the age. It is a standing reproach to our much- vaunted civilisation. Iti is not altogether unreasonable to expect that public health administration would have a marked influence in reducing infantile mortality to what may, under present circum- stances, be regarded as a normal standard. “To those engaged in the work of preventive medicine the con- tinuance of a high rate of infantile mortality, in spite of the great nee , eax PRESIDENT S ADDRESS—SECTION J. 105 shape themselves upon the requirements of the social unit. The complex demands now made upon the individual constitute in them- selves the reason and the justification for a conception of education that is distinctly utilitarian, in the sense that it must be essentially a preparation for all the phases of complex living. The term, “bread and butter studies,” was at one time used as a term of inferiority, implying the sacrifice of real education to material ends. It implied that studies that had a direct value in equipping the student for practical affairs could not be admitted as elements in what was called a liberal education.. One of the most significant tendencies in modern education is the removal of the reproach of utilitarianism as applied to it, by widening out the meaning of the term “utilitarian,” making that term applicable to all that equips the individual for rendering service to society, whether that service is of the material kind for which money payment is made or of the more immaterial kind by which the spiritual, or xsthetic, or intellectual wants of society are met. EDUCATION BECOMING A SCIENCE. The extension of the meaning of education has made the educational problem exceedingly complex; but, at the same time, it prepares the way for a science of education. The endeavour to create a science of education has been rapidly developing. Observation and experiment, analysis and synthesis, which have gone to the building of other sciences, are being employed. The facts of mental growth, of the bearing of physical constitution on mental processes, of the relation of social claims to the training of the individual, are furnish- ing a basis for an educational science. It has now come to be recog- nised that while many things are subjects of instruction, the child is the subject of education. As a result, the study of educational psychology has been far-reaching, and is rapidly establishing the relation that should be maintained between, on the one hand, the methods of instruction, and, on the other, the process of development and mode of action of the mind of ‘the child. The acquisition of knowledge as one of the results of education is dependent, not upon the logical arrangement of the subject matter, or as something imposed upon the pupil from without; but is rather the result of the proper direction of the pupil’s own natural tendencies and activities, and the utilising of motives towards healthy action. Education in this view is the systematising of the child’s experiences, a variety of dis- jointed experiences being brought together, correlated, interlocked, organised, before resulting in acquired knowledge. But while this subjective-psychological method of education has enjoyed a revival that has had a salutary effect on school methods, it is not an entirely adequate basis on which to build the various activities of the school. Taken by itself, it minimises the value of the subject-matter of studies. Educational work that is controlled entirely by the principles of educational psychology is individualistic, and leaves out of account.the claims of the community. The individual child cannot be educated as an isolated unit, and because of this the content of his studies, and the practical purposes for which 20 706 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. subjects are studied, must frequently determine methods. The expres- sion is still heard that certain studies should be retained in the curriculum for the simple and only reason that they supply the student with a mental discipline, as if mental power produced in the study of one subject were equally available in dealing with other and unrelated subjects. To regard the value of a subject from this point of view is to disregard the thought-content of it, and it is this which entitles it to a place in the school course. The value lies in the subject itself; in the manner in which the subject-matter when acquired enables the possessor to react to the conditions of his en- vironment. It is this consideration that in recent times is moulding the instructional work of schools and colleges, so that the student may be saved from a devotion of his energies to that species of fruit- less study by which he can, as Bacon expressed it, “out of no great quantity of matter, the infinite agitation of wit, spin cobwebs of learning, admirable for the fineness of thread and work, but of no substance or profit.” The term “mental discipline” is still vaguely used to justify the making of a classical language an indispensable subject for either matriculation or oraduation in some of our Universities, ighoring the fact that, in the case of many students, the content of che study contributes in a very small degree to fit them for their future career. One of the most hopeful signs of change in educational thought is seen in determining the value of a study, not by the mental gymnastics it affords, but by the prac- tical use to which it can be put by the student. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. The growth of a science of education has made teaching a profession, and the training of the teacher an absolute necessity. There is, perhaps, no change affecting educational administration more marked than the change of attitude with regard to qualifying the teacher for his work. On this question public opinion has had to be Jed by those who have thought most on the subject, since the question is not one that appeals to the popular imagination. The State that waits for the expression of opinion through ‘popular agitation on this subject 1s sure to be left behind. It isa question in which statesman- ship consists in leadership. The mass of popular opinion is not suffi- ciently well informed on the real needs of the case to initiate a move- ment of this kind. Progress here depends on leaders. But in most civilised countries the question has now been deter- mined, and normal schools and training colleges are rapidly increasing in number. The problem now is not whether teachers should be trained, but how they should be trained. PRIMARY EDUCATION. Primary education is gradually shaking itself free from the defects that have reduced its effectiveness in the past. Under ordinary conditions, eight years of a child’s life are spent in this stage of his education, and the question arises, whether the results usually evident at the end of this period are commensurate with the time and labour that have been devoted to them. It has to be recognised that no te Bp PRESIDENT $ ADDRESS—SECTION J. 707 absolute standard can be fixed as one to which all children should attain by their fourteenth year. ‘The variations in individual inherited capacity, and still more, the variations in home environment make an absolute standard impossible. But, apart from these modifying cir- cumstances, the operations of the school should, under ideal conditions, enable each child to reach the limit of his possibilities. Since the time when elementary instruction aimed at nothing more than pro- ficiency in two or three mechanical arts, the curriculum of the primary school has received one addition after another, until it embraces a wide range of subject-matter. This has led to the comment that the primary course 1s overloaded with subjects. The comment, however, is made without taking account of what should be the distinguishing characteristic of the instructional course up to the age of fourteen. This 1s the period in which the child needs to be brought into contact with the world about him at as many points as possible. In the five or six years before he enters the school, he has gained from his practical experience a store of knowledge on a number of subjects as various as his experiences have been, and has learnt to express himself in speech on a wide range of topics. It is the function of the primary school to continue that education, and the methods by which the child gained his knowledge, and the power to use it, before he enters the school at all, should suggest the methods by which he might acquire it after he enters the school. During this formative period, variety of subject is the keynote of the school course. There has been no more valuable development in primary education than that which has enriched the course of instruction with Subjects that supply the child with fresh experiences, and that give him his first insight into the multitude of activities and ideas with which, whatever may be his future career, he must be, to a greater or less extent, brought into contact. It is difficult to see on what ground, either practical or theoretical, it can be urged that the primary course of instruction in the dices school includes too large a number of subjects. But, on the other hand, there is a sense, and a very definite one, in which primary courses of instruction may become overloaded. This ar1ses, not from the inclusion of too many subjects, but from the inclusion of too much subject-matter. It is this that has contributed to no smal] extent to reduce the value of the product of the primary school, and to give rise to the inaccurate comment to which reference had been made. The attempt is too often made to import into the instruc- tion given a range of information which might become useful as part ot the mental furnishing of the adult, whose experience of the world would enable him to appreciate and use it, but which to the child is so remote from his experience that it has no meaning for him. It sometimes occurs that the information given has not even the merit of being sufficiently useful to either the adult or the child to make it necessary that it should always be carried in the memory. In all the subjects of the school course this danger is imminent. In the teaching of arithmetic, grammar, geography, history, and other subjects, the temptation is constantly present to the untrained teacher to introduce into his instruction, lesson material that is either not adapted to the assimilative powers of the pupil, or is not of sufficient value in itself to be part of the mental outfit of the pupil. If this temptation be 708 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. resisted, it will be seen how much of the conventional text book know- ledge may be set aside as inappropriate to the primary course. No more important call is made upon the judgment of the teacher than that which arises from the necessity for the selection of the material for his lessons; and if that selection is properly made, there can be no ground for the assertion that the curriculum is overloaded. THE SCHOOL AGE. These considerations raise the question of the primary school- leaving age. During the early period of compulsory education the limit of age was fixed at 13 in some States and 14 in others. This determination of age limit belongs to a time when it was considered that every child ; should receive the minimum of education necessary for the most elementary duties of citizenship, and the most mechanical of vocations. In Australia compulsory legislation m this direction, notwithstanding serious defects in one or two States, has fairly fultilled its purpose within this very limited range. But the demands of the evolving social organism have given a new meaning to the functions of the State in the matter of education. Not the mere minimum education for a rudimentary citizenship, but the preparation of the youth of the nation for the most efficient participation in productive industry, is now being recognised as determining the range of the State’s responsibility. “In several States of America and Germany this has already led to the extension of the compulsory age from 14 ‘to 16 years, while in England the same need is rapidly gaining recognition. The boy cannot secure by the age of 14 the whole of the scholastic outfit necessary for lis entrance into the skilled occupations. On the other hand, not only are there few boys who can longer defer the earning of money, but there are many occupations which should be taken up not. later than the fourteenth year of age in order that the manual dexterity and technical skill necessary to the skilled workman may be acquired. The apprenticeship system only imperfectly meets these two claims. The continuation school is supplying in England and Europe the solution of the problem. Granted an organisation of day and evening continuation schools, and adequate provision for secondary education in other directions, the extension of the com- pulsory age of school attendance not only becomes practicable but highly desirable. When Australia is prepared for this forward step, provision will doubtless be required to so far limit the hours of boy labour as to admit of a fair division of the working day between attendance at the school classes and attendance at practical trade work. Meanwhile it remains for the elementary school to thoroughly organise its manual training courses so that, to the accompaniment of thinking in the concrete, hand and eye may be made the ready instrument of the brain. SECONDARY EDUCATION. Reference has already been made to some of the phases of higher education. The period of secondary education is essentially the time for what Walter Pater calls “ arranging the littered work-chamber of the mind.” So far the pupil has been occupied with the concrete; he has been coming into contact with the facts of sense and feeling; his PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION J. 709 use of language has been to express the individual facts and experi- ences. If he stops there his vision is limited; he cannot see the unseen that hes beyond the bounds of concrete experience. He fails to grasp wide gener alisations. His mind is littered, and arrangement is neces- sary. The inductive process is now to be given a chance to turn the littered work-chamber of the mind into a weil-ordered laboratory, to make, as the author already quoted expresses it, “terms exactly con- terminous with thoughts, and thoughts conterminous with facts.” As variety is the keynote of the primary course, exactness, precision, thoroughness, should direct the aims and methods of the secondary school. This being so, it 1s here rather than in the primary course that the curriculum is in danger of being overloaded with too many subjects. In the secondary school the need for thoroughness of mastery entails a limitation in the number of subjects s studied. This type of school should, however, be further differentiated from the primary school by the attitude of its students. Instead of the pupil instructed by his teacher, he should be more of a student guided by his teacher. It is a noticeable fact that in our Universities a large number of first-year undergraduates fail to satisfy their examiners at the end of that year. It is well that the student who shows himself unfit for the higher portions of his University course should be “plucked” in his first year. But, after all, this is the remedy for an evil that should be prevented. The causes should be removable. One cause may possibly be found in the failure of a University entrance examination to guarantee an adequate preparation on the pare of the student. The examination is not a sufficient test of an educated mind. It needs to be supplemented hy applying the same principle of “graduation ” to the student of the secondary school that 1s applied to the undergraduate of the University. An academic degree is conferred by the University upon the student who has not merely passed a final examination but who has “eraduated” through his courses. If the doors of the University were open to those who had not merely pre- pared for a final examination, but had in a similar definite way “graduated” through the secondary school, there would be the less need for “plucking” in the first year at the higher institution. Another cause is doubtless found in the sharp transition of the student frora the dependent and externally controlled attitude which the secondary school imposes on hii to the self-dependence and free- dom which University life allows to him. The remedy for this touches an important principle i in secondary education, and one which does not yet find sufficient application in practice. The student should as he passes through this stage of his education be thrown more upon his own resources. The labor: atory method that is now gaining a footing in the teaching of science should be applied to other subjects of the school course. The student, especially in the latter part of his course, should pass much of his time in personal investigation into the subject -of his study. The school hbrary may be as much a labor atory as the chemistry room. The adoption of this principle involves a much: more liberal equipment than is usually found in secondary schools, but its value for practical efficiency fully justifies liberality in this direction. To the student passing on to the University the transition from such a secondary-school atmosphere wouid be less likely to make him a first-year derelict. 710 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION J. LANGUAGE TEACHING. One of the most important innovations in method in higher education is seen in the teaching of modern languages. Instead of the older translation method based on a previously acquired know- ledge of grammatical forms and syntax, the newer method begins with the immediate use of the language as the expression of thought, so that the thought and the expression of it are brought into direct association without the intermediary of the mother tongue. This immediate mental transition from idea to expression gives from the first a usable command oi the idioms of the language, and combined with phonetics the pupil’s speaking power is acquired at the same time that he is building up his knowledge of syntax and inflectron. If it be kept in view that the learning of a foreign language is not for some purpose vaguely expressed as mental discipline, but to give the power of speaking, reading, and writing in it, there can be no doubt of the superiority of the newer method. It, however, requires a specialised class of teachers who have themselves a ready and fluent control of the language and a knowledge of phonetics, and the best teachers will be, not those to whom the foreign language is the mother tongue, but hae Australian teachers who haves Comer with a knowledge of the literature of the foreign language, the power to use it fluently in ordinary speech. As the need for modern language masters increase, it will doubtless be in the interests of Australian education to set apart scholarships to enable students to gain the necessary qualification by a period of study in the home oi the language. With the entry of Australia into the field of international commerce, the provision for the best instruction in German and French has alre ady become a pressing necessity. Incidentally it may be mentioned that the application of the newer methods of language study to the study of Latin and Greek is being introduced into at least one of our Australian Universities. But in this as in other directions the Universities of the Commonwealth cannot do their highest work in the most efficient way unless this is made possible by the methods and organisation of the secondary schools. SCIENCE TEACHING. Among the hopeful signs of the times is the increased attention being given to the teaching of science im the higher schools. But even yet, science is but timidly securing its rightful place in the sisterhood of studies. When France was writhing under her defeat in 1870, her great scientist, Pasteur, keen in his despair at his nation’s abasement, appeals to his countrymen :—‘I implore you, take some interest in those sacred dwellings ineaningly described as laboratories. Ask that they be multiplied “and completed. They are the temples of the future, of riches, ue of comfort. There humanity grows greater, better, stronger; there she can learn to read the works of Nature, -works of progress and universal harmony.” Then he reminds his nation that “rich and large laboratories have been growing in Germany for the last thirty years, and many more are still being built.” This was said nearly forty years ago, and we stand wonder- ing to-day at the commercial and industrial progress of Germany. Australia presents numberless problems that are awaiting the work of ie PRESIDENT S ADDRESS—SECTION J. se the scientist. In agriculture, in mining, in manufacturing enterprises, in municipal Soc weton on almost every hand there is the call for scientific investigation. Why should not Australia contribute more widely to the world’s scientific knowledge? The plea that we cannot undertake this work because we are a young nation is the plea of ineptitude. The qualities that make for successful scientific research are not wanting in the Australian people. The necessary enthusiasm, imagination, initiative, and resourcefulness are available. But there is a lack of the atmosphere in which these can bear fruit, the atmos- phere that only our higher educational institutions can supply. It is for the schools to create a public that can appreciate scientific work. It is even now difficult to convince the so-called’ practical man that the student in his laboratory can improve the product of the farm or of the mine. The theorist in the inquiry room of science is met by the practical man with the cold look of scepticism. Reliance is rather placed on what is called common sense, forgetful that Nature herself rises in revolt “to teach our common sense its helplessness” (as Browning puts it). Empiricism, with its lack of progress, its imita- tive methods, looking to precedent for its guide, can only give place to freshness and originality i in industry and business as a larger and larger proportion of the population has had its eyes opened to the methods of science, and been taught to appreciate the lessons which scientific inquiry enables the student to learn. Pasteur, in 1870, asks “why France found no superior men in her hour of peril?’ And he finds the reason in “ the forgetfulness, disdain even, that France had for the work of her great intellect, especially in the realm of exact science.” In the absence of w idespr ead instruction through the agency of the schools, the time may come when the verdict will apply in Australia, that no great work can be done here because of our un- belief. : THE OUTLOOK. Some forecast may, perhaps, be ventured upon. This address commenced with a reference to the turbulence of the world’s thought- currents. Education as an organised function of society cannot fill its right place if it lags behind—nay, more, if it does not keep well in the head of these currents. No education system can afford to plume itself on the finality of its methods. It cannot be static, nor should it wait to be thrust into the current of progress. From the very nature of the case it is needful that in many directions educational organisation should lead public sentiment on education, even at the risk of temporary misconception and condemnation. No very profound examination of the larger movements of civilised society is needed to show that public education is to play a larger and larger part in the fulfilment of distinctly national purposes. The question will become more insistent, not merely what is it doing for the progress of this or that individual, but in doing that, what is it doing of set purpose for the nation as a nation? As time goes on the evolution of the industry will become more and more bound up with our educational systems. The school will become the adjunct of the workshop, and the workshop a class-room of the school. The gap between the desk of the pupil and the bench of the artisan, or the office of the business man, will be bridged, and (aly '. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION J. the schoolroom will be filled with an atmosphere out of which the pupil will pass to the practical business of life without feeling that he is passing: into a different world. Our educational systems will become responsive more to the spirit of the future than to that of the past. That which is traditional in practice will be brought under rigorous criticism, and be required to justify itself by something more than its antiquity. The rapid evolution of social ideals will demand an equal modification of educational aims and methods. The occupa- tions of the primary school, ue at greater breadth of mental out- look and greater adaptableness of manual skill, will be linked with the technical and trade school as weil as with the ordinary secondary school. The secondary school and the university will fill a larger place in the educational scheme than at present, opening their doors more widely, with the same freedom of admission that now obtains in the primary school for all those who can benefit by their teaching. If this outlook is at all a correct one, the State systems of education will thus become so interwoven with the progress of the nation, and so necessary for the maintenance of its place in international competi- tion, that the education of the people will fill an increasing place in the functions of government. The schools of all grades will be the instruments for national purposes, for the cultivation of individual productiveness and intelligent citizenship, the training grounds for national defence, and the nurseries of the nation’s morality. PAPERS READ IN SECTION J. 1.—THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. By A. MACKIE, M.A., Principal of The Training College for Teachers, N.S.W. During the past few years very considerable advance has been made in the courses of training for teachers, and the growing dis- satisfaction with the pupil-teacher system in particular has led to successive modifications which have resulted in raising the standard of general education as well as of technical skill. I propose in this paper to discuss the sort of training which it is now very generally agreed should be provided for those intending to take up class teaching in public or private schools of primary or secondary character. No doubt the different types of class teaching require differentiation in the training courses. But this comes best towards the close of the training period, and in no case involves any fundamental difference in the principles which determine the arrange- ment of the course. Although the course of training may be longer or shorter, it should in every case be complete; that is, it should provide definitely for the development of the teacher’s culture and of his technical skill. Further, it is earnestly to be hoped that the time is not far distant when no unqualified person will be allowed to practise in the schoolroom, either because his general education is too limited or too advanced. At present the arrangements for train- ing the non-college teacher are in a very chaotic and unsatisfactory state, and require serious attention if the rural areas are to receive their educational due. Before I outline the main features of an organised course of training for the practice of class teaching, it is necessary to refer briefly to arrangements which are rapidly being superseded. It is certainly the case that the pupil-teacher system fulfilled its purpose of securing a supply of fairly competent teachers during a difficult period, but it cannot be regarded as any longer a satisfactory means of providing teachers to meet the educational demands of the present. And, indeed, the latest modifications which it has undergone in England have taken most of the earlier virtue out of it. It is certainly true that the apprentice teacher acquired, in favourable circum- stances, a very fair, or rather, limited power of instructing and handling large classes. But too often the circumstances were unsatis- factory, and pupil-teachers were allotted to schools where the head teacher had neither competence for nor interest in the work of train- ing his apprentices. With the abolition of apprenticeship a new task confronts the Teachers’ College, and one which has somewhat slowly been realised by the older colleges. It falls to the colleges to make much more iS af : (14 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. thorough arrangements than were formerly necessary for the training of their students in methods of instruction and class-room manage ment. A failure to recognise this necessity explains the adverse criticism which is sometimes directed against the rawness of the students on entering college. They cannot, it is said, stand up to a class as the pupil-teacher ‘could. ‘This has to be admitted, and it is the main business of the college to lay the foundations of that teach- ing skill which previously was acquired too early and at too great a cost. For it cannot be doubted that the teaching character of many pupil-teachers set too early, and became incapable of modification with wider knowledge and more extended experience. Thishas always been a serious bar to college training whenever it has been sought to make that training effective. The first changes in the pupil-teacher system were intended to secure better opportunity for general education, and eventually the half-time system with central classes was invented. But these changes inevitably brought about a decay of that ability to manage large classes which was claimed as the main advant: age of early apprentice- ship. Hence it is coming to, be realised that there is neither practical nor theoretical justification for the system, and the opinion is gaining ground in England that even the half-time system had better be given up and all technical training deferred till the secondary course is com- pleted. I may quote here two recent expressions of opinion :— Vide “ General Report on the Instruction and Training of Pupil- Teachers, 1903-1907,” published by Board of Education, London, 1907:—‘The Regulations of 1907 now render possible an alternative system, which was, indeed, fore- shadowed in the Prefatory Memorandum of 1903 itself, whereby the general education of future teachers may be continued uninterruptedly in secondary schools until the age of 17 or 18, and all attempt to obtain a practical experience of elementary school work may be deferred until the training college is entered, or at least until an examination making a natural break in that general education and qualifying for admission to a _ training college has been passed” (p. 26). Vide also “ The Training of the Primary School Teacher,” by C. Birchenough, in “ School” for September, 1908 (p. 75): “The root idea of pupil-teachership was to provide a supply of expert assistant teachers with considerable practical knowledge of school organisation and method ; it required that the teacher should be an expert in class management and class teaching the moment he fully embarked on his profession. Immediately this ideal failed to be realised the system must become discredited, and in the nature of things it was bound to fail once teaching came to mean something more than drilling, and as the standard of general education required of the average teacher was raised. Judged from such a standpoint the THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 715 present pupil-teacher system would have some difficulty in justifying its existence, for the salt of the old method, responsibility and guidance, has, in the vast majority of cases, been taken away, and even if this were not so, to teach according to modern ideals demands a wider know- ledge and a maturer mind, as well as time for reading and preparation, that the student cannot have. The standard of academic work has increased, too, and to attempt both is to do neither.” The academic and the professional standard of teaching com- petence have risen to a marked degree, and it is no longer possible for the average student to meet the demands of both coincidently. A realisation of this principle—viz., the separation of general from professional education—has been the determining motive in bringing about the altered arrangements for the training of teachers. It is likely, in my opinion, to lead to even further modifications than have so far been carried into effect. The only effective argument that can now be advanced for the retention of the pupil-teacher is that of cheap staffing of schools, and this argument will not bear examination either on economic or on moral grounds. One other matter must here be referred to. Nothing is more striking than the change that has come over educational aims and ideals during the past few years—especially in elementary education. The prefatory note to the code of the English Board of Education gives clear evidence of this change. The significance of this in its bearing on training is that much more, both in the way of knowledge and of skill, is required from the primary teacher if he is to meet the new requirements. These increased demands have brought about a new set of conditions which necessitate a more comprehensive system of training. However satisfactory the apprenticeship system was for the simpler conditions of former days it will not prove satisfactory now. And in this matter no community can afford permanently to adopt a lower standard of educational efficiency any more than of military or legal or medical eMciency. Economic considerations, if no higher, can be urged against such a_short- sighted policy. My criticism of the system that is passing away has been brief because I believe that few now regard it as satisfactory or wish to retain it. It will be more practical to pass to the consideration of the scheme which is replacing it. In setting before you this scheme I shall concern myself in the main with its underlying principles, as the working out in detail shows many minor variations to suit local circumstances. For illustration I shall refer to the arrangements in operation in New South Wales, although it has to be borne in mind that many of these are of a temporary nature, and either are being modified or will be so very shortly. A course of training for class teaching’ in primary or secondary schools falls into three main stages:—(a) The pre-college stage, . 116 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. when the prospective teacher is designated junior student, pro- bationary student, or student teacher; (4) The college stage; (c) The post-college stage or period of ex-studentship. Under the old system too little accout was taken of this third period. The student was supposed to leave the college with his train- ing completed, and with are more to acquire in the way of profes ssional skill or knowledg “This is not so, perhaps never was so, and hence, to secure the Fall benefit of training, supervision and direction are needed for some time after the ‘college course 1s completed. Something analogous to the hospital practice of the young medical man is needed. : In arranging the work of the first two periods of training there are two principles to be kept in view :—(a) The separation as complete as possible of professional and non-professional work; () A much more thorough professional study than has been customary in the past. My own opinion is that professional study and practice should be almost, if not entirely, excluded from the first period. In this I am not borne out by current practice in England and Scotland, though educational opinion, as shown for instance in the recent Blue Book, is moving in this direction. In New South Wales the plan I suggest is already in operation. The future teacher should pass from the primary to the secondary school along with other children without being marked in any way. When necessary bursaries should be given without any restriction as to future profession. A course of at least four years should be entered on at 12 or 13. After 15, when the intermediate or junior certificate is taken, there should be a partial differentiation of children remaining at school. Those who propose to take up teaching may Low be required to decide, though they need not enter upon any special course, but should pursue the ceneral course leading to a Leaving Certificate, or some equivalent examination. The leaving certificate would evidence the completion of a sound and well balanced secondary education including at least two languages, general science, mathematics, drawing, manual work, and music, with history and geography up to 15 at least. Students holding such a certificate would have carried their general education far enough to enable them to undertake class work with children up to 12 or 13. They might, therefore, enter at once upon a course of professional training, and would pass out after two years of proiessional work as teachers of the lowest grade. A certain number, however, will be desirous of carrying on general education further, and these should be allowed to do so by taking selected courses at the university, or in the case of the ablest students by proceeding to a degree in arts or science. When the examination which marks the completion of the secondary course has been passed, the student, before proceeding to the professional work of the Teachers’ College, might profitably THE TRAINING, OF TEACHERS. TLE spend two or three months in an approved school. Here his time would .be spent in observing classroom methods and organisation, in Beason teaching under direction, and in a study of a simple text book on teaching methods. This period would allow of the formation of an opinion by the head master of the candidate’s temperamental fitness for teaching. Thus the entrance qualification to the college would be+(a) the Leaving Certificate in a prescribed group of subjects; (6) evidence of temperamental fitness and capacity to profit by a course of pro- fessional training. Such an arrangement would have the further advantage of drawing supplies of teachefs from sources which hitherto have hardly been available. It will be noticed that I suggest a smaller amount of time for professional work during this stage than is at present generally demanded. But I am convinced that it is the influence of the older system which has led to the retention of so much professional study at what I regard as too early an age. The young student is not fit for technical study, and the time given it lowers the level of general education attainable. And surely the general education of the teacher of whatever grade should be at least as good as that required for other professions. Any half-time arrangement is to be deprecated as unsatisfactory in the interests of the student and of his future efficiency as a teacher. After the completion of a general education up to 17 or 18 the professional or college stage of training is entered upon. The characteristic of the college course is that it is mainly, though perhaps not exclusively, professional. In giving an account of the work falling to be done at this stage I propose to outline the organisation ‘either actually in operation or very shortly to be introduced at the College for Teachers in Sydney. The aim of the college course should without doubt be professional training. Jn the first period the general education of the student was the primary aim, the professional a subordinate one. Now the relative importance of the two elements is reversed. It is here that the task of the Teachers’ College differs from that of the normal schools, which on the whole took for granted that the student knew how to teach as the result of his pupilteacher training, and devoted their main energies to the improvement of the student’s general education. In my opinion the general culture of the student at this stage is best promoted by a simple introduction to philosophical and social science, and any further study of the primary school subjects which may be necessary is best made in a strictly professional interest. These philosophical and social subjects may be studied through- out the course, and will give the young student a broader conception of society, and of the place of the teacher‘in society. Further, such studies have a cultural effect at this period which no linguistic or mathematical drill can now have. 718 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. Before considering the general nature of the college course it is necessary to note the various types of student for whom provision has to be made-— (a) Students who have not the capacity or do not wish to continue their general education further than the leaving certificate or senior standard ; (6) Students who have the capacity and wish to carry their general education further, but who cannot successfully take a degree course ; ; (c) Students who can profitably undertake a course of study leading to a degree in arts or science ; (d) Students who have graduated betore entry upon the college course. The students who form groups (a) and (d) should enter upon their professional course at once. Those of groups (6) and (ec) only after two or three years of further general education. The profes- sional course for group (@) should be a two-year course; that for groups (6), (c), (d), a one-year course. Further, the two-year professional course would be simpler than the one-year course, and the more philosophical side of education would require to be omitted. Such a plan as I have just outhned must be adopted if the undue burden of a combined professional and non- professional course is to be avoided. At present we have not reached this point in Sydney, where the university students representing groups 2 and 3 are required to undertake coincidently academic and professional work. But the plan I suggest will, in all probability, come into operation in a few years. It may be noticed that it is being advocated strongly at present in Scotland. I pass to consider the two-year course in more detail, as this is the one which, under present circumstances, the majority of the students will pass through. During the first year the student should review the primary school subjects from the point of view of teaching method. At present in the Sydney College the first year is largely, devoted to carrying further the general education of the student. But this will in a year or two become unnecessary, and the time will be occupied by a detailed study of the methods of teaching primary school subjects. The student should further be able to appreciate a simple account of the process of reasoning and the general nature of the course of experience. An endeavour should be made to connect such intro- spective psychology with observation of children in and out of school. Further, a study of the physical conditions of class work may well be undertaken during this year. All this work should be intimately associated with observation work in the classroom. The practical work may be divided into observation, criticism lessons, and continuous practice, though not much of the latter can be attempted. Sufficient connection with class work should be maintained to secure that the theoretical work in college is prevented from becoming mere theory without practical bearing. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 719 The aims of a first-year course should then be— (a) To review primary school subjects from the method point of view ; (5) A simple treament of logic, psychology, and school hygiene ; (c) Observation and practice under direction. During the second year the subjects of study should be fewer and the methods more independent—the amount of practice should be greater and more continuous; and, further, there should be some differentiation of students for different types of teaching. At present the Sydney College second-year students are required to take up four major subjects—two of which are optional, the other two being theory and history of education and English. So far the subjects, “with the exception of education, have been studied quite as much for their own sake as from the point of view of being material for use in school. During the coming session much more attention will be given to the use of these subjects in the primary and higher primary classes. In each a special text book on method forms one of the books prescribed, and the student will be expected to draft single lessons and courses of lessons for class discussion, and in other ways will be practised in preparing his material for class use. In education the student makes a simple study of individual and social ethics—the principles of general method are considered on the basis ,of the students’ teaching experience and study of logic, psychology, and school hygiene. A beginning is made on the more abstract portions of educational theory, and a little history of education is read. All this work is valuable, not merely for its direct and immediate bearing on classroom teaching but because of its unique value in broadening the student’s outlook and putting him in a position from which he can criticise, in the light of general principles, the definite methods inculcated in the first year. Some students gain little from such work—their minds are yet too immature; but even these I have found to take a keen interest in the discussion of ethical and social problems. Towards the end of this year a study is made of the various problems of classroom management as well as of a variety of educational problems of importance to the teacher bearing on the relation of the school to the community. A short course of lectures is given on the organisation and working of a small rural school, although such work is rot generally required until after the full certificate is issued. The practice work falls into the saine divisions as in the first year—(a) Observation; (4) criticism lessons; (¢) continuous practice. Cbservation naturally occupies a smaller place. Criticism lessons take place weekly, and for this the students are arranged in groups of not more than 12 the direction of a college lecturer. At a preliminary mecting the course of lessons is arranged for, the class selected, and books of reference are suggested. Each sredent is expected to make a study of the subject matter of the course and to arrange it in the form of teaching notes. The members of the group in turn give one lesson of the series, and thereafter a discussion follows—a record of which is kept by each student. At the end of the term the lecturer submits a report on the work done by each 720 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. student, and the part taken by him in the discussions. These reports are filed along with the reports from lecturers and head masters on the continuous practice taken. Towards the close of the session the various reports are considered, and a mark representing the student’s practical skill in teaching is awarded. By this means a much truer estimate of the student’s teaching character can be formed than was possible when the mark was awarded by an Inspector who saw the student for a few minutes only, and under very unreal conditions. During the coming session the whole of the third or final term will be given up to continuous practice, in conjunction with lectures and discussions. During half the day the student will practise under the direction of the members of the college staff, and for the rest of the day they will attend at the college for professional lectures and discussions. This arrangement will probably be extended gradually to the whole of the second year, as, in fact, is already the case with students taking the kindergarten and infant school course. It is only by very careful arrangements for extended and supervised practice that the foundations for practical skill can be effectively laid. To secure this the student must be free from the pressure of academic work, and his whole interest concentrated upon his professional training. Unless there is this close and continued attention to class- room practice the theoretical instruction in principles and methods becomes harmful rather than beneficial. For successful practice must never be allowed to become uncriticised; routine and theory must be continually tested by practice. But even the most complete professional training leaves much to be done, and indeed some forms of classroom technique can hardly, if at all, be acquired, except when the teacher occupies a responsible position in charge of a class. Hence the college cannot completely form the teaching character of the student, and should not claim to send its students out as fully qualified practitioners. It is for this reason that a period of probation or ex-studentship is desirable. Before referring to this third stage it is necessary to say some- thing about the differentiation of students in their second year. During the first year all the students of group 1 pursue the same general professional course. But in the second year the following alternative courses are in operation :— (2) Ordinary course, qualifying for work in middle and upper primary classes, the practice work being taken with children ranging from nine to fourteen years; (2) Kindergarten and infant course qualifying for work with children up to about nine years of age. Practice through- out the year in selected kindergarten and infant schools; (c) Hawkesbury Agricultural College Course qualifying for work in rural schools. The students taking this course spend two terms of the second year at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, and become acquainted with rural school work in the public school there ; (d) University course and graduate course qualifying for work in the upper. primary and lower secondary classes. Practice work is taken with classes from 14 years upwards. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. (2) A few students who show special ability are granted a third year of training. Eventually a third or even a fourth year will requiré to be regarded as essential in the case of groups 2 and 3. At present students taking university subjects must combine their professional with their academic study, This arrangement is not satisfactory; but, until an extra year for training can be added, it can hardly be remedied. Probably for the abler students the stimulus of university study, even with the burden of professional work, 1s more beneficial than would be a simpler course which did not require them to put forth all their powers. But very careful arrangements are necessary in order to secure due attention to professional work. The burden of the double work has been lightened for the students in Sydney by the institution of a course of lectures on education as a degree subject. This will afford a much needed relief during the second year. THirD Stace or TRAINING. I pass to the third stage of training. This stage is one which has been unduly neglected in both England and Scotland. When the student left the normal college his professional education was Icoked upon as complete. His permanent certificate was awarded practically on the result of his college course. In this matter again the older method may be partially justified, since the student’s teaching character was really formed before the college was entered. But the conditions are now altered, and it is as 1 have shown the main business of the college to lay the foundation of a good teaching character. It cannot do much more, for there are certain forms of skill which are only perfected slowly. Methods of handling class subjects can readily be acquired, but only within hmits can powers of class management and control be developed. There are certain conditions of class teaching with which it is extremely difficult for the college to bring the student into touch. Hence the award of a permanent certificate should be deferred, and should only be given after a period of responsible practice, which will vary with the length of the course of training. It would be well if during the first few months of responsible work the college direction and advice could still be available. Further, for students who have not taken the advanced course in education, it would be desirable to require more advanced study of educational theory during the period of ex-student- ship. Indeed it would be well in the case of all young teachers to secure continued attenion to theory in order to avoid the danger of falling into routine practicés, which are a serious check to the growth of teaching character just after the college course is completed, and when practical problems are specially insistent. One further question remains to be touched on. A teachers’ ccllege, with aims and organisation such as I have outlined, will do most effective work if closely associated with the university. The connection may take various forms; but, for my own part, I think that a high standard is most likely to be attained when the profes- sional school for teachers is one of the schools of the university, and when all its students have passed an examination equivalent to, but, perhaps, not identical with the present matriculation examination. This of course does not mean that all students need pursue a course 2V 722 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. leading to a degree in arts or science. They may, as im the case of students attending other professienal schools, enter immediately upon their course of professional study. It is hardly necessary to refer in detail to the many advantages which accrue to the student, the schools, the university, and the community, through such a connection. Recent discussion has brought out clearly the main principles upon which the training of teachers should be based. Experiment will no doubt be required to secure an embodiment of these principles to suit local requirements. Especially during the first stage will difficulty be found in a sparsely populated locality in securing a general education of a sufficiently high standard readily accessible to all who can profit by it. But this difficulty is not one peculiar to the early education of tyoung teachers. It is part of the quite general problem of the provision throughout the country of adequate secondary education. It is obvious - too that the success of university and of technical education depends on a supply of students possessing a good general education, and to secure this a body of highly trained teachers is essential. More and more it is being realised that no element of the educational system is self-contained. The welfare and efficiency of each is dependent upon that of all. A defective primary system means defective secondary, technical, and university systems, and no efficient primary system is possible without a body of efficient, broad-minded, and enthusiastic teachers. 2.—FIFTY YEARS OF FDLCATION IN QUEENSLAND A RETROSPECT AND AN OUTLOOK. By J. D. STORY, Under Secretary, Department of Public Instruction, Queensland. Seeing that Queensland will celebrate this year the fiftieth anniversary of her proclamation as an autonomous colony, it seemed to me that an appropriate paper for this occasion might be one ‘reviewing, briefly, the progress which has been made in this State in the way ‘of education during the past fifty years, and referring shortly to the problems i enY the future holds. Fifty years ago Australia was almost an unknown land. Even ten years ago she was not regarded as a factor of any importance in the werld of education, and British, American, and German educationists did not think that there was any feature in the ‘Australian systems of education worthy of careful study. Up to that time Australia was looked upon as a land of empty spaces and magnificent distances; a land of vast potentialities and hidden wealth, but a land unpeopled and undeveloped; a land unknown in the realms of art, literature, science, and general culture. India was known; Canada was known; the war had brought South Africa into prominence; but Australia was not known. But during the last decade Australia has been unfolding. The opening of the first Parliament of the Commonwealth on the 9th of May, 1901, by His Royal Highness the Duke of Cornwall and York heralded the birth of a new nation; the trend of Commonwealth legislation has directed the eyes of the nations towards Australia; the Prime Minister of the’ EDUCATION IN QUEENSLAND. (2a Commonwealth was the most notable figure at the Imperial Confer- ence of 1907, overshadowing even the venerable Sir Wilfred Laurier. Australia was ably represented at the Federal Conference of Education held the same year under the auspices of the League of the Empire; the Franco-British Exhibition has brought the resources ot Australia prominently before the British people and foreign visitors; and America has paid a graceful tribute to the young nation by sending her fleet to visit her shores. Australia has emerged from her obscurity, but the passing into the heht will bring its risks as well as its privileges. During the past few years, also, a spirit of discontent and unrest, a sure sign of life and vitality, has arisen in the several Australian States in connection with their education systems, and many missioners have gone abroad to study the systems of other lands. These missioners agree broadly that the State-controlled, free, and compulsory system of primary education in Australia is not surpassed by the system of primary education in any other country; though there may be defects in details the general principles are sound. On the other hand, however, the consensus is that in other branches of education the Commonwealth is lagging behind. But she is now awake to her shortcomings ; State is “eagerly watching State in regard to educational developments, and a keen and healthy rivalry exists which should be productive of good. At the Federal Conference on Education held in London in 1907 it was announced that. the Imperial Government was so convinced of the value of such Conier- euces that it was seriously anxious that they should be called regularly and that they should bear the Imperial imprimatur. The first of the Conferences on Education to be convened by the Home Govern- ment is to be held in 1911, and it is probable that quadrennial conferences will be convened thereafter. These conferences will doubtless play an important part in the development of the education systems of Australia. Through her chosen representatives she will be kept well informed as to the progress being made in Britain, and in other parts of the Empire, and the horizon of her educationists should be materially widened. But in many respects the directors of education in the Commonwealth will have to solve their problems unaided ; conditions in Australia are so widely different from those in the older countries that the old has few lessons to teach the new in regard to some aspects of education in the new lands. Particularly is this the case in Queensland; she must work out her own salvation; she must plough her furrow alone. QUEENSLAND. From the 10th December, 1859, the date of the founding »f Queensland, to the 30th September, 1860, primary education was under the control of a Board of National Education appointed by the Governor in Council. That board consisted of W. Hobbs, A. Raff, W. J. Munce, and W. H. Day. When the board took office there were only two National schools in Queensland. The system of primary education obtaining in New South Wales was continued, but the subject of education was one of the earliest matters which received the consideration of the first Parliament of Queensland, and, in 1860, an Act to provide for primary education was passed. The 24 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. Bill was initiated in the Legislative Council by Captain O’Connell, and Mr. R. G. W. Herbert had charge of the measure in the Legislative Assembly. The object of the measure was to provide primary education under one general and comprehensive system, and to afford facilities to persons of all denominations for the education of their children in the same school without prejudice to their religious beliefs. The Act provided for the appointment of a “Board of General Education” to consist of five members, together with a Minister of the Crown who would, er officio, act as, Chairman of the Board. The members of the ee Board of General Education were :— A. Macalister (Chairman), R. W. Herbert, R. Pring, R. R. Mac- kenzie, A. W. Manning, and 7 Panton. The scheme of primary education which the board framed was based upon the general prin- ciples of the National system in operation in Ireland. Schools were divided into two classes—Vested and Non-vested. The vested schools were unsectarian in character. The aid granted by the board towards the establishment, equipment, and up keep of schools varied from time to time, and ranged from one-half to two-thirds. The board appointed the teachers. The salaries of teachers were supplemented by school fees, ranging from 3d. to 1s. 6d. per week for each scholar according to his standard in the school work. When the board took office there were 10 teachers, 493 pupils, and 4 schools. The employees of the board were:—Inspector, Randall Macdonnell; secretary, R. Bourne; teachers, J. Rendall, J. Harris, J. Scott, A. Narracott, A. Stewart, J- Robertson, and Miss Berry ; pupil-teachers, Miss Taylor, Miss Marshall, and C. Francis. The four schoois were :—-Brisbane (Boys); Brisbane (Girls); Drayton; and Warwick. The total expenditure in 1860 was £1,615 2s, 3d. School fees were abolished by Charles Lilley from the Ist of January, 1870, and since that date primary State education in Queensland has been free. The Education Act of 1860 was superseded by “The State Education Act of 1875”; that Act came into operation on the Ist January, 1876, and is still in force. The author of the Act was Sir S. W. Griffith, the present Chief Justice of the Commonwealth, and he was the first Minister for Public Instruction in Queensland. The first Under Secretary was Mr. C. J. Graham. On the 31st December, 1875, there were 230 schools in operation, the aggregate attendance for the year being 33,643, and the average 16,887. The number of teachers s employed. was 595, and the total expenditure for the year was £83,219 14s. 9d. The new Act provided that the whole system of public instruction in Queensland, formerly administered by the Board of General Education, should be transferred to a department of the Public Service to be called the Department of Public Instruction. State aid to non-vested schools was withdrawn as from the 31st December, 1880. When this Act was passed it was regarded as the most progressive Education Act in Australia. Primary education was brought entirely under the control of the State; the incubus of vested rights was strangled in its infancy; and a system was evolved which the critical test of thirty-three years has proved to be in keeping with the highest ideals of a true democracy. The British Cabinet and the English Board of Education would feel the cares of office less irksome ii they could find themselves in the same happy position to-day. EDUCATION IN QUEENSLAND. 125 In 1895 a motion was moved in Parliament for the establishment of Superior State Schools with a view to providing higher education for children in towns and populous centres where grammar schools did not esixt. The ultimate result of this action was the passing of “Zhe State Education Act Amendment Act of 1897,” which gave the Governor-in-Council power to prescribe that any subjects of secular instruction might be subjects of instruction in primary schools. The Department immediately took advantage of this amending Act, and provided for the teaching of mathematics, higher English, and science in the fifth and sixth classes. The amending Act was passed at the instance of the Hon. D. H. Dalrymple, who was the Minister at the time. So far as the resources at its disposal have admitted, the Depart- ment has done what it could to bring the means of primary education within the reach of the children of the State, and it may be safely claimed that wherever twelve children can be gathered together there exists a school. But if the children cannot be gathered into groups, the Department goes to the homes of the pupils. Itinerant teachers, fully equipped with buggies, camping-outfits, school requisites, and other necessaries, traverse the sparsely settled districs where the establishment of schools is not possible. The travelling teachers do not look for palatial schools with tiled floors and frescoed walls in those far western and northern lands; they look for the homes of the pupils, be those homes rude wayside inns, rough log cabins, or even tents. Where the home of the child is, there the school is—be it ever so humble. The Department does not claim to produce university graduates under this system; but it does claim to teach these little ones to read, to write, and to count. This is one of the furrows which the Queensland Department is trying to plough. Three years ago the Department began to appoint trained teachers to the charge oi all schools where the attendance exceeded twelve; by this process properly qualified teachers will soon be in charge of 90 per cent. of the schools of the State. One of the most difficult problems which has to be faced in England, Scotland, America, and also in some of our sister States, is the adequate staffing of small country schools by efficient teachers. Queensland has solved that problem. The day has gone by in this State when the school was a haven for the storm-tossed derelict who had drifted from calling to calling until he found a safe anchorage in a little school in some back- water. In all the literature which I have read, and the inquiries which I have made, I have not been able to discover that any State has done better than Queensland in this respect, and the magnitude of the task will be understood when it is realised that out of the 1,116 primary schools in Queensland 639 have an attendance of less than thirty pupils, that some of the schools to be administered are a three weeks’ journey from the departmental base, and that Queensland is a territory. so vast that England and Wales could be put into it about twelve times, and Victoria about eight times. Tt has become almost a platitude that the well-being of a nation depends upon the efficiency of its education system; but the true and lasting efficiency of a system must depend upon the quality of its teachers. Organisation may be perfect; regulations and schedules 726 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. may be faultless; buildings and equipment may be the best that lavish grants of money can produce; but unless the teacher is a skilled and sympathetic craftsman, happy in his surroundings, a high standard of excellence will not be reached and maintained. Assuming again that national well-being depends upon educational efficiency, it logically follows that education from the kindergarten to the university should be one of the chief concerns of the State; that the profession of teaching should be made one of the most attractive and honourable of the professions; that the highest intellects of the State should be culled for the teaching service; and that the well-being of its members should be carefully tended. The enthusiasm of the true teacher dies «lowly, but no enthusiasm, however intense, will withstand the chilling blasts and biting frosts of neglect and lack of appreciation ; the winter of discontent surely sets in, and its blighting effects rapidly and disastrously permeate a whole service. The teacher loses interest in his work; his main object becomes not the efficiency of his school but a desire to find a more congenial and a more remunerative field of labour; or, if he be devoid of ambition, to work with just sufficient energy to escape official censure. The teacher is but human. No more striking exemplification of these facts can be found than in the American system. In many respects the American organisation approaches the ideal; but in appreciation of their teachers and care for their material well-being Americans seem to be surprisingly neglectful for so astute and far-seeing a people. The Rev. Herbert Gray, Warden and Head Master of the Bradfield College, in Berkshire, and a member of the Moseley Commission which visited the United States in 1903, stated that he had been assured that not more than 7 per cent. of male teachers in secondary schools stay in the profession more than five years; andnot morethan 5 percent. make it their life’s vocation ; the same remarks may be applied, but in a modified form. to the elementary school teachers in America. Writing in the “Educational Review” of April last, C. W. Bardeen affirmed that in the seven years ending 1906 the number of men teachers in the United States had decreased 24 per cent. Teaching is just as much a man’s vocation as it is a woman’s; indeed, for the higher education of boys it is the man rather than the woman that is needed. There must be something seriously defective in a system of education which fails not only to obtain sufficient good men for its service, but fails to keep the men that it does obtain. The defects are not hard to locate; the pay is poor ; the prospects of promotion are bad; the tenure of position Is insecure; teaching is not fully recognised as amongst the learned professions, and the lack of that recognition re-acts detrimentally upon the standing of the teachers. The care which the Germans take of their teachers is in striking contrast to the policy of the Americans; and the tender regard which Prince Bismarck had for the teaching profession is characteristic of the whole German nation. On the occasion of Bismarck’s seventieth birthday the German nation collected a large sum of money by public subscription, with which they bought back the estate which had once formed part of the family property of Schoenhausen, and made Bismarck a present of it. A sum of 1,200,000 marks beyond the amount required for the purpose remained in hand, and was placed «vee on EDUCATION IN QUEENSLAND. 127 at the Prince’s free disposal to do with it what he might deem fit. He decided to devote it to a fund to be named after his birthplace, and to be administered for all time from Schoenhausen. The fund was to be devoted to provide assistance for deserving young Germans who had embraced the scholastic profession and might be in need of support prior to obtaining regular appointment; also to assist poor widows of German schoolmasters towards the education of their children. This trust is administered under the strict control of the State. Teachers stand high in public estimation in Queensland, and that estimation is steadily rising; primary school teachers are officers of the State; and are not subject to the caprices of boards or local committees; they enjoy the protection and privileges of the Public Service Act, and the interests of no branch of the public service are more zealously protected by Parliament than the interests of the teachers. The pay on the whole is good—particularly that of head teachers ; and the conditions of service are not unfavourable. Perhaps the surest proof of these statements is that the Department is able to keep its teachers. The appointment of primary school teachers to the Commission of the Peace and to be returning officers and presiding officers in connection with State elections is a sure indication of the confidence which the Government has in them. The wisdom of drawing teachers into the political vortex has been questioned, but their appointment to these responsible civic positions is at least a high tribute to their ability, integrity, and impartiality. From the standpoint of the well-being of the teacher the most serious defect in our system, and it is a really serious one, is the want of a sound Superannuation Scheme; but we have now good reason to believe that the blemish will soon be removed. So far I have written of the bright side of primary education in this State, but there is a dark side also. However, we know our weaknesses, and we know in what direction reform should lie. Perhaps the three most urgent reforms at the present moment are the amend- ment of the pupil teacher s system; the amendment of the compulsory clauses of the Education Act; and the establishment of a training college for teachers. These reforms have been advocated by the Department time and again, and time and again they will still be advocated, until the much desired reforms have been effected. Professor Henry Jones, of the Glasgow University, on the occasion of his recent visit to this State, asked half jocularly, half sarcastically, whether Queensland regarded herself as a civilised country, seeing that she was without a ‘University. The sane question might reason- ably be asked in regard to a training college for teachers. In the early years of its existence the Department obtained trained teachers from Great Britain, but since 188) almost the whole supply of teachers has been obtained from local sources—mainly through the pupil-teacher system. Most of the teachers obtained from Great Britain, both.males and females, have done highly commendable work in this State, and many of the largest schools are occupied by teachers who are graduates of the training colleges of the home land. The influences. of these teachers, ant through them of their training colleges, has saturated our system, and the value of the work done by o/4) 72 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. the teachers directly, and by their colleges indireetly, in the moulding and training of young Queensland teachers cannot ‘well be appraised. It is noteworthy that the Director of Education and nine out of the twelve Inspectors of Schools are college trainees. It may be partly due to these reasons, aside from ananeil considerations, that the establishment of a training college has been so long deferred. But the sands of time run quickly through the glass; the elder of the brotherhood of home-trained teachers are eradually reaching the allotted span of public service life; and with the passing of the home- trained teachers will pass the intiuences and associations of the train- ing colleges. Therein lies our danger; because, however excellent the local material may be, and its excellence is not doubted, it is not fair to expect the native-born, without special training, to produce results superior to, or even equal to, the results produced by specially trained men. SEcoNDARY EpvucatIon. The Director of Education in Victoria in his recent report upon observations made during an official visit to Europe and America vigorously applauds the steps which have been taken in Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria, the United States, and the smaller countries to provide efficient secondary schools. In these countries, Mr. Tate found, as other Australian educationists had found before him, a more or less completely co-ordinated system of schools, ranging from the primary school to the university, maintained or controlled by the Government or by public bodies. As a result of this organisation the schools are either free schools, or the fees charged are so moderate that higher education has ceased to be the privilege of the well-to-do. Mr. Tate scathingly condemns the apathy which has been shown in Victoria in regard to Secondary education. Compared with Victoria, or indeed with any Australian State, Queensland has little reason to be ashamed of the support which she has given to Secondary educa- tion. In 1860, that is within one year of her founding as a separate State, an Act was passed to provide for the establishment of grammar schools in which was to be given an education higher than that which could be given in the elementary schools. The remarks made by Mr. R. G. W. SHorbart who introduced the Bill in the Legislative Assembly, are very interesting. He said:—‘The question of education might be considered under three heads as primary, grammar school, and collegiate. The Bill introduced into the other branch of the Legis-. lature was intended to provide for primary education, principally under the national system, and would make adequate provision for imparting fundamental instruction at a cheap rate to all classes of youth without distinction of creed or religious profession. The Bill he now introduced was intended to provide for a higher order of in- struction of a useful and thoroughly practical Aneel ce by establish- ing grammar schools easily accessible to the colonial youth of all denominations throughout the colony. . . . It was desirable that the instruction to be afforded in: the grammar schools should be afforded at a cheap rate, so that as many as possible might avail themselves of it, and that it should be such as would best qualify the youth of the colony for discharging the duties that would devolve upon them in after life.” EDUCATION IN QUEENSLAND. 729 Captain O’Connell, who introduced the measure in the Legislative Council, said :—‘‘It was merely a sequel to the Primary Education Bill, and was designed to give those who might desire it a higher education than could be afforded by the primary schools. It was a matter of the greatest importance that a system of this kind should be established on a broad and permanent foundation, and therefore it was not difficult to perceive that the creation of primary schools such as were contemplated under the other Bill would be found extremely useful in carrying out the great objects now proposed to be accom- plished.” Under the previsions of the Grammar Schools Act a grammar school may be established in any locality where a sum of not less than £1,000 has been raised locally, and the Governor in Council may grant towards the erection of school buildings and a residence for the principal a subsidy equal to twice the amount raised locally. An amending Act was passed in 1864, providing that when certain conditions had been complied with an annual endowment of £1,000 might be granted to each grammar school. Each grammar school is governed by a board of seven trustees; of these four are appointed by the Government, and three are nominated by the sub- scribers to the building fund; they hold office for three years. There are ten grammar schools in the State; seven in the South, two in the centre, and one in the north. The Ipswich Grammar School for boys was the first grammar school to be established in Queensland ; it was erected in 1863. The last grammar school established was the schoo! for girls in Rockhampton; it was founded in 1892. Each of the schools has qualified for the annual endowment of £1,000 per annum ; of this amount the State pays £750 a year unconditionally, and £250 on the understanding that each school will receive a certain number of State scholars per annum; the scholarships held by these pupils are known as district scholarships. Queensland has always been liberal in the granting of scholarships, and at the present time eighty-six scholarships are granted per annum; of these fifty-seven are available for boys, and twenty-nine for girls. These scholarships include the district scholarships. Each scholarship has a currency of three years. The State also grants six bursaries to boys and two to girls. The bursary entitles the holder to free education at an approved Secondary school for three years, together with a cash allowance of £30 per annum. In addition to the scholarships granted by the State, the trustees of the various grammar schools aiso grant scholarships. In 1907 the number of pupils in attendance at the grammar schools was 1,044, and of these fully one-third were the holders of scholarships. Free railway passes to the nearest grammar school are granted to the holders of scholarships. It is helieved that in the past children of poor parents may have been prevented from competing for scholar- ships because, even if they won these prizes, their parents could not afford to keep them at grammar schools. To assist the children of really poor parents the Government intend to grant a living allowance of £12 per annum to the winners of scholarships provided that the income of the parents does not exceed three pounds per week, or £30 per annunr for each bond fide member of the family. This rule will come into operation as from the Ist of January, 1909. 730 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. It is generally recognised that the Queensland grammar schools do good work; the success of their students in the Junior and Senior examinations of the Sydney University abundantly justify this con- clusion. Each school constructs its own programme, but, broadly speaking, the curriculum of the several schools is designed to lead up to the Sydney University. As each school practically shapes its own course the success of the institution depends very largely upon the personality, efficiency, and vigour of the principal. ' In addition to the State-endowed grammar schools there are several other secondary schools. Some of the schvois are denominational, and others are conducted by private persons. These secondary schools are not endowed by the State, but the winners of State scholarships or bursaries may attend these institutions if the Governor in Council is satisfied that they are of a sufficiently high standard. As there is not a university in Queensland, the State grants each year. three exhibitions to universities. The exhibitions are open to competition, and the test examination is the senior examination of the Sydney University. Each exhibition has a currency of three years, and is worth £160 a year. The winners may attend any University approved by the Governor in council. It will thus be seen that Queensland has been fairly liberal in providing the means of higher education for her children. A com- parison with her sister States of New South Wales and Victoria emphasises this fact. During the year 1906-7 New South Wales, with a population of 1,526,697, and a revenue of £13,392,435, eranted £12,945 towards secondary education; Victoria, with a population: of 1,231,940, and a revenue of £8,345,534, granted £5,874; Queensland, with a population of 535,113, and a revenue of £4,307,912, granted £12,909; this amount is exclusive of £900 per annum granted on account of exhibitions to universities. In comparison with New Aaland; ee: all the Australian States figure very poorly. In Dees 7, New Zealand, with a population of 977,220, and a revenue cf £7,650,098, eranted £64,528 im aid of secondary education; that amount includes the salaries of staffs of the secondary classes in district high schools. Trecounican Epucarion. The system of technical education in Queensland is in its infancy, but no branch of education is likely to make more rapid and lusty growth during the next 50 years, or to have a more important bearing upon the industrial and commercial development of the State. Australia has excellent opportunities of becoming a large manu- facturing nation; Nature has dealt bountifully with her, and her products are many and varied. The Commonwealth Government, by means of a highly protective tariff and by industrial legislation, is encouraging and fostering Australian industries ; and it is now for the people of Australia to make full use of their opportunities. The following few statistics may help to illustrate the possibilities which he before Austrahans as a manufacturing nation. The value of apparel, textiles, &e., including boots imported into the Common- wealth in 1906, was £13,508,844; of metals manufactured, including machinery, £7,932,675 ; wood and wicker material, raw and manu- factured, £1,698,766. The value of the wool exported in 1906 was ae EDUCATION IN QUEENSLAND. Ua £22,645,769; of skins and hides, £1,597,343; of metals, ores, &c. (exclusive ote specie), £13,379,488 ; of wood, &c., £1,044,043. When we consider the very eee amount of raw material which Australa exports, and the large amount of manufactured material which she imports, material, be it remembered, manufactured largely out of the raw produce which she has exported, it is hard to see why Austr alia should not in time be able not only to supply many of her own require- ments but to become a large exporter of manufactured material as well as of raw material. But to enable those results to be achieved, the intelligence of the industrial captains must be highly trained and their directive faculties developed; the operatives must be highly skilled, and the machinery made as perfect as man can make it. It is in this direction that the powerful forces of technical education will be called into action; for what technical education has done for Germany and America in raising them to the front rank of industrial and commercial nations it should do for the Australian States, if it is properly organised and skilfully directed and applied. Patriotic Queenslanders regard their State as the queen State of the Common- wealth, and they are not slow to proclaim her manifold glories or to discourse eloquently upon her many and varied resources. Certainly Nature has been very lavish in her gifts; but of all the States Queens- land is possibly the one which may be benefited most by a properly developed system of technical education, and she must not only make her opportunities but seize those which she has. Her mineral wealth seems to be almost limitless, but proper methods have yet to be discovered of treating many of her refractory ores; her agricultural resources are great, “but ways of combating destructive pests have to be evolved; drought itself has to be resisted.. The vista of possi- bilities in the way of scientific research is boundless; and in the making of that research the technical institutes must act as accessories to the University: when it comes. In the commercial, industrial, and agricultural departments technical education has an important part to play. It is only since July, 1905, that the Department has been closely associated with the administration of technical education in Queens- land. Previous to 1902 technical -colleges, with the exception of the Brisbane college, were carried on in connection with schools of arts under the contro! of local committees. The Brisbane Technical College has been in existence as a distinct institution since 1882, and during the whole period of its existence it has been under the directorship of Mr. D. R. McConnel, M.A., who may be regarded as the father of technical education in Queensland, and one of the earliest pioneers of technical education in the whole of Australia. The State subsidised the technical colleges to the extent of £1 for each £1 paid in fees or subseribed «for technical college purposes. In 1902 a Board of Technical Education was erented): the board held office until 1905, when this branch of education was placed under the control of the Department, and a special officer was appointed to supervise the work. Endowment is now paid upon a differential scale, the distribution being based on the general and practical utility of the subjects taught; the subsidy ranges from 10s. to £3 for eyery £1 of fees collected. There ‘were 16 colleges in operation during 1907, and the total number of [32 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. individual students in attendance was 4,702. The technical coileges 6: «Jueensland are not comparable with the technical institutes of Beane America, and Germany; and much of the work done is of a continua- tion class nature. The importance of a highly developed system of technical educa- tion has been fully realised in this State, and in 1908 a Technical Instruction Act was passed. This Act provides for the establishment of a central technical college in Brisbane which shall be maintained by and be under the direct control of the State. It is intended that this college shall be the recognised technical institute of Queensland, and it is hoped that it may ultimately be one of the leading and most important institutions of the kind in Australia. The colleges outside the metropolis will be affiliated with the central institution, but will remain under local control. The foregoing account will show that Queensland has not been unmindful of the advantages of a good system of education. But, though much has been done in the past to perfect the system, much still remains to be done. Though storm clouds gather from time to time, and rumours of war are flashed from shore to shore, the majority of us are hopeful that the differences of nations will be settled in future by the diplomacy of statesmen rather than by recourse to war; and that international rivalries will henceforth be confined largely to the struggles of commerce and manufactures, in which education will be one of the main factors and war and carnage will be unknown. Already Nation is vieing with Nation for supremacy in education, and Britain, America, Germany, Japan, and other countries are bringing their educational Dr eadnoughts to a higher and ever higher degree ‘of perfection. Our sister States of the Commonwealth are awake to their responsibilities, and educational reform is being pursued vigorously. Queensland cannot afford to linger behind or to tread the primrose path of dalliance. It cannot be emphasised too often that with her vast latent potentialities it 1s indispensable that she should have a good system of education extending from the kindergarten to the university. Probably she has more to gain than any other State of the Commonwealth by a thoroughly efficient system of education, and possibly Queensland is in a better position than any other of the States to establish a truly national system which shall include every rung of the educational ladder. Primary education 1s entirely under the control of the State; technical education almost so; and secondary education largely so if the State cared to exercise its powers ; the university has yet to be established, and as the larger part of the funds for its establishment, equipment, and maintenance must come out of the State Treasury, Parliament will have the oppor- tunity of making the university the copestone of the national temple of education. It is easy, comparatively, to review in a cursory way what has been done for education in Queensland during the past 50 years; it is not so easy to dip into the future and say with certitude precisely what should be done during the next 50. Time has worked many changes in tliis State since 1859; and the ercat reaper will have worked even ereater changes by 1999, when most of us here to-day will probably have crept silently to fest. The old lands move slowly, but EVOLUTION OF QUEENSLAND TEACHER. 733 ° the new lands more with amazing rapidity, and we are hopeful that Queensland’s development will proceed apace. But dealing with circumstances as they now exist; analysing dispassionately the defects in our system as time and experience have revealed them; weighing well the further requirements in regard to education which the general development otf fhe State, the expansion of her industries, and the growth of her interests have rendered neces- sary; and keeping prominently in view the progress of education in other parts of the world, it is not a hard task to construct a platform which will engage the attention of the most skilful of our educationists for at least a decade. Thera is the general correlation of the whole system—the forging of the chain of national education of which each branch of education shall form an indispensable link ; the betterment, if not the abolition, of the pupilteacher system; the establishment of a training college for teachers; the amendment of the compulsory clauses of the Education Act; the improvement of school furniture; medical inspection of children; the establishment of high-grade and superior schools; the linking of secondary with primary schools; the bringing of a secondary education within the reach of a greater tumber of children ; the fostering of continuation classes; the develop- ment and expansion of a sound system of technical education; the establishment of a university. There is magnificent work in Queens- land for educationists to do; it will be hard work; it will be wearing work ; it will be dispiriting work ; for difficulties are many, critics are legion; and funds, alas, too often run low; but surely one of the noblest works in which a man can be employed i is in building a system of education which shall mould the character of the children of his country, efficiently equip them for the battle of life, and generally tend to the uplifting of the nation. 3.—THE EVOLUTION OF THE QUEENSLAND PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHER. By J. J. DEMPSEY, State School, Junction Park, Brisbane. In 1859 separation from New South Wales left us with the legacy of the New South Wales system, and two public or national schools of our own. The Board of Education formed under the Act of 1860 had, at first, a difficult task. The material available for teachers was often of an unsatisfactory character. In public and private, the idea prevailed that only very humble and ordinary qualifications were needed, and for these the board offered a remuneration sufficient to attract just that kind of “teacher” (so-called). As illustrating the notions prevalent at that time, I recall the visit of the parent of a classmate who asked our head master “to make a teacher of her lad, for indeed, sir,” said she, “he seems to be fit for nothing else. » Fortunately for him, fate afterwards turned him into a very successful pioneer farmer. No one saw anything incongruous in that mother’s remark at the time. It was made in all good faith, and accepted quite as a matter of course. Recalling it alter nearly forty years, there seems to me to be a joke somewhere in it. [I may say it does not always take me forty years to see the point of a joke.] However, the 734 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. J] position and popular estimate of the teacher shows slow upward progress during the first decade after separation. When Queensland had been ten years running as a separate State, it possessed a staff of 170 teachers and pupil-teachers in eighty-eight schools, who received an average salary of £67 per year. But of these, eighty-eight, or a little over half, had school fees which averaged £47 additional, so that the head teachers of those days had the princely average income of £114 a year. Wait! I must not forget to add that, in order to encourage the employment cf the more reliable married teacher, the board, wherever possible, provided a residence which it was stipulated in the specifications “must contain at least two decent rooms and a kitchen.” At the time I speak of there were two classes of schools—vested or board schools, and non-vested or denominational schools; the figures cover the whole of the State-paid salaries in both classes of schools. When I state that the pay in the non-vested schools was usually much lower than in the board’s schools, one gets an idea of the slender remuneration received by the teachers in the denominational schools. Small wonder that very great difficulty was experienced in retaining the services of the non-vested teachers. Those who amounted to anything resigned and sought admission to the board’s service. The result was, in the denominational schools, a “survival of the unfit”; and quite naturally the quality of what was called “the instruction” was of a very inferior kind. Thoughtful citizens saw and deplored the two- fold waste—the waste of money on inferior teaching, and the irrepar- able waste of school years of a large section of the rising community. Hence arose an agitation for the amendment of the Act, which in 1873-4 culminated in a Royal Commission, and the introduction of the Act under which we now work. Before leaving this pioneer stage and its lessons, I have some other points to mention, and some conclusions to draw. The average attendance was only a fraction over 50 per cent. of the enrolment, a fact which speaks volumes for the kind of “ discipline” that obtained in the schools. Indeed, it was not uncommon for a large proportion of a school to go off on truanting expeditions of indefinite duration (on the principle of the safety in numbers). When I add that corporal punishment was extremely common, and severe to a degree now happily unheard of, I have summed up in these two facts the low ebb at which real teaching stood. Of all the cheap things a nation can invest in cheap teaching is the worst bargain. An effort had been made to “grow” a better supply by means of the pupil- teacher system; this was only partially successful for several reasons. In the earlier sixties Brisbane had no grammar school, and parents of the better class who desired an education, anything beyond the three h’s, found it a good plan to make pupil-teachers of their children. But as these mostly resigned towards the end of their term of pupilage, no great permanent improvement to the staff resulted. Moreover, the then head of the only “model” or normal school was not a trained teacher himself. Meanwhile population was flowing in, enrolment was increasing, and among the new arrivals were some pioneer teachers, men who were destined to leave the impress of their strong personality on our EE EVOLUTION OF QUEENSLAND TEACHER. 735 system. At first they battled almost alone. Even as late as Ist January, 1870, when primary education became free (“ Report of Board of Education, 1869,” p. 10), only one female assistant had as much as £100 a year, and a good deal more than half of the fifty-seven male assistants had just that amount each. Our best public men saw that the first step was to secure better remuneration, as a preliminary to attracting arid retaining better men and women. In the middle sixties several strong men arrived in Queensland and took work with the Board. Mr. Anderson, Mr. Kerr, Mr. Ewart, and Mr. Platt were amongst the number, and by voice and pen they battled for better things, and oradually the leading men of Queensland were induced to see the need for more consideration for their teachers. Better salaries, buildings, and residences began to appear. The aristocracy of intellect among the pupils now tur ned towards te: aching as an occu- pation—the aristocracy of money and influence had gone off to the grammar schools, but “scholarships” had not been begun. The board’s outlay for prizes and scholarships in 1869 was £35. The pupil-teachers joining about this time proved the best we ever had. Many of them hold leading positions as teachers and inspectors to-day. A most important new departure was made in the seventies, by which one or more assistants in certain schools were allotted ie ermite staff rank” as first, second, &c., assistant, with a share in the capitation allowance. For nearly twenty years this system was in vogue. It placed a premium on loyalty, diligence, tact, and superior skill in teaching, and it bred a class of assistant teachers now almost, if not entirely, extinct. It fostered a spirit and a degree ot loyalty and self-sacrifice that united all ranks in the school in the heartiest co-operation for its good, and in pride in its success. It was an excellent preparation for the young man aspiring to the charge of his own school. But the custom lapsed, and gradually disappeared in the early “nineties,” and few, if any, of the present assistants ever experienced the benefits of it or know anything about it. Then came the system of scholarships: the best blood was drained away to enrich the grammar schools, and almost never found its way back to assist in the work of teaching. This mistake has been persisted in ever since, but at last we are awaking to the fact that our pupil-teachers would be less trouble anid be much more valuable if the grammar schools formed the only door imto the education service. In 1871-2 came the pupil-teachers’ training class under Mr. J. S. Kerr. For the first time the pupil-teacher got a fair chance to grow into something good. The work was continued by Mr. Platt for some years, during which he also did a good deal to help many adult candidates of more or less merit to enter and find a footing in the service, some of them born teachers, and not a few of them successful men and women to- day. The British teachers had begun to drop in in ones and twos and the intellectual and professional stamp of the teachers was rising steadily. At last it was felt that we had enough good teachers to take charge of the work of training “P.T.’s” as we know it, and in 1876 the “old training class” was discontinued. On the suggestion of a leading teacher the training fee of £5 per year per pupil- “teacher was etree I think the gross amount paid in this way to head teachers must by this time be very large, indeed, probably £50,000 has been 736 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. so paid, and probably, too, not five present-day teachers could tell you to whose suggestion these little annual windfalls are due. But how was our Queensland teacher doing without a training college all this time? Well, several expedients were resorted to, and if our teachers as a body were not trained they certainly resemble Topsy in having “growed” (and “growed considerable”). Our early teachers had few subjects to teach; there was wonderful freedom from interference—the solitary inspector, who examined all Queensland, seldom troubled you more than once a year. But after a time things were shaped up, and the inspectors-—for there were now two—began to act as Masters of Method. They were wonderfully kind, patient and considerate; they took immense pains, and little by little the educational army swung into line. Later Mr. Kerr took charge of the Normal School, where his influence, seemingly at first wastefully concentrated, was really in the end spread to the utmost limits of the colony, till now, wherever you find a man who has worked under the veteran training master, inspector, and master of the model school, there you have a man who has high ideals in his work, who is never afraid to work hard in the interests of his pupils, and who will hand down the influence of the “grand old man” of Queensland to untold generations of teachers. The addition.of Messrs. Platt and Ewart to the inspectorate completed the guiding force which really shaped our system finally, inspired our teachers with their ideals, and set every- thing in good going order. About this time it occurred to someone in authority that a little “tone” would be a good thing for the Education Service, and that a needed touch of refinement and erudition would be added by the appointment of an inspector with high university degrees. He came and he saw, but, alas! did not conquer, and after a very uncomfort- able time he solved the difficulty by resigning. He did one good service in proving that not every learned man can be a teacher or a school inspector. About this period, too, the ranks of the college trained men who had ventured in ones and twos to Queensland were reinforced by a steady stream of teachers drawn from Great Britain. There were some who proved unsuitable for the work, but the majority had enough “adaptability” to shake down in their new surroundings, and after acquiring the indispensable “colonial experi- ence” they became a valuable element in the service. At their best they might have numbered a sixth of the whole staff; now, I daresay, they are not more than a twelfth, if so large a proportion as that. But even a little leaven, if it be of the right sort, cannot fail to leaven the mass. The professors and masters of the training colleges of Britain have spoken through them to our assistants, and our pupil- teachers are speaking to them daily now, and the influence, the impetus thus acquired goes on in ever-widening circles and spreads already even to the remote corners of the State. They did not found our first Teachers’ Associations, but they have done much to strengthen and extend them. The work of these associations has completely changed the whole nature and outlook of the Queensland teacher, and much of this is due to the spirit of discussion, inquiry, and comparison of methods and views resulting from those friendly meetings of teachers hitherto almost unknown in Queensland. At the starting of EVOLUTION OF QUEENSLAND TEACHER. 737 one of these associations the veteran chairman counselled all to join and get rid of swelled-head by meeting their fellows and learning their hitherto unsuspected excellencies. He related a sort of parable of a new minister of a Scotch kirk, who asked the ruling elder how many true Christians there were in the somewhat. numerous congregation. “Weel, mineester, there’s just me and Sandy—and—well whiles, I hae my doots o’ Sandy.” That, he said, was what we wanted to alter. We all had our “doots of Sandy—we had none of oursel’s, and had not any need to pray for a ‘guid conceit’ o’ ourselves.” When the history of the last two decades in primary education is written, the work of the Teachers’ Union and its branch associations will be found to have done more than all other forces combined in breaking down that isolation which is so detrimental to the real advancement of teachers. A very strongly marked change came over the spirit of the teachers when passes to technical college and other lectures began to be used—the old isolation was at last completely broken up, the dry bones were stirred, the peculiar, reserved, semi-crank individual came out of his shell, and has never returned to it. In these lectures, and in the courses at Gatton, the influence of our present Senior Inspector, Mr. J. Shirley, was specially valuable. To the forces already mentioned must be added the effects of the teachers’ volunteer corps, and its later development, the cadet move- ment. If there was any tendency to priggishness left in the younger men this will, I think, effectually shake it out—or, at least, out of those who are wise enough to come within the beneficial influence of the movement. And if we have still any iingering “ doots of Sandy,” let us join some of the many courses at the agricultural colleges, and have our swelled-head systematically cured. Some years ago it was hard to interest the young teachers in courses of study to break up stagnation; now the pendulum seems to have swung just as far the other way—there is a feverish rush to cram up subjects and get through the exams. as quickly as possible. This is due to a conviction (a mistaken one probably) that examinations are to be the main, if not the only road, to promotion. The training college and the university, when they come (and they are at hand), may be relied on to cure some of these delusions. But the old order is changing, and much that has served its day, and served it well, is passing. My paper is intended to emphasise the fact that we are ripe for both the changes named, and that the present officers and teachers have contributed their quota to the work of preparing for the day of greater things. I have seen the teacher grow from a mere drudge to a valued and esteemed officer of the State. It has not been done without hearty co-operation all round. In particular it has occurred in consequence of the sacrifices of the early teachers, and of the help of the officers of the Department in realising the aspirations of the teachers. Queensland has a body of trained teachers without the adjunct of a*training college. All training is not done in a college: a teacher’s training is many-sided, the result of many influences. I have endeavoured to show in turn what these were, and how they have evolved our present stamp of teachers, and how they have pre- pared the way for the training college and the university that are t» mould the teachers of the future. aw Pao 738 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 4—THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF MUSEUM COLLECTIONS. By ROBERT HALL, C.M.Z.S., F.L.S., Director, Hobart Musewm, Tasmania. The suggestions given here are offered in the interests of those who are about to extend ‘or form a museum collection. The wave of Nature Study which is quietly passing through our midst is causing more than ordinary interest in the subject. A curator must be one who knows well, and who fully cares for, the objects under his care. There must be unlimited time available for such a work, with sterling interest. It is desirable to show, so far as is possible, the great chain of Nature, with its principal links; to keep in view an arrangement of its parts as a whole. The purposes of a museum might safely be— A. To stimulate an interest in (a') Physiography, (a) Nature, by means of life-histories of special utilitarian value; B. To make it possible for the “ man in the street” to identify (by means of a full collection) any object that awaits identification. South Kensington is the most perfect exemplification of these oints. : In Dublin, beautiful collections may be seen, illustrating the evolution and geographical distribution of animals. In Berlin, extensive dissections are shown, with the specimens, to illustrate the anatomy. In Paris (Jardin des Plantes), on the other hand, thousands of specimens are rigidly shown without reference to their natural sur- roundings or their utilitarian value. In the museum—as we would have it—we would show clearly by means of specimens and descriptive labels— (1) Indexes to the general plan of life; (2) Its interesting phases ; (3) Its economic value. The artistic effect of a museum should be kept in view from the first step onwards. First attract the eye, then arrest the attention, the rest will naturally follow. it has been found that— (1) Pale green is a good colour for the background of cases; (2) Case-framings should be black or polished black ; (3) Black blocks are most effective in upright cases as pedestals for specimens ; (4) Dust-proof cases are essential ; (5) “Stephens’s liquid stain,” written with a pen in a clear, strong hand on a snow-white card, is the most effective for label-writing. It is important that the descriptions should be of an interesting nature. We might learn from Continental museums the value of subduing the light on the specimens. In Berlin, not only the windows, but the cases themselves, have blinds. In many museums the damage wrought by over-lighting is irreclaimable—the deleterious effect on colour is noticeable in a year or so. —S ‘ Study of Minerals.” MUSEUM COLLECTIONS. 739 Particular attention should be given to our own country, with a view to the economic value of the flora or fauna. A large room should be set aside for this purpose, illustrating— (a1) Physical features (including stratigraphy), (a?) minerals, (a) fossils ; (6) Fauna ; (c) Ethnology ; (d) Prominent types of plant life; (ce) Special studies—e.g., animal life of a State. Under this head could be treated—(e!) Bird life, (e2) Useful and noxious insects, (€*) Food fishes, (€*) Shellfish (Mollusca). In (a?) the mineral collections can be well exhibited in flat glass cases. The teaching series should be labelled “An introduction to the The cases should be consecutive, the specimens in each case being arranged from left to right. Over each specimen is placed a clearly-written name with a few words of description. Between each column of white card is a narrow length of wood (0°25" x °025"), painted black, which has an excellent effect. Many of the specimens should be placed on circular or rectangular discs. I shall give the headings of several cases to indicate the method— 1. Examples of minerals. 17. Specific gravity. 2. Minerals, liquid or gaseous. 18. Electricity. 3. Occurrence of minerals. 19. Magnetism. 4, Variations of certain proper- 20. Refraction and Polariza- ties in a mineral. tion. 5. The anglesof crystal planes. 21. Diaphaneity. 6. Internal imperfections and 22. Lustre. impurities. 23. Colour. 7. Isomorphism. 24. Streak. 8. Pleomorphism. 25. Iridescence. 9. Trimorphism. 26. Tarnish. 10. Dimorphism. 27. Opalescence. 11. Pseudomorphism. 23. Asterism. 12. Structure. 29. Phosphorescence. 13. Cleavage. 30. Feel. 14. Fracture. 31. Taste. 15. Hardness. 32. Odour. 16. Tangibility. 33. Fusibility. so well exhibited as in the National Museum, Victoria. These flat cases should occupy 11” x 18” x 4" of space. In Part (a) an introduction to the study of fossils could be arranged in the same manner as the minerals. I think in no part of the world is the “ teaching series of fossils ” For example —What is a fossil? Examples of fossils, and ancient ideas of them. How animals and plants have been placed in the sedimentary rocks. Marine deposits. deposits. Fossiliferous rocks. Estuarine deposits. Limestones. Terrestrial and fresh water Bone beds. Flints. Ironstone. Parts generally preserved as fossils. Tracks and impres- gions of animals. (1) Fossils well preserved; why and how? (2) ih 740 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. Carbonisation—Moulds and casts. (3) Pseudomorphs, and how? (4): Distortion of fossils. Imitative forms. Evidence afforded by fossils. Typical fossils. In Subsection (6) of Section A— Fauna.—Kach well-marked group of mammals should be placed as naturally as possible, in separate cases ; the invertebrates in shallow upright wall cases. In Subsection (c) of Section A— Ethnology.—tThe wall cases might be 12 in. deep, with ordinary wire netting stretched across the middle of the case, painted pale green to match a background of green. On this netting, the speci- mens may be hung and labelled with names or numbers to correspond with a key within the case. In Subsection (d) of Section A— Plant Infe——A series of wax models will be invaluable. It is- possible to place an order with a French firm (Messrs. Deyrolle and Sons) for a set of models catalogued at £1,050 f.o.b., Paris. The collection is made up of parts, many of which are purchasable at a few shillings each. Respiration; transpiration; nutrition; cuitures; assimilation; movements of plants; certain of the common plants; plants that defend themselves against animals, or cold, or heat; plants deformed ; plant parasites ; textile fibres; resins and gums; histories of plants, as tea, chicory, &c. A good working collection of models is available for £175. sterling, from the above-mentioned French firm. In Subsection (e!), the part that most commends itself to the writer for some treatment in detail later is, (e!) “The Bird Life of a State.” Birds have a popular interest, and a more apparent economic value. The (e?) “Insects” come next for exhibition and life-histories. This part should show special reference to the entomology of— (1) The forest; (2) the orchard; (3) the pasture lands; (4) the special crops. In setting out the collection of (e3) “Food fishes,” it would be advisable to make‘ two divisions—(1) Marine Food Fishes; (2) Fresh- water Food Fishes, with one or more life histories of each. The Fisheries Board of New South Wales has issued handbooks on the “Fishes of Australia” and the “Food Fishes of New South Wales, containing many well-executed photographs—an admirable substitute for the actual specimens till such time as it is possible to obtain a full collection. In Subsection (e4) “Mollusca,” the special cases in the South Kensington Museum show what a beautiful and interesting series may be obatined under this head. It is remarkable for colour, form, purpose, and distribution, In Subsection (ec!) “ Bird Life,” we may take, for example, Vic- toria, finding it closely allied to that of adjacent areas. The following is one method of treatment, with each specimen and section, bearing short descriptive labels. 1. Introductory remarks upon the physiography of the country and characteristic birds. MUSEUM COLLECTIONS. 741 2. Birds in relation to agriculture, fruit-growing, and forestry,