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Senay a Sy a toe REPORT OB THE Fourteenth Meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science HELD AT MELBOURNE, 1913 eqn EDITED BY eS) PALS MeA.; D:Se. CH PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION AL iS: PERMANENT ‘OFFICE, «= > ELIZABETH SI.; SYDNEY, N.S.W. Hy Authority: Albert J. Mullett, Government Printer, Melbourne, 1914. ee eke a 4G | eee 80! igh sen agivatet ae +, 1) xo Ore A a \ =r sare SO 5 = 1 @ Rr 4 VS} oo we VON TENTS. - ee AO PAGE OFFICERS OF THE MELBOURNE MEETING, 1913 32 Se A VI OFFICERS OF SECTIONS .. 2s tte Riot ne ot VII LocaL CouncIL a rie rs 3 oe ae IX List oF DELEGATES a Ss Ne ne “ie a XI GENERAL PROGRAMME we ae ye m wh XTIT PROCEEDINGS OF THE GENERAL CouNcIL— First MEETING oe ae ae x ae af xv SEcOND MEETING .. og ar as sts a XVI THIRD MEETING ae uh oe ne Ae x3 XIX BALANCE-SHEETS ne ote iP we oe aus Oil OBJECTS AND RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION .. Sis se a XXIX SECTIONAL COMMITTEES .. are a xe BA a XXXV OFFICE-BEARERS OF THE ASSOCIATION FROM THE COMMENCEMENT a CkeRCvIT ¢ INAUGURAL ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT, PRor. T. W. EpGEWORTH Davip =e aie 3 ie eH an ae XLII ANTARCTIC COMMITTEE, REPORT .. ae me Bir! fe 1 Section A— Address by the President, Prof. H. 8. Carslaw.. Le By 6 Papers read ae ar ae 3 A 18 Reports of Committees 52 Se ne eB id 59 Srecrion B— Address by the President, Prof. C. Fawsitt .. be a 73 Papers read mf A ee vs He Ae 83 Section B, Sub-section Pharmacy— Papers read aie a a ac Ne ae 127 SEection C— Address by the President, Walter Howchin.... ES fy. 148 Papers read a0 ae sca a as Be 179 Reports of Committees os ae se os St 236 Srection B— Address by the President, Prof. H. B. Kirk .. as a 253 Papers read sc ae sia ne Si Be 267 Reports of Committees 50 Fe bh Ae A 236 ot y) hy Ge Ad at A VU oF f 9) IV Section E— Papers read Reports of Committees Section F— Address by the President, W. Ramsay Smith Papers read Reports of Committees Section G— Address by the President, R. M. Johnston Papers read.. Section H— Address by the President, W. L. Vernon Papers read Committee .. Section I— Papers read Reports of Committees Section J— Address by the Vice-President, L. A. Adamson Papers read. . Report and Committees SEection K— Address by the President, F. B. Guthrie Papers read. . Discussion on Soil Fertility Section K (Sub-section Veterinary Science) Bh Report of Scientific Periodical Literature Committee List or MEMBERS INDEX PAGE 343 361 366 387 448 J] UE 12. a 8 A) on ree Os Ooh Oo gee ae ee Oe . Variation of Magnetic Declination. . Variation in Horizontal Intensity. Map showing Watershed dividing Inland from Coastal Drainage in South Australia. . Step-faulting of the Mount Lofty Ranges. . Geological Map of Woody Island. > Bertin through Woody Island. . Variation Diagram of Australites, Billitonites and Moldavites. . Geological Sketch Map of Papuan Petroleum Areas. . Autoparasitism in Cassytha Melantha. . Diagram showing present value of Children’s Annuities. A School Drinking-tap. Chromatin Bodies in Red Corpuscles. OFFICERS OF THE MELBOURNE MEETING, JANUARY, 1913. MEETING HELD AT THE UNIVERSITY, 71H To 14ta JANUARY, 1913. Patron : Str Joun Funuer, Bart., G.C.M.G., Governor of the State of Victoria. resident: Proressor T. W. E. Davin, C.M.G., B.A., D.Sc., F.B.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Sydney. Vice-Presidents : Proressor A. Liversipce. LL.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. (President, Sydney Meeting, 1898.) Proressor W. H. Brace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the University of Leeds. (President, Brisbane Meeting, 1909.) Proressor OrmE Masson, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Melbourne. (President, Sydney Meeting, 1911.) G. H. Kyrsss, C.M.G., F.R.A.S., Commonwealth Statistician. Ricup. Trece, F.1.A., F.F.A., F.S.8. Hon. Gen. Creasurer : Davip CarMENT, F.J.A., F.F.A., A.M.P. Society, 87 Pitt-street, Sydney. Acting Hon. Gen. Treasurer : H. G. Cuapman, M.D., B.S., University, Sydney. Permanent Bon. Secretary: J. H. MAIDEN, Government Botanist and Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Hon. Treasurer for Melbourne Meeting : G. H. Kyress, C.M.G., F.R.A.S., “ Rialto,” Melbourne. General Secretary for Melbourne Meeting : T. S. Hatt, M.A., D.Sc., University, Melbourne. Local Secretaries: New Soutrn Wares—J. H. Marpen, Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Victor1ra—T. S. Hatt, M.A., D.Sc., Lecturer in Biology in the University of Melbourne. SoutH AUSTRALIA—W ALTER Howcutn, F.G.8., Lecturer in Geology and Palzon- tology in the University of Adelaide. WestErn AusTRALIA—A. GipB MAITLAND, F.G.S., Government Geologist, Perth. QUEENSLAND—JOHN SHIRLEY, D.Sc., Senior Inspector of Schools, “ Colarmine,” New Farm, Brisbane. TasMANIA—ROBERT HALL, ©.M.Z.S., Secretary, Royal Society of Tasmania. New Zeatanp—C. CoLeripcGE Farr, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Canterbury College, Christchurch. OFFICERS OF SECTIONS. Section A—Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics. . President—Prorerssor H. Carstaw, M.A., Sc.D., University of Sydney. Vice-Presidents—PROFESSOR KERR GRANT, M.Sc., University of Adelaide, Proressor T. R. Lyzz, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., University of Melbourne ; Secretaries—J. M. BauDwin, M.A., B.Sc., Observatory, Melbourne ; C. E. WEATHER- BURN, M.A., B.Sc., Ormond College, Parkville. Section B—Chemistry. President—Prorrssor (. Fawsirr, D.Sc., University of Sydney. Vice-Presidents—D. Avery, M.Sc., Collins House, Collins-street, Melbourne ; Proressor J. A. SCHOFIELD, A.R.S.M., F.L.C., University of Sydney. Secretaries—P. G. W. Bayty, Assoc. 8.A.8S.M., Dept. Mines, Melbourne; A. C. D. Rivett, B.A., B.Sc., University, Melbourne; H. Surmtrnaiaw, College of Pharmacy, Melbourne (Pharmacy Sub-section). Section C—Geology and Mineralogy. President—W. Howcutn, F.G.8., University of Adelaide. Vice-Presidents—E. F. Prrrman, A.R.S.M., Under-Secretary for Mines, Sydney ; G. Sweet, F.G.S8., Brunswick, Vic. Secretaries—D. J. Manony, M.Sc., Department of Mines, Melbourne; H. 8S. Summers, M.Sc., University, Melbourne. Section D—Biology. President—Prorrssor H. B. Kir, M.A., Wellington, N.Z. Vice-Presidents—PrRoressor ©. Cartton, M.A., D.Sc., M.B., C.M., F.L.S., Christ- church, N.Z.; J. H. Marpen, F.L.S., Botanic Gardens, Sydney; J. SHEPHARD, Brighton, Vic. Secretaries—C. S. Sutton, M.B., B.S., Rathdowne-street, North Carlton; Grorerna Sweet, D.Sc., University, Melbourne. Section E—Geography and History. President—Hon. THos. McKenztz, F.R.G.S., Wellington, N.Z. Vice-Presidents—A. C. Macponaup, F.R.G.S8., Melbourne; TxHos. Gru, I.8.0., Under-Treasurer, Adelaide. Secretary—E. A. Pertuerick, F.R.G.S., F.L.8., Commonwealth Parliament Library, Melbourne. Section F—Ethnology and Anthropology. President—W. Ramsay-Smitu, D.Sc., M.B., C.M., Board of Health, Adelaide. Vice-Presidents—Rtvp. JoHN MatueEw, M.A., B.D., Coburg, Vic.; J. 8. Purpy, M.D., Board of Health, Hobart. Secretary—A. W. D. Rospertson, M.D., B.S., University, Melbourne. Section G—Social and Statistical Science. President—R. M. Jounston, I.8.0., Government Statist, Hobart. Vice-President—G. H. Kyises, 0.M.G., F.R.A.S.. Commonwealth Statistician, Melbourne. Secretaries—G. Liautroot, M.A., Commonwealth Bureau of Statistics, Melbourne » C. H. Wickens, Commonwealth Bureau of Statistics, Melbourne. VIII Section H—Engineering and Architecture. President—CoLoneL W. L. Vernon, F.R.I.B.A., Challis House, Sydney. Vice-President—Prorrssor H. Payne, M.Inst., C.E., M.I.Mech.E., University, Melbourne. Secretaries—W. A. M. Buackxett, A.R.V.I.A., 237 Collins-street, Melbourne ; E. B. Brown, B.Sc., University, Melbourne. Section I-Sanitary Seience and Hygiene. President—T. H. A. VALIntINE, M.D., Chief Medical Officer; Wellington, N.Z. Vice-Presidents—J. S. C. Etxrneton, M.D., D.P.H., Chairman Board of Health, Brisbane ; R. Burnett Ham, M.D., M.R.S.C., L.R.C.P., D.P.H., Chairman, Board of Health, Melbourne. Secretaries—Mary Bootu, M.D.; Harvey Sutton, M.D., B.S., Trinity College, Parkville. Section J—Mental Seience and Edueation. President—Sir J. Wintorop Hackett, K.C.M.G., LL.D., Perth, W.A. Vice-Presidents—-L. A. ADAMSON, M.A., Wesley College, Melbourne; R. H. Roz, M.A., Director of Education, Brisbane. Secretary—L. J. Wriciey, M.A., Practising School, Carlton. Section K—Agriculture. President—F. B. Guturte, F.1.C., F.C.S., Department of Agriculture, N.5.W. Vice-Presidents—H. W. Ports, F.L.S., Hawkesbury Agricultural College, N.S.W. ; 8. 8. Cameron, D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.8., Director of Agriculture, Vic. Secretaries—H. GREEN, D.Sc., University, Melbourne; Prorrssor T. CHERRY, M.D., M.S., University, Melbourne. Sub-section: Veterinary Science. President—PRoFESSOR Doucias STEWART, University of Sydney. Vice-President—W. T. Kenpatu, D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., University, Melbourne. Secretaries—W ALTER STAPLEY, M.D., D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., University, Melbourne; W. A. N. Rosertson, B.V.Sc., Department of Agriculture. LOCAL COUNCIL. MELBOURNE MEETING, 1918. AveErY, D., M.Sc. Apamson, L. A., M.A. Baraccuti, P., F.R.A.S. Berry, Pror. R. J. A., M.D. Batpwin, J. M., M.A., D.Sc. Brown, E. B., B.Sc. Bayny, P. G. W., A.S.M.S.A. Buiackett, W. A. M., A.R.V.I.A. Bootu, Mary, M.D. Craic, A. W., M.A. Cuerry, Pror. T., M.D. CaMERON, S. 8., D.V.Sc. Cuurcu, E. T. Deane, H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Ewart, Pror. A. J., Pu.D., D.Sc. FIELDER, Revp. W., F.R.M.S. Fow.er, T. W., M.C.E. Fenton, J. J. Green, H., D.Sc. Harvey, J. H., A.R.V.LA. PAGEL. S:,,M.A., D.Sc: Henperson, A. M., M.C.E. Kyrsss, G. H., C.M.G., F.R.A.S. Kenpatr, W. T., D.V.Sc. Lyur, T. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Love, E. F. J., M.A., D.Sc. Licutroot, G., M.A. Masson, Pror. O., D.Sc., F.R.S. Macpona.p, A. C., F.R.G.S. PritcHarD, G. B., D.Sc. Prruerick, EK. A., F.R.G.S. Payne, Pror. H., M.Inst.C.E. Rivert, A. C. D., B.A., B.Sc: Rogertson, A. W. D., M.D. Ropertson, W. M., B.V.Sc. SPENCER, Pror. BALDWIN, C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S. Summers, H. 8., D.Sc. SxeEats, Pror. E. W., D.Sc. SwEET, G., F.G.S. SwEet, GrorGINA, D.Sc. SHEPHARD, J. Surron, C. S., M.B. Surton, Harvey, M.D. Wickens, C. H. Wricuey, L. J., M.A. WEATHERBURN, C. E., M.A., B.Sc. ; men nt LIST OF DELEGATES. NEW SOUTH WALES. Actuarial Society of N.S.W.—Pror. E. M. Moors, Mr. R. Trnce. Aquarium Society of N.S.W.—Mr. D. G. Srpap. British Astronomical Society, N.S.W. Branch—Mr. J. Snort. British Medical Association, N.S.W. Branch—Dr. E. W. Frravson, Dr, J. ASHBURTON THompson, Pror. D. A. WetsH, Dr. OC. 8S. Wis. Gould League of Bird Lovers—Mr. W. J. Frniaan. Institute of Architects of N.S.W.—Mr. A. W. ANDERSON, Mr. J. Nanas. Linnean Society of N.S.W.—Mr. W. W. Froaaatt, Mr. C, HEDLEY. Naturalists’ Society of N.S.W.—Mr. E. 8. Epwarps, Mr. W. B. Gurney, MR. A. G. Hamniton, Mr. G. A. WATERHOUSE. Rationalist Association of N.S.W.—Mr. D. G. Strap. Royal Society of N.S.W.—Mr. R. H. Campacer, Dr. J. B. Cretanp, Mr. H. G. SMITH. Society of Chemical Industry, Sydney Section—Mr. Loxtey Mxaarrr. Sydney University Science Society—Dr. H. J. JoHNsToN. NEW ZEALAND. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury—Dr. H. G. DENHAM. QUEENSLAND. The Government of Queensland—Dr. Hamiyn HarRRIs. Royal Society of Queensland—Mr. H. J. Priestiry, Mr. H. C. Ricwarps. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Royal Society of South Australia—Pror. T. G. B. OsBorn. Royal Society of South Australia, Field Naturalists’ Section—Mr. W. Ham. TASMANTA. Field Naturalists’ Club of Tasmania—Mr. FE. L. Presse. The Government of Tasmania—Dr. J. 8. Purpy. Royal Society of Tasmania—Pror. T. T. Fiynn. XII VICTORIA. Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers—Mr. C. F. CourtnNny, Mr. H. Herman, Mr. A. 8. Kenyon, Mr. A. H. Merri, Pror, E. W. Sxearts. Bird Observers’ Club—Dr. Gro. Horne. British Medical Association, Victorian Branch—Dr. W. R. Boyp, Dr. A. L. Kenny, Dr. C. H. Motiison, Dr. A. E. RowpDEN Wuite, Dr. J. F. WinkInson. Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria—Mr. J. A. Kersuaw, Dr. J. A. Leacu, Mr. F. WIsEWOULD. Geelong Field Naturalists’ Club—Dr. Gavin McCatium. Historical Society of Victoria—Mr. F. G. A. Barnarp, Pror. Harrison Moore. Pharmaceutical Society of Australasia—Mr. A. R. BarLzEy. Royal Australasian Ornithologists’ Union—Dr. J. A. Leacu, Mr. A. H. E. MartrineLey, Mr. W. H. D. LE SovEér. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, Victorian Branch—Mr. T. WALKER Fow Ler. Royal Victorian Institute of Architects—Mr. GrRaRD WIGHT. Royal Society of Victoria—Mr. W. A. HarTneuy, Pror. W. A. OSBORNE. Roya! Zoological and Acclimatization Society of Victoria—CoLoNEL C. Ryan. Sale District Teachers’ Association—Mr. C. Darny. Society of Chemical Industry of Victoria—Mr. R. G. FLETCHER. University Science Club—Mr. CU. A. FENNER. Victorian Institute of Engineers—ConLonet J. Monasu, Mr. J. A. SMITH. WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Natural History and Science Society of Western Australia—Mr. W. B. ALEXANDER. GENERAL PROGRAMME. TUESDAY, 71ta JANUARY. Members assembled in University Union. 10.30 a.m.—Sectional Committees met. 11.30 a.m.—First Meeting of General Council (Biological Lecture Theatre). 12.30—2 p.m.—Lunch in University Union. 3.30 p.m.—Reception at the University by the Patron, His Excellency Sir John Fuller, Bart., G.C.M.G., and the President-Elect, Professor T. W. Edge- worth David, C.M.G., B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 8.30 p.m.—Inaugural Meeting and President’s Address in Wilson Hall. WEDNESDAY, 8TH JANUARY. 10 a.m.—Sectional Committees met. 10.30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Presidential Addresses in Sections A, C, J, K. Settions met for reading of Papers. 12.30 to 2 p.m.—Lunch in University Union. 3 p.m.—Reception at the Town Hall by the Right Honorable the Lord Mayor, Councillor D. V. Hennessy, and the Lady Mayoress. 8 p.m.—Visit to the Melbourne Observatory, The Australian Oxygen Co., Fire Brigade Station, City Destructors, and Melbourne City Electric Light Station. THURSDAY, 9TH JANUARY. 10 a.m.—Sectional Committees met. 10.30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Presidential Addresses in Sections B, D, G,I. Sections met for the reading of Papers. 12.30 to 2 p.m.—Lunch in University Union. 2 to 3.30 p.m.—Presidential Addresses in Sections E, F, H, K (Veterinary Sub- Section). Sections met for reading of Papers. 4 to 5.30 p.m.—Visit to the Botanic Gardens. 8.30 p.m.—Lecture by Professor Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S., on “The Northern Territory and its Aborigines,” in the Melbourne Town Hall. (Under the Patronage of the Commonwealth Government.) FRIDAY, 10TH JANUARY. 10 a.m.—Sectional Committees met. 10.30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections met for the reading of Papers. 12.30 to 2 p.m.—Lunch in University Union. 2 p.m.—Recommendations Committee (First Meeting). 2.30 p.m.—Second Meeting of General Council. (Biological Lecture Theatre.) Visits were made to the following museums :—National Museum, Entomo- logical Museum, National Herbarium, Museum of Economic Botany, Geological Survey Museum, and to the Zoological Gardens. 4 to 6 p.m.—Lyceum Club At Home to Women Members of the Association. Evening free from Association business, XIV SATURDAY, llta JANUARY. Day Excursions were held as under :— Macedon District (Geology).—Leader: Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc. Motor cars provided by Members of the Automobile Club of Victoria. Emerald-Gembrook line (Economic Botany)—Leader: Mr. W. Russell Grimwade, B.Sc. Cockatoo Creek, Gembrook line (Botany and Entomology).—Leader: Mr. C. French, jun. By Invitation of the Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria. Melbourne and Metropolitan Board’s Sewage Farm, Werribee. SUNDAY, 12TH JANUARY. Non-official Day Excursions were held as follows :— Bacchus Marsh, Werribee Gorge (Glacial Geology).—Leader: Dr. G. B. Pritchard. Motor cars provided by members of the Automobile Club of Victoria. Beaumaris (Botany and Zoology).—Leader: Dr. C.S. Sutton. MONDAY, 13Ta JANUARY. 10 a.m.—Sectional Committees met. 10.30 a.m. to 1 p.m.—Sections met for reading of Papers. Joint meeting of Sections B and D on “ Eucalypts and their Products.” 11 a.m.—Lecture on the National Park at Wilson’s Promontory, by Mr. J. A. Kershaw. 12.30 to 2 p.m.—Lunch in University Union. 2 to 4 p.m.—Sections met for reading of Papers. Lecture by Judge Docker, on the Warrumbungle Mountains. Visits to New Reading Room, Public Library ; Messrs. Mephan Ferguson and Co.’s Engineering Works; Newport Railway Works. 8 p.m.—Reception by the Trustees of the Public Library. TUESDAY, 14Ta JANUARY. 10 a.m.—Sectional Committees met to consider Recommendations. 10.30 a.m.—Second meeting of Recommendation Committee. 12 noon.—Final Meeting of General Council (Biologica] School). PROCEEDINGS OF THE GENERAL COUNCIL. FIRST MEETING. 7TH JANUARY, 1913. Professor OrME Masson, the retiring President, in the Chair. The Minutes of the Sydney Meeting, as printed in vol. XIII., were confirmed on the motion of Mr. J. H. Marpen, seconded by Mr. TEEcE, BALANCE-SHEET. Dr. H. G. CHapman, Acting General Treasurer, presented the balance-sheet, and moved its adoption, subject to its being passed by the auditors. Seconded by Mr. TrEcsr and carried. ALTERATIONS TO RULES. The proposed alterations, which now required confirmation, were set out in the Sydney volume on pp. LXVII. et seg., and printed in italics. In Rule 4 “ Australian” is a misprint for “ Australasian.” In Rule 9 the word “may” was substituted for the word “shall.” The rules, as amended, were adopted. On the motion of Professor B. D. STEELE, it was agreed that the necessary consequential alterations be made. RECOMMENDATION COMMITTEE. Professor BALDWIN SPENCER moved, and Dr. E. F. J. Love seconded, that the usual practice be adhered to. Carried. SunDAyY EXcuRSIONS. After a prolonged discussion, an understanding was arrived at, without a motion being proposed, that the Association should not officially recognise Sunday excursions nor, include them on its pro- gramme. Customs Duties AND SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS. Dr. CHAPMAN moved: That a Committee consisting of Professors Masson, OspornE, Lytz, STEELE, Grant, CHAPMAN, FawsirTTt,. Po.tiock, WootnoveH, and the usual ez officio officers, with power to add to their number, wait on the Minister of Customs to urge that the regulations dealing with the admission of scientific apparatus for the use of Universities be more liberally interpreted. Carried. XVI DonaTION IN Memory oF THE LATE Mr. GRAHAM WIER OFFICER. A letter was read from Mrs. G. W. Orricer forwarding a donation of £10 10s. to the Association in memory of her late husband. The thanks of the Association were ordered to be sent to Mrs. Officer. ABSENCE OF A SECTIONAL PRESIDENT. Mr. Fow er drew attention to the absence in England of the Presi- dent of Section EH, and stated that the Section had recommended that a certain gentleman be appointed to fill the vacancy. The PreEsIDENT ruled that the General Council had no power in the matter, as the appointment rested with the Local Council. ' GREETINGS. The greetings of the Association were ordered to be sent to Professor Liversidge and to Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace. SECOND MEETING. 10TH January, 1913. Professor T. W. EpazwortH Davin, President, in the Chair. Mvue.tuter MemoriaLt MEDAL. Prior to other business being dealt with, the Mueller Memorial Medal was presented to Mr. WaLreR Howcatn, F.G.S., in the presence of the members of Council and of other members of the Association. The presentation was made by the President, and Mr. Howcarn replied. ; The Council then resumed. | Hopart MEEtTING—ELECTION OF PRESIDENT. Colonel Leaes proposed, and Mr. R. M. Jounston seconded, that Professor Baldwin Spencer be elected. Carried. ’ Professor BALDWIN SpENcER thanked the Council for the honour done him. APPOINTMENT OF GENERAL SECRETARY FOR THE HOBART MEETING. Mr. R.M. Jonnston moved, and Mr. Presse seconded, that Pro- fessor Flynn be appomted. Carried. Professor Fuynn thanked the Council. APPOINTMENT OF TREASURER FOR THE HOBART MEETING. Mr. R. M. Jonnston proposed, and Dr. Purpre seconded, that Mr. Robertson, Secretary of the Tourist Bureau, be appointed. Carried. a XVIt VIcE-PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION. Professor Liversidge, Professor Masson, Professor David, Mr. G. H. Knibbs, and Mr. Richard Teece were unanimously ae Vice-Presidents of the Association. GENERAL TREASURER. Mr. R. TEEcE proposed, and Mr. G. H, Knress seconded, that Mr. D. Carment be appointed General Treasurer. Dr. H. G. CHAapMan Acting General Treasurer, supported the motion, which was carried. LocaL SECRETARIES. - The following Local Secretaries were unanimously appointed on the voices :—New South Wales, Mr. J. H. Maiden; Victoria, Dr. T. 8. Hall; South Australia, Mr. Walter Howchin ; Western Australia, Mr. A. Gibb Muitland; Queensland, Dr. Shirley; Tasmania, Professor Flynn; New Zealand, Professor Coleridge Farr. Date oF MEETING. The PRESIDENT pointed out that, as the British Association would visit Australia in August, 1914, the question as to whether the Hobart meeting should be held in January, 1915, should be considered. Mr. JoHNSTON moved, and Colonel LEGGE seconded, that the Hobart meeting be held in January, 1916. Carried. PLace oF MEETING AFTER HOBART. Mr. J. H. Maren stated that two invitations had been received. One came from New Zealand. At the Sydney meeting the New Zealand delegates had pressed their claims as against Hobart, but ultimately withdrew in favour of Hobart, which was then unanimously decided upon. The second invitation was from Western Australia. After a prolonged discussion, Mr. GrasBy withdrew the invita- tion of Western Australia in favour of New Zealand. It was moved that the next meeting after Hobart be held at Wellington. Carried. PUBLICATION COMMITTEE. Mr. J. H. Marpen moved, and Revd. Dr. Brown seconded, that the Publication Committee be appointed, to consist of the Secretaries of Sections, the Local Treasurer, and the General Secretary of the State. Carried. REpPoRTS. - The PrEsIDENT stated that the Reports had been carefully considered by the different Sections and by the Recommendation Committee. Dr. H. G. CoapMAN moved, and Dr. E. F. J. Love seconded, that the Reports from the Sectional Committees which have been considered by the Recommendation Committee be adopted. Carried. XVIII DEFINITION OF A SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. The PrEsIDENT pointed out that Scientific Societies could appoint delegates to the Association, and that these delegates had a seat on the Council. It seemed desirable that some restriction should be placed on the right to nominate. The discussion was unanimously in favour of restriction, and it was felt that a recommendation to the Council and not a rule of the Association would meet the case. The Recommendation Committee’s suggestion that the definition of the British Association—“ That any society is eligible to be placed on the list of Corresponding Societies of this Association which under- takes local scientific investigations and publishes notices of the results,” with the addition, as moved by Professor Masson, of the words “ but the Council shall have the power to vary this rule in exceptional cireum- stances ” be adopted was agreed to. Tue Furure oF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. The Revd. Dr. GeorcE Brown moved: That a deputation con- sisting of the President, Professor Baldwin Spencer, Dr. Purdie, Professor Ramsay Smith, Mr. Maiden, and the mover wait, on a day to be fixed, on the Federal Government to bring the recommendation of the Committee, which has now become a resolution of this Couneil, before the Federal Government while this Association is in session. Professor SPENCER seconded the motion. It was pointed out that the time was too short to allow of such a deputation and of its reporting to Council, and it was decided that Dr. Brown should consult Professor Spencer, and name a deputation consisting of those interested and resident in Victoria. VETERINARY SCIENCE. The Committee of Sub-section K, Veterinary Science, asked that the General Council raise Veterinary Science to the status of a Section. This had been indorsed by the Recommendation Committee. Agreed. Section E—ABSENCE OF PRESIDENT. Mr. Marpen reported that the Committee of Section E had recommended that, owing to the absence of the Honorable Thomas Mackenzie, President of the Section, and to the fact that no Presidential Address had been received from him, it should be decided that Mr. E. A. Petherick be appointed President of the Section, and that his paper on the Discovery of Terra Australis in 1499 be taken as the Presidential Address. The Recommendation Committee did not agree, on the ground that it was ultra vires. The ruling of the Recom- mendation Committee was confirmed. XIX SuGGEsTeED ALTERATION OF RULE 25. Mr. MarpeEN stated that the Committee of Section A suggested that Rule 25 be altered to allow of the Sectional Committees adding to the number of Vice-Presidents. The Recommendation Committee did not agree ; they thought it right that all such appointments should rest with the local Council. Action of the Recommendation Committee confirmed. THIRD MEETING. 12 Noon, Fripay, 14TH January, 1913. The President, Professor Davin, in the Chair. Muer.tLteR Memoriat MEDAL. Professor BALDWIN SPENCER moved, and Mr. A. C. MacponaLp seconded, that, in addition to the ex officio members of the Committee, namely, the President and the Permanent Honorary Secretary, the following should be appointed :—Professor EK. C. Stirling, Dr. T. S. Hall, Mr. R. H. Cambage, and Professor Skeats. Carried. MESSAGES OF GREETING. Professor Fawsitr moved, and Professor Pottock seconded, “ That messages of greeting be sent to the British Association and to the Australasian Antarctic Expedition.” Carried. ADDITIONAL REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. Mr. MarpeEn reported that he had received reports from the Kelipse, Magnetic, and Seismological Committees. These were too late to be considered by the Recommendation Committee, but were purely formal. The reports were adopted. Dr. A. W. D. Rospertson submitted the following resolutions of Section F :— (1) That, in view of the rapid decadence and disappearance of the Australian Aboriginals, it is urgent that, in the interests of science, further records and _ collections illustrative of the beliefs, customs, and manner of life of the aboriginals should be made for public preservation, more especially with reference to Queensland and Western Australia. (2) It is recommended to the General Council to take such steps as may be deemed necessary to enforce the existing law regarding the exportation of anthropological material, and to prevent the indiscriminate exportation of anthro- pological and ethnographical specimens from any part of the Commonwealth. The resolutions were adopted. xX Mr. Marpen reported that the Recommendation Committee submitted the following resolution to the Council :—“‘ That the generai officers be requested to give special consideration to the question of reductions in fares by steam-ship companies, &c., and the necessary safeguards against abuse of such privileges.”. Carried. Votes or THANKS. The PRESIDENT moved: That a vote of thanks be awarded to His Excellency Sir John Fuller, G.C.M.G., for acting as Patron of the Association, and for his help and sympathy with our work. Professor Masson seconded the motion, which was carried unani- mously. The PRESIDENT moved a vote of thanks to the Commonwealth Government for its assistance, especially in its grants in aid of the Antarctic Expeditions, and towards the expenses of the visit of the British Association, to which they had given £15,000. Professor PoLLock seconded the motion, which was carried unanimously. The PRESIDENT moved a vote of thanks to the State Government for agreeing to publish the Report of the Association, and for various other services. Mr. Frogcatt seconded the motion, which was carried unanimously. The PRESIDENT moved a vote of thanks to the Council of the Melbourne University for its cordial help, and for the loan of the buildings and grounds. Colonel LEGGE seconded the motion. Carried. Mr. W. Howcutn moved: That votes of thanks be awarded as follows :— To the Right Honorable the Lord Mayor of Melbourne for his hospitality. To Professor Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S., for his public lecture. To the Committee of the Lyceum Club for hospitality to the lady members. To the President and Members of the Automobile Club of Victoria for the loan of ears. Mr. R. TrEcr seconded the motion. Carried. Mr. C. G. Graspy moved, and Professor PotLock seconded, that thanks be accorded to H. B. Lee, Esq., Chief Officer of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade ; P. Baracchi, Esq., F.R.A.S., and J. M. Baldwin, Esq., M.A., B.Sc.; A C. Mountain, Esq., City Engineer of Melbourne ; W. Russell Grimwade, Esq., B.Sc., and the Directors of the Melbourne Oxygen Co.; J. Cronin, Esq., F.R.H.S.; J. A. Kershaw, Esq., F.E.8., H. R. Walcott, Esq., F.G.S., F. Chapman, Esq., A.L.S.; C. French, Esq., jun. ; Professor A. J. Ewart ; H. Herman, Esq., F.G.S. ; Dudley XXI Le Souéf, Esq., C.M.Z.S.; C. A. Nobelius, Esq. ; the Trustees of the Public Library ; the Metropolitan Board of Works : the Department of Agriculture for assistance in the excursions and in several cases for hospitality. Carried. Mr. Poote proposed, and Professor PAYNE seconded, that thanks be accorded to the Directors of Messrs. Mephan Ferguson Prop. Ltd. ; the Commissioners of Railways of Victoria and the Field Naturalists’ Club for assistance in excursions and for hospitality. Carried. Professor Masson moved, and Mr. Knippgs seconded, a vote of thanks to Dr. Georgina Sweet, Miss Freda Bage, M.Sc., Miss B. Rees, Miss G. Buchanan, M.Sc., Miss J. W. Raff, M.Sc., Miss E. Mollison, Mr. Rossiter, M.Sc., Mr. C. A. Fenner, B.Sc., and Mr. E. O. Tymms for services during the currency of the meeting : ; and to Mr. L. W. G. Biichner for editing the Daily Journal. Carried. Revd. Dr. G. Brown moved, and Mr. HEDLEY seconded, a vote of thanks to the Press for services In connexion with the meeting. Carried. The PRESIDENT proposed, and Mr. F. B. Guturiz seconded, a vote of thanks to the Permanent Honorary Secretary, Mr. J. H. Maiden, and to the General Secretary, Dr. T. 8. Hall. Carried. Mr. Marpen and Dr. Hatt thanked the Council for the motion. The PRESIDENT announced that the deputation from the Associa- tion which had waited on Mr. Tudor, Minister of Customs, in reference to certain interpretations of the Customs Act had been most favorably received, and the Minister had expressed himself as being most anxious to meet all our needs or requirements. Revd. Dr. Brown, referring to a resolution of the Council, moved : “That a deputation be authorized by this General Council to wait on the Federal Government to present the resolutions of Section F, the deputation to consist of Professor Baldwin, Spencer, Dr. Robertson, Professor Masson, and the President, with power to add to their numbers. Colonel LEGGE seconded the motion, which was carried. The PRESIDENT said that this concluded the business, and the Session closed. 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The financial year shall end on the 30th June. C4 13. All sums received for life subscriptions and from the sales of back numbers of Reports shall be invested in the names of three Trustees appointed by the Council, and the interest arising from such investment shall be reserved for grants in aid of scientific research. 14. The subscriptions shall be collected by the Local Secretary in each State, and forwarded by him to the General Treasurer. 15. The Local Committees shall not have power to expend money without the authority of the Council, with the exception of the Local Committee of the State in which the next ensuing Session is to be held, which shall have power to expend money collected or otherwise ob- tained in that State. Such disbursements shall be audited, and the Balance-sheet and the surplus funds forwarded to the General Treasurer. 16. All cheques shall be signed either by the General Treasurer and the General Secretary or by the Local Treasurer and the Secretary of the State in which the ensuing Session is to be held. 17. Whenever the balance in the hands of the Banker shall exceed the sum requisite for the probable or current expenses of the Associa- tion, the Council shall invest the excess in the names of the Trustees. 18. The whole of the accounts of the Association—7.e., the local as well as the general accounts—shall be audited before each meeting of the Association by two Auditors appointed by the Council, and the Balance-sheet shall be submitted to the Council at its first meeting thereafter. Money GRANTS. 19. Grants of money for the furtherance of specific objects of scientific research may be made by the Genera! Council on the recommendation of the Recommendation Committee. Committees and individuals to whom grants of money have been entrusted are required to present to the following meeting a report of the progress which has been made, together with astatement of the sums which have been expended. Any balance shall be returned to the General Treasurer. 20. In each Committee the Secretary is the only person entitled to call on the Treasurer for such portions of the sums granted as may from time to time be required. 21. In grants of moneys to Committees, or to individuals, the Association does not contemplate the payment of personal expenses to the members or to the individual. XXXII SECTIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION. 22. The following Sections shall be constituted :— A,.—Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics. B.—Chemistry, with Pharmacy as a sub-Section. C.—Geology and Mineralogy. D.—Biology. E'.—Geography and History. F.—Kthnology and Anthropology. G.—Social and Statistical Science. H.—K¥ngineering and Architecture. I.—Sanitary Science and Hygiene. J.—Mental Science and Education. K.—Agriculture. Veterinary Science shall be a sub-section of Agriculture. SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. 23. The President of each Section shall take the Cia and proceed with the business of the Section not later than 11 a.m. In the middle of the day an adjournment for luncheon shall be made, and at 4 p.m. the Sections shall close. 24, On the second and following days the Sectional Committees shall meet at 10 a.m. 25. The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sections shall be nominated by the Local Committee of the State in which the next ensuing Session of the Association is to be held, and shall have power to act until their election is confirmed by the Council: From the time of their nomination—which shall take place as soon as possible after the Session of the Association—they shall be regarded as an Organizing Committee, for the purpose of obtaining information upon papers likely to be submitted to the Sections, and for the general furtherance of the work of the Sectional Committees. The Sectional Presidents of former years shall be ex officio members of the Organizing Committees. 26. The Sectional Committees shall have power to add totheir number. 27. The Committees for the several Sections shall determine the acceptance of papers before the beginning of the Session. It is there- fore desirable, in order to give an opportunity to the Committee of doing justice to the several communications, that each author should prepare an abstract of his paper, of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions, Reports, or Proceedings of the Association, and that he should send it, together with the original paper, to the Secretary of the Section before “which it is to be read,-so that it may reach him at least a fortnight before the Session. XXXII There shal] be a time limit set for authors of papers read before the Assocation, which shall not be exceeded except by special arrangement made beforehand with the Sectional Committee. 28. Members may communicate to the Sections the papers of non- members. 29. The author of any paper is at liberty to reserve his right of property. therein. 30. No report, paper, or abstract shall be inserted in the volume of Transactions, Reports, or Proceedings unless it be handed to the Secretary before the conclusion of the Session. 31. The Sectional Committee shall report to the Publication Commit- tee what papers it is thought advisable to print. 32. They shall also take into consideration any suggestions which may be offered for the advancement of Science. RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 33. It shall be in the power of the Council to appoint Research Com- mittees on the recommendation of the Recommendation Committee. In recommending the appointment of Research Committees, all members of such Committees shall be named, and one of them, who has notified his willingness to accept the office, shall be appointed to act as Secretary. The numbers of members appointed to serve on a Research Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working. Individuals may be recommended to make reports. 34. All recommendations adopted by Sectional Committees shall be forwarded without delay to the Recommendation Committee ; unless this is done, the recommendation cannot be considered by the Council. OFFICIAL JOURNAL. 35. At the close of each meeting of the Sections the Sectional Secre- taries shall correct, on a copy of the Official Journal, the list of papers vhich have been read, and add to them those appointed to be read ou the next day, and send the same to the General Secretary for printing. RECOMMENDATION COMMITTEE. 36. The Council at its first meeting in each session shall appoint a Committee of Recommendations to receive and consider the reports of the Research Committees appointed at the last Session, and the recommendations from Sectional Committees. The Recommendation Committee shall also report to the Council, at a subsequent meeting, the measures which they would advise to be adopted for the advance- ment of Science. 6117. b XXXIV PUBLICATION COMMITTEE. 37. The Committee shall each Session elect a Publication Com mittee, which shall receive the recommendation of the Sectional Com mittees with regard to publication of papers, and decide finally upor the matter to be printed in the volume of Transactions, Reports or Proceedings. ALTERATION OF RULES. 38. No alterations of the Rules shall be made unless due notice of all such additions or alterations shall have been given at one meeting and carried at another meeting of the Council, held during a subsequent Session of the Council. SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. Section A.—AstTronomy, MaTHEMATICS, AND PHYSICS. CGommittee.—Prof. H. S. Carslaw, Sc.D.; Prof. Kerr Grant, M.Sc.; Prof. T. R. Lyle, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.; J. M. Bald- win, M.A., B.Sc.; C. E. Weatherburn, M.A., B.Sc.; Prof. S3A. Pollock; D:Ses5:Proft. T. Hi Laby; B.A‘; Prot. di W. Chapman, M.A.; B.C.E.; Prof. R. J. A. Barnard, M.A.; Prof. R. Hosking, M.A.; Prof. H. J. Priestley, M.A. ; Prof. me MS hfoors, MA: BE: Bd. Love, M.A., D.Se.;.G. as muibbs, CM .G.) FOR JA-S>; -P.) Baracchi, F.R:A.S. ;, O20, U: Vonwiller, B.Sc.; Prof. E. J. Nanson, M.A. Section B.—CuHEeEmIstTRY. Committee.—Prof. C. E. Fawsitt, D.Sc.; Prof. Orme Masson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.; Prof. B.D. Steele, D.Sc.; Prof. J. A. Schofield, A.R.S.M., F.I.C.; D. Avery, M.Sce.; P. G. W. Bayly, A.S.A.S.M.; A, C.D. Rivett, B.A., B.Se.;, HG. Smith; H. G. Chapman, M.D.; Mrs. S. D. Rivett, B.Sc. ; Miss R. Sugden, B.Sc.; F. B. Guthrie, F.I.C., F.C.S.; E. I. Rosenblum, B.Sc.; R. B. Drew, B.Sc. Sus-SecTIon.—PHARMACY. Committee.—A. R. Bailey, A. Wadsworth, G. J. Mackay, R. O. Fox, A. L. Tilly, H. Shillinglaw, C. L. Butchers. Section C.—GeroLtocy anp MINERALOGY. Committee.—Walter Howchin, E. F. Pittman, G. Sweet, D. J. Mahony, H. S. Summers, E. C. Andrews, H. Herman, F. Chapman, H. C. Richards, E. Stanley, E. J. Dunn, R. A. Wearne, J. T. Jutson, C. A. Siissmilch, Prof. T. W. E. David, Prof. Skeats, Prof. Woolnough, Dr. Pritchard. Section D.—Btio.uoey. Committee.—Prof. H. B. Kirk, M.A.; J. H. Maiden, F.L.S.; J. Shephard; H. G. Chapman, M.D.; R. T. Baker, F.L.S.; Charles Hedley, F.L.S.; Prof. Osborn ; Prof. A. J. Ewart; Hamlyn-Harris, D.Sc.; G. A. Waterhouse, M.Sc.; W. B. Alexander; Freda Bage, M.Sc., F.L.S.; Georgina Sweet, D.Sc. ; Charles S. Sutton, M.B. Section E.—Gerocrapuy snp History. Committee.—Hon. Thos. McKenzie, F.R.G.S.; A. C. Macdonald, F.R.G.S.; Prof. G. C. Henderson, M.A.; Thos. Gill, I.8.O. ; E. A. Petherick, F.R.G.S., F.L.S.; T. Walker Fowler, M.Inst.C.E., M.C.E. b 2 XXXVI Section F.—ETHNOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY. Committee.—W. Ramsay Smith, D.Sc., M.B., C.M.; Rev. John Mathew, M.A., B.D.; Prof. W. Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., M:A., F\R.S.5 J. S. Purdy, M.D., C.M:, DPE. Wise, F.R.G.S.; A. W. D. Robertson, M.D., B.S.; Rev. G. Brown, D.D.; C. Daley; L. W. G. Biichner, F.R.A.I.; Archdeacon Lefroy; Dr. Mary Booth; J. Burton Cleland, M.D., Ch.M., W. P. Norris, M.D. Section G.—SoctaL AND STATISTICAL SCIENCE. Committee.—R. M. Johnston, 1.8.0.; G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., F.R.A.S.; Prof. E. M Moors, M.A., F.I.A.; G. Lightfoot, M.A.; and C. H. Wickens, A.I.A. Section H.—ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE. Committee.—Colonel W. L. Vernon, F.R.I.B.A.; Prof. H. Payne, M. Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E.; W. A. M. _ Blackett, F.R-V.1.A., L.R.1-B:A. (Lond.); BE) B. Brown iiee A:C.G-.1. (Lond.); E. V. Clark, B.Sc., Assoc. M1 GiMe ies J. Biggin, F.I.C.; W. Poole, B.E., A.M.1-C Bo gG ye: Halligan, F.G.S.; Prof. S. H. Barraclough, B.E.; Prof. R. W. Chapman, M.A., B.C.E.; Prof. A. J. Gibson, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Section I.—SaniTaRy ScIENCE AND HYGIENE. Committee.—Dr. J. Jamieson, Dr. J. S. Purdy, Dr. W. P. Norris, Dr. Roth, Dr. Robertson, Dr. Mary Booth, and Dr. H Sutton. Section J.—MeEntTat ScIENCcE AND EpUcATION. Committee.—L. A. Adamson, M.A.; L. J. Wrigley, M.A.; Rev. E. H. Sugden, M.A., B.Sc.; F. Tate, M.A., L:8:0. 3" Mas: Brydon; Prof. H. Laurie, LL.D.; Prof. A. W. Mackie, MA. and. A. J. Schulz, PhD. Secrion K.—AGRICULTURE. Committee. —F. B. Guthrie, F.1.C., F.C.S.; H. W. Potts, F.L.S. ; S. S. Cameron, D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.; Heber Green, D.Sc. ; Prof. T. Cherry, M.D., M.S.; Prof. R. Watt, M.A; \B.Se.3 H. Pye; A. E. V. Richardson, M.A., B.Sc.; and R. Greig Smith, D.Sc. Sus-SEcTION.—VETERINARY SCIENCE. Committee.—Prof. J. Douglas Stewart, D.V.S., M.R.C.V-S.; W. T. Kendall, D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.; W. A. D. Robertson, B.V.Sc.; S. S. Cameron, D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.; and S. Dodd, DEV Ser, E.R-C.V'S. 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Ge rv M iar i 4 eat ‘ . wid aS : Ys A 3 - - a 7 - be Yan a } 4 - — BRL: iy Ue a way) = s, *-¥ 3 SUTZET PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS TO AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE BY Professor T. W. EDGEWORTH DAVID, C.MG., B.A. F.RS., F.G.8., Hon. D.Sc. Oxon. In the first place, let me bid you, who are here gathered to- gether to honour the principles for which our Association stands, and to share in its work, a very hearty welcome to this noble hall, a building sacred to the memory, not only of its beneficent founder, but also to that of those many who have made the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake the watchword of their lives. Such men and women, whether students or teachers, whether high or low in the world’s esteem, are surely those whom our association delights to honour; and we feel the inspiration of their worthy lives present with us here in this hall to-night. Next let me thank you for the unprecedented honour you have done me in electing me a second time president of our Association. I am deeply touched by the trust you repose in me, more especially when I know what that trust implies, for it means, not only that I have the high honour of presiding over this distinguished gather- ing, but, further, that you hope, in electing me to this office, that I may have the unique responsibility of representing our Associa- tion on what we all hope will be an epoch-making occasion, the visit to the Commonwealth, in 1914, of that mother society, of which we aspire to be a not unworthy daughter, The British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science. Such trust fills one with a feeling of one’s own unworthiness, and a sense of many short- comings, and only your kind and unanimous will that I should act has led me to accept office in the firm belief that I can count in every one of you a friend who will not fail in time of need, and XLIV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. the needs are likely to be many. In this belief, gladly and grate- fully, I have accepted. I am aware that a very high standard has been set me by my predecessor in this office, for no one could have served the interests of our Association more ably or strenn- ously or conscientiously than Professor Masson. It is my pious wish to follow in his footsteps. Next on the occasion of this the fourteenth meeting of our Association, it would surely be meet that we send a grateful greet- ing to our founder, Professor Liversidge. Our latest accounts of him show that he is strong and well, and after so many years of strenuous teaching and organizing work is now walking the Elysian fields of research. Next I would remind you that recently there has passed away from among us one who has done a unique work for Australian science, in the branch of Ethnology, F. J. Gillen. I feel I cannot do better than quote the following sympathetic obituary notice that has recently appeared about him in Nature, 12th August, 1912:—‘‘ In Australian papers which have just come to hand we regret to see the death of Mr. Francis James Gillen, Anthro- pology has thus lost a conscientious and devoted worker, whose world-wide reputation has been well earned in a fast-vanishing field of investigation, which, unfortunately, attracts far too few men of Mr. Gillen’s type. It is now forty-five years since he entered the public service of South Australa, and his official work caused him to become virtually exiled to the heart of the Aus- tralian continent; but he devoted his spare time to the study of the aboriginal people among whom he lived, and it is no exaggera- tion to say that he acquired a much more intimate knowledge of the customs and beliefs of the most backward race of mankind now in existence than all other investigators had been able to col- lect; and this wealth of accurate information was put to the best use when Mr. Gillen collaborated with Professor Baldwin Spencer, F.R.S., of Melbourne, and produced a series of the most discussed volumes that have ever been contributed to enthnological literature. The opportunities for such investigations as Mr. Gillen carried on are abundant, but with the rapid intrusion of European customs into every corner of the world, they will soon be gone for ever. It is thus with especial gratitude that all students of mankind will always regard the labours of such men as the late Mr. Gillen, who have seized the opportunities presented by their daily occupa- tions, and rescued for posterity an accurate knowledge of the fast- vanishing customs and beliefs of primitive people.’’ I might add that he was formerly president of the ethnological section of this Association. The sympathy of all of us will T know be extended to those who were near and dear to him, az well as to nis close friend and fellow-worker, Professor Baldwin Spencer. The co-operation PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XLV of these comrades has brought home to us the lives and thoughts of our aborigines just in time to save them from oblivion. They have, indeed, protected the aborigines from the wicked practices of so-called civilized man, and set this ancient and honorable people in their right place. Science and humanity owes them both a deep debt of gratitude. Long may his comrade be spared to carry on the noble work to which he has devoted himself with such signal success and singleness of purpose never more in eyvi- dence than in his recent protectorate of the aborigines in Northern Territory. We welcome him warmly to-night, returned after so much hardship and moving accidents by flood and field, and congratulate him on the recent publication of yet another charming book on Central Australia and its inhabitants. The action of the Federal Government in organizing the recent scientific expedition to Northern Territory, in which Professors Gilruth and Spencer, Professor Woolnough, and Dr. Brein!, took part, will doubtless highly commend itself to the general public, no less than to workers in science. The reports already fur- nished all show that Northern Territory has far greater possi- bilities than, probably, most of us ever imagined in regard to both its pastoral and mining future. There can be no question that a thorough and systematic botanical survey should be under- taken before the native Flora becomes intermixed with alien plants. Many botanists might co-operate in this work. I would suggest at once the name of one who is acknowledged as a world- wide authority on the taxonomy of our eucalypts, and on the acacias, Mr. J. H. Maiden, and that of that eminent plant physio- logist, Professor Ewart. It may also be suggested that the scien- tific reports on Northern Territory would be more complete if a meteorological report on it were obtained by some competent officer from the Federal Meteorological Bureau. Those who have the privilege of knowing Professor Gilruth in- timately will have every confidence that he will prove himself— indeed, he has already proved himself—an able and successful administrator, and this Association is surely grateful to the Federal Government for having placed our colleague in so high and re- sponsible a position. : May we not express a hope that the Federal Government will shortly see its way to pursue the same enlightened policy it has adopted for the scientific exploration of Northern Territory, also to British Papua. Mr. J. E. Carne, F.G.S., Assistant Govern- ment Geologist of New South Wales, has, after a very arduous and most successful mission to Papua under the Federal Govern- ment, located there an extensive belt of oil-bearing sandstones, without doubt a continuation of the Great Burmese oil belt, which runs through Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, to Timor, and thence XLVI PRESIDENTAL ADDRESS. to New Guinea. This oil belt is full of possibilities, and should the supplies of oil prove satisfactory will be a boon to the Australian Navy. It may be said without exaggeration that, at the present moment, there is no more fascinating field for exploration in the whole world, since the South Pole has become overcrowded, than New Guinea. It is to be hoped that the Commonwealth Govern- ment will see its way to have such an expedition organized at an early date, and that when the representatives of the British Asso- ciation arrive here in 1914 there will be a rich harvest of results from Papuan exploration to lay before them. Polar Exploration.—-Reference to the overcrowding of the South Pole recalls the fact that at present there are no less than three important expeditions in Antarctica; the German expedition, under Lieutenant Filchner; the British expedition of i910-13, under Captain Scott; and the Australasian expedition, under Dr. Douglas Mawson. Of the recent Antarctic expeditions, one might first touch on that of Amundsen, with special reference to his scientific results. Much has been said and written about his want of candour in neglecting to inform the scientific world, and particularly the leader of the British Antarctic Expedition, Captain R. F. Scott, much earlier than he did of his intention to compete in the race for the South Pole. It is certainly to be regretted that no information of his inten- tion to deviate from the original purpose of his expedition was made before the /ram left Norway. At the same time the im- portant fact must not be overlooked that when Amundsen reached Maderia in November, 1910, he sent a cable to Captain Scott, who was then at Lyttleton, in New Zealand :— ‘“ Beg inform you am taking Fram south.’’ Now it has been publicly stated in Australia and elsewhere that Amundsen stole a march on Captain Scott, and anticipated him in point of time in arriving at winter quarters in the Antarctic. This charge is wholly unfounded. Captain Scott was well aware, as the sequel proved, that Amundsen intended to make a dash for the South Pole. Scott’s subsequent action before he left New Zealand proves this. He was not aware what part of the Ant- arctic continent exactly Amundsen would use as his base. As a matter of fact, Scott was able to arrive at his base at Cape Evans, near Mount Erebus, several weeks earlier than Amundsen arrived at the Bay of Whales, the point of the east side of the Great Barrier selected by him as his base. In the absence of any accepted code on the ethics of Pole jump- ing, it may fairly be stated that after Amundsen’s cablegram to PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XLVII Captain Scott, the South Pole might have been considered any- body’s Pole; either the Norwegians, or the Japanese, or the Ger- mans, or the British, for the expeditions representing all these peoples had by this time entered the field as competitors. As the result of his own consummate skill, forethought, capacity as a leader, and that genius which lies in the capacity for taking an infinity of pains, backed up by the record of a heroic past, and supported by a brave band of as equally heroic countrymen, Amundsen, as the world knows, secured the much coveted prize of the South Pole for the flag of Norway. Knowing full well, as we do, that Amundsen’s dash for the South Pole was his last desperate throw to save his expedition, planned for the North Pole, from financial ruin, we can surely afford to make light of his slight departure from usual scientific etiquette, all the more be- cause of the glorious record the British nation already holds in polar exploration, and can congratulate heartily and generously this hero of either Pole, and his brave companions, on the splen- dour of their achievement. Achieve the Pole they certainly did, as the most rigid scientific scrutiny of their numerous accurate cbservations proved that they must have passed within a few hundred metres of the Pole, and possibly have been even closer.! It has been said that the scientific results of such a dash are meagre. Such a conclusion is disproved by the results, for although they do not bulk as large as those of Captain Scott’s expedition, the geographical, meteorological, and oceano-graphical results are of extreme and unique interest. In the first place, Amundsen’s march to the Pole, and the ex- plorations of his heutenant, Prestud, in the direction of King Edward VII. land, showed that large masses of land, either im- mense islands, or low continents, with deep inlets, bound the Great Ice Barrier on the east, and southwards to the Antarctic Andes. It will be observed on the map exhibited that the Ant- arctic Andes make a great swerve from their south-easterly trend in the King Oscar Mountains, near where the Heiberg Glacier joins the Barrier; the trend southerly from this point being to- wards the S.S.E. This suggests a possibility of the Antarctic Andes after all, perhaps, extending into the eastern side of Wed- dell Sea, near Coat’s Land, though this is by no means certain. In these Andes, Amundsen discovered the highest mountain yet known in Antarctica, called by him Frithjof Nansen, 15,000 feet in height.” 1 Subsequent observations (with a theodolite) by the late Captain R. F. Scott and his heroic comrades prove that the spot where Amundsen planted the Norwegian flag was within half-a-mile of where they calculated the actual South Pole is situated. 4 The late Captain R. F. Scott and Sir Frnest Shackleton discovered almost equally high mountains respectively in Mount Markham and Mount Kirkpatrick. the latter to the north-west of the Beardmore Glacier, the former about 80 miles further north. XLVIII PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Amundsen’s meteorological results show that the barometric pressure at the Bay of Whales is lower in winter than in summer, a fact of great significance, confirming the previous observations of Scott, Shackleton, and the German Antarctic expedition under Drygalski. Fifty per cent. of the air currents at the Bay of Whales, sufficiently strong to be termed winds, came from the east. The lowness of the temperatures recorded at Framheim, in the Bay of Whales, at a latitude 78 deg. 38 min. south, longitude 163 deg. 37 min. west, was as remarkable as it was unexpected. The winter there at Framheim was no less than 21.6 deg. F. colder than it usually is in McMurdo Sound, where the British Expedition wintered. During August, 1911, the average temperature at Framheim of this, the coldest month, proved to be no less than —48.1 deg. F. The first abortive attempt made in September, 1911, to reach the South Pole proved to Amundsen that, at a distance of only about 25 miles south of the Bay of Whales, the temperature was about 17 deg. F. lower still. The latter point is in lat. 80 deg. south; possibly at 82 deg. or 83 deg. south, the temperature is cooler still. When one reflects that Hann and Meinardus have inde- pendently calculated the temperature at the South Pole, reduced to sea level in winter time, that is for the month of July, as only —28 deg. F., the great importance of Amundsen’s discovery becomes apparent. There is an immense pool of intensely cold air lying on the surface of the Great Barrier, remote from the stirring-up effects of high mountain ranges like the Antarctic Andes. Thus, we have the remarkable condition of this great lake of cold air, not only much colder than the temperature of the South Pole, reduced to sea level, but perhaps even colder than the South Pole itself, though the latter has an altitude of about 10,260 feet, whereas the surface of the Great Ice Barrier is not more than about 200 feet above the sea. An interesting analogous instance of a region of greater cold than the South Pole itself occurs in Northern Siberia. There at Verkhoyansk, the lowest temperature ever re- corded at any part of the world has been met with, namely, —96 deg. F., that is 122 deg. F. of frost. The geological specimens brought back by Amundsen, and ex- amined in Christiana, reveal the fact that the rocks of the Betty Mountains to the south of the Ross Barrier (Great Ice Barrier) are formed of granite with veins of aplite. Similar rocks were obtained from Scott’s Nunatak, in King Edward VII. Land, to- gether with schist, gneiss, white granite, granodiorite, and diorite. No less interesting are the oceanographical results secured by the Fram on her long and patient surveys in the South Atlantic, as shown on the accompanying lantern slides. It was found that PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. k XLIX whereas the isotherms at the surface of the ocean _ stretch in a general south-west to north-east direction across the South Atlantic, the warm water lying towards the north-west, at a depth of 400 metres, the isotherms are quite different from those on the surface. The 400 metres isotherms show pools of relatively warm water underlying colder water, and bounded equatorwards by much colder water, the difference in temperature being no less than 27 deg. F. . Some analogous temperature distributions have already been proved between Iceland and Norway, where the relatively warm, but more saline, waters of the Gulf Stream dive underneath the colder, but fresher, waters coming from the Arctic Ocean. Gravity and magnetic observations were also obtained by this expedition. There can be no doubt that the value of Captain Scott’s scientific observations, especially the meteorological, will be greatly enhanced by the fact of simultaneous observations havy- ing been taken by Amundsen. In reference to the German expe- dition under Lieutenant Filchner, at present we know practically nothing, but can be quite confident that in the almost wholly unexplored region of the Weddell Sea Quadrant, he and his com- rades will contribute to raise higher still the reputation of their nation, already second to none in the world, for accuracy and thoroughness in all kinds of scientific research. Next, in regard to Captain Scott’s expedition. While there is much subject for con- gratulation, the fact cannot be concealed that the news which the Terra Nova will probably bring us late in March will be looked for with a keenness tinged by anxiety. There can, in my opinion, be scarcely a shadow of doubt that Captain Scott and his gallant band, after desperate struggles, testing the human system to its utmost limit of endurance, struggles and hardships from which Amundsen and his comrades, from their superior experience and knowledge, were exempt, have actually reached the South Pole and discovered the tent and flag, and other marks that were left by Amundsen. One cannot but sympathize with the poignancy of the disappointment of Scott and his party when they found, after all their heroic struggles, that they had been anticipated. But the story of their magnificent courage in the face of appalling difficulties, is one which will go down as inspiration to noble effort for all time.! A useful summary of what promised to be the richest harvest of scientific research ever gathered in the Antarctic has already been given by Mr. J. H. Maiden, our general secretary, whom we all 4 This was, of course, written before the sad news of the Polar tragedy had reached Australia. The inspiration remains, but alas for the brave spirits that have passed ! L PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. rejoice to see restored to his normal robust health, in his presiden- tial address to the Royal Society of New South Wales, delivered Ist May, 1912. Extremely important meteorological observations, especially with reference to the higher atmosphere and its tempera- ture, pressure, and movements, have been obtained by Dr. Simpson, who, by means of unmanned balloons, has been able to study accurately the conditions in the higher atmosphere of the Antarctic up to heights of about 26,000 feet. His method of recovering the tiny meteorograph apparatus no bigger than a watch when it fell sometimes at a distance of as much as 10 miles from where it was sent up, by means of a delicate silken thread paid out automatically as fast as the balloon rose, and set free by a timed attachment which dropped the self- recording meteorograph from the balloon, was as simple and effective as it was ingenious. Important researches in physics are being carried on by Mr. S. Wright, who in the absence of Dr. Simpson and Mr. Griffith Taylor, is now in charge of both the meteorological and magnetic: work formerly undertaken by Dr. Simpson. One of the most interesting results obtained by the biologist, Mr. Lillie, and Mr. Nelson, has been the securing of enormous quantities of that remarkable vertebrate Cephalodiscus. Some very interesting geological surveys and glacial explorations were conducted by Mr. Griffith Taylor and Mr. Frank Debenham. One may rely on a young scientist of Mr. Taylor’s genius to: make important original contributions to our knowledge of these branches of knowledge, and, to judge from the accounts from head-quarters of the work of Mr. Frank Debenham, it is clear that it too will form a valuable addition to our knowledge of the petrology and physiography of the Ross Quadrant. Mr. R. E. Priestley, my geological colleague in the Shackleton Antarctic Expedition, though cramped, geologically, at Cape Adare on account of the surrounding inaccessible mountains, has accom- plished most useful meteorological work, and no doubt has obtained valuable geological information, when, as a member of Lieut. Campbell’s party, he explored the region around the base of Mt. Nansen. Although there is every reason to hope that Lieut. Campbell’s party have long ere this returned in safety to head-quarters, there is still some little room for anxiety. Last February, the Terra Nova attempted on several occasions to take up this party, but were prevented by dense belts of pack ice, which prevented the ship getting within less than about 10 miles of the shore. Pro- bably they would either winter near Evans’ Cove, opposite Mt. Nansen, or would retreat by the very difficult and dangerous route along the coastal plain, intersected at intervals by more: PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LI or less heavily crevassed glaciers.- Messrs. Taylor and Debenham earlier in the year found themselves left in a somewhat similar plight, but at a nearer distance to their base. By making back inland a few miles up the slope of the Piedmont ice they were enabled eventually to travel by a fairly practicable route back to winter quarters. It is devoutly to be hoped that Lieut. Campbell’s party have been equally successful. Some little anxiety also exists in regard to Captain Scott’s party. When Lieut. Evans and his two colleagues were despatched back to head-quarters by Captain Scott, when the latter remained with his party within 127 miles of the South Pole, there was not the slightest suspicion of any member of either party being in any but the most robust state of health. Unfortunately, about a fortnight after parting from Captain Scott, when traversing the Great Ross Barrier, Lieut. E. R. G. R. Evans, R.N., was attacked by scurvy, and, but for the extreme heroism of his two comrades, one of whom became later also affected by scurvy, though slightly, there is no doubt that he would have forfeited his life in the cause of geographical exploration. There is one consoling reflection to which Lieut. Evans attaches great weight, when one considers the probability of any of Scott’s party, subsequent to their reaching the Pole, and on the return journey, having been afflicted with scurvy, and that is that Lieut. Evans, on account of six weeks of strenuous work on the Ice Barrier laying depdts, had to exist all this time with his party on tinned provisions only, whereas the remainder of Scott’s party were at the time supplied regularly with fresh meat at winter quarters. Lieut. Evans considers his attack of scurvy was probably due to pemmican—a meat and beef-fat paste—which had become unfit for food, and induced scurvy, which is perhaps a species of blood poison. In spite of this small room for anxiety, there is every reason to hope that Scott and all his party, after accom- plishing more scientific work, such as the rounding of the boundaries of the Great Ice Barrier, &c., and completing other research work in a manner never surpassed or equalled by any previous antarctic expedition, will all return, like Shackleton’s expedition, without the loss of one single life. Next in reference to the Japanese expedition under Lieut. Shiraze. They have appeared to have accomplished little beyond landing on the Great Ice Barrier at the Bay of Whales, where they met Amundsen, and studying the structure and crystallinity of the ice of the Barrier, and sending inland a sledge party, under Lil PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Takeda, for a distance of about 150 miles to the south-east of the Bay of Whales. They reached a latitude of 80° 5’ South. longitude 156° 27’ West. At their furthest point south-east there was no trace of any rock or earth visible, nothing but the white- ness of the ice surface, which descended by a gentle slope to the level of the Barrier. As the altitude at this extreme point was about 1,300 feet above the sea, there can be little doubt that land must underlie this area. Lastly, we may glance at the important scientific expedition, the first of its kind despatched under the auspices of this Associa- tion, and under the leadership of Dr. Douglas Mawson, to that great unexplored region of the Antarctic which lies between the meridian of Tasmania and that of South Africa, and which, there- fore, directly fronts our own southern coast. My predecessor in this office stated in a vigorous and inspiriting address that it was ‘‘up to’’ us in Australia to do something on our own to explore this vast and, as yet, so little known continent which lies at our very door. It is now a matter of history that this Association responded nobly to their leader’s call, and how, following that lead, generous individuals in the Old Country and patriotic citizens of this Commonwealth gave Mawson most effective support with their handsome donations, and we shall never forget the liberal and generous spirit in which the Commonwealth Govern- ment vied with the State Governments in supporting this first piece of new and arduous exploration ever undertaken by our country in the field of South Polar research Three stations have been successfully established respectively at Macquarie Island, Adélie Land, and at the Great Termination Glacier, a little east of the old head-quarters of the German expedition near Gaussberg. The landing by Captain J. K. Davis and Wild’s parties at the summit of this great glacier cliff, over 100 feet above sea-level, was a feat of daring and decision which has certainly never been sur- passed in the history of the exploration of either Pole. The meteorological and glacial observations at Termination Glacier are likely to prove of great interest. Captain Davis made a very interesting discovery on the voyage eastwards towards Adélie Land; he found that a huge ice barrier prevented his sailing his ship within 80 to 100 miles of the track formerly followed at this distance further to the south by Commander Wilkes in 1839. In matters of longitude, it is of course easy even for expert naviga- tors to err, but it is surely less likely for so experienced a navigator as Wilkes to have been at all seriously out in his latitudes, certainly not to the extent of 80 to 100 miles. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Lilt The provisional conclusion may be drawn that, since the time of Wilkes’ voyage, there has been a solid advance northerly of the front of the Great Ice Barrier in this locality to the extent of about at least 80 miles.! It is the more remarkable. in view of the fact that, in the Ross Sea region as well as in the Graham Land region of the Antarctic, there is every evidence of an extensive recent retreat of the glaciers and ice-fields in general. At Adélie Land, Mawson has established his head-quarters at a bay called by him Commonwealth Bay. He has with him an expert magnetic observer in Mr. E. N. Webb, of New Zealand, trained under Mr. E. Kidson of the Carnegie Institute; and in the matter of magnetic instruments, is probably better equipped than any preceding Antarctic expedition. The proximity of the base of the South Magnetic Pole renders continuous observations here of extreme scientific interest. It was Dr. Mawson’s great ambition to make good the work already begun on the South Magnetic Pole*by the Shackleton Expedition, and to connect the name of Australia indissolubly and honorably for all time with the work of exploring this wonderful focus of the magnetic force in the Southern Hemisphere. When it is considered that the magnetic lines of force in the Southern Hemisphere are chiefly controlled by this Pole, and that the Pole has undoubtedly been in movement since its position was theoretically calculated by Sir James C. Ross in 1840, and that upon the trend of these lines depends the various directions in which ships’ compasses point on the Southern seas, it will be seen that any advancement of our knowledge of these magnetic conditions will not only be of great scientific use and necessity, but will also make for greater accuracy and security in the navigation of the many thousands of ships which yearly furrow our southern seas. If the work in this department of magnetism alone be fully and successfully accomplished, as there is every reason to believe it will have been, the expedition will have fully justified its existence in the eyes of the world, as well as in those of this society, which originated it; and the patriotic individual donors, and the Federal and State Governments of the Commonwealth, as well as the British Government, will feel convinced that the money they have so liberally contributed has been spent on a most worthy object. But there aré many other branches of science which we hope will benefit materially from the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. * On the other hand it is possible that this barrier my be formed of vast fleets of bergs cemented together by sea ice, and with the original spaces between them filled in with drift snow. Such a mass of ice would be analogons to the “‘ Schollen” ice, described by Drygalski, to the west of the wintering station of the Gauss, near Gaussberg. "LIV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, Reference has already been made to meteorology. Our Federal Meteorologist, Mr. H. A. Hunt, informs me that the weather data, which are sent him by wireless from Macquarie Island, prove the closest connexion between our Commonwealth weather conditions and those of the Sub-Antarctic. The Rev. D. C. Bates, the Meteorologist to the Dominion of New Zealand, confirms this rela- tion between the weather conditions of Macquarie and those of New Zealand. It is true that Macquarie Island, being west of Sydney, supplies data of more value for forecasting in New Zealand than in Australia; but these data are absolutely essential for a full under- standing of Australian weather conditions, and it is to be hoped that, in the near future, arrangements may be made for the con- tinuous upkeep of this station. The cost is estimated at only about £800 to £1000 a year. For the benefit of commerce and science, it is greatly to be hoped that this suggestion will be strongly sup- ported. The fact that the Australasian Wireless Company, with a comparatively small 14-kilowatt dynamo, have been able to trans- mit messages which have easily been received in Sydney, and at times even in Suva and Perth, speaks volumes for the perfection of their system and the skill of their operator. Members of the Association will, I trust, be pleased to hear that a complete wireless receiving outfit has recently been dis- patched in charge of Captain Davis to Adélie Land. This should be capable of receiving messages transmitted from a distance of fully 2,000 miles. Up to the present, Mawson’s wireless messages, with wearisome reiterations, affirm the fact that they have been unable so far to receive a single message from anywhere. It is now hoped that, as soon as the Aurora reaches Mawson’s base, messages may at once be freely exchanged between Australia and Adélie Land, either vid Macquarie Island or direct, and what is most important, time signals may be interchanged between the Melbourne Observatory and Adélie Land: and so, with the help of Mr. P. Baracchi, for the first time in the history of the Antarctic exploration, a fundamental meridian of longitude may be accurately established for Antarctica.! The transmission of accurate time signals will also much enhance the value of the magnetic and other observations. In the charting of a new coast, much valuable help is likely to be rendered by an able and enthusiastic young Dutch geologist, J. Van Waterschoot Van der Gracht, who is a brother of the Government Geologist of the Netherlands, and has also dis- tinguished himself in West Antarctica in making accurate and most artistic cartographic drawings of the Antarctic coast and that of Terra del Fuego. ’ A short time after this was written, almost daily communication has been established by wireless between Dr. Mawson’s base at Adélie and Australasia. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LV This enterprising and magnanimous young explorer has placed his services gratuitously and unreservedly at Dr. Mawson’s dis- posal, a bright example of the true scientific spirit. It is thought that a particlularly rich biological collection will be gathered together by Mr. J. Hunter and his assistants which will supplement the collection already made by Mr. Hamilton at Macquarie Island, and by Mr. E. R. Waite and Professor Flynn on the recent cruise of the Awrora in Sub-Antarctic waters. The first Oceanographic cruise of the Awrora did not prove very fruitful in result, chiefly on account of the extremely stormy weather encountered throughout. A second cruise was more suc- cessful, and resulted in a discovery of importance, that of an ex- tensive submarine ridge about 200 miles to the south of the southern end of Tasmania. This ridge rises from depths of about 2,200 fathoms to 600 fathoms of the surface, and is therefore 9,600 feet in height. It is a monument most suggestive of that former union of Tasmania and Antarctica which the past and present flora of Tasmania, South America, Antarctica, and New Zealand, seem to postulate, and which has been so ably argued by Mr. C. Hedley recently in his paper to the Linnean Society of London.! It is not generally realized that, in going to the coast of the Antarctic, so close to the Antarctic circle itself, Dr. Mawson and Captain Davis took a tremendous risk. It is well known that near the latitudes of 60 degrees and 65 degrees is what the German meteorologists call the “‘ gutter’’ (die Rinne) of the atmosphere, that is a great world furrow of extremely low pressure running EK. and W. into which blow, with a persistence and fury elsewhere unparalleled, the blizzards of the south and the ‘‘ Roaring Forties ”’ of the north. Navigation in those seas is fraught with many great dangers; but, nevertheless, we hope to see every member of the Expedition return safe and sound to us in March or April of this year, when we shall all join in giving them a very warm welcome, and all honour for the endurance and courage with which they have faced such great privations and perils in the cause of science. . Visit of the British Association for the Advancement of Science to Australasia in July, August, September, 1914.— An important feature, and in some respects a serious draw- back in the location of Australasia on the face of the globe, is its extreme isolation from the great centres of thought in other *. Proc. Linn. Soc. London 1911-12, pp. 80-90, ‘‘The Palwogeographical Relations of Antarctica.” LVI PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. parts of the world. Thus for most of us interchange of ideas with the scientific world at large is effected chiefly through the means of scientific journals and magazines and reports of scientific socie- ties, as well as, but to a much more limited extent, by personal correspondence. One lacks here, for the most part, except on occasions like the present, the opportunity for personal contact even with one’s fellow workers in science in Australasia; and undoubtedly the most precious product from gatherings such as these is the charm and inspiration which comes from personal con- tact with one’s fellow workers. Those of us who are privileged, on rare occasions, to visit the centres of thought m the Old World fully realize how personal contact with master minds in the Old World brings us in a few hours nearer to the truth than we could have come as the result of reading of magazines for many months. The value of such meetings in this respect is, therefore, inestim- able. Australasia has experienced the good that has resulted from personal visits of Australian Prime Ministers and Premiers to the Old World, of the visit to our shores of the Empire Chamber of Commerce, the Scottish Agricultural Commissioners, &c. No less good is likely to flow to the Australasian world of science from the approaching visit of the British Association, and already we feel under a deep debt of gratitude to all those who have initiated this great movement. Over ten years ago the idea of inviting the British Association to visit Australasia presented itself to the founder of this Associa- tion, Professor Liversidge. At that time we were much smaller and less wealthy communities than we are at present, and, not being federated, could not speak with one voice, nor draw on a common fund. Hence the project had to be postponed. It has been reserved for a distinguished member of the Council of the University of Melbourne, Dr. J. W. Barrett, who is no “‘ little Australian,’’ to bring the matter prominently before the notice of the authorities of this University. The co-operation of other Universities was as heartily given as it was sincerely sought. The scientific societies followed the lead of the Universities con amore, this Association taking the lead, and willingly lending its organiza- tion for purposes of forwarding the movement. My predecessor in this office, when visiting England in 1910, and attending there the meeting of the British Association at Sheffield, strenuously and successfully pressed the invitation on behalf of Australian science, an invitation which was officially conveyed by Sir George Reid. The State Governments of the Commonwealth, through Sir George, promised liberal railway concessions to the visiting members. It will be fresh within the recollection of all that a great wave of PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LYIE joy went over the whole of our scientific community when we heard that our invitation had been accepted by the British Association ; and that joy was all the greater when we learned later that the visitors from the British Association would comprise leaders in every branch of science throughout the United Kingdom, and that among them would be included Sir Charles Lucas. The Universi- ties and science societies having thus moved the Government, Fede- ral and State, to join in issuing the invitation, next approached the Federal Government with a view to their voting the necessary funds to defray the cost of the transit overseas of so large a number of scientific visitors. With splendid foresight and liberality the Federal Government voted the handsome sum of £15,000 for these expenses ; and it is a particularly pleasing feature in this connexion that the question was treated as a purely non-party one, Mr. Fisher and Mr. Deakin assisting each other in every way possible to bring about this happy consummation. The Federal Govern- ment being the hosts of the visiting Association, have recently asked for the co-operation of the scientific workers in the various States, in order to make all the necessary preliminary arrangemerts. Each State is sending representatives to the Federal Council in Melbourne, which comprises political as well as scientific represen- tatives from every State of the Commonwealth, the Prime Minister acting as chairman. The State Governments and municipalities have unanimously promised every support. So far the whole organization is working very smoothly. So much of its future successful working depended upon the selection of the right man to act as general secretary for the British Association, for organis- ing their visit in Australia, that extreme care had to be exercised in his selection. All, I feel sure, will agree that the choice could not have fallen on a man who is more suitable in every way than our newly-appointed general secretary, Mr. A. C. D. Rivett. All that now remains is for each of us to work together with a will, in order to make this approaching visit of the British Association a real epoch-making event, not only in the history of Australian science, but in that of Australasia. Universities.—University education is making rapid progress in Australia. Apart from the continued expansion of the older Australian Universities, one of which (Sydney) is now commencing to work under a new University Bill, which practically makes education free in all schools of the University for deserving students, there is the growth of the new University of Queens- land, and the establishment of the University of Western Aus- tralia to be considered. LVIIl PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. The University of Queensland, which at present has four pro- fessors and seventeen lecturers and demonstrators, will probably commence the academic year with no less than 200 students. At the University of Western Australia it is very gratifying to note that out of the eight chairs advertised, for which there was an aggregate of 230 applicants, no less than four have been given to alumni of Australian Universities, viz., the Chair of English to Walter Murdoch; that of Chemistry to N. T. M. Williams, D.Se., both of Melbourne University; the Chair of Engineer- ing to Hubert E. Whitfeld, B.A., B.E.; and that of Geology to W. G. Woolnough, D.Sc., both of Sydney University.1 This fact speaks for itself as to the standard of Australian University teaching. Our hearty good wishes go with all these new pro- fessors no less than with their colleagues newly appointed from the Old World, and may we not wish this, the youngest of the Australian States, every success in its splendid academic enter- prise ! Australian Climate, Past and Present, with special reference to its control by Antarctica.—Although no meteorologist, I have necessarily had, in the course of my geological work, to devote some little time to the study of that subject, and when in Antarctica, in 1909-10, during the long winter months when geo- logical studies were all but impossible, concentrated my attention as much as possible upon the local weather conditions, and especi- ally upon the problems of circulation of the upper atmosphere in that region. It is proposed now to discuss the nature and circulation of the atmosphere in general briefly, and then to pass on to consider the circulation in the Antarctic and its influence on Australian cli-. mate, past and present in particular, with some notes in con- clusion as to what appeared to be special needs, at present and in the near future, of Australasian meteorology. First, this sketch may begin with a summary of what are probably the chief causes of the circulation of the atmosphere. Firstly, the circulation results from the spherical shape of the earth, which causes in turn the differential heating of the earth’s surface by the sun, for an important fact must be emphasized, * Sine: this was written, the Chair of History at Western Australia has been awarded to BH. O. G. Shann, B.A. of the University of Melbourne. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LIX that fully 99 per cent. of the earth’s surface temperature is due to heat received by it from the sun, so that heat received from other sources, as from the internal heat of the earth, from radia- tive emanations, from planets or stars, may all be considered as practically negligible. Next there is the factor of the different presentment of dif- ferent parts of the earth to the sun’s rays at different seasons of the year, due to the obliquity of the axis of rotation of the earth to the path in which the earth revolves around the sun. Next there is the factor of the rotation of the earth from west to east. This factor, as Ferrel has shown, leads to the tendency for any body in the northern hemisphere, whether moving in a north- south direction or in an east-west direction, or in any intermediate direction to be deflected towards the right. In the southern hemisphere the deflection is, ceteris paribus, towards the left. Next there is the factor that the earth’s surface is part! formed of land and partly of water, and next that the specific heat of water is about four times that of average land. In other words, land warms up, or parts with its heat four times as quickly as water does. Next there is the factor that water, when vaporized, is lighter than air, and thus when present in appreciable quantities in air tends to float the air masses upwards, the molecules of water vapour acting like microscopic balloons, and so when conditions are humid, all other things being equal, atmosplieric pressure is less than when the air is dry. Next there is the factor that pure normal dry air is practically diathermanous, that is, it allows the sun’s heat rays to be trans- mitted through it to the earth without itself undergoing any appreciable rise of temperature. Next is the factor that the presence of any of the following substances in the atmosphere lessens its diathermanous properties, viz., water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, dust motes. Dust motes may come from ordinary surface terrestrial dust, lava dust from volcanic eruptions, or cosmic dust derived from the volatili- zation and subsequent condensation of meteors and meteorites. Next is the factor that if air expands as it rises its heat be- comes distributed over an increasingly larger volume. This so- called adiabatic expansion of air is followed by a fall of tem- perature at the rate of 1.6 degrees F. for every 300 feet of ascent. Lx PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Next is the factor that in places where the weather is calm, so that no convection currents of air are rising, bringing about this adiabatic fall of temperature, the fall of temperature of the atmosphere is at the rate of about 1 degree F. for ascent of 300 feet. Next is the factor that outside the ordinary gases, such as oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide, which enter into the com- position of the earth’s lower atmosphere, is the vast vault of the higher atmosphere composed chiefly of hydrogen and helium, with smal] quantities or argon, neon, and xenon. These extremely light gases, as far as we are at present aware, play no very im- portant part in our atmospheric circulation. Next is the great factor, the importance of which has been realized only of late years, that at a height which varies chiefly with altitude, partly with surface atmospheric conditions, of from 27,000 feet near the North Pole! to over 50,000 feet at the equator and tropics, the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere suddenly ceases to fall, and usually commences to rise again, after which, at a much higher altitude still,?2 it may fall again, but at an extremely slow rate. The bottom of this layer, the in- version layer, is now known as the isothermal line, and one of the greatest aims of modern meteorology, when dealing with the higher atmosphere is to determine the height temperature and movement of this isothermal line or surface. Practically it forms a ceiling over the top of the circulating portion of the earth’s atmosphere against which all appreciable upward or downward or horizontal moving convection currents practically stop. The great discovery of the existence of the isothermal layer was made by the distinguished French meteorologist, Teisserenc de Bort, at the world-famous observatory at Trappes, near Paris, and almost simultaneously by Professor Assman, in Germany. It is beyond the scope of this address to discuss all the probable reasons for the existence of the isothermal layer. Two only may be given. Obviously the cessation upwards of convection currents from the lower atmosphere, when the isothermal layer is reached, is due to the fact that air which is getting colder by adiabatic expansion cannot force its way above air which is warmer than itself, and at the same time under less pressure than itself, as is the air at the base of the isothermal layer. The fact which most needs explanation is why, after a steady fall in temperature with 2 During ths sunm?r of 19)3 Prfsssor H-rg237ll conclnied that over the Arctic Ocean near lat. 75° N., tho isothermal! layer there sunk as low as 23,090 feet. 2 Profsssor Wilhum foual rec:ntly that oa 3th Octob:r, at St. Louis, Mo., U.S.A., lat. 38° N., the minimim t2mo:rature record2d occirred at 47,699 feet, while the sam3 day at the ee altitude attained, 54,100 feet, the tempsrature rose to -72° F., a rise of 18° F. aye PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LxXI ascent, does such an inversion layer of warm air suddenly mani- fest itself? Two possible causes, which I would briefly mention, are the following :— First, it is well known that the ultra violet rays of sunligh’ are largely absorbed in the higher atmosphere. In this process of absorption they appear to accomplish two kinds of work—the first, the conversion of some of the high-level oxygen into ozone; and as ozone is able to absorb heat even when dry, whereas oxygen does not, in the second place they warm the ozone. Next it is pointed out that with one exception all the su! stances and conditions which lead to the lower atmosphere being alternately warmed or chilled disappear at a height of from 5 to 6 or 7 miles above the earth’s surface. These substances, as already mentioned, are aqueous vapour, carbon dioxide, and dust, and the condition which obtains at the earth’s surface, but not at the isothermal layer, is the conduction of some solar heat by contact with the land or water to those substances, and the con- sequent warming of the layer of the atmosphere next to the earth by the long waves of radiant energy, which are practically trans- formed waves from sunlight.1. Of the three substances which go to bring about changes of temperature in the lower atmosphere, and so produce convection currents, only dust is met with above the base of the isothermal layer. This dust is excessively tenuous and minute. It is not of ordinary terrestrial nor of volcanic origin, but at this high level is probably wholly derived from the small amount of material resulting from the condensation of in- candescent gases given off during the combustion of meteors and meteorites. Such dust would settle at an extremely slow rate through the atmosphere commencing at the point known as_ the radiant point of meteors, usually about 50 miles above the earth’s surface. In this slow process of settling down, the dust becomes denser as the density of the atmosphere increases, and thus con- tact with this dust tends to slightly warm the higher atmosphere in the isothermal layer, the warming effect increasing downwards, but it is so slight that it is insufficient to produce effective con- vection. It is indeed the same process which results from warming of dust in the lower atmosphere, but in the latter case the dust is present in such appreciable quantity that its heating effect on the atmosphere is sufficient to bring about definite convection currents. * For further information onthe cause of the isothermal layer or upper inversion, see Mount Weather Bulletin. vol. ii, Pap»rs by Humphreys, and Proc. Roy. Soc. Series A, vol. lxxxii, p. 43, Gold, also Nature, 1908-1909. LXIl PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES FAHRENHEIT. : 32° =i a LHOISH a ‘SSTIN NI 0 Ww « oa W 2 oO a 4 z HEIGHT RVG: ‘Ts Curve showing temperature of atmosphere near Melbourne, up to height of 17 kilometres, from meteorograph record obtained by Mr. H. A. Hunt, Federal Meteorologist. The balloon carrying the meteorograph was released at the Central Weather Bureau Melbourne, on 23rd May, 1913, and fell at 82 miles to E. 23 deg. S., at Yinnar, Victoria. The wind at Melbourne at the time the balloon was started was blowing from the south.! ! Through the kindness of Mr. W. A. Hunt I have been permitted, while this address was going through the press, to substitute this Australianrecord of the t-mp:rature up to and above the isothermal layer for the conventional curve which I exhibited at the meeting, the latter curve having been generalized from a number of observations in the Northern Hemisphere. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXIII We are now in the position to consider the theories of atmo- ‘spheric circulation. The starting point is naturally the differen- tial heating of the equator as compared with the poles. In Fig. 2, the effect of this heating is illustrated in the case of the -- -- Original Surface oF 2air columns of equal temperature Mien Pe ‘two masses of air, the one at the equator, the other on the poleward side of it. Both of them, it may be assumed, in the first in- stance, exert precisely similar pressure on the earth’s surface, and have similar height, but as the result subsequently of the differen- tial heating effect of the sun, the equatorial mass expands to a greater extent than the mass on the poleward side of it. So far, however, there is no apparent reason why there should be any circulation from the base of one column of air to the base of the other. The greater elongation of the equatorial column has no more increased its weight than the weight of a telescope is in- creased by being pulled out to its full length after it has been shut up. But now the factor of gravity comes into play. Gravity tends to pull mobile substances towards the centre of gravity in such a way that surfaces of those substances become tangential to the direction of pull. It will be seen that in the two columns of air a and + of Fig. 2, the plane touching their surfaces is no longer a tangent to either of the columns. The equatorial column is practically top heavy, and under the influence of gravity it sways over, and flows on either side of the equator in a poleward direc- tion. As soon as the flow sets in from the top of the higher LXIV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 6 column towards the lower column, and material is thereby re- moved from the former, weight is taken off the base of this column, and is added to the base of the poleward column, and thus equilibrium is disturbed through the lessening of pressure at the equator, and the increase of the pressure on the poleward side. There would then already be a tendency for the air at the base of the poleward column to flow in towards the equator, in order to equalize the pressure. Thus a steady transfer of air sets in from the summit of the great protuberant air belt, “‘ Der Wulst,’’ at the equator to the sub-tropical belts on either side of it. This is the great first principle of atmospheric circulation. We at once see the reason for the existence of a constant belt of low pressure at the equator, and two constant belts of high pres- sure in sub-tropical latitudes. These latitudes are respectively 37 deg. north in the Northern Hemisphere, and about 35 deg. south in the Southern Hemisphere. Their establishment at these particular latitudes is probably in part connected with the fact that on the surface of the sphere the areas between the equator and the poles balance themselves at 30 deg. north or south of that equator. If the air masses on the equator side of 30 deg., and that on its poleward side possessed exactly the same density, they would balance each other exactly at 30 deg. north or south of the equator. But on account of the greater cold and conse- quent greater density of the poleward lying air, as compared with the equatorial air, it would probably be necessary to take in more territory than is represented by the strip extending from 0 deg. to 30 deg., in order to secure a mass of air which would approxi- mately equipoise the poleward lying air. Whether this is the correct explanation or not, the fact remains that these two great belts of high pressure exist at latitudes 37 deg. north, and 35 deg. south. Were it not for the rotation of the earth this simple cause of differential heating would set up a very simple circulation of southerly winds blowing from the southern high pressure belt to the equator, and northerly high level winds blowing from the equator back to the top of the high pressure belt. The rotation of the earth leads to deflection, as explained by Ferrell. For example, in the Southern Hemisphere, the trade winds, instead of blowing from due south, become deflected to the left, and so con- stitute the south-east trade winds. Similarly, the air which has seared to a high level over the equator, as it moves poleward, is deflected to its left, that is, in an easterly direction, hence the southern anti-trade wind blows from the north-west to the south- east. So far, atmospheric circulation seems simple. Before we pass on to the less understood portion, it may be added that the differential heating of the equatorial as compared with the extra tropical air-belts, is further emphasized by the fact that there is more aqueous vapour present near the equator than in the extra PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXV tropics, and this aqueous vapour being a good absorbent of heat increases the differential heating at the equator. Further, the atmospheric pressure at the equator is lessened by the presence of this aqueous vapour, the largest amount found anywhere in the earth’s atmosphere, and aqueous vapour, being lighter than air in the proportion of 1-1.623 for similar temperatures and pressure, the aqueous vapour at the equator has a greater ballooning or flotation effect there than elsewhere. Both these causes then, to- gether with the adiabatic expansion of the equatorial air, contri- bute to produce those convection currents which are the prime cause of the trade winds and of the anti-trades. We can now follow the atmospheric circulation on the poleward side of the high pressure belts (or ‘‘ horse latitudes,’’ as they are popularly called). First of all, it may be explained that not all the air which re- turns to the earth’s surface at the base of the high pressure belt flows back again towards the equator. A large part of it divides off and blows polewards, but like the anti-trade winds, from which it has been derived, it, too, undergoes a deflection to the left, and becomes at first the north-west, then west-north-west, and ultimately a westerly wind. These winds, known as the ‘‘ Roaring Forties,’’ are the most persistent and violent winds in the world. The position of their northern boundary varies a good deal with the seasons, but may be described as approximately nearly coinci- dent with the south coast of Australia. The exact mean southern boundary is as yet unknown, but it may be stated that it extends at times down to about latitude 60 deg. south. It is here that there has been proved to exist that great gully or gutter in the earth’s atmosphere! forming a complete channel around the earth from east to west. The Roaring Forties blow into it from the north, the blizzards from the Antarctic blow into it from the south. A pos- sible reason for its existence will be suggested presently; but we must first follow the probable course of the earth’s atmosphere at a high level from the southern anticyclone belt to the south pole. Very little, indeed, is known as yet about this subject, chiefly on account of the fact that nearly the whole of this area is covered by water. Hence the great importance of meteorological observa- tions such as those that are being taken now in the sub-Antarctic at Macquarie Island, by Mawson’s Australasian expedition, and in the Antarctic by Filchner, Scott, and Mawson. We do, how- ever, know something of the circulation of the upper atmosphere in the northern hemisphere, though even there there is still much difference of opinion as to the directions of movement of the upper air currents. We have occasionally actual experiences such as the ’ This is called by Hann “ Die Rinne ”’ or ‘“‘ Die Luftiurche”’. 6117. c LXVI PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. following giving us an indication of the circulation of the upper atmosphere :—At the great eruption of Mount Pelée, in Martin- que and La Soufriére, in St. Vincent, in the year 1902, vast quan- tities of volcanic dust were projected to heights of over 20,000 feet into the higher atmosphere. The trade wind current is there no more than about 13,000 feet in thickness, so that above that level the dust entered the great stream of the anti-trade wind, blowing from south-west to north-east, in that part of the world. This dust was later identified on the surface of the snows of the Swiss Alps, in Canton Lucerne, and it is thought to have been traced as far as Hamburg, in Germany. This proves that the anti-trade wind does not cease at the northern belt of high pressure, but moves poleward, perhaps as far as Hamburg. Further observa- tions in the northern hemisphere, by means of nepho- scopes, ballons de sonde, &c., prove that there is a steady drift ‘taking place of the cirrus clouds in the higher atmosphere, from southwards, or west-south-west, towards north-east, or east-north-east. These poleward-flowing high-level air currents from the high-pressure belts form a stupendous whirl, or aerial malstrom, over the north polar area. In the same area the surface winds are westerlies, blowing spirally polewards. Thus we see that two immense air currents, in the northern hemisphere, spiral inwards towards the north pole. Unless there were some kind of counter-current, obviously there would very soon be an intense congestion of air at the north pole, and equatorial regions would be robbed of their atmosphere. There must, therefore, be some great counter-currents which restore the air from the pole to the equator. How this restoration is accomplished is certainly a great crux of modern meteorology. There are several possible explanations. The first is that the surface westerlies ascend in the north polar region in a huge slowly moving cyclone until they meet the high level westerlies descending over the north pole in a great inverted cyclone. The air from these two cyclones is assumed to meet at an intermediate level, and is thought then to flow back- wards towards the high pressure belt, and in its passage has to force its way past the high level poleward current above and the low level poleward current beneath. Of late years Dr. Shaw, the Director of the Meteorological Office in London, has suggested that there is little trace of any effective circulation of the atmosphere between the latitudes of the high pressure belts and the poles. He adduces in evidence of his view that the westerly winds on the polar side of the high pressure belts in either hemisphere blow for the most part from almost due west to nearly due east. This, he maintains, is the case both at the surface of the earth and also in the higher atmosphere, as evidenced by the drifts of the cirrus clouds. On the other hand, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXVII in their latest works on meteorology, Milham and Moore, follow- ing Hann, show a spiral movement for the poleward seeking air as it moves from the high pressure belts. The fact that volcanic dust, as that from the great eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, after rising to a height of what is estimated to have been over 23 miles, became distributed practically over the atmosphere of the whole world suggests that probably poleward seeking and spirally moving air currents actually exist. According to Dr. Shaw’s theory, there might still presumably be a slow interchange of air between the poles and the high pressure belts through the ‘‘ passing-on ”’ action of the Antarctic cyclones, just as a football is passed to and fro in a series of ‘‘scrums’’ on a football field. As far as the obser- vations of the members of the Shackleton expedition extend, the high level circulation near the South Pole from the Antarctic Circle polewards has a distinct southerly component of movement. After encountering intensely severe westerly gales on the Vimrod we suddenly emerged into clear weather near the Antarctic Circle, and for two days obtained good observations of cirrus clouds float- ing at an altitude of between 15,000 and 18,000 feet. These were moving towards a direction between S.E. and E.S.E., at an approximate speed of about 20 miles an hour. At our winter quarters at the foot of Mt. Erebus, we were almost exactly due west of that mighty active volcano, so that we were in an admir- able position to see, by means of the deflection of the great steam column at its summit, whether or not there was any southerly component in the atmosphere at a level of over 13,000 feet. Nor- mally, when the volcano was in only mild eruption, the steam cloud was slightly deflected to the north of east by an air current blowing from off the high plateau.1 On the whole this wind, therefore, appeared to be an equator-seeking wind, part of a return current. from the pole towards the belt of the Antarctic ‘‘lows.’’ At the same time it may have been merely a local wind blowing from the high plateau to the Ross Sea, which is not only a low-lying area, but an area of low pressure also. Now comes a point which appears of special interest. On the 14th June, 1908, an eruption of con- siderable violence broke out from the summit of Erebus. Vast volumes of steam rose in globular masses so rapidly above the active crater that in about a couple of minutes they attained an altitude of from 5,000 to 6,000 feet above the summit of the mountain—that is, they rose at the rate of about half-a-mile a minute. The spectacle was truly sublime; but the most thrilling moment of all was when, as the top of the steam cloud rose above the 15,000-ft. limit, it was suddenly deflected by a very powerful and rapid overhead current having a very decided southerly com- * The direction of the sastruwgi (wind-eroded furrows) on the plateau to the west of the oe Society Range, as observed by Scott, are from Ww. by §., OF W.S.W., to E. by N., or C2 uXVIII PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. in the path of this current in a direction which appeared to be approximately from W.N.W. to E.S.E. Here, then, was a possible outward and visible sign of the existence of a vast aerial malstrom, which may have been circling around the Pole for untold millions of years, but the absolute existence of which had probably never before been revealed to man until this occasion, when we had the unique privilege of witnessing it. It was a sight that truly filled us with wonder and with awe. On four other separate occasions—17th July, 1908; 2nd August, 1908; 31st August, 1908; and 13th September, 1908—we noticed precisely similar phenomena, so that there can be little doubt, in my opinion, that in this part of the world a great spirally inflowing whirlpool of air does really exist, and its centre appears, on other evidence, to be not far distant from the South Pole.! The observations of Teisserenc De Bort, at Trappes, in France, and elsewhere in the Northern Hemisphere, together with those of other meteorologists, prove that there is a distinct down grade polewards in the atmospheric pressure at a height of 4,000 meters, and the calculations of Meinardus, as quoted by Hann, show that a similar down grade exists near the 2,000-meter level in the Antarctic. Hann, in his admirable and inspiring work, Handbuch der Klimatologie, estimates that the Antarctic anti-cyclone, composed of the air sinking down to the earth’s surface from the great cyclone above it, is normally not more than about 2,000 meters in thickness. These figures do not agree well with our observations near Mount Erebus, but it must be remembered that conditions there were abnormal on account of the presence, 50 miles to the west, of the vast chain of the Antarctic Horst trending approximately in a north and south direction, and tending to deflect upwards to an abnormal height, the winds blowing nearly at right angles to it cff the high polar plateau. Our observations showed that normally the wind off the plateau of South Victoria Land blew steadily at Mount Erebus, between an altitude of about 5,000 feet and about 15,000 feet, in a nearly east direction, more often inclining to the north than to the south ot east. Below the level of 5,000 feet, the air would normally be calm or moving south, as the result of a gentle northerly breeze from off Ross Sea. Above the 15,000-ft. level, as revealed to us * Supan thinks that the Antarctic anticyclone has its heavy point (Schwer punkt) in the Eastern Hemisphere. Lockyer thinks that its centrum is near 130° E. long., and somewhat away from the Pole. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXIX by the steam column from the eruptions just described, the great current of poleward-seeking air was reached, and this extended upwards to vast heights, probably of the order of at least 25,0, feet. If these conclusions are correct for the Mount Erebus region, the high level plateau wind, which may there be considered the abnormal anti-cyclone, locally deflected eastwards into Ross Sea, is thus no less than 15,000 feet in altitude at its upper limit, that is over 4,500 meters instead of Meinardus’ estimate of 2,000 meters. This does not invalidate Meinardus’ conclusions in regard to the upward limit of the normal anti-cyclone, such as that of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Land. At Erebus, there are two abnormal conditions affecting the height of the anti-cyclone—(1) the upward deflection of the normal anti-cyclone by the Antarctic Horst; (2) the upward deflection due to the high volcanic cone of Erebus.! A feature of great interest in the atmospheric circulation of the Antarctic revealed itself to us at the time of the coming on and development of the great blizzards. We were able to distinguish between high-level blizzards and low-level blizzards, the former often blowing hard at a level of 6,000 feet about over our heads, while below all was calm. A premonitory symptom, especially in winter time, of the coming on of an impending blizzard was the swinging around of the great rolls of alto-cumulus clouds from a N.-W. and S.-E. to a N. and S. direction. Meanwhile, the summit of Mount Discovery, over 60 miles to the S.S.W., would be capped with cloud. Later, after an interval of perhaps a few hours, and usually, but not always with a low barometer, a heavy roll of a dense low-lying cloud, something like the roll that precedes the southerlies along our Australian coasts, would be seen in the south. This rushed upon us at such a rapid rate that, even when only a half-a-mile distant from our winter quarters, we had only just time to run for shelter before the full fury of the blast struck us. It was difficult to see, as the blizzard progressed, exactly what was happening in the atmospheric circulation at the higher levels, on account of the denseness of the drift snow. By continuous careful observing, we occasionally caught glimpses of the top of Erebus * On our journey in 1908-9 to the edge of the South Magnetic Pole area we observed that for the last 50 miles of our march before reaching lat. 72° 25’ S., long. 155° 16’ E., the chief sastrugi trend from due S. toN. Thus the normal anticyclone wind blows there first from S. then backs to the S.E., leaving weak>r broad-topped “ ramp ” sastrugi trending from S.E.to N.W. Recently, since this address was read, the returning members of Dr. Mawson’s Australasian Antarctic Expedition report that at Adélie Land, and for 300 miles to the S.E. of Dr. Mawson’s base there, at the head of Commonw2alth Bay, the chief sastrugi trend nearly due §. and N., c-ossed by smaller ‘“‘ ramp” sastrugi trending from about S.E.to N.W. The average speed of th? wind throughout the year 1912 at Adélie Land was no less than 48 miles per hour. This S. to N. direction inclining towards the coast into a direction a little E. of S. and W. of N. may be look2d upon as probably the normil one for the Antarctic anticyclone. LXX PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS and its steam cloud, and it was clear to us then that the part of the atmosphere visible to us, instead of being divisible into three parts, as during calmer weather, now appeared to consist of only two air currents moving rapidly in opposite directions, namely, the south-easterly blizzard, blowing at about 50 to 60 miles an hour during the fiercer gusts; and the poleward-seeking high-level current. It was always noticeable that, as the blizzard developed in intensity, this latter current veered continuously more and more south, until at last it became a north to south wind. Another very interesting fact which we noticed during the pro- gress of blizzards was that the high-level wind blowing polewards decended lower and lower as the blizzard progressed, first truncating the top of the steam column of Erebus, and then slicing it off section by section until at last the column was cut off short at the edge of the crater. Later, one could see, by the ripping off of the snow-drifts by this northerly wind, that its lower limit had descended about 1,000 feet below the summit of the volcano. In other words, during the most severe blizzards, the whole of the poleward-seeking system of air streams appeared! to sink vertically by an amount equal to about 3,000 feet. Another feature of interest was that, at the conclusion of the blizzard, while the air had become calm at sea-level, at our winter quarters, at a higher level the air would be moving rapidly north- wards, and in a short time this high-level southerly air stream would spread up to and even over the top of Erebus; and then the great steam vane, some 20 to 30 miles in length, attached to the top of Erebus, would at once swing around from south through east to north, until little by little the normal plateau wind resumed its old direction from W. by S. to E. by N., and reclaimed control of the Erebus steam vane, forcing it back into an E. by N. direction. We now pass on to a most important question of great signifi- cance. In most parts of the world, with the exceptions of the North and South Poles, the barometric pressure is greater in winter than in summer, for as the cold of winter approaches, the air in contact with the cold sea or cold land becomes chilled, and so is rendered denser in winter than in summer; but at the Poles in winter the barometric pressure is lessened. Now, in whichever hemisphere it happens to be winter, it is the experience that in that * This sinking does not probably imply that the whole atmosphere during a blizzard is thinned to the extent of 3,000 feet, as, if that were so, the barometer would fall greatly during a blizzard, which is not the case. There may be some actual thinning. but the phenomenon appears to be chicfly due to the high level polar cyclone successively affecting lower strata of he atmosphere during the progress of a blizzard. el PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXI hemisphere, atmospheric circulation is considerably accelerated. The reason for this will at once be apparent from a study of the curves shown in Fig. 3. iS iZ > ~~ oy DEGREES FAHRENHEIT es ° oO .8 On S Ho2S 88 88 e Sis 2 o o FR nBs Me a oh De eS i.) ex =a ; 3 wm a Ww e 3 ow Q =o = - 3 uJ a = 8 Kk ti g be z = 8 Ze Me a & z ¢ Zz 3o xt . 5 | 6 : s Tt DE AP ai “HE - o Oo x wo Ww WwW Se Gs ae \ & one Ho fo} ms < S z a NtE z g i TREE WwW > fe} faq © =) e TPR EELENek ET R ws 5 , ° 2 8 : = S ¥ AIBHN3YHVS = $3349320 These I have taken chiefly from Hann, constructing the re- mainder of the curves to the right from 60 degrees south to the South Pole from data obtained by recent Antarctic expeditions. LXxII PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. It will be noticed that the temperature at the Equator scarcely varies at all between summer and winter, remaining about constant at about 80 degrees Fahrenheit. Now, at the North Pole in summer, the mean temperature is about 30 degrees F., whereas in winter it is minus 41.8 degrees F. Obviously, then, the difference in temperature between the North Pole and the Equator in winter is greater than that in summer by no less than 71.8 degrees F. This steeper grade of the isotherms in winter is accompanied by an equally steeper grade of the isobars in winter than in summer. This obviously is the reason for the acceleration of atmospheric cir- culation in the Northern Hemisphere during the northern winter. Similar phenomena have been observed in the Southern Hemisphere. There, at the South Pole, the temperature at the end of January is thought to be about 21 degrees F., and in July it is considered to be about minus 28 degrees F., when reduced to sea-level. Of course, as the South Pole itself is not at sea-level, but at an alti- tude of about 10,260 feet, the actual mean temperature there in July may be as low as minus 70 degrees F. At the South Pole, therefore, as at the North Pole, there is a considerably steeper isothermal, and consequently isobaric grade in winter than in summer. The isotherms and isobars are particularly steep along the main Antarctic shore-line, for the obvious reason that, whereas in winter the temperature a few miles inland may be minus 30 or 40 degrees F., the temperature of the open ocean, a few miles to the north of the shore, does not fall below 28 degrees F.—a differ- ence of temperature of no less than 58 to 68 degrees F’. in a distance of 20 miles or less. One can easily understand why, with these abnormally steep barometric grades, and the general dome shape of the Antarctic Continent, with its almost universal seaward slope, the blizzard wind develops such intense speed near where land and water meet. The questions now suggest themselves—(a) Why is the atmo- spheric pressure lower at the poles in winter than in summer, and (6) why, generally, is the atmospheric pressure so much _ less towards the poles than elsewhere, particularly in the case of the South Pole? Hann suggests that the former question is to be answered on the lines that the phenomenon is due to some dynamic effect to be connected with the increased rapidity of circulation of the atmosphere in winter time.! * His remarks are of such importance that they are quoted here in full:— Dr. Julius Hann. Handbuch der Klimatologie. Bd. III., s. 601. “Im amerikanischen Polargebiet begegnen Wir der interessanten Erscheinung, dass das Minimum der Temperatur mit einem Minimum des Luffdruckes zusammentallt. Obgleich tiber Nordgronland und Melville Island ein Kaltepol liegt (mit — 35 bis — 40° C.) und die Erstreckung und Machtigheit der kalten Luffmassen daselbst vielleicht grésser ist als tiber dem allerdings intensivcren asiatiscshen Kaltepol, sinkt doch der Luffdruck und erreicht im Januar ein Minimum. Wir miissen dies wohl auf dynami-che Ursachen zuriickfithren; die Druckabnahme gegen das Zentrum des Polarwirbels komt dann trotz der Stérungen der n'rmalen !ruckverteilung auch an der Erdoberfliche zur Geltung, was in Asien wegen der grossen Luftdruckanhéufung in den untersten Niveaus, die namentlich auf orographische Bedingungen zuriickzufuhren sind, nicht méglich ist. Uber den gleich-férmigeren Flachen des amerikanischen arktischen Gebietas greift der F olarwirbel bis gegen die Erdoberfliche hinabdurch. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXIII Presumably, increase in centrifugal force may partly explain the lower barometric pressure in Antarctica in winter as compared with summer, but are there any other contributing factors? Certainly the flotation effect of aqueous vapor cannot assist, inasmuch as obviously in winter, when the air is colder, there would be less aqueous vapor along given latitudes than in summer, when the air is warmer. The vapor factor would, therefore, tend to increase pressure in winter, rather than to diminish it. I would venture to suggest very tentatively that another factor contributing to a lessening of atmospheric pressure in winter may be of the nature of an actual thinning of the atmosphere. The question appears to be one of hydro-dynamics, and may be rather intricate. The suggestion may be made that the thinning is brought about by a lag in the movement of the upper atmo- sphere as compared with that of the lower. For example, in the case of the blizzards, it would appear that the masses of cold air over the Antarctic slip away from underneath the air of the circum-polar whirl at such a rate that the inflowing air from the north is unable to overtake the demand for air near the Pole to take the place of what has been lost in the blizzard. This is perhaps the explanation of the phenomenon of the sinking of the upper air currents from an altitude of 15,000 feet to that of about 12,000 feet at Erebus during the progress of a severe blizzard. As regards (6), the answer usually given to explain the diminished atmospheric pressure at the Poles as compared with that at the Equator is that it is due to the increase of centrifugal force of air masses seeking to conserve their moment of momentum as they move polewards. This explanation must be provisionally accepted, but it is not necessarily the only explanation. The lower atmospheric pressure near 60° S. as compared with 60° N. is chiefly due probably to the greater preponderance of sea over land in the Southern Hemisphere near that latitude as compared with the northern, and the consequent less frictional resistance to wind currents, in 60° S., as compared with 60° N. Possibly here, too, there 1s a hydraulic factor tending to locally thin the atmosphere during the normal out-rush of the anticyclonic wind as it spirals first in a N. by W., and eventually in a W. by N. direction. That gigantic refrigerator, the Antarctic Continent, may, during blizzard time or in the itnervals between the blizzards, throw air off its shoulders at such a rapid rate that the incoming air is unable to overtake the demand, and so seldom, if ever, comes into gravitative adjustment. This assumed thinning of the atmo- sphere by lessening the thickness of the earth’s air blanket in the direction of the Antarctic Circle and the Pole would tend to increase the cold in those regions by allowing heat to escape more rapidly where the earth’s aerial clothing is thin than where it is thick. This suggestion is, of course, purely speculative, but the LXXIV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. great fact remains, of which use will be made presently, that the more rapid the circulation of the atmosphere becomes from the Pole to the Equator, the more is the atmospheric pressure in the neighbourhood of the Pole lowered. Consequently, if any factors which make for the acceleration of the atmospheric circulation are at any time increased, the barometric pressure at the Poles will be lower than ever, and the atmosphere there may become thinner than ever. Such factors will be shown in the sequel to have probably existed in the South Polar Region in Permo-Carboniferous time. We may now pass on to another very important feature which is indicated by the nature of the curves, and that is that the North Polar summer is considerably warmer than the South Polar, and the North Polar winter at sea-level considerably colder than the South Polar winter at sea-level. The following reasons suggest themselves to me as an explana- tion of this important fact :—First, the superior cold of the North Polar winter as compared with the South Polar winter, at sea- level, is probably due to several factors, but the chief factor is this—In the Northern Hemisphere the proportion of land to sea is much greater than in the Southern Hemisphere. On account of the much less specific heat of land than water, it follows that, as winter approaches, the great continents around or outside of the Arctic Circle radiate heat very rapidly and fall below freezing point much earlier than does the sea in similar latitudes in the corresponding winter months in the Southern Hemisphere; if, indeed, the sea in such latitudes as lie north of the Antarctic Circle ever freezes over at all. Next, we find that in the coldest month of the Northern Hemi- sphere—January—not only is the whole of the Arctic Ocean frozen, but vast areas of North America, Northern Europe, and Siberia, including Mongolia and China as far south as Corea, are enveloped in snow. This area of earth surface, including sea ice, below freezing point in winter in the Northern Hemisphere may be estimated at approximately from 15 to 20 million square miles; whereas in the Antarctic, inclusive of the narrow rim of sea ice which forms during the winter, there can never, under existing conditions, be much more than about 5,000,000 square miles under ice. The central parts of the Antarctic Continent can nowhere be more than about 1,000 miles distant from the nearest open water, and the Anarctic Continent at this distance is entirely surrounded by water, the temperature of which is about 30° F. The steep isobaric grade, as already explained, leads to a rapid interchange, especially in winter time, of relatively warm air from over the ocean with intensely cold air lying over the Pole. ESS. PRESIDENTIAL ADDR “1OqULAA s1oydstuayT uTeYyynog UL UBYY JOqQUIAA SLOYUSTMaFY UIOYIAON UT SutzooIy MOOG voIB Jasiey youu sy} Ssurmoys dep LXXVIII PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. study of science for its own sake, nor one who did a greater and more lasting work in organizing and co-ordinating Australian meteorology—the late Mr. H. C. Russell—was the first to demon- strate conclusively that these anticyclones move along definite paths from west to east. The mean position of the belt of moving anticyclones is about 35 deg. south latitude. South of latitude 40 deg. is another belt of low pressure eddies, either the northern part of huge Antarctic eddies, or secondaries, lying on their northern fringe. All these three belts of eddies travel from west to east. As regards their speed of movement, the tropical or monsoonal lows travel about 199 miles per day. The greatest number appear to occur in September, and the quickest movement is developed in October. The sub-Antarctic lows in June, 1910, averaged about 360 miles per day off the Leeuwin, while over the Bight they attained a speed of about 550 miles a day, and over Tasmania about 360 miles a day. The centres of high pressure travel at about the same speed as the Antarctic lows south of the high pressure belt. As the air is blowing from the southern side of the anticyclone belt polewards, it is deflected to the left, and becomes part of the Roaring Forties winds; the Antarctic lows are eddies developed within these winds. As these winds are blowing with a slight southerly component, they consequently are moving from warmer towards colder regions. Sooner or later, their dew point is reached, and a dense cloud belt results, like that which is so persistent over Macquarie Island, the Auckland and Campbell Islands, Bounty Island, the Anti- podes, and the Snares, and which gives rise through its constant cold moisture to the development there of such extensive beds of peat. It is hard to overestimate the importance of Macquarie Island as a permanent meteorological station for the very important study of these secondary Antarctic lows, as well as for understanding the whole theoretical circulation of the atmosphere. Its wireless meteorological station, established there by Dr. Mawson’s Aus- tralasian Antarctic Expedition, is at present supplying daily weather reports to Australasia of very high value for the correct interpretation of Australian and New Zealand weather. This island is ideally situated for the study of the much vexed question of atmospheric circulation in just that part of the belt of the “great westerly wind current, in which are generated those secondary Antarctic lows which so profoundly affect Australasian weather. Being near the same latitudes as the meteorological observatories established by the enterprise of the Argentine Republic at the Falkland Islands, in the Strait of Magellan and Drake Strait, and the normal direction of weather movement being nearly straight from the Falkland Islands to Macquarie Island, the latter island should yield invaluable data as to the speed of PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXIX transit, &c., of these sub-Antarctic lows. It is to be hoped that this Association will see its way to strongly recommend the main- tenance by the Commonwealth Government of this wireless and meteorological station on a permanent basis!. If this scheme is carried out I am assured that the comparatively small expense, perhaps £800 to £1000 a year, will be recouped tenfold in actual economic benefit to the Commonwealth, and thus the good work that this Association has done in giving such timely aid to Dr. Mawson’s expedition will live, let us hope, and benefit humanity for all time. It is thus to Macquarie Island, the great potential meteoro- logical link between Australasia and Antarctica, that I wish specially to invite your attention to-night. As already explained, observations in Antarctica have shown that on the whole there is strong evidence for the existence of a high level Antarctic cyclone, at all events in the Ross region of East Antarctica. At the base of this lies a large mass of very cold, dry, and therefore heavy air, inert and stagnant for the most part, but locally crumbling away at its base under its own pressure from time to time, and giving rise to those fierce outrushes of air, the blizzards. At King Edward VII. Land these are easterly winds, near Mount Erebus, south-easterly, from the South Magnetic Pole area to Adélie Land southerly, at Kaiser Wilhelm IJ. Land easterly. Although sometimes they persist as a distinct entity across the belt of the westerlies, and may even perhaps reach the shores of New Zealand, they probably mostly expend their energy in reinforcing the S.-W. or 8. limb of one of the many violent cyclones which have their centres near the zone of lowest pressure (‘‘ Die Rinne ’’) in the belt of westerly winds between the Ant- arctic circle and the parallel of 60 deg. S._In this belt of low pressure the air appears to soar aloft in gigantic eddies. Why it should so soar is difficult to understand. It is thought that the air in the westerly belt, increasing its speed in order to con- serve its moment of momentum as it spirals around the earth southwards, develops great centrifugal force which tends to swell up a ring of air (like the protuberant belt ‘‘der Wulst’’) of the equator, but formed mechanically, not thermally lke the equatorial “‘ Wulst.’’ Ascending vapour, converted into rain or sleet, sets free latent heat, which further encourages the rising of the atmosphere in local domes upon the swollen air ring of latitude 62 deg. S. Thus at a high level above ‘‘ Die Rinne’’ there is probably an increased atmospheric pressure as compared with the pressure at a similar level over the South Pole and over the Southern Anticyclone Belt. Hence it is probable that there is » The Government of the Dominion of New Zealand, with the most emphatic support of the proposal by their Meteorologist, Mr. Bates, have subsequently joined this Association in strongly urging the Federal Government to take over this wireless and meteorological station, and main- tain it on a permanent basis, Since this address was read the Commonwealth Government have agreed to take over this wireless meteorological station for a year, and we may hope that this step is preliminary to its permanent maintenance by the Government. LXxXxX PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. not only a flow from the vault over the low pressure ring pole- wards, but also a high level outflow northwards from this vault to the Southern Anticyclone Belt. These suggestions as to the circulation of the atmosphere in the Southern Hemisphere are illustrated in Fig. 5, from which the great importance of Mac- quarie Island as a site for a permanent meteorological station at once becomes apparent. The scheme which suggests itself to me as to atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere is illus- trated in the rough diagram below :— * | ee oe ee == Do SEA LEVEL ANTICYCLONE. 25000 feet S.POLAR HIGH LEVEL CYCLONE OVERLYING SURFAC soutH © POLE E POLAR ame CYCLONES. (“Die Rinne’) BELT OF ANTARCTIC 50° MACQUARIE 60" ISLAND. aor ee oot a : “eR WINDS Ca ? RETURN UPPER CURRENT BRAVE WEST DY BELT. Ww. és ONT Ralg => SOUTHERN ANTICYCLONE SOUTH EAST TRADE et “ 13,000 feet + Fie. 5 Section showing possible circulation of atmosphere between Equator and South Pole, illustrating importance of Macquarie Island as a Meteorological Station EQUATORIAL BULGE (‘Der Wulst’) 40,000 to 50.000 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXXxI It will be noted from Fig. 5 that it is the nature and direc- tion of the high level circulation between the Southern Anti- cyclone Belt and the Antarctic cyclones that is most in doubt. Ocean Currents.—A few notes may here be given as to the great importance of ocean currents in Australasia. in regard to their effect on climate, and the modification of Australian climate which would follow from a stopping of these currents by a_ greatly extended Antarctic like that of Permo-Carboniferous time. (Se Se Se 2 } 8 = Pd iz ql One ©) = Tate “9 | Ww 7 < AN ez 2 QZ: Zi <= +e I So- jo) < eth eee emainy Be mae zz 7s Ber is Wi SARE IGare 4 Seino wi > Tia 7 = ree os 5 Sit ep oars = Zz eth 2S OnE or Silty ae —_° old PS EL RED, Zz = Bs Mae 9 3 Nao e232 e . © LING AYE S| = 7 ~ : a AHA CAL < = : wo wD EN, ey bl yy D x —- WwW whe Ey bigs tt ‘ - Oo a LA OEY AU ft zs e ELE hs GA eS Z= SO Mae “anisitt aes S =< Bee ehh Sam ite unas Mig Xe OA Nii) oe SE Fire Lb eB EW ih @ w a Sybil °e Y =) ee © LE GRMN 2S = H eet pte ifPra Ki ad ce ZL petthiyit TA ie rs) ‘ g . OY" CLG! BSN y ied The climate of Australasia in reference to its control by the Southern Ocean. By J. W.. Gregory, D.Se., F.R.S., Melbourne, Whitcome and Tombs Limited. * Rep. Austr. Assoc. Ady. Sci., Christchurch, N.Z. a PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXXIII been so strongly marked in the past as to form a very interesting feature in the past physical geography of Australasia. Mean- while a very brief summary must here suffice. As regards the fluctuations of temperature in Australia in the geological past we owe it to the distinguished man, the late Director of the Geological Survey of Victoria, A. R. C. Selwyn, that traces of the most remarkable glaciation that the world has perhaps ever seen were discovered by him in the Inman Valley, near Port Victor, in South Australia. This discovery, the full significance of which was not appreciated at the time, was made in 1859. Mr. E. J. Dunn, the former head of the geological survey of Victoria, was the first who adduced conclusive evidence for the conclusion, suggested earlier by Richard Daintree, that in Victoria, at Bacchus Marsh, Derrinal, near Heathcote, and indeed distributed over a wide area there are glacial beds or tillites of Permo-Carboniferous age. Similar beds of the same age have been identified in New South Wales, and they have been dis- covered on a large scale by Mr. A. Gibb, Maitland, in Western Australia, where they extend right up to the tropics. They also occur in India, South Africa, Southern Brazil, and in the Argen- tine Republic. There can be little doubt, in view of the dis- tribution on the earth of animal and plant life at this time, that an immense continent probably extended right across the Indian and South Atlantic Oceans as well as to Antarctica. This enormous land mass would in itself, by checking any warm poleward flowing ocean currents, produce great cold in the Southern Hemisphere. We should have had present winter conditions in the Arctic obtaining in the Southern Hemisphere also, but to a much intensi- fied degree, and the cold would have been further greatly in- creased, as compared with present conditions in the Arctic, by the fact that there would be no relatively warm sea open in summer to modify the extreme rigour of this Permo-Carboniferous winter. There seems to have been a fall of temperature at this time of 15 deg. to 20 deg. F. (8 deg —l1l deg. C.). Possibly this great difference in the geographical distribution of land and water would in itself suffice to account in a large measure, though not wholly, for the extraordinary glacial conditions during Permo Carboniferous time. An interesting recent discovery in this con- nexion is that made by Professor W. G. Woolnough of Permo- Carboniferous glacial beds with straited boulders at the furthest point north on the East Australian coasts to which glaciated boulder beds have been traced at Kempsey in New South Wales. One interesting feature of these beds is that they conformably underlie limestones in which the coral Trachypora, a contributor to the small reefs of the period, is well represented. Next, in descending order, we find in the Cambrian period evidence of an extensive glacial age in temperate to sub-tropical latitudes. Probably the contemporaneous climate was 12 deg. to LXXXIV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15 deg. F. (7 deg.—8 deg. C.) colder than at present. The im- portant discovery of the existence of an intense and extensive glaciation in Cambrian time revealed itself, after many years of indefatigable toil, to the distinguished South Australian geologist, whom it has been the privilege of our association to honour with the award of the Mueller medal, Mr. Walter Howchin. May I express on behalf of us all the heartfelt wish that he may be spared many years of active life to further enrich geological science with his discoveries. These glacial beds are presumably on about the same horizon as those described by Mr. Bailey Willis, near the head of navigation of the Yang-Tse, in China. Lately Professor Coleman, of Toronto, has discovered evidence of a very extensive glaciation in the Huronian beds of Canada, to the east of the great lakes, about 750,000 square miles of the earth’s surface in that neighbourhood being then under ice. So far we have not yet discovered traces of a glaciation of this age in Australasia. Then, of course, there is the well known evidence of the Pleistocene, and possibly in part early Pliocene, glaciation of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres demanding a fall in temperature in the Southern Hemisphere of about 10 deg. F. In regard to paleontological evidence of Cainozoic change of climate in Australia, I am indebted to Mr. Charles Hedley, of the Australiafi Museum, Sydney, for the information that the genus Pyrula at present has its southern limit along the east coast of Australia, at Newcastle. It is met with fossil in the so-called Eocene (possibly Oligocene or even Lower Miocene) beds of Table Cape, in Tasmania, some 600 miles south of its present southern limit on the East Australian coast. Mr. F. Chapman, Paleontologist to the National Museum, Mel- bourne, has kindly furnished me with the following notes :— “The Janjukian (Miocene) climate (sub-tropical to warm- temperate).—Although many of the genera and even species of the Miocene Victorian fauna are still living, the general aspect is that of a much warmer climate than at present found in Southern Australia. There is abundant proof of this in the fact that the Janjukian types of mollusca must now be looked for in the Queensland coast fauna, and still farther northward. The abundance of large Volutes, as well as the occurrence of the genera Harpa, Phos, Ancilla, and Cucullea, with many others, are strongly indicative of warmer coast-lines, some being peculiarly Indo-Pacific generic types. Specifically many of the fossils are closely related to Miocene forms found in in the Vienna basin, a deposit whose shells clearly indicate warm temperate to sub-tropical conditions. The Lepidocyclina of Batesford indicates a warm temperate sea, such as pre- vailed in the Tethys or Miocene mediterranean. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXXV The large discoidal Orbitolites, once so common in the warm Tertiary seas of the Paris basin, are abundant in the Miocene greensands of the Victorian Mallee. It has now retreated to lower latitudes, being found in Shark’s Bay, Western Aus- tralia, at latitude 26°, and off the Great Barrier Reef, Queens- land, at about the same parallel. The Kalimnan (L. Pliocene) climate (warm temperate to cold).—The Limopsis beawmariensis of the Lower Pliocene of Beaumaris, in Victoria, is closely allied to a Japanese species now found in lower latitudes. The presence of Saxicava and abundant Natica and Tellina indicate a con- siderable cooling down of the climate in this period. - Post-kalimnan (Late Pliocene and Pleistocene) climate (temperate to cold).—The brackish foraminifera of the Mallee indicate a further cooling down from temperate to cold con- ditions.’’! This paleontological evidence implies a chilling of the waters in South Australian seas to the extent of about 6° to 7° F., and all this has taken place since Pleistocene time. In view of the fact that the Arca trapezia beds are about 15 feet above sea-level in New South Wales, it is suggested that perhaps these raised beaches may have formed during an interglacial epoch in late Cainozoic time. The melting off of a thickness of about 600 feet of ice in Antarctica would suffice to raise sea-level around Australia by about the above amount of 15 feet. It is quite beyond the scope of the present inquiry to seek for all possible causes of these vicissitudes of climate, but the question as to whether variation in the geographical distribution in land and water will explain all the phenomena may be very briefly discussed. In Permo-Carboniferous time, Chamberlain and Salisbury state? that a census a few years ago gave the known animal species of the carboniferous as 10,000, while those of the Permian were only 300, 1 Mr. Walter Howchin has called my attention to the following interesting facts in regard to the Post-Tertiary climate of Australia :—At the graving dock at Glanville, near Adelaide, and also at a drainage tank at Dry Creek, not far from the same city, are two well marked horizons carrying a geologically recent marine fauna. The lower horizon is separated from the Lower Pliocene marine series by alluvial beds, without any evidence of marine conditions, 300 feet in thickness. Of the two Post-Pliocene marine horizons the [ower at its upper limit is now about 25% feet below high water at Glanville, and 6} feet below high water at Dry Creek. It is separated from the upper, and evidently recent, marine horizon bya thickness of from 16-25 feet of freshwater beds, chiefly clays and sands. The upper marine deposit, a few feet in thickness, contains remains of a marine fauna identical with that in the neighboring seas, but the lower marine deposit, while all its species are recent, contains some forms not found now on the coasts of South Australia. For example, both at Dry Creek and at Glanville it contains an abnndance of Arca trapezia and “the large warm-sea foraminifer, Orbitolites complanata.’ The latter species has now deserted South Australian waters,and has moved up to about 26° on the west eoast of Western Australia, and up to about the same parallel! of latitude on the east coast. As Arca trapezia is known to live at present in Australian waters as far south as Western Port, Victoria, its evidence of former warmer seas is not as strong as that of the above foraminifer. 2 Geology, Stratigraphical, Vol. [1., p. 642. Considerable additions have of late been made to the number of Permian species, but nevertheless the fact is still broadly as above stated. LXXXVI PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. or 3 per cent. Surely no possible arrangement in the distribution of land and water can reasonably account for the extinction of no less than 97 per cent. of the known species of animal life as we advance from the Carboniferous to the Permian. Surely some great cosmic cause, such as variation in the amount of the sun’s heat received at different geological periods, must have contributed to bring about this remarkable result. Figure 7 shows the theoretical fluctuation of temperature at various geological periods. The time intervals are based on (1) assumed thicknesses for the geological formations similar to those given in Sollas’ Age of the Earth; (2) an assumption that equal thicknesses of strata accumu- lated in equal time, obviously a very loose assumption. CURVE SHOWING APPROXIMATE RANGE OF TEMPERATURE IN TEMPERATE LATITUDES IN GEOLOGICAL TIME Silurian Cretaceous +20" +252) F : Carboniferous Miocene Recent | a 2 ’ An Y Huronian Lower Cambrien Permo- Carboniferous Pleistocene Glacial Glacial Glacial Glacial 10°F 1S TF AS°tOC! 27°F -10°F Divisions on horizontal line refer to tine based on relative thicknesses of strata formed at the various geological periods the latter after Prof WJ Sollas Fie. 7. SUMMARY. From the evidence at present available, the following pro- visional conclusions may be deduced :— That the reason for the great climatic and biological differences between the North and the South Poles respectively is mainly geographical, dependent that is on the present distribution of land and water, and the modifications which they introduce into the circulations of air and water in either Hemisphere. In reference to the control of Australian weather at present by Antarctica, the existence of that large continent, with an average elevation of about 6,000 feet, acts as a great refrigerator in the Southern Hemisphere, and so causes extremes which would not otherwise exist between South Polar and Equatorial temperatures. This factor tends to increase the rapidity of air circulation in the Southern Hemisphere, the acceleration being greatest during the winter months, when the isothermal, and consequently isobaric, grades between Antarctica and the belts of ocean to the north of it are steepest. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, LXXXVII If the Antarctic Continent were to be entirely removed, and the Southern Ocean were continuous over the South Pole, Aus- tralia, and the Southern Hemisphere in general, would have a far more equable and more monotonous climate than at present. There would be none of those periodic fierce outrushes of blizzard winds which accompany the development of the Antarctic ‘‘ lows ’’ which so often profoundly affect Australian weather. With diminished energy of circulation in the Southern Hermisphere, it is probable that the rainfall of Australia would be also diminished. If this were so—and there seems no reason to doubt it—it is no exaggeration to state that part of the pastoral and agricultural wealth of Australia depends upon the existence of Antarctica in its present form. While indirectly we probably owe some of our rainfall to Antarctica, we have less perhaps for which to thank her in the way of the icebergs which she annually launches into the Southern Ocean. But, after all, the danger to shipping from these bergs is comparatively small, and yet it is, of course, very desirable that accurate information may be recorded as to the exact route mostly fellowed by these bergs. Doubtless the increased rainfall which Antarctica probably gives us, through the vigorous stirring it imparts to the earth’s atmosphere, enormously outweighs the small disadvantage of icebergs. If Antarctica, instead of completely foundering, were to dis- solve into an archipelago of low-lying islands, their summer tem- perature would be higher than that of Greenland and Grant Land, and, like them, the Antarctic islands would be clothed with hardy forms of plants, amongst which numerous flowers and mosses as well as trees, like the South American Fagus, would be included. With the advent of vegetation, the islands would become suited for herbivores, and, if later, this Antarctic archi- pelago became re-united to South America, there is no reason why the herbivores, and with them man, should not inhabit Antarctica to, at least, the same extent as do the Esquimaux the lands around the Arctic Ocean. If, on the other hand, Antarctica were to increase greatly in size until it assumed proportions like those which, perhaps, belonged to it in Permo-Carboniferous time (when it may have embraced South America, South Africa, and Australia), it is evident, from what is the present effect on climate of the present distribution of land and water respectively at the North and South Poles, that such a huge continent so situated would produce winters of far greater intensity than the present. It has been LXXXVIII PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, argued by me elsewhere that at the maximum glaciation in Permo- Carboniferous time there was a fall of temperature in Australia equal to about 15° to 20° F. This may have been largely brought about by the huge polar continent entirely stopping any large southerly ocean currents, and so removing what is at present one of the most potent means of transfer of heat from the Equator to the Poles. Passing now to a related matter I wish to strongly urge that more may be done for meteorology in the future than in the past. In the first place, steps might be taken to establish, at least, a few observing stations in the heart of the Australian meteorological desert, which lies between Nullagine, in Western Australia, and the MacDonnell Ranges. Next, there is the question of investigating the upper atmo- sphere by means of kites and small balloons carrying detachable self-registering instruments. By these means the height and movement and temperature of that important isothermal layer of the atmosphere can also be determined. Next, and this is particularly important, in my opinion, with a view to spreading a knowledge and creating a real and live interest in this beautiful science, a proposal has been made, emanating from the able Director of the Federal Meteorological Bureau, Mr. Hunt, that a competent officer be appointed to visit the Australian Universities in turn, opening about one term at each of the six Universities of the Commonwealth, so that all our students for at least one term every two years will have an oppor- tunity of sharing in the delightful and instructive problems pre- sented by our Australian Meteorology. It may be mentioned in this connexion that a lectureship in meteorology at the Edinburgh and East of Scotland Agricultural College, an event of significance both to meteorology and agricul- ture, has already been established, and this has been done by a nation not prone to expenditure on that which profiteth not. This scheme for providing a peripatetic professor of meteor- logy, who could be supplied at a minimum of cost to the Universities, has already been warmly approved by the Universities, and I venture to hope that our Association unani- mously wishes to see this professorship an accomplished fact. Next, there is the important question raised by Mr. Halligan, in his excellent paper dealing with the ocean currents around Australia, as to whether our legislators will some day be impressed PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. LXXXIX with the necessity for a complete current survey of the coast. This is most important, not only from a meteorological point of view, but also from the views of harbors and navigation generally. ‘Tf looked upon in the light of insurance only, the comparatively small expenditure for the complete investigation of the tides and currents on the coast would appear to be amply justified. When we know the forces of nature with which we have to contend, we may with confidence enter upon the largest engineering schemes, and be tolerably certain of success; but it is rash and unscientific to attempt to coerce Nature instead of controlling her, and this we are always liable to do unless the most complete data are at our commands.”’ Then, too, the question will have to be seriously considered as to whether a permanent wireless meteorological station should not be maintained at Macquarie Island, or some other suitable sub-antarctic island, as already advocated. This would be a stepping stone towards eventually establishing a meteorological station in Antarctica. Next, there is an allied question which more immediately concerns physical science, but which is also closely connected with meteorology—that of the establishment of a solar physics obser- vatory. This Association has pledged itself to support this proposal—perhaps second to none in importance at the present moment in the field of Australasian scientific research. The scheme has been most ably and zealously advocated by Mr. W. Geoffrey Duffield, and is still being warmly supported by him, and at present an active campaign in its interests is being conducted here in Australia and New Zealand most energetically and unselfishly by the daughter of a very distinguished British astronomer, Miss Mary Proctor. It is of the greatest importance to science that the sun be kept under observation for the whole 24 hours of each day, but in the absence of such an observatory in Aus- tralia there is a big blank in the daily observations represented by the distance between India and California, no less than 150° of longitude. Australia is in an ideal position, and possesses an ideal climate for such an observatory. The total prime cost of such an observatory is estimated at £10,000. The cost of conducting the observatory is estimated at about £1,500 per annum for the earliest years, with probably an expanding outlay as the work develops. 1 Proc. Linn. Soc., New Series, Vol. XXXI. XC PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. The highest authorities in the Old Country, such as Sir Joseph Larmor and the late Sir George Darwin, have lent their support to the project no less warmly than do Australasian scientists. The Federal Government of the first Fisher Ministry made, in 1909, this generous offer, which is still open :—‘‘ He (the Minister for Home Affairs) realized the importance of the plea for an Aus- tralian observatory, and that the financial aid required was probably disproportionate to the value of the scientific records sought to be secured. He thought that Parliament would not be less public spirited than private citizens, and would probably give £1 for £1 to the erection and equipment fund, and might maintain the observatory after its establishment.”’ This magnaminous offer of the Federal Government, if approved by Parliament, would leave only £5,000 to be raised by private subscription. In 1911, no less than £4,017 of the required £5,000 had been subscribed in money or in kind. The handsome bequest of a fine reflecting telescope valued at £2,000 was made by a single patriotic citizen of Ballarat, Mr. James Oddie. The Government Astronomer of Melbourne, Mr. P. Baracchi, than whom no one’s judgment should carry more weight in such a matter, has selected what he considers to be an eminently suitable site, with excellent climatic conditions, at Yass-Canberra. You will all be pleased to hear that there is every prospect of the Federal Government very soon making this solar physics observatory an accomplished fact. Accurate scientific work, such as would be accomplished at such a solar physics observatory, would not only be of extreme value to science, but would certainly actually pay in the long run, as does all honest scientific research. In regard to economic results from expenditure on science, as this address has related specially to meteorology, my remarks will refer to it only, though what is true of meteorology is true also of almost all the sciences. The cost of the maintenance of the United States Weather Bureau now amounts to over £300,000 a year, and the most con- servative estimate places the saving to the country brought about by timely forecasts at many times the cost of maintaining the bureau, probably at least £1,000,000, to say nothing of the still more important matter—the saving of so many human lives through warnings to shipping. Our own Commonwealth Meteorological Bureau, with its branches in the various States, costs, at present, £22,000 annually, a small sum when we consider what vast interests are at stake dependent on weather. If we take the case of shipping and agriculture alone, by no means the only interests, PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XCI the total number of ships which visited our ports in 1911 was 7,781. Then, in agriculture, Professor Watt estimates that in New South Wales alone, whereas the present value of the wheat yield is about £6,000,000 a year, the existing area under culti- vation is capable of having its yield increased by 50 per cent. by more scientific farming, and the whole area may be increased about tenfold, so that New South Wales in the future should produce £90,000,000 where now she is producing £6,000,000. In Victoria, too, the wheat yield can be greatly increased, and the area under cultivation can be, perhaps, doubled. In South Australia, too, the yield could be very much increased, and the yield in Western Australia enormously increased; and all this wheat-growing industry is, of course, specially dependent on weather and weather forecasts. It is surely up to us from every point of view to strenuously support and continually enlarge the scope of the work of our Meteorological Bureau. It is a service of which Australia has every reason to be justly proud, for, at present, no less than 9 per cent. of the forecasts come true, but though ‘‘ much is taken, much abides.’’ It was said of old, ‘‘ Let the consuls look to it that the Republic take no harm,’’ and it is to us, who should be the leaders of scientific thought, that the people of Australasia has a right to look to see to it that no harm comes to the State through neglect of even the least of the sciences in the broadest sense of the word science. We have only to make known our wants, and to reasonably support their claims, and experience has shown us that our Government and private citizens at once rally to our support. But while arguments have just been quoted for sub- sidizing science because science pays, the fact cannot to too strongly emphasized that it is obviously not desire for pay, beyond the irreducible minimum for satisfying simple needs, that sends the scientific worker up the steep and narrow way of research. It is the love of his work for its own sake and the glamour of the unknown that constrain him. One may never overtake the vision, but is not the glory of pursuing werth all the fardels of this mortal life! Lessing said that if God came to him with the absolute truth in one hand and the pursuit of truth in the other, and bade him choose which he would have, he would choose the pursuit. Surely no true lover of knowledge should choose otherwise to-day ! But are we soldiers of the army of science under the Southern Cross really living up to our highest duties and ideals? Are not we who dwell in ease and peace in a large land, where the scientific harvest is plenteous and the labourers are few, in danger of slackness in the doing of our daily work? We cannot justly blame XCII PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. for this our climate, which on the whole is one of the best for the white races. Neither can we reasonably urge lack of the stimulus which comes from competition, for if we had the least faith in the reality of our duty to work each day with our might, we should neither slacken nor procrastinate, nor leave ourselves leisure at times for unnecessary, if not ungenerous, criticisms of the work of our fellow craftsmen. But to err is human; and there can be no doubt that partly through want of competition, partly through want of rubbing shoulders with our fellow workers in the Old World, partly through yielding, like the lotus-eaters, to that primitive dolce far niente instinct, we do err and fall far short of our duty. This is another instance why we so particularly look forward to the coming of our colleagues of the British Association and their distinguished visitors from other countries, viz., that we may be strengthened and confirmed in our work by means of that inspiration which comes alone from personal contact with master minds. In the meantime, while as yet our country is untouched by war, war which we hope may never come, though come it surely will, unless we watch continually as a strong man armed, let us work together body and soul to make her as glorious in the arts of peace as she is dear to our hearts, just because it is our bounden duty so to do, and to the end that we may, under Providence, hand down to our children this noble heritage of Australasia as strong and free and full of honour as it was when we received it from our stalwart fathers. REPORT OF THE AUSTRALASIAN ANTARCTIC COMMITTEE. The Committee, which was appointed at the Sydney meeting in January, 1911 (see Vol. XIII., pp. XLVII—LIII.), consisted of repre- sentatives of all the Australian States and New Zealand, and was instructed to work by means of sub-committees. It was entrusted with the planning of the scientific work of the Expedition and the selection of the stafi, subject to the approval of Dr. Mawson, and it was also intended to assist him in securing the support of the Common= wealth and State Governments and of the general public. As anticipated, it proved impossible for the Committee to meet as a whole. A sub-committee was therefore formed in each State for the purpose of rousing public interest in the scheme and collecting funds, and other sub-committees were nominated by the President to deal with different branches of the scientific work and with the selec- tion of the members of the Expedition. Much of the work was done.by correspondence and by frequent informal consultations between individual members of the Committee. Dr. Mawson left for England immediately after the Sydney meeting in January, and, being detained there on the business of the Expedition, did not return till July; but, during his absence, he was in correspondence with the President, and after his return he had frequent meetings with him and the President- Elect (Professor David) and other members. The more formal work of the Committee may be summarized as follows :— 1. Appeals to the Commonwealth Government. On 23rd March, 1911, an influential deputation of members of the Committee and others waited upon the Minister for External Affairs (the late Hon. E. L. Batchelor) to explain the proposed Expedition, advocate its claims, and ask fora substantial subsidy from Parliament. A very sympathetic reply was given, and the Minister promised to bring the matter under the notice of the Cabinet. The result, after some delay, was a further promise that the request would be dealt with by Parliament in August or September. On 2nd May, 1911, the President and the Lord Mayor of Melbourne (Councillor Davey, to whom the Committee was frequently indebted for active assistance) waited upon the then Acting Prime Minister, the Hon. W. M. Hughes, to further urge the claims of the Expedition for immediate support. Correspondence by cable ensued with Mr. 6117. 2 ANTARCTIC COMMITTEE—REPORT. Batchelor, who, with the Prime Minister (Hon. A. Fisher) was then on his way to England, and a meeting in London was thus arranged between these Ministers and Dr. Mawson. Though the Committee failed to obtain the immediate monetary assistance, which would have ' been invaluable, it thus secured the support of the Government, and paved the way for the later action of the Federal Parliament, which in September voted a contribution of £5,000. 2. Appeals to State Governments. After his return to Australia, Dr. Mawson devoted much time and energy to a successful endeavour to obtain financial assistance from the States, and in this he was greatly helped by the State sub-committees. The result was the payment of the following subsidies :— . South Australia, £5,000 ; New South Wales, £7,000 ; Victoria, £6,000; making, with the Commonwealth grant of £5,000, a total of £23,000 from Australian Governments. 3. Appeals to the Public. On 22nd April, 1911, the newspapers of Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide published simultaneously a letter signed, on behalf of the Committee, by Professors Orme Masson, T. W. Edgeworth David, and Geo. C. Henderson, explaining the objects of the Expedition and appeal- ing to the public for support. This‘letter was reprinted for circulation, and several hundred copies were posted to possible subscribers through- out Australia. The direct response in the way of individual sub- scriptions was disappointingly small, but the letter served the purpose ot bringing the scheme before the public, and awakening widespread interest in it, thus contributing to the later action of the Governments. With the same objects and similar results, various public meetings were organized in different parts of Australia. The largest of these was held in the Melbourne Town Hall on the 13th September, 1911, under the presidency of His Excellency the Governor-General (Lord Denman), when Dr. Mawson gave a lecture illustrated by the lantern, and the following resolution was carried on the motion of the Prime Minister (Mr. Fisher), seconded by the Hon. Alired Deakin, and supported by Senator J.T. Walker and Professors Masson and Henderson >—“ That this meeting hails with satisfaction the prospect of an Australasian Expedition under the leadership of Dr. Douglas Mawson for the Exploration oi the Australasian Quadrant of the Antarctic Continent ; and, recognising the importance of the undertaking on scientific and national grounds, cordially commends it to the sympathetic considera- tion and practical support of the people of Australia.” The press throughout Australia and Tasmania rendered invaluable service by warmly supporting the objects of the Expedition. ANTARCTIC COMMITTEE—REPORT. 3 Mention must also be made of the work done by Professor David, who devoted to the Expedition the proceeds of many lectures in Sydney and elsewhere in New South Wales. All moneys received in response to public and private appeals were handed over to Dr. Mawson. The Government grants were paid _ direct to him. The Committee is thus free from financial responsibility. ' 4. Selection of Staff. Dr. Mawson’s unavoidable absence from Australis. during the _ first half of 1911, and the uncertainty es to the financial position until a few weeks before the actual departure of the Expedition, caused the selection of the staff to be delayed much longer than was desirable. In the end; Dr. Mawson took with him some thirty assistants (not - counting the ship’s company), of whom a few were chosen by him in England, but the great majority were Australians or New Zealanders, and were selected or approved by the representatives of the Committee. _ Had circumstances permitted, it is probable that a larger proportion of specially trained scientists might have been found willing to jom the Expedition, and it seems not unlikely that the scientific results may, to a certain extent, suffer from incompleteness of training and the hurry that was unavoidable in the preparations. Apart from this, however, there is every reason to be content with the staff selected, who are a fine body of men, and full of enthusiasm for science and loyalty to their leader. 5. Plans for Scientific Work. The following members of the Committee (original or co-opted) gave special help in the form of written reports or detailed advice, or by drilling members of the Expedition in particular methods of work :— Professor David (Geography, Geology, &c.). Professor Haswell (Biology). Professor Pollock (Physics, Wireless, &c.), Professor Lyle (Physics, Wireless, &c.). Mr. Baracchi (Physics, Wireless, &c.). Mr. H. A. Hunt (Meteorology). Others also gave valuable assistance. Special mention should - _ be made of the Committee’s great indebtedness to Mr. Bauer, Director of the Carnegie Magnetic Survey, for the loan of apparatus and for _ permitting one of the members of the Expedition (Mr. Webb) to _ undergo a course of training under one of his own staff (Mr. Kidston). ‘Tt must be clearly stated, however, that, while the Committee did all _ in its power to help Dr. Mawson in his preparation for scientific work at the Antarctic, ‘he himself was the dominating factor in this, as in all other work connected with the Expedition. A 2 Te ee ey yal 4 ANTARCTIC GOMMITTEE—REPORT. The Aurora (under the command of Captain J. K. Davis) sailed from Hobart on Ist December, 1911, with Dr. Mawson and some of his staff on board, the remainder following a week later in the Toroa. All were united at Macquarie Island, where a wireless station was erected, and a party established for meteorological, biological, geological, and other scientific work. The Toroa returned to Hobart, and the Aurora then proceeded southwards, crossing the Antarctic Circle near the 160th meridian, and then turning westwards. Dr. Mawson and the main party were landed on the Adeélie coast in about longitude 144° E.. latitude 67° S., and the rest, under Mr. Wild, were ultimately established at a second base on a great glacier, near the site of the Termination Land of Wilkes, in about longitude 95° K., latitude 66° S., some 1,100 miles separating the two parties. The Aurora then returned to Hobart, arriving on 12th March, 1912. During the voyage very interesting geographical results were obtained, but, as these have been made known already, and will be fully discussed when the story of the Expedition is published, they need not be described here. Though the wireless station at Macquarie Island has proved a complete success and has done valuable service by supplying regular meteorological reports both to the Commonwealth and to the Dominion, the second wireless station at Dr. Mawson’s main base has so far proved less successful. Only a few messages have been received from it, and apparently it has been unable to receive any messages whatever. A severe accident to the dynamo, of the nature of a heavy fall when it was being landed, is, perhaps, the cause of the former trouble. The cause of this latter defect is not known; but it is hoped that the fault may still be remedied with the aid of new equipment and an additional wireless operator sent on the Aurora on her present voyage. Should communication be established, an arrangement has been made for an exchange of time signals with Melbourne under Mr. Baracchi’s direction for the purpose of determining a fundamental longitude. The programme of winter cruises for the Aurora was greatly interfered with by the necessity of laying her up for extensive repairs, first in Sydney, and subsequently at Williamstown. These were executed at the expense of the Governments of New South Wales and Victoria, to whom the Committee, as well as Captain Davis and Dr. Mawson, owe grateful thanks. Two trips were, however, undertaken by Captain Davis after consultation with members of the Committee, the main object being to take soundings to the south of Tasmania and in the neighbourhood of Macquarie Island; and results were obtained which are full of interest, and will probably prove still more valuable when supplemented by further observations during the second voyage to the south. The most important of these discoveries was that of the existence of an immense bank as large in area as Tasmania, at ANTARCTIC COMMITTEE—REPORT. 5 about 200 miles south of that island. The bank rises from depths of 2,400 fathoms to within about 540 fathoms of the surface. On 26th December, 1912, the Aurora again left Hobart for the purpose of re-collecting the scattered parties and bringing the Expedition back to Australia. On this occasion Captain Davis took with him Mr. Conrad C. Hitel, the Secretary of the Expedition and Dr. Mawson’s business representative during his absence, and also a distinguished Dutch traveller and scientist, Jos. M. N. Th. van der Waterschoot van der Gracht, from whose special skill as a cartographer and artist, placed unreservedly and gratuitously at Dr. Mawson’s disposal, results of great value are looked for. The Expedition is expected to reach Australia about the end of March. The Committee feels that the Association should take a leading part in welcoming Dr. Mawson and his colleagues. Thereafter, much work will be necessary in connexion with the scientific investi- gation of the material which Dr. Mawson is expected to bring with him ; and possibly also work of another kind may arise in connexion with the business side of the Expedition. In all this the Association’s Committee should be of use. It is therefore recommended that the original Committee be Te-appointed, with the addition of the following names of men who have already given valuable assistance :—Mr. P. Baracchi, Dr. J. M. Baldwin, Mr. T. Griffith Taylor (Victoria), Professor Haswell and Mr. C. Hedley (New South Wales), Mr. A. W. Piper, K.C., and Mr. W. Howchin (South Australia), Professor Flynn (Tasmania), Mr. E. Kidston (New Zealand). The Committee will henceforth have the great advantage of working under the direction of Professor David, who, as President, will be Chairman ex officio, and whose special knowledge of Antarctic affairs has proved already of the greatest value. Signed on behalf of the Committee, ORME MASSON, President, 1911-13. 6th January, 1913. f as é {* % £ 5 F ee Px } i bia é a & , te A Section A. ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, AND PHYSICS. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT: PROFESSOR H. 8. CARSLAW, Sc.D. THE RELATION BETWEEN PURE AND APPLIED MATHEMATICS. I propose to-day to speak of the intimate relation between Pure and Applied Mathematics at the present time, and to refer to some common but mistaken views on the nature of the Science of Mathematics as a whole. But before I pass to the subject of my address, I pause to express in a few words our sense of the loss the world has suffered within the last few months by the death of Sir George Darwin, the great mathematical astronomer, and of M. Henri Poincaré, the greatest mathematician of our time. Sir George Darwin, by his contributions to science, has worthily maintained the traditions of his name, and his tenure of the Plumian Professorship.of Astronomy at Cambridge recalls the days when the other astronomical chair at that University was filled by Adams, who shares with Leverrier the honour of the discovery of the planet Neptune. There is probably no part of Applied Mathematics in which the refine- ments of Analysis can be employed with greater efiect than in the domain of Mathematical Astronomy. Laplace and Lagrange were consummate mathematicians. Toalmost every branch of Mathematics known in their time they made important contributions. And to come to our own day, Newcomb was a mathematician of the first rank. Darwin belonged to the same band. His researches on the past history of the earth-moon system and on the practical and theoretical tidal problems which the oceans present, could only have been carried to a successful issue-by one with a wide knowledge of Pure Mathematics. Here in this room it is but fitting that we should recall the servjces he so fully and gladly rendered to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the parent of this our Australasian Associa- tion. President of Section A in 1886, he attained the honour of the presidency of the Association itself in 1905. And we had looked forward to his taking an active part in the meetings of the Association next year in Australia. 7 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. One of the last—if not the very last—of the public utterances of Darwin was a tribute to the unique position occupied in the scientific _ world by Poincaré, the other great man whose loss to-day we mourn. In August of last year Darwin was President of the International Congress of Mathematicians at Cambridge. At its opening meeting his earliest words were devoted to the expression of their heartfelt sorrow at the sudden death of Poincaré a few weeks before in Paris. He described him as the man who alone among mathematicians could have occupied the position of President without misgivings as to his fitness. It brought vividly home to him how great a man Poincaré was when he reflected that to one incompetent of appreciating fully one half of his work, he yet appeared a star of the first magnitude. By universal consent Poincaré was regarded as the greatest mathematician of his time. Philosophers, mathematicians, and astronomers looked to him as the leading authority in each of their domains. Gauss, the famous geometer, the master of analysis, the great astronomer, had won for himself the title Princeps Mathemati- . corum. Since his day the title had been vacant. With the coming of Poincaré his successor appeared. Now, when Poincaré seemed in the very fulness of his powers, his throne is vacant, and it is impossible to measure the loss the world has suffered. There are before me doubtless some who imagine that at the end of their three years’ course in Mathematics our students should have been brought at any rate within sight of the confines of the subject. A glance at Poincaré’s works would be sufficient to remove such a thought from their minds. In Mathematics, as in every other science, one height is reached only that from it we may press on to regions until then unknown. And the man is best equipped for this exploration who has travelled widely in the regions already discovered. We meet Poincaré first of all as a Pure Mathematician. To the whole modern Theory of Functions he made contributions of the highest importance. An instance of the _ way in which, even in his younger days, he was able to draw upon one branch of Mathematics to help him in another is to be found in the _ quaint description he has given of the manner in which he was led to one of his earliest discoveries. At that time he was about 27 or 28 years of age, had graduated from the School of Mines, and had just received his Doctorate in Mathematics from the University of Paris. For we _ must not forget that Poincaré was one of those mathematicians who had a complete training in physical science, as well as the course in Pure Mathematics for which the French School is famous. He tells us that for about a fortnight he had been trying to | demonstrate the existence of functions analogous to those which he afterwards discovered and called Fuchsian Functions. Every day he é ei would sit at his table for an hour or so; attempt a number of 8 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. combinations, and reach no result. One evening, contrary to his custom, he had taken a cup of black coffee, and could not sleep. The ideas seemed to crowd and jostle one another in his head, and in the morning he was able in a few hours to establish the existence of a class of Fuchsian Functions, those which are derived from the Hypergeo- metric Series. The next step was to represent these functions as the quotient of two series. To this the analogy with the elliptic functions guided him. He investigated what should be the properties of these series, and established without difficulty the existence of those he called Theta-Fuchsian Series. At this stage he had to leave for the country on some official work. On the steps of an omnibus, the idea flashed into his mind that the transformations of which he had made use in defining the Fuchsian Functions were identical with those of the Non-Euclidean Geometry. He did not verify the conjecture, but resumed the interrupted con- versation with his companion. Still, he felt perfectly certain that his idea was correct; on his return to his home he looked into the matter, and found that what he had surmised was true. Then he took up the study of some arithmetical questions without much success, far from suspecting that they would have anything to do with his previous investigations. Annoyed at his comparative failure with his new task, he went to the seaside to spend a few days and turn his thoughts to other things. One day walking on the cliff, the thought came to him, suddenly and surely as before, that the arithmetical transformations of certain quadratic forms were identical with those of the Non-Euclidean Geometry. | On his return he reflected upon this result and the consequences to be derived from it. The example of the quadratic forms showed him that there were Fuchsian groups other than those which correspond. to the Hyper-geometric Series. He saw that he could apply to them the theory of the Theta-Fuchsian Series, and that consequently there must exist Fuchsian Functions other than those which were derived from that series. He set himself to form such functions. He made a systematic attack upon the position and carried all the outworks save one. This he could not reduce, however hard his efforts. Again his work was interrupted ; this time that he might put in his military service. One day, passing down the street, all of a sudden the solution of the difficulty appeared to him. At the time he made no attempt to go into the point in detail, but let it stand over till the end of his service. When the opportunity came, all his material was there. He had only to arrange it and the complete memoir was written, practically, at a sitting. ; All this story, Poincaré told in a fascinating lecture entitled— L’Invention Mathématique; his view of the matter being that after ‘PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—-SECTION A. 9 the preliminary work has been done and the earliest attempts had. their turn and proved unsuccessful, it is best to let the question rest in the mind and develop itself. Thus it would appear that one often works hardest when one is doing nothing. The field of work to which his attention was first directed always remained dear to him, but it is probably in the applications of analysis to the solution of the differential equations of mathematical physics that he found one of his favourite themes. To this point I shall return later. I now look at Poincaré, the great astronomer. And first we notice that neither as a physicist nor as an astronomer did his work hie in the laboratory or the observatory. The service which he rendered these lay in the application of the methods of Anaiysis and Geometry to the problems of Physics and Astronomy. His investiga- tion of the form taken by a gravitating fluid mass in rotation led him to most important theories on the separation of the earth and the moon. Of this work Darwin, who had himself made important _ discoveries in the same field, records that the memoir will always mark an important epoch, not only in the history of Astronomy, but also in _ that of the larger domain of General Dynamics. In his work on the stability of the solar system Poincaré returned _ to the problem treated by Laplace, and applied to it the new mathe- matical instruments now available. His labours in this connexion are to be found in his book, Les Méthodes Nowvelles de la Mécanique Ceéleste. What Newton’s Principia did for Astronomy in the 17th century, this work of Poincaré’s has done for the 20th century. We are assured that all the advances likely to be made in the next 50 years in Astronomy are certain to rest upon the foundation Poinca1é has "laid. _ Of the mathematician, the physicist, and the astronomer, we have spoken. There still remains the philosopher. But. to enter _ upon a discussion of that part of his work which lies in the border- ~ ground between Philosophy and Mathematics is a task for which I _ have neither the time nor the qualifications. The ordinary mathe- matician meets this section of Poincaré’s work when he considers the _ Principles of Mathematics in general; and in particular the Principles of Geometry. No student of Geometry can afford to neglect Poincaré’s ontribution to this modern development of Mathematics. It is a _ pity that some other mathematical philosophers have not approached _ the subject with the clear open vision of Poincaré, and that they have _ not placed their views before us in lucid language such as he delighted to employ. I now turn to the subject which I have chosen for my address, i h a een 10 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. If the average man were asked what a mathematician is, he might answer that he is a being possessed of a strange aptitude for, and a curious delight in, numerical calculation. Some there might be who would echo the old saying— Purus mathematicus, purus asinus : but most people would agree that the mathematician is a lucky sort of fellow with a good head for figures. It cannot be repeated too often that this idea of the mathematical mind is quite wrong. The mathematician 1s not merely a glorified chess player, who can carry the moves of a prolonged calculation in his head and be relied upon in the end to return a correct numerical answer. Certainly there have been mathematicians possessing this. faculty. Gauss had it, but Gauss was the exception, not the rule. We read that Newton, “‘ though so deep in Algebra and Fluxions could not readily make up a common account; and when he was Master of the Mint used to get somebody to make up his accounts for him.” Poisson once remarked to Madame Biot that he could net add as well as his cook; neither did he understand how Gauss and Bessel could be at the same time expert calculators and skilled analysts. Poincaré was not ashamed to say that he was absolutely incapable of doing an addition sum correctly, and that he was an equally bad chess player. He could calculate well enough that in making a certain move he would get into trouble. He would pass in review other possible moves and give them up for the same reason. Then in the end he would probably play the move which he had first put aside, having forgotten the danger which he had then ioreseen. Such instances could be multiplied indefinitely; and we see that it is not necessarily a good head for figures and a prodigious memory that make the mathematician. Mathematics and Arithmetic are not identical. Hf they were, Mathematics would, in the opinion of some of us, be a dry and arid science. A mathematical demonstration is not simply a collection of syllogisms. It is a series of syllogisms in a certain order, and the order — in which they come is almost as important as their content. The mathematical mind seems to have an intuitive perception of this order; it takes in at a glance the whole of the reasoning, and has no fear of forgetting the elements. These appear to fall into their places without any special effort of memory. With this mathematical sense — or taste, there is associated the idea of mathematical beauty and elegance. Only the mathematician appreciates it; probably he alone would admit its existence ; but for it we claim a reality just as actual — as the beauty of the picture, the statue, or the poem. If this statement of the nature of the mathematical mind be: correct, it is not surprising that the mathematical faculty frequently j 4 i ie ie ed 4 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 11 declares itself for the first time, when the youthful mathematician enters upon the study of Geometry. To Newton the Elements of Euclid appeared so clear and simple that it was a waste of time to go through them. A glance at the enunciation of the theorem, and to him the demonstration was obvious. He passed straight on to such books as Decartes’ Geometry and Kepler’s Optics. Similar stories, if 1 remember aright, are told of Euler and Lagrange. Again, Clairaut, at the age of thirteen, had written a paper on the properties of some new curves, which was presented to the Académie des Sciences and printed at the end of one of his father’s works. Clerk-Maxwell, it is hardly necessary to remind the members of this section, published his first mathematical paper at the age of four- teen. For it was at that age that he wrote the paper “On the Description of some Oval Curves and those having a Plurality of Foci,” read at the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and published in their Transactions for 1846. And, to give one other instance, M. Frederic Masson, in the charming speech which he delivered on the occasion of Poincaré’s admission to the Académie Frangaise, tells us that his career was settled, when in the Lycée de Nancy, in the Fourth Class, he opened a book on Geometry. His astonished master, who had hoped to make of him a student of letters, hastened to his mother, greeting her with the words— “Madame, votre fils sera mathématicien,”’ And we read that she was not dismayed. May I be permitted to say, in passing, that the teachers of Mathe- matics in our schools at the present day must be careful if the study of Geometry is to retain its value. Without entering into the vexed question of the extent to which the intuitive method ought to take the place of the deductive, | would only say that the budding mathe- matician must sometimes be troubled by the slipshod argument which he finds in the text-book placed in his hand. Assuming this story of the youthful Poincaré is true, it is fair to add that it is most unlikely that the book which roused his ardour was Kuclid’s Elements. More probably it was Legendre’s Géométrie. But Legendre’s book stood the test of over a century's use on the continent of Europe, and Legendre was a famous mathematician. Our present trouble is that people are still to be found teaching mathematics in the schools without a proper training for their task. That difficulty we rejoice is passing away with the institution of well-equipped Teachers’ Colleges in most of our States. Another cause of the trouble to which I have referred is to be traced to the text-book itself. The authors of these texts are men of a different stamp from Legendre. Now that Heath’s great edition of Huclid’s Hlements has appeared, and that the story of the rise and development of the Non-EHuclidean Geometries is more widely. known, a more satisfactory state of affairs may arise. 12 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. The content of the Science of Mathematics has grown so enor- mously that there are few, even among professed mathematicians, who can lay claim to a knowledge of more than a part. The physicist, the engineer, and other practical men are inclined to believe that with this development the mathematician is losing sight of what they believe is the chief reason for his existence: namely, to provide useful tools whieh they may employ in the physical sciences. When one speaks of the growth of Mathematics, it is hardly necessary to point out that we do not refer to the undergraduate course at our Universities. Changes in it there have been, and should continue: to be. Doubtless those chiefly concerned are inclined to think that it has developed past recognition. But the alterations are mostly in matters of detail or method. In its chief characteristics the course remains the same. It must range over Geometry in its wider sense, Analysis, and Applied Mathematics. Its aim is twofold. On the one hand it seeks to provide a suitable introduction, for the student with a mathematical mind, into the Science of Mathematics. At its close he is ready to devote himself to higher study in one or other of the three main divisions of which I have spoken. The other object before us is just as definite. Our courses, in greater or less degree, have to serve as a portion of the training of the physicist, the engineer, the statistician, or other professional man, of whose equipment the tools. which Mathematics provides form a valuable and necessary part. However, as scientific men, we must protest against the view that the path of practical utility is to be that along which mathematical development is to take place. And the protest is called for in this country at the present time. To me it seems a matter for great regret that in several of the younger Universities room has not been found for a separate Chair of Mathematics, the subject being combined with Physics, and the professorship being called a Professorship of Mathe- matics and Physics. Of course, it is well understood that this arrangement is simply a temporary one, and rendered necessary by the funds available not being sufficient for the endowment of separate chairs. Still, Mathematics is not simply a handmaid to Physics ; each science must stand by itself; and the dignity, both of the University and of these two branches of knowledge, demands that these temporary expedients should not be allowed to remain in force any longer than is absolutely necessary. But though this protest is necessary in this country and at the present time, the need for it is a recurrent one, and we find such remonstrances frequently made in the development and growth of Mathematics as a Science. And they have been called for at times. even in the house of her friends. In Jacobi’s letters we come upon the following sentences :—“ I have read with pleasure Poisson’s report upon my work (the Funda- : an - as an, e Were PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 13 menta Nova . . ._ ),and Ican be well satisfied with what he says. But M. Poisson should not have repeated in his report a foolish phrase of the late M. Fourier, where he reproaches us (Abel and me) for not having turned our attention to the flow of heat. It is true that M. Fourier believed that the principal aim of Mathematics was practical utility, and the explanation it could give of natural phenomena. But a philosopher of his standing should have known that the sole end of science is the honour of the human intelligence. And, from this point of view, a problem in the Theory ot Numbers 1 is aS Important as a question arising in Celestial Mechanics.” Some of the greatest triumphs of Mathematics have no doubt - been won in the conquest of nature and the elucidation of her laws. In the discoveries which marked the nineteenth century, and changed the face of the civilized world, the mathematicians were often found among the pioneers. By many people it is from this stand-point that Mathematics is regarded. She is the Servant of the Sciences. A place of honour may be hers; but it is for service rendered and with the lively expectation of greater benefits in the future. “Tam not making before you a defence of Mathematics,” said Cayley, in his presidential address to the British Association in 1883, ‘but, ifI were, Ishould desire to do it in such manner as in the Republic Socrates was required to defend justice—quite irrespective of the worldly advantages which may accompany a life of virtue and justice, and to show that, independently of all these, justice was a thing desirable in itself, and for its own sake ; not by speaking to you of the utility of Mathematics in any of the questions of common life or of physical science. . . . I would, on the contrary, rather consider the obligations of Mathematics to these different subjects, as the sources of mathematical theories now as remote from them, and in as different regions of thought—for, instance, Geometry from the measurement of land, or the Theory of Numbers from Arithmetic—as a river at its mouth is from its mountain source.” And, again, to quote another great Pure Mathematician, Weier- strass: “I am not afraid that I shall be blamed for detracting from the value to which Mathematics as a pure science lays claim, with such perfect right, when I attach special importance to the fact that it is only through Mathematics that a true and satisfactory understanding of natural phenomena can be obtained. Indeed, no one can be readier than I to admit that we must not seek for the end of a science outside itself. Such action not only does not add to its dignity ; it is an offence against it. Instead of devoting ourselves to it with our whole heart, we desire from it only some service, and use it only forsome other discipline, _ or for the needs of ordinary life. . . . In this way we would neglect every path which did not seem immediately to promise results of practical value. It is my opinion that we must obtain a truer 14 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. appreciation of the relation between Mathematics and Natural Science. The physicist must no longer look on Mathematics as an auxiliary discipline, even if he admit that it is an indispensable one. The mathematician must not continue to regard the questions which the physicist brings to him simply as a rich collection of problems suited to his work.” The truth is Mathematics must be treated as any other science. Tt does not stand in a class by itself. There ought to be no depart- ment of knowledge in which the man of science should feel that he has the right to ask the author of any discovery—Cuz bono? The only question for him should be whether it is true, and what influence it will have in the development of the subject of which it forms a part. The earliest astronomers may have looked upon the stars with their — thoughts upon navigation; but some of them doubtless pondered in their hearts the mystery of the Universe. Every botanist does not live by agriculture; nor is every geologist on the search for precious stones. It was only in the dark ages that chemistry was confused with alchemy. The quest for knowledge, in itself and for itself, is the common heritage of every science. And “the history of natural philosophy, and even of such a practical science as Medicine, show us that.even from the point of view of utility the subjects must be developed of themselves, with the single aim of increasing knowledge.” No one could have foretold, when Galvani touched the nerve and muscle of the frog with two different metals and saw the muscle contract, that the discovery of the anatomist would lead in 80 years to the world being traversed by electric cables from end to end. And it was far from the minds of those who first watched the stream of sparks bridging the gap of an electric machine or flowing from the knob of a Leyden Jar, that the phenomena they were watching in a few years would lead to the marvellous triumphs of Wireless Telegraphy. To the mathematician the wonderful edifice which the geometer has created, from the simple practical geometry of the Egyptian and the theoretical geometry of the Greek, to the great domain of Projective and Descriptive Geometry, and the realm of Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces, is as much a matter of pride and satisfaction as any of the theories which have been invented to explain and simplify the facts of experiment and the wonders of nature. We are agreed, then, that no branch of Mathematics has a claim prior to any other. The mathematician turns his attention to the department which appeals to himself, and in which he feels he can do the best service. I wish now to give some reasons for my belief that it is unfortunate that some branches of Applied Mathematics are not at present attracting English mathematicians as they used to do, With regard to these, I believe that recent discoveries in Pure Mathe- matics make it extremely probable that renewed efforts by the Applied Mathematician would meet with considerable success. ] ‘ PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 15 “The reconstruction in 1909 of the Mathematical Tripos, and the destruction of many of the distinctive features of the former scheme must profoundly modify the future history of Mathematics at Cam- bridge. . . . The changes in the Tripos regulations have been accompanied by a curious alteration in the popular subjects, and to-day but few of the young graduates who desired the change are interesting themselves in those branches of Applied Mathematics once generally studied, but rather are turning their attention to subjects like the theories of functions or groups.’ To me the tendency to which Ball calls attention in these words is matter for surprise and regret. The English School of Mathematics certainly had inclined to an excessive degree to the Applied Studies. It was natural that there should be a reaction; and that the branches of Pure Mathematics which had been cultivated with such success in the schools of Paris, Berlin, and Géttingen would find their adherents in greater numbers on the banks of the Cam. But the traditions of Cambridge Mathematics are worthy of being maintained, and progress in Applied Mathematics should not now be left to such an extent to the Continental Mathematician. Open the Cambridge Calendar and glance down the Mathematical Tripos lists from 1837 to 1887. There were very few English mathe- maticians who flourished in that time whose names we do not find among the first few wranglers, and in far the greatest number they are the names of men who are known wherever Mathematics is cultivated as those who made notable advances in Applied Mathematics. In 1837 we have Green, the discoverer of Green’s Theorem, who came up to Caius College at the age of 40, with his greatest discoveries already made. And now in 1913 his name meets us more frequently than ever in mathematical journals, for Green’s Functions have come to life again in the new branch of Mathematics called Integral Equations. And in the same year as Green, who was fourth wrangler, we find Sylvester, as second. His name is.as remarkable in the history of Pure Mathematics as Green’s is in Applied. We read that “ Green and Sylvester were the first men of the year, but Green’s want of familiarity with ordinary boy’s Mathematics prevented him from coming to the top m a time race.” Passing on, we find in rapid succession Stokes, Adams, Thomson (Lord Kelvin), Tait, Routh, Clerk-Maxwell, Strutt (Lord Rayleigh), Niven, Darwin, Greenhill, Lamb, Hicks, Poynting, Glazebrook, Larmor, J. J. Thomson, Turner, Bragg, Love, mr yen and Michell of your own University. And to turn to the Pure Mathematicians of that period, we pass from Sylvester, in 1837, to Cayley, in 1842; then there is a gap till we reach Clifford, in 1867; after him come Glaisher, Burnside, Chrystal, iiobson, Forsyth, Heath, Mathews, Whitehead, Young, Berry, Richmond, and Dixon. 16 ; PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. As has been already mentioned, in recent years the ablest men among the younger Cambridge graduates have turned, oftener than before, to Pure Mathematics. For this there may be various reasons, but the decline in Applied Mathematics at Cambridge is, I believe, due in part to the divorce between Mathematics and Experimental Physics at that place. “ Although the mathematician,” says Berry, “has given about half of his time to Applied Mathematics, he need have, and in fact frequently has had, no knowledge of Experimental Physics. Normally, he goes to no experimental lectures, he does no work in a laboratory, and the experimental facts which he learns in his mathematical text- books are usually of the simplest character, reduced to an abstract and almost conventional form, suitable for the direct application of mathematical analysis. A high wrangler may be able to solve elaborate problems in spherical trigonometry or optics without having seen a telescope or handled a lens: he may be able to calculate the potential due to the most curious distributions of electricity, without the least idea of the mechanism of an electric bell or tram. Physics learnt in this way is naturally most unreal, and the mathematician who wishes afterwards to devote himself to Physics is at first at a great disadvantage, not only by want of familiarity with physical apparatus and physical data, but by a lack of ‘ physical instinct,’ which enables the trained physicist to judge what elements are important, or what unimportant, in any particular investigation.” In the earlier days of Experimental-Physics this state of affairs did not exist, at any rate, to the same extent. The subject was less specialized, and it was comparatively easy for any mathematician who so desired to obtain in a short time a practical acquaintance with the experimental side of the subjects which interested him. Nowadays this is not the case. But with the development of Experimental Physics and the change in the content of what used to be called Natural Philosophy, it is just as imperative that Experimental Physics should enter into the training of the mathematician, as that Matle- maties should be part of the course followed by the physicist. In Australia, I think, we have passed from the Cambridge tradition in this respect, and our Honours graduates in Mathematics will very seldom be found to have completed their course without one year’s— and in many cases two years’—practical and theoretical study of Physics. In this we follow the example of Germany and France. The German Ph.D. who takes Mathematics as his chief subject, will usually combine with it Physics and Chemistry as his minor subjects. The French mathematician has, I believe, a similar wide curriculum. Poincaré certainly had no leaning towards experimental work, and some pure mathematicians have been known to regret that the official work which fell to him was Mathematical Physics and Astronomy ; for they felt that in him the ideal pure mathematical mind had its ae ey PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. 17 habitation; but it was his training in the School of Mines that enabled Poincaré to make the important contributions to Mathematical Physics which will always be associated with his name. Sommerfeld, whose name we meet so often in the discussions upon Wireless Tele- graphy, has this double qualification. A profound mathematician, he has also the “physical instinct’ of which Berry spoke. As to Hilbert, I cannot be certain; but my impression is that he also has had the advantage of a training in Physics. The wide range of his work must be a perpetual source of wonder to other mathematicians. Like Poincaré, we find him deep in the discussion of the foundations of Geometry, and shedding fresh light upon the real meaning of the Non-Euclidean Geometries. He has also contributed to various departments of Higher Algebra and Analysis. And he was the first to grasp the true significance of Fredholm’s discovery of the solution of the Integral Equations which now bear his name. Hilbert established the connexion between the Theory of Integral Equations and that of Quadratic forms. Then he applied his discovery to the differential equations of Mathematical Physics, and united in one general theorem all the different questions of the expansion of an arbitrary function in series, whether the terms be trigonometrical functions, Bessel’s Functions, Spherical Harmonics, Ellipsoidal Harmonics, or Sturm’s Functions. And the last two chapters of the book, in which he has brought togetner his contributions to this new branch of analysis, are devoted—one to its applications to the Theory of Functions, and the other to its applications to the Calculus of Variations, Geometry, Hydrodynamics, and the Kinetic Theory of Gases. He now seems to have turned to Mathematical Physics, and he has recently lectured on the Kinetic Theory of Gases. One of his courses during last summer Semester was upon the Mathematical Foundations of Physics. And during this winter Semester he has lectured upon the Theory of Partial Differential Equations, and continued his former course on the Foundations of Physics, his Semunar being given up to discussions on similar topics. Another German mathematician, Kneser, in his book “ On the Application of Integral Equations to Mathematical Physics,” and in his published writings upon the same subject, seems to have stepped right into the region which we might have expected the Cambridge School to have already occupied, if it had not broken with the traditions of its past. And the same may be said of part of the work of Stekloff, the Russian mathematician. There are, of course, many modern developments of Pure Mathe- matics with a close bearing upon the problems which meet us in Applied. In some of my own investigations I have had occasion to use the Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable, and Riemann’s Surfaces and Space. A year or so ago some work on Non-Euclidean Geometry compelled me to put aside these questions, and it is only 18 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION A. recently that I have been able to return to them. And I find that the Theory of Integral Equations removes several difficulties which formerly had made my progress difficult. This is but a slight example of the close connexion between the different branches of Pure and Applied Mathematics. And it is often in the most unexpected quarters that this relation is revealed. We saw, in speaking of Poincaré’s earlier work, that his acquaintance with Non-Euclidean Geometry gave him the key to a difficult question in the Theory of Functions. Curiously enough, in the Theory of Rela- tivity we come upon a similar instance. Sommerfeld had shown that the Composition of Velocities in the Theory of Relativity agrees with the formule of Spherical Trigonometry when the radius of the sphere is Imaginary. Now Lobatschewsky and Bolyai long ago established the connexion between their Non-Euclidean Geometry and this Ima- gmary Trigonometry. It followed that an interesting field for the application of the Theory of Relativity was to be found in Non-Euclidean Geometry. Vari¢ak has proved that the formule of that theory have a ready interpretation in that Geometry. His next step was to assume that the phenomena happen in a Non-Euclidean Space, and he obtaimed the formule of the Theory of Relativity by very simple geometrical argument. He states his results as follows :-—“‘ Assuming the Non-Huclidean terminology, the formule of the Theory of Relativity not only become essentially simplified, but they also admit a geometrical interpretation, which is wholly analogous to the interpretation of the classical theory in the Euclidean Geometry. And this analogy often goes so far as to leave the actual wording of the classical theory unchanged. We need only replace the Huclidean image by the corre- sponding image in the Lobatschewsky space, whose parameter c is equal to 3 x 101° cm.” 1.—HARMONIC TIDAL CONSTANTS OF NEW ZEALAND PORTS (WELLINGTON AND AUCKLAND). By C. E, Adams, M.Sc., F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer of New Zealand. ABSTRACT, The harmonic tidal constants given in columns | and 4 of the attached Schedule were obtained from an harmonic analysis of the hourly ordinates from the automatic tide gauges at Wellington and Auckland. For each port the Tidal Abacus of the late Sir G. H. Darwin was used, and the whole of the calculations have been carried out in duplicate. For the additions the Mercedes adding machine has been found te be of the greatest assistance, while the Brunsviga calculating machine, with the printing attachment, and the Millionaire calculating machine have been invaluable in the numerous calculations. For the fine plotting of curves the Coradi co-ordinatograph has been very useful. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. . 19 From the constants given in columns 1 and 4 the tides for Wellington and Auckland have been predicted, and are published in the British Admiralty Time-tables, and in the New Zealand Nautical Almanac. Comparisons between the predictions and actuality prove the correctness of the constants; for these comparisons see New Zealand Tidal Survey: Report of Department of Lands and Survey, Wellington, 1910-11 and 1911-12. Other values of the tidal constants (1) by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and (2) by Mr. T. Wright, are given in columns 2 and 5, and 3 and 6 respectively. In the United States Tide-tables predictions for Wellington and Auckland are also given; but these do not agree so closely with actuality as those depending on the constants in columns I and 4, Wellington, N.Z. Auckland, N.Z. Tide. Zs Hgt. 41°17" 8. Long., 174° 46’ E. Lat., 36° 50’ S. Long., 174° 49° B. H, in English feet. K, in deg. H, in English feet. K, in deg. (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (4) (5) (6) S,] 0-005 151° 0-606 50° $2] 0-112 0-089 0-108 333° 325° 308° | 0-583 0:°626 0°633 |264° 265° 266° S,} 0-005 181° 0-018 341° Ss | 0-005 : 299° 0-002 27° M,}| 0-007 0-007 31° 106° 0:011 O°GI1 144° 144° M,] 1-594 1°598 1-702 134° 137° 123° | 3-814 3°782 3°826 | 204° 205° 205° My | 0-022 184° 0-052 202° M, | 0-030 0-045 276° 332° 0:113 0200 $272 7748 M,| 0-013 0-015 rowel Sige 0-626 0-190 BRaco was O/0'110 0:099 0-121 34° 36° 194° | 0:059 0-071 149° 121° K*] 0-078 0°085 0-071 78° ~81° 275° | 0233 0-241 0-265 169° 167° 169° Kz} 0-042 0-060 0-029 312° 339° 308° |0°145 0°171 0:°172 |255° 265° 266” P | 07023 0:028 0-023 53° ~—«67°,-« 275° | 0-068 0:°079 0-088 | 166° 169° 169° J | 0-007 143° 0:017 196° Q | 0-036 0:019 Be tae 0-008 0-018 57° 85° L | 0-093 0-034 H42? 17749 0°221 0-144 0-164 | 210° 209° 196° N | 0-431 0°353 0-449 95° 104° 83° | 0-797 0°760 0°778 | 174° 174° 175° vy | 07125 0-068 107° 108° 0-236 0:°147 153° 178° p | 0-082 81° 0-126 0-091 178° 144° R | 0-024 170° 0-024 237° T | 0-056 317° 0°058 0:037 103° 265° MS] 0-039 138° 0-169 195° 285M] 0-039 20° 0-064 305° Mm | 0-116 260° 0°127 292° Mf} 0:048 172° 0-072 205° MS£| 0°161 61° 0 075 123° Sa] 0°049 0:241 0:073 202" 64° 295° | 0-091 0:°357 0-354 63° 88° 139° Ssa] 0°073 0:035 0°204 166° 240° 212° |0:028 0°185 0-224 57° 266° 242° (1) New Zealand Tidal Survey: Report of Department oi Lands and Survey, Wellington, for 1919-11 : Hourly ordinates for the calendar year 1909. (2) U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington: Tide Tables for the year 1911, p. 456: Hourly ordinates for one calendar year 1894. (3) Thomas Wright, Proc. Royal Society, London, A. Vol. 83, p. 127: Harmonie Tidal Con- stants for certain Chinese and New Zealand Ports: High and low waters for the year 1901. (4) New Zealand Tidal Survey: Report of Department of Lands and Survey, Wellington, for 1911-12 : Hourly ordinates for year beginning 1908, December 1. (5) U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington: Tide Tables for year 1912, p. 460: High and low waters for two calendar years, 1896 (Service Hydrographique de la Marine, Paris), and 1900 (The Admiralty, London). (6) Thomas Wright, Proc. Royal Society, London, A. Vol. 83, p. 127: Harmonic Tidal Con- ee Me certain Chinese and New Zealand Ports: High and low waters for one year beginning 1990, May 1. 20 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 2.—THE GENERAL MAGNETIC SURVEY OF AUSTRALIA BY THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON. By Edward Kidson, M.Sc. Plates 1 and 2. ABSTRACT. This work is part of a plan for a Magnetic Survey of the whole world to be accomplished in a space of four years, in which the ocean work and outstanding land work is entrusted to the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution. The writer was sent to Australia to undertake the observations in this country. The object of the Department is to secure one observation station to about every 10,000 square miles. The survey was begun in July, 1911, and, in addition to miscellaneous work, about 140 stations have been occupied so far. The ground covered includes the greater part of South Australia, the railway lines of Western Australia, the overland route from Oodnadatta to Port Darwin, and portions of North Queensland and Victoria. Continuous observations extending over 24 hours were taken of the declination at Port Darwin and of the horizontal] intensity at Laura, Queensland. These, together with the simultaneous variations as given by the Melbourne Observatory magnetograms, are plotted in Figs. 1 and2. The observer has received great assistance and encouragement from the Melbourne Observatory, the Surveyors-General of the States visited, and various officials with whom he has come in contact. A plea is made for detailed surveys in Australia by the local authorities. Work has been done in recent years by almost every other civilized country. 4 Summary of Carnegie Institution Magnetic Observations in Australia. PRELIMINARY VALUES. East declinations are positive and west negative. | Hori- E bis Q E. Declina- | zontal| Dip, Station. Date. 8. Lat. Long: tiga! aiken: S. Remarks. sity. 1911. Saar 4 Sia SCAG sem socks Ararat She ..| July 31137 17/142 58) + 7 27] :28344) 67 21 Horsham .. ..{ Aug. 1/36 43/142 12}4 7 20). :23555] 67 07 Border Town “oe oF 2/36 19/140 46/+ 6 25] -23616| 67 02 Coonalpyn .. is = 3/35 42/139 52]/+ 5 46] :24042]/66 21 Murray Bridge Si 5 41/35 07/139 16]/+ 5 36] °24088] 66 16 Adelaide S. Park .. i 8|34 56/188 36)/+ 5 36] *24332| 66 04 Burra 0 et a 11]33 41/138 56/+ 6 OO] °25449] 64 26 Quorn 50 ae “ 14/32 21/1388 02]/+ 6 O09} °26034] 63 33 Hergott Springs ie a 16/29 40/138 04]/+ 5 13] :28011}] 60 29 Boorthanna ot 3 17}28 39/135 54]/-+ 3 83] °28570|59 41 Ooward Springs nt > 18}29 24/1386 49}+ 4 O00] :28077| 60 24 Codnadatta Se MA 21127 33])135 28}+ 4 10] °29173158 29] PROCEEDINGS’ OF SECTION A. ZI Magnetic Observations in Australia, Preliminary Values—continued. Hori- : E. Declina- | zontal | Dip, 4 Station. Date. |S. Lat. Long. ian: Tatate S. Remarks. E sity. 1912 ° ’ °o oa ‘ C.G.S. ° ." . Farina = --{| 4, 28/30 04/1388 17]}-+ 5 50] :27750|60 55] Tests showed disturbance Beltana.. i » 25)30 491138 25]/-+ 56 32] -27251]61 36 Port Lincoln --| Sept. 9/34 437/135 52]/-+ 3 18] -24406|65 57 Mount Hope .-| 5, 18)34 071/135 24)/4+ 4 25] -24675 | 65 20 Talia : F(- EA 15}33 199934 53)-+- 4. 15 25110 | 64 56 Streaky Bay «-} 4 018)32 48/184 14}+.3 16] -25716]64 13 Murat Bay 4 » 21}32 081133 40/+ 38 51] -25788]/63 44 Nanwoora .. # Ee 26/31 24/131 37)/+ 2 04] -26961 |62 26 White Wells ae 3 QUTRSL 274031" 01) -F a2 30 26827 ° White Wells Pe Fe 28 ie ae 3 62, 52 . Diamond Drill Tank 3 229131 (281129) 37 ae 63 08 Diamond Drill Tank PA 30 a oe + 1 05] °26451 % Eucla ee --| Oct. 1431 43/128 55 23}33 571116 09|— 5 35] -28097|66 42 Albany a8 if Mares 1)35 201117 56 st aye 67 14 Albany as a SS 2 A Se 5 15] °22914 ae Katanning oe = 4}33 411117 33|]— 4 22] -23370|66 34 Narrogin .. i Fa 5} 32, 56pial? 10} —15- 21:]0°23631 ae Narrogin oe se = 6 + ae ne aie 66 05 Northam .. a s 15} 31 38)116 40}— 4 29] °24453 | 64 41 Merredin .. ae » 17) 381 29)118 17]/— 8 23] °25024 32 Merredin .. > pals a ite as ap 64 17 Southern Cross. x s 19} 31 14]119 20]— 2 13] °25142 |64 04 Boorabbin .. he em LOS Tb 20 $8) 22 OM a2b817 163 257 Norseman .. ee » 28|)32 12}121 46)— 1 29] °24744 ]64 44 22 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Magnetic Observations in Australia, Preliminary Values—continued. Station. Coolgardie .. Laverton .. a Menzies oa oh Menzies ie Fy Moora Nn Ae Mingenew .. “eo Geraldton .. Ap: Geraldton .. He Yalgoo ot Be Yalgoo ts A Meekatharra Meekatharra Mount Magnet Sandstone .. ue Lawler’s .. Si Oodnadatta (Repeat) Box Tree Flat os Woodgate’s Swamp .. Woodgate’s Swamp .. Blood’s Creek 3 Charlotte Waters Charlotte Waters Goyder Creek Crown Point Horseshoe Bend Horseshoe Bend Alice Well .. Alice Well .. Ooraminna Well Temple Bar Temple Bar Alice Springs Arltunga .. 9-mile Rock Hole from Winnecke’s 9-mile Rock Hole from Winnecke’s Burt Well .. Ryan’s Well Tea-tree Well Hanson’s Well Hanson’s Well Barrow Creek Taylor’s Crossing Wycliffe Well Gilbert Creek ue Gilbert Creek rhs Mount Samuel Mount Samuel Tennant’s Creek Attack Creek Mooketa Rock Hole { Iiegestle ite Lal bl | i abe lvetl +p $ Ftt+ ++ 4+ 4+ + + oFEh + +tEE +44 + OHHH. HH. ws WR. HOF o + ORO) Pee eR 45 29679 -2.9500 "29915 “30087 "30238 30384 “30504 “30939 “31107 -312.85 “31726 “31974 “31408 “32000 “32012 39.294 “32505 32.446 -33009 “33212 33287 “33479 33779 33892 Tests showed disturbance Tests showed large dis- turbance Tests indi- cated some disturbance Tests did not show dis- turbance VARIATION OF DECLINATION IN MINUTES. Na a OCT. 1, 1912. MELBOURNE MEAN CIVIL TIME IN HOURS. SEPT., 30, 1912. VARIATION OF MAGNETIC DECLINATION. UPPER CURVE FROM MELB. OBSY: MAGNETOGRAM, LOWER, PT. DARWIN OBSNS. 2 a = PLATE Le R eel ee en = eo lh) al srvsh bet shhris a i ; a ; ' 1 VARIATION IN HORIZONTAL INTENSITY. UPPER CURVE 1! DIV. = 00080 C.GS. LOWER CURVE I DIV. = 00040 C.G.S. Fic. 2. UPPER CURVE FROM MELB. OBSY. MA GNETOGRAM. LOWER GURVE FROM ees LAURA 6 uf 8 9 10 11 NOON 13 17 18 NOV. 23, 1912. MELBOURNE MEAN CIVIL TIME IN MOURS. NOV. 22, i912. VARIATION IN HORIZONTAL INTENSITY. af mere Dt PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 23 Magnetic Observations in Australia, Preliminary Values—continued. - Station. Renner Spring Powell’s Creek Newcastle Waters .. Frew’s Ponds th Frew’s Ponds ate Milmer’s Well: Daly Waters Daly Waters No. 3 Well Elsey Creek Leech’s Billabong Katherine River Pine Creek .. Batchelor .. Connell’s Creek Port Darwin Thursday Island Albany Island (Ad- miralty Station) Burketown Normanton. . Croydon Forsayth Chillagoe Cairns Laura Cooktown .. Townsville .. Townsville .. Cardwell Cardwell Geelong Beech Forest Beech Forest Warrnambool Portland Portland Casterton Ballarat Ballarat Date. 1912. Aug. 1 - > 9 ” il ” 12 5 13 sire “ 5 ” 23 Me 26 ead: Sept. 4 a il % 14 fe 23 ” 27 Oct. 10 », 18 » 28 Nov. 4 ” 6 ” 11 Spe » 18 ie al a5 26 or 29 a 30 Dec. 3 a, Ad a 19 » 20 ” 21 , 24 bgutey: 5 28-29 1913. Jan. 2 bP 3 E. 8. Lat. Long. 133 133 133 133 133 133 133 133 132 132 131 131 131 130 142 142 31 139 141 142 143 144 145 144 145 146 146 144) 143 142 141 37 141 25 341143 49 Declina- tion. ++ wo RmOWWWW WWW. WW. me w oo Lo 0} org or bo for) AD Oro - ~J ++ + + ttt+ +44 4 F4+444444+ 44 + NOs Den & +6 50°2 “34268 “34912 *35206 “35489 *35538 "22775 -22998 30 68 30 68 43°5 68 04°4 Remarks, Tests indi- cated some disturbance Tests indi- cated some disturbance Tests did not show dis- turbance Tests did not show dis- turbance Tests showed some dis- turbance Tests did not show dis- turbance Tests did not show dis- turbance Tests showed large dis- turbance Tests showed some dis- turbance Note.—The above results are subject to revision a values given being first reductions in the field. {25 94 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 3.—ON THE ALMUCANTAR METHOD OF OBSERVING STAR POSITIONS. By G G. F. Dodwell, B.A., P.R.AS., Government Astronomer, South Australia. (ABSTRACT.) In this paper the author describes the very accurate method of making astronomical observations which was introduced by Professor S. C. Chandler, of Harvard Observatory, U.S.A., about 30 years ago. It consists in observing the passages of stars across an imaginary horizontal line in the sky passing through the celestial pole. Chandler used a special instrument, but the method was adapted for use with a surveyor’s theodolite in 1902 by Mr. W. E. Cooke, now Government Astronomer of New South Wales. This method was used by the author in February, 1911, for the determination of longitude near the boundary obelisk, erected in 1869, by Sir Charles Todd on behalf of South Australia, and Mr. G. R. Smalley, on behalf of New South Wales, to mark the 14lst meridian, a few miles north of the spot where it crosses the River Murray, near the telegraph line to Sydney, wid - Wentworth. Some of the details of the recent determination were given, and the opinion was expressed that the system of observation employed on the occasion, if used with astronomical instruments of the first class, might be profitably adopted int he operations of funda- mental astronomical work. 4, DETERMINATION OF THE ERRORS OF THE RESHAUX, MELBOURNE No. 6 AND MELBOURNE No. 23. J. M. Baldwin, M.A., D.Sc., Melbourne Observatory. (ABS'TRACT.) In this paper the methods adopted by the author for the deter- mination of the errors of the réseaux used at the Melbourne Observatory in connexion with the photographic catalogue of the heavens are described. Each réseau should consist of two sets of equidistant parallel straight lines at right angles to one another, and hence it has been necessary to investigate— (1) the equidistance of the lines ; (2) the parallelism of the lines ; (3) the rectangularity of the sets of lines ; (4) the rectilinearity of the lines. The investigation has extended to each point of intersection of the lines, and the resulting errors have been combined and tabulated. The limiting corrections are-— — 008 mm. and + ‘006 mm. for réseau Melbourne No. 6. —-O011 mm. and + ‘012 mm. for réseau Melbourne No. 23. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 25 5.-THE EAST WIND. By H. Jacob. (ABSTRACT.) An inquiry into its origin and character, in the light of recent observations of the circulation of air in the cavities of the earth. It has been found that in certain bores in the Pinnaroo District a current of aiz flows down into the cavities of the rock overlying the groundwater, and that this flow continues steadily during periods of high atmospheric pressure, sometimes for severai days without inter- mission. The downward flow ceases when the barometer falls approximately to 30 inches, and during a period of low pressure the current of air is. reversed, and flows steadily up from the bowels of the earth, ceasing only when normal pressure is restored. Thus a rhythmical vertical circulation of the air in the pores of the earth is seen to accompany the rise and fall of the barometer. Indirect evidence has been obtained of a similar circulation of the air in subterranean cavities in other parts of the continent, notably in the Nullarbor Plains, at the head of the Great Australian Bight. The object of the paper is to show that the phenomenon is universal and that the character of the East Wind, which invariably accompanies a falling barometer, is mainly due to the vitiating effect of the air exhaled from beneath the surface of the earth. Indirectly, the writer endeavours to show how the habits and customs of the past—and of the present in many places—by polluting the earth have intensified the evil effects of the East Wind. 6. ON AN EXACT MECHANICAL ANALOGY TO THE COUPLED CIRCUITS USED IN WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY, AND ON A GEOMETRICAL METHOD OF INTERPRETING THE EQUATIONS OF SUCH CIRCUITS. By Professor Thomas R. Lyle, M.A., Se.D., F.RuS., University of Melbourne. 1. Ifa periodic e.m.f. = # acts on a circuit having resistance = R, inductance = L, and capacity = K, it is well known that the current C produced will satisfy the differential equation— R 1 2 aes y L(D + [D+ g,) 0= DE where D stands for =! dt 26 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. If i hay = = pw, this equation can be written in the form of Ohm’s law as 1G (1) D? + 2D + p? where 7 represents the differential operator LZ D If # = 0, and if the condenser be charged and then allowed to discharge through the circuit, Lord Kelvin first showed that, provided pe? > d?, damped harmonic electric oscillations ensue whose period is equal to see which, if A is small is very approximately / per Qr Seo tN a In the sequel Steal be called the natural period, and p the natura] L frequency of the arckie A will be called the damping co-efficient of . the circuit, and a circuit such as the one here dealt with will be called an oscillating circuit. 2. If two inductively coupled circuits, that is, two oscillating circuits so placed that they act inductively on each other, have vibratory currents C, and C2 circulating in them, and if M is the mutual inductance between the circuits whose other characteristics are identified by the subscripts 1 or 2, then the e.m.f. in circuit 1 is equal to — MDCg2, and in circuit 2 is equal to — MDC. Hence by (I) § 1 Ty C; = - MDCz2 V (I) T2 Co = - M DC, J "As Cy = KiDV1, and Ce = KeDVe, where V; and V2 are the values at any instant of the P.D.s of the condenser, we find, after substi- tuting for C; and Cp» in the above equations and integrating each once, that 11 KV, = - MDK2V 2) (II) re KeVe = — MDK,V, f Sea as the constant to be added in either case is obviously zero. Eliminating C; or Cz from equations (I), or V1 or V2 from equations (II), we find that C1, C2, V1, or Ve will satisfy the differential equation. (rirg — M?D*) ¢ = 0, that is, { (D?+26D+p,(D2+22D+ys%)- 2 D'bo=0 A) which, when damping is neglected, reduces ax 2 { (D2 + 142)(D2+ n22)- “7 phy 0. av) In Lz PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 27 M/VTIy,L2, usually spoken of as the co-efficient of coupling, or the coupling of the two circuits will be represented in what follows by sin w and yp will be called the coupling angle, so that sin? » = M?/L, Lx. 3. Consider now the motion of the following mechanical system ~ when making small oscillations. A horizontal beam of mass WV is so supported that it can move freely in the direction of its length, and from it two simple pendulums of lengths 1; and lz with bobs of masses m , and mg are suspended by means of V suspensions so arranged that the bobs are constrained to move in the vertical plane through the axis of the heain (see Fig. I). Fie I. =. F Let the position of the beam be specified by z, the horizontal distance between its end and a fixed origin, and that of the pendulums by 0, and 62, the angles they make with the vertical, 6, being. measured towards the left and 42 towards the right; then if 7 be the kinetic, and V the potential energy of the system when making small oscillations, OT = Ma? + mi(x—116)2 + mo(% + lobo)? 2vV = g(14 1,04? + mel2f2z?) : wT Ee, and as ot ae WA f 7 28 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. where ¢ is any one of the co-ordinates, we find that (M +m, + me) z — mh, + mgleb, = 0 aie + 40, + gi, =0 z+ lobe + 902 = 0 Eliminating x from the first and second, and also from the first and third of these equations, we obtain (D? + 2)0, = — p, D6. \ and (D? + plg2)02 = — p2.D?0, f (1) where 2a! tm + me of pst M+m+m, g M + mg [eae M+m i (I) 1 = ls Me p2 = my, Eke ms bP ree Equations (II) § 2 connecting the P.D.s of the condensers in the ‘coupled circuits can, when damping is neglected, be written in the identical form of equations (I) of this paragraph and the values of ‘the constants for the electrical case are given by pa? = : ee : Kyl, KL (111) p So Ke: M Ki M 1 Kegs day 2) Mg a Hence the angular displacements of the two pendulums in the mechanical system are mutually connected by equations identical in form to those which connect the P.D.s of the condensers in the electrical system, and as C, = K,DV,, Cy = KeDVz2 the angular velocities of the pendulums are similarly analogous to the currents in the two -electric circuits. If, in the proposed system, the strings of the second pendulum become rigid and be rigidly attached to the beam, then D20, = 0, and the equation of motion of the first pendulum becomes . (D? + 2) 04 = 0 ‘that is, the motion is simple harmonic and of frequency 1. Hence to determine the quantity relating to the mechanical ‘system that is analogous to the “natural period” of the primary electric circuit we have simply to place the bob of the second pendulum on the beam, and then measure the period of the first by observation in the usual way. Similarly the natural period, as we shall call it, of the second pendulum is determined. Returning to equations (I) above, if we eliminate 0, or 6, between them we find that either 9, or 6, will satisfy the differential equation UD? + p,?)(D, + ps?) - p, p2 Dt} 0 = 0 which is identical in form with equation (IV) § 2, which is satisfied by the variables in the coupled circuit system. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 29 It is evident that the “ coupling ” of the pendulum system, or the value of sin W for the latter is equal to mM, Mz Ya = J oremitirem) Hence all the variables, either of the mechanical system or of the electrical system, satisfy the differential equation {eos y D* + (u1° + pa’) D? + wy? po} go = 0 (IV) where 4, and », are the natural frequencies and y the coupling angle in either case. 4, In order to follow up this analogy it is necessary to know fully the details of the motion in either system arising from analogous initial conditions. We shall therefore obtain the solution when for the electrical system the initial conditions are V; = HZ, Ve =0, C,; = 0, Cz = 0 when ¢ = 0, the usual initial conditions to a disturbance in a Marconi transmitter, and when for the mechanical system the initial conditions are 0; = FE, 6. = 0, d= 0, Oo = 0 whent = 0. Let us put a for p42 8 b for ze? in equation (IV) § 3 and it becomes {cos? p Dt + (a + b)D2 + ab} 6 = 0. Proceeding with the solution of this differential equation in the usual way by obtaining the factors of the auerabor considered as a simple quadratic function we find that pe — ~ (a+b) + V(a + b)? — 4ab cos? y 2 cos? w ~(a +b) + Va2 + B? = 2ab cos 2 W 2 cos? W If now a and b be taken as the two sides cf a triangle whose included angle is 2 W, then as where ¢ is the third side and a + 6b +c = 2s, the roots of the quadratic are ee beste ab cos? J 8 8 ab a cos’ &-C cao ws + Gf. "Wie See Oe oe’. 30 ' PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Hence if FN oe e wo? = os (I) s 8 —C¢ : the differential equation is reduced to (DP? + 3?) (D? + 2?) ¢ = 0, (iT) which shows that the resultant motion is that due to two superposed harmonic motions whose individual frequencies are w; and wg. It will be seen in the sequel that the above method of presenting the solution for the resultant frequencies by the aid of a triangle (which we shall call the triangle) simplifies many of the considerations relating to coupled circuits. It at once enables us to follow the variations in the resultant frequencies due to variations either of the coupling or of the natural frequencies of the two circuits. Thus if the natural fre- quencies of the circuits be constant while the coupling varies from very loose coupling (when Ww is small) to very tight couplmg (when wy approximates to a right angle and consequently the angle 2 included between a and b becomes nearly 180°) the squares of the reciprocals of the frequencies are given by Lis @ +00 c w2 2ab ~ 2ab c gradually changing from a — }, its value for infinitely loose coupling to a + 6 its value for infinitely tight coupling. Again if the natural periods of the circuits are equal, the triangle is isosceles, and it is easy to show that the resultant periods r, for any value sin y of the coupling, are always given by the formula = ,/2¢ sin Ge 5) where ¢ is the natural period of either circuit. Similar statements will obviously apply to the coupled pendulums. 5. Dealing with the electrical system the general solution of Equation (II) § 4 for the currents is :— O; = Ay cos wit + By, sin wit + Pi cos wet + Qy sin wot Cg = Ae cos wit + By sin wyt + Pe C08 wot + Yo sin wet where 41, B,, &c., are constants to be determined. But Ci and C2 are connected by the equation (see Eq. (I) § 2) Iy (D2 Se a) Cy + MD*C2 = 0 in which a, one side of the triangle, represents ,? as before. Hence Ay By Mow? M b Pg Qe — Ty (a — we?) ey a Ss-a Pe = nn hal : PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A, 31 Substituting from these equations for Az, Bz, Pz, and Qe in the expression for Co, we find that C2 = Jf (s-0) (Ay cos wit + By, sin w,t) —(s—a) (P; cos wet + Q, sin wet) \ S Now as C,; = Co = 0 when t = 0, it follows that A, = Oand P, 0 hence C, = B, sin ot + Q, sin wet Cz =o (s—b) B, sin wt — (s — a) Q, sin pee J and as K,V, = D“C,, KeVz = D“Cz, K,V, = - wi COS w4t — 1 COS Wot Wy Wo > L B t KeVg = - ae (s —b) a COS w,t —(s —@) GOS wot But when ¢t = 0, V; = H, and V2 = 0, therefore fh + Shy se K,E Wy Wa yeas (s Ee, 0 ae oy which give us Pipe i 8 ian age a Wy Cc W2 where a, b, c, and s refer to the triangle. Hence for the initial conditions = BeVe = 0 Oe =Car o when t = 0, the complete solution is given by— y= = (s —a) cos wt + (s —b) cos wot c Ve = pea =e i COS wyt — COS wat c E ; (1) C; =k —: w, (Ss —a) sin wyt + we (s —b) sin wet c Cz = p24 Ky = Oy: sin w4t + We sin ost f Cc where p, = a iy rear a Be, = . (See Eq. (IIL) § 3.) 2 1 32 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. The complete solution for the pendulum system for analogous initial conditions is obviously given by the same equations. Thus if when t = 0, 0; = E, 02 = 0, 0; = 0, 62 = 0, 0, = = i(s — a) Cos w,t + (s — b) cos wath c Oo = pea Lf | cos wit — GOS vat} Cc where p2 = 2 "1 __ (See-Eqns. (IL) § 3.) The motion of the beam is also the resultant of two superposed harmonic motions of frequencies w; and we, and can easily be obtained from the consideration that during the motion, when the initial condi- tions are those considered above, the centre of mass of the system must remain fixed, hence (M+ my + mg) x — 1, my 6; + lg Mz 6g = constant. 6. It is interesting to consider the analogies between the constants of the two systems. Taking as a starting point the correspondence between V and 6, then as the energy expressions must be equivalent, that is LK, V7, and 4m,gl,0, therefore Ky, ~ mlyg Ky ~ Malog where the symbol “ ~ ” means “ analogous to.” Again as Ci = K, DV, C; ~ mylig 6, “Os ~ Meleg Ao. As the frequency must be the same thing in both systems eae M +m + m2 g Kyl, M + Mz ¢ L hence Ve 1 M+ me (OS SS. SS SSS g? my (M+ my + me) M+m g mg (M + m + mz). The coupling must be the same for both systems, so that 2 MM [,L, ~ (M + m,)(M + me) Ig ~ hence dl g? (M + m, + m,). aie es tied 1 ek eek, ei rail adele ie te aes ee PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 33 As a test of the accuracy of these conclusions it is easy to show that 7, the kinetic energy of the pendulum system, given in § 3, can be easily reduced, by aid of the relation at the end of § 5, to the form 1 0,C*%, + MC,C, + 4 LC, (the expression for the kinetic energy of the circuits) where the symbols in this expression represent their analogous quantities given above. — It is also easy to show that if J’ be the kinetic, and V the potential energy of either system, then IT = "KE? { 574 sin? wt + surh sin2 ot c c 2V = K, EF? | 5% cos? wt + 5 Oost ut € c 7. It should now be admitted that the mechanical system or model proposed is a perfect analogue to the coupled circuits ofa Marconi transmitter. The model should therefore be useful in demonstrating many of the properties and much of the behaviour of such coupled circuits. Its construction is so simple that any one can design a suitable apparatus for himself if he takes sufficient care to minimize friction. A description of the model that I have found satisfactory may, however, - be desirable. The beam is made from two Starritt’s 4-ft. straight edges by fixing them rigidly by means of aluminium distance pieces and clamps so that they are parallel to each other, 3} inches apart, and so that their “edges” are in a plane which’is perpendicular to the face of either straight edge. The “edges” of the beam near each of its ends rest and roll on the spindle (overhanging) joining two equal steei dise wheels while the latter rest and roll on a bed of good plate-glass firmly supported and carefully levelled. Great care was taken in the con- struction of the rollers. The wheels in each roller were made from 5-in. slotting cutters (4 inch thick) after grinding off the teeth, and were fixed 14 inches apart. The steel spindle was slightly over 4 inch in diameter and overhung the wheels on either side by 14 inches. The wheels and spindle were ground and the whole roller was trued up so that the diameters of the wheels were equal, the axle uniform in diameter, and all parts circular and coaxal. The bed on which the wheels run consisted of a sheet of good plate-glass 4 ft. 6 in. by 6 inches, set in a rigid frame, so as to prevent any tendency towards flexure, and was supported about 3 feet above a table, and carefully levelled. To the upper side of the beam are attached two cross rods of wood, one near each end, and both perpendicular to the axis of the beam. 6117. B 34 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. In each of these rods two holes equidistant from the beam are drilled, through which the upper ends of the thread forming the V suspension pass. Ordinary binding screws on the upper surface of the rods serve to make fast the strings and render quick adjustment of length easy. The distance between the holes in each rod should, of course, be sufficient to enable the V of string supporting either bob to clear the bed, the bobs of the pendulums being vertically under the beam and bed and able to move only in a vertical plane parallel to the axis of the beam. To the upper side of the beam, opposite the runners, at either end are attached two platforms on which the masses used to vary the coupling can be placed. It was shown in § 3 that the square of the coupling or - 9 = My, ne EA MCR aha ES tn) where M is the total mass of the beam, so by increasing the load on the beam, M in the above will be increased and the coupling diminished. 8. In order to exemplify the use of the model for the purpose of illustrating the properties of coupled circuits, I will describe some experiments on the relation of the resultant periods to the natural periods and the coupling. Adjust the pendulums to be of about the same length, put different _ masses for the bobs, say make one twice as heavy as the other, and make the coupling loose by arranging that the mass of the beam shall be at least ten times the mean of the masses of the bobs. Determine by observation the natural period of each pendulum. As has already been explained, this is done for the first by placing the bob of the second on its platform and counting the number of swings made by the first in a given time in the usual way ; similarly determine the natural period of the second pendulum. The natural periods can now be computed by means of the formula in § 3 if the masses and lengths have been measured. To the actual mass of the beam and its loads must be added a correction for the wheels to obtain the value of M in the formula referred to. It is easy to show that if the wheels are constructed as I have described, this correction is equal to be R24+I] (R + r)? where « is the mass and J the moment of inertia of each complete roller, R the radius of a wheel and r the radius of a spindle. The agreement between the observed and calculated natural periods will enable one to judge of the perfection of the model. Now impart motion to the system, the initial conditions being those already specified in §§ 4, 5. ; ed te ee ; PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 35 To do this first bring the system to rest, then steady the beam with one hand and with the other hold the bob of the first pendulum slightly deflected, and then let bob and beam go simultaneously. It will be seen that the second pendulum begins to swing, and continues with increasing amplitude, while the amplitude of the first at the same time diminishes. This goes on to a certain point when the ‘reverse takes place, and the transfer of energy forwards and backwards many times between the two pendulums is strikingly demonstrated. From this motion the resultant frequencies w; and wy can easily be obtained by observation. For the motion of the second pendulum is given by E 62 = P2a~ { COS wt — GOS wot W2—- Wi E. 2 - wet = 2pea — sin i pind c which shows that it is a vibration whose amplitude E -, 03 — W4 2 p20 — sin 5 varies harmonically with a frequency of 3 (we — w) while the oscillations of the pendulum have a frequency of 2(wg + 4). Hence if we count the number of double swings the pendulum makes ( = n say) between 11 points of rest, that is, during 5 periods of amplitude change, then t whe _ fe + wi 5 Wo — W) giving the ratio of w; to we. Now measure in the usual way the period of the individual swings of the second pendulum, which is equal to | 4a Wg + wy From these two results w; and ws can be deduced, and the values so obtained can be compared with those computed by means of the triangle given in § 4. In this connexion it is interesting to note that if the pendulums are of the same length /, and have bobs of equal mass m, then one of the resultant frequencies is always the same as that of an ordinary simple pendulum of length 7 with a rigid point of suspension, that is, it is equal to ./g/t no matter what the coupling may be. B2 36 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. For in this case (see § 3) —— m sin yp = pipe Mc ee ab M+ 24m.g_ 4 q and a=b= [| ae yr + sin wy) 1? and as the “triangle ” is isosceles s=a(l+smv), s—-c=a(l-smv) but w,? = a we = oy Hog ot 9 ie : for all values of sin y, the coupling. hence w,” 9. The surging of the energy forwards and backwards between two coupled circuits is very well illustrated by the model. When the P.D. of the condenser in a circuit is at the full amplitude for a particular oscillation, the current in that circuit is zero, and all the energy in the circuit at the imstant is $KV? where K is the capacity and V the P.D. of the condenser. Hence the square of the amplitude of the condenser P.D. at any time may be taken as propor- tional to the energy in the circuit at that time. The analogous state- ment for the pendulums is obvious. Let us consider the surging of the energy between two coupled circuits (or coupled pendulums) that have been tuned so that their natural frequencies are equal. Thena =b,s -a=s —b=tceand the equations (I) of § 5 giving the V’s or 6’s become V, = 4E (cos wt + cos wot) Vo = 4E [Bs (cos wt — COS wot) Pi pe Ky, _ Ly Bees where rm == Rees for the circuits nents for the pendulums. Ime These equations can be written as WY W2 = W} V, = E cos Fa SES t cos 5 t, 7 pe gin 02 ~ 1 ee showing that in this case, a£b, both the amplitude and the phase of the oscillations of V, vary with the time, and that the amplitude of V; PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 39 does not become zero every surge as when a = 8, its minimum value being £ le - ae sin? y, which = 0, as it ought, when a = b. The energies of the two circuits are now (see § 9) / dab . : - ab sin? sin? ree ) 4K, R?(1 - ‘ Cc: and 4K, EH? x re sin? y sin? 2 t, showing that the energy which surges into, and out of, each circuit is equal to 4K, E* % os sin? J = S (say). If at the instant when S has all entered the radiating circuit for the first time, the primary circuit be broken, then S will have to remain in the radiating circuit which will now proceed to vibrate with its own natural frequency, and the vibrations will persist until damping and radiation have used up the energy S. This is the theory of the quenched spark which can be very strikingly demonstrated by means of the pendulum model. In doing so it is obviously impossible to perform on the first pendulum the action analogous to breaking the primary circuit without disturbing the motion of the remainder of the system. Instead of placing the bob on its platform, the desired result can be very approxi- mately obtained by taking it in the hand so as to slacken its strings. 11. The “triangle” with its associated equations will be useful as a means for solving many questions dealing with the tuning or adjustment of the circuits. As examples, three cases will be briefly considered. Many such cases will present themselves or arise in practice. (a) Let us investigate the conditions for obtaining the greatest maximum amplitude of V2, the P.D. of the secondary condenser, for - a given initial value, H, of Vj. By equations (I) § 5 the max. amp. is equal to b M = ME. ¢ hy For this to be a maximum, if = be given, b/c must be a maximum. 1 Let the coupling be given also so that the conditions now are that the ratios M : LT, : Ly, are given. 40 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. When the coupling is known the angle included between a and 6b is fixed, and it is easy to show that in the triangle the ratio b/c will be a maximum when the angle opposite b is a right angle. Hence in this case when the max. amp. of Vo is a maximum > a=bcos2y, and the max. max. value of le is easily shown to be equal to es 2 cos su which, as L,/Z, is given, obviously increases as / increases and hence as the coupling becomes closer Hence if 7, and 72 be the natural periods of the circuits as Qa 27 Py fag TE SY Fh Eee’ ate wb: the tuning, or rather mistuning, should be done in accordance. with the law Ty =T, ./ cos 2 vy after making the coupling as close as is desirable. (b) Again to find the tuning so that the energy that surges into the radiator circuit may be a maximum. In § 10 we have shown that the maximum energy in the secondary is equal to dab 4K RB. - sin? 2) and for this to be a maximum, if K, and £ are given 4ab 2 sin? must be a maximum. But dab . 4(s - a)(s — 6b a= b\2 ie sin? ay = ( “A spores er | ~4 which is a maximum when a = 8, that is, when the natural periods of the two circuits are equal. (c) Again, toinvestigate the tuning so that the maximum amplitude of the current C2 in the secondary may be a maximum. From Eqns. (I) § 5; a - . . Cz = poKe - A { — oy sin wt + w2 sin wot,} c whose resultant amplitude is equal to a : = poke > A v/w?, + wg —2 w1 wy COS (we ~ 03) t, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 41 whose greatest value is equal to a pokes 3 E (wy + w9)s which, after a few reductions, is equal to Pain? Page FL eo Spe - B. Let one condition under which we find this to be a maximum be that M = constant, then, as sin? w cos increases with within the possible range of the latter, we will determine when al s+ J/s-c c is a maximum for a fixed value of sin w, the coupling. Now AB t+ NS = ¢ = yaaa baat c /s — /8 -©e and remembering that ce =a* + - 2abcos2uv we find that ./s — ,/s — cis a minimum when b = a cos? yf, and that its minimum value is Jasin ¥, which gives for the max, max. amp. of Cz, when M and the coupling are given, the value |. a tanw 1 A Ee Ja M which increases as the coupling is increased. Hence when M is given the max. max. amp. of C2 is obtained when the tuning is done in accordance with the law T, = T, sec wv after making the coupling sin w as close as is desirable. 12. If initial conditions, different to those we have up to the present assumed, be given to the motion, either of the circuits or the pendulums, different results will ensue, and one case is sufficiently interesting to be briefly discussed here. 42 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. When ¢t = 0, let Vi or 0; => E,, Vg or 09 = Es C,; or 0, = 0, Cz or 02 = 0, that is, both condensers are charged, or both pendulums are deflected — at the instant at which motion begins. Proceeding asin § 5 we find that the motion that ensues is given by VY; or 0) = : [{(s — a)By + pybE2} cos «yt c + {(s — b)E, — pb} cos wet] V2 or 02 = tt [(s — 6) {(s —a)E, +p ,bH2} cos wyt be —(s —a){(s — b)E, — p,bE 3} cos wot] with Ci => K,DYV;,, Cz = KeDVo, all the symbols having the same significations as before. Now, if the initial P.D.s or deflections be such that (s = a)E, = pol, = 0, the component whose frequency is w; disappears and the resultant motion is a pure harmonic motion in both circuits whose common frequency is ws, the higher of the two resultant frequencies of the system. In the pendulum system this motion is unstable, and it is therefore probably unstable in the coupled circuits. Again, if the initial values #, and Ez be such that (s = b)E, = pybEs == |() the component whose frequency is w2 disappears, and the resultant motion is a pure harmonic motion in the circuits whose common frequency is w,, the lower of the two resultant frequencies of the system. In the pendulum system this motion is stable, and it is therefore likely to be stable in the electrical system. Its stability increases if the friction of the beam is increased; in fact, if there is much frictional resistance to the motion of the beam any kind of motion of the © pendulums, even when they differ much in length, quickly degenerates into this motion. - This suggests that the pendulum model might be used to illustrate some of the problems that arise in the paralleling of alternators. Substituting from the equation of condition (s — 6) EZ, — pbE, = 0 in the general expressions for V, and V2 we find that the equations of motion take the simple forms V, = £, cos w,t, Vo = Eg cos ayt C, = — 0, K,F, sin wit, Cy = — w, KE sin wy. . a es Pd PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 43 Thus, there is no transfer of energy from one circuit to the other, and it can be shown that 41,0;? ate MC,C2+ NO == 4(K,E,? + KF,2) sin2 wyt 4K,V,? +E 4K,V 2? = 4(K,E, 24 KE? ) cos? wt. 13. The model can be modified so as to be the exact analogue to the coupled circuits of a wireless receiver when receiving signals. The first pendulum, instead of being a simple one, is now a com- pound one, triangular in shape. The base of the triangle is fitted with knife edges which rest on suitable planes on the upper surface of the beam while the vertex of the triangle hangs downwards. The dis- turbance arriving at the receiver is imitated by a periodic pure couple transmitted to this pendulum from the beam by means of a simple electro-magnet device which can be energized through light and very flexible wires. A suitable arrangement is to attach to the pendulum a short permanent bar magnet, above and perpendicular to its knife- edge, and to fix vertically to the beam two short straight electro- magnets, one under each pole of the permanent magnet and with their windings in opposite directions. There are well-known methods of obtaining an alternating current of small and adjustable frequency suitable to operate the pendulum, and when the electro-magnets are energized by such a current the mutual stress between the beam and the pendulum will be approxi- + ge a pure couple. ~ 14. If the mutual stress between the beam and the pendulum be the ‘periodic couple P = p cos at the equations of motion of the system can easily be shown to be a + ™M, + an 2 = m,h0; + Melos ==) fe i h t * loo + 98. = 0 where m, is the mass of the first pendulum as before, & its radius of gyration round its centre of mass, and A the distance of its centre of mass below the knife-edges. k2 + h? h Putting 1, for , the length of the simple pendulum equivalent to the compound one, and proceeding exactly as in § 5, we obtain the following equations connecting 6, 62, and P. (D? + py?) 0) = — piD?0, + yP (D? + pr?) 02 = - p2D"6, 44 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. where 2 M +m, + me pe Mls Ml (E+ my, + mah —myh * 2 (M+ my, + mal, — mh M+m+m m h ppt 1 aaa cig 1 Lf ie CRESS PRGA acts goa Mee ene I M+m + meg myh : (M +m + Mg)l;, 7 mh 15. If a periodic e.m.f. = P = = cos at act on the receiving circuit of a wireless receiver, the equations for the currents in the circuits are (see §$ 1, 2). 1,0, = - MDC, + P roC9 i MDC, and for the P.D.s of the condensers in the circuits are 1,K1V, = - MK2DV >, + D-1P 12KeVe= —- MK,DYV, and as 2 2 2 2 | fe Reedicalh igs SSP aY Presid A D the latter become (D? + yy?) Vi = — pi D?V_ + oa | I, f (I) (D? + p12) Vo = — p2D°V; | where pa? = a pe >= oats a Rg Kk, a KM ie K,M P1 Rags’ P2 Rr. as before. Thus, as the differential equations in § 14 connecting the pendulum deflections are identical in form to the differential equations, given in this paragraph, connecting V; and V2 for the receiver coupled circuits when receiving, and as the equations connecting the angular velocities of the one system are also identical in form with those connecting the currents in the other system, and as all the variables and initial conditions for one system can be expressed by the same symbols as the analogous variables and initial conditions for the other system, the modification of the mechanical model proposed is an exact analogue to the coupled circuits of a wireless receiver when receiving. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 45 _ 16. When damping is taken into account, the different variables in the case of the coupled circuits of a transmitter satisfy the following differential equation (see § 2) :— {cos? YD! + 2(Ay + Ae) D> + (a + b + 4A,Aq)D? + 2(GAy + arg) D+ ab}6=0 (I) Wk LL, Where a=j,2, b = po”) sin? pb = R R ‘ ln, 2X2 le, We will now proceed to investigate this case when squares and higher powers of the damping are neglected. Let the operator in ({) above, after neglecting 4 \,\s, be identified with : cos? Y(D? + 2n,D + w,?)(D2 + 2nzD + we?) when we find that cos? yf (wy? + we”) = a + b cos w W120” = ab cos? J (my + MM) = ry + Ag 7 cos w (wo?n4 + w17Ng) = brAy + Ado (I) The first two of these relations give w?, and w?., and show that the values of the latter in terms of the triangle are the same as before, namely From the last two the resultant damping co-efficients n, and ng are at once obtained when we remember the easily-proved relations EY | A w,2 sin* 5 + we” cos? 5 =a eee] B w,” sin? qt Ww” Gos” eax b where A and B are angles of the triangle. Thus we find that gee! 3 S| n, cos?) =), sin? 5 + No sin? 3 B ao: (ITT) Ng cos*W = dj Cos? — + dg sin? — 2 2 Hence V;, V2, C; and Cy are each the resultant of two damped harmonic oscillations, whose damping coefficients are n, and ne _ respectively, and whose frequencies are ,/w?, — n?,, ./w%, —?,,which 46 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. when the second power of the damping coefficients is neglected are w; and we respectively, and 1, mz, 1, w2 are determined by the above relations in terms of the constants of the individual circuits of the transmitter and of their coupling. 17. When a = 6, that is, when the natural frequencies of the two circuits are equal, it is easy to show that Ld ie (Ar + Ag) = 35 + Ag) 2 a Ws Mtg = Seed TN NOE i et eee Re St Be ay Oe) aa 4) 2 heme oe N32 W2 As the product of wave length into frequency is constant, and a8 w 1s less than wo, 8 —¢ > 2 . se being equal to we see that the oscillation with the greatest wave length is the least damped. The same is true in general, as can be seen by putting Eqns. (ITI) § 16 in the form 2 my cos 7 W = dy + Ag — (Ay cos B + dg Gos A) 2 nz cos 7b = Ay + Ag + (Az, cos B + Ag cos A) 18. The general solution of (D2 + 2n,D + w,2)(D? + 2n.D + w22) 6 =0 is of the form = A,e~"" cos (wyt + x1) + Ase ™ cos (wot + x2) where A;, Az, xi, xg are constants; and » may represent V;, Vo, C,, Cy, the constants having different values for each. In order to obtain the complete solution for given initial conditions use must be made in the same way as in § 5 of oue of the four relations similar to (D2 ai 2\,D ae a) Vi = - p,D?V >, obtainable from the early part of this paper (see §§ 1, 2, 3, &c.). It will be found, if the first power only of the damping is taken into account, and if when ¢ = 0, V; = EH, V2 =0, Cy = 0, Cp. = 0, that the complete solution is given by Va = =} (s —a)e "1 ‘cos (wyt + ay) + (s — b)e~"2' Cos (wet + ag) } V,= pan el cos (wyt + By) — e€~ "2! cos (wat = a) PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 47 = — 171! o(s —a)e "!” sin(wyt + y1)+u2(s—b)e "sin (wet +7)} c = —7n,!/ . —Myt «+ ee foe —w,e ! sin(w,t+6,) + w2e 7 sin (wet + eg) i ' KyM where pz = —— = bK,M as before ; and K2D, s-b. “ 4 s-a, Y1 Coty Sires 2° C2 wo Sy a—b a-—b O =+ J & é = C1 - ¢ Wy 55 Co 2 C2 We & in which —~=adgeg — bry n2 and 1 dg = Y2 -— we > ny ? ~ Nz Py= o> —, Peace - —. W W9 7.—A NEW VISCOMETER. By Professor R. Hosking, Royal Military College, Duntroon. 8.—THE IONISATION PRODUCED BY THE IMPACT OF SOLID BODIES IN AIR. By Professor Kerr Grant, University of Adelaade. 9,—A PLEA FOR A MORE RATIONAL AND ACCURATE USE OF MATHEMATICS. By Professor D. K. Picken. ‘10.—DETERMINATION OF THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF GASES. By Professor T. H. Laby, B.A. 11—THE NUMERICAL DATA OF RADIOACTIVITY. By Professor T. H. Laby. 48 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Wi 12—THE NATURE OF Y RAYS. By P. W. Burbidge. 13.—ON THE SELF-INDUCTANCE OF A COIL. By Professor T. R. Lyle, M.A., DiSc., F.RS. 14—ON THE NATURE BETWEEN THE LOSS OF ENERGY OF CATHODE RAYS AND THE IONISATION PRODUCED BY THEM. By Dr. J. L. Glasson. 15.—_ON ORTHOGONAL CIRCLES. By Evelyn G. Hogg, M.A. 16.—ON STEINER’S ENVELOPE. By Evelyn G. Hogg, M.A. 17.—AUSTRALIAN LONGITUDES. By P. Baracchi, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer of Victoria. In a previous paper on this subject*, the following values of Aus- tralian Longitudes, based on the Telegraphic method alone, were deduced from a discussion of all the data available up to 1894 :— Place. Longitudes E. H. M. s. Port Darwin pe on ~ 8 43 22°34 Adelaide Observatory oe Ae 9 14 20°14 Melbourne Observatory © +3 oe 9 39 53°99 Sydney Observatory xo s. 10. 4 4939 The Port Darwin Station was at that time still regarded as our initial meridian. Its Longitude was determmed in 1883 by measuring tele- _ graphically the interval Singapore—Port Darwin, this being, then, the last link required to connect the Prime Meridian of Greenwich with Australia by a chain of Longitudes entirely based on the Telegraphic method, and extending eastward from England through Egypt, India, and Singapore to Australia. * P. Baracchi. On the most probable Value and Error of Australian Longitudes, including that of the Boundary Lines of South Australia with Victoria and New South Wales. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 49 Since 1894 a new and to a great extent independent value of the Longitude of Madras was obtained by Col. Burrard and Col. Lennox Conyngham by the telegraphic measurement of the four arcs Greenwich- Potsdam, Potsdam-Teheran, Teheran-Bushire, Bushire-Karachi, which they completed in 1896, the difference of longitude between Karachi and Madras having been similarly well determined through Bombay and Bolarum in the years 1875-77.* The results of these operations are as follow :—Tf Interval. Longitudes E. HS ai. s. Hove $s Greenwich-Potsdam .. 0 52 15°953 Potsdam cer Abe 15-953 > Potsdam-Teheran 2 33 24°228 Teheran 3.25.40°181 Teheran-Bushire .. © 2 21°443 Bushire ac it oe ee noe Bushire-Karachi -- Ll 4 44°787 Karachi se, Bay ee Karachi-Bombay .. (© 23 12196 Bombay Dt, Oe tae Bombay-Bolarum .. 0 22 48-801 Bolarum -. 514 4°522 Bolarum-Madras .. 0 6 54°615 Madras cS he oO aban In 1903 the interval Greenwich-Potsdam was again remeasured by Prof. Albrecht and Prof. Wanach,{ and found to be 0°098s. greater than that given in the table above, and subsequently Prof. Albrecht, in his adjustment of the longitudes of Central Europe§, gave as the adjusted value for the Longitude of Potsdam— Oh. 52m. 16°062s. Accepting this last value as the most. probable, we require to increase the longitudes given by Col. Burrard in the above table, by— 0109s. Accordingly the Longitude of Madras becomes— 5h. 20m. 59°246s, E. For the last two links of the eastward chain from Greenwich to Australia, namely, Madras-Singapore and Singapore-Port Darwin, we have only the single values determined in 1882 and 1883 respec- tively.|| A check on the Longitude of Singapore is afforded by another great chain of longitudes consisting of eighteen links, fourteen of which join Greenwich to Vladivostock through Siberia, and the other four extend from Vladivostock to Singapore through Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Cape St. James. The portion from Greenwich to Vladivostock was measured by General Sharnhorst and other officers of the Russian Army, and that t Account of the Operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India. Vol. XVII: } Veroffentlichung des Konig] Preuszischen Geodatischen Institutes. Neue Folge N. 15 Prof. Dr. Albrecht. B2stimmung der Langendifferenz Potsdam-Greenwich im Jahre, 1903. § Astronomische Nachrichten N. 3993-94. Ausgleichung des Zentraleuropaischen Langen- netzes. von Prof. Th. Albrecht. : || P. Baracchi. Onthe most probable Value and Error of Australian Longitudes, including that of the Boundary Lines of South Australia with Victoria and New South Wales, { Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. From 1st July, 1903, to 30th June, 19043 50 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. from Vladivostock to Singapore by Lieut. Commander Davis and Lieut. Norris, of the United States Navy, who also continued the chain as far as Madras.* The results of this work were not utilized in deducing the Longi- tude of Port Darwin adopted in 1894, because the closing error being about half a second of time it was concluded that owing to the diversity of conditions and the greater disadvantages under which this longer series was carried out, any weight given to it would have tended more probably to vitiate than to improve the value of the Longitude of Singa- pore derived from the more direct chain through Persia and India. Dr. Klotz evidently came to the same conclusion, as he did not use this series in adopting a value of the Longitude of Madras as a basis for the Longitude of Sydney which he employed for the comparison of the latter with his value of the same derived from trans-Paeific longi- tudes. Since no new measurements have been made between Madras and Australia, the probable value which can be assigned to the Longi- tude of Port Darwin at present is as follows :— et! Ur FO: Adopted Longitude of Madras # 5 20 59°246 KH. Interval Madras-Singapore (Commander Green and Lieut. Norris, 1882) XS 1 34 25°58 Singapore-Port Darwin (Darwin and Ba racchi, 1883) aid ot ee .. 1 47 57°49 — Longitude of Port Darwin ‘). .. 8 43 22°316 EK. This new value is only 0°024s, smaller than that adopted in 1894. The laying of the Cable across the Pacific Ocean from Vancouver to Australia, and New Zealand, some 8,273 nautical miles in length, was completed towards the end of the year 1902. It connects three intermediate stations on its course, namely, Fanning Island, Suva (Fiji), and Norfolk Island, and branches from Norfolk Island to South- port, in Queensland, and to Doubtless Bay, in New Zealand. The length of these various sections are given by Dr. Klotz as_followy, page 35 :— From Vancouver to Fanning Island .. 3,654 nautica] miles Fanning Island-Suva (Fiji) 2. Mol Bl “s rs Suva-Norfolk Island .. .. 1,019 ~ a Norfolk Island-Southport (Queens- . land) . “Lt 906 % Norfolk Pied we rey Fe ecjeoe oF * * Telegraphic Determination of Longitudes in Japan, China, and the East Indies. 1881— 1882. By Lieut. Commanders F. M. Green and ©. H. Davis and Lieut. J. A. Norris, U.S.N. + Otto Klotz, LL.D. Transpacific Longitudes between seta and Australia and New Zealand. 1903-1904 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 51 The importance of taking advantage of the first opportunity of determining the difference of longitude between Canada and Australia along this route was quickly recognised by the Canadian astronomers who, having previously established a chain of longitudes across the Atlantic between Greenwich and Canada, could now continue the chain to Australia to meet the other end of the chain carried eastward from Greenwich, thus closing a complete longitude circle round the Earth. The Government of Canada having authorized the work, Dr. Otto Klotz, of the Ottawa Observatory, with his Assistant, Mr. F. W. O. Werry, B.A., commenced operations in March, 1903, and concluded his great series of Transpacific Longitudes in January, 1904. The results obtained by Dr. Klotz are as follow (*), page 197 :— H.M.... 8. Longitude of Vancouver .. -. 8 12 28°368 W. Difference of Longitude, Vancouver- -Fanning Island Sy As “s -- 225 5:406 Longitude of Fanning Island ; .. 10 37 33°774 W, Difference of Longitude, F ening Island- Suva (Fiji) . .. 1 28 43°837 Longitude of es (Fiji) . .. 1153 42°389 E. Difference of Longitude, Suva- Norfolk Island 42 1°243 Longitude of Norfolk Island .. 11 11 41-146 E. Difference of Longitude, Norfolk dard Southport, Queensland “f -- 0 58 1°364 Longitude of Southport, Queensland .. 10 13 39°782 EK, The Longitude of Vancouver is based on the three arcs— Greenwich-Montreal, determined in 1892 by Prof. Turner and Mr. Hollis of Greenwich Observatory, and Prof. McLeod, of Montreal (ft) McGill College Observatory. Montreal-Ottawa, by Dr. King and Prof. McLeod, in 1896 (*) ; Ottawa- Vancouver, by Dr. King and Dr. Klotz, in 1900 (*) ; the respective values being— H. M. (*) page 181 Longitude of Montreal .. 4.54 18° 634 W. $3 Ottawa -- 5) 2 50°022 +3 Vancouver .. 8 12 28°368 ee ee =| ae Phy ayn LL.D. Transpacific Longitudes between Canada and Australia and New ealan 3—1 Royal rete eR Greenwich. Telegraphic Determinations of Longitude made in the years 1888 to 1902. 52 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. The longitudinal distance between the two fundamental meridians, Port Darwin and Southport, can be deduced from the Aus- tralian Arcs. Port Darwin-Melbourne, determined in 1883. Melbourne-Sydney, depending on various measurements from 1864 to 1883. Sydney-Southport, by Klotz and Lenehan, in 1903. The value of these arcs are— HM. 8. Port Darwin-Melbourne .. 0 56 31°65 (*) page 13 Melbourne-Sydney Bi .. 0 24 55°40 (*) page 13 Sydney-Southport 0 8 50°495 (fF) page 188 Port Darwin-Southport .. - .. 1 30 177545 If we now apply this difference to the Longitude of Southport based on the Transpacific measurements, we obtain an independent value for the Longitude of Port Darwin which, on being compared with the previously assigned value, will exhibit the closing error of the Fastward and Westward chains. Thus— H. M8. paetenee of Longitude, ADEA Darwin-South- port 1 30 177545 Longitude of Southport by the Transpacific route, 10 13 39°782 E. Resulting Longitude of Port Darwin by the ' Transpacific and Australian arcs .. . 8 43 22°237 KE. Longitude of Port Darwin, vid Potsdam, Persia, India, and Singapore .. nat .. 8 43 22°316 E. Closing error af $e -. 0-0 0°079 Dr. Klotz brought this comparison to bear on the Longitude of. Sydney, and found the closing error 0°068s. = 84 feet. As the values of the Australian ares applied by him in the comparison have not been modified since 1894, the closing error should be the same for Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney, as that of Port Darwin. The difference of 0011s. between his value and the one just computed is due to the modified value of the Longitude of Potsdam by Prof. Albrecht, after Dr. Klotz had concluded his own results; as he himself points out in (t), page 194. -- aa ac a * P. Baracchi. On the most probable Value and Error of Australian Longitudes, including that of the Boundary Lines of South Australia with Victoria and New South Wales. “ee tto Klotz, ae Transpacific Longitudes between Canada and Australia and New Zealand. 1903-1904. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 53 The table below shows two sets of values for the Longitudes of the Australian Stations. The values in the first column are those depending on Port Darwin as the initial meridian, after correcting its longitude according to the new determinations and adjustments made along the route Greenwich-Potsdam-Persia-India-Singapore since 1894 to the present time. The values in the second column are those depending on the Meridian of Southport as the Terminal Station of the Transpacific Longitudes. Australian Longitudes, vid— Place. i | Eastward Route from Westward Route from reenwich. Greenwich. H. M. s. H. M. 8. Port Darwin a re 8 43 22-316 E. 8 43 22-237 E Adelaide st a8 9 14 20°126 9 14 20-047 Melbourne 4 ea 9 39 53°966 9 39 53°887 Sydney 6 .. | 10 4:49°366 10. 4 49°287 Brisbane a4 Bt *10 12. 6°226 10 12 06°044 Southport e a 10 13 39-861 10 13 39°782 These results seem so satisfactory that we might be tempted to allow the Longitudes of the Australian Observatories to rest in their present state for a long time to come in the belief that we could hardly expect to still reduce their margin of uncertainty, which is already less than 100 feet according to the closing error of the measured arcs which together form a whole longitude circuit round the world. It is difficult, however, to accept, with full confidence, the reality of so close an agreement between two results built up by many steps, each step involving some unknown error, and depending upon a great number of exceedingly delicate operations carried out by many observers through many countries under different climates and con- ditions at long intervals of time covering a period of twenty years. This pessimistic view is unfortunately borne out by experience, for there are instances of disagreement amounting to much more than 0°079s. (the closing error of the entire circuit) in the independent values even of a single arc. Undoubtedly the evidence of the Transpacific Longitudes and of the later determination of the interval Greenwich-Madras would justify a greater confidence in the smallness of the error affecting the Longitudes of the Australian Stations, if the gap between Madras So ON eae a EE SSE AB ADAG es a ed ale * Thi value for Brisbane was obtained by telegraphic exchange of time signals with Sydney in 1884, 1891, and 1892. a " 54 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. and Southport (Queensland) were connected by a homogeneous system of longitude measurements carrying the same weight as that of all other links of the chain. But this connexion is the oldest and, possibly, in parts, the weakest, considering that it was measured in five steps by eight different observers with different instruments and methods, and that three of these five arcs have not been verified, while the other two, Singapore-Madras and Melbourne-Sydney, which were tested by repeated measurements, gave results differmg by more than half a second of time. It should be recognised, therefore, that there can be no justification at present for modifying the margin of uncertainty which was assigned to our longitudes in 1894, and that the whole of the longitude work which has been done since by Col. Burrard and Co]. Lennox Conyngham, by Dr. Klotz and his assistant, and by Profs. Albrecht and Wanach, important as it is, especially for us, from the point of view that by it the position of our fundamental meridians could be established with greater precision and accepted with greater reliance, must remain of very little value to us until we shall have settled more satisfactorily the longitudinal interval between Madras and Southport. What is needed is a re-determination of the Australian arcs and of the intervals Port Darwin-Singapore and Singapore-Madras, thoroughly carried out with all the refinement of the present day practice both in regard to instrumental means and system of procedure. To accomplish this task we require two competent observers who should be supplied each with an equipment precisely similar, consisting principally of— Transit instrument ; object glass about 3”; focal length, from 30 to 36 inches, provided with travelling wire micrometer, reversing apparatus and usual accessories. One pendulum clock and one chronometer, with break-circuit electrical arrangements. Chronograph. A portable wooden transit hut. The whole being specially designed to serve this particular class of work. The stations to be occupied on the direct chain are— Southport (Queensland). Sydney. Melbourne. Adelaide. Port Darwin. Singapore. Madras. The itinerary should be carefully arranged so as to enable the observers to exchange places at each pair of stations with the least possible inconvenience or loss of time, and with due regard to the sea- sonal weather conditions. 1 a me * PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 55 It is estimated that the work could be completed in about one year at an approximate cost of £2,000. There is perhaps no necessity to go into further details at present. It would have been a far more serious and costly task for Australia, in its remote and isolated position from the rest of the world, to improve its longitudes if other countries, especially Canada, had not already, at their own great expense, contributed the greater part of the work required for that purpose. It is now left to us to carry out our part, and the scheme briefly outlined above is our part. With the completion of this undertaking, the “longitude girdle ” around the globe would present five main subdivisions, namely :— Greenwich-Madras, Madras-Southport (Queensland), Southport-Vancouver, Vancouver-Montreal, ‘ Montreal-Greenwich. each subdivision fulfilling the essential conditions demanded for modern determinations of fundamental longitudes, each carrying, practically, the same weight and each gaining considerable strength from all the others ; thus forming a harmonious system equally reliable in allits parts, and making, especially Indian, Australian, and Canadian Longitudes, with their Transpacific and Transatlantic connexions, comparable and adjustable on a sound plan acceptable to all concerned. Another consideration which concerns more directly the Govern- ment of the Commonwealth of Australia, bears on this matter. It is the position of the Federal Observatory at Mt. Stromlo. One of the objects for which this Observatory was established is that the meridian passing through it shall be the prime meridian of Australia to which all the longitudes of the country shall be referred, thus connecting the various surveys of the States to the same longi- tude Datum. Obviously the first requirement in this case is to determine with ‘the greatest attainable accuracy the Longitude of the Mt. Stromlo Observatory. A value of this longitude could be obtained very simply with existing means, both by geodetic connexion with Sydney or by exchange of clock signals between Mt. Stromlo and one of the State Observatories. The resulting value, however, would be affected by the probable error of the Jongitudes of these observatories increased by the error introduced in making the connexion. A more acceptable plan would be to connect Mt. Stromlo Observatory with Dr. Klotz’s terminal point of Trans- pacific Longitudes at Southport, Queensland, but this would give a value depending only on the Canadian chain. 56 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. If we connected Mt. Stromlo both with Southport and Port Darwin as well as with the existing observatories we would obtain a series of ares by which we could form an uniform system of differential longi- tudes referred to the meridian of Mt. Stromlo as their origin, but the absolute value of the Australian longitudes includmg that of their initial meridian would still remain affected by the same amount of un- certainty as at present. In all these cases, to carry out even a single connexion between Mt. Stromlo and any one of the State Observatories with due efficiency, the same equipment as that described in these pages for the complete scheme would have to be provided. These reasons lead to the conclusion that the proposed measurement of the longitudinal arcs between Southport (Queensland) and Madras, through Port Darwin and Singapore, including in the general scheme Mt. Stromlo and other Australian Stations such as the Observatories of Brisbane and Perth, which do not appear on the direct route, gives us the opportunity of discharging a scientific obligation, of rendering a valuable service for an object in which other countries are directly interested, and of establishing an initial meridian for the Commonwealth whose position will be known with a precision adequate to its scope. On these grounds it seems justifiable to strongly recommend the authorities to provide means for carrying out the proposed work. It is well known that to find the difference of longitude between two places, two operations are required ; first, a determination of local time, and, second, a comparison of the two distant clocks at a definite absolute instant. For more than 60 years these clock comparisons have been obtained wherever possible, by exchanging clock beats with telegraphic apparatus along the telegraph lines and submarine cables. ‘ More recently Wireless Stations have been utilized for transmitting clock signals by Hertzian waves in longitude determinations of high accuracy. The first experiments were made in 1904 by Prof. Albrecht and Prof. Wanach (*), who found that the accuracy obtainable by the employment of wireless apparatus in transmitting clock signals was of, the same order as that given by the ordinary telegraphic instruments. In 1906 the same astronomers proceeded to employ both the wire- less and the usual telegraphic method in measuring the difference of longitude between Potsdam and Brocken. (7) The transmitting wireless station was Narren, at a distance of about 20 miles from Potsdam and 114 miles from Brocken. The signals were sent by the oscillations of a pendulum at intervals of 2-4 secs. These were recorded on the chronographs at the two terminal stations. * Astronomische Nachrichten N° 3982. , + Veroffentlichung des Konig! Preuszischen Geodatischen Instituts. Neue Folge Nr. 31. Prof. Dr. Th, Albrecht. Bestimmung der Langendifferenz Potsdam-Brocken im Jahre, 1906. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 57 A comparison of the results obtained by the transmission of a similar series of signals by the ordinary telegraphic arrangements and recorded on the same chronograph showed a very satisfactory agreement, the differences never exceeding 0°006 secs. or 0°007 secs., being thus within the probable errors of observation. In 1909, MM. Claude Driencourt and Ferrie installed at the Wire- less Station on the Eiffel Tower, at Paris, suitable apparatus for trans- mitting and receiving time signals to and from stations at long distances. Clock signals coming from a distant station being too feeble for automatic registration were received telephonically, together with the beats of the local clock, and the comparison made by the method of coincidences. By careful adjustments, the two series of beats could be timed so as to make the detection of exact coincidence of beats more certain and accurate. This is the principle which was found capable of application to actual longitude measurements. In 1911, the Paris Observatory was connected with the Eiffel Tower Wireless Station, and the determination of the difference of longitude between that Observatory and Bizerte by the wireless method, was undertaken.*. The distance between the two stations is over 920 miles; the work was carried out with the greatest possible care and the results were excellent. ’ M. Baillaud, in his Annual Report on the Paris Observatory for the year 1911, page 19, makes the interesting statement that the time required by the signals to cover the distance between Paris and Bizerte was 0°007s., showing that the velocity of propagation of Hertzian waves is approximately the same as the velocity of light.f. Another important application of the wireless method was under- taken in 1912 for determining the difference of longitude between the Observatories of Paris and Uccle ¢ (Brussels). On this occasion the clock comparison was made also in the usual way by telegraph, and the efficiency of the wireless system may be judged by the agreement of the results, which were as follow :— Difference of longitude, Paris-Uccle— M,. - 8. By wireless aa ‘ Se 8a 42965 By ordinary telegraph .. 8 4°954 * M. Henri Renan. Determination par la Telegraphie Sans Fil de la Difference de Longi- tude entre Paris et Bizerte, par MM. Lancelin et Tsatsopoulos, sous la direction de M. H. Renan. + Rapport Annuel sur |’Etat de l’Observatoire de Paris pour l’Année 1911. By M B. Baillaud, Directeur de l’Observatoire. t Comptes Rendus. Vol. 156, N. 10, March, 1913, page 758. M. H. Renan. Resultats de la discussion des Observations faites par MM. Delporte et Viennet, pour determiner par la telegraphie sans fil la difference de longitude entre l’Observatoire royal de Belgique et lObservatoire de Paris. 58 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. From what has already been accomplished in longitude work by the aid of wireless telegraphy, it seems exceedingly desirable that we should employ this relatively new and valuable agent when the Aus- tralian longitudes will be remeasured. Through the powerful wireless stations in Australia and at Singa- pore time signals could be transmitted to great distances, and a plan could be arranged by which the results that will be obtained by the older telegraphic method would be checked and strengthened in various ways. This double measurement would require very little more expendi- ture of time, and would not cost much more than the telegraphic determination alone. ae ; Bes: 59 REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES, Section A. SOLAR PHYSICS COMMITTEE. : (See Vol. XIII., p. 33.) Owing to the absence of the Secretary in England it was announced that the Report of the Committee was not ready, but that it would be shortly furnished. It was resolved to re-appoint it, and re-vote the previous grant of £50, still unexpended. SEISMOLOGICAL COMMITTEE. (See Vol. XIIT., p. 46.) Report, consisting of five separate reports from Sydney Observatory, River View College, Adelaide Observatory, Perth Observatory, and Melbourne Observatory, attached hereto. (Sgd.) P. BaRraccatl, Secretary of Committee for Australasia. This Committee was re-elected. SypNEy OBSERVATORY. W. E. Cooke, Government Astronomer. EDDY. From Ist January to 3rd December, 1911 (the date on which the old recording apparatus of the ‘‘ Milne ” Seismograph was dismantled), 137 tremors were recorded, being 26 less than the number registered in 1910. As in previous years, the greatest percentage of tremors were less than 1 mm. in amplitude. Classifying them in the order of this intensity, they are as follows :— No. of Tremors. Amplitude of Maximum Phase. Percentage. 1 17-0 millimetres 6-7 per cent. 1 11-5 » 0-7. 5, 1 11:0 a Cay 29 1 8:5 3° 0 sii ”? 1 5:6 ” 0°7 9 3 4 and under 5 oe 2-2 ms 4 3 29 4 ” 2-9 9? 9 2 3s 3 9 66, 21 1 9 2 <9 i 15°3 29 95 Under 1 7 69°3 2 137 60 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. The largest number of disturbances recorded during any month was in January, when 20 tremors were registered. November had 18 ; July and October, 17 each ; September, 15 ; April, 12; August, 10 ; June, 9; March, 7; May, 6; February, 5; and in December for the three days on which the machine was recording, 1 tremor was registered. The following are the times of the various phases of the most important tremors—those whose amplitude was over 5 millimetres :— Pre- 2nd liminary Ph Long etek Tea Date, ek fia a aaa Max. te Po Ceae Remarks, tudinal). verse). 1911. h. am, | bh. m, o)y by mp ydoch.. ym. m/ns | hh. an: Jan. 3, 4..| 23 37:2] 23 50:0] 0 30°7| 0 37°8 8°5| 7 44:3] )1 mm. dis- June 17 ..| 14 35:7} 14 52°7}15 1:2)15 4°6} 1ll-1] 4 9:1 place- July 12 ..| 415-8] 4 23-5] 4 30:3] 4 41:0] 11-5] 4 50-2 ment Aug. 16,17} 22 44°7| 22 56-3) 22 59°4|23 6:°7| 17:0] 4 28:3 0-25 Oct. 24 ..}| 0 20°5| 0 26:2] 0 34:0] 0°34°-7 5267 "1 320 1912, The record for 1912 did not commence until 15th February,.on which date the new recording apparatus was finally installed and adjusted. From thence until 20th December, 113 tremors were recorded, as follows :— No. of Tremors. Amplitude of Maximum Phase. Percentage. 2 10°5 m/n 1-8 per cent. 1 10-1 ) 0-9 ” 1 ina hes 0:9 rp 1 (301 Uae 0:9 x 1 Dror ass 0:9 eo 1 4 and under 5 9 0:9 $8 0 3 = 4 3 oe 8 2 nf) 3 £ 7:1 per cent. 12 1 Em 2 oh 10°6 Se 86 Under 1 AS 76:1 During this year the greatest number of tremors’ were registered in the month of March, when 26 were recorded. Next in order came April, with 17 tremors; May and August had 13 each; July, 12; Feb- ruary and June, 9 each; September, 7; October and December, 3; and November, 1. 2 oi SEISMOLOGICAL COMMITTEE. 61 The tremors with large amplitudes, viz., those which caused the horizontal pendulum of the seismograph to swing at, least 5 mm. on each side of the zero line, were :— Pre- es 2ni liminary | Phase wee Max Ampli- | Dura- Ramarba Date. reer a (Chorval) es tude, tion tudinal). ; 1912. h. m h. m neem. “i hie om. mm.| h. m. | Epicentrum. May 23....| 2 33:6] 2 45:4) 3° 7:1] 312-3 6:0} 7:20°5 11,200 km July 26 ..| 2 34:2] 2 42:2] 2 45:3] 2 46-6 10°5| 2 34°7 5,000 ,, July 26 ..| 7 46°4) 7 53:5].7 59:1) 8 50°6 5-3 |) 1, 29-1 5,500 ,, Aug.9 . Lb biel 243-2) 52: 46°6) 2°51 6 10°15) 3.37:0 11,600 ,, Aug. 17 ..|19 19°9]}19 26°5|19 35:6]19 40°8 Tia) 8, ee 5,400 ., Sept. 29, 30} 20 50°6|21 1°3}21 9-4} 21 17-0 10°5|}10 42-1 7,800 ,, Displacement value, 1 m/n. — 0°25. Note.—All times used in these Observations are Greenwich mean civil time, 0 h. or 24 h.— midnight. For a complete record of the tremors recorded on the Sydney Observatory seismograph, see the Seismological Bulletins of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. All tremors have been measured and tabulated and forwarded to the above Society for publication. RIvERVIEW COLLEGE OBSERVATORY, SYDNEY. E. F. Pigot, S.J., Observer. Since the last Report two years ago the three selsmometers here have continued the uninterrupted records already secured, many very interesting seismograms having been obtained. Some of these have thrown further light, it is hoped, on the exact nature of the processes going on in certain spots in the bed of the 8.W. Pacific, not very far from Australia, where intense folding, with occasional faulting, is in progress. Others, especially the great Dardanelles earthquake © of 9th August last, had a special and sad interest attaching to them from the large loss of life involved. During the year 1911, 114 earthquakes were recorded, and during the year 1912, 133 earthquakes were recorded (up to date 26th December). The following were specially remarkable :— 1911. January 3 oy .. Turkestan. February 18 .. .. India (Lahore). May 14 us .. Kamschatka. : June 7 re .. Mexico. July 11 ‘se .. Near Ladrone Islands. August 16 xe 3 9? 62 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. 1911, September 17 .. eid be September 22 .. .. Alaska. October 24... .: 8.W. Pacific. December 17 .. .. Mexico. 1912. January 4 ae, .. Aleutian Islands. January 31... .. Alaska. May 3 ia = os Wf PACHG. July 24 ae -pi: Peru! July 26 ae 0°38. W. Paerfic. August 9 us .. Dardanelles. September 29 . .. Ladrone Islands. In addition, five good records were obtained of the remarkable New South Wales shock, 18th January, 1913, which was strongly felt in many places in the neighbourhood of Bega, Cooma, and Eden. I greatly regret that, owing to poor health, and my absence for seven months in Europe on a seismological tour, the forwarding to many kind fellow workers of the detailed earthquake analysis, as well as occasional photogram copies of more important seismograms, has been unavoidably delayed. Detailed acknowledgments of their numerous kind communications forwarded here will be sent out shortly. ADELAIDE OBSERVATORY. G. F. Dodwell, Government Astronomer for South Australia. SEISMOLOGY. The Milne Horizontal Pendulum Seismograph recording the EW component has been in continuous operation at the Adelaide Observatory during the period covered by this Report, viz., January, 1911, to December, 1912, a very small proportion of the registrations having been lost, owing to the failure of the electric light, &c. The instrument has been described in a paper on South Australian Karthquakes, read before the Association in January, 1909. Gradual changes of level of a seasonal nature have been recognised in the records, and the level change has occasionally been rather large and sudden, and it appears to be due on such occasions to heavy rains: affecting the foundations. The total number of distant earthquakes from Ist January, 1911, to 3lst December, 1912, whose maxima were greater than 2°5 mm. was 35, 19 of these being in 1911 and 16 in 1912. The tabulated records of the seismograph are sent to Professor Milne for publication in the Annual Report of the Seismological Committee of the British Association. A list of earthquakes originating in South -Australia is supplied herewith. 63 SEISMOLOGICAL COMMITTEE. poxovs90 “SMOpUTM 300g “4y3TIS divyg uss dieys WSUT[IED Wepooy, “ostou Surpqunyy IOUIOI} IOY}O ON “*poyyger ATeyIOID divyg yooys “daeyg popedoid astou Suyquiny ‘uoyeys omgmmyy s10uLer} snorAoid ON “BuT[quns Aq porueduroooe ‘4ysIIg dieyg “davyg poy4gva ATOyI0ID poyyer Aoyoo) “USI » divyg poyoor ssuiyy, “9UsIS PasIvl JI SY POAOUL SIOO],T “QUSTIIS pop4gvi Joor ‘smoputm ‘s10Op { goursIp AIO, yooys SMOPUIA pUe ‘pot99'¥I ATOyOOIO ‘BZuyquini AAvoy * o1oAeg HOoys sasnoy *A[MappNs ouUVH ‘“vIOAGS IOYZVY estou Suryquini Aq pormedu10d08 YOOYs “pag SMOPUT A A[Qas Buissed wossem AA VOY @ JO 8B osfoU Bulquiny “jjoys Yo woyeys ALoyooID *poyovId S100H quote “MOP 0% JoT[eIed PoYoVI STA euop sseULep ON ‘possed yooys 1oq4jv spuooes OT IO} os1ou SuTq -“mny ~“Apqiuydeooid AroA WoyeYs ssurpjing ‘dreys ee 1VYS 4 Ped1gOU syUOpIser [VIOAOS PUR “QOUTYSIP SEM “QYSTS Yysnoyy ‘yooys oyy, “Suna syjeq ouoydearey, “yooys 4YsI19 ‘SHIVUINY "goon nT ee (qnoqe) "S008 ZL (qnoqe) "soos OT (qnoqe) *s008 OF "soo CT "soos & “soos ¢ (qnoqe) soos OL (qnoqr) "soos OF (qnoqr) *s008 ZT O08 T spuooos @IOAOS (qnoqe) *"sd08 09 "soos OL "sas OZ (qnoqv) 8008 IT (yno0qe) "S008 GZ "soos OZ S008 f “uorzemg | quorvddy “A'S OF “AVN "AUN 09: 'D'S “OL OF “AN "M'S 030 N "EN. 0} “AN'S "N OF 'S “LN OF A'S “ON OF “AN'S "A'S 0} “AVN ‘A'N 09 °M'S “MN °F O'S “AN 09 “M'S ‘'N OF $ (urey1e0un) "M'N 93 O'S W'N 04 “A'S “WH OF “MA “WOTPOOIT, quorsddy ‘urd 026 ‘urd [#6 ‘urd OF'6 ‘urd OF'6 uid Gt 6 ‘urd or “urd 9'°6 ‘urd 9 wd ¢ ‘urd ‘wd 9° ‘wd SLIT ‘wd STITT ‘ud SUTL wd 03 TL wd FOU TT ‘ud 0°0T “urd $29 “Ure FG'9 ‘)) JO" “ul O& “U 6 ‘LS Oprelepy *qoougs jo Surmuisoq JO eulry, L¥-88T &P- 8éT GG- SEL 8&- 8ST 99-281 Té- 8&1 96-881 81-8éL 83-881 9T-8&T TG. 86T 9S- LeT 91-88T Té. 881 9-6&T TF- L&T 8T- 8ST T&S. 8ST 6-881 6-681 TP. 8ET Tg. 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T¥- 8é1 8&- 8&1 Fg. FEL 6I-88L 66- LET L6- LET 6-861 Gé- LET” T¥- LT 66-881 99- LET SF. LET S¥- LET 9-881 9¢- LEL Tg- 21 6S. SET 6F-8ET ‘epnyisuorT OF- 66 “opnyyey ssundg 440319 ;F ‘90q o opIrpapy j9a oe uiInqny 9% Td ox uopuarzg|l9z "* UOysTTTa qog|9z = uMOyMOUG|9zZ "* VLOQOIA WOg|9Z — “ Se OOIFTIVM 9G “* pleyoye®M 310g |9G es rqamoowj|9os = CSS a pueyen joc lee . wWAIg 9% << sis uvssoipuy|9z “ 2M eqsnsny qaqa “* eqgsnsny q10q/9% ae WOPSUITUITMA 19S 990 “ST6L -"u0zysnoig qiogigz = * ** SuItig Sueep|9s “ “* upoourT 410g }9G = JIOpuytA FS “990 “TI6T *Q0¥[q JO oUItN *04e(L “panutjUOJ—SNOILVLG AULNOOD WOU GULHOdAY SAMVNOHLAVY 'TVOO'T La ONE ee ee Se ee SEISMOLOGICAL COMMITTEE. 65 PERTH OBSERVATORY, WESTERN AUSTRALIA, H. B. Curlewis, Acting Government Astronomer. A continuous record of earth tremors was made at the Perth Observatory during 1911 and 1912. The instrument is an improved quick-moving Milne Seismograph. The Survey Department proposes starting a magnetic station in the vicinity of Perth. A simplex magnetometer was obtained from England for the purpose. MELBOURNE OBSERVATORY. P. Baracchi, Director. The registration of seismic disturbances by Milne Horizonta Pendulum Seismograph has been continued throughout the years 1911 and 1912. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM COMMITTEE. (See Vol. XII., p. 50.) By P. Baracchi, Director, Melbourne Observatory. The Melbourne Observatory is still the only Permanent Magnetic Station in Australia where the registration of the magnetic elements has been secured uninterruptedly throughout the years 1911 and 1912. The daily traces for magnetic declination horizontal and vertical components extending over a period of some 40 years have been practic- ally measured, and the results tabulated up to date, and the work is now being prepared for the press. Assistance was rendered to Dr. Mawson’s Antarctic Expedition in adjusting magnetic instruments and training observers in their use.. The magnetic work done by Mr. Kidston on behalf of the Carnegie institution, for effecting a preliminary magnetic survey of Australia is dealt with in a separate paper by that gentleman. The Committee recommends that the Council be asked to express its appreciation of the magnetic work done under the auspices of that institution, in Australia, and for the assistance rendered by its officers now in Australia to the Mawson Expedition. This Committee was re-elected, with the addition of the names of Edward Kidston (Carnegie Institution), G. F. Dodwell (Adelaide Observatory), Professor Kerr Grant (Adelaide University). Supplementary Report by G. F. Dodwell, Government Astronomer for South Australia. In June, 1911, Dr. L. A. Bauer, Director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution, U.S.4., visited Adelaide in connexion with this magnetic survey of the world, and selected 6117. Cc 66 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. sites for magnetic stations, the principal one being in the South Park Lands, a few hundred yards east of the Hyde Park-road, and an equal distance south from South Terrace. ‘Later on in 1911 and during the course of 1912, Mr. HE. Kidston, with an assistant, Mr. H. N. Webb, made magnetic observations at selected stations throughout the State. The Carnevie Institution recommends that this work be supple- mented and extended by the local authorities. ECLIPSH COMMITTEE P. Baracchi, Melbourne Obser sce Reports of the Tasmanian Eclipse of 9th May, 1910, and of the Tongan Kelipse of 29th April, 1911, are attached. hereto. This Committee, having accomplished the duties and attained the objects for which it was appointed, does not ask for re-election. MELBOURNE OBSERVATORY EXPEDITION TO BRUNI ISLAND, TASMANIA, FOR THE OBSERVATION OF THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 91x MAY, 1910. It is hoped that a complete account of this Expedition, including the several reports of the Astronomers of New South Wales and South Australia, who joined the Melbourne Observatory party at Bruni Island, will appear shortly in a separate publication. The information given here refers only or mainly to matters which concern administra- tion. . I conducted the Expedition personally. My assistants were Mr. C. J. Merfield and Mr. J. Byrne, from the Observatory ; Mr. Wigmore, who was engaged at the rate of pay of £1 per day; Mr. J. Byatt, of the Education Department, Melbourne, who rendered his services gratuitously and defrayed his own personal expenses; and seven other volunteer observers whom I recruited in Tasmania. For these latter, camp accommodation and maintenance was provided free of cost, but no other remuneration was given for their services. Mr. Wigmore was despatched to Hobart on 6th April to obtain delivery from the Commandant, Colonel Parnell, of tents and camp requisites which the Defence Department had consented to lend to the Expedition, and to make preliminary preparations at Bruni Island, more especially to arrange for labour and material to expedite the construction of concrete foundations upon which the instruments were to be mounted. I left Melbourne on 13th April by the s.s. Warrymoo direct for Hobart, accompanied by Mr. Merfield and Mr. Byrne, with all instru- ECLIPSE COMMITTEE. 67 ments, goods, and chattels, contained in some eighty (80) heavy packages. These comprised the wooden skeletons of three large observing sheds, a transit room, and a dark photographic room, all of which were required for the proper use and protection of the instruments. These structures were specially designed and constructed in Melbourne for the purposes of the Expedition. The instruments included those which were sent out to us for the occasion by the British Eclipse Committee. We arrived at Bruni Island on Saturday, 16th April. The camp was pitched on a fine elevated site about 1 mile from the landing jetty at Alonnah. We were joined later on by contingents of observers from the Adelaide Observatory, Sydney University, and New Zealand. The Postal Department erected a branch telegraph line connecting our transit room with the Hobart Office, by which we were enabled to exchange clock beats directly with the Melbourne Observatory each night for the purpose of determining the accurate longitude of our station. One telegraph official remained on duty in camp under instruction from the Hobart office till the longitude operations were completed. On the day of the eclipse twenty-seven (27) persons, all carefully drilled and well prepared to take full advantage of the opportunity, stood at their post. All instruments were in good adjustment and working order. A large number of spectators had come by several boats from Hobart and other localities from the mainland, and crowded beyond the rope fence which enclosed our camp and observing sheds. The Premier of Tasmania had very considerately sent three constables to maintain order and silence during the eclipse. The day remained, however, completely overcast since early morning, and light rain fell throughout the 200 seconds of totality. Thus the Expedition entirely failed in its main object. - Mr. Merfield and myself took our departure from Bruni Island ou the evening of 12th May, and reached Melbourne on 15th May. Messrs. Wigmore and Byrne were left at the station under instruc- tion to complete the packing, to return all camp material to military head-quarters in Hobart, and to look after the transport of the instru- ments, &c., back to Melbourne. They left Hobart on 19th May, and reached Melbourne on the 21st, having carried out their instructions most satisfactorily. At a late hour on the same evening the equipment of the Expedition was safe at the Observatory, complete and in good order. I am pleased to say that every man under my orders did his work faithfully and well, and that the cost of the Expedition is well within the estimated sum of Two hundred and fifty pounds (£250). January, 1912. P. BARACCHI. 68 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. REPORT OF THE ECLIPSE COMMITTEE. THe ToraL EcLipsE oF THE SuN or 297TH ApRiL, 1911. ® An Australian Expedition was organized under the auspices of a Committee appointed by the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science at its Brisbane meeting of January, 1909, for the purpose of observing this eclipse.. The most suitable locality for the observations was the Island of Vavau in the South Pacific, latitude 18° 39’ 2”S., longitude 173° 59’ W. It was necessary to reside on this island for at least three clear weeks, in order to erect the equipment and make full preparations for the occasion. The Expedition consisted of :— From Sydney— Professor E. M. Moors, Sydney University, Secretary of Committee. Mr. W. H. Paradise. Mr. R. A. Holloway. Mr. H. H. Beattie. Mr. R. H. Bulkeley. Rey. Steadman. From Perth— Mr. W. E. Cooke, Government Astronomer of Western Australia. From Adelaide— oF Mr. G. F. Dodwell, Government Astronomer of South Australia. > From Melbourne— Dr. A. L. Kenny. Mr. T. Baker. Mr. C. J. Merfield. Mr. J. Byrne. Mr. P. Baracchi, Chairman of Committee and Leader of the Expedition. s An advance party, consisting of Professor E. M. Moors and Messrs. C. J. Merfield, J. Byrne, W. H. “Paradise, R. A. Holloway, and Rev. Steadman left Sydney for Auckland on 21st March with the greater part of the equipment. It embarked at Auckland on the U.S.S. Atua, which left on 28th March direct for Vavau, reaching destination on 6th April. eed ECLIPSE COMMITTEE. 69 _ The rest of the Expedition, including myself, took passage on board the U.S.S. Tofua, which left Sydney on 28th March, proceeded vid Fiji and Samoa, and arrived at Vavau on the evening of 13th April. At Vavau the authorities gave us facilities and concessions, by which we were enabled to settle comfortably in camp and to install our equipment without difficulty. The equipment consisted principally of :— 4” Photoheliograph, Melbourne Observatory. 4” ae Equatorial Telescope, with two large portrait lens carmeras attached (Melbourne Observatory). One Coronograph (Perth Observatory). One Coronograph (Adelaide Observatory), with 16” Coelostat, lent by the British Eclipse Committee. One Coronograph (Sydney University), with 12” Coelostat. A large Altazimuth for time determinations (Perth Observa- tory), chronometers, several smaller cameras, meteoro- logical instruments (lent by the Commonwealth Weather Bureau), and various other auxiliary apparatus. On the morning of the eclipse all instruments were in good adjustment and working order, and the observers had been thoroughly drilled for the occasion; but the weather was unpromising, and the face of the sun was obscured intermittently by passing clouds up to the beginning of and during the total phase. Each observer, however, accomplished his allotted programme, and 45 plates were exposed during the three and a half minutes of totality. The plates were developed on the same evening, and the results obtained were found to be much better than it was first expected. The form of the corona was found to correspond to the type which had been previously observed in the years of minimum solar spots, which is an additional important fact to our still imperfect knowledge of this solar phenomenon. At my request the Union Steam-ship Company permitted Captain George Holford, master of the Union S§.8. Tofwa, who was expected to be with his ship in South Seas at the time of the eclipse, within practicable reach of the belt of totality, to proceed to a spot in latitude 20° 57’ S., longitude 176° 19’ W., to observe the eclipse, which he did with success, having met with very fine and clear weather. His sketch of the corona shows the characteristic equatorial extensions to more than one and a half diameters of the sun’s disc, and is a remarkably good record of the phenomenon. At Vavau the eclipse was also observed by :— _ An Official British Expedition, under Rev. Father Cortie, S.J., of the Stonyhurst Observatory, Lancashire, on behalf of the Joint 70 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION A. Kelipse Committee of the Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. : Another official British Expedition, conducted by Dr. Lockyer, of the South Kensington Solar Observatory, on behalf of the Board of Education, England. A private party led by and at the expense of Mr. J. Worthington. Dr. Stefanik, a French Astronomer, on behalf of the Meudon Observatory. The British Expeditions failed, almost entirely owas to unfavor- able weather, but the other parties obtained good results. The Commonwealth Government granted the sum of £500 towards the expense of the Australian Expedition. P. BaRAccuHI, Government Astronomer. TIDAL SURVEY COMMITTEE. (See Vol. XIII., p. LV.) — C. E. Adams, Honorary Secretary. New South Wales—Mr. G. H. Halligan, Inspecting Engineer, Harbors and Water Supply, Sydney, supplies the following infor- mation :—There are five automatic tide gauges on the New South Wales Coast, situated at the Richmond, Clarence, and Macleay River entrances, and at Newcastle and Sydney Harbors. In order to get the true ocean tides it is hoped the gauges will be established at Solitary Island, Port Kembla, and Montague Island. New Zealand—Mr. C. EK. Adams, Government Astronomer, reports :—Automatic tide gauges are established at Auckland, Napier, Wanganui, Wellington, Lyttelton, Port Chalmers, Dunedin, Bluff, Westport, and Greymouth, and at most of these ports concrete bench marks have been put in. The records of Auckland and Wellington have been harmonically analyzed, and the tides for these two ports have been predicted. Full details are given in the reports of the Department of Lands and Survey for 1909, 1910, 1911, and 1912. A tide gauge of a novel form has been constructed and has been running for some months in Wellington (see Lands and Survey Report, 1911-12) and it is intended to have this gauge established at Suva. An illustrated description of the Wellington tide gauge is given in Trans. N.Z. Institute, Vol. XLI. (1908), p. 407. CONSTANTS COMMITTEE. 71 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CONSTANTS COMMITTEE. (See Vol. XIII., p. LVI.) Dr. E. F. J: Love, Secretary. The Committee regretted that, owing to the illness of the Secretary, no active steps have, so far, been taken by it. This difficulty is now removed, and, as there is every prospect of good work being done in the future, the Committee asks for re-appointment. As the expenses of the work will certainly be much heavier than was anticipated in 1911, your Committee alse asks that the sum of £50, consisting partly of the unexpended grant of £25, partly of an additional amount of £25, be placed at its disposal. The recommendations were approved by the General Council. Ny Sha 72 NEW COMMITTEES. AUSTRALIAN LONGITUDES COMMITTEE. The General Council passed the following resolution :— That a Committee be appointed with instructions (a) to bring under the notice of the Federal Government the desirability of its providing for a re-determination of the difference of the longitudes of Singapore and Darwin, and of the differences of longitude of the Australian Observatories from each other; (b) to communicate with the Indian Government with respect to the possibility of re-determining the difference between Madras and Singapore. The Committee to consist of the following :—Professor David, Professor Masson, Professor Lyle, Mr. Baracchi, Mr. Knibbs. Mr. P. Baracchi to be Secretary. MACQUARIE ISLAND COMMITTEE. The General Council passed the following resolution :— In view of the already proved importance to pure science, to weather forecasting and to shipping, of the meteorological station and wireless installation at Macquarie Island, it is desirable that a Com- mittee be appointed, with power to add to its numbers, to take all steps necessary to maintain this station on a permanent basis, the Committee to consist’ of the following :—Professors H. 8. Carslaw, T. W. E. David, H. B. Kirk, T. R. Lyle, W. Baldwin Spencer, J. A. Pollock, Orme Masson, H. J. Priestley, T. H. Laby, Coleridge Farr, Kerr Grant, Woolnough, Dr. E. F. J. Love, Messrs. P. Baracchi, J. M. Baldwin, H. A. Hunt, Griffith Taylor, G. H. Knibbs, A. Hamilton, D. C. Bates, C. Hedley, EH. Kidson, Colonel Legge, and J. H. Maiden. Professor David to be Secretary. DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY IN CERTAIN CRITICAL . LOCALITIES. It was resolved to form a Joint Committee of Sections A and C to conduct gravity determinations, determining the gravity by means of pendulum observations in certain critical areas. From Section A.—(No names sent in.—ED.) From Section C.—Professor T. W. E. David, Mr. W. Howchin, Professor W. G. Woolnough, Mr. H. C. Richards, Mr. W. H. Twelve- trees, Mr. H. Herman. Section A having concurred, the sum of £50 voted at the Sydney meeting, 1911, for the investigation of crustal tilt, Geophysical Observatory, at Burrinjuck (Vol. XIII., p. LV.) and not expended, was transferred to the new Committee. anal as a as ha 73 Section B. CHEMISTRY. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT: PROFESSOR C. FAWSITT, D.Sc, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney. The progress of Chemistry may now be followed pretty well by the perusal of the Annual Reports of the Chemical Society. These reports render it superfluous for the Chairman of the Chemical Section in this Association to attempt any general review of the recent advances in Chemical Science. When considering what would be a suitable matter for my address, I took the path of least resistance, and have simply chosen to mention some things which have specially interested me. Great progress continues to be made in all branches of Chemistry. There have been periods in the history of our science when one could single out special branches which were advancing rapidly “ and occupying the attention of chemists. almost to the exclusion of other branches. There is now, however, an advance all along the line. Undoubtedly more progress is being made in some branches than others, but there is no branch to-day which is unfruitful, no branch which does not offer interesting fields of work for those who desire an important research problem. While the discovery of the radioactive elements has arrested public attention, and has been to chemists the most startling discovery of modern times, it has not delayed chemical investigations in other directions ; rather has it acted as an incentive to those engaged in all branches of chemical investigation. The discoveries in radio-activity have enabled chemists to have a more secure belief in the “atom” as @ fact, and not merely as an accompaniment to hypotheses dealing with chemical action. It seems, however, to me that the most important development of Chemistry in this generation is the gradual but sure development of order out of chaos, and the advance made in the direction of reducing Chemistry to the position of an exact science. For instance, great progress has been made in elucidating the constitu- tion of chemical compounds; the determination of the constitution of the most complex organic substance is probably only a question of dime. In the determination of constitution physical determinations now play an important part. A “law,” usually an empirical law, can be _ shown to connect each physical property with chemical composition, . aa i ore 74 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. and while the most of these relations do not hold good with mathe- matical exactness, the relations are of very great value in the case of refractive power and of absorption spectra measurements, and have. been of much use in fixing the constitution in certain cases. Again, in the domain of Chemical Mechanics, all types of reaction velocity under isothermal conditions are capable of representation by mathematical equations. In the simpler reactions, the velocity is greatest at the start and gradually decreases as the reaction proceeds ; and in the case of reactions whose progress is complicated by one of the- products being a catalyst, the reaction velocity has a maximum at some other time than at the start ; in a system with several consecutive reactions and with an intermediate product acting as a catalyser,. Lotka (1910) has shown that we have the conditions for the periodic reaction. The agreement of experimental results with the mathematical equations founded on the Law of Mass Action leaves nothing to be desired in many cases, and our failure to have a complete correspondence. in every instance is due to our not appreciating all the conditions at work. My predecessor in this chair pointed out at our last meeting how very changed our ideas in regard to double decomposition and ionic reactions in solution would become, if not water but some other substance happened to be our “ universal ” solvent. It is important that we should never forget to look at reactions in solution from that general point of view, but at the same time one must be glad that most investigations on solutions have taken place on aqueous solutions, as these have been very fruitful, and as they are of the most direct practical application in Biology and Medicine. We cannot but marvel at the rapid advance of the Theory of Tonic Dissociation and at the complete manner in which it is now applied to water and aqueous solutions. I consider that one of the best examples that could be furnished of the progress of chemical mechanics is the exactitude of our present knowledge of the dissociation of water. The dissociation constant of water was determined by Kohlrausch and Heydweiller in 1894 by measurements of the electrical conductivity of specially purified water. No matter how scientists may have admired the skill of these investigators in overcoming the experimental difficulties of their problem, many must have doubted whether the value obtained was not too high. And yet the correctness of the value obtained then has been fully borne out by determinations conducted by others. There are three other distinct methods which can be used to determine the dissociation constant of water and each of these three methods can be applied in a variety of ways, yielding however in all cases a value very close to that obtained by the conductivity method. eee PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. 75 After a review of all the work done on this subject, Sdrensen (1909) gives the number 10~*™ at 28°C. as being the most probable value for the dissociation constant of water, or 10-7” as the concen- tration of hydrogen ion with respect to a normal solution, With ‘the fixing of a definite value for hydrogen ion concentration in water the Theory of Indicators for acids and alkalies has been established on a firm basis; so that one can now use a few drops of a suitable indicator to determine in many cases by observation of the colour the concentration of hydrogen ion in an acid or alkaline solution. I have found it convenient to have in the laboratory a set of the following indicators, giving a complete range from concentration of hydrogen ion,10~' to 10-". Beside each indicator is given the concentration of hydrogen ion present at the peint of changing colour :— Methyl] Violet 7s he ADT ao LOR? Methyl Orange ug GORE: dOnt Sodium Alizarin Sulphonate H AGS E205° Methyl Red z wave, MSZ o5, 107, Rosolie Acid ae ie dOABRe:, dOze Phenolphthalein i at; Wat? gg AGE Thymolphthalein oF LOE 56 LOR. Resorcin Yellow (Tropaolin 0) 1053? 910777 It is not possible that the indicator method will supersede titrations - generally, but for the determination of acid or alkali in cases of hydro- lysis, it seems likely that this method will be found to be as satisfactory as any other, and it has the advantage of being very easily carried out. There are certain of the artesian waters in New South Wales which are specially corrosive to iron and steel casings. All these waters have been analysed, but as the H- ion concentration is not widely different from that in pure water, acidity or alkalinity determinations are not included in the original Government analyses. Of late, however, the reaction of many bore waters to various indicators has been determined, and I was informed that the chemist in charge only found noticeable corrosion in the bores with the more acid reactions. The corrosion of iron has occupied attention for many years, and is still being largely investigated. In support of the so-called electro- lytic theory, the author has pointed out (1911) that corrosion of iron takes place in aqueous solutions of sodium carbonate. Supporters of the so-called acid theory maintain that water and oxygen alone are not sufficient to start corrosion, and that the usual cause is a small quantity of carbonic acid. It is unnecessary to make sure in the case of sodium carbonate solution that all carbon dioxide has been boiled out of the solution, as this would all be bound by the carbonate to form a small quantity of bicarbonate. The concentration of hydrogen ion in a 5 2 76 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. solution containing sodium carbonate and a small quantity of sodium bicarbonate is less than the concentration in pure water, so that the fact of rusting going on in sodium carbonate solutions appears to the author to dispose of the carbonic acid theory altogether. The action of oxygen and water on iron is affected by the presence of dissolved salts, but the effect is usually not remarkable except in the case of special salts like bichromates, which render the iron passive. Until the passivity of iron is more thoroughly worked out, the corrosion problem is not likely to advance much. It has recently been suggested that there are several kinds of passivity of iron, as “ passive” iron does not always exhibit the same properties, but nothing definite as to the cause of any kind of passivity in iron has been so far brought to light. . The effect of mechanical treatment in altering the solution pressure of metals has been already investigated by the author (1906) for silver, platinum, and gold, and by W. H. Walker with his “ferroxyl” indicator for steel. These results went to show that strained parts of a metal tend to dissolve more readily in solutions than unstrained. It does not seem, however, that iron in this respect is likely to be made more specially corrodible than other metals which are subjected to a great deal of mechanical treatment. Apart from the passivity of iron which clearly marks iron out from most of the commonly used metals, the complex composition of commercial iron is to be regarded as a contributing course to corrosion. There has been a great deal of labour given to the system iron-carbon . by metallographers, and the modern iron-carbon diagram illustrating the effect of composition on melting point and transition temperature is not likely to be altered much by future work. The system iron-manganese and iron-silicon are also well worked out, but we can say very little about the combination of iron with manganese, silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon which exist in all usual steels. The quantities of all other elements than iron in steel are small, but they have an important effect on all its properties. The amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen present in steel are very hard to determine, and yet very small amounts of these elements have likely a great effect on the properties of steel. Iron is not alone in being sensitive to traces of impurities. The presence of almost undetected traces of iron or arsenic in copper absolutely prohibits its use for certain purposes in engineering works. The full explanation of the effects of small quantities of impurity on the physical and chemical properties of a metal is still wanting. The quantity of impurity present may be too small to effect the properties: of the molten metal, but when the metal solidifies the effect is noticeable enough. One has to bear in mind that when steel begins to solidify the metal which first sets solid is much purer than the molten liquor which is left in its immediate neighbourhood, and the later stages of OES Cee PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. 17 solidification are always from a liquid containing a relatively large amount of impurity. There will probably be weakness in having the first particles of solid welded together by a solid of different composition. Apart from this, the manner in which the solid particles are deposited from a mother liquor varies, we know, greatly with the composition of the liquid. The appearance of many crystalline solids sold commercially is made to suit the eye of the purchaser by very small additions of extraneous matter before crystallization. The alteration in viscosity of the mother liquor has been suggested as a reason for alteration of crystal habit. The author thinks it more likely that this alteration is due to the changes in surface tensicn between the solid and the liquid during solidification as well as to the reduction in velocity of solidification due to the impurities present. The “nitrogen problem” is one which has perhaps not been felt very acutely in Australia yet, as the soil has not usually been under cultivation long enough to require the same additions of manure as elsewhere, but as more and more land is put under cultivation, manure, natural or artificial, will have to be put into the ground. In Europe, where the dwindling of the Chili nitrates is realized very intensely, special efforts have been made in recent years to obtain some suitable form of artificial nitrogen compound. This problem is a very old one; it was a matter of interest and experiment and loss of money long before Crookes brought forward his figures regarding the world’s wheat supply, and the world’s deficiency in nitrate supplies, but it has taken a long time for experiments on nitrogen fixation to give satisfactory results. The production of synthetic nitrates, ammonia, and calcium cyanamide in commercial quantities is, however, at last being carried out successfully. For the production of synthetic nitrates, the first step is the preparation of nitric oxide, for which equal volumes of nitrogen and oxygen are heated by electrical means to about 2,700° C., when a small proportion of nitric oxide is obtained. This gas mixture is then rapidly cooled to prevent the splitting up of the nitric oxide as far as possible. The nitric oxide is next converted into nitrogen peroxide at a low temperature but under increased pressure, and the nitrogen peroxide absorbed by alkalies. At each stage of the process the laws of chemical dynamics have been brought to bear with success. Several plants for the production of nitrates are now working in Sweden and Norway, one in South Carolina (U.S.A.), whilst others are in course of erection in Germany and Switzerland. Calcium nitrate is the usua Initrate prepared. Lime is cheap, and many experiments show that calcium nitrate is quite as good if not superior to sodium nitrate as a manure. Calcium nitrate is, however, more deliquescent than sodium nitrate, and it is found impracticable ee. in. 7 78 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. to store it in sacks. owing to the water from the atmosphere forming a concentrated solution of calcium nitrate which gradually leaks away. The production of nitric acid and nitrates from nitrogen is of special interest, not only in its relation to agriculture, but because of the large quantity of those substances required for the manufacture of explosives and dyes and for chemical industry generally. The synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen is now being carried on in Germany, and the process may be said to have become successful from the time that Haber worked out the influence of temperature on the equilibrium constant of this reaction. The most favorable temperature for combination is found to be about 650° C. The combination of nitrogen and hydrogen is favoured by increase of pressure, and in Germany at the present time about 200 atmospheres pressure is used. Many catalytic agents have been found for this reaction. Man- ganese, iron, and uranium are amongst the most suitable. These catalytic agents will act satisfactorily only in absence of oxygen or moisture in the mixed gases. Gases are therefore purified from oxygen -and moisture to begin with by the help of sodium or of chromous salts. A yield of 10 per cent. is bemg obtained with this process in Germany. Calcium cyanamide has been on the market longer than synthetic nitrates or ammonia, as the experimental difficulties in obtaining this substance are not so great as in the case of the others. Caleium cyanamide readily enough yields ammonia, but it has not so far become very popular amongst agriculturists. It would, indeed, have been surprising if a manure containing nitrogen in quite a new form could have found favour at once. It has now been under trial for about seven years, and for some soils and crops gives as satisfactory results as other nitrogenous manures. This applies to the raisirg of fresh crops. Its use for top dressing is very limited, as it is found to injure foliage. In comparing the various artificial nitrogen compounds, it may be noticed that, weight for weight, calcium cyanamide contains con- siderably more nitrogen than either ammonium sulphate or calcium nitrate. It is probable that the whole of the nitrogen in calcium cyanamide is available for plants, but the efficiency cf this or any other manure depends on soil, climate, crops, and other manures given. The results of exhaustive and extended trials with all artificial nitrogen manures will be awaited with interest. Those who are in- terested about the world’s supplies of combined nitrogen have always had before them the possibility of preventing the waste of nitrogenous material in sewage. The sewage problem is an old one, and it is disappointing to confess that even at the present time sewage is usually sent into the sea where eg et emai it (oe PRESIDENT S ADDRESS—SECTION B. 79 possible, and where not possible the chief consideration has been to get rid of it at all costs. It is true that there are now sewage works in many parts of the world, and treated sewage has been shown to be a satisfactory manure for many crops. But an immense waste of valuable nitrogenous material is going on; and while it would be going too far to expect that the whole of the nitrogen in sewage will ever be available for plants, one must confess that the amount available at present is far below the attainable, and it is hoped that the chemical engineer and the bacteriologist will yet, be able to devise an economical treatment of sewage for towns, so that it may become the rule and not the exception for every city to utilize its sewage for agricultural purposes. If one considers the present position of the world’s supply of nitrogen, there does not seem to me to be the same cause for alarm as when Sir W. Crookes first stirred up scientists and the general public to the situation. I believe we can now say that the supply of artificial nitrogen compounds will be forthcoming when it is necessary. There are many problems which specially present themselves to the chemist in Australia besides those connected with agricultural pursuits. One of the largest and most difficult of these is an investi- gation of the chemical composition of substances contained in or easily derivable from the native trees and shrubs of the continent. While this subject has been touched by many, it has been opened up to a greater extent by Messrs. R. T. Baker and H. G. Smith, of Sydney, than any other investigators. Labouring for love of their work, without any special pecuniary reward or encouragement, and oftentimes working under great difficulties, these investigators have after many years of work thoroughly examined the substances in most of the eucalypts and pines of Australia. Now that the work is bearing fruit in the sense that through applying the knowledge gained money may be made, the importance of the work is being indirectly recognised by the public. The researches of Baker and Smith have shown that valuable commercial substances are contained in many of the bush trees and shrubs of Australia. The leaves, the bark, the exudation after making an incision in the trunk or the wood itself may each or all be of value. Utilization of the leaves and young stems of the trees does not kill the trees, but results in another crop of young shoots which are ready for collection in many cases after another two years. Thus, when the leaves may be made a source of profit the total wealth furnished by a tree is almost inexhaustible. The indiscriminate clearing of bush trees is already recognised by many as a mistake, on account of the loss of timber, loss of shade, and alteration of climate or of local effects of climate, but we now realize that in many cases another asset is lost in the matter of an annual or biennial crop of leaves. ’ 80 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. Mr. H. G. Smith has pointed out that there is a good deal of bush country in the Commonwealth which is of little or no use for agricultural pursuits, but which can support suitable eucalypts and other trees for the supply of valuable leaves. By the cultivation of such trees a means of livelihood would be provided for many people. The trees already in the bush are not always those of most economic value, and an initial planting of seeds or seedlings would be necessary in most cases. After that, however, there would be little or no trouble as trees native to Australia are so very hardy and tenacious of life once they get a proper start. At present there is a small export trade in eucalyptus oils for pharmaceutical purposes, but this is quite insignificant m comparison with the trade that could with very little trouble be developed. With regard to the trees yielding geraniol and citrol, very little in the way of systematic cultivation has been done; the high value of these substances make this industry attractive enough, but Mr. Smith has pointed out that the distillation of these oils is best carried out with a large plant. The distillation of phellandrene oils is, like that of eucalyptus oils, a somewhat easier matter, and can readily be carried out by a small plant. Very little capital or labour is necessary to make a successful business, and as the land of Australia gets cut up into smaller and smaller blocks, the advantages of distilling leaves for oil as a business proposition will become more appreciated. Instead of the present humble position of the essential oil industry in Australia, it is surely not going too far to say that before long we can hope for an important position for this industry as a source of national wealth. Let us not in future regard the bush trees as an encumbrance, but rather have a feeling of gratitude for the free gift of these drought- resisting trees which hold such an imperishable stock of wealth for the people. The application of phellandrene oils in the flotation process of mineral separation has been one of the most important developments in modern metallurgical industry, a lead to the world ior in this matter been given by the Broken Hill metallurgists. Large dumps of tailings which would otherwise have eae almost useless are now a source of great wealth; the process is not only available for tailings, but is used direct on ores at Broken Hill, and is also being taken advantage of at many other districts. The process has proved completely successful in “ floating ”’ lead and zine sulphide particles ; it is also being tried on other minerals with some measure of success. The grade of all ores tends daily to become poorer, and methods ior the concentration and separation of mineral constituents from the ore gangue become continually more and more important. We are PRESIDENTS ADDRESS—SECTION B. 81 therefore greatly indebted to those enterprising workers who have persevered with the flotation process up to its present successful condition. The great amount of litigation which has recently been taking place on account of supposed infringement of patent rights has had one good result in occasioning exhaustive investigations into the mechanism of the process. Whatever the final result of the present appeal on the question of infringement of patent rights, the founders of the process have the personal satisfaction of giving a new process to the world, which will add materially to the mineral wealth of many countries. The mineral output in Australia goes up slowly if at all. The efficiency of Australian mining engineers and metallurgists is recognised by the demand for these men from other parts of the world, and so fault is not to be found there. There is probably also abundant mineral wealth still unearthed in Australia, but there has not been sufficient new ground opened up lately to add to our ore in sight. The recent good seasons in pastoral industries have probably been against mineral prospecting, but with a return of more prospecting it is to be hoped that fresh works may be started to compensate for the gradual falling grade of ore which many companies have had to face. . . The one mineral which increases steadily and which is really the backbone of the mineral industry is coal. Taking New South Wales alone, which produces the chief portion of Australian coal, Mr. Pittman (1912) estimates that in New South Wales there are probably about 115,346,880,000 tons of coal in the permo-carboniferous coal measures within a depth of 4,000 feet. The average thickness of workable coal is taken as 10 feet, which certainly does not seem an over-estimate. The possession of this great amount of wealth practically ensures the prosperity of the Commonwealth for many years to come. While coal is our principal fuel, the advantages of oil fuel over coal on steam-ships is now fully recognised. It is satisfactory to note that the Commonwealth Government encourages the mineral oil industry by a bounty on kerosene and wax. There are two oil companies at work in New South Wales, and another company at work in Tasmania. So far no oil has been obtained from wells, the whole supply coming from the distillation of oil shale. The total Australian output of oil is at present a very small output when contrasted with countries like U.S.A. or Russia, which have natural oil wells, but the deposits of the oil shale already located are considerable, and the yield of oil usually high when compared with the Scotch shales at present bemg worked. The yield of oil is so high, indeed, that it is not possible to report some of it in the usual manner, as it softens so quickly. It is an important 82 PPESIDENT’S ADDRESS—SECTION B. matter that our Australian Navy is able to get this local supply of good oil. There are now approximately 3,000,000 gallons of crude oil being produced per annum. This is worth say, sixpence a gallon, so that the total value of the oil obtained may be taken at £75,000 per annum. In conclusion, may I be allowed to thank the local members for the honour they have done me in electing me to be Chairman of Section B. It is an honour for the Chair of Chemistry at Sydney University—a chair which was for many years filled with great distinction by Professor Liversidge. Professor Liversidge took an important part in the formation of this Assooiation, and members will not readily forget the work he did in that connexion. — If I may say so without presumption, there are probably many points connected with Professor Liversidge’s work which I, as his successor, have had an opportunity of noticing, that may not have been noticed so easily by others. I should like to take this opportunity of placing on record my appreciation of his great organizing powers, his wide and intimate knowledge of Mineralogy, his steadfastness of purpose, his energy in the dissemination of chemical knowledge, and in the foundation of a large chemical school at Sydney. The Senate of Sydney University have lately appointed:a new professor to take over Organic Chemistry and its applications. Pro- fessor Robinson will be among us next month, and I am sure that all Australian chemists will welcome the presence of a new organic chemist in our midst. We also welcome back to Australia a Melbourne graduate, Dr. Wilsmore, to the new Chair of Chemistry in Western Australia. Australia is now fairly well provided with Universities. At the same time the amount of work that has to be coped with by the Universities leaves little time to the staffs for research work. There is a feeling abroad now that University instruction should be free, and be available for a very much larger number of students. This will make the tasks of professors and other trachers increasingly difficult, unless they are content to allow Universities to be simply teaching institutions, and nothing more. What with teaching, cor- respondence, and attending to the general tasks of University administration, the attitude of mind necessary to the proper conduct of research is in danger of being lost. Research can only be cultivated with success when it is the chief business of a man’s daily work, and when it can be undertaken so that he is unharassed by much of the routine work incidental to the control of a large teaching establishment. Originality and inspiration are rare qualities, and if they are to be found at all, they will be found in a serene and tranquil atmosphere, where nothing that can disturb peace of mind and devotion to the higher spheres of thought is allowed to enter. + ee PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 83 1—THE PURE FOOD STANDARD FOR BREAD.1 By H. G. Chapman, M.D., B.S. (ABSTRACT.) Observations have been made since 1909 on the amounts of water, nitrogen, and ash in bread made in Sydney. They show the composi- tion of bread to be variable within wide limits. These variations are seasonal, so that the bread made from any single season’s flour is of more constant composition. Attention is drawn to the great variation in the percentage of nitrogen present. This is so great that one loaf may contain twice as much nitrogen as another. These results suggest that the standard for bread is unsuitable and that another should be substituted. 2—_ON THE KINOS OR ASTRINGENT EXUDATIONS OF ONE HUNDRED SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS. By Henry G. Smith, P.C.S., Assistant Curator and Economie Chemast, Technological Museum, Sydney. INTRODUCTION, The results recorded in this paper have been obtained during an investigation on the properties of 100 kinos or astringent exudations collected from distinct species of eucalpytus. Although this number represents less than half the known species, yet the results give a very fair idea of the general characters of the exudations for the whole genus. : The work was undertaken, primarily, in order to ascertain their relatively econom'c values, and incidentally to determine whether the chemical evidence thus obtained would be of value in throwing light on the relations existing between the several members of the genus one with another, or show parallel grouping in conformity with the evidence already derived from the study of their essential oils. These astringent exudations are representative of the tannins peculiar to the different types of eucalyptus species. The chemical characters of the eucalypts, as indicated by the varying constituents in the oils distilled from their leaves, are remark- ably constant for each individual species, so much so that the determi- nations «‘ the physical and chemical characters of this product of the plant have become of some importance in the discrimination of the species, and the method has been found to render considerable assis- tance towards correct botanical diagnosis. The satisfactory results 7 Published in full in the Australasian Baker and Millers’ Journal, 1913. 84 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. derived from the study of the oils suggested the posstbility also of obtaining assistance from the systematic study of other chemical groups of the genus, and for this reason the kinos were chosen as being definite plant productions. The questions which naturally arose were :— (a) Are the chemical properties of the exudations sufficiently distinctive to assist in the phytochemical study of the genus ? (b) Are the kinos reasonably constant in chemical characters for each species ? (c) Does the kino of each species vary in constituents in agree- ment with the oil; and, if so, in what directions ? (d) Is it possible to trace by chemical evidence indications of evolutionary progress in the genus through the kinos of the several species, the same as obtains with their oils ? (ce) In what directions might it be possible for them to be utilized industrially ? It will be more satisfactory, perhaps, to answer these questions later, first describing the peculiarities shown by representative members of the several classes of these exudations. It would make the paper altogether too long to describe the kino of each species, together with its chemical properties, so that only general conclusions will be given. HIsTORICAL. It was very early in the history of Australia when the attention of the new arrivals was directed to the exudations of the eucalypts, and in White’s Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales, published in 1790, reference is made to ‘“‘a very powerfully astringent gum-resin, of a red colour, much resembling that known in the shops by the name of kino, and, for all medical purposes, fully as efficacious.” That material was collected from a tree stated to be Hucalyptus resinifera. To what present day species the above refers cannot now be decided, but it could hardly be the tree known to-day as EF. resinifera. Numerous references and opinions might be quoted dealing with this subject, but they do not assist in the present inquiry. The first serious attempt to generally classify eucalyptus exuda- tions on their differences in chemical properties was undertaken by Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., when Curator of the Technological Museum, an investigation in which I had the privilege to assist. These results were published in the Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., in 1889-1891. The late Dr. Lauterer, in a paper “On Gums and Resins Exuded by Queensland Plants,” Botany Bulletin, No. XIII., Brisbane, also dealt with the properties of the exudations of some eucalpytus species, much on the same lines. yy a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 85 Mr. Maiden divided these exudations into three groups, the “ ruby,” the “ gummy,” and the “turbid.” It was a useful classification at the time, but subsequent work has shown it not to be sufficiently dis- criminative, so that no good purpose can be served by retaining this grouping. CHEMICAL. Kinos from species whose exudations were first classified in the “ruby group” commence to alter soon after exudation, so that eventually they become much less soluble in both alcohol and water, sometimes even forming a horny-like mass which is then practically insoluble. This tendency to alteration probably explains why it is that the members of this class gelatinize so readily when dissolved - in alcohol, and for this reason the kinos belonging to the old “ruby group’ cannot be used commercially for tinctures. See paper on this subject, Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., August, 1904. Eucalyptus kinos do not contam gum in the correct sense of the term, although precipitated by alcohol from an aqueous solution ; and in a paper read before the Royal Society of New South Wales in June, 1904, it was shown that the insoluble portions of these kinos in alcohol is a glucoside, and it was named Emphloin. Those eucalyptus kinos which give turbid solutions in cold water mostly contain either one or two crystallizable bodies—Eudesmin and Aromadendrin—while some of them contain catechin, so that the mere fact of turbidity does not convey much information. The kinos of the Angophoras contain Aromadendrin, but not Eudesmin. The exudation of Eucalyptus calophylla, a close ally of the Angophoras, gives a turbid solution in water and contains Aromadendrin alone, as do also most of the earlier members of the genus, or those more closely associated with the Angophoras. As the genus evolved the other constituent, Hudesmin, made its appearance and continued to increase through the several species of this class, until the trees known s “boxes” (£. hemiphloia, E. Woollsiana, E. albens), were reached, in the kinos of which Eudesmin is present in its maximum amount. Although Eudesmin increases by easy stages in the kinos of the several species of this class, yet it does not succeed in entirely replacing the Aromadendrin, and in all the kinos, so far tested, in which Eudesmin occurs, it has been possible to detect Aromadendrin also. although in some cases it was present only in traces. It has been shown pre- viously that Aromadendrin does occur in the kinos of some eucalyptus species in which Eudesmin is quite absent, and as this is also the case with the kinos of the Angophoras, it is reasonable to suppose that Aromadendrin is the older of these two constituents. The colour reactions with strong nitric and with concentrated sulphuric acids are entirely opposite, and so delicate that traces only of Eudesmin and Aromadendrin may be detected when present one with the other. 86 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. The overlapping of these constituents in the kinos of the con- necting species is shown also with their tannins, as well as with the glucoside, and there is thus no sharp line of demarcation separating the kinos of connecting species, and the reactions show them largely to run one into the other. The kinos thus agree, in this direction, with the oils, and this overlapping of constituents appears to be the natural consequence of the evolutionary nature of the genus. Considerable differences in chemical behaviour can, however, be shown with the kinos of certain species, and in these the constituents, which are representative of the class to which they belong, are present in a maximum amount. The course of ascent or descent through the genus may thus be roughly traced. No doubt, when researches in other directions shall be under- taken, the causes which have governed the botanical and chemical alterations in the genus will be better understood. - The following reagents have been found to be the best for the purpose of readily discriminating between the members of the several classes into which it has been considered advisable to arrange them :— (1) Ferric chloride; (2) Bromine water; (3) Iodine in potas- sium iodide; (4) Potassium dichromate ; (5) Calcium hydrate; (6) Cupric sulphate and ammonia in excess ; (7) Uranium acetate ; (8) Zinc acetate. With No. 5 iodine 5 grams and KI 12 grams in 200 ¢.c. water; Nos. 4 and 6 = 20 grams in 250 c.c. water; Nos. 7 and 8= 10 grams in 250 ¢.c. Of the two last, No. 7 appears to be the better, and may be used in preference to No. 8. Lead acetate has no discriminative value. The strength of the kino solutions found to be best suited for the purpose was | gram per lire, except with the ferric salt test, when it was } gram per litre. The best way to observe the reaction with a fairly strong solution of ferric chloride is to allow one drop of the reagent to fall into the solution contained in a full test tube, standing before a window, and without agitation. It is necessary with most of the reagents to allow some time to elapse, especially with the intermediate kinos, before determining the results. The astringency or oxidizing value was determined by titration with potassium permanganate, In comparison with that given by gallo-tannic acid, and was found to be a most useful auxiliary test. The kinos were dissolved in warm water if necessary, and the deter- minations carried out in the following manner :—Solution of picked kino, 1 gram per litre; gallo-tannic acid, 1 gram per litre; potassium permanganate, 1 gram per litre; indigotin, 5 grams and sulphuric acid, 50 grams per litre, filtering through paper; standard colour solution made to match the colour of 20 c.c. of the oxidized indigotin in 2 litre of water, when this was just changing from green to yellow.. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 87 This tint was easily matched by the aid of the green solution obtained by boiling a few drops of alcohol in potassium dichromate, together with a solution of potassium chromate. Three-quarters of a litre of this solution contained in a large beaker was stood before a window, and the value of 20 c.c. of the indigotin in # litre water exactly deter- mined. 10 c.c: of the kino solution, with 20 c.c. indigotin in the same quantity of water in a beaker the same size were then titrated, and the tint again adjusted so as to exactly match that of the standard solution. This was easily done, and at the end a single drop of permanganate was sufficient to bring about a perceptible change of colour. The value of 10 c.c. of tannic acid was also determined from which the ratio was calculated. This method of titration was found to be far more delicate than when a porcelain dish was used. The titrations were always carried out in a uniform manner. The rapidity by which gelatinization takes place with some of the kinos when a few drops of formalin are added to a tincture of the kino, B.P. strength, also has a discriminative value. Jellies are formed more readily when the kinos are dissolved in 50 per cent. alcohol than when 90 per cent. alcohol is used, gelatinization is even more rapid with some kinos in aqueous solution with the formalin test. A large proportion of eucalyptus kinos belong to intermediate species, and their reactions are thus somewhat indefinite in character, due to the tannins and other constituents overlappmg. The kinos in which interfering constituents are present in a minimum amount have, however, distinctive reactions, so that it has been possible to arrange them here in the following classes :— Class I. Kinos of this class are exuded by species allied to and including the “ Peppermints’ and the “ Stringybarks,” and those of EH. dives, E. pilularis, EH. macrorrhyncha, E. delegatensis, &c., are good represen- tatives of this class. When freshly exuded these kinos are soluble in water and mostly so in alcohol, although many of them contain some Emphloin, and thus show association with the members of Class IV. They have an astringency value above 700 (gallo-tannic acid = 1,000), some even exceeding 800, and do not contain either Hudesmin or Aro- madendrin, as evolutionary processes have eliminated these bodies from the kinos at this end of the series. They become less soluble with age, and the glucoside appears to be absent from representative kinos of this class. They gelatinize readily in tinctures, even more easily in aqueous solutions with the formalin test, and give charac- teristic reactions with reagents. The tannin, however, is not readily absorbed by hide substance, although precipitated by gelatine. They give in aqueous solutions (} gram kino per litre) with ferric chloride a violet colouration soon forming a precipitate, and after some time a 8&5 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. copious violet-coloured precipitate is deposited, the solution in the upper part of the tube remaining grey and turbid. They give in aqueous solutions (1 gram kino per litre) copious precipitates with all the reagents mentioned above, and for this reason have been chosen to represent Class I. in the present arrangement. The reaction with cupric sulphate and ammonia in excess is particularly well marked, and the precipitate abundant. This class is well represented on the eastern side of Australia, the species largely growing on the ranges, and also well distributed in Tasmania ; but in the western and central portions of the cortinent the eucalypts may be expected to yield kinos which fall more largely into the other classes. Certainly Class I. will not be well represented there. As this paper principally deals with the kinos of species from Hastern Australia, Class I. necessarily includes a considerable number of species. Those so far determined are enumerated in the following list :— EK. amygdalina HE. radiata K. umbra K. fastigata KE. Andrewsi _—-E. Risdoni E. Wilkinson- EH. haemastoma H. capitellata E. vitrea iana KE. Luehman- H. Delegatensis E. dextropinea E. campanulata niana H. dives E. eugenioides E. coriaceae HH. obtusiflora H. linearis K. fraxinoides H. oreades K. regnans EK. pilularis K. laevopirea KE. phlebophyllaH. santalifolia EK. piperita E. macror- _ K. Sieberiana HK. stellulata EK. Planchon- rhyncha K. virgata EK. stricta lana E. obliqua Class II. A large number of eucalyptus kinos give a green colouration with ferric chloride, but other reactions show many of these to consist of a mixture of constituents representative of other classes. They are thus more or less intermediate in character. Class IJ.is best represented by the exudations of HZ. melliodora and E. longifolia, as these are readily soluble in cold water and give a bright green colouration at once with ferric chloride (4 gram kino per litre), slowly changing to olive-brown towards the bottom of the tube, and after a time there is formed a very small amount of a dark olive-green flocculent precipitate. With bromine water (1 gram kino per litre) a somewhat copious yellowish precipitate is obtained but none with iodine, and there is no precipitate (or only minute traces) with cupric sulphate and ammonia in excess. Potassium dichromate does not give a precipitate even on long standing, not does lime water, or only in traces. The acetates of uranium and zinc give only slight precipitates after standing for a considerable time. These tests are all distinctive from those of the first class, with the exception of that with bromine water. The kinos of this class are all practically soluble in alcohol, but most of them give turbid PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 89 solutions in cold water, more or less distinctly according to the quantities of Aromadendrin and Eudesmin which they contain. They all gela- tinize in tinctures, but not so quickly as do the kinos of Class I., and the astringency value as determined with potassium permanganate is considerably less also, ranging between 300 and 450 (gallo-tannic acid = 1,000). The kinos of the following species fall into this class, although naturally a few of them are tending towards the intermediate section :— : EK. melliodora EE. Bridgesiana E. fasciculosa HE. Maideni E. longifolia —_K. viridis E. corynocalyx E. leucoxylon EK. quadrangu- KE. odorata E. Macarthuri E. cornuta lata E. punctata _‘E. cinerea ; KE. camphora The kinos of the typical “ boxes” may be considered to form a sub-group to Class IJ. They give with ferric chloride a reddish to purplish-brown colouration at once, soon becoming lighter at the top of the tube; after a time a very slight precipitate forms. The other reactions are similar to those of Class II., but they give slight precipi- tates with iodine. They do not readily dissolve in cold alcohol, and form turbid solutions in cold water; they contain a considerable amount of Eudesmin and but a small quantity of Aromadendrin. Their astringency value is very low in comparison with those of the other classes, ranging between 200 and 300. They gelatinize very slowly by the formalin test, and probably would not jelly in tinctures. Representative of this sub-group are— EK. hemiphloia EH. Woollsiana E. albens E. corynocalyz also closely approaches these, and might perhaps be included in this sub-group, although the astringency value is a little too high. Class ITI. The third class of eucalyptus kinos with distinctive characters are exuded by only a comparatively few of the species so far tested. They do not gelatinize in tinctures, and have nearly as high an astringency value as those of ClassI. The kinos of E. calophylla and E. microcorys are good. representatives of this class, the latter being the best and most distinctive, as that of the former is tending towards the intermediate section. They give a blue colouration with ferric chloride—almost identical in most cases with that given by gallo- tannic acid itseli—slowly changing to a blue-violet tinge towards the top of the tube; and inclining t@ olive-green at the bottom ; after a time there is obtained a copious blue-black precipitate. Iodine gives scarcely any precipitate even on long standing, and this is also the case with bromine water. Lime water gives a pink colouration and dense precipitate, which reaction is distinctive from the purplish 90 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. colour and precipitate given by the kinos of Class I. The acetates quickly give precipitates, as does also potassium dichromate. Cupric sulphate and ammonia in excess give scarcely any precipitate. The very slight reaction with bromine water aad the difference in colour with the ferric salt are distinctive from the kinos of the second class. From the kinos of Class I. they differ in colour reactions with ferric chloride, and with lime water, and in only forming very slight precipi- tates with bromine water. Their great distinguishing feature is that tinctures made with them do not gelatinize, a feature determined in a few days by the formalin test. The crystalline body they contain is Aromadendrin, and Catechin is also found in some of them. The kinos that fall into this class are derived from the following species :— EK. calophylla E. tesselaris E. maculata Ii. microcorys KE. eximia E. citriodora Eucalyptus kinos which are intermediate in character between the several classes may be divided into two groups—(a) those with an astringency value above 600 (gallo-tannic acid = 1,000); and (6) those with an astringency value between 450 and 600. The kinos with indefinite reactions which fall into the former are obtained from the following species :— KE. corymbosa EK. dumosa K. oleosa K. trachyphloia K. intermedia K. terminalis E. clavigera HK. squamosa while those which fall into the latter group are derived from the following species :— HE. populifolia E. Smithu HK. Dawsoal Hi. microtheca H. lactea EK. atiinis H. paludosa EK. incrassata HK. aggregata K. occidentalis ii. rubida HK. Morrisii E. tereticornis EK. Bauerleni HK. dealbata KE. goniocalyx H. rostrata Hi. viminalis EH. cneorifolia K. pendula H. nova-anglica K. Cambagei K. globulus K. acervula The kinos of the intermediate sections usually give green coloura- tions at first with ferric chloride, some, however, soon incline to a violet-grey according as they approach more closely in constituents those of the Classes I. and II. Class I V. Kinos of this class may be distinguished by their ready solubility in water, and slight solubility in alcohol. They are just as readily soluble in water years after collection, and thus differ from the kinos of Class I. The tannin in this class appears to be, with most of them, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 91 similar to that in the members of Class I., but they all consist largely of the glucoside, Emphloin, which constituent is respousible for their insolubility in alcohol. The kinos of the typical “ironbarks” are - representative of this class, but FH. saligna, E. botryoides, and a few others also contain the glueoside in some quantity, but are somewhat intermediate in character. The kinos of this class mostly give a red- brown colouration with ferric chloride, soon becoming much lighter towards the top of the tube, eventually forming a very small brown- grey precipitate. With ferric acetate, however, the colour is blue- violet, and eventually a copious dark-bluish precipitate forms. Ferric chloride has thus a greater discriminative value with eucalyptus kinos than has ferric acetate. The kinos of Class IV. (1 gram per litre) give a slight turbidity with bromine water, due to the free tannin present, and this is also the case with iodine; they thus differ from those of Class I., otherwise they agree in general reactions. The kinos of this class also gelatinize readily, and have only a moderate oxidizing value, the astringency value ranging between 400 and 500. They have a very slow action upon hide substance, although precipitated by gelatine. - Representatives of this class are obtained from the following species :— E. siderophloia E. crebra E. sideroxylon E. paniculata E. saligna E. botryoides K. resinifera E. patentinervis E. robusta E. intertexta E. affinis closely approaches this group. It is most probable that the kinos of all the eucalypts will be found to fall into one or other of the above classes, but so many of them are intermediate in character, due to the mixture of constituents, that it is difficult sometimes to decide to which class or intermediate group some of them belong; advantage may then be taken of their differences in astringency values. Freshly exuded kinos naturally contain more water than when dry, and wood débris often occurs in the more friable kinos ; any ill- effect from such disturbing influences can, however, be practically eliminated with ordinary care. SUMMARY. From the results of this inquiry the following replies may be given to the questions previously enumerated :— (a) Eucalyptus exudations render some assistance in a phyto- chemical study of the genus, but not nearly to the same extent as do the oils, as slight differences in the constitution of the kinos of allied species cannot easily be determined. One illustration will suffice to show how the kinos may assist. E. intertexta is placed by Mr. Maiden (Crit. Rev. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. Euce., Vol. IL, p. 142) in association with £. fasciculosa (see also Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1901, p. 126). The kino of E. intertexta, however, is closely allied to those of the “ironbarks,” or, perhaps, more nearly to that of Z. . saligna, and falls into Class IV., while that of E. fasciculosa falls into Class IJ., and is thus not in the same group. This appears to be an analogous case with that of the kinos of E. leucoxylon (Group Il). and of EF. sideroxylon (Group IV.), in which species the botanical features also show strong resemblances. The Museum sample of kino of E. fascicwlosa was pre- sented by the late Biroi von Muzaller, and came from Spencer’s Gulf, South Aus‘zalia; that of H. intertexta was sent by the Museum Collector. (b) Eucalyptus kinos are practically constent in constituents for each species, no matter where the trees are grown, or whether exuded from cultivated or from naturally grown trees, and numerous instances of this fact have accumulated. (c) Chemical agreement between the kino and the oil of the same species is distinctly shown in many instances, although the influences which directed the alteration in oil consti- tuents are not always indicated in a parallel direction with the kinos, and there are anomalies which at present are not understood. Considered broadly, however, the exude- tions of species whose oils consist largely of terpenes, gene- rally phellandrene, belong mostly to Class I., and only a very few have been found to contain pinene in excess instead of phellandrene, as for instance H. Wilkinsoniana, E. dextropinea, E. laevopinea, and a few others. The kinos of the second class and those of the intermediate group with the lower astringency are mostly obtained from species the oils of which contain pinene and eucalyptol in some quantity, and they usually show an absence of phellandrene, or this constituent is only present in traces. The difficulty experienced in the arrangement of the kinos of the inter- nediate species, in order of sequence, may be largely due to the greater exactness by which the oil constituents can be determined, than is, as yet, possible with those of the kinos. (d) The results so far obtained with eucalyptus kinos show them to indicate evolutionary formation of the species, and this may be traced through the exudatious of the Angophoras. The kinos of the Angophoras agree in . reactions with the exudations of those eucalyptus species which in other directions show strong affinity between PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 93 the two genera. Broadly, Angophora exudations are allied to those of Class II., of eucalyptus kinos, but are more in agreement with the members belonging to the intermediate section with a high astringency value; they contain Aromadendrin but not Eudesmin, which peculiarity is also characteristic of eucalpytus exudations at this end of the genus. It thus appears that the kinos of the earliest eucalyptus species contain mixed tannins, as well as some of the other constituents now found in greater quantity in other species or classes. The increases of constituents in one direction or another thus followed the evolutionary development of the genus, until the maximum amount was reached in one or two species, as, for instance, Eudesmin in the kinos of the typical “ boxes,” and the glucoside in those of the typical “ironbarks.” The kinos which fall into Class I. appear, therefore, to indicate descent from earlier species, so that the eucalypts which yield oils rich in phellandrene, and also kinos which fall into Class I., represent those belonging to the most recent section of the genus. The evidence so far obtained from the study of the kinos supports the conclusions arrived at by Mr. R. T. Baker, F.L.S., and myself, and announced in our work, A Research on the Eucalypts, published in 1902. (e) As the possibility of profitably utilizing eucalyptus kinos commercially is naturally of importance, the following conclusions may be stated :— Eucalyptus kinos of Class I. do not. appear, from our present knowledge, to have much commercial value, unless their remarkable gelatinizing property can be turned to profitable use. Kinos belonging to Class II. might be used for tanning purposes if obtainable in quantity, especially those intermediate between Class IT. and Class III., and some of those in Class III also. Their chief value, however, lies in the fact that they indicate the possibility of satisfactorily utilizing, for tanning purposes, the barks of species which yield them; providing, of course, that the tannin is present in sufficient quantity to enable them to be used directly, or to be utilized for the manufacture of extracts. The exudation of E£. occidentalis, the species which furnishes the “mallet bark” of Western Australia, now so largely used for tanning, gives a green colouration with ferric chloride, and altogether falls into the intermediate section with the lower astringency values. It would be well, therefore, to determine the tannin values of the most hkely barks of those species which yield similar exudations. The kino of E. calophylla, the “red gum” of Western Australia, shows considerable commercial ‘possibility, and an excellent tincture for pharmaceutical purposes can be made with it, one that does not 94 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. gelatinize. The dry kino is friable and does not deteriorate if kept dry. A tincture made 16 years ago from the kino of this species is in the Technological Museum, and is now as fluid as it was at first. The exudation of EH. microcorys would be the best for tinctures, but unfortunately this species yields kino too sparingly for it to be of much commercial value. JF. calophylla yields kino in abundance, so that it should be profitable to collect. It is highly astringent, is readily soluble in alcohol, does not require glycerol, and on the addition of water does not form a precipitate. It is thus a superior material for tinctures to that at present in use by pharmacists for this purpose. The tincture made from the kino of EF. maculata, and one or two others, become turbid on the addition of water. The rapidity of gelatinization of eucalyptus kinos may be quickly determined by adding 15 drops of formalin to 5 c.¢. of the tincture, B.P. strength. Kinos belonging to Class I. generally form jellies in 24 hours; those of Class II. and the intermediate section mostly under a week; while the most resistent of those of Class III. do not form jellies. Kinos of Class IV. are largely insoluble in alcohol, but if first dissolved in water and alcohol added in quantity insufficient to cause precipitation, they readily gelatinize by the formalin test. In a paper on eucalyptus kinos and their value for tinctures, Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., 1904, p. 102, a table is given showing the rate of gelatinization of the kinos of several eucalyptus species, deter- mined by the formalin test. It is there shown that six months was not sufficient to cause gelatinization in the tinctures of EH. calophylla, E. microcorys, EH. eximia, and E. maculata, although those of some species formed jellies in 24 hours. The specimens prepared for that paper have been preserved, and to-day, nine years afterwards, the tinctures of the four kinos above enumerated are still quite fluid. No atronger confirmation of the non-gelatinization of the kinos of this small group of eucalypts could be advanced, and pharmacists need not be troubled with gelatinized tincture of kino. If the kino of £. calophylla could be collected at about 15 to 18 pounds (sterling) per ton, it might be profitably used directly for tanning purposes considered as a natural tannin extract, although it would give a dark-red coloured leather. Some attention has, in the past, been given to this question, but apparently not systematically, and we know little about the best methods for its production, or the time of the year most suitable for its collection. The exudations belonging to Class IV., although so plentifully distributed in the barks of certain species, EH. crebra and E. sideroxylon for instance, are very sluggish, and combine with exceeding slowness with hide substance, although precipitated by gelatine. A method whereby this difficulty might be overcome and the kinos thus rendered more suitable for tanning purposes than they are in their natural condition is a desideratum, and a problem worthy of serious PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B, 95 study, as much material of this class now goes to waste. Iam informed, however, that barks containing kinos of this class have lately come into use to some extent in the manufacture of a leather substitute. It seems reasonable to expect that other uses for eucalyptus kinos will eventually suggest themselves, and the economic possibilities of the products of this wonderful group of trees thus be further extended. 3.—THE ACTION OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE ON BARIUM CYANATH.* By Ruth Sugden, M.Sc. (ABSTRACT.) The action of hydrogen peroxide on aqueous solution of barium cyanate has been examined to ascertain whether there is formation of Specific oxidation products such as Lidoff has recently claimed, namely, the salt, BaCNO, and the gas CNO, or whether the action is, as previously claimed by Masson, simply accelerated hydrolysis of the cyanate to carbonate and carbamide, together with liberation of oxygen from the peroxide. ‘The results are in accordance with the latter view and afford no support to the hypothesis of the existence of the compounds formulated above. The precipitated salt could not be distinguished from barium carbonate, and the gas evolved was shown to be a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. The formation of the latter is explained by the fact that nitrogen is liberated by the action of hydrogen peroxide on car- bamide, which is an essential product of the hydrolysis of cyanates. 4.—ACID ANHYDRIDES: HYDRATION AND OTHER CONSTANTS. By Stella Deakin Rivett, B.Sc. (ABSTRACT.) Investigations on the dynamics of the hydration of acid anhydrides have been carried out by Menschutkin and Vasilieff (J. Russ phys. * Published in full in Journ. Chem. Soc., 1913. 96 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. chem. Soc., 1889, 21, 192). Lumiere and Barbier (Bull. Soc. Chim., 1906, III., 35, 625); Benrath (Zeitschr. Phys. Chem., 1909, 67, 501) ; Rivett and Sidgwick (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1910, 97, 733; and 1677) ; and Orton and Jones (Ibid., 1912, 104, 1708). Four different methods of analysis have been followed, the most rapid of which is that depending on conductivity measurements and _ adopted by Rivett and Sidgwick (loc. cit.). The author used this method with slight modifications as to the forra of the cell, and « general account was given of the apparatus and of the method of conducting an experiment where the anhydride was either a solid or a liquid. Some differences arise in the methods of obtaining the figures required for calculation of the order of the reaction, according as the procedure is that suited for a solid or that for a liquid anhydride. Provided that the rate of solution is greater than the rate of hydration, measurements of the latter are possible within certain limits. In all cases the hydration follows the unimole- F A : : : cular law; log yt k, where t is measured in seconds, and # is the concentration of hydrated anhydride whose initial concentration is A. The concentration of the water remains practically unaltered in the dilute solutions dealt with, and is included in hk. Some twelve anhydrides have been investigated, but of them only three hydrated sufficiently slowly for measurements to be possible either at 25 deg. or at 0 deg. The work on thesé substances is briefly summarized in the following account :— A. Derivatives of succinic acid. (For this acid, velocity con- stant = 0°00116)— 1. Diacetyltartarie Anhydride.—Prepared by heating tartaric acid and acetyl chloride in a flask with a reflux condenser for several hours and subliming the product in a stream of carbon dioxide. M.P. 128-129 deg. Hydration too fast to be measured. An account of the conductivity and dissociation of this acid is given by Deakin and Rivett in Journ. Chem. Soc., 1911, 101, 127. 2. Dibromsuccinic Anhydride—Formed from the acid and acetyl chloride by heating in a sealed tube at 100 deg. and purified by distillation under low pressure. B.P. 145 deg., under 29 mm. Hydration is very rapid, but measurable. The values of k obtained at 25 deg. for various concentrations of anhydride are summarized in Table I. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 97 TABLE I. NO ED MS DID EE I RR Se ek nS a Expt. Final Acid Conc. Anhydride at t= 0. ae 1 0° 1362 ‘00179 0°0120 2 "0811 00942 *0112 3 °0723 : *00820 “0119 4 *0542 "00480 -0112 5. °0312 ‘00772 “O119 6 *0281 "00250 °0118 7 *0254 * 00292 °O116 8 °0251 “00594 °0119 9 *0202 "00464 °0120 10 *0140 *00207 “0114 Mean = 0°O117 In order to obtain a temperature co-efficient, the measurements summarized in Table IJ. were carried out at 0 deg. TaB_e II. Expt. Final Acid Cone. Anhydride at ¢ = 0. k. 11 pa - *0267 00384 0°00149 12 uf, nie *0265 *00855 “00151 13 44 a -01996 *00524 *00149 14 be rer “00486 *000618 “00150 Mean = 0°00150 The value of the constant inereases 2°25 times for 10 deg., a normal figure. ‘ B. Derivatives of phthalic acid. (k for phthalic anhydride = 000461.) 3. Dichlorphihalic Anhydride—It was expected that this anhydride would be at about the limit of the measur- able, and it was necessary therefore that it should be obtained pure. Commercial acid was thrice crystallised 6117. D 98 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. and then distilled; the resulting anhydride was con- verted into the ethyl ester and twice crystallised from carbon tetrachloride. Distillation of -the final ester product gave long crystals of an anhydride with M.P. 190 deg. The crudest product of the commercial acid promised to be measurable, but the pure product was not. 4. Tetrachlorphthalic Anhydride-——Obtained by distillation of commercial acid ; hydrated too rapidly for measurement. C.—Other organic anhydrides— 5. Brombenzoic; 6. Naphthalic; 7. Alantic.—Schuchardt samples used in each case, but all velocities too great for measurement. 8. Isobutyric Anhydride.—Commercial sample purified by distillation. B.P. 177-179 deg. under 762 mm. Hy- dration of this anhydride proceeds very moderately, 15 to 20 minutes being available for measurements. Table III. contains the summarized results at 25 deg. TABLE III. Expt. Final Acid Conc. Anhydride at ¢ = 0. ie 15 Xe badd 0°001219 0: 000950 0:000403 16 ae 7% *00443 *00401 *000407 17 ets Ae *00593 *00537 *000396 18 Es ie *00842 *00760 *000399 19 oy is *00966 *00880 *000397 20 ate ae *01562 -01430 *000395 21 oe pe ‘O1761 *01599 *000398 22 ca oe *02308 *02068 *000395 Mean k = 0° 000399 9. Isovalerianic Anhydride.—The procedure used with other liquid anhydrides gave in this case results which indicated that the anhydride was practically insoluble as such. The rate measured was therefore the rate of solution of a very fine emulsion, invisible when present in very minute amount, and not the rate of hydration. Figures were quoted in proof of this conclusion. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 99 D. Inorganic Anhydrides— 10. Iodic; 11. Arsenious ; 12. Boric.—In no case was the rate measurable. That this was due to the rapidity of hydration and not to an infinitesimally small velocity was proved by the fact that a solution in a sealed cell showed no change of conductivity after several days. In Table IV. are collected. all the constants so far obtained for organic anhydrides, together with the dissociation constants of the acids. TABLE IV. Anhydride. Vel. Const. Dissoc. Const. _ 1. Isobutyric 2 % 0°000399 £59" x 1075 2. Acetic .. 3a] iy *00115 1°86 x 10-° 3. Succinic a: AX *00116 6°6:2 xo 4. Methylsuccinic .. Mi 0:00161 86. -xtlo> 5. Itaconic be a *00129 yo 2 AG 6. Phthalic a3 ah -00461 1:9. x. 10:" 7. Naphthalic - ..|(not measurable)| 2°0 x 10% 8. Bromsuccinic .. 3: °0117 PR MRE i Ua 9. Citraconic vf Ae -00765 3° 4427102 10. Maleic .. 2 ws °0115 12> = We 11. Diacetyltartaric .. ..| (not measureable)| 2°5 x 107? 12. Dichlorphthalic .. a = oA a 1S 13. Tetrachlorphthalic A = Roughly, dissociation constant and velocity constant run parallel, and when the former is greater than 0°02, the velocity of hydration of the anhydride is too great to measure at 25 deg. Naphthalic anhydride cannot be measured, although the dissociation constant of its acid is much less than 0°02. The reason for this may be the great insolubility of the anhydride, but still more probable is it that the reason is here the same as that which appears likely to explain the impossibility of measuring the rate of hydration for arsenious and boric oxides, whose acids are very slightly dissociated, viz., the reversibility of the hydra- tion in aqueous solution. What is measured in the method under consideration is really an apparent hydration constant, and this is equal to the sum of the real direct and reverse constants. Hence, although the former may be small, the apparent value may be so high as to correspond to an impossibility of measurement, this being so much more the case the nearer equilibrium is to the dissociated side. D2 100 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. Abegg (Zeit. phys. Chem., 1909, 69, 1) has already pointed out a relation between the heat of hydration of basic oxides and the dis- sociability of the product into ions. [t appears possible, therefore, that dissociability of product, heat of hydration of anhydride and rate of hydration are in some way connected. As regards the mechanism of the hydration, the independence of the velocity constant on initial concentration suggests that hydrogen ion is not a catalyst, and that therefore the mechanism is different from that of the nearest analogous case, the hydrolysis of esters. Orton and Jones (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1912, 101, 1708), however, show that in presence of mineral acids there is distinct acceleration, and claim that this points to the same type of catalysis as is found with esters. But as a matter of fact, the catalysis in aqueous solutions is feeble, while in anhydrous solvents it may be very great. This suggests then, that it is not always the hydrogen ion that acts as catalyst, but that the undissociated molecule does so. It therefore seems to the author still rather an open question as to whether the mechanism of hydration of anhydrides is identical with that of the hydrolysis of esters. For further investigation of the effect of mineral acids, the conductivity method is not suitable. 5.—THE SEPARATION OF IRON AND MANGANESE.* F, H. Campbell, M.Sc. (ABSTRACT.) A complete quantitative separation of iron from solutions con- taining manganese can be brought about by the addition of a mixture of potassium iodide and iodate dissolved in water. The iron is pre- cipitated as a hydrated oxide uncontaminated by any trace of manganese. 6.—THE ESTIMATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE AIR.— . A SIMPLE AND EXPEDITIOUS METHOD. By W. M. Doherty, F.I.C., F.C.S., Government Laboratory, Sydney, New South Wales. The rapid estimation of carbon dioxide in the air of rooms, pei halls, factories, or wherever numbers of persons congregate in confined spaces, 1s sometimes very desirable. The older methods in use are a * For full paper, see Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1912. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 101 comparatively slow, and im some cases cumbrous. The process I now propose to use, though not perhaps as absolutely accurate as more lengthy methods, is quite near enough for all practical purposes of the hygienist. It is extremely simple, and may be carried out well within the hour from obtaining samples, and in as small a quantity as 100 c.cs. It is as follows :— A series of 100c.c. flasks (say, ten in number), well stoppered and filled with water free from carbon dioxide, &c. (preferably distilled water), are emptied at the place where the sample is required to be taken. The stoppers are inserted and the samples taken to the laboratory _ or tested on the spot. Into each 100 c.c. flask a standard solution of sodium carbonate coloured with phenol phthalein is rapidly run, in arithmetically progressive quantities until a limit is reached beyond which it is unnecessary to go. For instance, in the first flask 4 c¢.cs. are placed; in the second, 5 c.cs.; in the third, 6 ¢.cs.; and so on. Two or three fiasks should be reserved for final adjustment if necessary. The standard solution of sodium carbonate is of such a strength that each ¢.c. is equivalent to 0°01 ¢.c. of carbon dioxide. (As the air contains normally about 0°04 per cent. of CO, it will be seen at once why I _ begin with 4 c.c. of the standard solution.) The only factor in the process which requires special care is the making up of the standard solution. The calculation and equation used in doing this are here given :— 44 1c.c. of COg 55390 = "001971 gramme and according to the equation CO, + H,0 + Na,CO, = 2 NaHCO, "001971 x 106 _ 1 c.c. of CO,g converts 44. into NaHCo,. Thus a solution is made by dissolving 0°4748 gramme of sodium carbonate in 100 ¢.c. of water, a 4 gramme of phenol phthalein being added as the indicator. This solution is carefully adjusted to its proper "004748 gramme of NaeCO, sitet) 2 » snr rely Seb strength by titration with 10 acid in the usual manner. If properly made 1 ¢.c. will equal 1 c.c. of carbon dioxide (N.T.P.). It can be kept for months unimpaired. The working solution is made by diluting this 100 times with distilled water free from CO,, say, 10 c.cs. to a litre. _ A standard solution is thus obtained, 1 ¢.c. of which is equivalent to ‘01 c.c. of CO,. The 100 c.cs. flasks containing the air to be tested and the standard solution are well and continuously shaken for twenty minutes. The amount of CO, expressed in percentage by volume is readily indicated by the number of c.cs. of standard solution 102 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B, decolourized. This lies between the last decolourized flask and the next in the series which retains its pmkness. A reserved 100 c.c. sample can finally be tested with half a c.c. more standard solution than was required by the decolourized flask. A correction for actual volume. in the 100 c.c. flask is made, subtracting, of course, the volume of standard solution added. It remains but to add that ordinary care will have to be exercised in protecting the standard solution from the natural action of the air surrounding it. This can be done in the burette by the aid of a soda- lime filter, the burette being preferably large enough for the whole set of experiments. The solution may also be conveniently kept in an ordinary separator similarly protected. I do not find, however, that using reasonable expedition in pouring the solution into the burette and in running it into the flasks there is any appreciable alteration in its strength. 7.—THE EFFECT OF NEUTRAL SALTS ON THE SOLUBILITY OF ORTHO-PHTHALIC ACID. By A. C. D. Rivett, B.A., B.Sc., and E. I. Rosenblum, M.Sc. (ABSTRACT.) The authors aimed at an extensive examination of the effects of salts on the solubility of o-phthalic acid. In the considerable number of previous researches on similar lines, dealing with gaseous, solid, or liquid solutes, workers have seldom made their selection of salts extensive enough for purposes of comparison. The list examined in the present case includes the chlorides of the following positive radicles, viz., lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, ammonium, hydrogen, magnesium, calcium, and barium; the potassium salts of the following negative radicles, viz., chloride, bromide, iodide, fluoride, chlorate, bromate, iodate, nitrate, sulphate, and acetate; the nitrate and sulphate of sodium; and also acetic acid, mercuric cyanide, ethyl alcohol, and cane sugar (pure and partly inverted). Temperatures worked at were 25° and 35° C. All salt concentrations were expressed in gramme-molecules per litre, but densities were determined for all solutions, so that the mode of representing concentration might be changed if necessary. It was pointed out that in view of the difficulty in finding a satisfactory method for the calculation of concentration, it was desirable that all workers on solutions should determine the densities of the solutions they examine, so as to make their work avail- able for re-calculation later should a different mode of expressing con- centration seem desirable. The general form of curve representing relative solubility of the phthalic acid against salt concentration shows an initial rise followed ~ ra m PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 103 by a more or less rapid fall. The order of the salts from the point of view of effect on solubility was illustrated by curves, and shown to be very similar to the order given by curves showing the deviation of freezing point lowering from that calculated from the simple theory of solutions, plotted against concentration. The question was then discussed of whether these relations could be understood in terms of a simple hydrate theory, the supposition being that water forming hydrates was not any longer available for the réle of solvent. An alternative supposition, suggested by Arrhenius, is that the salt molecules and ions are capable of exerting an effect on the phthalic acid molecules of a kind which is not chemical, and for want of a better term may be called physical. If this alternative idea be true it shoulp be possible to connect solubility in a salt solution with the concen- trations of ions and molecules respectively in that solution. Figures were quoted showing the application of the equation— S=S,{I+kaa+k’ (I-a)a} where S is the solubility experimentally found, S, is a value obtained from the curves by extrapolation to zero salt concentration of the later part of each curve, and may be taken to represent what the solubility in pure water would be if only those conditions ruled in accordance -with which the later part of the curve is traced. a is the degree of dissociation of the salt at concentration a. The agreement between calculated and found solubilities, using certain figures for the constants & and k’, was shown in those cases where the equation could be applied, to be within the limits of experi- mental error in all but the most concentrated solutions. A comparison of the ionic and molecular constants k and k’ respectively shows that these may be positive or negative, and if there be a definite meaning attachable to the above equation, they represent quantitatively the so-called neutral salt action for ions and molecules respectively on the solubility of ortho-phthalic acid. 8.—LAEVA-PHELLANDRENE. By Royston Barry Drew, M.Sc. (ABSTRACT.) Phellandrene is a colourless liquid with peculiar odour, occurring in many essential oils, e.g., in fennel oil, and in the laeva form in euca- lyptus oil. Several continental scientists have isolated it and described its properties. Their results differ because attempts to remove impurities often alter the substance itself. The paper describes the separation of phellandrene from eucalyptus _ oil, and gives an account of experiments with it, and puts on record the physical constants. 104 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 9—THE DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF PRICKLY PEAR. By F. H. Campbell, M.Sc. The menace of various species of the genus Opuntia popularly grouped together under the name of prickly pear has become so great in Southern Queensland and Northern New South Wales that it appeared to the author worth while to make an investigation into the products of the destructive distillation of the plant. From the outset it was recognised that the highwater-content of the plant (about 90 per cent.) rendered the probability of the attainment of commercial success doubtful, but since no work had previously been done on these lines even an investigation unsuccessful from that point of view would not be without value. It is because that opinion is still held that the author ventures to present the results of his investigation. After a number of preliminary experiments on a small scale in which a hard glass retort was used, distillation was carried out in an iron tube 15 inches long by 2°5 inches in diameter, closed at either end by screw caps which were rendered secure by fire-clay lutes ; one of these caps was provided with two brass tubes, through one of which the products escaped, the other, which was about 6 inches long and closed at the end, allowed of the introduction of a thermometer or a tube containing a salt of known melting point. During a distillation the open tube was connected to a glass T-piece, one limb of which was closed by a tap and served as a draining pit, while the third was con- nected to a reflux condenser, from the upper end of which a tube led to a gas-holder in those cases in which the gas was collected. As it was found that the nature and quantities of the various products was the same when green and desiccated material was used, the great saving of time rendered possible by using material previously dried at 100° ©. caused it to be preferred. It was found that the quantities of the various products and the composition of the gas depended upon the rate of heating, but that results best from every point of view were obtained by starting with a cold retort and gradually raising the tem- perature. The rate at which the temperature was raised was controlled by observations of the rate of gas evolution. With desiccated material distillation was found to take place between 200° and 700° C. Two species of Opuntia were examined, O. monacantha, common but not troublesome throughout Eastern Australia, and O. inermis or O. inermis var., the so-called pest pear. The products may conveniently be dealt with in the order of their volatility. Gas.—The composition of the gaseous mixture was found to differ according to the conditions of distillation. In Table I. are given the results of analyses of three samples obtained by distillation of O. mona- cantha in the very convenient apparatus described by Bone and Wheeler (J.C.S.1., X XVII. (1908), 10-12). oP PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 105 The gas was found to be faintly luminous. Sample “A” was obtained by placing the retort in a furnace, the temperature of which had been previously raised to about 700° C. In the other two cases the furnace was preheated to about 200° C., and then raised gradually to the maximum temperature, the rate of increase being roughly twice as rapid in the second case as in the third. The volumes of the gas collected were not corrected to normal temperature and pressure, but fairly correspond to those which might be expected under working conditions, as the main bulk of the admixed air was introduced after the measurement of the volume. Under the conditions of experiment it would have been difficult to obtain. air- free samples, and as the errors introduced are in the right direction, that is lead to a conservative estimate of the calorific value of the gas, no attempt to obtain purer samples was made. TABLE I. — | Nats B. C. Volume—c.c. per 100 gm. 2,480 2,310 2,640 Volume—cu. ft. per ton .. 96°3 89-7 102-0 Nitrogen 18:2 20°4 14:0 Oxygen “% 8-0 5:1 6°5 Carbon dioxide .. 6:4 ley 12 2 Carbon monoxide 17-4) 20°3 EG) Methane, &c. 4-0; 67:0 13-3 } 62-7 11°47 62°1 Hydrogen 45-6) 13-3) 33-8) _ Acid.—The first liquid distillate was a dilute aqueous solution of acetic acid contaminated with tarry substances. In order to discover whether any other acid substances were present, this solution was evaporated to dryness after neutralization with sodium hydroxide. No acid other than acetic was found, except a small trace of phenol. The usual procedure was as follows :—The quantity of acid present was determined by titration with standard sodium hydroxide, phenol phthalein being used as indicator. In some cases, however, the solution was neutralized with calcium carbonate and fractionally dis- tilled with a rod and disc dephlegmator. It was found that a very small proportion of the liquid distilled over between 96° and 100° C, This was taken to show that if methyl alcohol be present the amount is quite negligible. Basic Substances.—After titration as above, the solution was made alkaline with strong sodium hydroxide solution, and the distillate collected in a known volume of standard acid, the excess of which was estimated by back titration with standard alkali. This solution was 106 ; PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION b. then acidified with sulphuric acid, treated with nitrous acid, vigorously boiled, made alkaline, and distilled into standard acid as before. By this treatment a direct estimation of the proportion of tertiary amines and an indirect estimation of the proportions of ammonia and primary and secondary amines (if any) was made. The presence of ammonia and of pyridine was proved ; there was no evidence of the presence of other bases. Tar—tThe crude tar formed about 1 per cent. of the original green material. It had very little tenacity, and when fractionally dis- tilled yielded only traces of substances other than water at temperatures below 150° C. This would seem to indicate that the proportion of *“ dead carbon ”’ in it is high. Charcoal.—The charcoal remaining in the retort was clean and extremely porous; it retained the shape of the original materialof which it formed 4 per cent. on the average. In Table II. are summarized the results of the distillation of O. inermis var., the quantities of dried material used being equivalent to from 5 to 10 lbs. of the green plant. TaB.e II. Per cent. lbs. per ton. Acid (a3 acetic) .. . 0:154 Se 3°45 Ammonia, primary and secondary | amines (as ammonia) .. ae 0-005 oe 0-11 Tertiary amines (as pyridine) Be 0-071 B 1-59 Crude tar bs 46 ne 1 as 22°4 Charcoal fees ate +f 4 ae 89-6 Water .. : a 88°4 oo, 19S Ash.—A anes analysis of the ash of O. monacantha was made, and as it may have some interest it is appended. The sample was from ~ a plant grown in the Melbourne University Gardens, and was peculiar in containing a small amount of copper. Inquiry failed to elicit any reason for the presence of the metal, for as far as is known neither the plant itself nor the soil has ever been treated with a copper con- taining spray. The amount of alkali in the ash was not determined, but it is evidently high, as the ash is easily fusible. It had a distinct green colour, evidently due to the copper, as the absence of manganese was proved. TABLE III. Per cent. Carbon .. ate Sc ase 0:30 Insoluble i inorganic matter .. fe Se la Cupric oxide ee ae a3 0°22 Ferric and aluminium Oxides. ie as 1°56 Calcium oxide nes be ae of 36:67 Magnesium oxide .. bE bid 4 9-08 Sulphur trioxide .. ze ie “ 2°19 Phosphorus pentoxide as ie ott 2:07 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 107 CoNcLUSION. Taking the price of calcium acetate (crude) at 8d. a lb., that of pyridine (refined) at 4s. 6d. a lb., that of charcoal at 20s. per ton, it is found that the value of the products per ton of green plant is approxi- mately 8s. It is considered extremely doubtful that this would cover the cost of clearing the ground. The value of the gas produced has not been taken into consideration in calculating the value of the products, as it would be most profitably used in assisting to heat the retort. It has a calorific value of about 13 B.T.U. per cubic foot. __- In conclusion I take this opportunity of acknowledging my deep obligation to Messrs. J. H. Maiden and J. Cronin, and to the Govern- ment of Queensland for supplying me with the material used in this research, to Mr. D. Avery for the loan of his gas analysis apparatus, and to Professor Masson for his interest and advice. 10—A REACTION OF RASPBERRY JUICE WITH THE WOOL TEST FOR ARTIFICIAL COLOURING MATTERS. By Professor J. A. Schofield, University of Sydney. When testing a number of samples of raspberry juice for the presence of artificial colouring matters, by means of the well-known wool test, one of the samples to which no artificial colouring matter had been added gave an unexpected positive reaction, the final wool being dyed a fairly deep brown tint. The method of applying the wool test used in the experiments is fully described in Preservatives in Food and Food Examination, by Thresh and Porter (1906), p. 369, and is briefly as follows :— Two portions of the sample, 50 c.c. to 100 c.c. each, are taken, one is acidified with HCl and the other made alkaline with NH,OH, ' about 1 foot of wool, purified by boiling in very weak NaOH, is immersed in each and the solution heated at the boiling point for about an hour ; the dyed wools are then removed, pressed between filter paper, and washed twice with boiling water. The wool from the acid solution is then placed in weak NH,OH, and that from the alkaline solution in weak acetic acid and the two are boiled. The dye is dissolved from the wool, which is then removed from the solution. The first solution is then acidified with acetic acid, and the second made alkaline with NH,OH, fresh pieces of wool a few inches long placed in each, and the solutions heated. The dye is taken up again by the wool, a dye of the acid type colouring the wool in the first solution, a basic dye that in the second. . Thresh and Porter (p. 370) state that all the vegetable colouring matters they examined by this test gave merely a dirty appearance to the final wool, and no record could be found of the production of a stain on the final wool in any of the literature available. 108 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTIGN B. _ The brown stain produced by the raspberry juice in question is not likely: to be mistaken for that produced by artificial colouring matters, such as those which would be used for colouring raspberry juice. These would naturally be of a red colour, and might be expected to dye the wool red. It was thought, however, that it would be advis- able to ascertain, if possible, the circumstances under which raspberry juice was capable of communicating this brown colour to the final wool. The colouring matter behaved as a dye of an acid character, none of the samples examined giving any reaction from the wool originally placed in the alkaline solution; all the following experiments were therefore carried out on acidified solutions. Sample No. 1, which gave the reaction, was made from Tasmanian raspberries and had been acidified with 5 per cent. of acetic acid as a preservative. It had been kept in a wooden cask, and it was thought at first that the colouring matter might have been dissolved from the wood. It was found, however, that the brown stain could be produced from raspberry juice which had not been in contact with wood at all. The acetic acid used as a preservative was colourless, and when mixed with fresh raspberry juice and tested by the wool test gave no colour to the final wool. Sample No. 1, using 50 ¢.c., gave a brown stain to the final wool. Samples Nos. 2 and 3 were obtained from different sources, had no acetic acid added to them, but had been sterilized by heat and kept in tightly-stoppered bottles. Using 50 c.c. neither of the samples produced more than a very slight dirty stain on the final wool. Sample No. 4 was obtained from the same source as that which gave the reaction, but no acetic acid had been added to it. On testing 50 ¢.c. in the same way a brown stain was communicated to the final wool similar to that produced by sample No. 1. At the same time a fresh sample of No. 1 was tested under exactly the same conditions, and the same result was obtained as- with the original sample. Some fresh raspberries were next obtained from Tasmania from the grower who supplied sample No. 1, and the juice was extracted in two stages. The raspberries were placed within four folds of linen and pressed (1) between the hands, giving 730 c.c. of juice; and (2) in a screw press, giving 115 c.c. It was thought that the screw press might remove some colouring matter from the residue of the seeds, &c., which might account for the brown stain. Both solutions were filtered through paper and were found to be acid. On testing 50 c.c. of each solution neither gave any decided colour to the final wool. The two solutions were then mixed (sample No. 5), a portion taken, acidified with 5 per cent. of acetic acid, using the same acid as that used in sample No. 1, and tested in the usual way. A faint colour only was communicated to the final wool. jen Se v4 Peary eee ee 3 * PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 109 The staining of the wool is therefore not due to the acetic acid used as a preservative. The remainder of the sample No. 5 was sterilized by heating, and placed in a tightly-stoppered bottle. It was thought that the colouring matter causing the stain might be due to some material obtained from the residue after the juice had been expressed. To test this, 25 grams of the residue after sample No. 5 had been expressed were placed in 100 c.c. water, 5 c.c. concen- trated acetic acid added, a piece of wool introduced, and the whole treated in the usual way. The final wool was stained like that from the original sample No. 1, but of a deeper-brown tint. The colouring matter which produces the stain can therefore be obtained from the residue of the raspberries after the juice has been expressed. It is possible, therefore, that the stain may be obtained if the raspberries are left in contact with the juice for any length of time. In the last experiment the residue was in contact with the hot 5 per cent. acetic acid for one hour, a far more severe test than the residue is likely to undergo in the practical extraction of the juice. It was also found that raspberry juice on allowing to stand and ferment produced a brown stain on the final wool. In order to test this, sample No. 3, which had been sterilized and found to give no reaction with the wool test, was allowed to stand in an open vessel and ferment until the colour had nearly disappeared, 50 c.c. were taken and tested as usual. The final wool was stained brown. This would account for the stain given by sample No. 4, to which no preservative had been added, and in which some decomposition might have occurred. Fifty c.c. of the sterilized sample No. 5 were allowed to stand in contact with 10 grams of the residue for sixteen days, the solution poured off and tested as usual. A deep-brown stain was produced on the final wool. In this experiment both causes might be acting together, viz., decomposition of the juice and extraction of the colouring matter from the residue. To test if water alone would extract the colouring matter from the residue, 25 grams of the residue from sample No. 5 were boiled with 100 c.c. of water for one hour, filtered, and the solution tested. The final wool was stained brown. Water alone will therefore extract the colouring matter which causes the brown stain. Cold water was next tried, 25 grams of the residue being allowed to stand in contact with 100 c.c. of cold water for two days, and the solution tested. Only a slight brown stain was produced. Cold water therefore does not extract the colour to any extent. To confirm these results, another sample of raspberries was obtained from Tasmania from a different source and the juice expressed eleven days, approximately, after picking. The raspberries arrived in & pulpy condition, and all the juice was expressed by hand, no further quantity being obtained by screw pressing (sample No. 6). 110 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. The fresh juice tested 1 in the usual manner gave only the slightest tint to the wool. Twenty-five grams of the residue were covered with 100 c.c. of water containing 5 per cent. of acetic acid, and allowed to stand for sixteen days. The solution was then poured off and tested as usual. It gave a brown stain to the final wool, but the stain was not quite as deep as that from sample No. 1. Five per cent. acetic acid will therefore extract the colouring matter from the residue. It appears, therefore, that the cause of the brown stain may be due either to decomposition of the raspberry juice, or to the contact of the juice with some of the solid matter of the raspberries. The colouring matter from the Japanese red plum was also tested in the same way. No fresh plums being available at the time, plum jam made from Japanese plums and sugar only was used as the source of the colouring matter. Sixty-three grams of the jam were heated with a little water, filtered and washed with boiling water until the filtrate amounted to 50 c.c. On testing this solution in the usual way the final wool was stained brown. It appears, therefore, that the colouring matter in raspberries is not the only vegetable colouring matter which will give a brown stain to the final wool. The Action of various Reagents on Raspberry Juice.—HK. Spaeth (Zeit. fur Untersuch. der Nahr. und Genussmittel, 1899, i1., 633-635 ; Abst. Analyst Vol. 25 (1900), p. 10) gives a list of the action of various reagents upon a number of colouring matters, one of which is that of raspberries, and the effect of some of these reagents upon the above samples was tried, but the results did not agree with those of Spaeth, and did not agree with one another. A comparative table is given below :— Colours obtained by— Reagent. - Author. Spacti Sample No. 6. | Sample No.5. | Sampie No. 4. NH, OH. Brown Bluish- purple | Bluish-purple | Purple NaOH Brown Green .. | Blue Light-green Na,CO, .. Brown Bluish- purple | Bluish- purple Purple Hg(l, Decolourized | Decolourized | Decolourized | Not decolour- ized Na, HPO, Decolourized | Blue at first | Blue at first | Light-pink CaCO, Grey Pale-pink at|Pale-pink at] Dirty - white first first at first Pb(CH,COO), Bluish - grey} Light - blue} Light - blue} Greyish - blue ppt. and ppt. ppt. ppt. filtrate. ™, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 111 Sample No. 6 was tested four days after extraction; sample No. 5 after fourteen days. The age of sample No. 4 was not known, but it was older than No. 5. The colour reactions do not appear to be reliable, but vary with the age of the sample. Summary. (1) Raspberry juice, tested by the wool test, can give a stain on the final wool. This stain is of a brown colour. (2) Fresh raspberry juice does not produce this stain. aie (3) The stain is produced if the juice has undergone decomposition, (4) The stain might also be produced if the juice has remained in contact with the solid matter of the raspberries for any length of time. (5) The action of various reagents upon raspberry juice is not reliable as a means of identification, the reactions varying with the-age of the sample. LN. 11—THE QUALITY OF LEATHER.! By F. A. Coombs. (ABSTRACT.) The greater number of manufacturers engaged in the leather industry do not judge the quality of the leather by the results obtained after the chemist has analyzed a sample. It is safe to say that the majority of those engaged in this industry know very little about this method of determining some of the qualities of the various leathers. Tanners, boot, and harness manufacturers have their own methods of testing the quality of leather, and these methods are the outcome of considerable practical experience. Practical experience in the leather industry is absolutely necessary to enable one to speak confidently and correctly about the quality of leather. ‘‘It feels well” is an expression often used by men when examining leather, and just what that “feel”? means to the tanner or those manufacturing leather goods is not easy to explain; but there is no doubt that to the expert the ‘‘ feel” of the leather is the best test for determining quality. Coupled with the above test is the general appearance. When sole leather is examined by an expert, one will usually find that he examines the thickness or substance of the leather ; by cutting a piece off he views the texture, and by feeling and bending it a decision is given as to the pliability and solidity of 1 Pubtished in full in The Australasian Leather Trades Review, 1913. 112 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. the leather and strength of the grain, a name given to the remains of the epidermal layer, which is hable to crack with the best of these leathers, and, lastly, the weight and colour of the leather speaks volumes to the practical man, who judges his leather largely by the above tests. The greatest factor for the production of good leather is the raw material. Hides and skins are not by any means constant factors. The usual method for manufacturing leather is to take packs approxi- mately about 50 hides which will just fill a pit. All the hides in any single pack receive exactly the same treatment, and if hides were a constant factor the resulting leather would be uniform throughout, with the exception of branded hides or those showing a want of skill in the mechanical work ; but it is found that there is a wide difference, and the leather is culled out to several grades. Experience has taught the tanner that the value of hides for leather production varies con- siderably with the breed of cattle, climatic conditions, and food supplies. There are leathers produced from European calfskins which cannot be manufactured from the Australasian calfskins. One big difference between these skins is owing to the general treatment of cows and calves in Europe being superior to the methods of treating these animals in Australasia. KHuropean farmers keep up the condition of their cattle, and the calves receive plenty of fresh milk, while the majority of colonial farmers feed their calves on skimmed milk. It can be taken as a general rule that the skins of healthy and well-nourished animals will always give less trouble to the tanner during the process of manufacturing, and the resulting leather will always be superior to that obtained from the skins of badly-nourished animals. During dry seasons, when food supplies are short, the tanners have to be content with a low percentage of first-grade hides and skins, and consequently the quality of the leather is affected considerably. The detection of leather produced from an ill-nourished hide presents no great obstacle to the practical tanner; but there are a large number of men without practical experience that play an active part in the controlling of tanneries, and the buying of raw material, with results which often cause considerable confusion, simply because these men do not know if certain low grades of leather which they are producing are caused by a want of skill in the manufacturing department, or the buying of poor-conditioned hides. Many good practical tanners have had their reputation adversely affected by men who supplied them with raw material which was quite unsuited for the production of the required leather. Dealing with quantitative analysis as a guide to the quality of leather, it would appear that while the results obtained are useful to persons who can also make use of factors obtained from a practical experience, the same results may be very misleading to persons who depend only on a quantitative analysis. pies PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. ~ “bee The hard solid sole leathers required in the wet climate of England are not suitable for the dry Australian climate. Leather to suit the latter should be firm and flexible, but never hard. Sole leather is worn out by friction, and in the dry hot climates it becomes more brittle. People walking on hard roads set up a certain amount of friction, with the result that a hard leather cracks and crumbles away. If, on the other hand, the leather has a small percentage of hard tallow to act as a slight lubricant, the wearing qualities would be increased, and the boot would be decidedly more comfortable as the flexibility of the leather is improved. The actual wearing strength of any leather is not decreased, but generally increased by an excess of a pute fat like stearin, and the percentage of fats in the various leathers is controlled by the effect it has on the general appearance of the leather goods when manufac- tured. When sole leathers are taken from the tan pits to the drying sheds they retain varying amounts of strong tan liquor, and the residue from the liquor is represented by the tannin and non-tannin solubles found in the dry leather. The uncombined tannins give Australian tanners considerable trouble in the summer, owing to the quick drying of the leather bringing the tannin out on the surface, where it forms a thin, hard coating that makes the leather crack. In several tanneries a -hygroscopic substance like glucose is used, which certainly prevents the leather from cracking. It is just as well to note that the softest leather produced will crack when the fibre or surface is surrounded by a hard, brittle surface. One is naturally inclined to ask why do the tanners not wash out these uncombined tannins that are the cause of trouble in the manufacture, and make the leather less pliable in summer and absorb the water in the wet season. Tanners are competing against the world. In the Australasian hide markets, the local men have to outbid American and European buyers, and Australian exported leather must compete with the productions of Kurope and America. If the average sole leather taken from England, America, Germany, or Australia were thoroughly washed it would probably lose 10 per cent. of its weight, requiring 11°1 per cent. increase im the price per lb. to give the tanner the same return for his hide of leather. This change is desirable, and will probably be brought to a successful issue in the future, and welcomed by the majority of tanners‘ but the question is, would the boot manufacturers recognise the differ- ence and pay the extra price? The hide of leather with the total solubles removed would return the same number of soles for boots as the hide with the high percentage of soluble matter, but if the leather were not so thick after rolling with the total solubles removed, another factor would be brought into what is already a complex subject. A standard method of estimating the total solubles is required, and the present one of washing powdered leather with an excess of 114 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. water at 45° to,60° ©. appears to be rather severe when it is compared with the practical requirements of sole leather. As a hide becomes nearly saturated with fixed tannin, it will only combine with more tannin when placed in a stronger solution. This action would be slightly reversible in water at the above temperature, and amounts of fixed tannin would be removed varying with the different tannin materials used in the production of leather. The combined tannins is the difference between the total weight of the leather and the sum of the moisture, fats, water sclubles, hide substance, and insoluble ash. Any insoluble organic substance con- taining no nitrogen, which can be placed in the hide and is destroyed when estimating the total ash, would be returned as combined tannins. Ellagic acid, or tanners’ bloom, a decomposition product of ellaga- tannin, is an indispensable constituent of the best sole leather. The tannin decomposes, and the insoluble bloom is deposited on the fibres of the leather, greatly improving the resistance offered to the penetration of water, and increasing the solidity as shown in the best English sole leathers. If organic precipitates or insolubles are returned as combined tannin, and, in the case of bloom, have a beneficial effect on the quality of the leather, the tanner is quite justified in experimenting with both organic and inorganic substances to obtain, by cheaper and quicker methods, the improved qualities of a heavily-bloomed leather. Excess of, say, barium sulphate precipitated on the fibres would make the leather hard and brittle, but a small amount might improve the quality; only physical tests of the leather could explain these matters. The degree of tannage is a percentage which represents the proportion of fixed tannin, bloom, &c., to hide substance. At the present time we have no figures to show just how the degree of tannage is related to the wearing qualities of the various leathers. Tanners and boot manufacturers are not familiar with the “ Degree of Tannage.” A more valuable qualitative test is the amount of water-soluble matter. Leather can be divided broadly into two groups—substances removed by exposure to water, and the insoluble residue. If the insoluble residue wears well on the sole of a boot or stands the heavy strain required from some harness leathers, it will not matter what are the constituents of the leathers that answer the final physical tests. The tanning industry is surrounded by factors such as hides, _bark, temperature, and labour conditions, which are only constant under local conditions. Australian tanners are slowly producing a leather to suit local climatic conditions, and it is to be hoped that this leather will be judged more on its physical properties than on the results obtained by analysis. The latter bear to a certain extent indirectly on the wearing qualities, but the physical is of more import- ance than the chemical side. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 115 12—THE DYNAMICS OF CERTAIN ACID CATALYSES. By A. C. D. Rivett, B.A., B.Sc. (Oxon.), D.Sc. (Melb.). (ABSTRACT.) Broadly speaking, there would appear to be three types of acid catalyses, represented respectively in the following cases :— (1) The hydration of acetic, and probably other, anhydrides. (2) The hydrolysis of esters and acid amides. (3) The intramolecular rearrangement of acetchloranilide to p-chloracetanilide. In (1) it was found by Rivett and Sidgwick (Journ. Chem. Soe., 1910, 97, 733) that for acetic anhydride in aqueous solution the velocity of hydration decreases as initial concentration of anhydride increases, and this does not suggest catalytic activity of hydrogen ion. But Orton and Jones (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1912, 101, 1708) proved that presence of much hydrogen ion (as from mineral acids) the velocity was increased, though but slightly. In anhydrous media, the acids © are, on the other hand, powerful catalysts. In media ranging from pure acetic acid to pure water, the curious result is found that in 90 per cent. acetic and above, molecular quantities of acids are equally effective, but in 50 per cent. and below, equivalent quantities have equal effect. The available figures are not extensive, and hardly suffice to decide what the catalyst actuallyis. So far as they go, they suggest that hydrogen ion may be the main active agent in aqueous solution, as Orton and Jones suggest, but that in anhydrous media the undissoeiated molecules are the principal catalysts. Possibly both ions and molecules are active, and the activity varies with the solvent. As regards (2), it has been known for a long time that the rate of hydrolysis of esters is only roughly proportional to the concentration of hydrogen ion. Following a suggestion of Arrhenius (Zeit. phys. Chem., 1899, 28, 329), regarding the inversion of cane sugar, Lundén (Zeit. phys. Chem., 1904, 49, 189) has shown that in the hydrolysis of ethyl acetate the relations are best expressed by k= am + bm?, where & is velocity constant and m is hydrogen ion concentration. a and b are constants. This second term gives the effect of the ions upon the catalytic activity of the hydrogen ion. When salts of the acid catalyst are present, another term has to be added for the effect of the metallic ion on the activity. Concerning (3), detailed results were communicated upon the .dynamics of the intramolecular rearrangement of acetchloranilide to p-chloracetanilide (sce two papers in Zeit. phys. Chem., 1913). It was shown that with hydrochloric acid as catalyst, the connexion between acid concentration and velocity constant was best expressed by k = (I-a) C (A + BaC), where A and B are constants and a is 116 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. the degree of dissociation of the acid at concentration C. The inter- pretation of this equation is that the undissociated molecules are the immediate catalysts (for possible cycles of change of these molecules, see Orton and Jones, and Acree and Johnson, in report dealing with the chlorination of anilides, B.A. Reports, 1910), and that their activity is modified by the presence of the ions. No case is yet on record where it has been proved that an undis- sociated molecule can act so as to modify the catalytic activity of another molecule or ion, but such a case is by no means improbable. It would seem likely, therefore, that the more accurate dynamical measurements become, the more complicated may catalytic activity of acids appear, and perhaps the smaller the chance become of correlating separate dynamical investigations. DISCUSSION ON THE EUCALYPTS AND THEIR PRODUCTS.! Mr. Henry G. Smith, F.C.S., Assistunt Curator and Economie Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney, ON THe Minor Propucts oF THE GENUS. The question before this meeting is the consideration of the products of the eucalypts in their scientific and economic aspects, and as these trees constitute the major portion of the natural vegetation of Australia, it becomes a matter of considerable importance to us to recognise the capabilities of this national inheritance. As others will deal with the question as it relates to the timber industry, I purpose restricting my remarks to the possibilities, from a chemical stand-point, of the minor products of this large group of trees; and to consider their economics so far as they relate to their essential oil products, their tanning capabilities, and other avenues of possible utilization. At the meeting of this Association held in Sydney in January, 1911, I had the honour to submit a paper on “Some Remarkable Essential Oils from the Australian Myrtacer”; this will be found on page 73 of Volume XIII. To a certain extent the present remarks ate supplementary to those contained in that paper; it is thus unne- cessary to again repeat the statements then made. The exploitation, of the minor products of the eucalypts would, and does even at the present time, provide considerable employment, 1 For further contributions to the Discussion see under Sections D and G. Be 3 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. EF which to many families has been found exceedingly profitable; and, with judicious expansion, the area of usefulness in this direction would undoubtedly be extended. During the last fifteen or twenty years much work has been under- taken in determining the possibilities of the several species of eucalyptus, so that the economics of a very large number of species are now known. One is thus in a position to indicate in what direction it appears most advisable to proceed, so that the greatest returns may be derived from the systematic utilization of those species which show the greatest promise. It is now a recognised fact that the chemical products of each species of eucalyptus are comparatively constant, no matter where the trees are grown, so that the propagation and cultivation of the best species can be undertaken with the assurance that the products derived from indicated species will be of the nature and constitution demanded. From the scientific side the importance of this factor of chemical constancy cannot be ignored, and each species may be considered as a distinct factory wherein definite chemical substances are produced. The value of certain eucalypts for timber is now being recognised by the people of America and of other countries, and it is only a question of time when the economics of the genus in other directions will command attention in those countries also. It would not be creditable to us if the preparation of what may be considered the by-products of the genus were industrially successful there, while we continued to neglect our opportunities. It is, however, pleasing to know that gentlemen in Melbourne are taking up this question, and already small plantations have been started. The time is evidently approaching when that feeling of contempt for the “old gum tree,” which is so pronounced with the average Australian, will be modified, and, let us hope, changed into one of reverence, or at least of favorable considera- tion. At the present time the most important, perhaps, of the minor products of the eucalypts is the essential oil contained in their leaves ; and, as the composition of this varies so largely in the several species, it will be desirable to consider the industrial aspect of this product from various stand-points. The question is often asked by distillers, and those who purpose embarking in the industry, whether the demand for the eucalyptus oils of the phellandrene class is likely to keep up; and, on the other hand, by prospective users of the oil, whether supplies can be assured. In these days of scientific activity it is not possible to say how long any particular method of working will maintain, and any branch of industry is continually in danger of being supplanted by one more economical or more efficacious. The two main factors in this con- nexion are efficacy and cheapness. Certain kinds of eucalyptus oils 118 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. act most satisfactorily for mimeral separation, and their uses in this direction are likely to be extended, so that it ought to be the endeavour of all those distilling eucalyptus oils to place them on the market as cheaply as possible, so as to make it difficult for other essential oils to compete in certain industrial processes. At the present time, the phellandrene oils, particularly, cost more to produce than seems desirable, and it is necessary that they be distilled at a cheaper rate if an export trade is to develop to such an extent as to be worthy of Australia. For one thing, the leaves cost too much to collect, the present price of 6s. or 7s. per 400-gallon iron tank of about 900 to 1,000 lbs. of branchlets making the oil expensive to distil. Itis not that the labour is paid at too high a rate, as wages go at present in Australia, but that the method is crude, and efforts might well be made with the object of cheapening the process of collection by introducing labour- saving devices. It must be admitted that the question of labour is the most serious problem affecting the industry at the present time in all the States. By collecting the material in its native habitat, as at present, numerous obstacles are met with, and to overcome these also cost money. The formation of extensive plantations where only one species is allowed to grow, and that the species the best for the required oil, whether phellandrene, eucalyptol, or for perfumery or flavouring purposes, would largely minimize these initial difficulties, so that the material could be collected at a minimum of cost. The distillation, too, ought to be carried out in large up-to-date stills, if the oil is to be produced cheaply, discarding the ordinary 400-gallon iron ship’s tank now so extensively used. Whilst this primitive mode of distillation maintains, however, as at present, these crude stills will continue to be used, because the plant is cheap, and can be worked by families or small. communities; but when the industry becomes systematized, these crude processes will largely disappear. We may well look forward to the time when new uses will be found for the various eucalyptus oils, and it is for Australians to foster the industry, and so endeavour to provide material for these prospective manu- facturing processes. It seems difficult for most people to understand that the oils distilled from the various species of eucalyptus differ much in constitution, and that the eucalyptol oils sold by chemists for medicinal purposes are only one of many kinds obtainable from the Australian ‘“‘ Gum Trees.” Most pharmacopeeias at the present time demand oils rich in eucalyptol and reject those in which phellandrene is readily detected. It may eventually be shown that this 1s in some respects not altogether a judicious procedure; and, while admitting that a minimum of 50 per cent. of eucalyptol might well be demanded for oils to be used medicinally, yet the rejection of oils like those obtainable from Eucalyptus Risdoni, and a few others, appears to be unnecessary, as they Le PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 119 contain useful constituents not found in the oils richest in eucalyptol. It is suggested that the standard for medicinal eucalyptus oils has been fixed upon insufficient data. However, we have to accept the standard as it is, and endeavour in the best way to supply the oils demanded. When the oil of Eucalyptus globulus was first placed on the market in commercial quantities, its constant nature and richness in eucalyptol appealed to interested people in Europe, and commanded more attention than did the pronounced terpene oils like that, for instance, of Eucalyptus dives. At that time, however, the products of only two species were recognised, viz., globulus oil and amygdalina oil. During later years the composition of the oils of over 150 distinct species has been determined, from which it has been possible to classify them into groups which yield oils in agreement ; these again into sub-groups, from which the best species for oil production cen readily be selected. “Globulus oil” has thus become practically a name for the oils of a group, and, in the light of our present knowledge, it would hardly be possible to distil oil from the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus in sufficient quantity to compete with the better eucalyptol oils of other species, better not only in yield but in eucalyptol content also. Both Eucalyptus polybractea and Eucalyptus Smithii yield more than twice the amount of oil obtainable from Eucalyptus globulus, and the crude oils of both contain over 80 per cent. of eucalyptol. The utilizatior of these more modern species has made the working of such “ Mallees” as Eucalyptus dumosa and Eucalyptus oleosa less remunerative on account of the yield of oil obtainable from these species being smaller, and it is the large yield of oil obtainable from Eucalyptus cneorifolia of Kangaroo Island that enables this species to still be profitably worked. The best species for oil distillation being now known, the question of permanency naturally arises. The “‘ Blue Mallee ” Eucalyptus poly- bractea grows over an extended area, and in country that is more and more encroached upon each year for wheat-growing and other agri- cultural purposes. It should not be difficult, by systematic treatment and preservation of this species in its native habitat, together with systematic planting, to establish large areas of this species alone, and there seems little doubt but that, to a certain extent, it would be more profitable to do this than to clear off the scrub and grow wheat. Eucalyptus Smithii is somewhat sparsely distributed in the districts where it occurs, so that it would be advisable to establish plantations of this species from the beginning, as unde1 natural conditions the collection of the material is somewhat costly. Theoil, however, obtained from this species is probably the best of all the eucalyptol oils so far determined, as it is as rich or richer in eucalyptol than any, and contains objectionable constituents in minimum amount. The oil from the 120 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. young material of all eucalyptus species is identical in composition with that cf the mature trees, so that no difference in the quality of the oil would be experienced by working young trees in plantations. Eucalyptus polybractea being one of the “ Mallees,” it naturally occurs in the shrubby form, and the yield of oil from one-year-old “‘suckers ”’ is found to be greater than that from the mature leaves, the oil being equally rich in eucalyptol. The natural tendency of Eucalyptus Smithii is to produce big trees, and as such it shows that tapidity of growth common with most eucalypts which acquire large dimensions. I have accumulated much data concerning the rapidity of growth of this species, both from the stumps of fallen trees and from those which have only been lopped. The rapidity of growth of the seedlings of this species under favorable conditions may be demon- strated from the results of one growing in my own garden at Sydney, at an altitude of about 1,500 feet below that of the natural home of the species. Twelve months ago it was a seedling, about 3 inches high, brought from Hill Top. To-day it is over 6 feet high, and since the advent of the warmer weather has grown at the rate of nearly half-an- inch per day; for several weeks it even exceeded that average, and the lateral branchlets have also grown at a corresponding rate. The leaves appear to be full of oil, and this has the characteristic eucalyptol odour. Many other eucalyptus species give oils rich in eucalyptol in which phellandrene does not occur, but in most cases the yield from these is too small to make their distillation remunerative in competition with the more profitable species. Since the phellandrene eucalyptus oils have been utlized so largely for mineral separation at Broken Hill and at other places, a considerable industry in the production of these oils has come into existence, and although the amount used is less than 1 |b. of oil to the ton of ore, yet, as enormous quantities of ore are beg treated— in one mine over 1,000 tons per day—it is readily seen what a large quantity of oil is required for this purpose. Although a very large number of eucalyptus species growing in Eastern Australia contain phellandrene in their oils, yet only a few of them yield the oil in sufficient abundance to make their distillation commercially possible. The greater portion of the phellandrene oils now being distilled is derived from two species belonging to the “peppermint group” of the eucalypts, viz., Kucalyptus dives, a species which yields up to 3 per cent. of an oil consisting mostly of phellandrene, and a form of Eucalyptus amygdalina, which grows on the highlands of the eastern side of Aus- tralia, which species yields up to 4 per cent. of an oil containing a good quantity of phellandrene and about 30 per cent. of eucalyptol. Other species like Eucalyptus radiata and Eucalyptus Delegatensis might also be worked, although the yield of oil would be less, but then the oliage of the latter species now goes to waste, as the tree is used for PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 121 timber both in Australia and in Tasmania. The two species above mentioned, which are now so extensively exploited, are distributed naturally over a most extensive area on the ranges in New South Wales and Victoria, at an altitude of about 1,500 to 3,000 feet, so that the available material for distillation may be considered practically inexhaustible, providing the industry is placed under systematic control, and the present supply augmented by judicious planting. The useless species should also be cleared out, so as to eventually produce — large concentrated areas occupied entirely by the required species, and growing under the best conditions for collecting the foliage. The area thus occupied might be made to extend as far north as Crookwell, in New Sovth Wales, and as the land occupied by this species is usually of poor quality, and not likely to be much utilized for agricultural purposes, it might well be devoted to the systematic cultivation of these and other useful species for oil distillation. The above two classes of eucalyptus oils largely represent the present industrial activity in essential oil distillation in Australia, but there are other oils obtainable from the eucalypts of an entirely different nature. These are suitable for perfumery and flavouring purposes, and one—the “‘citron-scented gum” of Queensland (Eucalyptus citriodora)—has been distilled in considerable quantities in that State. The product of this tree is one of the best citronellal oils known, and it seems a pity that it is not now produced in larger quantities, but the collection of the leaves from large trees, and the high price of labour, together with certain restrictions, make the distillation of the oil as at present carried out somewhat costly. The citronella oil of Ceylon, which is there produced in very large quantities, is, of course, a serious competitor, but the yield of oil from this eucalyp- tus is much greater than that from the grass, so that it becomes a matter for serious consideration whether it would not be possible from cultivated material to profitably distil the oil from this species. At any rate, the production would be considerably cheapened, sod that a large share of the world’s trade in this class of products might be secured to Australia. A perfumery oil of another class can also be obtained from the eucalypts. Quite recently a considerable demand has arisen for perfumes having a rose odour, and inquiries have recently been made in Australia as to the possibility of obtaining essential oils in commercial | quantities from Australian vegetation, which oils shall contain the required constituents. Here, again, this demand can be largely satisfied, and both the alcohol geraniol and its ester geranyl-acetate are obtainable in large quantities from Eucalyptus Macarthuri. These somewhat rate constituents are not uncommon in certain kinds of eucalyptus oils, but reach a maximum in that of this species. Hucalyp- tus Macarthuri grows naturally in certain districts in New South Wales, 1 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. as a big tree, consequently it might be expected to show considerable rapidity of growth. As it is somewhat sparsely distributed in its native habitat, it would be necessary to cultivate it so as to enable the best returns to be obtained. The young growth usually yields a larger amount of oil, and this is even richer in the required constituents than that from the mature leaves. It thus appears that by systematically cultivating this species in plantations, these particular odoriferous constituents could be largely supplied from the Australian eucalypts. There is yet another eucalyptus which appears to me to have considerable prospective value—that is, Eucalyptus Staigeriana, also a Queensland tree. About one-sixth of the oil distilled from the leaves of this tree is the aldehyde citral, most of the remainder being limonene. It should eventually come into use as a lemon-flavouring agent, if properly rectified and prepared. The constitution of the oil shows it to have a somewhat close resemblance to lemon oil, and, as the yield is very large, the cultivaticn of this species is worthy of the most serious consideration. The propagation of eucalyptus species away from their native habitat opens up consideration of feasibility; and the question naturally arises whether the conditions of the proposed new location would be suitable. Moderate variation in climate appears to have less influence upon the successful growth of eucalyptus species than has the composition of the soil. Many species occur within a narrow range of altitude, yet on the same elevation some choose well-defined geological formations, and do not care to grow on those of a different nature. In the neighbourhood of Sydney, certain species are found plentifully distributed on the Hawkesbury sandstone formation, but not to any extent on the overlying Wianamatta shales; whilst some which flourish on the shales are seldom found growing on the neigh- bouring sandstones; evidently this distribution is influenced by the available food supply. This is not an uncommon feature with eucalyp- tus species, so that the problem of successful cultivation resolves itself into a chemical question, and one that might be largely worked out in the chemical laboratory. Work undertaken in this direction should render considerable assistance, not only in the propagation of species for oil production, but in the larger problem of forest distribution. The chemical products of the several species of eucalyptus are so diverse ‘that conditions tending to complete success in one instance could hardly be expected to apply equally well in another. What those conditions are can, of course, be best determined by systematic scientific research. The commercial possibilities of the barks of certain species of eucalyptus for tannin purposes have recently been exemplified by the use in large quantities of that of the “ mallet’? of Western Australia (Eucalyptus occidentalis.) . PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 123 The tannin contained in the bark of this species belongs to quite a different group to that occurring in the ‘‘ironbarks,” as Eucalyptus crebra and Eucalypt s sideroxylon, for instance; and the peculiarities shown by the barks of these latter species when used for tanning is no criterion of what will be experienced with the barks of species allied to the “mallet.” It is to the presence of a large amount of kino in ‘““ironbark”’ barks that their apparent astringency is due; but, although so large a percentage of these barks is dissolved out with cold water, yet this has very slow action on hide substance. This sluggishness is due to the kinos of the “ironbarks ” consisting very largely of a glucoside; and this, when hydrolized, forms a sibstance of a very deep red colour, which is more of a dye than a tannin, and when boiled with mordanted cloth shows considerable permanency as a dye. The kines or concentrated tannins of the “mallet”’ bark and its related species do not contain this glucoside, except occasionally in traces; and their - action on hide substance is very good and more in agreement with that of other well-known tanning materials, consequently the barks of this group of eucalypts can be utilized for tanning purposes, providing of course, they contain sufficient tannin to make them profitable to work. At present the greater portion of eucalyptus bark used for tanning is derived from the “ mallet.” The last Annual Report of the Forest Department of Western Australia shows that the value of “‘ mallet ”’ bark exported to countries beyond the Commonwealth for the year ending 30th June, 1911, was £73,247, to which must be added £10,675, the value of the bark shipped to the Eastern States. For the twelve months ending 30th June, 1912, the value of this bark shipped to foreign countries had fallen to £44,610, while the value of that sent to the Eastern States was £13,902. These figures show a decrease in value over that of the previous year of no less a sum than £25,410. This diminution is serious when the question of permanency for the industry is considered, and it appears that the naturally-growing trees of this species will not be able to maintain the supply, or keep pace with the demands for “mallet ” bark. The large amount of tannin contained in “ mallet ” bark has estab- lished a standard for eucalyptus barks to which it appears those of other known species cannot reach. Although this may be true for bark required to be used directly in the pits, yet there seems no reason why tanning extracts should not be manufactured from the less rich barks which contain a similar tannin. The feasibility of this may be shown from the results obtained with “ gimlet ” bark (Eucalyptus salubris), another species of Western Australia. The tannin in the bark of this species is for tanning purposes . of equal value with that of the “‘ mallet,”’ but the bark of the “ gimlet ” only contains about 18 per cent. of tannin, scarcely half that in “ mallet ” 124 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. bark. The tannin of the “gimlet” is but little decomposed on evaporation, so that no difficulty should be experienced in preparing a good tanning extract with it. But there is another substance found in ‘‘ simlet ”” bark, as well as in the barks of other species, which as a by-product is worthy of some consideration : this is oxalic acid. The large amount of oxalate of lime occurring in the barks of some of these species is remarkable, and no less than 16 per cent. of this substance was found to be present in the air-dried bark of Eucalyptus salubris. From an analysis of ‘“‘ gimlet”’ bark, it was found that there was present in the sample an equivalent to 416 lbs. per ton of an excellent tannin, and 358 lbs. of calcium oxalate, containing theoretically 308 lbs. of oxalic acid. It is thus seen that after the extraction of the tannin about one-fifth of the remaining residue of “ gimlet”’? bark was oxalate of lime. The increasing demand for tanning materials makes the preparation of tanning extracts from the numerous astringent substances of Australia a proposition worthy of serious attention, and I am hoping to see an industry for this purpose established here, Any accompanying material of possible commercial value would then assist the undertaking, and help to make it profitable. In this connexion it might be possible to utilize the sawdust of certain eucalyptus timbers if obtainable in sufficient quantity. I have found that as much as 10 per cent. of tannin is present in the timbers of some eucalypts, and it is desirable that the astrimgency values of those of other species of the right class should be determined, neglecting the “peppermint,” the stringybarks, and the “ ironbarks,”’ as the tannin in these groups is not promising for leather manufacture. In the leaves of certain species of eucalyptus a dye material exists in considerable quantities. This substance, which has been named myrticolorin, is a glucoside of quercetin, and breaks down on hydrolysis into glucose, rhamnose, and quercetin. Its presence in the leaves of certain eucalypts imparts to them a yellow appearance as they dry, and it may readily be extracted from the finely-ground leaves by treating them with boiling water and filtering boiling hot. Myrti- colorin is fairly soluble in hot water, but little soluble in cold water, so that it separates out as the water cools; it canthen be filtered off, washed with cold water, and dried. In the leaves of the “red stringybark ” (Eucalyptus macrorhyncha) it occurs in such quantities that no less than 84 lbs. of dry myrticolorin have been extracted from 100 lbs. of powdered material, and it probably occurs in even larger amount in the leaves of other species. It is one of a numerous group of dye substances occurring in plants, some of which are used for dyeing even to-day, while at one time they were used in very large quantities. Although it is doubtful whether myrticolorin could be profitably extracted to be sold as such; yet, as the raw material for the preparation of quercetin, it shows considerable promise, providing a demand for PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B. 125 this substance should arise, and it could probably be prepared from the leaves of certain eucalypts more cheaply than from any other source. It would be well, therefore, to keep this eucalyptus glucoside in mind, because one never knows when quercetin as a raw material for manu- facturing processes may be required. The kinos or concentrated tannins of the eucalypts are not of less _ interest than other chemical products of the genus, and a considerable amount of work has been undertaken in the endeavour to elucidate their properties and determine their economic values. The chemistry of these exudations is just as diverse as is that of the oils, and the results so far obtained have helped towards a deeper knowledge of the genus. I have prepared a paper on these substances for presentation to the chemical section, in which it has been shown that of all the astringent substances known the kinos of certain eucalypts are the best with which to prepare tinctures, as they are highly astringent, do not become turbid on addition of water, and do not gelatinize in tinctures, a fact of considerable importance to pharmacists. Some of these kinos would be useful also as tanning substances, providing they sould be extracted in sufficient quantities, and a method whereby the trees could be made to exude their kinos in quantity is a desideratum. Something might be learned in this direction from the successful methods adopted in the turpentine industry. Eucalyptus species might probably be made to secrete an excess of kino, and to yield it in quantity by the correct mode of collecting. The best way to do this can only be determined by systematic investigation. The reward should be worth the trouble. There are several other chemical products of the eucalypts, which at the present time appear to be only of scientific interest, although furnishing suggestions for future work. Some of them may, however, eventually become articles of commerce, such, for instance, as the peppermint ketone, which may be found useful in the treatment of hay fever; and last, but not least, the production of turpentine from the oils of the most prolific pinene-yielding species. In these remarks I have endeavoured to show that there are other products of commercial value obtainable from the eucalypts besides timbers, and that these are worthy of serious consideration. The latent wealth existing in the unique vegetation of this island continent seems inexhaustible, and if this discussion only succeeds in awakening iresh interest in our glorious eucalypts, the time occupied will not have been spent in vain. LABORATORY EQUIPMENT, ILLUSTRATED BY LANTERN VIEWS OF THE CHEMICAL LABORATORIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND. By Professor B. D. Steele, D.Sc. 126 PROCEEDINGS. OF SECTION B. FLOTATION PROCESSES, WITH EXPERIMENTAL ILLUSTRATIONS. By D. Avery, M.Sc. APPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY OF DIRECTIVE VALENCY. By F. B. Guthrie, F.I.C., F.C.S. Sub-section, PHARMACY. 1.—A LABORATORY NOTE ON A SUPPOSED ALKALOIDAL METAMORPHOSIS. By T. I. Wallas, Sydney. (Contributed by F. I. Gray.) (ABSTRACT.) A solution containing— Homatropin hydrobromide .. = 3 grain, Cocain hydrochloride = oss 2 grains, Camphor water .. 1 drachm, within 24 hours became green in ils and that mydriatic power. It had been correctly compounded, and possibilities of error attach- ing to the several ingredients were wholly eliminated. A fresh solution of the same stock of salts made with sterilized water yielded a similar result, as did a solution of the homatropin hydrobromide alone in sterilized water. A solution of the cocain hydrochloride remained normal. The physical appearance of the two salts, macroscopical and microscopical, showed no abnormalities, and chemical reactions gave no indications of impurities. A fresh supply of the same maker’s homatropin hydrobromide yielded a solution which remained normal. Obviously the original homatropin salt had become affected by some agent foreign to its chemical structure. The coloured solutions were extracted with various differential alkaloidal solvents, and two distinctive reactions were obtained— (a) An ether extraction yielded a brilliant pink colour ; (6) A chloroform extraction yielded an equally brilliant blue colour. These are the colour reactions of apomorphin and its salts. There is no physical or chemical relationship between apomorphin and homatropin, and as error and contamination were eliminated, some biological change suggested itself. 128 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. The functions and chemical powers of ferments, and the formation of alkaloids, are little understood. May not a fungoidal or bacterial association with an alkaloid in solution create changes of constitution, and form new compounds ? Acting on such a possibility, the several coloured solutions were cultured on ordinary peptone broth— (a) Broth inoculated with the solution made with sterilized water. _ (b) Broth inoculated with the solution of the residual homa- tropin (a very small portion of the salt—} grain only— was available). 3 (c) Broth inoculated with the solution as originally compounded. These were incubated at room temperature (70° F.), and in each case somewhat luxuriant growth was rapidly formed. The growths were found to be of the same character, and proved to be an undetermined form of Cladothriz. It was intended to proceed with a research to test the power of the organism to cause alkaloidal change in the manner suggested by the foregoing experience, but circumstances have hindered an immediate completion of it. A further communication may be looked for. 2.—THE STABILITY OF SOLUTIONS OF HYDROCYANIC ACID UNDER DIFFERENT DEGREES OF EXPOSURE. By Rk. C. Cowley. I have been unable to find any reference to the stability of solutions of hydrocyanic acid under different degrees of exposure on examining the chemical and pharmaceutical literature of recent years, and being somewhat sceptical regarding the generally accepted view that solu- tions of this acid rapidly lose in strength, I recently put my ideas to the test. On 11th April last I had some hydrocyanic acid prepared in the College of Pharmacy, Brisbane, which assayed 4°537 per cent. ‘of real HCN. This was stored in a pint bottle, partially filled, on a shelf in the laboratory, and was assayed from time to time, about once a month. It gradually lost HCN until, on 2nd December last, thesolution contained 4°2916 per cent. On the same day, when the temperature stood at 33° C., the cork was removed from the bottle for one hour. At the end of this time the solution contained 4°253 per cent. of HCN thus losing practically 0°9 per cent. of its HCN. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. 129 Some of the original solution of hydrocyanic acid was, on llth April, diluted to contain 2 per cent., the B.P. strength. On 7th Novem- ber it contained 1°9665 per cent. of HCN after being opened from time to time. Small quantities were exposed in an open vessel at a temperature of 29°5° C. and assayed. After a ten-minutes exposure, it contained 1°680 per cent. HCN. In 30 minutes it contained 1°3245 per cent., and after one hour 0°8734 per cent. On 25th November, when the temperature was 29° C., a solution of hydrocyanic acid, assaying 1°948 per cent. after exposure in a l-oz. bottle unstoppered for one hour was found to contain 1°793 per cent., losing approximately 8 per cent. of its HCN. On 9th December a sample containing 2 per cent. HCN, after exposure in a 1-lb. bottle, partially filled, and uncorked at a temperature of 31° C., assayed 1°969 per cent. HCN, thus losing 1°55 per cent. of its original HCN. It would therefore appear that the time-honoured custom of preserving hydrocyanic acid in small phials is wrong, that this method of storing favours loss of HCN ; furthermore, the loss of hydrocyaniec acid stored in bulk is not as rapid as it is usually thought to be. T have to draw your attention to the temperature under which these tests were applied. Although they are by no means the maximum temperatures reached in Southern Queensland, they are higher than those usually reached in the British Islands. 3.—SOLUTIONS OF ETHYL NITRITE—SOME HITHERTO UNRECORDED FACTS CONCERNING THEIR DE- TERIORATION. By R. C. Cowley. It is not my intention to discuss the matter contained in the voluminous published literature dealing with solutions of ethyl nitrite— indeed, it is difficult at this date to say much that is new concerning it. In the early part of last year a question was put to me by a Vic- torian chemist regarding the keeping qualities of spirit of nitrous ether of the B.P. in connexion with the regulations under the Food and Drugs Acts then being framed in the various States of the Common- wealth. As I was then conducting some experiments on this compound, I did not feel disposed to offer an opinion pending the results. Ethyl nitrite itself is so very volatile that in the climate of South Queensland it can only be stored in ampoules—glass-stoppered bottles are quite useless. 6117 E 130 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. Solutions of ethyl nitrite lose strength in at least three different ways— lst.—By evaporation. 2nd.—By spontaneous decomposition, probably as represented by the following equation— 2C,H;,NO, = CH,CHO + C,H,OH + 2NO. 3rd.—By hydrolysis and subsequent oxidation, possibly some- what as follows :— (a) CgH;,NO. + 2H,0 = 20,H,OH + 2HNOg. (b) C.H,OH + 2HNO, = C,H,O + 2NO + 2H,0. (c) CgH,O + 2HNO, = CH,COOH + 2NO + H,0. It was, no doubt through recognising the effects of hydrolysis in spirit of nitrous ether that the compilers of the present British Pharma- copeia introduced a solution in absolute alcohol and glycerin under the name of liquor ethyl nitritis, but this preparation is rarely used. The rapidity of hydrolysis of ethyl nitrite is such that it is practi- cally useless to prescribe it in an aqueous mixture ; it should be diluted immediately before administering it. That the “liquor” keeps better than the “spirit” is shown by the following rough gasometric analysis performed as described in the British Pharmacopeia. The fact that corrections for barometric pressure and vapour tension are not given does not detract from the value of the figures as a comparison since the analysis were performed side by side. Spirit of Nitrous Ether. Date. Temperature. Vol. of No. from 5 c.c. 1911—6th June LEY. DDG? @ x§ 38°0 c.c. 14th December .. 34°0° C. Ne 28 °5 6.¢. 1912—30th April 2 22s Oe Cs iy 23°0.6.¢. 3ist May ay DOD Ce wd 20°4 c.c. Solutions of Ethyl Nitrite. 1911—6th June cen ee ee ee 3h 38 °4 ¢.c. 14th December .. 34°0° C. ae 3D *2 6.6. 1912—30th April a Sees ate 34°0 c.c. 31st May may.) eu 0 ae 31°5 G.c. These figures are picked from a series of monthly determinations, but all are not stated as they might somewhat obscure the issue. Both samples were stored in accurately fitting glass-stoppered bottles in a cupboard, and were only opened for the purposes of with- drawing the necessary amount of solution for analysis. The colour of the bottles was, under these circumstances, of no importance. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. 131 Glancing through these figures one might be inclined to say that both samples kept very well considering their constitution, but these were hardly fair tests, and by no means typical of conditions obtaining under actual working ina pharmacy. The effect of the frequent removal of the stopper has to be taken into consideration. I found during these experiments that the sample must be pipetted directly from the bottle otherwise the results were very discordant. Mr. T. McCall, Assistant Government Analyst, Queensland, men- tioned to me that this observation concurred with his own. To gauge the effect of exposure I allowed samples to stand exposed for various lengths of time. In the case of the above-mentioned spirit of nitrous ether which on 31st May last yielded 20°4 c.c. of nitric oxide from 5 c.c at 20°5° C., the same sample on that date after standing exposed in an open vessel for fifteen minutes yielded 16°2 c.c. of nitric oxide, and after exposure for one hour 13 c.c. of this gas. Another commercial sample which yielded from 5 c.c. 23°3 c.c. of NO, at 22°8° C., after standing for one hour exposed, yielded only 9°3 c.c. of gas. Stronger solutions of ethyl nitrite deteriorate proportionately more rapidly. Taking all these observations into consideration it appears clear that the deterioration of solutions of ethyl nitrite is chiefly due to evaporation, and they also lead me to believe that the smaller loss of ethyl nitrite observed in the case of liquor ethyl nitrite was due to the greater viscosity of the solvent. To put my deductions to the test I prepared three solutions con- taining 3 per cent. by weight of ethyl nitrite. No. 1.—Five volumes glycerine to 95 volumes of absolute alcohol, B.P. No. 2.—One volume of glycerine to two volumes of absolute alcohol. No. 3.—Equal volumes of glycerine and absolute alcohol. The volume of nitric oxide from 5 c.c. of each was measured at 21° C. without undue exposure, and also after standing exposed for one hour. The factors obtained were as follows :— Without undue Exposed exposure. 1 hour. No. 1 Be a3) gous sare. ee 12°00) cic: No. 2 ae .. 42°0 c.c. sy 2170 €:¢: No. 3 38 are, “A OG... Pe 29°2 c.c. The effect of increasing the viscosity is therefore most marked. In the case of spirit of nitrous ether a similar improvement in the keeping qualities was observed by the addition of glycerin. Equal volumes of 90 per cent. alcohol and glycerin were put into the receiver, E2 : 132 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. and after distillation the product was assayed without undue exposure, and also, after exposure in an open vessel for one hour, at a temperature of 19*3° C., with the following results :— Weight. Voiume of No. Without undue exposure .. 3°048 grams... +29°9c.c. 100 grams .- 981°0 c.c. After one hour exposure .. 4°16 prams; |. be wenGsee 100 grams .. 315°0 ce. In another sample, in which the distillate was received into glycerin alone, the loss was found to be much less after exposure for one hour in an open vessel— Weight. Volume of No. Without undue exposure .. 2°63 grams =... = «18°72 Ge. 100 grams ny Ae Ge After one hour exposure .. 4°16 grams... 19°D ec. 100 grams -. 424°2 cc. The increased viscosity of this sample might be regarded as objec- tionable, especially in the climate of the British Isles. These preparations were made on 19th June last. On 2nd Decem- ber, when the temperature was 30°5° C., another assay was made, and it was found that the solutions had kept admirably. In conclusion I would strongly recommend the compilers of the forthcoming edition of the British Pharmacopeia to adopt a mixture of 90 per cent. alcohol and glycerm in equal volumes as a solvent for _ all preparations of ethyl nitrite. 4.—ERGOT AND ITS ACTIVE PRINCIPLES. By H. H. Dale, M.A., M.D., Director of the Wellcome Physiological Research Laboratories, Herne Hill, London, England. (CoMMUNICATED BY R. C. CowLEy.) Although ergot has long been established as one of the most valuable drugs at the disposal of the physician, its pharmacology remained, until the last few years, in a state of uncertainty and confusion. Several causes contributed to this unsatisfactory result. In the first place the systematic position of ergot, as a fungus, rendered the chemical isolation of its active constituents a matter of peculiar difficulty. ‘Phe search was further complicated by the fact that the most diverse opinions prevailed as to the type of physiological action which should be regarded as characteristic of a principle to which the therapeutic effect of ergot could be attributed. To some extent PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. 133 this difficulty still prevails. Not a little of the confusion, again, was due to the almost reckless manner in which successive observers bestowed names suggestive of chemical individuals on the crudest of extracts, or renamed substances isolated by their predecessors, through failure to compare their own results with those already published. As instances of these tendencies may be cited, on the one hand, the name ‘‘ergotin” still used, especially in German literature, which was assigned in turn by Wiggers, Bonjean, Wenzell, Wernich Yvon, and others, in each case to a quite different kind of crude extract ; and, on the other hand, the names picrosclerotin and secalin, given by different observers to the one ergot alkaloid, which, at that time, had been obtained in pure condition, and which Tanret, who first isolated it, had named “ ergotinine.” This isolation of ergotinine by Tanret in 1875 may be regarded as the first step of real importance towards the recognition of the specific active principle of the drug. It is remarkable, indeed, how nearly the problem was solved at this comparatively early date in the history of its investigation. Tanret’s ergotinine has been found, as already mentioned, by several subsequent observers, and its formula has now been definitely settled by the analyses made by Barger and Carr, whose correction of that originally given has been confirmed by Tanret himself. In one respect Tanret’s results have not been substantiated by recent work. Finding that ergot yielded, in addition to the easily erystallizing alkaloid, a further quantity of alkaloid giving practically identical chemical reactions, but refractory to crystallization, Tanret regarded this latter as an amorphous form of the same alkaloid. In this assumption he was undoubtedly in error, the amorphous alkaloid being, indeed, closely related to, and easily formed from the crystalline, but not chemically identical with it. The failure to recognise this difference, though a small point in itself, had a far-reaching effect on the pharmacological history of the drug. On the basis of clinical results, obtained either with the amorphous alkaloid, or with acid solutions of the crystalline alkaloid, in which the amorphous is rapidly formed, Tanret concluded that he had isolated the active alkaloid of ergot. When, however, his alkaloid was subjected to pharmacological experiment by Kobert, the crystalline ergotinine, as being that of which the purity could be guaranteed, was naturally taken, and injected in fresh solution. Kobert rightly con- cluded that it had practically no activity; and since, according to Tanret, the amorphous alkaloid was chemically identical with it, ergotinine was dismissed as of no pharmacological interest, though it still retained some vogue in practical therapeutics. As a result the chemical investigation of the drug was again given over to the prepara- tion and testing of crude resinous products, though the work of Kobert in particular did something towards determining the manner by which 134 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB SECTION, PHARMACY. the specific toxic effects could be recognised. Kobert claimed to have separated from ergot three principles, which, though not chemically pure, had each a separate and distinct physiological action. One of these, “‘ergotinic acid,’’ was admittedly of no therapeutic interest, having an action which Kobert regarded as related to that of saponins, and need not be further considered. A second, ‘‘ cornutin,” a resinous alkaloidal preparation, was found to produce convulsions in frogs and mammals, and was regarded by Kobert as responsible for the convulsant type of ergotism, prevalent in most of the epidemics of ergot-poisoning in Northern and Eastern Europe. The nature of the substance pro- ducing this convulsant action in Kobert’s experiments is one of the points in the pharmacology of ergot which still remains obscure. According to the method of preparation, “‘cornutin” must have contained the alkaloid now known as “ergotoxine”; but this latter does not possess the peculiar action in question. Subsequent observers have failed to obtain from ergot an alkaloid possessing this actior, and it is admitted by Kobert and his pupils that their own recent attempts to obtain it have not succeeded. The preparations commercially obtainable under the name “ cornutin ” consist of more or less impure and resinified mixtures of the known ergot alkaloids, and have not the marked convulsant action. Whether Kobert was dealing with a peculiar decomposition product or with an alkaloid occurring excep- tionally in the batch of ergot with which he worked will probably never be settled ; in any case, ‘‘ cornutin” cannot be regarded as a chemical entity or a normal ergot constituent. Kobert’s third active principle was an acidic resin, named “sphacelinic acid.” This was found to produce the gangrene which formed the predominant feature in the epidemics of ergotism in France, as well as a well-marked gastro- intestinal inflammation. Experimentally, the symptoms were seen most typically in fowls. Jacobj’s experiments were directed to a closer chemical characterization of the active principle of Kobert’s sphacelinic acid. By ethereal extraction he obtained from ergot a yellow substance, producing gangrene in fowls, to which he gave the name “ chrysotoxin.” By extraction with organic acids he separated from this an alkaloidal fraction consisting of a crystalline inert alkaloid, undoubtedly identical with Tanret’s “ergotinine,” but called “‘secalin” by Jacobj, and an amorphous substance, of high physiological activity, which he called ‘*sphacelotoxin.”” This latter, for reasons which now appear to be inadequate, Jacobj described as a non-nitrogenous resin, in spite of the fact that his analyses of “ secalintoxin ” (7.e., “‘secalin” + “ sphace- lotoxin ”’) and of secalin (= ergotinine) show identical percentages of nitrogen. With regard to the therapeutic bearing of these investigations, Jacobj regarded sphacelotoxin as the bearer of the therapeutic as well as the toxic properties of ergot ; Kobert, at one stage of his investigation, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. 135 attributed the therapeutic effect on uterime activity to “ sphacelinic acid,” and another to “cornutin.” Probably the main effect of these researches on the course of ergot investigations was the establishment of the cock’s-comb test as an empirical measure of the activity of the drug. From the chemical point of view the subject was left, in 1897, in a far worse positior than that to which Tanret had brought it in 1875, and the official pharmacological teaching concerning ergot became once more a matter of complicated terminology for ill-defined substances. This was the state of affairs when, in 1904, an investigation was begun at the Wellcome Physiological Research Laboratories. Those responsible for this soon came to the conclusion that it would be fruitless, in the first instance, to search for a principle endowed with all the physiological actions which, at one time or another, had been attributed to ergot, and associated, on inadequate evidence, with its therapeutic value. The first step, rather, must be to take some characteristic action, which could be regarded as probably the effect of one active constituent, and endeavour to ascertain the nature of that constituent. It would then be possible, if a chemically pure principle were obtainable, to investigate its relation to other types of action, and to search further for other principles, if it became clear that more than one was involved. It seemed natural, at that stage in the history of the drug, to start by examining and further analyzing the action of preparations made according to the methods of Kobert and Jacobj. The results of this preliminary investigation are embodied in the first paper by H. H. Dale, in which a highly characteristic effect on the function of the true sympathetic system is described. All the preparations tested had a potent stimulating action on plain muscle, succeeded by a paralysis of motor sympathetic effects, while the inhibitor actions of the same system were left unaffected. The most readily observed instance of this action was the fall of blood-pressure resulting from injection of the supra-renal active principle, in place of its normal, typical pressure action. It may be noted, in passing, that this so-called ‘“‘ vasomotor reversal” test has been the subject of some criticism by those who have attempted to use it as an indication of ergot-activity in general. It is desirable to make it clear that its originators never claimed for it any value except as a test for a particular active principle, and that it is not surprising that others have failed to find it applicable to extracts owing their activity chiefly to other substances. The search for the substance producing this action was conducted by G. Barger, of the Wellcome Physiological Research Laboratories, working in conjunction with F. H. Carr, of the Wellcome Chemical Works, Dartford, their results being constantly controlled by Dale’s physiological experiments. They were soon able to identify the active substance as an alkaloid, closely. resembling Tanret’s 136 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. ergotinine in many of its chemical properties, but differing from it in solubility, and in the fact that it could not be crystallized as a free base. They were able to obtain it pure, however, in the form of its salts, many of which crystallize readily. In this respect, again, it differs from ergotinine, the salts of which have resisted all attempts to crystallize them, though the base itself crystallizes well. A physio- logical examination of the pure salts of the new alkaloid showed that it not only possessed the characteristic type of action which afforded the clue to its isolation, but produced typical gangrene of the cock’s comb and the other toxic actions ascribed by Kobert to “ sphacelinic acid,” and by Jacobj to “sphacelotoxin.” To this active amorphous alkaloid, with crystalline salts, the name “‘ ergotoxine”’ was given by Barger and Carr. By one of the not infrequent coincidences of scientific work, F. Kraft, who had also for some years been working at the chemistry of ergot, arrived almost simultaneously at the conclusion that ergot, in addition to Tanret’s crystalline ergotinine, contained a second amorphous alkaloid. The results of his investigation, which also threw much light on the chemistry of some of the inactive constituents of the drug, were published only one month after Barger and Carv’s preliminary note, which had escaped his notice. His separation of the two alkaloids was based on the different solubilities of their sulphates. Since he obtained these only inanamorphous form, there was no guarantee that the separation was complete, and he made no analyses. At the same time, on the basis of observations as to the methods by which each alkaloid could be converted into the other, he put forward the suggestion that the amorphous alkaloid was a hydrate of the crystalline ergotinine, and, being unaware that it had been named just previously by Barger and Carr, provisionally named it ‘ hydro-ergotinine.” Having crystalline salts of their alkaloid fit for analysis, Barger and Carr were then able to confirm Kraft’s suggestion as to the relation between the alkaloids, and Kraft himelf subsequently obtained crystalline salts by their method, and further confirmed the identity of his alkaloid with theirs and its relation to ergotinine. The chemistry of the ergot alkaloids being thus placed on a satisfactory footing by the concurrent though completely independent work of two laboratories, it became of importance to examine the relation of these alkaloids to previously described ‘‘ active principles.” As the result of a lengthy investigation, Barger and Dale came to the conclusion that the “amorphous ergotinine”’ of Tanret consisted largely of the alkaloid now known as “ergotoxine”’; that the crystalline ergotinine was, in reality, inert, and only appeared to possess activity on account of the readiness with which, in watery acid solution, it became converted into its intensely active hydrate “ ergotoxine ” ; that preparations such as “sphacelinic acid,” “ chrysotoxin,” ‘‘ sphacelotoxin,” owed all their PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. 137 activity to the presence of ergotoxine in greater or less proportions. It should be noted that, since ergotoxine has weak acid as well as weak basic properties, and since its salts, moreover, form colloidal solutions In water, its presence as an actively-conferring constituent in acidic resins is easily explained. Barger and Dale published a table of synonyms, indicating the importance of ergotoxine as the active constituent of the various principles described up to that date. At the same time they recognised, and, indeed, explicitly stated, that certain features of the action of some of the most widely used extracts of ergot could not be accounted for by the presence of ergotoxine. The fluid extract of the U.S.P., being an acid alcoholic extract, contains, indeed, a large proportion of the ergotoxine of the ergot from which it is made, and doubtless owes to this a great part of its therapeutic value. ‘Edmunds and Hale recently arrived at the conclusion that the effect of this extract on the uterus runs parallel to its activity as determined by the cock’s comb test, which they rightly regard as a measure of its ergotoxine value. On the other hand, such preparations as the “extractum ergote liquidum” of the British Pharmacopeia, which has a great vogue among practitioners in Great Britain, usually contains mere traces of ergotoxine. Yet this extract exhibits two definite types of physiological action, which have been recommended by different authorities as measures of its therapeutic value—it has a pressor action, of the adrenine type, and it causes pronounced contraction of the isolated uterine muscle. Barger and Dale proceeded to investigate the nature of the substances responsible for these types of activity. Shortly before this, Vahlen had announced the discovery in ergot of an active principle with no toxic properties, but possessing a specific stimulating action on the normal, co-ordinated contractions of the pregnant uterus. To this principle he gave the name “ Clavin,” and was soon able to cite clinical evidence in favour of its activity. Barger and Dale examined this preparation, and found it to be a mixture of amino-acids and quite devoid of activity. Their statement as to its chemical nature was confirmed by Van Slyke, who separated it into leucin, isoleucin, and valin, and determined the proportion of each which was present. Several other observers (Cushny Kehrer, Cronyn, and Henderson) had also found it inactive. Vahlen’s results are, therefore, of interest only as evidence of the great difficulty in obtaining and interpreting clinical evidence as to the effect of drugs on uterine activity. It became necessary to look elsewhere for the active constituents, other than ergotoxine, of which the existence was evident. For a long time no success was obtained, for the principles in question could not be removed from ergot extracts by any of the methods ordinarily employed for the isolation of alkaloids. It seemed possible, however, that ergot, being a fungus, might resemble the bacteria rather than the higher plants in its metabolic processes, and 138 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. that an investigation of physiologically active substances produced by the putrefaction of proteins might furnish a clue to the nature of the other active ergot constituents, and suggest methods for their isolation. A resemblance between ergot constituents and the products of putre- faction was, indeed, suggested by Buchheim as long ago as 1874. But the significance of this suggestion, as of Tanret’s work on the alkaloids, which followed a year later, had been obscured by the investigations of the intermediate period. Barger and Walpole accordingly studied the pressor constituents which occur in putrid muscle extracts, as Abelous and his pupils had previously shown. They found them to belong to the series of amines, formed from amino-acids by splitting off carbon dioxide, the most abundant being isoamylamine (from leucine), the most active p-hydroxyphenylethylamine (from tyrosine). Dale and Dixon showed that the action of these basgs is of the same general type as that of the supra-renal active principle. Meanwhile, the probability that the other active constituents of ergot were to be sought in this direction was increased by the work of Rielander, who extracted from ergot the well-known but almost inactive bases putres- cine and cadaverine. Applying the experience gained with putrid meat, Barger was able to prove the presence of the pressor amines in the ordinary liquid extract of ergot, and to show, in conjunction with Dale, that practically the whole of the adrenine-like pressor action possessed by such extracts, and widely used in England at the time as a basis for their physiological standardization, was due to the presence of p-hydroxyphenylethylamine. This substance has been produced artificially by a number of synthetic methods, and is now obtainable commercially under the name “‘ tyramine.” The investigation was not yet complete, for “tyramine” was found to resemble adrenine, not merely in its pressor action, but in practically all its effects, reproducing very closely the effects of stimulating nerves of the true sympathetic system. Among such, a highly characteristic action is the inhibition of the tone and rhythm of the uterus of the virgin cat, and this is typically reproduced by ‘tyramine.’ On the other hand, it has been shown by Kehrer that isolated uterine muscle from any animal responds by tonic contraction to small doses of ergot extracts, and that the uterus of the non-pregnant cat exhibits this effect particularly well. Though ergotoxine has a powerful tonic effect on the cat’s uterus in situ, it has a comparatively weak action on the isolated organ; it was clear, therefore, that some other principle must be present of sufficient power in this direction to overcome the inhibitor effect of tyramine. In searching for this, Barger and Dale made use of the methods elaborated by Kutscher and his school for the separation of bases from extracts of meat or putrefaction mixtures. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. 139 They chose for the investigation the ergot extract which produced Kehrer’s effect most intensely, viz., the ‘“Ergotinum Dialysatum”’ of Wernich. In the end they succeeded in isolating a small quantity of the crystalline picrate of a base which, while it resembled histidime in its properties of solubility and precipitation by reagents, and gave the diazo-reaction of Pauly with great intensity, differed from histidine in producing Kehrer’s effect in extreme dilutions, whereas histidine is quite inert in this direction. It was a natural supposition that the base might bear the same relation to histidine as “ tyramine ” to “‘ tyrosine.” By another of the curious coincidences which have occurred in the course of this investigation, the same base had been obtained from ergot by Kutscher simultaneously and independently. At the same time, Ackermann, by putrefaction of a broth containing histidine, had obtained a supply of the base which reszlts when histidine loses COg. Barger and Dale found the histidine derivative identical with their ergot base, while Ackermann and Kutscher concluded that the two were similar, but not identical. It has since been shown that the apparent difference in physiological action, on which Ackermann and Kutscher based this conclusion, was due to an unsuspected variation of the conditions of experiment, and it may be regarded as established that the principle in ergot mainly responsible for its intense tonic action on isolated uterine muscle is iminazolylethylamine (7.e., histidine minus CO,). This is now prepared synthetically, and obtainable in commerce as “ergamine.” Its action has beeninvestigated and described by Dale and Laidlaw, who have drawn attention to the interesting similarity between the effects which it produces on intravenous injection, and those which follow the injection of various tissue extracts and form the main feature in the clinical picture of the ‘“‘ anaphylactic shock.” At the same time it has been demonstrated that the base can be given hypodermically in small doses without producing bad symptoms, but with marked effect on the uterus. Engeland and Kutscher subsequently isolated from ergot agmatine, the analogous amine from arginine, and attributed to it a similar action. According to Dale and Laidlaw, the effect of agmatine is very weak, and it cannot contribute in any significant degree to the action of ergot. It is not suggested, of course, that all the constituents possessing a physiological action of any kind which occur in any sample of ergot or its extracts have been isolated and identified. On the contrary, it has been obvious, from the later portion especially of Barger and Dale’s work on this subject, that the casual occurrence of unusual bases is only to be expected in extracts of a fungus which shows many similarities in its pction to certain putrefactive bacteria. It is even uncertain, in any particular case, how much of the active amine constituent must be attributed to the metabolism of the ergot itself, how much to superadded 140 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—-SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. putrefactive changes occurring either before or during extraction. What is quite certain is that good, dry ergot contains not merely ergotoxine, but also the bases in question, though the proportion of these latter may well be increased in the preparation of such a product as the liquid _ extract of the B.P., and still more so in the dialized preparations. It may further be claimed that the substance responsible for each of the various physiological actions hitherto suggested as a basis of standard- ization, has been isolated and identified. The effect on the cock’s comb was given practical application for standardization by Houghton, who gave details by observance of which a quantitative indication was obtainable. This has been recently verified by Edmunds and Hale. This action, like the “‘ vasomotor reversal ”’ described by Dale, is due to ergotoxine, and, while the practice of different observers may leda them to prefer one or other of these methods, they are testing, in either case, for ergotoxine only. When the measurement of pressor effect, in dog or cat, as recommended by Wood and by Cronyn and Henderson in America, and by Dixon, Goodall, and others in England, is adopted as an index of activity, the measurement appears to be one of ergo- toxine + “‘tvramine” in the case of the U.S.P. fluid extract, almost wholly of “‘ tyramine ” in the case of the liquid extracts of the British Pharmacopeia. Kehrer’s method, again, if a cat’s uterus be used, is apparently a measurement of ‘“‘ergamine” content only; on the other hand, the isolated guinea-pig’s uterus is exquisitely sensitive to ergotoxine as well as to “ergamine.” It will doubtless be possible by a combination of methods to work out a rational system of ergot standardization when it is once decided which of the principles are therapeutically desirable, and in what relative proportions they should occur. What is needed above all for the settlement of this aspect of the ergot problem is an accumulation of accurate clinical observation with the pure active principles. Meanwhile, it may be said that results hitherto available appear to point to the superiority of a preparation containing the three chief active principles in appropriate proportions, as compared with any one of them separately. It should be further remembered that ergotoxine is the only one of them for which ergot is needed. The others are much more easily obtained by synthesis in the laboratory, and it may be assumed that the ideal preparation is one containing a definite quantity of pure ergotoxme from ergot, with the amines added in due amount. A preparation containing 1 mgm. of ergotoxine to 5 mgms. of “tyramine” and 0°05 mgms. of “ ergamine ” has given highly satisfactory results in practice. But, pending more decisive clinical information, it may be suggested that no one method of standardization can claim exclusive value or unquestioned superiority, . whatever be its accuracy in determining the proportion of one or more of the active principles. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. 141 5.—ORGANIC SALTS OF BISMUTH WITH ALKALIS. By R. C. Cowley. At the meeting of the Australasian Associatior for the Advance- ment of Science, held in Sydney, I made a statement to the effect that bismuth citrate acts as a monobasic acid, giving a well-defined end reaction when titrated with solution of ammonia, using litmus paper as an indicator. Alkaline Bismutho-citrates—Ammonia is not the only base forming a compound with bismuth citrate. All other alkalis behave in a similar manner, and it is quite easy to prepare bismutho-citrates of sodiugn, potassium, or lithium, by titrating freshly-precipitated bismuth citrate with the hydroxides, carbonates, or bicarbonates of these alkalis. The solution on evaporation yields compounds which are soluble in water. The sodium compound dissolves more readily in water containing a little glycerin. I have no doubt these compounds will find an application in medicine. Bismutho-citrate of lithium is already on the market, and is recommended as a remedy for rheumatic gout. I am anticipating that the sodium compound has a great future before it. A solution containing the same quantity of bismuth as the Liquor Bismuthi A.P.F., approximately equivalent to 77 grains of bismutho-citrate of sodium per litre, was prepared in the College of Pharmacy, Brisbane, on 25th January, of last year, and it is still in a periectly sound condition. In preparing it I recommended that a solution of sodium carbonate be added to the bismuth citrate and heated to expel the carbon dioxide. An excess of the alkaline carbonate would, of course, precipitate the bismuth from solution. I am inclined to think that this compound is preferable to the bismutho-citrate of ammonia for use in medicine. Alkaline Bismutho-tartrates—Ammonium bismuth-tartrates has been recommended from time to time as a basis for bismuth and pepsin mixtures, but I cannot say that it appeals to me especially. A solution containing an equivalent amount of bismuth to the Liquor Bismuthi A.P.F. may be made according to the following formula :— Bismuth Subnitrate—70 grams. Nitric Acid (sp.gr., 1:420)—57 c.c. Sodium Potassium Tartrate—96°6 grams. Sodium Bicarbonate—37 °25 grams. Solution of Ammonia Water—a sufficient quantity. The method of procedure is similar to that adopted in the A.P.F, for preparing Liquor Bismuthi. Some slight difficulties in manipulation may be experienced that are not met with in preparing Liquor Bismuthi, 142 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. but they are not diffictlt to overcome. Other alkaline bismutho- tartrates are easily prepared by substituting alkaline hydroxides or carbonates for the solution of ammonia in the above formula. None of these compounds appear to possess any particular advantage over the bismutho-citrates, and are never likely to take their place in medicine. Alkaline Bismutho-racemates.—Racemic acid, as would be supposed from its relation to tartaric acid, readily forms alkaline bismutho- racemates. They are, of course, only of interest in the laboratory. Other Organic Bismuth Compounds.—Bismuth Malate, Bismuth Succinate, Bismuth Phthalate, Bismuth Camphorate, are all easily prepared compounds of bismuth, but in no case do they form soluble compounds with alkalis. The behaviour of Bismuth Malate towards alkalis is interesting, as its relationship to tartaric acid would lead one to anticipate the formation of soluble compounds similar to the tartrates. 6.—MODERN METHODS OF ANALYTICAL CONTROL. By J. H. E. Evans. (ComMMUNICATED BY R. C. CowLEy.) During recent years, perhaps, no department of the business of a manufacturer and wholesale distributor of the requirements of the drug trade has been more prominently before his mind than the necessity of adequate analytical control. The day when a good nose, a good eye for colour and shape, a sensitive touch, and a general commercial knowledge of the quality of material handled were con- sidered sufficient is past; the medical man and the pharmacist demand, and rightly so, a guarantee of purity and quality which can only be conscientiously given after an adequate scientific examination of the material in question. The researches into the constituents of our crude materia medica which have followed the general advancement of science in all directions, is the first cause which has led up to this demand. In the case of many products, we know now what we are dealing with—why a certain drug gives a certain result, and to what active principle or principles in that drug the effect is mainly due. We know how such active principles can be best extracted and preserved in the preparations thereof. We know that certain impurities may exist in certain chemicals, and that by improved methods of manufacture they can be eliminated. We know, in the case of many natural products, their chemical constituents and their physical reactions, and it is right and proper that those who rely on them when sick should obtain the full benefit of the researches and investigations which have resulted in the knowledge we possess. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. 143 Thus we come to the official requirements of our pharmacopeeias, and also to the standards set up by the Public Health Regulations in various countries of the world. These standards put a legal obligation on the manufacturer and distributor which he is bound to follow, even if he be not anxious to avail himself of such knowledge and information as may come before him for the conscientious discharge of his duty in supplying the best that it is in his power to do. Further, commercial considerations must weigh, and the manu- facturer who desires to hold and increase his business must, under modern conditions, be able to guarantee his goods and stand by his guarantee. Thus analytical control is an essential feature in our business, and the more complete it is the more conscientiously can the business be carried on; it may be added that the interest in the business is thereby increased. That there are many difficulties in the way must be confessed, and also there is to be emphasized the danger of being carried away by pure analytical data without due consideration of the wider aspects of the question. Cost of production has to be considered. Reliability of chemical and physical tests and standards must be proved before being adopted. Clinical testimony that the drug depends for its activity on the suggested standard of active principle must be obtained before we adopt that standard. Economic requirements of various countries must be considered. But, while the possible pit-falls are numerous, the broad basis of control is obvious, and this paper is an attempt to deal briefly with those methods which are generally adopted. In Great Britain and the British Colonies we follow first the standards of the British Pharma- copia, supplemented by the Indian and Colonial Addendum, which gives certain latitudes to those parts of the Empire which are governed by local conditions. The British Pharmacopeia is not, as is expressly pointed out, a legal standard, but is intended (as is stated in the prefaces) to afford to members of the medical profession and those engaged in the preparation of medicines throughout the British Empire one uniform standard and guide, whereby the nature and composition of substances to be used in medicine may be ascertained and deter- mined.” In many parts of the Empire, as in Australia, it has been supplemented by additional regulations imposed by the local Govern- ment, which presumably have been found necessary to cope with local conditions. In Great Britain itself, however, the Pharmacopeia is, under the Foods and Drugs Act, as a matter of fact, accepted as the standard in a court of law; although it is now some fourteen years old, it is generally sufficient if the defendant can show the article in question was B.P. to secure acquittal. There have been great strides in our knowledge since the British Pharmacopaia was published, and many of 144 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. its tests are now obsolete, so that conflicting evidence is often given, and the need of more recent standards with an official if not legal authority is badly wanted. In America, where the United States Pharmacopeia and National Formulary are legal standards, much confusion—more especially in regard to crude drugs—has arisen, and the amount of litigation and annoyance to importers through the varying interpretation of a par- ticular description, or the accuracy or otherwise of a particular official standard, has proved the enormous difficulty of making what is essen- tially a guide to medical and pharmaceutical practice (the chief object of which is purely a uniformity in medicine)—an absolute legal standard. Expert evidence—medical and scientific—is admittedly difficult to reconcile. A doctor or a chemist has his own hobby, and will often ride it to death. His opinion and his evidence, based on his work and his own interpretation of other people’s, is often narrow, and it appears to methat the most reasonable method of ensuring the purity of medicine is the Pharmacopeia, an official standard only between doctor, chemist, and the public, and such regulations as may, from time to time, appear necessary in different localities for the enforcing of that standard, but always with due regard to local conditions, advancement of knowledge, and ordinary common sense. I would venture to suggest that the adoption of other text-books (valuable works of reference though they may be) as official standards is not a step in the right direction. It is superfluous where our Pharmacopeia is up to date, as that work should contain all standards necessary. It also leads to confusion, and it is giving a prominence to the work and opinions of one man or body of men, put forward with no official authority, at the expense of others who may be just as capable of the work. Having dealt with the final object of analytical control—that is, the control of the supply by the pharmacist of “pure” drugs and preparations to the public—the question arises, Can the pharmacist, by his own work, ensure that he is supplying what is required of him—the best ? To a large extent he can. His training and education have all been based on the assumption that he will do so, and have to a great extent fitted him for the work. So far as care in dispensing a pre- scription—of the proper storing and handling of his more potent medicines, in the selection by smell, colour, shape, or general appear- ance, of his material is concerned—the pharmacist undoubtedly will use every possible care and control. Many make their own preparations, and apply such tests to what they have to buy as will ensure their getting, so far as it is possible for them to judge, the best obtainable. - But, as was emphasized at the beginning of this paper, scientific knowledge has advanced so far that, unless a man ean give practically PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. 145 his whole time to study and analytical work, it is an absolute impossibility for him to guard against all the pit-falls that arise m the selection of crude material, and the accurate manufacture of galenicals. Not only has the advancement of science shown what we ought to have and how to find it, but what we ought not to have, and the publication of these required natural principles, and the explanation of methods of detecting unexpected adulterants, has given the sophisticator his opportunity of cunningly hiding his adulteration, so that his product will pass the latest published tests. Empirical standards by independent and sometimes over-zealous workers are being frequently set up, suggested without the adequate amount of work necessary to establish them, so that the amount of analytical detail and forethought required before a final conclusion is arrived at is enormous, and requires a specially trammed mind, untrammelled with the consideration of daily commerce, to unravel. Ultimately, therefore, the actual control of the great bulk of the medicine consumed by the public is in the hands of the wholesale dealer — and manufacturer. In order to secure this control, a staff of scientists is employed where the specialized training and knowledge of various experts, each in their own branch of science, is co-ordinated and associated with the knowledge of commercial possibilities and require- ments in the possession of the house they work for. The material investigated divides itself inte four classes :— (a) Crude vegetable material (roots, barks, leaves, &c., and their preparations). (b) Essential oils. (c) Fixed oils and waxes. (d) Chemicals and synthetic products. Class ““A” (Crude Vegetable Material) may be subdivided into three groups— (1) Where the active principles are unknown, and the specific therapeutic action such that they do not lend themselves to definite physiological tests—for example, gentian and the simple bitters. Here an examination of the physical characteristics—colour, shape, odour, &c.—is generally sufficient, supplemented where necessary with micro- scopical examination. Estimation of the extractive matter is often a useful check, and this estimation is commonly employed in the examina- tion of the preparations of this group of drugs before they are passed into stock. _ (2) Where the exact active principles are unknown, but where the potency of the drug demands a physiological estimation, as in digitalis and other heart tonics, ergot, &c. In this connexion I would like to emphasize a distinction between physiological standardization and physiological estimation. The Pharmacopeia is the only authority 146 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. which can be followed for the preparations of official articles; the legitimate sphere of the manufacturer is limited to the prodution of efficient galenicals in accordance with the quantities and methods therein stated. All alterations of strength and dosage are questions for the pharmacologist and the physician. It is clearly necessary, however, to conform the activity of preparations of these potent and imperfectly understood drugs by the best means available. The reliability of action of those of our products which belong to this class is insured by expert selection of raw material, proper methods of prepa- rations and scientific physiological testing by specialists working independently of the manufacturing departments. The strength of preparations of the digitalis group is checked by their action on the isolated mammalian heart ; those of ergot by their action on the isolated uterus of the rabbit. While these and similar processes of estimation require the skill of a trained physiologist and elaborate apparatus to carry out I believe them to be of more value than the standardization to a definite lethal dose. (3) Where the activity of the drug is recognised to depend on some definite active principle or principles which can be chemically assayed, much attention is now given to this estimation, and wherever possible, preparations are so standardized ; but it is first necessary to establish the fact that the drug depends for its activity on the particular standard to be adopted, and that the method of estimation will be accurate in the hands of various workers. We have learned from this work that it is not always possible to judge the value of a drug by its appearance, as often clean bold roots or leaves, true to official descrip- tion, are found to be almost devoid of active principle, whereas a sample which the eye would reject is rich in this respect. Class “B ” (Essential Oils)—These adapt themselves particularly to adulteration, and more especially require a long experience in their valuation. So many chemists have devoted themselves to the analysis of this class of material, that it is often difficult to reconcile the opinions of experts, and this is made the harder by the introduction and deli- berate addition of clever synthetic adulterants at the source of supply. It has been said that an experienced eye and nose is as good a test for the purity of an essential oil as any analytical process of estimation. Though this may be an exaggeration, it is important to bear in mind that any data adduced from analysis should be checked by the appear- ance and odour of the oil under examination. _ The common tests employed are specific gravity, solubility, optical reaction, refractive index, estimation of phenol, alcohol, or ester, as the case may be, and, where the above are inconsistent or not con- cordant with previously observed results, fractional distillation and examination of the separate fractions obtained. - PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION B.—SUB-SECTION, PHARMACY. 147 Class ‘““C'” (Fixed Otls)—Broadly speaking, the above remarks apply to this class also, but the tests employed include saponification and iodine values, and other data for individual substances. Class “ D” (Chemicals and Synthetic Substances).—The identity of the ninlres having been proved and its appearance and solubility checked, an examination is required for impurities which may have crept in during the manufacture. Very great attention has been paid to this subject in recent years, with a marked improvement in supplies. Lead, iron, arsenic, and other such, objectionable impurities have been largely eliminated, and the purity of the pharmaceutical chemicals from reputable manufacturers leaves little to be desired. There is just a tendency to push this “ purity” to too great ex- .tremes, and an insistence to rid a chemical of the last traces of impurity imposes a task on the manufacturer which i increases the cost of material to perhaps an unnecessary extent. This is particularly the case in those chemicals which have industrial as well as pharmaceutical uses ; this has been well shown in the case of borax, where a higher arsenic content is admitted when sold for commercial purposes than in medicine. 6.—PHARMACEUTICAL ALCOHOL. By G. I. Mackay. (Published in Australasian Journal of Pharmacy, Feb., 1913, p. 37.) 148 Section C. GEOLOGY. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT : WALTER HOWCHIN, F.G.S. Lecturer in Geology and Paleontology, University of Adelaide. s THE EVOLUTION OF THE PHYSIOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Puatss III., IV. Much has been done of recent years in elucidating the chain of events which has led up to the present physiographical contours of the Australian Continent. The new methods of interpreting the existing features of a country and the recognition of their geological significance has opened a new and fruitful field for investigation the importance of which cannot be exaggerated. The American school of geologists led the way into these new avenues of geological observation, while scien- tific workers in other countries have taken full advantage of the new methods. The application of the principles of the New Physiography to Aus- tralian land forms has already produced fruitful and revolutionary effects in the interpretation of surface features. Mountain ranges, that had previously been regarded as of very high antiquity, are now known to be of comparatively recent origin; it has become possible - to classify rivers in relation to their respective origins, relative age, and even reconstruct the main outlines of their chequered history. We have learnt to group a large assemblage of data that stand corre- lated in the development and rounding off of a geographical cycle ; and, further, this greater insight into the geological meaning of existing land forms has a retrospective application by which we are better able to understand the fragmentary residues of the geographical cycles of the past. I have only to mention the good work done in this direction by David, Gregory, Andrews, Taylor, Siissmilch, Hedley, and other Australian physiographists as evidence of the great wealth of scientific - facts that can be gathered in this new field of investigation. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION OC. 149 South Australia is second to none of the Australian States in the interest which attaches to its geological and physiographioal features. It forms, in conjunction with portions of Western Australia, the geo- logical axis of the continent; within its boundaries the older rocks have their most typical development, while some of its physiographical outlines have a higher antiquity than can be seen in any other part of Australia. This is certainly true of the Permo-carboniferous glacial land-forms, which in the Inman Valley and Mount Compass districts still retam, over hundreds of square miles, a topography that was actually sculptured by sub-aerial agents in Paleozoic times. It is a notable example of what Professor W. W. Watts, in his Presidential Address at the British Association Meeting of 1903, called “fossil landscapes.” Speaking of British topography, he said, “‘[¢ is extremely probable that many of the present landscapes, not only in the midlands but elsewhere, may be really fossil landscapes, of great antiquity and due to causes quite different from those in operation there at the present day.” The South Australian example of geographical survival, just referred to, in its great age, vast extent, and unmistakable character, is, so far as I know, unique in survivals of this kind. Tempting as it may be te include within our survey the older land-forms of South Australia, the limitations of time and space require that we should restrict our remaiks to a narrower compass. We purpose to pass under review the Cainozoic order of succession, and trace the gradual developmert of those physiographical features that exist at the present time. A very cursory examination is sufficient to convince us that, in the field of our inquiry, we have to do with two very distinct physio- graphical. provinces. The low and broad watershed, which exists on the south side of the inland lakes, forms the southern rim of the great central basin and marks the boundary of these physiographical provinces. The geology of these respective regions, as a whole, is so much in contrast that they might well be regarded as distinct geological, as well as physiographical provinces, for there is very little in common in the geological features of the two areas. Notwithstanding this they have evidently been correlated in earth movements which they have shared in common. While the northern and central portions of the continent were below base-level and were building up sediments during cretaceous times, the southern portions were above sea-level and undergoing waste. Then, at the close of the Mesozoic periods, the northern areas became elevated into the zone of weathering, while the southern portions of the continent passed through a series of epeiro- genic movements by which depression of the land, with sedimentation, alternated with elevation and waste. ; With the exception of the Permo-Carboniferous glacial beds there are no deposits in southern South Australia intervening between the 150 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS —SECTION C. Cambrian and the Cainozoics. It is possible that, during this enormous interval of time, thick sediments may have been laid down within this area, during one or more geological periods, and have been entirely removed by denudation. Such would have been the fate of the Permo- Carboniferous glacial beds, as well as the Jurassic fresh-water beds of Leigh’s Creek and the isolated upland fragments of the Lower Cainozoia marine beds, had it not been for special circumstances of a local charac- ter that favoured their preservation. Indeed, the survival of the Permo-Carboniferous terranes would seem to imply the existence of a Mesozoic, as well as a Cainozoic, protecting cover, to secure the preservation of these feebly coherent rocks through the long interval down to the present day; but as to the age and nature of such lost records, if they ever existed, we have no knowledge and it would be useless to speculate. We know that the thick Cambrian sediments have been subjected to enormous waste and worn down, in places, to their lowest members and exposed the base-level of an older continent. In this process of severe denudation some newer formations may have been entirely removed. Throughout the Paleozoic periods important highlands existed further to the south than the present coastline, and the drainage was directed to the north. This is seen in that the trend lines of glacial dispersion, which prevailed both in Cambrian and Permo-Carboniferous times, originated in higher latitudes than the present limits of the continent, and travelled north. The cretaceous sea came as far south as Hergott, and it seems probable that the northerly-directed drainage was maintained until altered by the same earth movements which led to the withdrawal of the cretaceous sea from Central Australia. A discovery of great importance has lately* been made on the south coast of Western Australia, which proved that the cretaceous sea had an existence in the neighbourhood of Eucla. A bore put down at Madura, at the base of the Hampton Range, first penetrated the “* Hocene ”’ limestone of the district, and then, at a depth of 903 feet, entered a series of shales and dolomitic bands of rock that continued to a depth of 2041 feet, but was not bottomed. Another bore, situated further to the north, went through a similar section but reduced in thickness ; the ‘‘ Eocene” limestone in this bore had a thickness of 603 feet, and the underlying shales, a thickress of 667 feet, the latter resting on bedrock. In the shales of this bore, fossils characteristic of the cretaceous of Central Australia were found (Aucella hughen- densis and Maccoyella corbiensis). Whether this part of the cretaceous sea had any direct connexion with that of North and Central Australia is now impossible to say. Such a connexion may have existed across * See Lecture on “‘Some Geological Considerations affecting the Artesian Water Supply of Western Australia,’ delivered by Mr. A. Gibb Maitland, before the Western Australian Insti- tute of Engineers, 1912. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. 151 the intervening plateau, and the sediments, which must have been relatively thin, since removed by denudation; or the older rocks of Western Australia and South Australia may have formed a land-barrier to the union of the two branches or gulfs of the cretaceous sea, the one coming in from the north and the other from the south. In any case, the discovery is one of first importance, and must be taken into account in .explaining the physiographical development of the Australian Continent. It demonstrates that there was no extension of the conti- nent in that direction during cretaceous times. We now come back to the South Australian evidences. The geo- logical data, so far as they are at our command, are strongly indicative of sub-aerial conditions in the time immediately preceding, or as initia- tive to the Cainozoic period of southern Australia. We have already inferred the existence of highlands to the south of the present coast- line of South Australia, dating from early ages to the cretaceons. The loss of these southern watersheds and the tilting, to the south, of the southern portions of the continent, resulted in much of the land sinking below sea-level, and marks a critical period in the evolution of existing land forms. It created a new geographical axis in the country, situated further to the north than previously, and had the effect of reversing the drainage which, from that time, no longer flowed northwards, but was directed to the south, from which direction the sea had advanced. The disappearance of the southern watershed must have resulted in important climatic changes. The existence of land to the south would place the continent in a more favorable position for receiving a more generous rainfall—such as now occurs on the western side of Tasmania. A watershed in this position (if not so high as to establish a barrier to the rain-bearing winds), would supply perennial streams that, flowing northwards, would carry fertilizing waters far into the warmer latitudes. The physiographical changes that occurred at the close of the Mesozoic Age, carrying with them the loss of the south-to- north system of drainage, probably marks the first stages in that process of desiccation which, accentuated by later earth movements, has led up to the arid and sub-arid conditions of the present day. LOWER CAINOZOIC (EOCENE).* Freshwater Series—The lowest members of the Cainozoic series, in South Australia, consist of freshwater muds, sands, grits, fine gravels, _and carbonaceous deposits. These beds, which vary in thickness up “to 500 feet or 600 feet, have been proved i in almost all the bores that * It is probable that the chronology of the Cainozoics of southern Australia, as adopted by the late Prof. R. Tate and Mr. Dennant, may have to be modified, in view of recent discoveries. 152 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. have penetrated the older marine series, including the head of the Great Bight, Kent Town, Croydon, Noarlunga, and the Murray Plains. A good section of the beds is exposed in the sea cliffs, a little north of Port Willunga (Aldinga). No fossils, other than obscure carbonaceous remains, have been observed in the beds, but they have hitherto received but scant attention. Their wide-spread occurrence, and the frequent presence of carbonaceous muds in the series, are suggestive of a country of low relief, probably reduced in great measure to base level, a country of sluggish streams and swampy flats, that was finally submerged by the inroads of the Eocene sea. First Marine Series——The Eocene sea, which transgressed this low-lying country, encroached much beyond the present limits of the continent, and formed a new continental shelf. The littoral and shallow-water deposits of this old shore line were of no great thickness, and have long since been, for the most part, removed by denudation, while only the thicker deposits have resisted the hand of time. It is therefore difficult to draw the line that would show the full extent of this submergence, but we can certainly include within the area the southern parts of Western Australia, carrying the line in a northerly direction not less than 150 miles inland from the head of the Great Australian Bight, across Eyre’s Peninsula, and from thence eastwards— for there were at that time no Spencer’s Gulf, or Gulf St. Vincent, or Mount Lofty Ranges—it was all open sea. There is no doubt that, originally, the lower Cainozoic marine deposits formed a continuous sheet covering the present maritime districts from Western Austraha to the eastern side of Victoria. The sites of Perth, Adelaide, and Melbourne were at that period covered with deep water, and a bay of the Eocene sea extended imland along the present course of the River Murray as far as the south-western portions of New South Wales. These conclusions are based on the occurrence of numerous outliers of this rock, scattered over the districts just mentioned. The great crustal changes that transpired in late Cainozoic times broke up the continuity of these marine deposits, and, by elevating some of the fragments into a zone of rapid waste, led to their complete removal from large areas especially in the uplands. On the other hand the development of a graben, in the area of the present Gulf St. Vincent, helped to preserve these old Cainozoic deposits from subaerial waste, and supplies the maximum record of their thickness within the limits of South Australia. We have reason to think that no complete section of the lower Cainozoic marine beds have come down to the present day. The lower marine series is commonly covered with a second marine series of more recent date, with a plane of unconformity and erosion between the two. We have no means of estimating the time value of this interval of erosion, or to what extent the lower series has been reduced thereby, but the PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. 153 evidence points in the direction that the loss by denudation has been very considerable. The Adelaide section, taken jointly from the Kent Town and Croydon bores, is, probably, most intact, butis evidently far from complete. The late Professor Ralph Tate* estimated the thickness of the fossiliferous Eocene of the Croydon bore to be 921 feet, with a possible 45 feet more. The fragment of fossiliferous Eocene preserved on a ledge of Cambrian rocks penetrated: in the Kent Town bore,} near Adelaide, has a thickness of 91 feet,{ which Tate regarded as higher in the series and more littoral in character than the beds penetrated in the Croydon bore. It seems most likely that the Kent Town beds represent a late stage in the deposition, and were the result of an overlap and transgression by the sea over the lacustrine area which, by a downward movement, gradually passed below sea-level. When added together, we find that the Croydon and Kent Town sections give a total thickness of at least 1,070 feet, but presently we shall be able to show that even that part of the series which has been more or less protected by a downthrow, in the formation of the St. Vincent’s trough, had undergone great erosion in the pre-Pliocene times, and thereby reduced the apparent thickness of the beds. As the base of the Hocene marine beds at Kent Town is separated irom the upper limits of the same beds in the Croydon bore by a vertical difference of about 700 feet, on the theory stated above, these figures would represent the maximum possible loss of these beds by denudation if we regard the Kent Town and Croydon readings as parts of one and the same section. The fragments of lower Cainozoic beds outcropping along the shores of Gulf St. Vincent evidently rest on the same shelf of Cambrian rocks as the Kent Town beds, and must be correlated with these, as they have a general agreement with the latter as to altitude, fossil contents, and littoral conditions in deposition. This is typically the case with the Aldinga Bay beds, which show a great variety of sediments, and change materially within short distances. Tate says of these beds—‘‘It is impossible by words to adequately convey to the mind the changing nature of the Eocene sediments composing this section.” He then gives a detailed account of numerous sections exposed in the sea cliffs, within a few miles, in illustration of their lithological variation. § The Eocene beds make no prominent features in the physiographical outlines of South Australia. They form level country at low altitudes. With the exception of the Nullarbor Plains, at the head of the Great Australian Bight, and the Murray Plains, and parts of the south-east, * Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aus., Vol. XXII, p. 196. 3 + “ Notes on the Tertiary Strata beneath Adelaide,” Trans, Roy. Soc. $. Aus., Vol. V, p. 40. Ibid., Vol. XXII, p. 197. t See footnote in seg. - § Tate on “ The Correlation of the Marine Tertiaries of Australia,’ Part I11, Trans, Roy. Soc. S, Aus., Vol. XX., pp. 122-124. 154 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. they make no great spread, and are often masked by more recent deposits. They have had, however, a very important effect on the economic aspects of the country where they occur. Their decomposi- tion makes a rather poor soil, which is generally either sandy or a hard travertine crust, produced by a chemical solution of the calcareous contents in the wet season and the reprecipitation of the same in the dry months, which slowly builds up a limestone at or near the surface. In this process of solution and reconstruction there is always a tendency to produce a certain proportion of salinity in the soil and circulating waters, which in areas of defective drainage makes the soil unfruitful. The vegetation covering these areas is of a very characteristic type, being the natural home of the mallee, with a thick undergrowth of a sub-arid flora. In southern York Peninsula these beds have given rise to peculiar surface features. The Eocene limestones (which rest on Permo- carboniferous boulder clay) have been removed from extensive areas by solution, leaving many saucer-shaped depressions varying in size up to 12 miles in circumference. The dissolved material has been carried by rain water and precipitated in the form of travertine lime- stone, gypsum, and salt. As no drainage from this country reaches the sea, the soakage finds its way into these sunken areas, and, as the floor is retentive, the water becomes evaporated, and the salt and gypsum are deposited as a crust in the drier months, which has given rise to an important industry. Similar conditions, on a smaller scale, occur in Kangaroo Island.* As a rule, the lower Cainozoic beds preserve an almost horizontal position, with an occasional dip (rarely exceeding 5°), and when it does occur generally persists over long distances. They have, however, been subjected to much faulting, and, in one instance, to be referred to later, they are highly inclined and overfolded. MIDDLE CAINOZOIC ((?) MIOCENE). Second Marine Series—An important break in the continuity of deposits occurred in southern Australia at the close of the Eocene period. That period was determined, and a new cycle inaugurated, by earth movements which produced an elevation of the land and the consequent retreat of the sea to latitudes further south. The only data by which we can judge the length of this interval of erosion is in the stratigraphical and paleontological discordance that exists between the first and second series of the Cainozoic marine sediments. * For further particulars, see Howchin, ‘‘ On the Origin of the Salt Lagoons of Southern Yorke Peninsula.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aus., Vol. XXV, p. 1. e PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. 155 The differentiation of the two sets of beds, in both these respects, 1s strongly marked. In places where the two series are brought into juxtaposition, as in the Aldinga cliffs, and the banks of the River Murray at Nor’-West Bend, a slight stratigraphical unconformity can be recognised, the newer series resting on the eroded edges and slightly more tilted beds of the older.* At Jemmy’s Pomt, Gippsland Lakes (Victoria), the Miocene beds flank an Eocene escarpment. In lithological contrasts the newer series is mostly of a sandy nature, often incoherent, and seldom takes the form of a limestone,f as is frequently the case in the older series. The paleontological contrasts are equally marked. The material available in South Australia for such a comparison is limited, but Tate estimated that at Spring Creek (Victoria) only 10 per cent. of the mollusca are common to both series ; and at Muddy Creek, only 7 per cent. ; while the same authority estimates that, of existing species, the Eocene of southern Australia carries an average of less than 2 per cent., and the Miocene about 10 per cent., a difference sufficiently great to demand an extended interval of time to bring about the modification of the molluscan fauna to this degree. So far as I am aware, no intermediate beds, either fresh-water or marine, are known to occur in any part of the region concerned ; there is, therefore, an important hiatus in the geological records at this stage; but we may conclude with certainty that, between the time of the retreat of the Eocene sea and its return in the second Cainozoic submergence, there was a lengthy period during which the land stood at a greater elevation and was undergoing waste, constituting what may have been a complete geographical cycle. In most cases the Miocene beds rest immediately on the Eocene ; but at Marino, near Brighton, and some other places, they rest on a Cambrian floor; at Hallett’s Cove, on Permo-carboniferous glacial beds. The Miocene beds have a more restricted distribution than those of the Eocene, they do not occur at so high a level as some of the Hocene fragments (seldom, if ever, exceeding 60 feet above present sea-level), they are also much inferior in thickness and more terrigenous in the nature of their sediments, all suggestive that the Miocene subsidence was of less extent than the Eocene, of shorter duration, and laid down in shallower waters. It must, however, be allowed that their absence from the higher levels, where the Eocene beds are sometimes found, may arise from their having been removed by erosion. As they are superior to the Eocene, they would be the first to suffer from the destructive forces of sub-aerial waste, and, as relatively thin and imperfectly consolidated beds, would weather rapidly. In the rare * Tate, “‘ Miocen? and its Relation to Eocene.’’ Loc. cit., p. 119. + The only exception I know is at the head of the Great Bight. t Loe. cit., pp. 136-148. 156 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. instances where the Miocenes rest on a Paleozoic floor, it is possible that the older marine beds had been entirely removed by denudation before the sinking of the land that admitted the Miocene sediments. The Miocene beds make no prominent feature in the present landscape. They occur, as a rule, coincidently with the older Cainozoie marine beds, and supply the same physiographical features. UPPER CAINOZOIC (NEOGENE). Thwd Marine Series —Older Pliocene-——The marine beds that were determined by the late Professor Tate to be of lower Pliocene age do not appear at the surface, and have been proved only in three borings. The localities are situated near Adelaide, in a north and south direction, and are comprehended in a lineal distance of 18 miles. The first to be put down was at Dry Creek, at an elevation of 14 feet above sea- level. The beds were entered at a depth of 320 feet, and proved to be 90 feet in thickness.* A second discovery of beds of this age was made in sinking a bore at Croydon, 24 miles west of Adelaide. The surface is 56 feet above sea-level, and the fossiliferous Pliocene was proved at a depth of 395 feet, and showed a thickness of 320 feet.f Later, a third bore was put down, 1 mile from Smithfield, and about 18 miles north from the Croydon bore. The same fossiliferous bed was proved at a depth of 315 feet, with 5 feet of dark-coloured fetid mud resting on top. The greatest quantity of material from the bores in question was obtained from the Dry Creek sinking, and is therefore the most valuable for comparison. Professor Tate determined 60 species from this material, of which 16 (or 27 per cent.) proved to be recent forms ; 24 extinct species, common to the Eocene and Miocene fauna ; and 20 restricted species. The stratigraphical relationship of this fossiliferous horizon ate somewhat obscure. The order of events that followed the close of the Miocene submergence is difficult to trace. The paleontological evidence requires that there should be, at least, as great an interval between the eee ee * The bore was stopped at this depth, but it is uncertain whether the base of the fossiliferous beds was reached or not. It is not known what beds underlie these Pliocene sands. Tate ‘‘ On ‘the Discovery of Marine Deposits of Pliocene Age in Australia,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aus., Vol. XEIT, p. 172. {+ There appears to be a discrepancy in Tate’s estimate of the thickness of the fossiliferous Pliocene beds in relation to the two bores put down at Croydon. In his first paper, dealing with No.1 Bore (Ibid., Vol. XIII, p. 183), he says,‘‘ The great thickness of the Older Pliocene, 406 feet at the least, is unexpected, as I had conjectured that its base was near-approached in the Dry Creek bore, at a level corresponding with the superior beds only passed through in the Croydon bore ; but, admitting the correctness of the assumption, then the new facts simply indicate a great inequality of the floor on which the Older Pliocene deposits have accumulated.” Tate, nm a subsequent paper dealing with the Croydon Bore No. 2, states that in Bore No. 1 the fogsiliferous development of the Older Pliocene extended from the 395-feet to 605 feet (= 210 feet), while in his summary of the strata in No. 2 Bore, which was put down close to No. 1 Bore, he gave the thickness of the fossiliferous Pliocene as 320 feet. Ibid, Vol. XXII, pp. 194, 196. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. 157 second and third submergencies as between the first and second. Unfortunately, this interval by which the Miocene and Pliocene marine deposits was separated in time is, so far as definite evidence goes, a geological blank, and its time value can be gauged only on the altered facies of the fauna which appears in the third submergence as compared with the second—a difference which, as we have seen, is very great. As the Croydon bore supplies the only evidence we possess of the stratigraphical relationship of the marine Pliocene to the underlying strata, it is of great importance in our attempt to trace the order of events in mid-Cainozoic and later times. Following Tate’s guidance, we see in the Croydon section—lIst, a bottom series of unfossiliferous _ sharp sands, sandy clays, and fine-grained sandstone, having a thickness of 581 feet, resting on a Cambrian floor. These are (?) infra-Hocene, and indicate fluvio-lacustrine conditions. 2nd, there follow, in ascending order, 921 feet of fossiliferous lower Cainozoic (Eocene). 3rd, a barren zone of sandy beds, containing only triturated and uncertain evidence of organic remains, equal to about 255 feet. 4th, the Older Pliocene (marine), 320 feet in thickness. With respect to this barren zone, separating the clearly-defined Eocene below from the equally well-defined marine Pliocene above, Tate says, ‘‘ Below the depth of 715 feet no fossils appear till 778 feet, but the nature of the fossils there encountered do not permit of a decisive determination as to age, and this also applies to other occurrences. It is not until the fossiliferous bed at 970-1,000 feet is reached that undoubted evidence of Eocene age is forthcoming.”* -This intercalation of 255» feet of relatively barren sands, separating the Eocene and Pliocene in the section, may have a special significance. Tate could not detect the presence of a Miocene fauna in the section, but the place where it ought to have been in the section is occupied by this barren zone of 255 feet. May not these almost unfossiliferous sands represent the interval of elevation which must have existed between the laying down of the Miocene and the Pliocene? If so, then a period of sub-aerial waste preceded the marine Pliocenes, and, we may assume, was suffi- ciently long to remove locally the whole of the Miocene and the upper members of the Eocene. Then, when the earth movements were again reversed, in the direction of depression, the drainage areas would become aggraded, and the rain wash on the surrounding lower Cainozoic sediments would cause, to some extent, the mixing of the derived fossiliferous material with the alluvial sands. At a later stage the depression became sufficiently pronounced to admit the sea, and the laying down of the Pliocene sediments. It is highly probable that, at that time, the rift valley of South Australia had already been defined, and within its protected area, if anywhere, the sediments that belong to the pre-Pliocene interval are most likely to occur. * Loc. cit., p. 195. 158 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. In the three great submergences of the southern portions of Australia that have now been briefly reviewed, we possess geological data of the greatest importance in the elucidation of events that have contributed towards the building of Australia. Two of these sub- mergences were regional in extent, but the third, or newest, was apparently local,* and a concomitant of the earth movements which led to the formation of the graben or trough now occupied by the sea of Gulf St. Vincent. So far, our attention has been chiefly directed to the considera- tion of the negative land forms in the evolution of the physiographical outlines of South Australia ; we have now to study its positive features, and, fortunately, here the data, although very complex, are at least more copious than those on which we have had to rely in the earlier part of our inquiries. The existing topographical features of the country have been, in the main, sculptured during the latter half of the Cainozoic era, and, for our purpose, may be classed as the SUB-AERIAL NEOGENE. Resting on the marine Miocenes, as well as upon the older rocks in the Mount Lofty and other ranges, are mottled clays, sand-rock, and conglomerates, of fresh-water origin, and occupying various altitudes from sea-level to over 1,000 feet in height. Tate, in his Presidential Address before the Adelaide Philosophical Society (Royal Society of South Australia) in 1879, designated these beds, collectively, as ““ Upland Miocene,” t and in the same category included such diverse formations as the Desert Sandstone of Central Australia, as well as the clays and sandstones of Myponga, Yankalilla, Cape Jervis, and Inman Valley, which are now known to be of Permo-carboniferous glacial origin. Thus, Tate’s Upland Miocene, as now diagnosed, comprehended various sediments, ranging from Permo-carboniferous to Pleistocene times; but, while there may be a certain superficial resemblance in the litho- logical facies of the beds in question, a careful examination reveals marked differences on which a more discriminating classification can be made. Confining our attention to the beds in Tate’s classification that are found typically on the flanks and secondary heights of the Mount Lofty and Barossa Ranges, we think that Tate’s estimate of their age was, on the whole, too high. These alluvial and lacustrine deposits, represent, in time, no doubt a very extended period, and, while it is possible that some may even go back as far as late Miocene, we think that the bulk of thesesub-aerial deposits ought not to be placed further back than Pliocene or even Pleistocene. The evidence for this will be seen in the sequel. * The newest of the three marine series that occur on the Glenelg River (Victoria) is evidently much more recent than the beds known as Older Pliocene in South Australia, and are probably of Pleistocene age. See Dennant, Aus. Asso. Ad. Sc., Vol. II, p. 448; also Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aus., Vol. XVII, p. 217. f Loc, cit., 1878-9, pp. lviii-lxii. See also Scoular. ibid., Vol. III, p. 107. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. 159 That these high-level clays, sandstones, and conglomerates have an important place in the later geological history of South Australia may be inferred from the following considerations—(1) Their very general distribution throughout the country, extending from the ~ south coast to the region of the inland lakes; (2) their great thicknesses; (3) they have no relationship with the present river systems or lines of drainage ; and (4) they occur at very different altitudes. It is evident that they belong to a hydrographical system that has been entirely wiped out, and the history of these dead rivers must be read in connexion with earth movements that have entirely changed the face of nature in the regions concerned. The dominant factor in the Neogene period of Australia is that of A Great Uplift. We have already seen that the evidences point to the fact that, in lower Cainozoic times, the Mount Lofty Ranges did not exist, but that the land was, in the first instance, low andswampy ; then submerged by the sea, during two successive periods; and then, in post-Miocene times was, in the main, permanently elevated into dry land. This upward movement was continental in extent, and inaugurated a new geographical cycle. South-central Australia has undergone but slight orogenic defov- mation since early geological times. The orogenic energy that pro- duced powerful foldings and overthrusts of the Cambrian sediments died out in mid-Paleozoic times, inasmuch as the Permo-carboni- ferous glacial clays and sandstones are no more disturbed than the late Cainozoics. In the Neogene uplift the movement was epeirogenetic— a great regional plateau uplift, that extended far beyond the limits of South Australian territory. This point has been established by the important observations made by David, Andrews,* Hedley, Taylor, and others, with respect to the eastern States, and demonstrates the existence of a synchronal physiographic cycle, for post-Miocene times, that includes a great part of the Australian continent. Within the South Australian region the elevatory forces gave a gentle slope of the land from the north towards the south, with the watersheds situated much further inland than is the case to-day; the sea retreated from the areas of the gulfs, and the shore line was pushed further to the south. Had it been a simple, vertical uplift, this would not have materially altered the drainage lines, except so far as the rejuvenation of the streams and deepening of the gorges. This was probably the state of things in the earlier stages of the uplift of the South Australian peneplain, and led to the formation of the great _ * E. C. Andrews, ‘‘ Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in Late and Post Tertiary Time.” Jour. Roy. Soc. New South Wales, Vol. XLIV, pp. 420-480. 160 PRESIDENT’S) ADDRESS.—SECTION OC. longitudinal valleys of erosion which still connect the interior of the continent with the south coast, but fail to carry the present drainage. . Earth movements that followed the uplift (or were developed as isostatic equivalents of such an uplift) have profoundly altered the features of the country, and changed both its drainage and its climate. No important folds were developed by these earth movements—indeed, the rocks were placed at high tension by the uplift, and ultimately formed adjustments by warping, fracture, and settlement. The original plateau of uplift has been greatly modified by sub- aerial denudation and by faulting. The old peneplain is still clearly distinguishable in the flat-topped hills which in the Mount Lofty Ranges have an average elevation of about 1,500 feet, and from which rise the greater heights of Mount Lofty (2,334 feet) and Mount Barker, as monadnocks. This old plateau has been greatly incised by river action, that has, in places, exposed the pre-Cambrian basement. The streams are small, but numerous, and flow through gorges 300 feet to 500 feet deep, and are mostly in a juvenile stage of development. In places, very conspicuous horsts have been left by the subsidence of the surrounding areas—as, for example, the Hogshead, near Pekina, and Mount Remarkable, in the southern Flinders Ranges. The Mount Lofty Ranges are bounded by fault scarps, both on their eastern and western flanks—especially the western—where they pass, by a series of shelvings or steps, down to the deep graben of Gulf St. Vincent. This is a feature not confined to the Mount Lofties, as the Willunga, the Barossa, and the Flinders Ranges show similar step-faulting, associated with large transverse fault planes, which have cut up the hill country into immense angulated blocks, and these major earth segments are again broken up into secondary fault blocks. Of these may be mentioned—(a) the Willunga major segment, with the fault scarp of the Willunga Ranges, forming an obtuse angle with the coast scarp that borders the throwdown to the gulf; (6) the Mount Lofty segment, with its eastern scarp-face, near Summertown and Piccadilly, its throwdown in the piedmonts of the western side to the great trough of the Gulf, and its gradual slope southwards to the base of the Willunga Ranges; (c) the Barossa segment, with its pro- minent western scarp, in two steps; and (d) the southern ‘Flinders, with a bold and precipitous scarp, facing the Gulf, and its return (at nearly right angles) in an easterly direction, forming the Crystal Brook Ranges. In this magnificent field of block-faulting (and our illustrations might have been extended to many others equally well defined), we must limit our attention mainly to one segment, viz., the Mount Lofty, which may be taken as the type example of the class. We have already seen that the 1,500-ft. level in the Mounty Lofty Ranges represents the remnants of the peneplain of the original uplift now extensively dissected. On the western side of this peneplain PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. 161 the crust of the earth has sunken, meridionally, in long sections, and gone down in successive steps towards a deep trough, or rift, that constitutes one of the most striking features in the geological structure of South Australia. In the neighbourhood of Adelaide four such faulted platforms can be recognised (see Plate IV.). First Fault-Platform.—Five hundred feet lower than the general level of the Mount Lofty plateau, and about 1,000 feet above sea-level, there is an important shelf of cambrian rocks, corresponding, ina general way, to the average height of the piedmonts. This shelf forms the highest of the series of western step faults, and at this elevation an old base-level was developed when the main drainage was north and south. Thick alluvial deposits of mottled sands and clays and occasional gravel beds (corresponding to the upper miocene of Tate) occupy the crests of the foot-hills of the ranges. They make the surface features of Belair, Blackwood, the higher levels of Coromandel Valley, and, in a slowly decreasing gradient, pass through Happy Valley, Morphett Vale, and Noarlunga, where, as old channels of drainage, they formerly united with the trunk stream that flowed down the valley now occupied by the waters of the Gulf. The fluvial deposits of this dead river overlie the fossiliferous marine beds during part of their course, and on the sides of the valley make scarps of indurated material, 10 to 12 feet in height. These old river terraces occur at intervals as far as their outlet at Noarlunga. This shelf of cambrian rocks, which carries deposits from early cainozoic times to the present, may be appropriately called the Blackwood-Belaiz platform. Second Fault-Platform.—This occupies the sloping ground at the base of the foot-hills. The fault-plane connected with the downthrow can be seen in the Fourth Creek (Morialta) and in the quarries of Stonyfell and Mitcham. The old river deposits skirt the base of the hills, and can be seen at Athelstone, Magill, Stonyfell, and Burnside. This may be called the Athelstone-Burnside platform, which is about 500 feet above sea-level and about 500 feet below the Blackwood-Belair platform, Third Fault-Platform—The third step-fault forms a platform of cambrian rocks at some depth below the present surface, bordering the ranges and underlying the Adelaide Plains. Its position was proved by the Kent Town (Adelaide) bore at 221 feet* helow sea-level, or * Tate, ‘‘ Notes on the Tertiary Strata beneath Adelaide.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aus., V ol. V, pp. 40-43. Howchin, “‘ An Outlier of Older Cainozoic Rocks in the River Light, near Mallala.” Ibid., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 14-20. When Tate described the Kent Town section he had not, at that time, distinguished between the Older and Newer Marine Tertiaries, and he therefore groups all the marine beds under the Miocene. In the second of the above references I have attempted to draw the line of distinction between the two series, guided by Tate’s descriptions, but, as I have not explained this in the paper referred to, it may lead to some confusion in interpreting the table given on page 20. In Tate’s section, the first 53 feet of the marine beds appear to belong to the upper or Miocene series; then follow 5 feet of coarse and “‘ very sharp’”’ white quartz sand and gravel, which appears to be the base of the Miocene, and represent the fresh-water conditions of the interval of erosion ; and then, a lower marine series, which Tate subsequently called Beeane; which has a thickness of 91 feet in the section. 6117. F 162 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION C. about 1,220 feet below the Belair platform. This may be called the Adelaide platform, resting on which are the older cainozoic marine beds, proved by sinkings at Adelaide, Campbelltown, Paradise, and Klemzig. These buried outliers occur at or about sea-level, and there- fore correspond as to altitude with the same beds seen on the shores of the Gulf at Noarlunga, Aldinga, and Sellick’s Hill, and we may reason- ably conclude that they all rest on the same shelf of old rocks. Fourth Fault-Platjorm.—The fourth fault-shelf was revealed by the Croydon bore (situated about 3 miles west of the Kent Town bore), where the platform of cambrian rocks was proved at a depth of 2,206 feet below sea-level. Here, again, as in the case of the Kent Town bore, fluviatile and marine beds of lower camozoic age rest upon a cambrian platform. In the strongly contrasted altitudes of the older cainozoic beds we have a clear proof of differential movements, which have determined the vertical position of the dismembered marine sediments. This has occurred, not only from secondary faultings that transpired within the limits of the major displaced blocks, but also in the strati- graphical discordance of one faulted block as compared with another. Thus, in the Willunga faulted segment there is a small outlier of the older marine series on the top of the Hindmarsh tiers, some 900 feet above sea-level, while on the adjoinmg Mount Lofty faulted segment (sloping to the base of the Willunga scarp) the same lower marine beds occur in three patches, one on the sea coast ; the second, 4 miles distant, near Bellevue, 250 feet above sea-level; and the third, in a further distance of 3 miles to the north-east, at 600 feet above sea-level.* We have, therefore, within the area of a few square miles, four small patches of the same fossiliferous rock, on successive steps, ranging from sea-level up to the main plateau of the highlands, at 900 feet above sea-level. If we take in a wider field for comparisor, between the highest platform carrying the lower marine beds on the Hindmarsh tiers and the cambrian platform carrying the same series at the bottom of the Croydon bore, there is a vertical difference of 3,100 feet. These interesting structural features can scarcely be explained on any other hypothesis than by assuming the existence of a fault- trough on a large scale in the valley of Gulf St. Vincent. It is true that the late Professor Tate called such a theory in question, and gave a different interpretation to the Kent Town and Croydon sections. He states,f ‘‘ Professor David and Mr. Howchin have sought to explain the stratigraphical relationships of these two dissimilar series of beds by the introduction of a north and south fault, ranging along the buried scarped front of the Archean rocks, on which the Eocene and Miocene of the Adelaide plateau repose. This conjecture disregards * Tate, ‘‘ Eocene of Aldinga Bay.’”’ Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aus., Vol. XX, p. 121. + Tbid., Vol. XXTTI, p. 197. \ c f OE a ae ne 3 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. 163 the probability that physical conditions of varying character may have been the contributing cause of the lithological and organical dis- parities. “Tf the position of the Eocene in the Croydon bore be due to a downthrow fault, then it might be reasonably expected that the very distinctive Eocene series of the Kent Town bore would be repeated in the Croydon bore; but, as such is not the case, I am of opinion that — there is no direct evidence of a fault, and that the Kent Town series belong to a later period, and are more littoral in their organic contents. “ The series of events that these sections teach us may be summar- ized as follows :—The Post-Cretaceous sea laved the base of the now subterranean escarpment of over 2,000 feet in vertical height, and at that measure the land stood relatively higher. Deposition and depres- sion were synchronous over the submerged plain ; coincident therewith, wholly or in part, lacustrine and paludinal accumulations, preserved in the carbonaceous beds of the Kent Town bore, were formed on the higher ground. Finally, depression submerged the terrestrial surfaces at Kent Town, and a more littoral life prevailed there in comparison with the earlier Eocene deposits. The miocene deposition followed, succeeded by the extensive denudation of the Miocene and higher levels of the Eocene, and the removal of about 800 feet of the Hocene series, constituting the Adelaide plain. Over this plain of marine denudation, Pliocene marine beds were accumulated, these of a more or less shallow-water origin, and over an area of depression; finally to be converted into a vast lacustrine area, in which land drifts of about 400 feet have been accumulated.” s Tate’s theory of a considerable erosion of the lower marine beds, that has reduced their thickness within the area of the Gulf, is quite consistent with the views now advanced, and, indeed, has been applied in this address to account for the absence of the miocene, as well as the hiatus that occurs in the section between the lower cainozoic marine beds, and the fossiliferous pliocene that rests upon the former. Whilst admitting the point for which Tate contends, the phenomena concerned cannot be fully explained without assuming the concurrent action of earth movements that led to the development of a vast graben, or rift valley, the depth of which was, probably, not reached by the Croydon bore, as that bore was situated on the side of the valley and marginal to the ranges. Confirmatory evidences of the existence of such a trough can be gathered from several sources, in addition to those already adduced. The upper steps of this great trough fault are within range of actual observation. The foot-hills of the Mount Lofty Ranges take their form from a downthrow, parallel to the strike. The strike of the beds is approximately north and south, and they consist chiefly of a thick quartzite (1,000 feet), which is overlain by an equally thick series of F2 164 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION C. ” slates. A strike fault has thrown down the overlying slates and given them a position lower than the quartzite, which should underlie them. Usually, the quartzite, at the point of junction, makes a sharp fold, following the downthrow of the slates. Again, the fault-plane, which was probably, in the first instance, a normal fault, has become a reversed fault by overthrusting towards the sunken area, as in the Stonyfell quarries ; or an underfold, as in one of the Mitcham quarries. A still more striking illustration of a downthrowto the Gulf is seen at the Sellick’s Hill beach, 30 miles south of Adelaide. Here the older cainozoic marine beds, which elsewhere are practically horizontal, have been thrown down to the Gulf, at a very high angle, reaching the vertical, and even overturned in the direction of the downthrow—the underlying cambrian slates have also participated in the same movement.* Further confirmatory evidence of the instability of this section of the earth’s crust can be gathered from the earthquake records. The meridional line of Gulf St. Vincent, with its transverse lines corres- ponding to the outlines of the chief block segments, may be regarded as the most seismically unstable area in Australia. Slight tremors are frequent, and within the period of European settlement two rather severe earthquakes have had their epicentra off the shores of South Australia ; one, in 1902, within the limits of the Gulf, and the other, in 1897, in close proximity to it.f Such seismic activity not only shows that this longitudinal strip of country is a zone of crustal instability, but suggests that the subsidence of the trough valley is still in progress. We are unable to include in our present review Yorke Peninsula and Spencer Gulf, as the data available for our purpose with regard to these districts are very limited. However, it is worth noting that, south of Ardrossan, the cambrian rocks, which are almost horizontal away from the seaboard, are thrown sharply down as they near the coast and pass below sea-level, which is suggestive of similar tectonic movements having operated on the western side of Gulf St. Vincent, as on its eastern. No bores have tested the ground around the shores of Spencer Gulf, and the entrance to the latter gulf is largely bridged by islands, composed of older rocks, that fail to give the same kind of evidence for subsidence as occurs in Gulf St. Vincent. On the other hand, the two basins have much in common, and we may reasonably infer that their physiographical evolution has been along coincident lines. One remarkable feature of the local geology is the apparent absence of the lower marine beds, at depth, from the southern end of Gulf * “ Description of a Disturbed Area of Cainozoic Rocks in South Australia with Remarks on its Geological Significance.” Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aus., Vol. XXXYV, pp. 47-59. + Howchin’s ‘‘ Geography of South Australia,” pp. 135-141. ee is ee oe PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. 165 St. Vincent. The beds in question occur as thin cappings on Kangaroo Island and in southern Yorke Peninsula, and for the most part resting on a floor of Permo-carboniferous glacial clay. This clay is also on the coast at Cape Jervis, thus forming, with Kangaroo Island and Yorke Peninsula, an investing circle around the outlet of the gulf, while, at Kingscote, on the north side of Kangaroo Island, the same glacial clay has been proved to continue downwards, from sea-level to 1,100 feet, where it rests on cambrian slates. It is somewhat anomalous that there should be such a great thickness of marine cainozoic beds in the trough near Adelaide, while they appear to be entirely absent below sea-level at the entrance to the Gulf. They may, of course, be faulted _ down in a narrow strip in the centre of Investigator Strait. In any case, Kangaroo Island and Yorke Peninsula form horsts that, at present, are but little above sea-level. We must now take another step forward and study the course of events that immediately preceded the present outlines in South Aus- tralian topography. Or, in other words, THE CHANGES THAT TRANSPIRED IN THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. This forms one of the most interesting chapters in South Australian geology, for it throws some light on the causes of existing earth-forms, the origin of the existing system of drainage, and the physiographical changes that brought in the present arid conditions in the climate of the country. It is the rivers, chiefly, that must tell us this story— rivers that are now dead—antecedent rivers—young rivers—reju- venated rivers—rivers partly old and partly young—lost watersheds— new water partings. If we examine the topographic features of South Australia we must be struck by the fact that neither the rivers nor the watersheds conform to the natural grain of the country. The strike of the Cam- ; brian beds is approximately north and south—the hard rocks form the elevated features and the soft rocks the intervening valleys—but, ____ while these longitudinal valleys are choked with old fluviatile material, the existing rivers that find their way to the Southern Ocean are all __ transverse rivers. This is true of the Broughton, the Light, the North -* Para, the South Para, the Little Para, the Torrens, and the Onka- ___— paringa (in part) ; all of which cut the ranges at right angles, and must ____ be regarded as consequent rivers that were called into existence by the ___ general uplift of the country and its concomitants. That these rivers should not flow southward, instead of westward, is the more remarkable, ee inasmuch as the valleys trend in that direction. The orientation of these rivers—at right angles to the older system of drainage— was probably brought about by the development of the trough-fault, or 166 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. graben, of the Gulf. This north and south subsidence created a trans- verse system of drainage that intersected the longitudinal valleys and diverted their drainage. The rivers of the Mount Lofty Ranges stand related to an extensive field of phenomena that indicate important modifications of the surface features during Pleistocene times. Dating from the earlier cainozoic, and for a time durmg the Neogene uplift, the drainage of south-central Australia found its outlet on the southern coast. The central basin of Australia, if it existed at all at that time, was of limited extent, and was situated further to the north than the present Lake Eyre depression. The trunk rivers flowed north and south, running parallel with the prevailing strike, and formed main arteries of drainage, of which only the River Murray has persisted to the present day. Two other important outlets for the northern drainage certainly existed, the lower reaches of which are represented by the drowned valleys of the two great gulfs. Captaim Flinders, with the instinct of a true geographer, expected to find a large river at the head of each of these two considerable inlets of the sea, but~was disappointed, and very much surprised at their absence. In describing the head of Spencer Gulf, he says, “‘ The width of the opening round Point Lowly left us a consolatory hope that it (Spencer Gulf) would terminate in a river of importance, . . . the inlet wholly terminated . . . it seemed remarkable, and was very mortifying to find the water at the head of the gulf as salt nearly as at the ship.” * Of the head of Gulf St. Vincent he says, “‘ The shores then appeared to close round at the distance of 7 or 8 miles, and the absence of tide gave no prospect of finding any river at the head of the inlet.”"f A forecast that was soon verified by a closer examination in a boat. When the epeirogenic uplift had reached its maximum, and a re- verse movement had begun, the South Australian plateau broke up. into large blocks, with a meridional rift valleyt that extended from the south coast to the north end of Lake Torrens, As a concomitant of these earth movements a vast regional senkungsfeld, or sagging of the earth’s crust, occurred in Central Australia, which profoundly — influenced the physical and climatic conditions of South Australia. * Flinders’ ‘‘ Terra Australis,’’ pp. 156-158. Tt Loc. cit., p.177. ¢ Professor J. W. Gregory was the first to apply this term to the great sunken area of the Gulfs. [Dead Heart of Australia, pp. 149-150.] He, however, applies the term to Spencer Gulf, as the southerly and submerged portion of the rift-valley. For reasons stated above we have not included Spencer Gulf in the main line of fracture—although the alignment ot that Gulf accords very well with that of Lake Torrens, and may be included, to some extent, fn the same system of fractures. At present we have no definite evidence of this, other than accordance with similar physiographical features and the fault scarp of its northern end; but in the case of Gulf St Vincent, there are the clearest evidences of trough-faulting. Following north, from the head of this gulf, the ‘‘ rift ’’ probably crosses the northern portion of Yorke Peninsula, and is marked by the important fault-scarp, facing the sea, from Port Pirie to Port Augusta, and from thence up the western face of the northern Flinders Ranges. it ple a PRESIDENTS ADDRESS,—SECTION C> 167 This movement of depression in the north, which at its deepest point passed below sea-level, had the effect of creating a broad corru- gation, or swelling of the surface, between the sunken area and the sea. In this way an irregular east and west water-parting was established, forming the southern lip or barrier to the central basin. The effect was to behead all the north and south river systems, the greater part of the drainage was reversed, and being directed inwards formed a _ countless number of shallow lakes. (Plate III.) On the western side, the Gawler Rangés formed the barrier which threw back the drainage that now gathers in Lakes Gairdner, Everard, Roundabout, and many others. The peneplain around Petersburg, Belalie, and Orroroo became 2 water-parting, 25 miles wide, that inter- cepted the rivers that formerly emptied themselves into the head of Gulf St. Vincent, and, by the reversal of the drainage at that point, led to the formation of Lakes Frome, Callabonna, Gregory, and others of the north-east region. Lake Torrens and Lake Eyre retain the waters of Central Australia, which formerly found their way to the head of Spencer Gulf. Lake Torrens, lying in the rift valley, still maintains an imperfect connexion with the sea by an almost continuous chain of shallow lakes and clay-pans. The relation of the River Murray to these important earth move- ments is a subject of special interest. A slight glance at the map is sufficient to show that the Murray is a great river system of marked asymmetry. Its radial structure is not simply imperfect, it is con- spicuously lop-sided. The Murray is a continental river, but while having its outlet on the south coast it gathers its waters almost exclu- sively from the east. A vast country to the north and north-west properly belongs to its former hydrographical province. The River Murray has suffered a great amputation; the whole of its former north- western drainage has been severed from the trunk and dismembered, for where a symmetrical system of reticulating streams should exist there is nothing but hundreds of fragments, which are erratic in their course and intermittent in their flow. The north-eastern drainage of South Australia, under the former hydrographic system, was directed partly to the River Murray and partly to the heads of the Gulfs. The whole of that north-eastern country is deeply covered with fluviatile material. The main valleys , are wide and choked with alluvium, above which steep-faced hills Tise In widely-separated and isolated patches. Evidences point to the fact that the subsidence of the inland basin was gradual and prolonged. During the period when the sagging slowly reduced the grade and the land approached to a condition of | _base-level, the rivers became less and less capable of carrying their load, every channel was being blocked, billabongs and backwaters 4 formed lakes, until the increasing northerly tilt closed the way to the 168 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION C. south and compelled the streams to go north or form stagnant pools This slow reversal of the grade, involving a long period of base-levelling, will explain the occurrence of very thick deposits of alluvium on the top of the present watershed. One of the most remarkable features of this recently established water-parting is that it cuts directly across the main lines of relief in the country. The watershed is not a ridge that is appreciable to the eye, but a broad plain that is crossed by ranges of hills that run at right angles to the watershed. This feature indicates the relatively recent date of the disruption of the older river systems, for while the rivers that laid down the aggraded material are dead, their deposits still occupy the old valleys and form the broad watershed that now divides the drainage; in addition to which the valley-sculpture is mature and has been shaped by the streams of the past rather than by the feeble creeks of to-day. This severance of the drainage of the interior by the development of a watershed so near to the coast has rendered South Australia almost destitute of important rivers. With the exception of the River Murray there is no meridional river left within the country, although there are abundant evidences of the former existence of such rivers, both on the southern and northern sides of the existing watershed. On the northern side of the water-parting the slopes are longer, but the streams are more erratic in their flow. The Willochra Creek, which formerly flowed south to the valley of the Gulf, is now an obsequent stream, which, after flowing north for 100 miles, finds its way into the south end of Lake Torrens. Lake Frome has had an eventful history. It forms, at present, the chief basin in the line of the ancient north-eastern drainage, and still receives flood-waters from that direction. On its western side it is fed by a great number of short, consequent streams that were called into existence by the comparatively recent elevation of the northern Flinders. The most interesting features of Lake Frome are on its southern side, where from the south end of Lake Frome and continuing over the Orroroo and Petersburg watershed, passing south by Laura, the Condowie Plains, Lochiel, to Port Wakefield, we have one of the best-defined, and, in extent, one of the most important of the old lines of drainage. This great river system drained a vast region of the in- terior, for even at Lake Frome and the Orroroo Plains evidences point to the existence of a river that must at one time have rivalled the River Murray in magnitude. As the result of earth movements, already referred to, this great water-system has been entirely dismembered. The lateral drainage loses itself in the deep alluvium of the trunk valley, and, as a consequence, the drainage is peripheral and limited to short isolated streams. The only considerable fragment that remains at the present time is the Pasmore River (or Wilpena Creek), which 7 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS,—SECTION c. 169 after receiving the Siccus River as a tributary, flows into the south end of Lake Frome. Bores put down near the lake have penetrated hundreds of feet of alluvial and carbonaceous sediments; and, at Orroroo, a Government bore penetrated 591 feet of river sands and gravel without reaching bed-rock.* The last-named fact is the more remarkable because Orroroo is situated near the present water-parting of the country. The rivers of South Australia that occur on the southern side of the east-and-west water-parting are insignificant. The proximity of the watershed to the coast precludes the possibility of large rivers. The old meridional rivers of the southern seaboard were wiped out as the consequence of a double reverse—lst, through the cutting off of their main supplies, which came from the inland regions; and, 2nd, by the successive throw-downs to the west, which removed their western barriers and compelled them, sectionally, to find an outlet towards the sinking area (or drowned valley) on the west. Thus, the Bundaleer Creek, Freshwater Creek, the Hut and Hill Rivers, and Farrell’s Creek, are an interesting group of streams as they occupy in portions of their courses old meridional valleys, and are residuals of the older drainage ; but, in relation to the present, they are a group of subsequents which unite, near Spalding, to form the River Broughton, and then, by a deep and narrow gorge, they penetrate the ranges, at tight angles to their previous courses, and find their outlet in Gulf _ St. Vincent. The Rivers Light and Gilbert pursue a similar course, first north and south and then west to the Gulf. These rivers are so recent as to occupy only shallow ditches, cut out of the softer rocks, and the rotten condition of the Cambrian beds over which they flow proves that the existing surface has been long exposed to atmospheric corrosion ; that is, the present drainage is super-imposed on an older and dead system of drainage. This is made evident by sheets of consolidated gravels quite distinct from the present streams, as at Yacka, on the Broughton River, where the old consolidated gravels are three miles wide. The River Torrens takes its rise on the eastern side of the Mount Lofty Ranges and penetrates these ranges at a right angle, and, as in the case of the other rivers mentioned, also finds its way to Gulf St. Vincent. The Torrens is one of the oldest of the existing rivers of South Australia. It is a consequent stream, brought into existence by the elevation of the South Australian plateau. It has had to cut its way down through some of the hardest Cambrian and pre-Cambrian tocks, but has been able to keep time with the elevation and maintain its westerly course to the sea. The gorge of the river is sometimes * Howchin—‘* Description of an Old Lake Area in Pekina Creek and its Relation to Recent Geological Changes.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aus., Vol. XXXIII, pp. 253-261. > aes & 170 : PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION ©. ~ precipitous to a height of about 500 feet, and its full height is probably not less than 1,200 feet. The bed of the river is narrow, but well graded; there are no waterfalls within its course, although several of its tributaries show this evidence of their juvenility. In its upper portions it has worked back into close proximity to the watershed of the Onkaparinga and has pirated some of the head waters of that river. When the River Torrens leaves the Mount Lofty Ranges at the mouth of its gorge and enters on the Adelaide Plains it crosses, in a diagonal direction, an old meridional valley that once carried a river of large dimensions. This old river came from the north, through the Barossa country, vid One-tree Hill, Golden Grove, Tea-tree Gully, Highbury, and skirted the foot-hills of the Adelaide Plains. The tilting of the lower Barossa earth-block appears to have led to the creation of a series of lakes at the base of the Barossa scarp. These lakes must have covered scores of square miles, and they led to the deposition of the auriferous alluvial of the Barossa Gold-field. In the neighbourhood of the mouth of the Torrens gorge, the old alluvial sands and gravels are 3 miles wide, and on the Highbury side of the valley these ancient river-terraces show a thickness of 250 feet. They do not follow the valley of the River Torrens, in its westward extension, but follow the scarp of the ranges, to the southward, forming terraces along the base of the foot-hills, certainly as far as Burnside. In an earlier part of this address we saw that the Blackwood and Belair platform carries important river deposits belonging to the former north and south drainage. The beds just described as occurring along the base of the foot-hills are precisely similar to those of the Blackwood-Belair platform, but are situated about 500 feet lower, and rest on a lower platform. There are three possible explanations of these similar deposits at diverse levels. (a) That they were laid down by distinct rivers of contemporary age. This is not probable, as it is inconceivable that two great rivers could follow parallel courses, close to each other, and at so great a difference in elevation. (b) That they represent the same river at different stages of its history, the deposits on the higher platform being the older, but the valley was drained, and the river compelled to take a lower course, through parallel faulting, in the development of the trough of the Gulf. (c) That the deposits are of the same age and were laid down originally on the same level; the river was already dead when, by step-faulting, a portion of the old river valley slipped down to its present position on the scarp. face. Of these three possible interpretations I think the last the most probable. Next to the River Murray, the Onkaparinga is the most important, as well as the most ancient, river basin in South Australia. The water- shed of the Onkaparinga comprises 170 square miles, and exhibits some remarkable features. In its head waters it has the characteristics. PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION C. 171 of an old river, surrounded by open country, and is a sluggish stream which for long distances has been reduced, locally, to base-level. In the lower half of its course it exhibits totally different features— flowing through a narrow, rocky gorge, 300 feet deep, having a steeper grade, and with the typical features of a relatively young river. Here again, as in the case of the Barossa country, we have the effects of block tilting on a large scale. The Onkaparinga is an antecedent . Tiver, being a survival from the older systems of drainage. The anomaly of its features can only be explained on the grounds of differential earth movements. While the head of the river is little altered from what it was in the older system, the lower portions have been rejuve- nated as the result of a tilt in the uplift. The earth movement, how- ever, was not of the nature of a simple uplift, for the Onkaparinga has had a very chequered history. in the first stage of its existence it was a noble river that took a direct course over the Kangarilla Flats and McLaren Vale, and along the base of the Willunga scarp, finally unitmg with the trunk valley (now drowned) near Sellick’s Hill. At the point where it made its junction with the main stream magnificent faces of river gravel, 300 feet high, form the sea clifis. Before the last great uplift, that either created new consequents or rejuvenated old streams, there was a period of depression under which the older Onkaparinga lost grade, and gradually aggraded its bed with an accumulation of load that it was unable to transport. The downward movement continued until it not only completely choked its own valley, but overspread the surrounding country, which was then reduced to base-level, and the river meandered over extensive flood plains. When the great uplift began, the river, which throughout its lower portions had forsaken its original course, began to cut its way down through its own deposits, and then touched rock into which it has cut one of the deepest and most rugged gorges in South Aus- tralia. The Onkaparinga, therefore, in its lower sections, is an incised meander, its course being determined by the direction which the stream had when at base-level and at the time when the reversed movement of uplift began. As a consequence of this the Onkaparinga finds its way to the sea some 12 miles further north than was the case in its earlier stages. The interval of time separating the present from that latest im- portant earth movement that caused the elevation of the Mount Lofty Ranges must be represented by the equivalent of work done by river erosion, as just illustrated, in cutting a gorge of 300 feet or more in hard Cambrian slates and quartzites. HYDROGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC CHANGES. The earth-movements that occurred in South Australia during the later Cainozoic periods produced certain hydrographi and climatic changes which profoundly altered the face of things. South Australia 172 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION ¢. is, on the whole (other things being equal), favorably situated for re- ceiving a plentiful rainfall. It is situated in the direct track of the aqueous air currents of the South Temperate Zone. No mountain barriers exist parallel to the coast that might intercept the rain in its passage inland; and if the present central basin could be exchanged for an upward grade towards the centre of the continent, the cyclonic disturbances, which now keep well to the southward, would, no doubt, overlap the land to a greater extent than at present, and give a more generous precipitation. That the geological period immediately preceding the present, in South Australia, was one in which the country received a greater rain- fall and produced much larger rivers is abundantly evident. Fluvia- tile sands and gravels are found in most of the principal valleys and plains that have no direct relation with the existing system ofdrainage, and on a scale vastly larger than belongs to the present streams. The fauna of the Pleistocene period, in a country that is now in- cluded within the arid regions of Lake Eyre and surrounding districts, was abundant, including animals of gigantic size, and others whose habitat is limited to permanent fresh waters. The large fossil bones of the Diprotodon and the Giant Kangaroo are so plentiful, in this central courtry, as to have attracted the notice of the aborigines, who call them the Kadimakara, and concerning which they have a pleasing tradition or myth.* In addition to many other extinct forms that roamed on land, alligators, large chelonians, and the ceratodus (mud fish), found a home in the rivers Cooper and Warburton,f which must have been at that time both fresh and perennial. The discovery of alligator remains at Port Augustat gives us further proof of the former prevalence of this aquatic reptile in Central Australia, and also presumptive evidence that these northern rivers flowed southward mto the present drowned valley of Spencer Gulf. Many years ago Tate stated the case for cooler and moister con- ditions of climate in South Australia during the Pleistocene period, based on the evidences of extinct rivers, lakes, and fauna.§ His views on this subject were influenced by the supposed Pleistocene age of the Hallett’s Cove glaciation, and his explanation of the colder conditions at that time was based on astronomical grounds, together with such an elevation of the land as to bring the Mount Lofty Ranges within the limits of a permanent snow-line. It has since been demon- strated that the glacial features of Hallett’s Cove have a much greater antiquity than that supposed by Tate, and therefore his explanation, being deductions from incorrect data, are irrelevant; but the facts * See Gregory, Dead Heart of Australia, p. 3. + Debney, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aus., Vol. IV, p. 146. Tate, ibid., Vol. VIII, p.54. Gregory. Dead Heart of Australia, p. 81. t Tate, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aus., Vol. IV, p. 153. § Trans. Philos. Soc. of Adelaide (Roy. Soc. S. Aus.), Vol. IJ, p. Ixvi, ‘‘ Post-Miocene Climate in South Australia.” Jbid., Vol. VII, p. 52 et seq. 4 . : e: ; 4 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION (. 173 that appealed to Tate, in evidence of more humid conditions in South Australia during Pleistocene times, are well founded and require explanation. We think that the required explanation is ready to our hand in the physiographical changes that have transpired in South Australia during the later geologic periods. The cooler conditions of climate, with its abundant rainfall and permanent rivers and prolific life, must have antedated the development of the great central basin of Lake Eyre. The features pertaining to the dead river systems of South Australia suggest the former existence of a long slope, of moderate grade, extending from the interior to the south coast, with its main watershed very far north—probably as far as the Musgrave and the MacDonnell Ranges. This would be the period when the plateau of the Desert Sandstone was subjected to extensive erosion, and from being a level plain was converted into mesas and buttes. In the earth movements that brought about so great a change in the physical conditions of the country the positive and negative elements of such movements must have been, to some extent, corre- lated. The sagging of the earth’s crust at Lake Eyre found its com- pensation in the uplifts of the marginal areas. Thus the Flinders and Mount Lofty Ranges were elevated by isostatic compensations around the southern rim of the basin ; while the MacDonnell and other ranges had a similar modern uplift along the northern limits of the great subsidence. One thing is certain, the MacDonnell Ranges show the same juvenility of structure as is apparent in the Mount Lofty Ranges. The MacDonnells, on their southern side, are truncated by nearly vertical fault-scarps, 1,000 feet in height *; the rivers force their way through the ranges, in deep gorges, at right angles to the trend of the mountain systems, and escape by “gaps” which are almost unique in their physiographical features. The Finke River, which is the principal line of drainage through the ranges, after penetrating the MacDonnell, the Krichauff, and the James Ranges, dies away in its sandy bed long before it reaches its southern outlet, which originally, it is presumed, passed through Lake Eyre. It may be regarded as an open question whether the rejuvenation of the drainage of the MacDonnell Ranges was caused by a local uplift or by the sinking of the surrounding country. The general features of the ranges, and especially the great fault scarps facing south would suggest the subsidence theory as the more probable. The point of interest, so far as the present discussion is concerned, lies in the fact that we cannot find an explanation for the remains of the numerous dead rivers, having a north and south direction, without predicating a drainage that flowed south from a vast central watershed. * H. Y. L. Brown, “‘ Journey from Adelaide to Hale River.”” By authority, 1889, p. 6. 174 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION C€. The dry beds of such watercourses can be traced for hundreds of miles, and it is only on the assumption that such a continental drainage existed in Central Australia that we can explain its sub-fossil flora and fauna. The persistence of a flora which is not characteristically desert in its character, and that still holds its ground along the courses of the present flood rivers of Central Australia, may be regarded as survivals from a time when the country was more abundantly clothed with vege- tation than it is at present. The present arid condition of Central Australia has had a gradual evolution, and is the result of various causes that have operated to pro- duce cumulative effects. - Of these the following may be suggested :— (1) The development of an extensive senkungsfeld in south- central Australia, which, by lowering the altitude of the land, had the effect of raising the mean annual temperature. (2) A lessening of rainfall consequent on the changed meteorologi- cal conditions. With a more heated interior the cyclonic storms of the southern coast would draw in the warm and dry currents from the north, which, combined with the low altitude of the land, would have the effect of absorbing the moisture of the advancing storm rather than of condensing it. This would prevent rain falling on the advancing side of a barometric depression, and therefore limit the precipitation of rain to the departing quadrant of the atmospheric disturbance, when the cooler air drawn in from the south-west would promote the conden- sation of the aqueous vapour. These are the typical conditions of the rainfall of South Australia at the present time, and restricts the southern rains chiefly to the coastal regions. (3) By the development of corrugations of the surface in an east- and-west direction—transverse to the original drainage—the river systems were dismembered, and thereby the natural irrigation of the country was largely destroyed. (4) The slow movement, leading to the reversal of the drainage, produced over a long period a gradual reduction of grade and a process of base-levelling and aggradation of load that choked the river valleys and rendered them increasingly absorbent. (5) As the result of these altered conditions the surface waters were correspondingly lessened—reduced in volume and intermittent in their flow. (6) When the warp of the region was sufficiently advanced to create a lip-like watershed, the rivers—or what was left of them—became obsequent and flowed inwards. But, with an inland drainage, the waste could not be got rid of, and, as a consequence, the surface of the land became covered with sand and the waters more or less saline. (7) The invreasing desiccation of the land, as well as the salinity of the waters, p.oved unfavorable to plant life—bare ground took the place of vegetation, which still further intensified the aridity. SS a ee ee PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—-SECTION C. 175 (8) Finally, the whole face of nature became changed, the rank — vegetation that could not survive such uncongenial conditions was wiped out and a new flora, suited to drier conditions, took its place. With the passing away of the freshwater streams and succulent vege- tation there went also a whole fauna that was dependent on such bountiful supplies of nature, and were ill-fitted to face the hardships of desert fare. Some of the old lake areas, such as Callabonna, for example, tell a pitiful tale of the last struggles for existence among the larger her- bivores of that transition period. Lake Callabonna, and other similar sheets of water, were in the line of the flood waters that came down from the north-east, and we may suppose that the waters along such a line of drainage maintained a freshness in a higher degree, and down to a later date, than the lakes of Central Australia that had a more isolated position. To these rapidly decreasing freshwater holes the diproto- dons, the gigantic kangaroos, and the great struthious birds (Genyornis), with many others, came to quench their thirst. Hundreds of them became bogged in the treacherous slime of the shallowing waters, which formed the death-traps and the charnel-houses of races fighting against destiny—the forces of destruction conquered and buried the last of the Kadimakara. CONCLUSION. In the light of certain facts that have recently come under obser- vation, we are able to speak with some confidence on subjects that have hitherto been matters of conjecture only. The more important of these, having relation to the physiographical evolution of South Aus- tralia, are— : : 1. The comparatively recent age of the Mount Lofty Ranges and other uplands of South Australia. It was until lately believed that these mountain ranges were of very high antiquity, dating from the time when the Cam- brian rocks were forced into stupendous folds and over- thrusts by tectonic forces, and that the present uplands are the worn-down remnants of very lofty and very ancient mountains. That such effects were produced at some period in the geological history of South Aus- tralia, resulting in the formation of great mountains in Post-Cambrian times, there can be no doubt; but that period of mountain-building has no relation to the existing highlands of the country. Those old tectonic mountains had become reduced to base-level long before the present physiographical relief of South Australia 176 PRESIDENT’S AD PRESET SECTION a a Gey ‘ took shape. We now know, on such evidences as have been briefly outlined in this address, that the existing hills are comparatively recent in their origin, and have ‘ been the result of epeirogenic rather than orogenic move- ments. This modern period of uplift in South Australia probably coincided, in the main, with similar movements in eastern Australia, which Mr. E. C. Andrews suggests should be called the Kosciusko Period.* The associated phenomena, in both the geographical areas, possess much in common, and there is a corresponding evidence of the juvenility of the erosion features in each case. 2. The two important inlets of the sea, known as Spencer Gulf and Gulf St. Vincent, are also of very recent origin, and owe their existence to earth movements which are probably still in progress. In Post-Phocene times the land stood at a greater elevation than it does to-day. The river systems were highly developed, radial in structure, and continental in extent. The present drowned valleys of the gulfs formed dry land—or, rather, were extensive flood-plains built up by the fluviatile sediments brought down from the interior of the conti- nent. — _ a {/ VIVINOA gS {) J - VA LS e a = _~ y) X \ V ree \ S \ ( ee ees wile: aubnas oqus org =a 5 ARTS lt may ce ; vets ; . 2. wees | . ‘ 5 : - 7 Ss | 7 = : _ r , arc! o- —- - : : = - j " LV Plate 75 "039 2/09/)-0¢ |: S)W/%/ > U0IJIag fo yIsua7 29427 Pas mo09 gore 9277 071anD Ty (2unogy) auar0,7 \ - +. Aqrwacfuerun &) Sia mot MN (tog) 2990270 Seen | Sea wesosreyy ~ poo, 3¥08 NMOL 1N3H 3¥O NODAOYO 3? 005 JOISNYNB ~~ \ IN N 4Y000/'4ivq3¢8 Jonvy \ IFOOS7 40 NWW1d3N3d NY dwnas w3ddN ; Dalia 4 ALJOT INNOW 7 RETNA Olle INUANO'G ‘S97 WW 004 = u0172a0 Jo EY YbG ‘SNINYOL Inw7 rs JBAI 2HVT weHOONIM 5 = % © Ss > > leler-[ey-t-[o) SuNBSY¥I13d St a iy OS His ura yen SS © tel & \y/ NG re aS a Sa NV EVA a Oil) ENING) Jo ONILINV4-daLs WOiv1j0v BIAWIT 3aw> ANIJONIA 45 49ND f' ANIONIA 4S IND ee EE { kes : a Ps: is be 3 ae ee 1—THE CRETACEOUS ROCKS OF WOODY ISLAND, QUEENSLAND, AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD, AND THEIR RELATIONS TO THE BURRUM FORMATION. By H. C. Richards, M.Sc., Lectwrer in Geology, University of Queensland. Plates V. and VI. INTRODUCTION. In August, 1912, the author conducted a party of students to this — area, which is situated to the south of Hervey Bay and in the Great Sandy Strait between Fraser Island and the mainland. Some considerable time was spent here, and a detailed examination of the area which seems to afford the key to the relationship between the Maryborough marine beds and the Burrum coal-measures, was . carried out. In the Progress Report of the Geological Survey of Queensland, 1911, reference was made to the investigations which were being carried out in the Maryborough district concerning the relationship of these beds, while in the Queensland Government Mining Journai, of 15th December, 1912, Mr. Dunstan writes as follows :—“ About eighteen months ago the writer, when examining the Burrum coal-measures, - made the discovery that the marine beds in the district were con- formable with the coal-measures, but that instead of being of younger age they were actually older. The discovery was such an extra- ordinary one and seemed so inconsistent with the observations of | several previous observers that some hesitation was experienced in making it known until confirmatory evidence could be obtained.” This confirmatorv evidence has now been obtained, and in the same journal under an article, “ Geological Features of the Maryborough District—A New Geological Horizon for the Wide Bay Coe]-measures,” Mr. Dunstan gives the results of his observations on this question. He has traced five lines of outcrop of the Maryborough marine beds between Croydon Junction, 2 miles W.N.W. of Maryborough, and Fraser Island. He also states that the area has been folded into a series of anticlines and synclines having approximately a N.W. and S.E. trend, and that the Burrum coal-field is situated in a syrclinal area. Unfortunately, Mr. Dunstan is unable to communicate any of his observations to this meeting, but as the author of this paper has investi- gated the stratigraphical relationships of these beds, and established the interbedding of the marine and freshwater beds in an area which seems to afford the key to the position, the opportunity of bringing this most important and interesting matter before this Association is availed of. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION Cc. 179 | LN aN, ey ee 180 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. General Description of the Islands. Woody Island.—This is situated in Great Sandy Strait, midway between Fraser Island and the mainland, and is about 3 miles off Dayman Point. It is approximately 6 miles in length and ? mile in width at the widest part, and 200 feet above sea-level at its highest point. The shape of the island has been determined very largely by the various earth-movements and metamorphic processes to which the beds composing it have been subjected. The direction of greatest length of the island conforms very closely with the general strike of the beds, 7.¢e., 40° W. of N. The island stands out from the water like the back of a huge whale, with steep cliffs up to 200 feet high on the N.E. side and gradually sloping down to sea-level on the S.W. side, in the direction of the dip of the beds. Along the greater portion of the 8.W. side of the island there is an accumulation of beach-gravel which dams back the water running off the slopes. . This gravel attains a height of perhaps 15 feet in places, and forms a narrow strip up to 20 feet wide running parallel to the shore-line. Onthe inland side of this strip there exists a long narrow marsh formed as a result of the damming back of the inland drainage. The island is well timbered, from which fact it no doubt derives its name. With the exception of the portion of the coast-line which is covered with beach-gravel excellent exposures of the beds making up the island may be seen around the coast-line. At low tide the shore-line is laid bare in many cases hundreds of yards beyond highwater mark, and magnificent sections are exposed. As a result of this and owing to the constancy in strike and the very slight interference by faulting here and there, the very gradually shelving coastal strip presents the appear- ance of having been ploughed up with a huge plough and then con- solidated. Picnic Island and Duck Islands.—These lie about a mile to a mile and a half south-east of Woody Island, and each one has a similar shape to that of Woody Island. These islands are much smaller, however, the largest being only about a quarter of a mile in length and 40 yards wide, and 50 feet high at its highest point. Owing to the dip of the beds being rather less than on Woody Island, the slope to the S.W. is not so pronounced as on the latter island. Tittle Woody Island.—This lies between Woody Island and Fraser Island, and is approximately 3 mile long and 100 yards wide. On this island the steep cliffs are on the 8.W. side, and the slope of the ground to'the N.E., the result of the beds dipping in a N.K. direction. As will be shown later, there is little doubt that there is a denuded anticline between Woody Island and Little Woody Island. ° es See PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 181 Round Island.—This island is small and somewhat round in shape, and lies between Woody Island and the mainland. In all of these islands, with the exception of Round Island, one finds a characteristic shape which has been described above and which is undoubtedly due to their having a backbone of sandstones and cherts, the latter being derived from a silicification of shales of undoubted marine origin. In the case of Round Island, however, one finds freshwater beds of shales and sandstones and an absence of the cherts characteristic of the other islands. Ky STRATIGRAPHY. Woody Island.—This Island is made up of a marine and a fresh- water series of beds, with cappings of recent conglomerates, breccias, and limestones. There is a perfectly conformable passage from the marine series up into the freshwater series. At North Bluff, on the N.E. side of the island, one finds interbedded with the marine beds freshwater sandstones and shales at least 100 feet thick (see Plate VI.). The general strike of the beds, both freshwater and marine, is from 40° to 45° W. of N,, while the dip is always in a direction from 50° to 45° W. of S. Sharp junctions between the two series of beds may be seen on the N.W. part of the island east of Datum Point (see Plate V.), and on the §.W. of the island, due 8. of Middle Bluff Lighthouse. The same beds at the junction can be recognised in both places. The dip of the beds at the junction E. of Datum Point is 70°, dir. 50° W. of S., whereas at the other exposed junction the dip is 20°, dir. 50° W. of S. No change in dip or strike of the beds at the junction points can be detected, and everything points to a perfect conformity. Owing to the amount of material washed down off the slopes no exposures can be picked up on the island along the line connecting the two junctions, but the line joining them up corresponds exactly with the general strike of the beds. There is, then, no doubt of a perfectly conformable passage from the marine to the freshwater beds, and of the main mass of the marine beds underlying the freshwater beds (Plate VI.). Marine Series.—These consist of sandstones, calcareous sandstones, shales, and cherts, and they all contain abundant fossils of a shallow marine type. At North Bluff the interbedded freshwater beds of sandstones and shales have an absence of marine fossils but an abundance of plant remains, which are, however, unrecognisable. At this point the beds 182 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. dip 30°, dir. 50° W. of S., and the following sequence of beds from the top of the cliff to low-water mark occurs :— 1. Cherts containing casts of Belemnites, Nucula, Maccoyella, &c. 2. Sandstones and shales containing abundant plant remains, some of the shale bands being particularly rich in carbo- naceous material. Thickness, from 10 to 15 feet. 3. Caleareous sandstone of a very dark colour containing Crioceras australe, Belemnites canhami, Maccoyella, and occasional traces of plant remains. Thickness, about 10 feet. 4. Sandstones and shales very rich in plant remains, and with no apparent marine fossils. Thickness, about 100 feet. 5. Sandstones and shales containing occasional traces of plant remains and abundance of marine fossils, such as Fissi- lunula, Maccoyella, Belemnites, &c. (See Plate IV.) The cherts and sandstones are lithologically identical with those of the so-called Maryborough beds of the mainland, and the similarity of fossil remains is also very marked. Mr. F. Chapman, of the National Museum, Melbourne, has very kindly determined some of the fossils collected from the marine beds, and amongst them he recognises the followmg :— Previously recorded occurrence Fossil. in. Rolling Downs (R.D.) or Desert Sandstone (D.S.) Nucula truncata, Moore we eee 4811 Nucula quadrata, Etheridge .. vo Lig Teeees Malletia elongata, Etheridge sp. wo DS ihe Radula randsi, Eth. fil. sp... rae ts Pas 28 Maccoyella barkleyi, Moore sp. , Fed) Maccoyella cf. substriata, Moore sp. fgg (?) Thracia sp. Pleuromya plana, Moore sp. Fissilunula clarkei, Moore sp. .. ef. Cyrenopsis opallites, Eth. fil. Crioceras australe, Moore Belemnites canhami, Tate DAOOF YS bonny nn Es yy There are four purely Rolling Downs eae as far as is known, in these beds, and particular interes is attached to Crioceras australe and Belemnites canhami, which are regarded as characteristic of the Rolling Downs formation. There is little doubt on paleontological evidence then, and this is supported by certain lithological evidence, that these marine beds are of Lower Cretaceous age. eee ee a oe A Po ~ i 3 B PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 183: . Similar marine beds containing similar fossils have been recorded* from the Government quarries at Maryborough, where the beds dip 7° N. 35° E. ; from the head of the Isis River, 6 miles due W. of Howard, the centre ‘of the Burrum coal- field, and dipping 30°-45° H., dir. 40° N., from an area 32 miles N.W. of Bundaberg, and 10 miles S. of Rosedale gtation, dipping 12° in a N.E. dizection. Mr. Dunstanf records further outcrops of these beds near the Takura railway station and at Nikenbah, 5 miles N.E. of the Takura quarry. In the calcareous sandstones containing shallow-water marine fossils, in the neighbourhood of North Bluff, Woody Island, one finds occasional fragments of wood which has been largely converted into iron-oxide. In some cases the wood forms the centre of an ironstone concretion. Freshwater Serves.—Conformably overlying the marine beds, and also in some cases interbedded with them, are beds of freshwater © origin containing abundant plant remains, and, as far as could be seen, devoid of marine fossils. These beds consist of shales and sandstones for the most part. In places the carbonaceous remains are so abundant as to give rise to a coaly shale, and on the shore-line about a half-mile south of Datum Point there outcrop two seams of brown shaly coal, each of which is about 2 feet wide and separated by about 6 feet of carbonaceous shale, Beds of white argillaceous sandstone, with occasional ironstone concretions are characteristic of the freshwater series on the 8.W. side of the island, and they outcrop along the shore-line in the - neighbourhood of the cable-house where the telephone cable from the mainland touches the island. These beds of sandstone seem quite devoid of plant remains. The freshwater beds are found to have a general strike of 40°-45° W. of N. At Datum Point they dip in a S.W. direction at an angle of 80°, whereas at the southern end of the island the dip is only about 20°. The dip of both freshwater and marine beds is thus seen to be much steeper at the northern end of Woody Island than anywhere else in the area. The seams of brown coaly shale were not found at the southern end of the island, but this is not surprising as the shore line where one would expect to find them is thickly covered with beach material, and there are no exposures at all of rocks im situ in the immediate locality. * Rands, Queensland, 1886. Burrum Coal-field, pp. 1-2. Rands and Ball, Queensland. 1902, Burrum Coal-field, p. 2. + Qld. Gov. Min. Jour., 15th December, 1912. 184 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. As one invariably finds in Queensland an unconformable passage from the Lower Cretaceons (Rolling Downs) to the Upper Cretaceons (Desert Sandstone), it seems safe to assume that these freshwater beds are of Lower Cretaceous age. Recent Conglomerates—About midway between Jenkins Point and South Point, on the N.E. side of the island, there occurs along the shore-line a coarse conglomerate made up of rounded pebbles of chert, which have been cemented together by a ferruginous material. The chert fragments have in all probability been derived from the cliffs of chert above the shore-line. On the 8.W. side of the island the beach gravel previously referred to has also been cemented together by a ferruginous cement, and converted into a rather finer conglomerate, which might well be described as a pudding-stone for the most part. Recent Breccia.—Here and there along the base of the cliffs on the N.W. side of the island, and particularly at the northern end of it, there occurs a thin band of breccia made up of angular fragments of chert cemented with a ferruginous material. At Datum Point the cliffs are capped with a fairly considerable thickness of this. Recent L[imestone—On the N.W. side of the island, round from Datum Point, there occurs recent limestone formed of loosely aggre- gated beach material. Small cliffs of this material up to 12 feet high occur, and a semicircular coastal strip of it several acres in extent and about 10 feet above high-water mark exists. Picnic Island and Duck Islands——These three islands are very similar in character and only the largest and most southerly one will be described. This island is composed of rocks entirely of a marine origin, and consists for the most part of cherts which have been formed from the © metasomatic replacement of shales of a bluish-grey colour. On this island all the changes from the unaltered shale to the final chert may be seen. The strike of the strata is 40° W. of N., while the dip is generally about 35°, direction 50° W. of S. The dip at the southern end of the island was somewhat more steep than that in the other parts. The shales are particularly rich in traces of a marine fauna, Belemnites, Nucula, and Maccoyella beng common. The shells are preserved as calcium carbonate in the shales, and this is in marked contrast to the preservation of casts only in the cherts. The characteristic bluish-grey colour of the chert throughout the area is just the same colour as the shales of this island possess, and in this locality one can trace the passage from shale to chert. There is, then, little doubt that the cherts of the area have been derived from meta- somatic replacement of the shales. The lithological characters of these rocks and their strike correspond _ with those of Woody Island, also these islands are in the line of strike of the similar beds on Woody Island. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 185 Tittle Woody Island.—This island is made up of the same series of marine rocks that one finds on the N.W. side of Woody Island. The most noticeable feature about the strata here is that, although the strike is 40° W. of N., the dip of the beds is in a direction 50° EH. of N.,and at an angle varying from 20° to 30° in different places. We then have the strata of Woody Island and Little Woody Island respec- tively representing the opposite legs of a denuded anticline whose axis is somewhere between the two and striking in a direction 40° W. of N. (see Plate VI., Fig. 2). Similar cherts and sandstones to those occurring on Woody Island are found here, and they contain Belemnites, Maccoyella, Nucula, &c., in abundance. ; Rocky Patch off Fraser Island.—In the same line of strike as the rocks of Little Woody Island, and just off Fraser Island, in a S.H. direction, there is exposed at low tide a small area of cherts similar lithologically and in fossil contents to the cherts of Little Woody Island. The dip is 25°, dir. 50° E. of N. Undoubtedly this rocky patch is an extension of the N.K. leg of the anticlinal fold just as the cherts, &c., of Picnic Island and Duck Islands are extensions of the S.W. leg of the anticline (sce Plate IV., Fig. 2). Round Island.—This island is made up of freshwater sediments, there being no marine representatives at all. The beds are shales containing abundant carbonaceous remains, but not concentrated to any degree, and a white loosely aggregated argillaceous sandstone which seems to be rather characteristic of the freshwater beds of the area. The strike is the same as that of the beds on Woody Island, and the dip is 20°, dir. 50° W. of S.—that is, these beds form part of the 8.W. leg of the anticlinal fold above referred to. Dayman Point, Urangan.—This is the nearest point on the main- land to Round Island, and the outcropping rocks here are seen to be sandstones and shales horizontally bedded. Carbonaceous remains are abundant, and in the sandstones at this point are the remains of tree- trunks in many cases largely replaced by iron oxide and pyrites. One trunk 25 feet long and 9 inches in diameter was seen imbedded in the sandstone. This point seems to mark the axis of a syneline, as it will be shown that to the west of this point the dip is in a N.E. direction (Plate VI., Fig. 2). Pialba and Point Vernon.—To the west of Dayman Point, and in the neighbourhood of Pialba round towards Point Vernon, the fresh- water series is again met with, and consists of sandstones and shales striking 40° W. of N. and dipping 30° in a north-easterly direction. We thus have the S.W. leg of a synclinal fold whose axis lies in a direction N.W. and S.E. through Dayman Point. At Point Vernon 186. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. one sees these same freshwater sandstones and shales very much puckered and folded, also faulted to some extent. The shape and existence of this headland is dependent on the fold- ing to which these rocks have been subjected, and a small bay conforms exactly with a synclinal fold in the strata as shown up in plan on the shore. At low tide there is a magnificent section exposed all around Point Vernon, and a strike fault whose plane lies in a direction 30° W. of N. and 30° E. of S. is seen here, but the amount of displacement could net be determined. FAULTING. The most extensive fault in the area is the one on Point Vernon, but it appears to be rather of local importance and not to be of any great extent. On Woody Island there are a few mmor dip faults, of no importance, however. Igneous Rocks. There is a marked absence of dykes or any traces of igneous rocks throughout the area. GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. The existence and characteristic shape of these islands are clearly dependent on the structural features and lithological characters of the rocks forming them. The Burrum formation does not extend, as at present mapped, all over this area, for marine beds of Lower Cretaceous (Rolling Downs) age occur on Woody Island, Duck Islands, Picnic Island, Little Woody Island, and a rocky patch 8.H. of Little Woody Island and just off Fraser Island. Interbedded with these marine Lower Cretaceous rocks, and also conformably overlying them, are freshwater sandstones and shales containing abundant unrecognizable plant remains. On Woody Island two seams of brown shaley coal occur. The interbedded freshwater beds, and also the overlying ones, must be of Lower Cretaceous age, and not of Trias-Jura age as pre- viously believed. During the deposition of the sediments forming these beds there must have been at least two gradual movements of elevation alter- nated by two gradual depressions followed by a long period of elevation in which the main series of freshwater beds were deposited. Some time subsequent to the longer period of elevation the area has been subjected to earth-movements resulting in the formation of anticlines and synclines whose axes have a N.W. and S.E. trend. ““——s. : PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 187 This folding in all probability took place at the latter end of the Lower Cretaceous period, for one invariably finds in Queensland an unconformity between the Rolling Downs and Desert Sandstone, the result no doubt of earth movements to which Queensland was subjected at the end of the Lower Cretaceous period. There is very little faulting in the area and an even greater scarcity of igneous rocks. RELATIONSHIP OF THE LOWER CrETacEous Coat MEASURES TO THE Burrum FormatIon. This relationship is a particularly interesting one, and the following question naturally arises :—‘‘ Are the lower cretaceous coal measures the same as those of the Burrum coal-field ?” Dunstan* believes that they are the same, and assigns an age corresponding to an upper division of the Rolling Downs formation for them. The field evidence strongly supports this belief for the area has been shown to have been subjected to folding movements resulting in anti- clines and synclines and the Burrum coal-field has been shown* to occupy a synclinal area with conformably underlying marine rocks of Lower Cretaceous age. Unfortunately recognisable plant remairs from the Woody Island coal-measures to compare with the Burrum plant remains are apparently unobtainable, so that one must rely on field relationships. Jackft states “The relation of the Maryborough beds to the Burrum beds, although obscure, is believed to be that the former rest unconformably on the latter, and that a fault (which, however, is not seen) must account for the fact that the lowest of the Maryborough beds after dipping does not rise on the other side. Their apparent conformability to the Burrum beds must be deceptive...... 4” Also in Plate 46, Fig. 3, he gives a sketch section drawn up by W. H. Rands, showing his interpretation of how the fault must come in. However, the Maryborough beds do come up on the other side and the conformability is not deceptive as believed by Jack, for the sequence here is what one obtains in other places in the area, and, moreover, the general strike of the marine beds is the same all through in the various outcrops. The evidence of a Lower Cretaceous age for the Burrum formation is then fairly conclusive. Jack places the Burrum formation strati- graphically below the Ipswich formation, but Cameron{ has shown reasons which are supported by Jensen’s observations at Point Ark- wright why one should consider the Burrum beds and the Ipswich beds of identical age. * Dunstan. Qld. Govt. Mining Journal, 15th December, 1912. } Jack and Etheridge. Goel. and Pal. of Qid. and New Guinea, p. 300. } West Moreton Gold-ficlds 2nd Report. Qld., 1907, p.12. 188 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. Should the coal-measures of the Burrum coal-field, which have hitherto been regarded as belonging to the Burrum formation, be representative of that formation, then the effect of this determination of a Lower Cretaceous age will have a very far-reaching effect : for the Ipswich formation of Queensland, the Clarence River series of New South Wales, the lake sandstones of Gippsland and the Otways, in Victoria, and certain freshwater coal-measures in Tasmania and South Australia, are all regarded as being of identical age as determined by the fossil plants contained therein. However, Dunstan* records that the coal-measures underlying the marine beds are much more contorted than the Burrum coal- measures, and also that they are traversed by numerous dykes. He thus assumes that a stratigraphical uncomformity exists between the underlying coal-measures and the Burrum coal-measures. Dunstan also believes that the underlying coal-measures to which he gives the name of the Tiaro formation are the equivalent of the Ipswich coal- measures. If that is the case, then the Burrum coal-measures must be regarded as being younger than the Ipswich formation and as being coal-measures in the Rolling Downs formation analogous to those at Malta, east of Tambo, at the head of the Bungeworgorai Creek, north-east of Mitchell, and at Dalbydilla, in Queensland.t In conclusion, I desire to express my thanks to Mr. B. Dunstan, Mr. F. Chapman, and Professor B. W. Skeats for help in the preparation of this paper. * Qid. Govt. Mining Journal, 15th December, 1912. + Jack and Etheridge. Geol. and Pal. of Qld. and New Guinea, p. 406. Plate V, ‘SPAG SNCPIOJIAZ 4aMN27 Poo Y4NIg Y blapyy PUP POEs), Peony hl ~ 4 2729S /°°D minimis 90) Bu0ySY/ seca esBaokan yroly Lajony “07 SP2g MMO) p4o 4204 s21) fo woljpruap of fis Oo 4 your 2=2/09G A p) Apooy 2uy'7 \wé iva) oud” d : fat ae Log apps. Hoyg ysaont, XS ox uloy Far oyofyroyg Rs g 8 ~ aC SS S = Vee Plate 1 pyr7sy hpoom ybrasyy {S07 YAN 2] {SAM YyrOG “ast UOLpr2E 1.031] 424 Pues P24 P1/esdo) F SOIAS ONY [ODAYN YY TF SP AG PUA Off SNCTILJA)ABMOT 4 GPL F Of YUE YOM AO] "Gif 9/4/0001 B/029. JAA » ey PY PP 22K4 MT PiApoo M PIPUry ye who 0g oy PY S 428 Ot] Of OY OL/ woul SDI Y [52M Louk UOUIAG [P1444 TS bry YGPY Ayreyy GE sony SPYOG P10 YI2Y DSA CPL) + auyssuiy hpuos furry fx SCUIIWL) BMY UO? BUYS SA OBID-YOY “E « : PU AY OF YDS AY Wy PY © 902 “Sued, 1207 oo” 9 SYEYE SPW IbU0gIO) "y Gao: seg ‘SPLO/SPUOG PUP SY PYS SOM YSALY “GSA OYS PLD S38 O/S PDE SNOPIA/BI) 4OMOT eG : 101 Y{4ON r Sy paaon i MS 2 < 2—ON THE COMPOSITION AND ORIGIN OF AUSTRALITES. By H. 8. Summers, M.Sc., Lecturer and Demonstrator in Geology, University of Melbourne. Plate VIT. Introduction. Ever since the first record by Charles Darwin* in 1851, interest has been maintained in the occurrence and origin of the bodies variously known as Obsidian Bombs, Obsidian Buttons, Obsidianites, Australites, &e. In the earlier days they were generally referred to as Obsidian Bombs or Obsidian Buttons, but latterly the name Obsidianite has been in more general use. In 1900 Professor Suessf suggested the name Australite, and this name seems to be the most suitable. In the first place it has been shown that the composition of these bodies differs from that of true obsidian, and in the second place the name Australite is more in accord with the names applied to somewhat similar substances found elsewhere, 7.¢., ‘“‘ Moldavites” from Moldau River, ** Billitonite ’’ from the Island of Billiton, and “‘ Australites”’? from Australia. These three types have been grouped together by Suess under the name “‘ Tektites.” During the latter part of 1912 Mr. E. J. Dunn{ published an elabo- ration of his “‘ bubble hypotheses” to account for the origin of Aus- tralites, and one purpose of this paper is to answer certain criticisms by Mr. Dunn on a previous paper read by me before the Royal Society of Victoria. At the same time, attention must be called to two other hypotheses which have been recently advanced to account for the origin of Australites. Professor EH. P. Merrill,|| believes that Australites represent rolled Obsidian pebbles, while Professor J. W. Gregory] suggests that they may habe been formed by the fusing of atmospheric dust by lightning discharge. Composition of Australites. Since the publication of my earlier paper** on this subject, two additional analyses of Australites have been made, and these are set out below. * Gsological observations on Coral Reefs, Volcanic Islands, and in South America, 1851. Reprint 1890, pp. 190-191. t Jahr d-k.k. Geol. Reichsanst, Vienna. Vol. 50, 1900, p. 194. + Bull. of the Geol. Surv. of ‘Vic. No. 27. 1912. § Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic. Vol. XXI(N.S.), Pt. BU 1908., p. 423. j| Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum. Vol. XI, 1911, p. 481. 4 7 Making of the Earth (Hom? University Series), p. 36. *¥ On) ents PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION GC. 189 190 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. The analyses of the specimen from Uralla was made by Mr. Mingaye, and I am indebted to him for his kindness in permitting me to use it. I have also to thank Mr. Ampt for the analysis of another specimen from south-western Victoria. In the following table these analyses are given in full, together with the molecular ratios :— q. II. SiO, A ep 68°91 1°149 79°51 1°325- Al,O, ‘is ae 15°42 "151 10°56 "104 Fe,0, t; by. 0°40 003 0°60 004 FeO ifs zG 4°86 “068 3°11 "043 MgO 3 e 2+49 062 «1°35 -034 CaO 3 re 3°88 ‘070 1°48 027 _Na,O a. * 1°20 “019 0°91 015 K,0 sis 4 2°50 027 1°25 013. A,O+ 6 ih 0°01 ne 0°19 ite H,O- 3h Ps 0°13 ia Nil CO, b i it sf Nil 3 TiO, i: ye 0-08 001-063 -008 P05 2 be af: Nil ro SO, a rT és Nil Cl. ud a gel ge fog 2) 8 ee ties sa} ei] ‘aa | Se | oe | 8 BA | ee |S 22 | 28 | & - BE She gS Pm os 5 ae Seg PS alt ae =) q =) as Se = Mg as aM) #3 | 23 | $3 | 25)| 28 | $2 |-2 | $21 82) 83 ACRE lar: 0 Yi i= ae R= fe Pye Sa Rate Ny A ae | 2S Sn SN So og Sa So ile So ss Ss a ae | ge | 83 | BE | 32) 82 | 8 | 22 | 2B] aa So o =| =| i ei mid 5 — @ 2% | <4 | <2 | 4 | 46 | =e | SS | SE | 2a | 4a it: 2 | 3 4 ot 6 7 8 9. 10. 69:08 | 69-57 | 70:21 | 70-74 | 70°90 | 71-73 | 72-37 | 72-58 | 74-00 15°53 | 15°77 | 12-08 | 13-43 | 14°44 | 12-10 | 12-08 | 13-92 |. 13°13 5°31 | 5°17] 6:46] 6:23 | 5°65| 5°66| 618] 4:99] 4°30 2°50 | 2:46| 2:59 | 2:36! 2°42 | 2:40] 2-11 | 1°87] 1°81 3°89] 3:19] 3°75 | 3°50] 3:10] 2:86] 3:06] 3:18] 3:78 1-20} 1°29] 2-44 | 1-47] 1:27] 2:47] 1°78] 1°64] 1°04 2°51 | 2°55 | 2:47] 2-27| 2:22] 2-78 | 2-42 | 1°92 | 1:94 C0 +00 |100-00 |100-00 {100-00 1100-00 |100 C0 |100-00 }100-00 |100-00 ? 2:454| 2:447|) 2-433] 2°454| 2°43 | 2:47] 2-427] 2:428 | | a £ S | = ac) | 2 & ce whe | os Ag tal as 6 OH ’ _n = “Oo . -— * a “2 > os 23 2a SP a P| 3a 25 ‘2 Sua 25 32 EG ahe5 Ea EE ae ap a =e a5 Se Bo = 3S a+ Ss “is Se s $s o's S54 3S 3'3 mis s+ ae cg ns = Dy 2 =o = 2 me! n © ad = ER on 28s C8 or cs Sq Sa se ; ae se | unajoapeg Gynt @ = S29U22/9%A_ pr NSS Diabetes Grit ple Sdureme BAoiBueW pye odes | C1) on kay azy wey) ‘sugjsetuiy 'souayspnly ‘ s2U0j9 pues Serer siete fanless» oneal cue” ak fs Bat BL oC RAL S| “XAGNI SITIpf 2 es c) AStBoyoab yurusussr05 AFINCLS Y NVAQ Ad . | VIYVY WAFTOALIA NVANdAVd BHL dO dVW HOLEAS 1V91901039 x ) Fh PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ¢C. 207 ON THE PALZONTOLOGY OF THE SILURIAN OF VICTORIA. By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S., Paleontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne. INTRODUCTION. The Victorian Silurian strata contain a rich assemblage of fossils, which, when thoroughly worked out, will safely hold their own in variety and interest with those of the better-known European, North American, and other faunas. Up to the present, no detailed lists or compendia of the Victorian Silurian faunas have been published, excepting those found in Mr. R. Etheridge’s Catalogue of Australian Fossils,* the lists of selected type fossils supplied by Professor J. W. Gregoryf in his paper on the Heathcotian, and the list of South Yarra fossils recently published by the writer.{ The score- or so of fossils mentioned by Gregory may be easily augmented to several hundreds when the material at present in the hands of paleontologists has been fully dealt with. It has been presumed, therefore, that a connected list of the Silurian fossils of this State, together with some essential stratigraphical notes, and a census of recorded and unrecorded species, with authors’ references, may not be without value; and may thereby save future workers some trouble in searching through not always easily-accessible literature. DIVISIONS OF THE SILURIAN. The Silurian system in Victoria has been divided by Prof. Gregory,§ quoting his own words, “ into two divisions—a lower, or Melbournian, and an upper, or Yeringian. The Silurian system occurs partly in a series of gentle folds and partly in belts along a series of meridional fracture lines, along which the beds are intensely contorted. Going eastward from the western edge of the series, the main folds in the Silurian are—(1) the contorted zone of the Melbournian beds; (2) the Warrandyte anticline ; (3) the Lilydale synclinal; (4) the anticline of the Upper Yarra, in the centre of which, near Matlock, Upper Ordo- _ vician rocks are exposed ; (5) the geosynclinal of Walhalla.” (a) Melbournian.—The older of Gregory’s divisions, the Melbour- nian, consists of mudstones and sandstones, often very fossiliferous. Owing to the decalcified nature of the rocks, the fossils from this divi- sion are, generally speaking, in the form of moulds an . These, - # Etheridge (’78), pp. 3-26. va =~ + Gregory (’03), p. 172. p Rhee } Chapman (’10), pp. 65-70. Be. § Gregory (’03), p. 173. ; a 208 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. however, retain the ornament so perfectly that they are practically as useful for purposes of identification or diagnosis as those fossils in which the shell has been preserved ; the cast showing the form of the organism, and the mould the external contour and ornament. Amongst the chief localities for Melbournian fossils are :—Moonee - Ponds Creek, South Yarra, the various sewerage excavations in the city and suburbs of Melbourne, Studley Park, Templestowe (Koonung Koonung Creek and the neighbouring road cuttings), Merri Creek (near Donnybrook), Warrandyte, Broadhurst’s Creek (near Kilmore), Yan Yean, and Heathcote. That the sandstones and mudstones of the Melbournian merely represent different lithological phases of about the same paleontological horizon may be inferred from the community of faunas between, say, Moonee Ponds Creek (sandy) and South Yarra (argillaceous) ; whilst in each of these localities the conditions are sometimes seen to have interchanged in the space of a few feet of vertical thickness. So far, there has not been sufficient paleontological evidence obtained from the Melbournian series to enable us to divide the beds into zones; although certain fossils do undoubtedly occur in bands. For example, Paleoneilo (P. victorize and others) are found in a limited area in the Yarra Improvement Works at South Yarra, and the neighbourhood, occurring typically in a blue mudstone; whilst the Chonetes melbournensis is found most abundantly in the area including East Melbourne, Studley Park, Yan Yean, and Templestowe. By careful and assiduous collecting along the principal lines of strike, we may, no doubt, presently be furnished with more complete data to enable us to point to definite zones in these beds, which, I feel sure, will eventually be proved to exist, as they have been in other Silurian areas. In Selwyn’s horizontal section from the parish of Mickleham (Merri Creek) to Mount Dandenong* the various folds of the Silurian are clearly set forth along the line of section taken. Seven or eight small anticlines and synclines are there shown, but in many cases the exposures up to the present have proved unfossiliferous. The chief anticlines which bring up the Melbournian fossiliferous strata to the surface are those of the Merri Creek, near Kinlochewet ; the Whittlesea anticline (embracing the Yan Yean and probably the South Yarra and Studley Park Melbournian outcrops) ; as well as the Templestowe and Warrandyte anticlines. Along the Lilydale railway line from Mel- bourne, Jutsont has indicated some minor anticlines, as the Blackburn and Ringwood auticlines, between which is the Warrandyte anticlinal. Jutson,§ on the field evidence alone, places the grits and conglomerates * Selwyn (’56, 57), section. + Spelt ‘‘ Kiinochue ” in Selwyn’s section. t Jutson (’11*), p. 525, Pl. XCIII. § Jutson (11°), p. 531. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. : 209 of Warrandyte as the oldest beds in the area examined by him. The fossils which occur there are in the form of casts, some of which I have lately had the privilege of examining for Mr. Jutson. Two of these are corals, belonging to the genera Thecia (Woolhope Limestone or Wenlockian) and Lyellia (Valentian and Wenlockian). This curious mixture of faunal stages in the Australian Silurian is similar to that which is met with in the Melbournian of South Yarra, where Wenlock species are commingled with Llandovery, and emphasises the difficulty of an exact homotaxial comparison between the Lower Paleozoic of the southern and northern hemispheres. It may further be noted that, in the same stage, the Melbournian, the archaic trilobite Ampyx is not infrequent, and this in a measure serves to counterbalance the otherwise youthful aspect of that fauna. This evidence of greater age is further strengthened by the occurrence of Illaenus jutsoni in a quarry on the Koonung Koonung Creek between Templestowe and Heidelberg, and is a form nearest related to the I. davisii, Salter, of the English Bala beds. A notable piece of work in connexion with the passage of the Melbournian anticlinal rocks, into the Yeringian trough on the west side of the Whittlesea anticline, has been carried out by Jutson.* The beds of the Yan Yean and Whittlesea axis are clearly Melbournian ; whilst to the west a passage-bed series crops out, containing Dalmanites meridianus, Eth. fil. and Mitchell sp., together with otherwise typical Yeringian species of brachiopods, as Stropheodonta alata and Orthis testudinaria ; whilst still further to the west the Merriang syncline _ yielded an abundant Yeringian fauna. Jutson estimated the thickness of the Melbournian series at this locality to be between 7,000 and 8,000 feet, whilst the Yeringian is about 750 feet. To the east of the Warran- dyte anticlinal the thickness of the Yeringian series is much greater, as shown by the deeper development of the synclinal folds in the section by Selwynf relating to that part of the country between Lilydale and the Dandenong Ranges. : (b) Yeringian—The beds comprised in this series consist, in the neighbourhood of Melbourne, of mudstones, sandstones, and limestones. At the base of the Yeringian series at Wombat Creek and Walhalla there is a well-marked fossiliferous conglomerate bed, with Atrypa reticularis. For a detailed study of the succession of the Yeringian strata, it is probable that the country east from Warrandyte, through Lilydale and the Yarra Flats towards Warburton would yield some good results. This would be practically along the line of section given by Gregory in his horizontal sketch-section from Keilor to Mount Wellington. * Jutson (’08). ¢t Selwyn (’56, 57), section. > 210 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©. The traverse would have to be kept well to the north, to avoid the fault of Brushy Creek,* where the Yeringian beds are affected; the maximum throw of the fault, as Jutson points out, being 200 feet, as seen at the Yering Gorge. In other Yeringian areas, especially in Gippsland, this series appears to either stratigraphically overlap the Upper Ordovician, or is thrust into that position. The evidence seems to point to the former as the most reasonable explanation of the problem, since the succession is not usually disturbed by any serious tectonic movements. As an illustration of the variable nature of the Yeringian beds, the Wombat Creek section may be cited : -f 4. Shales and fine-grained sandstones, very fossiliferous, with trilobites, crinoids, corals, and brachiopods. 3. Limestone, with corals and crinoids. 2. Thin bed of sandstone, with few fossils. Trilobites, crinoids, corals, and brachiopods. 1. Breccia and conglomerate, with internal casts of Atrypa reticuleris. The younger Silurian series defined by Gregory as Yeringian, occurs in several of the synclines noted by Selwyn and Jutson in their sections drawn across the lines of strike in the Yarra and Plenty River districts. The westernmost Yeringian series appears to be represented in the neighbourhood of Keilor, on the banks of the Saltwater River, by some olive-brown or yellow mudstones containing numerous graptolites. Amongst these are Monograptus riccartonensis, Lap- worth ; M. convolutus, Hisinger sp. ; Cyrtograptus sp.; and Retiolites australis, McCoy. M. riccartonensis is typical of the Riccarton beds in the south of Scotland, which are of Wenlock age. M. convolutus is found in the beds immediately below, or at the top of the Birkhill shales.. The trilobites, however, afford more definite evidence of the newer Silurian affinities, for the Cheirurus and “ Asaphus ” mentioned on the Geological Survey Quarter-sheet No. 1 N.W. are both Yeringian forms in other parts of Victoria. The Cheirurus is allied to C. gibbus, Beyrich, similar to a form which is characteristic of the mudstones in the neighbourhood of Lilydale, and also recorded from the Yeringian of Cooper’s Creek, Gippsland, by Mr. Etheridge ;{ whilst the other is referable to Phacops crossleii, Eth. fil. and Mitch.,§ described by the above authors from the upper trilobite bed (? Wenlock) of Bowning village, New South Wales. * Jutcon (’114), p. 478. + Ferguson (’89), p. 17. } Etheridge, R., jun. (’00), p. 23. § Etheridge and Mitehnell (’98), p. 489. Pl. XX XIX, figs 9-11. ‘ites Wat, ae re Se me Se te ers a eo ‘s “ > 4 es 5 Poe ONE | Fee ee ee ee eae et j > - Fs PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 211 A little to the west of the Darebin Creek there is a fairly well- marked synclinal, but no Yeringian fossils have yet been recorded from that area. The highly crumpled series from Heidelberg to the Plenty ‘River exhibits some minor synclines, but not on so large a scale as to have enclosed and protected the overlying Yeringian series. Beyond Warrandyte, to the east, the Silurian rocks are again thrown into extensive folds, which fortunately have preserved, together with the senkungsfeld interference, a remarkable series of Yeringian strata. An upper series of fossiliferous brown mudstones and sandstones are found in quarries south-east of Wonga Park, and in the immediate neighbourhood of Lilydale. These mudstonés are extremely rich in brachiopods, corals, and trilobites, and the general facies is that of the Wenlock limestone and the Lower Ludlow shales. The famous quarry at Lilydale is situated in a band of limestone, which is tilted at a high angle (35-50°), and consists largely of corals (Favosites, Heliolites), stromatoporoids (Clathrodictyon, Actinostroma), gasteropods (Mur- chisonia, Kuomphalus, Cyclonema), and ostracoda (Primitia, Bytho- cypris). These fossils resemble, generally speaking, those found in the Wenlock limestone of England. The Cave Hill or Lilydale limestone is apparently represented farther to the east by the impure limestone of Seville ; whilst the fossiliferous Yeringian mudstones round Lilydale are again in evidence at the Yarra Flats and View Hill Creek. Near Killara, at the junction of the Woori Yallock and Yarra Rivers, these beds were determined by McCoy as of Bala age; but, judging by an extended examination of its fauna, they appear to be identical with the fossiliferous mudstones in the neighbourhood of Lilydale. Both limestones and mudstones of Yeringian age are well developed in many Gippsland localities; and a striking feature of their strati- graphy is their constant unconformable association with immediately . underlying Upper Ordovician slates. This points either to a recession of the Silurian sea during Melbournian times, or to a more rapid sinking of the Silurian basin in the latter period, resulting in a distinct overlap of the strata. At Walhalla, a bed of limestone occurs, full of corals, many of which are similar to those of Lilydale, although some are peculiar to the locality. The same may be said of the Waratah Bay limestone, which is also Yeringian, but contains an aberrant species of Tryplasma (? T. murrayi, Eth. fil.) peculiar to this bed.* At Loyola, near Mansfield, beds of limestone are found associated with mudstones, each containing its own particular Yeringian facies; that is, chiefly corals in the former and brachiopods in the latter. The Tyer’s River and the Mitta Mitta limestones are also of Yeringian age, and are largely of crinoidal and coral origin. In the former an interesting and * Etheridge (’99), p, 32, pl. A, figs. 1-3 ; aiso, Id. (’07), p. 93, Pl. XXVIII. 212 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. restricted coral occurs, viz., Cannapora australis,* the genus being” otherwise known only in the Clinton and Niagara groups in the United. States, and in beds of similar age in Canada. In the Mitta Mitta limestones are found the genera Diphyphyllum and Halysites, fossil corals which are better known at present from the Silurian of New South Wales. The limestones of Limestone Creek appear to belong both to the Silurian (Yeringian) and the Middle Devonian; but the fossil faunas from these deposits have yet to be studied in detail. In the diagrammatic section by Prof. Gregory, of the Palwozoic strata from west of Melbourne to Mt. Wellington, the Yeringian beds of the Lilydale synclinal-are narrowed down to the Lilydale area ; but, as a matter of fact, the Yeringian facies predominates throughout the shales and mudstones along the Upper Yarra as far at least as the junction of the Woori Yallock and Yarra Rivers; whilst Yeringian fossils occur at View Hill Creek, on the same line of strike to the north of that area. One would therefore be inclined, on present paleeonto- logical evidence, to assign all this area to a broadly extended Yeringian basin, On the other side of the granodiorite massif to the east, however, the Silurian shales contain a fauna peculiarly distinct from the typical Yeringian ; and to all appearances this series should come above the Yeringian proper, since it contains a fauna denoting a high horizon in the Silurian elsewhere. This series comprises the Panenka shales of Mt. Matlock, and Reefton, near Warburton. In the Walhalla district the Panenka shales of the Jordan River series lie on the Walhalla geosynclinal, and abut on Upper Ordovician graptolite beds. This asso- ciation may, perhaps, best be explained by the hypothesis of an overlap of the newer Silurian. The yellow, blue, and black shaly mudstones of the Panenka beds, besides containing this genus in abundance, also: contain innumerable examples of Tentaculites and Styliola, together with the cephalopod KionoGéeras striatopunctatum, Miinster sp., an Upper Ludlow form in England and Upper Devonian (Clymenia Limestone) in Germany. Panenka itself is a genus which is rare in the Upper Silurian elsewhere, being more typical of Devonian strata. At the most, therefore, the Panenka shales cannot be, on paleontological grounds, older than the Upper Ludlow, that is, above the Yeringian. Should the stratigraphical evidence prove this to belong to a distinct stage in Victoria, I would suggest the term Tanjilian, since the Panenka. shales are well developed in the district of the Tanjil River, Gippsland CLIMATAL AND BATHYMETRICAL EVIDENCE IN THE SILURIAN. The brachiopod genus Lingula affords some interesting data in regard to the above questions. The genus is now restricted to the * Cnapmes ('07}), p. 76, Pls, III and VIIT. ne P a ee —— in - PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 213 warm temperate and tropical seas of China, Japan, the Philippines, and Australia. In the Melbournian series of Victoria, Lingula is an abundant paleontological factor, and its presence there undoubtedly points to the moderately high temperature of the Silurian sea of this part of the world. Curiously enough, Lingula is almost absent from the next, the younger stage, or Yeringian ; but there its absence may be accounted for on the ground that this brachiopod is now found in the laminarian and littoral zones. For, whilst the Melbournian fauna indicates a generally shallow, muddy or sandy accumulation, the Yeringian, by its reef-formed limestones and comparatively deep- water mudstones, possibly represents a more profound bathymetrical condition. The corals, also, in the Melbournian are rare, and repre- sented only by simple forms, as Streptelasma, if we except a single occurrence of a cyathophylloid example found in the Moonee Ponds Creek sandstone. The Yeringian corals , on the other hand, constitute an important factor in the life of that period. For example, there are massive reefs composed of Favosites, compound cyathophylloids, and the gigantic stromatoporoids. These give evidence of clear water, and also point to rapidly subsiding areas, as exemplified in the present day coral] reefs, as well as indicating a generally warmer temperature of the water than that which prevailed in the Melbournian sea. It is true that, in the presence of abundant Girvanella in the Yeringian, we have evidence of the proximity of the shore-line, yet the areas in which these blue-green algae flourished were undoubtedly free from scour and argillaceous sedimentation, such as would be met with in the older Silurian seas. The strongly marked current bedding seen in the Melbournian mudstones is only met with rarely in the Yeringian ; and the tubes and crypts of the errant worms, as Trachyderma, are certainly more abundant in the rocks of the older stage. OTHER SILURIAN FAUNAS. There are innumerable interesting data to be gleaned from a comparison of the Victorian with other Silurian faunas. To state the case briefly, the older, Melbournian faunas=seem apparently to have been better developed in the State of Victoria than in any of the other States in which Silurian rocks occur, as, for example, in New South Wales and Queensland. Tasmania and parts of New South Wales, especially in the lower part of the Bowning and Yass series, appear, however, to be correlative in 2ge with our Melbournian. But the larger part of the New South Wales Silurian is clearly equivalent to the Yeringian stage in Victoria. In support of this statement such groups. as the corals, brachiopods, and trilobites supply ample evidence, for many of the species first described from New South Wales are con- stantly brought to light in rocks of newer Silurian age in Victoria. 214 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. SILURIAN FOSSILS OF VICTORIA.—_MELBOURNIAN. Species. Localities. References. PLANT. Bythotrephis tenuis, J. Hall Palewachlya cf. tortuosa Eth. fil. ANTHOZOA. Lyellia sp. Streptelasma cf. aequisul- catum, McCoy sp. cf. Streptelasma Taecia sp. HYDROZOA. Dendrograptus sp. Monograptus cf. concinnus, Lapworth M. cf. cyphus, Lapw. M. cf. dubius, Suess. M. priodon, Bronn sp. CRINOIDEA. Botryocrinus longibrachi- atus, Chapm. (?) Gissocrinus . a victoriae Hapalocrinus Bather Helicocrinus plumosus, Chapm. OPHIUROIDEA. Gregoriura spryi, Chapm.. . Protaster brisiagoides, Gregory Sturtzura leptosomoides, Chapm. ASTEROIDEA. Paleaster meridionalis, Eth. fil. P. smythi, McCoy sp. Paleocoma sp. .. Urasterella selwyni, McCoy Urasterella sp. .. S. Yarra (Bot. Gdns.) Moonee Ponds Creek (in Lingula shell) Warrandyte Vs S. Yarra; Moonee Ponds Creek Studley Park Warrandyte S. Yarra 9°? S. Yarra S. Yarra Macclesfield bouraian) (? Mel- Moonee Ponds Creek Merri Creek S. Yarra Brunswick . S. Yarra Moonee Ponds Creek Moonee Ponds Creek Se Yarra: Ponds Creek S. Yarra; Ponds Creek Melbourne (excav.); Moonee Ponds Creek Kilmore Moonee Moonee Moonee Ponds Creek Blandowski pp. 144, 145, 2 pls. pl. XVI., Fucoides sp. (58), Chapman (034), fig. 1 Chapman (’11), p. 183, pl. XLV., fig. 6 Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (’101), p. 65 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (101), p. 65 Chapman, (’104), Hall (°99), p. 446 Hall (99), p. 446 p- 65 Chapman (’034), p. 108, pl. XVIIL., figs. 6-8 Nat. Mus. Coll. Bather (’07), p. 337, pl. XV, Chapman (031), p. 108, pl. XVII. and XVIIL, figs. 1-5 Chapman (072), p. 25, pl. VL, fig. 1; pl. VIIL., figs. 1-3 Gregory (’89), p. 24, wood- cuts, figs. 14 (p. 25). Chapman (07%), p. 22, pl. VI., fig. 2; pl. VIIL., fig. 2 Chapman (072), p- 26, pl. VIE. ;_ pl. VIIL., fig. 4 ee (91), p. 199, pl. Meboy: (’74), pe 415 pl... wae Mus. Coll. McCoy bites p- 42, pl. X., figs. 2, 3 Nat. Mus. Coll. pe gee ee PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 215 SrtuRIAN Fossits oF Victor1A.—MELBOURNIAN—continued. References. Species Localities. ECHINOIDEA. - Palsechinus sp. Fraser’s Creek, near Springfield CE AETOPODA. Trachyderma ccrassituba,|S. Yarra; Moonee _Chapm. Trachyderma sp. Ponds Creek Melbourne (excava- tions) ; Auburn ; Diamond Creek BRACHIOPODA. Camaroteechia decempli-|S. Yarra; Melbourne cata, Sow. sp. (excavations); Moo- nee Ponds Creek; Richmond; Stud. ley Park; Yan Yean ; Kilmore ; Wallan-rd. ; near Chonetes Chapm. melbournensis, | S. Mt. Disappointment Yarra; Melbourne (excav.) Auburn; Studley Park; Bal- wyn; nr. Temple- stowe ; Merri Creek; Yan Yean; Broadhurst’s Creek ; Wallan-rd. ; Bruce’s Creek ; Kilmore Creek Craniella lata, Chapm. S. Yarra Dielasma sp... .. 18. Yarra re Leptana rhomboidalis, | Fraser’s Creek, near Wilckens sp. Springfield Lingula lewisii, Sow., var. Moonee Ponds Creek flemingtonensis, Chapm. L. spryi, Chapm. L. cf. striata, Sow. L. aff. symondsi, Davidson L. yarraensis, Chapm. 8S. Yarra; Melbou-ne (excayv.) S. Yarra N.E. of Kilmore S. Yarra Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (710%), p. 103, pl. XXVII., figs. 1-3, (?) 4; pl. XXIX., fig. 1 Determined at Mus. McCoy (’77), p. 26, pl. XLVIL, fig. 4. *‘ Rhyn- chonella ”’ Chapman (’03%), p. 74, pl. XI, figs. 24 Chapman ('034), p. 68, pl. X., figs. 4, 14 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. (See also” Yeringian occurrence) Chapman (711), p. 180, pl. XLV., figs. 1-5 : Chapman (’03?), p. 64, pl. X., figs. 9, 9a Chapman (’11), p. 183, pl. XLV., fig. 7 Chapman (711), p. 184, pl. XLYV., figs. 8, 9 Chapman (’03%), p. 65, pl. X., fig. 10, 10a (as L. latior, non McCoy. Nom. mut. Chapman (’05%), p- 19 216 rere Pi ig er PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. StnuR1AN Fossiis oF VicrortIA.—MrLBouRNIAN—continued. Species. BRACHTOPODA—continued. Nucleospira australis, McCoy Orbiculoidea selwyni, Chapm. Orthis canaliculata, Lind- strom, O. elegantula, Dalman Pentamerus sp. Plectambonites sp. : Poram bonites deformatus, Eichwald Rhynchotrema formosa, J. Hall, sp. R. liopleura, McCoy sp. Rhynchotreta borealis, Schlotheim sp. Siphonotreta australis, Chapm. Spirifer plicatellus, L. sp., var. macropleura, Con- r Strophomena (?) pecten, L. sp. Wilsonia wilsoni, Sow. sp... PELECYPODA. Actinopteria heathcotien- sis, Chapm. Aviculopecten Chapm. Cardiola cornucopie, Gold- fuss sp. Conocardium (?) costatum, Cresswell sp. spryi, Localities. Melbourne (excav.), Auburn; Studley Park ; Merri Creek ; Broad- hurst’s Creek ; Bruce’s Creek, near Mt. Macedon; near Mt. aah a Merri Creek 8S. Yarra; Merri Creek; Fraser’s Creek 8S. Yarra; Fraser’s Creek Broadhurst’s Creek .. S. Yarra +. Chiltern S. Yarra ; near Mt. Dis- appointment; Wal- lan - rd.; Bruce’s Creek Melbourne (excav.) ; Moonee Ponds Creek; Wallan-rd. ; Bruce’s Creek ; Broadford ; near Mt. Disappointment Bruce’s Creek S. Yarra; Melbourne (excav.) Kilmore S. Yarra Chiltern Heathcote .. S. Yarra S. Yarra; Moonee Ponds Creek S. Yarra References, McCoy (77), p. XLVIL., figs. 7, 8 27, pl. 4 gees ('03%), p. 66, pl. X., figs. 5, 6, 12 Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (101), p. 66 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Fide McCoy (’77%), p. 155 McCoy (’77), p.. 22, pl. XLVI, fig. 6. ‘“‘ Trema- tospira ” McCoy (°77), p.. 21, pl ‘XLVI., figs. 2-5. “ Tre- matospira ”’ Nat. Mus. Coll, Chapman (’03?), p. 65, pl. X., figs. 7, 8,13; nL Xt. fig. 1 McCoy (°77), -p. 22, - pl. XLVI., figs. 7, 8 Nat. Mus. Coll. Fide McCoy (’77%), p. 155 (Rynchonella) Chapman (’084), p. 48, pl. V., fig. 73 Chapman (’084), p. 49, pl. V., fig. 75 i Chapman (08), p. 20, pl. I, $ figs. 11, 12 Cresswell (’93), p. 43, pl. IX., fig. 5. Chapman (’08}), p- 45 ds ae is ae “aS | Bae Te alien PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 217 SiLuR1AN Fossits or VicTror1ra.—MELBOURNIAN.—continued. Species. PELESYPODA—continued. Ctenodonta portlocki, Chapm. Edmondia perobliqua, Cnapm. Goniophora cf. glaucus, J. Hall, sp. Grammysia Chapm. G. cuneiformis, Eth. fil. .. abbreviata, G. aff. plena, J. Hall Leptodomus _heathcotien- sis, Chapm. I. maccoyianus, Chapm... Modiolopsis Sow. sp. M. melbournensis, Chapin. complanata, M. nasuta, Conrad sp., var. australis, Chapm. Nucula arceformis, Chapm. N. lamellata, J. Hall N. cf. lirata, Conrad sp. . N. melbournensis, Chapm. N. opima, J. Hall sp., var. australis, Chapm. N. taylori, Chapm. N. umbonata, Chapm. Nuoulites coarctatus. Phil- lips sp. N. maccoyianus, Chapm... N. subquadratus, Chapm. Orthonota stirlingi, Eth. fil. Localities. S. Yarra S. Yarra S. Yarra S. Yarra Heathcote .. Heathcote . Heathcote . Broadhurst’s © Creek ; N.E. of Kilmore; near Mt. Disappoint- ment S. Yarra S. Yarra S. Yarra S. Yarra; Merri Creek Merri Creek; Yan Yean ; Broadhurst’s Creek Yan Yean .. Melbourne ? Merri 8. Yarra ; (excav.) ; Creek §. Yarra; Yan Yean; Fraser’s Creek 8. Yarra ; Broadburst’s Creek Kilmore; Yan Yean . S. Yarra; near Mt. Disappointment S. Yarra ; Merri Creek; Yan Yean Yan Yean; Mt. Dis- appointment ? Heathcote References. Chapman (’08}), p. 24, pl. IL, figs. 17-20 Chapman (083), p. 18., pl. L, figs. 7-9 Chapman ('081), p. 53, pl. VL., fig. 81 Chapman (’08}), p. 14, pl. L, fig. 2 Etheridge (’99}), p. 35, pl. B., fig. 10. Chapman (’08}), p- 16 Chapman (’081), p. 16 Chapman (’081), p. 17, pl. L, fig. 5 Chapman (’081), p. 16, pl. L., fig. 4 Chapman (083), p. 50, pl. V. fig. 77 Chapman (’084), p. 50, pl. V., figs. 76, 76% Chapman (081), p. 51, pl. VI., fig. 78 Chapman, PB p- 30, pl. IL., fig. Chapman (084, Dp. 32, .ph TIL, figs. 45, 46. Chapman (’08}), p. 32, pl. ., fig. 44 Chapman (081), p. 28, pl. IL., figs. 29-33 Chapman (7081), p. 31. pl. IIl., figs. 39-43 Chapman (’08'), p. 30, pl. IL., figs. 37, 38 Chapman (’081), p. 29, pl. IL, figs. 34, 35 Chapman (’081), p. 26, pl IL, figs. 24, 25 Chapman (081), p. 25, pl IL., figs. 21-23 Chapman (08), p. 27, pl. IL., figs. 26, 27 Etheridge (-39"), B: 34, pl. A.,. fig. 4 218 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. Srnur1AN Fossits oF VicToRIA.—MELBOURNIAN-—continued. Species. Localities. PE. ECYPODA—Continued. Palzanatina cf. solenoides,| 8. Yarra J. Hall Paleoneilo cf. brevis, J.| Merri Creek Hall P. (?) constricta, Conrad sp.| 8. Yarra P. producta, Chapm. ..;8. Yarra; Yan Yean P. spoctabilis, Chapm. ..|8. Yarra; Melbourne (excay.) P. cf. tenuistriata, J. Hall..| 8. Yarra P. victoria, Chapm. ..|8. Yarra; Moonee Ponds Creek; An- derson’s Creek ; Broadhurst’s Creek ; Fraser’s Creek Paracyclas siluricus, | Moonee Ponds Creek ; Chapm. Heathcote ; near Kilmore P. siluricus, var. heathcoti-| Heathcote .. _ensis, Chapm. Parallelodon equalis,| 8. Yarra Chapm. ? P. kilmoriensis, Chapm...| ? Melbourne (excay.) ; Kilmore ? Pisrinea tenuistriata,} 8. Yarra McCoy GASTEROPODA. Bellerophon sp. ..| 8. Yarra Cyrtolites sp... ..| 8. Yarra; ‘Anderson’s Creek ee wellingtonensis, | Anderson’s Creek ; Eth. fil. Broadhurst’s Creek Loxonema sp. .. ..| Melbourne (excav.) ; Studley Park; near Mt. Disappoint- ment; Heathcote Paragmostoma sp. ..| 8. Yarra Pleurotomaria (Mourlonia)| Anderson’s Creek duni, Eth. fil. i PTEROPODA. Coleolus (?) aciculum, J. |S. Yarra Hall Conularia ornatissima,| 8. Yarra Chapm. References. Chapman (’08?), p. 18, pl. L, fig. 6 Chapman Po ae p...97, pl. igo g. 5 Chapman (08%, p- 36, pl. IIL, fig. 5 Chapman Coat, p. 36, pl. IIL, figs. 53, 53a * Chapman (’084), p. 36, pl. IIL., figs. 51, 62 Chapman (’081), p. 37, pl. IIL., fig. 56 Chapman (081), p. 33, pl. TiL., figs. 47-49 Chapman (7081), p. 54, pl. VI., figs. 85, 85% Chapman (081), p. 56, pl. VL. figs. 86, 86» Chapman (’081), p. 39, pl. IV., fig. 57 Chapman (’081), p. 39, pl. IV., figs. 58, 7 59 Chapman (’081), p. 41, pl. IV., fig. 61 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Etheridge ('98), p. 77, pl. XY. fig. TE spl ewes figs. 7-9 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Etheridge (’98), p. 73 pl. XV., fig. 5; pl. XVI, fig. 2 Chapman (’041), p. 339, pl. XXXL, fig. 7 Chapman (041), p. 340, pl. XXXL, figs. 13, 14 Xe joe ne a eS a Me ag la ae Homalonotus PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 219 Siturran Fossits oF VicTorIA.—MELBOURNIAN—continued. Specios. PreRoropa—continued, Hyolithes novellus, Bar- rande H. spryi, Chapm. Tentaculites sp... CEPHALOPODA. Aotinoceras sp. cea bullatum, Sow. sp. ©. ibex, Sow. sp. Dawsonoceras sp. Endoceras sp. Kionoceras sp. ee sp. Orthoceras capillosum, Bar- rande Orthoceras sp. .. Protobactrites sp. ? Protocycloceras sp. TRILOBITA. Ampyx parvulus, Forbes, var. jikaensis, Chapm. A. yarraensis, Chapm. Calymene __ blumenbachii Brongn. 0. ? brevicapitata, Portl... Cyphaspis spryi, Gregory Dalmanites meridianus, Eth. fil. and Mitch. sp. Encrinurus Briinnich sp. E. (Cromus) spryi, Chapm. punctatus, harrisoni. McCoy Localities. Yan Yean .. S. Yarra ; (excav.) Melbourne (excav.) .. Melbourne E. of Whittlesea §. Yarra; Melbourne (excav.) ; Whittlesea 8. Yarra’; Moonee Ponds Creek; Wal- lan ; near Kilmore S. Yarra; Moonee Ponds Creek S. Yarra S. Yarra; Ponds Creek S. Yarra ue Broadhurst’s Creek . Moonee §. Yarra; Anderson’s Creek S. Yarra ak Melbourne (excav.) .. Moonee Ponds Creek 8. Yarra Moonee Ponds Creek ? Kilmore Creek 8. Yarra Wandong ; Broad- hurst’s Creek; Kil- more Broadhurst’s Creek .. S. Yarra Moonee Ponds Creek Referer.ces. Chapman (’044), p. 339, pl. XXXI., fig. 8 Chapman (’041), p. 340, pl. e XXXII, fig. 9 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. McCoy (79), p. 26, pl. LVIL., figs. 3,4. “ Orthoceras.” MoCo ( bas p. 25, pl. LVIE., figs Nat. Mus. Coll. Coll. Coll. Nat. Mus. Nat. Mus. Nat. Mus. Coll. McCoy (79), p. 27, pl. LVIL., fio. 5 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (121), p. 294, pl. LXL, figs. 1, 2 Chapman (124), p. 295, pl. LXL., fig. 3 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Gregory ('01), p. 179, pl. XXII Etheridge and Mitchell (’96), p. 504, pl. XXXVIIT., figs. 1-8; pl. XL., fig. 1. See also McCoy (° 76), p. 13, pl. XXIL., figs. 1-7; pl. *XXIIL., figs. 7-10. “ Pha- cops caudatus.” Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (712%), p. 297, pl- TAL fe. 1 McCoy (76), p. 19, pl. XXIII, fig. 11 220 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. StturitAn Fosstts or VicTtor14.—MELBOURNIAN—continued. Species. é TRILOBITA—continued, H. vomer, Chapm. Illenus jutsoni, Chapm. .. ‘Odontopleura bowningen- sis, Eth, fil. and Mitch. Phacops latigenalis, Eth. fil. and Mitch. ®P. sweeti, Eth. fil.and M... ‘Proetuseuryoeps, McCoy sp. Proetus sp. OSTR ACODA. Beyrichia kilmoriensis Chapm. CIRRIPEDIA. ‘Turrilepas ornatus Chapm. PHYLLOCARIDA. Apiyvchopsis victoriz Chapm. ‘Ceratiocaris cf. murchisoni Agassiz sp. C. cf. pardoczana, Jones and Woodward C. pinguis, Chapm. C. pritchardi, Chapm. Dithyrocaris preecox, Chapm. ‘Xiphidiocaris falcata, Chapm. MEROSTOMATA. Ptervzotus australis, McCoy Localities. Wandong near Templestowe S. Yarra Moonee Ponds Creek ; Kilmore Fraser’s Creek Broadhurst’s near Kilmore S. Yarra Creek, Kilmore S. Yarra Moonee Ponds Creek Kilmore | 8. Yarra S. Yarra Wandong Merri Creek; ? Au- burn; ?near Ma- roondah cone S. Yarra : S. Yarra References. Chapman (’121), p. 298, pl. LXII., figs. .2, 33. pl. LXIIL, figs. 1, 2 Chapman (7121), p. 295, pl. LXL, figs. 4, 5 Etheridge and Mitchell (’97), p. 696, pl. L., figs. 1-3; pl. LIL, fig. 5. Chapman (10), p. 69 Etheridge and Mitchell (’96), p. 493, pl. XX XIX., figs. 3-6; pl. XL., figs. 2-6, 9 Etheridge and Mitchell (98), p. 497, pl. XX XVIIL, fig. 9; pl. XXXIX., figs. 1, 2; pl. XL., fig. 10. =“ Pha- cops fecundus,” McCoy non Barrande ; of, McCoy (’76), p. 15, pl. XXII, fies. 8, ise XXIIL., figs. 1-6 McCoy (’76), p- 17, pl. XXIL, figs. 10, 10a. “ Forbesia ” Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (’031), p. 112, pl. XVI, fig. 9 Chapman (7102), p. 105, pl. XXVILL, “hie. ako ee XXIX., fig. 2 Chapman ge p. 315, pl. XVIL., fig. 4 Chapman (042), p . 313, pl. XVIL, figs. 5, 6 Chapman (107), p. 109, pl. XXVIIL., fig. 6 Chapman (’102), p. 107, pl. XXVIIL., figs. 3-5 Chapman (042), p. 312, pl. XVIL., figs. 2, 2a Chapman (’042), p. 314, pl. XVIL., fig. 3 Chapman (102), p. 110, pl. XXVIL. , figs. 7, 7a-7d McCoy (’99), p. 193, (text- figure) ee One aes Fo re a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 221 SILURIAN FOSSILS OF VICTORIA.—YERINGIAN. ——— Species. Localities. ‘References. | PLANT. Girvanella conferta, | Lilydale (limestone); ; Chapman (’07'), p. 74, pl. 8 Chapm. Tyers River VL., figs. 13, G. (2) pisolitica, Wethered | Tyers River of ee re p. 75, pl. V., fig. 1 -G. wetheredii, Chapm. Lilydale (limestone) ; ees tiad ('074), p. 75, pl. V., (=.6. Etheridge (991), p. 31, pl. B, figs. 2-4 Diphyphylium porteri, var. Loyola ; Sandy’s Creek | Etheridge (’994), p. 30, pl. mitchellensis, Eth. fil. A, figs. 6-8, 12; pl. B, fig. 11 Thomson River .. | Etheridge (992), p. 164, pl. XXIV., figs. 1,°2)" pl. XXIX., fig. 2. Chap- man (712%), p. 232 ¥avosites cf. basaltica, var. . moonbiensis, Eth. fil. ? wee at pd comet GRAS Oe - ae Np me ? . <7, ° , er Ore) opr Be at eae Ba Fa ik EE Sr a ae eh i i a ee hE S 222 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. SrtuRiAN Fossits oF VICTORIA—YERINGIAN—continued. Species. | Localities. References. ANTHOZOA—continued. F. cf. forbesi, Ed. and H... F. gothlandica, Lam. F. grandipora, Eth. fil. Fistulipora sp. Halysites sp. : : Heliclites interstincta, L. 8p. Heterotrypa australis, Eth. fil. Labechia sp. Lindstroemia sp. Monotrypa sp. .. Palwocyclus sp.. Plasmopora australis, Eth. fil. Pleurodictyum megas- tomum, Dun Rhizophyllum interpunc- tatum, de Koninck Syringopora sp.. Tryplasma cf. vermiformis, Eth. fil. ? T. murrayi, Eth. fil. Zaphrentis sp. HYDROZOA (Graptolites). Cyrtograptus sp. ye Monograptus priodon, Bronn sp. M. riccartonensis, Lap- worth Retiolites australis, McCoy . . Mt 3 . . . i NT Wood’s Point Thomson Tyers River Lilydale (limestone) . River ; Thomson River Mitta Mitta River Lilydale (limestone) ; Waratah Bay Sandy’s Creek Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (mudstone) ; Seville ; ? Clon- binane Loyola; Tyers River Lilydale (mudstone) . Wombat Creek Lilydale (mudstone) ; Upper Yarra; Lo- yola ; Thomson River ; Merriang Rd. ; near Kilmore ; Clonbinane Sandy’s Creek, Gipps- land Lilydale (limestone) .. near Omeo .. mi Waratah Bay Lilydale (limestone) ; Waratah Bay Keilor Keilor Keilor Keilor Nat. Mus. Goll. Dun (798), p. 81. Chap-- man (071), p. 79 _ Etheridge (90), p. 61, pl. VIIL., figs. 6-9 Chapman (’07'), p. 76, pl. IL, fig. 3 g. Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Etheridge (’991), p. 34 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Dun (’98), p. 89. Chapman (072), ‘p. 77,:ply 1 Ve. & Nat. Mus. Coll. Etheridge (’29), p. 33, pl. A, fig. 11; pl. B, figs. 5 McCoy (’67), p. 201. Dun (98), p. 83, pl. IIL, fig. 1 de Koninck (76), p. 61, pl. Tes tite nO! Etheridge (991), p. 32, pl. A, figs. 5 13 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Etheridge (799), p. 32, pl. A, figs. 1-3. Id., (07), p. 93, pl. XXVIIL Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. McCoy (74°), p. 34 (as. Graptolites ludensis, Murch.) Nat. Mus. Coll. McCoy (’75), p. 36, pl. XX., fig. 10 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION ©. 222 Srturian Fossits or Vicroria—YERINGIAN—continued. Species. Localities. References. _HypRoz0a—continued. (Stromatoporoids). Actinostroma sp. Lilydale (limestone) .. | Nat. Mus. Coll. ‘Clathrodictyon sp. Lilydale (limestone) .. | Nat. Mus. Coll. Idiostroma sp. Lilydale (limestone) .. | Nat. Mus. Coll. Stromatopora sp. Lilydale (limestone) .. | Nat. Mus. Coll, CRINOIDEA. €rinoid stems and joints,| Lilydale = (limestone | Nat. Mus. Coll. indet. and mudstone) ; Lo- yola ; Thomson River; Toongabbie, &e. ASTEROIDEA. Drasterella sp. .. Yering Nat. Mus. Coll. ECHINOIDEA. 4?) Paleechinus sp. Tyers River; Marble | Chapman (’07'), p. 77, pl. Creek IV., fig. 9; pl. VIL, fig. 16 CHZTOPODA. ‘Trachyderma cf. squamosa,| Upper Yarra; View | Chapman ('102), p. 104, pl. Phillips Hill Creek XXVIL, fig. 5 POLYZOA. Fenestella australis, | Thomson River peat 032), p. 62, pl. X., Chapm. fig. 11 F. margaritifera, Chapm. | Upper Yarra; Croy- | Chapman (’032), p. 61, pl. X., don figs. Il- (2) Ptilopora sp. Thomson River .. | Nat. Mus. Goll. Rhombopora gippslandica, Tyers River; Wombat | Chapman (’07!), p. 78, pL IL, : Chapm. Creek fig.4; pl. VIL, fig. 15 BRACHIOPODA. A. -Camarotcchia Atrypa hemispherica, Sow. reticularis, L. sp. cata, Sow. sp. decempli- Cowombut, Gippsland Lilydale (limestone and mudstone) ; Croydon ; Upper Yarra ; Loyola ; Thomson River ; Wombat Creek ; Cowombut ; Bar- ber’s Creek; near Whittlesea (passage beds) ; Clonbinane Upper Yarra; Mer- riang Rd; near Whittlesea (passage beds Nat. Mus. Coll. McCoy (77), XLVIL., figs. = ” gerina p. 25, pl. 1, 2. “ Spiri- McCoy (’77), p. 26, pil. XLVIL, figs. 3-6. “‘ Rhyn- chonella ” 224 Ste a AGROB PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. SrtuRIAN Fossits oF VicToRIA.— Y ERINGIAN—continued, Species, BRAcHIOPODA—continued. Chonetes cresswelli Chapm. C. robusta, Chapm. Ceelospira sp. Gypidula sp. nov. Leptena rhomboidalis, Wilckens sp. L. rhemboidalis, data, McCoy var. un- Lingula perovata, J. Hall.. Nucleospira australis, McCoy Orbiculoidea sp. Orthis actoniz, Sow. : O. canaliculata, Lindstrém O. elegantula, Dalman O. rustica, Sow... O. testudinaria, Dalman . Pentamerus australis, McCoy Pholidops sp. ra Platystrophia biforata, Schloth. sp. Plectambonites cresswelli, Chapm. P. transversalis, Wahl. sp. Rhynchotrema liopleura, McCoy sp. Localities. Lilydale (mudstone) .. Lilydale (mudstone) ; Croydon Donnelly’s Creek, Gippsland Lilydale (mudstone) .. Lilydale (mudstone) ; Loyola; Croydon ; Thomson River ; near Whittlesea (passage beds) Croydon near Whittlesea (pas- sage beds) Upper Yarra Lilydale (mudstone) ; near (passage beds) Upper Yarra - Upper Yarra; near Whittlesea (passage beds) Merriang Rd.; near Whittlesea (passage beds) Lilydale (mudstone) ; Upper Yarra Lilydale (mudstone) ; Upper Yarra ; Wombat Creek ; Merriang Rd.; near Whittlesea (passage beds) Lilydale (mudstone) ; Croydon Croydon Thomson River; near Whittlesea (passage beds) Tiomson River Thomson River near Whittlesea (pas- sage beds) Whittlesea | References. Chapman (03?) p. 77, pl. XII, fig. 7 cae i p. 76, pl. XIL., Nat. Neus. call. Nat. Mus. Coll. McCoy (’77), p- XLVI, fig. 1 19,...ph Chapman (07°), p. 239 Chapman (11), p. 85, pl. XLYV., figs. 10, 13 McCoy (77), p- XLVIL., figs. 7, 8 Nat. Mus. Coll. 27, pi. Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (088), p. 220 Chapman (7088), pp, 220, 22E Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (706), p. 99. Id_, (085), p. 220, 22% McCoy (77), p. 28, pl XLVIL., figs. 9-12 Chapman (’073), p. 239 Chapman (083), p. 220 Chapman (03%), p. 73, pl. XI., figs. 8-10 Chapman (032), p. 72 : McCoy (77); pe 21, + pL XLVI., figs. 2-5. “ Tre- matospira ” ae PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION OC, Strurtan Fossirs or Vicrorta.— Y ERINGIAN— continued. Speeies. Bracuiopopa—continued, Rhynchotreta borealis, Schlotheim sp. R. cuneata, Dalman Schizophoria sp. 5 ee sp. 2 8. cf. crispus, His. sp. 8. perlamellosus, J. Hall, var. densilineata, Chapm. 8. sulcatus, His. sp. lirata, Stricklandinia aff. Sow. sp. Stricklandinia sp. ‘r Stropheodonta (Brachy- prion) lilydalensis, Chapm. ~ Stropheodonta (Leptostro- - phia) alata, Chapm. Strophonella euglyphoides. Chapm. S. cf. punctulifera, Conrad Uncinulus stricklandi, Sow. sp. ? Zygospira sp. .. PELECYPODA. Actinodesma cf. ampliata, Phillips sp. Actinopteria asperula, McCoy sp., var. croydon- ensis, Chapm. A. boydi, Conrad sp. A. texturata, Phillips _Ambonychia acuticostata, McCoy 6117. Loealities. Lilydale (mudstone) .. Lilydale (mudstone) ; near Whittlesea (passage beds) Lilydale (mudstone) .. Lilydale (mudstone).. Lilydale (mudstone) .. near Whittlesea (pas- sage beds) Croydon ; Yarra Croydon Upper Lilydale (mudstone) .. Lilydale (mudstone) ; Croydon; Loyola ; near Whittlesea (passage beds) Lilydale (mudstone) ; Upper Yarra; lLo- yola ; Barber’s Creek; near Whit- tlesea (passage beds) Lilydale (mudstone) ; Croydon ; Upper Yarra; near Whit- tlesea (passage beds) Croydon a Upper Yarra; near Whittlesea (passage beds) Merriang Rd. Lilydale (mudstone) .. Lilydale (mudstone) ; Croydon Lilydale (mudstone) ; Croydon; Barber’s Creek; near Whit- tlesea (passage beds) Lilydale (limestone and mucstone) Lilydale (limestone) . . H Referenses, Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (’08*), p. 220 — Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. (S. lilydal!- ensis, M.S.) Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman ('08%), p. 223, pl. IV., figs. 1,2; pl..V. McCoy (’77), p. 23, pl. XLVL., figs. 9, 10 Chapman (07°), p. 239 Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (’037), p.°70, pl. RAS hig. O- Chapman (’03%), p. 69, pl. XI., figs. 6, 7 Chapman (03%), p. 71, pl. XI.. figs. 3-6 Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (’03?)), p. 78 Chapman (’08°), p. 221 Chapman (7081), p. 14, pl. VI., fig. 87 Chapman (’08?), p. 47, pl. V., fig. 71 Chapman (’081), p. 47, pl. IV., fig. 69 ; pl. V., fig. 70 Chapman (’081), p. 46, pl. IV., figs. 68, 68a Chapman (’081), p. 43, pl. IV., fig. 66 226 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. Sinurran Fossits oF Vicroria,—YERINGIAN—continued. Species. PELECY PoDA—continued. 2 A. poststriata, Eth. fil. .. Conocardium Cressw. sp. bellulum, C. costatum, Cressw. sp... Ctenodonta portlocki, Chapm. Cypricardinia contexta, Barr. _ Glossites victoria Chapm. Goniophora australis, Chapm. Grammysia abbreviata, ene m. eats arauata: Conrad sp. ne, cf. oweni, J. Hall Leptodomus maccoyianus, Chapm. Lunulicardium antistria- tum, Chapm. Mytilarca acutirostris, Chapm. Nucula lamellata, J. Hall N.-opima, J. Hall, sp., var. australis, Chapm. Nuculites jutsoni, Chapm. N. maccoyianus, Chapm... Palaeoneilo Chapm. P. nr. tenuistriata, J. Hall raricostae, Paracyclas sp. Parallelodon spryi, Chapm. Parallelodon sp. Prothyris sp. Pterinea lineata, Goldfuss. . ? Schizodus sp. .. Localities. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) ; Upper Yarra ; Thomson River Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (mudstone) ; Upper Yarra Lilydale (mudstone) ; Croydon ; Upper Yarra Croydon Lilydale (mudstone) .. Loyola Lilydale pane OneNs Croydon near Whittlesea (pas- sage beds) Lilydale (mudstone) .. Upper Yarra Upper Yarra Upper Yarra Wandong Upper Yarra Lilydale (mudstone) ; Upper Yarra Lilydale (mudstone) .. near Whittlesea (pas- sage beds) Wandong Lilydale (mudstone) .. near Whittlesea (pas- sage beds) Lilydale (limestone and mudstone) ; Croydon Lilydale (mudstone) .. References. Etheridge (’91*), p. 126, pl XVIIL, figs. 1, 2 Cresswell (’93), p. 43, pl. [X.4 fig.6. “* Pleurorhynchus’: Cresswell (’93), p. 43, pl. IX.' fig..0; 70 Pleurorhynchus': Chapman (08+), p. 24, pl. If. figs. 17-20 Chapman (’081), p. 53, pl. VI. figs. 82-84 Chapman (081), p. 52, pl. VI., fig. '79 Chapman (’081), p. 52, pl. VL., fig. 80 Chapman (’084), p. 14, pl. L, fig. 2 Chapman (082), p. 15 Chapman (’08?), p. 49, pl. V., figs. 74, 74a Chapman (7084), p. 16, pl. L, fig. 4 Chapman (’081), p IV., figs. 62-65 Chapman (08+), p. IV., fig. 67 Chapman (’084), p. 32, IIL., figs. 45, 46 Chapman (’081), p IIL., figs. 39-43 Chapman (081), p. IL., fig. 28 Chapman (’08+), -p. IL, figs. 21-23 Chapman (’081), p. pl. IIL, fig. 50 : Nat. Mus. Coll. (See Mel- bournian reference) Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (’08}), p. 38, pl. L, fig. 3 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman IV., fig. 60 Nat. Mus..Coll. (081), p. 40, pl, ee te Rae te aa sk, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. — 227 Sinurian Fossits oF Vicror1a.—YERINGIAN—continued. _ Species. Localities. aa ee ena Chelodes sp. i Lilydale (limestone) .. - GASTEROPODA. Bellerophon cresswelli, Eth. fil. B. cf. fasciatus, Lindstrém | Upper Yarra Capulus nycteis, Cressw. sp. Craspedostoma lilydalensis, Cressw. sp. Cyclonema australis, Eth. ‘C. lilydalensis, Eth. fil. Cyrtolites sp... Ay Euomphalus disjunctus, J. Hall E. northi, Hith. fil. sp. Gyrodoma etheridgei, Cressw. sp. Loxonema sp. Lilydale (limeston Loyola Macrocheilus sp. hie i (Cyrtostropha) Me etiostcopha) chardi, Eth. fil. prit- Murchisonia sp. Lilydale (limestone and mudstone) Vetotuba brazieri, Eth. fil. | Lilydale (limeston Trochonema sp.. H 2 Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) a Lilydale (limestone) .. ‘Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (mudstone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. References. Nat. Mus. Coll. Etheridge (’91%), p. 130, pl. XIX., figs. 6-8 Nat. Mus. Coll. Cresswell (’93), p. 41, pl. 1X., fig. 4 Cresswell (’ 93), D. 44, pl. Ix, bi Cees fe “ Naticopsis ” Etheridge (’90), p. 63, pl. TX., | figs. 4, 5. Id., (912), p 127, pl. XTX:, figs. Ae 3° Etheridge (’912), p. 128, pl. XIX., fig. 3 Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Etheridge (’90), p. 64, pl. IX.,. figs. 6, "7.24 Orios stoma ” Cresswell (’93), p. 42, pl. VIIL., fig. 2. Etheridge (98). p. 72, pl. XVL., fig. 1 e); | Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Etheridge (’98), p. 71, pl. XV., figs. 1-4 Nat. Mus. Coll. e); | Etheridge (’90), p. 62, pl. Bp. Marble Creek, Gipps. VIIL., figs. 4, 5; pl. IX land figs. 2, 3. ** Niso ” ween ae p. 73 Omphalotrochus sp. .. | Lilydale (limestone) .. | Nat. Mus. Coll. Phanerotrema . australis, | Lilydale (limestone) .. | Etheridge (912), p. 128, pl. Eth. fil. Das oe figs. 4, 5 Phragmostoma sp. Lilydale (mudstone) .. | Nat. Mus. Coll. Platyceras sp. Thomson River .. | Nat. Mus. Coll. oc hea zquilatera, Lilydale (limestone) .. | Nat. Mus. Coll. ah _P. (Palaeoschisma) sp ... | Upper Yarra .. | Nat. Mus. Coll. Trematonotus pritchardi. | Lilydale (limestone) .. | Cresswell (’93), p. 42, pl. Cressw. VUL, fig. 1. “ Tremano- tus” | Nat. Mus. Coll. 228 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. - SrnuRIAN Fossits oF VICTORIA.— YERINGIAN—continued. Re pean pes yik Or fastest) mem) Rp id ' Species. Localities. GASTEROPODA—tontinuwed. Trochus (Scalztrochus) | Lilydale (limestone) . . antiquus, Cressw. sp. T. (Sc.) lindstroemi, Eth. fil. | Lilydale (limestone) .. PTEROPODA. Coleolus sp. ; Lilydale (mudstone) .. Conularia sowerbii, Defr.. Lilydale (mudstone) ; Upper Yarra Tentaculites sp..... .. | Loyola CEPHALOPODA. Cycloceras capillosum Barr. | Lilydale (mudstone) . . C. tenuiannulatum McCoy, | near Wood’s Point var. australis, Chapm. Kionoceras sp. .. Lilydale (mudstone) .. Orthoceras lineare, Miin- Loyola ; Upper Yarra ; ster sp. Wood’s Point TRILOBITA. Bronteus enormis, Eth. fil. | Lilydale (mudstone) .. B. nr. oblongus, Barrande.. | Lilydale (mudstone) . . B. nr. formosus, Barr. .. | Lilydale (mudstone) .. Calymene blumenbachii, | Upper Yarra Brongn. C. ef. tuberculata, Salter.. | Croydon ; Upper Yarra Cheirurus aff. gibbus, Bey-| Lilydale (mudstone) ; rich Upper Yarra; Se- ville ; Keilor ; Thomson River Cyphaspis cf. bowningensis, | Lilydale (mudstone) ; Mitch. Seville C. of. yassensis, Eth. fil.and | near Whittlesea (pas- Mitch sage beds) Dalmanites meridianus, | near Whittlesea (pas- Eth. fil. and Mitch. sp. sage beds) Dalmanites sp, Lilydale (mudstone) .. Encrinurus punctatus, Wombat Creek Briinnich sp. References. oe Cresswell (’93), p. 48, pl VUL., fig. 3. “Stoma- tia” ‘ Etheridge (’90), p. 66, pl. VIIL., figs. 1, 2 Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (041), p. 340, pl. XXXL, figs. 8, 10-12 Nat. Mus. Coll. McCoy (’79, p. 27, pl. LVIL.,) fig. 5 g Chapman (’12%), p. 232, pl. XXXVIIL., figs. 3, 4 Nat. Mus, Coll. McCoy (’79), p. 28, pl. LVIL, fig. 6 Etheridge (’94), p. 188, pl. XI. Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Nat. Mus. Coll. Etheridge (’00), p. 23 Mitchell (’88), p. 438, pl. XVI., fig. 3. Etheridge and Mitchell Lie p. 170, pl. fig. 3; pl. VIL, fig. 3 Etheridge and Mitchell (’94), p. 172, pl. VL, figs. 1, la-ld Etheridge and Mitchell (’96), p. 504, pl. XXXVIIL., figs. 1-8; pl. XL, fig. 1. ** Hausmannia ” Nat. Mus. Coll. Chapman (706), p. 99 Ot Sgt it PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C, 229 SrLuRIAN Fossizts or VicrorIA— YERINGIAN—continued. i Species, Localitios. References. TRILOBITA—continued. E. (Cromus) murchisoni, de | Wombat Creek .. |de Koninck (’76), p. 54, pl. Kon. I, fig.9. Chapman (06), E t “pe 99 Lichas australis, McCoy .. | Upper Yarra .. | SieCoy (’76), p. 18, pl. XXITL., fi, 1t Odontopleura jenkinsi, Eth. | Upper Yarra .. | Etheridge and Mitchell (’97}, fil. and Mitch. p. 705, pl. LIL., figs. 6, 7; pl. LIII., figs. 4-7 -O. rattei, Eth fil, and |Upper Yarra .. | Etheridge and Mitchell (’97), Mitch. p. 699, pl. L., fig. 7; pl. LL, figs..8,..9; -pl. Lit, figs. 1-4; pl. LIIL, figs. Phacops ? bulliceps, Bar- | Thomson River .. | Nat. Mus. Coll. rande P. crossleii, Eth. fil. and | Lilydale (mudstone) ; | Etheridge and Mitchell (96), Mitch. Keilor p. 489, pl. XXXIX., figs. —11 P. cf. latigenalis, Eth. fil. | Lilydale (mudstone) .. | Etheridge and Mitchell (96), and Mitch. p. 493, pl. XXXIX., figs. 3-6; pl. XL., figs. 2-6, 9 P. serratus, Foerste .. | Upper Yarra; Seville | Foerste (’88), p. 126, pl. XIIL, fig. 1 P. sweeti, Eth. fil. and |near Yering; Seville | Etheridge and Mitchell (’96), Mitch. p. 497, pl. XX XVIII, fig. 9; pl XXXIX., figs. Ls. 2c ple 2.4 oe Proetus rattei, Eth. fil. and | near Whittlesea (pas- | Etheridge and Mitchell (’92), Mitch. sage beds) p. 316, pl. XXV., figs. 2, 2a-2d. Chapman (08°), OSTRACODA. p. 224 Aechmina jonesi, Chapm... | Lilydale (limestone) .. | Chapman (’04%), p. 308, pl. XIV., figs. lla-llb Aparchites subovatus, | Lilydale (limestone) .. | Chapman (042), p. 299, pl. Jones XIV., figs. 10a-l0c Argilloecia acuta,Jones and | Lilydale (limestone) .. | Chapman (042), p. 309, pl. Kirkby XYV., figs. 6a-6e Beyrichia kloedeni, McCoy | Lilydale (mudstone) ; | Chapman (034), p. 109 Upper Yarra ; Croydon ; Seville B. kloedeni, var. granulata, | Lilydale (mudstone) ; | Chapman (031), p. 110, pl. Jones Upper Yarra;| XVL, fig. 8 Croydon B. ligatura, Chapm. .. | Upper Yarra .. |Chapman (03) p. 112, pl. XVL., fig. 10 B. maccoyiina, Jones, var. | Lilydale (mudstone); | Chapman (034), p. 111, pl. australis, Chapm. Loyola; Upper Yarra} XVL., fig. 7 B. wooriyallockensis, Upper Yarra ; Croydon | Chapman (’034), p. 110., pl. Chapm. XVL, fig. 6 , 230 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. : . SILURIAN Fossits or VicroR1A—YERINGIAN—continued. Species, Localities, R>ferences. OstRAcoDA—continued. Bythocypris caudalis, Lilydale (limestone) .. | Chapman (042), p. 311, pl. ones ‘ ; B. hollii, Jones .. B. phaseolus, var. elongata, Jones Cyprosina sp. Isochilina labrosa, Jones. . et Macrocypris flexuosa, - Chapm. Primitia elongata, Krause. var. nuda, Jones P. halli, Chapm. P. ?matutina, Jones and Holl P. cf. obsoleta, Jones and Holl P. paucipunctata, and Holl Jones P. punctata, Jones P. reticristata, Jones P. semicircularis, Jones and Holl P. semicultrata, Chapm. .. P. striata, Krause P. subtrigonalis, Chapm. P. trigonalis, Jones and Holl s P. unicornis, Ulrich sp. Xestoleberis Chapm. X. lilyda lenis, Chapm. holliana. X. wrightii, Jones, var. oblonga, Chapm. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) . Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) . Lilydale (limestone) . Lilydale (limestore) .. Lilydale ? Tyers River Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) . Lilydale (limestone) . Lilydale (limestone) . Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) . Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. Lilydale (limestone) .. ‘Lilydale (I’mestore) .. (limestone) ; XV., figs. Ta-7o Chapman (’04?), p. 310, pl. 9a-9b; pi. XIV., figs. XVI, figs. 1, 2 Chapman (’04?), XV., figs. 5a-5b Chapman (’04?), p. 312, pl. XVI., fig. 4; pl. XVIL, fig. 1 Chapman (’04?), XVI., figs. 3a—3b XII., Chapman 048), XIV., figs. 3030 Chapman (04), p XIV.., figs. 9a_2o Chapman (7042), XIIL, figs. 5a—5b Chapman (oat p. 309, pl. fig. Chapman (042), p. 303, pl. XIIL., figs. 8a—8e Chapman (042), p. 305, pl. 4a-4ce; pl. XIV., figs. XV., figs. 2a-2c Chapman (’042), p. 301, pl. XIII, figs. 2a-2¢ Chapman (04%), p. 303, pl. XIIL., figs. 7a—Te Chapman (’042), p. 306, pl. XV., figs. 4a—de Chapman (’042), p. 301, pl. XIII, figs. 4a—4e Chapman (’042), p. 305, pl. XV., figs. 3a—3c Chapman (04°), XIIl., figs. la-le Chapman (’04?), p. 300, pl. XV., figs. 8a—8e Chapman (042), p. 306, pl. XV., figs. 6a—6b Chapman (042), p. 306, pl. XIII., figs. 3a—-3e Chapman (’04?), 8a-8p Chapman (’04%), XV., figs. la-l1b p. 311, pl.. p. 299, pl. . 804, pl. . 304, pl. p. 302, pl. p. 301, pl. p. 307, pl. XIV., figs. la-lc, 5a-5e, p. 308, pl. = eT PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C., 231° Sinurtan Fosstis oF Vicror1a.— YERINGIAN—continued. Species. CIRRIPEDIA. Turrilepas Chapm. PISCES. Thyestes magnificus, Chapm. Localities. Upper Yarra Wombat Creek References. ¢ yeringiz, | Lilydale (mudstone) ;| Chapman (’10%), p. 106, pls. XXVIII -» fig: 2 Chapman (06), p. 94, i: VII., VIII. SILURIAN FOSSILS OF VICTORIA.—TANJILIAN. PLANT ZS. Bythotrephis divaricata, Kidston Confervites acicularis, Goppert Haliserites dechenianus, Goppert HYDROZOA, ? Cyrtograptus sp. : Monograptus cf. crenulatus, Tornquist M. dubius, Suess PELECYPODA. Actinopteria cf. sowerbii, McCoy sp. Lunulicardium tum, Chapm. antistria- Panenka cingulata, Chapm. P. gippslandica, McCoy sp. P. planicosta, Chapm. Paracardium Chapm. Prelucina ancilla, Barrande filosam, Sphenotus warburtonensis, Chapm. PTEROPODA. Styliola fissurella, J. Hall, var. multistriata, Chapm. Tentaculites matlockiensis, Chapm. | Thomson River Thomson River Walhalla (Centennial Mine) Thomson River Thomson River Jordan River ; ? Thom- son River Reefton McMahon’s Starvation Creek McMahon’s Creek; ? Christmas Hills Mt. Matlock; Rus- sell’s Creek; Star- vation Creek Mt. Matlock Reefton ; Creek ; starvation Creek Maindample Reefton McMahon’s Creek ; Starvation Creek; Jordan River Mt. Matlock; Jordan River Chapman (’122), p. 231, pl. XXXVIIL., fig. 1 Chapman (’122), p. 231, ph XXXVIIL, fig. 2 Chapman (’122), p. 231, pl. XXXVIL., figs. 1-7 Hall (’07), p. 141 Hall (’07), p. 140 Hall (06), p. 267, fig. 3 Chapman (’08?), p. 48, pl. V., fig. 72 Chapman (081), p. 42, ph IV., figs. 62-65 Chapman (’08), p. 22, pL L., fig. 14 {cCoy (’79), p. 23, pl. LVI. “ Cardium.” Chapman (084), p. 21 Chapman (08), p. 21, pl. L, fig. 13 8: Chapman (’08?), p. 23, pL. I., figs. 15, 16 Chapman (’08*), p. 23, pk VL., figs. 88, 88a Chapman (’08?), p. 19, pl. L, fig. 10 Chapman (’04'), p. 337, pl. XXXL, figs. 4-6 Chapman (’041), p. 338, pl. XXXL, figs. 1-3, 5 232 PROCEEDINGS. OF SECTION C. Sinvurian Fossiis oF VIcTORIA—TANJILIAN—continued. : Species. . Loexlities. References. CEPHALOPODA. mh. Dawsonoceras sp. ..| Reefton .. .. | Nat. Mus. Coll. ' Kinoceras~ striatopuncta- | McMahon’s Creek ; | McCoy (’79), p. 28, pl. LVIL., tum, Miinster, sp. | Reefton figs. 7, Se Orthoceras ’” Orthoceras sp. .. ..| Reefton .. .. | Nat. Mus. Coll. PHYLLOCARIDA. Geratiocaris cf. salteriana | Jordan River .. | Chapman (712), p. 233 Jones and Woodward Norges AND SUMMARY. The third column in the forcgoing lists contains references chiefly to Australian literature. As will be readily seen, the faunas of the Victorian, Silurian are rich in interesting species, and full of promise to future workers. In the Melbournian division, 136 fossil forms are recorded; whilstin the Yeringian there are no less than 206 species. The Tanjilian fauna contains 20 species. Of the Melbournicn and Yeringian series, only 16 species are in common, showing the division between the two to be well marked, and prob. bly separated by a distinct geological pause in sedimentation. The Tanjiliin hes two forms in common with the Yeringian, viz., Haliserites dechenianus and Lunulicardium anti- striatum ; and one species, Monograptus dubius is found in the Melbournian. The Yeringian fossiliferous deposits, although largely in the form of shale beds and mudstones, must at one time have been highly calcareous in their nature. Judging from their excessive abundance, the shells and corals, which are now only found in the form of casts, must then have contributed a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime to the Upper Silurian rocks of Victoria. The almost Devonic aspect of a certain proportion of the Yeringian end Tanjilian faunas is strikingly evident, 2s seen in the profusion of Pleurodictyum in the former, so characteristic of the Hercynian fauna of the Harz; and also of many of the brechiopods, as Leptostrophia, and bivalves such as Glossites.. The Tenjilian series fully justifies its separation, paleontologically speeking, from the other Silurian series, in containing generic types like that of the Onondzga series of North America, and of the Devenian of Europe, with Panenka and Styliola. ; ‘ : ; | PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 233 REFERENCE LIST OF WORKS. Baruer, F. A. (1897).—‘‘ Hapalocrinus victorie N.S., Silurian, Melbourne, and its Relation to the Platycrinide.” Geol. Mag., dec. IV., Vol. IV., 1897, pp. 337-345, pl. XV. Bianpowsz1, W. (1858).—‘‘ On Extensive Infusoria Deposits in the Mallee Scrub,” &c.; and ‘“ On the presence of Fucoidz in Silurian Rocks near Melbourne.” Trans. Phil. Inst. Vict., 1858, Vol. II., pp. 141-146, 2 pls. CuHapman, F. (1903!).—‘‘ New or Little-known Victorian Fossils in the National Museum, Part I.—Some Paleozoic Species.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol XV. (N.S.), pt. IL., 1903, pp. 104-122, pls. XVI.-XVIII. (1903°).—Ditto. Part II.—‘‘Some Silurian Molluscoidea.”’ Ibid., Vol. XVI. (N.S.), pt. L, pp. 60-82, pls. X.-XII. ; (1904!).—Ditto. Part III.—“Some Palzozoic Pteropoda.”. Ibid., Vol. XVI. (N.S.), pt. IL, pp. 336-342, pl. XX XT. (1904?).—Ditto. Part IV.‘ Some Silurian Ostracoda and Phyllocarida.’* Thid., Vol. XVII. (N.S.), pt. I, 1904, pp. 298-319, pls. XIIT.—X VIL. (1905!).—Ditto. Part V.—“ On the Genus Receptaculites; with a Note on R. australis from Queensland.” Ibid., Vol. XVII. (N.S.), pt. L, 1905, pp. 5-15, pls. I1.-LV. (19052).—Ditto. Part VI.—‘“‘ Notes on Devonian Spirifers.’’ Ibid., Vol. XVIII. (N.S.), pt. I, 1905, p. 19—Note on Lingula. — (1906).—Ditto. Part VII—‘“ A New Cephalaspid, from the Silurian of Wombat Creek.” Ibid., Vol. XVIII. (N.S.) pt. I1., 1906, pp. 93-100, pls. VIL.-VIit. (1907? ).—‘‘ Newer Silurian Fossils of Eastern Victoria. Part I.” Records Geol. Surv. Vict., Vol. IL, pt. L, 1907, pp. 67-80, pls. I.—VIIL. (19072).—“‘ New or Little-known Fossils in the National Museum. Part VIII. Some Paleozoic Brittle-stars of the Melbournian Series.’? Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. XIX. (N.S.), pt. IL., pp. 21-27, pls. VI.-VIIL. (1907*).—‘‘ On the Occurrence of Yeringian Fossiliferous Mudstone at Croydon.” Victorian Naturalist, Vol. XXIII., 1907, pp. 237-239. (1908!).—‘‘ A Monograph of the Silurian Bivalved Mollusca of Victoria.” Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne. No. 2, 1908, pp. 5-62, pls. L—VI. (1908?).—“‘ On the Relationship of the Genus Girvanella, and its Occurrence in the Silurian Limestones of Victoria.” Rep. Adelaide Meeting Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci. (1907), 1908, pp. 377-386, pls. I.—III. (1908*).—Appendix to Jutson’s “ The Silurian Rocks of the Whittlesea District.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. XXI. (N.S.), pt. I., 1908, pp. 217-225, 1, IV. : (1910:).—“‘ A Synopsis of the Silurian Fossils of South Yarra and the Yarra Improvement Works.” Vict. Naturalist, Vol. XXVII. No. 4, 1910, . 63-70. re (19102).—‘* New or Little-known Victorian Fossilsin the National Museum. Part X.—Some Paleozoic Worms and Crustacea,’ Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. XXII. (N.S.), pt. IL, 1910, pp. 101-112, pls. XXVII-XXIX. (1911).—Ditto. Part *XTL.—“ Some Silurian Species of the Genus Lingula, &ec.” Ibid., Vol. XXIV. (N.S.), pt. L.,,1911, pp. 179-186, pl. XLV. (1912').—Ditto. Part XIV.—* Some Silurian Trilobites.” Ibid., VoL XXIV. (N.S.), pt. IL., 1912, pp. 293-300, pls. LXI.-LXIITI. (19122).—“‘ Newer Silurian Fossils of Eastern Victoria. Part II.” Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., Vol. III, pt. 2, 1912, pp. 224-233, pls. XXXVIL—- XXXVIILI. CRESSWELL, A. W. (1893).—“ Notes on the Lilydale Limestone.”’ Proc. Roy. Soc, Vict., Vol. V., (N.S.), 1893, pp. 38-44, pls. VIIL—X. Don, W. S. (1898). —“ Contributions. to the. Paleontology of the Upper Silurian - . Rocks of Victoria, based on apeaages in the Collections of Mr. George Sweet. Part I.” Ibid., Vol. X. (N.S.), pt. II., 1898, pp. 79-90 pl. III. 1 234 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. Erueriver,. R., Jun. (1878).—’*‘ A Catalogue of Australian Fossils.” Cambridge 187 8. (1890).—“‘ Silurian Fossils from the Lilydale Limestone, Upper Yarra District.”’ Rec. Austr. Mus., Vol. I., No. 3, 1890. pp. 60-67, pls. VIIT.-IX. . (18912).—‘“‘ On the occurrence of the Genus Paleaster in the Upper Silurian Rocks of Victoria.” Ibid., Vol. I., No. 10, 1891, pp. 199, 200, pl. XXX. (18912).—‘‘ Further Descriptions of Upper Silurian Fossils from the Lilydale Limestone, Upper Yarra District, Victoria.” Ibid., Vol. I., No. 7, pp. 125-130, pls. XVIIL-—XIX. (1894).—“* The largest Australian Trilobite hitherto discovered.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. VI. (N.S.), 1894, pp. 189-194, pl. XI. (1898).—“ New or Little-known Paleozoic Gasteropoda in the Collection of the Australian Museum.” Rec. Austr. Mus., Vol. III., No. 4, 1898, pp. 71-77, pls. XV.—XVI. (1899!).—‘“ Description of New or Little-known Victorian Paleozoic and Mesozoic’ Fossils. No. 1.” Geol. Surv. Vict. Progr. Rep. No. XI., 1899, pp. 30-36, pls. A.-B. (18992).—“ On the Corals of the Tamworth District, chiefly from the Moore Creek and Woolonol Limestones.” Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S. Wales, Vol. VI., pt. III., 1899, pp. 151-182, pls. XVI.-X XXVIII. (1900). — Descriptions of New or Little-known Palzozoic and Mesozoic Fossils. No. II.”’ Monthly Progr. Rep., Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 11, 1900, pp. 22-24. (1907).—* A Monograph of the Silurian and Devonian Corals of N.S Wales, Part II. The Genus Tryplasma.” Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S. Wales, Pal. No. 13. Erneniper, R., Jun., and Mrrcuztt, J. (1892).—“ The Silurian Trilobites of Now South Wales. Part I.’ Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. VI., 1892, pp. 311-320, pl. XXV. (1894).—Part II. Ibid., Vol. VIII., 1894, pp. 169-178, pls. VI.—VII. (1896). Part III. Ibid., Vol. X., 1896, pp. 486-511, pls. XXXVIIL-XL. (1897). Part IV. Jbid., Vol. XXI., pp. 694-721, pls. L.—LV. Frrevuson, W. H. (1889).—“ Report on a Collection of Fossils, &c., from Wombat Creek.” Monthly Progr. Rep. Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 3, 1899, p. 17. Forrstr, A. F. (1888).—‘‘ Notes on Palzozoic Fossils.” Bull. Scientific Labora- tories of Denison University.” Vol. III, pt. V., 1888, pp 117-137, pl. XIIL Grraory, J. W. (1889).—‘‘ On a New Species of the Genus Protaster (P. brisin- ee) from the Upper Silurian of Victoria, Australia.’ Geol. Mag., dec. III., ol. VI., 1889, pp. 24-27, woodcuts, Figs. 1-4. (1901).—“ Cyphaspis epryi, a new species of Trilobite from the Silurian of Melbourne.”” Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. XIII. (N.S.), pt. IL, 1901, pp. 179-182, pl. XXII. (1903).—“ The Heathcotian—A Pre-Ordovician Series—and its Distribu- tion in Victoria.” Ibid., Vol. XV. (N.S.), pt. II., 1903, pp. 148-175. Hau, T. S. (1899).—“ The Graptolite- bearing Rocks of Victoria, Australia. ‘3 Geol. Mag., 1899, pp. 438-451. (1906).—** Reports on Graptolites.”” Rec, Geol. Surv. Vict., Vol. I., pt. 4, 1906, pp. 266-278. (1907).—“‘ Reports on Graptolites. Ibid., Vol. II., pt. 2, 1907, pp. 137-143. Jutson, J. T. (1908).—The Silurian Rocks of the Whittlesea District.’ Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. XXI. (N.S.), pt. I, 1908, pp. 221-225, —— (1911').—‘‘ A Contribution to the Physiography of the Yarra River and Dandenong Creek Basins, Victoria.” Ibid., Vol. XXIII. (N.S.), pt. IL, 1911, pp. 469-514. (19112). —‘ The Strncture and General Geology of the Warrandyte Gold- field and adjacent Country. ‘i hada Vol. XXIII. (N.S.), pt. I., 1911, pp. - 616-554. a ee see PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 235 pe Konrncz, L. G. (1876).—“ Recherches sur les Fossiles Paleozoique de. la Nouvelle Galles du Sud, pt. I., 1876. Mem. Soc. Royale des Sciences de Liege. 2nd Ser., Vol. VI., 1876, pp. 3-135...Plates in Vols. VI.—VIII. Translation in Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S. Wales. 1898. Pal. No. 6. McCoy, (1874').—“ Prodromus of the Paleontology of Victoria.” Dec. I., 1874, (1874*).—Progress Reports, Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 1., Fossil Lists, pp. 33-36. (1875).—Prod. Pal. Vict. Dec. II., 1875. (1876).—Ibid. Dec. III., 1876. _(1877").—Ibid., Dec. V., 1877. (1877*).—In Progress Report, Geol. Surv. Vict., pt. IV., 1877. Schedules of Reports on Fossil Specimens, pp. 155-158. (1879).—Prod. Pal. Viet. Dec. VI., 1879. (1899).—“ Note on a New Australian Pterygotus.” Geol, Mag., Dec. IV.* Vol. VI., 1899, pp. 193-194 (text-fig.). MrrcHE LL, J. (1888).—‘‘ On Some New Trilobites from New South Wales,’”’ Proo. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, Vol. II., 1888, pp. 485-440, pL XVI. Sztwyn, A. R. C. (1856, 1857).—“‘ Report on the Geological Structure of the Colony of Victoria, The Basin of the Yarra, and part of the Northern, North-eastern, and Eastern Drainage of Western Port Bay.” Votes and Proceedings, Leg. Council, Victoria, 1855-6, Vol. IT., pt. I. eet ie coer 236 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES. SECTION C. (2) PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS OF AUSTRALIA COMMITTEE. The Committee appointed at the Sydney meeting, 1911 (Vol. XIII., p. lvi.) did not report. The General Council approved that a Committee be appointed to inquire into the question of the Classification of the Permo-Carboniferous of Australia, with a view to the revision of the nomenclature, such Committee to consist of Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees, Mr. E. F. Pittman, Mr. F. Chapman, Mr. A. Gibb Maitland, Mr. B. Dunstan, Dr. G. B. Pritchard, Professor T. W. E. David, Professor W. G. Woolnough, Professor i. W. Skeats, Mr. H. C. Richards, Mr. H. Herman, Dr. Jensen, and Dr. Mawson; and Mr. W. S. Dun, Secretary. (6) STRUCTURAL FEATURES IN AUSTRALIA COMMITTEE. (See Vol. XIII., p. LVII.) 1.—ReEportT, NEW ZEALAND. Bulletin No. 13, On the Geology of the Greymouth Subdivision, by P. G. Morgan. . It is stated that here, as in other survey districts to the south, the rocks of the main ranges, the so-called “Greenland series,” have a atrike following the directions of the mountain range, viz., north-east to south-west. In the Poporoa Range, however, which lies close to the west coast, the strike of the rocks is north-west to south-east. There results are quite similar to those that have been obtained further south, and Morgan ascribes the north-west strike to folding forces exerted previous to the formation of the main range, that is later Jurassic. In the Hohonu block of the main range there is a large intrusion of granite, but its age is not indicated. Within this district, Morgan states that further evidence exists in favour of the great over- thrust fault that he believes forms the western boundary of the Alpine area. The question of the importance of this fault is not developed in “7. i i a ee ee ome es eee Ee Wee ee 2 is Be : STRUCTURAL FEATURES COMMITTEE. 237 this Bulletin, but it is stated that any description of it would involve the consideration of the structure of the Alpine Range. Various faults traversing the coal measures are also maintained and described, but they are probably of no great tectonic importance. Bulletin 12 deals with the Dun Mountain Region. This district is of great importance, since Hector largely constructed the fabric of New Zealand Geology on the structures he found here. McKay and Hector had stated that the Triassic, Permian, and Carboniferous rocks of New Zealand were in this district separated from one another by thrust planes. The writers of this Bulletin, Bell, Marshall, and Clarke, have arrived at very different conclusions. No structures were found in any way suggestive of reversed faults, but the rocks were seen to be intensely folded, though the folding had not been associated with any metamorphic action. No fossils were found that suggested that more than one series of rocks was present, and that series is referred to the Trias-Jura. Throughout New Zealand a longer mass of rocks, especially those of the main mountain ranges, has been classed as Carboniferous, on the basis of the statements that were made about the structures described in the Melsan district. The authors of the present Bulletin have altogether failed to find any Carboniferous rocks in this typical district, and it thus appears that the whole mass of Maitai rocks hitherto classed as Carboniferous must now be placed in the Trias-Jura_ formation. The great ultra-basic igneous mass of the Dun Mountain was found to be intrusive into the Trias-Jura rocks. It is suggested that the mass was intruded aiter these rocks had been folded. The ultra-basie mass is therefore oi post Jurassic age. Bulletin 14 deals with the oil-bearing district of Taranabt Clarke the auther, finds two rock series only. One of these is of Tertiary age, and is nearly horizontal over the whole area. The other is purely voleanic in origin. Three iext-bools on the Geology of New Zealand have appeared lately. That by Park largely foliows, so far as the older rocks are concerned, the hand-book by Hector, except that the schists, both crystalline and foliated, are referred to the Cambriin, end much importance is ascribed to faults in the structure of the country. Marshall, in his two works, classes the gneissic schists as Archean, and the foliated schists as metamorphic sediments, probably of Trias-Jura age. He suggests that the Alps are formed of a series of isoclinal folds, and considers that the structures are not yet sufficiently well-known to justify statements as to the importance of faults. In these works of Marshall, all the younger rocks, from, Upper Cretaceous to Upper Miocene, are regarded as a single cnt period of progressive subsidence. 238. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C, 2.—WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Mr. A. Gibb Maitland reports :—There have, I regret to say, ooh! no new discoveries to report in regard to the structural features of Western Australia since the last meeting of the Association. I enclose an advance copy of a map showing the Darling Peneplain and Fault Scarp, which accompanies a physiographical paper by Mr. Jutson, in Bulletin No. 48, now in the. press. 3.—NORTHERN TERRITORY. Prof. W. G. Woolnough reports :—I have the honour to bring before your notice a suggestion with respect to the geological structure of Australia, the result of my recent trips to the Northern Territory and Western Australia, The marked contrast between the geological features of Eastern and Western Australia is most pronounced, and extends from Cambrian time at least to Tertiary. In Eastern Australia Paleozoic andeven Mesozoic rocks are strongly affected by earth movement, and by granitic movement and by granitic. intrusions. There appears to be a progressive difference in point of time for these movements and injections as we pass from south to north. In southern New South Wales Ordovician rocks are strongly folded and contorted, while Silurian rocks are affected by only very gentle and uniform dips. In the initial portions of the New South Wales coastal area Permo-Carboniferous formations are strongly folded, and are intruded by granites. In southern Queensland the Trias-Jura coal measures are considerably disturbed, while, at Port Moresby, in Papua, even Tertiary beds are intensely contorted and overfolded. In Western and Northern Australia the condition of affairs is quite different. Immense developments of Pre-Cambrian rocks occur, giving clear evidence of subdivision into quite a number of distinct epochs, but all these Pre-Camhrian rocks alike are intensely folded and moderately metamorphosed. Cambrian sediments are wide-spread also, the great Cambrian province extending from Kimberley, in Western Australia, across the whole of the Northern Territory, and well into Queensland, being perhaps the most extensive area of such rocks in the world. The Nullagine series of Western Australia, which is almost. certainly Cambrian, is only gently folded. The Cambrian rocks of the Northern Territory, while they are considerably disturbed in places, are for the most part horizontal or gently undulating as regards dip, and the degree of metamorphism is comparatively insignificent. In neither Western Australia nor Northern Territory, nor, so far as I am aware, in western and northern South Australia is there a single instance of granitic intrusions into rocks more recent than Pre-Cambrian. This is in marked contrast to the Pre-Cambrian formations, which are STRUCTURAL FEATURES COMMITTEE, 239 seamed with granitic intrusions. The boundary between the eastern region of post Pre-Cambrian contortion and injection appears to be marked by a fairly well defined axis of very ancient gneissic rocks, probably Archean. These appear at intervals from Port Lincoln and Yorke’s Peninsula on the south to Cloncurry and the Argilla Mountains in the north of Queensland. If the surmise is correct that this is the great tectonic axis of the Continent and that it has been the barrier throughout geological time which has caused the very marked diversity of fossil facies of Eastern and Western Australia time and again within the limits of geological history, its exact position, its character and its geological history are well worthy of careful investigation. As an example of its effect on life distribution may be instanced the strong disharmony of the eastern and western faunas in Permo- Carboniferous times and again in Upper Cretaceous time. I put forward this suggestion in the hope that it may induce discussion on what may prove to be one of the fundamental facts of Australian Geology. The General Council reappointed this Committee to record the Structural Features in Australia, its members to be Professor E. W. Skeats, Professor P. Marshall, Mr. E. F. Pittman, Mr. W. H. Twelve- trees, Mr. W. Howchin, Mr. A. Gibb Maitland, Mr. L. K. Ward, Mr. B. Dunstan, Mr. R. Speight, Dr. T. 8. Hall, Professor W. G. Woolnough, Dr. H. I. Jensen, Mr. E. Stanley, Mr. H. Herman, Dr. D. Mawson. Professor T. W. E. David (Secretary). (ec) GLACIAL PHENOMENA COMMITTEE. (See Vol. XIII, p. LVITI.) 1.—Report ror New Zearanp, Years 1911 anv 1912.,. (By R. Speight.) The principal problems bearing on New Zealand Glaciology which have arisen since I furnished my last report are those which are concerned with the reported signs of glaciation, noted by Professor Park in the neighbourhood of Ruapehu, and in the province of Marl- borough (Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIII., 1911, and Geology of New Zealand, 1910). In the latter work he records the discovery of deposits eomposed of angular and semi-angular blocks of andesites in a matrix of reddish clay, forming, in the Waimarino Forest, which lies to the west of Ruapehu, groups of small hills resembling those seen in terminal 240 - PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. moraines. These deposits are similar in character to those previously recorded by Park as occurring in the Hautapu Valley, 30 miles south of Ruapehu. The glacial origin of this landscape feature is, however, supported by no other evidence, and, until this is forthcoming, the formation of these hills cannot be definitely attributed to this cause. Park also reports the occurrence of a glacial deposit at the mouth of the Kekerangu River and at Shades Creek, on the east coast of Marlborough, in the South Island (lat. 42°). This district is now being carefully examined by Dr. Allan Thomson, of the New Zealand Geological Survey, and by Mr. C. A. Cotton, of Victoria College, and their report will be welcomed for the light which it will undoubtedly throw on this interesting problem. A little further south, in the neighbourhood of Kaikoura, lies another of these glaciated areas, according to Professor Park. In what’ he calls the bed of the old Waiau Glacier, which stretched along the foot of the seaward Kaikouras, there occur old moraines, smoothed surfaces, roches moutonnées, and other surface features which can be attributed to glacier action, but which have been previously assigned by those who have examined the country to other geological agencies. The former presence of glaciers in the high country at the southern extremity of the North Island is recorded by G. L. Adkin, in a paper entitled “‘ The Discovery and Extent of Former Glaciation in the Tararua Ranges, North Island, New Zealand (Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV., 1912). His evidence of glaciation is based entirely on the forms of certains valleys in the higher levels of these mountains at heights approximating to from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. Adkin notes the absence of any other proofs of glaciation, such as striated surfaces, roches moutonnées, moraines, &c., but thinks that this absence can be satis- factorily accounted for. It must be admitted that a conclusion based on mere landscape evidence is not altogether satisfactory, although there are undoubted proofs of former glaciation at a similar elevation in localities which are at the same latitude in northern Nelson, on the other side of Cook Strait, so that there is no inherent improbability in his contention, and further investigation may confirm his opinion. Adkin considers that there is not the slightest evidence that the ice covering approximated even in the slightest degree to the nature of an ice sheet as suggested by Park (Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLII, 1910). This opinion of Adkin’s receives a certain amount of confirmation from the investigations of C. A. Cotton into the origin of the land Jorms in the neighbourhood of Wellington. In his paper entitled “ Notes on Wellington Physiography ”’ (Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIV., 1912), he demonstrates that they owe their origin to the effect of stream action in a surface which has “experienced uplift and faulting. In Bulletin No. 13 of the New Zealand Geological Survey, P. G. Morgan deals with the glacial features of the Greymouth Subdivision ' @LACIAL COMMITTEE. 941 of North Westland. The chief characteristics have been noted — previously by Haast, McKay, and others, but he draws attention to certain deposits which may be attributed to an early Tertiary glaciation, although he considers that the evidence is not conclusive, and he also emphasizes the important point that there is no sign of former glaciation on the Paparoa Ranges immediately to the north-east of Greymouth. He insists, too, on the important effect of the glaciers in concentrating the gold into payable leads and deposits. Volume XLITI. of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute also contains a paper by Speight on the “ Physiography of Mount Arrowsmith Region.” This deals chiefly with the glaciers at the heads of the Rangitata, Ashburton, and Rakaia Rivers, and with the land features which resulted from the former glaciation. The author notes that the length of the Lyell Glacier, formerly supposed to be 8 miles, is certainly less than 5 miles. In Part II. of this paper, Cockayne and Laing describe the possible sequence of events in the re-instatement of vegetation on the glaciated land surface. The same author has recently visited Red Cliff Gully on the Rakaia River, with the object of describing its features. It might be noted that Castle Rock, a prominent mass in the floor of the Rakaia Valley, opposite Redcliff Gully, and mentioned by Hutton in his paper on the “ Origin of the New Zealand Fauna and Flora,” is not a mass of limestone, as stated by that author, but is composed entirely of grey- wacke and slaty shale. This militates strongly against Hutton’s argument that the valleys of the Canterbury Rivers were eroded in early Tertiary times to a greater depth than at present, an argument which Hutton uses to oppose Haast’s contention that the extension of the glaciers in Pleistocene times was due to the more extensive snow- fields which accumulated on the larger plateau elements then occupying the site of the Southern Alps, whose present form arose therefrom owing to excessive erosion. The 1910 volume of the Geographical Journal contains an interesting paper by A. EH. Kitson and H. O. Thiele on the “ Geography of the Upper Waitaki Basin, New Zealand.” This gives an excellent summary of what has been already written concerning this noted glacial region. The authors emphasize the former extent of the glaciers, .and generally endorse the opinion that the Upper Waitaki Basin owed its formation primarily to faulting and fracture, with probable warping during late Tertiary times, the basins so formed being modified subse- quently by glacial erosion and deposition. The author of this report has furnished to the ‘‘ Quaternary Climate” Committee a brief statement, concerning the variations of certain glaciers in the Southern Alps, which should be taken here. I refer the ‘section to this without quoting it. It is an aspect of the subject which ‘has a bearing on the work of both committees. - “ 242 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 2—New South WALES AND NorTHERN TERRITORY. (By Prof. W. G. Woolnough.) I beg to report that since the last meeting of the Association in Sydney, in 1911, I have had the opportunity of visiting two districts of considerable interest and importance in connexion with the Glacial Geology of Australia. 1. Cambrian—In my recent expedition through the Northern Territory and Queensland I traversed a vast extent of country under- lain by rocks of Cambrian age ; .perhaps the most extensive Cambrian area in the world, and obtained a fairly satisfactory idea of the strati- graphy of this important system. It consists of the following well- marked subdivisions in descending order :— Mount McMinn (red) Beds. White Quartzites. Purple Quartzites of the Roper River. Katherine and Banhemia Limestones. Edith River Volcanic Series. There is, then, no trace of the Cambrian glaciation which is so impor- tant a feature of the system in South Australia. Iam inclined to think that the whole series in the Territory represents only the uppermost division—Purple Slates and Archeocyathinal Limestones—of the southern area. Whether this is so or not I think the negative evidence of the glacial beds is worthy of note. 2. Permo-Carboniferous.—I have had the good fortune to discover a new and extensive area of glacial beds of this age in New South Wales. They are very strongly developed on the Macleay River, and are repre- sented also in the valley of the Manning River. It is in the former area that I have studied them most. The work done so far can be regarded as preliminary only, but it suffices to prove the strong development of the Lower Marine (Permo-Carboniferous) glacial beds and to indicate important stratigraphica] relationships connected with them. The rocks of the Macleay River basin are, for the most part, slates, consider- ably folded and strongly jointed, quite different in facies from those of the type area of the Hunter River to the south. They have an appearance of considerable age and were originally mapped as Silurian. The discovery of extensive beds of limestoneabove Kempsey, containing Trachypora, Fenestella, Aviculopecten, and Eurydesma, indicated their Permo-Carboniferous age. The limestones can be traced, with oceasional breaks due to faulting, for at least 25 miles (probable more) along the valley of the river, and form a valuable datum. The glacial beds were first noticed near Stony Creek on the Mo- parrabah road. Here we have a strong outcrop of typical boulder clay. The boulders are fairly numerous and run up to at least 14 inches ee ae ee ee ee gig) i Th ia i estab 2 Pas 7 ae Nk Aaa al 4 ' GLACIAL COMMITTEE. 243 in diameter. They are set in a dark-chocolate matrix, whose grains are thoroughly angular. The lithological features of the formation left no doubt whatever as to its glacial origin, and further search was rewarded by the discovery of a large and beautifully striated boulder. At the point known as Sebastopol, near Moparrabah, the relation-" ship of the glacial beds to the limestones is clearly demonstrated. The limestones form imposing cliffs, several hundred feet in height, and they rest directly on glacial conglomerates which continue to the bottom of Tait’s Creek, which runs round the base of the range. The thickness of the glacial beds is considerable, and may be nearly 1,000 feet. In the type district of the Hunter River the Lower Marine ‘Glacial Beds are at the base of the Permo-Carboniferous System, but in the Macleay area this is not so. Beneath them can be traced a very . extensive conformable series of tuffaceous sandstones well exposed in Parabel Creek, one of the main tributaries of this part of the Macleay River. The base of these tuffaceous beds has not been observed. Between the Macleay and Manning Rivers we have an extensive development of freshwater Trias-Jura (?) beds about Camden Haven and Crowdy Head, and the Tertiary Basalt plateau of the Comboyne. The Permo-Carboniferous beds re-appear round Tarree and Wingham, on the Manning River, so that we have to deal, probably, with a very important geosyncline. Near Tarzee there is a very extensive development of limestones, partly marmorized, but containing abundant, well-preserved Aviculo- pecten and crinoid remains. Just under the limestone, in the same relative position as the glacial beds of Moparrabah, is a strong conglome- rate, no doubt of the same mode of origin as its northern equivalent. It has not been examined in detail, but it is well seen at the bridge about 1 mile east of Tarree. North of Tarree, on the Cedar Party Creek road, the limestones are strongly developed, and have been altered to’ a very nice marble. A most interesting feature of them is the occur- rence, inthe pure limestone, of numerous small erratics. None that I saw were more than a couple of inches in diameter, but their distribution in little groups and bunches is reminiscent of the mode of occurrence of similar small erratics in the Upper Marine glacial beds of the glen- donite horizon of Huskison, Jervis Bay, New South Wales. This association of glacial phenomena with well-developed limestones is remarkable and interesting. A particular interest attaches to these two occurrences of hacia’ beds on the New South Wales coast, as they are the furthest north yet recognised in the State. ‘Tn transmitting this note I may express the hope that, seeing that my removal to Western Australia will prevent my continuing the work, some one else will take up this extremely interesting area a work out its detail. 244 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. 3.—WESTERN AUSTRALIA. (By Mr. A. Gibb Mattland.) I regret to say that there are no fresh discoveries to report in the matter of the Glacial Geology of Western Australia, (d) QUATERNARY CLIMATE IN AUSTRALASIA COMMITTEE. (See Vol. XIIL., p. lvii.) SECRETARY’S REPORT. The reference to recent variations in Australasian climate in the voluminous report issued by the Eleventh International Geol ogica Congress is so scanty and unsatisfactory that it is, perhaps, advisable in the first report of the Committee to state the evidence available up to the present at greater length than a report of this nature usually demands. The fact that a climatal variation has taken place within comparatively recent times is emphasized by Professor J. W. Gregory in his Dead Heart of Australia. In this work he advances the theory that Central Australia has within comparatively recent times, certainly within the period since the arrival of man in the continent, experienced a somewhat humid climate and maintained in consequence a richer vegetation, for the large herbivorous marsupials which formerly in- habited the land could not have found subsistence on the scanty vegetation that now exists in those parts where their remains are 80 plentifully found. This hypothesis was first put forward by Professor Ralph Tate, but Professor Gregory supports his contention by the some- what uncertain evidence derived from a consideration of native myths and traditions that forests with large trees had since the arrival of the ancestors of the Australian aboriginals, flourished over this treeless land. It is obvious that such a forest could not have grown under the climatal conditions now existing. The presence of a former climate of more humid character than that now obtaining is supported by the investigations of Dr. H. I. Jensen. In a preliminary paper on the “Geology of the Warrumbungle Mountains” (Proceedings of the Linnean Society of N.S.W., 1906), he came to the conclusion, based on physiographic evidence, that a pluvial climate obtained in Australia during Pleistocene times, and that this was succeeded, at any rate over the western slope of the mountain area of eastern New South Wales, by a superimposed arid cycle which is still prevailing. These conclusions were confirmed by a more detailed examination of the area as recorded in papers on the “‘ Geology of the Warrumbungle Mountains” and the “Geology of the Nandewar nes - \ oe es ea Sy eS ee Pee ee. QUATERNARY CLIMATE COMMITTEE. 245 Mountains,” published in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales of the following year (1907). Dr. Jensen returns to the question in a paper entitled ‘The Nature and Origin of Gilgai - Country,” (Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 1911). He says there (page 347), ““Mammalian drift occurs in places and gives evidence in favour of a moist if not a very wet climate. The remarkable fauna of giant marsupials which existed up to the end of the Tertiary period was decimated owing to the estab- lishments of desert conditions. Drainage became disintegrated. Arid erosion succeeded normal erosion. The present period can only be described as subarid. There is sufficient rainfall to permit erosion to take place and draimage systems have become re-integrated.” Addi- tional evidence of increased rainfall is afforded by the present creeks cutting V-shaped valleys along the present watercourses through the heavy thicknesses of tertiary and quaternary drift, especially along their upper courses.” The country in the neighbourhood of these mountains also affords evidence confirming the conclusion that before the present period was one of more arid climate, and antecedent to this was another climate distinctly humid in character and quite different from that now existing. An important investigation bearing on this question is that being carried out by R. A. Cambage and E. C. Andrews, who are preparing a joint paper on the “ Late Tertiary and Recent History of the Eucalypts of Australia.” It is impossible, without prejudicing this paper, to deal fully with the conclusions therein set out, but the following brief notes indicate its general trend. It may be considered that the formation of the plateaus which occupy the eastern margin of Australia date no further back than the close of the Tertiary era, and that the profound gorges which dissect the eastern portion of those plateaus are mainly Pleistocene in age. A study of the flora of the coast strongly suggests that the climate has there grown much more moist than in the period immediately prior. Evidence is also to hand that the western slopes have also received increased moisture, but this is based on doubtful evidence, such as the isolated patches of desert plants found at the head of the Hunter Valley, they being there out of their environment. Thus about one acre of Yarran (Acacia homatophylla) occurs in the 8,000 square miles of catchment, while one clump of about thirteen specimens of Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) and a few acres of Acacia Salicina and Hetero- ‘dendron olerfolium occur in the same locality. These trees grow freely on the sub-arid inland plains. On the other hand, the centre and west of Eastern Australia appear to be passing through a slow desiccating process. Channels once open are choked up and long lines of Eucalyptus populifolia and allied types alone indicate all but the main watercourses. It would 246 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. seem that the monsoonal winds deposit less moisture in the sub-arid. regions, but that the precipitation has been increased farther east by the creation of a plateau which opposes the movement of the monsoonal — wind. The glacial period also has had a remarkable effect upon the flora of Australia, particularly upon that of Tasmania, from which many types are absent which occur on, the mainland and which should be in” Tasmania, and their absence from that island can only be satisfactorily explained by the refrigeration of the climate during the recent glacial period. Especially did the Eucalypts and Acacias suffer, because at that time Bass Strait was outlined already as to its main features. The Eucalypts and Acacias of the cold plateaus of New South Wales tell 2 remarkable story of enforced migration riorth during the glacial period and an inability to migrate from certain isolated plateau blocks after the passing of the cold period. This is the general conclusion which-has been arrived at by Cambage and Andrews as a result of their inquiry mito the main types of the eucalypts. New Zealand.—The only publication deaing directly with the question of Quaternary Climate, as faras New Zealamd is concerned, is an article by R. Speight, entitled the ‘“‘ Post Glacial Climate of Canterbury ” (Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIIF.,, 1911). In this the author suggests that the climate on the eastern side of the Southern Alps during the period immediately following the glacier extension in the Pleistocene and perhaps contemporanecously with that extension, was of pronounced steppe character; that this period was succeeded by a rainy one, and that following on this, the modified steppe climate existing at present was established. The evidence for the existence of steppe conditions contemporaneous with the glacier extension is as follows :— (i) The Loess, or pseudo-loess, as it should more properly be called, which is undoubtedly a glacial rock flour deposited on a land surface by wind action, is spread widely over the eastern slopes of the Southern Alps. When this was being formed, the conditions must have been dry and have closely resembled those now existing in parts of Central Asia. Hutton, however, believed the loess to be a marine: silt, but he stands alone in attributing its formation and deposition to marine action. (ii) Many plants now existing on this area are of markedly: xerophytic habit. This feature was noted by Diels and’ Cockayne as being too pronounced in all probability for their present environment, and was considered by both: these eminent botanists to be a survival from a former period when the climate was more arid and steppe like. » 4 a 3 a d ' ‘S B + “ ‘ 7 QUATERNARY CLIMATE COMMITTEE. 247 (iii) The occurrence of the Moa, a struthious bird, belonging to a group usually associated with a dry climate, and open steppe country, may perhaps be indicative of a dry climate. This is no doubt a somewhat slender argument taken by itself, but in conjunction with others it may add to their strength. The evidence for a more humid climate succeeding this arid one may be summarized as follows :— (i) Forests containing Totara (Podocarpus totara) flourished formerly over wide areas on the eastern slopes of the Southern Alps, in the Mackenzie country, and on the dry plateaus of Central Otago, which are now practically treeless. Totara is mesophytic in habit, and the forests of which it was an important element grew on an area which, according to the most conservative opinions as to the limits of glaciation during Pleistocene times, must have been swept clear of all vegetation. Under steppe conditions this tree could not have obtained a footing on the denuded land, and much less have formed a notable constituent of extensive forests. The disappearance of these forests has been attributed to bush fires, but this explanation is quite inadequate to explain all the facts and the disappearance is more likely due to the present modified steppe conditions which ' succeeded the humid ones, although it cannot be denied that fires lit by the Maoris and early settlers hastened the disappearance of these forests. (ii) Peat bogs formed of Sphagnum, occurring in Central Otago, with a rainfall as low in some places as 14 inches per year, are difficult to account for, unless it be allowed that they were established initially during a time when the atmo- sphere was more humid, since it has been demonstrated that the growth of Sphagnum is dependent on atmospheric precipitation and not on the presence of ground water. (iii) The xerophytic plants of Canterbury and Otago show a remarkable aptitude to take on a leafy habit when grown in moist and sheltered situations. It has been suggested to a member of the Commtitee by Dr. Cockayne that at some previous period they were subject to moist conditions during which their leaf-forming power was allowed to revive after becoming more or less dormant or recessive during an antecedent dry period. (iv) The Land Mollusca which are still under consideration, are, according to Suter, of a wet climate type, and could not have established themselves in Canterbury or Central Otago under present conditions. 248 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. (v) The disappearance of the Moa was attributed by Hutton to a pluvial climate, just as the disappearance of the giant marsupials of Australia is attributed to an arid climate. Hutton also accounted for the large number of young birds in the swamps containing Moas by the floods which occurred during the pluvial climate. (vi) It has been urged by some that the plains of aggradation formed at the base of the New Zealand Alps could only have been formed during a pluvial period, when the rivers were highly charged with waste. On the other hand, there is a strong body of opinion that their formation was contemporaneous with the extension of the glaciers when the effects of frost action were more marked and the rivers were incompetent to deal with the load they carried. Although the different threads of this line of evidence are none of them particularly strong, still their combination establishes a strong case in favour of a humid climate having obtained over the eastern slopes of the South Island of New Zealand, and it is fairly certain that the climate as a whole is becoming increasingly drier at the present time. This last statement is based on the fact that small water-courses carry less water—a fact also attributable to the disappearance of the forests, as both are attributable to an increase in desiccation, but it is strongly supported by the general retreat of the terminals of the glaciers of the Southern Alps, especially those of the middle district of Canterbury at the head of the Rakaia and Rangitata rivers. The shrinkage of the Cameron and Rangitata glaciers has been noted previously, and the Lyell Glacier at the head of the Rakaia, if one can trust the sketches of Haast, has certainly retreated some hundreds of yards since he saw it in 1866. The Committee is indebted to Mr. A. Graham, the guide at the Franz Josef Glacier, for the following facts about its present condition. ‘In a private letter to the Secretary, he says, ‘‘ The most striking change as compared with the date of Dr. Bell’s report, is the great shrinkage in the body of ice, as each wall of the glacier shows a lowering of from 90 to 120 feet, but of course it must be remembered that at the time when the observations were taken the glacier showed an extraordinary advancement and also a very great increase in the volume of ice, for ‘IT can remember when I first came to the glacier about twelve years ago it was much less in volume than at the present time. The river issues trom the ice right against the west wall as when Dr. Bell reported on it, but between pegs 1 and 2 (of Bell’s map) it has cut a channel along the side of the ice for about 15 chains. No. 1 peg is now covered with moraine by the receding glacier; No. 3 is 50 feet from the ice; No. 4, -80 feet ; No, 5, 270 feet; No. 6, 260 feet; No. 7, 45 feet. Although the line of ice at the terminal face does not appear to have gone back ~ ——~— a) QUATERNARY CLIMATE COMMIT?ER, 248 to a great extent as yet, still I think that during the next two years the glacier will recede to a considerable extent as the volume of ice seems to be shrinking some miles up the glacier.” It is to be hoped that observations such as the above will be con- tinued, especially if they are carried out by a competent observer, for it may be possible to arrive at some idea whether or not these changes are periodic in character, and, if so, what the length of the period may be. . A brief reference to Climatic Change is made in Marshall’s Hand- buch der Regionalen Geologie, New Zealand, page 53. He mentions the fact first recorded by Hutton, that mollusea characteristic of a northern habitat are now found at Foveaux Strait, and that certain plants of sub-tropical character occur in isolated places to the south of their general range. Hutton used this evidence to show that the climate has never been colder than at present since later Tertiary times. The shells just referred to are specially favoured by receiving the warm water of the ocean current which crosses the Tasman Sea from the neighbourhood of the coast of Australia, and strikes the south-west corner of New Zealand, but we know so little about the circumstances which govern the possibilities of plants maintaining their stations when they are near the limit of their range that conclusions drawn therefrom are occasionally misleading. The occurrence of Rhopalostylis sapida on Banks Peninsula was used by Hutton as an instance of the survival in that specially favoured locality of a more northern form, but it is in al] probability merely a case of a plant having reached its highest range in latitude, as it is found sparingly at other places on the coast to the north, although it can not stand the rigour of the winters on the Canterbury Plains. Cyathea medullaris, besides occurring at Milford Sound as noted by Marshall, flourishes freely on Stewart Island. Lo- maria fraseri is certainly peculiar, as its furthest southern range in the North Island is Taranaki, yet it is found freely at Westport along with other plants such as Dracophyllum latifolium, Asplenium umbrosum, Epacris pauciflora. If one considers the origin of the New Zealand flora as a whole, it is obvious that there can have been no marked refrigeration of the climate since Tertiary times, since that would have vesulted in the extirpation of the Malayan tropical and subtropical element which, even under present conditions, is only just maintaining its ground against the Antarctic element, unless the distribution of the land was such that it allowed the Malayan plants to migrate north- ward before an advancing ice sheet, and to come south again as the climate grew milder. There are, however, serious obstacles in the way of this explanation. . The importance of the bearing of plant distribution and plant ecology on the question of climate is felt most strongly by the members of the Committee, and it is their unanimous opinion that the Committss 250 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. would be materially strengthened by the addition to it of Dr. L. Cock- ayne, F,R.S., whose unrivalled experience of New Zealand plant ecology would be of the greatest assistance when considering variations of climate in the Southern Hemisphere. _. The General Council re-appointed the Committee under the following designation :— Kainozoic Climate Committee—To investigate questions of Kainozoic Climate in Australasia. The Committee to consist of :—Dr. H. J. Jensen, Mr. C. A. Suss- milch, Mr. E. C. Andrews, Mr. W. Howchin, Mr. F. Chapman, Mr. H. C. Richards, Mr. R. H. Cambage, Dr. J. C. Verco, Dr. T. S. Hall, Dr. D. Mawson, Professor Woolnough, Mr. R. Speight (Secretary). (ec) THE ALKALINE ROCKS OF AUSTRALASIA COMMITTEE. (See Vol. XIII., 1. lwit.) QUEENSLAND. (By R. A. Wearne, B.A.) Research work on the alkaline eruptives was carried on in the following areas :— (1) Esk District, 40 miles north-west of Ipswich. Glenrock, which towers above the township half-a-mile to the east, consists of alkaline trachyte. Mount Esk and the neighbouring ranges to the north and west of Glenrock are of similar formation. Ottaba.—An interesting railway cutting, showing Ipswich coal measures intruded by a large andesite dyke, is exposed near Ottaba, 7 miles north-west of Esk. The trachytes of this district are intruded by andesites and basalts. (2) Spring Bluff, to the west of Ipswich and, 10 miles from Toowoomba. The Main Range between Spring Bluff and Toowoomba was carefully inspected and found to consist of the Walloon stage of the Ipswich coal measures capped and intruded by olivine basalts, — at an altitude of 1,700 feet. (3) The Lockyer District, which extends between the Toowoomba Range and the Little Liverpool Range, was visited on several occasions. Mount Mistake and the whole of the meridional ridges were found t» be of similar formation to the Toowoomba Range, namely, olivine basalt capping Trias-Jura coal measures, but at an altitude of 500 feet lower. DA Iter AF q , on ee oer ea regents z ph 5 Rr cals il aaa THE ALKALINE ROCKS COMMITTEE. 251 The alkaline eruptives which are so conspicuous a feature of the Fassifern and Esk Districts are entirely wanting in this district. Mount Whitestone, at the head of the Ma Ma Creek Valley, was found to consist of Trias-Jura sandstone. ~ (4) Fassifern District—The following peaks off the Main Dividing Range, which had not been inspected at the time of the last. Congress Report, were visited. Mount Castle, 3,700 feet, Mount Cordeaux, 4,100 feet, Mount Huntley, 4,153 feet, and Mount Roberts, 4,350 feet, were found to consist of alkaline trachyte capped by olivine basalt similar in character to that of Mounts Mitchell and Spicer, and were probably built up by the same volcanic flows. A remarkable, water-worn block of granite (quartz, orthoclase, microcline, biotite, chlorite, apatite,, zircon, and decomposition pro- ducts) was found near the source of Reynold’s Creek, at the foot of Mount Roberts. A careful search of the banks of the creek was made, as far as practicable, but no trace of this rock could be found in situ. It is the only example of a plutonic eruptive so far found in the district, and was probably a xenolith. Mount Wilson, 4,060 feet, a conical peak at the junction of the Main Range and the MacPherson Range, 60 miles to the south of Ipswich, was visited twice. It consists of trachyte and basalt in the same sequence as that of the more northern peaks, but the basalt is here capped conformably by 400 feet of trachyte. This is the only mountain in the whole dis- trict which shows this sequence. Mount Moon, 2,800 feet, an isolated peak about 8 miles to the east of Spicer’s Peak, consists of a very light alkaline trachyte very similar to that of Mount Flinders, capping Trias-Jura coal measures. Mount Clunie, 3,500 feet high, a peak in the MacPherson Range, to the east of Mount Wilson, consists of trachyte capped by olivine basalt, which has assumed a perfect columnar structure. The second series of trachytes of Mount Wilson is wanting. The Twins, two small pyramidal peaks, about 6 miles to the east of Cunningham’s Gap, consist of alkaline trachyte capped by a remnant of olivine basalt. Votcanic SEQUENCE. The volcanic sequence was found to be— (1) Trachytes. (2) Basalts. (3) (a) Trachytes ; or- (b) Andesites. (4) -Rhyolites. (5) Basalts. 252 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION C. AGE oF ERUPTIVES. The following additional proofs have been found that the age of at least the first series of volcanic eruptives of this area is Trias-Jura, contemporaneous with the uppermost portion of the Walloon coal measures :— (1) Trachyte-tuff, containing several well preserved Trias- Jura plant imprints (Teniopteris) was found in the Esk District. (2) A thick bed of conglomerate with the same strike and dip as the Walloon coal measures in the same district contain numerous waterworn pebbles of trachyte and basalt, (3) Alkaline trachyte was found 5 miles to the N.W. of Esk interbedded with the shales containing Trias-Jura plants (Tzaiopteris, Alethopteris, Thinnfeldia, &c.). This Committee was re-appointed as follows :— Dr. H. I. Jensen, Professor T. W. E. David, Professor P. Marshall, Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees, Mr. R. A. Wearne, Mr. C. A. Siiss- milch, Professor Woolnough, Mr. H. 8. Summers, Mr. D. J. Mahony, Dr. D. Mawson ; Professor E. W. Skeats (Secre- tary yi The sum of £50, voted at the Sydney meeting and not expended, was revoted. ({) PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF AUSTRALASIA COMMITTEE. The General Council appointed the following Committee to study and correlate the Physiography of Australasia :— Mr. W. Howchin, Mr. Griffiths Taylor, Mr. J. T. Jutson, Mr. C. A Swssmilch, Mr. H. C. Richards, Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees, Mr. F. Chapman, Mr. E. Stanley, Dr. T. 8. Hall, Dr. H. I. Jensen, Dr. D. Mawson, Professor KE. W. Skeats, Professor T. W. E. David, Mr. D. J. Mahony, Mr. E. O. Marks; Mr. E. C. Andrews (Secretary). ae Section D. BIOLOGY. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT : PROFESSOR H. B. KIRK. M.A,, Professor of Biology in Victoria College, Wellington, N.Z. THE PRESENT ASPECT OF SOME PROBLEMS OF HEREDITY. The subject of heredity is one in which all biologists must always take the keenest interest, in view of its far-reaching and fundamental importance. We must recognise that there centre in it all the questions of variation, whether of advancing or of retrogressive evolution, for it is the nexus that links into a continuous existence the series of genera- tions that the limitations of custom often lead us to regard as so many discontinuities. The methods of heredity then and the laws that govern those methods become more and more the field of exact experiment and study. Thus we are brought to review periodically the fresh advance of actual knowledge in this field, and to see, as far as may be, what conclusions are possible or towards what conclusions we are tending. Of the many problems of heredity, I shall in this address refer ‘to only two—the problem of Amphimixis, in so far as it is illuminated by virgin generation artificially induced, and the problem of the Inheri- tance of Acquired Characters, thorniest, perhaps, of all questions. connected with Evolution. I shall also, if your patience holds, refer at no great length to Mnemic Theories of Heredity. Artificial Parthenogenesis. All are familiar with the fact that parthenogenesis (virgin genera- tion) forms naturally part of the life cycle of many animals and plants, often taking place for several generations in succession, and alternating with sexual generation. Many are well acquainted with the fact that parthenogenesis can, in many organisms, be artificially induced; for example, that it can be induced by applying mechanical stimuli to the eggs of some of those insects in which it does not ordinarily occur. In Echinoderms parthenogenesis has been induced with great success. It has long been known that mechanical stimuli would induce the unfertilized egg of the frog to go through the earlier stages of segmenta- tion. As such a phenomenon ima Vertebrate animal challenges interest, it is not surprising that the older experiments with the frog’ s egg have never been lost sight of ; and latterly very striking results have been achieved, in which French workers of the school of Delage have led the way. 254 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION D. M. E. Bataillon had made many experiments with frogs’ eggs on the lines of Loeb’s well-known experiments with the eggs of Echinoderms, using, with some success, various solutions and the blood serum of mammals. He had also experimented with electrical stimuli. His best results, however, were obtained by actually puncturing the ovum. He took, with all needful precaution to preclude the possibility of fertilization by wandering sperms, eggs of Rana fusca from the body of the mother. Using all aseptic precautions, he pricked each egg with a needle of glass or of platinum or other metal. The result was remarkable, Seventy-five per cent. of the eggs operated on went through the earlier stages of segmentation as if they had been fertilized. At successive stages mortality became greater, but, out of _Many hundreds, indeed, a dozen reached the early tadpole stage. Three reached the stage of the metamorphosis, and of these one lived to become an almost fully-developed frog, but died of misadventure— an animal whose mother was a frog and whose father was a splinter of glass (Comptes Rendus, 18th Apl., 1910, 27th Mch., 1911). The results achieved by Bataillon were confirmed by M. F, Henneguy (Comptes Rendus, 3rd April, 1911). . Such experiments may be expected to be carried far enough to throw great light on the value and method of Amphimixis, and to suggest the part played by each parent in determining the inheritance of the offspring. One of M. Bataillon’s conclusions is thus stated : “ L’impregnation sans amphimixie n’est qu’un cas particulier du processus accélérateur déterminé sur |’ceuf par l’introduction spontanée ou expérimentale d’une cellule etrangére. Dans la fécondation pure ou_ croisée, Yamphimixie est une condition speciale surajoutée & ce processus général.” Although I have referred to this most striking result of experiments in artificial parthenogenesis, I do not intend to sum up the conclusions to which such experiments and experiments of other kinds might lead, as it seems to me impossible to do so with any advantage, seeing how rapidly evidence is accumulating, evidence of a quite unexpected kind. When surprises come upon us rather less thickly, we shall be in a better position to decide as to what conclusions are possible. Inheritance of Acquired Characters. The question of the inheritance of characters acquired, of the impressing on the offspring of a modification achieved by the parent during the course of its development, is one of the most important in the whole realm of science. The man to whom science is of no account till it comes to be of monetary value may regard the question as an abstract one merely, and one that does not concern him, But when this question is one that can be definitely answered, it is probable that TOT i a PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION D. 255 men will find that they cannot treat it lightly. It will have become a question in Applied Science, and that is a field in which the layman walks with the feeling of a proprietor, often unappreciatingly and with little thought to bestow on the workers in pure science that have placed it at his disposal. I propose to bring before you some of the most striking of the recent experimental evidence as to direct modification of the germ plasm by that portion of its environment that lies outside the body in which it is lodged; and then to refer to some of the evidence, less striking perhaps, but incontrovertible, as to modification of the germ plasm by the portion of its environment constituted by the soma, the body in which it is lodged. That the germ plasm itself may be influenced by environment that does not permanently affect the soma in which it is lodged was shown in the now well-known experiments of Tower (‘‘ Evolution of the Chrysomelid Beetles of the Genus Leptinotarsa,” Carnegie Institution, 1906). Enviromental stimuli applied to Leptinotarsa while the germ cells were maturing led to pronounced saltatory action. The young produced from the germinal material so acted upon comprised a very large proportion of mutants, animals with distinctive somatic modifi- cations that they were able to transmit in a normal environment. The environment that modified the maturing germ plasm, however, did not modify the parent beetles themselves, nor did it modify the non- maturing germ plasm. Later broods from these parents, when the parents were returned to a normal environment, presented no special features. These series of experiments are probably the most important that have been made in this field in the light they throw on the heritability of variations acquired in a known fashion. They are now, however, so well known that there is no need to describe them fully in this place. I should like to emphasize the fact that the germ plasm that was not maturing for the next brood was not affected. I do not question the continuity of the germ plasm; but those that do question it should pay particular attention to this feature in Tower’s results. Tower’s experiments should be considered with MacDougal’s, which seem to me not to have attracted the attention that their import- ance would lead one to expect. MicDougal and his collaborators (MacDougal, Vail and Shull, *“‘Tilustrations, Variations, and Relationships of the Oenotheras,” Carnegie Lustitution, 1907, and other papers) were investigating saltatory action in the Evening Primroses, with a view to verifying and extending the observations of De Vries. They experimented with enotheras still confined to their native America, as well as with others. It may be mentioned, in passing, as a matter that does not bear directly on the subject of this address, that they were very successful in the 256 PRESIDENT’ S ADDRESS.—SECTION D identification of mutants already known, in the production of hitherto unknown mutants, and in extending our knowledge as to the bearing of saltatory action. - They also verified De Vries’ experiments, showing that certain mutants are “ fixed,” and are not swamped by crossing with the parent type. Thus the view is confirmed that mutation is a real factor in Evolution. But, for our present purpose, the most important part of the research is that which bears on the induction of mutations and the heritability of induced characters. The plan followed was the injection into the developing ovary of dilute solutions of mineral salts or solutions of othersubstances. With several plants negative results were obtained. An ovary of Oenothera biennis thus treated with dilute zinc sulphate yielded mutants of the usual kinds, and in the proportions usual in this plant, about 0°5 per cent. of the whole progeny. A single specimen of an unknown mutant appeared, and its characters were found to be fully transmissible. Too much importance must not be attached to this appearance, since ‘“‘ the probability must be taken into account that it may be a mutant of rare occurrence, the cycle of which came within the experiments.” The most interesting results were obtained with Raimannia odorata, an Evening Primrose from Patagonia. Stimuli of various kinds were applied, and a particular mutant, not known in natural conditions, was obtained in different experiments, irrespective of the kind of stimulus applied, whether injection of a 10 per cent. sugar solution or of a 0°001 per cent. solution of calcium nitrate, or whether the action of a radium pencil. ‘“ The atypic forms transmit their qualities perfectly from generation to generation, and the third genera- tion now in hand are like the first from which they came originally ” (p. 64). With regard to MacDougal’s results, Klebs, in his essay in the Darwin Centenary Volume, suggests that the same end might be gained by altering the foodstuff conducted to the sexual cells. And we know that cultivation frequently throws plants that constitute in normal conditions quite stable species into a state in which many variants arise, some of which may prove to be elementary species. In comparing the results of Tower and MacDougal, we must bear in mind that MacDougal considers that the stimulus was not in most cases applied until the formation of the germ cells was complete ; whereas, in the case of Tower’s experiments, the abnormal environment acted on the maturing germ plasm. That the fertilized ovum is not noticezbly affected during its de- velopment by the special character of the soma in which it is lodged and by which it is nourished has been sufficiently demonstrated. Thus Heape (Proc. Roy. Soc., V. 48 and V. 52) has described the results of se, PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION D. 257 the transplantation and growth of mammalian ova within a uterine foster-mother. The fertilized ovum of a rabbit transferred to the oviduct of a rabbit of a different variety and developing in her uterus gives rise to an animal that shows no foster-mother influence. But this does not prove that, while the germ cells are maturing, they are free from influence by the soma. Many workers have sought to obtain evidence on this latter point. Among the latest results published by workers in this field are those obtained by W. E. Castle and John C. Phillips (‘‘ On Germinal Trans- plantation in Vertebrates,” Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1911), These workers have been fully alive to the fact. that the complete removal of the original ovary is at least as difficult and delicate an operation as the grafting of a new one from another animal; and have realized that, if results are to be of value, there must be no question as to whether they may not be due to regeneration of the original ovarian tissue. - They give a summary of previous work, so far as the last fifteen years are concerned, and they pay especial attention to the work of Guthrie (1908) and of Magnus (1907), examining that work in the light of their own. Guthrie exchanged the ovaries of black and of white Leghorn chickens, and afterwards mated the grafted birds with birds of the same breed. He obtained results which he interpreted as showing that the foster-mother exercised an influence on the germ plasm. Magnus made similar experiments with rabbits, and arrived ata like conclusion. Castle and Phillips point out that regeneration of old ovarian tissue is more common than successful transplantation, that Guthrie had attached the new tissue to the site ofthe old, and that, therefore, an antopsy could not show that regeneration had not taken place; and that the results obtained were just what would be expected if the functioning tissue were regenerated tissue; in short, that the results were, in the main, such as would have been expected had there been no operation. The results obtained by Magnus with rabbits are shown to be open to criticism of a like kind with a like conclusion. Davenport, in repeating Guthrie’s experiments, found that regeneration occurred in all his cases. The series of experiments carried out by Castle and Phillips was, in view of the difficulty of the operations, extensive. The cases here referred to are the most important of those in which offspring were produced from grafted tissue. The left ovary of an albino guinea-pig was removed, and the ovary of a pure black guinea-pig was grafted on the cornu of the uterus, not on the old site. Later, the right ovary was removed and the ovary of a young black animal, not of the same ancestry as the first, was grafted. Presumably this animal was of pure breed, but the question is not in this case important; for, as we shall see, the right ovary was not concerned in the results obtained. After recovery 6117. I 258 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION D. from the operation, the animal was mated wih an albino male. As albinism is in guinea-pigs recessive, there is no question as to the ~ homozygous character of the grafted animal, nor as to that of her mate. Evidently, if she should prove to influence the colour of her offspring, they would be white. The first litter consisted of two female animals, Both black. One had a few red hairs, and the other had some red upon it, and had a white fore-foot. It will presently be shown what reason there is for regarding these peculiarities as derived solely from the father. As a result of a second mating with the same animal, the grafted albino produced a black male, having a few red hairs. During a third pregnancy she died of pneumonia. The uterus was found to contain three well-developed male young. They were all black, with a few red hairs among the black. With regard to the grafted albino herself, the autopsy showed that the left graited ovary was well-developed and functional. On the right side, presumably in the position of the graft, ovarian tissue was found, but so encapsulated that eggs could not be discharged even if they came to maturity. In considering the results of these matings, it is important to remember that all the male gametes bore the factor for whiteness. If, therefore, any of the female gametes concerned had borne that factor, there would have been albinos among the offspring. It may be objected that a total offspring of six does not furnish a convincing number of cases; and it is, of course, arguable that, if the mother had lived long enough to enable the experiments to be made with germinal material matured later in her life and (possibly) less affected by the ovarian mother or her tissue, there might have been different results. It must, however, be admitted that, if in six gametes taken at chance none bore the factor w, the expectation of that factor occurring in a larger number cannot be a confident one. With regard to the second possible objection, it is to be remembered that the “grafting was done neatly a year before the animal’s death, and that pregnancy occurred three times. The control experiments throw light on the source from which the young animals referred to above derived one of their peculiarities— the presence of some red hairs interspersed with the black. The albino male of the experiments was, in control experiments, mated with a pure black female. Five animals were produced in two litters. All were black, with red hairs interspersed. The’presence of red hairs in the experiments of both sets may therefore confidently be regarded as due to the influence of the father. It is known that he came of a race characterized by spotting, and there were spotted members in the litter in which he was produced. The white fore-foot of one of the : : PRESIDENT § ADDRESS.—SECTION D. 259 young animals referred to above is held to be sufficiently accounted for by these facts. Whether this last conclusion is adopted or not it must be admitted that, with this possible exception, there is no scrap of evidence of foster-mother influence. Those of us that at first were troubled with no doubts on the question of use inheritance remember how conclusive seemed the argument that failure to use an organ led gradually to the want of power to use it, and to its degeneration and ultimate disappearance ; that the animals living in dark caverns came, in the course of many generations, to lose their eye structure more or less completely as a result of disuse. Eigemann (‘Cave Vertebrates of America,’ Carnegie Institution, 1909), with an unrivalled knowledge of the American cave fauna, still supports the view that disuse leads to modification that is transmissible. The caverns became peopled in the first case, indeed, “by animals predisposed to shun the light or creep under rocks or into erevices ’ (Higemann, “ The Eyes of Rhineura Floridana,” Proc. of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Vol. IV., p. 535, 1902). There is, therefore, at the outset a suggestion of great value to those that deny the heritable effects of disuse. Yet, after a careful examination of all the evidence, and a review of the various theories that would seek to explain it, Higemann says, “ The Lamarckian view, that through disuse the organ is diminished during the life of the individual in part at least on account of the diminution of the amount of blood going to a resting organ, and that this effect is transmitted to succeeding generations, net only would theoretically account for unlimited progressive degencra- tion, but is the only view so far examined that does not on the face of if present serious objections ” (p. 240). Again, “‘ Considering the parts most affected, and the parts least affected, the degree of use is the only cause capable of explaining the conditions. Those parts most active during use are the ones reduced most, viz., the muscles, the retina, optic nerve, and dioptric appliances—the lens and vitreous parts. Those organs occupying a more passive position, the scleral cartilages, have been much less affected; and the bony orbit least. . . . . All indications point to use and disuse as the effective agent in moulding the eye.” The case of Amblyopsis, a genus of cave fishes, isa noticeable one. The loss of pigment brought about by life for many generations in the absence of light, has become heritable, and the young animals do not become pigmented when reared in the light. Arthur M. Barita (“The Fauna of Mayfield’s Cave, ‘‘ Carnegie Institution, 1907) confirms Eigemann’s views that cave animals have often acquired heritable somatic modifications as the result of the action of their special environment. Examples of the persistence of environmental influence in plants are given by Kleb’s in his essay on “‘ The Influence of Environment on EZ 260 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.—SECTION D. Plants ” (** Darwin and Modern Science,” 1910-—the Darwin Centenary Volume). He refers to the fact that cereals cultivated in a northern climate produce individuals which ripen their seeds early in southern countries. The authority is Schiibler. In Cieslar’s experiments, seeds of conifers from the Alps, when planted in the plains, produced plants of slow growth and small diameter. Bordage (quoted by Dendy in ‘* Outlines of Evolutionary Biology,” 1912) found that peach trees in the Island of Réunion have responded to their eavironment by becoming practically evergreen. Seedlings of the trees so modified retain their modification when grown in climates in which the peach is usually deciduous. Itis very interesting to note that a somatic change may be heritable at first, but the effect of the stimulus that has produced it may fail to persist. Klebs (loc. sit.) produced an artificially modified inflorescence in Veronica chamedrys. From seeds from this inflorescence some plants that exhibited twisting were produced. These did not behave as did the twisted Dipsacus isolated by De Vries, which each year produced twisted individuals in a definite percentage. Klebs fouad that, in vegetative propagation, the twisting began to disappear in the second generation, that the process was hastened in the third, and that finally disappearance was complete. In seedlings it disappeared much more quickly. By cultivation in moist air and removal of foliage leaves, the same species of Veronica was induced to transform its inflorescence to foliage shoots. In seven-tenths of the plants obtained from the transformed shoots the modification appeared in the following year. During some years there has been gradual diminution of the modification in plants obtained by vegetative propagation or as seedlings. Rats and mice reared in abnormal conditions as to temperature were found by Sumner to exhibit definite modifications in the mean length of the tail, foot, and ear, and these modifications proved heritable by offspring reared in ndrmal conditions. This experiment differs from those of Tower, for the parents became modified in Sumner’s experiments, not merely the germ plasm. Tt is in this connexion worthy of note that mice inhabiting caverns achieve certain somatic modifications—the ears become large, the whiskers greatly developed, and the eyes prominent (Banta, loc. cit., p. 20, and other authorities quoted there). It would be of interest to know whether the offspring of these animals reared in normal condi- tions would present the same variations. The exposed roots of many epiphytic plants become flattened and develop chlorophyll. It is not questioned that this modification takes place as an adaptation under the influence of light. Goebel (‘‘ Organo- graphy,” Il, 285) refers to the case of Phaleenopsi s Schilleriana in which it was found that a portion several centimetres long of a root from Ck ng! De as aR ane RR PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION D. 261 which light was excluded exhibited the flattening to the full extent, although it did not, of course, develop chlorophyll. Onthe other hand, the thickening of the cells, especially of the exodermis, was noticeably less than in the light. It should, of course, be clearly recognised that this experiment proves only the persistence of an acquired character when the part exhibiting it was grown in conditions the reverse of those in which the character was originally acquired. There is not the evidence of heredity that actual seedlings might or might not give. In the Auckland Islands Metrosideros lucida, which forms the bulk of the forest, and Olearia Lyall, have adapted themselves to their wind-swept environment by becoming more or less prostrate, the trunk becoming horizontal and being partly supported by its branches. Cockayne (‘‘Sub-Antarctic Islands of New Zealand,” p. 194) points out that seedlings of Olearia Lyallii growing in sheltered spots in the forest frequently present this habit. The shelter in some of these spots is very effective indeed, and it is difficult to regard this as anything but, a case of inheritance of an adaptive character acquired by the parent. The work of Tower and MacDougal shows clearly that the germ plasm is susceptible of direct modification by environment, although the soma in which it is lodged may remain unmodified. The work of Castle and Phillips shows that, in the conditions of their experiments, the soma in which the germ plasm was lodged exerted no influence that could produce modification. Are we then to assume that modi- fications in the soma can never affect the germ plasm? It seems difficult to admit that the soma, which is in the higher organisms, an absolutely essential part of the environment, can exert no modifying influence. There is the difficulty felt by Eigemann and others in account- ing for the facts as we find them, if somatogenic modifications may never become blastogenic; there are the clear cases we have mentioned in which it the modification hes arisen in the soma, and has resulted a modification of the germ plasm and become transmitted. It seems to me that all that can be conceded is that modifications certainly arise by action of environment on the germ plasm, while there is much reason to believe that the environmental factor that acts immediately on the germ plasm is in many cases the soma, itself modified or becoming modified as an expression of its response to external conditions. But between immediate action of extra-somatic environment on the germ plasm, and mediate action through a soma modified or in course of modification, there will probably be found in the majority of cases a wide difference. In the first instance the action may be sudden, and the results clearly expressed in a generation. In the second instance, where somatogenic modifications becomes blastogenic, the two kinds of modification may go on slowly and almost pari passu. In the former instance we have mutations ; in the latter, generally, but perhaps not 262 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION D. always, small and scarcely noticeable variations, the fluctuating or individual variations with which we have been long familiar. If the inheritance of characteristics due to mutilations becomes conclusively proved, or if the cyclopean larva of Fundulus, for example, is brought to maturity and is found to transmit its peculiarities, then we shall have to allow more than small variations as the result of somatogenic modification. With regard to modification, whether of the soma or of the germ plasm, by direct extra-somatic influence, we notice that it is by no means always adaptive. When the germ cells are modified directly, quite different modifications may arise as the result of the same stimulus. Thus even when both parents are subjected to the same abnormal environment, some of the offspring may present one modification, some another, while many may present no modification that we can detect. Further, quite different stimuli may be followed by the same modification. The response is determined by the cells, not by the stimulus. It is in each case the response thet that particular cell has learnt to make whether to that stimulus or to another, and the learning can be only by the system of trial and error. In like manner when there is environmental influence that leads to the modification of some individuals, others may remain unmodified. It is true that direct modifications of the soma are more often adaptive than are modifications of the soma due to inheritance. But we have many instances of non-adaptive modifications, as for example, the one-eyed fishes or the modified Echinoderm larve developing under the influence of solutions of mineral salts. It is evident that there are subsidiary problems that may prove very difficult to solve. On Theories of Heredity. Next to the work of Darwin himself that of Weismann is probably the most stimulating and fruitful of biological work in the great century in which Science awoke. We may not accept the view that a continu- ing germ plasm, subject to modification by its environment, is proof against all modification from that particular part of its environment constituted by the soma. We must, none the less, admit that the enunciation of that view has led to an immense amount of research of a most valuable kind. We may not find ourselves able to accept without question Weismann’s description of the architecture of the germ plasm, may not even agree with him in regarding the germ plasm as limited to the chromatin matter. None the less we must admit that that description has given us clearer ideas than would have been possible otherwise, and a terminology most useful for describing hereditary processes. It has, moreover, stimulated research to an extraordinary degree. We owe much of our knowledge of minute cell ae a PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION D. 263 structure and of the behaviour of the chromosomes in particular to workersstinmlated by Weismann. On theother hand, we must attribute the undue attention that the chromosomes and their constituent parts have received, and the comparative neglect of other cell parts largely to the same influence. Only now is this being clearly realized, and work done that will improve the balance of our knowledge of cell structure. In any theory of heredity that supposes the existence in the germ of material particles to be distributed to the various portions of the developing organism the difficulty of mass has to be regarded. Thus, in Darwin’s theory of pangenesis, the gemmules by which each cell of the parent body represents itself in the germ cell are, in the higher organisms, inconceivably numerous. Thus, although each gemmule may be inconceivably small, they must collectively have a mass far beyond the capacity of the germ cell to accommodate. Weismann may appear to gain enormously by conceiving of determinates, each a cell or group of cells in the body capable of varying independently ; each Tising in the germ cell from a single determinant. But although the germ plasm is thus, in Weismann’s words, “‘ to some extent relieved of a burden,” as compared with Darwin’s conception, it is evident that an enormous burden still rests upon it. Weismann admits that his determinants must be enormously numerous, and each determinant is a group composed of several biophors; and there may in the insect egg be hundreds of thousands of determinants. Tower (loc. cit.) pots out that Weismann allows his biophors a size larger than that of any organic molecule, and that some organic molecules approach “ danger- ously near the limits of visibility.” Tower goes on to show that in the egg of Leptinotarsa the amount of chromatin is all too small to contain the number of organic molecules that Weismann’s theory requires. Professor Laby, however, to whom I have submitted the question, calculates that, taking Tower’s estimate of the volume of chromatin, 0.000,000,022,5, there is accommodation for 300,000,000 molecules, a sufficient number obviously. But units of some kind are required, if not merely structural units, then physiological units. Professor Francis Darwin, in his presidential address to the British Association at the Dublin meeting in 1908, touches on the advantages of a theory, such as that of De Vries or Nageli, in which hereditary effects are achieved by varying combinations of a comparatively small number of units instead of by the distribution of a large number. What effects can be achieved in chemical combinations we have some idea of. What can be done by combining selected letters into words we know well. We can appreciate the difference between an alphabetic system of writing in which a small number of sound-symbols suffices, and a hiero- Slyphic system in which each thing must be represented by a separate ymobol. 264 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION D. In view of the difficulties of Weismann’s system it is not surprising that theories of heredity according te which development proceeds on lines comparable to those of mental phenomena have an increasing number of adherents. It must be admitted frankly that mnemic theories are open to the objection that they seek to illumimate one phenomenon that is not understood by another that is not fully under- stood. But although we do not pretend to a full understanding of all the details of the process by which memory is achieved, biologists certainly cannot view with favour any theory that postulates an elaborate cell architecture of innumerable structaral units. We clearly recognise that an after effect of a stimulus long past is achieved, and that the process is certainly one that does not involve the elaborate parcelling out of an inconceivable number of material particles. The great danger of mnemic theories of heredity is that we may be led by what seems their very simplicity to suppose that we understand what we do not understand, and therefore need not further investigate. The most that we may regard as certain is that the phenomena of memory and of development can be described in similar, if not identical, terms. ‘‘ We know positively,” says Francis Darwin, ‘‘ that by making a dog sit up and then giving him a biscuit, we build up something within his brain in consequence of which a biscuit becomes a stimulus to the act of sitting. The mnemic theory assumes that the deter- minants of morphological change are of the same type as the structural alteration wrought in the dog’s brain.” A mnemic theory lends itself well to the explanation oi the inheritance of acquired characteristics. I have indeed referred to mnemism here mainly on account of one or two forms of mnemic theory that have lately been put forward especially to explain how somatogenic characters may become blastogenic. The most notable of these is the theory of Centro-Epigenesis, put forward by Eugenio Rignano. (Upon the Inheritance of Acquired Characters, a Hypothesis of Heredity, Development, and Assimilation, 1912.) Rignano’s theory pays special regard to the difficulties of what we used to call Recapitulation,gbut may now, perhaps, call, in the cautious phrase of Hunt Morgan, the Repetition of Juvenile Forms. He seeks especially to show how engrams are deposited in the germ cells as the result of somatic change, and how these engrams later find expression in the transmission of that change. Rignano holds that there is a special vital energy, transformable into other kinds of energy, other kinds being transformable imto it. This energy circulates partly by aid of the nervous system, partly by the inter-cellular bridges, the current constantly passing from cell to cell. When environmental stimulus is leading to functional modi- fication, in other words, when a new characteristic is being acquired, PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION D. 265 the external stimulus is transformed into this vital energy. A deposit of a specific substance takes place in the nuclei of the modified cells, and the energy current leads to a like deposit in the cells of a central zone of development. This central zone is, in higher animals, the less differentiated portion of the central nervous system. The central zone influences in its turn the germ plasm as we know it, giving it a new potentiality. When in development that stage of dynamic equilibrium is reached in which the parent organism stood at the time of the modi- fication, then the new potentiality of the germ cell gains expression. This it does bysetting up in a reverse direction the energy current under whose influence it was formed. The result of this is the development of the new cells in accordance with the modified form. Rignano’s theory is one that must excite our admiration on account of its ingenuity and the completeness of its machinery, even though we should think that the specific substance and the accommodation of this in the germ plasm need demonstration, and should find difficulty with regard to the means of transformation of the original stimulus into vital energy. With Rignano’s ingenious theory may be compared the theory sketched in the following passage in Cunningham’s Review of Super- Organic Evolution, by Enrique Lluria (Science Progress, Vol. V., 1910-11, p. 169). Lluria’s conception of the course of human evolution involves the assumption of the transmission of somatic, expecially cerebral modifications ; but he adopts the theory that this transmission is effected by means of the nervous system, evidently in ignorance of the recent discoveries which tend to show that the connexion between the gonads and the soma is chemical and _ not nervous. In support of his view he quotes a Manual of Pathol- ogy, the authors of which, Hillemand and Petrucci, state that “‘ the heredity of acquired characteristics is a cerebro-medullar reflex action upon the germinating cells, the impressions received by the reflex centres of the grey substance of the brain being transmitted to the genital centre of the medulla and finally to the ovoblasts and spermato- blasts by the nerve fillets, which starting from this centre are distributed in the testicles and ovaries.” If the review of Lluria’s theory is an adequate one, and there is no reason to doubt it, the view is one that need not concern us greatly. We want something that applies to all organisms, plant or animal; and to all stages of the organism, not least to those stages that precede the development of the central nervous system when there is a nervous system to develop. In an address such as this there is not time to give an account of the various forms of mnemic theory. Many of those present are familiar with the views set forth by Hering, Semon, Butler, Haeckel, Dendy, and Francis Darwin. 266 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.—SECTION D. It seems certain that in all forms of mnemic theory we shall in future find the recognition, already noticeable, of the part played by chemical substances, especially of hormones, or of substances that in given circumstances act as hormones. That chemical compounds may be formed in a definite and charac- teristic sequence in an organism has been amply demonstrated. In such a sequence each compound is the signal, even the effective stimulus, for the production of its successor. That even a single cell may at one moment produce one substance and at the next a different substance in a definite order cannot be doubted: Loeb (loc. cit., p. 253) observed that in experiments on artificial parthenogenesis, the action that brought about the formation of the fertilization membrane was a cytolytic action. If this was not checked complete cytolysis of the egg took place. H, however, immediately the membrane had been formed, the egg was removed to a hypertonic solution, cytolysis was checked and, in successful cases, fertilization was effected. The light that this throws on natural processes leads Loeb to observe, ‘“‘ Since the entrance of the spermatozoon causes that degree of cytolysis which leads to membrane formation, it is probable that in addition to the cytolytic or membrane-forming substance (presumably a higher fatty acid), it carries another substance into the egg, which counteracts the dele- terious cytolytic effects underlying membrane formation.” The knowledge that we begin to have of hormones and of enzymes makes it not impossible to conceive of development as comprising a series of ontogenetic stages each determined by the preceding stage ; at each stage, what has been called cell memory brings about the appearance of the chemical substance that will provoke advance to the next stage. This persistence of an ancestral stimulus is comparable to the persistence of st*muli in the central nervous system to result time and again in the phenomenon that we call memory. SE Te SE at Oe ate PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 267 1.—APTERA OF AUSTRALIA. By W. B. Alexander, B.A., Assistant in the Western Australian Museum, (SumMarRyY.) So far as I have been able to discover the following are the only papers on the Aptera of Australia which have been published :— (1) ‘On some Australasian Collembola,” by Sir John Lubbock, in the Journal of the Linnean Society of London for 1899, In this paper three species of Anoura collected by A. Dendy in Tasmania are described :—A. tasmanie, A. dendyi, and A. spinosa. (2) “Two new species of Collembola,” by W. J. Rainbow, in the Records of the Australian Museum, Sydney, Vol. VI., p. 313. The species described are Isotoma troglodytica, frem a pool in the Yangobilly Caves, and Achorutes speciosus, from the surface of a pond at Bathurst. {3) ““Thysanura of South-west Australia,” by Prof. Silvestri, in Die Fauna Sud-west Australiens, Vol. II., contaiming descriptions of the Thysanura collected by the Hamburg Expedition to that district. (4) The chapter on Aptera in Froggatt’s Australian Insects, which indicates that certain other Australian species have been described by Silvestri. Mr. Froggatt informs me that these descriptions are contained in several papers in . Italian journals. The object of the present paper is chiefly to point out the affinities of those species which are known to inhabit Australia. I do not. propose to describe any new species. The Aptera, or Apterygota, are now usually regarded as a primitive group of insects contrasted with the remainder of the class which may be united under the name Pterygota. The Apterygota comprise two orders—the Thysanura and Col- lembola. The latter are in many respects highly specialized, and are sharply distinguished by only possessing six abdominal segments. The former are probably an ancestral group intermediate in many respects between the most primitive Pterygota (Orthoptera and Neurop- tera) on the one hand, and the Myriapoda on the other. One of the Myriapoda, Scolopendrella, approaches the Thysanura very closely in its appearance and structure ; en passant I may notice that a species of Scolopendrella is extremely common in the neighbour- hood of Perth, in damp earth under stones and logs. The Thysanura, or Bristle-tails, are small insects, of which the well- known silver-fish is one of the largest. They have been divided into 268 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. two sub-orders, each of which contains two families. The first sub- order, the Entotrophi, have the mouth-parts retracted within the head. The family Campodeade contains the single species Campodea fragilis. Though plentiful throughout Europe and North America in damp soil under stones, it is not known outside the Holarctic region. The Japygide, with the single genus Japyx containing numerous species, have been described from North and South America, Africa, Europe, Southern Asia, and Western Australia. I have not yet met with Japyx longiseta, Silv., the local species. The Ectotrophi, or sub-order of Thysanura whose mouth-parts are not retracted within the head, are much more numerous than the other sub-order. They are separated into two families, Lepismatidee and Machilids. The former, or Silver-fish, are divided into sixteen genera, of which seven have been recorded from Western Australia. Silver-fish occur in the open under bark or fallen branches or stones, but a considerable number are myrmecophilous, only living in ants’ nests, a smaller number live in the nests of termites, and a few seem to be restricted to human habitations. Of a total number of 81 species, 44 are free-living, or their habitat is unknown. (I have grouped.these together since when specimens have been taken from ants’ nests or human habitations the fact would generally be recorded.) Of the remainder, 24 species are myrmecophilous, 5 termitophilous, and 8 anthropophilous, if I may use this term for those only found in human habitations. Of the Anthropophiles several have become very widely spread over the world, and it is difficult to judge where was their original home. Our common species in Australia is Ctenolepisma longicaudata, Esch., which is very widely distributed in houses in Africa. Since several other species of the genus occur in Africa but none are known from Australia, it is probable that our pest was introduced from the Cape in early days, thus forming a parallel with the numerous South African weeds which have taken such a hold on this continent. Another anthropophilous species, Thermobia domestica, Packard, supposed to belong to Southern Europe, was also met with in Western Australia by the Hamburg expedition. It is a blind species which appears to live 02 crumbs and starchy food, like the Huropean silver- fish, Lepisma saccharina, and neither of them do any real harm in houses. Thermobia domestica has spread to North America and parts. of Asia, besides Australia. Of the five genera, which, since their members are free living, we must presume are natives of Australia, Heterolepisma is the largest, with four species. The genus is represented by two species in South America. Of the genus Acrotelsa, two species are known from Australia ; ore from the south-west, the other from the neighbourhood of Sharks “7 5 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 269 Bay and from Peak Downs, North Australia. It is probable that this latter species, A. producta, Esch., occurs throughout the centre of the continent. Besides these two, the genus contains four species from Central America, one from Hawaii, and one which is now world-wide in the tropics, and which is very destructive to paper and books. The genus Atopatelura contains three species from South-west Australia, and one from Africa. . Atelura is a genus all of whose species live either in the nests o ants or of termites, nine being known from the former, and four from the latter. Two species occur in Western Australia, and it is probable that the species which Froggatt calls Lepisma cursitans is really a third member of this genus. Species of Atelura occur in all the regions of the globe, but are best represented in South America and South Africa, The most interesting form found in Australia up to the present is a blind species without scales, which Silvestri has placed in a new genus under the name of Trinemura novae-hollandiae. It comes near to Trinemophora, with a single species from South America. Before leaving the Lepismatidae it will be worth while to summarize the geographical relationships of the Australian forms. Of the five genera, Heterolepisma, with four species, is found also in South America (two species), Atopatelura, with three species, is found in South Africa (one species), Acrotelsa, with two species, occurs also in North and South America (three and two species respectively), Atelura, with two species, is found in all the regions of the globe, but especially in South America (four species), and South Africa (five species), whilst Trinemura, with one species, is, peculiar and comes nearest to Trinemo- phora, with one species, from South America. We thus see that the Lepismatidae form one more link in the chain of evidence which shows that the Antarctic continent was formerly connected with the three great southern land-masses. For, of our five genera, four are represented in South America, and two in South Africa, and only two extend into the northern hemisphere. The remaining family of Thysanura, the Machilidae, is represented in Australia by Allomwachilis froggatti, Silv., of New South Wales. The Collembola, or Spring-tails, are a much larger group than the Thysanura. They are all very small insects, and from their minute size and considerable leaps are not very easy to catch. They have been almost completely neglected by the ordinary collectors, and consequently our knowledge of their geographical distribution is much more limited than that concerning the Thysanura. They are specially abundant in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, and, to a less extent, in Antarctic latitudes. Like many other minute animals, some species of Collembola are distributed practically through- out the world, or at any rate have been met with wherever a considerable collection of Collembola has been formed. 270 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. The order is divided into two sub-orders, Arthropleona and Symphypleona. The former have an elongated and sub-cylindrical body, whilst the latter are sub-globular, the segments of the abdomen almost fused together. The sub-order Arthropleona contains two families. Of these the Entomobryidae contains the largest members of the order, though many of the species are minute. The family is divided into three sub- . families, of which the Isotominae are represented in Western Australia by a large black and yellow species found under logs in damp situations. Superficially it much resembles Isotoma aquatilis, a common British species, but differs in certain structural details, which will probably require for it the creation of a new genus. Isotoma troglodytica, Rainbow, presumably belongs here. Of the second sub-family Tomo- cerinae, which are so common in England, I have found no represen- tatives, but of the third sub-family Entomobryinae, I have obtained a number of forms. This sub-family is again divided into four tribes, of which the Entomobryini are represented in my collection by species of Entomobrya, Sinella, and Lepidocyrtus, as well as by a species which seems to belong to a new genus. The Orchesellini are repre- sented by a species of Heteromurus, black with white bars on the abdomen, common under bark, and what is apparently another species of the same genus of a chestnut colour. The tribe Cyphoderini com- prises a single genus, whose species are all found in ants’ nests. They are blind, white, and scaleless. I have found a species in Megtern Australia in the nests of several species of ants. The family Poduridae consists of *Collembola without a spring or with the spring much reduced. The species generally occur in great numbers when they are present. One group of genera are quite white and blind, and live in decaying vegetable matter underground. I have found a species of this type feeding in rotten potato-tubers near Perth. A second group of forms are brown or purple in colour and possess a pair of curved hooks on the last segment of the abdomen. The genera Anoura, of which Lubbock has described three species from under logs in Tasmania, and Achorutes, of which Rainbow describes a species from the surface of a pond at Bathurst, belong here. !I found a species in considerable numbers on the water which stands in the hollows from which guano has been dug on the Abrolhos Islands. I have also found a species of this group feeding on fungi in Western Australia. The genus Anurida, which also belongs to this family, is of special interest, because some of its species live in the sea. Anurida maritima, which is found in Europe and North America, is common on the English coasts, occurring on rocks, shingle, or mud-flats, At low tide the little insects crawl about and eat any small plankton forms which may have been stranded. At high tide they creep into crevices in the rocks el PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 271 or holes in the mud, where they may often be found in masses. Like all the Collembola, they are quite incapable of being wetted by water, and presumably the air entangled in their hairy covering suffices for their wants until the tide goes down again. When looking for marine creatures on the shore of Rat Island in the Albrohos, I turned over a stone and dislodged a small colony of some species of Anurida, which floated up to the surface of the water and then began hopping in various directions. I captured some and put them in my collecting jar, but unfortunately they were imme- diately attacked and devoured by some specimens of a Halobatid water-skater which I had previously captured. The Symphypleona, or globular Collembola, are divided into two families, one of which, the Neelidae, has only been found in Europe and North America, whilst the other, the Sminthuridae, is world-wide in its distribution. I have met with a number of species of these curious little insects belonging to several genera. They are most often yellow in colour, though frequently black. They live among grass or on bushes, and are the most free-living of all the Collembola, which as a group occur chiefly under bark or logs, or in damp soil. In considering the affinities of our Collembola we must notice first that the Collembola of South Africa are almost unknown, so that it must be dismissed from consideration. Of the four remaining regions the Holarctic contains abundant representatives of the three chief families, whilst the few species of Neelidae are peculiar to it. The Oriental region appears to be characterized by the great scarcity of Sminthurndae and by the fact that Entomobryidae are more plentiful than Poduridae. In South America also Sminthuridae are few, but Poduridae are much more abundant than Entomobryidae, In these respects the Antarctic region and sub-Antarctic islands agree with the Neotropical region. In Australia as far as my preliminary observations go, Sminthu- ridae appear to be numerous, whilst Entomobryidae are perhaps rather better represented than Poduridae. It would thus appear that our Collembolan fauna is most like that of the Holarctic region, in the number of Entomobryidae it approaches the Oriental, whilst in every respect it seems to contrast strongly with that of South America. The very distinct blind genus Cyphoderus is the only one of whose identification I can be sure, and this genus occurs throughout the world except for South America, though it is found in the West Indies. It would thus appear that the Collembola and Thysanura of Aus- tralia must have reached the continent at different times and by different routes. The Thysanura are evidently one of the groups which reached us by way of the Antarctic continent, but it must be left for future work to decide on the real affinities of our Collembola. 1p.) PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 2.—TREHMATODE PARASITES AND THE RELATIONSHIPS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THEIR HOSTS. By 8S. J. Johnston, B.A., D.Sc., Demonstrator of Biology, University of Sydney. Trematodes, and indeed other parasitic worms occur in fauna groups. If we consider the trematodes living as parasites in some particular class of host that dwells in a defined zeo-geographical region, we must look for the nearest relatives of each of these worms, not in host-animals of other classes living in the same region, but in hosts of the same class living in different regions. For instance, the trematode parasites of Australian frogs find their nearest relatives, not amongst trematodes living in Australian reptiles or fishes or in any other Australian animals, but living in frogs in Asia, Europe, and America. A detailed study of all the trematode parasites living in frogs from all the regions in which frogs occur, discovers some very interesting circumstantial evidence concerning the origin, paths of dispersal and relationships of these hosts ; the same may be said, of course, of other classes of vertebrates serving as hosts. Trematodes have been collected from frogs in four definite zoo- geographical regions ; and each region presents a group of frog-parasites comparable to those from the other regions. This is very readily seen when put down in tabular form ; in the following table the trematodes parasitic in the frogs of the four regions referred to are put down side byside. The Huropean group is represented by the greatest number of © forms partly because it has been worked up more completely than the other groups. European. American. Australian. Asiatic. In tHE Lunas. Sub.-fam. Haplometrine. Pnewmoneces, | Pneumonasces, three species. Slx Species. Pneumoneces, Pnewumoneces, one species. one species. © In tHE Bocca Caviry. Halipegus, | Halipegus, me | Hailpegus, one species. one species. one species. In THE INTESTINE. Sub,-Fam. Plagiorchine. Opisthiogly phe, Glypthelmins, Dolichosaccus, one species. one species. three species. Brachysaccus, two species. European. Brachycelium, one species. Prosotocus, Pleurogenes, Brandesia, seven species in all. Diplodiscus. one species. Gorgodera, Gorgoderina, five species each. Polystomum, one species. question. Brachycelium, five species each. (Polystomum), two species in PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. American. Australian. In tHE [Nrestins—continued. Sub.-fam. Brachycoeline. Mesocelium, one species. Sub.-fam. Pleurogenetine. Pleurogenes, two species, Loxogenes, one species. | IN THE RECTUM. Fam. Paramphistomide. Diplodiscus, Diplodiscus, one species. one species. In THE BLADDER. Sub.-fam. Gorgoderine. Gorgodera, Gorgodera, Gorgoderina, one species. Sub.-fam. Polystomine. Polystomum, one species. chelonians. three species. 273 Asiatic. Mesocelium, one species. Pleurogenes, two species The small number of representatives in the Asiatic group is accounted for by the fact that up to the present comparatively little attention has been given to this group by investigators. The various species of the same genus in each case are very closely related to one another from the morphological point of view. The differences between them are only small, so small that for a long time they were not recognised at all, but the flukes were identified, in some cases, under the name of the oldest known species of the genus in The differences were concerned with such points as size and Shape, the amount of spininess, the relative size of the suckers, the relative size and shape and small alterations in position of some of the internal organs, and the size of the eggs. 274 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Two explanations of the fact that four such similar groups of trematodes now inhabit the frogs of Europe, North America, Australia, and Asia may be put forward :— (1) That these similar groups have come into existence by con- vergence. This explanation has been suggested, but can scarcely be taken seriously. The probability istoo remote. This hypothesis would ask us to believe that, under somewhat similar conditions, in regard to- Pneumonoeces, for instance, four groups of species have come into existence in which a certain arrangement of the coils of the uterus and many other peculiar features have been separately evolved four distinct times, and that similar happenings occurred in the case of all the other genera. The mathematical probability makes the proposition absurd. (2) That the members of each of the subfamilies of the worms are derived from common ancestors, which were parasitic in the ancestors. of the frogs long ago, when the distribution of that group was not so widespread as it is to-day. It will help us to understand how these very similar groups of trematodes have come to inhabit the frogs of the various regions if we consider briefly how the parasitic mode of life came to be adopted by the flatworms. There is no doubt that parasites have been derived from ancestors that once upon .a time were free-living. Of the three classes of flat worms, the Turbellaria, the Trematoda, and the Cestoda, the last two are almost exclusively parasitic, whilst the members of the first-named class are almost entirely free-living. Now the Turbellaria are looked upon as the most primitive of the three, as representing most nearly- in their structure the ancestral flat worm. The trematodes and the cestodes are more specialized, and the differences they show compared with the Turbellaria represent more recent developments. We can imagine a species of free-livmg worms, especially one with some form of clinging apparatus lke the more or less feeble suckers possessed by some turbellarians, that adopted the habit of attaching themselves to the surface of the body of some larger and slow-moving animal. Finding an abundance of nourishment in the small organisms that cling to the host or stick in the mucus covering its body, the worm gradually forms the habit of living the greater part of its life on its host. Some of these worms would, no doubt, sometimes temporarily take shelter in one of the cavities opening on the surface of the host, such as the gill cavity. This position would be found so congenial through the ready food supply in the shape of blood to be sucked, that, in the course of generations, it would be adopted as the usual place of abode, Later on, some tough-skinned individuals would venture further into PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 275 the alimentary canal, and, by natural selection, as the generations went -on, the cuticle would become thicker and thicker, and the cilia become lost ; our tyro-parasite is developing the kind of integument necessary for its mode of life. The earliest parasites would pass their whole life, or most of it, in a single host. Their larve, still possessed of the ancestral cilia, would have a free existence for a time, but never far away from the host, which becomes adopted by the worm as it matures, just as it has been adopted by the worm’s parents for generations. This is what we know to happen in the case of Polystomum, for instance. The life history of all the more specialized parasites is much more ' complicated than this; but if this represents the way in which para- sitism developed, we would expect to find something like it in the more primitive forms living at the present day. And this is what we do find. Aspidogaster, with its simple saclike intestine and primitive reproductive organs, is obviously a primitive form, in spite of its complex clinging organ. It passes its whole life in one animal. It lives in the kidney of the freshwater mussel, though the young are found only in the intestine, so that we may infer that its more immediate ancestors formerly lived in the intestine, and only later contracted the habit of emigrating to the kidney. Polystomum, again, is also more primitive than the digenetic trematodes, and exhibits a simpler life-history. Its free-living larva darts into the gill cavity of the young frog that it selects for its host ; and these larve may be found in various stages of immaturity in different parts of the intestine, where, doubtless, its ancestors remained during their sexual’ maturity. But nowadays the sexually mature forms are found as a rule in the urinary bladder,to which they find an entrance after having traversed almost the whole length of the host’s alimentary canal. Temnocephala, which, though it lives upon the surface or gills of crayfishes mostly, is not a parasite at all, occupies a position, in regard to its habits of life, somewhere between the non-parasitic Turbellaria and the parasitic Trematoda. The remaining group of trematodes, in the number of forms immensely greater than all the others put together (for archaic forms amongst living animals are never represented by numerous. species), consists of members more specialized than the others, and all undergoing a more complex life history. ; The complicated life history of the common liver-fluke of the sheep, Fasciola hepatica, may be cited as an example. The ciliated larva derived from the hatched egg is free-swimming for a short time, and has to find some kind of pond snail, the body of which it enters, there to pass through two stages of its life-history, those of the sporocyst 276 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. and redia. The cercaria derived from the redia becomes encysted on grass and the like, and must be eaten by the sheep or some other animal that will serve as 1ts final host, before it can become the sexually mature fluke. The life history of Diplodiscus or Opisthioglyphe is somewhat similar to that of Fasciola, the miracidium or ciliated larva finding its. way into a snail of some kind, the cercaria of Diplodiscus encysting in insect larve, while that of Opisthioglyphe makes its way into the crustacean Gammarus or into another snail. In their long-passed history such forms as these must have been able to develop their sexual maturity in their invertebrate host, just as the primitive Aspidogaster does to this day. When vertebrates became evolved and fed upon invertebrate animals harboring parasites, the latter would, of course, be swallowed along with their host, and would. at first be protected from the more active digestive juices by the body of their invertebrate host. Becoming freer lower down in the intestine of the vertebrate through the breaking up of the body of their inverte- brate host, the position is not found to be untenable ; instead of active and corroding juices, they find themselves in the midst of abundance of digested or partly digested food. Finding their circumstances here more affluent they waxed fat and strong, this advance finding its expression in increased fertility ; and thus gradually they took on the custom of only developing their sexual maturity in the larger vertebrate host. For the most part each kind would only become established in one vertebrate host, the staple food of which was the invertebrate host. Those forms that eventually found their way into vertebrates and established themselves there outstripped their fellows in the struggle for existence, so that this mode of life, more or less accidentally intro- duced, came to be the normal mode. When the amphibian ancestors of the frogs appeared in the world— long before the frogs themselves—they became, in this way, infected with a number of forms of trematodes. These trematodes probably much more closely resembled the present day trematode parasites of frogs than did those amphibian ancestors the frogs of to-day, for the worms by that time were an old group of animals, and less likely than the newly-evolved amphibian to be very plastic. And, not only so, but their mode of life rendered them less likely to be rapidly affected by environmental changes than free-living animals. As the descendants of those early amphibians dispersed to the four corners of the earth, they took their parasites with them, and while the old amphibians have PROCEEDINGS OF SECTEON D. 277 become altered very considerably, the parasites have probably altered only a little, but still have altered; so that we find the old types of Pneumonoeces, that affected to live in the lungs, represented by a dozen or so species scattered over various parts of the earth. And so on with the others, e.g., Gorgoderine, Brachycoeline, &e. It is a remarkable fact that, of the six species of flukes known to-day as parasites of frogs inhabiting Southern Asia, four of them appear to find their nearest relatives in flukes from Australian frogs. Mescoelium sociale Liihe is certamly more closely related to the Aus- tralian species of Mesocoelium than to Brachycoelium erassicolle R. its European, or B. hospitale Staff, its American representative. Pneu- monoeces capyristes Klein is more nearly related to P. australis than to any of the European or American species of this genus, while the Asiatic Pleurogenes gastroporus and sphericus; and the Australian P, freycineti and solus are more nearly related to one another than any of them are to the European or American pleurogenetines, I think the Asiatic frog flukes, so far as they are known, are more nearly related to the European than are the Australian, standing as it were intermediate between the two latter groups. The American frog flukes, on the other hand, many of which have evolved into distinct genera, are not so nearly related in their structure to the European as are the Asiatic. And, in addition to this, the American genera, generally speaking, contain more species than the same genera in Asia and Australia, and this may be taken to indicate that the American frogs, with their flukes, have been longer separated from the parent stock. The great similarity of the four groups of flukes of frogs found in the four regions mentioned points to the fact, I think, that the flukes, which are a very old group of animals, existed in the ancestors of present-day frogs a very long time ago, when their distribution was much less extensive than it is to-day. The mutual relationships of these groups of trematodes support the view that the Anura originated somewhere about the centre of the Palaearctic region, and migrated both westwards and south-eastwards. They may have reached the western portion of the Boreal land mass existing right across from Asia to North America in Tertiary times, or they may have made their way westward in Pliocene times, when a considerable migration of verte- brates westward is known to have taken place. The Australian forms must have found their way down here before the separation of the Australian continent from South-Eastern Asia, a separation which is generally supposed to have taken place somewhere about Cretaceous or EKocene times. Since the greater diversity of the North American frog trematodes would seem to indicate that they have been longer separated from the parent stock than the Asiatic and American forms, the America-wards migration probably took place in the earlier of the two periods suggested. 278 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. In view of the probable land connexion between Australia and South America through the Antarctic, a connexion which is supported by a good deal of biological evidence, it is unfortunate that practically nothing seems to be known about the frog trematodes of South America. A pretty close similarity has, however, been shown by Zschokke to exist between some cestode parasites of South America and Australian marsupials. Much the same condition of affairsas has been described for frogs can be shown to exist between the trematode parasites of birds living in particular zoo-geographical regions, as well as those of reptiles and of mammals. To mentions only a few from birds—the various species of Scaphanocephalus (undescribed species of which are known to the writer) from sea eagles in different regions are very closely related to one another, as also are those of Bilharziella from seagulls and of Hemistomum from herons. The trematode parasites from Australian marsupials are very interesting in this connexion. Two species of Harmostomum from Dasyurus and Perameles are very closely related to H. opisthotrias Lutz from an American Didelphys, soclosely related that I am convinced that they must be considered as being derived from common ancestors. They thus afford some pretty convincing circumstantial evidence of the phylogenetic relationship of the Australian and South American marsupials. No less interesting are two new species of flukes, one from Dasyurus and the other from the platypus, which have been described in Part 4 of the Proceedings of the Linn. Soc. N.S.W. for 1912, as representatives of a subfamily intermediate in position between the Fascioline, flukes typically parasitic in the higher mammals and the Psilostomine parasitic in reptiles and birds. 3,—THE SYRINX OF. THE COMMON FOWL: ITS STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT. By A. O. V. Tymms. [Published in Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, N.S. 25, 1913.] PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. : 279 4—AN ACCOUNT OF SOME EXPERIMENTS IN THE ACCLIMATISATION OF TWO SPECIES OF AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER PERCH. By David G. Stead, F.L.S., Superintendent of Fishery Investigation, New South Wales State Fisheries Department. INTRODUCTION. In the following paper, a brief account is given of three experi- ments in connexion with the transferral of two species of Fresh-water Perch, indigenous to Australia, to waters in which they did not previously exist. The two species dealt with were the Mountain or “‘ Macquarie ” Perch, Macquaria australasica Cuv. and Val., and the Australian Bass or Kastern ‘‘ Fresh-water ”’ Perch, Percalates fluviatilis Stead. Tae Mountatn oR MAcquarigE PERCH is a very variable species occurring in considerable abundance in the waters of the great Murray River system. A small variety of it (usually of a dark colour) is also found inhabiting a number of our east-flowing streams, such as the Shoalhaven River, the Hawkesbury River, the Hunter River, and their tributaries, and probably a number of the others farther north. In the western rivers of New South Wales it penetrates far up into the highlands—in the Murrumbidgee and its feeders for instance, being found within a few miles of their respective sources. The fish attains, exceptionally, a weight of as much as 5 lbs., and is often taken at between 2 and 3 lbs. Its flesh is of fine flavour and consistency, and is very white, and altogether it is a very estimable fish. As a sporting fish, the mountain or Macquarie perch may hardly compare with the Australian bass, but it is very highly valued by anglers and riverside residents familiar with it, as its capture forms a pleasant alternative to the pursuit of the rainbow trout (in a number of the west-flowing waters of the southern tableland of New South Wales), and the Australian bass (in eastern streams). This perch is usually taken by rod and line, with a worm or other live bait. In shape it is somewhat “thick set’ and high in the body, with large scales and large eyes, a rounded tail, and a very “‘snub”’ nose. The mouth is relatively small, and the upper profile of the head is usually excavate or concave ; this, with the high body, giving to the fish the ‘“‘ roach-back ”’ shape, often spoken of. The mountain or Macquarie perch varies in coloration from a dark silvery (or even occasionally a somewhat whitish appearance) to a dark brownish-black, according to the nature of the waters in which it is found. In certain lowland waters like the Kyalite or Edwards River, a very common, noticeable feature of the fish is its white iris, from which comes a familiar name of white-eyed perch. This feature is not seldom to be seen in examples from other localities also. 280 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Tue AUSTRALIAN Bass, oR EASTERN “‘ FRESH-WATER’’ PERCH, is that fine food—and game—fish which is found inhabiting many of the east-flowing rivers of eastern Australia. It is particularly abundant in the east-flowing rivers of New South Wales, as well as those flowing into the Gippsland Lakes in Victoria. Asa sporting fish, it is considered \ by very many to be second to none in Australia. Certainly it is a fine fish, a game fighter, and of great edible value. It is also possessed of an elegant shape, and, apart from its importance as a food fish, it is a fish to make the heart of its captor glad indeed. The Australian bass attains, exceptionally, a weight of as much as 64 lbs., but, ordinarily, one of 3 lbs. in weight may be looked upon as a large fish. Of recent years this fish has been very greatly sought after by tiverside folk, and city anglers, alike; and special measures for its future preservation have of late been instituted by the New South Wales State Department of Fisheries. Though a permanent denizen of fresh water—in which it spawns— the Australian bass occurring in the lower reaches of the rivers are often found to take to the normally saltwater portions of a numbez of the rivers during heavy freshets ; returning again as soon as the water conditions are favorable. As I have elsewhere pointed out, this perch has been confused in the past with the estuary perch, a fish from which it differs greatly, both in habits and conformation. The estuary perch is a less active fish, more “‘slab-sided,” of greater depth, having the upper profile of the head excavate (this giving even a more “ roach-backed ”’ appearance than in the Macquarie perch, before referred to), and possessing a smaller and less-forked tail. Though the estuary perch is able to penetrate far up into the rivers, as also does the sea mullet, like the latter it has to come to the salt-water to spawn, while the Australian bass, as before mentioned, spawns in its home waters. The egg of the estuary perch, it may also be mentioned, 1s freely floating or pelagic, while that of the Australian bass is smaller, and is demersal and attached. The Australian bass is captured usually by rod and line, using a living bait, or else artificial flies or spinning baits of many designs. In a state of nature, the fish subsists upon aquatic insects, insects that fall into the water from the air, frogs, small fishes (including its own kind), small reptiles, prawns or shrimps—and, in fact, almost any living thing in the waters, according to circumstances and locality. Where the river banks are in anything like their natural condition, however, the principal food consists of insects. Sometimes mistakes are made, however, apart from those induced by anglers. As a case in point, I may mention that the stomach of an Australian bass taken by me in the PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 281 Hunter River, at Oakhampton, contained a small piece of wood from the gunwale of a pulling-boat. This was painted a bright blue on the one side, and the fish had probably mistaken it for an insect. Having given the reader a genera] idea of the two species of perch under special consideration in this paper,:it will be well to pass on to an account of their attempted acclimatisation in waters outside their original habitat. I.—IntTRoDUcTION OF THE MountTaAIN, oR Macquariz, PERCH INTO THE SNowy RIVER. For a good many years past the section of the Snowy River (and its feeders) running through the southern corner of the State of New South Wales, has been justly renowned for its trout, which for so long have become firmly established in its glorious, sparkling, upland waters. Large numbers of both the European brown, or brook, trout (Salme fario var. ausonii), and the Californian rainbow trout (Salmo irideus)— notably the latter—are taken annually out of the waters of this section of the southern tableland, by the many visitors and residents alike. It has long been thought, and at times informally suggested to me, that it would be a good thing if anglers had the opportunity of catching some perch-like fish as well, in the Snowy River. In the lower half of the Snowy, and right up to the falls, the Australian bass already exists; but these are not the trout waters, and are, relatively, but little frequented. The suggested introduction of some such fish appealed to me, as the upper waters of the Snowy River and its feeders are really very extensive, and there seemed every probability that a percoid fish once established might add largely to the food supply of residents, while proving an additional attraction to visitors. The question was: What fish would be suitable? The only percoid fish naturally occurring in any numbers in the upland Manaro streams—such as the upper waters of the Murrumbidgee and its tributaries—in which trout have become firmly established, is the mountain, or Macquarie, perch. This is a valuable fish of good edible qualities, and, at the same time, an “angler’s fish”’ ; and there seemed to be every reason for supposing that it would do well in the environment offered by the Upper Snowy. During February, 1912, Mr. Alfred F. Rose, of Cooma (who has taken a good deal of interest in trout acclimatisation in the Manaro district) and Mr. Henry Dawson, who was the representative of Inland Fisheries on the late New South Wales Board of Fisheries, suggested that the mountain perch should be obtained in the Murrumbidgee waters and transferred to the Snowy River, Mr. Rose very generously offering that the Manaro Fish and Game Protection Society would bear the cost of actual transport of the fishes. The suggestion was supported by myself, and the Chief Secretary approved of the scheme being carried out. 282 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Accordingly, during the same month, I repaired to Cooma, equipped with the necessary nets, transport cans, &c., Mr. Dawson accompanying. The operations for the capture of the perch were carried out at Tarsus, some miles (down the Murrumbidgee) from Cooma, and about 5 miles from Bunyan Railway Station. At this point the Murrumbidgee leaves its rugged gorges in the mountains, and begins to meander about on the upland plain, only to enter the rugged country again later on. Owing to a sudden downpour on several parts of the watershed of the Upper Murrumbidgee just before my arrival, the water was very turbid; and was loaded with decomposing débris—principally sheep and rabbit droppings. This had contaminated the water to such an extent as to render it almost unfit for fish life; and, consequently, considerable difficulty was experienced in keeping the fish alive as they were captured. This was all the more noticeable when it is considered that the mountain or Macquarie perch is—with good water— a very hardy fish. Altogether 414 perch, ranging from 3 to 9 inches in length, were placed (in two consignments) in the waters of the Snowy River by Mr. A. F. Rose and myself. The first consignment, consisting of 205 perch, 3 to 8 inches in length, was put in at Coolamatong Crossing, some miles above Dalgety, on Sunday afternoon, 25th February. The second consignment, comprising 209 perch, from 3 to 9 inches in length, was put in the river at Hickey’s Crossing—a short distance below Buckley’s Crossing (Dalgety)—two days later. A few of the perch were sexually mature, others would, if surviving, become so at the end of 1912, and most of the remainder at the end of the present year. _ Both consignments were carried in 8-gallon trout cans, as rapidly as possible, by speedy motor-car. Under the circumstances, 1.e., considering the badness of the water, I am doubtful whether I could have been nearly so successful with any other form of conveyance. Perhaps I need not be regarded as too optimistic when I say that great results may reasonably be expected. from the introduction of this fine food and sporting fish into the Snowy River. As regards the natural conditions it appears to me that no river is more suitable for the mountain perch, and it should fill a place in these waters which is at present practically unoccupied. Ever since my first introduction to the waters of the Snowy, I have seen that what might be called a “natural vacancy ” existed, which apparently could be filled only by a fish of the perch family, and in the mountain perch we have a fish that is already adapted by nature to our mountain streams, and is therefore particularly suitable for the waters into which it has been put. If only a moderate number of those planted survive, and are able to reproduce, it should not be many years before the fish is firmly established. It will then add largely to the attractiveness of the Snowy to the growing stream of angling tourists, and, in addition, wi'l supply local residents with a very fine food fish, which, as regards Ml? : q 2 PI Py PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 283: edible value, is, I think, generally considered to be far in excess of the trout, though the trout is, beyond compare, its superior as a game fish. There will, perhaps, be some who may fear that the introduction of this fish will be detrimental to the trout so firmly established in these- waters ; but I may say, unreservedly, that there is no real ground for any fears in this direction. The mountain perch and the rainbow trout occupy practically two separate spheres of activity in our streams; even if they may, perhaps, eat a few of each other when they get the opportunity. That the mountain perch is not a “natural enemy ” of the rainbow trout is amply borne witness to by the fact that the latter has been able to so firmly establish itself in waters such as the Upper Murrumbidgee, Umeralla, &c., in which the mountain perch already naturally existed in such large numbers. Quite apart from any special steps that may be taken by the State Fisheries Department, having for their object the protection and con- servation of the mountain or Macquarie perch in its new surroundings, it is earnestly to be hoped that, should the fish succeed, all anglers who- fish this river for the next few years will do their utmost to assist in its acclimatisation by returning to the stream all or any fish of this species which may be captured in any part of the Snowy River above the falls. There will be no excuse for any one on the plea of want of knowledge, as the fish is nothing like a trout, and no perch of any kind have ever been caught in these waters. II.—IntTrRopuctTION oF AUSTRALIAN Bass INTO THE WATERS oF FyJt. Late in the year 1910 the Colonial Secretary of Fiji, the Honorable Eyre Hutson, C.M.G., wrote me on the question of fish acclimatisation,. asking, principally, for an opinion as to whether rainbow trout would be likely to prosper in the rivers of Fiji. At my request a number of tiver observations were made, and temperatures were taken; and upon receiving these I formed the opinion that, as far as they went, the indications were not altogether favorable to the acclimatisation of any species of trout. The main objection, of course, was that the general temperature was too high. I suggested, however, that our common eastern fresh-water perch—the Australian bass—seemed to be the most suitable form to experiment with, as the conditions seemed very favorable for the permanent acclimatisation of that fine game- fish. In due course, Mr. Hutson, on behalf of the Fijian Government, approached the Chief Secretary of the State of New South Wales, and ah arrangement was come to under which a number of the fish were to be obtained by the State Fisheries Bap eset of New South Wales and forwarded to Fiji. On the 6th May, 1912, a consignment consisting of 135 Australian bass was despatched by the s.s. Makura, in the care of an. assistant. 284 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. These ranged from 3 inches to 5 inches in length. They were conveyed in 20 trout cans, of 8 gallons capacity, each about half full, and 2 box tanks, on rockers, each containing about 8 gallons of water. Through the kindness and personal interest of the master of the Makura, Captain Gibb, it was possible to have the whole consignment placed upon the captain’s balcony—the best position on the ship, notwithstanding some difficulties that were experienced during the voyage to Fiji. All the fishes were captured under my personal direction, in the Nepean River, immediately below the weir, at Penrith. As captured, they were placed in a large basket, through which was a regular and moderately strong flow of water. I mention these details, because it is the “small” things in live fish handling and transport which are of the greatest importance, and I am of opinion that the great care taken of the fish both at the time of capture and while they were awaiting transport was one of the most important factors in leading the experiment to a successful issue. I have found that the wildest of river fishes—even trout—will settle down easily to confinement in a covered basket-ware receptacle. In this connexion I may mention that I have had as many as 150 Australian bass from 3 to 8 inches long ina basket 40 inches long, 26 inches broad, and 20 inches high, immersed to a depth of about 12 inches in the water, for several days, in a moderate current, and the fishes were, apparently, as fresh as when they were putin. Probably twite that number could have been kept in the basket under the circumstances. : During the voyage to Fiji—which was made wd Auckland—the canvas jackets of the cans were kept constantly wetted with fresh water (when not splashed by the spray; which not seldom happened, notwithstanding the favorable position on the steamer) so as to keep the temperature of the water down. Occasionally, also, to assist in the aeration of the water, the assistant who accompanied the consignment drew off part of the water and squirted it back again “with a large brass syringe. There was, of course, a good deal of surface s splashing of the water at times during transit, and that had the effect of aerating the water very consi iderably. At my wish, no food was given during ‘the voyage, as I wished to reduce the danger of the fouling of the water to a minimum. Upoa arrival at Fiji 109 out of the 135 sent were alive, which, under the circumstances, may be considered as exceedingly satisfactory. Of these, 58 were taken to the Sigatoka River (by Government steamer and native bearers), where, at Nadarivatu, at an elevation of 2,400 feet, 56 fishes were placed alive. The exact location where the fishes were put is a kind of backwater, into and out of which the waters strains through a growth of “reeds.” Mr. Hutson had originally mentioned this spot to me, and it was agreed that it seemed a yi Tee ee ee a eS eee ee ee : xt . { ( 13/5/12 12 p.m 64° | PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 285 * suitable place. Mr. Russell, Magistrate, of Nadarivatu, and another Fiji Government officer, Mr. Hunter, as well as Mr. D. T. Stewart, of the Colonial Secretary’s Office, Fiji, were witness to the placing of this section of the Australian bass in the Sigatoka River. Fifty-one Australian bass were sent away to the Navua River, and it is understood that these all arrived at their destination safely. From a report of the Colonial Secretary, Fiji, dated 11th July, 1912, it is gathered that subsequent to the introduction of the fishes in the Navua River there had been a good deal of wet weather in the mountains. This, perhaps, was a little unfortunate, as it was very desirable for the Australian bass to be able to keep together as much as possible for some time at least after their introduction. The reports received from the Sigatoka River were stated to be satisfactory. Temperature of Water in Cans during Voyage. The following temperature records taken on the journey from Sydney to Fiji will be of interest :— | 7 Date. Tim:. shoes Remarks. perature 12 noon .. BY 53° Leit Sydney / 5 7 a/e/a2 iO D.dile | oc 58° \ 7/5/12 12 noon till 11 p.m. 57° 8/5/12 Tam. ,, 11 p.m. 56° ane {| Zam, ,,.12 noor 57° Salt spray flying over ship. B/o/ts ei p.m. 2. 1f p.m: 56° (| 7am. .. a 54° } 10/5/12 < | 12 noon .. Be 52° ’ LEY Ns hss ws | 50°=52° Ee) eo ..-| 50°-52° | At Auckland 12 noon .. 5 a RSS soca Sy thea till ll p.m. .. 54° 7 a.m, till 12 noon 54° LE piminii 2 2h 58° RE Oe ye &0° 11/5/12 12/5/12 ee Temperature of ship’s water 72° 5 p.m. till UW p.m. 66° ARTIS are Se 70° At Fiji 12 noon ©... a2 74° 4pm... 4s 74° 12 noon .. ss 74° 2 aie 6: oe 66° At Nadarivatu Ofasms Fk: pute | 64° 14/5/12 15/5/12 16/5/12 pe The temperature of the water of the Sigatoka River at the time of placing the Australian bass therein was 64° F., which was very suitable for the species. { Saat 286 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Though the consignment is not a large one, it is hoped that a number- of the fishes sent may survive to propagate their species in their new environment. From what I have learnt of the waters in which the fishes have been placed, I would say that they seem eminently suited to the species. In introducing a new form like this to waters foreign to its original habitat, it seems only fair to it that the first consignment should be supplemented by others for at least two or three years. The successful landing of such a large percentage of those sent was intensely gratifying, and there can now be no doubt that with still better arrangements it would be possible to carry this fine fish for very” long periods. In the case of an extended voyage. however, I would. recommend very careful feeding during transit. IIT.—Frrst TRANSFER OF AUSTRALIAN. Bass FROM EASTERN Te WESTERN Waters oF New South WALES. For many years the introduction of the above-mentioned magni-- ficent food and game fish into our western waters has been talked of, but no move in the direction of carrying out such work has ever been. made. There are many places which are personally known to me in which there is every reason to believe this fish would flourish. I am thinking mostly of rivers like the Macquarie and other streams, which usually consist of long chains of splendid waterholes, with short “ ripples ”” in between—at least on the portions of such rivers which exist on the- western slope, properly so called. For very apparent natural (physio- graphical) reasons, the Australian bass has not hitherto found its way into these waters. While the consignment for Fiji was being obtained, it occurred to- me that the time appeared to be most propitious for the carrying out of the first step toward an extensive introduction of this fish to some of the feeders of the great Murray drainage area. The Minister having given his approval, the first transplanting of the Australian bass from : the eastern into the western waters was quickly consummated. ! On Tuesday, 7th May, 1912, I took a consignment of 60 fine fishes: (ranging from 4 to 9 inches in length) from Penrith to Wellington. The fish were all liberated in excellent condition in a splendid “hole” on the course of the Bell River, not far from its junction with the Macquarie River. The Bell River runs through Wellington, and a little lower down joins the Macquarie. Notwithstanding the serious dryness of the season, the Bell River was still running nicely. On its sinuous course through the town is a fine deep waterhole of very considerable extent, very “snaggy,” and of such a nature as to offer the fish good naturak protection. This was the place chosen for the bass. Aah PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 287 The water conditions being so good, it occurred to me that it would ‘be an additional advantage in assisting to preserve the fish if they were placed where they would be to some extent “‘ under the eyes ” of those townspeople who would be likely to assist. For their better protec- tion, a short section of the Bell River, about the vicinity where the fish were liberated, has been closed against all fishing. ‘It is worthy of mention, for record purposes, that the bass were ‘conveyed in 10 cans, 6 in each, and that the temperature of the water varied from about 56° to 58° (The Nepean River water at the Penrith weir during the previous few days had varied from 58° to 62°.) ~~ On the following day T started from Penrith with 133 fish, ranging from 3 to 7} inches, for Rylstone ; the object being to plant the fish in a fine beshsi about 600 yards long, situated on the course of the iver at “ Rawden ” Station, about 5 miles (by road) from Rylstone. Upon arriva! at Rylstone Railway Station the fish were all right ; but, as the morning was very sharp, misty, and frosty, I felt a little anxious about the journey to ** Rawden,” as I knew there would be a sudden and considerable fall in the temperature of the water in the cans. Mr. J. T. Cox, of Rawden, was in waiting with a buggy and a fast horse, and we started off with the fish (which had been in 8 cans) in 4 ‘ans. ‘wo of the wettest of the cans were covered with a buggy rug to keep the keen air away from them, and the remaining two had to be left exposed. The jacket of one of these, it is interesting to note, was very nearly dry, consequently the water in the can was protected to some extent from the air. The other was very wet, and became very told. When turned out into the river every fish was alive, and those in all but the last can were very lively. About one-third of the fish in the fourth can, however, were partly benumbed with the cold, and lay on their sides when placed in the lagoon. Care was taken to see that they did not become fouled with the water-plants, aud in a few minutes we (Mr. Cox and myself) had the great satisfaction of seeing all the fish come round and swim away. All the above details are given, because it is just these little things which have to be attended to and which make all the difference between success and failure in fish transport. Tais second stage of the first essay at acclimatisation of Australia’s finest indigenous fresh-water game fish formed a particularly severe test. In the first section (those that I took to Bell River at Wellington) there were 6 only in each can, on a cool all-day trip, when there was little alteration in the temperature. In the second section there were ‘about 17 in each can, on an all-night trip, and as many as 33 to ‘35 per can during the 5-mile drive, with a rapidly-falling water temperature. It was decidedly gratifying, therefore, that 193 bass should be taken away and introduced into new waters without the loss of a single fish. 288 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Great care was exercised throughout the whole operations, and no one was allowed to so much as touch a fish with the hands. The mode of keeping the fish while in captivity in the Nepean was also largely responsible for the success. There have not been wanting in the past years many who, whenever the question of the transportation of the Australian bass into western waters was put forward, urged that it would be very difficult, and that at least great loss would be experienced. Such has not been our experience, because common sense methods have been used. Though we will, naturally, not look for big results for some time, there appears to be every reason to consider that the bass will prosper in their new home, notwithstanding the many and diverse enemies which they—as in their present natural habitat—will have to contend with. It is hoped that further consignments will be placed in other portions of the Cudgegong and other Macquarie River feeders, as well as some of the many other suitable western waters at an early date, As in the case of the Bell River, it was considered advisable to close a small portion of the river here to fishing to give the fishes a better chance of surviving. 5.—A SIMPLE DEVICE FOR IMPROVING THE WATER CIRCULATION IN FISH PONDS. By David G. Stead, F.LS., Superiniendent of Fishery Investigation, Ne ew South Wales Siate Fisheries Department. In constructing rearing or retaining ponds for trout or other fresh-water fishes, in which it is intended to keep up a regular running supply of water, it is desirable to so arrange intake and outflow and the shape of sides and bottom as will ensure a perfect water circulation, so that the fullest adv antage may be obtamed from whatever supply is available—more particularly where the supply is limited. There should be no “ pockets” nor underlying bedy of still water, and the shape of the ponds should be such as to do away with all corners. By following this plan, the water entering by the intake will spread out throughout the entire pond, and will leave again carrying with it a great deal of the fine flocentent matter which otherwise would be constantly settling and giving trouble. In very many ponds for trout and other fishes—I am thinking here principally of the former—the arrangement is not as above outlined; but is as follows: —The water enters in a narrow and shallow and perhaps somewhat meagre stream at the surface of the pond, and leaves again still at the surface. That means there is a “skin” or upper layer only of freshly aerated water, flowing over the pond; anda big body of more or less foul, dead water, underlying it. This makes at ; ‘ 2 A : * Ls eo SL PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 289 times one of the best death-traps for the fishes that one could devise. Particles of food and excrementitious matter collect at the bottom (and this will happen to some extent in the best regulated ponds) and there they lie, corrupting the lower stratum of almost unchanged water— a constant menace to the trout. Should a few of the trout die and lie — on the bottom, the defilmg and death-dealing influences are much greater, as there is nothing, perhaps, in ordinary fish-culture, that poisons the water in a pond more quickly than a few dead fishes. In ponds constructed on this plan, a fish has but little chance should it become a little sickly. Should it by any means be unable to keep to the surface it simply has no chance of recovery, as it sinks to the foul water at the bottom, there to be quickly overcome. The simple contrivance to be described (which has been installed in the trout-ponds of the New South Wales Department of Fisheries at Prospect) was designed for the purpose of constantly drawing off the water from the bottom of the pond, so that there never could be any stagnation or saturation of the water with noxious gases arising from the decomposition of the matter on the bottom. The ponds mentioned which are five in number, are of the following dimensions :—Nos. 1 and 2, 30 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 5 feet deep ; No. 3, 40 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 5 feet deep; Nos. 4 and 5, 60 feet long, 24 feet wide, and 7 feet to 24 feet deep (7.e., 7 feet in the centre, tapering to 24 feet at each end). Nos. 1, 2, and 3 were constructed in 1896. They are quite rect- angular, and of equal depth throughout, and are, therefore, not very satisfactory as live-fish holders. The tendency in such ponds is always naturally towards a certain stagnation of the water, which prior to the introduction of the outflow-boxes to be described in the ponds mentioned, ran in at one end quite at the surface, and then drained away through fine brass-gauze screens again at the surface at the opposite end. It will strike an observer at once that these screens of fine gauze, through which the whole water supply had to pass, would very easily clog even with the dust which would blow in at the surface, and such in fact was the case, and constant attention was necessary if the screens were not to be allowed to dam the water up and cause it to flow over the sides of the ponds. In the construction of ponds 4 and 5 in 1901 a much better plan was followed. Here the outline is nearly elliptical, and the bottom gradually shallows towards each end. Still, the ideal has hardly been reached, while, as in other ponds, the water entering at the surface had to filter through the surface screen at the opposite end. Before installing the outflow-boxes, I obtained a great deal of relief from the choking of the screens by putting in leaf screens. These were arranged like three sides of a box, half immersed in the water, so that the latter had to pass under to get to the screens, thus holding 6117. K 290 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Pat: \7 > > oN a, > Mas neve a 2 & LOGS 4 Sat A) SK ‘o* eS2 on Sd SRO SWAY RS ORSON aS o% ; XA Fie. 1.—DIAGgRaM oF OvTFLOW BOX, SHOWING WIRE BASKET-STRAINER AT Bottom. Vig / p as a i) Ss ib - ae Fi : uO NS BS | | ‘ ! f Ba i ‘a NW SE y %& (=) | eS FD et rg rH , > a 3 L ” 292 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. ; back the surface film of leaf-dust, leaves, grass, &c. Such an arrange- ment as this, however, could not get over the difficulty presented by the absence of free circulation of the comparatively deep water of the ponds—particularly the smaller ones. The effect of the outflow-boxes to be now described has been— (1) to keep up as even a circulation as is practically possible under the circumstances, (2) to increase enormously the straining area for the water as it passes from pond to pond, and (3) to reduce screen-clogging to an almost negligible quantity. The outflow-boxes are constructed and arranged as follow :— Out of 1-in. pine timber four-sided sections of fluming are made in the shape of an “F” (see Figure 1). These are made of varying widths to suit the size of the outflow and the quantity of water to be passed off. One of these is placed at the end of each pond, the upper arm of the “fF” projecting into the overflow gutter or channel, and the vertical part being laid against the end wall of the pond (as shown in Figure 2). I consider it is preferable to have the upper part of the “F ” uncovered, so as to facilitate cleaning or asphalting at any time. Owig to the width of the boxes in use at Prospect, I thought it desirable to fasten a stout cleat of wood around at a short distance from each end of the vertical section of the fluming, as shown in the diagram, to prevent “buckling.” On the inner side—that which lies against’ the wall of the pond when the outflow-box is in position—the cleats have the additional use of keeping the whole contrivance just clear of the wall, thus giving the water all round free access to the “straining basket.” On the sides of the projecting arms at the top, are one or two small fillets of wood to facilitate the fixing of the outflow-boxes. In the case of those in use at Prospect, I had these so placed as to enable them to slide down in the grooves already there for the old surface screens, Over the lower end of the fluming is slipped a “ basket ” of (vari- ously) brass or galvanized wire. The latter is arranged to fit the outside of the fluming or “ box” exactly, and is made of mesh suitable to the size of trout in the pond in which it is placed. The only object of the basket, of course, is to prevent the free passage of the trout from pond to pond; consequently, in the case of fry, the mesh need be no smaller than will be just sufficient to keep the fishes from working through. I endeavour to have the mesh as large as possible in each case so as to promote the best circulation possible. Because of the large straining surface that is possible, and the consequent absence of water pressure at the screen, under the conditions offered by the use of the outflow-box it is practicable to use a considerably larger mesh than if the straining screen were at the surface of the water. The basket-shaped strainers in use at Prospect run in mesh from one- sixteenth of an inch-up to half-an-inch. The half-inch mesh is used for the ponds containing larger trout of two, three, or four years. A much greater mesh might be used, of course, but there would be nothing gained by this. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 293 The wire-basket, when attached to the end of the fluming, projects (as shown in the diagram) from 6 inches to 12 inches beyond the end, according to the width. As large a straining surface as practicable is given, so as to avoid any suction against the screen, and so as to give even the youngest fry a chance of swimming quite close to the screen . without their being drawn to its surface. The latter not infrequently happens where the screen is at the surface of the water, particularly where, as a result of partial clogging, the water has banked up a little. On account of the natural buoyancy ofthe wood used in the con- struction of the outflow-boxes it is necessary to weight them slightly so that they may remain in position, otherwise they will have to be wedged in. For this purpose flat galvanized iron straps may be put round the sides, or else the cleats themselves may be of galvanized iron. Some time before being used, the whole contrivance is given two or three coats of patent asphaltum paint, so as to render the wood non-absorbent and readily cleaned. This asphaltum should be renewed from time to time. It is advisable to have a spare one made for each pond, so that one may be taken out now and again, say, to be cleaned and thoroughly dried and re-asphalted. For cleaning while in position, an ordinary tar-brush set obliquely on the end of a long handle will be found of service. I spoke of the great straining surface offered by the use of the wire-basket attached to the lower end of the outflow-box, as compared with the ordinary small surface screen. J need only take No. 1 pond at Prospect as an instance. Under old conditions the straining surface at the outlet was equal to about 15 inches by 1 inch—equal to about °10 of a square foot—always providing the water was running through freely (which through partial temporary clogging would frequently not be the case). With the use of the outflow-box and without increasing the actual width of the outflow, the straining surface is increased to 4°90 square feet ; or 49 times the old straining surface. The advantage is obvious. Though the contrivance above described is so very simple, its effect is so good that I have deemed it worth while to describe it for the benefit of those who are possessed of fish-ponds in which there is an insufficient circulation of water. Added water circulation and oxygenation mean increased stocking capacity of course, and often an insufficient water supply is blamed for what should be laid at the door of imperfect circulation. These outflow-boxes might be made of thin metal. Ifa rectangular pond is being specially constructed and it is desired to incorporate the principle of drawing off the water from the bottom, it would be better to have the outflow-boxes let in to the end of the pond, so that the end might present a “flush ”’ surface. rte ke 294 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 6—A CENSUS OF VICTORIAN EUCALYPTS AND THEIR ECONOMICS. By R. T. Baker, F.LS. . Introduction. . List of Eucalypts, arranged in sequence according to their Phylogenetic, Botanical, and Chemical Characters. . Notes on individual Species. . Timber Trees. Oils— (a) Eucalyptol. (b) Phellandrene. (c) Peppermint. . Species that probably occur in Victoria, but not yet recorded. . Excluded Species. Apo be 1 (1) InrRopvucTION. In view of the fact that a list of Victorian Eucalypts was pub- lished as recently as 1908 in the Recording Census of the Victorian Flora, by Professor A. E. Ewart, D.Sc., and ‘issued by the Department of Agriculture, it might perhaps be thought that a new list is rather premature or scarcely needed. Since, however, working on this important genus for many years. now, it has always seemed strange to me, that Victoria should, in proportion to its size, have such a small number of species credited to it. This fact was especially brought home to me when collaborating on the species some ten years ago, and I then decided to give this subject some attention when opportunity occurred. It seems to me that this is now the fitting time, when the Associa- tion has its meeting in Melbourne, to give my views on the subject, and these I submit in this paper. I do not, however, claim that this list is by any means a complete one of the Hucalypts of Victoria, for I am confident that species yet remain to be recorded and new ones to be described. The principal factor actuating me in bringing foment this list is not a self-satisfaction of adding so many more species to the Vic- torian Flora, but that, in these days of exact sciences, a list as nearly , correct as possible should be available for workers in Eucalyptology, and also to make known that there are far more representatives of the genus in the State than was thought to be the case in the past. It is also of importance in the interests of the State’s scientific commercial enterprise, whether certain Kucalypts, which are in great request for particular products, are to be found in Victoria. Just to give two instances :—The two species which yield the highest class of medicinal oils in Australia have never yet been recorded for Victoria, and yet they both occur in the State. Eucalyptus Smithu and E. polybractea yield the finest pharmacopoeia oils of any Eucalyp- tus, and although originally described from the parent State, yet they nevertheless extend south well over the Murray River. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 295 Turning now to the most recent desideratum of Eucalyptus oils— that terpene constituent—phellandrene, so much in request for mineral separation by the flotation process; Victoria is particularly rich in ‘species yielding this commodity, but so far no definite list of these trees has been given. This hiatus is now bridged over in this paper. _Then again, as regards timbers, Victoria has some very remarkable specimens of Eucalyptus, for species like E. Delegatensis and EH. obliqua, which are just now in request for furniture-making and interior deco- ration of public and private buildings as a rival to the imported Japanese oak, are also Victorian, and thus the State cabinet-timber workers need not fall behind those of the sister States—New South Wales and Tasmania. But these two by no means exhaust the cabinet and commercial timbers of this southern State, a list of which is here given. Such facts as these and others given in the paper, in my opinion justify, if any justification is necessary, the publication of this new Census of Victorian Eucalypts. Bentham, in his Flora Australiensis, 1866, recorded 31 species for Victoria, and Mueller, in his last Census in 1889 gives 37, whilst the Recording Census of Victorian Plants, 1908, makes the number 40. These numbers J find too small, for in this Census, 70 species and 5 varieties, are listed These discrepancies in numbers have, no doubt, been caused by the want of data in the past, but which are now in possession of more recent workers in the field of Eucalyptology. In some instances they may have been due to doubt as to whether certain forms are varieties or species. In the case of Baron von Mueller, he probably had far more ‘correspondents in the other States than in Victoria, for we find that of the species described by him as new, 27 are South Australian and Northern Territory, 25 Western Australian, 23 Queensland, 14 New ™ South Wales, 2 Tasmanian, and only 11 Victorian. Since the publication (1902) of the collaboration (supra), I have ‘been keen on collecting data in this connexion, and the completion of an investigation upon Tasmanian Eucalypts by myself and my col- league, H. G. Smith, has enabled me to make comparisons with the Kucalypts of that island and those of Victoria, New South Wales, and, as a whole, the mainland. ' Naturally, this has been productive of points of observation that otherwise would not occur to one working oni the mainland species alone. For instance, it is noticeable that the most closely allied genus, Ango- phora, has only one representative in Victoria, and the group of Huca- lypts closely allied to these again—the Bloodwoods—has also only one—H. corymbosa. Now, as both these occur just on the political border but yet north of what might be regarded as a natural dividing tange of mountains, they might be regarded as practically absent. 296 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. These two groups of trees are also entirely absent from Tasmania, so that here is a similarity existing between these two floras, and what may be further noted, neither are red-coloured Eucalyptus timbers. found in that island, and following up this clue, we find that Victoria has only a very few such amongst her Eucalypts. In fact, it would appear that Peppermint, Stringybark, and Gum or smooth-barked trees predominate in this quarter of the Continent, and next to these in numerical order, the mallees and boxes, whilst red woods are in a minority ; the pale-coloured averaging about 75 per cent. more. than the red-coloured timbers. And this is to be expected, as the evidence appears to point to the fact that the species which produce phellan- drene oils are the more recent of the genus, and are almost exclusively found on the eastern part of the continent. These are again charac- terized almost without exception by their white or pale-coloured timbers, so that if this phylogenetic theory is correct, it must therefore be naturally expected that red timber should be more pronounced where phellandrene oil yielding species are less prevalent, as in, say, Queensland and Western Australia. This important group of red Hucalyptus timbers is only repre- sented in Victoria by about nine species. Now both these groups—Angophoras and Bloodwood trees— are entirely wanting in Tasmania, which island was at one time undoubtedly connected with the mainland, when the two formed one contiguous. portion of land in the south-east of a continent, and so had a common Eucalyptus flora. From the above remarks, founded on present-day observations, it is seen that a,marked similarity exists between these two floras to this day, even after so long a period of separation. The absence in the south-east corner of Australia of these two groups of trees, might reasonably be attributed to some physical or geologica! agency, at least: that is what my facts appear to prove. If we may look upon the Angophora and Bloodwoods as the oidest of this section of the Australian Myrtaceae, then they should occur on land that has been the longest above sea-level, and that is where they really do occur, and so, regarding Victoria and Tasmania as be- longing to a later period than the Great Divide of the mainland these have not yet fand their way to those parts. In the case of the Angophoras, the Genoa River is their most southern limit, a stream on the northern side of the Dividmg Range between Victoria and New South Wales, and in this corner occurs Victoria’s only Bloodwood. If this theory is correct, then red timbers as representing the older trees, should prevail in the northern portion of the tableland of the Great Divide and in Western Australia, and as far as I have been able to ascer- tain, they do, but it is difficult to get exact data in this latter direction PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 297 {i.e., red timbers), for Mueller does not give the colours of timbers in his Hucalyptographia, and Ednie Browa only lists eighteen Western Eucalypts in his Timbers of Western Australia, and, of these, ten at least are red-coloured. The Bloodwoods, at least in E. corymbosa, extend from Cape York, south to the Genoa River, and the Angophoras in the middle distance of the distribution of the Bloodwoods, the portion first raised above sea-level. As everything seems to point to the Peppermints, Gums, Stringy- barks (Phellandrene yielding species), being the more modern group, then, from these premises, the trees have come fromthe north, which must be-the original home or central evolution point. Thus every- thing points to the north as the original home of the Eucalypts anl the locality from which they radiated. Bailey (Queensland Flora), in stating the colour of timbers, gives red, 17; grey, 14; brown, 6; and in 16 no colour is given. Again, the Bloodwoods and red timbers are pronounced in Northern Australia, North-west Australia, and Western Australia, whilst Euca- lypts are found in the islands of the Malay Archipelago, but not in South America, fossil or living. I think, therefore, that the arboreal evidence is against a land con- nexion through Tasmania to Antarctica, and hence with South America, and this is further supported by the absence of Eucalypts in South America, These features of the Victorian species are scientifically interesting, and in addition to the above observations, some agreement may yet be found to exist between the southern flora and geology ; or perhaps these characters are due to the presence of certain alkali or acid rocks, a theory that is now in course of investigation by R. H. Cambage. At any rate, the association of various coloured timbers with geological periods has not, I believe, been previously studied. In proportion to its size, the Victorian Eucalyptus Flora possesses other interesting features worthy of further study by eucalyptologists, whilst its economics are of a high order, and so in this special group of trees, Victoria has a valuable commercial asset. Bentham, Mueller, and other botanical workers on Victorian Eucalypts, have generally arranged their species on morphological characters alone. In the Census here submitted, a new classification is introduced, viz., one based on a much broader basis than mor- phology alone, being founded on a correlation of features, supported by the cognate sciences, such as—palaeobotany, botany, and chemistry. I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to Professor Ewart, Government Botanist of Victoria, who very kindly permitted me to examine the material in the National Herbarium, Melbourne. T also received much assistance from Mr. P. R.H. St. John, who has devoted much time to the study of Victorian Eucalypts. 298 (2) Vicrorian SpEcIES OF HEUCALYPTS ARRANGED IN PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. SEQUENCE ACCORDING TO THEIR PHYLOGENETIC, BOTANICAL, AND CHEMICAL. CHARACTERS. Eucalyptus corymbosa, Sm. EK 1D) E te bd ed ot Eset tet fd ded hed td ef de ttt tt ies) . botryoides, Sm. . paludosa, R. T. B. . camphora, R. T. B. . Perriniana, R. T. B. et H.G.S. . cinerea, F. v. M. . Stuartiana, F. v. M. . Stuartiana, var. cordata, R. T. B. et H. G. S. Bridgesiana, R. T. B. viminalis, Labill. dealbata, Link . tereticornis, Sm. . rostrata, Schl. . longifolia, Link. et Otto. maculosa, R. T. B. Smithii, R. T. B. . goniocalyx, F. v. M. viminalis, var. pluriflora, J. H. M. . leucoxylon, F. v. M. Majideni, F. v. M. globulus, Labill. globulus, var. $c. Johni, R. T. . sideroxylon, A. Cunn. paniculata, Sm. tubida, H D. et J. H. M. Behriana, F. v. M. gracilis, F. v. M. viridis, R. T. B. dumosa, A. Cunn. oleosa, F. v. M. polybractea, R. T. B. stricta, Sieb. ed td ee ek dd tad ed ed td td dt td ddd . polyanthemos, Schl. . pendula, A. Cunn. . fasciculosa, F. v. M. . corynocalyx, F. v. M. Bosistoana, F. v. M. . odorata, Behr. elaeophora, F. v. M. Woollsiana, R. T. B. albens, Mig. 2 hemiphloia, F. v. M. Fletcheri, R. T. B. melliodora, A. Cunn. santalifolia, Sieb. eugenioides, Sieb. eugenioides, varnana,J. H. M. capitellata, Sm. ‘ Consideniana, J. H, M. macrorbhyncha, F. v. M. Muelleriana, A. W. H. haemastoma, Sm. pilularis, Sm. piperita, Sm. amygdalina, Labill. amygdalina, var. Australiana, R. TB. et BGs vitrea, R. T. B. dives, Schau. radiata, Sieb. regnans, F. v. M. fastigata, H. D. et J. HM. Delegatensis, R. T. B. . Sieberiana, F. v. M. . obliqua, L’ Her. . coriacea, A. Cunn. . stellulata, Sieb. Not classified in the above list, as full material was not procurable— alpina, Lindl. . calycogona, Turcz. . fruticetorum, F. v. M. . Incrassata, Labill. incrassata, var. angustifolia, J. H. M. E. H. K. Kitsoni, Lueh. neglecta, J. H. M. uncinata, Turez. (See Section 6.) i ed hig ee, Eee EAS ee mee ao. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 299 (3) Notes on InpivipuaAt SPECIEs. i Eucalyptus corymbosa, Smith.—This species is recorded for Vic- toria by the Recording Census of Victoria, 1908 (Prof. A. E. Ewart, D.Se.). A specimen in the National Herbarium is from East Gippsland. (Chas. Walker.) _ Eucalyptus botryoides, Smith—This species is found on the lower banks of rivers and sea-coast in the north-east of the State (Bentham, loc. cit., p. 229). A specimen in the National Herbarium is from Orbost. (E. C. Pescott.) Eucalyptus paludosa, R. T. B.—This is the tree recorded by Prof. Ewart in Victorian Naturalist, January, 1911, under the name of EK. Gunnii, var. acervula, from Vereker Range, Wilson’s Promontory. Luehmann.must have noted the botanical differences at least between it and KE. Gunnii, for a specimen named by him for Mr. H. B. Williamson bears the following on the label :—E. Gunnu, J. D. H., var. undulata, Luehmann. October, 1902. Hawkesdale. This is the variety in “ Kucalyptus of Gippsland,” Howitt (Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. II., p. 83, under E. Gunn). Mr. P. R. H. St. John informs me he has found it at Colac and Warrandyte, and numerous other localities. There is a specimen in the National Herbarium collected in Follett, by F. M. Reader. Eucalyptus camphora, R. T. B.—Mr. St. John was the first to record this species for Victoria, the exact locality being Sutherland Creek, and Brisbane Ranges (Vict. Nat., Nov., 1911). This is the dwarf variety of Howitt under E. Gunnu, “‘ Eucalypts of Gippsland,” loc. cit. Eucalyptus Perriniana, R. T. B. et H. G. 8.—This has been found by Dr. Heber Green at Dargo. (Vic. Nat., April, 1913.) Eucalyptus Stuartiana, F. v. M.—This is the “‘apple”’ of Victoria and distinct from the ‘‘ But But ” of Gippsland—E. Bridgesiana. The late Dr. Howitt was eventually convinced that they are distinct. This tree has a stringy bark and red timber, whilst E. Bridgesiana has a box bark and pale-coloured timber. Eucalyptus Stuartiana, var. cordata—Found at or near Cabbage Tree Creek by Moore, A. W. Howitt and P.R.H. St.John. It. is the same tree recorded by Howitt (loc. cit.), and is in the National Her- barium, Melbourne, from Gippsland and Ovens River, as E. pulverulenta. The fruits and foliage alone differentiate it from E. cinerea, and it is altogether different from Sim’s E. pulverulenta (Sim’s Bot. Mag. t. 2087), which so far has only been recorded from three localities in New South Wales. E. cinerea, F. v. M. Toongabbie to Walhalla. Nat. Herb. Eucalyptus Bridgesiana, R. T. B.—This is the “But But” of Gippsland described by Howitt (loc. cit.) in his Eucalypts of that district; but under the name of E. Stuartiana. When, however, he 300 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. became better acquainted with the two, he was emphatic that they were distinct. We corresponded and exchanged specimens on the subject, and he assisted me with full material in my investigation of them, and was quite in accord with me in describing this tree as distinct from the Victorian “‘apple,” which grows near Melbourne at Ringwood, Gem- brook, and Evelyn. It is the “apple” and “ woollybutt”’ of New South Wales. E. viminalis, var. pluriflora, J. H. M—Specimen in National Herbarium from Moorabool River, near Geelong, collected by P. H. R. St. John. Eucalyptus tereticornis, Smith.—The ‘‘ Forest Red Gum” of Vic- toria, and found near Melbourne at Eltham. (P. R. H. St. John.) E. dealbata, A. Cunn.—National Herbarium. Badger Creek, Heales- ville. (C. Walters.) Eucalyptus rostrata, Schlect.—Found principally on the banks of the Murray and its tributaries and most other rivers. It is widely distributed. Eucalyptus longifolia, Link.—This is listed by the Recording Census of Victoria, 1908 (Prof. A. J. Ewart). A specimen in National Herbarium is from Gippsland. (C. French, jun.) Eucalyptus Smith, R. T. B—From Howitt’s description of his variety (c) under EK. viminalis (loc. cit.), I was led to believe that this species would be found in Victoria. His description matches very well the tree, and he was evidently led to place it under E. viminalis on account of the “sucker” leaves, for these are exactly identical in form. There is a true specimen in the National Herbarium, Melbourne, from a Victorian locality. Eucalyptus maculosa, R. T. B.—Recorded by R. H. Cambage from Ballarat, (Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1911), and collected by P. R. H. St. John from Macedon and Woodend. _ Hucaiyptus goniocalyx, F. v. M.—One of the finest forest trees in the gullies of Gippsland, Howitt, and also in the south-east of Victoria, P. R. H. St. John. Eucalyptus leucoxylon, F. v. M., “ White Gum.’’—This is the well- known ‘‘ White Gum” of South Australia and Victoria, and figured by Brown in his Forest Flora of South Australia. Found in the State forests and timber reserves of Bendigo. (J. Semmens). Eucalyptus Maiden, F. v. M.—Occurs at Metung, Nowa Nowa (P. R. H. St. John). — Eucalyptus globulus, Labill—A very widely distributed species in _ the western half of the State. Eucalyptus globulus, var. St. Johni, R. T. B., or sp. nov.—The specimens of this tree received from Mr. St. John were very complete, comprising seedling, adventitious shoots obtained from a branch of tree 8 feet from the ground, the tree almost twenty years old ; leaves : L : a “ 6 « t PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 301 from young tree, 6 feet high, others from tree 12 feet high; leaves and fruits from young tree, 50 feet high. The seedling leaves resemble those of normal E. globulus, whilst those from the young trees are very large, the normal leaves are about similar to those of the type. The fruits, however, are quite distinct from E. globulus. They are sessile, on very short flattened peduncles, about 5 lines long and 5 lines in diameter; calyx smooth, slightly domed, with sharp rim; valves erect, there being quite an absence of the tuberculate feature of HE. globulus. Lerderderg River, Bacchus Marsh District. (Tenta- tively placed as a variety.) Eucalyptus sideroyxlon, A. Cunn., “ Ironbark.’”—Howitt (loc. cit.) gives no description of this tree under EH. leucoxylon, but in the table refers to it as an Ironbark, in which case, if it is such, then this species must stand as Victorian as well as KE. leucoxylon. Further, Mueller (Eucalyptographia, Dec. 1) begins his article on this latter species with the words “ The Ironbark Tree of Victoria,” and later quotes Howitt | in stating that the aborigines called the Ironbark tree of Gippsland “Yerrick.” It really is the Ironbark tree of Victoria. Bendigo. (J. Semmens.) E. paniculata. Mount Taylor, Bairnsdale. (J. W. Audas.) Eucalyptus rubida, H. D. et JI. H. M—I have little doubt that but variety (6) of E. viminalis, Howitt’s “‘ Eucalypts of Gippsland,” is this species, as his description well describes the species, and as in New South Wales, it is gregarious with E. coriacea. He gives localities Dargo (4,500 feet), and Noyang, Gelantipy, and Morwell. It will no doubt be found on the southern spurs of the Mt. Kosciusko range as it is common on the northern slopes. Common in lower Yarra valley. (P. R. H. St. John and R. T. Baker.) Eucalyptus Behriana, F. v. M—A well-marked species and fairly well distributed throughout the State in the Western and Northern Districts and Bacchus Marsh, and Bendigo District. (R. T. Baker.) There are many specimens from different localities in the National Herbarium. Eucalyptus gracilis, F. v. M—This was described in 1884 by Mueller, who synonymized under it E. calcogona, Turez., and E. celastroides. The original descriptions of these two latterare in Latin and without plates, so it is doubtful what species were indicated. Maiden (Crit. Rey. Gen. Euc. pl. 9) has these specimens drawn from type. As a botanical draughtsman, I should hesitate in my judgment to place these three under one species. Until they are better known and investigated, I should advise the retention of the name K. gracilis for Victorian species. Common in the Mallee country. Eucalyptus viridis, R. T. B. (Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., XXV., 316).—This Eucalyptus occurs in the Mallee country. The evidence 302 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. adduced by Mr. J. H. Maiden in Crit. Rev. Gen. Euc., XV., to make this Eucalyptus identical with E. acacioides is insufficient for a definite determination, as the remarks are founded on fragmentary specimens and a meagre description by A. Cunningham of about twelve words, ““'H. acacioides, a shrub about 12 feet high, allied to E. saligna,” and, it might be added, the specimens extant are equally fragmentary. The first description of the tree is that given in the Linn. Soc. Proc. (loc. cit.) (R. T. Baker). Mallee country around Bendigo. R. T. B. Eucalyptus dumosa, A. Cunn.—This, I think, should stand as a Victorian species rather than a variety or synonym of E. incrassata, as proposed by Mueller (Hucalyptographia, Dec. V.) and Maiden (Crit. Rev. Gen. Euc., Vol. I, p. 93). The Victorian specimens coincide with those found in various parts of the interior of New South Wales. Eucalyptus oleosa, F. v. Mi—Common in the Mallee country. Eucalyptus polybractea, R. T. Baker (Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1900, p. 692)—This species is fairly common at Inglewood, and the Mallee country around Bendigo (R. T. Baker), where it is distilled for its high-class medicinal oil. This species since it was described has been synonymized under H. odorata, E. acacioides, E. Woollsiana, E. cajuputea, EH. viridis, E. calycogona, and lastly E. fruticetorum. (Vide Paper, Proc. Roy. Soc., Vic., 1913, on E. polybractea). Eucalyptus stricta, Sieb—Mueller (2nd Census), and Howitt record this as Victorian, the latter author on St. Pancras Peak, about 4,000 feet elevation (loc. cit., p. 93). There appear to be no specimens in the National Herbarium. Eucalyptus viminalis, Labill., ‘‘ Manna Gum.”—A common tree of Gippsland, where it is known as ‘“‘ Manna Gum.” Eucalyptus polyanthemos, Schauer—Found all over Victoria (A. W. Howitt). EH. Baueriana, Schauer, was placed by Mueller (Eucalyp- tographia, Dec. III.) under this species when comparing the specimens, which is probably about the best that could be done with the latter material, for according to Maiden, Crit. Rev. Gen. Euc., Vol. II., p. 120, the original specimen is “in plump bud and expanded flower only ” —a worthless specimen in view of our present knowledge, upon which to retain a species name. EH. polyanthemos is quite a distinct tree from E. Dawsoni, or E. Fletcheri, and is the second variety of Howitt under this species in his “‘Gippsland Eucalypts” (Trans. Roy. Soc. Vic., p. 96.) Eucalyptus pendula, F. v. M.—Occurs mostly on river flats in the western interior. Mildura, Nhill, Birchip (J. P. McLennan). There is a specimen in the National Herbarium from Shire of Dimboola (F. M. Reader). Eucalyptus fasciculosa, F. v. M—This is recorded in the Recording Census of Victorian Flora, 1908 (Prof. A. J. Ewart), but I have no locality to give. However, as it occurs in South Australia, it is in that direction that it must be looked for. a m PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 303 Eucalyptus corynocalyz, F. v. M.—Towards South Australian border. This was Mueller’s original E. cladocalyx, but for some reason known apparently only to himself, he suppressed it under E. coryno- calyx, and botanists in general seem to have respected his wishes by retaining this latter name. Eucalyptus Bosistoana, F. v. M—This Eucalyptus was originally recorded by Howitt from Gippsland (loc. cit.) Victoria appears to be the centre of its geographical distribution, from which it extends north into New South Wales as far north as St. Mary’s, and north-west into South Australia. Eucalyptus odorata, Behr.—The home of this species is generally regarded as South Australia, and as the species is listed in the Recording Census of Victorian Flora, 1908, A. J. Ewart; it most likely occurs in the country towards that State. Eucalyptus elaeophora, F. v. M.—Fairly well distributed throughout the State. E. Woollsiana, R.T. B—Seymour. R.H.Cambage. (Linn. Soc., 1902, p. 198.) Eucalyptus albens, Mig —aAs I regard this species as distinct from E. hemiphloia, I have let the specific name stand here. It is un- doubtedly this tree which Howitt records from Gippsland (loc. cit.) under E. hemiphloia, and not the true HE. hemiphloia, and as it occurs in South Australia and New South Wales, is no doubt well distributed. There are several specimens of it in the National Herbarium from various localities in the State. Eucalyptus hemiphloia, F. v. M.—Found in the north and north- east districts according to A. W. Howitt (loc. cit.), who collected it also from Nhill, Kerang, Benalla, National Herbarium. Eucalyptus Fletcheri, R. T. B.—Howitt (loc. cit.) under HE. poly- anthemos, states of this type, “‘ there are two varieties, which, however, are not sufficiently marked to justify me in separating them, as I have done in other cases. Where it occurs in the littoral districts as, for instance,.at the Lakes Entrance, or river flats at Heyfield or Bruthen, it has full foliage of a rather dark-green colour, and the leaves some- what thin in texture. The tree grows to some size, but in many cases, become so hollow as to form a mere shell.” From the description here given of this variety, I am led to conclude that it is E. Fletcheri that is referred to, and I believe that the species could now be added to the Victorian list of Eucalypts. It is the first variety given by this author under the above name. Maiden, Cr. Rev. Euc., Vol. II., p. 120, places this species under EH. Baueriana, which was founded on an imperfect description, and specimen—‘“in plump bud and an expanded flower ” —surely worthless data upon which to perpetuate a name. It cannot be E. polyanthemos, for that species has a red timber. R. H. Cambage has collected it at Metung. There is a specimen from Genoa River. F. v. M., in the National Herbarium. 304 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Eucalyptus melliodora, Cunn.—A well distributed tree, except in the Mallee country. Eucalyptus santalifolia, F. v. M.—Maiden, in his Crit. Rev. of the Euc., Vol. I, p. 197, places this species under Bonpland’s name of EH. diversifolia, a Eucalyptus stated by Mueller in his Hucalyptographia as founded on immature material, and, if this is so, I think it would be as well to let the above name stand for preference, for there can be no doubt about the identity of this particular tree, whilst there is under the name of E. diversifolia. Eucalyptus eugenioides, Sieber—Comparing New South Wales material with the figures of Howitt in his Gippsland Eucalypts, this species should, be included under the Victorian Eucalypts on his evidence alone. There is also a true specimen in the National Herbarium from the Dandenong Ranges (Boyle). Mr. P. R. H. St. John informs me that it occurs at Ringwood and Croydon. Eucalyptus eugenioides, var. nana, D. et M.—Recorded from Orbost, East Gippsland, by Mr. P. R. H. St. John, Vict. Nat., March, 111, Eucalyptus capitellata, Satake —A fairly widely distributed species, and apparently constant in specific characters, throughout. its geo- graphical range in this and other States. Eucalyptus Consideniana, J. H. M.—Maiden, Crit. Rev. Huc., Part X, identifies Howitt’s variety (d) of E. amygdalina as this species which is the first record of the species for Victoria under its specific name. Recently Dr. Heber Green and Mr. St. John recorded. it from Eltham, 1911 (Roy. Soc., Victoria, 1912). Eucalyptus macrorrhyncha, F. v. M.—Probably the most common “stringybark”’ throughout the State. Eucalyptus Muelleriana, Howitt (Trans. Roy. Soc., Vic., 1890).— At present this species appears to be endemic to Victoria, and Howitt, its author (loc. cit.), gives an extensive range for it. Maiden, in Crit. Rev. Euc., p. 31, places it as a synonym of H. pilularis, or, rather, gives it varietal rank under that species. The bark and timber, how- ever, are sufficiently distinct, as well as the fruits and buds, as to warrant its being given specific rank. Under this species (E. pilularis), he also places (loc. cit.) E. laevopinea and E. dextropinea, which the researches undertaken recently by myself and colleague Mr. H. G. Smith, show to be well removed from each other in our systematic classi- fication. Eucalyptus haemastoma, Smith.—Placed tentatively as Victorian, although listed in the Recording Census of Victoria, 1908 (A. J. Ewart), as I have not seen any specimens of it. However, Mr. J. P. McLennan informs me that he has collected it at Benalla and Tallangatta. In view of the fact that Baron von Mueller included several well-known ee PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 305 Eucalypts under the name, corroboration is required before definitely placing the name of this species as Victorian. The nearest record I can trace to it is from Deal Island, Bass Straits, in Nat. Herbar. Coll. by Field Nat. Club, 1890. Eucalyptus pilularis, Smith.—This species is recorded from Mt. Macedon, C. Walter (Maiden’s Crit. Rev. Euc., p. 58). Mr. P. R. H. St. John informs me he has collected it in Hast Gippsland. Eucalyptus piperita, Smith—The outlines of fruits figured by Howitt in his Gippsland Eucalypts match those of the New South Wales’ species, but the name ‘“‘ White Stringybark” is suggestive that it may be E. eugenioides, for wherever found in New South Wales, the name ‘“‘ Peppermint”’ is generally applied to E. piperita. There is a specimen of each in the same paper of Howitt in the National Her- barium, Melbourne. Eucalyptus amygdalina, Labill—In a paper recently read before the Royal Society of Tasmania, by R. T. Baker and H. G. Smith, it is shown that E. amygdalina, Labill., of Tasmania, upon which the species is founded, is not identical with the tree of the mainland, which has for long been so regarded. A comparison of the fruits alone is sufficient to mark specific difference, and the chemistry of the oils shows also a differentiation. Specimens of both forms are to be found in the National Herbarium from various Victorian localities and Howitt, writing under this species in his Eucalypts of Gippsland (Trans. Roy. Soc. Vic., Vol. II., p. 1), states this is one of the most variable of the Gippsland Eucalypts, and gives six varieties, which are now known to include amongst others, such species as E. regnans, E. dives, H. radiata. His variety (c) appears to me to be this species. Eucalyptus amygdalina, Labill., var. Australiana, R. T. B. et H. G. 8. (Roy. Soc. Tas., 1912) —This is Howitt’s variety (loc. cit.) (a), “‘ The ordinary narrow-leaved variety.” He differentiates the two both in figure and letterpress. Eucalyptus vitrea, R. T. B—Recorded from Eltham, Victoria, by Mr. P. R. H. St.John, Victorian Naturalist, October, 1910. Eucalyptus dives, Schau.—This is the broad-leaved variety (b) of E. amygdalina, of Howitt, in his Gippsland Eucalypts (loc. cit.), but it was first recorded under its true specific name for Victoria by J. H. Maiden (Vict. Nat., XVIII., 124). It has been collected near Ballarat by Mr. R. H. Cambage. Grampians, H. B. Williamson. It appears to be generally distributed throughout the State. Eucalyptus radiata, Sieb—Howitt (loc. cit.) states in connexion with this species, “Compared with samples, for which I am indebted to Dr. Woolls, this appears to be the ‘White Gum’ of New South Wales, E. radiata.” This appears to be one of those eastern forms of vegetation which are not found any further to the westward than Mitchell River. Another description given under var. (e), Howitt (loc. cit.), E. amygdalina, is this species. It is the ““ Wang-ngara ” of ns 306 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. the Gippsland blacks. See Vict. Nat., Vol. 28, No. 4, P. R. H. St.John. There are several specimens of this species in the National Herbarium from Victorian localities. Eucalyptus regnans, F. v. M—This tree was originally described by Mueller (Rep. Acclimatisation Soc., Vict., p. 20, 1870), from Victorian material, and is a good species. It is also found to occur in Tasmania. Gullies around Yarra Junction District. (R. T. B.) EH. fastigata, of Deane and Maiden, is quite a distinct tree from the above, although considered by Maiden to be synonymous with this species (Crit. Rev. Gen. Euc., Vol. L., p. 185). There is a specimen in the National Her- barium from the Dandenong Ranges, but no collector’s name. Eucalyptus delegatensis, R. T. B—From the knowledge now possessed of this species, there can be no doubt that Howitt’s variety (6) of E. Sieberiana (loc. cit.) is this species. The altitudes he gives of its occurrence agree with those from which it is still obtaimed. Mr. P. R. H. St. John records it from Mt. Donnabuang, 45 miles from Melbourne (Vict. Nat., May, 1912). Eucalyptus Sieberiana, F. v. M—The trees known as “ Mountain Ash” or more generally as “‘Silvertop,” in many parts of Gippsland, are this species (see under HE. phlebophylla). Eucalyptus virgata, Sieb—This is mentioned tentatively, although I have little doubt but that it will eventually be found in Victoria. So far it has been recorded from the Blue Mountains, New South Wales, and recently in Tasmania, so that it remains now to be ascer- tained whether some of the trees considered to be K. Sieberiana are really not this species, for it is most feasible that trees exist between the two localities (supra). Great care is required to differentiate the species morphologically ; chemically the differences are most marked. Howitt, in an official report (unpublished), J. H. M. (Crit. Rev. Euc., Vol? I., p. 308), states “the rough-barked Mountain Ash of Gippsland is known also by the names of Gum-top, Silver-top, Bastard Tron-bark.”” In all probability the latter names include E. virgata, for it is called ‘‘ Ironbark ”’ in Tasmania. Eucalyptus obliqua, L’Her.—This is nearly always known as “*Messmate”’ in Victoria and “Stringybark” in Tasmania and New South Wales. Widely distributed. Eucalyptus coriacea, A. Cunn.—This species should stand, as it, no doubt, occurs in the Gippsland and north-eastern ranges towards the New South Wales border, and in all probability E. phlebophylla occurs in the State, as it is often confounded with it. Eucalyptus stellulata, Sieber.—This is probably identical with the original tree of Sieber, although others having an affinity with it have recently been described, viz.:—E. Moorei, by Maiden (Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1905), and EH. Laseroni, by R. T. Baker (Proc. Linn. Soce., N.S.W., 1912). PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 307 Eucalyptus fruticetorum, F. v. M.—Mueller (Frag. II., 58) records this species from the stony deserts of the Murray River and Murchison River, Western Australia. The original specimen is not now extant, Maiden, in Crit. Rev. Gen. Euc., Vol. II., pp.40-41. Maiden (loc. cit.) states it is identical with E. polybractea, R. T. B., but the description (loc. cit.) does not indicate this latter species. Vide also Notes on EH. polybractea (Proc. Roy. Soc., Vict., 1913). Eucalyptus calycogona, Turcz.—From the venation of the leaf, angularity-of the fruits, I should judge this to be a distinct species from E. gracilis, and look forward to a chemical investigation of its products in assisting to trace its true rank. I think, therefore, it should tentatively rank distinct from E. gracilis. Eucalyptus uncinata, Turez.—Occurs in Mallee country generally. Eucalyptus alpina, Lindl.—A species confined to one of the highest points of the Grampians, Mount William, at an elevation of 4,000 feet. This species is of note, for, according to Baron von Mueller, trees in the Melbourne Botanic Gardens grown from seeds planted by himself show no effect of environment, for they are morphologically identical with the parent trees on the snow line. Eucalyptus incrassata, Labill.—Mueller (Eucalyptographia, Dee. V., and Maiden (Crit. Rev. Gen. Euc., p. 93) place E. dumosa under this species, but no chemical examination of this species has so far been undertaken, and specimens seen by me from various parts of Victoria appear to be constant. I advise that it be retained for the present as Victorian. Eucalyptus incrassata,, Labill., var. angustifolia, Maiden.—This variety has, so far, not been chemically examined, but morphologically it gives indications of something more worthy than varietal tank. Eucalyptus neglecta, J. H. M—Livingstone Creek, South Gippsland. J.H.M. There is a specimen in the National Herbarium collected by J. Stirling at Wentworth River. I think this is a form of E. aoe Bs dD Eucalyptus Kitson, Lueh.—Kongwak Plains, near Outtrim, Sale, Foster, and Otway Ranges (Kitson). National Herbarium. (4) TruperR TREEs, In this branch of technology the Victorian Eucalypts must rank high as yielders of good commercial timbers, and some of the finest on the Continent are td be found amongst them. It is, however, more in the direction of pale-coloured timbers that they excel, just as in Tasmania, where in fact they are the only ee for no less 308 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. than seven-eighths of the 60 trees described in this paper are pale coloured. The red timbers are, therefore, comparatively few, and number less than a dozen. As this paper claims to be a Census only, the qualities and textures of the woods are not specifically described, but the following divisions may be useful for a general classification of the timbers :— Harpwoops— Heavy— (a) Red-coloured Timbers.—K. corymbosa, HE. botryoides, E. polyanthema, E. rostrata, E. tereticornis, E. longi~ folia, E. sideroxylon. (b) Pale-coloured Timbers.—H. goniocalyx, E. hemiphloia, E. melliodora, E. Bosistoana, E. albens, E. Fletcheri, HE. Behriana. Mepium.— Pale-coloured.—E. paludosa, E. globulus, E. pilularis, EK. amygdalina, E. Muelleriana, E. eugenioides, HE. capitellata, EH. macrorrhyncha. Ligut.— Pale-coloured.—K. Delegatensis, E. regnans, EK. obliqua, E. piperita. (5) EssentTrIAL OILzs, A full description of these will be found in the Research on the Kucalypts by myself and colleague, Mr. H. G. Smith, but it might be mentioned en passant so as to make this paper complete, for the use of technologists, that the proportion of good commercial oils is equal to that of any other State. As, however, several results are not to be found in that work, further investigations having been undertaken since its publication, a summary is given at the end, showing the main constituents of the oils of all the species. Two of the best for medicinal purposes, that is, of Pharmacopeeia standard, are found here, viz., E. Smithii and E. polybractea, whilst the world-famed species in this direction, H. globulus, is at least fairly plentiful. Since the discovery of the value of Phellandrene oils for mineral sulphide separation, the demand for these oils have considerably increased, and Victoria is in the happy position of being able to materially assist in supplying that want, for some of the best yielding Phellandrene oils are found in this State, for example, E. amygdalina, E. dives, K. radiata, E. Delegatensis, and several of a lesser yield. ee a ee ee PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 309 (2) Evcatyprou.—This constituent is found in a large number of Victorian Eucalypts, but in varying amounts in each species, as shown by the following :— (1) Oils containing over 75 per cent. Eucalyptol :— E. Smithi, R. T. B. K. polybractea, R. T. B. (2) Oils containing over 50 per cent. but less than 75 per cent. :— E. Stuartiana, F. v. M. K. Behriana, F. v. M. E. tereticornis, Smith. E. globulus, Labill. K. Perriniana, R. T. B. et HE. longifolia, Link. EEG. B: K. goniocalyx, F. v. M. E. camphora, R. T. B. K. oleosa, F. v. M. E. pendula, A. Cunn. E. leucoxylon, F. v. M. E. elaeophora, F. v. M. Hi. dumosa, A. Cunn. E. sideroxylon, A. Cunn. (E. pendula), E. stricta, EK. melliodora, Cunn. Sieb. E. polyanthema, Schauer. HK. Bridgesiana, R. T. B. (E. largiflorens, F. v. M.) H. maculosa, R. T. B. (3) Oils containing over 25 per cent. and less than 50 per cent. :— K. amygdalina, var. Aus- _—_ E. albens, Miq. s ATeUANA, ely. DL. . eet EK. viminalis, Labill. H. G. 8, KE. odorata, Behr. EK, macrorrhyncha, F.v.M. _ E. Bosistoana, F. v. M. E. eugenioides, Sieber. (4) Oils containing over 10 per cent. but less than 25 per cent. :— H. amygdalina, Labill. K. santalifolia, Sieb. E. capitellata, Smith. E. fasciculosa, F. v. M. E. piperita, Smith. E. gracilis, F. v. M. E. corynocalyx, F. v. M. E. hemiphloia, F. v. M. E. rostrata, Schlech. K. vitrea, R. T. B. (5) Oils containing less than 10 per cent. Eucalyptol :— . Stellulata, Sieber. . coriacea, Sieber. . phlebophylla, F. v. M. regnans, F. v. M. obliqua, L’Her. . Muelleriana, Howitt. . pilularis, Smith. . haemastoma, Smith. . Sieberiana, F. v. M. . virgata, Sieb. corymbosa, Smith. paludosa, R. T. B. Fletcheri, R. T. B. viridis, R. T. B. radiata, Sieb. dives, Schau. botryoides, Sm. Delegatensis, R. T. B.. . tubida, J. H. M. . Consideniana, J. H. M. tee ed ed ed et od dd PRPS Aaa ee Le ee ee 310 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Tam indebted to my colleague, Mr. H. G. Smith, for the latest yields of Kucalyptol in the respective species. (b) PHELLANDRENE Orts.—H, dives, E. radiata, E. amygdalina, E. amygdalina, var. Australiana, KE. coriacea, E. regnans, HE. obliqua, EH. Delegatensis, E. vitrea, E. Fletcheri, E. Sieberiana, E. haemastoma, E. stellulata. (c) PeppERMINT.—H. dives, E. radiata, E. amygdalina, EH. piperita, E. Sieberiana. (6) SPECIES THAT MOST PROBABLY OCCUR IN VICTORIA BUT NOT YET RECORDED. E. phlebophylla, F. v. M. E. virgata, Sieb. E. Gunnii, Hook, This will yet be found on the Tingirigi Moun- tains, in Victoria. All these species occur in Tasmania and New South Wales, so that it is more than probable that they will eventually be found in Victoria. (7) ExcLuDED SPECIES. The following are given in the Recording Census of Victorian Flora, but are excluded in this Census for reasons given under each species. Eucalyptus paniculata, Smith—This species is listed by the Re- cording Census of Victorian Flora, but I have never seen authenticated specimens from Victoria, and doubt whether it is found in the State. It was this species that was at one time listed for South Australia, but is now found to be H. fasciculosa, and probably the same remarks apply to Victoria. Eucalyptus pulverulenta, Sims.—The Victorian tree, thought to be this tree in the past is KE. Stuartiana, var. cordata, R. T. B. et H.G.S., or B. cinerea, F. v. M. Sim’s tree, figured and described in Bot. Mag., t. 2087, 1819, is only known from three localities, and those in New South Wales, viz., Cox’s River (A. Cunningham); near Bathurst (Cambage); and near Cooma (Cambage). It is a very distinct Eucalyptus, and should not easily be confounded with any other of the genus. AS.” a re rr , AE PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 3lft 7.—AUSTRALASIAN AND SOUTH SEA ISLAND STICTACEA. By Edwin Cheel, Botanical Assistant, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. PART II. This paper is a continuation of the one published in these Reports, Vol. XIII. (1912), p. 254. Thirty-six species and varieties are enumerated, which belong to the Xantho-Pseudocyphellate group of the Stictacee. This group is characterized by the presence of Pseudocyphelle on the under surface of the thallus with soredia of various shades of colour, from citrine or golden yellow, to cream or sometimes dingy-yellow. In several species, the medullary layer of the thallus is also of a bright golden-yellow colour, which, together with the bright-green or blue-green algal associates, give the plants an attractive appearance. The individual specimens are fairly numerous in the various collections examined, owing no doubt to the striking tints of colour attracting the notice of the collectors. ADDITIONAL List oF COLLECTORS AND PLACES IN WHICH THEIR COLLECTIONS ARE DEPOSITED. ALLEN, Miss—National Herbarium, Sydney. ATKINSON, C.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Beckett, T. W. Naytor—Stirton Herbarium. BavEer.teN, W.—National Herbarium, Sydney, and Technical Museum, Bett, R. G.—National Herbarium, Sydney. : Beuu, E.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Berts, Miss.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Bioxam, A. R.—Royal Herbarium, Kew. Boots, Miss.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Boutton, N. P.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Buiter, F.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Brown, Forester.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Don, W. 8.—National Herbarium, Sydney. D’Urvitte.—National Herbarium, Sydney, and in Paris Museum, Fovreaux.—Paris Museum. Frencu, 0.—National Herbarium, Melbourne. GitesPrie, Miss J.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Haast, Dr. JuLius. Hatuiaan, G. H.—National Herbarium, Sydney. HaANNAFORD, S. G.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Heptey, C.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Homsron, M.—Royal Herbarium, Kew. JAMIESON, S.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Kine, Rev. CopELanp.—National Herbarium, Sydney. 312 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Kirtron.—National Herbarium, Melbourne. Littey, Miss.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Lawrence, R. W.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Linpsay, Dr. LavpEer.—Glasgow. Lucas, A. H. 8.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Martow, G.—In Herbarium, Cheel. Marttn, J. D—National Herbarium, Sydney. McCann, Mrs.—National Herbarium, Melbourne. McRagz, Master.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Menzies, ARcHIBALD.—Glasgow. Merrat.—Royal Herbarium, Kew, and National Herbarium, Mel- bourne. Mitne.—Royal Herbarium, Kew. MontTGoMERY. Mue ier, Baron Frerp. von.—National Herbarium, Melbourne, and Leighton Herbarium, Kew. Nicnot, R.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Patten, Rev. J.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Rapa, T. 8.—Royal Herbarium, Kew. Ropway, L.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Surrey, J.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Simson, A.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Tempest, A.—In Herbarium, Cheel. Taytor, D.—National Herbarium, Sydney. TigHE, Miss.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Travers, Sir LockE>—Royal Herbarium, Kew, and in Paris. Wa ter, B.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Watrter, C.—National Herbarium, Sydney. Wess.—National Herbarium, Sydney. BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following is an additional list of works consulted, not given in the previous paper (these Reports, Vol. XIIT. (1912), p. 257). 34. Linpsay, Dr. Lauprr.—“ Observations on New Zealand Lichens,” —Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xxv., pp. 493-560 (1866). [Plates ]x.—Ixiii.] 35. NytanpER, W.—“‘ Lichenes Nove Zelandiz ”’ (1888). 36. Srirton, J.—‘“‘ Additions to the Lichen Flora of Queensland (Com- municated by J. E. Tenison Woods).’ ’—Proc. Roy. Soc., Vic- toria, vol. xvil., pp. 66—78 (1880). 37, Stirton, J.“ On new Australian and New Zealand Lichens,”— Trans. and Proc. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxx., pp. 382-393 (1897). 38. Stirton, J.—Ibid, vol. xxxii., pp. 70-82 (1899). 39. Cromprs, Rev. J. M.—In Seeman’s “ Flora Vitiensis ” Lichens, on pp. 419-421 (1865). PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 313 40. Mutter, Dr. Jean.—“ Lichenes Knightiani, in Nova Zelandia lecti additis nonnulis allis ejusdem regionis quos exponit.”—Compte rendu Societe royale de botanique de Belgique, tome xxxi. (1892), pp. 22-42. - 41, Laurer, in “ Linnea ” (1827). 42. KREMPELHUBER, Dr. A. von.—‘‘Lichenes bearbeitet, Reise der oesterreichischen Fregatte Novara (Botanik) um die Erde in den Jahren (1857-1859), Thiel i., pp. 107-129. 43. KREMPELHUBER, Dr. A. von.—“ Ein neuer Beitrag zur Flechten- Flora Australians.” —Verhandlungen der k.k. zoologisch-botanis- chen Gesellschaft, Wien Jahrgang 1880, xxx., li., pp. 329-342. 44, Mutter, Dr. Jean.—(Argoviensis).—‘“‘ Revisio Lichenum Aus- traliensium Krempelhuberi.”—Flora (1887), Bd. lxx., No. 8, pp. 113-118. 45. Mutumr, Dr. Jean.—(Argoviensis).—‘“‘ Analecta Australiensia.”— Bulletin de l’Herbier Boissier, tome iv., pp. 87-96 (1896). 46. ZAHLBRUCKNER, Dr. A. von.—In Rechinger’s Bot.-und zool. Ergebnisse wissenschaft Forch-Denkschrift mathemat. Klasse. kais. Akad. Wiss. Wien lxxxviii., pp. 12-31 (1911). (See Bot. Centralb., No. 29 (1912), p. 76.) SysTEMATIC, Genus—Stricra (Schreb.), Hue. Section II—Pseudocyphellate. Under surface of the thallus more or less sprinkled with erumpent spots (pseudocyphelle), which are filled with powdery granules or soredia. Sub-section I.—Eusticta. Gonidial layer of the thallus consisting of bright chlorophyll-green or yellowish-green Pallmellacese, or sometimes Protococcoidese gonidia. Group A.—Xantho-pseudocyphellate, Stizbgr. Pseudocyphelle filled with citrine or pale-yellowish coloured soredia. S. onyemaka, Ach. Tasmania: (Gunn), Southport (Stuart), Mount Arthur and Blue Tier (Simpson), Mount Wellington (Lucas), Waratah (Atkinson), Tasman Peninsula (Weymouth). New Zealand : (Filhol), (Travers), (Milne), (Colenso, Nos. 1724, 1749, 1753, 1765, 1769, 1782, 1813, 6559), (Cunningham), (Hannaford), (Bell). The above are without specific locality. In addition there are a number localized as follow :—Kaipara Forest (Moss- man), Nelson (Bidwill, No. 122) (Travers), Milford Sound (Lind- say), Invercargill (Foveaux), Canterbury (Sinclair & Haast), Greymouth (Helms, No. 117), Wellington (Knight), (Ralph), 314 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Hokitika (Bloxam, No. 401), North Island (Jolliffe), Arateatea Rapids, Wairakei (Gardner), South Dunedin (Jamieson), Ohakune (Cheel), Ruani (Bell), Pokeno (Flockton), Lord Aucklands Group of Islands (Hooker, Nos. 1568 & 1570), Campbell Islands (Filhol), Tawai Island (Grey). It is recorded for Victoria by F. von Mueller, but I have seen no specimen. It is interesting to note that nearly all the specimens in the Royal Herbarium, Kew, leave a rich violet-coloured stain on the paper. S. coronata, Mull-Arg. (13, No. 99), seems to me only a form of this species with the apothecia rather more crenulated. S. CoLensor, Bab. (2, p. 274). New South Wales: Guy Fawkes (Boorman). Victoria : Mount Ellery (Merratt). Tasmania: (Gunn), Blue Tier (Weymouth), Waratah (Rodway). New Zealand: (Stephenson) (Raoul) (Haast, No. 203) (Martin, No. 121) (Colenso, No. 1768) (Schmidt) (Knight), Awatere Valley (Sinclair), Nelson Mountains (Travers), Otago (Hector), East Tairl Bush (Lindsay), Arateatea Rapids (Gardner), Ohakune (Cheel), Ruani (Bell), Pokeno (Flockton), Wellington (Bulmer), Foot of Mt. Cook (Taylor). This species is variously labelled in herbaria under the names S. Urvillei var. Colensoi, 8. flavicans var. Colensoi. S. CoLENSOI VAR. PINNATIFIDA, Bab. (2, p. 274). Tasmania : (Gunn). New Zealand: (Stephenson) (Raoul) (Lyall), Arateatea Rapids (Gardner). S. ENDocHRYSEA, Del., vAR. FLAVICANS, Mull-Arg. (13, No. 1300). New South Wales: Mount Kembla (Hamilton), Stanwell Park (Cheel), (Otford, Cheel, & Boorman), Waterfall (Wilson and Cheel), Bulli Pass (Bolton), Belmore Falls (Cheel), Kingwell, near Wyong (Watts), Dorrigo (Boorman), East Ballina (Watts), Pimlico Island, Richmond River (Watts, Nos. 42, 67, and 81), Richmond River (Wilson, No. 1851), Lismore (Betts). Watts’ specimens are recorded (27, p. 498) under the name 8. Colensoi. Queensland: Mount Mistake (Bailey), Southport (Wilson). It is also recorded by Shirley (20, p. 61) for Mount Mistake. Norfolk Island: (Metcalfe). Lord Howe Island: (Johnstone), (King), and from Saddleback (Watts). Tasmania: A small scrap only was found on S. subcoriacea, collected by Dr. Butler. New Zealand: (Hooker) (Stephenson, No. 51) (Knight) (Colenso, Nos. 1537 and 1746), Arateatea Rapids (Gardner), Wade (Wil- son), Maraitai (Tempest), Rangitoto (Tempest), Ohakune (Cheel), Pokeno (Flockton), Ruani (Bell), Wellington (Bulmer), Water Luth, Dunedin (Jamieson). PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 315 8. ruBeLLA, Hook. et Tayl. (25, p. 649). Victoria : Warburton (Wilson, No. 240), Ferntree Gully (Cheel). Tasmania: Chestnut (Archer), St. Patrick’s River (Hooker and Gunn, No. 9), Mount Wellington, St. Mary’s Pass, and St. Crispis Well (Wilson), Blue Tier (Simpson), Ferntree Bower, Mt. Wellington (Cheel). New Zealand: Canterbury (Sinclair and Haast), Ohakune (Cheel). It is also recorded from Dunedin (Lindsay), and Greymouth - (Helms), wide Nylander (35°35). S. pocutrrerA, Mull-Arg. (13, No. 405). Lord Howe Island: Mount Gower (Camara) (Johnstone) (Watts). Parmosticta rubrina, Strtn. (36°70), and S. purpurascens, Strtn. (38°71), seems from the description to belong to this species, but as I have not seen Stirton’s specimens I cannot say definitely. S. aurata, Ach. (1, p. 227). New South Wales: Illawarra (Kirton), Colo Vale (Cheel), Hastings River (Brown), Raymond Terrace (Campbell), Big Scrub, Rich- mond River (Wilson, No. 441), Currawang Creek (Bauerlen, No. 2214), Condamine River (Mueller). Victoria: Lake Wat Wat, Metung, Warrnambool, and Orbost (Wilson), McCrae’s Island (Mueller, No. 91, in Herb., Kew). Queensland: Emu Vale, Southport, Killarney, and Woolstone (Wilson), Toowoomba (Hartmann), Allumbah (Waller). Most of the Queensland specimens are so fragmentary that it is difficult to say whether they belong to the type form or the var. microphylia. Tasmania : Mount Wellington (Wilson). A very small scrap. Der- went River (Brown, No. 540c). r Norfolk Island: (Thompson) (Maiden and Boorman). In the Royal Herb., Kew, there are also specimens collected by Milne, in 1855, during the voyage of H.M.S. Herald. See also Lindsay (34 °504). New Zealand: (Cunningham, No. 71) (Knight) (Colenso, No. 6242) (Sinclair) (Hooker), Kaipara Forest (Mossman, No. 7948), Marai- tai, near Auckland (Tempest), Domain, Auckland (Cheel). Also recorded from New Caledonia, Sandwich Islands, and Tahiti. S. AURATA, VAR. MICROPHYLLA, Mull-Arg, (13, No. 404). New South Wales: New England (Brown), Lismore (Betts), Dal- morton (Boorman), George’s Creek, Macleay River (Boorman), Otford (Boorman and Cheel), Stanwell Park (Cheel). Victoria: Lakes Entrance, Gippsland (Wilson, No. 441, partly), Lake Wat Wat, Orbost (Wilson), No. 1220. Queensland: Toowoomba (Hartmann), Mount Mistake (Bailey). 316 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 8. auRATA, VAR. ANGUSTATA, Krplh., (?) cf. 8. angustata, Del. (6, p. 52), Wilson’s Peak, Macpherson Range (Maiden). Queensland : (Bailey, in Wilson Herb., No. 1220). Norfolk Island: (Metcalfe). Viti: (See Crombie, 39-420), which may also belong to this. Crombie says: not typical aurata, but a form allied to the var. pallentum. (Nyl. Syn., p. 361). S. popocarpa, Mull-Arg. (13, No. 1621). New South Wales: Bellinger River (Moore), New England (Moore), Guy Fawkes (Staer), Coolpi Mountain, near Hllenboro River (Boorman), Dorrigo (Boorman). Group B.—Pseudocyphelle with pale-yellow or cream-coloured soredia. S. puBEscEens, Mull-Arg. (39, 28). New Zealand: (Colenso, No. 1672), (Knight). S. FovEouata, Del. Tasmania : (Hooker and Gunn, Nos. 1750, 15, and 1747, pr. p.), Gould’s Country (Simson), Hast Mount Field (Maiden), Hartz Mountains (Lucas). S. Frorow1ana, Laur. New Zealand: (Hooker) (Patten) (Gillespie), Arateatea Rapids, Wairakei (Gardner), Waiwera (Flockton). 8. ceLLULIFERA, Hook. et Tayl. (25, 647). New Zealand: (Forster) (Lyall) (Travers), Greymouth (Helms), Nelson (Bidwill, No. 112), Foot of Mount Cook (Taylor), Dunedin (McRae), Hutt Valley, Wellington (Marlow), Ohakune (Cheel). Campbell and Auckland Group of Islands (Hooker, No. 31). S. CELLULIFERA, FORMA LACINULATA (Stizbegr.) ‘Victoria : Warragut (Campbell), Black Spur (Wilson). Tasmania: Mount Wellington (Wilson, No. 86), Mount Faulkner (Bastow), Geevestone (Lucas). 8. Brzuarprera, Del. (6°99). New South Wales : Snowy River, head of the Bellinger, New England, (Moore). This specimen is in the National Herbarium, Sydney, labelled 8. impressa, from determinations received from Dr. A. Zahlbruckner, but the specimen is identical with those in the Royal Herb., Kew, labelled S. Billardiera. Victoria: Dandenong Ranges (Mueller, labelled S. foveolata) and Apollo Bay (Mueller, labelled 8. fossulata) in Rev. Leighton’s Herb. in Kew, England), Devil’s Gully, Warburton, Cobden, and Black Spur (Wilson, Nos. 86 pr. p. and 440), Mount Erica (French), Ferntree Gully (Cheel), Mount Ellery, Gippsland (Walter, labelled 8. fossulata in Herb., Melbourne), and Aire River, near Cape Otway (Walter). There are also specimens _ from Mount Ellery in the Royal Herbarium, Kew, and the as ee PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 317 National Herbarium, Melbourne, collected by Merratt; these are labelled S. Billardiera, from determinations made by Dr. Jean Muller. A specimen in Herbarium, Melbourne, labelled Parmelia Billardiera, from Gippsland collected by Webb, also belongs to this species. Tasmania: Mount Wellington (Hooker), Asbestos Hills (Gunn No. 53), Chestnut (Archer), Russell Falls (Cheel), Geeveston_ (Blackshaw). New Zealand: (Lyall) (Colenso, Nos. 1574, 1721, 1722, 1725, 1761, and 1757) (Cunningham) (Bell), Canterbury (Sinclair and Haast), Ohakune (Cheel), Waiwera (Flockton). This is a very variable species and difficult to determine correctly. Some of the forms are very narrow and are recorded under the name 8. linearis, Hook. & Tayl., and 8. foveolata var. angusti- folia, Krplhbr. (41, p. 119), while others are broad and are labelled var. latifolia, Krplhbr. (41, p. 119), S. foveolata var. Billardiera, Bab. (278), and probably 8. impressa, Hook. et Tayl., and of other authors seem to belong to this species. S. ELATIOR, Stirt. (38, p. 73) and S. lorifera, Stirt. (38, p. 71), both from New Zealand appear from the description to be closely allied to the above, but as I have not seen specimens, it is not possible to express a definite opinion. S. carpotoma, Del. (6, p. 159). New Zealand: North Island (Sinclair), Astrolabe Harbor (vide Nylander), Middle Island (D’Urville), Auckland Domain (Cheel), Waiwera, Pokeno, and Parnell (Flockton). Some broad forms appear to be a connecting link with S. glaucolurida. S. eLaucoturipa, Nyl. (35, p. 36). New Zealand : (Travers) (Knight). A small specimen in Wilson Herbarium labelled 8. glaucolurida is discoloured, and seems to me to belong to S. carnolgea rather than this species. S. EXPANSA, Stirt. (38, p. 72). T have not seen specimens of this species, but from the description it seems to be closely allied to this or may be the broad form of S. carpoloma. S. auaucescens, Krplh. (43, p. 334). Lord Howe Island: Mount Gower, Mount Lidgebird, and Saddle- back (King, Hedley, Dunn, Johnstone, Watts, and Tighe). t is also recorded for Queensland, but I have not seen any : specimens. = 8. Beier Krplhbr. (43, p. 335), from Richmond River (Hodge- inson) I have not seen specimens, but according to Dr. Jean Muller (44, p. 115), it is identical with S. glaucescens. 318 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. S. @RANULATA, Bab. (2, p. 281). New Zealand: (Colenso, No. 1773) (Lyall) and (Knight), Greenland Bush, near Otago (Lindsay), Auckland (Sinclair), Greymouth (Helms), Arateatea Rapids (Gardner), Ohakune (Cheel), Pokeno, Ruani, and Waiwera (Flockton), foot of Mount Cook (Taylor). Tasmania: (Hooker, and Gunn, No. 6), Chestnut (Archer). New South Wales: Mount Wilson (Gregson and Watts), and from Castlereagh River (Moore). There are specimens in the British Museum, from Magellan Straits, and also from Sandy Point Straits, Magellan, collected by Lechler, No. 985, during the Hassler Expedition. Sub-section II.—Stictina. Gonidial layer of the thallus consisting of blue-green Nostocoid gonidia. S. Moorgana, A. Zahlbr. (31, p. 192). Lord Howe Island: Summit of Mount Gower (Moore, Watts, and Tighe). S. Moverotiana, Del. (6, p. 62). Victoria: Warburton (Wilson, No. 245, labelled §S. Victoriana), Erskine River, Lorne (Wilson, No. 437 partly). New Zealand: (Colenso, No. 1545). S. MoueEorTiaNa var. XANTHOLOMA, Del. (6, p. 63). New South Wales: Richmond River (Wilson, No. 1852), Mount Wilson (Gregson and Watts), Picton (Boulton), Peakhurst and Eden (Cheel). Victoria : Mount Macedon (Wilson, No. 237 partly), Devil’s Gully, Cobden (Wilson, No. 245 partly), Curdie’s Creek, Tandarook (Wilson). New Zealand: foot of Mount Cook (Taylor), Lyttleton (Nichol), Rangitota (Tempest). Papua: (King). Norfolk Island: (Maiden and Boorman). It is also recorded for Samoa, New Caledonia, Java, and Africa. See Nylander, Hue, and Reinecke for these latter records. S. Movecrorrana VAR. DISssECcTA, Miill.-Arg. (40. 27). New South Wales: Richmond River (Wilson, No. 1852, partly), Jarvisfield, Picton (Boorman). Queensland: Blackall Ranges (Wilson), Canungra (Boorman). Tasmania: (Gunn). New Zealand : (Knight). S. MoucEoTIaNa VAR. Istp1osA, Mull.-Arg. (45, p. 89). Victoria : Warburton, Metung, Cunningham, Lake Wat Wat, Orbost, Lake Tyers, Lakes Entrance (Wilson, No. 1202). OE a a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 319 Queensland: Southport, Emu Vale (Wilson) and (Bailey, No. 739), (Knight) (Shirley, 1199), the latter without specific locality Some of Wilson’s specimens are labelled 8. granulata, while others are labelled 8. gilva var. isidiosa. S. MoucEoriaNA VAR, AURIGERA, Hue. (9). New South Wales: Jenolan Caves (Wilson and Gregson), Canoblas, near Bathurst (Johnstone and Boorman), Delegate (Forsyth), Tinberry Mountain, Michelago (Boorman), Coonabarabran (Boor- man), Berrima (Boorman), Orange (Mackenzie), Goodra Digba (Boulton), Burrenjuck (Boorman), Kiandra (Forsyth), Moon- bar (Helms). Also a small specimen in National Herbarium, Melbourne, from N.S.W., without specific locality, collected by Leichhardt. Victoria: Orbost and Mount Abrupt (Wilson, No. 247), Mount Macedon (Martin), Mount Arapiles (Reader), Drouin, Gippsland (Campbell), Mount William (Sullivan, No. 31), and Curdie’s Creek, Tandarook (Wilson), Werribee Gorge, near Myrniong (Hamilton). Queensland : Alumbah (Waller), Hill End and Emu Vale (Wilson). Tasmania: (Lilley), Gould’s Country (Lawrence), Chestnut (Archer), Mount Dromedary (Bastow), Cataract, Launceston (Wilson). New Zealand: (Knight), Rangitota (Tempest). This is one of the commonest of our Stictas, and seems to me only a microphylline form of 8. crocata, but I have placed it been this species for the present. Also recorded for New Caledonia, Africa, and Asia, Stizenberger (19, p. 131). S. orocara, Ach. (1). New South Wales: Fairy Bower, Mount Victoria (Hamilton), Jenolan Caves (Wilson), Nattai River vid Hill Top (Cheel), Berrima (Boorman), Exeter (Betts), Mount Wilson (Gregson and Watts), Cooyall (Hamilton), Tantawanglo Mountains (Montgomery), Mount Duval (Watts), Tia Falls (Cheel), Coonabarabran (Boor- man), Kiandra (Forsyth). Victoria : Mount Macedon (Wilson, No. 237, partly), Mount Ellery, Gippsland (French, Murray, and Webb, 138—the latter det. by Dr. Jean Muller). Tasmania: (Brown, No. 5404) (Gunn), Craig Creek, Knocklofty (Bastow), Deep Creek, Mount Wellington (Weymouth), Waratah, (Atkinson), and Mount Dromedary (Bastow). New Zealand: (Knight), Rangitota (Tempest), Po Parnell (Flockton). 320 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Recorded from South Australia, Western Australia, and Queensland, but I have seen no specimens from these States. Also recorded from Tahiti and Sandwich Islands, but the latter is probably 8S. crocata forma sandiwicensis, A. Zahlbruckner (46). Sera S. cRocaTA F. ESoREDIOSA, Mull.-Arg. (13, No. 703). Victoria : Loutit Bay (Luehman), Beaconsfield (Wilson, No. 236), Mount William, Ararat, Lorne, Kilmore, and Mount Macedon (Wilson, No. 1196). Tasmania : (Gunn). Queensland: (Hartmann). New Zealand: Ohakune (Cheel). This species was originally recorded under the name esoredosa, but was afterwards spelt esorediata, and has been copied i. several works under the latter name. S. gilva, Wils. (non Ach.), and S. crocata var. sorediata, J . Muell., of Shirley (21, p. 53), probably also belong to this. S. LURIDO-VIOLACEA, Stirt. (38, p. 73). A specimen of this is in the National Herbarium, Melbourne, from Snowy Creek, Ovens River, collected by Mrs. McCann, which seems to me very similar to, if not identical with, 8. Mougeo- tiana. S. ertva (Thunb.), Nyl. (17, 315). Western Australia : (Muir, No. 5). New South Wales: Sugar Loaf Mountain, Monga, near Braidwood (Boorman). S. uvpressa, Hook. & Tayl. (25, p. 648) Syn.—S. physciospora, Nyl. (17, p. 364). Campbell Islands (Filhol). New Zealand : (Hooker, D’Urville, and Knight), Greymouth (Helms), Ohakune (Cheel). This is very similar to S. neglecta, Miill.- Arg. S. neauecta, Miill.-Arg. (13, No. 1071) .Syn.—S. carpoloma, Krplhb. (not Del.). New South Wales: Richmond River (Hodgekinson), Guy Fawkes (Boorman), Stanwell Park (Cheel), Otford (Cheel and Boorman). Victoria : Daylesford (Mueller). This much resembles 8. physciospora, and may not be specifically distinct if critically examined. 8. astictrna, Nyl. (35, p. 30) New Zealand: Greymouth (Helms). The specimen in the Royal Herbarium, Kew, resembles a broad form of 8S. carpoloma. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 321 8—THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON THE SENSITIVITY OF PLANTS TO POISONS. By Prof. A. J. Ewart, Ph.D., D.Sc. 9.—RATIONAL AND NATURAL SELECTION. By Prof. G. C. Henderson. 10.—_PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE MALE SPORANGIUM IN CERTAIN CYCADS. By Edith M. Kershaw, M.Sc. (Manchester), (Mrs. T. G. B. Osborn). i1—SOME REMARKS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPOROPHORE IN AGARICINEAE. By Prof. T. GB. Osborn, M.Sc. (Manchester). 12.—AUTOPARASITISM OF CASSYTHA MELANTHA R.Br. By A. D. Hardy, F.L.S., State Forests Department, Melbourne. (PLATE Ix.) In the following notes it is proposed to show, among other things that the plant Cassytha melantha R.Br.' is sometimes parasitic upon itseli—not as one individual upon another, nor under the conditions referred to by Goebel? and others, as seen in the development of the seed, but in the sense of one part of a plant attacking and drawing nourishment from another portion of itself in an irregular—not to say abnormal—way. The genus Cassytha includes eleven species, nearly all endemic Australian plants. The genus has foliar organs poorly developed or absent, and except in flower and fruit structure (whence comes its technical association with the Laurels) it most nearly resembles the better known genus Cuscuta of the family Convolvulacez. Two native species of Cassytha command attention in the field, but in different localities. These are the robust C. melantha attached to large shrubs and small trees, and the smaller, slender Cuscuta-like C. glabella which favours the lowly shrubbery of the Sandringham flora , 6117. L 322 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Of the former, and in the valley of the Yarra, near Melbourne, I have noted the following hosts :—Acacia pycnantha A. mollissima, A. implexa, Eucalyptus leucoxylon, E. rostrata, E. viminalis, Hymenan-- thera Banksii, Bursaria spinosa, Myoporum viscosum, Kunzea. peduncularis, Exocarpus cupressiformis, E. spartea, Pomaderris apetala, Rubus parvi folius, &c.; also the introduced, acclimatised and now proscribed Gorse (Ulex Europaea) through which the parasite finds its way occasionally to such herbaceous dicotyledons as Rhagodia nutans. Unlike Cuscuta, which is known to show a predilection for a particular host or few hosts for nourishment, Cassytha is omnivorous.. In the grasp of one tangle of C. melantha I noted, among others, the following hosts linked together :—Acacia pycnantha, A. implexa,. Bursaria spinosa, Pomaderris apetala, and Eucalyptus rostrata ; and, as is the case with all such parasites, the morphological character of the species did not vary in the least degree with the change of host. The plant, excepting leaves and extreme ends of growing shoot, is dark green, with abundant chlorophyll, and with stomata, in vertical uniseriate rows, transversely set and abutting one on another. Large areas of oil-yielding Eucalyptus forest are infested with this. Cassytha, e.g., the district to the north of Bendigo, where, in places, the original vegetation—comprising chiefly Eucalyptus fruticetorum and K. viridis—is hardly visible, an intricate entanglement of vegetable wirework being all that is presented to the casual view, which reminds us that parasites generally spread more rapidly through a forest of one or kindred species than where the forest is a mixed one. In the Mallee, especially in the neighbourhood of the Pink Lakes to the north- west of Ouyen, may be seen single trees or groups of trees completely covered. In the relation of Cassytha melantha to its host the favourite method of progress on a straight branch of about 0°75 cm. diameter is to make about five spiral turns, during which 25 or more haustoria may be produced; next to avoid close contact with the host for a distance of about 15 cm.; then to take another spiral hold of about five turns, and so on until it has outgrown the host or has come in contact with a fresh twig or host plant. Pfeffer’s illustration® of Cuscuta shows a similar rhythmical alternation. Professor Hwart’s example* of Cuscuta Epithymum shows an irregular disposition and a feversed spiral. This reversal of spiral coiling I have not noticed in Cassytha, nor have I detected in Cassytha melantha the occurrence recorded for Cuscuta by Sachs,® of spirals usually araduated from coils very steep below, through oblique to almost horizontal coils above, due to elongation of the supporting PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. aos stem and growth of the twiner itself. A close spiral may be produced by the combination of several Cassytha branches twining side by side, in which case I have never seen any overlap, or production of haustoria laterally after contact and pressure due to mutual growth. It is a common occurrence with Cassytha to twine in horizontal and in any other direction. When the host axis is exhausted, the parasite may ‘grow approximately straight for lengths of over a metre, producing branches meanwhile. Finally, these horizontal branches, geotropically affected, droop to the ground from a low host, or remain pendant from taller shrubs, and may, after sprawling on the earth or hanging for a time, wither, or double back to the host. In some cases the stem or - branch axis of the host is not accessible, and then, as in the case of Ulex europaea, there is produced a rude spiral of irregular diameter and direction as the haustoria penetrate—now here, now there—a phylloclade or exposed patch of stem; but the general direction of the oblique spiral is reverted to after small deviations. When the twiner has effected a normal spiral attachment, it loses sensitiveness to contact of the host for a time, but after a growth of at most 20 cm., the response to contact becomes so great that the end, circeumnutating or not, readily twines round any object of small diameter up to about *8 cm., whether it be live or dead, or even metal, such as fencing wire. Frequently, when a Cassytha branch has outgrown the host twig and failed to find another ora new host plant by circumnutation, it turns back upon itself, and although, as previously stated, it was not affected by lateral or other contact with itself while the host was available, the shoot responds now readily enough to stimulus afforded by contact with itself at a point that may be only a few centimetres farther back. There it at once twines, produces haustoria, and absorbs its own nutriment. That the haustoria thus produced create a physiological connexion was made evident in both laboratory and field. Vertical sections of haustoria showed that the cortical tissue of the older part had been penetrated by the conducting tissue of the haustoria which had made contact with similar tissue of the older portion of the stem. (2) Branches were cut above and below the spiral, and the lower end (of the axis only), immersed in water coloured with eosin red, which stain in due course appeared at the end of the spiral, necessarily by way of the haustoria. (3) Inthe field, by cutting through a terminal loop, the returned branch end was turned into a separate graft on the living axis. In many cases the graft died owing to too great transpiration, coupled with insufficient penetration of the suckers, and perhaps to shock. Other cases lingered for days and slowly wilted, but a few survived, and continued to grow. For this retrograde movement, by which at first sight there appears to be set up something kindred to the “vicious circle’’ known to zoopathologists, there is good and sufficient reason. With the twig or axis of the host outgrown and no fresh food material available, the nutating I, 2 324 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. or horizontally spreading branch of the parasite would die, and, so any means by which the growing point can turn and retrace its steps, as it were, to the old pasture, is a distinct advantage in the struggle to survive. The branch, while nutating, and finding no foreign body, then increases the angle of divergence from the axis of nutation and continues to increase it until it exceeds 90 degrees, when the branch comes into contact with itself. The loop thus formed is necessarily a small one, of a few centimetres only. There it takes hold and twines along itself in a direction opposite to that of its earlier growth, as a means to an end, and so retains an area of food supply probably not exhausted, but, in any case, by this device, to strike out and seek a fresh branch or twig of the host, and, perhaps, eventually an entirely new host in an hitherto unexplored direction. In this phenomenon we have, resulting from the trial and error method, something indi- cative of memory in the plasma of the parasite. It is of such frequent occurrence as to be more than mere accident, and, further, this evidence of a plant having recourse to an abnormal habit, in order to regain union with a host, seems to be a powerful addition to facts already in favour of the theory that the hausteria themselves are “ new forma- tions” produced for a special purpose. Rererences To Lirerature Norep in TExv. 1. Brown, R. Prodr. Flor. Nov. Holl.; I. ; 1810; p. 404. 2. Goebel, K. ‘“‘ Organography of Plants.” 3. Pfeffer, W. “ Physiology of Plants’ ‘(Trans. Hwart), 1900-6. 4. Ewart, A. J. (and Tovey, J.). “‘ Weeds, Poison Plants, and Nat. Aliens of Victoria, 1909.” 5. Sachs, J. Lectures on the Physiology of Plants (Trans. Ward), 1897. , Norr.—-The identification of the species Cassytha melantha, Eucalyptus fruticetorum, and H. viridis R.T.B., have been confirmed on reference to the National Herbarium, Melbourne. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX. Fic. 1. Heterodendron oleifolium, destroyed and hidden by Cassytha melantha, which is extending to a new host of the same species (in the background). Loc. North-West Victoria (‘‘ Mallee’’). (Photo. D. Crosbie.) Fig. 2. Cassytha melantha, fruiting, on Lucalypius fruticetorum and reaching for a new host on the left. Some twigs after futile nutation are returning by means of other twigs to the main body. Loc. Huntly State Forest. (Photo. A. D. Hardy.) . Plate 1X. Fic. 1.—CASSYTHA MELANTHA ON HETERODENDRON OLEIFOLIUM, Pinx Lakes, MALLEE. (c. F. No. 2.) Fig. 2.—CassyTHA MELANTHA ON EUCALYPTUS FRUTICETORUM, Benpico District, A. D. Hardy. “hes PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 325 13.—ON THE XEROPLYTIC CHARACTERS OF HAKEA DACTYLOIDES. By A. G. Hamilton. 14.—THE INFLUENCE OF THE RADIATIONS OF RADIUM UPON THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS (OATS). By Dr. Herman Lawrence. (ABSTRACT.) During the past six months the author had carried out’ a number of experiments upon this matter, and, although the results agreed in most respects with those obtained in similar experiments carried out by Dr. Abbe, of New York, yet there was one important result obtained by Dr. Abbe which was not supported by the author’s experiments. Dr. Abbe’s results briefly stated were :—Ist. The influence of all the rays from radium upon seeds exposed to them for six days, at a distance of half an inch or less, was that the seeds either failed to germinate, or, on germinating, died within a day or two. 2nd. When the radium rays (the Alpha and soft Beta rays being excluded, leaving chiefly the medium Beta rays, hard Beta and Gamma rays) affected the seeds situated at a distance of $ to 14 inches from the radium specimen, these seeds were stimulated as regards their growth when compared with seeds grown under exactly the same conditions, except that they had not been exposed to the radium. This result he believed to be due to a preponderance of medium hard Beta rays, in the radiations obtaining under the conditions of the experiment, at the distances mentioned, viz., 4 to 14 inches from the radium specimen. 3rd. The influence of the rays from the radium, at the distance of 14 to 4 inches from the specimen, was one of progressive retardation of the growth of the seeds, the plants at 4 inches showing the most marked condition of retardation. The retardation of these growths being compared with seeds similarly grown, but not radiumized. This result he believed to be due to the influence of the hard Beta and Gamma rays, the medium hard Beta rays, with their stimulating effect having been gradually cut out of the potent radiations from the radium specimen. The author’s experiments, on the other hand, had given total destruction to the seeds exposed within ? of an inch from the radium specimens, and after that distance there was a gradual lessening of the retarding effect of the radiations upon the growth of the seeds, with a stimulating effect upon the seeds at the further distances, up to 5 inches and more. The author, however, agreed with Dr. Abbe’s 326 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. suggestion of using leaden interceptors in the treatment of deep growths, as the greater part of the rays cut off by the leaden inter- ceptors would only reach the superficial structures, and were, therefore, of no value therapeutically for the deeply-situated disease. The author exhibited boxes containing specimens of the plants grown from seeds which had been radiumized and grown at the different distances from the radium specimens, mentioned in this lecture; and plants of seeds unradiumized, grown as a control, were also exhibited. 15.— FOREST CONSERVATION—A NATIONAL DUTY. By Elwood Mead, Chairman State Rivers and Water Supply Commission. (ABSTRACT.) The lecturer, who was born within its limits, gave a most striking and impressive account of the disappearance, within a single generation, of that once-greatest hardwood forest which prevailed from the Alleghanies to the Mississippi and from Canada to the Gulf, and sketched the evils resulting from its destruction. Following the removal of the cover at the head-waters of the rivers, the fertile soil was scoured from the hillsides by the unrestricted run-off of the rainfall, and the rivers silted up to such an extent that their navigation in summer was rendered difficult, and their flow so impaired that rice growing on the Atlantic seaboard has almost ceased. Australia was urged to profit by the sad experience of America, already also threatened by a timber famine, and in the interests of water supply and irrigation, and of the future supply of timber for industries, to set apart as permanent Government reserves its forest lands. Mr. Mead finished his short but valuable address with the pro- nouncement that nothing would contribute more to the ultimate prosperity of the Commonwealth than comprehensive and effective legislation directed to this end. 16. THE INSENSITIVITY OF THE LIFE-FORMS OF THE POTATO-MOTH TO VARIOUS POISONS. By F. Stoward, D.Sc., Government Botanist of Western Australia. One of the most. troublesome insect pests, which ravage the potato crops of the Commonwealth, is the Potato Moth (Gelechia operculella). The active agent of infestation is the larva which attacks and defoliates the growing plant. Under faulty cultural 5 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 327 conditions also the crop tubers may be invaded in sitw. The ravages of the larva are particularly severe in the case of stored tubers, the ‘‘ eyes’’ of which it enters and destroys, thus render- ing these in a comparatively short space of time quite worthless for ‘‘seed ’’ or consumption. Various methods of a suggestive character have been advanced from time to time as a means, either of preventing infection of sound tubers, or of effecting the destruction of the infesting agents (larve, pup, eggs), in or on tubers already infested. Such methods comprise :— (1) The steeping of tubers in aqueous solutions of formalin, mercuric chloride, &c. (2) The dusting of tubers with finely powdered air-slaked lime, or mixtures of lime and other substances. (3) The spraying of tubers with fungicidal or insecticidal pre- parations. (4) The fumigation of tubers with carbon-bisulphide. Experimental investigation carried out by the writer has shown that when tubers infested with larve are steeped in solutions of formalin prepared by mixing }, 1, or 2 pints of this com- pound with 15 gallons of water, it requires an immersion of 94 to 48 hours’ duration to destroy all the infesting larve. Control experiments, in which similarly infested material steeped in water alone, under otherwise similar conditions, indicate that this latter method of treatment is as effective as steeping in solutions of formalin. It would appear from the results furnished by these series of experiments, that even in the case of the formalin-steeps, the larva succumbs to drowning rather than to any poisoning effect produced by formalin. Similarly conducted experiments with larve isolated from in- fested tubers and completely immersed in one or other of the following steep-media—(1) formalin solutions of the above-men- tioned strengths for four to six hours, (2) mercuric chloride solu- tion (1 oz. to 8 gallons of water), for half to two hours, (3) an aqueous 1} per cent. solution of copper sulphate for six hours—have demonstrated that these organisms are not only capable of surviv- ing these treatments, but of completing their life cycle as readily and perfectly as larve not subjected to experimental treatment. Comparatively insensitive to these poisons as the larva appears to be under the conditions of experiment selected, the pupa and egg are endowed with still greater powers of resistance. In fact, the larva, pupa, and egg represent an ascending series in regard 328 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. to their relative insensitivity to the action of poisons in solution. The pupa, for example, is able to withstand 48 hours’ immersion in solutions of formalin, either of 4 or 1 pint of this re-agent to 15 gallons of water. In these experiments it was found that the majority of the objects survived, and from them healthy moths emerged. Equally positive results attend the steeping of tubers infested with the eggs of the moth. The material selected for experiment comprised tubers on which were recently deposited eggs only; separate lots of these were steeped in one or other of the following solutions : — (1) Solutions of formalin (4, 1, or 2 pints to 15 gallons of water) for 48 hours. (2) A solution of mercuric chloride (1 oz. to 8 gallons of water) for twelve hours. (3) An aqueous 5 per cent. or 10 per cent. solution of sul- phuric acid for one to two hours. These results are possibly explicable on the grounds that— (1) Little, if any, of these poisons are absorbed by the pupa and egg. (2) The respiratory activities of these life forms are of a low order of magnitude. When uninfested tubers are treated by steeping in an aqueous solution of mercuric chloride, or a suspension of lead arsenate, and these tubers are subsequently air-dried, and then exposed to infection, it is found that they become as readily infested as similar but untreated tubers. This applies with equal force whether the infesting agents are juvenile or adult larve. Treat- ment of tubers according to either of these methods as a protection against infection, therefore, cannot be regarded as likely to yield satisfactory results. The spraying of uninfected tubers with various spray mixtures (copper sulphate, soda mixture, phenyle emulsion, &.), and the dressing of tubers with air-slaked lime and mixtures of air-slaked lime and sulphur or Paris green, in varying proportions, are equally ineffective as a means of permanently preventing infection. In none of these cases was there any very definite evidence that the larva in its attack on the tuber consumed any of these poisons with which the skin of the treated tuber was assumed to be either covered or impregnated. Observation tended to show that the larve rejected the skin and did not ingest any material until it had penetrated into the subjacent starchy tissue of the tuber. Carbon bi-sulphide fumigation has yielded the most satis- factory results. Experimental trial over a considerable range of conditions has shown that the larva, whether in the substance of PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 329 the tuber or isolated from it, succumbs after 15 to 16 hours’ ex- posure to an atmosphere containing this compound in the propor- tion of 1 to 2 lbs. per 1,000 cubic feet of air. It requires, however, at least 48 hours’ fumigation at either of the above rates to destroy the pupa, and a single application under these conditions does not invariably suffice to insure the destruction of this life form. The egg, it was found in the majority of the experiments, succumbs to a single fumigation of 48 hours’ duration at the above-men- tioned rates, but in order to destroy any eggs which may in some cases survive, a second fumigation must be applied six to eight days after the first. The choice of this interval between the application of the first and second fumigation rests on the fact, derived from a study of the life history of the insect, that the egg hatches in from four to six days after being laid. It follows, therefore, that when the second fumigation is applied, any eggs which may have survived the first fumigation are either in or approaching the larval con- dition, and are then, consequently, easily destroyed. In regard to the effect of fumigation om the vitality of the tuber, it may be stated that experimental investigation has shown that commercially sound unsprouted tubers may be subjected to intermittent fumigation with carbon*bisulphide (1 to 2 lbs. per 1,000 cubic feet of space) two, three, or even four times without producing serious damage to the tuber buds, if each fumigation is limited to a period of 48 hours’ duration. Tubers fumigated inter- mittently under the above-mentioned conditions, and subsequently placed under dry, airy storage conditions for periods of from two to three months,-have, on planting, yielded quite as good crop results as similar, but unfumigated, (control) tubers. In other experiments in which tubers were fumigated for a single period of 72, 96, or 120 hours at the above rates, and then stored for two to three months prior to planting, the crops were satisfactory, but, owing to the risk of injury to the tuber buds, intermittent fumigation is the preferable method. The comparative insensitivity of the life forms of the potato moth to the various poisons in solution, which have been examined, render very doubtful the use of steeping methods as a means of combating the pest in stored tubers. The lengthy duration of the period of effective steeping required, even in the case of the larva—the least sensitive of the life forms examined—involves ex- tensive injury to the tuber buds. In short, destruction of the pest involves destruction of the vitality of the tuber. Carbon-bisulphide fumigation, if properly applied, even to badly infested material, affords an effective, comparatively cheap, and much superior method of destroying the various life forms of the pest, without at the same time seriously impairing the vitality of the tuber. R a he rit 330 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTIOND. 17. BOTANICAL TEACHING IN SUPERIOR PUBLIC AND SECONDARY HIGH SCHOOLS IN NEW SOUTH WALES. By Miss Sarah Hynes, B.A. 18. NOTE ON AN EXHIBIT. By G. A. Waterhouse, B.Sc., B.H., F.H.S. Mr. G. A. Waterhouse exhibited two gynandric specimens of the Butterfly Papilio aegeus from Australia, together with the normal male and female. One specimen exhibited by courtesy of - Mr. J. A. Kershaw, of the National Museum, is wholly male on the left-hand side, whilst on the right it is chiefly female, with a small percentage of male scales. The second specimen is chiefly . male, but each wing surface bears a large number of female markings. 19. CONTRIBUTION TO A DISCUSSION ON THE ECONOMICS OF THE EUCALYPTS.! By R..T, Baker, F.L.S. Preamble. At the Sydney meeting of the A.A.A.S., 1910, it was resolved that a discussion on the Economics of the Eucalypts, the outcome of the research of Messrs. Baker and Smith, be held at the next Melbourne meeting in 1913. This discussion to be held before the Biology and Chemical Sections, Messrs. Baker and Smith opening the proceedings. The following is a résumé of their respective portions of the subject matter upon which the discussion took place. Introduction. On the last occasion when this Association met in Sydney, my colleague, Mr. H. G. Smith was too ill to read his chemical paper and the privilege of doing so fell on me, and so I had an oppor- tunity of appearing as a ‘‘ chemist.’? However, my colleague is here to-day, and so can speak for himself. In this discussion, we are, I take it, limited by the necessities of the case to the economics of the genus. Still, whilst discussing these economics, we must ever be mindful of the fact how much applied science is indebted to pure science; in fact, the former is built up on the latter; one is the foundation and the other the superstructure. 1. See also Section B. ball as Saat PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 331 When I announced before the Linnean Society of New South Wales some years ago that I was about to inaugurate a research on the eucalypts, and introduce chemistry as an aid to their syste- matic classification, I met with very little encouragement, I am happy to say, for I am of opinion that if there is no opposition to one’s ideas, there is nothing probably in those ideas. The correlation of these two sciences, botany and chemistry, has had, however, the effect of bringing in other sciences to help in the elucidation of the systematic ciassification of these wonder- ful trees, as we have now Mr. R. H. Cambage employing geology, and even mineralogy, for he is making alkalinity or acidity of rocks a considerable factor in the differentiation or affinity of species. One can quite understand a morphologist of, say, twenty or thirty years ago saying what is the use of all this combination of sciences, for then the commercial side was not so dependent on applied science. Now we find applied science is just such an exact science as pure science in these times, for no satisfactory commer- cial results can be obtained from the eucalypts, but by working on lines of a natural differentiation of the species. After conducting our researches on the old method of morpho- logy for a little time, it was soon evident to us that there was something wrong with the morphological machinery, which would not run true, as there were two or three “‘cogs,’’ so to speak, trying to be jammed into the space where there should be only one in the opposing wheel, or to put it botanically, there were three or four species where, according to chemistry and cognate sciences, there should be only one. For instance, E. amygdalina, E. dives, E. linearis, E. Delegatensis, E. radiata, E. .Risdoni, were all placed at one time under the first mentioned species, which is one, and quite distinct. Again, it has been asserted that E. pilularis, E. laevopinea, E. dextropinea, and EH. macrorhyncha are one and the same species. Morphologically, they may be, but that is no good to the applied scientists, or the commercial man ; he must go closer to nature than that, or his resultant commercial venture will be a failure. ¢ One English critic styled me a “‘ splitter of species,’’ and I acknowledge the soft impeachment. If I were not so, then applied science and commerce of the eucalypts would to-day be labouring under a disadvantage. It was the separation of the above species under E. amygdalina that has brought forward the value of phel- landrene in mineral separation, for it was from the Technological Museum that a complete set of oils of every species investigated 332 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D.- was sent to Broken Hill for experimental purposes, and so it was in this differentiated material of species that the correct. industrial value of eucalyptol, phellandrene, and other constituents of oils were placed in this connexion. By a system of ‘‘ lumping of species ’’’ mixed oils would obtain, and so the commercial or economic results would be negative. What a fatal commercial error it would be to systematically place E. laevopinea and E. dextropinea together with HE. macro- rhyacha under the same specific name, for no pinene is to be found in the latter, nor any eucalyptol in the two former—a pro- nounced constituent in E. macrorhyncha oil, and the same re- marks apply throughout the members of the whole genus. It is on such lines as these that all our research work on the products of eucalypts have been carried out, and this characterizes the whole investigation. ~ Historical. A knowledge of the economics of these trees has been insepar- able from the genus since its first discovery by the scientific world, for the first name bestowed on it—aromadendrum—treferred to the presence in the leaves of the volatile oil now so world-famed; and so with other species names. The name E. piperita was bestowed in 1789 for a similar reason, and at the same time the name E. resinifera was also given in allusion to a chemical constituent. Even to the present day, their wonderful economics have always appealed to man-—not only the Australian, but especially the American, and others. Eucalyptus was the first timber exported, being nearer the sea- . coast and closer to the initial port than ‘‘ cedar.’’ From then to the present time the products of these wonderful trees have been exploited to the extent of almost extermination of certain species, such as ‘‘ironbarks.’’ In the sixties, seeds of these trees were introduced into Southern Europe, and later America, where millions of acres are now under eucalyptus cultivation. In the last decade, South Africa has planted vast areas with these trees, and South America is now coming into the field. Froni the attention now given by Forestry to these trees, it is evident that they are destined to rank as the premier forest trees of the world. Eucalyptus Culture. Tt seems a paradox that almost all data in this connexion is to be found in American publications. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 333 As regards the Australian, ‘‘ the gum trees’’ have always been with him, hence his lack of appreciation of their good qualities, - for when he wants a piece of their timber, he could go into the bush and cut it. But that day is rapidly passing, owing to the opening up of the country by settlement, and the ruthless destruc- tion of our native eucalyptus forests. It therefore behoves the Australian to take time by the forelock, and make provision for the future requirements by an intense system of eucalyptus culti- vation, otherwise eucalyptus timber will have to be imported: aye, and from countries which have obtained the seed from here, and practically planted the whole country side with ‘‘ gum trees ”’ as obtains to-day in South Africa and the Western States of North America. The up-to-date literature in eucalyptus culture that is being issued by the Department of Agriculture, Washington, should be an object lesson to Australia. If one wishes to know dimensions or size of growth of the re- syective species at different ages of these Australian trees, one must go to American literature, for no such investigations have been carried out here, and these data go back for forty years. It is rare to see the gum tree, as a tree, used for any purpose whatever in Australia; yet, in America, one finds it used for such purposes as street decoration in avenues in main thoroughfares, windbreaks for orchards, houses, &c. A correspondent, writing to a Sydney weekly, 2nd January, 1912, states: —‘‘ Here I am in Nice, held by-many to be the most beautiful city on earth. Sky and sea are of an Australian blue; ‘and there is sunlight, bright and clear, just as at home. And there are gum trees. One whole avenue is lined with them—the Avenue Thiers. Baedeker’s Guide Book specially turns your nose towards the ‘ beautiful eucalyptus.’ And Nice itself proudly shows the Thiers as one of its most beautiful streets. These people recognise the decorative value of the tree. Public and private gardens are planted freely with them. Look down any street, and you will see one or two of them waving proudly above their neigh- bours. And then the Australian abroad begins to wonder why the beautiful tree, which adds so much charm to the Riviera, should be banned in Melbourne and Sydney, and other towns at home—should be deliberately banned from the streets, from the gardens, from the parks. Is there one town in Australia where gum trees are used for their decorative value? ’’ Adelaide is the only Australian capital that glories in the beauties of the gum, and the way they are planted in that city of parks should be an object lesson to the rest of Australia. Bendigo, Victoria, however, has some fine avenues of gum trees. Boe PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. Timber. On the economics of the eucalyptus one could fill a large volume. The early settlers soon found that in this collection of trees they had a very valuable asset, and employed the timber for very many purposes. It was used in almost every conceivable direction, in house-building, bridges, warehouses, large construc- tion works of all kinds, whilst data are to pe found which show that it was one of the earliest exported. ce One of the first vernacular names bestowed was ‘‘ mahogany ”’ on what is now botanically known as E. resinifera and EK. robusta, in allusion to its resemblance to the commercial article from Hon- duras, long previously on the market. Since the early days, much investigation nas been undertaken upon Australian eucalypts, especially in regard to tensile, com- pression, and other strengths, the results being scattered through- out Australian scientific literature. A new application of eucalyptus timbers has recently developed, viz., cabinet work. Scarcity in the usual material for this industry, and rise of prices, have caused tradesmen and others to look in various directions to supply their wants, with the result that it has been found that eucalyptus timbers are very applicable in certain branches of the cabinet trade. Some of the red coloured woods are especially so, and amongst the pale coloured, ‘‘ spotted cum,’’ E. maculata, has been tried with excellent results, whilst in Tasmania, ‘‘ stringybarks,’’ E. Delegatensis and E. obliqua are being made into furniture, and exported under the name of Tas- manian oak. Our stringybarks are widely diffused over the eastern half of the continent, and present a big field of exploita- tion in this direction. Amongst them are some excellent substi- tutes for imported timbers, such as American hickory and ash, so largely used in coachbuilding, tool, and axe handles. Some of our red-coloured timbers such as ‘‘ Sydney blue gum,”’ (E. saligna), ‘‘ forest mahogany ’’ (HE. resinifera), ‘‘ red boxes ”’ (E. polyanthema, E. Rudderi), and several others, can be worked up into excellent specimens of the cabinetmaker’s art, as exempli- fied by samples in the Technological Museum, Sydney. Even the very latest desideratum in timber—flying machines material—can be supplied from gum trees, such as E. delegatensis, E. regnans, &e. Desrructive DrisriILLaTion oF Woon. Victoria has set the example in Australia in this direction, for Messrs. Cuming, Smith and Company, at Warburton, are manu- facturing the following :— Acetic acid, acetate of lime, pyroligneous acids, formalin, denaturating spirit, pure methyl alcohol, crude methyl alcohol, + ee Be a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. aoe semi-refined methyl alcohol, pure acetone, ethyl methyl ketone, refined acetone, refined oil, wood pitch, wood tar, tar oil for paints, crude tar oil, tar spirit, and other by-products. TANNING. Practically nothing has been done to investigate the tanning possibilities of our timbers, yet Mr. H. G. Smith informs me that he has obtained as much as from 7 to 9 per cent. tannin in the saw- dust of EH. microcorys, “‘ tallow wood.’’ Here is an untrodden field of research. Woop Putp. The amount of paper imported into Australia, according to Mr. G. H. Knibbs, Commonwealth Statistician, is £1,600,000. When travelling through the coastal ranges of this continent, and seeing the enormous amount of standing eucalyptus trees, one often wonders cannot something be done to utilize these trees un- suitable for their timber? Cellulose is cellulose whether in hard- wood trees, such as these, or American soft-woods. Whilst not unmindful of the great natural advantage of North America, Norway, and Sweden—great wood-pulp exporters—in their swift-flowing rivers of such inestimable value in these days of electric motor power, and at the same time admitting that cer- tain adverse conditions obtain here, yet to my mind they do not present insuperable difficulties. I would attack them, first by having more powerful machinery to break down the fibre, and next by damming up some of the more suitable gullies for a water supply. Since experiments have been made with our eucalyptus timbers with satisfactory results, so that this portion of the investigation is past, | would suggest that the initial plant should be erected in Tasmania, where there is a good supply of the soft kinds of euca- lyptus timbers, and an equally good supply of rivers. In a depu- tation before the Minister of Lands in Tasmania in July last, Mr. W. E. Shoobridge made the following statements :—‘‘ That there was a greater weight of timber per acre in Tasmania than in any other country in the world. It was principally eucalyptus of various kinds, and a large proportion of it had been reckoned as valueless. Roughly speaking, 3,000,000 acres of land had been cleared, and a total of 60,000,000 tons of wood, from which excel- lent pulp could have been made for paper-making, had been destroyed. Considering this enormous waste of timber, it was time that something was done to put our timber resources to prac- tical use. He believed that it would be possible to place orders for thousands of tons of wood-pulp every year. Paper to the value of £3,000,000 was imported into the Commonwealth every year 336 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. The cost of destroying our timber was estimated at 2s. 6d. per ton, and at this rate it had cost us £7,500,000 to destroy 60,000,000 tons of timber. If this timber had been properly used, it would have been worth 10s. a ton, or £30,000,000, the present capital value of Tasmania.’’ The amount of material wasted at saw mills suitaole for pulp. making must be enormous. ‘ BaActTERIOLOGY. \ To Dr. E. Cuthbert Hall belongs the credit of carrying out a bacteriological investigation on the bactericidal power of certain eucalyptus oils and their constituents, the whole being embodied ina thesis presented to the University of New Scuth Wales in in 1904. No therapeutical investigation in this direction appears. to have been undertaken since that date. The outcome of this re- search proved that the constituent considered most efficacious by a B. P. Standard is not so, but that other constituents such as piperitone, phellandrene, eudesmol, were very much more so. This is a source of much. discussion amongst eucalyptus oi! manufacturers, who are moving, and have moved, for an altera- tion in the B.P. It is now a desideratum for further therapeutic investigation into the constituents of eucalyptus oils, but of course this can only be done by medical men. (A) COMMITTEE FOR THE BIOLOGICAL AND HYDRO- GRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE NEW ZEALAND COAST. (See Vol. XITL., p. 362.) List or Mempers.—Prof. W. B. Benham, M.A., F.R.8.; A. Hamilton; Prof. A. P. W. Thomas, M.A., F.L.8.; G. M. Thom- son, M P., F.L.S.; Edgar R. Waite, F.L.S.; and Prof. Charles Chilton; M.A., D.Sc. (Hon. Sec. and Convener). REPORT. As the operations of the Commuttee are so dependent upon opportunity, its work must, of necessity, be subject to considerable fluctuations. In the previous report the facilities for research afforded by three expeditions were recorded, namely, the New Zealand Government trawling expedition, 1907; the expedition fitted out by the Canterbury Philosophical Institute to the Sub- Atarctic islands of New Zealand, and the private excursion to the West Coast sounds. a4 e a8 Ne ere ea he PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. oor A further instalment of the results of the trawling expedi- tion has been issued since the last report was presented wate with the following subjects :— ‘* Scientific Results of the New Zealand Government Trawling Expedition, 1907, Records of the Canterbury Museum, Vol, Pe Ne. '3.’? Pisces, Part II., Edgar R. Waite, F.L.S., pp, 157-272. Pl. XXXIV.-LVII. Mollusca, Part II., Henry Suter, pp. 273-284. Crustacea, Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., pp. 285-312. Pl. LVIII. It being understood that the Antarctic ship Z'erra Nova would be at the disposal of the New Zealand Government during her stay in these waters, the Committee urged that investigations, in the nature of soundings and collecting, should be prosecuted on the continental shelf; but as the Government decided that purely survey work was to be undertaken instead, no biological results are available. As a personal undertaking, Mr. D. G. Lillie, biologist of the l'erra Nova, accompanied the Norwegian whalers now operating in our waters, and made some interesting observations and valu- able collections. The results will be published in London. Mr. Eagar R. Waite, a member of the Committee, accompanied the Sub-Auntarctic cruise of the Australasian Antarctic expedition’s. ship Aurora in 1912, and collected at the Macquarie and Auckland islands. As his observations will not be made pubhe until the complete results of the expedition are issued, they cannot be fur- ther referred to. The Committee has not incurred any expense during the period under review, but recommends that the present grant be re-voted and that the existing members be re-appointed.—Epear R. WAITE, Acting Hon. Secretary. The report was adopted and the name of Mr. G. M. Thomson, M.P., F.L.S., was added to the Committee. CONSERVATION OF WATER COMMITTEE. (See Vol. XII., p. 60.) The following interim report was submitted by Col. W. V. Legge, the secretary, and it was decided to remit it to the next (Hobart) meeting for final action. 5 338 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. The following resolution was also passed :— ‘‘In view of the supreme importance to the community of the proper maintenance of our present forest reserves and of the pressing necessity for their further extension, this Committee recommends the Australian Forest League, now in process of establishment in all the States of the Commonwealth, to the collective and individual interest of members of the Association. REPORT. I have pleasure in reporting as follows on the work done m acquiring information as regards land erosion by high floods, or ill-effect on the regularity of annual stream-flow in the case of rivers whose head waters have been denuded of forest covering. During 1911 the only foreign letters written were to America, as your secretary had previously corresponded with the United States Department of Agriculture on other matters. Replies were at once received, accompanied by useful and voluminous literature bearing on the subject in hand. Opportunity was taken in the same year of making local inquiries bearing on the matter in Vic- toria and New South Wales, as also of searching for instances of damage previously done, or now taking place, by rivers in Tas- mania, which could be traced to denudation. In March last year correspondence was undertaken with Euro- pean countries, and letters written to the Departments of Agricul- ture in France, Germany, Austria, and Italy. A letter was also written to Sweden in October, that forest-clad country having been overlooked in the first instance. No replies having been secured from any of the first four countries, letters were written again through the Consuls in September, but answers are not yet to hand. A letter written to the Department of Agriculture in Japan elicited at once a courteous reply, accompanied by much literature concerning the forests and rivers of the country, but which is all in Japanese, except a treatise on forestry translated into English. Correspondence with the Conservator of Forests, South Australia (who is a member of your Committee), and with the Surveyor-General of New Zealand, has afforded much useful information. A perusal of the publications secured from America has shown that there is diversity of opinion as to the ill-effects on stream-flow of the denudation of forests. But, notwithstanding the extreme views of Dr. Willis L. Moore, Chief of the United States Weather Bureau, and those of a few experts of more modified belief against such conditions, the weight of opinion is on the other side of the scale. ary PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. 339 In point of fact, it has been shown that the great damage done in parts of the eastern and central States has been directly due to sudden and heavy floods in rivers whose sources were once forested, but are now denuded of both tree and plant covering, the latter arising from over-grazing on the cleared lands subse- quently laid down with grass. It may be remarked in passing that this latter evil is, no doubt, exercising bad effects on the more recently settled lands of Australia. In one district in Utah, in which certain towns are situated in steep-sided valleys, or canyons, denuded of forest and devoted afterwards to pastoral purposes and then over-grazed, the floods have been so violent, owing to quick torrential run-off, that drift- wood, stones, and even boulders, have been carried into the streeis. As regards the fundamental principles connected with the run-off, either slow or quick, from the head of a river with forest-cover, it is generally admitted that the protection so afforded, coupled with the influence of ground cover beneath the trees, retards the run-off, and so equalizes the stream-flow, except under the abnor- mal conditions of complete saturation from phenomenally heavy and persistent rain. Even then, the many obstructions caused by leaves, branches, and roots above ground, the channels of rotten ones beneath the soil, decayed matter, and the stems of the trees, all combine to cause a slower run-off, at the same time fur- nishing a supply for existing springs, than is the case on open ground, even after deducting the loss due to evaporation. The removal of this forest and plant-cover destroys the water-holding capacity of the soil and the greater evaporation ensuing after the first heavy run-off which causes the flood, reduces the stream-flow in times of drought to a minimum. In the foregoing remarks an effort has been made to give, in short, the experience which has been gained in an old-settled coun- try. It would be beyond the province of this report to deal fur- ther with the immense damage that has been done to the soil and lands in the United States from erosion and denudation by floods. It has been the same in France and other European coun- tries; as also in Japan, where the Government is undertaking a scheme for the afforestation of bare land spreading over many years. Your Committee thinks that conditions are more likély to be disastrous in all Australian forests, except those of luxuriant growth, than in the countries referred to, as the eucalyptus bush in hilly areas usually covers a soil more or less rocky and devoid of humus owing t6 the peculiar nature of the leaves and bark. The soil is also usually shallow and less absorbent, except in the valleys, and depends on the tree covering and that of a frequently, scanty undergrowth for protection, which, if removed and great, 340 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. evaporation brought about, robs it of all water-holding capacity. The damp forests of Tasmania, consisting of beech and dense undergrowth, as also those of Gippsland, northern New South Wales, and Queensland, would be exceptions to this rule. it is difficult to obtain data in a recently settled region such as Australia. All members of your Committee have been applied to for particulars in the case of any river whose stream-flow has been affected by deforestation at its source, but none are as yet obtainable, with the exception of an interesting report from the Conservator of Forests, South Australia; as also one from the Surveyor-General of New Zealand, who is not a member of the Committee. In South Austrailia, a region much requiring afforestation, and possessing a dry climate, many of the rivers have no perennial stream-flow, and the mountains are either bare or thinly forested, the trees having little influence in protecting the ground from erosion. Mr. Gill, however, instances the Gawler River, rising in hills of soft and easily disintegrating rock, as doing damage by erosion and the silting up of its course. Clearing has been done on the steep sides of the Gawler Ranges, on which erosion musi take place, the soil being carried down the river channel. Like- wise, in the mountains south of Adelaide, possessing a wetter climate, wash-outs have taken place on the hill-sides, which are bare and grassed and suffer from over-grazing. In both instances the remedy would be the clothing of the land with forest, much of which is being done in other parts of the State. From New Zealand, Mr. Mackenzie, Surveyor-General, writes that the forest at the heads of the main rivers has not yet been interfered with. The damage caused by felling the bush at the sources of small streams flowing into them, particularly on steep and poor soil, is, however, much in evidence. It may be remarked in passing that this denudation on small streams is more particu- larly the evil which your Committee desire to prevent in Australia. The rivers in New Zealand which have caused most damage are those in the Hawkes Bay Province, which rise in the primeyally bare mountain zone under heavy rain and snow fall. These have in flood time a torrential and violent run-off, which has created great destruction in the valleys-and along their banks owing to the felling of timber there by the early settlers. Had the forest been allowed to stand on the margins of the streams this destruc- tion would have been avoided. Further, through the clearing away of the heavy forest through which the Rangatikei and Mana- watu Rivers and their tributaries originally flowed, immense damage has been caused in alluvial plains, mainly owing to the same mistake, namely, leaving no fringe of timber along the edge of the stream to protect the banks. Mr. Mackenzie computes the damage in these instances at already not less than £50,000. a a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. B41 In Tasmania the effect of denudation at the sources of river tributaries and small streams is at the present day showing itself’ in the quickly rising and violent stream-flow during heavy precipi- tation, followed in dry weather by a much diminished low-water flow. in regard to damage from floods in rivers of any size a notable instance has recently occurred in the George River and its tributaries during the great flood of March, 1911. This Hast Coast river has its sources in the upper zone of the Blue Tier, which experiences the heaviest falls in a given time known in the State, and also in very broken, but cleared country, in an adjacent range. The entire area surrounding its sources was clothed with dense Antarctic beech forest previous to 1896, when much of it was de- stroyed by an extensive bush fire, and after that a good deal of the land on the Tier was cleared for settlement. The excessive precipitation during an unusually heavy easterly storm on the 8th and 9th of March, 1911, failing on the bare forest land, caused an immense flood, which destroyed every bridge of consequence on the river. This river has always been subject to heavy floods, but the run-off being formerly slower, time was available for the water to get away without doing damage to any extent. If your Council approve of its re-appointment, in view of the importance of the subject, and to await the replies from European countries, it is recommended that this report be confirmed as an interim one; and, at the same time, that certain recommendations be now drawn up, with a view to urging their adoption by the several State Governments whenever land is alienated for settle- ment either by freehold or leasehold. RECOMMENDATIONS. In accordaace with the principles set forth in the above resolu- tion, your Committee recommend— 1. That all forest on the upper zones of ranges holding the sources of rivers of importance be conserved for the future. 2. That whenever land holding the sources of minor streams is sold or let, it shall be under the express condition that the forest round the sources of the streams shall be con- served for a distance to be hereafter decided upon by regulation, having in view the topography of the ground in question. 3. That when land is being alienated in valleys of alluvial nature through which rivers with strong stream-flow run, all trees and vegetation must be conserved on their banks for a width to be hereafter determined by regulation. 342 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION D. C.—ECOLOGY COMMITTEE. The following resolution was approved :— ‘Recognising the confusion existing in the nomenclature of plant ecology, this Committee suggests that a Committee be appointed to select and define, for use in the descrip- tion of our vegetation, such terms as would seem most; suitable for the purpose. The names of the following are recommended :—Dr. Cockayne, Mr. J. H. Maiden, Mr. Cambage, Dr. Morrison, Prof. Osborn, Prof, Ewart, Mr. Rodway, and Dr. C. §. Sutton (secretary).’’ Section E. GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT. (Owing to the absence of the President, no address was delivered.) 1. NOTES ON THE DISCOVERY OF THE VICTORIAN COAST-LINE. By Thomas Walker Fowler, MInst.C.L., F.R.GS., &. Comparatively recently, a certain amount of discussion has taken place as to the identity of points named by the early explorers of our coasts, and requests have been made for the adop- tion of names given by the French in connexion with the Baudin expedition. Hence it may be of interest to trace briefly the work of the various navigators in connexion with its discovery. Some traditions exist as to the coast-line of the western dis- trict of Victoria having been discovered and visited by early Spanish or Dutch navigators, and, in support thereof, reference has been made to a ‘‘Mahogany Ship ”’ said to have been wrecked on the shores of the Southern Indian Ocean, between Warrnam- bool and Port Fairy. Interesting papers have appeared in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victoria Branch), more especially one from the pen of Mr. George Gordon McCrae. Nothing definite, however, has been ascertained upon the subject, and the first well authenticated event in Victorian history undoubtedly was the discovery of a portion of its eastern coast-line, in April, 1770, by Captain Cook, during his first voyage round the world. It has been suggested that, had Captain Cook, when he sighted our coasts, traced them westerly instead of northerly, the subse- quent history of Australia would have been completely altered, and that in such case the earliest settlements would probably have been in Port Phillip Bay, instead of at Port Jackson. The route actually followed by the great navigator was not, however, the result of any accident, but in accordance with a well thought-out plan, adopted after consultation with his officers prior to his leav- ing New Zealand. He would have preferred to have sailed from there for Europe, wid@ Cape Horn, so as to determine definitely whether the Great Southern Land, then supposed to exist between 344 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION &., New Zealand and South America, had any existence or not, but the condition of his ship did not justify him in facing such a voyage in the depth of winter, whilst, for similar reasons, the thought of proceeding westerly, south of Tasmania, and direct to the Cape of Good Hope, was laid aside, especially as no discovery of moment could be hoped for in that route, since Tasman nad proved the non-existence of land in that direction (other than Aus- tralia) north of his track, which was in the forties. But the existence of land had been proved by the discoveries of various. navigators along the northern, western, and southern shores of Australia, although it was not known whether this land formed one continent or a series of islands separated by various straits, and, indeed, this point was not finally determined until the Continent had been circumnavigated by Flinders, many geographers clinging to the idea that the Gulf of Carpentaria would likely extend across. to Spencer’s or St. Vincent’s Gulf. Whilst, however, the shores other than the eastern were more or less known, nothing was known of that from the point where Tasman left the Tasmanian shores, northward to the strait south of New Guinea, passed through hy Torres in 1605, and, even as regards this strait, nothing definite was known, the main record of his work being stowed away in dusty archives at Manilla. The amount of knowledge as to Australia available prior to ' Cook’s voyage may be realized from the following extract from Callender’s Voyages, Vol. 2, pages 275-6, published in 1768.1 Tt is Just possible that the work was published prior to Cook’s depar- ture from England, and that he had a copy on board. the Endeavour :— “New Holland is that vast region, which extends from the 5th to the 34th degree of South latitude, and from longitude 124 degrees to 187. To the north it has the Molucca Islands, or the Sea of Lanchidol. To the west and south the Indian Ocean, and the Pacific to the east. But, in this immense stretch of land we are acquainted only with some parts of the coast lying separated from each other, without being able to affirm whether they compose one continent, or (as it is more likely) they are large islands separated from each other by canals or arms of the sea, the narrowest of which have been supposed by navigators to be the mouths of rivers. Neither are we yet assured if New Holland joins New Guinea on the north, or Diemen’s Land to the south. Tasman has verified by his course that New Zealand, lying to the south-east, is totally separated by the sea from the continents and islands that lie nearer the equator. The principal countries of New 1 Callender’s work appears to be mainly a translation of the French work of De Brosses 0” the- same subject, published ten years earlier. - ye its a BA > big | ee i € vie oe ear PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 345 Holland we are as yet acquainted with are—Carpentaria, to the north-east, the coast of which, forming a great bay, faces to the west. At the entry of this bay are the Molucca Islands; to the north lie the lands of Arnhem and Diemen, which last is different from the Diemen of Abel Tasman. To the north- west lies the Land of De Witte. Towards the west lie Endracht or Concordia, Edels, and Lewin. This last occupies the point which lies south-west. To the south lies the Land -of Peter Nuytz; and, further south, but trending eastwards, the Land of Diemen, if, indeed, this last should be compre- hended under the division we are now describing. In running along the east coast of this country, back towards the equator, we find the Terra Australus del Espiritu Santo, discovered by Quiros. But all this vast interval, lying betwixt Lewin and Quiros’s discovery, is so little known that we cannot tell what part of it is land and what is sea. This tract extends from latitude 43 degrees south to latitude 19 degrees, and has not hitherto been visited, at least, as far as we know.”’ It is to be noted that the longitudes are not from Greenwich. In Callender’s time, and more especially in the times of the voyagers of whom he wrote, it was usual to adopt as an initial meridian that of some point in the Canaries or Azores, &c. The following, amongst others, were adopted:—Corvo (31° 7’ W.), Fogo (24° 20’ W.), Ferro (18° 10’ W.), Teneriffe (16° 31’ W.), and Forte Ventura (14° W.). Probably, in the extract, the meridian of Teneriffe had been adopted, but, in any case, the total difference of longitude allowed—63 degrees—is vasily in excess of the correct difference in longitude of the extreme eastern and western points of Australia—about 40 degrees—and is another in- dication as to the vague knowledge as to the Continent at that time. The writer has discussed the location of Captain Cook’s Austra- lian landfall in two papers read before the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victoria Branch), on 19th April, 1907, and 5th September, 1910, respectively, and has shown that, when day broke on the memorable 19th April, 1770, the ranges of north- eastern Victoria, from Howe Hili to the Diana Range, would be above the horizon, and form the first Victorian land seen by white men. As already mentioned, Cook sailed northward on sighting land, and his charts show ‘‘ Point Hicks’’ as being the extreme west end of the coast-line he sighted.1 It has been alleged that this 1 Cook describes and shows the coast as running nearly N.E. and S.W., shows Point Hicks as the most §.-Western Point, and describes it as the most southern. Under such conditions it is lear that he must also have considered it to be the most western land he sighted. 346 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. “‘ Point Hicks’ is identical with the present Cape Everard, and the writer, in the papers above referred to, has set out his reasons: for disagreeing with that conclusion. An attempt was made by Mr. Ernest Scott, in a paper read by him before the Historical Society of Victoria, on 20th May, 1912, to controvert the writer’s views on the subject. This paper has not yet been published, and, when it is, the writer proposes replying to it, but does not desire to bring the controversy before this Association. When dealing formerly with Cook’s work on our coast, the writer was in doubt as to whether, in certain cases, he had used true or magnetic bearings, but has since ascertained that both he and Flinders always used true bearings, in this respect differing from most other navigators. ‘ In his voyage north, Cook fixed the positions of Ram -(or Rame) Head and Cape Howe. In the papers referred to, the writer has given his reasons for considering that the Ram Head of Cook is not the head now known by that name, but the one now called Little Rame Head. Captain Furneaux, when in command of the Adventure (the second vessel in connexion with Captain Cook’s second expedi- tion), reported the existence of high land in latitude 39 degrees: south, which at one time was thought to be Wilson’s Promontory, but from Flinders’ examination it is evident that this is not so, aud that this ‘‘land’’ of Furneaux has no existence. The next explorer! on the Victorian coast-line was the cele- brated Mr. Bass, who, during his whaleboat voyage, traced the coast from Cook’s most western point to Western Port, and made a fairly accurate survey of that port. The coast-line, as surveyed by him, is shown in the chart of Van Diemen’s Land and part of the southern coast of Australia, by Flinders, published by Arrowsmith, on 10th June, 1800, a copy of which is in the Petherick collection, and another in the Sydney Public Library. As Flinders has pointed out, Bass latitudes are all about 10 minutes in error, apparently through his sextant being out of order, and his differences of longitudes, which were deduced from dead reckon- ing, are also too small. He has, however, given us a wonderfully ' It is probable that the long boat of the Sydney Cove (which ship was beached on Preservation Island, Furneaux Group, on 8th February, 1797) was on the northern end of the Ninety Mile Beach when she was wrecked, but from the particulars in Historical Records of New Sout. Wales, Vol. 3, page 760 and onwards, it is difficult to fix the exact date of the wreck or its location. From one portion of the record it would appear that the boat was wrecked on 2nd March, and from another, on 11th or 12th March. This boat’s crew must have been the first white men to land on Victorian sil; they consisted of Hugh Thompson, chief mate; W. Clark, assistant super- cargo: and fifteen seamen of the Sydney Cove. Of these, Clark and two seamen only reached Port Jackson, the rest having perished on the way. . ‘ 3 } Ae OPE OT, = ~ PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 347 correct outline (as regards shape) of the Victorian coast so far as he went. He discovered, but did not name, Wingan Inlet, Wilson’s Promontory, Waratah Bay, Cape Liptrap, Venus Bay, Cape Patterson, Phillip Island, and a number of the islands about Wilson’s Promontory; whilst, in addition to Western Port, Sealer’s Cove, Corner Inlet, and the Seal Island group (Cliffy Island, &c.), were named, as well as discovered, by him. Flinders states that he named Cape Woolamai, which he undoubtedly discovered. It was for many years thought that Bass’ Chart of Western Port was lost, but the writer recently was so fortunate as to dis- cover a reproduction of it, by Arrowsmith, which will be repro- duced by the Victorian Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, in connexion with the writer’s paper on Mr. Bass. The chart shows that, whilst not so skilful a marine surveyor as Flinders, Bass fully utilized the time he spent in Western Port, and made a chart, or eye sketch as he termed it, which compares favorably as regards accuracy of shape with that of Barallier, and also with the work of the French surveyors of the Baudin expedi- tion. The scale, however, is in error, probably owing to a draughtsman’s mistake, distances being nearly 50 per cent. greater than the chart scale would indicate. As to point of time, Lieutenant Grant, in the Lady Nelson, is the next explorer on our Victorian coast-line. His voyage from Great Britain to Australia in such a small schooner must appeal to us as a piece of bold navi- gation, but, as a marine surveyor, Grant cannot be said to have displayed great ability; his ‘‘ eye sketch’’ or chart of the Vic- torian coast-line (which, instead of being on Mercator’s projection, as is customary, is on the rectangular one) being very crude. On his voyage out he discovered and named Cape Northumberland, Mounts Gambier and Schank,! Cape Bridgewater, Cape Nelson, Cape Sir William Grant, Lawrence Rocks, Lady Julia Percy Island, Cape Albany, Cape Otway, Cape Danger (probably the Storm Point of the present charts and the Cape Patton of Flinders’ charts), and Cape Patton; whilst he named the following places, which had previously been discovered by Bass:—-Cape Liptrap, Glennies Islands, Rodondo Island, Moncur’s Island, and Curtis’ Island. On his voyage, Grant did not sight any of the coast between Capes Patton and Liptrap. Considering the distortion of Grant’s chart, it is surprising to find that the positions he assigned to these points are as close as they are to those given for them on the present Admiralty charts, the principal discrepancy, being in longitude, was due to error of his one chronometer. 1 On our maps and charts, &c., this name is usually spelt “‘ Schanck,” being the spelling adopted ‘by Flinders and used in Historical Records of New South Wales. Grant, who named both the Mount and the Cape, generally spelt it ‘‘ Schank ” although once in his book he spells th name “ Schanck” Mr. E. A. Petherick, F.R.G.S. c., Commonwealth Archivist, states that he has inspected documents which show that the proper spelling is ‘*Schank.” 348 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E After his arrival in Sydney, Grant was sent again to our Vic- torian coast, entering Western Port by the western entrance (Bass having used the eastern one), and it would appear that he then sighted and named Cape, or as it was first called, Point, Schank, although he does not mention it in his book nor show it in his chart, the only reference to his having discovered it known to th<- writer being in Governor King’s instructions to Acting Lieutenant John Murray, dated 31st October, 1801, and given in Hzstorical Records of New. South Wales, Vol. 4, page 602. On this voyage ke also named Cape Patterson, previously discovered by. Bass. During this visit to Western Port, Ensign Barallier carried out his, the second survey of the port. Apparently, during this visit Grant named Sandy Point, Elizabeth Island, and Churchill Island, the latter being the site of the first agricultural operations. in Vic- toria, the work being done with the coal shovel of the Lady Nelson. As an instance of the carelessness of Lieutenant Grant in chart- ing, it may be mentioned that in his book he states—‘‘ From several good observations, I found Western Port to be in latitude 38° 32’ S., and that by the chronometer its longitude was 146° 19’ to the eastward of Greenwich ’’—but in his chart he shows this position as being nearly 30 miles out to sea, an inconsistency which apparently did not worry him. The Victorian coast from Cape Patton to Cape Schank was still unmapped. Acting Lieutenant John Murray, who took charge of the Lady Nelson when Grant returned to England, with instruc- tions to examine the coast from Point Schank to Cape Otway, and who was the discoverer of Port Phillip Bay, is the first navigator known to have sailed along it, though in weather such that he was. unable to chart it. He also visited King Island, and made exten- sive surveys there. Of the names placed by Murray on the Vic- torian map, there now remains Point Nepean and Arthur’s Seat, whilst his ‘‘ Swan Islands’’ are our present ‘‘ Mud Islands,’’ and his ‘Swan Harbor ’’ the present ‘‘ Swan Bay.” The French, under Baudin, next appear upon the scene. After their visit to Tasmania, the Geographe party, missing Port Phillip, followed the Victorian coast from Wilson’s Promontory westward, and inet Flinders on the South Australian coast, at Encounter Bay; whilst the Maturaliste party went to Western Port, which they surveyed. Their survey of Western Port showed that French Island was surrounded with water at high tide, but Barallier had previously proved this. They fixed with greater accuracy the position of tl - western coast of the port, from Sandy Point to Flinders. Bass had been able only to sketch in this portion from the opposite shore of Phillip Island, and did not show the west head correctly. The PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION &. 349 writer has attempted to ascertain the present adopted names of points, &c., on our coast named by the French, his results being as follow :— French Name. Le Cone Le Coin de Miro Baie de Paterson Baie de la Venus Tle des Anglais Tle des Francais Cap Richelieu Baie Talleyrand Cap Suffren . Cap Marengo Cap Desaix .. Cap Volney .. Cap Folard . J. Latreille Cap du Mont Tabor .. Piton de Reconnaissance Cap Reaumur I. Foureroy .. Baie Tourville I. du Dragon Cap Montaigne Cap Duquesne Baie Descartes Cap Montesquieu Cape de Mont St. Ber- nard . (38 41 -|38 62 ..|38 563 ./38 493 .|88 463 -| On ee! By French Charts. Longitude E. Lat. 8 - reen- | Paris. | Wich. | ° ‘ ° , °o 7 -|39 18 -|39 33 .|Discovered but named by Bass .| Discovered but not named by Bass .| Discovered but not named by Bass .| Discovered but not named by Grant . (38 55 | 142 40] 145 00 .|Formerly King Bay, now unnamed 141 47 141 30 144 7 143 50 141 18 141 00 143 38 143 20 140 55] 143 15 coast between Ronald Point and Warrnambool. No such island in exis- tence 38 26 |140 101142 30 38 24 1140 9/142 29 ../38 23 |139 561142 16 ‘138 26 1139 51}142 11 -|38 26 1139 30]141 50 138 27 1139 21] 141 41 '|/38 24 1139 11]141 31 ‘138 10 1139 $141 28 38 2 ! English Name, Lat. and Long. 144 19|146 39] Rodondo Island, 39° 14’, 146° 23° 144 191146 54] Curtis Island, 39° 28’, 146° 38” not| Waratah Bay Venus Bay | Phillip Island French Island Cape Schank, 38° 39’, 144° 53° Cape Patton, 38° 413’, 143° 60° Storm Point (Danger Point, Grant), 38° 48’, 143° 39’ Cape Otway, 38° 514’, 143° 31’ Moonlight Head, 38° 46’, 143° 16’ Ronald Point, 38° 42’, 143° 10’ No projecting point there Tower Hill, 38° 20’, 142° 222’ Boulder Point, 38° 233’, 142° 9° Julia Percy Island, 38° 25’, 142 00’ Portland Bay Lawrence Rocks, 38° 25’, 141° 40’ Cape Nelson, 38° 26’, 141° 33’ Cape Bridgewater, 38° 24’, 141° 25° May be Mount Kincaid, 4 miles inland, 38° 11’, 141° 22’ Cape Northumberland, 38° 34’, 149° 40’ 350 : PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. From what has gone before, it will appear that on the present charts the French names have been adopted for Venus Bay and French Island, previously discovered by the British. French names have been affixed and published prior to the English ones in the following cases :— Cap Volney, Moonlight Head. Cap Folard, Ronald Point. Piton de Reconnaissance, Tower Hill. Cap Reaumur, Boulder Point. How far it may be desirable at the present time to replace any of the present English names by the French ones given in con- nexion with the Baudin expedition may be open to discussion, but the list above given cannot properly be exceeded. The talented Flinders was the next to navigate the Victorian coast-line, and in doing so fixed, with his usual care and accuracy, its position, but he added few names to the chart. He indicates Tower Hill as a “‘ peaked hill,’’ position uncertain; Buttress Point as a ““ bold projection’’ ; Moonlight Head as a head seen at 8 p.m. in moonlight; whilst his Cape Patton is the Danger Point of Grant and the Storm Point of the present charts. His chart shows the names Point Grant, Sandy Point, and Cape Woolamai at Western Port. The former two are due either to Grant or Barallier, whilst the latter may, on Flinders’ statement, be taken as by Bass, who described it as a high cape, like a schnapper’s head, forming an island. With the work of Flinders, the discovery of our Victorian coast may be considered as completed, and its detailed survey com- menced. In the appendix is given a table setting out the various points shown in his charts, together with their latitudes and longi- tubes from this and also from the present chart, from which the character of his work may be judged. Where Grant also shows these points, their latitudes and longitudes as from his chart are also given. For the data set out in this paper, the writer has referred, as far as possible, to original documents and charts, or their repro- ductions. Amongst the sources of information utilized, reference may be made to Flinders’ volumes and charts, Grant’s book, and the Historical Records of New South Wales, whilst Dr. Watkin’s interesting paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victoria Branch), must also be mentioned. er Sep a ti oy igs alee POS Jae Ey PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 351 Points, &c., on the Victorian coast named on Flinders’ charts, with their positions from his survey and from the recent Admiralty charts, together with their positions from Grant’s work, where shown by him :— Place. Cape Northumberland Mount Gambier Mount Schank Cape Bridgewater. . Cape Nelson #*.. Cape Sir W. Grant Lawrences Island .. Lady Julia Percy Island Peaked hill, position uncer- tain (?Tower Hill) - A bold projection g Buttress Point) . Head seen at 8 p.m. in Moon- light (?Moonlight Head) . Cape Albany Otway Cape Patton (Flinders), Storm Point (Admiralty), Cape Danger (Grant) - Not, named, Cape Patton (Grant and Admiralty) Flat- -topped Ben (?Sturt Point) . * Point Nepean Cape Schank Sandy Point Point Grant Cape Woolamai Cape Patterson Shallow Lagoon (?Anderson’s 8 Inlet) .. Cape Liptrap Glennies Island Wilson’s Promontory | Rodondo Island Moncur’s Island Curtis Island Sealer’s Cove Corner Inlet : Seal Island (Centre) Ram Head Cape Howe By Admiralty Chart. By Flinders. By Grant. S. Lat. E. Long ee es Oe 414| 143 50 39 |143 54 1g |144 39 30 |144 53 25 |146 14 31 1145.7 34 |145 22 401 | 145 36 381/145 44 55 1145 56 5 |146 14 8 |146 26 14 |146 23 134 | 146 31 28 |146 38 1 |146 27 47 1146 30 56 |146 40 4611149 282 30 |149 58 38 38 | 142 39 38 48 | 143 3 38 56 | 143 30 38 49 | 143 41 38 41 | 143 51 38 36 | 143 51 38 18 | 144 38 38 30 | 144 53 38 24 | 145 16 38 30 | 145 8 38 33 | 145 25 38 37 | 145 37 38 38 | 145 47 38 53 | 145 54 39 6 | 146 16 39 12 | 146 24 39 174) 146 23 39.17 | 146 32 39 31 | 146 38 39 4 | 146 30 38 43 | 146 32 39 00 | 146 40 37 38 | 149 42 37 30 |150 7 38 57 38 53 38 50 145. 2 145 14 145 265. 146 50 146 44 2 | 146 47 146 47 147 12 147 20 352 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 2. PHENOMENAL SOUNDS IN THE INTERIOR OF AUSTRALIA—ARE THEY TERRESTRIAL OR ATMOSPHERICAL? By Thomas Gill, T.S.0., Under-Treasurer of South Australia. I am somewhat diffident in submitting to the Geographical Section of this Association the following particulars, chiefly obtained from explorers’ journals, and personally from explorers and old bushmen, who have traversed the interior of Australia. I do not presume to offer any explanation as to the cause of the phenomena recorded here, but humbly submit the reports and opinions of different travellers on the mysterious sounds which are of frequent occurrence in certain localities, and which bewilder all who have heard them. ‘“ Phenomenal Sounds ’’ should contain references to ‘‘ Meteoric Stones’’ and ‘‘ Gbsidian Bombs,’’ but the inclusion of these interesting subjects would make the paper inordinately long. A few of the reports herein were collected as far back as 1888, about which time my attention was called to a small book published in Sydney, under the title of A Mother’s Offering to her Children by a Lady long Resident in New South Wales, printed at the Gazette office, Lower George-street, Sydney, and dedicated to Master Reginald Gipps, son of His Hxcellency Sir George Gipps, 29th October, 1841. In the first chapter on ‘‘ Extraordinary Sounds,’’ the author relates the following:——“‘ A gentleman was telling me some time ago of an extracrdinary circumstance which took place at Yass. I will endeavour to repeat it in his own words :-— “On my way to our sheep stations, in the year 1833, I passed a night at the residence of the hospitable Mr. Hamilton Hume, at Yass. While we were engaged in conversation, in the evening, ‘we were surprised by the apparent report of musketry, as if a smart fire of about five-and-twenty guns was kept up, near the house. We hastened out, suppcsing the Mounted Police had come to the spot and were engaged with bushrangers. The evening was dark, and we could discern nothing, though the firing still continued ; but it now appeared ascending into the air, higher and higher, till it gradually ceased, as if those who were firimg had ascended as they fired their muskets. We remained a short time listening with awe; wondering what this strange phenomena could _ portend. All was still. After expressing our astonishment, we. withdrew within the doorway, when Mr. Hume related a similar phenomenon which had occurred during an exploring journey which he took with Captain Sturt.’ ” The first record I have found dealing with this subject is by Captain Sturt, when he was exploring on the Darling, in 1829, as follows: —‘‘ About 3 p.m., on the 7th February, Mr. Hume and PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 353 I were occupied tracing the chart upon the ground. The day had been remarkably fine, not a cloud was there in the heavens, nor a breath of air to be felt. On a sudden we heard what seemed to be the report of a gun fired in the distance of between 5 and 6 miles. It was not the hollow sound of an earthly explosion, or the sharp cracking noise of falling timber, but in every way resembled 4 discharge of a large piece of ordnance. On this we all agreed, but no one was certain whence the sound proceeded. Both Mr. Hume and myself had been too attentive to our occupation to form a satisfactory opinion ; but we both thought it came from the north-west. I sent one of the men immediately up a tree, but he could observe nothing unusual. The country around him appeared to be equally flat on all sides, and to be thickly wooded. Whatever caused the report, it made a strong impression on all of us, and to this day the singularity of such a sound in such a situation is a matter of mystery to me.’’ Again, when exploring in Central Australia, in 1844, Captain Sturt records having heard similar noises in the far north of this Colony. In Vol. II of his narrative he says—‘‘I would also advert to a circumstance I neglected to mention in its proper place, but which may be as forcibly done now as at the time it occurred. When Mr. Browne and I were on our recent journey to the north, after having crossed the Stony Desert, being then between it and Eyre’s Creek, about 9 o’clock in the morning, we distinctly heard a report as of a great gun discharged to the west- ward, at the distance of half a mile. On the following morning, nearly at the same time, we again heard the sound, but it now eame from a greater distance, and consequently was not so clear. When I was on the Darling, in latitude 30°, in 1829, I was roused from my work by a similar report; but neither on that occasion nor on this could I solve the mystery in which it was involved. It might, indeed, have been some gaseous explosion, but I never, in the interior, saw any indication of such phenomena.”’ The next published account, which appears to have been atmo- spheric, is by Mr. James Allen, junior, who, in his Journal of an Experimental Trip of the ‘‘ Lady Augusta” on the River Murray, published in 1853, page 39, says:—‘‘ I may here mention a very singular phenomenon which appeared at Swan Hill (on the Murray) some two years ago, and which has been so well authenticated, both by the natives and the settlers in the district, as to leave no doubt as to its occurrence. About a month previous to the Christmas of 1851 a small dark cloud was seen to rise above the horizon, towards the north-west. Immediately after its appear- ance it emitted a flash of fire, succeeded by a rumbling noise like thunder, or the trampling of a large body of horse, but con- siderably louder, and passed over to the east, dispersing itself like 6117. M 3oD4 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. smoke. The day was remarkably bright and clear, with a per- fectly unclouded sky. Its passage occupied from four to five minutes, and the noise resulting from the discharge of the flash, I am told, was most terrific. The natives were dreadfully alarmed, and even to this day have a vivid recollection of the circumstance. This account is not in the least exaggerated, and, if the occurrence had not been well authenticated by respectable settlers in the neighbourhood, I should not have described it in my journal. As it is, it will be food for speculative minds, and interest those fond of the marvellous.’’ The Reverend J. E. Tenison Woods, in his work entitled Geological Observations -in South Australia, published in 1862, when referring to the lakes in the south-eastern district, appends the following as a note to Chapter III:—“‘‘ There is a curious cir- eumstance connected with these swamps, which have an under- ground drainage, which, in any other than a new country, would surely have been invested with some ghostly legend. Every evening, during spring and the early part of summer, distant groanings are heard, like the lowing of a large herd of cattle, and very resonant, near a few swamps, such, for instance, as that situated near Mr. Donald McArthur’s Station, Limestone Ridge. Generally, three such echoing sounds are heard, and then about half-an-hour’s repose. I believe the sounds are entirely due to a column of air resisting a column of water, which is draining through the limestone, and finally being driven back or forwards, according to the periodical increase of the weight of water. To one ignorant of the cause, the sounds are mournful and startling in the extreme, and they are not heard in the day, probably because there are so many other sounds of cattle, &c., to mingle and be confused with them. On the coast also, where there are sandstones, noises like distant artillery are heard on windy days. Dr. Phipson mentions these sounds as being very common on the sandy parts of the coast of England, and is at a loss to assign a cause. It seems, however, to be in some way connected with large collections of sand. Sturt mentions that when in the Australian Desert, surrounded by high hills of red sand of that inhospitable country, he was startled one morning by hearing a loud, clear, reverberating explosion, like the booming of artillery. The next morning he heard it again. The mornings were calm and clear, and they were, at least, 600 miles from the settled districts. My brother (Mr. T. A. Woods), when at Mount Serle, in the horseshoe of Lake Torrens, which is a very sandy desert, has frequently heard the same loud boomings on fine clear days. They seemed to come with a startling echo from the sandhills, and reverberated for a long time among the hills. Mitchell and Sturt have observed the same thing in other parts of Australia. May the cause not Xt PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 355 be similar to that which makes the sand musical at Eigg (see Hugh Miller’s Cruise of the Betsy, chapter IV); the sonorous moving sand at Reg Rawan, Cabul; and the thundering sand of Jabel Nablous,! in Arabia Petrea’? In the latter case, the mere falling of the sand on the rock beneath made a sound like distant thunder and caused the rocks to vibrate. The ultimate cause is quite unexplained.’’ At Nakous, near the shore of the Red Sea, there are heard, at intervals, underground sounds resembling the tinkling of a bell. This phenomenon is probably due to some sort of suppressed vol- canic agency. T addressed Mr. W. H. Tietkens, who had accompanied Mr. Ernest Giles through Central Australia, and later revisited Central Australia, when he named Lake Macdonald, and who had also travelled in the Eucla district, with a view of obtaining his experi- ence and ideas on this subject, to which he replied:—‘‘I am afraid I cannot help you with very much material for your paper, except giving my own impressions and recollections of Fort Mueller. In the Cavenagh Range there exist large masses of iron ore carrying a high percentage of metal, and in no part of the Continent have I seen such enormous masses of highly magnetic ore. The Cavenagh Range may be said to form a low detached series of bald hills, the timber becoming especially scarce towards the western end, and where the masses of ore are to be seen, though I may say similar were met with upon one occasion at the Bell-Metal Rock of Giles, which, upon referring to Giles’ map, will be seen to be some considerable distance to the eastward. The diary of Mr. Gosse does not give us any special remarks upon this range, although he camped near Fort Mueller for some weeks. We were bound up as rigidly as in any Arctic ship in winter ice for some months at this spot, nor did we get-away from there until the Rawlinson was discovered. Since the time of Sturt, at the Depot Glen, in 1844, no travellers were ever so securely penned in as we were; the recollections of the place are somewhat vivid, for it was necessarily a critical time. Very distant shocks of earth- quake were noticed (I think in November) accompanied by strangely uncomfortable earth rumblings, large masses of the loose iron ore of which the adjacent hills were composed were sent with a tremendous noise into the little valley or gully below, and through which a little ti-tree creek ran (there is no gum timber there); this little watercourse was perfectly fresh, clear, and beautiful water, the strange peculiarity being its intermittent character, as regular as the tides of the ocean, its flow being at night and its ebb during the day, the little rock basin at the camp 1 Also named ‘Jebel Nagus.” M2 356 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. receiving its fresh supply every night. I can offer no explanation for this, nor have I noticed such at any other inland springs. The earth tremors or waves took a north-west and south-east direc- tion, approximately, and the subterranean booms and rumblings, always succeeded the shock by some few seconds. I use the plural, for, though only the first shock was violent enough to displace the rocks (each many tons in weight), there were many other shocks for a fortnight afterwards, each accompanied by rumblings sufficiently distinct and uncomfortable.’’ Colonel Egerton Warburton, an old explorer of Central Aus- tralia, said he had a vivid recollection of hearing, on one occasion, about 6 a.m., a loud report in the vicinity of Lake Torrens, in 1857, and which he described as similar to an explosion of a barrel of powder at about a mile distant. He imagines the cause due to ‘vents of mud volcanoes, of which he had seen traces of several during his northern explorations. These inactive outlets resembled holes from which trees had been grubbed, and lying around the holes were small pieces of what the Colonel thought were fossilized chips of wood. Some of these chips were submitted to the Rey. Tenison Woods, who pronounced them to be pieces of dried mud. At the time the Colonel heard the report, he was not aware of the existence of the holes, and could not recollect whether they were in the vicinity of the reports. Mr. Christopher Giles, who has resided some years in the cen- tral portions of Australia, namely, at Charlotte Waters, on the overland telegraph line, has heard several reports like discharges of artillery in the vicinity of Dalhousie Springs. He has no dates, but, so far as he can recollect, the sounds occurred at different times of the day. Mr. Giles attributes the cause to outbursts of fresh springs. Mr. R. R. Knuckey, formerly of the Telegraph Department, who is, I suppose, better acquainted with South Australia than most travellers, says he has heard these peculiar sounds only in the vicinity of the Peake and Dalhousie Springs. Whilst camped at the Peake on 21st December, 1870, he was startled about 1 a.m. by a loud report, and the next day a new artesian spring was found at Coppa-toppa. Again, near Dalhousie Springs, between Mt. Crispe and Edith Springs, he heard three distinct reports in January, 1871, and three new artesian springs were subsequently found in the vicinity. Our late Government Geologist, Mr. H. Y. Lyell Brown, in his first annual report, makes the following remarks on the sand- hill country between the overland telegraph and the Queensland border, in Central Australia:—‘‘ The sandhills rest indiscrimi- nately on the clay flats and plains or the stony downs, their eleva- tion above these varying from 10 to 70 or 80 feet, and width o£ PROCEEDINGS OF SECTLON E. 507 ‘from 100 to 200 yards at the base. There is no evidence of the ‘sand having been blown along the surface, or transported from a, distance by water flowing over the surface cf the ground, which is, as a rule, quite clear of sand between the hills. I have reason to believe that in many eases, particularly in those of the isolated ridges and mounds traversing the stony desert at long distances apart, the sand has been derived from an underground source through the pressure of subterranean water. There was, in all probability, an outlet at one time connecting the old cretaceous ‘sea, which occupied the centre of Australia, with the ocean. If we suppose a sudden or gradual closing up of this outlet to have taken place through the subsidence of the land, or any other cause, the water, not having any vent to escape by, would accumu- late in the porous strata until, under sufficient pressure, it would force its way to the surface along cracks or through holes caused by such pressure, and bring with it the sand, in a similar manner to the present mud and sand springs. The eruption of sand in large quantities would cause a subsidence of the surrounding area, whereof there is evidence in the valleys of the Cooper and Diaman- tina, and thus have created the great lakes into which these rivers now flow. About 35 miles south-east of Clifton Hill Sta- tion, on the Diamantina, there are two parallel red sand ridges traversing a stony plain in a north-north-westerly direction; the plain is covered with a pavement-like coating of flinty quartzite stones. On the east side blocks and boulders of the same rock are scattered about, amongst which are numerous low circular mounds ef white clayey sand, the centres of which are formed of blocks of stones piled up, which are encircled by other smaller blocks, and these by scattered stones, the whole bearing the appearance of having been erupted by springs from below. At numerous other places similar appearances present themselves, mounds of sand, gravel, and clay, and scattered stones occurring on the sur- face of many of the plains and flat areas, the presence of which it is difficult to account for in any other way, as there are no rocks at a higher level in the neighbourhood from which sand or gravel could have been washed.”’ At a later date, when discussing with Mr. Brown the booming sounds occasionally heard in the far north, he was inclined to the opinion that the eruptions of sand referred to in his report were probably accompanied by detonations. On the 3rd November, 1877, over the signature ‘‘ Tom Porter,”’ the following appeared in the South Australian Register :— ‘* Possibly some scientist will kindly explain what caused some, to me, strange noises I heard just as it was getting dark on 7th or 8th May, on a run in the north-west. ‘‘T was riding facing the west when a flash of very red light filled the air, and made me pull up and look in every direction, for it was totally different to the flash of a shooting star, and the 358 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. sky was quite clear, excepting for a few fleecy clouds that were thinly obscuring it in places, so that I knew it was not lightning, or, at any rate, did not proceed from thunderclouds. After the first flash I saw nothing more of the kind, and rode on, concluding that I must be mistaken in thinking it was not a shooting star, as I could account for it in no other way. I had ridden at a walk about 100 yards, got off my horse, and led it through a gate, and was preparing to vault lightly and gracefully into the saddle, when I was startled by an explosion which appeared to come from some high and rough granite ranges and gorges that lay about 2 miles behind me. ‘The first report or explosion was followed by five or six others, about as quickly as one could fire off a self-cocking revolver, with a loud, vibrating, rushing noise running through the reports and linking them together. I should think it was fully a minute before the rushing sound and vibration died away. I am quite positive it was not the falling of rocks and their echoes, as it was a most distinct explosive detonating sound, and was totally dif- ferent to the noise of the discharge of firearms, also there was no white man in that direction for 200 miles. I’ve read of such sounds being often heard in the Sierra Nevada mountains, but I had no idea that any colonial hills were equal to such mysteries.”’ Mr. William Russell, of the Semaphore, near Port Adelaide, a student in meteorology, has sent me the following :— ‘““ According to promise, I herewith enclose a few extracts - having reference to meteors, which show that sometimes these interesting visitors from space, when not seen, cause disturbances which may be mistaken for ordinary earthquakes. “““Snowtown, 28th August, 1888.—The heaviest shock of earthquake ever experienced here was felt this morning at half- past 3 o’clock. The shock lasted about 30 seconds. It was accompanied with a very distinct rumbling sound.’ ‘““* Red Hill (same date).—Residents were rudely startled from their slumbers about half-past three this morning, when the whole place suddenly became brilliantly illuminated, followed by a loud crash similar to that of thunder, and causing considerable vibra- tion to buildings, &c. The sky was perfectly clear.’ ‘Same place, same date.—‘ At twenty minutes past three this morning a very brilliant meteor was seen to fall. After travelling some distance it burst with a terrific report. The inhabitants were greatly alarmed, as the explosion made the earth tremble.’ ’’ Later Mr. Russell received a letter from a friend, who described the meteor of 28th August as the most gorgeous and beautiful spectacle he had ever witnessed. He said—‘‘I was going home from the office with a friend, and was walking down Flinders- street, when what seemed to be a flash of light, or rather the reflection of one, attracted our attention to our left. We both turned, and then saw a magnificent meteor steering away towards PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 359 the north-east. It appeared to light up the whole of the city for an instant. It very quickly changed; the head seemed to swell, and in an instant it spread out, apparently bursting into thousands of pieces of all the colours of the rainbow, but with no noise— the tail remained a beautiful white.” A resident of Mundoora also wrote Mr. Russell as follows :— ““T saw the meteor of 28th August when walking home. Beautiful moonlight night, no clouds, clear frosty atmosphere. Direction due west, and altitude when first seen about 6 degrees, as near as I can guess; direction when it burst was due east, and altitude about 8 degrees. It went right across the sky from west to east. The light was brighter than moonlight—could have read the smallest print. When the meteor was passing, and when it burst the light was as bright as sunlight, of a blue colour, like the electric light, and the noise was terrific—like tremendous can- nonading, and was followed by a rattle like thunder right across the sky. I seemed to see the noise as it was travelling, if you can understand the feeling. I did not feel the earth tremble, and was standing firmly wondering what was going to happen next. It was truly a wonderful sight—I saw it at the start, and was walking due west at the time.’’ Mr. Russell quotes another instance, which occurred on 19.b June, 1896, of a brilliant meteor which was observed at various places from Queensland to Broken Hill. At Wilcannia it was succeeded by a rumbling sound, and houses shook as if an earth- quake had taken place. Mr. L. A. Wells, explorer, reports— “On the 23rd April, 1897, whilst myself and party were re- turning from the Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia, after én unsuccessful search for the missing members of the Calvert Expedition, and travelling down ‘ Jirgurra’ Creek, en route for the Fitzroy River and Derby, we had camped for the night, and shortly after dark a most brilliant meteor appeared in the sky and lit up the surrounding country. It was travelling from east to west, and appeared to explode, ending in a shower of sparks. Some minute or two afterwards we heard a terrific explosion or report like cannon. I asked my native boy what it was, and he replied that there were plenty like that in his country. ‘‘ Again, on or about the 23rd of March, 1898, whilst camped in the open air, at ‘ Cariapateena,’ a run on the western shores of Lake Torrens, and some time after dark, I saw another brilliant meteor. After timing one and a half minutes by my watch, I con- cluded there would be no report, when almost immediately after- wards I heard another loud report resembling the one previously 360 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. déscribed. This was also heard by James Trainor, whom I ha@ left camiped at a hut about 14 miles to the southward. He heard the noise, and thought it was thunder, but on going out of the hut saw nothing but a clear starlit sky. This meteor was seen from the railway line between Quorn and Beltana. ‘On both occasions referred to the sky was perfectly clear and the weather calm.”’ The Government Geologist of Tasmania, Mr. W. H. Twelve- trees, in 1904, stated—‘‘ The sounds are occasionally heard in dif- ferent parts of Tasmania. At the northern foot of the Western Tiers they have been heard, and rather absurdly attributed to blasting at Mt. Lyell mines, at the western part of the island. Miss Maclean, who resides on Clarke Island, in the Straits, has told me that they are often heard there in still weather, day and night, and that they always appear to come from the direction cf Cape Barren Island, further to the east; hence they call them _ Cape Barren guns. The sound is like the booming of distant cannon, and seems to come from the horizon. Once they thought it was a ship firing distress signals. I heard them last May (1903) on the west bank of the River Tamar in the forenoon on a cloud- less, calm day. The sound was that of artillery in the distance firing minute guns, and came from the west, the direction of the hill ranges, or rather from behind the ranges. It was repeated at intervals for several minutes. The previous night, between 9 and 10 o’clock, these sounds were heard for half-an-hour at a time, and the following night also. This was about 17 miles north of Launceston, and 50 feet above sea level. In December, 1899, I heard the same sounds twice repeated when I was on the top of Mount Victoria, in the north-east of the island, 4,000 feet above the sea level. ‘“The residents of Tamar tell me that the sounds are hear frequently.’’ r The captain of the Victoria Tower Gold Mining Company, at. Wadnaminga, Mr. F. D. Johnston, reported to the Royal Society of South Australia his observations during the years 1888 and 1889 at Gill’s Bluff, Flinders Range (see Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., Vol. XII, p. 157). He compared the sounds with those of blowing off steam from a large boiler. Captain Johnston, when referring to slight rumbling sounds at 8 p.m. on the 21st November, 1888, said, ‘‘ Visiting Mount Rose a few days afterwards, I found that a very loud rumbling had been heard by John McCleish at the same time. Thinking a storm was approaching, McCleish rose and questioned the blacks, who were a few yards below him in the Gammon Creek. The natives said, ‘That one growl alonga ground.’ ’’ This remark evidently shows that the natives con- sidered the noises to be subterranean. McCleish stated that reports similar to mining blasts, followed by dull booming sounds, are noticeable every week in the vicinity of Gammon Range. eae se Te os : ji PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 361 The late Mr. Victor Streich, who was geologist to the Elder Expedition, referred to booming sounds heard at Fraser Range Station, at Yilgarn, and at Annean Station, Western Australia (see Trans. Royal Soc., S.A., Vol. XVI., pp. 119-120). He said, “TI feel convinced that this noise is not caused by any force of geological or terrestrial origin; but as these -places from which the phenomenon in question is reported belong to the most arid regions of Australia, in which nothing but the meteorological conditions are alike, it must be assumed that these subaerial conditions are the cause. I should think that they are dctonations resulting from electrical discharges, in the form of a glow discharge, which, while spreading over a large area, is less perceptible, and is said to occur more frequently in a dry continental climate during a dry thunder- storm.’ Although the opinion expressed by Mr. Streich is quoted herein, it is only just to say that he did not hear the sounds himself, and, as he was not acquainted with the diversity of sounds heard in -different localities in Central Australia, his opinion can only apply -to the reports he received in Western Australia. 3. THE FOUNDATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE. By Miss Marjorie Masson. 4. THE DISCOVERY OF TERRA AUSTRALIS. By #. A. Petherick, F.R.G.S., F.L.S. 5. A RECENT VISIT TO PORT ARTHUR, ITS PRISON, AND CONVICT CHURCH. By John McMahon. (a2) AUSTRALIAN HISTORY: DISPOSAL OF DUPLICATES OF ge CERTAIN GOVERNMENT DESPATCHES. (See Vol. xitt., p. 58.) Report py Prov. G. C. Henperson, M.A., PRESIDENT oF SEcTiIoN E AT THE SyDNEY MEBRTING. At the last meeting of the Australian Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, at Sydney, in January, 1911, the following. resolution was passed :—‘‘ In the opinion of this Association, it is -desirable that the governing bodies of the Public Libraries of 362 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, and Hobart should communicate with the Secretary of State for the Colonies asking that duplicates of the despatches that passed between the Governors of the Colonies and the Secretaries of State up to a date to be fixed upon by the Secretary of State should be placed in | ») their charge In compliance with the terms of this resolution, the General Secretary of the Public Library of South Australia wrote through the Minister of Education to the Secretary of State asking that the duplicates of the despatches up to the year 1855 should be trans- ferred from Government House to the Public Library. We fixed upon that date because it was the year in which Responsible and Representative Government was granted. I enclose copies of several of the letters written and received by the General Secretary, which will enable you to follow the pro- cedure adopted in this State in order to give effect to the resolution passed by the Association for Science. You will see that the Secretary of State in England wrote a despatch to His Excellency the Governor of South Australia, com- plying with the request, provided the Governor and his Ministers had no objection. I am glad to be able to inform you that the ar- rangements for the transfer are now complete, and that two officers are employed at the expense of the Public Library Board to do the work indicated in the enclosed letter from the General Secretary of our Public Library to the Librarian in each State. The time has come when a study of the history of the different States in the Commonwealth is likely to be entered upon in a sys- tematic way by University and other students; and if the results of that study are to be authoritative a knowledge of the contents of these despatches is indispensable. That knowledge can hardly be acquired unless the despatches are transferred to some institution which is accessible to students. The Governor of this State in- sisted that regulations should be drawn up for the proper super- vision of these duplicates so that no irresponsible person might have access to them. A copy of the regulations drawn up by the Public Library Board, and accepted by His Excellency and- his Ministers, is enclosed. If we are to give full effect to the resolution of the Association, it will be necessary for these duplicate despatches to be made avail- able in every State of the Commonwealth, and also in New Zealand. The General Secretary of the Public Library of South Australia has written to the Librarian in each capital of the Commonwealth and New Zealand, suggesting that he might ask for a transfer of the despatches up to the time at which Representative and Respon- sible Government was granted to the State in which he resides. a ee PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 363 I am officially informed that similar arrangements to those in Adelaide have been made with the public libraries in Perth and Sydney, with the permission of their Excellencies the Governors of Western Australia and New South Wales. The following resolution was adopted by the General Council of the Association, at the meeting in January, 1913. ‘“Tt having been reported to this Association that the South and Western Australian and New South Wales Governments have, with the consent of the Secretary of State, and with the concurrence cf His Excellency the Governor, sanctioned the transfer of duplicate despatches up to the year 1855 from Government House to the Public Library, for the use of ac- credited students of history under appropriate regulations), it _is recommended that the transfer of similar archives be effected in the other Australian States and the Dominion of New Zealand. [Copy. ] Dominions Circular. Downing-street, 2nd December, 1909. Sir, With reference to Mr. Lyttelion’s despatch of 4th October, 1905, enclosing copy of a circular despatch of 21st September, 1905, I have the honour to inform you that the regulations in regard to access to Colonial Office records in the Public Record Office have recently been revised. 2. I have now decided that the public may have unfettered access to such records, with the exception of certain special records, down to the year 1837, instead of the year 1802, as heretofore; and that records of a date subsequent to 1837 may be made acces- sible to individuals who have obtained i.e special permission of the Secretary of State, on condition that no minutes or official memoranda are to be copied, and that copies of all documents, which it is desired to retain, are to be submitted for examination before removal. The permission of the Secretary of State will not be given by any means as a matter of course, but will depend on the standing of the applicant and the subject-matter of the inquiry. 3. I have not thought it necessary to fix a definite date beyond which permits should not be granted to search records subsequent to 1837; but in ordinary cases such permits would not be granted for correspondence later than 1860, though in very special cases this limit might be slightly extended. 564 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. 4. I shall be glad if you will suggest to your Ministers the- desirability of their treating all applications for the search of — Colonial records in general accordance with the above rules;: and if you will yourself follow the above principles in the case of any correspondence which is under your own custody, as having: been originally of a confidential character, but which appears to- you, from the lapse of time, to have ceased to be confidential. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your most obedient humble Servant, CREWE.. The Officer administering the Government, South Australia. REGULATIONS FOR GOVERNING THE USE or DUPLICATE GOVERNMENT™ House DespatcHes TRANSFERRED TO THE PuBLIc LIBRARY OF” SourH AUSTRALIA. The Board having undertaken that the duplicate Government House Despatches exchanged between the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the Governor of South Australia for the time being which have been transferred from Government House to the Public Library shall be accessible only to bond fide students engaged upon original historical research, the Board hereby approves the following regulations for controlling the use of such Despatches : — Regulations. I. That all Despatches from the Secretary of State for the Colonies to the Governor of South Australia, and from the Governor of South Australia to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, for the years 1837 to 1855, which shall have been deposited in the Public Library of South Australia shall be kept in the strong-room of the Public Library building. II. There shall be only two keys of the strong-room in the Public Library building, one of which shall be in the custody of the General Secretary and one in the custody of the Librarian. Ill. Every applicant for permission to refer to such Despatches shall fill in and sign an application form, which shall indicate his: full Christian and surnames, his age, occupation, and address. It shall also explain his object in desiring to refer to such Despatches,. and in what way he proposes to use the information so obtained. ® Se PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION E. ; 365 IV. Every Adelaide University or other student who shall apply for permission to refer to such Despatches shall be required to produce a permit issued by the Chancellor of the Adelaide University, certifying that the holder of such permit is a student of South Australian history, and requires to have access to Govern- ment House Despatches in order to pursue his studies. All such permits shall be good for the year only in which they are issued. V. Under no circumstance shall any student be permitted to copy minutes or official memoranda which may be indorsed on any Despatch, or on any document to which a Despatch may be attached, or in which it may be enclosed. (Vide Dominions Circular, 23rd December, 1909.) VI. No notes made by any University or other student from Government House Despatches in the Public Library shall be taken out of the Public Library until they shall have been sub- mitted to the General Secretary and approved by him, VII. Whenever it is possible to do so, any student who desires to refer to Government House Despatches shall give one day’s notice of the Despatches to which he wishes to refer, so that the Librarian may have them looked out for him when he wishes to commence his researches. VIII. Government House Despatches may be seen at the Public Library only between the hours of 10 a.m. and 5 p.m. on ordinary week days, and between 10 a.m. and 12.30 p.m. on Saturdays. They shall not be available on Sundays or on public holidays. IX. All students referring to Government House Despatches must do so in the Librarian’s Office or in the Cataloguing Room. In no case shall such Despatches be consulted in the open Library. X. In the event of two students applying for the same Despatches at one time, the General Secretary, or, in his absence, the Librarian, shall exercise his discretion as to which applican$ shall receive priority. Section F. ETHNOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT: DR. W. RAMSAY SMITH, Permanent Head of the Department of Public Health of South Australia. - AUSTRALIAN CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS from the standpoint of PRESENT ANTHROPOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE. pe Tee I : Bis ue : : ‘ Mirantur homines altitudines montium, itngentes fluctus maris, altissimos lapsus fluminum et oceani ambitum et gyros siderum—et relinquunt seipsos, nec mirantur.’’—St. Augustine. The injunction of the oracle, ‘‘ Know Thyself,’’ written over the gates of the temple at Delphi, has been accepted as the text of all religions, and the motto of all philosophies. Expressed in modern scientific thought-currency, it is ‘‘ Study Anthropology.’’ Anthro- pology, in helping man to know himself, is concerned with the questions—What are we? Whence are we? How are we? For it deals with man, present-day man, individually and in bulk, with the rock out of which he was hewn or the pit out of which he was digged, and with the process of the making or the moulding. It imposes on the searcher an inquiry into ancestry, relatives, and relationships. To echo metaphysics, Anthropology studies man in the phases of being and becoming. To borrow a phrase from a religious book, it deals with how man works out his own salvation. It is also prompted to ask whither, as a race, we are going, and how we can affect our destination, or our destiny, and control the conditions of the journey. The indifference of the natural man to this study, absolutely and relatively, has been set forth by St. Augustine: ‘‘ Men go to gaze wonderingly at the lofty mountain peaks, the great sea billows, the deep flowing rivers, and the stars in their courses, and take no stock of themselves, see nothing worth looking at.’’ Till within a few years ago, Anthropology, or, as it was called, the Natural History of Man, was little else than an enumeration of the physical characters of the various peoples of the earth, with some reference to extinct races and the specific characters of man. It had no connecting or unifying principles. The allied science, or pastime, of archeology interested itself in a casual way with eer ae PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 367 speculations about ancient dwellings, weapons, implements, ‘“DPruidical remains,’’ burial customs, and a few other such like subjects. Beyond some general knowledge or suspicion that races differed in some respects from each other, and that in recent times there is shown a_ general or particular progress, there was but little known; and _ there seemed to be no idea that the comparative study of races, or the practice of comparative anatomy, could possibly possess a_ vital interest for man. In this respect, the science, if it can be called a science, was in much the same position as alchemy, astrology, or galvanism. But just as alchemy made place for chemistry, just as astrology developed into astronomy, just as galvanism, which was merely a medical curiosity, expanded as the science of elec- tricity to influence the whole sphere of human activities, so Anthro- pology, for reasons we may see and by ways we can trace, became a science, the one science universally considered to be worthy of study, not only by experts, but by every thoughtful mind. As a body of accumulated facts, with certain established prin- . ciples, Anthropology comes into touch with all things human. For it deals with man’s body and mind, and all that these include and imply; with his physical structure and bodily functions; with his intellect, emotions, and will; with his languages, religions, customs, social conditions, habits, instincts, appetites, and activities. It deals with all human peoples. past and present, with everything in the Universe that is related to man or that influences him in any way, and with the manner and the extent of the influence. It deals with the mode and the degree in which he possesses structures, faculties, and characters that he has in common with the rest of the creation. When it is affirmed that ‘“God made all the creatures and gave them our love and our fear, To give sign, we and they are his children, one family here.’’ It examines whether the statement is a poetical figure or a scientific fact that man and all creatures are really one family, and, if one family, whether and to what extent they are a family by kinship or by consanguinity. As a result of careful observa- tion, it finds that there is not in man one thing—physical, mental, or moral—that is not capable of being elucidated by comparative study; that the world is all of a piece, warp and woof; and that in the scheme of Nature man has an important place. To the scientist the words ‘‘ Man’s Place in Nature” are in- evitably associated with the phrase Evolution Theory, and _ this again suggests the term Darwinism. A word on these two. Three theories have been advanced at different times to explain the c)a- dition of the universe—(1) That the universe never had a beginning, and that things have always been as they are now. 368 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. (2) That the universe came into existence by an act of special creation. (3) That the present is the outcome of all the past, by a process of gradual change, and that, as part of this process, from | an original homogeneous nebula our earth, with all its diverse mineral, vegetable, and animal forms, has been evolved by causes acting in sequences of such a sort as can be traced and formulated, the formule being called Laws of Nature. This last is the Evolu- tion Theory. This evolution theory is almost as old as human thought; but formerly it was far from being universally received. In fact, the opposite theory, the doctrine of the fixity and immutability of species was almost universal up to the end of the eighteenth century. This was due to the influence of the Platonic philosophy, with its doctrine of the eternal ideas, and to the fact that science was completely dominated by myth and philosophy during the middle ages. Under Copernicus, Harvey, and Newton, science began to revive, and the doctrine of evolution took shape in the minds of men such as Buffon, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Goethe, Erasmus Darwin, Lamarck, Lyell, Herschel, Robert Chambers, Herbert Spencer, and Alfred Russel Wallace. In 1859, it received a large contribution by the publication of Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species. Kant, Laplace, and Herschel had applied the evolution theory to astronomy; Lyell had brought in the theory of uniformity in geology as opposed to violent revolutions, in order to explain the present structure of the earth’s crust; Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck applied the theory to biology; and Charles Darwin extended its application to that science, and discovered principles of evolution which could be applied, as Herbert Spencer had done even before Darwin’s writing, to psychology, and, as many others have since done, to sociology and every branch of science. Charles Darwin’s work must not be confused with the labours of others in the field of evolution. Before he wrote, there was no doubt in the minds of many that there was truth in the theory. Biologists believed in the variation of plant and animal forms, and brought forward theories to account for the modifications. Erasmus Darwin, in 1794, held that change of environment was a cause of variation. Lamarck, in 1801, held to three chief means of modification—the direct action of the physical conditions of life, the crossing of already existing forms, and the use and disuse of organs, 7.e., habit. These were attempts, not to prove evolu- tion, which the authors firmly believed in, but to find a vera causa to account for, or to explain how, evolution took place ; not to prove the fact, but to discover the factors. Charles Darwin followed this up by another contribution to the forces or method of evolution— another vera causa, viz., natural selection. This is founded on the “ j $ ats ¢ PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 369 principles that organisms multiply so rapidly in geometrical pro- gression that only a few can survive, that a struggle for existence is the consequence, and that those survive which, on account of some variation, best correspond with their environment; no two organisms being identical, although bearing a general likeness to their parents and to each other. Natural selection, then, with sexual selection and some other principles added, is what is meant by Darwinism. But the term appears recently to have increased in content, af its meaning has not actually been changed. Marrett says— “‘ Anthropology is the child of Darwin. Darwinism makes it possible. Reject the Darwinian point of view, and you must reject Anthropology also. What, then, is Darwinism ? Not a cut-and-dried doctrine. Not a dogma. Darwinism is a working hypothesis. You suppose something to be true, and work away to see whether, in the light of that supposed truth, certain facts fit together better than they do on any other supposition. What is the truth that Darwinism sup- poses? Simply that all the forms of life in the world are related together; and that the relations manifested in time and space between the different lives are sufficiently uniform to be described under a general formula, or law of evolution.’’ Again, he says— “With Darwin, then, we anthropologists say: Let any and every portion of human history be studied in the light of the whole history of mankind, and against the background of the history of living things in general. It is the Darwinian out- look that matters. None of Darwin’s particular doctrines will necessarily endure the test of time and trial. Into the melting-pot must they go as often as any man of science deems it fitting. But Darwinism as the touch of nature that makes the whole world kin can hardly pass away. At any rate, anthropology stands or falls with the working hypothesis. derived from Darwinism, of a fundamental kinship and con- tinuity amid change between all the forms of human life.’’ The above statements will illustrate the term ‘‘ Darwinism ”’ in its narrowest and in its widest connotation. If we change our jandmarks, we should record the fact. Evolution, then, means that every organism, every plant, and animal is the sum of the product of its heredity and its environ- ment, that every human being is at any given time the sum or product of what he originally received, actively or potentially, from all his various ancestors, and what his environment has made im. Mankind has abandoned the theory that children with any 70 PROCEELINGS OF SECTION F. ew sort of body, with certain limitations as to colour, might be pro- duced by any or every sort of parents, and might be endowed with any sort of mental qualities, except that mind and body were alike wholly evil—conceived in sin and brought forth in iniquity. Since every organism is the resultant or product of two sets of forces, viz., intrinsic or inherent, 7.e., its inherited conditions or heredity, and extrinsic or outward, 7.c., its environmental condi- tions or environment, it is necessary to define the terms heredity and environment. What is heredity? Heredity is the influence of parents on off- spring; in other words, it is the tendency manifested by an organism to develop in the likeness of its progenitor. Heredity simply means that the offspring tends to resemble the parent; that like tends to beget like; man like man, dog like dog, apple like apple. This, of course, nobody denies. It is a statement founded on extensive observation, and, therefore, strictly scientific. What is environment? Environment is the aggregate or sum total of surrounding conditions in which a man, other animal, or organism develops—it is the totality of all the outward conditions and forces to which an organism is subjected, as distinguished from its own inherent properties or forces. That environment does exist, and does influence every organism, is another unassailable scientific truth. So far, all is clear. But when we ask, What part is due to heredity, and what to environment, our difficulties begin. For this is, in fact, another mode of stating the problem of variation. If heredity means that like begets like, variation means that like begets unlike; and the question arises, Is all variation due to environment; if not, how much of the variation or unlikeness is due to heredity, and how much to environment ? Darwin held that every new animal and vegetable form is developed from a previously existing form by variations that prove useful to it in competition with ‘‘ fellows, foes, and physical forces,’’ either by way of combat, or procurement of food, or self- protection, or in some other way, and that are transmitted to, and rendered permanent in, some or all of the offspring. He believed that such variations, termed ‘‘ individual variations,’’ occur fre- quently, are widely spread, are usually small, and that the new forms originate by a gradual process from the slow elimination of the old forms and the slow ‘‘ fixing’’ of the new. Incidentally, I may point out that there is evidence, from observations by De Vries and others, that new forms may originate by a leap, depending on the fixing of large ‘‘ single variations,’’ ‘‘ sports,’’ ‘“‘ discontinuous variations,’ or ‘‘ mutations’’; a fact of which Darwin was cognisaut, but to which, after some study, he attached very small importance in his scheme of evolution. oe. on eee ee a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. ot Of course, you all know that just at this point the question arises as to what variations are inherited or are capable of being inherited? For example, suppose we experimented with mice, shortening their tails, and allowing only short-tailed subjects to breed, should we find that the “‘ acquired ’’ character of ‘‘ short- tailed ’’ appeared in the children, grandchildren, or great grand- children more frequently than might be found in mice at large? Again, suppose we found a naturally short-tailed mouse, and paired it with another naturally short-tailed mouse, or with a long-tailed one, should we find that the “‘innate’’ character of ‘“ short-tailed ’’ appeared oftener in the progeny than in mice at large? Speaking generally, it is the innate characters that are found to be inherited, not the acquired characters. Weismann explains this phenomenon of inheritance by a theory or assumption that when the egg which is to develop into an animal, or into a plant, divides into homogeneous cells, and these in turn divide into heterogeneous cells, giving rise to the various tissues of the plant or animal, a certain part of the original germ- cell does not go to form these tissues, but remains unchanged in the body of the offspring, and forms, with or without a contribution of a certain amount of similar material from another parent, the material out of which the individual of the next generation is formed, and so on. ‘Thus it would appear explicable how acquired characters are not transmitted, since they belong to the formed body, which gives no contribution to the progeny, and not to the reserved portion, which gives rise to the whole progeny. One point must be mentioned. It would appear, from certain experiments by Professor Tower and others, that it may be possible by eavirenment so to modify the germ-plasm at a certain stage of the parent’s life that the progeny may be unlike the parent in certain innate characters. This subject of inherited characters is of prime importance in Anthropology as applied to methods of improving the race or educating the individual in such a way that faults of heredity may be corrected by education, i.e., the providing of a suitable environment—meaning by environment all physical, intellectual, and moral influences to which the individual may be liable or responsive. The question of what determines an innate character, differing either slightly or largely from the previous character, is wholly without an answer; no one has, as yet, ventured to say why plants and animals never breed true in every minute detail. In fact, the mystery of breeding true seems to be so great—variation is not only shown here and there, and now and then, it is universal— that Thomson suggests that evolutionists will be forced to recognise that variability is, like growth, a primary quality of things, and 372 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. that ‘‘ breeding true’’ has arisen secondarily as a restriction; and’ Marrett says—‘‘ We cannot but think that the secret of variability” lies yet deeper; in the very nature of the living organism itself. It has been a Proteus from the first; changefulness is its most- abiding quality; in short, the essence of the creature is its innate creativeness.”’ One thing more has to be mentioned with respect to heredity.. Gregor Mendel, a Silesian monk, in 1865, communicated to a. Briinn scientific society a paper, which was forgotten till 1900, when it was discovered by others who had reached practically the- same conclusions as Mendel had done. He had experimented with plants and animals in respect to heredity qualities, For instance, he crossed tall peas with dwarf peas, and found that the progeny were all tall, ¢.e., showed the ‘‘ dominant ’’ character. When the dwarf, z.¢., those showing the ‘“‘ recessive’’ character were self- fertilized, the progeny were all dwarfs, and all these bred only dwarfs. But when the talls of this generation were self-fertilized, . the progeny consisted of one-third which produced talls only, and: two-thirds which produced 75 per cent. talls and 25 per cent. dwarfs. Similar experiments have been carried on with other plants and with animals. The general result, so far, gives pro- mise that a comprehensive study of a certain number of generations: will evolve principles of use in practical breeding. For example,. aif enumeration was made of over 2,000 persons, descendants of « Frenchman (born 1637), who suffered from night-blindness. This blindness was ‘‘ dominant ’”’ over the normal condition, which was “‘recessive.’? The intéresting fact is that no normal member~ who married another normal individual, either in or outside of the family, ever begat progeny who suffered from the disease. The subject of Mendelism in reference to the inheritance of mutations has a most important bearing on evolution, and this: fruitful field is being assiduously cultivated. There are some other points of minor importance connected with this subject of heredity, such as atavism and telegony, which, however interesting, are not of so much practical importance to us: in our present discussion. All this, so far, refers to Anthropology generally, and the recent advances that have acquired a practical value in the study of man, or in man’s endeavour to make nature minister to his necessities, his luxuries, or his happiness. The duty of deciding what general or technical subject should be selected as matter of an address to this Section has weighed heavily on me. This was. due to the plethora of interesting facts, newly evolved principles, new applications of theories, suggestive speculations, and the exist-. ence of much knowledge that could not hitherto be brought to: bear on practical life. During the past six months I have: alll aaa PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. STS attended the International Congress of Anthropology and Pre- historic Archeology at Geneva, and the 15th International Congress: on Hygiene at Washington, and the 21st Annual Meeting of Military Surgeons of the United States at Baltimore; and I have enjoyed the great privilege of being in the company of scientific men, professional men, and experts in various trades and industries: in Great Britain, Europe, and America. As an Australian, accredited by the Government, I was an object of some interest, aud the subject of a good deal of investigation. I was glad that my somewhat varied work, or pastimes, and my diverse interests during sixteen years in Australia, had supplied me with materials for answering the many and varied questions put to me by indivi- duals, or raised for friendly scientific discussion in company or at meetings. The questions were such as would naturally arise con- eerning a country with old rocks, ancient fauna and flora, a primitive aboriginal race, and a white population foreign to the soil, now working out its destiny in new and strange surroundings.. Anthropologists wished to know the results of recent study im respect to the unity or mixture of our aboriginal stock, a subject originally studied by Huxley, later by John Mathew, Turner, and others; and we discussed the subject of specific or vanistakable or crucial race-characters (and failed to find any), and the bearing of certain facts regarding half-caste aboriginals and Maoris, that were of great interest from the point of view of the theory of the Caucasian origin of these races. The subject of body sears took us back to Hippocrates and Paulus Aigenita, and to a study of customs generally that had persisted in changed or unchanged form, while the reason of their existence was forgotten or only felt sub-consciously. Discussions on art embraced palo-. lithic art in Europe, the investigations of Campbell and others in New South Wales and elsewhere, the relation of child art to savage art, and the subject of whether our aboriginal possesses the “2? “ eamera-eye,’’ as I had concluded. he does, in the same way as a French anthropologist had found independently among certain European races or tribes. Questions were asked about the peoples in the South Seas and the various migrations, and I was able to supplement the recent work of Percy Smith, Macmillan Brown, and others, regarding these migrations, and to give an account of the first material evidence, made available by Mr. Fraser, of Whangarei, corroborating a widely spread tradition that the Melanesians had reached New Zealand before the arrival of the Maoris. Inquiries into the numbers of our aboriginal population led to discussions on race mixtures, and the results of such, on depopulation generally, and the physical and moral havoc made in particular instances, e.g., Fiji, Australia, and New Hebrides, by well-intentioned interference with native habits and customs that 374 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. had been observed from time immemorial. I found a universal craving for the means of study, for literature, and for specimens. In one Continental University, famous for its anthropological work and activity, I found that Australia was represented by a plaster cast of a single aboriginal skull. Ina British University, with one of the most-complete and best-catalogued collections in the world of local Anthropology, the comparative collection was poor ; not a single Australian specimen was included. In one of the most famous American Universities, the Professor of Anthropolegy said he had not a bone of an Australian aboriginal. A _ celebrated neurologist in another university was lamenting that it was im- possible for him to examine and study the brains of our aboriginals and marsupials. The Anthropology of the mest interesting, and educationally the most valuable primitive race on the face of the earth at the present time is almost unrepresented in places where there are men earnestly desiring the means of study. The comparatively little that has been done is of great value. I depreciate nothing, but admire intensely, the disinterested werk that has been accom- plished. In every book on Anthropology, Australia bulks largeiy in the index. But in Australia itself, comparatively little is being done, no University has a chair or lectureship on Anthropology, nor a collection of specimens that would adequately illustrate a single lecture. The museums that possess specimens have no means of studying them, so as to make the results available for the use of the scientific world at large. ia Centuries ago, nature ‘‘ side-tracked ’’ a race in Australia. At the present time, despite some drawbacks or interference from out- side, that race remains, to a large extent, in primitive conditions. It is capable of casting light on the evolution of human races in a way, and to an extent, that probably no other can equal. Ii gives us the key, from a study of present customs, to the origin and meaning of the mythology of the Greeks and the Romans, and of mythology generally. It supplies us with data regarding the bodily variations occurring in primitive races, and the place and value of variations in estimating the zoological stratum or horizon to which races belong. Its customs supply us with materials for a critical study of the origin and development of folk-lore, art, writing, language, mental emotions, morality, religion, marriage. The primitive pages are here in abundance, but only for a little while. The Sibylline books are presented open to us as a gift; and, as a people, we can’t be bothered. The Governments officially, and public bodies, appear to do little except to create difficulties and impose restrictions on the workers here and else- where. It is extremely painful to state these facts; but, on an J j 3 F ; A t PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 375 occasion like this, a witness who was dumb on an integral part of his subject would be adjudged as ‘‘ mute of malice’’; his silence would be treason against science, the Commonwealth, and the human species. The other class of people I have mentioned, professional men, commercial men, politicians, hygienists, army men, especially Americans, had other questions which they wished answered. A large statistical table in the Health Exhibition, at Washington, showed an Australian State at the bottom of the list in infant mortality, and the people wished to know the reason or reasons. We discussed the care of State children, begun here before their birth, Children’s Courts, the relative advantages of the systems of boarding-out and of orphan institutions, the legislation on children’s rights and occupations, the value of representative councils of men and women as an aid to State Departments in all administration in which social and moral questions are involved, our compulsory military system, what it is and how it promises to work, inebriates legislation, old-age and invalid pensions, Women’s Property Acts, women’s labour, women suffragists and their influence, eight hours and early closing legislation, tropical conditions and white labour, Food and Drugs Acts in the medical and commercial aspects, health administration, Wages Boards and industrial legislation generally, Conciliation and Arbitration Courts, Workmen’s Compensation Acts, and such like; and the Americans wondered at the confidence we expressed in the keystone of the whole—the integrity of our Law Courts and legal institu- tions. Their questions and conversation on these subjects showed the living interest they took in race problems, immigration (the annual immigration to New York City exceeds the birth rate), matters that influence race-culture, and our social experiments and experience in matters that affect the life-blood of the American people. Their chief ground of complaint was that we did not let more be known in the outside world about our infant Common- wealth, that we don’t advertise ourselves. These matters in themselves, and the attitude of the American people towards them, made me think that the time may have now come when it might be useful for us Australians to examine Australian conditions and problems from the stand-point of present Anthropological knowledge; and to this task I would now turn. As a text, and to begin with, I would quote an American writer who undertook a mission to Australia, and wrote critically and sympathetically on our institutions. He says—‘‘ Australia is peopled by an almost’ pure British stock. Three-fourths of the inhabitants were born in the Colonies, and four-fifths of the remainder are natives of the British Islands. This homogeneity of population has some pleasant and desirable results. National 376 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. energy is not absorbed in assimilating foreigners. Uniform standards of conduct and living are easily maintained. The com- munity of sentiment among the people is strong. The conscious- ness of national kinship, the collective family spirit, is greater than in America, and for this reason commercial sympathies are more active, and the socialist tendency more pronounced. But this is at the cost of some national inbreeding, and at the sacrifice of the virility and aggressive energy begotten by the fusion of kindred races, and of the greater amount of variation and wider scope for national selection in nation building that the mingling of different peoples causes.’’ The criticism regarding national inbreeding and the sacrifice of the virility and aggressive energy begotten by the fusion of kindred races appears plausible; but what are the Anthropological facts? On the subject of inbreeding, consider for a moment cousin- marriage, the most intense inbreeding that custom, law, religion, and normal human feeling allow. In Fiji, as in many other places, cousin-marriage was not merely permissible, but 1mpera- tive. But the Fijians made a distinction among cousins. The children of two brothers were not allowed to marry. So, likewise, the children of two sisters were not allowed to marry. But the children of a brother and a sister were compelled to marry. And the progeny of such marriages was more numerous, and the physical condition of it much superior, than in the case of the progeny of mixed or outbred marriages. The greatest vitality is found among the inbreds. More light is cast on this subject by a study of the marriage of half-brother and half-sister not uterine related. Con- sider the historical account of the origin of the Jews, one of the most virile races the world has seen. Abraham, the founder of it, married his half-sister, Sarah, not uterine related. Isaac, their son, married Rebeccah, not an outsider, but one belonging to his father’s own kindred. Their son, Jacob, married his two cousins, Leah and Rachel, children of his mother’s brother. From these, eight of the twelve tribes originated. The whole of the details regarding inbreeding in animals, including human beings, are not known, nor are the principles fully established. But it is clear that the vast majority of people who talk about cousin-marriage and racial inbreeding have no clear knowledge of the subject; they have not even defined the terms or recognised the factors of the problem. Now turn to the subject of race, and the assumption that the ‘“almost pure British stock’’ that peoples Australia implies that something is lost from a want of fusion of kindred races. People speak of a ‘‘ pure race,’’ usually meaning a race that has originated from one pair, or from one family or tribe, and. that has not received tributary streams in its onward course—or that has received no life-giving rivulets into its stagnant waters. On the 5 Ene PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION fF. ott other hand, on the subject of a pure race, Pearson says—‘‘ I doubt whether anything corresponding to a pure race exists in man, if by that term is meant a group absolutely without ‘ Blutmischung,” or mixture. Such a view would mean an indefinite number of special creations or independent evolutions of man. The ‘ purest race,’ as I have said elsewhere, is, for me the one which has been isolated, intrabred, and selected for the longest period. It, may well, in the dim past, have been a blend of the most diverse elements.’’ Now, what are the facts about the ‘‘ pure British stock’ that bulks so largely in the population of Australia? Two years ago, a weman’s skeleton was found, in Essex, belonging to the late Neolithic, or the early bronze age, probably about 4,000 years old. So far as head conformation and brain capacity go, there was practically no difference between this woman and the students of the Women’s School of Medicine, London. Again, the Tilbury man, estimated to have lived 30,000 years ago, is practically the same, in respect to his anatomy, as many people at present living in England. The Galley Hill man, probably much older than these, represents a type very different from the vast majority of Englishmen, but still represented at the present day by a few isolated subjects. Similarly also, in respect to other ‘‘races’’ in - Great Britain, we find evidence that although time has brought about a certain amount of fusion or similarity, races or families: have existed almost unaltered for many thousand years, despite general isolation and inbreeding. From the comparative study of races, it is evident that unless some new emotional or other factor appears in the problem, it will take thousands of years still to produce a pure race of British stock, even in Great Britain, pre- suming that all the present elements are capable of fusing, which is by no means certain. In view, then, of the Anthropological facts about inbreeding and the composition of British stock, Mr. Clark’s words about the want of scope for natural selection are seen to be inapplicable, and the whole criticism loses point. What makes criticism of this: kind risky or dangerous is the little learning, the misapplication of the deductive method in science, and premature induction from incomplete observations. From the race point of view, there are: infinite possibilities of good for Australia and no known or sus- pected dangers that need influence either the trend or the details. of the country’s present immigration policy. But the British stock in Australia will change, apart altogether from the influence of inbreeding or outbreeding. There is evidence that changes due to changed environment have already taken place in the white people in Australia, as elsewhere. The human race is peculiarly susceptible to such changes., This has been noted 378 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. by many writers, who had little more than a general interest in recording the fact. Recently the fact has jreceived scientific notice; and it has been observed that such changes oceur and become fixed even without any utility arising to the species. Pro- fessor Ridgeway, about three years ago, in his presidential ‘address to the Royal Anthropological Institute on ‘‘ The Influence of Environment on Man,’’ incidentally referred to the Institute’s deputation to the Prime Minister, and to the Minister’s public enunciation that the time had now come when a knowledge of Anthropology must form part of the normal equipment of civil servants engaged abroad. ‘‘ But this,’’ said Professor Ridgeway, ““was not all. The reception of our deputation by the Prime Minister brought under the notice of many other Ministers, ex-Ministers, and great officials, the fact that Anthropology must now be regarded as an important instrument for carrying on the business of the State’’; and he proceeded to speak of the recog- nition of the practical importance of Anthropology by commercial men and others. I have dealt with this subject in a pamphlet on Race Culture and the Conditions that Influence it in South Australia. But 1 would state here that, judging from what is already known, environment will modify the physical structure of the race, the bones, the form of the head, the vocal organs, the appearance of the skin, hair, and eyes; it will change the times during child- hood at which maximum growth occurs; it will modify the time of adolescence and the climacteric; it will influence the mental and moral characters, the appetites, passions, and aspirations of the young and the old; it will reduce the birth rate; it will modify our medical pathology. And all these changes, under intelligent and judicious guidance and by rational living, according to wisely directed education, will contribute to the well-being of the people and expand national life to its fullest possible development. - This brings us to the individual and to the question of the aim of life. Heine said—‘‘I believe in progress; I believe that happiness is the goal of humanity; and I cherish a higher idea of the Divine Being than those pious folk who suppose that man was created only to suffer. Even here on earth I would strive, through the blessings of free political and industrial institutions, to bring about that reign of felicity which, in the opinion of the pious, is postponed till after the day of judgment.”’ But, if happiness is the end, we must remember that all philosophy, all religion, all human experience since experience began to be recorded, has shown that happiness is not to be attained by direct pursuit, least of all by the pursuit of pleasure. If I were to frame a definition, I would say that ‘‘ Happiness is the overtones of duty joyfully done ’’—any musician will supply the technical knowledge necessary for understanding the definition. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 379 And whether one is ethically an intuitionist, believing that the knowledge of right or wrong depends on an innate faculty; or a utilitarian, guided by the principle that the greatest happiness of the greatest number should rule—remembering always that the greatest number is not necessarily, not always, nor often, Number One; or a positivist, holding the creed that our duties, like our bodily structures, have, so to speak, been born out of the great past for the purpose of the good of the race: whatever one’s ethical label may be, the outcome of all the theories amounts to very much the same in practice, and no one can plead that he has practical difficulty in knowing or discovering what his duties are in any sphere of life. Dugald Stewart, the philosopher, and philosopher implies Scotsman, and usually a Scot with a rather sombre theology, says— ‘The great secret of happiness is to study to accommodate our minds to things external, rather than to acommodate things external to ourselves.”’ If this is so, and it seems sound sense, then most people will allow that some Australian characteristics are more useful, or more capable of being made useful, than critics are apt to imagine; and, in any case, the task of accommodating will prove less arduous here than in some other countries. When I wrote first on the subject of the characteristics of the white race in Australia there was just a note of apprehension, or rather of suggestion, in respect to our youth. Since then I have studied the characteristics of children here, and have compared them carefully with what I have seen and have inquired about, specially in towns and country districts in the ‘‘ home country.”’ I am reassured regarding Australia—greatly reassured. Professor Gregory has recently given a careful estimate of Australian char- acter. He is impressed with its solid qualities. I think his estimate is moderate. True, I have noticed that the veneer of artificial civility, or servility, won’t stick on the Australian youth; but he oozes admiration from every pore when he sees real grit or merit. After the stock and the individual, we consider the environ- ment, which means everything that the individual is born into. The task of good education is to make the environment the very best possible from the point of view of the heredity of the indivi- - dual who is being educated. And the importance of education, i.e., of supplying an environment, as determining character and conduct, cannot be overrated. It is very much a matter of circumstance and opportunity whether a boy with ‘‘ the bump of acquisitiveness ’’ will become a prince of thieves or the curator of a National Museum. How a man lives is nobody’s concern but his own, provided he does not interfere with the well-being of others, and provided 380 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. also that he recognises the duties he owes to himself and his fellow- men. So also in the case of a woman. But when a new human being comes into existence the State is concerned; and the State means the citizens. The social unit is the family, and the family has become neces- sary on account of the child’s requirements—the family has its raison @’étre in the existence of the child, and therefore marriage or the union of parents instituted itself. This is seen among several classes of animals. Probably it reaches its highest develop- ment and ideal among certain birds. Monogamy and the feelings which led to it are probably pre-human, human, and extra-human, evolved from the essential nature of ‘‘ maseulinism’’ and “‘femininism ’’ in their deepest significance. The family, with all it implies in the care and education of the child, is necessary on account of the helplessness of the progeny —there is no family or family life among organisms that can take care of themselves as soon as they are born. The duration of family life, or the equivalent of such, will depend in any given ‘ease on the amount of care and training which the progeny requires in order that it may be launched into the world able to live and to protect itself. As our social systems become more complicated ; as our sciences, arts, and industries are specialized; as the number and variety of the necessities or luxuries of life increase, so will the period of education require to be prolonged. In primitive times, family affairs were simple. Labour was sharply divided. The man did the killing of beasts or of his fellowmen; the woman did everything else. To trace the develop- ments or the retrogressions in the various form of marriage, and the mode in which women became beasts of burden, weavers, linquists, artists, potters, agriculturists, tanners, tailors, founders of society, chattels, husbands’ property, walking advertisements of their husbands’ tastes or wealth, till they became, some of them, rebels, is a task I cannot fulfil here and now. But woman’s posi- tion, as it was, as it is, as it ought to be, and as the best men and women are determined it shall be, has been set forth by various writers. One of the best is by David Staars, a French- man. His book, The English Woman, should be in every home, whether there are ‘‘rebels’’ there or not. Olive Schreiner, in Woman and Labour, has viewed the whole field of human activities, and has stated the case fairly. Mrs. Gilman’s The Man Made World is brief and pointed. It illustrates the characters of sex, sets forth the things that are ‘‘ he-man,’’ “ she-man,’’ and ‘‘ human,” if I may coin a couple of terms, better than any book I know. Professor Thomas’s Sex and Society is both academic and practical. Ellen Key’s The Century of the Child should be studied by every PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 381 “parent and teacher. Havelock Ellis, whom we ought to be proud ‘to claim as an Australian, has done much to facilitate the labours -of those who are engaged in the work of reform and education. The most important conclusion that emerges from the study of ‘these and similar books is that the interests of the race will be best conserved and furthered by the education of men and women, and especially of our young women, in ail that relates to human welfare. There is no fence now round the tree of knowledge; and we should see that no man with a gun or a club is set to guard the “tree of life. About a quarter of a century ago, Geddes and Thomson, pioneers in this subject, set forth the thesis that the general pro- “gress, both of the plant and the animal world, and notably the great uplifts, must be viewed, not simply as individual, but very largely in terms of sex and parenthood. of family and association, and hence of gregarious flocks and herds, of co-operative packs, -of evolving tribes, and this uitimately of civilized societies—above all, therefore, of the city. Recent investigations have very greatly changed the ordinary - views of the modes in which races develop, even during civilized ‘times. Evolution, paleontologicaily and embryologically, and generally, does not show the regular, orderly, and gradual succes- -sion of upward progress it was once thought to do. Much of the history of early civilizations also has to be re-written. The race has not become what it is, always slowly and by mere brute force ; brain, even in ‘‘ Neanderthal times,’’ had evidently much the same -size, the same characters, and presumably the same functions, as now. Even paleolothic woman would seem to have had her fashions, not unlike those of the period before the palmy days of “Greece, as seen in the records of the excavations of Crete, and resembling those of last season’s Paris fashion plates. Elsewhere, in the pamphlet I have mentioned, I have endea- voured to show how the rising generation in Australia is, or is Jikely to be, influenced by the school and the school curriculum, by housing and general sanitation, by the control of communicable diseases, by the way in which State children are looked after, by ‘the legislative control of the weak-minded, by our attitude towards enthetic diseases, by alcoholism, by our care of the poor, and by the way in which we regard marriage. On this last subject, J wish to add something. The ideal of evolution, it is said, is not a gladiator’s show, as used to be thought, but an Eden. In civilized countries men shave ceased to engage in hand-to-hand combat for wives as prizes. But the conditions of Eden do not hold universally in the matter -of mating. Homes too often are cages, not nests. Marriage in whe majority of cases in the most civilized countries are determined 382 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. by the love of money or the fear of the lack of it, by property, by the necessities or the consent of the parents, by social position, by caste distinctions, by political interest, and such like. Love, natural affection, nature’s selection, as the basis of union of men and women, these have never had a fair trial in any country or at any time, with one possible exception. And the result, if not generally disastrous, usually falls far short of the ideal life, a state in which both parties reach the highest possible development of every physical, mental, and moral faculty with which nature has endowed them. One has said ‘‘ No writer has yet dared to describe the full martyrdom of one of the victims of the influence of property in the woman’s world of life. It would be too horrible.’? Women themselves, the best and the worst of them, are silent for various reasons. And men do not think, do not know, do not understand. There are indications that, in this country, choice in unions will be less fettered ; and this should be encouraged. Early unions, not too early however, are desirable, especially among professional people. The best that these people give in the way of public service might be made better if they added children of their own to the gift. But this implies fair salaries in the positions they occupy, and a State pension to widowed mothers—one of the greatest needs in any State. Further, as bearing on the marriage question, no woman, married or single, should be compelled to engage in any work that renders her unfit for motherhood, unless she herself has decided to forego maternity. Nor should she be required to follow any occupation that prevents her from remaining in the closest possible contact with her progeny, from the point of view of physical nurture and mental and moral education. In this country, happily, there are few, if any, occupations which ia them- selves have the effect of incapacitating women for marriage— business women, teachers, and such like proverbially making gcod Wives. All this is part of positive eugenics; and this is as far as we are warranted to go in advising or in restraining. And the reason is that beyond this we have no real knowledge. The cattle-breeder knows from experience what strains will give him beef or milk, and he ‘‘selects’’ accordingly; the breeder of sheep knows what will give him wool or mutton, and he utilizes his knowledge; but we don’t know what will give those particular qualities of body, mind, or morals that the world requires, nor the proportions in which they should be mixed, in the all sorts of people that go to the making of a world. On the subject of negative eugenics I feel constrained to say something. Sir James Barr, M.D., LL.D., in his presidential address to the Section of Child Study at the Dublin Congress, cs PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 383 some months ago, said—‘‘ A medical writer in the Contemporary Review, November, 1909, argues strongly against the legalized interference of medical men in respect of marriage. He sets up his ninepins with the object of knocking them down. No responsible eugenist has ever advocated such a thing. There is not a medical school in the Kingdom where medical students are taught the laws of heredity. It is true, that there is much valuable work and teaching going on in this subject at Cambridge, Univer- city College, London; Liverpool, Edinburgh, and other places, but this forms no part of the curriculum of the medical student. In the present day, these students are taught all about the environ- ment in the causation of disease, but very little about heredity in resistance and predisposition to disease."" Dr. Herbert, in dealing with the same subject in The First Principles of Heredity, says— “* Little enough is known about the laws of heredity, reproduction, sex and other questions of equal importance, but the little that is known is the privileged possession of a few trained specialists.” Possibily, these quotations may “‘ give one to think’’ on the subject of the training and experience of the medical man on these questions. He thinks it is all a medical question—‘‘ Pre- venting breeding by certain sorts of people, and there’s an end o’t ’’—forgetting altogether the legal and social sides, and taking for granted that he knows everything about heredity and the prin- ciples of evolution. At the present time, some medical meu and others advocate abortion in the case of pregnancy of, or impreg- nation by, the unfit; euthanesia of the unfit; sterilization of the unfit ; and the medical regulation of marriage. This is their pro- gramme, their platform, their panacea. | Without pronouncing any opinion on these as abstract propositions, or as subjects for academic discussion, I say that when these people ask legal powers for these purposes, one is constrained to ask what the anthro- pological position is. A consideration of the work of Hammond, Everts, Lydston, Daniel, Backe, Zuccarelli, Tregold, Ellis, Chapple, Rentoul, Witchell, Chesterton, and others, and a study of the latest published experiences of Americans, where legislation has been tried, leads conclusively to the opinion that legislation on the lines desired is unjustifiable. Professor Thomson about two years ago wrote— ‘“‘ Perhaps the time may come when the noblest social senti- ment and a maturer science will agree that this bud and that should not be allowed to open; but the time is not yet. The biologist distrusts social surgery because of his ignorance; the sociologist rejects it because the thought of it makes the foundations of society tremble, and because the social ideal of good citizens is wider than the ideal of good physique; and 384 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. the practical man will not hear of it because he knows that it- is not in us to practise it. Even if the way were clear, it: would be like destroying fruits and leaving roots, and securing” a fictitious comfort by an entirely artificial method of disowning our social liabilities.’’ Even on the wider question of the place of eugenics generally as contrasted with ‘‘ negative eugenics,’’ one cannot ignore the- latest deliverance by Marrett, Reader in Social Anthropology in the University of Oxford, as showing the relative values of eugenics and general social improvement. He says— ‘“ We may easily fall into the mistake of supposing our race to be degenerate, when poor feeding and exposure to unhealthy surroundings on the part of the mothers are really responsible- for the crop of weaklings that we deplore. And, in so far as it turns out to be so, social reformers ought to heave a sigh of relief. Why? Because to improve the race by way of eugenics, though doubtless feasible within limits, remains an unrealized possibility through our want of knowledge. On the other hand, to improve the physical environment is fairly straight-ahead work, once we can awake the public conscience: to the need of undertaking this task for the benefit of all classes of the community alike.’’ I have to touch on another subject that has a distinct bearing on ‘the welfare of our country and the well-being of our citizens,,. and one that is of great interest to our people, viz., Compulsory’ Military Service. The place of combat, struggle, fighting, in the: evolution of the human race has naturally attracted much atten- tion. It is sometimes referred to as brute force—force acting blindly. The place of war among civilized races is also often: discussed, and people enumerate the great personal qualities that. it fosters, favours, and gives scope to. Lecky says that war, even when unjustifiable, ‘‘ calls into action splendid qualities of courage, self-sacrifice, and endurance which cast a dazzling and deceptive glamour over its horrors and its criminality. It appeals,. too, beyond all other things, to that craving for excitement, adven- ture, and danger, which is an essential and imperious element in human nature, and which, while it is in itself neither’a virtue nor- a vice, blends powerfully with some of the best as well as with some of the worst actions of mankind.’’ Count von Moltke speaks from the soldier’s and statesman’s: point of view. He says—‘‘ War is an institution of God, a prin- ciple of order in the world. In it the most noble virtues of men find their expression—courage as well as abnegation, fidelity to duty, and even love and self-sacrifice. The soldier offers his life. Without war, the world would fall into decay and lose itself in: PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 385 materialism.’’ Much more has been written in the same strain. Professor Stanley Hall, from the stand-point of the educator, deals with the subject of war and military service very compre- hensively in his encyclopedic work on Adolescence, commending the training as eminently serviceable in giving exercise to the best: of our human faculties. On the other hand, much has been written on the horrors of war, its uselessness, its evil effect alike on the conquerors and the conquered, the race deterioration that arises from it, and the evil passions which it lets loose. But others make comparisons and draw a contrast between war and commercialism. One says—‘‘ National diseases due to peace are far worse than those due to war. War is hell because its destruction is more evident, but the destruction of peace is immeasurably more infernal.’’ Witchell, in The Cultivation of Man, draws a picture of the surviving type of man—the business type, the man who now has, on the average, the best chance of physical life on earth. It is so painful that the ordinary reader wonders if a tithe of it can be true. I have thought that if patriotism in time of national strain and stress is a test of indivi- dual or class morality, the subject of army contracts during almost any modern British war would furnish an interesting text for a comparison of military with commercial integrity of character. The fact is there is no such thing now among civilized peoples as war—in the abstract. There are only individual wars, each differing from another in numerous respects. And the question arises whether in this country we cannot so train our lads in play, sports, physical exercises, camping out, swimming, horse riding, and such like exercises as to make them healthy, alert, self-reliant, unselfish, mutually helpful, co-operative—in short, skilled in all that pertains to war should war be unavoidable. And in peace these qualities can always be exercised to their fullest extent; and such exercises will help to preserve our youths from those forms and effects of commercialism that would sap the foundations of our individual and social life. Twenty-five years ago Oliver Wendell Holmes said— ‘““ The attitude of modern Science is erect, her aspect serene, her determination inexorable, her onward movement unflinching ; because she believes herself in the order of Pro- vidence, the true successor of the men of old, who brought down the light of heaven to men. She has reclaimed astronomy and cosmogony, and is already laying a firm hand on anthropology, over which another battle must be fought, with the usual result, to come sooner or later.’’ ye N 386 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. It is gratifying to find how anthropological facts are being received now with little or no conflict or protest. It is even more gratifying to observe how these facts elucidate problems of life, and how science and religion have joined hands to show man the method and the means by which he can work out his own salvation. The latest phase of Hegelianism and the earliest teaching of Christianity had agreed on how man was to attain the highest possible realization of self, had found the gate he was to enter. But it was left to yesterday’s psychology to find the key. The key to the whole science and art of self-culture is self-control and how to obtain it. This depends on the power to fix—to rivet— our attention on the things, the pleasant things, the good things, the best things, that we want to dwell upon absiractly, that is, to the exclusion or ignoring of those things that are undesirable. And it depends, most of all, on the power to control and direct our emotions, the raw material or pabulum of moral life. The chief discovery-of recent years in regard to the emotions is that they are, first of all, ‘‘ states of the body.’?’ The mind has only a second-hand relation to them. It enters at the end, not at the beginning. This is Professor James’s theory. We perceive something by the senses, say a bear; the bodily condition of trembling ensues; and then we have the mental emotion of fear subsequent to and consequent on the trembling. Now, if we can check the trembling, or substitute some other bodily state for it, or interpose some other emotion between the trembling and the oncoming of the fear, we obviate, or prevent, the fear. Here is the secret of all self-control. The moral is, assume the bodily positions, and movements, and manners, and tones of the voice that belong to the emotional state you desire. Thus you will become the thing you act. Be dead to one set of influences, alive to another—in apostolic words, ‘‘ Reckon ye also yourselves to be dead indeed unto sin, but alive unto God.’’ Holmes, in the address I have already quoted, spoke of the fatalism that characterized the theological thought, and the metaphysical theories in reference to free will and self-control. His feelings revolted against it, and his intellect protested. He felt that, after all, man was man and master of his fate. He said— ““T reject the mechanical doctrine which makes me the slave of outside influences, whether 1t work with the logic of Edwards, or the averages of Buckle; whether it come in the shape of the Greek’s destiny, or the Mahometan’s fatalism [he might at that time have added, ‘or the oppression of an old theology or the arrogance of a new science’]: or in that other aspect, dear tc the band of believers whom Beesly, of Everton, speaking in the character of John Wesley, characterized as ‘ The crocodile crew that believe in election.’ But T claim the right to eliminate all PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 387 mechanical ideas which have crowded into the sphere of intelligent choice between right and wrong. The pound of flesh I will grant to Nemesis; but, in the name of human nature, not one drop of blood—not one drop.”’ But nature, we now know, is no Nemesis. Our merciful mother exacteth no pound of flesh from a dutiful son, the returning prodigal or her latest-born and best-beloved daughter. 1.—SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF SOME WESTERN AUSTRALIAN TRIBES. By Mrs. D. M. Bates. INTRODUCTION. The aborigines of Western Australia may be classified, accord- ing to their social organization into a certain number of types :— I. Northern Division— . East Kimberley. West Kimberley. East Pilbara. West Pilbara. . Ashburton. . Gascoyne (Lower and Middle). . Upper Murchison. . Lower Murchison. . Laverton (Eastern Gold-fields). 10. Southern Cross. II. Champion Bay Division. III. South-western Division. {V. Southern Division. V. South-eastern Division (Eucla). In the Northern Division all the tribes except 4, 5, 6 (partly), and 8 (partly) practise circumcision. In the Champion Bay Division (II) circumcision was practised within (about) 20 miles of Geraldton. In the South-eastern Division (Eucla) circumcision and sub- incision were practised. Divisions III and IV (South-western and Southern) did not follow this custom. rae “1m Ot eR CO bD co OO N2 388 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. East KIMBERLEY (HALL’s CREEK, ETC.). The class system of the tribes of this district (the Hall’s Creek section of which appear to be called Jarruru) is as follows:— A Jaualyi (male). A’ Negauajil (female). B Jaggara (male). B’ Ngaggara (female): C Jing’ara (male). C’ Nganjeli (female). D Jang’ala (male). D’ Ngang’ala (female). The marriage laws of these are as under— Male. Female. Offspring. A Jaualyi = B’ Ngaggara .. f Junara (male). { Nganjeli (female). B Jaggara = A’ Negauajil .. .. fJuru (male). | Nyaueru (female). C Jang’ara = D’ Ngang’ala .. | Jaualyi (male). | Ngauajil (female). D Jang’ala = OC’ Nganjeli .. .. jdambian (male). | Ngambian (fem ale). There are apparently sixteen classes in the East Kimberley. Division, yet, notwithstanding their numbers, I will show how they fit in with the West Kimberley four-class system. I have not yet made personal investigation in the East Kimberley dis- trict, my informants as to the above classes having been East Kimberley native prisoners at Rottnest, Carnarvon, and Roebourne gaols. WEST KIMBERLEY. The class system of the known West Kimberley tribes is as follows :— 7 A. Boorong. B. Banaka. C. Kaimera. Di Paljart: The marriage laws of these tribes are as under— A Boorong = B Banaka .. (© Kaimera. B Banaka = A Boorong .. D'Paljart C Kaimera = D Paljari .. A Boorong. D Paljari = C Kaimera ..,,.B Banaka ‘ PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 389 The tribes following this system are the Mai’al’nga (Glenelg River), Tohau’-i (Sunday Id.), Barda (Swan Point), Nyil-nyil (Beagle Bay), Warrwai and Nyi-gini (Derby district), Kularra- bulu (Broome), Yauera (east of Broome), Warrangari (partly), (Fitzroy, &c.). Members of some of these tribes have intermarried with the East Kimberley tribes, the co-arrangement of the respective class systems of East and West Kimberley being as follows :— West Kimberley. East Kimberley. A Boorong A BS vs: A Jaualyi. A’ Ngauajil. B Banaka r.. id .. |B Jaggara. |B’ Ngaggara. C Kaimera ms. * .. { C Jiing’ara. 1 C’ Nganjeli. D Paljari af 7 .. jD Jang’ala. | D’ Ngang’ala. Male, Female. Offspring. ' A Boorong = DB’ Ngaggara .. { Jungara (male) C. | Nganjeli (female) C’. B Banaka = A’ Ngauajil dts { Juru (male) D”. Nyaueru (female) D’”. C Kaimera = D’ Ngang’ala .. / Jaualyi (male) A. \ Ngauajil (female) A’. D Paljari = OC’ Nganjeli ing Jambian (male) B”. \ Ngambian (female) B’”. A Jaualyi = B Banaka .. C Kaimera. B Jaggara’ = A Boorong .. D Paljari. C Jung’ara = D Paljari .. A Boorong. D Jang’ala = C Kaimera .. B Banaka. The totems of the West Kimberley tribes (jal’nga—Broome and Beagle Bay equivalents for totem) are hereditary and exogamous, and there are also individual totems. The increase of the totem ~ is usually dreamed by the totemists. A Kaimera son inherits his Boorong father’s totems, and passes them on to his own Boorong son; but he also brings an individual totem with him when he is born. The Broome district natives believe that every baby must be dreamed by its father before it comes into the world, and this ““dream baby ’’ is called ngargalula. If the ngargalula does not appear to its future father, and his wife gives birth to a child, the father does not believe that the child belongs to him, since the rgargalula did not come to him. Again, should a man have been separated from his woman for some considerable time, and while he is away from her a ngargalula comes to him in his dreams, and should the woman have a baby in the meantime, the man helieves this baby to be his ngargalula baby, no matter what length of time may have elapsed during which he has been apart Sah iciah aA caer alee eb ees eS 390 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. from his woman. Procreation does not appear to have anything to do with the birth of the child. A man sleeps, and while he sleeps he dreams, and in his dream a ngargalula comes to him, the ground on which he sees it being generally some known part ct his father’s territory. He sees on the ground near the ngar- galula some vegetable or animal, or if he is a sea-coast native, it may be part of the coast within his territory, and a turtle or some fish may be seen near the ngargalula. Whatever animal bird, or fish is seen on the ngargalulu booroo (‘“‘ spirit baby’s ’”’ ground) becomes the individual jal’nga or totem of the baby. The little ngargalula follows its future father to his camp, and, according to him, is merely ‘‘ carried’’ henceforth by his woman through her mouth or navel. It brings its own totem with it, but later it inherits its father’s totems. Its special booroo is called its ngargalula booroo, and some function connected with the initiation of the boy will take place on the ngargalula booroo. Let us suppose that the long edible bean is the boy’s ngargalula totem. When he has passed some stages of his initiation, he begins to dream the increase of his totem. He dreams he is on his ngargalula booroo, and he picks up a branch of the bean, and chewing it, spits the chewed portions all about him. When the ripening season for the bean comes round a very plentiful supply will ensue from the dream increase. The whole subject of the ngargalulu amongst the Broome dis- trict people is so very interesting, and so interwoven with the lives of these people, that I have felt some mention of it was necéssary when dealing with the West Kimberley tribes. Totems (or jal’nga) are eaten by their totemisis (jal’nga-ngurt). Cross cousin (first cousin) marriages are forbidden in West Kimberley. Circumcision and sub-incision are practised. A few kinship terms in the Broome district dialect illustrate the class system of marriage. I, a Boorong woman, am speaking— Ngoonoo—-sister (Boorong). Babbula—brother (Boorong). TI’ bala—father (Kaimera). Ngabu—youngest father (Kaimera), (father’s brother). Yiramiirroo —father’s own sister (Kaimera). Talur; yalur—father’s tribal sister (Kaimera), ‘*mother- in-law.”’ Bibi—mother (Paljari), Bibi ; jiji ; woonjuboo—mother’s sister (Paljari). Kogga—mother’s brother (Paljari). Yagu—husband (Banaka). Tchaminyerri—husband’s father (Paljari). Yalma—husband’s sister (Banaka). Yalma—brother’s wife (Banaka). Rambar—husband’s mother’s brother (Kaimera). Babba, nganju—daughter (Paljari). Babba—son (Paljari). i — Sea PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 391 Variations in class nomenclature occur amongst the divisions in the northern areas, but as it was necessary to have a uniform system of spelling in the districts where the above four classes obtain, the dialectic equivalents which were most extensively used were adopted. Two dialectic variations are here given— Derby, B2agle Bay, Glenelg River. Fitzroy River District. Puroong’oo Parungu Panaka Panaka Kaiam’ba Kaiamba Parrajer Parrjerri East PILBARA. The class system of the East Pilbara tribes, some of which are Nang’a murda, Kar’adhari, Ngala, Nyamel, Widagari, Bailgu, Negddhari, and Ibarrga, whose territories range from south-west of the Ninety-mile Beach towards Marble Bar and the Nullagine, is as follows :— A. Boorong. B. Banaka. C. Kaimera. D. Paljari. A change occurs here in the marriage laws and descent, as shown hereunder— Male. Female, Offspring. A. Boorong = OD. Paljari .. C. Kaimera B. Banaka = OC. Kaimera'.. OD. Paljari C. Kaimera = B. Banaka .. A. Boorong D. Paljari = A. Boorong .. B. Banaka It will be noted that the West Kimberley marrying pairs, Boorong—Banaka, Kaimera—Paljari, become the ‘‘ mothers’ children ’’ moiety in the above arrangement of the classes. Cross-cousin (first cousin) marriages are permitted in the above tribes, own mother’s brothers’ sons and own father’s sisters’ daughters being betrothed to each other. Totems are hereditary, and certain ceremonies are performed by the Boorong—Kaimera moiety (fathers and sons), and by the Banaka—Paljari moiety (also fathers and sons), for their heredi- tary totems. Certain hereditary totems are localized, and in these local centres there are special places called thalu, which may be mound, pool, or hill, where the ceremonies for the increase of the totem are performed by the moieties of such totem. Some totems are eaten, others are abstained from. Women may assist and take some part in the ceremonies for the increase of the totems of their moiety. Et AS ook se 392 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. A few kinship terms in the dialect of the Widagari tribe are here given (Boorong woman speaking)— Jurdu—sister (Boorong). Kurdana—brother (Boorong). Kalyana—father (Kaimera). Ngardina—mother (Banaka). Yaru; Yarugiir—father’s sister (Kaimera). Koggardi—mother’s brother (Banaka). Nyubana—husband (Paljari). Thooa—husband’s mother (Kaimera). Miin’goora; jilya—son, daughter (Banaka). WEstT PILBARA. The class system of the West Pilbara tribes—the Karriara, Ngaluma, Mardatunera, and Kau’arndhari—and the marriage laws of these people are similar to those of West Kimberley Divi- sion, and are as follows:— Male. Female. Offspring, A. Boorong = B. Banaka .. (C. Kaimera B. Banaka = A. Boorong’§.. OD. Palijari C. Kaimera = D. Paljari .. A. Boorong D. Paljari = Ci ‘Kammera ~.. "B. Bauales These tribes occupy the coast between Port Hedland and’ a point somewhere west of Roebourne. Cross-cousin marriages are permitted in the Karriara and Ngdluma tribes. I am not quite sure if they are permitted in the Mardatunera and Kauarndhari. At Balla-balla, a point on the coast between Port Hedland and Roebourne, the line of demarcation between the circumcised and uncircumcised people begins, and this line runs southward, at varying distances, along the western and southern coast, until it again finds an outlet at Point Malcolm, between Esperance and Israelite Bay, on the southern’ coast. I have ascertained as defi- nitely as it was possible to do, that the custom of circumcision was encroaching upon the western and southern borders at the time of white settlement, and in the Champion Bay district the circumcised tribes had reached within 20 miles of the coast. Adoption into circumcised local groups is going on even at the present day. A Minung man (southern Phratry) was adopted into a circumcised local group in the Eastern Gold-fields district, and an Ashburton coastal native belonging to the Tallainji (uncircum- cised) tribe was adopted into the Warianga tribe, and circumcised by the Warianga people. Numerous instances of members of un- 1 Se PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 393 circumcised tribes being adopted into tribes following this custom have been brought before me, and compelled me to conclude that the rite had been introduced from the north, and was spreading southward and westward at the time of white settlement, as it is spreading at the present day. Cross-cousin marriages are permitted in the Ngaluma and Karriara tribes, but are forbidden in the Mardatunera (or Marda tuna) and Kauarndhari. Totems are similar as regards thalu ceremonies, and appear to be hereditary, descent being in the male line. Infant betrothals are common in all the tribes above-mentioned. The Ngaluma equivalents of the kinship terms are as follow (Boorong woman speaking) :— Thurdu—sister (Boorong). Kaja—brother (Boorong). Mamardi—father (Kaimera). Ngang-gardi—mother (Paljari). Miguti—father’s sister (own) (Kaimera). Thooa—father’s sister (not own) (Kaimera). Koggardi—mother’s brother (Paljari). Yakan—husband (Banaka). Nyooba ; yakan—husband’s brother (Banaka). Kundal—daughter (Paljari). Mainga ; thoogo—son (Paljari). ASHBURTON. The class system of the Ashburton district tribes—the Tallainji, Burduna, Biniguru, Baiung, Maia, Targari, &c.—whose tribal areas run from north of Onslow (Ashburton River), towards the Gascoyne River, is similar to that of the Ngala, Nyamel, Nang’a murda, &c., and is as under— Male, Female, Offspring, A. Boorong = OD. Paljari .. (©. Kaimera B. Banaka). =~ C. Kaimeray: all descended from one common stock, which originally inhabited Indonesia and some of the Pacific groups now known as Melanesia; that the present Melanesians are a mixed race formed by the admixture of immi- grants from the mainland of India; that those who remained in Indonesia were much more affected by successive immigrations from India than those who were settled in the island groups, and ulti- mately formed what is now known as the Polynesian race. I think - also that these people were driven out of Indonesia by the Malays, and that they travelled eastwards to Samoa, and from there were dispersed throughout all the eastern groups in the Pacific, and are now known as the Polynesian people. Assuming that this theory, of which I have only given a very brief outline, is at all probable, we have, I think, some explana- tion of the fact that the Polynesians have a very much larger number of proverbs than the Melanesians, as well as many other proofs of relationship with a higher stage of civilization than the Melanesian people of the present time. But, whether this be true or not, it still remains that the proverbs of any people are interest- ing, and for this reason I have compiled the following selection. 402 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. Many of these proverbs 1 have gathered together during a long term of residence in Samoa, but the bulk of them are taken from a very valuable collection which 1 ubtained some fifty years ago from one of the most intelligent of the Samoan peoples. They are written by himself, and consist of about more than 500 hundred pages of closely written matter contaiming not only the proverbs which I have selected, but many other specimens of Samoan songs and folk lore. Some of these I hope to be able to translate in the near future. PROVERBS CONNECTED WITH STORIES. 1. “Ua var o Mani,’—This is the story of a man called Mana, who had a wife called Vae. Mana was the owner of a waterhole. on the rocks, near the beach, which always contained good, fresh water. It was not, however, large enough to admit a coco-nut shell dipper of the usual size, and this was always a great grievance with Vae (Muna’s wife), and at last she determined to try and im- prove it. She began to chip the sides of the hole, but in doing this she unfortunately fractured the side near the sea. The conse- quence of this was that the sea-water found an entrance, and the water-hole was ruined. The application is, of course, to ‘‘ leave well alone,’”’ but the proverb is often used to illustrate any misfortune or blemish. The latter use is, I think, quite wrong. Another form of the proverb is, ‘‘ Foai, foai, mai, pei o le vai o Mana! ”’ 9. ‘‘E LEAI SE TAUMASINA MA ALII.’’—‘‘ No one can count moons with chiefs.’’ Cf. ‘‘ It’s ill contending with Kings.”’ The story is that of a contention between Tuitonga and a village ruler called Pepe as to the state or position of the moon. Tuitonga said that the moon was dead (7.e., not visible), but Pepe said it was not dead, and the contention was very strong. Then Tuitonga said the moon is fanoloa (not visible), but the ruler said it has one more day. Then Tuitonga said, ‘‘ All right, if you are so conten- tious, go early to-morrow morning, and see if you can see the moon.’’? The King was right; the moon was not visible. Then the Aitu (family god) of the ruler went to him, and said, ‘‘ Why are you so foolish in thus contending with the King? The moon is not visible. But now the only way is this: you go early in the morning, and [ will stand like the moon on the horizon, lest the King should slay you.’’ All this programme was carried out, but the King was not deceived. He only said to Pepe, ‘“ You, there! who is your god who is turned into the moon which is not visible ?”’ Then the King swore, and was very angry with the obstinate tula- fale (ruler), and was very nearly causing him to be killed. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION YT. 403 3. ‘“O LE MELE I NEIAFU LE TO’ELAU,’”’ or ‘‘ UA NA O NEIAFU E FAAMELEA LE TO’ELAU,’’ or ‘‘ Na o NEIAFU E MELE AI LE TO’ELAU.” —‘‘It is only (the people of) Neiafu who disparage the to’elau.” It is said that two cripples in Neiafu grumbled continually against the to’elau (N.E. trade) winds, because they did not cause the coco-nuts to drop immaturely from the trees, as they were not able to climb for them. They preferred the La’i (west wind), which caused the nuts to fall, even though they were not ripe. Used to describe those who despise the good and prefer the bad, or who prefer to have a worthless article like an immature coco-nut rather than have the trouble of getting a good one. 4. ‘‘O LE FAAUTA A TAvAE’E.’’—‘‘ The prudence, or wisdom, of Tavaee.’”’ . Two men went hunting pigs. When the night was near, his companion said to Tavaee, ‘‘O Tavaee, what do youthink? Shall we not make a house for us two lest it should rain in the night, and we shiver with cold? But Tavaee only answered, ‘‘e mago vanu ”’ (‘‘ the valleys will be dry’’). He was unwilling to build a house, but his companion built one for himself. In the night, the rain came. Tayaee was very cold, and pleaded with his companion to be allowed to share his house, but the only answer which he re- ceived was, “‘ Neither you nor your dog will take any harm, for the valleys are all dry.’’ Used of those who despise warnings, do not exercise prudence, and neglect to prepare for the future. 5. ‘“Ua 0 LE NAUGA IA VEVE.’’—Has come to pass (or all the same as) the longing or desire for Veve.’’ Veve was a very beautiful lady who had a great many suitors and admirers, but when they saw her going about naked, or with- out proper dress, their admiration was changed to dislike, and Veve was no longer courted or sought for. 6. ‘‘Se’r saua 1A Vata.’’—“‘ Let the blame be upon Vala.’’ Vala was the daughter of the chief Anufetele. The chief was standing at the council meeting one day, and was making a formal speech to the meeting. His daughter Vala was seated on the ground quite near to him. She whispered to him, ‘‘ Dear elder, remove the gummy matter out of your eye.’’ The old man, think- ing she was prompting him, repeated her words in his speech, and the whole audience laughed loudly in derision. The girl again whispered to her father the words ‘‘ Wipe your mouth,’’ and the old man repeated her words, at which there was again a burst of laughter, and he sat down overwhelmed with shame. The application is that the blame should be put on the guilty person. Anufetele was not in fault so much as Vala, and so sala ia Vala. 404 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F, 7. ‘‘Ua 0 LE FoTUGA A MOSOPILI LE FAASAUSAUTUA.’’—“‘ Has come (again) the offering of Mosopili, which was too late.’’ Mosopili dwelt at Foaluga, but his parents lived at Foalalo. His sister was sick, and a message was sent to inform him of the fact, and that she was likely to die, but he did not go to visit her. Again and again he was told of her illness, but he still deferred his promised visit. At length, he was told that she was dead, when he at once seized a siapo (native cloth), and ran down to Foalalo, but his sister was dead. He neglected to show his love for his sister while she was living, and only tried to do so when it was too late. This is often used as a gentle reminder to any member of the family who neglects to bring his proper contribution to any family affair or work. 8. “O Le TaEAO Na I Sava.’’—‘“‘ The morning that was at Saua.’’ This is a saying which is used to express joy and appreciation of any event, or of benefits conferred. Saua was the name of a malae or place of meeting at Satupaitea, and the morning referred to was that on which Tumupue, the son of Valomua, of Satupaitea, danced whilst Lesalevao, who was a spirit or god, sang the gesture song. Then Tavaetoto descended, and only then was silenced or appeased the fretful crying child, Fua. 9. “O LE FAALELE FuLU O Lavea.’’—“‘ The feather-blowing of Lavea.”’ Lavea was the head of his family at Safotu. Their family god or spirit was supposed to be present in the fowl, and so they were, of course, prohibited from eating or injuring that bird. When Lavea and his family became professing Christians, these customs were not observed, and, as a proof of the sincerity of his conver- sion, Lavea was asked to kill and eat a fowl, and this he consented to do. He was, however, still very much afraid, and so, as a com- promise, he blew away the feathers as an offering to the god, and then he ate the fowl. This is used to illustrate the folly of trying to be right with all sides; of a merely pretended allegiance; and that of retaining the best and offering that which is of no value. 10. ‘‘ Ua o mea 0 PzGa.’’—“‘ Just as the goods of Pega.”’ Pega was a mean, niggardly fellow, who never gave away a piece of siapo (native cloth), but let his clothing rot on his own person. This conduct is very reprehensible in Samoa. The phrase can, however, be used fo advocate the wisdom of keeping fast hold of all that is good. (Note the use of ‘‘ o,’’ not ‘‘a,’’ with “‘ mea,’’ probably because mea means cloth.) ¥ ‘ b PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 405 11. ‘‘ FaatatauatTa TaErinvuv.’’—‘‘ Get near i (or copy) Taei- 2?) nuu. Taeinuu was a man who, when he set his heart upon anything, never rested until he had got it. 12. “Ia & Vaea’1 VaAeav.’’—“‘ Let your feet be as those of Vaeau.”’ Vaeau went to heaven and back in a day when she went to take a message to Tangaloa. The phrase means be quick. 13. ‘‘O LE PATIPATI TAOTO A LeEFE’EPO.’’—‘“‘ Applaud lying down like ‘‘ Lefe’epo.’’ Lefe’epo was blind and lame, but when he heard from the shoutings and cheering that his son Leatiogie had struck down his opponent in the club match, he joined in the cheers. We may all encourage others, even though we cannot share in the fight. 14. ‘‘ Ua ov ur al 1 LE ALA I Sao.’’—“‘ I have gone on the road to Sao.’’ This is a respectful answer to an invitation to partake of food and means ‘‘ Thanks, but I have already eaten.’’ I do not know where Sao is, or how it is connected with the story, but the origin of the phrase is from an argument or controversy between two men, presumably two tulafales (orators), who were probably argu- ing as to which of them had the right to speak first, or to divide the food. One of them was from Fatuvalu, and he had taken the precaution of eating heartily before commencing the argument, and so was able to hold out; but the other man, who was from Paia, had not eaten, and was soon faint, and so was compelled to give in. 15. “Ua TU’I FUA LE TINO 0 GALUE.’’—“‘ The body of Galue was bruised in vain.”’ Galue was a man who was very desirous of getting the best fine mat at a division of property. He was so anxious for this that, in order to show his goodwill and his respect for the family before- hand, he threw himself down on the stones, and was much bruised. After all this, however, the mat in question was given to another man. Applied to any one who fails to gain something for which he has toiled or suffered. 16. ‘‘ Ava NEI GALo AFrI’a I LOoNA vAo.’’—‘‘ Let not Afi’a be forgotten in his forest.’’ This is an incident from a long, story concerning the hook of bad‘luck. Sina was married to Afi’a, but her former husband returning, bringing back her son and gifts, Afi’a told her to return to her first husband, but in parting, said, ‘‘ Do not forget Afi’a in his forest.’’ It is used now to ask those who are leaving not to forget those who are left behind. 406 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 17. ‘‘O LE saLAmMo vALE A Marva.’’—The useless repentance of Mafua.’’ Mafua was a chief of Salelavalu to whom the ladies Taema and Tilafaiga gave the art of tattooing. One condition was that when drinking ava, the first cup should be given to him, and that he was never to refuse it out of deference to any other person. Mafua, however, from excessive politeness, declined the cup on the first two occasions on which he practised his art. The consequence was that the ladies took the art away from him, and though he re- pented of his folly, he was never again allowed to practise it. 18. ‘‘O Le Larauata A Savera.’’—‘‘ The nearness of Saleia.’’ The people of Saleia were the nearest to the forest from which all the timber which was required to re-build the houses in their district, which had been destroyed in the war, had to be procured, and yet they were the last to build. 19. ‘Ua Ta taco o Lemasirav.’’—‘‘ The skids (rollers) of Lemasifau are cut.”’ Lemasifau cut rollers on which to launch his canoe, but did not use them. The consequence was that the canoe was broken, and neither it nor the skids were of any further use. Used to show that good intentions or preparations are of no use if they are not carried out. 20. ““O LE TALANOA VALE A SALEVALASI I LEPAPALAULELEI.’’— ‘‘ The thoughtless conduct of Salevalasi at Lepapalaulelei.”’ A travelling party from Salevalasi sauntered about at a resting place on the road between Amoa and Lealatele, called Lepapalau- lelei, for such a long time that they were benighted in the forest long before they reached the village. They were only about half way when they thought that they were near the end of their journey. This proverb or story is often used as a warning against delay, and the careless waste of time. 21. ‘‘ Ua gutu 1a VAVE LE Sa 0 VAVE.’’—“‘ Is eaten to, or on behalf of, Vave the privileged (food) of Vave.’’ The priest of a god called Vave ate the food which was tabooed for the use of the god only. The phrase is often applied to a man who takes a part of that which he had prepared for others. This application is also made in another phrase, ‘‘O le saga o pausisi ’ (the dowry or share of the low sides of the house), meaning the portion of food hidden away by the donor in the low sides or corners of the house for his own use. 22. ‘‘Ua to 1 Tua o Avotima.’’—“ Apolima is behind.”’ This phrase is generally caaceesda to apply to the island of Apolima, in the strait between Manono and Savaii, but this is in- correct. The Apolima referred to is a place called by that name, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 407 which is situate on the road between Satupaitea and Tufu, on Savaii. That Apolima was the residence of the old cannibal aitu (god) called Tupu-i-vao, and the place was much dreaded by all travellers, as the aitu not only kept a good lookout for victims in the daytime, but he was accustomed, whenever he slept, to stretch lines of cinnet across the road, one end of each of them being fastened round his foot so that he would be at once awakened when any one passing along the road tripped over them. When any traveller had safely passed the bounds of Tupuivao’s territory, he would say, ‘‘ Faafetai ina sao; Ua to i tua o Apolima’’— “Thanks for my escape; Apolima is behind.” 23. ‘‘ E rast MAI 1 SAvA A-E FAALUAINA I Matautuaaal.’’—‘‘ It is one at Saua, but divided into two at Matautuaaai.’’ The meaning and application are not quite clear, and require further investigation. Savalomua, the chiefs, dwelt at Saua, but the tautais (fishermen) at Matautuaaai. 94. ‘*‘O LE PUPULU A VALOMUA.’’—‘‘ The mediation of Valo- mua.’’ “Ina o molia i le motu o Toilolo ’’—‘‘ when being conveyed to the islet of Toilolo.’’ This is all that I have in my notes, and it does not give the whole of the incident. The phrase is always used to describe a pretended peace-making, or a one-sided mediation. Valomua was pretending to hold back one of the combatants in a quarrel, but made no real effort to restrain him, and intentionally let him slip through his fingers. 25. ‘°Ua ao Far-MATA A Lopa.’’—“‘ Lopa was an excellent (or perfect) eye-doctor’’’; or ‘‘ That is worthy of Lopa’s doctoring of eyes.”’ Lopa was an old dame in Atua who had a great reputation for curing other people’s eyes, but who always had shocking bad eyes herself. ‘‘O le fofo o Tulalia ’’—‘‘ The doctoring of Tulalia,’’ is used in a similar manner. If a man whose own conduct was bad gave good advice to others as to how they should behave, he would probably be reminded of one of these examples. Cf., ‘‘ PhySician, heal thyself.’’ 26. “Ua ov Noro aru a o au o Az,’’—‘“‘I am sitting before you, but I am Ae.”’ This phrase is used to express guilt and submission on the part of those using it. It would be used in “‘ ifogas’’ (bowing down in token of submisison) in bad cases. It means, ‘‘ I am verily guilty ; fam Ae.’’ I do not know who Ae was. Leta: 408 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 27. ‘‘O LE ALA E TASI LO LE MAUGA 1 OLO.’’—‘‘ There is only one road to the mountain of Olo.’’ This phrase is used when parties are of one opinion, or will be equally affected by anything to be done, but the primary meaning és given in the story is that there is no difference between two given objects. The words were used by Alaalaaloo, the wife of Tagaloa, of Falealupo. Tagaloa had departed in anger from one of his wives, Letelesa, because she did not give him some dry wraps when ne came back from fishing. He went to Alaalaaloo and asked for dry wraps, and she told him that she had plenty in the house. She then told him to go back to Letelesa, his wife, and used the words to say that all women are alike. 28. “‘TausI LELEI AUA NEI PEI 0 Ma.atavazga.’’—‘‘ Take good care of, and be not like Malalavalea.’’ 29. ‘Ta FAAPEI O LE Truca a Lemarataoa.’’—“‘ Like the court- ing of Lematalaoa.’’ He was a man who remembered every word which he heard. I have not got the whole of the story. 30. ‘‘E o AMmoOA LE Ma’I A E MA’I FUA O Faurav 1A.’’—It was Amoa (a district) which had the disease, but Faufau got it need- lessly.”’ 31_‘‘O Le MuLUGA a VEVE ma VEvVE.’’—“‘ The grumblings of Veve and Veve.’’ Veve aS a common noun means the leaves which are used to cover the native oven to keep in the heat whilst food is being cooked, but in this case, I think Veve and Veve are proper names. The phrase is used of family quarrels, or of differences between friends, which are not very serious, and in any case are to he confined to themselves. 32. ‘°O Le mea A O1.’’—“‘ The doing (work) of Oi.’ Oi was a man who made a very large oven of food for visitors, including a large quantity of faiai (cooked juice of the coco-nut). When people spoke to him about it, he said, ‘‘ Who is going to be niggardly when chiefs are in the house?’’ he phrase is now used of anything great, such as food, property, houses, travelling parties, &c. 33. ‘‘O LE LAULALO A AsiaATa.’’—‘‘ The intercession of Asiata.’’ Asiata was a chief of Satupaitea, in the family of Savalomua. He had incurred the anger of Fonoti, the King. One day he said to Fonoti, ‘‘ Will you listen to me, O King, whilst I sing a short song?’’ and the King said, ‘‘ Let us hear your song.’’ ‘Then Asiata sang, ‘‘ O le tosoga i au i ola ta fefe lou le pule’’—‘‘ O the beseechings (lit., draggings) by numbers for remission of punish- pies PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 409 ment (life); I am astonished (lit., afraid) at your not ruling.” Fonoti then asked, ‘‘ Who is that who is singing there?’’ Leulu- moega and Lufilufi said, ‘‘ Your Highness, that is Asiata.’’ Then the King said, ‘‘ Tell him I am going to rule.’? And this was the “ruling of the King to Asiata, “O le a falefa lo’u malo ia te oe le Alataua ’’—“‘ My kingdom is to be divided into four houses (parts) of which you, the Alataua, will be one.’’ Used to show the value of prudent counsels and wise submission. 34. “ E Le Toga Le Fura ava o Moso.’’—“‘‘ The Fuia (a bird, Sturnoides atrifusca) is not stoned because (for fear) of Moso.”’ The Fuia was sacred to Moso, one of their heathen deities, and so people were afraid to injure it. A man who would otherwise be beaten by another man without compunction or fear was not in- jured simply because he was under the protection of a powerful chief or of some ruling town. ‘‘ Do not think that I am afraid of you ’’—“* e le togia le Fuia aua o Moso, na o lea.”’ 35. ““O LE Mav o LarFug.’’—‘‘ The abundance of Laifue.’’ Laifue had a plantation of talo which was all eaten by animals, and not by men. He was praised by others on account of his fine plantation, but it was of no use to him. The phrase is often used when a man makes a present very unwillingly, and receives very lavish praises for his gift. 86. ‘‘O Latorri 1’1ner.’’—‘‘ This here is Laloifi.”’ Laloifi was a piece of ground belonging to Valomua, a chief of Satupaitea. One of his tulafales (councillors) approached him with regard to a club match in which they were both to take part. ‘The advice which he gave is not clear to me. It was as follows, ** Le alii e faauta ua lelei lava lausoo, ua malu lava lou oo, a o Je mea lava lea ou te agaagaina atu ai oe e pau ai, aua e faga ou lima e aliali ai lou aso.’? Valomua was grateful for the counsel, and proposed that they two should have a club match in order that he might become proficient, and not be put to shame in the presence of all the people. The tulafale objected that it was not proper for him to fight a club match with a chief, but the chief said, ‘‘ Come here, behold this is Laloifi, where you and I can practise whilst there are only us two present, and no one to see what happens.’’ The tulafale consented, and they two fought a match. Before they had exchanged two strokes, the aso (7?) of the chief was struck in a way that the tulafale had told him. Valomua gave thanks, and said, ‘‘ It is true what you told me; it is good that I know, and so shall not be struck down, and put to shame before the people.” The phrase is now generally used of anything secret, and not to be made widely known. 410 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. a 37. “Turunoa av LE Foa.’’—‘‘ Causelessly came the fracture (on the head).’’ This appears to me to be the most probable translation, but some think that Aulefoa was the name of a man. The phrase is always used in the case of any individual, family, or community being punished or suffering in any way unjustly, or for an offence committed by another party. 38. “‘ SEr Loco 1a Moo.’’—“‘ Let it be reported to Moo.”’ It is not at all clear who Moo was, nor why he should be con- sulted, or informed, of any contemplated act. Some people think that it was the name of a king or very powerful chief, whilst others think it was the name of one of the old gods. The phrase is used to advise people to seek for good counsel and direction before taking decided action in any doubtful matter. 39. ““ Ua 0 LE MALAGA 1 OLooLo.’’—‘‘ Has come to pass (again) the travellers at Oloolo.’’ The story is that of a man and his wife, and their one child, who came from Fiji. They first anchored the canoe at Matauea, at which place they forgot the pillow of their child. This pillow contained a whale’s tooth, which was wrapped up in the pillow. Then they reached a place which was called Olooloo. Whilst there, they first remembered that they had forgotten the pillow in the bay where they first landed. Then they began to argue as to which of them should return for the pillow. The man said that the woman should go, and the woman said that the man should go. The result was that neither of them went, and the pillow with the whale’s tooth (lei) inside was left at the place where they landed, and that place is known by the name of Fagalei at the present time. The proverb is now used about anything projected, but not carried out, a journey prepared for but not begun, &c. 40. ‘‘ Ua INITIA LAU MANINI.’’—‘‘ Your manini is pinched.” Manini is the name of a fish which was eaten by a man who had no right to eat it, and he was severely beaten by Malietoa for the offence. The phrase is now used to a man who has been beaten for any fault whatever. 41. “‘ SEI LUAI FA’I LE TALUGA, PEI ONA TAUA E FAGAAFUSIA.”’ Fagaafusia was the name of a great orator, and this is one of his sayings, which is often quoted. The meaning seems to be that in beginning to eat a bunch of bananas, you must first break off the taluga. The significance and application of the phrase must be far greater than is now apparent. ————-— = - e i ais PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION fF. 41] THose FRoM NATURE, AND THOSE ASSOCIATED WITH ANIMALS, ETC. 42. ‘‘ Tuaor AFA MA MANINOA.’’—“‘ The hurricane and the calm are neighbours.’’ Cf., ‘‘ After a storm, then the calm.’’ This world-wide experience is thus tersely expressed in one of their best-known proverbs. 43. ‘‘ SEI ILOGA E TAE’U LE MATUA-MOA ONA ’AI LEA MOGAMOGA E LE TOLOA1.’’—‘* When (until) the old hen scratches, then the chickens eat beetles.’ 44, “‘Ta Fotau ALAMEA.’’—‘* Apply the alamea cure.’’ The alamea is a spiny Echinoderm, the spines of which when trodden on enter the foot, and cause very great pain. In such cases the natives turn over the animal, and place the wounded foot on the under side, when the powerful suckers of the animal _ extract the poison, and the pain is at once alleviated or removed. Cf., ‘‘ A hair of the dog which bit you.”’ 45. “‘O te FunaFuna cutu Lva.’’— ‘ The Funafuna with two mouths.’’ The Funafuna is a ‘‘ sea cucumber’’ (Holothuria) which the natives say has two mouths. In the great fight between the birds and the fishes the Funafuna was on the side of the birds when they were victorious, but on the side of the fishes when they were the victors. The name is given to an undecided man, or to one who sides with the strongest party. Cf., ‘‘ Ill be the Vicar of Bray.’ 46. ‘‘ Punaputa Aa LA Goto.’’—“‘ The brightness of the setting sun.’’ ~ The brightness of the setting sun is very beautiful, but it will soon pass away. This figure is often used with regard to some one who has been renowned for wisdom or courage, and who, though cld, still retains much of his old energy. It is also used with regard to a sick man who, though near death, apparently recovers much of his old strength. The late Revd. G. Pratt, in his dic- tionary, says that it is used as a figure of a man in the prime of © life, but I have never heard it so used. 47. ‘QO Le Motu A MANuMA.’’—‘‘ The breaking away of a manuma.’’ The manuma is the name of a bird (Ptilonopus Perouset) which is difficult to obtain, and which is very rarely recovered if it breaks away from captivity. The words are used to express sorrow on account of some loss which cannot be recovered or made good, e.g., the death of a chief who has no successor. 48. ‘‘ AMUIA LE MASINA E ALU Ma sAU.” “‘ Blessed is the moon which goes and comes again.’’ One can well imagine these words to have been uttered by some native who has been thinking about the brevity of life and 412 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. the fact that no one who has died returns again, or by one who has himself suffered some great loss, and is mourning for some loved one who has passed away. What he means is, ‘‘ Oh that we were like the moon, which dies and lives again; which goes from us, but returns again to make us glad.”’ 49. ‘‘O LE UA NA FUA MAI Manva.’’ ‘A rain which origi- nated in Manua.’’ Manua is the group in the extreme east of Samoa, and most of the rain comes from that direction. The phrase is used to say that the event referred to, or under consideration, has not come suddenly or without warning, but that due notice was given. : 50. ‘‘O te mauxtato A Tavat.’’ ‘‘ The short height of the Tavai.’’ The tavai (hus Taitensis) is a very low growing tree as.com- pared with other forest trees, but it is crowded with pigeons. This is used to express the truth that though a man be short of stature it is easy to know by his actions whether he is a chief or not. The tavai, though low in its growth, is easily known by the pigeons. The mamalava, though growing to a great height, is of . little or no value, as men neither cut out a canoe or build a house from it. 51. ‘‘ UA LELE FUA LE ATAFA AUA E ILOA LONA VAAVAA E TAGATA uMA LAVA.’’ ‘‘ The frigate bird (Tachypetes aquila) flies about without success, for his breast bone is seen by all men.”’ This is applied to a hypocrite or to a man who, whilst pretend- ing to be a friend, is seeking to inflict an injury. It is a hint that his designs are well known and guarded against. 52. ‘‘ AOFIA I LE FUTIAFU E TASI.’’ (It is) Collected in one water-hole.’’ The futiafu is a waterhole in the bed of a river in which alone water can be found in the time of drought. The proverb is used to express agreement with the plan or opinion of one or more of those who have taken part in some controversy. Just as the water is gathered together in one place (futiafu) so all opinions are expressed in that one speech. 53. ‘‘ PAPATU LE IFI SOGA, PE A PAU TOU SE LE LAVA.’’ ‘‘ The seasoned chestnut tree cracks, but still stands; when it falls you will not be able to do anything by means of it or against it.’’ This figure is used in different ways, but the general one is that when neglected warnings are fulfilled the results are irre- sistible. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 413 54. “‘O Le TaGI A PU MaTE.’’ ‘“‘ The crying (or noise) of a dead trumpet shell.’’ The trumpet shell makes noise enough to rouse up a whole town, but it is only a dead thing, which can neither creep nor walk. It is only the voice or sound which is alive. Applied to &@ poor man who has no mats or property to give. to a man who can only talk and who does no work; or to a cripple who can neither walk or work. A poor man on the occasion of a death in the family, which necessitates the giving of fine mats, would ery, ‘‘I hate this poverty, I have not got any mats, I am only the cry of a dead trumpet shell before you chiefs and ladies, &c.’’ 55. ‘“ Ua LoGo FUC O LE PU 06 LE ALEA.’’ ‘“‘ Uselessly called a pu (trumpet shell) but only an alea appears.’’ The pu makes a great noise, but the alea can only make a very little cry. Jt is like the pu in appearance, but that is all. lt cannot make a great noise like the pu. The varied conditions of human life. All men are alike in some respects; all have hands, feet, eyes, &c., but they are not alike in other respects; some are rich, others poor; some sick, others well, &c. &c. All have bodies like the pu, but the power of some is only that of the alea. The proverb is also used by a man excusing himself, or his family, because they have not given a large present to some visitors ; or as an excuse to his relatives for not helping them with fine mats or property to the extent of their request.’’ 56. ‘“‘Erui1.e Tarota ae sau Lupo.’’ ‘‘ To stand of (near) a whale and angle for minnows.’’ To illustrate the folly of neglecting great and important mat- ters for those of little or no value. 57. ‘Ua Moz tE Uru A £ TOA LE Parpar.’’ ‘‘ The Ufu is sleeping and the Paipai is at rest.”’ The ufu is a fish and the paipai a species of crab. The phrase is used as a reproof to any one rising to speak after the matter in question has been decided. The illustration is used to avoid saying, ‘‘ We have finished, and so there is no more to say.” 58. ‘‘Ua sz Sumu sisiza.”’ ‘“‘ (He) is a staring Sumu.”’ The sumu is a fish of the genus Balistes, and is generally con- sidered as a foolish fish which can only stare in a silly way. The figure is used to describe a lazy, lifeless, useless man. 59. ‘‘E case LE AENO I LoNA vaE.”’ ‘‘ The Aeno dies by its own claw.”’ The aeno is a species of land-crab. When caught the natives break off one of its claws, and with it they pierce the body of the aeno, and so kill it. This is used when a man suffers or dies a: the direct consequence of his own actions. 414 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 60. ‘‘O Lz SAILI ESE FAA Tavav.’’ ‘‘ A strange quest like that of the Tavau.”’ ‘ The tavau is a species of leech which finds its way into the eyes of men and women, and so is different from all other leeches. Used to express the fact of an evil thing trying to injure that which is good ; of the evil heart of man seeking to destroy the good which is in him, &c., &c. 61. ‘‘E tz Fono Paa mona vazE.”’ ‘‘ The crab and his legs had no consultation.’’ This simile or illustration always appears to me to be a very poor one, but it is certainly very often used. The idea is that the crab and his legs had no consultation as to whether the latter should pinch or not, and therefore the crab is not responsible tor the wounds inflicted by its legs. The figure is used when disclaiming responsibility for actions committed only by some member of the family or town, or when bewailing punishment for actions about which they were not consulted. 62. ‘‘ E papa LE Tutu 1 onA VAE.’’ ‘‘ The Tutu bullies because of his great claws.”’ The tutu is a large crab with very big claws, with which he bullies and intimidates other animals. But ‘‘let his claws be broken off, and then who is afraid of him?’’ A boy will act the bully towards another boy because his father is near; a rich man bullies a poor man because of his claws, 7.e., because he has more wealth, &ec., &c.”’ 63. ‘‘Faaaru Faaurr.’’ ‘‘ Search for as in looking for (wild) yams.’’ This is just a figurative way of saying that when we wish to find anything we must follow any good clue. A man seeking wild yams finds a portion of the dead vine, and carefully follows it until he finds the yam. 64. ‘‘O LE LUPE LE FausiA.”’ ‘‘ A pigeon which has not been tied (for training).”’ Applied to one who has not been taught how to behave himself properly. 65. ‘‘O LE MoTU MOTU LE O 1 OU TUA.’’—‘‘ There is a firebrand there at your back.’’ They say that the owl is very much afraid of a firebrand, and that if an owl is flying about they have only to call out the above words and it will at once fly away in great fear. They use this in derision to, or about, any one who is easily frightened. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 415 66. ‘‘ Toro LE Usit ma Le Mamae.’’—‘‘ Plant the Usi and the Mamae.’’ - This saying “is a play.on words. The usi and the mamae are two good kinds of bananas. The usi is the first part of the word *usitai’’ (obey) and the mamae is indicated in the word ‘‘“maemalo’’ (to wish to be in favour with the Government or rulers). 67. ‘‘Na 0 GATA E FASI A VaAAl.’’—‘‘ Only snakes are killed when only staring.’’ This phrase would be used by a man or by a district on whom unjust and humiliating demands had been made, or who were being unjustly accused. ‘‘ Do you think we are afraid? Only snakes are killed staring, men fight.’’ . 68. ‘‘ E soua LE FAI A TUU LE FoTo.’’—“‘ The Fai (stinging ray- fish) swims away, but he leaves his barb behind.”’ The criminal often escapes, whilst the consequences of his crime have to be borne by others. Or, a man gives up his evil ways | aud is forgiven, but still has to suffer from the effects of his pre- vious actions. This is a very popular proverb, and is used in many ways. 69. ‘‘ToLoNA E LE MASINA maTuA.’’— ‘“‘Swept away by the full-grown moon.”’ The full moon is said by the natives to clear away clouds from the sky. The simile is used of the advice of a wise old man in times of trouble, and also of the work of a peacemaker in any quarrel. 70. ‘‘O Le MAE FULU O LE TavaEz.’’—“‘ The care of the Tavae for its feathers.’’ The frigate bird (Phaeton ethereus) is said to be so careful that its long tail feathers should not be injured that if approached in front, when it is on the ground, it will not go backward for fear that the feathers should be broken or crushed. It will flee if a man tries to seize it from behind, but is easily captured by any one who approaches it in front. ‘‘ It loves its feathers, but throws away its life.”’ The application is to those who value things of little or no value to those which are of supreme import- ance. 71. ‘‘SEr LUAI LoU LE ULU TAUMAMAO.’’—‘‘ First pluck the bread-fruit which is the furthest away.”’ The bread-fruit is plucked by means of a long pole with a crotch at the end of it. Used as advice to do the most difficult part of the work first. 3 Sh bi then a A se ee 416 . PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 72. ‘‘SEIA SILIGA IFo MaAUGA.’’—‘‘ Until the mountains fall.’’ “‘Seia siliga ae vanu.’’—‘‘ Until the valleys are levelled up.” (Those associated with Occupations, Fishing, Sailing, Games, &c.) 73. ‘‘O LE poto 1 LAuLOA.’’—‘‘ The wisdom needed to fish in the lauloa.’’ Used of, or to, 2 man who is boasting of his cleverness. Any man who can plait a leaf of the coco-nut palm, or pull, however feebly, can take part in the lauloa, which is a mode of fishing in which the entire village takes part. 74. ‘‘ Ta TAU FESUI TAUTAI I LE INAFO.’’—“‘ Change the fisher- man when (wearied) in the midst of the school of bonito.’’ The work of fishing for bonito when the fish are biting well is very hard, and the advice to ‘‘spell’’ the fisherman is, no doubt, good, but the illustration is used of all other work. 75. ‘‘ EH poGa I VAO A E MAPUNA I ALA.’’—‘‘ Its roots may be in the forest, but they will be exposed in the roads.’’ This saying is connected with the great sport of seuga-lupe (catching pigeons with hand nets). This sport was very popular, and was carried out under very strict regulations. One of these was that all the men engaged in it were for the time being sacred (paia), and were all of equal influence. When they ate together the names of those contributing the respective portions were not called out, nor was it allowable to ask for their names. They all knew, however, if any man had given poor food, either in kind or quantity, and the fact, though secret in the forest, was widely known on the journey home. Used to express the opinion that the story will be known, though supposed to be kept secret. 76. ‘‘O LE AUAU LAVA O MAA Ina varval.’’—“‘ Clearing away stones because of faint-heartedness.’’ This is an allusion to the public wrestling matches in which ene of the wrestlers asks that the loose stones may first be cleared away, so that when he falls his head may not be broken. All the care of the man, they say, should be how he may overcome his opponent, and not how to secure a clear place for his own fall. Shows that a man who anticipates defeat is not likely to conquer in the fight. 77. “‘ UA TIGAINA Fal TOLO.’’—‘‘ Troubled at the spear-throw- ing match.’’ This phrase has its origin in the game of spear-throwing (tologa). At that game two leaders are appointed, one tor each side, and they only are allowed to speak or to contend as to points PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 417 made by either party. Sometimes they contend so long that both sides get weary of waiting and begin to grumble. Then they are reminded that it is all in the game. The figure is also used to console those who have troubles of any kind to bear. 78. ‘‘ Ua TAIA I LE TAFAO, TAIA I LE vaar.’’—‘‘ Beaten by the mallet, beaten by the handle.’’ An illustration taken from the tools of the canoe-builder. The gouge (fao) which he uses is represented as being in pain both from the blows of the mallet, and also those of the handle. The phrase is used of any one who has to suffer many troubles. Dis- tressed on all sides. 79. ‘‘ Mama 1 aveca sit.’’—‘‘ The light weight of a burden when first lifted.” A burden is light when it is first lifted, but soon gets heavy when it is being carried. Do not imagine that your work, life, troubles, &c., are all going to be light and easy to bear. They are light now, but wait a while. 80. ‘‘Ua Ta Liu A E POopOE.’’—‘‘ He bales the canoe, but is sore afraid.”’ Said of a man who is afraid of the sea, and who trembles even when only baling out the canoe. It is used also when advising men to trust the captain, leader, or pilot; do the work assigned and not be afraid. 81. ‘‘ Ua LE FAASINO PU, LE TAUTUU PALAPALA.’’—‘“‘ He neither points out holes nor carries mud.’’ This has its origin in the work of digging out the large land crabs called tupa. The words are used of a lazy fellow, who neither seeks for the holes in which the crabs are to be found, nor helps to dig them out. It is applied to any one who shirks his proper share of work. 82. ‘‘ AUA LE PAO I LUGA O LE GANA.’’—‘‘ Do not make a noise above the gana.”’ The gana is the place where they are going to shoot the nets, and the man in charge warns the fishermen not to make a noise © of any kind lest the fish should be frightened. This is a respect- fui way of asking people to be quiet. . 83. ‘‘ E LE SE TUNUMA MA MOE FAATASI.’’—‘‘ It is not a tunuma in which all sleep together.’’ The tunuma is the case in which all the instruments of the tattooer are kept; they all sleep together. We are not all of one cpinion or one way of thinking. ‘‘ Many men many minds.”’ 6117. 6) 418 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 84. ‘‘Sue Faapitovaa.’’—‘‘ Search for (your companion) in the canoe.”’ This simile is not easily translatable. It is taken from the fish- ing for bonito. The fisherman has at least one other associated vith him, and the exhortation is that if by any means be becomes separated from him, or from his companion canoe, he is to seek him, and not return without him, as the companion may have got bonito, which he will, perhaps, share with him. 85. ‘‘O LE SEUSEU MA LE FaTa.’’—‘“‘ Fish with a proper net.”’ This phrase is from the custom of uniting a number of nets be- longing to different families with which to surround a school of mullet. This is called a seu. The fishermen stand outside this circle, and catch the mullet as they leap out in hand nets. The simile is applied to point out the necessity of men being furnished with proper appliances for any work in which they may. be engaged. 86. “‘ Le i Le vv LEI LE Foua.’’—‘‘ Not in the shut and not in the open (hand).’’ This is a proverb from the game of !upeiga, and is applied to an undecided man, to one who does not know his own mind or to one who is so slow in action that he loses his opportunity. 87. “Ua apr LE uLU.’’—‘‘ The mark is near.”’ This illustration is from the game of tagatia, in which ten is called ulu. The phrase is applied to any one who is near the at- tainment of some object, or the completion of some work; who has made a good stroke, and the end is in sight. 88. “‘O LE vAar FIA LaFo.’’—‘‘ The spectator who desires to throw.”’ This illustration is from the game of lafoga, which is played by four men only, but there are many spectators. The game is near its conclusion, and one side is in an exceptionally favorable position, when one of the spectators, whose interest is in the other side, gives advice to the player, which, if he is foolish, he accepts, and so loses the game. It is used to show the folly of taking advice from interested parties. 89. ‘*O LE FUGAFUGA MuTIA.’’—“‘ Grass seed.’’ This is applied to a man who is often struck down in club matches. ‘‘ EK le toe maualuga lava.’’—‘‘ He will never be upright again ’’ has the same meaning. “‘ Ua se vi e toli.’’—‘‘ It is like plucking the fruit of the vi.”’ This simile is applied when many fall in a match, or in a-fight, and sometimes when many die in a family. The illustration is from plucking the fruit of the hog plum, many of which fall at once when the tree is shaken. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 419 ~ 90. ‘‘ Fini £ LE Tar se AGAvaa.’’—‘‘ Let the sea determine as to the quality of the canoe.’’ This illustration is used to show that action is the best test of settling disputes. Men may differ as to the lines of two canoes as to which is the best, and the Samoan says, ‘‘ Let the sea settle the question. Put them in the water, and see which of them is the best and most swift of the two.”’ 91. ‘‘ Ner TEA MA LE FarIca.’’—‘‘ Do not be far away from the faiga.’’ This illustration is taken from the mode of fishing called lauloa, in which there is a large purse or pocket net with two immense lines of leaves strung on ropes, which enclose a large space of the lagoon called faiga, and are ultimately drawn together, forcing the fish into the purse. The faiga is the space in the lagoon best suited for this mode of fishing, and the advice given is always to choose that which has been found by long experience to be the best. 92. ‘‘E aa LE GALO A E GASE I PAAU.’’—‘‘ The galo swims at liberty, but dies from the enemy at last.’’ The galo is a very large fish not often caught. The phrase is used to express approbation of some act performed, or of en- couragement to persevere until some desired object is accomplished. 93. ‘‘O LE MAMAO A siv 1 TILA.’’—‘‘ The far-away (distance) of the top of the mast.’’ The top of the mast is first seen, and then tue people know that the canoe is near at hand. The distance appears to be great, but the top of the mast is in sight, and the absent ones will soon be home again. This beautiful illustration is used to express the as- surance of reunion after death. A 94. ‘‘ Usrusi FAAVAASAVILI.’’—‘“‘ To give in to, like a canoe to adverse winds.”’ The idea is that of a canoe which meets with head winds and a cross sea. The crew find it useless to contend against them, and so give in, and let the canoe drift with the wind. It is used when one party assents to the opinion and the wishes of the other side, though they do so unwillingly. It is also used for obeying, as a canoe going before the wind. 95. ‘‘ UA LE SEI SEU FAAALO.’’—‘“‘ Will you not play the game respectfully ?”’ The reference is to the sport of catching pigeons with a net. The sport was engaged in under strict regulations and customs, any breach of them being considered very discourteous. The phrase is now used of any breach of manners. cy 2 420 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 96. ‘‘O LE A SOSOPO LE MANU VALE I LE FoGaTIA.’’—“‘ The worthless bird is about to pass over (intrude into) the sports grounds.”’ This illustration is also taken from the pigeon-catching sport. The worthiess bird is any bird but a pigeon which fiies over the hill-top where the sport is being carried on. The words are used as an apology for speaking or offering an opinion in the presence of chiefs of higher rank and influence. 97. *‘O LE FOGATIA UA MALU MaUNU.’’——‘‘ The sports ground 1s shaded with bait.’’ The bait (maunu) is the number of old trained pigeons which are flown on the ground to attract the wild pigeons. The words are often used of a man who, on passing through a village, finds the chiefs and rulers assembled, and so he decides to remain awhile in the hope of getting some food. 98. “‘ Lupe o LE TAAFANO.’’—‘‘ Pigeons which go at large.”’ Applied to women who are often being married, flying about from one husband to another. Applied also to harlots. 99. “‘ Ua LE SE I MAU SE ALAVAA.’’—“‘ Why not steer (or keep to) a straight course.’’ Used to a speaker who is not speaking to the point, or who is advocating that which is wrong. 100. ‘‘ K ASA LE FAIVA, A E LE ASA LE MASALO.’’—“‘ The fishing may be without fish, but doubting or suspicion will 1 alway have a catch.’ 101. ‘‘O LE Maurie Ma LE TUU.’’—“‘ Each shark (caught) has its payment (is paid for).’’ This may be used to express the idea that each act of kindness will receive an adequate return, but the general use of the phrase is that payment (revenge) is sure to be demanded for any one killed by another. 102. ‘‘ Ua 1Fo 1 LE Tr A © AE I LE Nonv.’’—‘‘ To get down from the Ti (a low-growing plant) and climb the Nonu (low-grow- ing tree).’’ ‘Chere is little-or no difference between the two. This is applied to family quarrels,’ which do not much affect others. ‘‘ Ua u ifo a e tau i le pau.’’—‘‘ He bites, but only on the skin,’’—is another phrase which is used in the same way. 103. ‘‘ Ua Motu LE LAuTitTrI.’’—‘‘ The leaves of the leaf girdle are broken.”’ So many fish have been caught that the leaf girdle is stripped of its leaves, as they have had to use them to tie up the fish. This is used to describe the number of people who were killed in a fight. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. - 421 104. ‘‘ Ua aTI LE FUTI A E TO LE suLI.’’—‘‘ The banana is plucked up, but the sucker is planted.’’ Cf., ‘‘ The King is dead, Jong live the King.”’ 105. ‘‘Ua ava I LE SU MA LE U.’’—“‘ The bad and the good taro are gathered.’ This may apply to a time of famine, or to the destruction of the plantation as a punishment for some offence. 106. ‘‘ E TreENETENE FUA LE LIVALIVA A E SAGASAGA AI LE VILI 1a.’’—‘‘ The plate of the drill dances, but the point continues to eat in.”’ : This is used to contrast the showy man who is of little use with the real worker. 107. ‘‘ Ua SASAGI FUA LE VINAVINA A UA GAU LE MATAVANA.”’— ‘‘ The plate of the drill rejoices (or boasts) in vain, for the point of the drill is broken.’’ Used to indicate some insuperable difficulty, or to express some great sorrow. The family rejoices in the birth of a child, but the joy is premature, for the child dies. 108. ‘‘ Ua TEA LE EAEA, A E TALI LE ILAMEA.’’—‘‘ The thrush (aphthoe, a disease of children) has gone, but the ilamea (another ‘disease) has come.”’ Out of one trouble, but into a worse one. Cf., ‘‘ Out of the frying-pan, but into the fire.”’ 109. ‘‘ Ia 0 GATASI LE FUTIA MA LE UMELE.’’—“‘ Let the futia (the sinnet ring) and the umele (the stand tor the bamboo fishing- tod) go together.’’ That is, let your actions, &c., agree with your - ~words. 110. ‘‘O Le ra PAULIA I LE Tar MaSa.’’—‘‘ A fish stranded in the ebb tide.’’ : Applied to a man far away from his own land, family relatives. A stranger who is helpless because he has no one from whom he can claim assistance. 111. ‘‘ E LeaGa LE PA PE A LEAI SE TALAGA.’’—“‘ The fly-fish- hook is bad if you have not got another (a pair).”’ Be properly equipped; one is not as good as two. Cf. ‘“‘ To have two strings to your bow.”’ 112. ‘‘ E racrs1a Lavutvu sz vaa £ Goto.’’—“‘ Laulu is cried for that a canoe may sink.”’ I cannot find the story from which this is taken. I think that Laulu is the name of some well-known fishing place which is said to be cried for, or to be crying out for canoes to come and be filled {lity., ‘sink ’’) with fishes. 499 ; PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 113. ‘‘ Poo va ATOATOA EA TUPE I LE FALA?’’—‘‘Are all the discs on the mat ?”’ This is taken from the game of lafoga, which is played with dises cut from coconut shells. Each player had five of these, and the object of each player was to strike the opposite party’s shells off the mat, and leave his own on it. The phrase is now used as a polite way of asking if all are present; is no one dead or absent ; or rather of stating the fact that some are dead or absent. The following are from similes and customs, and the explana- tions will necessarily be brief :— 114. ‘‘O © Marva 1 te Foaca ’’—“‘ Those whose parents are (or is) the grindstone (the stone on which tools were rubbed).’’ This is associated with a story in which some children who were present at a feast, and who had no parents or relatives to represent them, went and stood beside the foaga until they were noticed, and were given some food. The term is now always applied to orphans. The stone in question is between Sagone and Samata. 115. ‘‘ Ua Tau mMuamua.’’—‘‘ First in order, or first to be plucked, or to go.’”’ This is used of old people who should be the first to die. 116. “‘ Ua vr moto ’’—‘‘ Ts plucked unripe.’’ To die when young. 117. ““O we sama Faa Torurta.’’—‘* A’ sama ‘like “that 60 . Tutuila.’’ ‘ The sama is property given to the wife’s family. The ‘‘ sama - faa Tutuila’’ has three meanings given to it, viz., to stain with turmeric after the Tutuila fashion; to marry a family connexion; or to marry after living in concubinage. It also means a man who lives in his wife’s family. 118. “‘O Le pau mar Mosna.’’—‘“‘ The sweet perfume from the ” or ‘‘ The strong one from the sea.’’ Pau-mai-moana is the poetic name for the bonito. The Pau ys emits a sweet smell, and it is also the tree from which clubs are made. sea, 119. ‘‘Ua pi’o ma ni’0.’’-—‘‘ Crooked ; all shapes.”’ 120. ‘‘ Ua rra LE Mona.’’—‘‘ The mona is angry.”’ I do not know what the mona is. It is probably connected with one of their games. The phrase is used of a man seeking to disprove a charge of being lazy by working very hard. 121. “‘ Ua Lav 10a E PILI MA SE.’’—‘‘ Every lizard and cricket. knows it.’’ a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 423 122. ““O Niu we tav.’’—‘‘It is Niu who is fighting.’’ O LE FALE SEU LE AINA.’’—‘‘ The pigeon-catching hut is inhabited.”’ These are two apologetic phrases for speaking when the mouth is full. Niu was a man who ate while fighting. The “‘ fale seu’’ is the hut in which those who are netting pigeons hide. 123. ““O LE UPEGA LE TALI FAU.’’—‘‘ A net too old to be mended.’’ ‘‘O LE AVA LE Laca Lo.’’—“‘ An opening in the reef in which no fish is found.’? Both these phrases are applied to old people or to conquered people who are too weak to rebel. 124. *‘ E Le Tavuia MULE.’’—“‘ The lumps in the scraped nuts are not squeezed out.’’ This is used of a man of no account wish- ing to be thought to be of some importance. 125. ‘‘ Foro anE Lou aLo.’’—‘‘Doctor your belly,’’ be ap- peased: said to an angry chief. 126. ‘‘ Ua TA LE VILA E LE TAMA NEI.’’—“‘ The vila (a gesture song) is being sung by this child.’’ Applied to a crying child or a boaster. 127. ‘‘ Ua FELATA’I LE LA MA LE SAMI.’’—‘‘ The sun and the gea are nearing each other.’’ A very beautiful simile of a man near death. In the tropics the sea appears to be jumping up to the sun as it nears the horizon when setting at sea. ‘*O LE A PA’U LE IA I LE LoTo ’’—‘‘ The fish is about to fall into the deep hole in the lagoon.”’ ‘* Ua FELATA’I LE IA MA LE LOTO.’’—“‘‘ The fish and the loto are mear each other.’’ These three similes have all the same meaning, but the first is by far the most beautiful. 128. ‘‘ Ua TAIMALIE 0 VeE’a.’’—“‘ A piece of good fortune for Ve’a.”’ The ve’a is a bird (Rallus pectoralis) which is often found near the cooking house. The words are used when anything very good is found, or any good news heard. 129. ‘‘Ua PIPILI TIA A E MaMAO aALA.’’—‘‘ The hill tops are near, but the roads to them are long.”’ Not so easy as you think it to be. 130. “ Ua Ta’uTA U UA ULU LE MA1).”—(Often) warned, or told the salt has entered into his body. Of a man justly punished after many warnings. 424 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 131. ‘‘O LE vaa E oLo.’’—“‘ (It is like) a canoe being rubbed down.”’ % ; Used to reprove people making a noise, and so interrupting the speakers. ‘‘One would think a canoe was being rubbed smooth with stones... Same meaning as ‘‘ Soia le toia le va.”’ 132. ‘‘O Le muamuA A FaTuGA.’’—‘‘ The going first of the fatuga.”’ The fatuga is the first timber of the house which is put up, but. when the house is moved it is taken away with the last part. This is often used to show that the first is often the last, and the last is first. 133. ‘‘O LE UPEGA VALAVALA.’’—‘‘ A net with a wide mesh.’’ A net with a wide mesh will not hold small fishes. Often applied to a foolish man. It is also used in a depreciatory manner by a speaker with regard to his own wisdom. . ‘(QO LE UPEGA PUTUPUTU.’’—‘‘ A net with a close mesh.’’ This is used for a wise man who lets nothing pass, like the close mesh. zy 134. ‘‘O upu mata-TUTUPU.’’—‘‘ Words without point.”’ A simile from a fishing spear which is blunt and cannot pierce a fish. So a foolish speaker whose words do not find their way into the hearts of men. ‘©O upu matuia.’’—‘‘ Sharp pointed words.’’ This is used of words which wound and cause strife. They pierce like a sharp-pointed spear. ‘‘O le ula matuia’’ has the same meaning. 135. ‘‘O Le FALE FEeTAFAI.’’—‘‘ A house which is often re- moved.”’ Used of an unstable man, one who is always changing his mind. 136. ‘‘O LE manava oGE.’’—‘‘ A famine-stricken belly.’’ Used of a stingy mean man, who has no love for others and gives nothing. 137. ‘‘O Le For FAAULUMOTO.’’—‘‘ To be again like a green bread-fruit.’’ A bread-fruit which has been scorched, though nearly ripe, be- comes like a green fruit. Used of a man who has fallen away from good. 138. “‘O LE FaalFITUFIA.’’—“‘ Like gathering chestnuts.’’ When the chestnut is fruiting men do not all go at the same time to gather them, but they follow the lead given by some man, for they know that there is plenty for all. Applied to those who. follow a good example either in following a chief on his journey where there is plenty of food, or in any other way. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 425 139. “‘ Ua LIUVA LE TUA MA LE ALO.’’—‘‘ The back is turned and then the front.’’ A man who is so often sent on messages that he has only time to turn round and start away again. 140. “‘O LE TAGEGE A MEA TELE.’’—‘‘ The toughness of big things.’’ Though a large fish is tough there is enough for all, but a small fish, though fat, will not satisfy many. Used of a big man who is foolishly challenged by a small man. The small man may be nicer looking, but when it comes to a fight the tough one wins. ““LAITIITI A E MAINI.’’—‘‘ Small but smarting.’’ This is the opposite of the above. If he is wise, though he is little, yet he can make himself felt, and may succeed when a big man fails. 141. **O FETALAIGA E MALU A E Ivia.’’—“‘ Speeches that are gentle, but bony.’’ A fish may be soft but full of bones, which may choke a man. So some words which are apparently gentle may stir up war and strife. 142. ‘‘ Faapu a. Tama vta.’’—‘‘ Like a pu (trumpet shell) blown by rowdy boys.’’ Any one can blow it, and it has no autho- rity. No one respects it. This is often used of irresponsible actions, and also of meetings where any one talks and nothing is done. 143. ‘°O Le niv a’eGoriz.’’—‘‘ A nut which is easily climbed.’’ A crooked coconut palm is easily climbed, and men prefer ‘such a one to a tall straight one, which is more difficult. Applied to a weak man, family, or district, which can be easily imposed upon. 144. ‘°O Le cigit1 a naFa.’’—‘‘ The sweet sounding of the nafa.”’ The nafa is a sweet-sounding native drum. When this is beaten by a chief, or by some one who can do it well, it is very much admired, and the sound appreciated, but when the performance is over the nafa is thrown down in some out-of-the-way place, and no one pays any attention to it. Applied to those who are used by others for their own purposes, and then neglected or despised. 145. ‘‘O LE su’ESu’E uGA.’’—‘‘ The search for land crabs (for bait).’’ When preparing to fish, if the land crab bait is desired men search diligently for it. KE Cars £TY FR ps 426 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 146. ‘‘ UA TUU LA LE vA’A TELE.’’—“‘ The big canoe has furled its sails.’’ This is a polite way of saying that after the principal chief o1 ruler has spoken, it is of little use any one else speaking. The one who uses the simile may have, and may express, an entirely different opinion from that which has been expressed, but it is Samoan etiquette to commence his speech with this compliment. 147. ‘‘O LE NA’ALOA LE UA FAAIFO I LE TAOMAGA MUTIA.’’— “The na’aloa (the principal pole to which a net for pigeon-catch- ing is fixed) has been placed on the grass which is pressed down.’” This is a similar compliment to that mentioned above, and is used in the same way. It is taken from the sport of catching pigeons with hand nets, from which so many other illustrations are derived. 148. ‘‘O LE GaoGao 0 ATO TELE.’’—‘‘ The space of big baskets.’” Though a large basket is not full, yet it holds a great deal _-more than a small basket which is quite full. A village which has few large houses in it, but which are full of men, is better than one with a number of small houses and few people in them. 149. ‘‘O LE TooTOO sinaSINA.’’—‘‘ A white staff.’’ The staff meant is that of a tulafale (orator). It is used by one speaking to say that he is no orator as others are, and to ask for patience with him on that account. ‘“‘OQ LE TooToo vuLivLI.’’—‘‘ Dark-coloured staff.’’ This is applied as a compliment to an old and experienced orator. 150. ‘‘ TauLE’ALE’a usu mal.’’—‘‘ Young men who go to their families in the early morning.”’ This is a term of approbation to young men who are ready to liielp in the work of the family. 151. ‘“‘O LE FAANUNU ETE LASE.’’—-‘‘ The crowding of many naskets.’’ This expresses the grumblings of a strong man in a family where most of its members are weak or crippled, and have no plantations of their own. He grumbles at having so many baskets cf food to provide for people who are not able to help themselves. It is often used by men who think that the principal work falls. on their shoulders. 152. “‘ Faa TAFIO LE TAU.’’—“‘ Like the top timbers of a large canoe which do not match properly.’’ This is a depreciatory term used by a speaker. The top tim- bers, besides being of use when sailing, are also considered of great adornment to the canoe. A man will use this expression to say that he is like a top timber which is not properly matched; he may be of some use, but he is only of little use. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 427 153. ‘‘ Ua TAGI LE FATU MA LE ELEELE.’’—‘‘ The stones and the earth are crying out.’’ . This is used when a chief who is much beloved has died. It is a poetical way of saying that he is sincerely mourned for by all. 154. ‘‘ Ia rupu 1 se Fusr.’’—‘‘ May he grow in the swamp.”’ The fusi (swamp) is the place where the best taro grows, and where it grows quickly. The phrase expresses a prayer of a man for his son that he may be like taro grown in the fusi; that he aay grow quickly, and be a help to the family of his people. 155. “‘O LE Ta’aPE a FaTUaTI.’’—“‘ The scattering of stones used for fishing.’’ This illustration is taken from the custom of building up heaps of stones in the lagoon. At the proper time these are encircled by nets, and then men go inside and throw the stones out to form a fresh heap. The fishes which were living in the first heap of stones are caught in the nets which surround it, and the stones thrown out are left to form a hiding place for a fresh lot. This is used of a family which has been sepatated for a while, but ‘wil: be gathered together again. 156. ‘‘ Ua pupu MAI LoTo.’’—‘‘ The mind is distressed.’’ This may be applied to anything which agitates a man’s mind, either some great work which he has to do, or some trouble which ke has to bear. 157. “‘ Iro 1 LE susu.’’—“‘ To go down into the milk.”’ This is used to say that anything good which the woman does will have its effect upon the milk which she gives to her child. It is, however, applied to say that anything which benefits the chiefs or rulers will be for the good of the people. 158. ‘‘ Marematetima.’’—‘‘ To contrive with your own hands.’’ This is applied to a man who has no one to help him in his work, whether he is building a house, a boat, or finding mats for his daughter’s marriage. He has to do the work himself; that is, he has to do by himself what others ought to help him in doing. 159. ‘‘ Faamaniri a FoaGa.’’—‘‘ To be thin as a stone on which tools are ground.”’ ‘ This stone is thin, but not easily broken, and so is used as a simile of a chief who is cruel, though weak in body, or of some one who is really strong, though he appears weak. 428 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 160. ‘‘Tavtua 1 Le tTUGA.’”’—‘' A pair, one of which is: withered.’’ ; This is an illustration of men being unequally matched, one being strong, the other weak; one wise, the other foolish. The: simile is from two coconuts growing together on one stalk, one ef which is bad, and the other good. It is sometimes applied to. an individual who has some good points in his character, but who. has also some bad ones. 161. ‘‘ FEao ma uLv Poo.’’—“‘ Literally, to keep company witlr skulls.”’ The meaning of this is practically the same as that of taulua i le tuga. It 1s applied to a man who is crippled or unable to work; he is likened to a skull, which has neither legs to walk with,. nor hands to work with. 162. “‘ A Fal EA AU MOU TITI SEESEE.’’—‘‘ Do you think I am your old worn-out leaf girdle.’’ This is applied to a man who is always begging for something from some one of the*family, and the man asks him, ‘‘ Do you wish me to become like the titi seéseé, old and worn-out girdle ?”’ 163. ‘‘ Ua ova 1 ipinru.’’—‘‘ A fish basket of canoe shells.’’ This is a simile used of times when fish is very scarce, and when some one proposes to go fishing. Another one will tell him, ‘‘ You can take a coconut shell to bring all the fish you catch back mnicr.?? 164. ‘ Faava 1 LavuLv.’’—‘‘ A small cup of breadfruit.”’ This is used to say that though the crop is not good, yet things are not so bad as they might have been if there was no breadfruit. at all. 165. ‘“‘ Lua mata To EsE.’’—‘‘ If there are only two plants, let. them be planted separately.’’ The allusion is to a taro plantation, and the meaning is that it is better for each man to have his own plantation, however small, so that men may see what he does, and also because it will induce him to keep it clean, and to make it bigger. This is better than if he should just take part in one big plantation. . 166. *‘ Far Manu FaaLoco.’’—‘‘ To be like one who obeys.” The allusion is to a chief or ruler, all of whose people are anxious to follow his advice and rule. They are likened to a num- is of animals who are obedient to those who have the care of them. 7 ee 4 a Bae Fe yb es <5 AU ae ae iy PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 429, 167. ‘*Tau na FaaFivota.’’—‘ Only that I might be weary ot life.’’ This is really a prayer to one of the family gods uttered by a. man who is sick. He prays, ‘‘ Do thou have love to me that I may only be sick near to death, but not die.’? The phrase is used as; a petition for merciful treatment. ‘*Tau Ina TA MA FAAPoO!I.’’—‘“‘ Only strike, but not in earnest.’’ This is used in the same way. 168. ‘‘ Ua se Moo LE sosoLo.’’—‘‘ That is a lizard crawling.”’ This is used in scolding a disobedient child. 169. ‘‘E FAIFAI AUNA SE AITU I LE vao.’’—‘‘ Might as well send a demon from the bush.’’ This also is used of or to a disobedient child. 170. “‘ Avaru aumais ’’—‘‘ Take it away, bring it here.’’ These are words applied to some argument or dispute. One says, go; another says, come. One says do it, and another says do not do it, and so the darkness comes before they are agreed. 171a. ‘‘O SE vi E£ FOFOE EA!?’’—‘‘ Do you think it is a just vi (hog plum) to peel?’’ Said to a man who is urging another to do some work, perhaps for little or no payment. Sometimes said also by a doctor who has been applied to to treat a patient, who is magnifying the difficulty of the work in order to increase the payment. s 172. ‘‘O LE FULUFULU LELE’’—‘‘ A driiting feather or a feather blown by the wind.’’ This is applied to a careless, thoughtless, and foolish man. GENERAL. 173. ‘“O LE MAI I FALE TELE’’—‘‘ A man sick in a large family.’’ A man who is a member of a large family can generally get more attention than one in a small family. 174. ‘‘O LE POTO O LE TAMA, A O LE TAMA ’’—‘‘ The wisdom of a child, but only a child.’’ He does his best, but, after all, it is only a child’s best, ““e le maona ai se aiga,’’ 7.e., it will not suffice to feed a family. 175. “‘ Ua ALit LE TOATELE ’’—‘‘ The many are the chiefs.’’ Cf. ‘‘ Might is right’’ and ‘‘ Providence is on the side of the strongest battalions.’’ 176. “‘Ona PO Po Fou Fo’1’’—“‘ New days, new days at present.’’ Cf. ‘‘ New brooms sweep clean,”’ &c., &c. 430 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 177. ‘‘ Ne’ LELE I LE LIMA, LELE I LE VAE.’’—‘‘ Lest it should ‘fly away from the hands and also from the feet.’’ , 178. ‘‘ UA MUA LE FEOAI MA TALANOA, A E PATUPATU PEA LE ISU ”’ —‘‘ He is going about carelessly (with no apparent concern), but his nose is swollen still.’’ This means that he is still cherishing revenge. He attends to other matters, but he has not forgotten the blows which caused his nose to swell. 179. ‘‘Ua nono Lz mMmaLa’’—‘' He borrows trouble (or calamity).’’ Applied to a man who by his bad conduct is surely bringing trouble on himself and others. 180. ‘‘ AUA LE TALANOA I MASINA VALE AUA E LE PO LUA SE LELE! ’’—‘‘ Don’t go about thoughtlessly in the off months because good (times) only last a few days.”’ This was an admonition to men to prepare for the future, e.g., to prepare in the months when there is little or no fish for the good months by mending his nets, preparing his fly-fishing hooks, &c. ; to a man whose thatch was bad not to delay getting new thatch before the rainy months set in, &c., &e. It is often used now by preachers as an admonition to prepare for the future life. 181. ‘‘ Fa LE TAEAO E LE aFiaFI’’—‘ To act in the morning as if there would be no evening.’’ Applied to a lazy fellow who loafs about the village instead of going to his plantation. 182. ‘‘ {a matua 1 LE O-O’’—“ Let it finish with the O-O.”’ This is an exhortation addressed to a company of men who are talking too much, and are likely to quarrel. A chief, or some one who can speak with authority, will say—‘‘ The music of your speeches is great, but let them finish now with the O-O’’ (the shout at the end of certain songs). 183. ‘‘O LE LIMA E PAIA AI LE MATA ’’—‘‘ Tt was the (his) hand which struck the eye.’’ This is applied to a man who -has brought punishment upon himself by his own actions. 184. ‘‘ TA LAFOIA I LE FOGAVA’A TELE ’’—‘‘ Let it be thrown on the large deck or hold.’’ This is used in many ways, e.g., by one acting as mediator or peacemaker, who advises the disputants to cast the cause of the quarrel on to the deck of the big canoe, where all things, good and bad, are thrown; or by a speaker who in publicly rehearsing the PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 431 titles of a chief or town, either does not know them all, or is afraid of forgetting some of them. He will then say—‘‘ As for all your other titles and honours, let them all be cast on the deck of the large canoe of your title of ——.”’ 185. ‘‘ AUA LE FAAPUNI AFEAFE ’’—‘‘ Don’t be like or reach to the small fishing enclosure.’’ The application of this is not at all clear to me. The punia- feafe is a small enclosure for fishing, the puni tele is a larger one. The first is likened to a dispute which is settled privately, the latter to one which is taken to the meeting of the whole town and any punishment inflicted will be much greater. The advice given to the offender is to settle the matter and not go to law. 186. ‘‘E Loco Le Tutt ona TATA’’—‘‘ The deaf man hears when he is tapped (on the shoulder).’’ This is often used to show that men who are deaf to all good advice are made to hear by painful experience. 187. ‘‘ E LE TU MANU A E TU LOGOLOGO ’—“‘ The crier does not stay but his message remains,’’ or it may be ‘‘ Birds do not stay but a message does.’’ 188. “‘O LE aso E LoALOA ’’—‘‘ The day is long.’’ This is used to exhort to patience. A man who humble and wise will wait until the truth is made plain to all. - 189 "Wa rerar LE Lir?’—*“ The’ Lit ‘léads.”’ The Lii is the first star to rise, and the others follow. This illustration is used of a ruling chief. After he has spoken the others can only follow. 190. ‘‘ E LE Pu SE TINO 1 UPU’’—‘‘ No hole is made in the body by words.”’ ‘‘ E pala le maa ae le pala upu ’’—“‘ Stones will rot, but words never rot.’’ The first of these proverbs says, never heed what men say, words do not break any bones; the other says, that which the history of the quarrels and wars of Samoa abundantly confirms, that anything may be forgiven but abusive or offensive words. 191. “‘O Le Tacr mar ata ’’—‘‘ The cry from the road.” This is connected with a story of a man who was summoned to the illness of a relative but delayed too long. In excusing himself he said that he could only cry from the road and not in the house. It is now used as an apology for being too late, or as a reproof for delay. 192. ‘‘ OLE MoE 1 ULUULU-LAAU ’’—“‘ To sleep in the branches of a tree.’’ Applied to a man who cannot sleep for fear of being caught by some enemy. Every breeze that blows shakes the branches and wakes the man. 439 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 193. ‘“E 10 Le va TaFuNAI ’’—‘‘ There are the rain-clouds (to lee-ward .’’ Applied to clouds heaped up to leeward, which are likened to a defeated people. These, however, may be again dispersed by a following wind. _ 194. “Taurua Fra 1G0a’’—‘‘ A relative who acts as a servant because he wants the name of the head of the family.”’ Applied to one who serves to gain his own ends and not for love. 195. ‘‘ Se a Lov mManocinoei ’’—“‘ What good report is there of you?”’ Said of a man by those who are angry with him on account of his bad conduct, and said by a man of himself when he receives an offer of forgiveness, implying that he does not deserve it. 196. ‘‘ Luria 1 Puava a E MAPU I FaGALELE ’’—"‘ Distressed at Puava but we shall rest at Fagalele.’’ This is one of the best known proverbs in Samoa, and it is applied in many ways. Puava is the name of a very stormy point near Falealupo, at the extreme west of the large island of Savaii. Fagalele is a nice, quiet, sheltered bay quite near the point in which those who have been storm-tossed and sore afraid whilst rounding the point may rest in peace and quietness. People engaged in a hard task, a long journey, or when suffering from sickness, or a stormy and dangerous voyage, often encourage each other by these words. 197. “‘E Le se La’av MAGAUGAU FETALAIGA ’’—“‘ Speeches are not like broken sticks.’’ This means that consultations of the rulers must have respect shown to them. 198. “‘O Le FaaFITI a TauTat’’—‘‘ The apologies of fisher- men.’’ 5 It is considered to be disrespectful if a fisherman does not offer a fish to any passing boat or canoe. This, however, is too great a tax, and so the principal man in the fishing canoe apologizes and says how sorry he is that they have not a fish to offer. In most cases he is lying, and ‘‘ the apology of a tautai ”’ has become a synonym for a lie. 199. ‘‘ EK ESE EA LE AITU ESE LE MOOMU (MOMU OR MOEMU) ’’— “Ts there any difference, a spirit and a moomu}”’ I do not know what is meant by a moomu, but the meaning of the phrase is that there is no difference between the two things. 200. ‘‘ Faa’o’puLtu ’’—‘‘ To fill up with gum or resin.”’ The dodge of a carpenter to cover up a defective plank in a canoe.”’ Le eal: Gat aah PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 433 201. ‘‘ Tapar TATAGA LE pinta’’—‘‘ Oh, for a search for grubs with no lizzards about.”’ When they go to the forest to cut decaying timber in search of wood-grubs, they do not like to see any lizards about, because they eat the grubs. The words are used when children are present and are listening to what is said, and so they drive them away.. Cf. ‘‘ Little pitchers have ears.’’ 202. ‘‘E A SIPA LE LAMAGA A E GASE FUA LAVA MALOLO IA ’’— ““The torches were provided to catch sipas, and the flying-fish -died uselessly.’’ Applied to any one who interferes without cause in a quarrel, and so gets hurt. The torches were for the sipa (a small fish), but the malolo (flying-fish) were attracted by them, and flew into ‘the nets, and were caught. 203. ‘‘Tuat TUAI TA TE MaoNA al’’—‘‘ Long in coming but satisfying when it comes.’’ Said of an oven of food the size of which accounts for the delay. 204. ‘‘O LE Mama TO 1 GutTU’’-—‘‘ A mouthful fallen from the mouth.’’ This simply means the same as ‘‘ there is many a slip between the cup and the lip.”’ 205. ‘‘ Toa LE LOTO, PA LE Noo’’—‘‘ The strength of his heart causes his back to break. Said of a man who is always ready to do anything, but whose strength is not equal to his will.’’ 206. ‘‘ PEANE A E MONI LE momOoOo’’—‘‘ Oh! that all wishes were accomplished in fact.’’ Would it not be a fine thing if all that we so earnestly desire -would come to pass? 3. NOTE ON THE GURANG GURANG TRIBE OF QUEENSLAND, WITH VOCABULARY. By Rev. John Mathew, M.A., B.D. INTRODUCTION. No account has hitherto been published of the Gurang Gurang Tribe of Queensland, whose habitat was the Upper Burnett River and Baffle Creek, and apparently the head waters of the Kolan River. In Curr’s The Australian Race, Vol. III1., two short vocabu- laries are given, one of which (page 128) is placed under the head- ing ‘‘ Baffle Creek,’’ and the other (page 150) under ‘‘ Upper Bur- nett River, Mount Debateable, and Gayndah,’’ but no tribal name is associated with the vocabularies. Some years ago I learned that the tribe, part of whose territory was the Upper Burnett, bore the 434 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. name of Gurang Gurang, the name being applied to it from its common negative, as is the case with nearly all the tribes in the east and south-east of Australia. Last year, when visiting the Burnett district, | met a woman belonging to this tribe, from whom I gleaned the information about it contained in this paper, with the exception of a few particulars. RG Fi 7p. - Seite re SKETCH MAP SHOWING RELATIVE POSITIONS +* Y OF GURANG AND OTHER TRIBES if NS © a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 435 As the accompanying sketch map shows, the neighbours of the Gurang tribe were the Meerooni and Toolooa on the north, the Tarambol on the west, and the Dappil and Wakka on the south. This would leave no room for the Wokkari, shown to the east of the Gurang in the map in my Two Representative Tribes of Queensland. I suspect, therefore, that Wokkari must have been given to me as the name of a tribe in that locality by mistake, or otherwise must have been intended as a name for the Wakka. _The Gurang territory covered all the basin of the Upper Burnett, from about Gayndah northward, and, relying upon the virtual identity of Curr’s Baffle Creek vocabulary with that of the Upper Burnett, in both of which the negative is gurang, the inference seems safe that it embraced the basin of Baffle Creek also, and, therefore, extended right to the coast where that creek debouches. Socrat ORGANIZATION. The Gurang had the four-class system, the same as the Wakka to the south, and the Emon,* about Taroom, to the west. They had not lost the two phratry names, as some other tribes had done. Their system is shown thus:—- Dilbai m., Bonda; f., Bondagan. m., Dherwain; f., Dherwaingan. ‘cca m., Barang; f., Baranggan. m., Bandyur; f., Bandyurgan. Cohabitation and marriage were forbidden between members of the same phratry. In other words, a Dilbai man must only marry a Kapaiin woman. . Members of the Bonda class married with members of the Bandyur class, and members of the Dherwain with those of the Barang class. While this was the recognised proper practice, there was no strict prohibition against inter- marriage of Bonda with Barang or of Dherwain with Bandyur. Among the Kabi, further south, it did not matter much how the classes mated so long as marriage was not within the same phratry. Among the Gurang, as among the Wakka and Kabi, the class of the mother determined the class of the offspring. The children ‘were always of the same phratry with their mother, but of the class different from hers. Hence descent was matrilineal. This ‘is contrary to Dr. Howitt’s statements regarding descent in the tribes of this part of Queensland. * Howitt, A. W., Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 109. 436 PROCEEDINGS GF SECTION F. In Two Representative Tribes of Queensland, page 142, in speaking of the distinction of light blood and dark blood as applied | to the phratries, I stated that while I had been informed that Dilbai was the light blood phratry, and Kopaitthin the dark blood, ‘‘ at Barambah there was difference of opinion as to which was which.’’ On my visit. to the country of the Wakka and Kabi tribes last year, I] made a point of questioning the older natives. about the blood distinction, and found absolute agreement that Dilbai was light and Kopaitthin dark blood. Among the Kangulu tribe, between the Mackenzie and the Lower Dawson Rivers, Yungaru corresponds to Dilbai of the tribes further south, and Wutaru to Kopaitthin.* In a paper on the “Origin of the Australian Phratries,’’ contributed to the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, in 1910, -I showed that Yungaru meant white cockatoo, and Wutaru crow. So that the colours of the birds after which the phratries were named corre- sponded to the light and dark blood of the natives of the Wide Bay and Burnett districts. In that paper I suggested that Dilbai might be a corruption of Kilpara, the name of one of the phratries of the Darling River tribes, and that Kopaitthin was a variant of Kapaitch (black cockatoo), the name of one of the phratries in the west of Victoria and the contiguous portion of South Australia. Elsewhere, I have given the meanings of the four class names as imparted to me by the chief man of the communities of the Kabi tribe, who occupied the hill country west of Maryborough, as follows :— Bonda, kangaroo; Dherwain, emu; Balkuin, kangaroo;. Barang, emu. His explanation of the first two is confirmed by the fact that these terms are the names for kangaroo and emu in the Kamilroi dialect, as spoken at Barraba, in New South Wales. The accuracy of his explanation of the last two class-names is uncertain. It is worthy of mention that natives whom I met at Barambah belonging to the tribes who used the above class-names (Banjur or Bandyur being substituted by some for Balkuin) were ignorant of their meaning; it had been forgotten and lost. The first two class-names mentioned above were used by the Kangulu tribe, which inhabited the country between the Mackenzie and the Lower Dawson Rivers. Hence from the most northerly part where they occurred as class-names, with apparently the original meaning unknown, to the point where they were used as every- day terms for kangaroo and emu is about 500 miles in a direct line. It seems highly improbable that the names travelled north. * Howitt, loc: cit., p. 109. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 437 The greater probability is that the Kamilroi speech once prevailed in the north, and that certain words in it were displaced by others, one cause being the pressure of fresh migrations from the north. It is characteristic of a number of the class-names in Queensland and the north of New South Wales, and of two (and, perhaps, three) phratry names, that their meaning, lost in the north, has been preserved far to the south. So far as I could learn, the habits and customs of the Gurang did not differ from those of their southern neighbours. LANGUAGE. The Gurang dialect is closely related by vocabulary to the Wakka and Kabi dialects, as much, or more, to the latter as to the former, although the Wakka country was intermediate. It has preserved more primitive forms of many words. ‘Take, for example, the Gurang word mil, eye, of which the Wakka and Kabi analogues are ma and mi respectively. Many words relate Gurang to Kamilroi of New South Wales. The Gurang vocabulary suggests that the dialect has been largely constituted by a fusion of the east coast type of dialect with the type that prevailed in New South Wales, on the western slopes of the Main Dividing Range. The Gurang is most closely related to those dialects in Queensland and New South Wales that use the term dhan for man; this includes the Euahlayi. As has been noticed already, the phratry names are the same as those of the Kamilroi, allowing for difference of pronunciation and change through phonetic decay. The personal pronoun, especially in the nominative case of the first and second persons singular and the first person plural, has the features of the common Australian type, as exemplified in the dialects of Saibai and Kowrarega Islands in Torres Strait, that of Bloomfield Valley in the north of Queensland, and those of the Wakka and Kabi immediately to the south of the Gurang. A paradigm of the personal pronoun is given in the vocabulary. The interrogative abverbs are formed by additions to the stems min- and wen-, as is the case in most dialects, with, however, another stem in yukuri- in the terms for How is it? and Why? For examples, see vocabulary. In the verb, the commonest infinitive termination is -gim or -igim. There is a longer form in -iligim, reminding one of the Awakabal dialect of Lake Macquarie, New South Wales. The numerals are nula, one; bulla, two; warbar or bulla nula, three. Higher numbers are expressed by warbar. This term occurs as the numeral for one from the Peak Downs, northward along the coast, with variants in Torres Strait and at Saibai Island, on the coast of New i as I have formerly pointed out.* * Eaglehawk and Crow, p. 169. 438 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. NOUNS: Parts of the Body. VOCABULARY. NOUNS: Man, and his Relationships. ENGLISH. GURANG. ENGLISH. Aunt, father’s sister yapi Bowels Aunt, mother’s sister .. ya Breast Baby os dappil Breasts Blackfellow .. dhan Breath Blackwoman.. moni Calf of leg Boy a: dappil Cheek Brother, elder tya tya Chest Brother, younger kunyi Chin ats ‘Coast blacks batyala Collar-bone .. Child dappil Kar.. > Daughter baranggul Elbow Daughter-in-law nepelém Eyebrow Father papa Eyelash Father-in-law mama Hye Girl A .. muni muni Face Grandfather, ‘paternal .. maibin Fat Grandfather, maternal ngatyem Finger Grandmother, paternal kommi Fingernail Grandmother, maternal talaya Foot Husband kulanbilém Forehead Man, adult kipar Hair Man, old kurbel Hand ‘Mother ya Head Mother-in-law wongaldm Heart Nephew, sister’s son baranil Hip-joint Nephew, brother’s son —_nyukeri Hocks Niece, sister’s daughter _ bararkal Inside Niece, brother’s daugh- bararkal Knee ter Leg.. Sister, elder . watyim Lip Sister, younger kondalwal Liver $on.. br bénani Loins Son-inJaw .. . wongalom Lung Uncle, father’s brother papa Milk White man .. . wu Mouth White woman wainmai ! Nape of the ihe Widow wintyinhm Nose Widower bulkun-bulkun Phlegm Wife kin malim-gan_ Rib... Woman muni Shoulder sa Woman, old moken Shoulder-blade Sinew ac NOUNS: Parts of the Body. Skin ita ENGLISH. GURANG. Bromach Ankle wukul Tears Arm kini Teeth Armpit opunydm Thigh Back tunba Throat. Belly mapu Toe.. Beard nganbi Tongue Blood kakke Urine Bone . ee daikal Vein 1 Probably corruption of ‘‘ white mary.” Whiskers GURANG. kunna dhanté mam ngangbiram Die a wangkum dhanté nanbé kilun / pinna kamgu dhipin munyunggil mil kun gun - balgi biru gilin dinna dinko warul piru warul dalku kanim katyang nolla wale tara yilim kénna koman bupi mam yira wantal muru : buga : kun-gi P walil kilun katyal yulan mapu ngamgan tingkim. tira tara kangkanggal tinna tunam kapi yurulul nganmi PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 13 VocaBULARY—continued. NOUNS: Names of Quadrupeds, d:c. REPTILES. ENGLISH. GURANG. ENGLISH. GURANG. Animal (genericname) kutyu Frog kanganbil Bandicoot .. tunam Iguana ds bidest geataa Hats. hon non Lizard, Jew .. pinang goran. Bear, native Kalla Lizard, short tungkal Cat, native kinyi Lizard, Sleepy kulinugal Dingo ab ean Lizard, Water kanngil Dog, domestic miri coy ae pote Flying fox, | hat i ake, Carpe upu sabe me a ® eam Snake, Deaf Adder mun6m Kangaroo buru Snake, Whip yura Kangaroo, old man idan leal Turtle, fresh water milbi Kangaroo, female yimer INSECTS. Kangaroo rat pai ENGLISH. GuRANG. Opossum, grey nyukai Ant, common small king Paddimelon .. kururi Ant, Jumper.. puturu Porcupine, Echidna kakke Ant, small black mingolom Wallaby . katyar Ant, White . karum karum Wallaby, rock turka Bee, native dark kutya Bee, native grey kapai Butterfly béra bora NOUNS: Names of Birds. Fly dhipping ‘ Grub, large edible bim ENGLISH. GURANG. Hornet, large ee Bird kutyuju Hornet, small dyuar Bustard, forest turkey kainbar Louse munyu Cockatoo, black . golembil Scorpion mungurom Cockatoo, white ker ker Spider manying Crane muru tunburu Worm : wan gan a EE wang wang NOUNS: Netines of Plants. uc ac .. ngem Duck (wood- duck) .. Wanur : NGLISH. : GURAS o Eaglehawk ; kolya Cunjevoi (Alocasia mac- yimbun Emu < .. moiabang rorrhizi) : Fantail, Shepherd’s , tikigér Grass ban Companion Moss -- Mol moi Hawk, large brown wabé Punk, woody fungus -. konama Ibis _ miguen-ge Sarsaparilla (plant so kiiken Laughing Jackass. kakangon called) Mallee Hen or Scrub wakun Scrub berry, small bimtam Turkey Tree dhii Owl tyipa Tree, Apple, native kukerger Parrakeet, Green Leek worworkal Tree, Bloodwood Dee wurts Pigeon, Wonga wongilém Tree, Blue Gum yéran-ge Pigeon, Bronzewing dhikkin Tree, Bottle .. on puoi Swan, Black kalun Tree, Bo a { ngerulce - Teal tulongga Rae st A 2 Water Hen, Porphyrio wakun Tree, Bunya -. banye | Tree, Currajong kunmari Tree, Cyprus Pine danin FISHES Tree, Dogwood bukam : Tree, Grass .. takang ENGLISH. GURANG. Tree, Ironbark, narrow- ngulung-ge Catfish yaranbil leafed Mullet kurun Tree, Ironbark, broad- dangan Freshwater Salmon tyilbain leafed 440 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. VocaBULARY—continued. NOUNS: Names of Plants. ENGLISH. GURANG. ‘Tree, Moreton Bay Ash mang-ge © Tree, Oak (Swamp) ‘Tree, Pine ‘Tree, Red Gum ‘Tree, oo ipkta Vine billai kunnam do ngem yurul tukan NOUNS: Inanimate Nature. ‘Bank Bush, The ‘Cloud Country ‘Creek Darkness Day Daylight Dew Earth Fire Flat, a we Flood ei Frost ut Gully Hole Light Lightning Mist Mountain Moon Sundown Sunrise Thunder Twilight ate Water Watershed Wind Wood ENGLISH. GURANG. kan-gan ngain bunu tau kuain ngulku ngurunem ngapayim tyerga tau ngtin bunga tulun tan-gam tarara nodjla ngurunem burumka yinai wonde ngarulom wupirom ngulku dean wunu karabi munuwo6la pgurunem bulin tukun ngil dakkil kinmain kinmain wal- gem kinmain nyil- dam wuramga tyangipagem NOUNS: Manufactured Articles. ENGLISH. Bag Bed : Boomerang .. ete Bunya Meal .. Camp Dilly Bag Fence Hat Headband dog’s tail Headband of twinc House Knife E Nulla Nulla . ie , Nulla Nulla, rectangu- lar Rope Shield Spear, wood Spear, reed Tomahawk Water Vessel of native GURANG. bunbi nalal a” kan pata waibea kintu waru waru pingga ngura ngura kambany dhura dhakil maku waral yurun . kunmari kanai kumbu kumbu murgu wulguin NOUNS: Miscellaneous. ENGLISH. Bark Base Beauty 4 Boil (tumour) Bottom Branch Bush, the Camp Charcoal Claw Coal ‘ Crossing-place Crystals, Quartz (magic) Crystals, dianite) Cut, a ead Tree Doctor, native Black (obsi- Evil Spirit Flesh Food : : Food (tapu to minors) Fool Froth Fur.. GURANG. taradang kantu ka ‘langan’ tapung kaiga gil gil bam waibea ngun dinna tuwe balam tapun minkoOm turl dalge kundir guna kan-gan dail wanggum tam tukari tala beregim bola bola munyungil - PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. VocaBULARY—continued. NOUNS: Miscellaneous. ENGLISH. Gammon 2% re (lit. shadow) God (the “ay etre: Half Half-caste Headman Horn House Inside Language Teaves Little, a ae Lie (falsehood) Liar Log Lump Many Meat Messenger Middle Mourning (by fasting) Murderer Name : Name of hans’ Name of Class Name of Class Name of Class Name of Phratry Name of Phratry Nose bubbles Noise a Outside Place Red clay River Road Root (lit. thigh) Sap (lit. blood) Scar (ornamental) Scrub : Seed Song Sorcerer Spittle Stink Stump Sweat Tail ‘Tear (of the eye) GURANG. tangkaiyalim ngutyung bira wunini tankakipeyim dhan tankaki- peyim tilga mutuin waba tam marilém kinye talkalka wungabakin- min nge Bandyur Barang Bonda Dherwain Dilbai Kapaiin buka wulai tumbami tau muli kurun tombar tara tariga bakum kapal yara yapar kundir kang buka mutang- gil warul kung ngamgan tun tengkem 44¥ NOUNS: Miscellaneous. ENGLISH. GURANG. To-day winye To-morrow .. kanggo Track (and footprint) démbal While, a little -. yau yav Wing kine Wood = oe talany Word 26 Jo: “Game Yesterday .. warbang PRONOUNS : Personal. ENGLISH. GuRANG. 1 Sing., I (simple) ngai 1 Sing., I (agent) -. atyu 1 Sing., Poss, My, nganyunda Mine 1 Sing., Acc., Me ngonya 2 Sing., Nom., simple, ngin Thou, You 2 Sing., Nom.,.empha- nginnginamim tic, Thou, You 2 Sing., Nom., agent, ngindu Thou, You 2 Sing., Poss., Thy, ngingedyunge Thine, You, Yours 2 Sing., Dat., Thee, nginba You 2 Sing., Acc., Thee, nginna You 3 Sing., Nom., simple, yoa He, She, It 3 Sing., Nom., agent, malun He, She, It 3 Sing., Poss., His, maityigin Her, Hers, Its 3 Sing., Dat., Him, maityigin Her, It 1 Dual, Nom., Another ngaila and I 1 and 2 Dual, Nom., ngalinngin You and I 2 Dual, Nom., Youtwo bula 1 Plu., Nom., simple, ngalingal We 1 Plu.,Nom.,agent, We ngalindo 1 Plu., Poss., Our, Ours ngalige 1 Plo:,, Dat., Us . ngalia 1 Plu., Acc., Us ngalinga 2 Plu., Nom., You bula 2 Plu., Poss., Your, nguralage Yours 2 Plu., Dat., You nguralangs PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. VocaBULARY—continued. 442 PRONOUNS: Personal. ENGLISH. GURANG. ‘2}Plu., Ace. .. nguralanga 2 Plu., Nom., You all. ngurare 2 Plu., Poss., Yours ngurarige 2 Plu., Keai* You -. ngurainga 3 Plu., Nom., simple, indyiringa They 3 Plu.. Nom., agent, indyori They 3 Plu, Poss., Their, indyirige Theirs 3 Plu., Dat., Them indyiriba 3 Plu., Acc., Them indyiringa PRONOUNS : Indefinite. ENGLISH. GURANG. Anyone, Everyone, kolvamge Everybody Everyone .. bunngal Used with Personal Pronouns. Self.. es nulam By Oneself nganyanda Pronominal Adjectives. Another’s +. wura Other if. .» kailom Some . . . Others kailém kailom This one kanga That one karyula ‘That one’s aige PRONOUNS : eae ENGLISH. GURANG. Nom., simple, Who wanyonga Nom., agent, Who wendyo Poss., Whose ngalye Dat., "Whom . wonage Dat. and Acc., Whom wonyanga Nom., simple, ‘What .. minyu Nom., agent, What wandyu Nom., What is the mat- yukorimin ter ADJECTIVES. ENGLISH. GURANG. Afraid yandyigim Alive murul Alone nyulam Amazed mil yulo- wopalim Angry nolla_ balwil- gem Bad warang Bald barwam Big yin-gar Black ngulge Blind muka _— ADJECTIVES. ENGLISH. GURANG. Blunt tinta Brave gurang yin- dyigim Bright mil bumgen Brimful keambol- Bushy muka Charmed kundir Cheerful nolla kalan- gin Clear kalangin Clean yilar Clever wupin Cold ngitun Cowardly yantyirgim Costive tulum Crooked walgér Curious (strange) tyérga Dark ngulgi Dead bundyimin Deaf pina muka Done mure Dry yumbi Early ; ngitunngal Easy (pace) .. yayong Empty nolla False katyal Fat balgi Fearful (in dread) yantyigem Few bulanyula First mure Flat bunga Fly-blown buka Full mapungal Free (gratis) tappa . Fresh . winyin-ge Frightened yantyigim Giddy a warul kileng- — gem : Glad nolla kalangin — Good kalangan 4 Grey (of the hair) gil " Greedy daildokém Hard tulba Heavy tulba High barai Hot karngol Humble gulkinyom Hunched tunba Hungry tyukale Ill. tempered balilga Invincible wuppin Itching gingile Jealous mil bilband- yigim Sie,” q PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. VocABULARY—continued. ADJECTIVES. ENGLISH. GURANG. Kind : konal Lank (of animals) tukalile Large yin-gar Lazy kulkindyom Lean yir Left-handed . tyvlum Life-possessing, kundir ivin, oy (in ie wupe Long tunburu Mad beregim Many waba More wukaban One nula Quick motyarl Red kwer Short morgo Slow tatyar Small kunini Stinking buka Straight kanibalém Strong tulba Sweet tyukingal Tall thunbin Thirsty gungku Three warbar Tired bubigan Two bulla Weak dali White gil Wicked, Wrong warang, dong- kar Wild .. kalum VERBS. ENGLISH. GURANG. Be .. kan nyenan Beat bakilim Break kakan Bring wependigim, dante Burn (trans.) markim Burn (intrans.) beligim kankaligim Camp waibea yangge Carry dantingim Climb walgim Come wapa, beye Cry dungaligim Cut kauwagim Die buntyigim Divide or deal out wungila Drink talgu Kat tyalgem Fall kanman 443 VERBS. ENGLISH. GURANG. Fetch dante Fight bekegim, pe- kergo Find nyeman Give wukka Go... yan-go Hear buranmen Kick naronggen Kill buman Know burangalim Laugh yatyigim Leave yupara Like gulgin Make yonggan Marry bindu Run milali See nyomen,nokke Sing yappa Sit .. nginna Sleep gunyim Speak yatyula, gual Stand belbem Strike bakilim Take bi, mana Tell yalle Tell a lie tangakipeyim Walk dakim, bigim Weep dungaligim ADVERBS: h pl ENGLISH. GURANG. How 3 minya How getting 0 on yukurimin How is it yukurimin How many .. minyvambor When (at what time) . wanbaga Where .. wendyo Wherever wendyaland- yin Which way .. wenngula Whither wandye Why yukurigin ADVERBS: ieeniral. ENGLISH. GURANG- After, behind bukanyi Afterwards kara Before “fs ya-nge Directly (at once) winyi Fast 3 motyalal Here yeng No .. gurang Yes.. yauai INTERJECTIONS. ENGLIsH. GURANG. Halloo, hj kau 444 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 4. THE VICTORIAN ABORIGINE AS HE IS. By Natalie Robarts. ConANDERRK ABORIGINAL STATION. (Communicated by L. W. G. Biichner.) [ABSTRACT. | The Victorian aborigines, who now number only 133, are fast dying out. The chief causes of the great mortality among them are, firstly, the contracting of vices and diseases by associating with the inferior and unscrupulous whites; secondly, the attempting of the impossible task of changing the habits of a savage and nomadic people into those of a highly civilized race. The natives receive food, raimant, medical aid, and all the comforts of life from our Government. The incentive to action and exertion, which their native life supplied, is now gone, and they have settled into a listless and aimless mental and physical life. They soon became an easy prey to diseases, and tuberculosis has caused great ravages among them. A few of the early characteristics of the race are found in the remnant of Victorian blacks. Their sight is keen and strong ; their natural instinct for tracking footprints and path finding is still existent, as is also their delicacy of hearing. The sense of smell is undeveloped. The odour peculiar to the blacks is increased by muscular exertion, and does not disappear on bathing. The love of sport, so natural to the race, shows itself in the keen interest taken in amusements of all kinds. Fishing is a favorite pastime, especially among the women. Civilization has developed a latent taste for drawing, and the handwriting in many cases is very good. They possess a natural aptitude for music; their singing is now sweet, mellow, and appealing; church singing particularly is entered into with heart and soul. Sometimes they make use of very poetical expressions. Memory is only slightly developed. Ideas, as to lapse of time, are very vague; attention wearies very quickly; perseverance is not an attribute, this is shown by their handicrafts. The natives are kind and affectionate to each other, particularly to the aged and infirm, and are hospitable to their friends and relatives. Impulsive and warmhearted one moment, jealous and resentful the next, quickly impassionate, they are ready to fight over very little, and just as ready to forgive. Children, like their parents, exhibit strong passions, and are without any great will power. They are inclined to be untruthful and cowardly, but are affectionate. The natives — are very imaginative, for we hear them talk of apparitions that PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 445 appear to them, generally in the form of a blackfellow who has evil- intentions, and who is usually seen at the end of summer, at twilight, or when it is growing dark. They also imagine that they have contracted fatal diseases. It is almost impossible to get consistent and steady farmwork done by them, but the work of bush clearing and fencing is well done. The men’s favorite occupation is the cutting and carving out native weapons to sell to visitors at the Station. Some of the women make baskets from a long fibrous grass which grows in ‘swampy ground. The women are not good cooks, probably because cooking requires care and attention, and also because of hereditary tendencies. Damper and fried meats are favorite dishes. The natives are still capable of taking large quantities of food at a time, and this satisfies hunger for a considerable period. In ordinary life, the native is slow in his movements, his gait is slouching ; he walks with both head and body forward, the knee being bent in taking his long step; his arms hang habitually with the palm of the hand to the rear. His astonishment is expressed by wide opened eyes and mouth, and often by the hands being raised with fingers widely extended, and the palms directed toward the cause of his astonishment. When he is indignant or defiant, he frowns, holds his body and head erect, squares his shoulders, and elenches his fists. When he is in low spirits, the corners of his mouth are depressed. When he is in bright spirits, his eyes sparkle, the corners of his mouth are drawn back, and his whole face lights up. When he is sulky, he has a dogged, obstinate expression, and his brow is lowering. From a close observation of these natives, one sees that they do not suffer pain as acutely as do the higher races, their skin seems not so sensitive. They have a low vitality, and little power of resistance, therefore they easily succumb to diseases. Still, they do not become very readily the victims of epidemics, with the exception of influenza and colds. They have strong powers of recuperation after accidents. They cannot lift heavy weights. Very few of the women are able to do hard work. They do not bear the cold well, but they enjoy exposure to the direct rays of the sun. The Victorian native is very conservative. He has a strong attachment to ancestral habits, and a dislike to change and reform. This accounts for the imperfect way in which he has adapted him- self to the requirements of civilization. He is still simple and untaught. He seems incapable of grasping the laws of clean and healthy living. It is sad to know the Victorian blacks are dying fast, although they are guarded and guided by those who have their interests at heart. All advice given falls on dull under- standings. The half-castes, in most cases, are intelligent and | ; : — 446 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. capable of working, but, the mother being the black parent, the moral tendencies lean towards the native on account of pre-natal influences. Also, the child, being brought up among an indolent, lazy people, contracts these habits. Physically, the white race strongly asserts itself. The white colour overpowers the black, except in isolated cases. ~ The complete segregation of the natives, with ample hunting: grounds, would bring the desirable conditions under which the blacks should live. This should be well considered among other questions in the Northern Territory, where the blacks still form a big percentable of the population. A sojourn of a few years: among the remnant of our Victorian blacks teaches us that they respond to good moral training, if they are protected from outside: influences, for our blacks have only reached the childhood stage,. and, like children, they need guarding and protecting. Had it been possible to have given this question more scientific thought and care in the early days of settlement in Victoria there would probably be more than a remnant left to-day of the Victorian aboriginal race. NOTES ON THE CAPE BARREN ISLANDERS. By L. W. G. Bichner, F.R.AT., Government Research Scholar in the Department of Anthropology, University of Melbourne. [ABSTRACT. ] In November, 1912, the author was a member of a scientific expedition to the islands in the Furneaux Group, Bass Strait. A study of the origin of the islanders on Cape Barren Island is very interesting. In 1773, Captain Tobias Furneaux, a colleague of Captain Cook, attempted to determine whether there was a strait separating Van Dieman’s Land and New Holland. He reported that there was ‘‘ nothing but shoals and islands.’? For nearly 25 years after, nothing was done in regard to the exploration of this locality. In 1797, Bass set out in his whaleboat, with eight others, to solve this problem. In a trip made to rescue the crew of the wrecked Sydney Cove, Flinders discovered the presence of seals on Preservation Island. Acting on the reports of Flinders, when he returned to Sydney, a small _ sealer, the Nautilus, set sail with the next Flinders-Bass expe- dition, to the Straits ‘Islands. From this. time. ‘on the sealing industry rapidly grew, attracting all classes of adventurers from different places. Of these Straitsmen, several were runaway convicts, both from Port Jackson and Van Dieman’s Land. Those Straitsmen made periodical raids on the Tasmanian mainland, and carried off the native women. In some cases they were taken by brute force, in others they were purchased from ee ee net > ead PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 447 their husbands for seal carcases. In 1830, after the decline of the sealing industry, there were but 30 white men and 41 aboriginal women on the various Straits Islands. In 1831, Pro- tector Robinson was only partly successful in recovering some of the women. The Straitsmen turned their attention to the ‘‘ mutton-bird ”’ industry. At that time, the birds were only profitable for the sake of their feathers, oil, and eggs. In this industry, the native women were adept, and later, when the flesh came into demand, they proved themselves expert in curing, &c. From such sources has the present population of Cape Barren Island sprung. There are now only two full-blood Tasmanian half-castes alive on the island. Of these, one is an invalid. The other is a hale, hearty man, now in his eightieth year. He was born at Cape Portland, in June, 1833. His father was a master pilot from Cardiff, and his mother was a Tasmanian aboriginal woman, named Nimmeranna. This half-caste’s family reveal some marked Mendelian traits. He married another half-caste (Australian), and had six sons and two daughters. Of the sons, one has married @ quarter-caste. The children of this union show very interesting characteristics. The eldest child is a girl. She is a typical fair- haired, blue-eyed Caucasian. Her younger brother’s skin tint, on the other hand, is of a dark chocolate brown colour; his nose is platyrhine, his ears are of the Australoid type, but his hair is wavy, and not woolly. On examining the teeth of the school - children, Dr. Brooke Nicholls, of Melbourne, found fhat 33 per cent. of the number examined had perfect teeth. The soundness of the teeth of the Island children is attributable to their habit of chewing “‘ jackyvine,’’ sheoak apples, and grasstree gum. Several of the children and adults also exhibit leucotic patches, more particularly in the children of quarter-castes. For a livelihood the islanders depend on the mutton-bird industry. When the birding season commences the whole com- munity migrates to their favorite grounds. Every one par- ticipates in the work. In this way it is possible for a family of five to earn £120 in the six weeks. The rest of the year, with few exceptions, they do practically no work. They are very list- less, and civilization appears to be irksome to them. The Govern- ment of Tasmania has devoted some attention to the needs of the islanders, and a Commissioner is now appointed to look after them. Cape Barren Island is admirably suited for agriculture, but, with the exception of the school garden, little cultivation has been done by the islanders. In the future, by the adoption of new ideas, the inhabitants of this lonely island will be able to be lifted out of their present lethargy and apathy. This will be rendered possible by the presence and assistance of a Government official on the reservation. Section F. REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES. (a) SPELLING OF AUSTRALIAN PLACE-NAMES. (See Vol. XIII., p. lviii). The following Report on the subject was kindly furnished by the Prime Minister of the Commonwealth, under date 29th June, 1911 -— COPY OF REPORTS. (7.4437 /11. SYDNEY. Except when an office is opened at a railway station (when the name of the railway station is always adopted), the State Lands Department, in accordance with instructions, is always referred to by this office before the name (including the correct spelling thereof) proposed for a new office is decided upon. As regards the question whether there are any differences in the spelling of Australian names by this and other Commonwealth and State Departments, the Lands Department was, however, referred to in the matter, in order to ascertain the desired informa- tion, and the following reply has been received, viz. :— ‘Referring to your letter, inquiring as to the practice adopted in New South Wales regarding the spelling of Aus- tralian names for post offices, I have the honour to inform you that the practice in New South Wales regarding the spelling of Austrahan and other names for post offices now is to adopt the spelling shown upon the maps, and by the records . of this Department, if such a name exists thereon, but if the name suggested does not so exist, but has not been used before within the Commonwealth, it is considered eligible, and the proposed spelling is adopted. All names proposed for postal offices, railway stations, &c., in this State are now, by arrangement, submitted for approval by this Department, but owing to no such control obtaining until the present arrangement was brought into operation,. many differences, unfortunately, do occur in the spelling of place names by the different Departments.’’ I enclose a schedule showing the spelling in use by various Departments and public bodies of certain place names. It cannot be stated definitely, at this distant date, what were the reasons for adopting the present spelling of the names referred to. As, RAEN re PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 449 however, the spelling adopted by the Department is approved by local usage, and is that adopted by various Government Depart- ments and public bodies, it is presumed that local usage was the main factor in deciding the spelling in the cases under notice. So far as can be ascertained, without lengthy inquiry, the Lands Department is the only Department that uses the spelling appearing on the land maps of New South Wales, and then principally in connexion with land matters. There are no other cases known where the spelling in use by other Departments differs from that adopted by this Department, although it would appear from the letter from the Lands Depart- ment that many differences do occur. Apparently, the Lands Department has, in the past, adopted spelling not warranted by general usage, and, if uniformity is to be aimed at, that Depart- ment should, it is thought, fall into line with the others. MELBOURNE. The general practice is to follow the spelling adopted by the State Lands Department in the maps issued of the parishes or counties, or, in cases where local or native names are selected, the spelling as known to the local residents. I am unaware of any differences in the spelling of such names by this or other Common- wealth or State Departments. BRISBANE. The State Lands Department is the authority looked to by this office for the correct spelling of Australian names adopted as the designations of post offices, &c., in Queensland. It has not come under notice that other Commonwealth or State Departments have differed from this Department in the spelling of such names. Z ADELAIDE. In South Australia the names of all new post offices are sub- mitted to the Surveyor-General’s Department, and the spelling of the Survey Office is adopted. There is, therefore, no difference regarding the spelling by this Department and State Departments. PERTH. In Western Australia it is usual to adopt the spelling of the names of townships obtaining in the State Government, the only exceptions which have come under notice being the cases of Youanme, Nabawah, and Kirrup. These places were originally spelt as given, but were subsequently altered by the State Govern- ment. 6117. P ~ 450 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. Hosart. When a name is required for a post office about to be estab- lished the Department of Lands and Surveys is approached and asked to suggest a name, and it is the practice of that Department to apply to such, and also to districts when first settled, Tasmanian native names, the spelling of which is copied from a list compiled from official and other vocabularies by J. E. Calder, and published as a Parliamentary Paper in 1901 (No. 69). No other State, as far as is known, in either this or the Survey Department, adopts Tasmanian native names. New Sour WALzgs. Spelling of Australian Names. Schedule showing Spelling adopted by various Government Departments and Public Bodies. Common- Shire Lands Postal Railway wealth and Local Department. Department. Department. Electoral Municipal Usage. Office. Year Book. Bullah Bulahdelah | .. ..| Bulahdelah | .. .. | Bulahdelah Delah Boorowa ..|Burrowa ..|.. ..| Burrowa ..| Burrowa .. | Burrowa Currathool |Carrathool | Carrathool | Carrathool | Carrathool | Carrathool Collarenda- | Collarenebri | Collarenebri | Collarenebri | .. .. | Collarenebri bri Goolongo- _| Coolongo- re .. | Coolongo- aK .. | Coolongo- look look look look Condoublin |Condobolin | Condobolin | Condobolin | Condobolin | Condobolin Cootamun- |Cootamun- | Cootamun- | Cootamun- | Cootamun- | Cootamun- dry dra dra dra dra dra Jewnee Junee Junee * Junee Junee Junee Koorowatha | Koorawatha | Koorawatha | Koorawatha | .. .. | Koorawatha Wollomba Wollombi ..| .. ..| Wollombi ..] .. .. | Wollombi | z (6)—WELFARE OF ABORIGINES COMMITTEE. (See Vol. XIII, p. LVITI). The following Report was adopted :— TERMS OF RESOLUTION. “That an organized scheme for the future of the Australian aborigines be formulated and submitted for the consideration of the Federal and State Governments.”’ 7 Fo ee PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 451 The Committee, having considered to the best of its ability the difficult problem set before them, report as follows :— 1. We are deeply convinced that the question of the protection of the surviving aborigines and the amelioration of their present and future condition is greater and more urgent than is generally realized in Australia. According to moderate estimates, about 75,000 or 80,000 aborigines still survive, mostly in the northern part of the Continent. Their present miserable condition and the sad future which apparently awaits them, unless some radical change of treatment is effected, have been set forth time after time . by special commissioners, protectors, magistrates, police, and medical practitioners. 2. We are also deeply convinced that the aboriginal problem will be more effectively solved when all that is left of the race is made a single national responsibility, and cared for on a national system. It is in this way that the Maoris have been dealt with in New Zealand, and the Indians in North America. 3. This national control might, we think, be brought about by the ultimate appointment of a permanent Native Commission. This Commission should consist of representatives of the Federal Government and of each and all of the States of the Common- wealth, and should have conferred upon it Act of Parliament all general powers necessary for the exercise of the functions delegated to it. 4. The advantages of nationalizing our responsibility towards the aborigines may, we think, be summarized as follows :— (a) For the first time in Australian history it would be possible to treat the aboriginal problem as a whole, and on a systematic and scientific plan. The wider the area from which the governing power is derived, and the larger the task set, the more statesmanlike and continuous the policy is likely to be. (6) The financial burden would be more evenly distributed over the whole of Australia, and the funds available would be more adequate for the purpose. In 1908, Western Australia spent £23,000 on'her aborigines, but Victoria spent only £4,400. On the other hand, Victoria spent £15 per head, whereas Western Aus- tralia spent less than £1 per head, Queensland less than 10s., and South Australia only 6s. (c) A national sentiment of sympathy and pity would be created towards this unfortunate race whom we have dispossessed. P2 452 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. (zd) A valuable labour asset would be preserved. The pastoral settlement of Australia in its first stages was almost entirely dependent upon the local native labour, and, even now, in some cases, stations shearing 40,000 or 50,000 sheep have only one or two white men on them, with, perhaps, 40 or 50 of the aborigines. 5. We recommend therefore that the General Council of the Association should communicate to the Federal Government the information that, in the opinion of the Association, the appoint- ment of a Commission of Inquiry is desirable and necessary, with - a view, if it be found expedient, to the appointment of a Per- manent Native Commission, as recommended in paragraph 3, for the well-being and preservation of the native race of Australia; and that this Commission of Inquiry should include among its members the Chief Protectors of Aborigines of the States con- cerned. That, pending the establishment of a Permanent Com- mission, the system of reserves should be widely extended in all the northern parts of the Continent, where large numbers of blacks still survive under more or less natural conditions; that the training of the blacks in pastoral pursuits, and in simple mechanical arts, such as carpentering, blacksmithing, &c., should form part of the reserve system; and that at some later stage of development some simple form of agriculture should gradually be introduced. We recommend also that, should the General Council concur with these recommendations, it should also suggest to the Federal Government that it might be desirable to exempt from the opera- tion of the above scheme the small number of aborigines who survive in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, inas- much as they represent a later stage of the aboriginal problem, and are already well cared for by their respective Governments. (c) EXPORT OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND ETHNO- LOGICAL SPECIMENS. The following resolution was carried :— ‘Tt is approved that such steps be taken as may be deemed necessary to enforce the existing law with regard to the exportation of anthropological material, and, further, to prevent the indiscriminate exportation of other anthropological and ethnological specimens from any part of the Cemmonwealth.”’ P] _ eo Oo, ee PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION F. 453 (¢2) RECORDS OF ABORIGINES. The following resolution was carried :— “‘ That in view of the rapid decadence and disappearance of the Australian aborigines, it is urgent that, in the interests of science, further records and collections, illustrative of the beliefs, customs, and manner of life of the aborigine, should be made for public preserva- tion, more especially with reference to Queensland and Western Australia.’’ Section G. SOCIAL AND STATISTICAL SCIENCE, ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT: R. M. JOHNSTON, 1.8.0., F.S.8., Government Statistician, Tasmania. OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ‘‘ CONSUMABLE WEALTH ” AND ‘ECONOMIC CAPITAL,’? WITH AN INQUIRY INTO THE PROBABLE EFFECT OF ARBITRARY REGULA- TION OF ‘‘ MINIMUM WAGE” STANDARDS UPON THE ‘‘COST OF LIVING.’’ SYNOPSIS. 1. Introductory; dealing with the pressing need of creating a better classification and a more perfect definition of important terms used in the discussion of economic subjects. 2. Limitations to the nominal claims of capital upon the annual production of consumable wealth. 3. Observations regarding the genesis of economic price or value. 4. Economic capital discussed and defined. 5. Modes of acquiring ‘‘title’’ enabling producers to possess a share of the stock of consumable wealth made available by their combined services. 6. Distribution of consumable wealth in Tasmania, in year 1911, with an estimate of its present capital value from an actuarial point of view. 7. Evidence tending to show that social well-being improves in proportion as man’s auxiliary forces of nature, instead of man, is made to do the work of producing the world’s wealth. 8. General effect of the rapid growth of steam, and other natural auxiliary forces, since year 1840. 9. General and special ‘‘ standards of living ’’ based upon the recognition of the family of the breadwinner as the primary economic “‘ unit.”’ 10. Probable effect upon ‘‘ cost of living ’’ by arbitrary regula- tion of minimum-wage standards. 11. General ‘‘ composite labour-hour cost ’’ and special ‘‘ class labour-hour cost ’’ defined, with illustration of their relative pur- chasing powers over commodities. SC ie as Vin oe PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 455 12. Mere raising nominal wages all round cannot possibly benefit the worker unless accompanied by more than a corre- sponding increase in the volume of consumable wealth produced. 13. Illustration showing the effect upon the ‘‘ purchasing power ’’ of consumers of commodities, generally, in cases where the arbitrary raising of nominal wages is restricted to a particular class or trade. _ 14. Concluding remarks, followed by a tabular illustration of the remarkable permanency of the ‘‘ value-orbits’’ -of different commodities in relation to their common standard gold, and also to each other. 15. Reasons supporting the view that cost of production—not demand and supply—is the primary law which determines and regulates economic prices or values; and that this law can alone account for the remarkable permanence of the ratios of equivalent exchange weights of the principal commodities in relation to the standard gold, and to each other. INTRODUCTORY. Perhaps there is no other field of inquiry which has suffered so much from the lack of uniformity, precision, and proper classi- fication and definition of terms as that branch of art or science which relates to social economics. These imperfections were perhaps unavoidable in the early stages of investigation of matters so complex and variable, and may have been perpetuated by the idea that the popular appreciation of important social and economic questions might be aided by the retention of words in common use. The terms capital, utility, wealth, value, price, rent, profit, wages-fund, wages, labour, productive*agencies, are of this class, and are still frequently a source of confusion, because of the very different meanings which different writers and speakers loosely attach to them. In a single address it would be altogether impossible to enter fully into the many causes of confusion, due to the lack of a systematic classification, and to a more complete definition of the more important generic and specific economic terms now in common use in discussions and in treatises, dealing with root matters in existing social and economic problems. I have therefore found it necessary to limit my observations to such terms as have an immediate and important bearing upon the various questions touching the human agencies and their instrumental auxiliaries engaged in the current or annual production of consumable wealth necessary to supply the desired standard essentials of living, viz. : — (1) Wants essential to life itself. (2) Wants essential to comfort. (3) Luxurious wants. 456 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. Wants or Man. Wants of man determine the requisite extent and proportion of active productive labour services and of man’s productive instrumental auxiliaries. Services would never become a marketable commodity of exchange were it not for wants. Kinds of services, therefore, must be exactly proportionate to kinds of wants. The great wants —food; clothing, and shelter—are, by far, the greatest factors in the determination of the aggregate numbers that must be employed if the essential wants of the people are to be satisfied. The same three great wants also determine the necessary amount and pro- portions of man’s auxiliary tools, instruments, and trained and captured physical forces, constantly engaged in the great work of production, modification, transport, and distribution of the requisite necessaries and wants of life. It is not absolutely necessary, however, that the manufac- turing, agricultural, and other industries of any one country should preserve the world’s strict average proportions to each other, so long as it is free to make the necessary exchanges with other countries for disposing, or making good, their respective local surpluses and deficiencies. Nevertheless, countries confined to the production of their own wants, or what is the same, the world as a whole, must necessarily preserve the strict average pro- portion and quantity of labour and auxiliary machinery in the production of those three great wants which are the mainsprings of all human activities, both mental and physical. LIMITATIONS OF THE CLAIMS OF CAPITAL. It matters not how great or just the claims of economic capital may be, it is inevitable from the very nature of things that all. rewards for the various services engaged in the production’ of the wants of man (‘‘ consumable wealth ’’) are limited and determined, in the aggregate, by the amount of social consumable wealth— material and immaterial—that may be actually produced in any one year, or at any one period of time. Any increase in the effective productive forces of any one year increases the purchasing power of the consumer. Obversely, any influence (such as wars, failure of seasonal yields of stocks and crops, or cessation or arrest of important indus- tries by strikes) which diminishes the annual supply of consumable wealth, has the immediate effect of increasing the ‘‘ cost of living,’’ and in a corresponding measure, of lessening the purchasing power of consumers. In this place it may be of advantage to take into consideration the important question :— When and how does the germ of economic price or exchange value arise ? PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 457 Although Ricardo and Adam Smith did not, at first, suffi- ciently qualify their observations so as to avoid adverse criticism, it is now quite manifest that their ideas regarding the origin of price, and equivalence of exchange values, require very little modification to be accepted as true by the most advanced economic _ thinkers of the present day. If we simply substitute ‘‘ Cost of 2? man’s services,’’ which embraces variable quality and effectiveness of labour, in place of their original expression, ‘‘ Quantity of labour,’’ even Gunton, one of the most recent of thorough ex- penents of the ‘‘ Primary law of price,’’ would give assent to- Ricardo’s original statement regarding ‘‘ The equivalence of ex- change values.’’ Ricardo clearly expresses his views as to this equivalence of exchange values in the following words :— *““ The rule which determines how much of one (commodity) shall ke given for another depends almost exclusively on the quantity of labour expended on each.’’ Substitute ‘‘ cost of man’s service ’”’ for “‘ quantity of labour,’’ and we have the true interpretation of the genesis of economic price, or of the primary law which regu- lates and determines the respective ratios and prices by which commodities and services exchange with each other.’’ (See Appendix I.) Ricardo very clearly and succinctly establishes this fundamental truth, as to the origin of value and ratio of exchange, in his Prin- ciples of Political Economy (McCulloch’s new edition—1888—chap. 1, pp. 9, 10) in the following words :-—~: ‘There are some commodities, the value of which is determined by their scarcity alone. No labour can increase the quantity of such goods, and therefore their value cannot be lowered by an in- creased supply. Some rare picture, books, and coins, wines of a peculiar quality, which can be made only from grapes grown on a ‘particular soil, of which there is a limited quantity, are all of this description. Their value is wholly independent of the quantity of labour originally necessary to produce them, and varies with the varying wealth and inclination of those who are desirous to possess them.”’ .. “These commodities, however, form a _ very small part of the mass of commodities daily exchanged in the market. By far the greatest part of these goods which are the objects of desire are procured by labour; and they may be multi- plied, not in one country alone, but in many, almost without any assignable limit, if we are disposed to bestow the labour necessary to obtain them.” ‘*In speaking, then, of commodities, of their exchangeable value, and of the laws which regulate their relative prices, we mean always such commodities, only, as can be increased, in quan- tity, by the exertion of human industry, and on the production of _ which competition operates without restraint.’’ Elsewhere, Ricardo goes on to say . . . ‘‘ That this is really the founda- _ tion of the exchangeable value of all things, excepting those which 458 > PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. cannot be increased by human industry, is a doctrine of the utmost importance in political economy; for from no source do so many errors, and so much difference of opinion in that science proceed, as from the vague ideas which are attached to the word ‘ value.’ ”’ The most important corollary to be drawn from such a doctrine is that all natural elements and their compounds, which form the substance of commodities (whether rare, as gold, silver, or tin; or common, as coal, iron, ore, salt, or water) are, of themselves, free gifts of nature, and do not form any part of value or economic price. Man, by his labour, cannot create the elements of material substances; but, by his forethought, intelligence, and labour, he can modify and transport, and can provide favorable conditions for the production, and for the multiplication, of the natural in- crease of the various specific forms of utility. The latter service of man, and its extent and cost alone constitute the measure of the quality we term value, or price, in the particular compounds of natural elements in which, by the laws of social economy, it has become so closely incorporated, as to be confounded with some supposed intrinsic value, in the natural substance, per se. The phrase ‘‘ free gifts of nature’’ by most people js usually restricted to those things—like pure common air, rain, and sun- shine, so necessary to man’s life and comfort—which are obtained, directly, by natural means without the intervention of other men’s services; but the acceptance of the doctrine of the primary law of economic price or value, leads us a step further, and compels us to concede that, although all monopolised natural substances, in which man’s services have become incorporated and are inseparably asso- ciated with economic price or value, the natural elements, them- selves, do not enter into economic cost in any degree whatever ; and therefore, for example, the rare natural element gold, per se, adds — as little to economic price or value, as do the more common elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, silica, sodium, chlorine, nitrogen, &c., do, to compounds of common commodities such as coal, common salt, grain, and other food products. It is, we re- peat, the cost of the labour of man, incorporated in any substance, which alone gives such substance any degree of what is known as economic price or value. Wuat 1s CapPirTat ? Much illusion is generally caused by the varied: and conflicting use of the term “‘ capital’’ by different economic writers when dis- cussing questions concerning the comparative value of the various agencies (human, and fixed auxiliary instruments) engaged in the preduction of ‘‘ consumable wealth ’’; and, also, when applied to questions concerning the comparative value of title, share, or reward, of consumable wealth actually distributed and appro- priated, in each year, by each and all of the various producing agencies. MSE Riayitns see PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 459 Although man’s labour—time, physical energy, forethought, and mental and physical skill, are generally accepted by all recog- nised economic authorities, as the chief factors in the creation of consumable wealth, it must appear somewhat anomalous, and even illogical, that such authorities, with a few notable exceptions, should (except man as a slave) exclude man—the chief factor in the creation of and appropriation of all economic wealth—from forming any element of the value of capital as generally defined by them. This seems all the more incomprehensible when we find, notwithstanding the enormous increase of labour-saving fixed auxi- liary instruments of production during the last fifty years (them- selves, also, the direct product of the anterior-labour of man), that such fixed auxiliary instruments represent not more than about 19 per cent. of the total capital value of consumable wealth, now . annually produced by the combined creative forces of labour and the auxiliary instrumental aids, and by the captured and trained natural forces. Similar confusion also arises from the stand-point taken by a large number of economists in regarding the income or earnings, by the mode of ‘‘salary or wages,’’ as holding quite a different relationship to true economic capital to that held by other modes of deriving an income (such as income of the individual, derived in the form of interest, dividend, rent, business-profit, &c.); where- as, from an actuarial, or practical point of view, the true relation- ship to capital of all such modes of deriving an income is in every respect the same. * CAPITAL AND WAGES DIFFICULTY. In a paper entitled ‘‘ Root Matters in Social and Economic Pro- blems,’’ read before the members of the Royal Society of Tasmania in the year 1889, I dealt very fuliy with the difficulties caused by varied and conflicting definitions of the terms capital and wages. In that paper I stated the opinion that ‘‘ The expansion or limita- tion of the meaning of the terms, capital and wages, would not be the source of so much confusion if it were more firmly grasped, by each one, that these terms properly belong to two important and distinct categories; the first either wholly or partly related to the economic agents and forces employed in the creation or produc- tion of human wants in exchange; the second either wholly or partly to the reward ‘‘ titles’’ (wages, interest, rent, profit, &c.), commanding their respective shares in the actual appropriation of the economic wants of exchange so produced. Instead, therefore, of dwelling upon the contradictions involved by the inconsistent use of these terms, it may serve a good purpose if we discuss ideas rather than terms, and so avoid a fruitless logomachy regarding unstable definitions. First, let us bring_under each category all the elements that are necessary to be reckoned with in making them complete. 460 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. First Great Catecory. Economic Agents and Aus«iliary Forces Employed in the Creation or Production of Human Wants in Exchange. (a) Current Labour Service Division. (1) Of highly skilled minds in planning, organizing, and deter- * mining the modes in which labour may be most productively efiec- tive. Labour thus guided may be the means of adding (by the in- troduction of steam and other auxiliary forces) twelve to thirteen times the physical energy of the maximum physical powers of the whole of human labour. Types: The inventors of steam-engine, spinning jenny, electric traction, sewing machine, experts in civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering, organizers and skilled cap- tains of industries, professional skill of doctors, lawyers, teachers, &e. In a tabular illustration shown elsewhere, relating to Tas- ~ manian experience in the year 1911, I have made a roughly ap- proximate estimate, exhibiting, in a concrete form, the great im- portance of this division of labour services in the creation of the annual supply of man’s wants and satisfactions. In the tabular illustration referred to, it is shown that although only representing about 8.86 per cent. of the human services en- gaged in production, this group, together with the use of labour- saving auxiliary instruments of transport and manufacture (the greater part of which is the property of this group) contribute over 92 per cent. of the present physical energy necessary to be ex- pended in the general processes in the production of consumable wealth. The physical energy of all bread-winners (82,441) in Tasmania, represent a force of about 6,870 horse-power, or only about 7.06 per cent. of the total physical force required, in Tas- ‘mania, in the work of producing the necessary supply of consum- able wealth, yearly. It is also of importance to note that, although these powerful mechanical auxiliaries contribute over 92 per cent. of the physical energy required in the work of production, they only absorb a little over 17 per cent. of the year’s productive value. On the other hand about 91 per cent. of the bread- winners (75,132), contributing little towards the creation of these fixed auxiliaries, only exert, at most, about 6.43 per cent. of the total physical force utilized. It is evident, therefore, that it is the skill of the worker, not his exertion of mere muscular strength, which has enabled this latter group to present a claim of a little over 60 per cent. of the annual wealth produced in Tasmania in the year 1911, and representing a total value of £5,273,829. This amount is assigned to and appropriated by them as a reward for their skill and energy exerted in the year’s production of consum- able wealth. (2) Skilled Labour.—Types: Engineer, blacksmith, carpenter, mason, bricklayer, baker, tailor, &c. In Tasmania this sub-group 7 ay PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 461 is composed of about 12,988 bread-winners, representing 15.76 per cent. of all human agents engaged in the production of consumable wealth. The physical energy possessed by this sub-group is esti- mated as equal to 1,082 horse-power, or only 1.11 per cent. of total physical energy utilized in the work of production. Their skilled services, however, entitle them to command £1,474,037 or 16.85 per cent. of the year’s total production of consumable wealth. (3) Unskilled labour.—Types: Farm hand, navvy, nurse, scavenger, house-maid, seamstress, youthful apprentices, messengers, &c. This sub-group, in Tasmania, represent the largest number of bread-winners, numbering 62,144, or as much as 75.38 per cent. of all human agents currently engaged in the production of con- sumable wealth. They, however, while only possessing 5.32 per cent. of the total physical energy engaged, absorb, as their reward for services are consumable wealth of the value of about £3,799,792, representing as much as 43.43 per cent. of the total amount of consumable wealth produced by all human agents, and by their powerful auxiliary instruments, and trained forces, en- gaged in the work of production. This demonstrates, unmistak- ably, that it is the human intelligence of the bread-winner, and, especially, the consumption of his labour, time, and capital, which are the main factors in determining the economic share of reward for effective services rendered in the necessary work of production of man’s necessary wants and satisfactions. (6) Services of Man’s Auxiliary Productive Instruments and Energy Machines. (All such auxiliaries themselves’ derived from the creations of the anterior skill and labour of man.) 1. Products of anterior labour in the shape of shelter, or right of habitation, furniture, products of food, clothing, money, &c., the products of anterior labour, on hand, the result of previous savings.! 1. Although the life and energy of man, like all other natural elementary or primary forces are, from aneconomist’s point of view, regarded in the initial stages as devoid of cconomie price or value: yet, like all other elementary substances or forces, as soon as the cost/of man’s labour is incorporated in man (regarded as an economic instrument of production), it becomes an element of economic pric® or value. The existing 82,441 breadwinners of Tasmania regarded from an economist’s point of view, as the most important, as well as the most costly partof the economist’s instruments of production, both produce, and expend upon themselves and their dependants, about £7,250,000 sterling per year. Regarded as an interminable annuity, at 4 per ccent., it represents a present capital value of £179,906.075. But this capital value cannot altogether be set down to the credit of the existing breadwinners for the following important reasons :— In the dependent stage—from birth to the age of the independent or breadwinner—say on the average at least a period of fiftsen years, anterior-labour services of parents or natural guardians were expended upon the young future breadwinners, in the form of protection, shelter, food, clothing, education, &c., which for a period of fifteen years, say at £18 per annum at 4 per cent. interest, would accumulate to a sum of £360 as an clement of capital value, which, logically, must be assumed as bcing incorporated in the existing 82,441 Tasmanian breadwinners regarded in the light of economic productive instruments. In the aggregate this amounts to £29,678,760 of present capital value now ‘ncorporated in the breadwinner economic instruments of production, which, logically, must be credited to ‘“‘ The Anterior-labour Service of Man.” 462 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 2. More or less fixed auxiliary instruments and forces neces- sarily engaged in supplementing man’s own individual exertions in the production of consumable wealth. Types: Land improvements, (a) mines machinery and costly equipment, railways, roads, tram- ways, bridges, canals, harbors, houses, buildings, steam, electric, gas, and oil engines, water-power, works, ships, lighthouses, &c. All such wonderful, labour-saving auxiliary producing agencies certainly owe their origin, and present powerful harnessed physical energy, to man’s anterior inventive power, forethought, directing skill, and effective industrial labour. Among the anterior services of man involved in the creation of these increasing labour-saving powerful auxiliaries, it is particularly necessary to note, that all such anterior services’ of invention, and forethought, would, of themselves, fail to bring from an abstract idea to a _ concrete: reality all presently invaluable auxiliaries, were it not for the pro- vidence and present sacrifice of some, in saving from their current individual consumption a portion of their customary comforts and luxuries, and thus enabling them to divert some of the now liber- ated or available productive agencies, to the construction or manu- facture of those powerful instrumental auxiliaries, which, at the present day, of themselves, perform nearly 92 per cent. of all the purely physical energy required to supply the whole of man’s material wants and satisfactions. Although these auxiliaries provide as much as 92 per cent. of the necessary physical force now required to supply man’s wants, their economic value (only absorbing 15.17 per cent., or there- about, of the total consumable wealth produced) enable human- labour agencies (who at most only possess 7 per cent. of the total physical. productive energy required) to secure and appropriate as much as 82.24 per cent. of the consumable wealth produced by all the producing agencies—human and auxiliary.? 2. With all dus respect to those holding a different opinion, J hold that land, per se, being a free gift of nature has, in the natural stage, no economic value whatever. It, of course, possesses utility, but, like all other natural elemental substances, per se, such as gold, silver, or coal, it is devoid entirely of economic price or value, until such time as some useful human service happens to be incorporated with it. The first element of economical value incorporated in the natural state of land is created by the human services rendered by a stable Government in securing to a selector, for ar equivalent exchange value, a title to the sole right of ownership of the land deemed to be capable of yielding a profitable return to effective labour engaged thereon. Additional value is given to it by the Government, through its executive officers, in securing to the owner the fruits of his own labour when it is produced. Repeated doses of capital value, directly or indirectly due to man’s labour, accrues to the ground, by every work of economic utility, whether carried out directly by means of private enterprise, or indirectly by Government labour, in connecting such land with seaboard harbors and marketable eentres for products, by the construction, main- tenance, and repairs to public roads, railways, bridges, harbors, jetties, schoois, building, postal and telegraphic communication, and such like value-giving advantages. Upon this overlapping of the elements of accrued value, the owner, by his own capital, organizing, and directing skill, conjoined with the services of paid contractors and servants, may from time to time add stili greater economic value to the same land by the erection of the necessary buildings, fences, drainage, fertilizers, and other costly improvements. In my opinion, therefore, it is incon- trovertible that man’s incorporated labour services alon2, directly or indirectly, are the means by which unimproved virgin land, or any other elemental substances, come, per s¢ to possess any degree of what is termed economic price or value. This view of course is quite apart from, and does not touch. the much-vexed question, as to the rights of possession of what is usually but erroneously termed ‘‘ the unearned increment.” Ld PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 463 CoroL~uaRy To First CaTecory. As a corollary to the preceding “‘ first category,’’ it must be obvious that if the term ‘‘ capital ’’ were restricted to subdivision (6)—Services of man’s auxiliary productive instruments and energy machines—there would be less objection if it were not assumed, afterwards, that these alone form the whole of the forces necessary to produce man’s wants in exchange in sufficiency for all. Similarly, there would be little objection to restrict the term ‘‘ capital ’’ to subdivision (a) —-Current labour services—if it were not ignored, in after applications, that subdivision (b)—Services of man’s auxiliary productive instruments and energy machines— are also absolutely necessary for the supply of the whole range of man’s wants and satisfactions. , Seconp GREAT CATEGORY. Modes of Appropriation of Wants in Exchange, Created or Produced, or about to be Created or Produced. Mode (a)—By Wages or Salary. It is by this mode which the lower group of producers (mainly artisans and unskilled workers) obtain a “‘ title’’ commanding a varying share of available consumable wealth, in respect of labour- time consumed and personal services rendered by them in the wide ' and varied field of production. Mode (6)—By Interest, Royalty, Tax, Dividend, Rent, Income, or Commission. It is by these modes that a ‘‘title’’ to command a share of available consumable wealth is obtained by owners of auxiliary instruments of production, improved lands, buildings, houses, rail- ways, shipping, industrial business undertakings, &c., in respect of labour-time consumed and skilled management, adventure-risk, and. organizing power personally exerted. These owners, as purchasers or inheritors of the value of anterior labour and skill, incorporated in the powerful auxiliary instruments and forces of production, are enabled to command a more highly valued ‘‘title’’ to consumable wealth than the “salary’’ and ‘‘ wage’’ class, who do not. possess such special value-giving accessories. | CoroLLARY TO SEconD GREAT CaTEGORY. The corollary that may be drawn from the preceding analysis, which is sufficiently comprehensive, is that, individually, the “salary and wages’’ group are relatively poor capitalists, while owners of auxiliary accessories are, individually, rich capitalists. As, however, the breadwinners of the ‘‘ salary and wage’’ group are fully ten times as numerous as employers and owners of 464 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. auxiliary group, the former, in the aggregate, obtain a much larger proportion of the available consumable wealth produced in each year, and, therefore possesses a correspondingly greater share of effective economic capital. In support of this view, let us take the experience of Tasmania as regards the comparative dis- tribution of consumable wealth, in the year 1911, among the two principal groups referred to, as in the following estimate prepared by me:— Distribution of Consumable Wealth and its Capital (Present Capital Value) in Tasmania, Year 1911:— Salary and Owners of = Wages Group Auxiliary Both Groups. (Mainly). Force Group (Mainly). Absolute. Breadwinners ie vs No. 75,132 7,309 82,441 Physical energy, h.p. a ze 6,261 91,058 97,039 Consumable wealth, appropriated net.. 5,273,829 1,922,414 7,196,243 Consumable wealth present capital value (true or economic capital), esti- mated rate, 4 per cent. .. £{ 131,845,725} 48,060,350} 179,906,075 Labour hours expended oe No. | 180,316,800 17,541,600 | 197,858,400 Percentage. Bread winners iF Ae es 91°14 8°86. 100 Physical energy .. ae ee 6°43 93-57 100 Consumable wealth appropriated sei 73°29 26°71 100 Economic capital .. Si - 73°29 26°71 100 Per Breadwinners. Consumable wealth, per year— .. Per average labour hour .. Ve 7°02d. 2s, 2d. 8°73d. 2 Per labour day .. ele ss 4s, 8-16d. 17s. 6d. 5s. 9°83d. _ Per year (2,400 labour hours) £7020 £262 -90 £87°29 oF It is of particular interest in this place to note also that the auxiliary producing instruments and forces, although contributing 92.94 per cent. of the whole physical energy engaged in Tasmania in the production of the year’s consumable wealth, they, in their maintenance, repairs, and renewals, only absorbed 17.76 per cent. of the £8,750;000 value of total consumable wealth produced by the whole of the combined productive agencies, 7.e., human services and auxiliary forces. The value so absorbed amounted to £1,553,757, which only represents 1/3.04 per head of total bread- winners per labour-day. — PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 465 These illustrations show unmistakably that the economic advan- ’ tages secured by man’s improved auxiliary instruments and forces have been the principal cause of the present much higher social standard of living of the people, as compared with that of the period prior to the introduction of steam and electricity, as auxiliary aids to the productive powers of labour. Gunton, in his earlier work Wealth and Progress, states that— ‘In proportion as wealth is produced by human labour, it is scant and dear, and the masses are poor and barbarous; and according as it is produced by (auxiliary) natural forces (steam, &e.) it is abundant and cheap, and the masses are materially prosperous and socially civilized.’’ ‘‘ Thus, in India, where wealth is produced mainly by human labour, the annual earnings are about £2 per capita of the population, as against £33 per capita in this country (United States of America); where human labour supplies the smallest per cent. of the productive power of any country in the world.’’ Mr. Gunton further observes:—‘‘ It is thus clear that the labourer is not robbed by (auxiliary) capital, but that he always gains by the use of (auxiliary) capital, not because of any generosity of the greater capitalist (2.e., by the owner of auxiliary steam and other forces), but by the inexorable operation of economic law, which prohibits the use of (auxiliary) capital except upon the condition that it will yield increasing returns. In other words, that it will give more wealth to the community than it takes away from it.’’ ‘‘ Were it otherwise, social progress would be impossible, as the productive power of the human hand cannot, to any great extent, be increased. Hence unless some other forces can be harnessed to the production of wealth, man would be doomed to eternal barbarism.’’ Mr. Gunton also affirms— “That human labour (except under the most primitive state of savagery) does not create all wealth, and that the social condi- tion of the labourer is not necessarily the best when he gets the whole produce; but, on the contrary, wealth is produced by the combined effort of labour and capital, and that, according as the proportion of the total wealth produced by human labour diminishes, the actual amount the labourer receives increases. In other words, the social well-being improves in proportion as nature (meaning natural harnessed forces) instead of man, is made to do the work of producing the world’s wealth.”’ GENERAL Errect oF THE RaPpip GrowrTa oF STEAM AND OTHER Naturat Avxiniary Forces since 1840. Dr. David A. Wells, in his admirable history of ‘‘ Recent Economic Changes, and their effect on the Production and Distri- bution of Wealth, and the Well-being of Society,’’ published in the year 1891, makes the following notable observation :— “When the historian of the future writes the history of the nineteenth century he will doubtless assign to the period embraced 466 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. by the life of the generation terminating in 1885 a place of im- portance, considered in its relations to the interests of humanity, second to but very few, and perhaps to none, of the many similar epochs of time in any of the centuries that may have preceded it; inasmuch as all economists who have specially studied this matter are substantially agreed, within the period named, man in general has attained to such a greater control over the forces of. nature, and has so far compassed their use, that he has been able to do far more work in a given time, produce far more labour, and reduce the effort necessary to insure a comfortable subsistence in a. far greater measure than it was possible for him to accomplish twenty or thirty years anterior to the time of the present writing (1889). “In the absence of sufficiently complete data, it is not easy, and perhaps not possible, to estimate accurately, and specifically state the average saving in time and labour in the world’s work of pro- duction and distribution that has been achieved.”’ Mr. Wells, however, was of the opinion, at that time, that ‘‘In a few departments of industrial effort the saving in both of these has certainly amounted to 70 or 80 per cent.’? Mr. Wells, in support of these views, quotes several accepted authorities. Among these authorities he refers to the report for 1886 of the United States Bureau of Labour. This report affirms that ‘‘ The gain in the power of production in some of the leading industries of the United States ‘during the past fifteen or twenty years,’ as measured by the displacement of the muscular labour formerly employed to effect a given result (i.e., amount of product) has been as follows:—In the manufacture of agricultural implements, from 50 to 70 per cent. ; in the manufacture of shoes, 80 per cent. ; in the manufacture of machines and machinery, 40 per cent.; in the manufacture of silk, 50 per cent., and so on.’’ Mr. Wells further affirms, on the authority of Mr. Atkin- son, that ‘‘In a print-cloth factory in New England; in which the conditions of production were analysed by Mr. Atkinson, the product per hand was found by him to have advanced from 26,531 yards, representing 3,382 hours’ work, to 32,391 yards, representing 2,695 hours’ work, in 1884— an increase of 22 per cent. in product, and a decrease of 20 per cent. in hours of labour. Converted into cloth of their own product, the wages of the operatives in this same mill would have yielded them 6,205 yards in 1871, as compared with 9,737 yards in 1884—an increase of 56.92 per cent. During the same period of time the prices of beef, pork, flour, oats, butter, lard, cheese, and wool in the, United States declined more than 25 per cent.’”? . . . ‘“‘ The deductions of Mr. William Fowler, . . . Fellow of University College, London, are to the effect that the saving of labour since 1850, in the production of an article amounts PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 467 to 40 per cent.; and that ‘ Wages have greatly increased, but the cost of doing a given amount of work has decreased, so that five men can now do the work which would have demanded the labour of eight men in 1850.’”’ The following summary table compiled by me, and based on statistical information compiled by Mulhall and other authorities, regarding the marvellous growth of steam-power since the year 1840, in the United Kingdom alone, add additional weight to Dr. Wells’ conclusions : — Growth of steam-power engaged in the work of produc- tion, transport, &c., in the United Kingdom between the years 1840 and 1911. Estimated Energy in Horse-power. Population Breadwinners No. Year. No. Breadwinners. Steam-power. (1,000.) (1,000.) | (1,000.) (1,000.) Absolute. No. P. cent. No P. cent. 1840 .. We 26,709 11,385 948] 60°47 620} 39°53 1850 .. he 27,369 11,665 972) 36°17] 1,290] 63-83 1860 .. = 28,927 12,354 1,029} 29-69] 2,450] 70°41 1870 .. te 31,484 13,148 1,095} 21°35] 4,040] 78-65 1880 .. aid f 34,800 14,880 1,237} 14-00] 7,600] 86-00 1888 .. a4 37,890 16,108 1,342] 12-72] 9,200| 87-28 1896 .. me 39,599 16,878 1,406 9-30] 13,700} 90-70 HOLT +.. a 45,309 19,308 1,609 8°43 | 17,480] 91-57 Relative Index of Physical Energy Used by Producing Bread-winners and Auxiliary Steam Power, respec- tively, in each year. } Year. Human Physical Physical Power’ Power. of Steam. 1840 1 0°65 1850 1 1°33 1860 it 2°38 1870 1 3°69 1880 1 6°14 1888 1 6°85 1896 1 9°74 1911 1 10-86 468 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. These figures, showing this marvellous growth of steam-power in the United Kingdom since the year 1840, though only to be regarded as rough approximates, are of the greatest importance. They show that while the natural increase of population has contributed 7,928,000 additional bread-winners to the stock of physical agencies engaged in the work of production, steam-power, in the same time, as an auxiliary force, has added 16,852,000 horse-power, which is estimated to be equivalent to the total physical energy of as much as 202,224,000 powerful men. THE STANDARD oF LIVING. The chief difficulty of any attempt to determine what may be acceptable as a fair and reasonable ‘‘ minmum living wage’’ is that it altogether depends upon what is the customary or socially accepted ‘‘ standard of living ’’ of the class of workers immediately concerned. This difficulty is further increased because of the ex- treme range of variability of ‘‘the standard of living,’’ per se This standard varies extremely with the following conditions thus :— The Standard of Living. (1) Varies with the degree of civilization, whether of differ- ent countries or of different periods within the same region. (2) Varies with the age and sex of the industrial bread- winner. (3) Varies with each one of the innumerable specific sub- divisions of occupations into which the highly organized divisions of Labour are now broken up. But under a state of freedom of contract, between employer and employé, the reward for a day’s labour, whether of money or its equivalent, cannot permanently fall below the minimum purchas- ing power of a day’s supply of the wants and comforts essential to maintain the life and that particular “‘ socially accepted Standard of Living ’’ to which the particular clas of worker happens to be related. As the breadwinner of a family must also provide for their wants as well as his own, it is obvious that the unit of the ‘* socially accepted standard of living’’ must, in all cases be based upon the necessary wants of the families of each class whose bread- winner, so handicapped, is working at the greatest disadvantage. This view of the ‘‘ Standard of Living’’ and of the ‘‘ Law of ‘Wages ”’ is admirably defined and illustrated by Gunton (Principles of Social Economics, p. 204) as follows :— The Law of Wages. ‘‘The law of wages, then, may be correctly stated thus :— ‘The rate of wages in any country, class, or industry constantly tends towards the cost of living of the most ex- PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 469 pensive families (a2) who furnish a necessary part of the sup- ply of labour in that country, class, or industry, as shown in the following diagram.’’ (a) By the most expensive families it is not meant the most expensive single family, but the most ex- pensive ten or twenty per cent. of the class whose labor is required. ILLUSTRATION OF GUNTON’S DiaAGRAM (slightly modified). Surplus (Equivalent Individual Breadwinner ponders Moabe pral Pos of to Economie iii (Dollars.) (Dollars. Wattonte) (A) maximum 2 2 Nil (B) 2 1-95 5 (C) 2 1-90 10 (D) 2 1-85 15 (E) fe “ 2 1-80 20 (F) least expensive .. 2 1-75 25 In support of this conception of the true Economic Law of Wages, Mr. Gunton makes the following observations : — ‘‘The reason wages in any class or industry are thus adjusted to the standard of living of the most expensive families is exactly the same as that which causes the price of commodities to be adjusted to the cost of producing the most expensive portion of the supply ... .’’ If two dol- lars per day is the minimum amount upon which a certain portion of a given class of labourers can or will consent peaceably to live, then that amount must be paid them in order to obtain their labour. What the most expensive por- tion of a given class must receive (adults) the others may and will receive. We know that the general rate of wages in the same industry and locality is nearly uniform. We know, for instance, that spinners, shoemakers, car- penters, bricklayers, &c., working in the same shop or fac- tory, or the same job, get the same rate of wages for work at their respective trades, whether they are single or mar- ried, have large or small families, or live more or less econo- mically than their fellow labourers. We also know, for reasons already given, that the most expensive among them must obtain for his services what will supply his family with what they regard as necessities. What will be sufficient to supply the urgent necessities of the most expensive portion of any class of labourers, to induce them to continue work, 47®@ PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. will furnish all those whose cost of living is less, with a mar- gin proportionate to the difference which may be saved or spent in what to them are luxuries.’”’? . .. . ‘‘ Thus through the law of price uniformity, by which the cost of producing the most expensive portion determines the general price of the commodity in that market, the minimum amount upon which the most expensive labourers in any class or industry will consent to live and continue to work determines the rate of wages in that class.’’ Mr. Gunton briefly summarizes his views as follows:—‘‘ To recapitulate them: (1) Wages are the price of labour. (2) The price of labour is governed by (moves toward) the cost of its pro- duction, t.e., the cost of producing the most expensive of the necessary supply. (3) The cost of producing labour is determined by the standard of living of the family. (4) The standard of living is determined by the habitual wants and customs, or the social character of the people.’’ If we accept these premises it will, of course, follow that wages will ever be highest where the socially established standard of living among labourers is the most complex and expensive; and, conversely, they will be the lowest where the standard of living is the most simple and inexpensive; and this precisely is what we find the world over. A comparison of the conditions of the Asiatic and European labourer is alene necessary to establish the truth of these generalizations. THe INEQUALITIES OF DIFFERENT WAGE-EARNER’S ‘‘ PURCHASING PoweEr.’’ The preceding observations and illustrations are intended to demonstrate that the price or value of commodities, or the pro- ducts of local labour, is mainly determined by the cost of local labour and its allied auxiliary forces; and that the aggregate cost of the latter is equivalent to the aggregate value of all commodities and services, the product of such labour, and its allied auxiliary forces. It does not follow, however, that the same quantity of labour, z.e., labour-hours of the many different classes and sub- divisions of existing organized labour forces, exert an equal pur- chasing power over the various commodities, even when produced locally. This, as formerly explained, is mainly owing to the extreme variation in the standard rates of local wages, not only in the many distinct classes of occupations generally, but also in the very different remuneration paid to different individuals in exactly the same trade. Among the causes of difference in the rates of pay within the same trade and in the same place may be cited difference of sex, skill, youth, apprenticeship; also conditions of locality, as in urban and rural centres respectively. a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 471 It is difficult to present a clear view of all such considerations without reference to some familiar concrete illustration relating to the numbers, character, and average earnings of the different grades of the machinery of productive services required in the work of producing the necessary wants of any one country. As an aid in this direction, I have, in the following table, prepared a roughly approximate estimate relating to Tasmania’s experience in the year 1911, showing some of the more important factors governing the relative ‘‘ purchasing power ’’ of the various classes of working ““breadwinners ’’ thus :— Estimatep Propuction, DISTRIBUTION, AND APPROPRIATION of the Year’s Supply of ‘‘ Consumable Wealth ’’ in Tasmania (year 1911); showing also, approximately, the Proportion and Extent of the Physical Forces Expended by Human and “Allied Auxiliary Forces’’ in the Work of Production and Distribution. Agents engaged in Production Physical Energy Composite Labour. and Distribution. Expended,. Hours Expended. Value of Consumable 2 CEES oe Class. No. Horse-power, No. No. Appropriated, (A) Human AcGENnTs. £ Income Breadwinners. (4) £80 Ae .. | 62,144 5,174 149,145,600 | 3,799,792 Under Group (B) £80 to £100 fe 1,966 ae ot. 172,964 £100 to £125 -.. | 6,698 me aS 725,779 £125 to £150 ». | 4,324 BS a / 587,035 Total Group (B) .. | 12,988 1,082 31,171,200 1,474,037 Group (c) £150 to £250 ? 29 9 ss All human agents (bread-| 100-00 9°83 8°73 87°35 winners) Or (B) Man’s AxtireD AUXILIARY a 1 3-04 1°88 18°8 ForcsEs. Standard ‘‘ Unit ” of ‘‘the aver- Ae 7 0°88 10°61 106°1 age cost” per “ Composite Labour-hour ” of all productive'| agencies | PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 473 RewativE Purcuasinc Power of each Class over Commodities whose Value is most closely approximated by the Proportion of Labour-wages of each Class to the Average Composite Labour-hour cost of all Productive Agencies, viz., 10.61d. Composite Labour- Pepe sane pe i a? t (4) Human Agents engaged in Production. See: a ines pars os hours.” d. No. Class I.—Unskilled workers ae 10-61 | 1-740 », 1I.—Skilled workers .. ie 10-61 -935 5, 1L1.—Under middle class we 10-61 *521 », 1V.—Upper middle class te 10°61 223 », V.—Class with incomes over £1,00 10°61 us fi ky per annum Average of the five classes -- 10°61 1-220 From such illustrations it is clear that the actual cost or price of any one commodity cannot be gauged or determined by the average cost of any one of the numerous divisions of labour. As nearly all divisions are more or less employed in the various processes of the production, modification, and transport of nearly all commodities, and as the larger proportion of labour-hours (91.14 per cent.) are expended in the work by the two lowest classes of producers, it follows that these two classes alone are the chief influences which determine the average cost of all productive agencies per labour-hour (viz., 7.02d.). It is conclusive, therefore, that the unit, or average cost per composite labour-hour (10.61d.), is the best measure of the pur- chasing power over commodities, generally, by the different classes of labour. In the differentiated condition of the modern system of orga- nized labour, it is rarely the case that the primary raw material, upon which the particular individual worker, or factory, is en- gaged happens to pass directly in a finished condition to the con- sumer. On the contrary, the raw material, in most cases, passes through many hands and many stages of modification before it attains to the completed condition of the consumer’s marketable commodity. If we try, for example, to trace the various elements of labour-cost imposed upon the primary raw material (the seed of wheat), prior to the sowing of the seed on the farm, and at the principal stages up to that when it finally leaves the hands of the baker and distributing shopkeeper in the form of 2-lb. loaves, we would encounter much difficulty in determining the infinitesimal increment-value at each of the minor successive and intervening stages of the process, culminating in the completed form of the 474 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. commodity when placed actually in the hands of the consumer. The following simple illustration may be of same help in affording a clearer conception of the successive value-increment processes. First, let us assume that for the purpose of supplying the mar- ket with loaf-bread, an acre of farm land is to be devoted to the production of wheat, that the yield therefrom is assumed to be 21 bushels, and that 1} bushels of seed will be used, primarily, in sowing. The principal stages of value-giving increments are shown as follows: — Nots.—The cost at each stage is assumed to include all workers’ services, including allied auxiliary instruments and forces, ee Equivalence in No. of Stage. At the close of Services of— | Incremental | “ Gomposite Labour- alue. hours.” £3. ds No. First .. .. | Seedsman ‘ se 0 5 0 5°65 Second .. | Farmer an Je 319 0 89°35 Third .. .. | Miller .. LA Me 015 0 17°53 Fourth .. | The Baker and distributing} 217 0 64°47 Shopkeepers All stages .. a os “us (OW hv 7 ioe Nota.—It is estimated that 1 bushel of wheat will yield 42 lbs. of flour, that a 2-lb. loaf contains 1-42 Ibs. of flour. It follows, therefore, that the 21 bushels of wheat raised from 1 acre of land could be made to produce 626 2-Ib. loaves, which, at the market price of 3d., is equal to 7 163. 64., and equivalent to a value of 177 ‘‘ Composite Labour-hours.” In other words, @very 2-Ib. loaf produced, absorbs ‘283, or fully one-fourth, of one “‘ Composite Labour-hour.” MINIMUM-WAGE STANDARDS. Probable Effect of Enforced Regulation of Minimum-wage Standards upon the Cost of Living. The purchasing power of nominal wages over any marketable commodity or service varies widely with every variation in the actual rate of pay. The selling price of commodities, on the other hand, is determined by the average cost of composite labour-time; that means the average, or composite cost of all industrial agencies engaged in the production of marketable commodities and services. Such commo- dities and services—of the same quality and in the same market— have, for the time being, a certain fixed price to purchasers (e.g., 3d. per 2-lb. loaf), which is unaffected by any consideration as to the affluence or the poverty of the purchaser. If, therefore, by any means the aggregate cost of all labour and its allied auxiliary services engaged in the production of all neces- sary commodities and wants, be raised, say, by 12% per cent., it would then follow, inevitably, that a corresponding increase would PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 475 take place in the selling price of commodities, generally, and the purchasing power of the wage-earner or consumer would, in this way, be no greater than at first. The barren result referred to must inevitably happen unless such increase in cost of labour services be accompanied by a corre- sponding increase in the effectiveness of the producers, and a cor- responding increase in the volume of products. The general ‘‘ standard of living ’’ of the people, as a whole, ean only be raised by cheapening the cost of commodities by still further improvements in labour-saving machinery, and _ allied natural forces. It cannot be too strongly asserted that the much higher ‘‘ standard of living’’ which all classes of labour enjoy at the present time, as compared with the labourer of 60 years ago, is mainly due to the increasing command, which, during the last century, man has obtained over the forces of nature. Within the period referred to, steam, electricity, and other inventions and improvements in man’s auxiliary labour-saving machinery, which has multiplied man’s muscular forces in the production, transport, and manufacture of necessaries and satisfactions, from ten to twelve times the force, and in some cases many hundred fold. In proportion as these auxiliaries have increased in the production of any one product or service, the amount of physical labour engaged in its production has decreased individually. Within the wonder- ful reign of Queen Victoria the day’s labour-time, per se, in Eng- land, has been reduced about 25 per cent., while the wages of labour has, on the average, increased by 50 per cent. It is to the liberation of labour, formerly necessary to produce the barest essentials of life, that we are now indebted for the vast category of new comforts and satisfactions, the attainment of which was utterly impossible to the mass of human beings when the preduction of food alone—the great primary industry—absorbed nearly the whole force of man’s muscular efforts, and his time. Notwithstanding any former reference to the difficulty which confronts the raising of either ‘‘the standard of living”’ or of increasing ‘‘the purchasing power’’ of the wage-earner by the arbitrary raising of ‘‘ nominal wages’’ alone, I am quite ready te admit that an arbitrary increase to nominal wages, if restricted to a few industries, might increase both the nominal and the real wages (z.¢c., the purchasing power) of wage-earners belonging to these trades; but in all such cases it would be obtained by a proportionate decrease of the purchasing power, or real wages, of every other class in the community who were obliged to pur- chase the products, so enhanced in price, of the various indus- tries which succeeded in having the nominal wages so raised. I am also not only ready to admit that if the arbitrary in- crease of the ‘‘ minimum wage ”’ be restricted to the more poorly- paid industrial workers, it would have my fullest sympathy and support, and I am also of opinion that, in raising their standard of living thereby, it would not only be practicable but, ultimately, 476 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. : by its influence in increasing the demand for products, it would benefit, and have the effect of raising still further, the standard of living generally. But it must be borne in mind that, if this mere raising of the nominal wage be too widely extended, it would be less advantageous, even to those whom it included, because, as consumers of portion of their own products, their advantages would be reduced considerably, and it would be obtained by a proportionate decrease of the purchasing power of every other class in the community who were obliged to purchase the products, so enhanced in price, of the favoured industries who may have — succeeded in having their nominal wages so raised. It is the consumers of products or services who would ultimately lose by the advantages gained by the industries whose nominal wages were so raised, and not the employers, who, directly were obliged to advance the higher nominal rate of wages. It is only under such restricted conditions where the enforced increase of nominal wages—whether by Wages Boards or by strikes—could possibly benefit any industry. All arbitrary action of this nature would, of necessity, fail to raise real wages, or purchasing power, if the nominal wages of every class were raised by the same percentage of increase, as has already been explained. Without the aid of some knowledge of the composition, num- bers, productive powers, and relative standards of living of some typical community, it is difficult to demonstrate, in a concrete form, the truth of the arguments employed in relation to the probable effects of any industry. The following tabular illustra- tions, based upon Tasmanian experience, enables me to show approximately the following effects, viz. :— (A) Tabular illustration of a typical industrial organiza- tion prior to any assumed arbitrary alteration of nominal wages. (B) Tabular illustration showing approximately the de- crease or increase of the purchasing power of the different industrial classes under the assumption that nominal rates of wages have been increased by 123 per cent., but restricted in its application to the lowest class (1). (C) Similar illustration to (B), restricting application of nominal increase of 124 per cent. to nominal wages to classes (1) and (2). (D) Similar illustration to (B), but without any restric- tions in its application, 7.e., it shows the effect upon the purchasing power of all classes and auxiliary agencies, on the assumption that the 12} per cent. increase, to nominal wages, is extended to all classes and producing agencies. (E) Further tabular illustration on the assumption that the total existing reward for productive labour ser- vices were originally distributed on the basis of PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. ATT “‘the Eisenach Social Equality Ideal’’;- and also illustrating the barren effect upon purchasing power, subsequently, if the nominal rate of wages were arbitrarily increased all round by 124 per cent. (F) Tabular illustration showing the effect, upon each of the five classes, if the existing consumable wealth, in Tasmania in 1911, were distributed on the basis of the ‘‘ Eisenach Social Equality Ideal.’’ (A.) TABULAR ILLUSTRATION OF A TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION PRIOR TO ASSUMED ARBITRARY INCREASE OF NOMINAL WAGES. Relative Pur- Per Cent. Estimated Tctal Average Rate chasing Power of No. of Tneome of Wage of one Class Producing Bread- Labour-hours of per Labour-hour Agencies. winners. Expended Class Breadwinner over cost of per Year. per Year. per Class cne Composite Labour-hour. Labour-hour. (1.) BREAD- WINNERS. Ciass I.— Lower In- dustrial 75°38 149,145,600 3,799,792 6°11 “b76 Class Ii.— Middle In- . dustrial 15°76 31,177,204 1,474,037 11°35 1-070 Class III.— Upper In- dustrial 7°35 14,551,200 (b-7) Class IV.— Middle Class increas 2,400,900 475, Class V.— Incomes £1,000 per year and ver “s.. 0°30 590,400 223,811 90-98 8°554 — Total Bread- winners .. 100 197,858,400 7,196,243 8°73 "823 Estimated physical energy ex- erted %, .. (7-06) (l.) Man’s ALLIED AUXILIARY PRODUCING FORCES. Construction, mainte n- ance, freé- pairs. re- newals, &c. a 197,858,400 1,553,737 1°88 V7 Estimated ; physical energy ex- erted % .. (92-94) o- 8,759,000 10°61* 1-000 * Cost of all Composite Labour-hours expended, alone determines the price of commodities, and therefore this (*) index gives the best measures for determining the different purchasing values of the Average Class Labour Wage, over commodities generally. 478 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. (B.) TABULAR ILLUSTRATION SHOWING APPROXIMATELY THE DEOREASE OR INCREASE OF THE PURCHASING POWER OF THE DIFFERENT INDUSTRIAL CLASSES UPON ASSUMPTION—THAT NOMINAL RATES OF WAGES HAVE BEEN INCREASED BY 12} PER CENT., BUT RESTRICTED IN ITS DIREOT APPLICATION TO CLASS I.—LOWER INDUSTRIAL. Average Rate | Income of Class of Wages per | Relative Effect on per Year. Breadwinner Purchasing Purchasing per Class Power. Power. Producing Labour-hour. | Agencies, % | Prior to After |Priorto| After | Prior to| After Increase| Decrease Increase. | Increase. |Increase.|Increase.| (nerease.|Increase. A on ie OS c Fie Ra P| | (I.) BREAD- | | WINNERS. } | Class I.— | | Lower In- | dustrial 3,799,792 | 4,274,766 6°11 6°88 “676 “615 6°77 | Class II.— | Middle In-] °‘ dustrial 1,474,037] 1,474,037) 11°35 | 11 35 1070 | 1°014 Class TII.— Upper In- dustrial 1,222,967] 1,222,967) 20°18} 20°18; 1-900 1°821 Olass IV.— ic 5 +20 Middle Class 475,636 475.636| 47°58 47°58 | 4°484 4°252 | Class V.— | Class with . £1,000 per year and | over 223,811 223,811) 90°98 90-95 8-574 8-130 Total Bread- winners ..| 7,196,243] 7,671,217 8°73 9°30 "823 *832 1:09 (II.) MAN’s ALLIED AUXILIARY PRODUCING Forces ..| 1,553,757] 1,553,757, 1°88 ae pilrted 168 ri 5°20 AN Producing | Agencies .. 8,750,000 | 9,224,974} 10°61 11°19 1-060 1-000 Nil Nil PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 479 (0.) SIMILAR ILLUSTRATION TO (B), BUT RESTRICTING APPLICATION OF NOMINAL INCREASE OF 124 PER CENT. TO CLASSES (I.) AND (II.) | Average Rate of Wages per iaporae LN Breadwinner Producing P 7 per Class Agencies. Labour-hour. Prior to After Prior to | After Increase. | Increase. | Increase. |Increase. (I.) BREAD- WINNERS, Olass I.— Lower In- dustrial | 3,799,792 | 4,274,766 6°11 6°83 Olass IL.— Middle In- dustrial | 1,474,037] 1,638,291 11°35 12°77 | Glass III.— | Upper In- | dustrial | 1,222,967] 1,222,967 20°18 20°18 Class IV.— Middle Olass ..| 475,636 475,636 47°58 47°58 Class V.— Class with £1.000 per year and over; 223,811 223,811 90°98 | 90°98 Total Bread- | winners ..| 7,196,243] 7,855,471 8°73 9°53 (II.) May’s ALLIED AUXILIARY PRODUCING Forces ..| 1,533,757] 1,533,757 1°88 | 1°88 All Producing Agencies ..| 8,750,000} 9,409,228] 10°61 | 11°41 Relative Effect on Purchasing Purchasing Power, Power. Prior to} After Increase} Decrease Increase.| Increase. % “576 *603 1°070 | 1°119 1°900 | 1°785 4°484 | 4°168 : 706 8°574 7°976 *823 835 1°46 we Wie 142 1000 | 1-000 480 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. (D.) TABULAR ILLUSTRATION SHOWING EFFECT IF THE INOREASE OF 124 PBR CENT. TO NOMINAL WAGES WAS EXTENDED TO ALL CLASSES AND AGENCIES. (1). BREAD- WINNERS. Total Classes BatO-Vi es (II.) Breap- oy WINNERS " ATTIED AUXILIARY ForcES Increase. 223,811 7,196,243 8,750,000 Income. After Increase. Prior to £ £ 4,274,766 1,638,292 1,375,838 535,099 251,787 7 474,037 8,095,773 1,553,757| 1.747,977 9,843,773 Average Wages per Labour-hour. Index of Purchasing Power over Composite Labour-hour. Effect. Prior to} After | Priorto! After Increase.|[ncrease.|Increase.| Increase. ae d. 6°11 6°88 576 576 11°35 Zeit) 2,070 1,070 20°18 22°16 | 1,900 1,900 47°58 53°52 | 4,484 4,484 90°98 | 102°35 | 8,574 8,574 8°73 9 +82 825 823 ——— |__| 1°88 2°12 177 177 10°61 11°94 | 1,000 1,000 Increase Decrease oO oO Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil E.) FURTHER TABULAR ILLUSTRATION ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT THE TOTAL EXISTING REWARD FOR PRODUCTIVE LABOUR SERVICE WAS ORIGINALLY DISTRIBUTED ON THE BASIS OF “ THE EISENACH SOCIAL EQUALITY IDEAL”; AND ALSO SHOWING THE BARREN EFFECT UPON PURCHASING POWER SUBSEQUENTLY, IF THE NOMINAL INCREASED ALL ROUND BY 124 PER CENT. Class. Class I.— Lower In- dustries Class IT,— Middle In- dustries Olass IIT.— Upper In- dustrics Class IV.— Middle Ciass .. Class V.— Class with £1,000 per year and over Total, Classes I.— V. (inelu- sive) MANn’s ALLIED AUXILIARY PRODUCTIVE Forces .. Grand Total Total Income per Class per Year. Prior to After Increase. | Increase. 5,424,535] 6,102,596 1,113,128] 1,275,895 528,923] 595,040 87.069] 97,854 21,558] 24,288 7,196,243! 8,095,773 1,553,757) 1,747,977 8,750,000} 9,843,750 Average Rate Index of Purchas- ing Power of RATE OF WAGES WERE ARBITRARILY of Wages per class Labour- Percentage Breadwinner hour over Increase or per Breadwinner Decrease. Labour-hour, Composite Labour-hour. Prior to | After Prior to} Alter Increase.| Decrease ee ee Tncrease.| Increase. | 8°73 | 9°82 *823 823 Nil Nil 8°73, | 9582 823 823 Nil Nil 8°73 | 9°82 "828 823 Nil Nil | | 8°73 | 9°82 "823 823 Nil Nil / | | 8°78 | 9°82 P825 "823 Nil Nil 8°73 9°82 “823 "823 Nil Nil 1:88 2°12 177 Wye Nil Nil 10°61 11°94 1-000 1-000 Nil Nil a RR NR PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 481 (F.) TABULAR ILLUSTRATIONS SHOWING THE EFFECT UPON EACH OF THE FIVE CLASSES IF THE EXISTING CONSUMABLE WEALTH IN TASMANIA IN 1911 WERE DISTRIBUTED ON THE BASIS OF “ THE EISENACH SOCIAL BQUALITY IDEAL.” | | | Index of Pur- | | chasing | Average Rate Power of Class Total Consumable | of Wages per | Labour-hour Percentage per Class | _ Wealth | Breadwinner per Increase or Decrease in Distribution. per > Broalgiaeies relation to existing Labour-hour. over Compo- Mode. Glass. sear { | C | Increase. Decrease. Existing | Social | Exist-| Social | Exist-j Social Mode, | Equality | ing (Equality! ing | Equality Per ara Ideal. aa Ideal. Ideal. | Amount. 10/| Amount. 1% ——— Eg eee —_— Ee ee ee ee ee Class 1 | | wer In- dustrial | 3,799,792 ae 6°11) 8:73 576} 823 1,624,743|100| Odi | | iddle In- | dustrial | 1,474,037) 1,139,128 11°35) 8°73 | 1°070 823 .-| 339,909 Class TIT | | pper In- | dustrial | 1,222,967; 528,923; £034 8°73 | 1°990 823 5 | 694,044 i e Class .. 475,636) 87,069 | 47°58| 8-73 | 823 388,567 Olass V.— | i ahs with { | | £1,000 | | | / per year and over (223,811 223,811 21,588) 90°98; 8:73 | "823 : 202,223). . Total, | Classes as . (inclu- } sive) .. 3,396,451) 1,771,708) 16°73; 8°73 | "823 | 5 ..| 1,624,743}. . Total, | | ha — oe } | | | 7. (inelu- | | } | , | f sive) .. | 7,196,243) 7,196,243) 8°73 8°73 *823 NT leas Nil Man’s Allied | | Sasi | | roductive H | Forces .. | 1,553,757| 1,553,757, 1°88| 1°88 Bd li 2) Ri IR (Irreducible) | 8,750,000 8,750,000) 10°61} 10°61 1-000 Nil | ++] Nil |: Note.—From this analysis it would appear that the Class which would yield most to the pool, to establish the equality ideal of socialism, would be Glasses II. and III., “‘ Middle and Upper Industrial,” viz., 1,033,953, or 63°64 per cent. of the amount, £1,624,743 necessary to raise the Lowest Industrial” to equality level. These illustrations clearly demonstrate that, unless accompanied by increased effectiveness of productive agencies, and by an in- crease in the production of ‘‘ consumable wealth,’’ all arbitrary increases to ‘‘ nominal wages ’’ effected by wage board regulations, or by organized “strikes ”’ of trade unions, can only succeed in raising ‘“‘real wages’’ or ‘‘ purchasing power’’ when confined to industries that comprise a small proportion of the community. 6117. Q 482 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION 6G. ConcLusIon. At the present day, with its hard and fast divisions of labour ; its fluctuations of demand and supply; and its crushing competi- tive rings and interests, the intelligent wage-earner perceives plainly enough that, as a unit, he is perfectly helpless, and that he can only succeed in bearing up against opposing organized in- terests by a similarly organized action. No one who has closely followed the struggle of workmen during the last forty years can fail to perceive that upon this organization (solidarity) rests the whole strength of their position in the indus- rial scheme, and that anything which tends to weaken or demoralize their centres of organization meets.with their most strenuous resistance; for it is manifest to them that the breaking or weakening of the heart or centre of their organization detaches them again to helpless units, who are thus rendered unable to enforce any claim whatever. I am decidedly of opinion, therefore, that such combinations amongst wage-earners have rendered incalculable benefits to their class in the suppression of oppressive labour laws; in the reduc- tion of the evils and abuses relating to employment of women and children; in improvement in the provisions for the safety and health conditions of those engaged in mines, factories, and work- shops; in the limitations of ‘‘ sweating ’’ abuses aud other crying evils. I also regard organized combination and co-operation amongst wage-earners, not only of paramount necessity to then, but that, when all better modes of appeal for reasonable and prac- ticable concessions are unavailing, the last and terrible resort to ‘“ strike ’’ may, in very extreme cases, not only be justifiable, but imperative. - ° But while much has been granted as to the necessities and ad- vantages of organized labour associations it cannot be overlooked that many expect by the arbitrary action of wages boards and “strikes ’’ to effect what is plainly an utter impossibility, even if employers submitted at every point. A ‘‘strike,’’ ¢.g., may be the means of successfully raising the status of some branches of labour that are comparatively under- paid or overworked; it may raise the real wages or purchasing power of an industry in a particular district which laboured under the average standard of all other districts; 11 may be the means of forcing employers to give a fairer or larger share of the reward of their joint industry; but from the very nature of the common source of all reward—viz., the actual products created by the com- bined productive forces of directing skill, labour, and employers costly allied auxiliary natural forces—such enforced action of —— 9 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 4838 ** strikes,’’ unless accompanied by an increased effectiveness of pro- ductive agencies, and an inerease in the production of the volume of ‘‘ consumable wealth,’’ cannot raise ‘‘ the purchasing power ”’ of all wage-earners. In other words, it may be possible to regulate and alter the dis- tribution of the existing aggregate wealth of the consumable neces- saries of life, but so long as this aggregate wealth fails to be in- creased, per capita, per year, arbitrary regulations or “strikes ’’ cannot increase the real wages, or purchasing power of a day’s labour of all wage-earners. In a word, such arbitrary aetion can- not divide more than what has actually been created or produced, although the nominal] rates of wages and nominal prices of com- modities may both be raised to any extent without real benefit to any one. To secure a general rise of nominal wages in all branches of labour would further have the immediate effect of lowering once more the real wages of all those who had previously effected for themselves an advantage by means of successful combination. This may seem hard to believe by many who have not taken the trouble to discern the fundamental distinction which exists between real wages—which alone, if raised, can improve the work- man’s condition—and nominal wages, which, if raised ever so high in all branches of labour, leaves the workman just in the same con- dition as at the beginning. It is the failure to recognise the essen- tial difference between real and nominal wages that renders futile the schemes of many worthy idealists, which have for their object the laudable design to improve the condition, and ‘‘ the standard of living ’’ of the people generally. Q2 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 484 q 9S. [ors | stes ss | 0z'T 68-18 [| 86-98 | 09-29 9¢ a 2: ag SRO a 86 160°C é.. 916 ~ TZ-90T] 9T-9TT iF 88-881 Set ug “+ WBA “1094019 q GFE T 0249°T LBa'T 929°T 999 9Z- #6 91.92 99-80} 1-82 86-061} ° + [OOM ——S[PIagvy SUINAOT) D 000'FST | OOF 06T OOT‘9eT 008°90Z 00*'6 Tz | 8-0 99-0 €6-0 69-0 gc-0 a ms “* FIRS q 006‘°STz | 009°6S2 | 9E9°8FE | 006'89Z | V09'90Z | 89-0 67-0 248-0 LY-0 69-0 ical ae “* [809 q 093'SL | 0Z6°E0T OST'8ST OLE'SSI | 068°99 69-T Go- T 08-0 66-0 SE°G 5, ce e10 “ q SOLIS | 0€8-2z £68 86 086'9T | 000°ST 98.9 LS. SE-¢ 6F- 2 81°6 Pe syres [3098 “* q OOS‘9T |8ST6T | S02 OFL'LT OIZ ST G8. 2 $9-9 68-2 LI-L £9°6 pa 2) s1¥q ‘UOIT qa 0€8°6 768‘6 0g 4 400.2 1eP‘¢ ¥6- ZL 98- ZL 16-9T cT-81 SF-SS |” iM “* peat q #8T'S «Les «| PST «= [BST | SIFT ¥Z-89 | 02-29 | $9-76 | 96-49 | 68-68 | > ieddog ” €28 098°T LIST 380% 7938 09-F7ST}| OF-89 00-ZOT} 09-29 Go-LtL] 2 “* ULL q G6- LE 69. FE 6- GG 06- 2T Og-ST | Sos L996 BaL¢ 90TZ 9028 ix ae **TOATIS i I ih i! I 6OZLZL | GOCLZL | G6OCLZL | GOSLGL | 6OZLCT | a3 “* plop —s[RIOUTL PUP S[eqQOTT *SgMo *SyMo *S3M0 “SyMo BV. \05) “sdys “ssys “SBYs “sBys “sBys e poyeroideq (q) “OI6T "S681 “$681 “8181 “O18 “O61 “8681 “£681 “BL8T “OL8T *poystdaiddy (7) “OL6L WjIA poleduioo OI6T “qyuZIeM, esuByOXG yuoleamby “gMQ Jod ad (‘scold qayx1vul YsI[sagq wodn poseq ‘OT6T PUY ‘REST ‘CEST SZ8T ‘OL8T SIv9X VY} JO YORa 107) ‘HHHLO HOVE OL GNV GION GUVaNVIS GHL OL NOILVIGU NI SHLLIGONWOO IVdIONIUd JO (SLIGAO-ANIVA TAILVIGU) SLHOIAM TONVHOXG INATIVAIOOS —: 184}0 Yovs 0} puL Pjos 07 UOIZe[eI UI satyTpoMM0D jediound ayy jo Sy sIom oSuvyoxe yuoteambe Jo sorjzer 9y} JO oousUeUTIEd 9,qvyILUIOI OY} 1OF yUNODOR oUO]e Uv ML] STU 4eY4 pue ‘sonyea Jo seord ormouoss soj¥Msar pus sourmsejop yorym me Avoid oy} st—A[ddus pue pururep you— woonpord jo 4s00 4eq} MOtA oy} Jo y10ddns Ur pozonsysuOS ToEq Sey UOL}RIYSNI[E LENG ey SUIMOT/OF OT], « SLIGUO-ANTVA > ALIGONWWOO INGYEHKKIG FO WONANVWAad T XIGNUddV 485 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION qa, 1!D * tT = 89.0 = x “£990 ‘weOMOg “ T = ; 20-2 = e' “66.2 posonn tT = “ OF.99 = ; “$989 ‘Teas “ [ = “i 9688 = - . 182‘ PIO MO T = SBUNTINS § OGT'ZZT == SIMON -INOqeT aysodmCN gE zE'EFT ‘PI9-OL = InoY-1noqeyT oysodmoy [ sy (OI6I 1wexX) 4 —1 87S10M Ayrpouruto( SNOWBA YIM siMoy-inoqey opisodmo0y jo onjea ur voue;vainbe jo sojdurexe peqoajeq «BYOOH-YNOAVT ALISOdWOO >; HLIM PONVHOXH AO HONATVAINOD II XIGNAddv ; “ONIVA JO oo{Id ay PesvoIdap svy 4t ‘a's “plod 09 OATZB[oI OLET cours onjea Ul poqvioordop svy Aqrpouruioo rejnozIed oY 4LT9 SozPOIpUy *Q *en[?A JO 9011d UW PEsvaIOUT SVT 4t “a°s ‘plod 04 aATQBjoI OLET cours q 66L'¢ esee | 8295 [aces | sists | gt-se | orse |oreee | cp-st |zo.09 | °- ss Joog q 966°% Gos'é | coo's jocu's [ect | st.cr | eo.ce |eueze | ze-ee |to.g, | - 3 YlOd D 989° Are | GFF Rote | eze's | 6T-6F | £9.98 |oe.zz | 96.08 |Go.ee | °° ** parma “Yst q 966.5 ooo's =} 89ts | ese's | cie't | oF-e¢ | oF-ct | 29-89 | oz-0¢ logeRs | -- *s asaou v o1g‘T ozes | Gest |6r9's | tis't | 2202 | 09-62 | 4t-69 | go-87 (F302 | °° suUH q PaU'T O84 | OLO'L [RFT | 216 03-SIT | OF-66 | Z8-8IT | 08-oIT |Ge-8er | z roq4ng —pooy |PulUuy q O6G'AT | BEF'zz | suL‘o1 |oos'sc |oro‘ot | 20-2 | 29-6 | gun 9F-9 [Tg | °° "> Se0qtqog q OoT eT | Oost | s6o‘or |ezo‘tr |otzor | 6g-8 | zo.8 | zoez 66-01 | 9F-BE | °° rt youn q Der tr | sugitr | seat jorsz | ceoz | 20-11 | 66-or |as-tt | gezt |z9.01 | °° $ MO|E q 9626 Pericl | siee jezee | Four | go.et | ez-or |ze.or | 28.12 |oseoz | °° ot qvsng q gec'z 9s0'T | GST'T |Fos't | 962" 0&-GF | O8-22 |20-TIT | Oz 86 |es-o. | 5 aa) q 9¢9°T £641 | G86 168 SOL 18-92 | 1e-C8 | ST-62t | e2-zet|eo-oxt | °° = vol, —pooy o[qByo30A, —YNAg pooy 486 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION Q@. APPENDIX III. COMMODITY PRICE-SATELLITES. RECONCILIATION OF ECCENTRIC VARIATION IN THE SELLING PRICES OF THE SAME COMMODITY WITH THE DoMINATING Law oF Cost. . Many persons object to the theory that the average Exchange value, or Orbit-Price of Commodities is mainly determined by the Nominal Cost and Quantity of the ‘‘ Composite Labour-hour ”’ services incorporated in the said commodities, on the grounds that in the open market, many articles of the same materials, style, and of equal primary manufacturing cost (e.g., ladies’ hats), are often sold at widely differing prices from each other, and also differing widely from the original manufacturing cost-price. But while it is admitted that changes of fashion, differences of taste as regards style or colour, over-stocking, forced sales, &c., involve that a certain proportion of a given consignment shall have to be sacrificed at prices considerably below that of the average or ruling price, yet, it will be found, from a closer investigation of the matter, that such eccentric reductions in price (Price-Satellites) and their proportions are, at the outset, taken carefully into con- sideration by the specially skilled warehousemen, who from long experience in the particular business, are enabled to fix such counter-balancing prices upon the major proportion of saleable articles, as will safely cover the total cost of the original consign- ment, together with the importing warehouseman’s normal profit and business expenses. The following illustration may afford a clearer comprehension of this most important matter :— First, let it be assumed that a particular warehouseman has imported a consignment of 1,000 hats for the new season, at a prime cost. of 6s. per hat—£300. Add warehouseman’s expenses and normal profit, say, £60. Total amount to be realized from future sales, £360, or 20 per cent. The average selling price should now amount to 7s. 2.40d, per hat. Further, let it be as- sumed, that from the knowledge gained in former years, of the actual average results of sales of similar consignments, that the skilled warehouseman estimates that, of the 1,000 hats to be disposed of, 5 per cent will find no purchaser; towards close of season 10 per cent. is expected to be sacrificed at a reduction of 20 per cent. below average selling price; and at the close of the season, at the final forced sales, 15 per cent. may be expected to be sacrificed at a reduction of 50 per cent.. below selling price. The query now is:— At what price must the major proportion (70 per cent.) of consignment be fixed, so as to counter-balance anticipated loss from the 30 per cent. forced sales, &c., and yet, on the whole, cover — PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 487 the total original, or prime cost of consignment, including the proportional share of warehouseman’s profit and business ex- penses? The following would likely be the warehouseman’s answer thereto :— ) Group. Hats. Price per Hat. Amount. No. Per cent. Ste See as i 50 5 Nil : Nil ii 100 10 Dep ake 28 16 0 ili 150 15 5 Deal jars 27 tf O-20 lv 700 70 8 8°30 304 0 0 Total 1,000 100 FRAG ee ee This illustration shows that the major proportion (Group IV.) would have to be fixed at 8s. 8.30d. per hat, to counteract loss on Group I., and on forced reductions on selling prices of Groups II. and III. The eccentric prices, Groups I., II., and IIT. may simply be regarded as “‘ satellites’’ of the main Group IV., while as in a planetary system the total, or combined effect, would re- present the average ‘‘ Price Orbit’’ of the commodity consign- ment, taken as a whole. This illustration also demonstrates, con- clusively, that the occurrence of variable, or satellite eccentricities of price, in any commodity, may be perfectly compatible with the theory ‘‘ That the average number of composite labour-hours ab- sorbed, and the nominal composite cost of producing agencies (not demand and supply) constitute the primary law which de- termines and regulates the current economic price or value in exchange of each commodity.”’ ~ . 1. DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE AND PRICES. By Bishop ° Mercer. 2. THE TRANSFORMATION OF COMPETITION. By Bishop Mercer. 488 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 3. A STUDY IN PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION. By F. W. Barford, M.A., A.I.A. (Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics, Melbourne.) Synopsis. Introductory. Scope of the inquiry. Inequities of present electoral system. Hare system: Modifications introduced by Clark and Gregory: The quota: Mathematical analysis of quota. Party-list voting: Rule of three method: D’Hondt method: Mathematical analysis of D’Hondt method. Cumulative voting: Block voting: Limited voting: Preferential voting. Statement of problem: Conditions for satisfactory electoral system laid down: Practical scheme submitted. Proposal for action by Association. Conclusion. INTRODUCTORY. It seems as if a word of apology is due to the Association from a writer who brings to it for consideration such a subject as elec- toral reform, which might appear to be somewhat outside the scope of its activities. Several facts in extenuation may, however, be urged. Firstly, the subject is one of enormous importance in a country which sees an election, either for Federal or State Parlia- ments, every year. Secondly, the amount cf practical achieve- ment is disappointingly small compared with the amount of study which has been devoted to the subject, and the volume of literature which has grown up around it. And thirdly, the coincidence of a meeting of this Association with the approach of another Common- wealth election has led me to hope that this choice of subject might lead to a valuable discussion, which would once more fasten the attention of the public upon a matter, which of late years has been allowed to fall into an undeserved neglect. This neglect is the more unfortunate since the subject has been handled in Australia with conspicuous ability. Although, for more than a century past, discontent has been expressed in England with its electoral machinery, it was not until 1857 that a constructive scheme at all adequate to the importance and com- plexity of the subject made its appearance. This was the famous system elaborated by Hare, and subsequently advocated so ably by John Stuart Mill. The high level of argument maintained in their writings attracted universal attention, and in Australia the new system was warmly taken up by many adherents, foremost among ’ ike ata ee 7 of aa hgh 5 het) F rt PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 489 them the late Miss Catharine Spence, of Adelaide, and Professor Nanson, of Melbourne University. In 1897 Tasmania made the experiment of conducting its elections according to a modification of the Hare system devised by the Attorney-General, Mr. Clark. This was the high-water mark of success in Australia for many years. . In 1900 interest in the subject was enhanced by the drafting of the Federal constitution. By this time the upholders of propor- tional representation had been reinforced by a new body of men who, whilst equally firmly convinced that the existing electoral system should be improved, differed in detail entirely from the upholders of the Hare system. This new body advocated the principle of the ‘‘ party list’’ as against the principle of the ‘*transferable vote’’ advanced by Hare and Mill. The most authoritative exposition of the ‘‘ party list’’ principle in print is eontained in the book entitled Proportional Representation, by Professor Commons, and the best defence of the idea in Aus- tralia is to be found in a book bearing the same title, and written by the brothers Ashworth in 1900. Both parties made elaborate public expositions of their views in the hope that some clauses giving effect to them might be inserted in the Electoral Bill. Both parties were disappointed. The framers of the Bill decided to retain the existing ‘‘ majority’’ system of voting with all its defects, and every Federal election since that date for the House of Representatives has been fought upon it. For the Senate elec- tions a system of voting known as the Block system—even more — indefensible in theory—was adopted with results upon which I need make no comment. They are fresh in the memory of all of us. SCOPE OF THE INQUIRY. There is no doubt whatever that if the partisans of the ‘‘ trans- ferable vote’’ and the ‘‘ party list’’ systems were to renew their discussions now, the nature of them would be very different. The political horizon in Australia has changed so completely since 1900 that arguments which were quite valid then are now either falsified or subject to considerable modification. It would seem then that the time is suitable for a re-statement of the whole case from a point of view which is not that of the partisan of either of the opposing systems of proportional representation. In 1900 each party was trying to embody its ideas in the Electoral Bill. In 1912 the most profitable thing for us to do is to accept the elec- toral machinery and bend our energies to solving the practica! problem of devising an instrument which will adjust itself to existing conditions and, with the nearest approach to perfection, register the wishes of the electors. 490 ; PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. To do this it will be necessary to make a careful examination of the bases of the ‘‘ transferable vote’’ and the ‘‘ party list ”’ systems: to note the defects in each, carefully distinguishing those of a trifling nature which can be remedied from those of a more serious and fundamental nature which are incurable. It will be even more necessary to be able to appraise the best points of each system, with the object of combining them as far as possible into another system which shall be superior to either. And it will be necessary to preface these investigations with an inquiry into the operations of the existing system so that we may be guided by its imperfections to a knowledge of what to avoid, and enabled to lay down the principles which will be the foundation of a better system to replace it. The present paper is the outcome of an attempt to carry out an inquiry on these lines. It is based on the belief—the reasons for which will be given in due course—that it is undesirable now for either of the competing systems of proportional representation to be carried out in its integrity. The best solution of the difficulty i? @ compromise, and the practical scheme put forward at the end of the paper represents such a compromise; one, moreover, that will, I trust, prove free from serious theoretical objection, and that will lend itself easily to being operated in practice. INEQUALITIES OF THE PRESENT ELECTORAL SYSTEM. The system under which the present House of Representatives is elected is the single-member system, imported from England, and it is that country which furnishes the most striking examples of its inefficiency. A party in a constituency may come within one vote of victory, but if it fails the thousands of votes which it has polled do not go to augment its strength elsewhere, but are ut- terly lost. With the exception of a few towns returning two meni- bers, and the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, the whole country is divided into single-member constituencies, and the strength of a party in the House of Commons is measured, not in proportion to its voting strength in the country, but according to the number of these single-member electorates in which for the time being it finds itself in a majority. Add to this the fact that the electorates are most unequal in size, and we are prepared at once for consequences of the gravest nature. The most serious anomalies which occur under the system can be summarized as follows :— (a) Majorities are practically never proportional to the voting strength, and are usually grossly exaggerated. (>) Minorities are usually underrepresented, and sometimes get no representation at all. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 491 (c) It is possible for a party polling a minority of the votes in the country to obtain a majority of the seats. (2) As there is no provision for a second ballot a member can be, and frequently is, elected on a minority vote. Tilustrations of all these anomalies are well known to all of you. Tue Hare System. This represents an attempt to deal with the anomalies of the existing electoral system by means of securing the better represen- tation of minorities. Recognising that the bad results we have just been reviewing arose from the disfranchising of the minorities in a single-member electorate, Mr. Thomas Hare proposed in his first publication, as the foundation of his system, that the whole of the United Kingdom should be constituted one vast electorate. This would have the effect of bringing electors together, not by geographical association, but by community of ideas. of the votes are effective in securing the return of a candidate and ai are wasted in the sense that the higher preferences have no chance of being counted. In other words, the ‘“‘ effective weight ”’ of the votes which go to all the eliminated candidates has an average value of a : In just the same way the “ effective weight’’ of the votes cast for the successful candidates is unity. This is the simplest case that can arise. If, however, some of the candidates receive quotas before the final count, the results are a little more complicated. The “‘ effective weights’’ of the last two groups then become a little less than == and unity respectively, because, when a trans- fer of surplus votes takes place, some will find their way to Y and consequently be wasted. We have, so far, only considered the simplest case that can ‘arise. However, some of the candidates may get quotas before 494 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. the last count, and there may be several candidates elected or re- jected at the last count. A slight extension of the foregoing reasoning leads us to the following results :— The candidates may be divided into four classes— (a) Candidates elected before last count ; (b) Candidates elected at last count, (c) Candidates eliminated before last count; (d) Candidates rejected at last count. Ali first preference votes given to group (4) have an ‘‘ effective weight ’’ unity. All first preference votes given to group (d) have an ‘‘ effective weight ’’ zero. Cases (a) and (c) must be further considered.. Take first a candidate in group (a). If the Droop quota and the Gregory system of transfer are employed, then the votes are transferred in a, packet, the fractional value of whose papers is F where 7 = _ V being the number of votes polled and D the Droop quota. If © : of these ultimately find their way into group (d), they are wasted, and we get the ‘‘ effective weight’’ of a first preference vote in group (a) is 1 — = Lastly, consider case (ce). Here the votes are transferred with undiminished value, consequently the result is similar in form to the last, / having the value unity. . The “‘ effective weight,”’ therefore, of a first preference vote in group (c) is 1 — : It may be noticed, in passing, that if a candidate in group (4@) just obtains a quota on the first count, then / =O, and the ‘‘ effective weight ’’ of his first preference .votes is unity. The Hare system thus destroys the principle of ‘‘ one vote one value,’’ which is an essential factor of a fair electoral system. This is a fundamental defect entirely different in kind from faulti- ness in some practical detail, like distribution in quota excess. It is a defect, moreover, which cannot be remedied, since it is im- possible to say beforehand the order in which the candidates will be-elected or, eliminated. The Hare system, therefore, cannot be accepted in itself as an, entirely satisfactory substitute for the system which it was proposed to displace. It has made, however, one noteworthy contribution. to the problem under discussion— the principle of large electoral areas. The comparative merits of the Hare and Droop quotas have been the subject of frequent discussion. They both, under certain aircumstances, lead to disproportionate representation between parties—the Hare quota because of the wastage of votes on suc- vessful candidates, and the Droop quota through causes inherent ' : ’ ; PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 495 in the quota itself. The results of an investigation carried out on lines suggested by Mr. Piesse, of Tasmania, were as follows : — Suppose there is a two-party contest for the representation of a constituency returning m members: the number of members being reduced to m + 1. (a) With the Hare quota disproportionate representation may occur through a percentage range of H[m —- 2544 1 . Peg EO Oly cnr AE Re eRe See )] where H = ay Mess the Hare quota. (6) With the Droop quota disproportionate representation “18 25m . must occur within a percentage range of ~{> if m is 25(m—1) ; even, or 2D) if m is odd. Party List. Having now considered the ‘‘ transferable vote’’ method of proportional representation, attention must be directed to the other method, 7.e., the ‘‘ party list.’”? The distinctive feature of this system is that it applies the proportional principle to parties, and not to candidates. This system has had its greatest practical appli- cations in countries like Belgium and Switzerland, where there are large numbers of parties. But there is no reason why it should be so restricted in its application. Its best features could easily be utilized in a contest between two parties only, provided it was operated in a constituency returning several members. Party-List SYSTEM. In operating the party-list system, the problem which has to be solved is that of allotting a certain number of seats between differ- ent parties, as nearly as possible in the proportion of the votes polled. A number is taken which we will call the ‘‘ unit of repre- sentation,’’ and divided into the several votes polled, and the quotient gives the number of members to which the party is entitled. When (as nearly always happens) the sum of the quotients does not exactly equal the number of representatives, the seats to be still allotted are awarded to the parties with the largest remainders. Some injustice is done to the parties with smaller remainders, but this seems the fairest arrangement that can be devised in practice, and one to which no reasonable person could take exception. This in essence is what is known as the “‘ rule of three ’’ method. Suppose that in a constituency where 4 votes have been polled. there are in members to be elected. The ‘‘ unit of representation ”’ may be either taken as < (the Hare quota) or + 1 (the Droop quota). Ls m+1 496 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. Of late years another method intended to supersede the ‘‘ rule of three method’’ has been brought forward by Professor D’Hondt, of Brussels. The fundamental idea of the scheme is the adoption of a ‘‘ unit of representation ’’ so small that the sum of the quo- tients exactly equals the number of representatives to be elected. The result, of course, is that remainders are entirely disregarded. The way in which the ‘‘ unit of representation ’’ (which will in future be referred to as the D’Hondt unit) is obtained may be illus- trated as follows. Suppose there is a constituency returning eight members, and three parties are in the field who poll respectively 5,000, 3,700, and 2,800 votes. Arrange these numbers with their sub-multiples in three columns as follows :— (1) 5,000 (2) 3,700 (3) 2,800 (4) 2,500 1 5) 1,850 1 1,400 (6) 1,667 1,233 933 (8) 1,250 925 700 if these numbers are arranged in order of magnitude, the eighth on the list would be 1,250. This is taken as the “ unit of representation.’’ THE Biock Vote. This is a method which has been frequently used when a con- stituency has to elect more than one member. Each elector has as many votes as there are members to be elected, and can only give one vote to each candidate. The result is that the evils of the majority system are perpetuated and multiplied by » where n is the number of seats, for the majority party, in a strict party contest, wins every seat. This system is in vogue in America where the different States send delegates to the Electoral College; and it is the system by which the Australian Senate is elected. The evil results were evident in the Commonwealth elections of 1910. Tue LiMiIteD VOTE. This was an experiment tried in England to obviate one of the worst features of the majority system—the absolute extinction of minorities. Several constituencies returning three or more mem- bers were created, and each elector, instead of having as many votes as there were candidates, had less votes—usually one less. - For example, in a three-member constituency an elector might have two votes; in a four-member constituency he might have three votes; and so on. The idea was that the minority party, instead of being entirely disfranchised, as in the majority system, or block system, might get at least one seat. The scheme, how- ever, is open to an objection embodied in the following para-_ graph. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION @G. 497 Suppose a constituency returns n + 1 members, and each elector has only n votes. Suppose the larger party puts forward n + | candidates, and the smaller party puts forward . Then if the majority party polls just more than ae 100 per cent., it can be established that it will win all the seats. On the other hand, if it polls just less than this amount it only wins one seat. A system which plays such practical jokes is evidently one which can teach us nothing in electoral matters, except what to avoid. e CUMULATIVE VOTE. This system, like the Limited Vote, has been introduced into constituencies returning a large number of members, with the object of giving some representation to minorities which otherwise would not get it. It differs in this respect that, whereas under the Limited Vote and the Block Vote the elector could only give one vote to each candidate, he can, under the cumulative vote, give as many. votes to each as he pleases, subject only to the restriction that his total number of votes must not exceed the number of can- didates to be elected. It has been used in England in connexion with School Board elections, and the principle on which it is based is simple. If there are V votes polled and m candidates to be elected, then the Droop quota is —_ + 1 and any candidate who can poll this total will be elected. It is thus apparently suited to such elections as those for a School Board, where men holding certain ideas in common—for example, members of the same religious body —could cumulate all their votes upon one or two candidates, and thus secure representation, whilst their numbers would probably not enable them to influence a parliamentary election. Inasmuch, then, as it leads to minority representation of a sort, cumulative voting is superior to the ‘‘ majority ’’ system. But the fatal objec- tion to it is the haphazard nature of its operations. PREFERENTIAL VOTING. Suppose there are, say, seven candidates, A, B,C. . . .fora number of seats, and an elector, wishing to record his preferences, placed them in that order. Under the Hare system he would only have one vote, but he is allowed to place the figure 1 opposite 4, the figure 2 opposite B, the figure 3 opposite C,and so on. This means that the vote is to be given to A,- but in the event of the election or rejection of A, the vote is to be given to B, after him -C, and se on. Under Laplace’s system, on the contrary, the elector places the figure 7 opposite A, the figure 6 opposite #, the figure 5 opposite -C, and so on, working down the numerical scale instead of up. He virtually gives seven votes of different weights, instead of one 498 a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. transferable vote. At the end of the election the numbers oppo- site each name are counted, and the candidates with the highest: aggregates to the required number are elected. This has the great practical advantage over the Hare system, that the work of the returning officer is reduced to mere simple addition, instead of a complicated transfer and re-transfer of votes. Only one objection has been urged against this method of Laplace, but it has been urged as a very weighty one. I give it in the words of Mr. Ashworth :— ‘Tf candidates are the nominees of a number of independent” sections, each of which is anxious only to secure the return of its own candidate and to defeat those who stand in his way, the ten- dency will be to place those more popular candidates, whose success is feared, at the bottom of the list, so as to give them as few marks as possible. . . . . This is the weak point in Preferential Voting: any small section can insure the rejection of a candidate.”’ The argument thus presented undoubtedly expresses a real pos- sibility. If preferential voting had such grave defects as limited voting or cumulative voting, this objection might be fatal. But Laplace’s proposal has such great practical advantages, and is so easily understood, that it is worth while to stretch a point in its favour if we can do so. Suppose that m members are to be elected on a club committee, say, and one candidate is distasteful to a fraction - of the electors. It can be established that, in order to prevent his elec- tion, they must run mn + 1 candidates. If - is small, then » is large, and mn +1 is very large. It is quite probable, therefore, that the strength of this objection has been. overstated. Tre ScuEemMe OUTLINED. Up to this point the inquiry has consisted of an examination ofthe various electoral systems with which the world has experi- mented from time to time. Brief as the study has been, it has, I think, been possible to summarize the good and bad points of each. The question now arises: ‘‘ Can we reject the bad points of the different methods, and combine the good ones into a perfected scheme of proportional representation suited to Australian con- ditions ?’’? The problem may be stated as follows :— It is required to find a scheme of proportional representation which shall in any constituency allot the representation to the con- tending parties as nearly as possible in the proportion of their voting strength. Consistently with this an elector should be given as much power as possible to express preference for individual candidates. A combination of the “ party-list ’’ and ‘‘ transferable PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 499 vote’? systems will be necessary to achieve this. These systems must, however, be modified so as to eliminate the inherent defects which have already been disclosed. Finally, it is desirable that the system should be based as far as possible upon the existing electoral machinery. . The previous portion of the paper gives a clear idea of the fundamental conditions which a thoroughly acceptable electoral scheme must satisfy. I will summarize them as follows :— (a) In order to escape the worst features of the present ‘‘majority system,’’ there must be large electorates returning several members: (6) The majority of voters in an electorate should be repre- sented by a majority of members: (c) A minority of voters should, as far as possible, have as many members as its voting strength entitles it to: (d) Some provision must be made for transfer of votes, so that as far as possible voters may not be dis- franchised ; (e) The scheme should be easily intelligible to the elector and economical of the time of the returning officer ; (f) It should be adapted as nearly as possible to the present electoral organization. Most of these desiderata will be, I believe, accepted by every- body without demur. There are theoretical reasons for preferring odd-member con- stituencies to even-member constituencies. But in formulating a plan to be adaptable to Australian conditions the theoretical argument is backed up by a practical argument of great power, embodied in condition (f). The constitution, in providing for the representation of the States in the House of Representatives enacted that none of the original States should have less than five members. Five members each were assigned to Tasmania and Western Australia; seven to South Australia; and at the present time Queensland has ten members allotted to it; Victoria, twenty- one; and New South Wales twenty-seven. This immediately points to the advisability of having five-member and seven-member con- stituencies. Tasmania and Western Australia would each form a five-member constituency. South Australia would constitute a seven-member constituency. The ten existing constituencies of Queensland could be combined into two five-member constituencies. The twenty-one constituencies of Victoria would form three seven- member groups; and lastly, the twenty-seven members from New South Wales could be arranged into four constituencies of five members each and one of seyen members. 500 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. This allocation of seats would carry out the provisions of con- dition (f). Scarcely any violation of present electoral arrange- ments would take place. The seventy-five constituencies for the House of Representatives would not be altered in any way as to their boundaries. They would simply be arranged in thirteen groups, of which five would return seven members each and the remaining eight would return five members each. Even this slight modification of existing electoral arrangements would be unneces- sary in the case of the Senate elections. This, then, is the first feature of my proposed scheme: the grouping of the present constituencies into larger electorates, re- turning in the lump the same number of members. It remains to explain the combination of the best features of the ‘‘ party list ’’ and ‘‘ transferable vote ’’ systems. In order to insure this, I propose to give’ each elector two - distinct votes, which may be called respectively the “‘ party ’’ vote and the ‘‘individual’’ vote. The ballot-paper would be divided into two parts by a horizontal line. Above the line will be the name of each party, and below the line the names of the candidates. The candidates’ names form a vertical column below the names of the parties to which they respectively belong. A candidate on nomination would have to say to which party he belonged and, if he was independent, he would count as a separate party on the top of the horizontal line. The following shows how the ballot-paper for the last Senate election in Victoria would have appeared under this arrangement :—- | f + Labour | Liberal. Independent. Independent. | : | ee | Be bats | Barker Best Goldstein Ronald | | { |. ——- ee ee, ee er re Blakey McCay | Findley Trenwith The ‘‘ party vote’’ would be given by a cross in the square opposite the party for whom the elector wished to vote, and is a very simple matter. The ‘‘ individual ’’ vote is slightly more com- plex. If the Hare system is adopted a single vote is given, and the figures 1, 2, 3°... . are placed opposite the names of the candidates in the order of tWe elector’s preference. For reasons already formulated in the discussion on the Hare svstem I have Bet: os, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 501 abandoned this, and prefer to use the figures 3, 2, 1 to-ex- press the elector’s preference; the highest figure representing the number of candidates to be elected. -An elector having given hia party vote is not bound to give all his votes to the party ticket, but in the case of an elector voting either the Liberal or Labour ticket he would be required to cast the majority of his individual votes for his party ticket. Having registered his ‘‘ party ’’ vote and ‘‘ individual ’’ vote the elector has no more to do, and the rest is for the electoral officials. Consider now the following ballot- papers filled in under the new system : — A. Labour. | X Liberal. Independent. Independent. | = EE EN RAE 2) GOSS BENS Se RE, LE emer e SER Kamm ERMMER OMNIS Sem lieast me 91 JN): Barker 2.1 Best Goldstein Ronald Blakey |] McCay | | | | _ — = | ——_— — | s | Th . | Findley 3 | Lrenwith B. Labour. Indepenient. Independent. — i oh Or - OC SE ate peat a _—o [OI ee | Barker ‘Goldstein Ronald | | CL eS ae, ————— | —— | ————___| Blakey | Findley Independent. | 4 ¢. Labour. Liberal. Independ nt. Barker 2 | Best Goldstein | 3 # Ronald Blakey 1 | McCay arevaeRy wire ee oe ee a1 LT Findley | Trenwith 502 PROCEEDINGS OF ‘SECTION G. The first paper is filled in to represent the vote of a supporter of the Labour party, who gives his individual preferences for Findley first, then Barker, and lastly Blakey. The second paper shows the vote of a man who gives his “‘ party’’ vote to the Liberals and his preferences in the following order: Trenwith, McCay, Best. Lastly, the third paper shows the vote of an elector who gave his ‘‘ party’’ vote and highest ‘‘ individual’’ vote to Miss Goldstein, and his remaining individual votes to Messrs. Barker and Blakey, of the Labour party. Now consider the work of the electoral officer. The first thing to do is to count the “‘ party’’ votes and see how many Droop quotas the respective parties have. At present in Australia there are two dominant parties, and there is no third party existing now, or at all likely to exist in the immediate future, which has any chance of securing a Droop quota in one of the proposed massed electorates. We may take it as certain, therefore, that any independent candidates would fail to get the quota—con- sidered as a party—on the first count. This was the fate of all the real independent candidates at the last election, where most of them forfeited their deposits. The ‘‘ party ’’ votes of these can- didates would then be transferred by the electoral officer to either the Liberal or Labour party. The following possible combinations of individual votes in the Victorian Senate election might arise {amongst those who gave “‘ party ’’ votes to independents) :— (a) Independent, 1; Liberal, 2. (>) Independent,1; Labour, 2. (c) Independent, 2; Liberal, 1. (d) Independent, 2; Labour, 1. (ec) Independent, 1; Liberal, 1; Labour, 1. The party which is to get the ‘‘ party’’ vote of the rejected independent candidate is determined by the combination of the “individual ’’ vote. In the cases (a) and (d) the “‘ party’’ vote goes to the Labour party; in the cases (b) and (c) it goes to the Liberal party; in case (¢) it goes to the party which secures in- dividual vote No. 2. Take, for example, the third ballot-paper, which was discussed. The ‘‘ party ’’ vote is for Goldstein and the ‘‘individual’’ votes for Goldstein; Barker, and Blakey, in the order named. The elector has shown a distinct partiality for the principles of the Labour party by giving ‘“‘ individual’ votes to Messrs. Barker and Blakey. The ‘“‘ party’’ vote, therefore, is transferred to the Labour party, and the individual votes given to Messrs. Barker and Blakey retained by them, to help them in securing the seats which are finally allotted to the Labour party. Lastly, when the number of seats is equitably allocated between the two parties, according to the number of Droop quotas polled by i “See PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 503 each (whether first votes or transferred votes), the numbers oppo- site the names of each candidate are added together and the can- didates who poll most heavily, to the required number, are elected. These, then, are the essential features of the scheme. In the first place it borrows from the Hare system the idea of massed electorates. It is based on the ‘‘ party list’’ system in so far as it gives greater weight to the elector’s views on policy than to his preferences for individuals; but it escapes the defect of the ‘‘ party list’ system (that of disfranchising very smal] minorities) by providing for the transfer of the ‘‘party’’ votes of a rejected independent candidate, so that the only vote wasted is the “ in- dividual vote ’’ given to the rejected candidate. It uses Laplace’s system of preferential voting, and thus is perfectly equitable between the different electors and the different candidates. Lastly, both ‘‘ party ’’ votes and ‘“‘ individual ’’ votes can be counted in the different precincts without being brought together to a central polling place—a point of practical superiority to the Hare system. Both on practical and theoretical grounds, therefore, the scheme is commended to your attention. . One of the distinctive features of the scheme is that the ‘party ”’ vote of a rejected candidate is allotted to another party according to the preference disclosed by the elector in casting his. ‘individual ’’ vote. This is advantageous in this respect, that the scheme of voting is made easier for the general public, and the elector need not be overloaded with detail. The following instruc- tions night be printed on the ballot-paper for a Senate election :— (1) You are allowed to give one vote for a party above the line. You must give this by~placing a cross in the square opposite the name of the party for which you desire to vote. (2) You can vote for three individua] candidates below the line. Put the figure 3 in the square opposite the name of your first choice, the figure 2 opposite your second choice, and the figure 1 opposite your third choice. (3) If your party vote is given to an independent candidate you must give your first individual vote—No. 3— to that candidate below the line. (4) If your party vote is given either to the Liberal party or Labour party you must give at least two individual votes (these must be No. 3 and No. 2) below the line to members of that party.! 1. In the ease of an election for House of Representatives an elector would be instructed to give at least three “ individual” votes to his party in a five member constituency, and at least four in a seven member constituency. 504 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. SPECIMEN ELECTION. In order to illustrate the principles underlying the scheme, we will see how the last elections in Tasmania (House of Represen- tatives, 1910) would have gine if conducted under the system. The whole of Tasmania would have formed one electorate re- turning five members, and the following were the contesting can- didates:—For Labour, Messrs. O’Malley, Laird-Smith, Jensen, Shoobridge, and Wilson. For the Liberals, Messrs. Storrer, Fisher, Simmons, Atkinson, and McWilliams. The ballot-paper would be drawn up in the following form :-— Labour. Liberal. Jensen. Atkinson. Laird-Smith. Fisher. O’ Malley. MeWilliams. Shoobridge. Simmons. Wilson. Storrer. After the ‘‘ party ’’ votes were cast it was found that 56,162 valid votes were registered, of which 30,233 went to the Labour party, and 25,929 to the Liberal party. The Droop quota is eh or 9,361. Thus the Labour party scores three Droop quotas and consequently secures three seats, the remaining two seats going to the Liberals. Having thus allotted the seats to the two parties it only re- mains to count the individual votes. The figure 3 opposite a can- didate’s name gives him three votes; the figure 2 gives two votes; and the figure 1 gives one vote. The three highest Labour can- didates and the two highest Liberal candidates would be declared elected. This is the simplest possible case that can arise. Suppose the election had been complicated by the appearance of an independent candidate, Robinson, who obtained 3,000 votes. As this is less than the Droop quota, Robinson’s 3,000 ‘‘ party ’’ votes must be divided between the Liberal and Labour parties, and the division must be governed by the distribution of the ‘‘ individual ’’ votes. Every elector giving his party vote to Robinson, also gives him his individual vote, number 5, and has, therefore, four other individual votes to dispose of. If all four or three or these go to the Liberal party, then the party vote is given to the Liberals. Tf no individual vote, or only one, is given to the Liberals, then the party vote is transfered to Labour. If each party obtains two individual votes, then the party vote is to be given to that party PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 505 which secures individual vote number 4. Robinson’s 3,000 votes might be classified as follows, according to the distribution of the individual votes :— Labour. Liberal. Vumber. 4 0 50 3 1 700 2 2 300 1 3 1,250 0 4 700 3,000 Suppose that out of the 300 votes equally divided between Liberals and Labour, the Liberals secured 150 votes with indivi- dual vote No. 4, and Labour also 150. Then the Labour party would secure 50 +-700 + 150, 7.e., 900 of the party votes to be transferred, and the Liberals would secure 150 + 1,250 + 700, a.€., 2,100. The explanation, owing to the rather large amount of detail, has the appearance of being lengthy, and perhaps involved. But the principle underlying the method of transfer is perfectly -simple, and would be grasped immediately by a trained electoral officer. And, be it remembered, that any system of proportional representation must be worked by these trained experts. The general public is only required to register its votes, and leave the actual working of the machinery to other hands. CONCLUSION. As it is desirable to keep this paper within moderate limits, I will not go into further points of detail. Differences of opinion may arise as to whether the two dominant parties should be com- pelled to nominate on their ticket as many candidates as there are members to be elected, or whether they may be left free to nominate only as many as they think they can return. Questions like these, however, may be left to be settled in the subséquent discussion. I have been content to lay down broad general principles only. It was, however, only a minor consideration in the preparation of this paper that a practical scheme should be submitted which might receive the imprimatur of the Association. The major con- sideration was to insure a public discussion of the principle of elec- toral justice at a time which was above all others suitable, and by a body of men eminently entitled to handle the subject. I have very little doubt that every member of this section is a believer in the adoption of some form of proportional representation, as against the continuance of the present system. If a strong opinion in this sense was elicited it could not fail to be of the utmost weight at the present juncture. 506 _ PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. In fact, there is no reason why matters should rest at this stage. The great public importance of the question and the imminence of the fifth Federal elections would entirely justify the presenta- tion of the views of this Association to the Federal Government. The president and vice-president of this section are eminently fitted from their high official positions to act for the Association, and the president is doubly qualified as one of the pioneers of the Hare system in Australia. If Professor Nanson was associated with them, 1t would be further ample evidence that the question had been studied with the highest scientific acumen, and an entire fre- dom from party bias. Tasmania has led the way by the adoption of the Hare system, with the Droop quota and Gregory method of effecting transfers. Other States have adopted a system of con- tingent voting. If the Commonwealth should refuse to follow the lead by its constituent States, it would demonstrate anew that in matters political the whole is not always greater than its part. 4, PENSION FUNDS. By Assistant-Professor EZ. M. Moors, M.A., F.I.A. One of the very noticeable features in modern social life is the growth of what is termed solidarity. It is becoming more and more widely recognised that a community or a nation is an organism—a unit in itseli—that the nation as a unit suffers from diseases of the body politic, even as every individual suffers from his particular individual ills. And more than that, the illness or social dis- turbance which affects one part of the organism is far from being defined to the special part directly affected, but produces serious disturbance in the welfare of the general organism. It has of late been recognised that the illness of the individual, with its conse- quent suffering to wife and family, means injury to the community in many ways, that the present custom of letting the sufferer get well in the usual haphazard way is non-economic and wasteful, and eauses much suffering to individuals. Equally, too, is it becoming recognised that unemployment is a sickness of the community and to be treated as such; and it has lately been practically admitted that old-age pensions and invalid pensions are necessary in a well-regulated community, not as a charity, but as a right. Charity is always detrimental to the self- respect of the indiivdual, while the granting as a right removes this stigma at the same time that it removes the fear and dread that presses so heavily on the minds of many—the fear and dread of a helpless, indigent, old age. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 507 For such social diseases as these there is no cure-all. The recognition of them as social diseases at all is a plant of quite recent growth, and so far from prescribing any cure or even pal- liative being possible, it must be confessed that the magnitude and extent of the diseases are not yet fully understood. The most promising means of coping with these ills is insurance, and we hear frequently now of schemes of social insurance against unemployment, sickness, permanent incapacity, and-so on. That these ills were ills to the community as well as to the in- dividual sufferer has been recognised for some time by large em- ployers of labour. These have found it to their advantage to build model towns in which their employés could live in healthy sanitary surroundings, with free medical attendance and hospital accommodation and sanitoria for the convalescents, as well as main- tenance for the dependents of the sufferer during his period of incapacitation. If it has proved advantageous to private employers it must also be advantageous to the State to do the same. As one-feature of this movement we see much increased interest being shown in the question of the maintenance of men and women in the shape of pension or superannuation schemes. I propose in this paper to confine myself to the consideration of pension or superannuation funds as attached to and for the benefit ci the employés of various corporations or services. The question of national old-age pensions, as granted by the State, is quite outside the limits of this paper. For some years past my attention has been called to pension funds, as existing in private and Government employ, and as I have found that ignorance of the principles underlying the forma- tion and carrying on of such funds is so deep and so widespread among employers and employed, I thought perhaps a few remarks on these matters would not be amiss. A pension scheme or fund is usually set up by the employer when the service has been many years in existence and has attained a stable, assured position. The motives governing the employer’s action in so doing are very human, and never, so far as I know, purely philanthropic. | Enlightened self-interest plays a very large part in his action. This fact, of course, makes for the permanence of the scheme or fund, as its continuance works out equally well for employer and employed. A service, after some 25 or 30 years of existence, during which it has firmly consolidated its position as a going con- cern, finds itself in the position of having in its employ a number of old servants who have given loyal service and have spent them- selves in it and have passed their prime. z 508 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. It is impossible to simply dispense with their services, since in most cases such a course of action means nothing more than con- demning their old servants to the discomforts of a pensioner’s old age. To keep them in the service is equally out of the question, since with modern competition in business such a course of action would lead to fossilization of the service, with consequent decay. Equally unfortunate is the procedure at times adopted of keeping the old employés nominally on the service, but at a reduced rate of pay. This is degrading to the employés own self-respect, and has very bad effects on the general morale of the young employés. To pension off such servants when past work is wholly throwing on to the future a burden which has been gradually accumulated in the past, and, finally, very little consideration shows those respon- sible for the safe conduct of the business that, before very many more years are past, the burden: so cast upon the future will prove so onerous and so weighty that the future will refuse to carry the burden. . The benefits provided under a pension fund usually comprise— (1) A pension to the member after he reaches a certain age, provided that he has been in the employ for a speci- fied term of years. The amount of the annual pen- sion charge depends upon the salary the employé has received while in active service and the number of years which he has served. (2) A pension or a lump sum to those compelled to retire from service before reaching the statutory age on ac- count of total breakdown in mental or bodily health. The amount of this invalid pension or lump sum also is based upon the salary or length of service. (3) Some provision for the widow and family of the em- ployé who dies in the service before qualifying for pension. (4) Some provision for the return of the employé’s own con- tributions (if any) in case he resigns or leaves the service. In some cases there are additional benefits granted, but No. 1 and No. 2 are the principal benefits, as they form the raison d’étre of the fund. Whatever the details of such funds may be, it is evident that their due performance calls for money. It is equally evident that in every case in which the pension is being actually enjoyed the contributions to the fund on account of that pension must cease. In other words, at the instant the pension is entered upon the fund should have a sum in cash, or its equivalent, equal to the present wash eee AS wis td PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 509 © value of that pension in question. For this to be so this cash value must be built up during the term of active service of the employé by contributions prior to the pension being entered upon. For the purposes of the fund it is immaterial who makes this contribution, whether it is made wholly by the employer, as is common among American railway companies, or made wholly by the employé, as in some trading corporations, or made partly by the employer and partly by the employé, which is the most usual method. The contribution is then the soul of the fund, and it must be adequate for the purpose. \ In the early days of such funds scientific treatment apparently was non-existent. Very generous schemes of benefits were arranged between employer and employed. The benefits, being for the most part not enjoyable for many years in the future, were underes- timated, and utterly inadequate cortributions were levied. The subsequent experience of many of these funds has been anything but satisfactory, and a similar reconstruction awaits others in the near future. As mentioned above, scientific treatment at the inauguration of these early funds was non-existent—indeed, you may search actuarial literature in vain until within the last twenty years for guidance on this point. Not only was the treatment unsatisfactory, but adequate data were absent, so that an approximation to a rate of contribution was struck. From some cases that have lately come under my notice, I should imagine that in these cases in which it was attempted to measure the incidence of the benefits, and thereby calculate the necessary premium, the rock upon which the estimates foundered was as- sessmentism—that very widespread, alluring, and, in practice, most deceptive and treacherous principle. In early days it was out of the question to quote anything but an approximation or tentative rate of contribution, principally owing to lack of data. At the present moment data are more plentiful and a much closer approximation is possible, but the _ ideal rate and ideal fund have not yet been reached. In any ordinary life assurance contract the principal element to be taken into account is the rate of mortality, and that is well understood for practical purposes. No harm is done by charging a rate of contribution in excess of the true risk. To arrive at this ideal rate it is necessary to estimate— (1) The future rate of interest. (2) The future rate of mortality to be experienced among _ employés in active service. 510 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. (3) The future rate of mortality to be experienced among pensioned employés. (4) The future rate of invalidity or breakdown of employés while in service. (5) The future rate of mortality among those pensioned off on account of breakdown. (6) The future rate of withdrawal. (7) The salary rate. As regards the rate of interest, little need be said here. The problem is to determine the rate of interest likely to be realized in the future. In an insurance office the rate assumed is generally much less than the rate expected, because custom has rendered it advisable to give bonuses, and provision has to be made for these. Im a pension fund this consideration does not arise, and as nearly as possible a true estimate must be made, keeping in view the fact that some of the contracts will run for 70 years. : One of the points that has to kept in mind in valuing a pen- sion fund is that the normal pension age or age at which employés retire on pension, ¢.¢., superannuation, shows decided signs of fall- ing—employés are retiring of their own election or being retired by the employer at younger ages than hitherto. A not infrequent regulation governing the age of retirement is that the employé may retire at any age after 60 inclusive, but must retire at 65 or 70. Inasmuch as retiring on pension means a large decrease in income in addition to a radical change in habits of living, most men, if in good health and strength, prefer the larger income and established method of life, and remain on in service till the latest possible date. This custom showed itself in past experience with a large re- tirement rate at 60, a very much lower rate at 61, and slowly rising to age 70. The stress of modern business life is changing this—the retire- ment rate at 60, 61, and so on is higher than it was. Men are being retired at the younger ages between 60 and 70 in greater numbers than was customary before. Modern compe- tition is so keen that managers and sub-managers are com- pelled to draft the elder and less efficient servants out of service in order that their departments may be kept in a thorough state of efficiency. Without superannuation provisions such an economic course was difficult on mere humanitarian grounds—with these pro- visions it is possible and is being availed of more and more. As pension schemes become more universally adopted this custom will spread still further. To such a pitch has this economic management extended that while a man can neither retire or be retired before 60, yet it has been found that many men are inefficient after 50, and provision PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 511 is made for retiring them on reduced pension before 60, the dif- ference between the value of their pension rights to begin at 60 and the actual pension rights granted being supplied by the em- ployer. In the keenly managed businesses of the future it looks as if men over 60 will be found in service only in very exceptional cases. Experiences of the past as regards rate of retirement after the optional age of retirement is past would appear to be unreliable as indices of what will be experienced in future. . Rates of contribution based upon these old experiences will prove to be insufficient. It is a well recognised fact that the experience of any pension fund as regards mortality, invalidity, withdrawal, is peculiar to itself—one fund differs from another in these respects in a way sufficiently marked to render the use of one fund’s experience in valuing the liabilities under another in many cases quite mislead- ing; this is more especially true as regards the invalidity and withdrawal elements. And when one turns it.over in one’s mind it is only reasonable that such experiences should so differ. The same mishap, ¢.g., the loss of a leg, would permanently incapaci- tate a foreman carpenter or a railway guard from performing the duties of his occupation, and would, therefore, unquestionably qualify him for a breakdown pension in a railway company fund, while such a mishap would not have the same effect if the sufferer were a bank clerk. So, too, we should naturally look for a much higher rate of withdrawal among members of a fund largely con- sisting of operatives than among members of a fund comprised of clerical or professional men. A. When a fund has been many years in existence it will have accumulated its experience, but at the outset this experience is not available. Tt is now well Bnown that the recorded experience of a service as regards sickness and withdrawal when no pension fund is in exist- ence differs materially from its experience after the fund is in existence—the invalidity experience is larger, the withdrawal is lower. The increase in the invalidity rate is probably not an actual in- crease, but merely a recorded increase—before the existence of the fund cases of breakdown simply passed out of notice, not being recorded, as there was no particular end to serve in so recording them. The lowering in the withdrawal rate simply shows that the object of the fund, namely, to give greater stability and continu- ance among the staff, is being duly effected. 512 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. B. It will be seen, therefore, that the problem of setting on foot a pension fund for a service in being is one that taxes the skill and experience of the actuary to the utmost. Mortality.—He knows that the rate of mortality among con- tributing members of such funds is very light. On this point Mr. Manly, a leading English authority, writes as follows :—‘‘ The more experience I gain of these funds the more I am concerned about the future rate of mortality. Some 10 or 15 years ago it used to be considered that the rate of mortality brought out in the experience of these funds was abnormally light, but I am inclined to think that in future it will be much lighter. There has been a remark- able improvement in the mortality in the last ten years, and the rate obtained from an experience extending over 30 or 40 years is certainly not a correct estimate of the mortality likely to prevail during the next 30 or 40 years. A table, which is probably the most reliable available, has recently been published, giving the mortality experienced among contributing members—officers and workmen—of a large number of British Superannuation Funds. These rates are shown in diagram form compared with :— (1) The ‘‘O”’ table—assured lives in British offices. (2) 50 per cent. of the ‘‘O”’ takle. (3) ‘‘O’’—Endowment assurance in British offices. (4) Endowment asurance in Australian offices. It has long been known that lives which elect endowment assur- ance policies experience a much lighter mortality than those which take whole life policies. Membership of a pension fund is in many ways akin to owning an endowment assurance, so it is not to be wondered at that the mortality in these funds closely approximates that under the endowment assurances. As regards the mortality likely to be experienced among pen- sioned employés, | am aware of no Australian published data which would be of any assistance. Of British experience some has been published, but probably owing to the smallness of the numbers affected the accidental divergences from normal are so relatively large that the various results are inconsistent with each other and puzzling in the extreme. The custom is to assume that the rate of mortality practically coincides with that observed among the general population. This is by no means a satisfactory state of affairs, and any experience of pensions that is available should, in the interests of all concerned, be examined and made available to the public. Price SF seg pe, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 513 As regards the mortality among the early breakdowns, it is natural that nothing should be definitely known. A rough and ready approximate table has perforce to be used. The usual assumption is that the mortality rate is constant, and equal to 9 per cent. for all ages up to about 45, and then improves slowly, becoming nearly normal at age 65. Age Assumed Invalided io 0. ‘ rate of Mortality. Mortality. Mortality. 30 wih, .0900 bre .0077 By .0060 35 se .0900 ad .0088 sis .0074 40 a .0900 a) .0103 oh .0092 45 mae .0900 ae .0122 oe .0O115 50 ee .0900 oc .0160 Ps .0150 55 nit .0679 ee .0210 ae .0205 60 bh .0321 ae .0297 are .0289 65 saat .0465 ? .0434 ; .0420 The reason is that men under fifty are not retired as broken down unless it is absolute breakdown, and then the mortality rates are the same practically whether the age of retirement is 30 or 50. After that age the cause of retirement is breakdown, becoming more and more affected by old-age failure as the regular pension age of 65 draws nearer and nearer. At the retiring age of 65, of course, the mortality of all becomes normal. Trust funds have some provision for pensioning off a servant who breaks down in health. Here, again, satisfactory data are not available. For long this benefit was considered as a minor benefit, but recent experience has shown that breakdown rate, while existent, had escaped notice because cases were ‘not recorded. Closer records being kept, the seriousness of the liability revealed itself. My own impression is that the breakdown pension benefit is a very serious matter indeed, and that we have not yet seen the full extent of it. It is very suggestive that while in 1901 the rate was recognised and an estimate made for practical purposes in the Old Country, in 1911 the same actuary, with longer experience, has found it neces- sary to increase his estimated rates by no less than 50 per cent. So serious a view do some actuaries take of the position that I have seen it recommended that a sufficient contribution to the fund to be made by the employer would be his guaranteeing to provide these breakdown pensions, all the other benefits being left to be provided for by the employé himself out of his contributions. As the employer’s contribution ranges from 10s. to £1 for every £1 paid by the member, it would appear that the breakdown pension, according to that authority, costs from 30—50 per cent. of the total benefits provided. 6117. R 514 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. The various experiences as published only deal with but small numbers at risk, and on that account must be received with caution. {t is not possible to find firmer foundation by combining the figures, because such combined figures would be composed of non-homo- geneous data. Such as they are, however, they emphatically point -to the fact that the breakdown rate is a much more serious factor than is generally understood. And, as I said before, it is a ques- tion if we have yet measured the true value of it. The nearest gauge I have yet arrived at is as follows :— Rate of mortality among Age. Contributors to pension Rate of Breakdown. funds, 50 per cent. 30 e .0030 Aen 001 35 ve .0037 nf .001 40 Bec .0146 =H .002 45 ree .0057 at .003 50 ae .0075 Ape .005. The undue lightness of the mortality is here measured by taking only 50 per cent. of the O.M. rates, and the breakdown rates are the adjusted figures from (naturally) a somewhat limited experi- ence. It is a matter of grave concern to those responsible to find that at age 40 for every nine men who die in active service no less than four will be retired on pension as permanently broken down, ne at age 45 for 60 who die 30 will so retire. As the strain on the fund caused by a man being pensioned even as a breakdown pensioner is usually very much heavier than the strain caused by the man’s dying, it is evident that an under- estimate of the number of breakdown pensioners may seriously affect the stability of the fund. Of course, the actuary will be able to foresee the trouble when the fund has been going for some time, but the making of the necessary provision to meet it means increased rates of contribu- tion is always an ungracious task. In this connexion it is noticeable in how many cases of pension funds we read of reductions of benefits, increased rates of contribu- tion by the members, increased subsidy or gifts outright by the employer. All these mean one and the same thing—+the estimates of the magnitude of the evils assured against have proved to be underestimated. Probably any one of us, speaking of his own per- sonal knowledge, would find it hard to call to mind more than one ox two cases of permanent breakdown in health; yet now that data are beginning to be kept with some approach to completeness of record, it is becoming increasingly obvious that one’s personal experience is unreliable, and only truly-kept records are worthy of credence. Our own personal experience also minimizes the magni- tude of the evil, since when we do hear of any such case, after a beh; tk CPE may PROOEEDINGS OF SEOTION G. 515 - short interval of time it passes out of mind unless we are in inti- mate contact with the case; but, as far as the fund is concerned, _ the draift' upon the fund is a continuing one, going on year by year during the life-time of the pensioner. In passing, I may mention how fallacious have the estimates as regards the number and cost of old-age pensions and of invalid pensions proved to be. The whole experience but exemplifies the aphorism: ‘‘ The sup- ply is greater than the demand.” The Salary Rate.-—The pensions usually depend upon the salary received by the employé. It is, therefore, important to form what is known as a salary scale. Naturally, every service has its own salary scale, but to measure it satisfactorily is by no means easy. In any particular case, when examined.in bulk, we find that the average salary per age forms a steadily increasing scale up to about age 35, after which there is no regularity whatever. An increase of staff usually means an increase in the numbers of the lower-paid ranks, which means a lowering of the general salary scale. The average salaries at the various ages are of only minor im- portance in themselves—the point of importance is the rate of salary increase. It does not matter whether the actual salaries are 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, &c., &c., or 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, &c.; what is of importance are the ratios, and these are the values which offer the more difficulties in determining as regards the future. Of recent years the salary-increase rates have shown a marked increase at the lower ages going to extend to the higher ages. Is this increase at the lower ages going to extend to the higher ages in the future, 6r is the present increase shown at the lower ages going to gradually disappear in the future? If the former alternative is the one that will actually come to pass, then a valuation in the future based on rates constructed from the past data will be required to be stiffened. W ithdrawal.—Most of those who enter a service at the younger ages do not remain in it till the pension age—the majority leaving it by withdrawal (by voluntary resignation or dismissal, being paid off). This feature of the employment must not be ignored. To say definitely what the effect of this element is is impossible; usually the withdrawing member receives back a portion of the contribu- tion made to the fund, and the result of making an assumption as to the future rate of withdrawal as compared with that of making another apparently quite as reasonable, all other things being equal, can only be determined by trial. How the withdrawal rate affects the mortality rate, or the inva- lidity rate, or the salary rate, or how the salary rate affects the withdrawal rate are all points of importance in examining into the future experience of a fund, but at present they admit of no answer. R2 516 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. It will be seen that the treatment of pension funds is far from being an exact science. The methods of handling have become much more scientific in recent years, and have run ahead of the data. Data are now accumulating by degrees, and until they are avail- able only approximate answers to the questions submitted to the actuary can be supplied. 5. COST OF ORPHANS’ ANNUITIES IN AUSTRALASIA. By H. A. Smith, F.S.S., Assistant Statistician, New South Wales, with Plate XI. In this paper what is termed an Orphan’s Annuity is a pension or allowance commencing upon the death of the father and payable to each of his children until it attains age 16. These annuities are known also as ‘‘ Children’s Annuities’’ and as “Family Annuities.’’ Personally, I prefer the term ‘‘ Orphans’ Annuities,’’ as being more expressive, because ihe term ‘‘ orphan’’ has now come to be applied to a child which has lost one of its parents; but whatever the annuities are called, they are being more and more considered in connexion with benefits under schemes of superannuation, in conjunction with a benefit to the widow. In Australasia orphans’ benefits were included in a super- annuation scheme established in New Zealand in 1908; in a scheme of superannuation proposed in 1910 for the Commonwealth Public Service by Mr. G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., Commonwealth Statis- ticlan; and in a scheme proposed in 1912 for the Public Service of New South Wales by a committé@e appointed for the purpose by the Government of that State. E have given some thought to this question during the last few years, and as it appears probable that any information bearing on it will be of interest, not only to actuaries and statisticians, but also to the general public, I am induced to put forward this brief statement of the available Australasian statistics. © It is rather remarkable that the scarcity of statistics treating of the number of children born to married men at various ages is world-wide, and in this connexion I may quote the remarks of the actuaries (Messrs. Hardy and Wyatt), appointed by the British Government to investigate the national scheme of insurance against sickness, &c. Referring to the question of maternity benefits, they said (see J.I.A., vol. XLV., page 421)— ‘‘In order to estimate the cost of, and the contributions for, the maternity benefits, it is necessary to determine the probability of issue to a married man for each age. There is no definite body of statistics in this country from which these ratios can be directly derived, and the only data we are aware of which are suitable for the purpose are those eB aitaiticsibe ~y PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 517 provided by the official statistics of New Zealand, and to these, in the circumstances, we have been obliged to have recourse.’’ It is curious that the actuaries were obliged to fall back upon the figures published in a colonial division of the Empire, to obtain data to enable them to compute the cost of the various contingencies under an important section of, perhaps, the most widely discussed national proposal of modern times; and _ the remarks quoted above may be considered a reflection on British statistics on the subject. Prior to this, in 1903, Mr. H. W. Manly said in his paper on the valuation of Widows’ and Children’s Pensions regarding Children’s Benefits (see J.I.A., vol. XXXVIII., page 108)— ‘‘In order to ascertain the ages and the number of children left by a married man at his death, I have had to go to the same source as Mr. King did when he constructed his table of ‘ Family Annuities,’ namely, the ‘ Statistics of the Colony of New Zealand,’ ”’ In addition to the statistics referred to in the case of New Zealand, however, similar statistics are available for New South Wales for the years 1903 and 1911, and there are corresponding particulars which were obtained in connexion with the investiga- tions into superannuation schemes for the Public Services of New South Wales and of the Commonwealth. This paper, therefore, contains a comparison of the cost of orphans’ annuities in Aus- tralasia deduced from the following experiences :-—— 1. Number and ages of children to deceased married males of various ages, among the general population, New South Wales, 1903. 2. Number and ages of children to deceased married males of various ages, among the general population, New South Wales, 1911. 3. Number and ages of children to deceased married males of various ages, among the general population, New Zealand, 1906-10. 4. Number and ages of children to married males of various ages, in New South Wales Public Service, 1896-1910. 5. Number and ages of children to married males of various ages in Commonwealth Public Service, 1903-08, sub- divided into— (a) Administrative, professional, clerical ie ( A.C.) (6) General (G.) The facts concerning 1 and 2 were taken from the annual re- ports on vital statistics by the Government Statistician for the years mentioned ; concerning 3 from the report on vital statistics Sd ha eo er. ie a ake ac kh se 518 PROOEEDINGS OF SECTION G. by the Registrar-General of New Zealand, 1910; concerning 4 from the report mentioned previously of the actuarial sub-committee ; and concerning 5 from the report by the Commonwealth Statistician mentioned previously. As the facts have. been presented clearly in those publications there is no need to repeat them here. In the first three cases the experience relates to deceased persons, and in the remaining cases to persons who were living, the assumption having been made that the number of children ‘left at death ’’ by the latter would be proportionately the same. The statistics available were arranged in the manner described in the report of the actuarial sub-committee on the New South Wales proposed scheme of superannuation; that is to say, all males (married and unmarried) of each age from 21 to 70 inclusive were felated to the children at each age from 0 to 15 inclusive. The total numbers so treated were 4,244 males and 3,525 children in New South Wales in 1903; 4,641 males and 3,333 children in New South Wales in 1911; 12,113 males and 8,668 children in New Zealand; 12,086 males and 15,971 children in New South Wales Public Service; 4,382 males and 5,575 children in the Common- wealth Public Service, Division A.P.C.; and 4,976 males and 4,989 children in the Commonwealth Public Service, Division G. In following out the process of computation of the annuities, it was assumed that at the death of the parent the annuity would be paid for each child until it attatmed the age of 16; therefore, the children to be dealt with were those from ages 0 to 15 in- clusive, and it was first necessary to prepare a table of temporary annuities of 1 to age 16 for all ages 0 to 15. For this purpose the mortality tables known as Moors’ and Day’s Australian Experience were used, the rate of interest selected being 34 per cent., and the ‘continuous method being adopted. To obtain the annuity values * 4, = Ne —N the commutation formula was used :—“, . eal je —» but as no commutation columns are given in Messrs. Moors and Day’s Ex- perience, I was obliged to construct them. The present values of the temporary annuities thus computed are as follows :— Value of Value of | ; Age. Annuity. Age. ~ Annuity. a GQ. G—z| || x dy: =a) 0 10-2 8 6-9 1 Lk-Ousiiter @ 6-2 2 10-7 | 10 5-4 3 10:2 ob 4°6 4 96 | 12 3°7 5 90 | 13 2°8 6 83 | 14 1-9 7 7-6 15 “98 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 519 I should say that the above values agree with those used by the actuarial sub-committee in investigating the superannuation scheme for the New South Wales Public Service. They differ, hewever, slightly from the values used by the Commonwealth Statistician in his investigations, as he put forward the age half @& year. 7 As I have said, the children at each age were related to the total males of the ages concerned, married and unmarried, as distinct from fathers. The number of children, of each age from 0 to 15, born to males at each age was multiplied by the respective temporary annuity values shown above. The sum of the products gave what may be termed the ‘‘ total annuity value ’’ for males of each age, and this value divided by the num- ber of males, gave for males of each age, at time of death, the average value of an annuity of 1 to each surviving child up to age 16. This process was applied to each of the experiences of New South Wales in 1903 and 1911, and to the experience of New Zealand in 1906-10. The mortality tables used may not suit altogether the latter experience, but they were the most suitable available, and the annuity values deduced for New Zealand will probably not be so far from the truth as to affect the comparisons I wish to make. The results obtained in this manner were, of course, the un- adjusted values, and exhibited considerable inequalities from age to age. Before they could be considered properly it was neces- sary to subject them to a process of graduation which would re- duce the whole series to a smooth curve without modifying to any great extent the inherent characteristics of the function. To graduate the original annuity values I adopted the graphic method described first in Messrs. Moors’ and Day’s publication, and later in the report of the New South Wales Actuarial Sub- Committee, and called the ‘‘ pins and thread ’’ method. This is a great improvement on the old method of graphic graduation, as it can be applied readily and rapidly to any series requiring adjustment. The ‘‘ tools of trade’’ are a table of fair size, hav- ing the top accurately ruled into squares, a reel of thread, and some pins with coloured heads. In my own case I had at my - disposal the same table that was used by the actuarial sub- cominittee. The annuity values in regard to the males of each age, as ascertained from the deaths among the general population in New South Wales in 1903 and 1911, and in New Zealand in 1906-10, were computed by me. The annuity values as ascer- tained from the experience of the New South Wales and Common- wealth Public Services were extracted from the reports thereon previously cited. 520 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. The graduated values for males of each age 21 to 70 for each experience are shown in comparison in the following table, which gives the cost to males of each age of providing a temporary annuity of one until each surviving child attains age 16. To facilitate comparison diagrams are given at the end of this paper showing for each experience the adjusted annuity values for males of each age, and also for each experience except the Com- monwealth Public Service—for which they were not available— the unadjusted values at each age. The table is extended to age 70, because it is found that even at that advanced age it is by no means certain that a man will not die leaving young children to provide for. VALUES OF TEMPORARY ANNUITIES TO CHILDREN UP TO AGE 16. Commonwealth Public Service.—Males New Scuth (1903-1908). Age N.S.W. N.S.W. New Zealand. Wales Beh We alia ea hd tae Tt) Secs: ay: Beeb 01908). (1911), | (1906-1910). | _ Males ee (1896-1910), fessional. and General. Clerical. 21 6 yt a) ry) “J 2 22 *9 oi “4 “4 py “6 23 1:4 i-O Ff ‘§ “4 2 24 1-9 1-4 1-0 1-5 1:2 1°9 25 2:4 1:9 1-4 2°6 2°0 Ae | 26 3°0 2°6 1°8 Sad 2-9 3°7 27 3°6 3°4 Paes 4°8 3°9 4:9 28 4°3 4-4 3 6-0 5-0 6°4 28 5:0 5°4 4°0 7°8 6°5 7:8 30 Dik 6:4 5:0 9-6 8:0 9:2 31 6°4 7:4 6:0 11:4 9°6 10°5 32 7k 8-2 6°9 12°7 10°8 11°6 33 7°8 8°9 7°6 13°8 11°8 12°5 34 8-6 9°5 8:3 14°8 12:4 13-2 35 9:4 - 9:9 9-0 15:5 13-0 13-6 36 10:0 10-2 9°4 16:0 13°3 13°9 37 10°6 10°4 9°8 16°5 13-6 14°2 38 10:9 10:4 — 10-2 16°8 Lisa 14°3 39 10°9 10°3 10°4 16:9 13°8 14°3 40 10°8 9:9 10°6 16°9 Ii 14:1 41 10°5 9°5 Seah: 16°4 13:4 13°8 42 10:1 8:9 10°8 15°6 13-0 13 °4 43 9°7 8:4 10°5 14:7 12°4 12°8 44 9-4 8:0 9:9 137 11°6 12°2 45 9°] 7:6 9°2 19°F 10°8 11:5 46 8:8 Tie 8-6 11-6 9:9 1G:7 47 8:5 7:0 8:1 10-6 9-1 9°8 48 8-2 6-6 Ta 9°7 8°3 8°9 49 7°8 6:1 fee 9:0 7°6 8-1 50 7:4 5:6 6°8 8°3 6:9 74 51 6:8 5-2 6:4 7:6 6:2 6:8 52 6:2 4°8 5:9 6:9 5°6 6:2 i te a i PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 521 VALUES OF TEMPORARY ANNUITIES TO CHILDREN UP TO AGE 16—continued. —_—_—$—$—_____—$_$_$$$_$$_$$<$$_$_ $$$ _—E—E $$ TS Commonwealth Public Service.—Males New South (1903 1908). N.S.W. N.S. W. New Zealand Wales Age Deceased Deceased Deceased Public of Males Males Males Service Males. (1903). (1911). (1906-1910). Males Administra- (1896-1910), tive, Pro- fessional, and Clerical. General. 53 5°7 4:4 5:3 6°3 4°9 5°7 54 5-1 4-2 4°8 5°7 4°4 5°3 55 4°6 3°9 4-4 51 3°9 4°8 56 4:1 3°6 3°9 4°5 3°5 4°4 57 3°6 3°2 3°5 4°0 3°1 3°9 58 3:1 2°8 3:1 3:4 2°8 3°5 59 2°7 2:4 2°7 2°9 2°6 3°2 60 2°3 2:0 2°4 2°4 2°4 2°9 61 1-9 1°6 2-1 1°8 2:2 2°6 62 1-7 1°3 1°7 1°5 2-1 2°4 63 1-4 ei 1:3 1-4 ZG 2°2 64 1:3 “9 | al 1-4 1°8 2°0 65 1°3 8 1:0 1-4 1M i 1°8 66 1-1 eth 1:0 1-4 is : 67 1:0 6 9 1-4 : 68 1:0 iz) § 1-4 69 “9 4 ath 1-2 70 8 3 6 1:0 In making a comparison between the results yielded by the various statistics referred to, it is necessary to bear in mind the fact that the particulars of the Public Services of New South Wales and the Commonwealth relate to the children of living parents, but the data given in connexion with the New South Wales and New Zealand statistics are the surviving children of deceased parents. It is possible that the peculiarities underlying each body of statistics are such as to require a certain amount of caution in treatment, but it does not appear likely that these peculiarities will be such as to prevent a general discussion of the various annuity values when placed side by side. Comparing the various results it is seen that on the whole, the greatest values are yielded by the Public Service of New South Wales, which from ages 30 to 57, shows higher results than any of the other experiences. At ages up to 30 and over 57, the Com- monwealth Public Service General Division shows higher results. 522 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. In each experience, except that of New Zealand, the highest ‘point is reached at approximately the same age, but in New Zea- land it is reached a few years later. The following is a summary of the highest points in each case :— ere Ac Highest ae Annuity Value. New South Wales general population, 1903 ..| 38 and 39 10:9 New South Wales general population, 1911 ..| 37 and 38 10°4 New Zealand general population, 1906-10 ae 42 10°8 New South Wales Public Service ae .. | 39 and 40 16-9 Commonwealth Public service— Administrative, Professional, and Clerical 3 39 13°8, General .. Ae ae Bs ..| 38 and 39 14°3 The trend of the curve relating to the New Zealand experience seems to indicate that the highest family averages are reached at a period somewhat later in life than obtains in the Australian States; and this peculiarity is also noticeable when other points in the respective curves are studied. It is interesting to speculate upon, but not easy to discuss the cause of this. The difference in age at marriage will not account for it. The New Zealand men marry about a year later than in Australia, but the highest family averages, as compared with New South Wales, are about four years later. After the maximum is reached, the annuity values in each curve decrease rapidly, more rapidly in the cases of the public service curves than in those of the general population; but in some experiences there is, between certain ages subsequent to the maximum point, an interruption in the steady decrease, causing what may be, not inaptly, termed a ‘‘ hump’? in what is otherwise an even and continually decreasing series. This is not apparent in the Public Service of New South Wales, nor in the Commonwealth Service Divisions, but in those relating to the general population it is more or less marked at about the following ages :— New South Wales, 1903 as a uly, Ages 46 to 52 New South Wales, 1911 sic af 53 Ages 45 to 52 and 54 to 57 New Zealand, 1906-10 me ot Ages 49 to 55 In the New South Wales 1911 experience, there is an indi- ‘cation of a slight second interruption in the rate of decrease at about ages 54 to 57, but the main ‘‘ hump”? is noticeable between ages 45 and 52. TPO NTO Sete rz sabe sy PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 523 As has been explained, the data are extracted from the reeords of deceased people, and the ‘“‘humps’’ mentioned reflect what is found amongst the population living, being caused probably by the aecumulation at certain points of the survivors of persons who immigrated in- years gone by. Considering again the annuity values given in the table, it will be seen that not only are the New South Wales Public Ser- vice values between ages 30 and 57 higher than the others, but — they are considerably higher. As compared with the results from the general population of New South Wales, they are in several eases more than 50 per cent. higher. Comparing the general population results in New South Wales in both years and in New Zealand, there is not a great difference. New South Wales i911 is the lowest, and New South Wales 1903 and New Zealand are in fairly close agreement after age 32. Up to that age, New South Wales 1903 and 1911 are both higher than New Zealand. The reason for the high values in the New South Wales Public Service will be fairly apparent from the following statement, which shows in each case the number of married men amas 1,000 males at each age :— Commonwealth Public. Service. rs HY res eh ver Lae par oe eS Age, y : Wales. New Zealand. , ‘ 1903. 1911. 1906-10... | Public Serviee. Aduinistine i | sional and General. Clerical. 21-29 227 234 164 297 275 229 30-39 514 542 496 780 701 657 40-49 644 634 626 895 800 751 50-59 707 709 627 930 803 748 69-69 668 726 722 867 5'Tp* Y hn Mean 21-69 586 620 582 726 679* 526* * Agesend at 64. From this the astonishing facet is apparent that at some age soon after 40, actually 43 or 44, 9 out of 10 men in the Public Service of New South Wales are married, and it does not appear a wild assumption to say that this is the result of settled occu- pation and fixed locality. In the Commonwealth Public Service the pxoportion of married men after age 40 is 8 out of 10 524 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. in the Administrative, Professional, and Clerical Division, and 74 out of 10 in the General Division. Here again is seen the result of settled occupation, but in this case the locality is not fixed so permanently, as Commonwealth officers (Customs and Pos- tal) are probably moved from place to place fairly-frequently. The proportion of married men in the New South Wales general population is higher at each age than in New Zealand, but in neither case are the proportions so high as in the Public Service. When the scheme of superannuation for the Public Service, proposed by the Committee in New South Wales was published, there was considerable opposition among the younger members of the Service to the proposed benefits to widows and orphans. But if they could appreciate the figures in the above statement they would perhaps withdraw their opposition, because, in face of them, what young man in the Service would be rash enough to say he would not be married by the time he reached 43. Further light will be thrown on the results given in the table of Annuity Values by the following statement, showing to 100 males at each age, the number of children under 16 years of age :— NuMBER OF CHILDREN UNDER 16 PER 100 Matzs. Commonwealth Public Service. - wey ponen N a fourth es ce BLAS Benth 70, ales. a New Ze : ee 1903. 1911. 1906-10. | Public Service. Pres | sional and General. Clerical. 21-29 26 24 17 33 24 24 30-39 116 112 103 167 139 134 40-49 155 129 148 208 185 181 50-59 99 81 90 118 94. 103 60-69 29 22 28 39 33* 42* Mean 21-69 83 72 72 132 127* 100* * Ages end at 64. These results are affected by the -proportion of married men among the total; for instance, the New South Wales Public Ser- vice, which shows the highest proportion of married men, shows also the highest average number of children; the Commonwealth Public Service stands second in both statements. New South Wales 1911, however, as compared with 1903, shows that in each age group except one the proportions married were higher, yet, Plate X Diackam showing the Present Value of lemporary Annuities of 110 Children unti/ attaining age 16 (unadjusted $ adjusted) =r eu izasias]ess Shahn ecrarnneraie ce be Ri ea ell Shap art joule ene seal teteemleais weet Site tt — at itt . it ‘ian ts ' Peele 1 eae all elt 1 phew StPaRsseL=Seens Rargeacaeer| | Ea< + Th a i i ' vay ‘eal ' 1 ve~ WT dy With | | ! Ce ae 1 = aa : 1) FSS SSSA : ot a ae 2eQTRELESREE LSS ERR SES $ aeee; 1 i ae Sort the te TR eat MT Hiei i i vp qt ' | \ ; al } | el etal | ! Sa al ea eg OT aaah =i a HaErSLinel aT SSL i TT 1 al aH as PEGURREC UC OMe etic omen otter eretag 7 [otoh an baba p-tat—b 4=4- gape tpi tt -LJ-;-p4-t----p 4 -pa-t-h4-t- ---r-|- ir ptt bd tb pnp ate pop be pt ttf ab sot teal eee jeer ale ie 1 i} 1 | 1 i} Se Doce cnn (CRU Sar Gia ch ae memipe ea acti maiiae eee ; 1 ! i} i je +-b + Lt Pa Eel eek bob siz Tacs =b ab + 4-2 F ne lisse caacwaea de) Mblebigmaeiansnatenedam Soto pep tice i deviant g peep Sie ae 1 es aU — ape are ste -i-g a )aie 1 ir 1 jl \ 3 (el ita bate + T -+ 73 i} BN mT t 4 Sige. 1 -i- YD 77 SIF a S lees r Tage St + 1-18 1 2 lon Oe Vite 4 a Ss igi i 1 Noe! 4-3 | ! | 1 | 1 4% (= ed clic orn lic 4-4-5 Me iba i yy Teal So nstecir r (al false er leans ae bot-4—1 ge a rt = ~ =f-b-y ; bios etert at vy eae, See penenar ia fl | | | re Se eee eee - q reliear ah} Tastee Dea tio ea gels a Oe ea a ape patapdert-r4-4-l ca Soe tah abe oF & ey ei Thntte tio Parael = 7 e ees Coe cee ae ; x paar lat 131-4 ¥ 3 Ly ITS pa-+-|-- x} iS I 7 SEER rt * % alps te als Tete --¢ 1 RSA Stare? mae 7 yb Sate z Ny ea ay 8 et Tee a on ea ye ole . rie 4 1 R 1 | = N fata T i [a ts ne dm, z Naa ro rae | rs te Feuley ct 7 Pa Me - 4 Sor f ae Ee : ae ™ S Kit 1 a Ge rsy 51 = Sy teen Re 2 Oy sip stiesie ye 1 eae SS 2 ~ = _é| x {ade -F- 7 i 8 S| + ieteata 5 a k L aie 2 1 I LP ii wo wor ie Stet ip 8 ipod t * t= Ri toe “2 - Ue ere eave f 1 eee 8 Sliviedess! 8 ' Tats 404- —— Gurve © Curve Arepreselils NEM. 1903, Curve B NGW/G4, amssons Adimnstrative, Professional $ Clerical: Correé Commonwealth ubhe Service Genera! DVSI0N tht to curves D. £ and f respectively. , those af the side the valies oF the annuity ThOSE ON ThE TH ages of males, wrves A, Band C respectively, NewLedand, Curve L MEW Public Service, Curve £ Commonweslits Public Strvice, res at bottom represent [ZZ ig The scales on the lett relale to c. The fi PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 525 = without exception, the average number of children was lower. New Zealand shows smaller proportions married than in New South Wales at all ages, but at the higher ages over 40 the average number of children is higher. The following statement showing to 100 married men the num- ber of children under 16 years of age is perhaps a better com- parison :— NUMBER OF CHILDREN UNDER 16 PER 100 Marriep MEN. Commonwealth Public Service, * ET aeet ae ou ‘ 2 pe bn South — ge. es. 3 Ze . Wales By 8 : 1903. 1911. “1906-10. | Publie Service pee an ae sional ang’ General. Clerical. | 20-29 159 173 163 166 143 156 30-39 267 262 253 248 233 243 40-49 274 245 266 257 250 260 50-59 162 132 145 165 123 143 60-69 50 35 42 51 64* 92* Mean 21-69 165 137 138 215 212* 229" * Ages end at 64. Married men in the New South Wales Public Service have or the average more children than in the other experiences, and they have more at each age than in the Commonwealth Public Service, which comes next. It is, however, the high averages at the higher ages over 50 which makes the general average of the New South Wales Public Service high, because at ages under 50 the general population results both of New South Wales and New Zealand are higher. It would appear from this, that in the Pub- lic Service, second marriages are more common than among the general population. Comparing the results given by the general population of New South Wales and New Zealand, the same facts are apparent as from the preceding statement. The results shown above are quite clear, and without labouring the subject, I think they explain the variations from age to age in the different experiences, as indicated in the table giving tlie cost of orphans’ annuities. 526 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. @& 6. INVESTIGATIONS CONCERNING A LAW OF INFANTILE MORTALITY. By Chas. H. Wickens, A.I.A., Commonwealth Bureau of Census Statistics. 1. Mortarity Amonest Inrants UnpeR One Year or AGE. In many statistical publications the expression ‘‘ infantile mor- tality ’’ is used in connexion only with the deaths of children under one year of age. In such cases it is usual to deduce the rate of infantile mortality by dividing the total number of deaths under one year of age recorded in any calendar year by the number of births recorded in’ the same year, and to express the quotient obtained as a ratio to 1,000. For general purposes it is probable that the result so obtained gives the infantile mortality rate with a fair degree of approximation, although in strictness it must be admitted that two vitiating circumstances are in evidence, viz., (i) the fact that the deaths under one year of age occurring in any calendar year are drawn largely from the children born in the pre- ceding calendar year, and (ii) the fact that neither birth nor death registrations for any calendar year represent exactly the occur- rences for that year. If the number of births remained fairly constant from year to year, no appreciable error would be introduced. If this number is not sensibly constant, it would be desirable to make some allow- ance for the overlapping. For this purpose, the mean of the num- ber of births for the year of observation-and the number for the preceding year has been employed in the present paper, in place of the number for the year of observation only. 2. InFantite Morraruity ro AGE 5. For many purposes the view presented by taking account only of the first year of life is incomplete and may be misleading. A moderately heavy death rate at age 0 may be succeeded by a re- latively light rate at ages 1, 2, 3 and 4; while, on the other hand, a fairly light rate at age 0 may be succeeded by relatively heavy rates at the higher ages. It appears desirable, therefore, in investi- gations concerning infantile mortality to obtain results at least as far as age 5. In the present paper the results for the Common- wealth of Australia for the decennium 1901-10, as far as age 5 are given in some detail as an example of the method employed, and it is shown that a mathematical expression of the Makeham- Gompertz type may be used to obtain a representation of the rates of mortality for the first five years of age. 3. InrantTILeE Deatas Durinc THE DEeceNNIUM 1901-1910. During the decennium 1901-10 the total number of deaths re- corded in the Commonwealth of children under the age of 5 years ae ne nT a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 527 was 122,713, of whom 67,331 were males and 55,382 were females. Arranged according to age the particulars are as follows :— Table fT. Deaths Registered in the Commonwea!th, 1901-10, of Children Under Five Years of Age. Age Last Birthday. Males. Females. 0 52,000 41,364 1: 8,691 7,858 2 3,167 2,884 3 2,045 } 1,856 4 1,428 | 1,420 Total under 5 t: 67,331 | 55,382 These figures represent the total number of deaths of children under five years of age for the period under review, and if the number of births per annum had been constant for a series of say fifteen years, the figures here given, in conjunction with the num- ber of births would furnish all that is needed for constructing a life table for the first five years of life. As, however, the number _ of births has varied during the period, it is necessary to obtain a birth basis in which these variations have been taken into account. 4, Brrra Basis For Computation or Deata Rates. In accordance with what lias already been stated in section (1) above, the birth basis for age 0 for the decennium 1901-10 will be half the births in 1900, plus the births for the years 1901 to 1909 inclusive, plus half the births in 1910. The division of the number of deaths at age 0 during the decennium by the total so obtained gives the rate of mortality for age 0, that is, gives the proportion of children born alive who would die before reaching age 1, on the basis of the experience of the decennium. For determining the rate of mortality for age 1 a new birth basis is required. This may be obtained from the consideration that the number of deaths at age 1 represents those who have sur- vived the first year of life, but have failed to survive the second. The birth basis for computation in this case will thus extend a year farther back than in the case of deaths at age 0, and will be obtained by adding to half the births for 1899 the whole of the births for 1900 to 1908 inclusive and half the births for 1909. A similar procedure will be required for each of the other ages at death, the basis for deaths at age 4 extending as far back as the 258 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. births for the year 1896. This explains why in section 3 mention was made of the necessity for constancy of number of births for fifteen years, to admit of the death records being used for life table purposes without further computation. The birth bases so computed are given hereunder : — Table IT. Birth Basis for Computation of Mortality Rates for Ages 0 to 4, Commonwealth, 1991-10. Age. Males. . Females. 0 546,655 519,927 1 oe i 539,196 513,380 2 ag sp 632,515 506,995 3 Lt: Ar 526,964 601,590 4 522,389 497,683 These figures represent approximately the number of births from amongst which the deaths at each of the ages specified, have arisen during the decennium under review. 5. PropaBiLtity oF DEATH at SUCCESSIVE AGES. From the figures given in Tables I. and II. may be readily com- puted the probability that a child aged 0 will die before reaching ~ age 1; will survive age 1, but die before reaching age 2; will survive age 2, but die before reaching age 3; and soon. These probabilities may be obtained by dividing the items in Table I. by the corresponding items in the Table II. Performing these opera- tions the results are as follows :— Table IIT. Probability at Date of Birth of Surviving n Years and Dying in the (27 + 1)th Year. Commonwealth, 1901-10. Males. Females. 0 -09512 ‘07956 1 -01612 ‘01531 x “00595 “00569 3 “00388 -003'70 4 -00273 *00285 eee cea: ea Se ee ee ee ee ee ee PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 529 If we asume 100,000 births of each sex, the figures given in the last table enable us to write down at once the numbers out of - 100,000 of each sex born, who, according to the experience under review, will survive to each of the succeeding ages up to 5. These results are as follows, the probability of surviving a year at each age being also given :— Table IV. Commonwealth, 1901-10. Number Surviving at Each Age Probability of Surviving Age. out of 100,000 Born. One Year. Males. | Females. Males. Females. VERN Pa 0 100,000 | 100,000 ‘ *90488 *92044 ] 90,488 92,044 *98219 -98337 2 88,876 90,513 *99331 °99371 3 88,281 89,944 * 99560 *99589 4 87,893 89,574 -99689 *99682 5 87,620 | 89,289 AD rs The number of suvivors at each age has been obtained by multiplying the results in Table III. by 100,000, and subtracting the products successively from 100,000. The probability of surviving one year at age «x has been ob- tained by dividing the number of survivors at age (# + 1) by the number at age x. 6. Tae MakeHAM-GOMPERTZ FORMULA. In a paper contributed to the Royal Society in 1825, Benjamin Gompertz shewed that for a considerable range of values the survivors at successive ages in a Life Table could be represented by the expres- sion hg” » where &, g, and c were constants for the table under review and the variable « denoted the age, but that to represent the whole range of adult life, it was necessary to change the values of the constants between ages 50 and 60. In 1860, in a paper submitted to the Institute of Actuaries, W M. Makeham shewed that by adding a farther constant a closer representation with one set of constants could be obtained from about age 20 onwards to the oldest age. The formula which Makeham first gave was in the form /, = ks*g® e", though later he suggested the addition of still another constant, and ‘gave an expression of the form 7, = ks*h*“g°*,where 1, denotes the number who reach age x according to the experieuce under review. The former of . 530 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. these is what is usually known as the Makeham-Gompertz formula, but the latter is that which appears most applicable to the period of infant life. Denoting the probability of surviving a year at age « by bai : Dre (= ae we have from Makeham/’s second: expression xv log /, = logk + w logs + x logh + c* log g, and log /,,, = log k + (#+1) logs + (# +1) logh + c*™* log g, hence log = = log p, = logs + (2a+1) log h+c* (c—1) log g = (logs + log h) + 2x log h + c* (e—1) logy. Since p,is necessarily always less than unity, log p, is negative. It is consequently convenient in practice to operate with colog p, (= — log p,): ~ We then have colog p.= — (log s+log h)—2a log h—c* (e—1) log g yt Bs bss oie o cle ee Geman e olg-e aseuentiectes sa ere an where a = — (logs + logh);y = —2 logh; and = — (e — 1) lovy. The expression (a) ‘covers both Gompertz’s formula and Makeham’s first modification. In the former case s = kh = 1, hence a= y= 0, and hence colog p, = fic’. In the latter h =1, hence y = 0, and colog p, = a + fc”. : Expression (@) indicates that colog p, may be represented by a geometrical progression plns a linear function, whilst by Gompertz’s original formula it would be represented by a geometrical progression alone, and by Makeham’s first modification by a geometrical progres- sion plus a constant. 7. APPLICATION TO INFANTILE MorvraLiry ExPERIENCE. For the purpose of testing the applicability of a formula of the Makeham-Gompertz type to the infantile mortality experience of the Commonwealth for 1901-10 the values of colog p* have been obtained for each sex, and are as follows :— Liable V. ‘4 Colog pa, Commonwealth 1901-10. Age if Males. | Females. 0 “01841 | -03600 i *00780 ‘00728 2 00292" | — -00274 3 “00192 -00179 + ‘OOL35 | ‘00138 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 531 ‘Taking the male experience for the purpose of illustration, we have the rgea procedure for determining the values of a, y, /3. and ¢:— - Table VI. Le Colog ny, 0 ae Sperm he (O)y + pe° = *04341 ] aise eee A © a. Be = -00780 2 a soe at2y + pei= *00292 3 are Sa ay + ber = *00192 4 aes .. at4y + Pet=-00135 Differencing these values successively we have— Table VII y + P(e—l) = —-08561 y + Be(e—1) = —-+00488 y + Pe(e—1) = — ents y + pe(e—1) = —-00057 Differencing again we obtain— Table VIII. p(e—1j)? = +03078 Bc(e—1)2 = +00388 Be%(e—1)2 = + 00048 These latter results give as the most probable value of e— "00388 + 00043 _ -00431 jy y5g 03073 + +00388 °03461 Similarly, for the most probable value of )3 we lhave— 03073 + -00888° “iE Aa te Fc 03504 -04010. (ce? — 1)(e — 1) “99807 x °87547 — _ ‘To determine the most probable values of a and y, the most satisfactory course is to compute the values of fec®, Be, Bc®, Bc*, and Be* from the values of 6 and ¢ now obtained, and to substract these values from the suecessive items in Table VI. This operation gives— Table IX. #. : ty. tty. O ...a+ (O)y = 04841 — -04010 = *00331 — l..a+ty = °00780 — -00499 = :00281 -00281 2 ...a+4+ 2y = -00292 — -00062 = -00230 -00460 3 ....0a + 38y = *00192 — -00008 = -00184 -00552 4 ...a + 4y = +00135 — -00001 = -00134 *00586 *01160 ‘01829 532 : PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. For determining the most probable values of a and y from these five equations the method of least squares gives— da + 10y = Xt, and 10a + 50y = Sat, ; or y = po{ Dat, — 23¢,}, and a= 4${33t,—2Zwt,}. Since Xt, = * 01160 and Zet, = +01829 these results give— y = — + 00049 ands > a= -* 00880. Hence, combining the results we have— Table X. Colog pa. x | a te Deviatio bende: | Selinatec nccorctinig 0 04341 - 04340 | — +0000! l -00780 - 00780 a 7 00292 * 00294 * 00002 3 00192 "OUL9L — ‘:00001 4 “001385 -OU1385 The closeness of the adjusted to the crude results indicates that the Makeham-Gompertz f rmula adopted represents well the progression of mortality during the early years. 8. VALUES OF CONSTANTS INVOLVED IN EXPRESSION FOR /,, The values of a, 6 and y in terms of s, A, g, and e, given in Section 6, enable the values of s, h, and g to be readily computed, Thus log h = — Y = -+000245, s and h = 1°00056. and s = ‘99187. and paar 22 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. Also, if 7, be taken equal to 100,000, we have— kg = 100-000, Consequently log & = 4°95420, and ee vee.go tl. Using these values to compute adjusted values of Jy and comparing with the figures in Table IV., the following results are obtained :— Table XI. L. Commonwealth Males 1901-10. mere TT CAS Re ar oe ; Deviation. ; rude, be eee soma ae ouard | 0 100,000 100,000 0 1 90,488 90,490 2 2 88,876 | 88,879 3 3 88,281 88,280 | sey 4 87,893 | 87,892 | a 5 87,620 87,619 as In this case again the agreement of the adjusted with the crude results is very satisfactory. 9. ComeuTaTION or Force or Morrauity at Earty Aazs. An important use to which the constants just determined may be put is that of obtaining the force of mortality at the early ages. By the force of mortality at any age is meant the annual rate at which mortality is operating at the exact moment of age specified. It is, in other words, an instantaneous rate for the specified age expressed in terms of its annual equivalent. If J, denotes the number of persons living at the exact age x, then —d/,may be taken as representing the infinitesimal number who die in the moment succeeding age a2, while — dl,/J, will represent the corresponding ~ momently rate of mortality and — dl, /l,dx the equivalent annual rate. It is this latter expression which is known as the force of mortality, and is usually represented by the symbol pz. 534 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. Ms : d We thus have pw, = — dl, /1,dxe = — ms log. tx de =— a f log, k + w log, s + 2 log, h + e" log, g dx \ c pe fe 7s — logs — 22 log, hy we los. clot, :.-aunceees (db) See ee aincé J, = “ks*h™ 9° - Expression (6) may be put in the form A+ Cx + Be*, 1 where A = — log, s= ui _ BY}: Ce Oo ae ia = and B = — log, ¢c lox, g = Pet and where M denotes the modulus the common logarithms (= °48429), and a, 6, y have the significance previously assigned to them. The numerical values for the experience under review, viz., Commonwealth males aged 0-4, for the deeennium 1901-10, are as follows :— A = .00816 C= —.001138 B= Making use of these values in the formula uy, = A + Cr + ber, the force of mortality at ages 0 to 4 is found to be as follows :— Table XII. ¥orce of Mortality, Age. — | Commonwealth Males, 1901-10. Ay ¢) -22787 l *03439 2 - 0093 1 3 | -00519 a - 00369 9, COMPARISON OF MaLt AND FEMALE EXPERIENCE. The data of the Commonwealth female experience for ages 0 to 4 for the decennium 1901-10 have been given in Tables I. to V., above. a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 535 Tt will be unnecessary to set out in detail the computation of the con- stants for this experience, but the results obtained may conveniently be given for comparison with the corresponding male figures. In the following table is given a comparison of the values of the various constants :— Table XILI. 1 | Constant. Males. | | ‘ oe, “ *00330 .00264 | ak y = 00049 — 00032 A B -04010 03337 € * 12453 / * 14872 Abe ad 00816 “00645 C — -60113 _ — 00074 B *21971 ! wane k 89,991 | 91,369 8 *99187 *99357 h 1 -00056 1 00037 y 1+11122 109446 It maybe noted that since A = — log, s = — log, {1 —(1—s)} and (1 — sg) isa small fraction A = 1 — s approximately. Similarly, since C = — 2 log, h = — 2 log, {1 + (hk — 1)} and (hk — 1) is a small fraction, C = — 2(h — 1) approximately. In the case of infant life, since the mortality rates diminish rapidly with increasing age, ¢ is always less than unity, and g is always greater than unity. On the other hand, with adult experiences to which the Makeham-Gompertz formulas are applicable, ¢ is always greater than unity, while g is always less than unity. From the values of the constants given in ‘able XIII. the values of the various mortality functions for months or other fractional periods of age up to age 5 may readily be computed. The presenta-_ tion of such results would, however, be beyond the scope of the present paper. - 536 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. The following table furnishes a comparison of the force of mortality for males and females for ages 0 to 4 inclusive :-— Table XIV. | Force of Mortality ( #,) Commonwealth 1901-10. Age | Males. | Females, ep Be 0 | 22787 | “17844 1 *03439 *03129 2 *00931 | *00877 3 *00519 | *00480 4 - 00369 | *00357 10. ConcLUSION. The main object of the present paper has been that of exhibiting a scheme for the analysis of rates of infantile mort«lity and incidentally of furnishing on the proposed ba-is an analysis of the C mmonwealth infantile mortality experience for the decennium 1901-1910. While the more extensive analysis contained in the sixth and subsequent sections may in some instances be considered too abstract for general statistical purposes, it is hoped that a consideration of the question by those responsible for the preparation of statistics of infantile mortality may lead in all eases to the adoption of the form of presentation set out in Table [V. The work involved in the preparation of such a return is not heavy, and the information so presented is of the utmost value in any study of the question. Where practicable the further analysis of the results outlined in the later sections may with advantage be undertaken, and further examination of the question of force of mortality especially at the moment of birth is desirable. While the ideas which have been used in the foregoing investigation have been to a large extent drawn from the writings of Gompertz, Makeham, Professor Pell and other actuarial writers, it is believed that the combination of these ideas in the scheme oun above, as well as certain of the incidental steps, are new. 7. NATIONAL OLD-AGE PENSIONS. By Chas. H. Wickens, A.I.A. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 537 8. LABOUR STATISTICS. By Gerald Lightfoot, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, of the Common- wealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. 1. InTRODUCTION. Some explanation is due to members of the Association for the somewhat unusual nature of this paper, for it has none of the paraphernalia of statistical tables or analyses, and it does not con- tribute directly to statistical or sociological knowledge. It is a paper written rather from an objective than a subjective point of view, its aim being to draw attention to the need which has hitherto existed for an extension of certain official statistics in Australia, and to explain the work now being carried out by the Labour and Industrial Branch of the Commonwealth Statistical Bureau. The preliminary work of organizing that branch has re- cently been completed by Mr. Knibbs, the Commonwealth Statis- tician, and it is through the courtesy of that gentleman that I am able to furnish the information given in this paper. After deal- ing with certain general considerations, I propose to point out several respects in which our Australian statistics have in the past been deficient; then to dwell briefly on the importance from the stand-point of problems of national urgency of these defects being remedied, to explain shortly the nature and scope of the standard investigations which the new branch is designed to carry out, and to indicate the directions which further developments may reason- ably be expected to take. Students of political and economic questions, the cost of living, and wage theories, as well as those who are engaged in the prac- tical application of Arbitration Court and Wages Board Acts have for long been hampered in their work by a lack of reliable infor- mation as to many vital questions which have grown out of the progress of economic and industrial organization. In the past our statistical officers have devoted their attention mainly to certain lines of investigation, such as the movements of population, vital statistics, transport and communication, finance, and the quantity and value of production, but have not to any considerable extent gone into the question as to how the value of that production is distributed, or as to how the economic and social conditions of the masses of the community have been affected by the growth which is evidenced on all hands. The social life of working men, the conditions of working men’s families, the distribution of wages, co-operation, and profit-sharing, prices, and cost and conditions of living, the effect of operations under the various Arbitration Court and Wages Board Acts, industrial accidents, changes in rates of wages and hours of labour, employment and unemploy- ment, the relation between nominal wages and effective earnings, 538 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. the ratio of profits and capital to wages and earnings, strikes and locks-out—these and several other matters have largely been neglected. The need for statistics of the nature indicated, especi- ally in a country like Australia, which has advanced probably more rapidly in regard to certain forms of social and industrial legis- lation than any other community, has been felt to an increasing degree in recent years, and a point has now been reached when it has been considered necessary to investigate the various subjects on a comprehensive basis. In view of the importance and wide range of the subjects to be dealt with it is thought that these in- vestigations can be carried out most efficiently by the organization of special machinery by the Commonwealth Government. The present would accordingly appear to be an opportune time to re- view briefly this division of the work of the Commonwealth Bureau, and to outline in general terms the character of the work which the branch is designed to carry out. 2. Score oF Work. Briefly, the main purpose of the new department of work is to cover for the Commonwealth of Australia the various subjects usually included in the term ‘‘ Labour Statistics.’? This term is to be understood in a broad sense as including information in a literary as well as a numerical form. Needless to add, it is not to be assumed that the information to be thus supplied is of interest to labour alone. Nearly all of it concerns employers no less than employés, and a considerable portion of it will be of vital concern to practically every section of the community. Perhaps the clearest method of illustrating a many-sided subject of this nature is by means of a diagram. The accompanying figure represents an attempt to map out in a logical way the main features of the work which the branch will cover. The diagram merely shows the main subject-matters of inquiry, and does not, of course, explain from what points of view or in what manner these subjects are to be investigated. Nevertheless, the diagram may be regarded as fairly illustrative of the work of the branch as a whole, inas- much as the literary features and special articles which are to appear in the quarterly Labour Bulletins and special reports will lend themselves to similar classification. A brief explanation of the field illustrated by the diagram and of the methods to be fol- lowed in covering it may now be given. The general field of statistics, as mapped out by the branch, may be divided in the first instance into two parts, namely— 1. Statistics relating to the amount of employment. 2. Statistics relating to the nature and conditions of employment. OR Tana ee i, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 539 This is on the principle that the first concern of one having to earn his living is usually the securing of employment, while his second concern is with the nature of the employment which he has chosen or secured, and the various conditions arising out of that employment and its accompanying circumstances. 1. The first of these main branches, viz., amount of employ- ment, must take cognizance of two main factors, namely, (i) the demand for labour, and (ii) the supply of labour. To deal with these in a statistical and descriptive way is one of the main pur- poses of the new branch. (i) Statistically considered the demand for labour may be illus- trated under four main headings, namely— : (a) Statistics of production, including agricultural, pas- toral, horticultural, mining, manufacturing, build- ing, transport, and other industries. () Statistics of numbers employed in these various branches of industries. (c) Statistics of trade. (d) Statistics of operations of employment bureaux. (ii) The supply of labour is also illustrated by the above as well as by— (e) Statistics of immigration. (f) Statistics of unemployment. 2. Turning now to the second main branch, namely, statistics - relating to the nature and conditions of employment, a wide field is opened. This branch may be divided into five main subdivi- sions— (a) Statistics of industrial disputes, showing the result of operations of the different Commonwealth and State Acts in regard to the prevention and settlement of disputes. (6) Industrial accidents showing the relatively hazardous nature of different occupations. (ce) Statistics of labour organizations and employers’ asso- ciations, designed to show the extent to which dif- ferent branches of industry are organized in different localities. (d) Statistics of wages and hours of labour. (e) Statistics of prices and cost of living. In regard to the first main branch (amount of employment), most of the headings included under demand for, and supply of, labour are already dealt with by the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. In this connexion, perhaps, the most im- portant direction in which the work of the bureau is to be extended is in regard to the question of unemployment. 540 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 3. EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT. The collection of accurate information as to unemployment is, of course, essential to any proper investigation into what is pro- bably one of the greatest of social evils, and is a necessary pre- liminary to the organization of any adequate remedial measures. Statistics of unemployment are also of great value in any examina- tion into the relation between nominal and effective wages. At the Commonwealth census taken in April, 1911, every per- son out of work was required to state the period for which he had been unemployed. The results thus obtained are now being sup- plemented and elucidated by returns collected quarterly from the secretaries of trade unions. In these returns the secretaries are re- quired to state the number of members on a specified date, and the number who were unemployed for more than three days dur- ing the week ending on the date specified, the number out of work through (@) lack of work or material, (b) sickness or accident, and (ec) other causes being stated separately. It is true that the information thus obtained does not by any means throw light on the whole question of unemployment. In the first place it refers only to four specified weeks in the year, and, secondly, it does not take into acconnt unemployment lasting for less than three days during any of these weeks. The inquiry has, however, advisedly been made in this form in view of the difficulty in obtaining accurate returns of any other description from the majority of the trade unions. Very few of the unions in Australia pay unemployed benefit or keep unemployment registers. The majority of the unions allow, however, for a remission of the weekly subscription in cases where a member has been out of work for more than three days, and it is mainly for that reason that the questions have been drafted in their present form. It should be pointed out, moreover, that these returns are not collected from unions in which the members are permanently employed, such as locomotive engine-drivers and other Government servants, nor on the other hand, from unions in which employment is mainly of a casual nature, such as wharf labourers. It is in- tended to institute periodic inquiries on special lines so as to afford some indication of the activity of these industries for which ordi- nary statistics of numbers unemployed cannot be obtained. As regards those occupations for which unemployment figures are available, a large amount of information has already been cel- lected from the union secretaries, and is now being analyzed and tabulated. Returns have been collected showing the number of members and the number unemployed at the end of each year as 1. Since this paper was written two Special Reports and two quarterly Labour Bulletins have been issued. (30.viii.13.) > PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 541 far back as 1891, and the first quarterly periodic form has also ‘been issued. It is gratifying to notice that on the whole a most satis- factory response has been made to the inquiries by the union sec- retaries, although a number are unable at present to furnish any returns as to unemployment. The only hope of obtaining substantially complete returns is in persistent effort, and the education of the union officers in the desirability of co-operating in the movement. Owing to the fact that the local unions frequently change their secretaries, the diff- culty of the task is increased. Coming now to the main other branch (conditions of employ- ment), I would like to say a few words, firstly, in regard to the question of wages and hours of labour, secondly, in regard to strikes and locks-outs, thirdly, labour organizations, and lastly, prices and cost of living. 4. Rates or Waces anp Hours or Lasour. At the present time anything like complete or accurate infor- mation as to the effect of operations under the various Arbitration and Wages Boards Acts in Australia does not exist in Australia, with the result that many reforms and measures are now directed more or less in the dark, and hence it is impossible to accurately gauge what their ultimate effect will be, either on the persons in- tended to be directly benefited, or on the community at large. Whether any action or measure is likely to be practicable, or per- manently successful in attaining the desired ends, depends upon whether it is, or is not, adapted to the circumstances of the case, and these can only be known by careful collection and analysis of the facts. Although the progress of a community may be more or less efficiently guided by mere general impressions, or by instinct, and may be rapidly advanced by a bounteous nature, yet ulti- mately that nation will achieve the greatest measure of success, and will attain the greatest degree of happiness and prosperity, whose investigators discover the largest body of scientific truth, and whose practical men are the most prompt in its industrial application. In addition to the publication of actual rates of wages, the branch will carry out from year to year a comprehensive investiga- tion into the course of wages throughout the Commonwealth. Not only will a record be kept of all changes in rates of wages and hours of labour, and the number of workers effected thereby, but the matter will be treated in a thoroughly representative manner by the employment of the method of index-numbers, which will be computed for different groups of industries, as well as for dif- ferent localities. In order to ensure accuracy in the results the rates of wages will be weighted according to the number of persons engaged in the various industries and occupations. 542 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. By way of preliminary to the publication of actual current rates, as well as to the computation of index-numbers of wages, an inquiry has already been made, going back to 1891, and returns have now been received from every unicn in the Commonwealth. This will place the Bureau’s whole treatment of the matter on a systematized and final basis, and the mdex-numbers of wages which are being computed from the data thus obtained should prove of special interest in comparison with the prices and cost of living index-numbers which have already been published. It is hoped to throw considerable light an the question of the distribution of wages, and the relation between nominal wages and actual earnings in so far as manufacturing industries are con-. cerned, by means of inquiries which have recently been made from all factories in the Commonwealth. Each employer has been re- quired to state for a specified week the number of workers em- ployed at each rate of wage. This will not only enable a valuable analysis to be made of the distribution of wages, but will also furnish part of the data necessary for the computation of average earnings and average duration of employment. The rest of the data, namely, the total amount paid in wages, and the average and maximum number employed during the year will be obtained from the ordinary annual returns furnished by employers. 5. STRIKES AND Lock-ouTs. Arrangements have been made to collect particulars in regard to labour disputes causing stoppage of work throughout the Com- monwealth. Disputes involving less than ten workpeople, or last- ing less than one day will not, however, be taken into account in compiling the returns, unless their aggregate duration exceeds 100 mere working days. As in the case of changes in rates of wages and hours of labour, so in industrial disputes the information is being collected from trade unions, employers’ associations, and employers. The infor- mation asked for will enable tables to be compiled showing the causes or objects of disputes, their duration, the number of people affected directly and indirectly, their results, methods of settle- ment, the estimated loss in wages to workpeople affected, and, in case of the result involving a change in rates of wages or hours of labour, the number of persons affected, and the amount of the change. The results collected will be first carefully compared and checkéd, and then summarized for tabulation purposes. For its primary information as to the occurence of an industrial dispute the Bureau is dependent upon reports from agents, of whom fourteen have up to the present been appointed in the more important towns, and upon newspapers, trade journals, and labour i i ee li i tie PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 543 publications, a number of which are examined from day to day. Circular letters and blank forms are then sent to responsible re- presentatives of both parties to the dispute. If there are discre- pancies in the information given by these representatives, further investigation is made, generally by the agents. After considering all the evidence to be gained on either side, a summary is made of what the facts seem to be. It may occur, therefore, that parti- cipants or others, supposing themselves to be cognisant of the facts relating to a certain strike, will find the details as exhibited in the publications somewhat different from their own opinions. In explanation it may be stated that the conflicting statements are weighed, and each detail is determined as judicially as pos- sible, making the report not to agree with the testimony of a single individual, but to be in harmony with the concurrent evidence of the majority, or with what seems to be the most reliable evidence. 6. LaBour ORGANIZATIONS. In no other country, perhaps, are statistics of the trade union movement of greater importance than in Australia, where the prin- ciple of granting preference of unionists has been adopted, and where the movement is of such far-reaching political significance. In spite of these facts, such statistics are in this country very incom- plete and unsatisfactory. In fact, in most of the States no reliable or comprehensive information whatever is available. In New South Wales and Western Australia the statutes governing indus- trial conciliation and arbitration have provided a fairly effective method-for the collection of such statistics. In these States the registration of unions, while not compulsory, is encouraged by being made a condition of valuable privileges. Similar provisions exist under the Federal Arbitration Act, but they do not seem to have been enforced in so far as the regular collection of statistics is concerned. The Commonwealth Bureau has now undertaken the collection of statistics of labour organizations on a comprehensive basis. Be- ginning with the current year, in addition to the quarterly returns of membership, annual statements showing receipts and expendi- ture, assets and liabilities, are being collected. In order to show, so far as possible, the history of the movement, particulars have been collected from every known union in the Commonwealth, showing, so far as available, particulars of membership since the year 1891. _ Special returns have also been collected from each union giving information as to its scheme and type of organization, and copies of rules have been furnished to the Bureau. This information affords the data for a complete analysis and classification of the 544 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. variations in the type of organizations, which range from the highly-developed bodies having a scheme of federal organization, to the small independent local union. As regards the publication of particulars of membership and finance, it should be observed that, with a view to obviating. the disclosure of information as to individual unions, a general in- dustry classification scheme has been adopted. This will be used for the tabulation not only of particulars of trade unions, but also of information relating to changes in rates of wages, strikes and lock-outs, industrial accidents, immigration, and other matters. Though at the outset the work was to a slight extent impeded by the suspicions and apprehensions of officials of a few labour orga- nizations, it has now been made clear that the inventigations have no connexion with any political designs, and are being made purely for general statistical purposes. Hence it is gratifying to note that the response of trade union officials in filling up the returns is now satisfactory. 7. Prices anp Cost or Livine. The question of prices, price indexes, and cost of living has been dealt with in the first report issued by the new branch, and - I do not, therefore, propose to refer to the matter in any detail. The whole question of prices is being investigated from a three- fold point of view, viz., (i) Import and export values, (ii) Whole- sale, and (iii) Retail prices. In order to furnish an adequate basis for an examination of various phases of the question, it has been thought necessary to treat the subject from each of these different points of view. For example, for the purpose of investi- gating any relation between prices and factors affecting world’s prices generally, import and export values, which relate to com- modities for which there is a world-wide market, are to be pre- ferred; wholesale prices reflect the commercial life of the commu- nity; while, as an indication of the cost of living, retail prices, which represent the actual cost to the consumer, are the most appropriate. Retail prices have the advantage that a comparatively small list of commodities, say, forty or fifty, suffices to represent a large proportion of the average expenditure They are, however, sub- ject to the difficulty that their variations depend largely upon local conditions, and it is, therefore, ordinarily necessary to collect the data over a wide area. Wholesale prices, on the other hand, are fixed usually at one or two centres, but in investigating the question from the whole- sale point of view, a much larger list of commodities must be PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 545 covered than in the case of retail. It has been found that whole- sale and retail prices differ materially in the extent to which they are affected by various influences. Generally speaking, the fluctua- tions in wholesale prices are more frequent and violent than in detail. The branch has already completed its investigations into the question of prices in past years, the results having been published in a special report. In the collection of the data, and compilation of the results great care was exercised, and a rigorous system of technique adopted. The course of wholesale prices in Melbourne has been investigated since 1871 for 80 commodities; retail prices in each capital town since 1901 for 46 items and house rent; and import and export prices since 1901 for 44 commodities. In addi- tion, current retail prices, beginning in 1912, are being investi- gated for 30 of the more important towns in the Commonwealth. It is intended to maintain the wholesale and retail price re- cords from month to month into the future as a barometer of ten- dencies in the cost of living, and of current commercial activity, and to publish the results promptly in a quarterly Labour Bulletin, with a more detailed review at the end of each year. Import and export prices will also be investigated annually. The question of cost of living is not, however, to be confined merely to investigations concerning prices and house rents. Cost of living is affected by two things, viz., (i) Variations in the ex- change value of gold, and (ii) Variation in standards and condi- tions of living. The former class wf variations can be measured by investigations as to prices; the latter must form the subject of separate investigations. Standards and conditions of living vary from State to State and from town to town, as well as from class to class, and, of course, finally individually. Especially is this true in a vast country like Australia, when conditions existing in the north of Queensland reproduce those of tropical climates, while conditions in Melbourne resemble more closely those of Eng- land. A careful study of variations and changes in conditions and standards of living in different districts is therefore necessary be- fore a thorough and complete investigation into the question of cost of living can be made. These inquiries as to standard of living it is hoped to undertake at an early date by means of householders’ budgets. Space will not permit of any further reference to the remain- ing branches of inquiry to be dealt with by the new branch; it must suffice to say that periodic records are now being collected (as from the beginning of the present year) in regard to practically all the matters enumerated and referred to in the diagram. With these arrangements completed, and the several records mentioned in operation, the branch may, it is believed, lay claim to be per- forming a necessary and important work in the field of Australian statistics. 6117. s wa PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 546 8INGY Fsnon INV VI¥Lay BNOMLVIDOSSY SUaAoTdNg TIVSITIOHM aed saoiud LHuo0dxa GNY LuOdWy ONILHOIT NOILVGOMMO0OF ONIAIT JO SdUVANYLS anv land ONISNOH fae) ee | ONIHLO ets) aia saovMm dO SUNOH ANY SAOVM SUNOH GNV SDNINUVS FOVIAAY por ngmasia NU SSONVHO SaLv¥ auvaNvis tNAMAOIdWaNN or eLrlarodie SNONMYSINYOYO — onary 40 soo unodvT S@LNdSIO TWINLSNGNI “aNnOsVT JO SHNOH anv saovm LNIWAOTINE AO SNOILIGNOOD SLN3GIOOV S$a1La190S ‘TYINLSOONT TAILVYAdO OO xoavaune INANAOISNS HNOAVT JO ATTAINS NOLLVSOINMI LHOdSNVUL aqvu. NOMLandoud fee Unoavt you GNVMAG Hane ‘SOILSILVIS AAOAVT INANAOTANG JO LNOONV PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION G. 547 8. ConcLUSION. It should be remembered that statistical bureaux do not pro- pose to solve social-or economic problems, nor can they bring direct returns in a material way to the citizens of a country. Their work must: be classed among educational efforts, and by careful investi- gation, and the maintenance of a strictly judicial attitude, they may, and should, enable the people to more clearly and more fully comprehend many of the complex problems that are daily becom- ing more pressing. One direction in which the work of the new branch should directly result in substantial saving is that it should obviate the necessity for the investigation by Royal Commissions of various questions, such, for example, as questions concerning prices, cost of living, wages, &c. It need hardly be said that the work of a statistical office is not in any way concerned with the advocacy of, or opposition to- wards, questions touching the conditions of the workers. Its busi- ness is to collect information bearing forcibly and emphatically upon the conditions of labour, and tending to enlighten the public in regard to these conditions. This consideration leads to the in- ference that the best interests of statistical bureaux, and of the industrial forces of a country, demand that statistical investiga- tions, such as are within the province of the labour and industrial branch, must be controlled by one mind, free from the exigencies of party politics, and must not be complicated by the tide of party majorities. 9. THE DEVELOPMENT OF IMPERIAL RELATIONS. By F. W. Eggleston. 10. THE WASTEFULNESS OF ARMAMENTS. By W. Stebenhaar. ENGINEERING AND ARCHITEOTURE, ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT : W. L. VERNON, F.R.B.I.A. A REVIEW OF THE EXISTING CONDITIONS OF THE TWIN PROFESSIONS IN AUSTRALASIA. In addressing my brother practitioners in the twin professions of civil engineering and architecture, necessarily including those of the land and building surveyor, I purpose to generalize briefly, more upon matters of every day interest and every day practice than upon the technicalities of the professions. These latter may well be lefé in the able hands of those good enough to prepare special papers, and to the opportunities that will present them- selves in the discussion upon the interesting subjects thus to be dealt with. Tue Joint PRACTICE oF THE PROFESSIONS. The very fact that this association brackets our professions in its programme, is indicative of the importance of utilising conjoint skill and experience in the designing of the more important con- structional work, and of emphasising the obvious necessity of call- ing in the engineer to take up that part which, from his special training he is best fitted to undertake, and, on the other hand, the architect, for those parts which, from his artistic training, he is enabled to clothe with all the graces of architecture. The age of specialism has set in, and it must be recognised by our professions, as well as it is in those of law, medicine, and other kindred ones. The erection of lofty city buildings, involving concrete and steel construction, required to minimize undue encroachment by walls on limited site areas, to provide a scientifically designed foundation for carrying great superincumbent weight, to provide “against lateral and other stresses and strains, as well as to provide the mechanical means of communication from floor to floor, clearly bring the modern construction engineer into full play; and, on the other hand, the planning of the accommodation in the build- ing, the arrangement of its lighting and conveniences, and its architectural treatment, both externally and internally, must of necessity remain with the architect, if the buildings are to take permanent rank in our cities for both utility and appearance combined, and as a justification on all grounds for the money expended thereon. on ~ aboard of experts submitted to the Government of New South PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 549 But the joint efforts of the engineer and the architect should by no means be confined to the erection of ordinary city commer- cial buildings. Let me give you an illustration that shows, in contrast, the advantages and disadvantages of joint consideration of a design and its opposite. In 1903 a specially appointed Wales a design for a bridge spanning the harbor and con- necting North Sydney with the city of Sydney, together with a tender from a responsible firm of contractors for its .con- struction. This design was based upon a previous one that went no further than solving an engineering problem dealing with stresses and strains, piers and foundations, wind pres- sure, and traffic requirements, and, excepting that its main lines (of composite suspension and cantilever construction) were unavoid- ably in themselves graceful, was unsuitable and quite misplaced in the position it was intended to occupy—that is as a connecting link between two cities of no mean architectural ambition, and between two shores of considerable natural beauty. The architec- tural element on the board, however, made representations (which were taken in good part by the designers) and the piers and bridge portals were re-designed on an architectural basis; the deck vista, fcrmerly a maze of girders and rods, was reduced into a handsome arched arcade; and generally the remodelled design, without losing any of its engineering quality, became a most practical and satisfactory combination of the sisters ‘‘ science’’ and “‘art.’’ The scheme was not put into execution, for reasons altogether apart from its design; and in the meantime the demands for relief to the cross traffic had become so acute that the present Govern- ment has revived the bridge scheme, with the difference that the site and route are somewhat altered, thus involving a new design. This latter is now before the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Public Works, and, to my great disappointment, and to th» of all who can become acquainted with it and appreciate the situation, the design is purely and exclusively the engineer’s work, with its huge and most unsightly cantilever and overhead girder construction. The graceful lines of the suspension cables and towers are omitted, and no doubt whilst capable of meeting require- ments, it would be suitable, so far as the non-necessity of appear- ance is concerned, for spanning some great ravine, if such existed, on the Port Augusta-Kalgoorlie railway, and quite, in my opinion, unsuitable for Sydney. The absence of the architect is the cause. On the other hand, what could be happier than the results of the cembined efforts of the engineer and the architect in the Tower Bridge, London. One of the leading events of the past year in this respect has been the keen controversy proceeding in London on the designing of the proposed thoroughfare from Southwark across the Thames 550 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. to the heart of the city, vid St. Paul’s. The engineers planned it on a purely utilitarian basis. The architects criticised this, and claimed that the direction of the bridge was unsightly and crooked, and that the opportunity thus afforded of bringing into full view the architectural beauties of St. Saviour’s at one terminal, and of St. Paul’s at the other, should on no account be lost. The architects were imbued with the spirit initiated at the Town Plan- ning Conference held by the Royal Institute of British Architects. The engineers, however, turned a deaf ear, and adopted a non possumus, and a great opportunity is regretfully lost. A very serious state of affairs has arisen in connexion with the cathedral building of St. Paul’s. Some of its main supporting walls on the southern side have subsided to the extent of from 4 to 6 inches, endangering important parts of the superstructure, and apparently rendering extensive and expensive work of partial reconstruction inevitable. To what extent adjacent underground engineering works have affected, or projected ones will affect the stability of the structure, if at all, has not, I believe, been fully determined; but it is a case in which it is imperative that the engineer and the architect should be absolutely in accord. The engineer of the Cataract and Burrenjuck dams was more discerning, and the visitors in viewing these splendid engineering works can detect the lighter touches of the architect in the crestings and superstructures. As I emphasized at the outset, this is an age of specialization, though the artistic and the practical, as represented by architec- ture and engineering, may be successfully harmonized in the com- pleted work, the functions of the professions must never be con- fused. If there are opportunities for collaboration in design, there are professional limits in the sphere of specialization. The archi- tect must not misinterpret these, and invade the domain of the engineer, nor the latter that of the architect, unless the prac- titioner is duly qualified in both professions. A somewhat caustic article appeared recently in one of Sydney’s technical journals. It charged the architects (with few exceptions) or usurping the role of the electrical engineer in the matter of the installation of electric lighting and power, chiefly in domestic buildings. The article frankly contended that they were actuated by their clients’ interests in so doing, but they were accepting a responsibility which placed them in a false position. It supplies an instance where the rules relating to specialization must be observed, and the functions of the professions not confounded. THE YEAR’sS RECORD. The year has been, I believe, in all the States a busy one, and enduring works of a decidedly good character are accomplished facts. We certainly miss the wealthy British corporations that PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 551 confidently and untrammelled by Government control, put their roillions into any railway, dock, harbor, water supply scheme, or other enterprise, where a good return can be expected. We miss. the Yankee multi-millionaire who gives carte blanche to his archi- tect, and instructs him to go one better than his neighbour and rival; we miss here the owners of the palatial country homes of Iingland, where the architectural work must be of the best and in the most perfect taste, and only designed by a master of style; and we miss the opportunities for erecting great ecclesiastical projects, although, to a most praiseworthy extent, Australian evterprise and devotion in this respect are not lacking. Yet with these drawbacks, so far as the architect is concerned, the natural resources of Australasia are so rich that the mining engineer has his opportunities, and has accomplished the great works of Mt. Morgan, Newcastle, Lithgow, Broken Hill, Bendigo, Wallaroo, Kalgoorlie, Mt. Lyell, and Waihi, and many others, and which in their successful design and working are adding s0 much to the wealth of the people. Then, again, the increasing needs of a well-to-do and enterpris- ing community are giving increasing opportunities to the engineer in railway development, traction and driving plants, and the ap- plication of electric energy in the enormously widening fields open- ing up for their application in a thousand directions. Our professions have joint interests in another direction. Engi- neers, civil, mechanical, and electrical, have all their local insti- tutes. The architects have theirs, all closely associated with the parent one in Great Britain—the parent to lead in the higher development of engineering and architectural design, the local ones to assimilate practice throughout the States, and to carry on, as the smaller opportunities present themselves, the ideals and teachings of the parent institutes. We must not fail to recognise that Australia is as yet a young country. We have not yet evolved a national type of architecture ; we have no racial distinction; nor have our national habits been formed. As yet we are but ascending the scale to maturity, and with greater development and increased population will no doubt come the inspiration for greater projects. In the general sense, the political control of Australia is by no means an open encourage- ment to private enterprise, and, therefore, to private practice, even if it is not a direct discouragement. The practice of the various Governments in monopolizing great works that are handled by private means in other countries restricts to an appreciable extent the field of architectural and engineering possibilities. - 552 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. INSTITUTE oF LocaL GOVERNMENT ENGINEERS OF AUSTRALIA. The development of local government in some of the larger States has encouraged the professional men engaged under its administration to also associate themselves, and to take up a posi- tion that has to be recognised both by the Commonwealth and the State Governments. The recent conference held in Melbourne oi representatives of this, the last-formed association, has been of signal advantage to all concerned, has given an impetus to the fruition of the ideals of the specialist, and has enabled the handling of pressing social and communal needs in such concrete shape as will both benefit the community and build up the status of the shire engineer. One eminently patriotic and practical step was well taken up. I refer to the assistance rendered the military authorities in the preparation of military maps of the more important districts affected by the strategical defence of this country. From my own experience I knew how utterly inadequate the topographical branch of the defence services had proved, and that unless the local government engineers had not voluntarily from time to time turned to, and with their technical and prac- tical field knowledge transformed the ordinary parish and land _ office maps into contoured ones, omitting all useless information and giving all as to physical features and other requisites of purely railitary maps, the field work of many of the regiments and brigades would be only so much waste time, and the authorities would not have possessed, as they do now, a series of maps that inay some day, for aught we know, be of the greatest value. We have here, 1 think, a good opportunity of developing along right lines. The general engagement by local government bedies of qualified engineers in particular is the surest means of providing that such opportunities shall not be lost. It is satis- factory, at any rate, that the legislation of the various States is being shaped to compel such engagements; and besides this, I am tuld there is a reciprocal inclination on the part of the shires to fall in with these intentions, and to engage qualified service. Our institutes should do everything in their power to encourage the good work. The field for the operations of the local govern- ment engineer is ever enlarging and becoming more and closely associated with the well-being of the community. MuniciepaAL GOVERNMENT. Closely allied to all this is the municipal government of our cities and towns with the problem of water supply, in a country not too well endowed in this respect, also sanitation, lighting, tewn planning, public recreation, control of building construction, and the yet undetermined control in matters of appearance and. design. cee ee “ae PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 558 An unique opportunity presents itself in the projected capital city at Canberra of dealing with all these and kindred matters ev an absolutely clean slate, no other similar circumstance (bear- ing in view the application of modern knowledge in matters of science and art) has in any country in the world presented itself. It will be deeply interesting to stand by and watch its develop- ment, and observe what effective and broad-minded steps are taken, avoiding the Charybdys of Politicalism on the one side, and the Scylla of Socialism on the other, to evolve the modern city renowned alike for the application of the highest skill, the most refined taste, and the most common of common sense. The Australian State capitals are, in their municipal Acts, regulations, and by-laws, with some exceptions, fairly well up to date. These are so framed as to permit of engineers and archi- tects adopting modern methods of construction, though in no case is legal power given to approve or reject on matters of purely architectural design. No doubt, decisions on questions of taste are decisions on an unknown quantity; but the establishment of Boards consisting of professional men who have made their mark, and are deputed to act in such matters, would be in the interests of the community. Paris has long adopted this special control, with evident success, and Australian cities would have been saved the disfigurement of some architectural abortions, if designing along the lines of the canons of art could be insisted upon. It is a somewhat curious reflection that the oldest and most pepulous city of Australia is the most antiquated in its Municipal Buildmg Act; and urgent reforms are hung up from year to year owing to accidental political situations, and the city is disad- vantaged by regulations quite out of touch with modern require- ments and principles of construction. Heicut or Ciry BUuILpInGs. An interesting situation has arisen with regard to the regula- tion of the height of buildings within the city boundaries. Mel- bourne and Adelaide, and, to a modified extent, Brisbane and Perth, are laid out on a liberal scale, the depth of building areas from street to street being so ample that for years to come their commercial and industrial requirements can, to a considerable extent, be provided for by the expansion of buildings on these areas, rather than by a multiplication of floors. Melbourne has recently been restricted to a height of 130 feet for its buildings. On the contrary, Sydney, like New York, laid itself out in the good old-fashioned, haphazard way, and confined, in the city proper, within a narrow area bounded on both sides by deep water, its building areas between the streets are very restricted ; consequently its buildings must have an upward tendency, and 554 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. the debatable question has arisen upon a height restriction. Although the State Government could never find an opportunity to take in hand a badly-required revised Building Act, it can find time to pass a measure dealing with this secondary matter cf the height of buildings, and has now by statute fixed a maxi- mum of 150 feet, measured from pavement upwards, dealing itself, through one of its Departments, with all projected buildings of a height from 100 feet upwards, and leaving it to the municipal council to deal with those under 100 feet. Two building authorities have therefore come into being over a matter that clearly should rest with the municipal council alone. The wisdom of all this is very questionable, and, judging from the public knowledge of the surrounding circumstances, one cannot avoid the doubt that the situation has been made, not so much in the public interest, but that the statute has been aimed solely at a newspaper politically opposed, on general grounds, to the present Government, which was preparing to erect a building exceeding in height the limit now fixed. The subject’ is a controversial one, but I am not aware it is not a proper one for discussion at the present conference. The future appearance of the principal Australian cities must be the result of present policy, and this must be laid down only after deliberation, and on a consensus of opinion of those able to speak. Such a step was not taken in this case. . My own view is that the comparative conditions and prospects of population and wealth, but at the same time of the distribu- tion of Australian interests among at least six maritime cities, with similar conditions in New Zealand, are such modifying factors as will never induce the result of sky-scrapers as seen in New York to-day, where all questions of wealth and concentration, with an enormous population behind, are accentuated to an enor- mous extent beyond what is likely to occur with any of the Aus- tralian seaports. It is reasonable to judge that the requirements and expectations of these cities will make their own limitations, and that the intrusion of the real ‘‘sky-scraper’’ into the sky- line of our cities is immeasurably far off. ; Excessive land taxation by Commonwealth and civil authori- ties would appear to be more likely agents in inducing excessive building on a small area than the legitimate requirements of the community. The new legislation has seized the shadow and missed the substance, and in its haste to control is faulty, inasmuch as it has omitted to lay down regulations regarding the external design of a building which may in all probability stand in‘ lofty isolation ; I think it quite possible that public sentiment has been raised — against the erection of lofty buildings promiscuously in a city, not so much because of their height, but because the eye and : ; ; PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 555 the sense of propriety in design have been unconsciously offended by glaring outrages perpetrated in this direction. There may be no definite, articulate, and developed appreciation of the elements of design in the general public, but the innate sense is there; and what is objected to for a variety of ostensible reasons, is really objected to on the grounds I have surmised. There has been recently erected in Sydney a building some 180 feet in height, with frontages to two streets. I refer to this not by any means as an exceptional case, nor as any reflection upon owner and architect, but as an illustration. The two street facades are in themselves well and suitably designed, the features in excellent proportions, and carried out in good honest brick and stone work, and they are generally looked up to by the passer-by with a certain amount of approval and satisfaction. But when seen as a whole from Hyde Park, where the city sky-line can be best judged, and where the building takes its place amongst the tcwers and spires of a large city, the flanking walls and water- tank towers carried out in inferior brickwork, taken in conjunc- tion with the narrowed architectural treatment of the street frontages, the building is simply hideous and disastrous to the beauty of the city. On other similar buildings with bare flanks, the temptation to make a few pounds by hiring out for some huge and vulgar advertising display, at the expense of good taste, is too great, and the town is disfigured in this way in all directions. Excessive height will, I think, for financial] reasons, be out of the question, and, with regard to architectural appearance, power - should be given to municipal authorities to insist upon all exposed faces and flanks of these lofty and solitary buildings being architec- turally equal in character as that applied to their street fronts, say, from a height of 100 feet and upwards. Such a regulation, owing to the cost of its observance, would automatically keep the heights within reasonable limits, as no owners would care to face the expense of such architectural embellishment if in excess of anticipated financial returns. In cases, however, where a building was carried up, then it would become an architectural landmark in the city panorama. Some objection may be raised as to obstructing the sunshine in streets already shadowed by buildings higher than, their width ; but such being the case, and the latitude 30 degrees south, where shade is an advantage, such objection does not impress itself on consideration. Cuimatic DIFFERENCES. Whether or not the assimilation of municipal government throughout the whole of Australia is possible or desirable is a wide subject. We people of British origin are apt to bring our insularity with us, and we live, move, build, and have our being (or try to) by exactly similar methods, whether it be in Hobart, 556 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H- or Brisbane, or Port Darwin. We are oblivious of the 30 degrees of latitude over which this island continent extends, and that conditions of climate differ comparatively as much between Nor- manton and Warrnambool as they do between St. Petersburgh and Cairo; and yet we apparently and inconsistently assimilate eur modes of living and the construction of our dwelling houses and public buildings over this vast area that Nature treats so consistently. Capitan City CoMPETITION. An event, probably the most noticeable of the year, and one in which all our professions are interested, is the designing of the capital city at Canberra, and the competition invited by the Go- vernment for the same, calling for, as it necessarily must, the special functions of the engineer, the architect, and the surveyor. The result, we must admit, is not on the whole unsatisfactory, as several very fine designs have been secured, but as to the associa- tion of Australian professional men with the designing, very un- satisfactory. I attribute the cause of this partly to a mistaken decision of the Cabinet, and partly to the concerted and narrow action of the Australian institutes. This leads me to ask the question, Are - the Institutes of Architects, at any rate, pursuing a reasonable course in laying down conditions that, in most cases of public com- petition, the parties inviting the competition cannot, in the nature of their trust, be expected to wholly comply with? I am speaking now of insistence upon final adjudication, exclusively by an ad- judicator, or adjudicators, as the case may be, and not by those upon whom the subsequent responsibility as to expenditure rests. The position taken up by the Royal Institute, and its associated institutes in Australia, is perfectly clear, but I ask is it within the range of practical ethics to insist dogmatically upon this, resulting in the enforced exclusion of their members as competitors in the case of the capital city competition? It surely was not in the least degree likely that the Commonwealth Government, with its pro- jected expenditures of millions, upon a model city, would surrender its selection and its judgment into the hands of a Board of ad- judicators whose responsibility ceases on delivery of its report and selection. The Government should, in this case, of course, bind itself to engage the most expert skill available to advise, and then to be guided by such advice. It must be conceded that the Go- vernment did take such a step, and, I believe, with a result gener- ally satisfactory; it however made the serious mistake of not definitely announcing in the first instance, and when the com- petition was invited, the personnel of such a Board, so that in- tending competitors might at that stage be content, or not con- tent, to compete. On the other hand, the Royal British and the State institutes were, I think, equally at fault, in not placing more confidence in the obviously straight intentions of the Government, a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. vo Bat but, instead, in boycotting the scheme, and so depriving their members of a chance of distinction. I fear we must confess that the self exclusion of British and Australian architects and sur- veyors, and the leaving the field to foreigners, was an exhibition of as bad tactics as could well be imagined, and a standing memento of ‘‘ lost opportunities.’’ I think it is generally known that the conditions of competition, as submitted to the Minister for Home Affairs, by his own advisers in this special matter, and recommended for adoption, provided for an invitation to the R.I.B.A. to appoint one of its members (presumably its president) as a member of an Advisory Board, and suggested he should visit Australia and the city site, confer in Melbourne, and join in a recommendation, a suitable fee, and the matter of expenses being liberally arranged for. If only that proposal had been adopted the ground would have been cleared for British and Australian competitors. But still its omission, only to a degree, justified the hostile attitude taken by the institutes, and does not now excuse the fiasco. I have neces- sarily limited my observations to the earlier phases of this interest- ing subject, which now appears to be almost daily developing new situations, all more or less of a controversial character.* An almost similar case has occurred more recently in Sydney. There the institute insisted upon the ultimate decision as to the design upon which some £60,000 was to be expended, being taken out of the hands of a trust consisting of some of the keenest busi- ness men in the State, and placed in the hands of an adjudicator, although the calling in of expert advice was provided for. The usual boycott by the institute followed, which its members more or less observed. It is under such circumstances that members break away from their institute, to the loss of prestige of the latter. Let me not be misunderstood. I have been long enough in the pro- fession to know, and insist on, the protection of competitors against meanness of premium, and unfairness of award, but nothing is * On delivering this address I found the foregoing views were not altogether agreed with, and the representatives of the Royal Victorian Institute of Architects have been good enough to furnish me with the following statement:—‘‘ We desire to make two or three corrections. With the principle that the owner who pays for his building has the right of final selection we are quite in accord. When, however, it isa matter of trust, that is, dealing with other people’s money, as in the case of the Minister of Home Affairs, a different condition at once arises. The Minister, ifhe be not an expert, must necessarily be advised by those who are experts. In this competition the Minister was to appoint a board of three, and it is an open secret that a majority of its members, if not all, were to be appointedfrom within the Government service. Further, the board’s powers were limited to ‘ investigation and report to the Minister.’ As officers of the Public Service were free to compete, there was little chance of an ‘ outside ’ design being successful. Further, clause 14 stated that ‘ the Minister will adjudicate upon the designs admitted to competition, after they have been submitted to the board, and such adjudication will be finaland without appeal.’ If this clause means anything, it means that the Minister must adjudicate, and his decision shall be final. The board of officers hecould muzzle quite easily. Buta move in his game was to appoint a board of three from outside the service, and they made both majority and minority awards, which, as a further move, the Minister accepted. Subs quent events show that the honour of winning a place in the competition has been filched from the successful competitors. We are certain, however, that the action vf the Tnstitutes of Architects, both in Great Britain and the Australian States, was fully justified.” 558 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. gained by taking up an unbending attitude, oblivious of the right of public or other bodies and trusts, which, after all, carry the greater responsibility of spending their funds, on such schemes as meet their views, rather than upon the solely academic opinion as expressed by a professional man. REGISTRATION. I think we may claim that a considerable advance has been made during the past year in educating the public mind to the desira- bility of fixing some definite standard of qualifications required in engineers and architects to permit of their practising in Australia. Surveyors, so far as their dealing with real estate and its legal ownership and transfer are concerned, have been for many years ~ required to hold a Government licence, which can only be obtained by those showing their qualifications are up to the required standard. They can then enjoy the emolument of a practically close profession. With the sister professions, this advantage is not yet, unfortunately, the case, and neither the reputable members are protected against chariatanism, nor the public against unskilful and inexperienced exploiters. It is quite true that, as regards engineering, both civil and mechanical, no man can make a practice or a reputation, except- ing when his abilities are obvious to the keen instincts of the men and corporations who employ engineers, and after a long servitude on the works of other engineers; but with the architectural pro- fession it is somewhat different. The mathematical precision essen- tial to the engineer is only required in the architect to a limited extent; the training of the latter in the true principles of art, which cannot be measured by the foot-rule, is all important, and the artistic sense has to be developed, as well as the purely business one, while an architect can commence practice immediately his cadetship is passed. It must be remembered that, every building of note erected, and presumably brought under daily observation and criticism, is a monument to good or bad taste, and an instrument either in raising or debasing the public standard in such matters. To the educated man it may be an offeace, to the uncultured, a snare. The control of the architectural treatment of buildings upon which large sums of money may be expended is becoming more and more desirable. Whether or not the liberty of commit- ting all sorts of atrocities in design may be curbed in municipal areas by power to reject, or, in addition, whether reform shall come by weeding out incompetent, and registering competent, architects, is a legitimate matter of discussion and action. The matter of the expenditure by the architect of large sums of money on behalf of his client, and of the satisfactory, or un- satisfactory, results likely to accrue according to the selection of PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 559 the architect, are also of great importance to the community, and it presents an equally strong case as that of the artistic side for closing in the profession within safe and reasonable limits by regis- tration under legal enactment. There are just as sound reasons for so doing with-our professions, as for those of the law, the Bar, and medicine. It is gratifying to find the institutes alive to this necessity, and to call to mind the steady, although slow, progress they are making against passive indifference, as well as the active opposition of parliamentarians. If the State Parliaments are too slow, perhaps the Commonwealth Government, with its cherished interference with the States, might give us the status we ask for. If our aims are in due course to be satisfied, it is only right we should take care that our rising professional men, and our students, are efficiently prepared and educated to enable them to render efficient service for the protected advantages that registration will give them. TRAINING AND EDUCATION. In Australasia we labour under the signal disadvantage that our students have no artistic traditions to mould them, and no access to the monuments wrought by the masters of our profession in Europe, the East, and, to some extent, in America. [Illustrations, which are, of course, available in unlimited quantities for study, lack the one great essential, that of training the eye for propor- tion—and from a drawing or a photograph we lose much of the indescribable charm and dignity of the old masterpieces, whether the breadth and vigour of the Norman-French, the classic grandeur of the Italian Renaissance, the intricacy and grace of the Indian Taj, or the marvellous and evidently Greek inspiration of the Bhuddist Temple, as exemplified at Boroe Boedoer. These are out of reach of the generality of students training in our technical schools, universities, private offices, and Government Departments. I fear too many aspiring young architects are turned out with a superficial knowledge of style only, and, in some cases, with none at all. In my younger days, in London, we were taught that it was essential, in mastering the subtle art of proportion, the disposition of enrichment and ornament, the effect of light and shade, con- struction, and analysis of the principles guiding a masterpiece of design, that the student should take his measuring rod and rule, and set out the whole or parts again on paper from his actual observation, a method resulting in great advantage to his sub- sequent drafting efforts. I can remember nothing more enjoyable than our »weekly occupation, office all day, and long hours, academy or South Kens- ington with lectures and classes in the evenings, with a bit of original designing at odd moments, and week-end excursions to 560 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. some delightful old fane or old-world village for sketching. It may be imagined not much time was left for barracking at football or tennis, nor do I remember that we felt very acutely the loss of these privileges. I only know generally as to the character of the work and teach- ing of the State technical schools (my friend, Mr. Nangle, can well enlighten you upon this), but where sound architecture is taught, as I know to be the case in Sydney, I look upon training of this character as a most valuable adjunct to that which a lad receives in a good private office, but I, by no means, look upon it as com- prising all the training necessary. The every-day, and all-round work, and practical experience gained from making or avoiding mistakes, of the private office is a necessary element to fit any one for successful practice in which the artist and the astute business- man must make a happy combination. Alfred Waterhouse, in one of his addresses as President of the Royal Institute, speaking as to the best mode of training a youth intended for the profession of architecture, says :— ‘The youth in question should have received, in his schooldays, some preliminary training of a scientific, as well as of an artistic character. He should learn early to under- stand and appreciate the beauties of a fine building—of the civic and domestic edifices, the grand cathedrals and churches, the noble streets and open spaces, with which many a city is endowed. He should be taken to museums of ‘ com- parative sculpture,’ such as the initiative of Viollet-le-Duc, created in the Trocadero; and, in default of similarly arranged educational institutions at Home, to the sculpture galleries of the British and South Kensington museums. In fine, he should, in his early pliable days, be shown the works—or casts or drawings of the works—of the great architects of various countries, and thereby acquire an in- sight into the magnitude, the nobility of the career he is about to enter. ‘* At the same time, his ordinary education—the education of a gentleman—should not be neglected. He must pass the matriculation examination of a university, and so qualify for further studies and opportunities of the institutes. ‘‘ His next proceeding was to be articled, say, for three years to some practising architect, and given every oppor- tunity of qualifying himself for the object of passing the examinations for studentship and associateship of the R.I.B.A. at the conclusion of his articleship. By then, also, he may have been sufficiently successful to gain a travelling studentship, which would enable him to travel in France or Italy, or even as far as Greece, and, on his return, he enters an office as an assistant.” FROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 561 Professor Ware, of New York, goes a step further, and says:— ‘“That for a pupil to reach the full benefit of his time in an office he should, as soon as possible, find himself set to practical work, and work of that sort in a busy age could hardly wait for one who spent a considerable portion of his time in abstract study. After his class work was once completed, his powers would be so_ strengthened thereby as to allow of his entering upon office work with an intelligence unknown to the ordinary pupil of the present day.”’ It is most gratifying that the universities are taking up the ques- tion of the higher and more academic education in architecture— as they have done for so long, and so successfully, in engineering. Why one of the sister professions should have lagged so far behind the other it is difficult to say. The State Governments have prac- tically monopolized the engineering work of Australia, and so retarded, to a great extent, the establishment of private engineer- ing offices in which youths can be trained. As regards the practice of architecture, the same conditions hold only in a much smaller degree, and the existence of numerous and highly equipped private offices gives more opportunity for training. As regards State works departments and their architects’ branches, during, and after twenty years’ experience in the ad- ministration of one of them, notwithstanding the large amount of high quality work passing through, I came to the conclusion that, while I required efficient and well-trained assistance, neither I nor my senior officers had the time or incentive for training cadets to supply this, and that it was better for the service that its officers should first have the more rough-and-tumble experience of private offices and the academic teaching’ of the university and technical school, before they came upon the salaried list of the Department, where they were necessarily expected to give experienced and quali- fied services in return. I may not be agreed with in this matter, but I do not think I am far out, for, while a departmentally- trained youth becomes a useful ordinary officer, it is the draughtsman of the private office and of outside training who is of greater value. For some years past the Sydney University has provided for students the advantage of a lecturer in architecture, and now it is going a step further, and providing in the near future a school of architecture. I believe Melbourne University is doing the same, and as those of other State capital cities grow in wealth and opportunity it is hoped they too will become centres for the higher and technical training of the architect, and thus without doubt equip him for the successes to be gained in a registered profession. 362 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. The training of the young engineer, whether civil, mining, mechanical or electrical, and the architect, lies very much in parallel lines—practical experience in the shops being essential, although with the architect it is perhaps only optional. The well equipped engineering schools, and the opportunities of study under professors of reputation has, I know, indelibly stamped the student just entering his active professional career with the hall mark of competency, and the reputation of our schools has opened many a door of lucrative employment elsewhere to Australian trained engineers. It is perhaps the pity of it that so many have to find their opportunities abroad; the development of Aus- tralasia and its greater engineering projects being necessarily in the hands of the Government. Still, with all the advantages of the university school and the technical college, the young engineer only begins to learn when he faces the difficulties of actual prac- tice, and when his reputation and success depend upon his own judgment and action under some critical circumstances in his career. Then there is the training of the land surveyor and of the hydrographer to be considered; the opportunity for which is obviously the Government service. And here again the technical training must be of the best, as it is the basis of their subsequent work on land and sea. Future PROSPECTS. When one looks round at this only very partially developed continent, and glances at the great works in engineering and architecture that have been already evolved out of a short cen- tury’s efforts only, one can only be struck with the prospect of the enormous field of enterprise yet before the profession. If only British capital is induced, as it will yet be, to come here, in its millions, as it does without stint to Canada, the Argentine, South Africa, and the East, then the progress will be phenomenal. The skill is here, as witness the great railway systems, the mining and other industrial plants, the sewerage of the cities, water conservation and supply and irrigation works, the harbors, docks and ship building, the rolling of steel rails and boiler plates, the manufacture of Portland cement and the extraction of shale oils, the designing and erection of such notable buildings as the Par- liament Houses of Adelaide, Melbourne, Brisbane, and Perth, the new education offices at Adelaide (the work of my old friend, Owen Smyth), the great library and town hall additions in Mel- bourne, the grouped public buildings of Brisbane, the gothic fanes of Melbourne, Sydney, and Brisbane, and the principal buildings in New Zealand. - ae i Qe ee a a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 568 In so briefly mentioning some of the notable works accom- plished, we may add the results of the physical and geological surveys in the highly wrought maps of so large a portion of Aus- tralasia, not the least instance being the extremely well prepared contour map of the capital city site at Canberra. Nor should we fail to mention the scheme now in hand by the Commonwealth Government for a map of Australasia unprecedented in its cor- rectness and completeness. Then there is the more or less immediate prospect of the de- signing and building of the capital city buildings at Canberra, which we all hope will, at any rate, be from the designs by architects, either trained in, or who have cast in their lot with, Australia. The financial barometer on which our interests depend, especially in this country is sensitive, quickly down, and as quickly up again, but with all temporary drawbacks we are undoubtedly advancing. Let us take care that Australian works shall be of the best of their kind, and fit to take rank, based on the best models and developed, if you will, into a distinctly Aus- tralian style, in which the varying climatic conditions of the cities -shall have a marked influence. From henceforth the planning of any new township or the improvement of an existing city, the laying out of park or garden, the water-scape and its surroundings, should be dealt with only by taking advantage of all that has been recently learnt and acted upon in the older communities, and as exemplified under the designation of ‘‘ The Principles of Town Planning,’’ with regard to which and its accompanying common sense and true artistic insight is so ‘well dealt with in the works of Mawson, Trigg, the Liverpool society, and other modern writers on the subject. PUBLICATIONS. We have been advancing rapidly in our technical and business publications and serials. I believe all our institutes now con- duct and distribute records of their proceedings, and in the tech- nical journals such as Art and Architecture, now the Salon of the New South Wales Institute of Architects, and that eminently live magazine, Building, edited by the energetic and able Captain Taylor, of the Intelligence Corps, and secretary of the Local Go- vernment Engineers’ Institute, and others—we are approaching the level of many such publications in the older countries that claim for themselves great reputation and circulation. The following is a list of Australian publications :— Building (monthly). Construction (weekly). Progress (monthly). Australasian Engineer (monthly). 564 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. The Building and Engineering Contractors’ Reoord (weekly). Contractor Reporter (weekly). The Local Government Journal of Australasia. (weekly). The Mining Standard (weekly). The Mining and Engineering Journal (monthly). The Royal Victorian Institute of Architects, Journal of Proceedings (bi-monthly). The Salon (bi-monthly). The West Australian Building, Engineering, and Mining Journal (monthly). As well as Journals of Proceedings of Engineering Associations. and Institutes. Also weekly articles in the dailies specially devoted to the subjects. BuiLpinG MareRIALs. One would like to say something as regards the limitless store nature has given us in Australia of suitable building materials, out of which the engineer can weld the strongest of structures, and the architect evolve the most graceful and lasting of designs :— Granites and the harder varieties of freestone in Victoria, marbles in endless variety in South Australia and New South Wales, trachyte and freestones in New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia, Portland cement and steel and iron, suit- able earths for brickmaking, majolica and encaustic ware, slates,. and most other materials essential to our work. The supply of timber is likely to become our one exception, owing to the general supineness of the State Governments in not sufficiently conserving existing forests and encouraging new ones, and to the indiscriminate destruction by the settler. The jarrah and karri areas of Western Australia, the hardwoods of Gipps- land and the eastern coastal range, the pines of Tasmania, and: the softwoods and cedars of Queensland are yearly becoming more and more limited in supply; and the time is appreciably near when importation also from a world’s diminishing supply will be the source of supply, or until some universal substitute has been evolved. On the other hand, we are practically self-contained as regards the artificers required to carry out our designs, the construction of complicated and elaborately-finished engines and machinery. Wrought artistic metal work, stained glass, wood and stone carving, electric and gas light fittings, brasswork, and art pottery are available for working out the most elaborate designs of the en~ gineer and the architect. a rp. Pe tes te PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 56D CoMPARISONS. With all these physical advantages, with our means of educa- . tion and training, and with our comparatively well-to-do though ~ somewhat uncultured community to exploit, how does our work compare with that of the older, more populous, and more wealthy countries of the world? It would be ignorance, self-esteem, and perhaps Australian ‘‘ blow,’’ to claim superiority or even equality in these things. All modern developments in architecture had their source in the Grecian or the Gothic. We may evolve, but we cannot originate; the genius to do this is non-existent, or, if it does exist, it is silent; while in the older countries association with the great masterpieces of these styles, the command of ample funds, and the artistic instincts of the peoples, have all encouraged and stimulated the architect to produce the modern triumph. We here cannot boast of the same advantages, nor, I think, can we reasonably claim quite the same results. Still, we have no need to be discouraged; the unsightly structures and failures of our comparative past are more easily and quickly replaced than elsewhere by something better; the public is being educated, and the architect is receiving distinctly more encouragement to work in the higher levels of his art. Good training for the student, high ideals by the architect, and generous encouragement by the client and by the Legislature will sooner or later enable us to take a recognised position of equality in the world of science and art. I expect to be charged with discursiveness in this address, and I plead guilty to travelling over so wide a range of subjects; but they are all intimately associated with our twin professions. I have touched on matters of a controversial character, and on which differences of opinion must exist, and should exist, if our interests are to be fought for and secured, and it surely is worth our while to deal with these with the prospects before us. Our present disabilities must in course of time be dealt with, as the importance of obtaining the highest skill becomes necessary. The opportunity to rise, to do, to create, is here. Let us not lack endeavour, but take inspiration from the assured glorious future of Australasia. 566 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 1. THE LEMNISCATE AS A TRANSITION CURVE. By Professor R. W. Chapman, M.A., B.C.E. The cubic parabola is now very generally adopted by British engineers for transition curves; but although a very convenient, it is by no means an ideal curve for the purpose. The geometrical construc- tions by means of which it is set out and fitted in between the straight and the circular curve are usually approximately correct only, and, although the error made under ordinary circumstances is not enough to be a practical defect, in special cases, particularly when the circular curve is of small radius, the common methods may easily lead to errors of appreciable magnitude. It would certainly be preferable to have a curve that could be fitted in perfectly under all circumstances, and such that the method of setting out should be exact and not approximate. In searching for a curve to satisfy this condition, the writer tried the curve whose radius of curvature varies inversely as the radius vector. This turned out to be the Lemniscate of Bernoulli, and if was soon seen that, whilst quite as easily set out as the cubie parabola, it may be fitted in with perfect exactness for any length of transition eurve, and for any radius of circular curve desired. Further investigation showed that the writer was not the first to make use of this particular curve for the purpose, and that the employment of the Lemniseate of Bernoulli for transition curves was advocated by Paul Adams in the Annales des Ponts et Chaussées, October, 1895. Properties of the Curve. ‘The form of the complete lemniscate is that of a figure of 8, but only a portion of the complete curve would be used for transition curves, and for this purpose its equation can be most conveniently written in the form ferme CR AO eh a Gee ae op peat cers cee Fig. 1. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 567 In Fig. 1, O denotes the origin of co-ordinates, OPC the curve, and OT’ the initial line is tangent to the curve at O. Then if P is any point on the curve, P7 the tangent at P,OP =r, angle POT = 8 it is readily proved that AMEE ma aD. See tae as PY), Pry = 36. If p denotes the radius of curvature at P we have een p — 3; . . . . . ° . . o) . (3), so that p varies inversely as 7, If this curve joins on at the point @ to a circular curve of radius R, we have ee (4) Se es ee Cee The length of OC will not be very different from the length of the transition curve itself, and we may generally select a suitable value to satisfy the conditions of the problem. ~ Thus this equation determines a? when we know & and OC. Denoting the angle CON by a, we have OC? = a? sin 2a = 32#.0C sin 2a, ate, OO a ore eink Sag He Ag ot (BY, Having fixed the value of a? from equation (1), the values of r cor- responding to different values of 6 may be tabulated and the curve may be set out by polar co-ordinates from O, or the values of PN and ON (r sin 6 and r cos 6) may be computed for different values of @ and the curve set out by offsets from Ox. Denoting OW by « and PN by y, the equation of the curve may be 4 put in the form rt = 2a%xy or y =55 This is very nearly the same 2a as the cubic parabola if 7 is nearly = z, as will be true in most cases of transition curves. The is thus equivalent to the m of the equa- 203 : tion to the eubie parabola y =mea’. The value of the constant a’. There is Considerable difference in practice in the length of transition curve adopted on railways. In some cases a fixed length is 568 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. given to all transition curves ; in others the super-elevation of the outer rail is ran out by means of the transition curve on a fixed grade. In South Australia it is usually run out in this way on a grade of 1 in 360, so that the length of the transition curve is made 360 times the super-elevation. If we adopt the latter method, which seems to be the more rational of the two, the constant a? then becomes the same for all the curves on a given line provided the super-elevation of the outer rail is in all cases that given by the ordinary formula. For, if e denotes the super-elevation in inches, g the gauge in feet, _» the maximum train velocity in miles per hour, s the cotangent of the angle of grade at which the super-elevation is to be run out, 2 the radius of the circular curve in feet, gu? Mere F097, and OC (in feet) = — 2 irs a=3.00.R=*7 , a constant depending only on the grade, gauge, and train velocity, and independent of the radius of the cireular curve. If we make s = 360, g = 54, v = 50, then 2? = 787,500. As, how- ever, it is convenient to have a simple square number for a”, and there is no especial reason for adopting the particular grade of 1 in 360, it seems reasonable to choose the value of sa little more than this so as to make a? a convenient square. Inthis case 810,000 or 1,000,000 would be suitable values to adopt for a”, giving a = 900 or 1,000 feet, or we might make it 1,500 links. It thus appears to be correct practice and one that lends itself to great simplicity in the preparation of tables and in the necessary calculations to adopt the same value for @ throughout any particular line. Whether this is done or not, in any case, as all the necessary elements can be expressed in terms of a, it is possible to compute a simple set of tab!es of the necessary elements for setting out that shall be of perfectly general application, the various quantities having only to be wmaltiplied by a. This alone gives the lemniscate a great advantage over the cubic parabola. As a? = 3R.00, it follows that if R = 20 chgins, the value a = 1,500 links will make the length of the transition curve about 32 chains. If a = 2,000 links its length becomes 6% chains. agit [arte PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 569 To set out a circular curve with a given length of Lemniscate transition curve at eath end between two pieces of straight. I i Fig. 2. ‘Let OJ and O'J (Fig. 2) be the two pieces of straight intersecting at J, the included angle being 7. CC’ is the circular curve of radius R. OC and O'C' the lemniscate curves at each end. At the outset we must fix the lengths of the chords OC and O'C. ~ If we have already fixed upon a suitable value for a, as indicated in the preceding paragraph, OC is determined by the equation 2 OC= a Otherwise we may fix the length of OC arbitrarily and then compute the proper value of a? from the same equation. Denoting the angle JOC by a, this is. determined by the equation OC - Si Zor 3 By projecting at right angles to the bisector of the angle O1O’ we get OL sin 5 = R eos (5 + 8«) + OC sin (5+ «). Since i, a, OC and # are known this equation determines the length OJ and consequently fixes the point O. 570 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. We now know the point O, the length of OC and the angle IOC = a, s0 that the point C can be fixed and the direction of the tangent KC to both circular and transition curve at C can be set out because the angle KCO = 2a. Thus, from the point C the circular curve CC’ can be set out in the ordinary way. CC’ subtends an angle at the centre = 180° — t — 6a from which its length may be computed. To set out a double lemniscate between two pieces of straight. Where the ground allows of it the circular curve may be omitted altogether and the entire curve framed of two long transition curves back to back. This construction would reduce the wear due to curvature to its least possible value, and secure the best attainable smoothness of running. For stich constructions, where a very long length of transition curve is required, the lemniscate is a much more satisfactory curve than the cubic parabola. Fig. 3. Let OJ and O'T (Fig 3) be the two pieces of straight to be connected, the angle OJO' being 7, and let R be the maximum radius of the eonnecting curve. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 571 Then, as in the figure, if 7 CT’ be the tangent to the curve at its point of maximum curvature C, and the angle JOC be denoted by a, we have the angle FTC = 3a, and 3a = 90° — - , from which a is known. Also OC = 38 sin 2a, and thus the length of OC is deter- mined. Clearly the maximum value of a oceurs when 1 = O, ais then = 30°. As the lemniscate curve may be set out through an angle of 45°, it is thus easily possible to set out a double lemniseate curve joining two parallel lines or two lines at any angle. From the triangle OIC we readily get sin (120° _ 3) oD tS A ces ions BTS 2 sin 7 2 sin { 30° — =) sin {| 609 — & 6 3 oe SID — 2 qo = Sh If OCO’ were an ordinary simple circular curve of radius &, we should have O1 = R cot’ ; 10 = R( cosee ; — 1). The fo llowing table gives the comparative values of OJ and JC for the simple circular’ curve and the double lemniscate, with different values of i :— or Ic i SSS PER LW tr | aps a Sa : For Simple For Double For Simple For Double Circular Curve. Lemniscate. Circular Curve. Lemniscate, 30° Shay (aa! 3 5:7 R 2-S R ST ok 60° eek 2°79 R R L-3ek 90° R OS? ‘41 R 55 R 120° ny ae 4 as ‘165 R 2R 150° “27 Rf ‘58 BR ‘03 R 05 BR 572 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. The double lemniscate curve is thus seen to have its crown always considerably further from the intersection point of the straights than a simple circular curve, and its tangent point is much further along, ao that us a rule where its insertion is possible it will also be practicable to insert a simple circular curve of larger radius equal to about five- fourths of Rk. The double lemniscate curve may be inserted between two straights at any angle with one another ; it may be set out between two parallel lines or between two lines making an angle of nearly 180°. Instead of a double lemniscate having a minimum radius R, it will in general be possible to set out through the same crown tangent point a circular curve with radius greater than RA and having a transition curve at each end. The double lemniscate construction, however, shows in every case a saving in total length of track, and, in some cases, quite a considerable saving. For instance, if the angle of intersection of the straights is 90°, and the minimum radius 20 chains, the distance IC is 1,098 links, and the total length of the curve 6,168 links. To insert instead a simple circular curve of 20 chains radius will mean an increased length of track of no less than 321 links. But it would be possible without increasing the distance ZC to insert a circular curve with a radius of 26 chains, and transition curves at each end. If we take a for the transition curves equal to 1,500, the distance IC works out at 1,083 links, and the total length of track is longer than the double lemniscate by 61 links. Taking a similar curve with a radius of 26°5 chains, the distance IC becomes 1,103 links, that is to say the ctown tangent point is further away from the point of intersection than in the ease of the double lemniscate, but the double lemniscate still has the advantage in length of 40 links. Making a similar calculation, with the angle of intersection 60° and the same minimum radius, the total length of the double lemniscate is 8,105 links; but the saving in total length of track over a circular curve of radius 26°2 chains with transition curves at each end, which will have a crown tangent point at about the same distance from the intersection point, is 121 links. If the angle of intersection is 120°, still, with the same minimum radius, the total length of the double lemniscate is 4,154 links, and the track is shorter than that of a circular curve of radius 26° 5 chains, with transitions at each end, by 13 links. Calculation of the Length of Curve. The length of the are OP (Fig. 1) is expressible as the difference of two elliptic integrals. From the properties of these functions it follows that the lemniscate is one of the curves whose arcs, like those PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 573 of the circle, may be divided in a given ratio by geometrical construc- tion. In the ordinary notation for elliptic integrals the length of the arc OP where ¢ is an angle such that Vsin 260 = cos 4. Tables of elliptic integrals are available, and with their help it thus becomes possible to prepare a table of the lengths of ares of the lemniscate for different values of 6. Table I. has been computed in this way, and gives the length of arc measured from O and the increment of arc corresponding to each increment of 30’ in the angle 6 up to a limiting value of 30°. The table is of perfectly general application, the tabulated values having to be multiplied by the value of a for the particular lemniscate. These are computed to five places of decimals, which is ample for the purpose, the value of a being generally between one and two thousand links. The increment of are over 30’. may be taken as practically equal to the chord, the maximum difference being less than 2 in the last place of decimals. be ts? Gres To set out the Lemniscate. The first portion of the lemniscate curve is most conveniently located by setting up the theodolite at O (Fig. 1) and measuring off the proper length of OP corresponding to a given value of 6. Table II. has been computed from the equation OP = aV sin 26, and again the tabulated values have to be multiplied by a to obtain the corre- sponding measure of OP. When the distance becomes too great for this to be conveniently done, further points may be located by means of Table I. and measuring along the curve. The tables are taken to much greater values of 6 than necessary for ordinary transition curves, so that they are applicable to the setting out of double lemnis- cate curves or to any conceivable problem in which they might be required. It appears to the writer that the lemniscate possesses the great advantage over the cubic parabola that for all lengths of transition curve we have a simple exact solution. Even when it is possible the same degree of exactness can only be obtained with the cubic parabola by much more complicated calculation. B74 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. Table I. Lengths of arc of lemniscate corresponding to different values of 0. | Increment of | Increment of Total Length Are | Total Length Are of Are corresponding of Are corresponding (4) measured from | to the previous (2) | measured from] to the previous oO. {nerement of 0. Increment of 30’ in @, 30’ in Q, ax ax ax ax 0° 30’ ‘13211 | +1321] 15°30’ | -73919 “01224 TOO! |S 18684. |S 2° -0b473 T6070 75126 °01207 1°30’ «| 22883 *04199 16°30’ | = +76317 “01191 2°..0%...|... +26424 ..)- 03541 7 ei? tal “77491 “01174 Boron ay *29544 ‘03120 Lips Us) - 78651 “01160 3° 0’ || *32366 -02822 ESP OF a TOTOF “01146 3°30’ | °34961 -02595 | 18° 30’ | -80928 ‘01131 4° 0’ | :387379 -02418 19° 0’ | -82047 “01119 4°30’ | *39649 ‘02270 lei LOS eG *83152 °01105 5° 0’ | -41798 | -02149 20° 0’ ‘84247 -01095 5°30’ | -°43843 -02045 20° 30’ *85330 -01083 CO} (45798. 4 *01955 21° 0’ * 86402 01072 6°30’ =—s_-- 47673 ‘01875 21°30’ | °87463 “01061 7° 0’ | +49480 ‘01807 22° 0’ | = :88515 -01052 7°30’ | -61224 “01744 22°30’ | +89558 *01043 8° 0’ | °52913 ‘01689 23° 0’ -90591 -01033 8°30’ —s_ 54550 ‘01637 23° 30’ *91616 *01025 9° 0’ | -56142 | 01592 24° 0’ | _-92632 "01016 9° 30’ -57691 °01549 24° 30’ -93640 “01008 10° 0’ | +59202 ‘01511 25° 0’ | :94641 01001 10°30’ | -60677 -01475 25° 30’ “95635 00994. PICA OL *62118 -01441 26° 0’ -96621 “00986 11° 30’ ‘63528 -01410 26° 30’ *97601 -00980 12° 0’ ‘64911 ‘01383 27° 0’ “98574 *00973 12° 30’ 66266 -01355 27° 30’ *99541 °00967 13° 0’ *67597 -01331 28° 0’ 1-00502 “00961 13° 30’ *68902 -01305 28° 30’ 1°01458 “00956 14° 0’ “70187 *01285 29° 0’ 1:02409 00951 14° 30’ *71451 ‘01264 29° 30’ | 1°03354 *00945 15° 0’ *72695 *01244 30° 0’ | 1:04294 "00940 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 575 Table II, Lengths of the chord OP for different values of 0. oP. ) 6 op. t ax | ax . mae ‘05393 13° 30° = 67379 2 iy 07627 14° 0’ $0 *68518 “ue a -10787 | 14° 30’ ae -69628 54 “2 *13211 te EDO e 2 OF “A “70711 .s sie 15254 15° 30° 4} 71766 “ 38 “17054 PPh 08 a 72796 ot si -18681 16°: 30° ie -73800 se Ss “20177 17° 0° ae “74779 ae se "21570 17° 30° 4 “75735 ie sh -29877 pe ae Es 16667 +e Ar *24113 | 18° 30’ hd “T1577 a 3 -25289 | 19° 0’ os 78464 Ss oe *26411 | 19° 30° a 79330 age Tr, "29522 | «209, -.0F oe -80174 res os 32331 | 20° 30’ ae *80997 oh 38 “34910 YY 21°. Or ie *81800 a a *37306 | 21° 30’ as * 82583 i we “39552 | 22° 0’ ee 83346 hye oe *41671 | 22° 30’ a2 *84090 ate sie 43682 |... Bo>., OF Bic -84814 7s or: “45597 23° 30’ s¢ *85519 o oi 47429 ris aae. Of ais *86206 « as SE -49186 24° 30° fc * 86874 oe at 50874 25° 0’ a 87524 : 7 52501 }|. 26° 30’ eH *88156 he os *54071 26° 0% +: *88770 - a: *55589 26° 30’ of 89366 5 Fit. *57059 Bibs. 03 oe *89945 58482 27° 30’ Be *90507 “59864 28° 0’ at *91051 *61205 28° 30’ ur: “91579 62508 29° 0’ Be 92090 63776 29° 30° ak *92583 65009 30° 0’ ef: 93060 *66210 576 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 2. THE CALORIFIC VALUE OF SOME AUSTRALIAN WOODS, WITH NOTES ON THE PRODUCTION OF CHARCOAL AND ASH. By James Mann, Victorian Government Research Scholar. [ABSTRACT. | OBJECTS OF INVESTIGATION. To determine, for different Australian woods, and the charcoal produced from them, their calorific values as fuel, the quantity of charcoal and the amount and colour of the ash. The specimens of wood used in the tests, were in the form of ?-inch cubes, and for each species, at least four cubes were tested both as wood and charcoal. The cubes were dried for twenty-four hours at a temperature of 103 degrees C., and placed in a desic- cator, to prevent absorption of moisture before weighing. CuarcoaL TESTS. The cubes were carbonized in a closed muffle packed with powdered charcoal, which was heated in a gas furnace. When nearly cool the carbonized cubes were placed in the desiccator, as above. Asx TESTS. Cubes, similar to those used in the charcoal tests, were burnt in platinum crucibles. The following table (Table 1) gives the weights of charcoal and ash produced from one ton of wood. The third column is the weight of ash produced from one ton of charcoal :— Weight of | Weight of Ash | Weight of Ash Botanical Name. Local Name. Charcoal from Wood from Charcoal in Pounds. in Pounds. in Pounds. Euc. bicolor .. | Black box.. ve 805 1°340 3°98 > rostrata ..|Redgum .. As 696 0-636 2-05 », Sstuartiana ..|Apple gum sik 681 7°280 23-89 », stderoxylon .. | Red ironbark ae 656 0:°957 3:26 », Aemiphloia ..|Grey box .. He 656 17°270 60°03 »» polyanthema Red box .. a 647 4-150 13°86 3, macrorrhyncha | Stringybark ee 637 0°668 2°40: ;, melliodora ..| Yellow box 45 631 6:380 22-70 », obliqua .. | Messmate .. BA 600 0-718 2°68 », globulus .. | Bluegum .. wa 599 5216 19°63 >, amygdalima Peppermint He 593 1:079 4°23 ;, botryoides ..|Gippsland mahogan 584 2-300 8°84 » eugenoides ..| White stringybark ..! 583 0-29] Le LE ;, bosistoana .. | White box - 574 17°158 67°00 s, consideniana | Yert chuck “4 557 0-980 3°93 >, viminalis ..}| White gum si 539 4-062 17°63. » pulverulenta | Woollybutt or mealy 463 0-792 3°96 stringy bark PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 577 CALORIMETRIC TESTS. Cubes, similar to those used above, were also adopted in these tests. A Berthelot-Mahler bomb calorimeter was employed to determine the calorific values, which are here (Table 2) expressed in calories, per gramme :— Calorific Value | Calorifie Value Botanical. Name. Local Name. GHUITROAl of Wood. Buc. eugenoides .. | White stringybark es 7912 4680 » obhiqua .. .. | Messmate ais ae 7901 4594 », melliodora ..| Yellow box .. Be 7895 4693 » pulverulenta ..| Woollybutt or mealy 7853 4604 stringybark » rostrata .. .. | Redgum Be oe 7842 4811 55. rostrata. .. .. | Redgum He 4c 7018 £250) y, macrorrhyncha ..| Stringybark .. 2 7839 4674 >, stuartiana ..| Apple gum .. wa 7819 4703. » consideniana ..| Yert chuck .. ae 7802 4576: > viminalis ..| Whitegum’ .. as 7749 4670 5, botryoides ..| Gippsland mahogany .. 7758 4576 », globulus .. .. | Bluegum of by 7736 4560 », amygdalina ..| Peppermint .. ty 7731 5099 35 .Utcolor . . .- | Blackbox... A? 7610 4595 », hemiphloia .. | Grey box ae th 7052 4422 3, polyanthema .. | Red box se “is 7044 4828. », sideroxylon .. | Red ironbark AX 6995 4528 », bosistoana .. | White box .. aa 6715 4431 The numbers in italics represent the results of experiments on undried specimens, which contained at least 12 per cent. of moisture, showing a reduction of the calorific value of chareoal by 10 per cent. and that of wood by 11°5 per cent. Table 3 shows the percentage of ash and charcoal from wood, the calorific values of both dry wood and dry charcoal, and remarks on the colour and texture (?) of the ash. They are arranged in the descending order of the per centage of ash. In this table the botanical names only are given :— a — - ae Botanical Name. Ash Charcoal | C.V. of | C.V.of Remarks on the Ashes, Ue Ue Wood. | Charcoal. WG Luc. hemiphioia .. °7726 29°34 4934 7792 Light stone, pink shade. Amorphous, 0 » bosistoana .. |0°7660 19°22 4431 6715 Decided pink. Amorphous » stuartiana .. |0°3230 30°74 4703 73819 Blueish grey. Slightiy granular. Like powdered pumiee > melliodora .. |0°2850 28°20 4693 7895 White, pinkish tinge. Amorphous » globulus ae POC23S0 26°80 4560 7736 pagent yellow, like briek-dust. Granu- ar » vyminalis ..}|0°1810 24°02 4670 7749 Stone colour, yeMow. Granular » Dotryoides .. |0°1026 26°04 4576 7738 Shades of dark grey and yellow » amygdalina .. |0°0790 26°50 5099 7731 Light brown, like fine sand », bicolor .. |0°0640 35°93 5142 8409 Light yellow, like brick-dust. Amor- phous # » polyanthema.. |0°0485 28°92 4827 7783 Very right stone colour, like fine sand » consideniana |0°0438 24°90 4576 7802 Cream. Granular », &iderozylon .. |0°0427 29°36 5053 7729 Stone colour, pinkish. Slightly granular » pulverulenta 0 °0354 20-21 4604 7853 Dark brown, like ground coffee » obliqua -. | 0°0321 26°79 4594 7901 Cream. Finely granular » rostrata -- }0°0284} 31°09 | 4811 7842 |Darkeream. Medium granular _ »» macrorrhyncha | 0°0272 29°23 4674 7839 pee Nae be shading from pink. : andlike » éeugenoides .. |0°0130 26°31 4680 7912 Yellowish brown. Woolly “6117. a T 578 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. It will be observed that there is no relation between the per- centage of ash and charcoal produced, but the tendency, in regard to the calorific value is, that the timber giving the lowest percent- age of ash also gives the highest calorific valie, and, conversely, the timber giving the greater percentage of ash, is lower in calorific value. SUMMARY. 1: The calorific value of dry charcoal produced from the eucalypts averages, 7800 C. 2. The calorific value of dry wood produced from the eucalypts averages 4650 C. 3. That moisture decreases the calorific value about equal to the percentage of moisture it contains. 4. The calorific value does not depend upon the density of the wood, but rather on the amouyt of ash it contains. 5. It would appear that the lighter woods give the purest charcoal. ‘ 3. THE DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS IN THE STEEL RODS OF A REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM. By Prof. Chapman and H. G@. Jenkinson, B.A. 4. BEET-SUGAR ENGINEERING. By G. S. Dyer. 5. ELECTRIC COOKING. By W. H. Alabaster. (Printed in ‘‘ Mining and Engineering Review,’’ Feb. 1918). ‘ 6. EXPERIMENTS ON THE ELASTIC DEFORMATIONS OF AUTOGENOUS WELDS, AND WELDED DRUMS. By Prof. S. H. Barraclough and H. A. Rorke, B.A. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION H. 579 7. NOTES ON THERMIT WELDS IN TRAMWAY RAILS. By A. J. Higgin, FIC. 8. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN TECHNICAL COLLEGES. By Prof. A. J. Gibson, Assoc. M.I.C.E. 9. NOTES ON CHINESE ART IN RELATION TO ARCHITECTURE. By James 8S. Gawler, A.R.VI.A. , RESEARCH COMMITTEE. Section A. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING COMMITTEE. It was resolved to obtain a comparative report on industrial training in the various States of Australia, and a committee was appointed to that end, with power to add to their number. Committee: Prof. S. H. Barraclough, Sydney; Prof. Chapman, Adelaide; Mr. Wilfrid N. Kernot, Melbourne; Prof. Gibson, Bris- - bane (Secretary). Section I. SANITARY SCIENCE AND HYGIENE. (Qwing to the absence of the President, no Presidential Address was delivered.) PAPERS READ IN SECTION IL. 1. THE REDUCTION OF TYPHOID FEVER IN AUSTRALASIA By Dr. J. S. Purdy. 2. REMARKS ON THE SPREAD AND CONTROL OF TYPHOID FEVER. By Burton Bradley, M.B., tn. (Syd.), D Poe There are, I think, two principal equipments which the medical officer of public health will find requisite in the consideration of the question of the spread and the prevention of the spread of typhoid fever in any part of the world. The first of these is a thorough knowledge of the epidemiology and bacteriology of the disease, or else the co-operation of specialists thoroughly conversant with the subject; the second is a mind which is capable of rising above mere scientific data, and which is capable of utilizing that God-begotten quality of ‘‘common sense,’’ so as to control and utilize the available scientific facts, and not to be simply over- whelmed by them. The ideal person to elucidate such a problem is one who, besides having access to the records and returns of a well-organized health department, and understanding the epidemiological and bacterio- logical problems, possesses the above quality of judging things in their relative degrees of importance. Under existing circumstances it is not always easy to find such a person and, from the practical point of view, it is probably best for such imvestigations to be con- ducted by several people, each conversant with their special part of the problem, and working in harmony to the orderly elucida- tion of the whole. The special work m this matter of the public health official should, undoubtedly, lie in the strict surveillance of his particular district, so as to find, as soon as possible, each case as lt occurs, and, by means of statistical methods and careful card indexing according to years, districts, streets, &c., and so forth, so as to have as complete a knowledge as possible of past and pre- sent ‘‘ typhoid districts,’ and by means of such legislative measures as are possible to attempt to prevent the incidence and spread of the disease. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I.. 581 When such a system is in smooth working, and when case returns are quickly available and capable of ready tabulation in relation to various circumstances—time of year—district-relation to pre- vious cases, or to water or milk supply, the public health authority should often be able to note the beginning of an epidemic very early in the day owing to its atypical relationships to certain cir- cumstances. The work of the bacteriologist, who would work in conjunction with the public health official, should not be merely the examination of specimens, but should be the complete bacterio- logical investigation of each and every epidemic or case that the public health doctor considers merits special attention. The bacteriological examination of any outbreak or case should, when- ever possible, be conducted by the bacteriologist on the spot. He should visit the district with the health authority, see the cases, and take what notes he may require, and make such examinations or tests as he may think requ®&ite. The keynote of the work, if I make myself clear, is to have the co-operation of the adminis- trator and epidemiologist, and the bacteriologist on the spot. One point will attract the notice of one specialist and another of another, and the stereoscopic effect of the several points of view will be the means of the unravelling of many problems. Common sense, though so often decried, will be found a very valuable assist- ance to both. There are some people who seem capable of absorb- ing any amount of scientific data, but have no scientific method, who, filled with volumes of facts from text-book and periodical, seem to become fettered by them. Their minds become too full for a clear arrangement of the facts, and failing to sort the crowded furniture of their mind they take hold of one particular idea, generally the last stored away in the mental bookcase, and run amok. Result, instead of getting a clear understanding of the facts of the case many of the facts never emerge, or, if they do at all, never in their relative importance. Before now a dwelling has been carefully disinfected by such a person where subsequent investigations have shown the cause of the trouble to be carried by food from a carrier who may be sitting watching the edifying but virtually useless and unnecessary process with the formalin spray and paint brush. Two epidemics which came under my observation at one time had been similarly treated with fumigation, &c., and although the bacteriological proof was for certain reasons impossible to make, one on inquiry proved epidemiologically to be almost certainly a fly-spread infec- tion originally introduced into a country district by a convalescent case; the other was a very obvious carrier-food epidemic brought about by contamination of food by a casual hand employed in a kitchen. 582 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. With this general introduction I wish now to consider first of all certain points of bacteriological technique, and then to give a short summary of the steps necessary in the handling of such investigations both epidemiologically and bacteriologically. As regards bacteriological technique, it is as well here to introduce -a word of caution against widely prevalent ideas that it is a matter, with ordinary media, of great difficulty to isolate and differentiate ihe typhoid bacillus, and that consequently certain special plating methods are necessary. Nothing shows the weakness of such special plates invented by enthusiasts who wish to make a short- cut method to pick out the typhoid bacillus than does the large number of these ‘‘selective’’ or ‘‘enrichment’’ plates, all of which are lauded by their own particular inventor. Ledingham, who is undoubtedly one of the greatest authorities on the bac- teriology of typhoid, says, ‘‘ There is no royal road to the isola- tion of the bacillus.’’ The truth #s, according to him, that there is probably not much to choose between any methods, but that it one has mastered any particular technique he will get better results by that than by a method he knows less well. Ledingham uses bile-salt neutral red lactose agar, a very easily prepared and simple medium, which differentiates lactose fermenters from non- lactose fermenters, and enables one to pick off the white non- lactose fermenting colonies. I am strongly of the opinion that this separation is all that occurs with most of the typhoid selective plates, and the good results claimed by some authors, and not obtained by others, are explainable on the degree of proficiency shown by one or other authority with a particular method. Ordinary agar plates in my hands seem to give as good results #s any; but it no doubt takes some practice before one can differ- entiate a non-lactose fermenting colony with certainty, and there- fore it is usually necessary to pick off a large number of colonies for testing. Probably the simplest method for general purposes is the bile-salt neutral red agar plate. This medium should, how- ever, be occasionally tested side by side with ordinary agar to be sure. 2. typhosus will grow equally well, for in certain samples it seems to possess a considerable power of inhibiting B. typhosus. When it comes to such a pass that a special plating medium, admitted by the author (1) to be difficult to prepare, is advo- cated for blood culture work, although such records as Tebbutt’s (2) show that in the vast majority of bile cultures from blood the bacillus is recovered in pure culture, and can be identified by direct inoculation on to sugars, agar, &c., it is seen that the above caution against unnecessary complication of method is not without good reason. Blood cultures are made very satisfactorily, iu my opinion, by squirting directly from the sterile syringe with which the blood is collected from the median basilic vein about PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 583 3 cubie centimetres into bottles containing about 50 cubic centi- metres of ordinary broth and gently shaking the mixture. Some advantages undoubtedly we find in the use of bile media, prin- cipally due to the prevention of clotting, although possibly also due to the antibactericidal effect of bile. The cultures are in the great majority of cases pure, and may be directly tested without plating. Rarely with the simple broth culture, and very seldom with the bile cultures, staphylococci from the skin may obscure the issues. This contamination is, however, largely, if . not entirely, due to imperfect cleansing of the skin when taking the blood from the vein. Urine Cultures. Here, although the urine may, and frequently does, yield a pure culture of B. typhosus, it is advisable to make plates on agar, or better, bile salt neutral red agar, which, especially for the novice, gives a clearer definition between the lactose ferment- ing and non-lactose fermenting colonies. A number _ of selected colonies are picked off into litmus lactose peptone water and examined next day, and those not giving acid or acid and gas on this medium are tested further. It is well to note that although MacConkey’s medium (3) (bile salt neutral red lactose agar) gives a rough separation into lactose fermenters and non-lactose fermenters, certain white colo- nies are found which are really lactose fermenters on the fluid medium. Feces Cultures. Similar methods apply here as in the case of urine cultures. It is advisable, however, to use several plates spread when cool with descending dilutions of the feces emulsion, and it is also necessary, especially when using ordinary agar, to pick off a large number of colonies, for, apart from the difficulty which exists in exactly separating non-lactose fermenting colonies from simple fecal coliforms which can be to a large extent overcome by experi- ence, there are in feces a large number of non-lactose fermenting bacilli whose growth, both on MacConkey’s plates or on the ordinary agar, is indistinguishable from those of B. typhosus. B. fecalis alkaligenes and certain pseudoparatyphoid bacilli are notable instances in point. Testing the Non-lactose Fermenting Colonies on the Blood Cultures. Having separated from our plates certain non-lactose ferment- ing bacilli it is possible to make a practical diagnosis very quickly 584 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. if either there are few of these selected bacilli or if, when a large number of non-lactose fermenting strains are isolated, we are not inclined to be sparing of labour or media. With a sterile swab for preference, we can inoculate from our unaffected lactose tubes agar, glucose, mannitol, dulcitol, saccharose, and sorbitol litmus peptone water. In 24 hours the sugars are read and the agglutina- tion test done. A motile organism giving acid on glucose, manni- tol and sorbitol, and not on dulcitol, lactose, and saccharose, and giving a definitely positive agglutination reaction, can be safely pronounced to be B. typhosus. To save media and labour, but at the expense of time, when a large number of non-lactose fer- menters are isolated, these can be first simply put on agar and glucose and such organisms whose reactions agree upon these can have the remaining sugars and fresh agar inoculated, and next day one or more of those with typical. reactions can have its agglutination tested. If preferred the agglutination of all the glucose fermenters can be done on the day earlier. As certain of the sugars are very expensive, there is a prac- tical point in thus saving them worth bearing in mind when extreme quickness is not of importance, as, indeed: for such pur- pose it seldom is. Personally I regard attempts to short-circuit delicate bacteriological tests with considerable disfavour, and feel that though extreme rapidity may appeal to the dramatic instincts of some, it is better to proceed carefully and cautiously. When time is not of paramount importance I adopt the following scheme whenever a large number of non-lactose fermenters are to be examined :— Day I.—Plate on agar or MacConkey. Day II.—Pick off likely colonies, not less than 25, on to lactose litmus peptone water. Day III.—Examine cultures and reject all showing acid or acid and gas. The remainder are to be put on glucose and agar. Day IV.—Reject all not giving acid on glucose—they are faecalis alkaligenes type bacilli. Some or all of the remaining cultures, which should be coliform bacilli growing in a moist manner on agar, not affecting lactose and producing acid on glucose, and, as a rule, should be motile, can have their agglutination reactions tested now, and be put on the remaining sugars, or some or all be put in sugars leaving their agglutination reactions till next day. PPOCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 585 The scientific proof of any organism being B. typhosus is not completely achieved without Pfeiffer’s test, but for practical pur- poses an organism giving typical reactions on the above sugars and agglutinating equally with an anti-typhoid serum as does the stock strain can be pronounced practically certain B. typhosus. A practical point in the examination of feces is that in sus- pected typhoid cases or carriers giving a negative result, a second examination after the administration of a cholagogue purgative will often give a positive result. One carrier examined by me showed on the first examination only one colony of B. typhosus out of 60 likely colonies picked off agar plates. Later a fresh examination after a cholagogue pur- gative yielded nearly five times as great a typhosus non-typhosus ratio. Using the above methods in the routine examination of a very large number of specimens of urine, feces, &c., I have obtained excellent results. In the Department’s laboratory, how- ever, much fuller biochemical tests are used, and as a result of such full tests as are shown in the Table I., I have come to have the greatest confidence in them as a means of separating B. typhosus from its allies, even without the agglutination reaction. In the course of the last three years’ work, in no case has any organism been found giving sugar reactions completely iden- tical with B. typhosus, except those from sources strongly sus- pected of harbouring the typhoid bacilli, and these organisms in all cases fulfilled the agglutination test. Pseudotyphoid organisms have been recovered on several occasions, and, curiously, always in circumstances where one strongly suspected the presence of the true organism; but, as will be seen in Table I., are always separable biochemically from the true bacillus. In one case a slight agglu- tination reaction was given, but not to anything like the same degree of dilution as the stock culture gave. Although I have labelled these cultures pseudotyphoid, I am aware that certain of them are perhaps closer allied to the Bacillus dysenteriae of Flexner. For a further discussion of the organisms I.would refer to a paper by me in 1911 (4). Before leaving this part of the subject, the very interesting method of Dean (5) calls for a brief note. If it is confirmed, it seems to provide one of the quickest and simplest methods of feces examination. He makes plates from the feces on agar, and -uses an extract of the growth as antigen in complement fixation tests. He finds that even when the typhoid bacilli are added to a plate overgrown with colon bacilli, in so small amount as one loop, the reaction gives a positive result. Practical experiments show that this method, controlled with ordinary cultural methods, gives exceedingly accurate results. 586 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. Principal Considerations in the Investigation of Typhoid Outbreaks. The first point to be determined by the investigator of any outbreak of disease is whether or not the epidemic is true tpyhoid fever or some disease such as paratyphoid, resembling it. This, thanks to modern bacteriological methods, is now a fairly easy matter to definitely settle. In this diagnostic part of the work the bacteriologist and clinician should collaborate whenever pos- sible. Blood cultures should be made, and always they should be considered the essential thing to be done, as by this means an earlier diagnosis can be arrived at, that by the Widal (6). One case which came under my notice showed the value of the method in a striking manner. A man came into hospital with a typical history of acute food poisoning. He had not been ailing before and went to work, which was some type of manual labour, at 5 o’clock a.m. He felt well till after breakfast, when he became violently ill, with purging and vomiting. Next day he was com- paratively well, but being interested in the question of possible bacteriezmia in such cases, I made a blood culture and recovered I. typhosus, mixed with staphylococci ( ? from the skin). The man had then no symptoms (except a slight temperature) even suggestive of typhold, but some three or four days later developed a typical mild attack. The case, full details of which I am, I regret, unable to obtain, presents a pretty problem in several ways, but strongly upholds the value of blood culture. Besides the blood culture the pathologist has two other valu- able tests—the Widal reaction ard the leucocyte count. The Widal reaction gives results inferior to the blood culture, because it is often late in being developed, whereas blood culture should sueceed during the first week. The Widal reaction is also open to more errors of technique than is usually believed. When a few tests are done by a person fully conversant with the method and its fallacies, the test is more valuable, but when a large num- ber of tests are required, and when necessarily some of the work must be done by less skilled assistants, the percentage of erroneous results rapidly increases. The principal sources of error are an uneven emulsion, too old culture, and erroneous dilution. The often-used method of dilution by loopfuls is, in my experience, most erroneous—a dilution supposed to be 1-60 may certainly vary between 1-120 or 1-30, probably even more widely. The best method of dilution is with the ordinary Wright’s capillary pipette. A mark is made with a blue pencil and one volume of serum is sucked up, then nine volumes of saline—each volume is separated by a bubble. These are mixed on a watch glass or well slide, and from this 1-10 dilution in a similar way a 1-30 dilution is made. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 587 Equal volumes of a well-prepared emulsion of B. typhosus (made by mixing in a little saline on a well slide a loopful of growth from an agar slope), and the 1-30 serum are taken up, well mixed, and a small drop used to make a hanging drop preparation. The value of the Widal reaction for the examination of large numbers of serums is therefore to some extent impaired, and a useful accessory, especially in cases of urgency, where the blood culture method is not so applicable is the leucocyte count. Especially is this count useful when the diagnosis of a doubtful case rests between typhoid and some inflammatory condition, such as appendicitis. A leu- cocyte count of 6,000 or less is considered by some almost as diag- nostic in an abdominal case, suggesting typhoid as a Widal, and al- though I should not quite go this far, there is no doubt that a low leucocyte count is an extremely characteristic feature of typhold fever. The examination of the stoolsor urine, though perfectly practicable by a well organized bacteriological laboratory, working in conjunction with the health authorities, is not usually necessary or profitable for the purpose of diagnosis. Having diagnosed the nature of the epidemic, and having made arrangements for -the bacteriological diagnosis of each fresh sus- picious case as it crops up, a definite understanding of the lines of campaign of the research into the cause of the epidemic should be laid down, and all the workers should meet and clearly be made to understand what is required of them. It is the greatest possible advantage that every available fact should be made use of in the elucidation of the problem, and no better way can be found to do this than to have not only the services of a competent bacterio- Icgist, as before mentioned in the actual field of operations, but to enlist the services of the practitioners of the district, who, if ap- proached in the right manner, are only too willing to help, and often possess knowledge of facts that are absolutely essential to the investigation, and which are very difficult to be got directly by a Government officer. As previously stated, if there has been a properly organized cuse-index system kept by the health authorities, much light will frequently be thrown on the probable cause of the trouble at an early stage. From such an index it is easy to see, as the cases are reported, whether there is any possible relationship to milk or water—two very important possible means of spread. It is of the greatest value also when an epidemic is being es- pecially investigated to have a number of printed or type-written forms, which can be filled in by the practitioners concerned, and which are arranged so as to bring out important points, especially 588 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. as to the time of onset, water, and milk, and food supply, relation to other cases, length of residence, district, visits to other districts or into zones of infections. (A form suitable for such a purpose is attached). All the work of the investigation should be founded on the known means of spread of the typhoid bacillus, and naturally the more usual and likely possibilities of spread should be first exhausted. Thus water and milk supply should be most carefully considered in relation to the cases, as it is frequently a waste of time to bacteriologically examine either unless a very good prima facie case can be made out epidemiologically. Fly-food or fly-milk carriage are two other important possibilities to be considered. It is perhaps most important to remember that typhoid infec- tion is virtually always excretal infection, and that the primary source of the disease is almost invariably the urine or feces of a previous case. Such interesting possibilities as direct contact, air infection, sputum or sweat infection, and corpse-water pellution, must be regarded by the practical man, in the light of present day knowledge, as possibilities only, and if we are to get the best result for our trouble we would be well advised to confine ourselves, until we can absolutely exclude their action, to the con- sideration of fecal or urinary infection (1) by water, (2) by milk or food, (3) by flies. Fecal or urinary infection is often secondary through contamination of hands. Though sweat may play a part in infection by milk or food, we will not err greatly in considering excreta as the primary source of most outbreaks. Having accumulated facts from every case and from the local practitioners, a consideration of these will frequently give one a clue to the origin of the outbreak. The great object of the epidemiological investigation is to find the common bond uniting the cases (not necessarily all the cases, for some may be secondarily infected, and some may have an origin quite independent of the general outbreak). We may be able to trace a common water or milk supply in the infected and not in the unaffected; we may be able to find that the cases have been at some dinner (7) or festivity together at the time corre- sponding to infection or in the company of some particular person or in some particular place. Some article of food may have been sold in the district and consumed by the sick persons at that time such as oysters, shellfish. All these facts will be brought out by the case-sheets and card index systems. We may on the other hand be able to trace no such relationship, and then it is for the investigator to find if there is any explanation of the facts PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 589 upon consideration of the sewage disposal system, especially in relation to flies. Virtually, therefore, there are two great pos- sibilities—firstly, direct excretal pollution of food, milk, water, such as occurs in the excreta-water, excreta-milk, excreta-food- stuff, items of infection; and, secondly, fly pollution, which prac- tically must be an excreta-fly-food or excreta-fly-milk outbreak. In the second or excreta-fly group, the means of infection is fairly obvious. With the first group, however, the initial con- tamination of the water, milk, or food-stuff may be very hard to trace. With water and milk the problem is perhaps easier than with food, for the latter, especially if it be shellfish or ice cream, has often quite a long history before the time it is made up and sold to the consumer, and opportunities for infection may occur in very many points in its commercial history. With all means of infection of typhoid the long incubation period often hides the primary infecting agent, but this is all the more so with certain varieties of food, and thus it is, although such epidemics must occur, we so seldom hear of a proved case of cold meat, brawn, or cold pudding infection. The food stuff has gone a fortnight before the case develops—there is no chance of sheeting home the bacteriological proof. In the case of repeated infection that occurs, say in the case of a carrier milk infection, the actual demonstration of the bacilli in the milk may be possible, and in any case the chain of evidence will lead in many cases fairly directly to the carrier probably em- ployed in some part of the process of milk preparation or dis- tribution. Similarly in the case of water infection, although the actual bacilli giving rise to the first series of cases will not be often recoverable, still in certain cases the source of infection, unfiltered sewage or excreta, may give rise to further infections of the water during one of which periods the bacilli may be re- coverable. I should like to point out here how a rarely occurring chain of citcumstances may be required for the spread of infec- tion from a certain source, and that although the source may be all the time present the infection from it may only occur at com- paratively rare intervals. Thus a chronic carrier working in a dairy may only prove infectious under certain exceptional circum- stances. His hands may, if he is reasonably clean, only rarely be contaminated from feces or urine, and again it may only be a rarely occurring circumstance that will enable him to inoculate the milk. For instance, he may only rarely be employed as a milker, or infection may occur on some isolated occasion when perhaps he has removed a fly, &c., from the milk with his finger. Again it is well to remember that typhoid fever most likely re- quires a massive infection, and that most likely only when cir- cumstances allow multiplication of the bacilli after the accidental 590 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. inoculation of the infective material, or else when there are pos- sibilities of repeated small doses, does infection occur. The oc- currence of cases where a single act of pollution of food or milk results in successful infection of one or more human beings may therefore probably be considered as having presented opportunity for incubation in the chain leading from excreta to case. From certain considerations the opportunities for successful spread by food may be even more narrowly circumscribed, for, from bacteriological data, I have a strong feeling that it is sterile or relatively sterile food, milk, &c., which, accidentally inoculated with B. typhosus, is the most likely medium for causing a suc- cessful spread. We know that it is sterilized food such as brawn, tinned food, sausages, cooked cold meats, &c., that are the usual vehicles of spread of food poisoning infection, and the natural presumption is that they form more suitable media for growth and multiplica- tion of accidentally inoculated organisms, and it seems probable that in the spread of the typhoid bacillus a similar favouring in- fluence will occur. There is no doubt that side by side with other organisms B. typhosus is a relative weakling under ordinary artificial cultural conditions, and the degree of its multiplication is almost undoubtedly facilitated by the absences of most of the organisms likely to be present in, say, milk; whether the inhibi- tion of the growth of B. typhosus is due to the presence of the bacilli, or simply to the acidity produced, is immaterial here; it can be taken, I feel sure, that the more the milk or food ap- proaches sterility the more suitable the opportunity for multi- plication. Relative sterility is found in quite fresh milk, boiled milk, boiled puddings, cold meat, &c. To return to the question of our investigation—the fixation of the probable date of infection of the cases. This can be as- sumed to be about fourteen days before the definite onset of the illness, but unfortunately longer or shorter incubation periods are known (8). Also very important is the consideration of the relation borne by the cases to each other. Sometimes there are ‘‘ explosive ”’ outbreaks where a large number of cases develop the sickness on or about the same date, strongly pointing to an infection occurring on one particular date. This may occur in water infection, but it is likely to be found that the first explosion will be followed by more cases for some time afterwards, depending on the nature of the pollution of the water, whether it be by some temporary PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 591 escape into it of raw fecal matter or to a more continued entry of infectious material. Explosive outbreaks also occur in other circumstances, and there are notable cases after the common eating of a certain food-stuff as by diners at a banquet. An unrepeated explosive outbreak is rather characteristic of such a mode of infection, but is quite possible under several other ‘circumstances such, for instance, as a milk infection where the combination of circumstances permitting the infection of the milk has only occurred once. The discovery of chronic carriers of the typhoid bacillus has undoubtedly thrown much light on the origin of certain outbreaks, but has in many ways complicated the question. Nowadays one has always to remember that the original source of the infective excreta may be either a case or a carrier, and also that the carrier may give no history of typhoid fever, and present no symptoms of illness, and may show no evidence of antibodies in the blood, and give a negative Widal reaction (9). I do not propose, in this necessarily sketchy paper, to deal at any length with the carrier problem, but would here give a word of warning to “‘carrier’’ enthusiasts. A carrier is, at most, a source of infection, no doubt often a very puzzling element, be- cause of his or her special possibilities of spreading the bacillus possibly over a large area, whereas the range of action of a case is necessarily limited, but, provided we keep it in mind that the origin of the spread may be the feces of either case or carrier I think we will do well not to allow the carrier idea to dominate our minds. It is well to remember that there are numerous well-attested instances of other modes of infection, and there seems a danger nowadays, in the hurry to track down carriers, of for- getting other, shall I say more ‘‘old fashioned,’’ ideas. It is interesting to note how seldom nowadays one hears of water in- fection, and yet there are the seemingly incontestable bacterio- logical facts shown in the records by Losener (10), Kubler and Neufeld (11), Hankin (12), Fischer and Flatau (13), Tavel (14), Konradi (15), Jaksch and Rau (16), Snolsener (17), and others to prove that it certainly is a big factor to be reckoned with. Bacteriological work does not properly come into use in this part of the investigation of an epidemic until, from a considera- tion of the facts obtainable by the above-mentioned methods, the evidence begins to point in one or other direction. But let me not be misunderstood—the bacteriologist is all the time being employed in the early diagnosis of cases as they crop up, and is thus materially aiding in the work, as each case as soon as diagnosed 592 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. is made to divulge its train of connexions by the replies of the practitioners to the questions on the circulated sheets referred to. But bacteriological research as an aid to the inquiry as to the primary focus as contrasted with its use in precise diagnosis should not be entered upon until the epidemiological considerations begin to point in a particular direction, or when it is thought likely to definitely settle some moot point such as the possibility of some person being a carrier, &c. Though I am anxious to express my views as to the great importance of a bacteriological investigation being made into each and every epidemic, and even — if possible into every case of enteric, and am sure that it is only through bacteriological methods that it is possible to com- plete the proof of any particular theory as to the primary cause of an outbreak, yet JI am also anxious to protest against the indiscriminate examination of samples of water, milk, &., often leading to a great waste of time and material, and in the big bulk of cases quite a useless proceeding. Unless evidence points very strongly to the infectivity of such substances it is little use examining them. To repeat this in a different way—first, all the epidemiological data should be most carefully considered, and in the majority of cases the outcome of logical reasoning, based on well-collected and considered data, will point the way in one direction, and narrow the field, and show where the bacteriologist is likely to find a really useful occupation—thus we shall save time and much material. Having, I believe, now, even though in a somewhat tabloid form, indicated the lines along which investigations as to the origin and spread of an epidemic should be pursued, I wish to indicate in a still more tabloid form the means needed to prevent them. First and foremost, is an efficient sanitary disposal system, preventing the pollution of water and the spread of infection by fies. For this country it is not possible to dispense with conser- vation systems of excretal removal, but we should be able to do a great deal by education, and possibly by penalising legislative measures to make people keep their closets dark to prevent the entrance of flies, and to cover the excreta thoroughly, and to close the lid of the excreta receptacle and the door. It would be, one would imagine, possible to do a great deal by local health com- mittees, or some such means, and the framing of regulations as to the construction of closets in all towns, villages, &c. Much has been said of fly infection, and it is a deadly enough menace in this country, but the means to prevent fly infection is mot, as has been said, to kill the flies. Virtually that is im- possible. We must break the other link in the chain, stop the flies having access to the fxces. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 593 In many parts sewerage should be insisted upon, and it is really cheaper for any country to build sewers than to face typhoid epidemics. In the absence of this, in certain coastal districts and other parts where drinking water cannot be contaminated by their leakage, cess-pits, as advocated by my colleague, Dr. Cleland, are the proper thing for the climate. Generally, they are remarkably free from flies, and built with discretion, under the supervision of a medical man, and with due regard to the position of drinking water supplies, they are very harmless. They are, in fact, primi- tive septic tanks, and in many scattered districts they should be installed instead of earth closets. They are fool proof, fly proof, and their almost universal condemnation in favour of pan closets is surely a relic of the days preceding the fly theory of infection. In closely-populated England, with every stream a water supply, they are justly condemned, but we surely need not follow blindly without taking the trouble to see that in very many districts in Australia cess-pits are not undesirable. I call to mind a scene in a small coastal village, built on the edge of the cliffs close to the ocean. Groups of earth closets, all open-doored, hot and sunny and filled with flies, and in all the feces uncovered and typhoid in the district. Deeply sunk cess-pits, which would have drained through some hundreds of feet only into the sea, would have been quite harmless, and would seem quite obviously the solution of the preblem. The second desideratum is an efficient system of having all cases notified and kept under the observation of the health authorities. Each case should be studied bacteriologically, and at least two examinations of the feces should prove negative before the patient is allowed to pass out of the observation and control of the authori- ties. If the case becomes a carrier, or if a carrier be detected other- wise, methods of education are probably the most practical solu- tion of the difficulty, for legislative methods are at present almost impracticable. The third measure required, and I think amply justified by the results to date, is compulsory typhoid vaccination. Its simplicity, painlessness, and the extremely beneficial results shown by figures to date, recommend it, and in a semi-tropical country such as ours where typhoid is always present, I am convinced it should be given the benefit of a fair trial. In the actual handling of any particular epidemic methods of isolation and, when circumstances demand, removals to hospital, disinfection of feces, urine, &c., are called for. Destruction of property is practically a useless piece of absurdity, and my last word in this paper is to condemn the policy of form- alinising and disinfection and destruction in the case of a disease the vast number of instances only spread by an excreta—mouth chain. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 594 “peyse, ZOU = + “AMpPIO’ 4yBYyS AIBA = ZV ‘ou Ye = "HV “pov smyop= y “FysNs prove “WAOHTOO = "]0o ‘“WO4DCIT OU IO GAIQVSIU = — “sNTPOv of}yOUL-Tou — GWU “SnypoeG gfIZOUL — qUL ‘SsnyOVG ayWO0W A[ZYSI[S — quis ses Jo qunowe jjeuis AI0A ev poonpord sSAep [BI9AeS J09ze AjUO pu IsUIIOJ SPS-uoU V sea sSuIpvoI AjIva 8Y4 UT wstes10 sug, + ae eee eee SSS -.0.0_0OV]OO3490—_aaom™”] proydé4 poze] | | | | | “NUS TWOTJOOFUL | | | lee | | | [eurysequroruorya | | el | sie | | | jo oseo @ wong) — |+/-|-|— — /-/8V Se ay | S18. et | SV [ys eo ah Phe (100 fe LTA ‘org s104sX0 es Plea ce Gao Ie =) | poqyoodsns worg}; — |—-|-|-/- —|-|¥ “SI. BV =| al Meme | oh VS ie | USS a POO ee De "A OVE einyeu % WOT} | | | | ie | ~OOFUT [BUTSOFUT (= lies sa heucate| Sens heehet Weta) Wale) se |= ov NS) OY VERE —|"Joo}—| quis | ** "AT ‘ovg ages orm TOS | tee || —\alleg Siete) Was Ve et tee Y eV Vat | Tes ams ere sojdures eAIsse00ng = Sle el Wl Vc) Vee ah ee |W eV) S| Vo Sa 10 uae) “TI ‘org 4U9089TPA OO [erty ales | beat ss | aaa proyddy © wor | s+ |+/-|-|-; VW) Vi|-|—|-| Vim} Ve? eB) vv OF) G8 =O | RISE ae” ‘J Ord | ces | | | | | xo} Ie yay as ae Gel me | Ve eee Vee) Se VE AE ey Oe. errequeskp “g UWINTpeul asoulq ea) | I | lil | (eaty -e1B UO YAOI | =| | Shem bo alie S| Sates | | | |-o'@ 9SOUTG IR) aS UG Ordee OT Hy | est ae alo a ia Vee i Se EW) Py ye ie | | ae snsoyd43 “*g eTpoUur 9410 Sy ira eo eam a | (9a [np uo YyAoIs | | (eee | | | es | -oe8 yoyLOTNp) pesuojord soyy| + |-|-|-|-|yi- -|-\-i-|vi-| vi - | —|ViV/V| ® /®{ei—|tooj—| que | snsoydAy “gq SUTRIYS 3904S hms" | | | LG jo suomovoy | + |—|—|-|—| ¥|— Sale al ia ev Sl Pees SCS stews -+ snsoyd4y “gf PreplBElEIS/ SE FlE\BE/SISE/E\E\EE/2] glsleleis ie] & Gere Seis) S/F SSigie| Slais || Sif 2)8) = eles" |B] = Peas iei2 12) 2/3) Filial | Sie) S| 2) 3 18) Fi) s |) * Fis g Sep] | alee or ae = 3 ® lie “| : * SqyIvUlayL eat | legs [P| il | 5 | | | ON = Foe | ie ‘uorrqnouy SAtq INO, | | “MITA | ae Oa oe de ae es eS eee me ‘wauxayy arsayuashp “gq YyIM pure snsoydhy "gq yo suresys payvonps puw [wordAy yy porvdwio0o poyrpost swustuvsio proydAjopnesd SurMoys aay, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 595 Form To BE FILLED IN By MEDICAL PRACTITIONER ATTENDING TypPHoIp CASE. Eikial niainiic awit wine aic\ele, wir d's ee, wlaleie,@.0 6 0510) 6.0 6/0 6 0a \o,6- 0S .0 uw 6.00 6. © 4'B)s «818 0'6 0 6.6) 6 5) Sains: alo 90/0) 6) 0).eiie Ole) Alea ee Piplacatt ata a cca dalle sa) ai ain! © m_@iwnte in en s.e A\e\e.8) b wih iele.0 a a. a)e,e »\0;0. 9 5/m a 060 @ 6.0 \n. Be @ O10. 61e)0 © 60's on 816) a) 60.0 6) Sim aa alae Dida ain ets il w[sleic.al dno ela icle’esle)s cele au elas melas wt '@.\6 Slele S57 500 a= (ig D's ©) 4's 0) F 5 6 O)e\e Se pe cae) Rees Aa ees Risa et nyuia wb a wa wis lehd) sie. w.6 wed eG. 61616016 a sle'e 6.6 s\s cla. ie ss 6h aids 6 61s: 0'6\0 6/6 0) 60:0 |e 6 Ula e &)e)\ 0/0) =m Sn asa mies Have there been other cases in the household previously, if so, "7 TL LTTU Lyte pion Caneinegayae yi el ne ibe ah carer rh eft Siena en How long has patient been in district, and has he been on visit lately, and, if so, where and when ?................--.-.0eseeeeeeeeereees What is the water supply used by the patient? Has he drunk water elsewhere? If so, when and where?....................s0eeee: What is the milk supply used by the patient? Has he had milk élsewhore ti Lf iso, when? and) where i ))i04. 2.0088. .000.. ole ae CCC eRe OOS OHO SO ERE HERES HOSEN ORES COO SESEEEE SHOES ESE SESS EHR EEEESEF SSE SEES EOF DEES HSESS Ase there, many Hes I The, MOUSE ?........225:..-01-n0cmereceaerecensemsnen RE RR ete aE pak sont pies td gawd tinct in ants apwadpeiee he aaa Cee reer deere sere s eres ereseseseressereeseseseeeTeeSeEEeeresesesres®vesesseoee®onesesone Come merece reece sere reese eee Heese desesessesereessseeeessseseeseseHesstsseeeseestessseeee® . Finckh, A.M. Gazette, 27th July, 1912, p. 85. . Tebbutt, A.M. Gazette, 20th April, 1911, p. 195. . MacConkey, Journal of Hygiene, 1908, p. 322. Burton Bradley, A.M. Gazette, 20th January, 1911, p. 13. Dean, HB BMs., 1910, Viol. 11, p. 1516. . Tebbutt, loc. cit. . Bulstrode, An. Rep. L.G.B., 1902-3, Supplement, p. 29. . Osler’s Medicine. . Ledingham and Arkwright, The Carrier Problem and Infectious Diseases, Ed. Arnold, 1912, pp. 102 and 120. © COO “1D OF PP ©} He 596 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 10. Losener, Arb. a.d.K.Ges., Bd. XI., quoted by Konradi loc. cit. 11. Kubler and Neufeld, Zeit f. Hyg., XXXI., 1898, quoted by Konradi, loc. cit. 12. Hankin, Cent. fur Bakt., Abt. 1, XXVII., 544, 1899. 13. Fischer and Flatau, Cent, f. Bakt., Abt. 1, XXIX., 1901, quoted by Konradi. 14. Tavel, Cent. f. Bakt., Bd. 33, p. 166, 1903. 15. Konradi, Cent. f. Bakt., 1904. 16. Jaksch and Rau, Cent. f. Bakt., Bd. 36, p. 584, 1904. 17. Snolsener, Cent. f. Bakt., Bd. 38, 1904. 3. SOME DESIDERATA IN AUSTRALIAN HYGIENE. By J. W. Springthorpe, M.A., M.D., Lecturer on Hygiene in the University of Melbourne. To my mind, the more important desiderata in Australian hygiene may be summarized as follows :— 1. The need of a true conception of what Health and Disease really are.—The individual should be educated to know the de- pendence of both health and disease upon law—physical, vital, and psychical, the immutability and universality of these laws, the place of inheritance, development, evolution, and environment in sanitary conditions, and his duty in these respects to himself, primarily, and also to the State of which he forms part, and which necessarily reacts upon his own individuality. This means a place for Hygiene in the educational curriculum, allied to that claimed for it by Herbert Spencer, but still far beyond that allotted to it under present conditions. 2. The best Practical Application of this true conception by the different Sanitary Authorities, Municipal Councillors, Legts- lators, déc.—This can be possible only when the individuals are per- sonally convinced of the vital importance of these considerations to the public health. Only then can we expect suitable and suffi- cient action in regard to such questions as children’s play-grounds, public parks, garden cities, proper housing, prevention of infection, overcrowding, disposal of refuse, &c. 3. Efficient Sanitary Service.—This can be only when medical officers of health are full time officers, with Public Health Diplomas, when inspectors are trained, certificated, and sufficient, and when PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 597 the central sanitary authority has mandatory as well as educa- tional powers. It will be largely hampered, if not seriously crippled, also, so long as the Minister of Health holds other, and, to him, more important Ministerial offices, and is one of the least instead of one of the most experienced and trusted members of the Cabinet. Under the best of conditions, of course, the sanitary millenium will be long in coming. Defective inheritance, imperfect ‘develop- ment, incomplete evolution, ignorance and disobedience will still run their course. Disease due to ignorance will probably be the first to disappear, but only when all come to know and recognise the laws of health. Disease due to disobedience will linger on until all are willing as well as able to obey. Disease due to inheritance must remain until the pendulum has swung back to its original invulnerability. 4. Finally, a great uplift might follow the issue of an authorita- tive and authorized plan of compaign. The present authorities, good as we know them to be, are too limited in their powers, and too marked with the scars of conflict to gain complete acceptance. Both States and Commonwealth need, and would, I believe, welcome some accredited outside guidance. They have become accustomed to expect and to receive some such from different sections of this great Congress. This section contains, or- can command the best available advice, both as regards theory and practice. And any such pronouncement as it might agree upon, circulated with the information of the Congress as a whole, could not fail to be accepted and utilized by our rulers. Properly pre- pared, such a circular note would, in my opinion, do more to advance sanitation throughout the Commonwealth than any other single step that can be at present taken. I would suggest, therefore, that the section appoint a sub-com- mittee authorized to take such action in this direction as seems to it best. 4.-A MODEL CLASS-ROOM. By Reuter LE. Roth, D.S.0., U.R.C.S. Eng., Officier de ° Vinstruction- publique. As a School Medical Inspector, I have been astonished to find a want of uniformity in the shape, size, construction, and arrange- ment of the class-room. This is even a, in schools sup- posed to be up to date. : 598 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. The following suggestions may be of use for the guidance of those who design and build our schools. Experience teaches us what we require in Australia, without constantly imitating Northern Hemisphere methods. Every school child requires 15 square feet. The average for New South Wales is 10 square feet. Considering the warm climate and the greater activity of the skin, I do not consider 10 square feet sufficient. The area of the room will depend on the numbers occupying it. An average class numbers about 48 children, and the superficial area required would be 48 Xx 15 — 720 square feet. This is not excessive, as it makes no allowance for the teacher and furniture. In most books on School Hygiene it is mentioned that the child vitiates 2,000 cubic feet of air per hour, that is, raises the percent- age of carbon dioxide from .04 to .06; the latter percentage, we are told, is unhealthy, and unfit for breathing purposes. This vitiated air must be replaced by an equal amount of fresh air every hour. It would be impossible to provide such a cubic space for every child; we are, however, able to bring about a similar result by utilizing a smaller space and replenishing the air more often. Every child should be allowed 200 cubic feet of air space, and this would necessitate the renewal of all the air every six minutes to prevent the percentage of carbon dioxides totalling more than .06 per cent. The cubic space divided by the superficial area will give us the elevation of the room: 200 + 15 — 134 feet. A class-room for 48 children should have an area of 720 square feet and an elevation of 134 feet. The shape of the room is either oblong or square. It should be oblong, and the teacher and children so placed that they face the short sides. In many cases an oblong room is used where the occupants face the long sides; this is absolutely wrong. In THE OBLONG Room. _ There will be more room for the teacher and his appliances. The teacher will face a smaller frontage, and will be able to supervise without moving his head or position. Standing with the arms outstretched sideways, it is impossible to see the hands whilst facing straight to the front. As the arms approach a right angle, both hands become visible. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 599 The teacher should form the right angle of the triangle of which the front row of the seats is the hypotenuse. The room is narrower, and the light has not so far to travel across, and there is a better reflection from the opposite walls to light up the spaces between the windows. In THE SQuaRE Room. The teacher’s space is cramped. The teacher will have to face a very large frontage, and will have to constantly turn his head to supervise, or place himself at the left side of the class, with his back to the window, in order to obtain a better view. This will cause the children to turn to the left and face the light. The light has to travel further, and there is much less reflec- tion from the opposite wall. I have often noticed as great a difference as over two candle-power in the light on the desks on the two sides. The room must not be too long for ordinary vision or for normal hearing. From experiments that I made, I believe the sides of the room should be in the proportion of about 5 to 4. An ideal class-rcom for 48 children should be 30 feet in length, 24 feet in breadth, and have an elevation of 134 feet. This would allow every child to have about, but not quite, 200 cubic feet of air space. Illumination should be from the left and right. We are right- handed, and therefore the greater amount of light should be from the left. This will not cast unnecessary shadows during writing, drawing, and reading. In reading, the book should be held in such a way that the left page is illuminated by the reflected light from the right page, whilst the latter is directly illuminated by the windows on the left. In most text-books it is stated that the illuminating space should be equal to one-fifth of the floor space; this is not suffi- cient according to experiments I made with Dr. Bishop-Harman’s photometer. The least amount of light is on the desks on the left between the windows.. This can be obviated by not having the left column of desks too close to the window wall, and by having the walls painted a light colour. The usual dark dado, which does not show up dirty finger marks, allows very little reflection of light. 600 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. Ventilation in the class-room depends on change of tempera- . ture, wind, and diffusion. Excellent results can be brought about by the proper construc- tion, position, and use of windows. it Spirometers— Simplex Gasometer PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. [Upper side of Card.] Commonwealth of Australia. ANTHROPOMETRICAL INVESTIGATION OF State of — Class of school (State or Private)— Locality of school (town, shire, parish, &c.)— Particulars relative to pupil— Name— Sex— Date of birth— Birthplace— Birthplace of father— S of father’s father— ee of father’s mother— $5 of mother— ~ of mother’s father— 3 of mother’s mother— Occupation of parent or guardian— 615 SCHOOL PUPILS. [OVER 616 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. [Reverse side of Card.]} ——= MEASUREMENTS. The additional lines are for successive periodic measurements of the same pupil. | Chest.§ | Diameters, Height.t | Weight.t | Circum- | ——-——— | Remarks. | ference. enters Lung or | posterior, | Lateral. Chana | Age.* Class = | Max.| Min. | Max.! Min. | Max.) Min. | * Age in years and months at date of measurement. {+ Height to nearest 4 inch or centimetre ——} Weight to nearest Jb. or kilogramm:. § Maximum and minimum circum- pal a nearest centimetre taken respectively after deep inspiration and after complete expiration. [OVER PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. EXAMPLE OF TABULATION SHEET. 617 Nore.—There will be a similar table for each sex, and for each half-year of age.) Central Age (e.g., 64 years—i.e., 61 to 6% years). TABLE OF HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS. Mates (on FEMALES), vertical column). Notr.—Swuitable Weights in lbs. will be printed in Number of Children whose Weight in lbs. was (and whose Height in inches was that shown in here. Total Number Children of each Height Height ducts Pro- Number of Children whose Height in Inches was (and whose Weight was that shown in horizontal line). Notr.—Suitable heights in half-inches will be printed here. | Weight. Total Number Children of of each Weight Products. Average Weight— Average Height— Results, checked or not checked. Grand Total Grand Total Number of Children Weight Products Giand Total Height | Products 618 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. VIII.—INSTRUCTIONS- RECORD CARD AND TABULATION SHEET. Commonwealth of Australia. Anthropometric Investigation of School Pupils. (i) PRrELMOUNARY OBSERVATIONS. The following instructions have been drafted with the object of securing uni- formity in the method of making observations and in the tabulation of anthro- pometric data throughout Australia. They should be complied with strictly. Height should be obtained for each pupil. Weight should be obtained for each pupil wherever a satisfactory weighing machine is available. Chest measurements should be undertaken only by observers who have had practical instruction in the technique of such measurements and when proper instruments are available. (ii) THe Record Carp. A separate card is to be used for each pupil; white cards for boys and red cards for girls. Class of School. State whether the school is a State or non-State school, including as “* State ” schools all those which are under the control of the State Education Department, and as “non-State ” all those which are not under such control. Locality of School. State clearly the name not only of the city, town, village, &c., in which the school is situated, but also the name (if any) of the street, road, &c. Where school has a number, that should be also added. Name. Insert surname first, and underline it, then add the christian name or names. Sex. Write M for male and F for female. Date of Birth. Give day of month, number of month, and year of birth thus: 6 July, 1902— 6.7.02. Where the exact date of birth cannot be ascertained, estimate the year of birth as nearly as practicable, and set down “ 30th June ? ” as the foe adding the query mark (?) to show that the date is an estimate only. Birthplace. Insert as completely as practicable particulars relative to the birthplaces of the pupil and of his or her parents and grandparents. Birthplaces so inserted should be the country or Australian State of birth, not county, town, or village. Occupation of Parent or Guardian. State briefly the occupation of parent or guardian, giving, however, sufficient detail to enable the occupation to be duly classified. If more than one occupation is followed, mention all, underlining that which is of most importance to such parent or guardian. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. 619 MEASUREMENTS. On the back of the card provision is made for the record of a series of measure- ments, according to the method of the British Anthropometric Committee. They should be made as nearly as practicable at regular intervals. Date. In the column headed date, insert the date (in figures, ¢.g., 3.7.12) on which the Measurements enumerated in the succeeding columns were effected. Class. Insert school class or grade, Age. In the column headed “ Age,” insert the age in completed years and months at the date on which the measurements are performed. For example, in the case of a child born 5th September, 1900, and measured Ist June, 1912, the age should be stated as 11.8, since 11 years and 8 months had been completed on 5th May, 1912, amd 11 years and 9 months would not be completed until 5th June, 1912. Height. Insert the heights asrecorded to nearest $inch. For example, every child whose height lies between 423 and 423 inches must be set down as 42} inches. In all cases state height in inches and half inches. All heights recorded must be heights ascertained when the pupil is measured without boots. Weight. Insert weight to nearest pound. For example, any pupil whose weight was between 854 and 864 lbs. should be recorded as 86 lbs. The weight is to be given for the body as without clothes, boots, &c. Ifthe weight is measured with clothes, &e., subtract their weight and give the result as diminished. ‘Tables of the approximate weight of clothing will be supplied. Chest Measurements. Four columns are provided for chest measurements. These measurements should be carried out only when the technique is thoroughly understood, and when the requisite instruments are available, since callipers are required for measuring the antero-posterior and lateral diameters of the chest, and spirometers for recording the lung or so-called vital capacity. The first column relates to the measurement of the circumference of the chest. Provision is made for inserting in this column the record of two measurements, that under the head ‘“‘ max.”’ being the result obtained when measuring after deep inspiration, that under ““min.” when measuring after complete expiration. A similar explanation applies to the measurements to be inserted under the heads “‘ max.” and “ min.” in the succeeding columns. In making the circumference measurements, the following directions should be followed :— (a) Direct the person being measured to hold the arms straight up over the head. (b) Pass the tape horizontally round the chest at the level of the junction of the fourth rib-cartilage with the sternum or breast-bone, then lower arms and holding tape tightly note circumference at end of— (i) Deep inspiration. (ii) Complete expiration (attained py asking the subject to count twenty aloud without inspiring). 620 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. (c) Before removing tape, mark with a coloured pencil the level at which the measurements have been taken. (d) If. the finger be passed from the supra-sternal notch downwards over the front of the sternum or breast-bone, it soon meets a projecting ridge crossing the bone transversely. This gives the level of the second costal cartilage, and taking it as the starting point, the fourth costal cartilage, where it joins the sternum, can easily be determined. In all cases the measurements are to be given to the nearest £ inch or centimetre. In measuring the chest diameters with callipers, the following directions should be observed :—- (a) For the antero-posterior diameter measure from mid-line in front to mid-line behind (sternum to spine of dorsal vertebrae) at the level of the coloured line previously marked. (b) For the lateral diameter take the maximum measurement found with the callipers held horizontally, with the blades tangential to side of chest at the level of the coloured line before mentioned. Both diameters should be measured, (i) in deep inspiration (max.); . (ii) in complete expiration (min.) ; and all measurements should be recorded to the nearest } inch. In using the spirometer the inspiration should be as deep as possible, the complete expiration being into the spirometer. The maximum result of three trials should be given. (iii) THE TABULATION SHEET. Instruction for the Tabulation of Data concerning Heights and Weights in conjunction with Age. 1. After each series of measurements has been completed, sort out the cards relating to pupils who have not participated. 2. Sort the remaining cards into two groups, one for each sex, if the cards are not already.in such order. 3. Next sort each sex-group for ages, grouping cards for children in the same half-year of age. For this purpose group, for example, ages marked 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, and 6.8 together, and tabulate as ‘‘ Central age, 63”; group ages 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 7.0, 7.1, and 7.2 together, and tabulate as central age 7, and so on. {4. All particulars of height and weight in conjunction relating to each sex for each half-yearly “ central age ’’ must be tabulated on a separate tabulation sheet.] 5. Divide all cards in each half-yearly age group into groups according to each half inch of height, as shown in the upper margin of the tabulation sheet. 6. Sort the cards for each height, according to weights in lbs., as indicated in the left-hand margm of the table. 7. Count the number of cards for each height and weight, and enter this number in the appropriate space on the table for that particular half-yearly age. 8. Add the recorded numbers in each table both horizontally and vertically. testing the accuracy of the additions by ascertaining that the horizontal addition of the totals of the column agrees with the vertical addition of the totals of the jines. 9. The information for the space marked “‘ Height Products ” is to be obtained by multiplying the total number of children at the foot of each column by the height shown at the head of such column. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION TI. 621 10. The information for the space marked “ Weight Products” is to be obtained by multiplying the total number of children at the head of each horizontal line by the weight shown at the beginning of that line. 11. The information for the spaces marked ‘‘ Grand Total Height Produets ” and “ Grand Total Weight Products ” is to be obtained by adding the “ Height Products’ (bottom horizontal line) and “‘ Weight Products” (final column) respectively. 12. The information for the spaces marked “ Average Weight ” and “ Average Height ” should be obtained by dividing respectively the ‘‘ Grand Total Weight Products ” and “‘ Grand Total Height Products” by the ‘‘ Grand Total Number of Children.” Express the results in pounds and inches correct to the nearest first decimal. 13. It is presifmed that the results (additions, multiplications, and divisions) will be invariably checked. When results have been checked, rule out the words “not checked “ at the bottom of the table; if they have not been checked, rule out the words “ checked or.” When it is desired to tabulate according to generation, social condition, &c., it is suggested that reference should first be made to the Secretary of the Anthor- pometric Committee of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science. The Committee was re-appointed, and £10 was voted by the Council for éxpenses. The names of the Committee to be as follows :— New South Wales.—Professors David, Mackie, Wilson. Victoria.—Mr. Adamson, Professors Berry, Masson. South Australia.—Mr. Girdlestone, Dr. Ramsay Smith, Chief School Medical Officer, Dr. Gertrude Halley. Queensland.—Drs. Bourne, Breinl, Elkington. West Australia.—Drs. Atkinson and Blackburne. Tasmania.—Dr. Isabel Ormiston, Dr. Purdy. Northern Territory.—Drs. Fry and Holmes. New Zealand.—Drs. Makgill, Te Rangihirua, and Chief School Medical Officer. Commonwealth.—Mr. Knibbs and Dr. Norris. G22 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION I. (6) VENTILATION IN BUILDINGS COMMITTEE. (Sée Vol) XTIT.;/p. LIX), This Committee was, by request, discharged. RESOLUTIONS. The following resolutions were passed :— 1. That a committee be formed, as follews, to report on the disposal of excreta in small towns and rural districts : — Dr. Purdy, Dr. Cleland, Dr. Bradley, Dr. Elking- ton, ‘Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Borthwick, Dr. Mary Booth, Dr. Harvey Sutton, Dr. Ramsay Smith, Dr. Champdeloup (Dunedin); Dr. Cle- land to act as secretary. 2. That the Governments of the Australian States be com- municated with with the recommendation, ‘‘ That medical officers of health should have special quali- fications in public health and sanitary science, and should be whole-time officers. Also, that only whole- time sanitary inspectors, with the certificate of the Royal Sanitary Institute, or equivalent certificate, be appointed. That such inspectors, when appointed by local authorities, be approved by and paid in whole or in part by the central authority.’’ 3. That a separate chair or lectureship in Hygiene and Sanitary Science be established in each medical school. 4. The General Council recommends the Governments of the States of Australia and of the Dominion of New Zealand to hold a conference of the chief medical and veterinary officers from each Government to discuss and report on uniform measures for the con- trol of tuberculosis in cattle and pigs. (This resolu- tion is on the joint recommendation of section 3, and of the sub-section Veterinary Science.) 5. That the following committee be appointed to consider the question of the control of infections diseases in schools: —Dr. Ramsay Smith, Dr. Roth, Dr. Mary Booth, Dr. Eleanor Bourne. Section J. AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. MENTAL SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. ADDRESS BY THE VICE-PRESIDENT : L. A, ADAMSON, M.A., LL.B. (Head Master, Wesley College, Melbourne). In every profession, as, for instance, in medicine, engineering, and dentistry, real advance has always been accompanied by parallel development in two ways, namely, in corporate organiza- tion and in scientific examination of the principles on which the actual work is based. The birth of educational science is so recent that it is, I should say, well within the memories of alk present ; but it is now admitted that the evolution of an accepted science of education is necessary to the progress of the teaching profession. Now in the meetings of this section, the scientific point of view will naturally be the most prominent, and its work assumes a new importance when we realize that we are assisting to develop what is, comparatively speaking, a new science; a most. needed and practical one. ‘‘ As theory grows in scientific precisiom it gains a closer hold on facts and grows more efficient as a guide to action.’’ At the meeting of the Educational Science Section of the British Association last September, Prof. John Adams, in his presidential address, summed up the present position of educatiom as a science. ‘“‘ Educational theory,’’ he said, ‘‘is consolidating. There already exists'a body of educational doctrine that is of general acceptation.’’ He did not claim that education had yet, justified her demand to be recognised as a fully developed science, but that she had at least entered upon the stage of scientific method; she was seeking to free herself from mere empiricism- We had reached the point in education theory when we were passing from an appeal to experience to an appeal to experiment. Experiment was really a system of tentative prophecy under rigidly determined conditions. Psychology was often spoken of as a ©24 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION Jé science, while education was only given a place among the arts. As a matter of fact, education had captured psychology, but it was greatly to the advantage of the latter that it had become an essential part of the professional training of teachers. Still, educa- tion was more than applied psychology, and must not rely too much ‘on another study which itself had an insecure foothold among the ‘sciences. It must establish an objective standard. This objective standard was being evolved gradually by comparison of the results of a large number of observations and experiments. Binet and his collaborators were formulating a series of tests in order that we may eventually measure the average intelligence of children at different ages. Winch and many others were testing certain methods of teaching by scientific examination. For instance, it had been demonstrated that teaching counts for more than practice in preparing pupils to do problems in arithmetic. On the other hand, education was groping for an objective standard to determine which children are defective and which are merely dull. The deci- sion was mainly left to the doctors instead of to the teachers in their knowledge of the mental reactions of the child; because physiology had an objective standard, and education had not. Yet the doctors must obviously be inferior to the teachers. We greatly need investigation into those questions that were most urgently demanding answers among practical educators. The truths thus acquired and recorded could then be classified and correlated with the various investigations being made throughout the world; so there would be a great strengthening of the objective standard so much needed. Professor Adams’ appeal for investigation and experiment of the phenomena of vexed questions in education will not, I hope, fall upon stony ground here in Australia. There is indeed urgent need for investigating our own educational questions. I believe that we keep well abreast of educational experiments; but they are almost entirely the experiments of other parts of the world, and are not always suited to the needs of our children. It is strange that in a country so daring and so original in its social legislation, so careless of the authority of older systems, and so ready to strike out new paths along most lines of activity, our educational methods alone seem to be in slavery, now to America, and now to Europe. It is well to experiment with new ideas from elsewhere, but we are too ready, I think, to adopt rather than ex- periment with new methods that have not yet proved their real value in the country of their birth. Yet, in perhaps the only case where an experiment of our own has been forced upon us by cir- cumstances, we have solved a problem which is still puzzling other English-speaking countries—the problem of creating in day schools, or mixed boarding and day schools, the corporate life of the great English public schools, which are, of course, composed entirely of PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 625 boarders. That this is still a difficulty in England may be judged from the fact that in two famous English day schools, of which I saw something in a recent visit, a penalty was imposed on boys who were found in the school grounds more than half-an-hour after the end of afternoon school. We have here, I believe, the finest material in the world on which to work; material which has characteristics differentiating it in some particulars from any other. Have our educators con- sidered it as such, and endeavoured systematically to.make use of and to emhpasize its strong points, while correcting its peculiar defects? I fear not. And so the voice of Professor Adams comes to us with an additional insistence to investigate the nature of our material, to classify it, to compare it with the results of investigations in other countries. With some objective standards established for our teachers, it will be for them to follow the Aus- tralian plan of trying new methods adapted to the needs of this country. z When I first made the acquaintance of the Australian boy, I rather feared and disliked him. I believe I can speak in more mature age with less prejudice. I know now that what I at first mistook for want of respect is, in most cases, a desire to be friendly and communicative, and that he is much surprised and hurt if his advances are not met in the same spirit as they are offered. The sense of the wide, free spaces of this country comes early to the Australian boy; he has no class consciousness, and ‘‘ is not afraid with any amazement,’’ when he speaks to his elders. He cannot pray, ‘‘ God bless the squire and his relations, and teach us all our proper stations.’’ But I cannot think he is the worse for that. In alertness, self-reliance, and power of initiative, he has no superior ; his breeding, and the nature of this country, make him adven- turous and ready to take risks. His breeding, because the men and women who populated Australia were of the most adven- turous type facing, as they did, a voyage to which this century affords no parallel, and a landing in a strange wild continent of unlimited and mysterious distances. The fatare of his country— because, if it is true that Australians are a gambling people, one must remember (even in this succession of good seasons), that this land of flood and flame is, and must be, a breeder of gamblers, or, to be more polite, of men who willingly take risks. His readi- ness of resource is shown by the fact that Australians who wander, as many do, to make a living abroad, almost invariably succeed, thanks to the merciful Australian theory that no work can degrade aman. When you are brought up never to ask, ‘‘ Who is he 2’ but ‘‘ What does he do?’’ and where the only social disqualifica- tion is idleness, the problem, ‘‘ What to do with our boys’’ is solved by themselves, and satisfactorily to themselves, with much greater ease when they find themselves in foreign lands. Mr. J. 626 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. J. Simons, of Western Australia, who recently took forty Australian boys for a 40,000 mile tour through America, Canada, and Eng- land, speaking on his return, said, ‘‘ One of the saddening things of the trip was the finding of so much Australian brain power working in other lands for the development of those other coun- tries, instead of for their own—men with brains who had gone abroad to get what was denied them in Australia.’’ I think my- self that it is the adventurous spirit more than the denial of oppor- tunities in Australia that takes such men abroad, but the Austra- lian traveller cannot but be struck with the success of his country- men elsewhere in very varied lines of life. Perhaps it is because of these qualities that there is no better follower than the Australian boy. He may not respond to the word ‘‘ go’”’ so readily as other boys, but he always will to the word ‘‘ come,’’ if said in the right tone of voice. But to get the best of him, you must be careful not to give tasks beneath his capacity. You must work him up to the collar, or he will deposit his mind in a corner of the class-room, and put it to sleep. So much for the good side of the material with which we work; there is, of course, an obverse. (i) Our boys are too often brusque in manner—a defect, per- haps, of their qualities. (11) Want of culture. Those who have to do with schools cannot fail to notice the want of cultured tastes among boys, and it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that the homes must be held mainly responsible for this. Here we compare very badly with England and with other countries. (iu) Want of veneration for the opposite sex. It has been fre- quently said that our boys are lacking in reverence and respect for their elders. I have tried to show that in part this is not intended. But it cannot be denied that the average Australian boy is lacking in chivalrous respect for girls of his own age. Nor is he wholly to blame in this matter. There has taken place a gradual, and recently even a rapid breaking down of the old formalities of inter- course between the sexes. The life of camps and beaches so much discussed lately is only symptomatic of the change which has been going on in our social system. Whichever sex may be at fault later on, I say without fear of effective contradiction that, in adolescence, it is almost always the girl who commences the casual acquaintance- ships made in public places, if not by actually accosting the boy, then by what may be mildly termed ‘‘ the look of encouragement.’’ Nothing is more socially amazing than the way in which parents of respectable position allow their daughters to roam the streets un- checked, adding scalps to their belts in an unwholesome rivalry of seeing who can pick up the greatest number of chance acquain- tances. Then follows a correspondence, almost invariably started by the girl. A recent correspondent to a morning paper, after detailing the huntress methods of such girls, pathetically asks PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 627 what we are to do to protect our boys. It is indeed a difficult ques- tion to answer, and I believe that unless we can “bring the suitors’ hands from offering,’’ that unless Mesdames les assassines commencent, there is only one safeguard—to make our boys fastidious, if we can. The pulpit has so far failed; has the teacher tried his best? And even if it takes a generation, can nothing be done to create a true sense of responsibility in the parents? There are hundreds—nay, thousands of good women, who must feel strongly on this question. Is no combination on their part possible to bring about a reform, which shall make our girls value them- selves at their true worth, and so recover the lost respect of boy- hood, and take their rightful place? ‘*Oh, wasteful woman! She who may On her sweet self set her own price, Knowing he cannot choose but pay— How has she cheapened Paradise! How given for nought her priceless gift, How spoiled the bread and spilled the wine, Which spent with due respective thrift, Had made brutes men, and men divine!’’ In some particulars, we can begin our education at a stage which children of other countries only reach by a difficult process. We have not the same necessity to foster individuality and self- reliance. Yet already some of our educational authorities show signs of experimenting at large with the Montessori method—a method invented by a noble woman, and one which has the foun- dation of a great idea—an improvement on Freebel—but a method born in a hospital, intended for the feeble-minded, and trans- ferred to the slightly less defective gutter children of the slums of Rome. Surely we may yet learn our methods from our own children, as Dr. Montessori learnt hers. To some extent a parallel is our Defence Department’s craze for its ‘‘ sealed pattern ’’ of physical training, which is very good for the young and the weak, and was designed for the easy exercising of large numbers at the least possible expense. But the normally healthy Australian boy, full of exuberant vitality, demands, not unnaturally, more than twisting and hopping. He must have something which requires courage and power of attack. ‘‘ Very pretty! but I want the boy who can hold a plunging horse,’’ was an English cavalry colonel’s comment on a display similar to that which the Commonwealth military competition winners recently had to give, and gave with admirable precision, before the Governor- General. Once again, borrowed systems! Quite excellent for their original purpose—quite inadequate to our Australian material. 628 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. Just now, ‘‘ domestic economy,’’ or ‘‘ housecraft,’’ is more than in the air, and I must admit that I think that, if in future we are not all to live in flats, we must elevafe household service into the position of being a most honorable position, more socially distingué than typewriting; more lucrative than factory work. If giv- ing it a University status can help this desirable end, by all means let us give it that. But once again let us strike out our own path, and let us not blindly adopt the methods of other countries. The instruction must be suited to the class, for else- where there have been mixed experiences. The London County Council, for instance, instituted classes for girls of seventeen and eighteen, in which the care of babies formed a prominent feature, and to be realistic a baby was provided. The first lecture was fully attended with much interest; at the next two there were a few vacancies among the students. At the fourth, a girl said— “Oh, nurse, do leave that baby alone, and tell us something that 1s good for the complexion.”’ To conclude then, we must have objective standards for in- formation and comparison which it would be easy to enumerate, and which ought to be undertaken here. We must clearly under- stand how our material differs from that with which teachers in other parts of the world have to deal, and we must not rashly adopt other systems, but must work out our own problems. And we must recognise that there are defects in our children which are almost national, and to the correction of which the whole force of our moral education should be directed. 1. HISTORY TEACHING IN CONNEXION WITH THE MAKING OF A NATION. By Miss S. B. Mitchell, B.A., Lond., Lecturer in History Method, University of Melbourne. [AssTRACT. | Much attention has been given recently to ascertain whether the Australian nation is developing physically an individual national type. It is necessary also to consider whether the nation is developing a political and. social identity which would differen- tiate it from the Mother Country, or the other self-governing Dominions, for from this realization of nationality should follow a sense of national responsibility. This paper puts forward a plea for the further and more philosophic consideration of history -teach- ing as a means of developing this social and political conscience, and as a real asset in the making of the nation. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 629 The consciousness of a growing Australian nationality is widely evident, and there are sufficient proofs that national identity is recognised, not only by University professors and pressmen, but by politicians and the world at large. National self-consciousness has been largely the inevitable pro- duct of circumstances, the result of national experiences driving home to the minds of thinkers certain facts of national impor- tance. But it is only experiences fraught with some intense emotion, involving some national joy or suffering, which can bring home to the unthinking person a sense of national existence or national responsibility. Australia has rarely been troubled with any general catastrophe, and there has been little quickening of national life by any great occasion for national thanksgiving. It is the more important, therefore, that there should be a definite quickening and deepening of national life in connexion with the teaching of history. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries particularly, after times of national disaster, or during the making of a young nation, European sovereigns and governments were profoundly conscious of the vast influence created by the schools, and especially by the teaching of history. Some used the universities and schools to propagate definite political theories, or win allegiance to a par- ticular religion, with evil results. Such a tampering with truth is not only an intellectual sin in the purely academic sphere, but it is a crime also against the national existence which will ulti- mately mar the purity of the national life. History in the schools of Australia should be free from bias of any kind, political, religious, or economic, or it is not history. Not that history teaching should be purely academic, remote from national interests, and divorced from the current interests of pupil or student. Political thought, and the study and teach- ing of history, have always been intimately connected with the changing aspects of national life. We must make every use of those facts of national history which afford incentive to heroic effort or convey a warning of supreme importance. In considering how far the consciousness of nationality has affected, or should affect, the teaching of history, the inclusion of civics as a school subject must be noted, especially in those coun- tries where the State system is completely secularized, and where, as in France, “‘ moral and civic instruction’’ takes the place of religious teaching and moral training. The appeal of such instruc- tion has been purely intellectual and theoretical, and comparatively futile and barren of result in ethical activity in comparison with much of the training in social service given in schools of the English public school type. 630 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. It is not sufficient to train the intellectual side only of a child’s nature. The most recent child-psychology recognises the impor- tance of the older aristocracy of the emotions, and the will where the intellect is a mere ‘‘ parvenu’’ and an upstart. It seems evident from examples available of the definite instruc- tion in civics (1) that civics must be rendered effectual by trans- lating social theories into social service, whether in the small com- munity of the school or in the bigger community of the State, and (2) that civics is not an independent school-subject, but is neces- sarily dependent upon the teaching of history. All history -teach- ing should aim at creating an atmosphere of civic responsibility, and definite instruction in civics should only come at a sufficiently advanced age, so that the instruction given should be the gather- ing-up and systematizing of those political facts which have been accumulating vaguely throughout the school life. The future citizen should be ‘‘ trained to meet political contingencies,’’ and to perform civic duty as the result of ‘‘ inspiration,’’ not of com- pulsion. He should be prepared to be the member, not of a party, but of a nation. History is not merely a fact study, but part of a complete intel- fectual training, having an important part to play in developing intellectual honesty in the sphere of social and political phenomena, providing a variety of interests and a changing point of view in moral judgments, widening the outlook on life, and presenting the problems of to-day in their right perspective with regard to the great forces which have been at work through long ages. This calls for a better training of the history teacher, and a more enlightened treatment of the subject. Different stages of teaching are needed—the artistic and emotional teaching to young children, the more rational and fuller fact-study of history with pupils of upper primary and secondary school age, and, finally, the scientific and more detailed study of the University stage. With regard to the scope of history teaching in the schools, Australian history has been too long neglected, though it alone is not sufficient, as some believe, for primary schools. It is not a complete national history, for it does not contain the essentials of history—the evolution of organized political communities through the ages. Like South African history, it is only a small part of British history, dealing with one very late phase of Im- perial activity. Its legislative history and its economic conditions have been different from those of the Old Country. Its history is national and individual, but it is the natural evolutionary pro- duct and continuation of the history of the Motherland, and must be taught, therefore, in connexion with British history. It cannot alone give sufficient training in the right methods of historical PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 631 thinking, because of its restrictions of time and political condi- tions. The increased demand for an intelligent teaching of Aus- tralian history, and the growing attention paid to local history are, however, promising signs of progress. British history cannot be taught here as it is taught in England, where memorials of the past aid in developing the historic sense. Here the idea of time, and the long continuity of the world’s story must be obtained from the teaching itself. Good work may be done by tracing the social and economic development of the race so that by constant comparison and contrast of different ages with one another, and with present conditions, a true standard may be arrived at by which modern conditions can be judged. Examinations give evidence that in the secondary schools of Victoria that the history teaching has developed an interest in social and economic conditions, and with this a tendency to com- pare the past unfavorably with the present. Such comparisons are based on unsound knowledge, and while the conclusions may often be right, there is often complete ignorance of the data which could justify such conclusions. If one tithe of the money spent freely on equipment for natural science work in our schools and universities were spent on books and documents for history teaching, pupils and students would have tools to work with, and be able to compare and draw con- clusions. The liberal endowments in older and richer countries of history teaching establish for us a standard of efficiency for our guidance and inspiration. Australia is a young nation; it is in the making; many in- fluences will contribute to its making, but it is for the schools and universities of the Commonwealth to lay a basis of sound historical thinking for its future citizens, so that the ‘‘ foundation of political well-being is being laid in high standards of moral worth and public spirit.’”’ The purpose of history teaching in the Australian Commonwealth should be, in fact, ‘‘an augmenting of the spirit and an enlargement of the mind.”’ 2. MORAL INSTRUCTION IN SCHOOLS. By Dr. A. J. Schulz, Principal, Teachers’ College, Adelaide, S.A. [ABsTRACT. | While all educationists are agreed that the supreme aim of education is the development of the moral character, there is much diversity of opinion as to the best ways and means of realizing this aim, and the utmost diversity of opinion about moral instruction. Much of this is due to an imperfect analysis of the nature of this educational influence. 632 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. Moral instruction consists in imparting knowledge about human conduct, and in the study of mental processes antecedent to, con- comitant with, and resulting from conduct, and must also include consideration of the laws of health and the more important legal, political, economic, and general cultural relationships existent in a society, and the ways by which they are influenced by various kinds of conduct. It is convenient to reserve the term moral in- struction more particularly for that teaching which deals more immediately with human conduct, though in theory and in prac- tice it is impossible to isolate this instruction from the rest of the school instruction. The emotional aspect of moral instruction is not infrequently neglected, or is too little regarded. Moral instruction obeys the laws of intellection, but it pays no less heed to congenital emotional tendencies, the laws of emotional response, emotional association, and, in general, to the development of those deep- seated factors which give moral conscience its essential charac- teristic and its peculiar power. Moral instruction is especially concerned with volition, for its essential and final object is to develop the resolution to right con- duct. It usually involves intellectual, and even esthetic, interests ; but only in so far as it kindles moral interest, and causes actual resolution, have we moral instruction in the strict sense. Moral instruction is not antithetical to moral training, but involves the same factors, differing from it merely in degree. It is essentially direct, as it strives to penetrate to the pupil’s own moral personality. It is necessarily to a considerable extent secular, though many oppose this view, and urge that moral in- struction must be based upon religious sanctions. The definition of religious sanctions in a way acceptable to all parties and creeds is almost impossible, and, when defined, their relation to secular sanctions is difficult to decide. Secular moral instruction is in- dispensable even in the strictest religious school, or where religious sanctions are implied, or taken for granted, and are regarded as giving the secular part complete vitality and force. If, for any reason, it is not permissible to refer explicitly to religious sanc- tions in a school, it is all the more desirable to extend and deepen the secular moral instruction to the utmost, especially on its higher » and more spiritual sides. As the majority of teachers in so-called secular schools are Christians, the bias, if bias there be, in secular moral instruction will be more in favour of a fairly orthodox theistic world view than of an atheistic one. Direct secular moral instruction is inevitable in every school worthy of the name, and should be made as completely effective as possible. Special or ‘‘ set’’ moral lessons, while invaluable if well given, may tend to encourage excessively minute analysis, morbid intro- spectiveness, subtle sophistry, and other like evils if badly given. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 633 They call for special skill in the teacher. In any case, reform in moral education does not stand or fall with their introduction or exclusion. They are merely supplementary. Reform in moral education is essentially a matter of securing the more effective utilization of the whole life and work of the school. This involves :— (i) The liberalizing of the school curriculum, particularly through the emphasis given to hygiene, civics, history, and litera- ture, especially in so far as it deals with human nature. (ii) The school organization, which should give the pupils suffi- cient opportunity to convert their moral insight into real moral character by actual practice in moral conduct. (iii) The enthusiasm, skill, and moral influence of the teacher. The main consideration must be to insure the judicious selection, liberal education, thorough professional training, and, above all, the inspiration of the teachers themselves. 3. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA—SOME CRITICISMS AND SUGGESTIONS. By C. A. Stissmitch, F.G.S., Lecturer in Geology and Mining, Sydney Technical College. [ApsTRAct. | It is proposed in this paper to take a broad review of the higher branches of technical education in Australia, and to point out some weaknesses of our system, and suggest possible improvements in the case of (1) the Universities; and (2) the Technical Colleges and Schools of Mines. I. Tue UNIVERSITIES or AUSTRALIA AND TECHNICAL EpucatIon. Their energies and interests are largely centred upon academic subjects, the percentage of technical students is small, and academic influence is paramount in the University Councils, while in a Technical University, such as exists in America and Germany for the highest grade of technical education, the courses are all tech- nical, and academic subjects are only provided as a means to the training of professional men in engineering, architecture, &c. Such a technical university is not possible for Australia in the near future, but our academic universities, even with their limitations, could do more for higher technical education, if the conditions of admission, and the nature of the instruction in non-technical sub- jects were changed, and more specialization in the technical courses and increased teaching staffs provided. 634 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J REFORMS AND ALTERATIONS SUGGESTED. 1. That the conditions for entrance to the engineering and other technical courses be so modified that all undergraduates start with a good foundation in science, and at least one modern foreign language, preferably German. That leaving certificates be accepted iu leu of matriculation from such secondary schools as provide a suitable and sound secondary education. 2. That the courses of instruction in the non-technical parts of the technical courses, in many cases, should be modified so as to more fully meet the needs of technical students. 3. That in the technical courses, particularly the engineering courses, more options should be allowed, and more specialization provided for in the latter part of the courses. 4. Distinct conrses should be provided for in— (2) Mechanical engineering; () electrical engineering; (c) mining engineering ; (d) metallurgy, instead of the existing composite courses, where such do not already occur. 5. The establishment of university courses in (a) architecture ; (4) sanitary engineering; (c) naval architecture and marine engi- neering ; (d) specialized courses in civil engineering, be considered in the near future. 6. That the teaching staffs in the technical branches should be increased as far as possible by the introduction of part-time asso- ciate-professors, each of whom shall be a specialist in some one branch of technology and actually engaged in the practice of his profession, where such are available. 7. More provision should be made for post-graduate work than is now attempted. This will only be possible if the staffs are en- larged on the lines already suggested. In Columbia and other universities which combine the functions of an academic and a technical university all the above suggestions have been in large measure adopted with success, and the work approaches in quality to that of the true technical university. II. TeEcunicat CoLtueces AND SCHOOLS OF MINEs. The principle of direct State control enables a properly co- ordinated and uniform system to be established throughout the whole State, while unnecessary over-lapping is avoided and the system as a whole can be co-ordinated with the primary and secondary systems. The proposed dual control in Victoria will be found unworkable, and will open the way for constant and ever- increasing friction between the councils and the Education Depart- menb. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 635 The conditions of admission to technical courses, the remunera- tion and conditions of work of the teaching staffs, the courses of instruction, and the equipment for practical and experimental work may all be adversely criticised. REFORMS AND ALTERATIONS SUGGESTED. 1. That all technical education, other than that provided at the universities, should be under the direct control of the State. 2. That the technical education branch be administered by a technically trained superintendent or director with the assistance of a properly constituted advisory council on the lines already indicated. 3. That for all professional courses an adequate entrance quali- fication be insisted upon. Adequate secondary education to litk primary and technical education is imperative. 4. Members of the teaching staffs should receive more adequate remuneration, and the practice of paying wholly or partly by student fees be discontinued. They should be allowed to do pro- fessional consulting work and facilities provided for research and experimental work ; due precaution being taken, of course, that the educational work is not neglected. 5. Technical teachers should not be asked to undertake so many distinct subjects as many of them now do. The time required for their official work should leave them sufficient time for a fair amount of consulting and research work. 6. The standard of many of the professional courses should be raised, and the course of instruction in many subjects be modified so as better to meet the needs of technical students. 7. The science instruction should in every case lead more in the direction of applied science than it does now. 8. Every effort should be made to increase the equipment for practical and experimental work and to modernize it. 4. SOME EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS OF THE UNIVERSAL MILITARY TRAINING SCHEME. By Major F. Shann, M.A., Wesley College, Melbourne. [ABsTRACT. | Elements of interest for senior cadets in the training scheme are the desire for physical and muscular development and the inherent attraction of all military work—the standing shoulder to shoulder, the visible unity of purpose—as well as the gratification of the desire for personal ascendancy in the system of promotions from the ranks. The greatest incentive to service must be a spirit of patriotism which regards that service as of essential utility in the preservation of national freedom. 636 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. The training is creating a new social focus. The movement is essentially democratic. No question of social status arises in cases of promotion. The most important item of instruction is rifle-shooting, as the co-ordination of hand and eye and development of nerve demanded by it are most readily accomplished in youth. A well-disciplined cadet corps benefits school discipline, while the school esprit de corps reacts favorably on cadet training. There is need for improved methods of instruction, but this will come when the citizen officers are more experienced. School- masters as officers of school-boys obtain a ready obedience. The schools have an important work to do in the training of candidates for cadetships at the Military College, for they are training future permanent instructors and administrators. The senior cadet forces provide a vast new field for educational effort, and on the effectiveness of this effort may depend the future of Australia. 5. SCHOOL GARDENING IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. By A. G, Edquist, Lecturer on Nature Study, Education Denartment, South Australia. [AssTRact. | Educational systems are the outgrowth of social and industrial demands. In new lands like Australia, a land of raw productions and rural life, the industrial demands on education are dissimilar to those obtaining in the old countries of the world where manu- facture forms the staple occupation of the people. Instead of teaching here the manual exercises of the English primary schools, the manual work of our upper classes of boys should be in pursuits which help to cultivate large and deep in- terests in country life and rural occupations, and so help to com- bat the evils of centralization. In order to create a healthy in- terest in agricultural pursuits more marked provision must be made for instruction in elementary agriculture and practical gardening for boys in the last two years of their primary school course so as to reach those who never enter our agricultural high schools and colleges. Scholarships to the agricultural high schools should be provided for primary school boys who wish to continue their general and agricultural education. In the lower classes of the primary school it is advisable to re- tain the present manual occupations, brushwork, and nature study, and in the higher classes substitute the compulsory teaching of elementary agriculture for which the nature study has furnished a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 637 natural foundation. The scheme of work adopted should be ar- ranged to suit the requirements and possibilities of the school dis- trict, and be modelled by the Departmental Supervisor of Agricul- ture and the teacher conjointly. The following are some topics which should occupy a prominent position in any scheme of elemen- tary agriculture :-— 1. The soil—its cultivation, moisture, irrigation, and fertiliza- tion. 2. Plant life—rotation of crops, growth, modes of dissemina- tion and eradication of noxious weeds; the cultivation of fodder plants. 3. Seed testing and selection. 4. Trees——afforestation ; cultivation of native trees and of fruit trees. 5. Animals—their farm value; preservation of native birds and of native fauna and flora; animal garden pests. 6. Domestic art—the grading, storage, and preservation of fruit; milk testing. Fundamental truths should be emphasized, modifications noted, and the work made intensely practical. ‘‘Vicious farming is an inevitable outcome of ignorance . . . .”’ School gardening is not agriculture. It is an intellectual form of manual work that has all the disciplinary and expressive forces of any other form of manual training practised in our schools, and will give to nature study and manual training a larger purpose and a life-long continuity. It is a healthful occupation, and will tend to cultivate a desire for agricultural pursuits, and be one of the surest correctives of the evils arising from the centralization of population in Australia. 6. SOME EXPERIMENTS IN MEMORY TRAINING. By Wm. Gray, M.A., B.Sc., Principal, Presbyterian Ladies’ College, Melbourne. [ApsTRACT. | The professional training of the teacher should secure above all else an attitude of observation of the scholar on the part of the teacher when he comes face to face with the problems of the class- room. Pre-suppositions as to methods, discipline, or methods of instruction should give place to careful noting of results and inter- pretation of successes and failures. The principle underlying dis- cipline and methods of instruction should be built up by the student from notes taken by himself in the practising rooms and 638 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. corrected in the lecture-room by comparison with the notes of others and with the positions laid down in his text-books and by his instructors. There is need in Australia that educationists, as well as students, should work towards building up a body of know- ledge on various aspects of education. .For example, along the line of anthropometry alone little has so far been done. The series of experiments submitted was designed to show the part that repetition plays in securing the permanency of impres- sion in the mind. The points elucidated were:—(1) The most profitable number of repetitions to be undertaken in any one attempt to master a portion of prose, poetry, &c. While this num- ber varied with individuals, from three to four was found to be the most successful number at any one time. (2) Whether the visual or aura] or combination of the visual and aural were the better mode of presenting the matter to be learned. The results were in favour of visual presentation. A small percentage of scholars proved to be ear-minded in this matter. (3) Whether it is more profitable to memorize in parts or by wholes, e.g., in the case of a verse of poetry to memorize line and line, or the whole as a whole. The latter proved to be the better in a large percentage of cases. The method by which these results were arrived at by the student was explained, and the suggestion made that some educational problems should be set for investigation with a view to placing the results before the next meeting of the Congress. 7. STANDARD ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION. By L. A. Adamson, M.A. That the standardization of English pronunciation is an Im- perial question was the current opinion of those who discussed this matter at the Imperial Conference of Teachers’ Associations in London in 1912. The importance of pronunciation has hitherto been much overlooked. The schools must help to standardize speech, and the teachers must set the example themselves. Among the elements of correct pronunciation are :— 1. Intonation, which varies widely in different parts of the Empire, nasalization occurring in all new countries. 2. Liaison, neglect of which leads to mutilation of words by erosion of their final syllables. 3. Speed of Utterance, which should vary according to the character of the speech, though dialectic drawls should be corrected. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 639 4. Quality of Voice, variations of which may be the result of climate or nationality, as, for instance, in the soft speech of Devon, and the burr of Northumberland. 5. The Individual Word.—Mispronunciation of words is a most easily corrected fault. Muispronunciation has been in part due to the decay of classical education. There is no absolute standard of pronunciation, but there is a generally admitted one—a pronunciation in which all marks of the particular place of birth and residence are lost, and nothing ap- pears to indicate any other habits of intercourse than with the well-bred and well-informed wherever they may be found. The difficulties to be overcome in reaching this standard are due to ignorance and indifference, slovenliness and idleness, and the laws of phonetic decay which affect all languages. The propositions indorsed by the London Conference were as follows :— 1. That the correct pronunciation of English as the medium of the Empire is extremely important. 2. That the teaching of such pronunciation is at present almost entirely neglected. 3. That the first step towards reform is to train the teachers of English on sound phonetic principles. 4. That all other means of securing an approximation to uniform pronunciation should be adopted. In Australia, there is no dialect, but only accent, and most faults are due to laziness leading to the clipping of words, the slur- ring and mispronunciation of vowel sounds, and the tendency to drawl. Our teachers must be trained, not in ‘‘ elocution,’’ but in the theory and practice of pronunciation on a phonetic basis. Ir % ‘. d 8. THE PHILOSOPHY OF PEACE. i oe ge he By P. R. Cole, Ph.D. ie =e ae % te 9. MENTALLY DEFICIENT CHILDREN. By Miss Harriet Newcomb. Pics: oh 640 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. STATEMENT FH‘ REPORT ON THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS IN AUSTRALIA. By Professor H. 8. Carslaw, Sc.D. Professor Carslaw made a statement to the educational section upon the work of the International Commission on the Teaching of Mathematics,.on which he is the representative for Australia. He had been asked by the Central Committee to draw up a report on the teaching of mathematics in Australia. The Departments of Education in the States had placed in his hands useful information bearing upon the mathematical work in the State high schools, the training colleges for teachers, and the technical institutions; and from the mathematical departments of several of the universities he had obtained an account of the work in their classes. _ He pointed out the influence of the Public Examinations of the Universities upon the nature and extent of the mathematical work in the secondary schools, iaying stress upon the risks of cramming, attendant upon such written examinations, when they formed the sole test of the pupil’s work, and when the public judged the success of the school by the number of passes obtained by it. He called attention to the fact that the requirements of these examinations were far from uniform, and mentioned that the several universities demanded very different minimum standards in mathematics at en- trance. He referred to important changes recently made in New South Wales, following upon the introduction in that State of recognised four years’ courses of secondary education. An im- portant system of intermediate and leaving certificates had also been adopted in that State, which would probably very shortly supersede the Public Examinations of the University of Sydney. He suggested that it would be well if a small committee of the section were appointed to co-operate with him in putting this report into its final form, so that it might be more representative of the mathematical work in the schools and universities throughout the Commonwealth. COMMITTEES RECOMMENDED. The following resolutions were approved :— 1. That the following committee, with power to add to their number, be appointed to consider the best means of securing the efficient teaching of English pronuncia- tion in Australasian universities, training colleges, and schools—Mr. L. A. Adamson (convener), Pro- fessor A. W. Mackie, Sir Winthrop Hackett, Dr. A. J. Schulz. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION J. 641 2. That the section co-operate with Professor Carslaw in drawing up for the International Commission on the Teaching of Mathematics a report on the teaching of ‘mathematics in Australia, and that the following be appointed a committee for the purpose :—Professor Chapman, Mr. R. H. Roe, Mr. C. L. Andrews, Mr. M. H. Hansen, Mr. M. S. Sharman, and Mr. L. J. Wrigley; Professor Carslaw to act as convener. 6117. xs Section K. AGRICULTURE. ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT : EY BY GUTHRIn FLOM (Chemist, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales; Lecturer in Technology of Commercial Products, Sydney University). A SHort Survey oF PRESENT VIEWS ON THE RELATION OF FERTILIZERS TO SOIL FERTILITY. . In looking through previous volumes of the Association, I find that the addresses of my predecessors in the office to which you have done me the honour to elect’ me, have dealt without exception with the broader aspects of the connexion of the State or of this Associa- tion with agricultural progress or agricultural education. It seemed, therefore, more fitting that I should take as the subject- matter of my address the development of some specific branch of agricultural science, especially as nearly everything I could say on the subject of agricultural policy has been well said by my prede- cessors. An occasion like the present appears a fitting one in which to pass in review the most recent advances made in our science, as the presence of so many workers from the different States renders it possible to discuss new developments from various points of view. A great deal of what I shall have to say, probably all of it, will not be new to those of you who are engaged in scientific work in agriculture, and have followed recent developments at all closely ; but there are no doubt many who have not the time nor opportunity to keep themselves posted in the literature of the subject, to whom I trust a presentment of the matter may prove of some interest. To all alike, a review of what has been done in any given line of work should stimulate discussion, and be an incentive to further investi- gation. I purpose to review shortly the main lines along which recent work has been conducted regarding the relation of ferti- lizers to soil-fertility. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 643 The trend of recent research in agricultural science has brought forcibly home to us the fact that the function of fertilizers is not restricted to the duty of supplying plant-food to the growing crop. Under certain circumstances, indeed, this function is in abeyance, in the absence of sufficient water, for example, or in the presence of unfavorable soil-conditions, the action of fertilizers is almost negligible, and it is our lack of understanding of these conditions that has been the frequent cause of want of success in the use of manures. The idea that failure in plant-production is due solely, or even chiefly, to deficient plant-food in the soil is no longer tenable. Recent investigations have brought to light a host of other causes of infertility, but the idea still persists at the back of many soil analyses that the determination of the amount of certain specified plant-foods dissolved by specific solvents from the soil is a certain guide to the nature of the manuring required. As a matter of fact, neither the chemical composition of the soil, nor of the crop, affords any certain basis on which advice as to manuring can be given. A. D. Hall and E. J. Russell (Journal Agricultural Science, vol. 4, p. 182), dealing with the results of a soil survey of the south- ecstern counties of Hngland, draw, amongst other general con- clusions, the following having special reference to the connexion between the composition of the soil and plant. ‘‘ We are not as yet in a position to deduce the agricultural properties of a soil, either its behaviour under cultivation or its adaptability to par- ticular crops, except in the roughest general fashion.”’ In dealing with a number of typical wheat-soils, the authors say ‘‘chemical analysis of these soils revealed no connexion be- tween their chemical composition and their suitability for wheats,’’ ‘and the same remark applies no doubt to other crops. They also point out that excess or deficiency of any particular plant-food, such as nitrogen, does not necessarily imply a fertile or infertile soil. Even in the case of calcium carbonate they show that many soils poorly supplied with this ingredient are not benefited by the appli- cation of lime, whereas for other soils examined containing the same, or a greater proportion, liming is essential. They find that “other things being equal, dry soils are more likely to respond to potassic manuring than others better supplied with water but no richer in available potash.’’ The same applies to phosphoric acid— “ Little, if any, direct connexion can be traced between the phos- phoric acid and the productiveness.’’ As far as regards the value of soil-analysis as a_ basis on which to afford advice as to soil-treatment, I have no reason to alter the opinion expressed in a paper read _ be- fore this Association on ‘‘Soil Analysis’? in Brisbane, 1895 moe 644 ' PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K (Report Australian Association Advancement Science, vol. VI,. p. 288). The view is therein expressed that a rational scheme of soil-analysis which shall attempt rather to determine the factors influencing soil-fertility than to elaborate methods for determining the chemical constitution of the soil can be made of considerable value to the farmer. This statement has been amply borne out by experience, and to-day the analysis of farmers’ svils on the lines then laid down is one of the functions of the Department most regularly availed of by farmers. In spite of all the labour expended for many years on this sub- ject, manuring still remains very largely empirical in its nature. We know in a broad and general way that a soil deficient in plant- food is not likely to produce good crops without manuring, and that a soil rich in plant-food is likely to prove a fertile one. But much further than this we cannot go. If a soil is well supplied with, say, nitrogen and potash, but poor in phosphates, it by no means follows with any certainty that it will be benefited by phos- phatic manuring. We know further that certain fertilizers benefit certain crops. We know, for example, that the application of superphosphate will probably increase the yield of wheat and other cereals; but this knowledge is not derived from information sup- plied by the composition either of the soil or the wheat plant. The wheat-crop, grain and straw, contains only half the quan- tity of phosphoric acid that it does of nitrogen, and much less than it does of potash, and yet we know that neither nitrogenous nor potash manures are anything like as effective as soluble prosphates in increasing the yield. Nor does soil-analysis help us to any ex- tent. The soil may be comparatively rich in phosphates. and poor in nitrogen and potash, and still phosphatic manuring is the more effective. Our wheat soils in the semi-dry country are indeed lack- ing, for the most part, in humus and nitrogen, and yet it is by the application of superphosphates, and not of nitrogenous manures, that crops are successfully grown. The case of leguminous plants is of a similar nature; crops like peas and beans and clover contain more nitrogen than other fertilizing ingredients, and yet manuring with nitrogen is resultless, and the ingredients which are most beneficial are potash and phosphates. Here. again, it is immaterial whether the soil is rich or poor in nitrogen or rich in potash. ‘The composition of fruit trees does not explain why potash manuring should be of such special benefit, nor is there any satisfactory explanation why the mangel-crop, which contains nearly four times the amount of potash as does the potato-crop, should not benefit by the applica- tion of this ingredient, whereas it is an essential ‘‘ dominant ’’ in- gredient for manures applied to potatoes. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 645 I do not wish to press this point further, but simply to accen- tuate my statement that the composition either of the crop or of the soil is not an infallible guide to the nature of the manuring re- quired. In fact, we have not advanced much on the principles enunciated by Ville. We still manure with a complete manure, paying special attention to the ingredient which is ‘‘ dominant ”’ for the particular crop. - Explanations of these peculiarities will, no doubt, be forthcom- ing. In the case of leguminous crops, we are acquainted with the process by which they obtain the required nitrogen from the air, and are independent of soil nitrates or nitrogenous manuring. In the case of wheat, I have suggested an explanation, which I venture to think is the correct one, to explain the rather extraordi- nary phenomenon that the application of nitrate or other nitro- genous manure, which is essential to the production of wheat in Europe and America, is without effect on crops grown locally, its place being taken by superphosphate. (Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales, vol. 17, p. 295.) Shortly stated, this explanation lies in the different conditions as to nitrification prevailing here and in Europe and America during the growth of the crop. In these countries, the wheat commences to grow in soil from which the nitrates have been washed out, and in which nitrification does not take place until the crop is approaching maturity. With us, nitri- fication is active and progressive during the early growth of the wheat plant, and nitrogenous manuring is unnecessary, all that is required being the application of a fertilizer which promotes the development of the root-system, a quality which appears to be possessed in a high degree by superphosphate, thus insuring the young plants a vigorous start. It has been further shown by J. W. Paterson and P. R. Scott (Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Victoria, vol. 10, p. 393) that superphosphate appreciably increases the nitrification of ammonia, indicating that in some cases the addition of phosphates may help to nourish the nitrifying organisms as well as the crop. We will now review shortly some of the recent work which has shown that the growth of plants is affected by causes other than lack of plant-food or unfavorable mechanical soil conditions, and which encourage us to look to other remedies for infertile condi- tions. We shall see, incidentally, that fertilizers may have an action upon the growth of the plant which is altogether independent of its power of supplying plant-food, and which has, until recent years, been quite overlooked. ~~ 646 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. Toxic SUBSTANCES IN SOILs. That substances are formed in the soil either as the result of the decomposition (chemically or by means of micro-organisms) of crop-residues, or excreted by the growing plant seems to be abun- dantly proved. (Schreiner and Shorey, Bull. 74, U.S. Bureau of Soils.) O. Schreiner was the first to show the toxic effect of dihyd- roxystearic acid, and to isolate this substance from soils on which wheat failed to grow. (Bull. 53, U.S. Bureau of Soils.) Further experiments by the United States Bureau of Soils (Schreiner and Reed, Bull. 47, Bureau of Soils) have shown that quite a large number of organic substances exercise a toxic action on plant growth. F. Fletcher (Journal Agricultural Science IV., p. 245) describes experiments showing the extraordinary influence of the neighbourhood of sorghum and of maize upon the growth of ‘“*Sesamum indicum.’’ This is not due to the removal of moisture or of plant-food by the maize crop, as both these essentials were abundantly supplied to the sesamum, and must, he concludes, be attributed to the excretion of a toxin by the roots of the maize plants. Fletcher believes this to be a salt of dihydroxystearic acid. Among the numerous toxic organic compounds which Schreiner and his fellow-workers have found to be present in the soil, three or four have been more particularly studied in relation to their action upon plants provided with varying quantities of the recog- uised fertilizing ingredients. Schreiner and Skinner (Bull. 70, U.S. Bureau of Soils) have shown that in water cultures with wheat, dihydroxystearic acid is least harmful when the plant is provided with fertilizing substances relatively rich in nitrogen (such as nitrates), and that in the pre- sence of this soil-toxin the plant removed less phosphoric acid and potash than under normal conditions, but that its absorption of nitrogen was more nearly normal. The action of other soil-toxins was made the subject of further study (Schreiner and Skinner, Bull 77, U.S. Bureau of Soils), and the following very interesting and rather remarkable results were obtained. Vanillin (an aldehyde) behaves in very much the same way as dihydroxystearic acid in its general effect upon roots and leaves, and its effects are least when the plant is supplied with nitrate. It is pointed out that nitrates increase root-oxidation, whereas both dihydroxystearic acid and vanillin, being capable of further oxidation, are themselves reducing agents. Quinone is another organic substance whose presence affects the growth of plants. Unlike the two substances mentioned above, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 647 quinone is an oxidizing agent, and its ill-eliects are less marked when the plant is supplied with relatively large proportions of sulphate of potash which has a known influence in restraining root- oxidation. A fourth substance is coumarin, a substance of fairly wide dis- tribution in the vegetable kingdom, and found to be toxic to many plants. Schreiner and Skinner (loc. cit.) find that it is particu- larly toxic to wheat, the leaves being short and broad, and the roots discoloured, and their surface very shiny. The harmful effect of this substance was greatest when phosphoric’ acid was absent from the nutrient solution, and practically disappeared when the fertilizer was rich in phosphates. The same results were obtained with wheat-plants grown in soil in culture-pots. It would therefore appear that the bad effects due to the pre- sence of dihydroxystearic acid and of vanillin can be, to a large extent, neutralized by the application of sodium nitrate, those due to coumarin by phosphoric acid, and those due to quinone by sul- phate of potash. With the exception of coumarin these experi- ments were carried out apparently only in water-culture experi- _ ments, and the point must not be lost sight of that these results when tried in the field may be considerably modified by the chemical or physical nature of the soil. They are sufficiently striking to emphasize the fact that the function of fertilizers is not solely to supply plant food. Funer AFFECTING Crops. Another way in which one crop may affect injuriously a suc- ceeding crop is by the production of a fungus which infects the soil and attacks the young plants. A fungus of this nature has been found by H. L. Bolley (Bulletin No. 50, North Dakota Agri- cultural College, 1901), to be the cause of what are known as flax- sick soils, that is, soils which, after continuous cropping with flax (which does not unduly exhaust the soil) are unable to produce flax. He quotes an experiment in which flax was grown for six consecutive years on a fertile soil of the Red River, the result being that the land was ‘‘in such a diseased condition that not a plant of flax can exist on it longer than three weeks from the time of sowing.’’ This condition of things is well known in Europe and America to flax-growers, and it is the custom, in Europe at all events, to sow flax at intervals of not less than eight years on the same land, the flax being part of a rotation including turnips, oats, clover, wheat, and beans. Bolley has found that this flax-sickness is due to the growth of a fungus which he calls Fusarium lini, which lives in the humus of the soil, and attacks the flax-plant. 648 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION kK. Manuring of any description was quite ineffective in improving the growth of flax, or in destroying the fungus, nor did treatment of the soil with any of the usual fungicides produce any better re- sults. There appears to be no way to rid the soil of the parasite, as the fungus lives in the soil for many years without any flax-crop to feed upon. This fungus does not appear to attack any other crop. The remedies suggested are treatment of the seed with sub- stances such as formalin, and a five years’ rotation of flax with wheat, hay, pasture, and maize. Bolley has also shown (Press Bulletin, No. 33, North Dakota Agricultural Experimental Station, October, 1909), that the deterioration of wheat-lands is brought about by three or four parasitic fungi (in a later communication he gives the number as at least five), whose growth is encouraged by the practice of con- tinuous cropping of the land with wheat, and which are propa- gated and attack the wheat plant in exactly the same way as flax is attacked by Fusarium lini. Similar instances of loss of crop-producing power have been long familiar, that of clover sickness being one of the earliest to be recog- nised. Peas, beans, turnips, and cauliflowers are all subject to. parasitic fungi which grow on the buried portions of diseased plants and communicate the disease to healthy plants. The same is also true of many of the fungus diseases which affect the potato, tomato, &e. In all these cases we have toxic conditions which are quite dis- tinct from the infertile condition brought about by soil-exhaustion, conditions which are not dependent upon the richness or poverty of the soil, and which no amount of manuring in the ordinary sense will remedy. Indeed, when we consider the large stores of plant food in average, and even in poor, soils, the comparatively small proportion removed by even the most exhausting crop, and the fact that this store of plant food is being constantly rendered available, it becomes difficult to realize that a few years’ cropping can effect such a complete removal of plant food as we must assume to take place if the soil is exhausted in the manner usually recog- nised. As a matter of fact, analyses of European soils go to show that under continuous cultivation, there is little or no difference in the mineral content of the soil. In short, the inferior crop-producing power of a soil after repeated cropping is due to other and more ob- scure causes than the simple depletion of the soil in plant food. INFERTILITY OFTEN DUE TO Bap HUSBANDRY. It is, indeed, open to doubt whether such a thing exists as an absolutely infertile soil, that is, one which will not give satisfac- tory results under proper treatment. Plants, we know, can be PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 649 grown in ignited sand or distilled water, if the proper nourishment is supplied. The barren regions of the earth are all capable of being made reproductive under proper treatment, witness the alkali-lands of Texas, and the salt-lands of Utah. Even the desert yields abundantly in the fortunate places where springs occur, or the land can be inundated by rivers. On the other hand, mis- applied energy may convert fruitful country into unproductive, and much of the desert and sterile land has once been fertile ecuntry brought to its present condition by unthrifty husbandry. Travellers in Palestine tell us that its numberless hills are covered with the ruins of what have once been populous cities, a certain sign that the surrounding country has once not only been fertile, but extensively cultivated to provide food for the town populations. Sir Frederick Treves, the most recent visitor to record his im- pressions of this country in his work ‘‘ The Land which is Desolate,’’ contrasts the promised land ‘‘ that floweth with milk and honey,”’ pay the ‘‘ poverty-stricken, miserly, thread-bare country ”’ of to- ay. The plain on which the ruins of Babylon now stand is still covered with a network of old canals, which served both to irrigate and to drain what was in ancient days extremely fertile country, but which is now divided between desert and marsh. Herodotus tells us of the remarkable fertility of Babylon in his time, when it was a great commercial centre. Professor Heeren, in his work on the ‘‘ Commerce, &c., of the Principal Nations of Antiquity,’’ tells us how the discovery of a new path to India across the ocean converted the great commerce of the world from a land trade to a sea trade, and thus Nineveh “sunk to its original state of a stinking morass and a barren steppe.’’ : This is that same Nineveh, the capital of a country which its king described as ‘‘a land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land of oil-olive, and of honey.”’ There are many other instances where great and populous centres have flourished at the expense of the surrounding country, which they have finally impoverished and involved in their own ruin, and this is a danger, probably the greatest danger, with which rural Australia is faced to-day. Piant SECRETIONS Not ALWays Toxic. The secretions of plants are not, however, necessarily always toxic to other plants. The beneficial results of growing legumi- nous plants with non-legumes is well known, and an experiment carried out by J. G. Lipman (Journal Agricultural Science, vol. 3, p. 297) shows this particularly well. Lipman grew oats in quartz- sand in porous pots, which were placed in larger pots, also filled 650 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. with quartz-sand, in which field-peas were grown. The sand in both cases was supplied with the necessary mineral fertilizing con- stituents, but with no nitrogen. Both plants grew vigorously, the oats obtaining their supply of nitrogen by the diffusion of soluble nitrogenous material from the outer pot in which the legumes were growing. If instead of a porous inner pot, the oats were grown in glazed pots, and were thus unaffected by the nitrates formed by the legumes, they produced a much diminished yield, and showed the growth and colour associated with lack of nitrogen. Another case in which a beneficial action is exerted on the growth of plants by organic soil-constituents, and one in which such action cannot be attributed to any direct fertilizing power, is furnished by creatinine and creatine. Creatinine is an .organic substance which exists not only in the humus of soils, but in farm- yard and organic manures, and in many plants and seeds, and whose presence in the soil has been found to indicate fertility. The United States Soil Bureau (Schreiner, Shorey, Sullivan, and Skinner, Bull. 83, Bureau of Soils, U.S.A.) have isolated and experimented with this substance, and with creatine, of which latter it is the anhydride. These authors have found it in stable manure and peas used as green manures; also in wheat seedlings, wheat-grain, bran, rye, some leguminous plants, and potatoes. Both creatine and creatinine are nitrogenous substances, and experiments in manuring show that they can replace nitrate in its effects on plant-growth, at all events in culture solutions. Micro-OrGanisMs—Toxtc AND BENEFICIAL. In yet another direction, a great deal of interesting work has been done showing the part played by minute organisms in rela- tion to soil fertility. It had been known for some time that treat- ment of the soil both by heat and by antiseptics favoured the growth of crops. S. U. Pickering (Journal Agricultural Science, Vol. 3, page 32, and Vol. 3, page 258) found that when soils were either heated or treated with antiseptics the total soluble organic matter of the soil was increased, and at the same time toxic conditions were pro- duced which hindered germination, such inhibitory action being only temporary, as the toxins were subsequently destroyed, pre- sumably by oxidation. E. J. Russell and H. B. Hutchinson (Journal Agricultural Science, Vol. 3, p. 111), in an elaborate and careful series of ex- periments, appear to have shown conclusively that the beneficial PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 651. effect of partial sterilization by heat or antiseptics upon the growth of the crop is attributable to the larger proportion of ammonia present in the soil after such treatment. ‘These authors explain this phenomenon as follows :— Probably in all soils, certain larger unicellular organisms (Pro- tozoa) are present which feed on the bacteria concerned in the for- _ mation of soluble nitrogen compounds, and keep them in check. If the soil is partially sterilized by heating for a short time to the temperature of boiling water, or by subjecting it to the action of vapours such as chloroform, bisulphide of carbon, toluene, &c., (such vapour being subsequently removed by spreading the soil out in a thin layer, and allowing the vapour to evaporate), the effect is to destroy the protozoa, and probably most of the bacteria as well, but not the spores of the ammonia-producing bacteria. These spores subsequently develop, and in the absence of the hos- tile protozoa, their development proceeds with increased activity, the result being a considerable increase in the soluble nitrogenous plant-food, and a more vigorous crop growth. These experiments have, so far, been carried out in the labora- tory. If means are discovered of partially sterilizing the soil in the field, a most valuable method of increasing the fertility of the soil will be placed at the disposal of the farmer. Indeed, experiments in this direction have been recently carried out by E. J. Russell and J. Golding (Jowrnal Agricultural Science, Vol. 5, p. 27) on “‘ sewage-sick ’’ soils. They find that ‘“‘ sewage- sickness ’’ is an abnormal development of the factor harmful to bacteria (protozoa) always present in ordinary soils, and that the loss of efficiency in the purification of sewage in such soils is due to the hindrance of development of bacteria. Small land-filters were made in the field, some being filled with untreated soil, and others with treated or sterilized soil. The effluents were examined periodically. The untreated samples soon became ‘‘ sewage-sick,”’ whereas the effluents from the treated filters showed that these had retained their efficiency for months. A further experiment was tried by treating small plots in a similar manner, the plots being then sown with turnips. The crops on the treated plots (especially that treated with toluene) were not only better than those from the untreated, but suffered much less from “‘ finger and toe.”’ Further interesting trials are recorded by E. J. Russell and F. R. Petherbridge (ibid., p. 86) of the action of heat and antiseptics upon sicknes in glass-house soils. In countries where plants like cucumbers and tomatoes are grown under glass, the soil is found to be unsuitable for the growth of these plants after a short time, sometimes after the first crop. The soil used is therefore thrown away, and as it is necessary to enrich it very much with manure, and to expend much time and labour on its preparation, this is a very wasteful operation. The authors find that previous steaming 652 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. of the sick-soil of a commercial glass-house in which cucumbers were grown resulted in curing the soil of cucumber-sickness, and rendering it once more commercially profitable. The same was found to be the case with tomato-sick soil on which a number of different antiseptics were tried. Of all methods, heating the soil to 98° was found to be the most efficient. The cost of this operation is from ls. to 1s. 6d. per ton of soil, which, while profitable in the _ case of plants grown under glass, is quite prohibitive on large areas. S. U. Pickering (Journal of Agricultural. Science, Vol. 3, p- 277) considers that, on heating a soil, the soluble plant-food is increased, and the changed bacterial conditions studied by Russell and Hut¢hinson conduce to more vigorous growth, but that at the same time certain toxic substances are formed which arrest plant- growth, but as these toxins are unstable and readily oxidized, the toxic conditions do not prevail for any length of time. F. Fletcher (Cairo Scientific Journal, 1910, 4, reprint), (Ab- stract in Chem. Soc. Journ., abstracts, Vol. 100, 11., 530) obtained very much higher yields with maize plants grown in soil previously heated, which results he attributes to the destruction by heat of an alkaloidal dihydroxystearate. He also finds germination injuriously affected by previous heating. This he attributes to increased os- motic activity, which results in a decrease of imbibition, brought about by increase of soluble organic substances. R. Greig-Smith (Proc. Linn. Soc., V.S.W., Vol. 35, p. 808; Vol. 36, p. 492; Vol. 36, p. 609; Vol. 36, p. 679) to some extent opposes the conclusions of Russell and Hutchinson. The beneficial action of disinfectants such as chloroform, toluene, &c., is explained by him as being due to the removal by these reagents (all of which are wax-solvents) of a wax-like substance (agricere) with which the soil-particles are coated. With the removal of this water-proofing the soil-nutrients are more easily dissolved in the soil-water, and attacked by bacteria. According to this investigator, the principal nitrogen-fixing bacterium in soils is Rhizobium leguminosarum, the number of which affords an indication of the comparative fertility of the soil, and which, in the most fertile soils may be present to the number of three or four millions per gramme of soil. He finds further that all soils contain a substance which acts as a bacterio-toxin, fertile soils containing a small, poor ones a large amount. This toxin is destroyed by heat, sunlight, and storage, and is washed into the subsoil by rain, so that after a shower of rain the surface-soil is richer in bacteria than the lower strata. This latter is an ex- tremely interesting observation, as indicating that the beneficial effects of rain or of irrigation are not confined to the mere supply of water, or even of fertilizing salts to the soil. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 653 These bacterio-toxins are insoluble in wax-solvents, and are not volatile. He finds also that after the protozoa have been destroyed by heat at 65 deg.-70 deg., the action of volatile disinfectants is to still further increase the bacterial productiveness of the soil. Additional indication that these disinfectants act as wax- solvents in dissolving the agricere is afforded by the fact that the upper layers of soils so treated are less nutritive to bacteria than the lower, which is what might be expected if the disinfectant on evaporation carried the agricere to the surface. Dr. Greig-Smith is reading a paper before the present section in which he recapitulates his work in this connexion. If the theory that the action of heat and of solvents is to destroy the water-proof coating is correct, one would expect that soils so treated would yield more of their mineral ingredients to soil-solvents. The evidence on this point is not conclusive, but it is fairly certain that the increases, when such have been found, are insufficient to account for the great increase in fertility noted by Russell and Hutchinson (three or four times the crop in the case of heat, and 20 to 50 per cent. in the case of volatile anti- septics). S. U. Pickering (Journal Agricultural Science, Vol. 3, p. 32) shows a slight increase in the total water-soluble material both of heated and of treated soils, but the nature of the mineral matter extracted is not stated. G. S. Fraps (Journal Ind. and Eng. Chemistry, 3, 335) has found that previous ignition increases the amount of phosphoric acid which can be dissolved from several naturally occurring phos- phates. Wavellite in particular yields ten times as much phos- phoric ‘acid soluble in = nitric acid after than before ignition. It is to be remembered, however, that in this case there is no ques- tion of the presence of agricere, and further, that in our soils, at all events, these minerals are not likely to be present in any quan- tity. C. B. Lipman (Journal Ind. and Eng. Chemistry, Vol 4, p. 663) finds in the case of soils the opposite effect to that noted by Fraps in the case of phosphatic minerals. He finds that the effect of igniting soil is to reduce the amount of phosphoric acid extracted by nitric acid. This agrees with the observations of J. Konig and others (Land. Versuch. Stat., 1911, Vol. 75, p. 377-441) that phosphoric acid is fixed by the colloids in the soil, forming insoluble calcium phosphate, and that the combination is rendered more complete by the action of heat. H. J. Jensen (Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. 45, p. 169) has also investigated this point. He treated several soils of varying known degrees of fertility with different soil solvents before and (54 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. after ignition, e.g., strong hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.1), citric acid (1 per cent.) and nitric acid = The results are very irregular and vary in different directions, being frequently identical, but point to the conclusion that in the case of heated soil, at all events, the increased fertility is not due to the greater solubility of the recognised plant-foods. Any considerable differences occur only in cases where the quantities of plant-food are extremely small, and are probably due to experimental errors. C. B. Lipman (New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Bull. 248) carried out experiments in which previously sterilized soil was infected with filtered suspension so as to remove the pro- tozoa. He finds no difference in results when such filtered liquids are used, and when unfiltered suspensions, containing protozoa, are employed, and is ‘‘ unable to confirm the claims of Russell and Hutchinson as to the influence of protozoa in modifying the amount of work done by decay bacteria.’’ Another view of the action of heat upon soils has been more recently advanced by O. Schreiner and E. C. Lathrop (/our- nal American Chemical Society, Vol. 34, p. 1242),- and E. C. Lathrop (ibid., p. 1260). These authors find that heating the soil results in an increase in the water scluble constituents and in acidity, although ammonia and amines are formed. Heating the soil produces simultaneously both beneficial and harmful organic compounds. Amongst the benefi- cial are xanthine and hypoxanthine, guanine, cytosine and argi- nine, and among the harmful hydroxystearic acid. These sub- stances, if already present in the soil, are increased by heat, and if not originally present are produced by the action of heat. The heated soil possesses at first a decreased fertility, owing to the pro- duction or increase of dihydroxystearic acid, but when this in- gredient disappears either through oxidation, cropping, addition of lime or nitrate, the fertility of the soil is increased. This explana- tion, it will be seen, opposes the conclusions of Russell and Hutchinson as far as the effect of heating is concerned, and at- tributes it to the alteration of the proteid matter of the humus rather than to the action of micro-organisms. There are thus several theories advanced to account for the action of heat and of antiseptics upon the soil. On the one hand, it is attributed in both’ cases to a partial sterilization of the soil as a result of which certain organisms are destroyed which are hostile to the ammonia-producing bacteria; on the other hand, the action of antiseptics may, it is suggested, be due to the removal of an impervious wax-like material surrounding the soil grains, the pre- sence of which hinders their being attacked by soil-solvents, and, in PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 655 the case of heating, a third suggestion is that at first both harmful and beneficial organic substances are produced, the harmful ones being readily oxidised. Errect oF FERTILIZERS ON PuysicaL PROPERTIES OF SOIL. Soluble salts in small quantities exert an influence upon tue physical properties of soils. Aikman (Manures and Manuring, p- 273) points out that the quantities of fertilizing matter in farm- yard manure are insufficient, and in an unsuitable form for the growth of crops, and that the chief influence of such manure is on the structure of the soil. Davis (Bull. 82, Bureau of Soils, U.S.A.), has studied this influence more particularly in the case of tlre apparent specific volume of the soil, rate of capillary action, and change in vapour pressure. He finds that most fertilizers ac- celerate capillary movement, sulphate of potash and a mixture of sulphate of potash and phosphoric acid retard it. Soluble salts, whether acting as plant food or not, may produce in the soil changes in structure which, in turn, influence plant growth. Their effect is most pronounced in soils containing a large amount of fine particles. EFFrect oF FERTILIZERS ON Sort Moisture. The action of soluble salts in affecting the moisture conditions of the soil is of great importance. Cameron and Gallagher (Bulletin 50, Bureau of Soils, U.S.A.) have shown that the physical nature of the soil changes with its moisture-content, and consider that for every soil there is an optimum moisture content at which its physical condition is most favorable for plant growth. Of the various problems presented by a study of the physical nature of the soil, the one which is of the greatest importance is the question of the behaviour of water in the soil. This applies with special force to us in Australia where the problem of conserv- ing the soil-moisture is of even greater importance than that of manuring. The action of fertilizers, especially of potash salts, in keeping the surface soil moist, is well known. The application of fertilizers has been found to have a very considerable effect upon the transpiration ratio of plants, and to enable them to make a better use of the available moisture. In fact, J. W. Leather (Memoirs Dept. Agric., India, Cheml. Series, Vol. 1, No. 8, p. 170), in the course of an investi- gation into the water requirements of crops in India finds that the transpiration ratio (that is, the relation between the weight of water transpired by the crop and the weight of the dry crop) is always lower when suitable manures are employed, and concludes that ‘‘ speaking generally the effect of suitable manure in enabling the plant to economize water is the most important factor which has been noticed in relation to transpiration.’’ 656 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. It appears possible, however, from more recent researches of the same author (Memoirs Dept. Agric., India, Chem. Series, Vol. 1, No. 10, page 230) that the decrease in the transpiration ratio when suitable manures are added is due rather to the more vigorous growth of the plant than to any specific action of the manure on the transpiration ratio. Dr. Leather has, at all events, shown this to be the case with superphosphate, which, when supplied to a soil known to have no need for phosphatic manuring did not lower the transpiration ratio. This, however, is a case in which it is possible to confuse cause and effect. The soil in question was unusually rich in available phosphoric acid, containing more than three times as much as the richest of the other soils, and it is not impossible that the transpira- tion ratio was affected by the presence of soluble phosphoric acid in the soil. J. W. Paterson (Journal Dept. Agric., Victoria, Vol. 10, page 349) has published results of experiments to determine the tran- spiration ratio of oats, which are of interest in this connexion, although the question of the effect of manuring does not enter into the investigation. He finds the transpiration figure for this crop grown in pots, and partially shaded during the period of their growth to be about 483, that is to say, 483 tons of water are trans- pired for every ton of dry crop produced. He assumes that for plants of moderate development grown in the open air in Victoria this figure would be 700 as against 870 in India (Leather, loc. cit.); 522 in America (King); and 665 (Wollny), to 376 (Helle- riegel), in Europe. According to Leather, a 13 bushel crop of wheat (about 1 ton grain and straw) will transpire 693 tons of water (or 6.8 inches of rain) per acre in India. Dr. Paterson states that local conditions indicate that about 600 tons of water (6 inches of rain) per acre would pass through a 13-bushel crop of wheat during its growth under Victorian conditions. This estimate is not, however, sup- ported by experimental figures, and it is to be hoped that Dr. Paterson will be able to continue his investigations so as to in- clude the determination of the transpiration ratio of an average wheat-crop grown in the open under ordinary conditions, since the question is one of the very first importance in wheat-growing in Australia, and in establishing the geographical limits within which wheat-growing can be successfully carried on with us. The subject of soil physics is much too wide to come within the scope of an address like the present one, but I have been tempted to draw attention to the possible influence of fertilizers on the movement of soil-moisture, because of the very great importance of the study of moisture conditions to us in Australia. In this con- nexion, an interesting investigation has been carried out by Dr. Heber Green and G. A. Ampt (Journal Agricultural Science, PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 657 | Vol. IV., p. 1; and Vol. V., p. 1), in which are given methods of determining the constants, specific pore space (the free space per unit volume of soil), permeability to water and air, and capillary co-efficient. It would be of very great interest to determine the extent to which the addition of fertilizers or soluble salts affect these constants. INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZERS ON SOIL-OXIDATION. Another direction in which fertilizing substances can function ‘in other ways than as plant-food is in the promotion of oxidation in soils. M. X. Sullivan and Reid (Journ. Ind. and Eng. Chem., 1911, Vol. 3, page 25) have shown that the oxidizing power of soils Is in- creased by the presence of water up to the optimum, and by the common fertilizing substances, also by salts of iron, manganese, lime, and magnesia, especially when simple organic hydroxyacids are present. They find that soil-oxidation is comparable with the same process in plants and animals, and that it is greater in surface than in subsoil, and greater in fertile than in barren soils. O. Schreiner and H. S. Reed (Bul. 56, Bureau of Soils, U.S. Dept. Agric.) showed that calcium salts, phosphates, and nitrates, increase the oxidizing power of plant roots, whilst potassium salts tend to retard it. (See also Schreiner, Sullivan and Reid, Bull. 73, Bureau of Soils, U.S. Dept. Agric.). In addition to these many cases of conditions existing in the soil favorable or unfavorable to plant development, and independent of the supply of plant food, there are the better known instances of soil infertility shortly reviewed in the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales (Vol. 21, p. 434), some of which are removed by proper manuring and some unaffected by manures. CaTaLytTic FERTILIZERS OR PLANT STIMULANTS. There are also a large number of compounds whose presence in minute quantities appears to have very often a quite remarkable effect upon plant growth. These substances cannot be regarded as fertilizers in the ordinary sense. Some of them are of rare oc- currence in the soil, or occur only in minute quantities; many of them are distinctly injurious in any large quantity. We are quite in the dark as to their precise function, and the name “ catalytic ’’ has been given to them for want of a better. H. Ost found small quantities of fluorine to be always present in a number of healthy leaves which he examined. Aso, Oscar Loew, Ampola, and others show that small quanti- ties of fluorine have a stimulating effect on many plants. Iodine also has been shown to stimulate the growth of plants when in small quantities. Oscar Loew and the Japanese chemists who have done 658 | PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. a great deal of work in experimenting with the foregoing elements and with lithium caesium and uranium, find that they stimulate the growth of a number of plants both in the field and in pots. Titanium has also been found to increase the yield of crops. C. E. Wait has found titanium in the ash of every plant which he has examined, and Annett states that the colour of the black cotton soil of india is due to the presence of a titaniferous mineral. I have found titanium to be present in soils of the black-soil plains in the north-west of New South Wales, but cannot assert that this is the cause of their colour since other soils from the same locality, and derived from the same minerals, are red or chocolate in colour, and also contain titanium. The addition of flowers of sulphur has also been found to improve the yield of many crops. Copper is also stated by some writers to increase plant growth when present in small quantities, but by others tadbe i injurious. Boron appears to be very widely distributed in the~plant world, and the proof of its presence as a natural constituent of grapes and of wines is of considerable economic interest. At the rate of 4-gramme per square meter, it has been found by Agulhan to increase enor- mously the yield of wheat, maize, rape, and turnips. The literature with regard to manganese, its occurrence in plants, and the action of minute quantities, is voluminous. In minute quantities 1t appears to be beneficial, in larger quantities toxic, and its toxicity appears to increase with its stage of oxida- tion. Other substances that may be mentioned in this connexion are vanadium, chromium, nickel, barium, zinc, mercury, didymium, and glucinum. For the most part these substances are plant poisons, but quite remarkable benefits have’ been obtained by their application in very small quantities. A bibliography prepared by Mr. L. A. Musso, of the chemist’s branch, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales, appears as an appendix to Science Bulletin No. 9, published by the N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, and may be found useful to those who wish to look up the literature of the subject.1_ It may very well be that some extremely important discovery may be made as the result of the study of these catalytic fertilizers, one that may throw some light on the question of plant assimilation. Among the most striking results obtained to date appears to be the very remark- able effects produced by some of these metallic salts upon moulds, the effect, for example, of zinc upon the development of Aspergillus niger, ten times the quantity of this mould being produced in solu- tions containing 1 in 50,000 of zinc. 1 An excellent resumé of this subject is also published by M. Cercelet (Kévue de Viticuliure Tome 38, No. 9&1, p. 381). PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 659 The subject of catalytic fertilizers, or the action of small quan- “tities of substances on plant growth, is an extremely fascinating -one, but too little is known of the mechanism of the processes in- volved to make it desirable to pursue the subject further in this place. It affords additional illustration of the fact that the bene- ficial action of so-called fertilizing substances is not confined to supplying the plant with food. The minute quantities used are quite inadequate to supply plant food in the generally accepted sense of the term. For ex- ample, Aso, in some experiments with peas (see bibliography referred to above) found that the growth of the crop was stimulated and the yield increased by 0.001 gramme sodium fluoride per 2 to 3 kilos of soil. Another Japanese investigator (see bibliography) found 940 grammes of the same salt per hectare to benefit barley and certain grasses. In the cases also where these substances act as plant-poisons the proportions are exceedingly minute. Similarly we know that iron- salts are necessary for the production of chlorophyll, and that, in the absence of iron in the soil, or culture medium, the chloro- phyll cells do not develop, and yet chlorophyll itself contains no iron. There is some action of which we are ignorant in all these cases, for an explanation of which we must wait for the plant physio- logist. F iacait work by Willstatter, Marchlewski, and others has estab- lished the fact that a great similarity exists between some of the products of the green colouring matter of plants and the hemo- globin or red-colouring matter of the blood of animals and human beings. It has been shown that chlorophyll is a magnesium com- pound, and contains no iron, which latter is an essential constituent of the red-colouring matter of the blood. It would appear as if the peculiar property of chlorophyll to absorb and split up carbonic acid is due to the presence of magnesium in the chlorophyll mole- cule, whereas its replacement by iron effects the absorption of oxygen. We know of similar instances in which the introduction into an organic molecule of metallic or elementary atoms results in remarkable physiological activity. Ehrlich’s celebrated specific against syphilis (a definite amido-benzol compound containing arsenic) is one of the best known instances in point. Wassermann has used a selenium derivative of eosin successfully in the cure of cancer in mice. A number of similar compounds are at present under trial, par- ticularly in the case of cancer. The remarkable effects produced by the entrance of such elemen- tary atoms into the molecule is a fact of the highest significance, not only in the study of disease in men and animals, but in plant physiology. 660 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. The above short review of the work which is being done in the solution of a certain class of soil problems shows that the action of fertilizers is not confined to supplying the crop with food, but that it is far more complex, and that fertilizers influence the physical structure of the soil, and also its biological and chemical condition in a great variety of ways; further, that we have to take into ac- count a large number of factors which influence the fertility of the soil, and which are quite independent of its supply of plant food. We have seen that fertilizers may exert an influence on the toxic matters produced in the soil, the texture, and the moisture- condition of the soil, on bacteria and fungi, on the oxidizing power of the soil, and that quite remarkable effects are produced by substances added in quantities much too minute to act as nourishment to the plant. I do not for a minute desire to underrate the great importance of manuring in maintaining the fertility of the soil. I only wish to emphasize the point that the old conception of manures as acting solely by supplying plant-food must be abandoned. There are, I venture to think, very few who would nowadays recommend a particular manure formula based on the one hand on the composition of the crop, and on the other on the composi- tion of the soil. It appears to me that, for the next important advance in our knowledge of fertility conditions, we must look in the near future tc the plant physiologists and bacteriologists. The great réle played by toxic substances, perhaps of bacterial, perhaps of chemical origin, leads us to look for substances which shall restrain their development. Just as diseases in men and animals are being combated by the discovery of substances which retard their progress, so it may be hoped that our plant physiclogists may be able to discover anti- toxins which shall render harmless the poisons which are secreted either by the growing plant or by the metabolism of organic matter in the soil, whether such substances are produced by bacterial agen- cies, or by purely chemical changes. We shall no doubt find that many substances which we now apply in the confident anticipation of increased crop production, act less by virtue of any special plant- food with which they supply the crop than through their power of retarding or preventing the formation of substances hostile to plant growth. Soil-analysis will, in the future, concern itself less with the elaboration of methods for determining the proportions of plant- foods than in searching for conditions likely to produce toxic sub- stances and for means to overcome them. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 66) Infertile conditions, whether due to soil-bacteria, fungi, or the formation of poisonous chemical substances, will be combated by the same weapons as are now employed against similar diseases in men and animals. Whilst there is no intention on my part in all that has gone be- fore to suggest for a moment that we should cease to manure with the recognised fertilizers, potash, nitrogen, and phosphates, or that we should cease to conduct experiments into the best proportions of these manures for different crops, still I feel that future progress in this matter les more with actual farmers’ experiments where the principles already established by careful scientific investigation can be tested and modified to suit actual conditions. I feel that the time occupied in elaborate manure experiments on the old lines, and in the elaboration of methods of soil-analysis on the old lines, would be better spent in the study of other factors productive of soil fertility or infertility, such as some that I have outhmed above, and I hope that it may be possible for some of our Australian workers to devote more time to plant physiology, to the study of soil toxins and the elucidation of conditions which render the soil fertile or infertile, whether physical, chemical, or micro-biological in their nature. 1. THE INFLUENCE OF PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZERS ON ROOT DEVELOPMENT. By Professor R. D. Watt, M.A., B.Sc., University of Sydney. The beneficial effect of a readily available phosphatic fertilizer such as superphosphate on most crops, especially in the early stages ci their growth, has long been known to agricultural chemists and practical farmers. From time to time the opinion has been ex- pressed that this is partly due to their stimulating effect on the root- development of the young plants; though, so far as the author has been able to ascertain, no direct experimental evidence has been forthcoming. Almost the only published reference to the subject appears to be in a paper on “‘ Turnip Culture’’ by the late Sir John Lawes, Bart., in 1847, in which he states that— ‘“ Whether or not superphosphate of lime owes much of its effect to its chemical action in the soil, it is certainly true that it causes a much enhanced development of the underground collective apparatus of the plant, especially of lateral and fibrous roots.’’ 662 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. While conducting some water-culture experiments at Rotham- sted, in 1906, certain results were obtained by the author which seemed to corroborate this theory in a rather striking manner. In one series of experiments, in which all the mineral ingredients of the plant’s food material were supplied in about the usual propor- tions for water-cultures, the barley plant grew to maturity and pro- duced grain. Where any one of the essential ingredients was omitted the plants, as was anticipated, failed to develop normally and succumbed at an early period of their growth. My interest was aroused by the fact that the barley plant growing in the solu- tion from which the soluble phosphate was omitted differed from the others in that it made practically no root-development, although its stem and leaves grew quite vigorously for a time (Fig. 1.) A new series of solutions was therefore made up containing varying amounts of phosphoric acid together with normal amounts of the other essential ingredients. Barley was again grown in each cylinder with the results shown in the photograph (Fig. 2). The quantities of phosphoric acid varied from one-tenth to twice the usual amount employed in water-cultures, and it will be seen that the effect of increasing amounts of phosphoric acid was much more marked on the development of the roots than on the portions of the plant above what would correspond to ground level. As it is very unwise to draw conclusions from water-cultures alone, sand culture experiments of a similar nature were prepared— di-calcic phosphate being used in this case as a source of phos- phoric acid. The roots and shoots of the barley plants grown were carefully weighed in each case, with the result that each successive addition of phosphate was found to cause a distinct increase in the weight of the roots and a still greater increase in the weight of the stems and leaves. This was not taken as a proof that the theory of direct stimulus was wrong; for, when other conditions are favor- able, it is probably impossible to increase the amount of the absorb- ing surface of the-roots without increasing even more the vegetative part of the plant above ground. My departure for South Africa early in 1907 prevented the investigation from being carried fur- ther at the time; but the subject again attracted my attention on the occasion of my first visit to the wheat-belt of New South Wales, where the remarkably beneficial effect of the application of com- paratively small amounts of superphosphate to the wheat crop came under my notice. Even when due allowance is made for the comparative poverty of Australian soils in phosphoric acid, the result seems to me much more striking than I could have anticipated from my experience of fertilizer experiments in other countries, though I had observed semewhat similar, though less pronounced, effects on maize in the Transvaal. One would naturally expect the normal limiting factor PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 663 in the growth of wheat in the semi-arid districts of Australia to be the failure of the plant to obtain an adequate supply of moisture from the soil to satisfy the exacting requirements of a hot and dry atmosphere, and of frequent scorching winds, and this has been amply confirmed by my subsequent observations. In the light of my previous experiments, it was therefore difficult for me to resist the conclusion that part at least of the beneficial effect of super- phosphate was due to its effect in increasing the depth of penetra- tion, and consequently the surface area, of the moisture-absorbing roots. It was found impracticable to separate and weigh the roots of manured and unmanured wheat plants; so that my observations have been confined to noting the greatest depth of penetration of the roots of plants growing side by side, and treated in exactly similar fashion, except that in one case the crop had received a small dressing of superphosphate drilled in with the seed, and the other had not. Advantage was taken of a visit to the experi- mental farms at Wagga Wagga, Cowra, and Bathurst in the spring of 1911 to make the first series of observations. The method of procedure was to dig a trench nearly 18 inches wide, about 3 feet long, and as deep as was found necessary, at the junction of nianured and unmanured plots, and to carefully scrape away the sides of the trench so as to expose the roots with the following results :— Greatest Depth of Roots. Location. Variety. Number of Days atter Sowing. 4 On Unmanured | On Manured | Plot. Plot. | Wagga ... | Federation | 106 27 inches 34 inches Cowra ... | Bunyip | 65 SEE hiss Ase ee Bathurst... Cleveland 135 36 ae Ce Although every care was taken to select a suitable ‘location for the observations, it cannot be denied that there was room for a considerable amount of experimental error; but it was noteworthy that in each case there was a decided increase in the depth of root penetration due to the application of superphosphate, and that the contrast was greatest in the case of the younger plants. An- other result which would, I think, surprise the average farmer was that the roots of wheat grown under ordinary culture conditions had penetrated to such a great depth as 34 inches into the red clay subsoil at Wagga, in three and a half months after seeding, and at a time when the plants were under a foot high, and 3 ft. 9 in. into the stiff clay subsoil at Bathurst, when the wheat was only four and a half months old, and about 16 inches above the ground. 664 A similar series of observations was carried out in the spring of PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 1912 with the following results :— ee eee Number of Days Greatest Depth of Roots. Location. Variety. after first. Biective Bal: On Unmanured On Manured Plot. Plot. Wagga Exp.| Federation 86 26 inches 32 inches Farm Peckham, Nar-| Purple Straw 88 IS ices 30 ee randera Peckham, Nar-} Purple Straw 122 DAT Dery 38am randera Cowra LExsp.} Bunyip 94 28. 5, 3S aay Farm Adavale, Yandilla 97 Hie An 3D) 55 Parkes King (1) Bathurst Cleveland 84 OPIN ee BA iene Exp. Farm (1) Bathurst Federation 85 Qs Bik ly cie Exp. Farm (1) Bathurst Federation 84 Dang PAM 93 Exp. Farm it will again be observed that in every case except one (that at Adavale, Parkes), an increase (varying from 3 in. to 19 in.), in the depth of root penetration is shown due to the action of superphos- phate. The result at Parkes can hardly be regarded as normal, because the deepest roots on the unmanured plot were found grow- ing in the track of a decayed tree-root, and it was noted at the time that there was a much larger number of roots reaching down to about 30 inches in the case of the manured plot than the other. Besides, on new land in this district superphosphate has a much less marked effect on plant growth generally than in the southern portion of the wheat-belt. The most striking contrast was shown at Peckham, Narrandera, especially at the time of the first observation. The second obser- vation, for which I am indebted to Mr. Norman Forsyth, was made after a long period of hot drying winds, and it was noteworthy that the manured plot had suffered less from the drought than the unmanured plot in spite of the wheat on the former having a larger transpiring surface. On digging down to examine the roots the reason for this was obvious; for, although the top 18 inches of soil were almost completely dried out, there was still a considerable amount of moisture below this right down to the depth of 3 feet. The observations on this farm, which were made at adjacent spots at an interval of a little over a month, also brought out the point noted in the previous year’s experiment that the beneficial effect of superphosphate on root development is greatest in the early stage of growth. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 665 These observations seem to justify the conclusion that one of the beneficial effects of superphosphate on wheat (and probably other agricultural plants) under semi-arid conditions is that it causes the young plant to send its roots quickly into the subsoil, thereby increasing not only its moisture absorbing capacity, but also increasing very greatly the volume of soil from which it can draw its moisture supply; so that there is some justification for the farmers who describe the effect of a dressing of from 40 to 60 Ibs. of superphosphate per acre as equivalent to 2 or 3 inches of rain. They further call attention to the great depth to which the roots of agricultural plants under ordinary cultural conditions in dry countries penetrate the subsoil in search of moisture, which is one of the circumstances which makes the conservation of moisture iv the subsoil by means of a well tilled fallow effective to the suc- ceeding crop, and constitutes the root principle of ‘‘ dry farming.” we ee ee so ms==-] eee ow = Ge ee ee — . ae eee es © « Diagrammatic representation drawn to scale of the relative root and shoot development in the case of the plots which showed the greatest contrast due to the use of superphosphate. 666 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 2. SOME PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FACTORS AFFECT- ING SOIL FERTILITY AND THE GROWTH OF CROPS. By H. J. Colbourn, Agricultural HKxpert and Chemist to the Government of Tasmania. {tt is well known to the scientific agriculturist that the germina- tion of the seed of any plant is dependent upon three principal factors, viz., an adequate supply of oxygen, moisture, and warmth. The growing plant continues to be dependent on these natural agents, but when the reserve of food contained in the seed is done with, it has to seek for food supplies in the soil which must offer as little resistance as possible to the passage of its roots. Thorough cultivation tends to bring about that texture of the soil which is most favorable to plant growth. It is obvious, too, that a soil once brought into good cultivation remains easier to work for a good while to come; hence the initial outlay may be spread over a considerable period of time. Again, the presence of an abundant supply of humus or decayed vegetable matter in the soil exerts a very favorable effect upon its texture, and renders it less costly to manipulate. This is a strong argument in favour of occasionally ploughing in a green crop which, upon decay, furnishes much avail- able plant food. Moreover, the production of carbonic acid, which goes on during the process of decomposition, exerts a valuable in- direct effect in liberating much mineral plant food from the re- serve supplies of the soil. The green crop should be leguminous, if pessible, on account of the well-known property possessed by the leguminous order of plants of gathering nitrogen from the atmo- sphere, thus greatly enriching the soil with a valuable fertilizer. A practical point worth noting in connexion with green manur- ing is the lability of the soil after this treatment to be too hollow for the crop that may be sown immediately afterwards. -This con- dition commonly occurs if dry weather sets in shortly after the green crop is ploughed in, the result being the formation of air cavities in the soil. This condition can be improved, or, perhaps, remedied altogether by means of the roller, disc harrow, or other . suitable implement. The green crop during the early stages of its decomposition in the soi] sometimes develops an injurious degree of sourness which, however, can be mitigated by applying a good ee of lime to the land at the time the ploughing in takes place. Another important factor which concerns the amelioration of the texture of soils is lime. This valuable substance acts both chemically and physically upon the soil; chemically, it promotes nitrification, or the conversion of the crude nitrogen of the soil into ‘ritrate of lime—one of the best fertilizers; it liberates potash from its combinations, and renders it available for plant food. To summarize matters—draining, liming, abundant tillage, and the maintenance of a good supply of humus in the soil are the chief factors in successful farming. Given these a minimum amount of fertilizers is required, as so much of PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 667 the natural resources of the soil is rendered available; also drought has less effect, and crops are brought to maturity much earlier, besides other advantages which must occur to every practical man. 3. PHOSPHATES IN VICTORIAN AGRICULTURE. By J. W. Paterson and R. R. Scott. (Printed in the “‘ Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Victoria.’’) 4. RECENT RESEARCHES ON SOIL FERTILITY. By R. Greig-Smith, D.Sc., Macleay Bacteriologist to the Linnean Society of New South Wales. Note.—This consisted largely of an abstract of several papers published by the author in Proceedings Linnean Society, New South Wales. 5. THE ADVANTAGES OF ISOLATED AREAS TO AUSTRALIAN AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITIES. By J. Burton Cleland, M.D., Ch.M., Actong Director, Govern- ment Bureau of Microbiology, Sydney, and G. P. Darnell- Smith, B.Sc., F.IC., Assistant Microbiologist. 6. CATALYTES AND THEIR RELATION TO. CROPS. By L. A. Musso, Chemist’s Branch, Department of Agriculture, Sydney, New South Wales. The literature about the so-called catalytes has become so vast that to gather together all the experiments related to them would make a volume of considerable size. On one side we have statements about the presence of some rare elements in a plant, and often to the effect that certain elements are constantly found in some plants. Then we have a considerable number of experiments where the addition of such elements has had a beneficial effect on vegetation, usually by in- creasing the yield, increases that, in some cases, reach a very high | proportion. 668 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. The most striking results appear to be due to the use of two of these rare elements at the same time. It may be asked whether more striking results could be obtained by using three or more of these elements. If, as it seems likely, these elements are, in some cases at least, a condition of life of a given vegetable, their addition to the growing medium would not fail to give satisfactory results. On the other side, there are a certain number of experiments in which the same elements have proved either ineffective, or in varying degree harmful to the plant. The question, conse- quently, deserves to be gone into to see whether in the light of what has already been done, some conclusions can be drawn, though without doubt, long study and experiments will be required to throw complete light on this complex and greatly important problem. Those who admit that the beneficial effects realized have been really caused by these elements, be it Mn, or Zn, or B, or any other of these catalytic agents, consider these elements to be in- dispensable to the development and growth of the plant. To take a single example—Duclaux in his J'raité de Microbiologie, speak- ing about the growth of Aspergillus niger in presence of zinc, defi- nitively states that without zinc this mould cannot exist. It would follow from this that different plants require different foods, contradicting the popular view that some elements only, as C, N, P, K, are necessary to vegetable life. It would be better to say that these elements are found in all plants, and other elements are required by this or that other vegetable. In such a way we could explain how, in some cases, the addition to the growing medium of some of these rare elements has proved ineffec- tive and even harmful to the plant. Examples could be given of harmful effects brought about by the use of some of the elements which are reputed essential constituents of plants. . According to Burman (Bull. Soc. Chim., 1911, iv. 9., 957-959), Digitalis purpurea can only be grown in the garden, and in pre- sence of manganese. ' The ash of this plant contains 9.02 per cent. of Mn. The presence of Mn. in the ash serves to distinguish Digitalis purpurea from D. ambigua and D. lutea. Ivy, according to W. von Klenke (Zeit. Landw. Vers. West Oesterr 8, 629-630) is a calcareous plant. Its ash contains 31.09 ver cent. of lime. Henry G. Smith (J. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1904. 37, 107-120) found from 36 to 43, and even 79.66 per cent. of alumina in the ash of the peripheric part of Orites Excelsa. U. Suzuki (Bull. Coll. Agr. Tokyo Imp. Univ., 1901, 4, 418-440) found 12.1 and 12 per cent. of Fe;O, in the ash of the seed of Peligoniwm tinctoriwm and of Indigotifera tinctoria. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 669 The ash of the fruit shell of Trapa natans, according to Molisch (Bied. Cent. 22, 336-338) contains 68 per cent. of FesOz. These are specific instances where Mn, Al, Fe may be considered essential constituents of these plants. However, the greatest number of the experiments carried out with these particular elements shows an opposite phenomenon. The quantity of these elements required by plants seems to be very small; in fact, in nearly all cases dilute solutions gave good results, while greater quantities were distinctly injurious. Herein lies per- haps, the explanation of the different results obtained by many ex- perimenters. Let us, in effect, ask the question: What quantity of these rare elements is required by different plants? The usual way of estimating the quantity of manurial elements required by a certain crop is to calculate from the analysis the quantity of such constituent present in the average crop per acre. In other words, knowing that so many ewts. of wheat take away from the soil so many pounds of potash, so many of nitrogen, so many of phosphoric acid, we recommend the application to the soil of a corresponding quantity of these elements, under the form of superphosphate, sulphate of potash, nitrate of soda, &c. Applying the same process to those of the catalytic elements, which were estimated in different vegetables, we shall know with some amount of probability the amount necessary to a crop over a certain area. Manganese has been found present in many wines, and by many it is said to be always present in wine. The quantity found as Mn. varies between 1 to 3 milligrams per litre of wine.1 On the probable supposition that a corresponding amount is present in the leaves, stems, and other parts of the vines, and admitting an average of 2.5 milligrams for every kilo of crop, and a crop per acre of 10 tons, it follows that a crop of grape vine takes away from the soil manganese to the extent of about 25 grammes per acre. Boron has also been found by Henri Hay (Compt. Rend., 1895, 896-899), and estimated in wines. It seems to be a constant element of the grape vine. It has been found in the leaves, in the stems, &c. The ash of wine contains an average of 25 milligrams of HyBOs per litre. It follows that 250 grammes of boric acid are taken from the soil by a crop of 10 tons per acre. Henri Hay found also that onions contain boron to the extent of 2.1 to 4.6 grammes per kilo of ash. The average crop per acre is 6 to 8 tons. Admitting that onions contain roughly 2 per cent. of ash, in a crop of 8 tons, the quantity of boron taken from the soil varies between 300 and 900 grammes per acre. 1. Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, 19, 140. 670 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. Iodine was found by Bourget (Compt. Rend., 1899, 129, 768-770) in green haricots in the proportion of 0.32 milligrams per kilo, in garlic 0.94 per kilogram. At the rate of 10 tons per acre crop, the quantity of iodine taken by the green haricots would be 32 grammes, by garlic 94 grammes. Barium has been found by Hornberger in plant and soil. (Richard Hornberger. Land Vers., 1899, 91, 473-478). The average quantity was 1 per cent. of ash of the trunk wood of two copper beeches. On the basis of 2 per cent. of ash in the wood, and of a growth of the forest equal to 10 tons per acre, it follows. that the amount of barium required by such crop is about 2 kilo- grammes per acre. Copper was estimated in leaves of plant never treated with copper salts. (See Sestini, Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital., 24, 115-132). From the quantity found it would appear that a crop of 10 tons. requires an average of 55 grammes of copper. Working on Policarpea spirostylis E. Heckel (Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1899, 46, 42-43) found copper at the rate of 300 grammes. of Cu per a crop of 10 tons. Titanium was found by C. E. Wait (J. dm. Chem. Soc., 1896, 18, 402-404) in cow pea ash, in cotton seed meal ash, &c. Admit- ting both cow pea and cotton seed meal containing 1.5 per cent. ot ash, it appears that the quantity of titanium eliminated from the soil by a 10-ton crop of these vegetables is of about 30 grammes. A. Ost (Ber. 26, 151-154) found small quantities of fluorine in all the plants he examined, at the rate of about 0.01 per cent. On an average of ash of 2 per cent., a 10-ton crop would take 20 grammes of fluorine from the soil. Tt follows from these calculations that very little chance of good results was attached to all those experiments, in pots or in the field, where the quantity of these elements supplied to the different plants was very much in excess of what appears to be the real want of the generality of the plants. At the rate, and in the form in which some of these rarer elements were added, it need not be matter for surprise if noxious effects were often observed. The fact that good results were ob- tained in many instances with a considerable amount of catlytic manure would show that the amounts found by the analysis do not correspond to the optimum dose that the plant may require. However it may be, it is evident that to enlarge our knowledge of manuring, we have to turn our efforts towards the research and estimation of these rare elements in the ashes of vegetables. We come back to the old idea of Liebig and contemporaries that the analysis of ashes was the basis of rational and scientific manuring. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 671 No doubt the administration of small quantities of these elements to the soil encounters numberless difficulties in practice, no doubt other factors should be taken in consideration, but the results so far obtained may be considered an excellent guide for future work. It may be said that it seems extraordinary that so small amounts of these elements may be a condition of success in vege- table life, but we have only to think of the wonderful work per- formed by the roots of plants to see that it is quite possible. In the experiments with Aspergillus niger, Raulin found the plant to take zine from a liquid which contained only 1/50.000th of it; seaweeds, as we know, take iodine from a liquid which con- tains it in a dilution of more than 1 in 300,000. Further, Ber- trand (Compt. Rend., 1912, 134, 616-619) found that very minute quantities of manganese, one part in 10,000,000,000 have an appre- ciable effect in increasing the yield of Aspergillus niger. 7. PRELIMINARY NOTE ON SOIL DRAINAGE EXPERIMENTS. By Heber Green, D.Sc. ABSTRACT. The author reminded members of an experiment carried out at Burnley, a few years ago, from which the conclusion had been drawn that the use of superphosphates as a fertilizer, as practised so extensively in Victoria, would cause depletion of the plant food of the soil. As this conclusion did not appear to be justified, a series of ex- periments has been started at the Agricultural Chemistry Labora- tory, at the Melbourne University to determine the actual loss of plant-food in the drainage water of two different types of soil when fertilized by superphosphate, and with other manures. The soil is contained in large pots or barrels, each holding about half-a-ton. As these are fitted with drain pipes, and protected from abnormal rains by a glass roof, the conditions can be con- trolled so as to resemble a normal soil in an average season. It is not expected that such an experiment can satisfactorily answer the original question until several seasons have elapsed, ~ and up to the present the results show no definite effects of the use of superphosphate. The experiment has, however, necessitated other research work on'the flow of water through soils, and this has been published during the past two years conjointly with Mr. G. A. Ampt, in the Cambridge Journal of Agricultural Science. 672 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. DISCUSSION ON ‘SOIL FERTILITY.”’ Mr. H. W. Potts specially emphasized the importance of depth of root growth, as demonstrated by Professor Watt. Professor Cherry said that experiments with the ‘‘ Duplex Drill,’’ which was designed to plant the fertilizer below the seed, had given contradictory results. Neither lime nor ashes seemed to completely neutralize toxins. He also raised the question in con- nexion with Mr Musso’s paper, as to which plants were the source of the copper producing the colouration of parrots’ plumage. Mr. Catton Grasby, with reference to points raised by Dr. Pat- terson, explained that the presence of 2 to 3 per cent. of less soluble phosphoric acid in commercial superphosphates was due to purely business considerations. It was thought to be advisable to accustom the public to a rather lower grade of material than the best they could ordinarily put on the market, so as to leave a margin in case of any difficulty in obtaining supplies of suitable rock phosphate. The high salinity of certain South Australian wines which had been condemned by the Government Analyst and refused entry into Victoria, had subsequently been proved to be due to a dry season and the high salt content of the soil of the vineyard from which that particular vintage had come. Professor Watt agreed with Dr. Patterson that the chemical analysis must not be overlooked. He was of opinion that Russell and Hutchinson’s conclusions might need to be modified, but he did not think that Dr. Greig-Smith had so completely disproved them as he appeared to claim. Had Dr. Greig-Smith tried a set of experiments on ammonia production in garden soils treated with toluene vapour similar to those carried out at Rothamstead? He himself (Professor Watt) was starting such a set at Sydney. He did not think that agricere could be responsible for all the effects found by Dr. Russell, who had, in his latest experiments, used furmalin instead of fat solvents. Azoto-bacter had been obtained by Dr. Hall in soils from the Transvaal, and other tropical countries. Dr. Greig-Smith pointed out that in considering the action of heat on soils, different results will be obtained according to the moisture and other conditions under which that heat was applied. He did not obtain any anti-toxins, and thought that the action of fertilizers was due merely to their fertilizing value. Plant toxins may not be the same as bacteria toxins, and the view held at Rothamstead that toxins were absent from the soil did not seem to be justified. Because work was done at Rothamstead, it was not, therefore, perfect. Mistakes had been made there in the past, and, in his opinion, Russell had used too high a temperature, and had too completely sterilized the soils he had worked on. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 673 Mr. D. McAlpine asked if mushrooms had been grown on steri- lized soil. He had observed that the spawn would only germinate if traces of ammonia were present. Dr. S. S. Cameron described an observation when clearing land for lucerne by burning off the scrub, &c., on a small patch. The ashes were removed to a new area, but the increase of growth was observed at the site of the burn, and not where the ashes had been spread. Mr. Gabriel stated that when chicory grows in the third-rate soil of Phillip Island, the roots tend to go straight down, but that in the rich soils of other districts the roots are stumpy, and remain _near the surface. In comparing the work done in different coun- tries, the difference in climate did not always seem to be sufficiently recognised. Mr. H. Pye thought that the growth of roots was mainly de- pendent on the distribution of water in the soil. He thought that, as ordinarily used, the superphosphate stimulated the growth of the root stock rather than their tips. Mr. H. Wilson asked why was an unmanured crop more drought-resistant than one that had been manured ? Professor Watt replied that a soil may be sufficiently fertile, but that when moisture is scarce, the plant may be getting too con- centrated a supply of plant food. Mr. D. McAlpine asked if Professor Watt had noted whether the fibro-vascular bundles were affected by superphosphates. With regard to the artificial soils at Burnley which Professor Cherry had referred to as vitiating any experimental work carried out there, he explained that he was not conducting manurial tests, and the fertility conditions were not of so much account as the fact that they were known and recorded. Mr. A. E. V. Richardson pointed out that chemical analysis alone sometimes yielded very misleading results, as when they in- dicated that Pinnaroo (South Australia) soils were incapable of being profitably farmed. They had been found to be most profit- able. While the orthodox idea for many years past had been that fertility depended on the chemical, physical, and biological condi- tion of the soil, Whitney and Cameron, of the United States Soils Bureau, had brought the old ideas of De Candolle and Liebig up to date by attributing the infertility of soils to toxic excreta of plant roots and plant residues. They considered that the primary func- tion of fertilizers was not to feed crops, but to neutralize toxins. They further affirmed that soils do not wear out by cultivation and cropping, and that fertilizers are unnecessary where a proper rotation of crops was carried out. These ideas, however, are op- posed to practical experience, and to the best agricultural teach- ing; and they find no confirmation in the results obtained on the 6117. : Xe 674 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. Agdell Field, at Rothamstead. A most pertinent question was, ‘‘ Why is it that nitrogenous fertilizers are not required in the Victorian wheat areas, whilst phosphatic manures are even more effective here than in Europe.’’ Would Whitney and Cameron contend that ammonium salts are required to neutralize toxins in American, but not in Australian soils? Moreover, among the many obvious reasons why nitrogenous fertilizers are not required in Australia is the fact, as proved by departmental experiments, that nitrification is twice as active in Victorian wheat areas as at Rothamstead. The toxin theory would, therefore, appear to be superfluous when we can account for the facts in a more rational manner. With regard to the effect of phosphates on root develop- _ ment, there was a limit to the amount of superphosphate which could be profitably applied in a dry season. In soils rich in lime there was less danger in applying heavy dressings of superphos- phate than in soils deficient in this ingredient. The heavy dress- ings tended to greatly increase stock-carrying capacity. In pre- paring mallee land for cultivation, the best results were always obtained in places where a good burn took place. This has an in- teresting bearing on Dr. Greig-Smith’s theory. Dr. Heber Green said that four years ago he had visited most of the leading agricultural colleges and universities in America, and had found that nine-tenths of the agricultural investigators there were entirely opposed to the conclusions of Milton Whitney and his staff at the Soils Bureau at Washington. He deprecated the looseness of expression involved when we talked of plant roots searching for water as if they were sentient beings, who could detect the presence of water at a distance, and could organize an advance in its direction. Obviously any such directive growth of a rcot must be due to unequal osmotic pressures on either side of it causing the root to develop most on the side where the optimum conditions of osmotic pressure, &c., were most nearly realized. Similar considerations must apply to the distribution of plant food in the soil, and will explain the peculiarities of root growth in- stanced by Mr. Gabriel. The question as to whether superphos- phate should be planted with the seed or below it, as in the duplex drill, is answered by deciding at what stage in the growth of the root it is most profitable to give it a ‘‘ lift.’’ Dr. Patterson thought that when small quantities of super- phosphate were used, they should be planted with the seed, and larger quantities proportionately lower than it. Mr. Cheel quoted cases in which Ziereae, planted around a dead cicada, had developed a large crop of fruits, and out of a number of sweet peas planted in virgin soil at Hill-tep cnly one had developed; this one had received a little farmyard +:anure. ea on ih a Ye ~y ie - 2 gs Se ¥ ‘ - i 4 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 675 Dr. Greig-Smith referred to his experiments on _ bacterial growth, and pointed out that quite different growths took place at different temperatures. With reference to the use of formaldehyde by Russell and Hutchinson, he had himself tried the effect of 1 per cent. of formaldehyde, and could then get no bacterial growth. Evidently there must be some difference in their experimental methods. Dr. Gibson said that tests were being made with various ferti- lizers in the cultivation of sugar-cane in Queensland, but that the improvement obtained had not come up to expectations, and ap- parently physical and biological factors would have to be taken into account. The President congratulated the agricultural section on the in- structive discussion that had followed the reading of the papers on “Soil Fertility.’”’ He thought that the chief lesson to be drawn from the discussion was that a plant (to use a somewhat inexact figure of speech) was not merely to be put in the ground and stuffed with food, but that it must be considered more as an animal, with its likes and dislikes, both as to its surroundings as well as its food. These must be humoured if the best results are to be obtained. 8. THE ADVANTAGES OF ISOLATED AREAS IN AUSTRALIA TO AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITIES. By J. Burton Cleland, M.D., Ch.M., and G. P. Darnell- Smith, B.Sc., F.C. ae 9. THE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION TO THE COMMONWEALTH. By H. Pye (Dookie Agricultural College). Page. A. The Importance of Agricultural Education Ly oF 675 B. The Metamorphoses of the Farmer ae 5h Jeet CHER C. The Education of the Man on the Land se... f: 3.8 AS D. The Itinerant School of Agriculture F eae aes E, The Contrast between Australian and Miaiehs Cdaditions tt GSE F. The Existing scheme of Agricultural Education in Australia... 683 G. The Functions of the Primary School 4 Re .. 683 H. The Functions of the Agricultural High School of 684 I. The Linking of the work of the High School with that of the Agricultural College So 685 J. The Mission of the Agricultural College an the University School of Agriculture .. 686 K_ The Degree Course in Apeiealbaite. © LE Bae seep GSS L. Physicsin Agriculture... te ae ee .. 690 M. Forestry F J: BOE N. The Commercial and Economic Nepict of Weerendinca we ofSk O. Conclusion sie ‘se - sud Ba ww. =698 Nez 676 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. A. Tue Importance or AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Agricultural education is to-day occupying world-wide attention. The social, economic, and political welfare of the people of the Commonwealth will be profoundly affected by the success or failure of its agricultural education. The spirit of the movement has been brought about by social legislation; the great economic changes due to easy transport of products by sea and land making competition world-wide, and increased taxation and cost of labour making it necessary that the land be more productive and the cost of production relatively lower. The Australian farmers need to be more conversant with the influences, both within and without the Commonwealth, that affect them commercially or otherwise. They must know more of what is being done in other countries with a view of extending their com- mercial enterprise. This very fact will necessitate the training of men fitted as outposts of commerce, and agriculturists must have representation. In the Year-books of the States and the Commonwealth we have valuable data regarding the production and distribution of agricul- tural products, and the interpretation of these is of much moment to the citizens as a whole. Thus it is wise to impress on every agri- culturist the fact that an understanding of statistical returns con- cerning his business is a necessity to his prosperity. The determinating of a common denominator in State education that will satisfy all classes and all sects is an elusive problem the State is expected to solve, in order that the people will have a basis of national interests in common, and at least will give to those who draw a blank at birth an apportunity of acquiring a mastery over their future occupation. Jt is simply from the impossibility of governing the vagaries of human nature when class interests are affected by external forces of a social or political nature that the purely scientific and technical sides of the education of the agriculturist are primarily dealt with at the Universities and Agricultural Colleges. Still it appears that instruction on the political, economic, and social status of the agri- culturist should be more considered, since the successful settling of the people on the land is intimately associated with these matters. We are still in the pioneering stage, and owing to the isolation of the farmer the resultant disadvantages he is under are apparent. Thus, politically, there is a lack of cohesion. Economically, he buys and sells as an individual, and pays more and receives less than he would if there were more co-operative effort; whilst the lack of social life tends to drive the young people off the land. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 677 A much greater percentage of educated farmers is needed, and if farmers will send their sons to the University and Agricultural Colleges, they will get better representation in public assemblies. Original thinkers are few, but a few well-trained ones could de much towards organizing the agricultural community into a strong combination. The twentieth century will evidently be the age of organization. There appears to be no room for the individual. The political, economic, and social status of the farmer affects the national well-being, and it appears that the higher educational centres should at least give an insight into the principles govern- ing these: important issues. The first thing to do is to rouse the farmers into activity of thought in connexion with agricultural education. The colleges and the University would do their share if they had the means, but, as at present constituted, they cannot do much; hence I be- lieve the initial work should be done by a special school designed for the purpose, viz., the Itinerant School of Agriculture, of which I shall have more to say later on. As a matter of policy, Australia’s most urgent necessity is a big increase in its population in the near future. Either the States or the Commonwealth, or both, must devise a scheme by means cf which the large numbers of people who will settle on the land may be helped with advice and information. Any scheme that may be propounded must of necessity include agricultural education as one of its salient features. Hence there will be a need for trained men to instruct the community in the many phases of agricultural activity. Now that the tide of immigration has set to Australia, and before the volume has become too great, consideration should be given to the question, ‘‘ How best to regulate it?’’ The farmers could make use of those immigrants who have practical knowledge, and of these some will have ambition and brains, and will be able to carve out their own destiny. Those who are inexperienced, and have little capital and education will be wiser to get in touch with Australian conditions at the Agricultural College. A broader out- look will be attained there, at a cheaper cost, and in a shorter time than is possible on most farms, since it is the business of the college to educate. A year’s course could be designed to meet this need. Possibly the more intellectual youths would choose to take up a two years’ course, or even a three years’ course. If a school were set apart solely for immigrants, the results would not be as satisfactory, since a-very important part of the education—being in touch with the customs of the people—would not be acquired so rapidly. The Itinerant School of Agricul- ture, on which comment will be made in this paper, may also take an active part in the agricultural education of immigrants. 678 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. It seems that a permanent bureau should be established. The officers of this bureau should be men of high attainments in social and political economy, men of standing in the scientific and educa- tional world, also men of rugged intellect, with human sympathies, who know the needs and thoughts of the masses. Men of commer- . cial training and other representatives of agricultural activities should also be represented. ° The function of the bureau would be, among other matters, to prepare a scheme that would meet the needs of such a national project as settling the people over the Commonwealth. When we get a right perspective of the scheme, it will be found that agricul- tural education will occupy a prominent place in it. B.—Tue METAMORPHOSES OF THE FARMER. The prejudices that obsessed the older generation of farmers against scientific education and research work are passing away. Although the Old Guard dies, but never surrenders, the Young Guard is full of promise, full of enthusiasm, and full of determina- tion. The many young agriculturists who enter the ranks of the scien- tific corps leave it with broader and more practical minds, and are in every way better equipped as agriculturists and as citizens who can voice the needs of their class in the social and political arenas. This is evident from the interest shown by some of our older past students in public matters. To many farmers of the older generation the halo of mystery surrounding the work of the scientist, though producing a passive form of respect for him, was not made a living force until - the scientists themselves became more in sympathy with the needs of the agricultural community, and so better understood its language and its needs. The prejudices on both sides are dying out, and so the farmer and the scientist meet on common grounds. Hence there is more directness in the attitude each has to the other. C. Tae Epucation or THE Man On THE LAND. In America, the Agricultural Colleges and the Universities take a more active part in the direct instruction of the farmers already on the land than do similar institutions in the Commonwealth. The reason is evident. In America, the instructional staff of every college is very large, and the heads of branches have under them men who are educationally of equal standing, though perhaps not so experienced. Then, as the vacations are long, the members of the staff are free to leave the college without seriously hampering the work; or, better, they may deal with the farmers at the college, and get in direct touch with them. aaa). = “aes | OS Ne fs A ~~ tn - = . ’ Bers” 7 = x PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 679 In Victoria, the work at the colleges is continuous throughout the year, there being no dead season; also, the students are en- gaged at work all the year round, with the exception of the usual short vacations. The staff is numerically small compared with that of any of the American colleges, and their duties, in consequence, much heavier. In Australia, the members of the staff who would be most in- terested in the agricultural side of the work are also practical managers of their respective branches, and cannot leave their work. Their time is more than fully occupied already. If the American system were to be adopted, then a change must -be made in the Australian system. It will be more costly, and probably less suited to Australian conditions. However, it is not impossible to do all that is done in America, but with the smaller population it will cost more. Still with an inflow of immi- grants, it will be worthy of the State to organize and induce its farmers to adopt sound method that will save the community much capital, and not impair the fertility of the land. Undoubtedly, by popularizing the work, financial support would _ be forthcoming. To popularize it, I believe it is essential to create a special school first, on the lines that will be subsequently indi- cated. This school could also interest itself in the education of the farmer’s daughters in respect to domestic economy and such ‘subjects as poultry-farming and apiculture. D. Tue ITInERANT ScHOoL or AGRICULTURE. The education of the farmer either at the college, or away from it, needs the inspiring influence of men of exceptional qualifica- tions. The chief of the Itinerant School of Agriculture must be a good organizer and an enthusiastic level-headed man, who van arouse public interest. He should be a clear and fluent speaker, with a natural earnestness, and have a knowledge of his work. He should be practically the sole selector of his staff. This will be composed of men who know their work thoroughly, who can present their ideas clearly, and who can hold their audiences. I believe this branch should be independent of any other, and the permanent members of the staff should not be called upon for other duties. It is a distinct profession—this instructional work of the man on the land—and the men who take it up must be specialists in handling human nature. When the itinerary has been mapped out. the chief of this school should be the master of the situation, and only subject to his immediate head by presenting progress reports and the usual financial statements. The chief would work in advance of his school, create public interest where there is none, gain the hearty, and even financial, co-operation of the public men of the town and district, and the ~ 680 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. assistance of the local press. There should be a strong local com- mittee formed by the chief to arrange for halls, advertisements, and conveyance of teaching apparatus, models, &c. Subjects that interest the farmers’ wives and children may also form a part of the curriculum. Tt will be seen that the leader of this propaganda work needs to be a man of exceptional parts, and his services worthy of high remuneration. His mission is to popularize science in relation to agriculture, and to create a strong public interest in the problems associated with rural life; thus broadening the horizon of agricul- turists generally. The short course, the summer schools, the rural camp schools, and live stock judging schools would also come within the scope of this organization, and possibly a corresponding branch in con- nexion with the journal of the Agricultural Department. One important objective of this school would be to create an interest in co-operative experimental work on the farm. Here per- sonal touch with the farmer is essential to a successful issue. The link that will connect the farmer to the University and the Agricultural College should be the Itinerant School of Agriculture. The Experimental Union of Canada has demonstrated what might be done in this direction. A wide-spread interest in experimental work creates'a spirit of observation and exactness among farmers that make it possible for them to develop and improve the cereals they grow, as several of the observant farmers of the Common- wealth have already done. Work in the direction outlined is done in America at the Farmers’ Insitutes, where instruction is given direct to the farmer, and, practically, at his farm. A certain amount of amusement is provided’in order to have a change from grave to gay. Human susceptibilities have to be reckoned with in the organization of this school. I believe the Itinerant School of Agriculture should have its own organization, as the limited staffs of the Universities and col- leges make it impracticable for the members to take a prominent part in its activities. Still the Itinerant School should be asso- ciated with these teaching centres, as occasions will arise in which they can materially assist it. The mission of the Itinerant School of Agriculture, whose duties I have outlined, is to practically go direct to the man on the land, and take him out of the rut of routine, and to make him think more of himself as a social and economic being. The spirit of the movement will influence his attitude to educa- tion generally, though primarily to the practical and scientific side of his business. : : PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 681 He is also more likely to make sacrifices to his ambition, and encourage his children to attend the Agricultural High School, the Agricultural College, or the University. E. THe ConrrRast BETWEEN AMERICAN AND AUSTRALIAN ConDITIONS. In Australia, there is no dead season as in the snow-bound parts of America. Noticing some statistics relative to the numerical attendance of students in the various Agricultural Col- leges of the United States, the preponderance is greatly in favour of the colleges situated in the colder States over those where the climate is more genial. In Australia, the population is comparatively small, and the farming community forms a relatively small percentage of it. Good agricultural labour is dear, hence the farmer needs the services of his sons. When his sons are old enough, they take up land for themselves, whilst it is comparatively cheap, either for general farming or for irrigation or horticultural pursuits. In a few. more decades, when the agricultural conditions are in more settled chan- nels, the farmers’ sons will be more in evidence at the Universities and Agricultural Colleges. The greater number of the agricultural students are from the cities and towns. Their fathers are usually in business, or are professional men, a number of whom possess land on which they wish to settle their sons. Owing to the seasons being very distinct in the colder countries, such as Canada, and parts of the United States, the courses of study are arranged to meet these conditions. Students not having farming experience are expected to work on farms during the long vacations, and sometimes they put in a whole year at practical work before completing their course. ‘This is done not only to gain experience, but also to help to pay for their course of studies. While the work done at most of the American colleges is more asso- ciated with the sciences, the humanities are not neglected. The purpose is to turn out men with practical and cultivated minds who are to investigate the many agricultural problems that need elucidating, also to act as directors of experimental stations, and as professors and instructors. This is also the purpose of the Universities and agricultural colleges of the Commonwealth, but the humanities are very little touched on. The Australian agricultural colleges have also another important mission. That is to turn out men skilled in the practical side of the work, as at present there is a greater need for settling men on the land, and for men who can manage farms. 682 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. If throughout the States, there were more opportunities for youths to gain experience on good farms, the course of studies at agricultural colleges could be modified, and more laboratory prac- tice given in order to develop the practical mind. At the agricul- tural colleges there are exceptional advantages since the farms are extensive, and the areas under cultivation large. The experience among the live stock is also wider than on most farms, while the minor rural industries receive attention. Thus a youth at an agri- cultural college would receive a more practical and a broader in- sight into agriculture in a shorter period than he could possibly get on 90 per cent, of the farms of the Commonwealth. The student also gains a scientific knowledge of farming, and he lives in an environment which in itself is a splendid education. The work on the farms of the Australian agricultural colleges is practically continuous throughout the year, and in the case of some students it is continuous, as they remain during the com- paratively short vacations. The necessity may arise in the future to make the practical work on the college farm a less important feature. By that time there will be a larger and more enlightened farming community; hence there will probably be less need for training in the practical work. The United States of America has a population of over 90,000,000. She finds that agricultural education in the highest branches of research must be encouraged now that she has such a large population to feed, and so much exhausted land due to bad farming, and large areas that will be infertile without irrigation. The public endowments of her agricultural colleges are on a princely scale, and the wealthy American citizens also vie with one another in financially supporting those institutions, hence the buildings and laboratories are very fine and well equipped. Owing to these munificent endowments, the scope of work at- | tempted in America is wide, and every opportunity is given for the training of the specialist by a very large staff of instructors. Much good work is done at our own University, but the results are not disseminated in a popular form, being more suitable for science journals. The original work carried out is due more to private effort rather than to organized assistance and encouragement. No money that the State expends will return greater interest than that devoted to original work in connexion with the many problems relating to agricultural production. When dealing with the question of instructing the man already on the land, I have endeavoured to point out the disabilities of the agricultural instructors of .the colleges to take part in the work. They are under conditions totally different from those of their American confréres, as they are not only lecturers, but managers of their branches, with little or no assistance except that of the students. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 683 Tue Existinac Scoeme oF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA. As at present constituted, the scheme of agricultural education in the States of the Commonwealth is divided into the following branches :— (a) The Primary and Agricultural High Schools. (6) The Agricultural Colleges. (c) The Universities. (d) Itinerant lecturers and publications of the Department of Agriculture. (e) Experimental Stations. These may be linked up in such a way as to form the backbone or foundation of a complete scheme that is necessary to go hand in hand with a successful policy of immigration. G. Tue Functions oF THE Primary SCHOOL. In this scheme the primary school could do good work, not in turning out scientists and trained farmers, but in giving the rising generation a bent towards rural life. In former days the education of the child was uninspiring. The education gained by their own curiosity in observing the flowers, insects, and bird life alone gave soul to their work. By introducing kindergarten and nature study into its schools the Education Department laid the most important foundation of true education. The observation powers of the children have been allowed to develop and the charm of naturalness has not. been stunted. Both qualities are associated with success in the business of life. Though the environal conditions under which a child lives are the primary influences in the development of its character, still the school gives the opportunity of developing the natural good quali- ties over baser influences. The education of the eye, ear, and hand is an immense advance on the old methods of teaching, and to no class will its influence be more directly beneficial than to the future tillers of the soil. The training of the eye, I believe, obtains in all rural schools of Vic- toria. A youth who, by a few strokes of the pencil can make a sketch of any object is more likely to have 4 practical and accu- _rate conception of things than a youth who cannot. The education of the ear from a technical stand-point should be correlated with that of the eye, and is valuable, especially in veterinary practice, and in work among machinery. 684 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. The school garden, when in charge of an enthusiastic and earnest teacher, without doubt, gives inspiration to the pupils for intelligent observation, and so the development of the practical mind. Sometimes too much is attempted, or plants unsuited to the district experimented with, or some other mistake made. This dampens enthusiasm, and may lead to slip-shod habits. Presumably a number of the brighter pupils, after a successful career in the primary schools, enter the Agricultural High Schools. H. Tue Functions or tHE AGRICULTURAL Hi1GH SCHOOL. The apparent functions of the Agricultural High Schools are to teach the pupils to observe correctly; to develop the practical mind; to give a sound education in mathematics, book-keeping, and English; and a good insight into manual training in carpentry and blacksmithing; also to give instruction in freehand and mechanical drawing, and in commercial geography. The ultimate life’s work of the boy, will in a measure, regulate some of the other studies. Thus he may wish to— (a) Become a teacher under the Education Department; (6) To be a student at an Agricultural College ; (c) Enter the University for the degree course in agricul- ture. (dz) Return to his father’s farm. The course could be so modified as to meet the cases mentioned, and optional subjects be allowed. Much of the work would be done in common, but the youth entering the Education Department would take such subjects as the theory of teaching, English literature, and a foreign language. These subjects, I believe, already form a part of the curriculum. The student for the Agricultural College could replace the theory of teaching with rhetoric and oratory since the farming community requires speakers who can voice its needs at public gatherings and councils. It would also be advisable for students who wish to enter on the degree course to take the subjects of rhetoric and oratory, possibly logic, and also a foreign language. The mission of the University and Agricultural College is not only to turn out agriculturists, but also educated men. There- fore, some preparatory work in these subjects will facilitate the future studies of the students. The practical work of the Agricultural High School Farm should be designed more towards developing the observation faculties PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 685 The quantities of products handled are relatively small, and the equipment in farm machinery is circumscribed, as the smallness of the plots and the number of the students would not necessitate its use, except for demonstration purposes. A capable high school teacher, who knows his mission, will not attempt to turn out practical agriculturists, but will turn out the raw material; this may be done by correlating the science work with the practical work. The propagation of plants, including hot-house work, the vegetable garden, the small orchard, the plots of cereals, fodder fibre plants, and sugar beet, give a wide scope for instructional and observational work among plants; whilst the few cows, pigs, horses, and fowls give opportunity for other instructional work in feeding, milking, milk testing, and the care of animals. There are other sources of work which the capable teacher could make use of, but the immediate spirit of the movement should be to turn out practical-minded men who could be made good farmers and observant investigators. In order to develop the practical mind a farm is not necessary. A small area of land would suffice. Much interesting work may be done at convenient centres with pot and wire basket culture, also hot-house and green-house work. Seed testing, grain judging, cross-fertilization, propagation of plants, mechanical analysis of soils, soil physics, the action of fertilisers on soils, and the action of bacterial life, are other phases of work that will interest. The public gardens, and pos- sibly some private gardens, offer facilities for instruction in land- scape work and mind training in other directions. I. Tae LINKING OF THE WoRK OF THE HiIGH SCHOOL WITH THAT OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. In the suceessful Agricultural High School pupils the Agri- cultural Colleges and the University have fine material to train. Much depends on the personality of the pupil whether his bent is towards the practical or the scientific side of agriculture. He has been fitted by his previous training to take full advantage of the training given at the Agricultural College; and even did he intend to become a lecturer it would be to his advantage to take two years there and get a broader outlook before joining the University for the degree course in agriculture. The agricultural course of the High School could be designed so that a successful student from it may commence work of the second year at the Agricultural College. In a measure this is already done; still a more comprehensive scheme could be drawn up. 686 ; PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. J. THe Mission or tHE AGRicuLTURAL COLLEGE AND THE UNIVERSITY ScHoot or AGRICULTURE. It is said that to speak a language one must get into sympathy with the soul of the nation. A similar sentiment may be applied to the resident of the city who wishes to go on the land. He must live amongst agri- cultural surroundings, and cet in touch with the spirit of the work. The average city inan who takes up agriculture as a livelihood pays dearly for neglecting an association with country pursuits in his youth. Hence I believe it imperative that a student on entering for the degree course should have some know- | ledge of practical agriculture. It is evident that the youth who has not been reared amidst country pursuits should first enter the Agricultural College rather than take up the degree course at the University without an initial insight into practical agriculture. By having a grasp of this work, the incentive to intelligent thought on the subject-matter of the lectures at the University is stronger, and there are fewer misconceptions, since the mind is tuned to the proper key for receptivity. The correlation of ideas is more obscure, unless there is a motive force that makes memory easy, since his intelligence and practical insight lighten mental effort. Again, we know the powers of observation are naturally keener in youth than when the adult stage is reached. The training of the hand and eye to work in unison is better accomplished then, and when adult age is reached there is then no awkwardness in handling live stock, machinery, or implements. Thus a youth should be associated with live stock and agri- cultural work as early as possible. He is less influenced by ridicule than young men who start late in acquiring manual dexterity on the farm, and his movements are not awkward and laboured. As the greater number of students attending the Agricultural Colleges and University Schools of Agriculture come from the towns, I believe it should be compulsory that they first enter the Agricultural College before commencing work at the University. The education is free at all the Agricultural Colleges, and the maintenance fee is not more than £30 per annum at any, and is less at some. The incidental expenses are also relatively small, being much less than in other educational establishments. There are many youths in the State who are unable to take advantage of the High School, and who do not desire to take a ~ three years’ course for the diploma, but who would be glad to have a two years’ course at the Agricultural College. In this PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 687 course the stience training would be more elementary and con- fined to a few subjects. The business side of farming would, however, be made more prominent, and a student before receiving a certificate should\be expected to write a presentable paper on an agricultural topic. A year’s course in dairying, horticulture, poultry management, &c., has already been arranged, but preference is given to full course students when there are too many applications. The Agricultural Colleges of a necessity devote their energies to the practical needs of the times, and, unlike the University, are more subject to the whim of the moment. Still the Uni- versity too is dependent on Governments, and so on popular conceptions or misconceptions. The diploma, in my opinion, should not’ be granted by the University. A diploma should be a certificate of competency more for the practical or living side of life. The diploma course should be shaped with the commercial basis as the central thought, i.e., the science and other subjects taught would dwell in their direct application to agriculture with a view of perfecting the practice and management of the farm. On the other hand, the environment of the University does not give an atmosphere of the actual living side of the agriculturist’s life; neither, as the course is at present constituted, does it include the humanities in any form. It is purely a scientific course designed less for agri- culturists on the land than for instructors in the sciences relating to agriculture. Thus, owing to the extremely low maintenance fees and free education at the Agricultural College, it is possible for any in- dustrious youth to take up the diploma course. Already some -youths earn sufficient to pay their fees themselves, and these are usually the best type of student. The students in residence at the Agricultural College, living as they do amongst the farming community, have advantages over the student attending the Universities, and will have greater ones as the social equipment is developed. The influence due to living in an atmosphere of agricultural thought is one of much importance, and greater than it is usually credited with as an educational factor. The cost of living at the University Colleges precludes many students who would be leaders of thought from taking advantage of their splendid associations with men of the highest culture and knowledge of life; still, in the environment of the University, there is the opportunity for the students who are to be leaders of men to find congenial sur- roundings. The problem the University has before it is not only to turn out scientific agriculturists, but men with practical judgment and 688 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. with the ability to lead. I believe that in the future the agricui- tural course at the University will be modified to prodtice them. At present the agricultural course is a purely scientific one, except that the fourth year of a student’s course is passed at the Agricul- tural College, where the time is mainly spent in practical work and attending lectures and demonstrations in agriculture. I believe it would be much better that the first two years should be spent at the College, and the course arranged to meet the conditions. it is not sufficient just to give a scientific education if the agricultural community is to become an influential factor as a class. The intellectual discipline gained by intimacy with great authors is not obtained in the School of Agriculture of the Universities, and very little at the Agricultural Colleges. It seems that the graduates of the University, who will be the future leaders and professors, should be intimate with great authors, whose writings inspire noble thoughts and ambitions. The material prosperity of the community is assured, but the democratic spirit needs disciplining, or the masses may easily get out of hand: Hence, though literature and languages are hardly considered in conjunction with agricultural education, still it seems that the University graduates who will likely furnish many of the leaders of agricultural thought should at least have an intimate knowledge of some of the great authors, and also have a knowledge of a foreign language. K. THE DEGREE CouRSE IN AGRICULTURS. In deciding what subjects should be compulsory for a degree in agriculture, there are many difficulties to overcome. If the University were in a strong financial position the difficulties would to a great extent be overcome. At present the degree course is designed from a purely scientific stand-point. Its scope is not wide enough. I believe every candidate for a degree in agriculture should have a diploma, or its equivalent, as a guarantee of a good practical insight into agriculture. There appears to be only three alternatives in bringing the degree course to a proper standard :— (a) Hither more subjects must be taken each year; (6) The period of the course of studies must be lengthened ; (c) Special schools of agriculture must be founded. anus we may have a school of agriculture, a school of animal husbandry, a school of veterinary science, a school of irrigation, a school of forestry, and a school of horticulture and landscape gardening. As the specialist is more in demand, it is evident that the third system is the best, provided the University was financially in a position to carry it through. ee ae a PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. . 689 The diploma of the Agricultural College should be the basis of entrance to each school. It would be a guarantee of a sound general knowledge of the principle and practice of agriculture in its widest sense. The school of irrigation would be more associated with the schools of engineering and physics. Looking forward, the signs of the times seem to indicate that sewage disposal, and sewage farms, will occupy world-wide atten- tion. There seems to be no doubt but that every centre of population will, by legislative action, be ferced to adopt some modern method for the disposal of its sewage. At present it is often discharged into rivers and creeks, polluting them, while at - the same time much fertilizing matter is lost to the district and to the State. Sewage farming is another phase of agricultural education associated with the engineering school, since the main Mission is to dispose of the sewage at the cheapest cost. The sewage farm is simply an adjunct to the scheme, instituted to dispose of the sewage with advantage. Even though the farm may not pay directly, it'does indirectly. The founding of distinct schools of agriculture at the University or at the Agricultural College, if affiliated with the University, would give great opportunities for splendid research work and the establishment of post-graduate courses that will give opportunities of supplying the demand for specialists in every phase of agricul- tural activity. The school of Biology offers a splendid sphere of research work for its best students. . The problem of the successful transport of fresh fruit to distant countries alone may bring forth results that would revolutionize the fruit-growing industry of the Common- wealth, and bring untold wealth to its people. In connexion with the suggestion that scholarships be given to post-graduates of the degree. course, I would like to point out that one of the drawbacks to the selection of the right men for scholar- ships is the competitive examination. The man with a good memory is sometimes more successful in such examinations than 1s the thinker and the mechanical genius. Hence the temperament of the student, his constructive powers, his versatility of thought, and his tenacity of purpose should be taken into consideration in conjunction with his scientific attainments. These and other scholarship men should be encouraged to rise to the professional status or become directors of important research and experimental stations. ‘To encourage such men they should be paid a definite and sufficient salary, in order that they may live, and not merely - exist. They should have the opportunity of mixing socially with their fellows, and enjoying the privileges that civilization demands, as such give colour to life. Otherwise these men become unrecog- nised .drudges, who are passed over when important positions are available, in favour of men who have more savior faire. 690 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. L. Puysics 1n AGRICULTURE. Of late years, the importance of physics in relation to agricul- ture has been in danger of being overlooked. The swing of the pendulum has been in the direction of over-emphasizing the importance of the chemistry of the soil. This movement needs a corrective. A knowledge of the physics of the soil is of greater importance to the practical farmer than is a knowledge of the chemistry of the soil, not only because the physical condition of the soil has a greater influence on the growing crop, but because the ordinary farmer can control the physical condition of his soil to a much greater degree than the chemical condition. Where soil physics is dealt with, attention is mainly directed to the chemico-physical properties of the soil. There is a wide field for investigation in such questions as the treatment of special soils, soil variation, and the determining of minor errors in soil cultivation. In the future, the work done in the physical laboratory should be co-ordinated more closely with that done in the chemical and biological laboratories. The importance of soil physics is such that in every school of agriculture it may well absorb the whole time and energy of more than one man. I might mention in this connexion that valuable research work in investigating soil problems has been done at the Melbourne University by its staff and graduates. When more widely known, their work will reflect great credit on the institution in connexion with which they work, as well as on themselves. Unfortunately, the value of such work is to a great extent nullified, unless there exists a staff of itinerant lecturers, who can translate its results into popular language and interpret it to the ordinary farmer. Another important branch of the subject almost entirely neglected at present is the scientific application of the mechanical powers in the construction of farm implements, &c. At the present time, such things as the form of the share or nouldboard of the plough, the arrangement of swingletrees in harnessing a team, and so on, are designed on empirical lines. There seems to me to be no doubt that research work in this direction would result in an immense saving of energy in the work of the farm. This is another branch in which a graduate of the degree course might specialize. At Dookie, prizes have occasionally been offered for improve- ments in the design of implements and for the invention of mechanical appliances making for greater efficiency and economy in the working of the farm. This has been somewhat spasmodic; but the ingenuity shown has proved that if a school of mechanical design were established there would be no lack of graduates with the aptitude and the desire to take up research work in this branch. Other problems that can well be dealt with by the physics branch are drainage on the farm, the disposal of sewage, and the ventilation gf farm buildings. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 691 M. Forestry. Australia has realized that her forests must not be lost to her. Their national and economical importance is every year becoming more manifest. We must look to the State schools to create and keep strong a national sentiment that will make the afforestation of our country always a great question. The germ of thought must be implanted in every child that trees are essential to a great and progressive people. The need for trained and scientific foresters has come. Europe and India have for years recognised their necessity. A school of forestry is an essential in every country, and if the States do not found one, the Commonwealth should. The hunger for land may possibly be the cause of Australia losing many of her finest forest reserves. Even along our roads the vandal is at work ringbarking many of the trees, and little effort seems to be made to check it in spite of laws prohibiting it. The national importance of the subject justifies special attention being paid to it in connexion with the University course. N. ComMMERCIAL AND Economic ASPECT oF AGRICULTURE. One phase of agricultural education deserving of serious con- — sideration is the business side of the farmer’s occupation. In the past, this has been neglected. A great deal of energy has been expended in helping the farmer to produce good crops, but the production of the crop is only half the battle. The other, and by no means lesser half, is the disposal of the crop. Is the: farmer getting a fair share of that portion of the national wealth he is producing ? In Victoria, the factors making for the big estate seem to be stronger than the factors making for the disintegration of the big estate. This was true, at least, before the imposition of the Commonwealth Land Tax, and it is probable that this tax, while it will tend to break up the big estate, will not remove the economic weight from the back of the small farmer. Even in fertile areas the tendency has been for the small man to be crowded out, while the big man succeeded. This would seem to point to some economic stumbling block in the way of the small farmer. And, since it is the small farmer the Commonwealth so urgently needs, the solution of the problem is of national importance. The salvation of the Commonwealth probably lies in the permanent settlement of large numbers of small farmers in all the arable districts of Australia. And it is hard to over- stress the importance of anything that will tend to help this forward. The farmer, no less than the manufacturer and the 692 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. distributor, is subjected to keen competition in earning a liveli- hood. Unfortunately for the farmer, however, the competition in his case is less palpable, and he has therefore not awakened to the stern necessity of meeting this competition, and thus keeping his foothold on the economic plane. The manufacturer of to-day must be more than a maker of goods. He must know the markets for his particular wares, must anticipate the fluctuations in the supply and deinand for these goods; he must know, not only what he himself is doing, but what his trade rivals are doing; and he must eliminate all waste, whether of time, material, money,. work, or skill, in producing his wares. He must, in short, keep one eye on his factory and two on the political and commercial conditions of all countries likely to supply or demand his par- ticular kind of goods. And the farmer in any country who has to sell his goods to other peoples is in the same position. There is in his case the same necessity to produce and distribute his goods at the lowest possible cost. The Australian farmer, owing to his being furthest from the great markets of the world, starts with a serious handicap. But instead of being foremost in those movements that will help him to compete most successfully in the markets of the world he has lagged far behind. Probably the Australian farmers will find, as farmers in other countries have found, that in co-operation lies their economic salvation. I believe that any movement to attain or to deserve success must come from the farmers themselves. But the Australian farmer has never been educated along these lines. To supply this education should be the duty of the University and the Agricultural College. The aim of the faculty of agriculture, I take it, should be to turn out compe- tent teachers, lecturers, and research workers. These men should be able to help the farmer, not only in the production of his crop, but in protecting his interests in the economic war being con- . stantly waged in the modern State. They should supply the in- spiration and the technical knowledge that will enable the farm- ing community to organize in defence of its own interests. For this purpose, I would suggest that the course for the degree of Bachelor of Agricultural Science should include a certain amount of political economy, sufficient to enable the graduate to under- stand and explain such things as the nature of rent, interest, and wages, and the part played by each in the production and dis- tribution of a nation’s wealth, and should include also a know- ledge of company laws, land laws, and the law of contract. When a student has completed his course for the degree, he should have the opportunity of specializing in the economic phase of agricul- ture, just as others would specialize in agronomy, animal hus- bandry, plant pathology, &c. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 693 The work of the agricultural college should be to turn out something more than merely the good farmer. It should aim at turning out graduates who are capable of becoming leaders, work- ing with and amongst the farming community, and forming a ‘« stiffening ’’ to it in its endeavour to protect its own interests. Bookkeeping is taught at these colleges, and, as far as it goes, is very valuable; but it does not go far enough. It will enable a farmer to say whether his business is profitable or not, and whether any particular crop is more profitable than another, but it will not enable him to say why. It may be that he finds his business un- profitable, even though he adopts scientific and economical methods. For this reason, I would advocate the inclusion in the cur- riculum of these colleges of a certain amount of political economy and commercial geography, as far as it deals with the production and distribution of agricultural products. And, in order to fit its graduates to take positions as leaders in the agricultural com- munity, a study of civics and rhetoric would be very valuable. The latter two, I may add, are dealt with at Dookie as far as time permits. O. ConcLuUsION. To vitalize the work of agricultural education, and to conserve the mental and material wealth of the community interested in rural pursuits, there needs to be a plan of action devised which is not so rigid that it will not allow for the effects of new inspira- tions born of great scientific development. The twentieth century is on the threshold of great developments that affect production. The wealth of the world is at the feet of the industrious nation that can maintain its virility. Thus whilst we educate this must not be forgotten. Hence, in all colleges, the human side of life must be considered, and provision made for sports and military drill. Great inspirations that affect humanity not infrequently have their origin in collegiate life. Hence the educaton of agri- culturists should not stop at teaching how to make a living, but also how to live. The very environment will bring the students into touch with great social and other problems that give them an insight into the knowledge of life, and so produce from among them leaders tolerant to all classes whilst upholding the diginity and privileges of their own. Thus I believe the education of agri- cultural students should not be wholly concerned with the material side of life if the agricultural community is to develop great leaders to represent them in the councils of the Commonwealth. With great leaders, a policy of looking forward could be evolved, as there would be some hope of practical support given each year to con- summate the plan of development. A leavening of such men pls SRE Ee Te ae 694 ; PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. would make the farming community a social, commercial, and political force to be reckoned with. It can scarcely be said to be so now. It has no organization, and therefore little weight. Those who make most out of it say it is the backbone of the country, and its fears seem to be disarmed by this gentle stroking of its back, and everything goes on in the even tenor of its way, whilst the grip becomes firmer on it. | With co-operation wide- spread throughout the Commonwealth, the farming community be- comes a vital force that can meet on equal footing organizations inimical to its interests, and make favorable and honorable terms with them. Isolated co-operative societies have little chance of success against strong combinations. Thus until the agricultural community has a strong leavening of men trained, not only in the practical and scientific side of their business, but also in the political, economical, and idealistic side of it, there will be no cohesion of interests, nor any co-operation worthy of the name. Hence the University, if it is to carry out its mission, should insist that the men who are to become leaders of agricultural thought should have a knowledge of life as well as be practical, scientific agriculturists. I have attempted to foretell a few of the needs of the agricultural community of the future as far as it concerns agri- cultural education, and whilst the Commonwealth is in the first blush of its youth, I feel this is an occasion when it is the right moment to give voice to these opinions. 10. WHEAT IMPROVEMENT. By A. HE. V. Richardson, M.A., B.Sc. [Published in Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Victoria. ] 11, RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN WINE-MAKING METHODS. By F. de Castella and W. P. Wilkinson. {Published in Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Victoria.] 12. SOME BUTTER-MAKING EXPERIMENTS AND ANALYSES. By Rk. Crowe. [Published in Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Victoria.] ee Section K. SUBSECTION—VETERINARY SCIENCE, ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT: PROFESSOR J. DOUGLAS STEWART, F-.R.C.Y.S. (Professor of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney). It will be remembered that at the last meeting of the asso- ciation, held at Sydney in 1911, representation was made to the committee as to the desirability of forming a separate section for Veterinary Science, it being considered the number and im- portance of the papers submitted in this subject justified specific recognition. The matter was subsequently brought forward at the meeting of the general council of the association, and after some discussion, during which it was pointed out that the subject of Agriculture had only recently been raised to the rank of a section, it was decided to recommend that the subject of Veterinary Science be a sub-section of Agriculture. This recommendation has been adopted, and while not so full as we desired, the recogni- tion accorded us, must prove a source of gratification to our members, and to the general council our thanks are due. Per- sonally I desire to express my full appreciation of the honour of being president of the first meeting of the Veterinary Science Sub- section. It now remains for us to substantiate our claims for additional recognition by the success of our conference and the assistance we give the association in the furtherance of its objects. The recognition of Veterinary Science by the largest scientific organization in Australasia, even as a Sub-section, has a wide — significance to us as a profession, and may be regarded as another mile-stone passed along the road of progress. The time is, there- fore, opportune to briefly review our position. To the pioneers of our profession we owe much. Fifty years ago the position of the disciples of Veterinary Science in Aus- tralasia was by no means an enviable one. In concrete terms it was financially bad and socially unsatisfactory. As it is under- — stood that Dr. Kendall will refer in a paper to be read at a later stage to the many difficulties the early practitioners had to contend with, I propose to review more particularly our progress in connexion with State veterinary service, and the advancement made in our training as scientists. 696 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. As far as can be ascertained from available information, it appears that official recognition of the veterinarian by the then Colonial Governments dates from about the time _pleuro- pneumonia contagiosa was introduced into Victoria (1857), when the disease was diagnosed by the late Mr. Henry Wragg, M.R.C.V.S., and it is believed that the first veterinary surgeon to hold a Government appointinent in Australasia was the late Mr. Graham Mitchell, M.R.C.V.S., who acted as consulting veterinary surgeon to the Stock Department of Victoria for about three months, when he resigned, owing to his views and those of his lay chief not coinciding. This conflict of views between professional advisors and lay administrators has ever been a fruitful source of troubie, and has frequently been an obstacle to satisfactory progress. Forty years ago it was acutely felt by the veterinary advisors of the Government, who were seldom con- sulted unless circumstances had arisen, often of a critical nature, which compelled the responsible officers to appeal to the pro- fessional man for advice and support. Sometimes the advice given was not acted upon; it not being considered politic to adopt the measures recommended, or, as frequently happened, preference was given to advice from other sources. Fortunately among our pioneers were men of indomitable character and irresistible persistence, who, notwithstanding repeated official re- buffs, freely gave to the public per medium of the press, advice that should have been sought officially. It is not possible to adequately value the services they rendered their country in thus influencing departmental activities in the suppression of animal plagues. Nor is it possible to form an approximate estimate of the losses that ensued on occasions when advice tendered was. ignored. With reference to the latter, one need only recall the incident that occurred in connexion with the first outbreak of anthrax in Australia, which took place in the county of Cumber- land, New South Wales, when the Government was advised to immediately quarantine the affected flock of sheep, and burn the carcasses of all dead of the disease, advice which, if it had been accepted, would have prevented the subsequent spread of anthrax with its calamitous consequences. After many years of strife, the claims of the profession for proper recognition, as with all claims based upon intrinsic merit, gradually became acknowledged, and in the fulness of time a few veterinarians were appointed to official positions, chiefly of a subordinate nature, in connexion with those Departments ad- ministering affairs of animal health. The efficient and _ satis- factory manner in which the holders of these positions carried out the duties of their respective officers led to further appoint- ments, so that towards the close of last century fairly extensive OS 8 ee RH SY he en) ae 2 ble Sad ea oe ‘ Do PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 697 veterinary services existed in New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland, while the remaining Colonies possessed at least a Government veterinary surgeon. The beginning of the present century, however, fittingly marked a new era in the progress of our profession in connexion with State service. The appointment of veterinarians to the time-honoured position of chief inspector of stock in the States of Western Australia, New South Wales, and Victoria, in order named, was a material advance, as these appointments marked an official recognition in Australia of veterinarians as responsible administrators. At the time the wisdom of this innovation was questioned in certain quarters, and it is worthy of record that on two of these positions becoming vacant, owing to promotion of the appointees, the Governments concerned selected two other members of the veterinary service to fil] the vacancies, thus dis- proving the oft-expressed opinion that scientists make poor ad- ministrators. The success that has attended the efforts of these officers is in a measure traceable to the fact that their appoint- ment placed the veterinary staff in a more advantageous position. - from which developed more efficient service to their respective States, and as a natural corollary, a greater appreciation of the veterinarian by the public. Further, within the past three years, two of our notable members have had conferred upon them signal honour. In 1919, Dr. S. S. Cameron was selected for appointment as Director of Agriculture of the State of Victoria, while last year Dr. J. A. Gilruth, then Professor of Pathology at the Melbourne Veterinary School, was invited to accept the position of Administrator of the Northern Territory. It may be expressed with confidence that the manner in which these two officials will carry out their important duties will bring to them further encomium, and to their profession some reflected glory. The most important development that has taken place in connexion with veterinary science in Australasia has undoubtedly been the establishment of Veterinary Schools by the Universities of Melbourne and Sydney. With reference to the development of the Melbourne Veterinary School, I am indebted to Dr. Cameron for the following information, 7.e., ‘‘ Soon after the passage of the Victorian Veterinary Surgeons Act, in which he was a prime mover, Mr. W. T. Kendall (now Dr. Kendall) established the Melbourne Veterinary College at his business premises in Bruns- wick-street, Fitzroy, during 1888. The curriculum of the College extended over four years, and on opening the staff comprised, in addition to Mr. Kendall, M.R.C.V.S., Professor J. F. McBride, M.R.C.V.S., who recently relinquished a nine years’ engagement with the Government of Japan, during which he established and conducted the Tokio Veterinary School; Mr. A. Goulé, 698 PROCEEDINGS OF SECLION K. M.R.C.V.8.; Mr. C. J. Vyner, M.R.C.V.S., now Chief Veterinary Uuicer of the Board of Health, Sydney; Mr. E. Rivett, M.R.C.V.S.; Mr. A. H. Jackson, F.C.S.; Dr. J. F. Joyce, L.R.C.P.; and Mr..8. S. Cameron (now Dr. Cameron). The College was conducted solely by Mr. Kendall at his private cost until 1908, when, after negotiations which extended over a con- siderable time, the teaching activities of the institution were taken over by the Melbourne University, which, in that year, established a Veterinary School under a special University Act of Parliament. This Act also approved of the transfer of four acres of land in the Fiemington-road donated by the City Council, and estimated at the time to be worth £20,000, and provided for the erection of buildings and an annual grant of £4,200 for the upkeep of the school, together with the attached Stock Diseases Researci Institute. With regard to the Department of Veterinary Science of the University of Sydney, it may be said that it owes its existence mainly to the beneficence of the late David Berry, who bequeathed £100,000 for the establishment of a hospital at Berry and for the teaching of veterinary science and agriculture; although on several occasions public reference to the desirability of creating a veterinary school had previously been made at functions held in connexion with the Sydney University. The responsibilities of the _ trustees appointed under the will were taken over by the Govern- ment by legislative authority, and the Universtby was approached with reference to the educational provisions.‘ The University appointed a special committee, comprised of members of the teaching staff, to consider the matter, and, upon its recommenda- tion, the University agreed to establish a Department of Veterinary Science, provided the Government supplied the neces- sary buildings and equipment, together with requisite funds for maintenance. The preliminary arrangements were completed .in 1909, when the University created a Chair of Veterinary Science, and the Government commenced the erection of special buildings upon an adequate area of the University grounds in a central and convenient position allocated for the purpose. The first section, that of the main building, has been completed, fully equipped, and duly furnished, at a cost of about £20,000, while the plans and specifications for the Veterinary Hospital and accommodation for experimental animals have been approved at a further cost of £10,000. This expenditure, supplemented by a generous appro- priation for upkeep, clearly indicated that the Government fully appreciates its obligations, not only to the wishes of the late David Berry, but also to the stock-owners of the country. Both these schools have, therefore, with the assistance of their respective Governments, been well established. Their equipment is ample for the thorough education and training of, students, while the curriculum adopted by each is of high standard. rad tee phe Sse oe PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 699 The distinction conferred upon the profession by the admission of veterinary science to University grade has done much to elevate its status. Like all similar honours, it carries with it certain responsibilities, important among which is the necessity to live up to the best traditions of the older academic pro- fessions. From the establishment of a veterinary school as an integral part of a great University, the benefits to be derived by the graduates are many and precious. Of the more important of which, one might mention the freer acquisition of general culture so manifest in the social life of a University, the maintenance of that high standard of education required by a profession, and the expansion of the mind to be obtained from unfettered intercourse and exchange of views of students of one faculty with those of another. In addition, there are inducements offered to foster the scientific mind, so important in the laboratory and in the field; while opportunities are made available for the encouragement of original research, which is so necessary for the elucidation of the many problems met with in our sphere of usefulness, and so essen- tial for the general advancement of science. Thus, from an unsympathetic past, when the future appeared so hopeless as to discourage many visiting veterinarians from settling among us, our present satisfactory position has been won. The progress made is most marked in Victoria, owing to the advan- tages derived during the past twenty-six years from the Melbourne Veterinary College—the founder of which must be regarded as the father of veterinary teaching in Australasia, and to the benefits that have accrued from the possession of a Veterinary Surgeons Act since 1887. Efforts to acquire similar legislative protection have been made in other States, but so far those in Western Australia alone have succeeded. In New South Wales a Bill was introduced last year to provide for the registration of veterinary practitioners within ‘that State, but owing to the exigencies of other measures of more importance to our politicians, the further consideration of the Bill was deferred until a more convenient opportunity offers. It is to be hoped that the vigilance of the Veterinary Association of New South Wales will be successful in obtaining an Act to provide the desired protection without too great a sacrifice. Few who have studied the question will deny that legislative enactment is necessary in all the States of the Commonwealth, not only in the interests of the profession, but to safeguard the community against the nefarious practices of impostors, and to prevent the infliction of cruelty to animals under the guise of treatment by persons ignorant of the very elements of the science. It is a regrettable fact that against these unscrupulous persons our prac- titioners have to compete in the majority of the States. Unfortu- nately, the competition is an unwholesome one, and constitutes a hindrance to proper public appreciation of the profession, and 700 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. niust be combated. To individual members its existence is a constant source of annoyance, but there always remains the encour- aging feature that the self-styled practical man is invariably routed when he pits his knowledge against that of the trained man, as the only really practical man is the really scientific man. Occasionally one hears critical remarks made as to the scientific training candidates for veterinary qualification must undergo, but unfavorable judgment is largely attributable to ignorance of the fact that a scientific foundation is the only effective basis for progressive technical work in any direction, and an essential one for the education and training of veterinary scientists, whose duties now cover so wide a range. With the extension of the services of the veterinarian, the curriculum for graduation has of necessity been elaborated. In this connexion one might refer to the extensive training in pathology and bacteriology the student now undergoes, an advancement due .not so much to the growth of these subjects as to the wide fields they have opened up in the study of diseases of animals, the paths of which have led to discoveries, important not only in the preservation of animal health, but also in the protection of human life. The time has arrived for all advanced countries to possess a competent veterinary service equipped with a research laboratory, and politicians have only to reflect upon the work this service is capable of performing to recognise its economic importance. In South Africa, for many years, and especially after the termina- tion of the Boer war, several diseases made agriculture almost impossible in many districts. This caused the Government to engage an extensive veterinary staff and establish a research institute at a cost of over £75,000. The results obtained have not only handsomely repaid the capital outlaid in the saving of live stock effected by the practical application of methods dis- covered for the repression and control of animal plagues, but they have materially aided in the commercial prosperity of the country by encouraging the re-establishment of agricultural pursuits in the affected districts and making possible the settlement of new territory. Further, they have enriched the world with much scientific knowledge that is being profitably applied. The work of the veterinary scientists of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States of America, is universally recognised as of great value to both scientists and pastoralists. The classic investigation carried out by them in connexion with Texas fever in cattle afforded the first proof of an insect-borne disease, a discovery that has facilitated the élucidation of the mode of infection of many serious diseases of both man and the lower animals, and thus suggested effective measures for their repression. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 701 The relative healthy condition of our flocks and herds is in itself sufficient evidence of the valuable work performed by the veterinary services of the different States, but it is questionable whether the fact is realized by the community. The application of repressive measures based upon scientific principles now confines to localities outbreaks of infectious diseases which in years past invariably spread rapidly throughout the land, causing severe losses to stock-owners and heavy expense to the State before they were brought under control. There still, however, remains much to be done in connexion with the repression of tuberculosis and pleuro-pneumonia contagiosa, while the eradication of the cattle tick and the elucidation of the problems attending several diseases peculiar to our flocks and herds have yet to be grappled with.- It would appear that full measure of success in the repression of the diseases mentioned is not possible under existing conditions, as the vastness of our grazing territories and the rudimentary methods of stock-raising generally practised on our cattle stations militate against that effective surveillance which insidious diseases require. Material progress may, however, be anticipated when our lands are more closely settled and the veterinary services considerably augmented. Important as the work of the veterinary service in suppressing diseases that arise within the State, of still greater importance is its duty to prevent the introduction of disease from without; but unfortunately few, other than the experts who have closely studied the matter, adequately conceive what our freedom from such diseases as foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, glanders, rabies, &c., means to the prosperity of the country and the welfare of the community. It has been estimated that, up to the middle of November last, the outbreaks of foot and-mouth disease in England and Ireland had, directly and indirectly, involved a loss in six months of not less than £2,000,000; yet this disease is not the most serious animal plague that has been kept out of our territories. As to the calamitous results that would follow the dissemination of rabies among our bush animals, one can only form dire speculations. It is true that security against the intro- duction of these plagues may be acquired by absolutely prohibiting the importation of animals and their products. from foreign countries, but such procedure would in time stagnate commerce. Fortunately, the advancement made in our knowledge as to the true nature of these diseases, the acquirement of reliable diagnostic methods for the revealment of insidious conditions, and the efficacy of prophylactic treatment, have permitted importa- tions to be made, subject to certain conditions being observed. Thus the improvement of our flocks and herds has been facilitated, and the expansion of the commercial fields of Australasia materially assisted, without incurring the dire penalties that frequently attend these practices. 702 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. Recenty two new veterinary services have been created in the Commonwealth—one in connexion with the Department of Customs, and the other attached to the Defence Department. The former is the outcome of the universal acknowledgment of veterinary certification as a guarantee of the wholesomeness of animal food for human consumption ; and the present staff comprises twelve members, one of whom is stationed .in London, and the others at the various places of export authorized under the Commerce Act within the Commonwealth. Although for some years past there has existed a Militia veterinary service, the importance of this service in connexion with defence operations has only been properly realized within the last year or so, when a permanent staff was established and five appointments made. Both these new services are capable of considerable expansion, and, as they develop, will no doubt absorb a number of qualified men. While we as a profession can justly claim to be of good service to our country in furthering its commercial and agricultural pros- perity, it must be remembered that our responsibilities as individual members do not end there, as it is the duty of each of us to our fellow men to be good and useful citizens. It is well known that many of our members have so concentrated their minds upon matters veterinary that activities outside the pro- fession have largely lost their fascination. A similar apathy towards public affairs has been observed to exist in other countries, where it has been attributed to the relative isolated position of many of the veterinary schools, which it is thought tends to restrict the expansion of the mind to matters solely of professional interest. Be this as it may, there undoubtedly exists a disinclina- tion on the part of our members to become public men. There are many avenues of public life where the veterinarian is: well qualified to enter and perform public service of high order, yet we seem to hesitate, notwithstanding the good example shown us by the medical profession. This is a matter that will, no doubt, be rectified in course of time. In conclusion, a few words in respect of the advisability of co-operation might be in season. To individual effort is largely due the progress we have made in the past; how much greater our advancement would have been had co-operate effort existed, one can only speculate. We in New South Wales realized, after the resuscitation of the Veterinary Association, the opportunities we had lost during recent years through not being united and existing as an organized body; an experience that impels one to strongly advocate the establishment of similar associations in each State of the Commonwealth and throughout the Dominion of New Zealand, not only to further the interests of the profession, but to give a direct impetus to scientific advancement, the necessity for which our presence here to-day bears testimony. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 7038 1. NOTES ON THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE VETERINARY PROFESSION IN VICTORIA. By W. Tyson Kendall,’ D.V.Sce., H.A.RC.VS.. MRCVS., Lecturer Veterinary Medicine and Therapeutics, Melbourne Oniversity Veterinary School. The establishment of a veterinary section in connexion with the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science marks a new era in the history of our profession, and it has occurred to me that I could not select a more appropriate subject on which to address you than ‘‘ The History of the Veterinary Profession ’’ in Victoria. Obviously in the limited time at my disposal I cannot do more than give an outline sketch of the subject, and must leave the details to be filled in later. I shall confine my remarks to the period anterior to 1908, since which time events have moved so rapidly that there would be sufficient material for another paper. I shall also leave details of the establishment of Government veterinary departments and veterinary schools to our worthy pre- sident, Professor D. Stewart, than whom there could be no more able exponent. In the early days of its occupation by white people, Australia was not an attractive field for the veterinary surgeon. Domestic animals that had been imported, and their offspring, enjoyed a remarkable immunity, not only from those epizootic diseases which have caused such devastation amongst the flocks and herds of older countries, but also from ordinary sporadic ailments. This immunity may be attributed to care in the selection of sound, healthy animals for importation, the long and trying voyage which would eliminate the weak and unhealthy ones, the complete isola- tion from countries where animal diseases were prevalent, and extraordinary salubrity of the climate. Imported under such favorable conditions to a country pre-eminently adapted for their growth and reproduction, and with a food supply and environment unsurpassed, it will be of interest to briefly trace the origin and spread of disease amongst domestic animals. So long as the original natural conditions remained undisturbed domestic animals preserved their freedom from disease. They were allowed to roam freely over large areas of country, with every opportunity of choosing their own food, water, and shelter. There was no loss of vigour from overcrowding and over-stocking, but, as they continued to breed and multiply out of all proportions to the limited requirements of the then small community, their value depreciated so much that stock-owners became careless about selecting and mating them. They neglected to castrate and weed out the inferior male animals and allowed males and females of ali ages and relationships to run together to the certain deteriora- tion of their offspring. 704 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. As time went on and the population began to increase, a higher state of domestication became inevitable. The larger holdings were fenced off into smaller ones, the freedom of the animals became more restricted, there was less choice in the matter of feed and water, &c. Seasons of scarcity occurred and checked the growth of the young animals and weakened the resisting powers of the mature ones against disease. Parasitic diseases be- came prevalent and caused heavy losses. Further, and perhaps less discriminate, importations took place, and the time occupied by the voyage became lessened. Scab was introduced amongst sheep from Tasmania. Outbreaks of malignant catarrh occurred in New South Wales as far back as 1834. In 1847, anthrax, then known as cumberland disease, made its appearance on the Lep- pington estate, near Campbelltown, New South Wales, and in 1876 the first extensive outbreak occurred in Victoria. How or when the disease was first introduced is not known, but, when in- vestigating the cause of an outbreak in a dairy herd near Geelong some fifteen years ago, I expressed the opinion that it had been introduced with bone meal which had been given to the cattle as a remedy for cripples. I took a sample of the meal to Dr. Cherry, then bacteriologist at the University of Melbourne, who confirmed the conjecture I had formed by making cultures of the anthrax bacilli from the meal. This meal was made from a shipment of bones that had arrived from India a short time before. Two other outbreaks occurred in the Dandenong district through using bone meal from the same source. In 1858 contagious pleuro-pneumonia was imported by a cow which was diseased when landed, and died within six weeks, having in the meanwhile infected the herd of the importer. In 1870 an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease occurred amongst cattle. Tuberculosis, tick fever, blackleg, and white scour, contagious abortion, epizootic ophathalmia in cattle, braxy, foot-rot and caseous adenitis in sheep, swine fever in pigs, strangles and in- fluenza in horses have successively appeared, besides many others. Various indigenous diseases, due to dietetic and other causes, have also from time to time caused heavy losses, and since dairying and closer settlement have been introduced many, both enzootic and sporadic, diseases have become prevalent. PIONEER VETERINARY SURGEONS. The first veterinary surgeons to arrive in Australia were mostly men who, like others, had caught the gold fever, or were allured by prospects of successful stock-raising or wool-growing. A few no doubt came for health reasons. With the exception of one or two in Sydney and Melbourne, who carried on a more or less precarious practice in connexion with shoeing businesses, there were no veterinary surgeons practising except a few unqualified men. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 705 Some, after trying their luck on the gold-fields, or in other occupations, either returned to their native land or wandered else- where. Among occupations which I have known qualified veterinary surgeons to be engaged in may be mentioned that of gold-digger, squatter, farmer, pound-keeper, trooper, stud-groom, coachman, groom in a cab stable, labourer in a brick-yard, labourer in the cane-fields of Queensland, insurance agent, ship’s doctor, police magistrate, chief commissioner of police, member of parlia- ment, and a medical student at the University of Melbourne. Yet, in spite of this, empiricism was rampant from a very early period. Every city shoeing forge was styled a ‘‘ Veterinary Shoe- ing Forge.’’ Cases that were not treated by a qualified veterinary surgeon or a farrier received rough and ready treatment at the hands of the owner or some officious neighbour or were allowed to ‘‘rip,’’ if I may use an expression then in vogue. This “‘ rip”’ treatment consisted in turning a sick or injured animal out to die or recover, as the case might be. The amount of cruelty inflicted both from commission and omission was truly lamentable. Animals were cheap and easily replaced ; hence the neglect. A decent hack could be bought for from 10s. to £1. The only animals of value were stud animals, race-horses, and carriers’ horses. Down till 1880, when I arrived in Victoria, there were not more than a dozen qualified veterinary surgeons practising in the whole of Australia. There was not a single veterinary surgeon wholly employed in Government service in any of the States. It is true that veterinary surgeons inspected imported stock, and made occasional investigations into outbreaks of disease on behalf of the respective Governments. A few held honorary positions in the Defence Departments, and a certain amount of veterinary work was done for the Governments in connexion with the Police and Postal Departments, &c. Amongst the early pioneer veterinarians the most familiar names are those of the Stewarts and Pottie, in Sydney; Shaw, Miscamble, Vincent, Mitchell, and Marsden, in Melbourne; Snow- ball, in Ballarat ; Park, at Warrnambool ; "Rogerson, at Stawell ; and Aked, at Bendigo; Chalwin, Bickford and Horton, Adelaide: and Irvine, Brisbane. Some of these had passed away, and others had not come on the scene at the time I mention. Of course, there were others who practised at various times for a short while in different places, but their names are less familiar, and they can hardly be regarded as pioneers. The former are, however, the names of men which deserve to be handed down to posterity. The fact that they stuck to their profession and outlived all kinds of difficulties, upheld its dignity in every way, and laid a solid foun- dation for those who had to follow entitles them to our respect and gratitude. It would have been a pleasing task to have given short biographical sketches of some of these worthies had space permitted, but that must be left to some future occasion. 6117. Vs 706. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. Stock DEPARTMENTS. In consequence of the outbreak of scab in sheep, which, for a time, seriously threatened the wool industry, Scab Acts were passed by the different colonial Governments, and staffs of lay in- spectors appointed, and credit must b2 given to them for the efficient way they carried out their duties under local authorities, and succeeded in spite of great difficulties in stamping out the disease. Later, when other epizootic diseases, such as pleuro- pneumonia, anthrax, &c., began to appear, ‘‘ Diseases in Stock Acts’’ were passed, and the scab inspectors became stock inspec- tors. They were, however, far too few in number and wanting in scientific training to cope with the spread of disease. As might have been expected, there was no systematic or continued effort to suppress or eradicate disease. The areas which they were ex- pected to supervise were far too large, even if they had possessed the necessary scientific knowledge. Not only were heavy losses continually taking place from, to them, unmanageable diseases, but there was a total absence of supervision over meat and dairy produce. Twenty-five per cent. of the cattle slaughtered for food at some of the suburban abattoirs were affected with tuberculosis, while hydatids, fluke, cancer, and other diseases were quite common; and yet there was no inspection or any adequate restriction on diseased meat going into consumption. There was no veterinary inspection of dairy herds and milk; butter and cheese, the produce of diseased animals, was openly sold without let or hindrance. The infant mortality was appalling, and outbreaks of typoid fever and other diseases were distinctly traceable to insanitary dairies. GOVERNMENT VETERINARY DEPARTMENTS. The first veterinary surgeon to receive a regular Government appointment was Mr. Anthony Willows, M.R.C.V.S., a fellow student of mine, who arrived in Sydney in 1883, and was appointed Veterinarian to the New South Wales Agricultural Department. He went to the Soudan War with the New South Wales Contingent, and died on the return voyage. Mr. Willows was succeeded by Mr. Edward Stanley, F.R.C.V.S., in 1885. Mr. Archibald Park, M.R.C.V.S., was retained by the Tasmanian Government to inspect imported stock, &c.; while Mr. Chalwin, Adelaide; Mr. Irvine, Brisbane; and Messrs. Vincent, Mitchell, Marsden, and myself were approved by the Governor in Council to inspect imported stock for Victoria. It was not, however, until 1897 that any regu- lar public veterinary appointment in Victoria was made, when Mr. S. S. Cameron was appointed veterinary surgeon to the Board of Public Health. In 1905 he was transferred to the Agricultural Department, and other appointments soon followed. Other States have also established Government Veterinary Departments, but I do not propose to deal with them here. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 707 Although good work has been done by the original pioneers of the profession individually in warning the public against the danger of animal diseases, as a body they were numerically weak and ineffective. Indeed, no attempt had been made to combine and act in unison, and each one seemed to be pulling in a different direction. Such was the condition of affairs when I arrived in Melbourne; and when I had made up my mind to stay, and had thoroughly considered the situation, I came to the conclusion that there was a great deal of pioneering work yet to be done before the profession could obtain a permanent footing. Two things appeared to be necessary, viz. :— 1. To overcome the ignorance and prejudice of stock-owners and the general public as to the aim and scope of veterinary science; and 2. To educate men for the veterinary profession who had been reared in the country, and were already acquainted with the special conditions. The increasing frequency and great mortality caused by out- breaks of diseases such as pleuro-pneumonia and anthrax, caused considerable alarm, as evinced by the appointment of Royal Com- missions to inquire into them; but, instead of invoking the aid of the veterinary profession as they might have done, or even listening to frequent warnings and advice gratuitously given, the most irrational and absurd:measures were adopted. Take the case of the first outbreak of the above-mentioned disease—contagious pleuro-pneumonia in cattle. Although diagnosed while yet con- fined to a single herd by the late Mr. Henry Wragge, M.R.C.V.S., and he had advised the immediate destruction of the whole herd, his advice was ignored ; and while a Royal Commission sat to inquire - into the cause, &c., the disease got away, and ultimately spread to every State in the Commonwealth. But this was not the worst of the bungling. Laymen, ignorant of even the elements of pathological knowledge, essayed to inoculate cattle for the prevention of pleuro-pneumonia, and frequently used virus obtained from tuberculous animals, with the result that the latter disease was spread broadcast. That tuberculosis can be spread by pleuro virus obtained from an animal suffering from both diseases at the same time I have proved experimentally. Great mortality was also caused through the use of virus tainted with septic organisms. The late Mr. Graham Mitchell, F.R.C.V.S., missed no oppor- tunity of pointing out through the public press, and in every possible way, the folly of trusting to lay advisers, but, unfortu- nately, with little tangible result other than to bring calumny on himself, and to be called an alarmist. a2 708 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. The Hon. John Stewart, M.L.C., M.R.C.V.S., and Mr. T. Chalwin, of Adelaide, likewise did much to enlighten the public on veterinary matters; but it was long before any beneficial effect became apparent. Mr. Mitchell had also written a pamphlet on anthrax. Seeing that single-handed efforts produced so little effect, I called a meeting of the few veterinary surgeons that were available, and suggested the advisability of forming an association. The meeting was held at Menzies’ Hotel, in 1880, the chair being taken - by Mr. Mitchell; and it was decided to form an association. Ata subsequent meeting, a set of rules which had been drawn up was submitted and approved, and office-bearers were thereupon appointed, Mr. Mitchell being elected president, Mr. Vincent treasurer, and myself secretary. Nearly every qualified veterinary surgeon then in Australia joined either as an ordinary or corre- sponding member, including Sir Charles McMahon, M.R.C.V.S. ; the Hon. John Stewart, M.L.C., M.R.C.V.S., Sydney; and Mr. R. Gibton, LL.D., M.R.C.V.S. Monthly meetings were regularly held, and various important questions discussed, and the resuli« published in the daily press. A considerable amount of corre- spondence was carried on with members in other colonies, and good work was done in apprising the public of the necessity of more scientific and systematic efforts being made to suppress animal diseases and protect the public health. In 1882 The Australasian Veterinary Jowrnal was started, and published monthy, of which Mr. G. Mitchell, T. Chalwin, and myself were co-editors. After a period of eighteen months or so, the journal had to be discontinued for financial reasons. In 1891 a quarterly journal was commenced, viz., The Veterinary and Live Stock Journal, edited by the writer, Mr. S. 8. Cameron, M.R.C.V.S., and Mr. Forbes Burn, F.R.H.A.S. This periodical had a considerable circulation amongst stock-owners, and it was with great regret that it had to be discontinued after some six or eight numbers had been published. In 1901 a third veterinary journal was launched, The Aus- tralasian Veterinary Journal, a quarterly, edited by Mr. W. A. N. Robertson, G.M.V.C. This also, for lack of support, collapsed after a few issues. After that The Farm and Home opened its columns to the profession, and continued for years to publish specially written veterinary articles under the heading of ‘‘ The Veterinary Record.’ Besides these special publications, the public press had always willingly received articles on veterinary subjects. In 1884 my small work on The Diseases of Australian Horses was published. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 709 The veterinary articles were discontinued in The Farm and Home chiefly because the Gazettes and Journals published by the Government Agricultural Departments took up the publication of instructive veterinary articles, and have continued to do so up to the present. Other means of enlightening stock-owners and others on veterinary matters were the reading of papers and giving lectures and demonstrations before agricultural societies at the annual agricultural conventions, and at the annual conferences of the Butter Factory Managers’ Association. A series of lectures on horse-shoeing and first veterinary aid was given at the Working Men’s College. This work had all been done by private individuals, but is now more effectively carried on by the veterinary officers of the Agricultural Department. First Attempt To SECURE STATE VETERINARY SCHOOL. In 1882 the Veterinary Association succeeded in obtaining, through the then Minister of Lands, the Hon. Walter Madden, a small piece of land in the old police paddock at Richmond as a site for a Veterinary School or College. Although the site was much too small for the purpose, we were glad to get it, in the hope that we might be able to exchange it at some future date for a more suitable one. In this, however, we were disappointed. When it was found that we had made no use of it, and being further influenced by a deputation of Richmond residents who objected to a Veterinary College being established in their midst, the Govern- ment cancelled the grant. It will be of interest to relate that Mr. G. Mitchell had, on his own initiative, instructed an architect to draw plans of the proposed college, and the Veterinary Associa- tion was served with an account for plans and specifications. The association, having had no say in the matter, denied lability ; thereupon Mr. Mitchell was personally sued for the amount, and was ordered by the Court to pay the amount and costs. This broke up the association, and some years elapsed before another was formed. In consequence of representations I had made through the press as to the great prevalence of tuberculosis amongst cattle slaughtered, for human consumption, and demonstrations made before the officers of the Stock Department, the matter was brought before the Upper Chamber by the late Hon. James Buchanan, of Berwick, and a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into it. A voluminous report of the evidence taken was published, together with numerous photographs of meat affected with different stages of the disease. As an outcome of this, a staff of inspectors was appointed to inspec at the abattoirs and markets, and it was also decided to appoint a qualified veterinary surgeon to inspect the City Abattoirs and take statistics of the number of diseased animals slaughtered, and the diseases, &c. Unfortunately, no suitable applicant turned up, and the appointment was never made. 710 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. During the next few years the profession in Melbourne received some additions, viz., Messrs. Goule, Cohen, Wragge, and Sharp, all of whom settled here. This accession led to the formation of another Veterinary Association, which immediately took up the question of framing a Veterinary Surgeons Bill to enable stock- owners to distinguish between qualified and unqualified men, and to protect the interests of the profession. This Bill was based chiefly on the then existing English Veterinary Surgeons Act, and, as secretary of the association, it fell to the writer’s lot to make the rough draft. The Bill was brought before Parliament by the late Mr. Bosisto, M.P., and passed after receiving some additions at his hands from the Pharmacy Act, and further changes in the Upper House, particularly the introduction of a most important clause, at the instance of the late Hon. Dr. Beaney, providing for a four years’ course. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY COLLEGE. Owing to a promise having been made to Mr. Bosisto that, in the event of the Veterinary Surgeons Bill being passed, an early attempt would be made to establish a Veterinary College, and receiving no help from the Government in regard to providing a suitable site or funds to erect the necessary buildings, as well as lack of interest in the matters displayed by my colleagues, I determined to try what I could do single-handed. The first step taken was to obtain the signatures of all the leading horse-owners, stock and station agents, medical men, and others in Melbourne, to a requisition to the City Council praying that a college might be erected on the Market reserve adjoining the Horse Market, Sydney-road, Parkville, being part of the reserve on which the new University Veterinary School now stands. The requisition was signed by a large number of people, and duly presented to the City Council, who received it very favorably, and submitted it to the legislative committee to be dealt with. Unfortunately, it was discovered that they held the land in trust for market purposes only, and without special legislation it could not be used for any other purpose. This scheme was, therefore, reluctantly abandoned; but, having been assured by some of the leading members of the Government that if it could be shown that such an institution was a necessity and students forthcoming assistance would be given, I determined to establish a private college. In 1885 I had purchased the site of the old college, and immediately opened a veterinary hospital. Not, however, without considerable difficulty was it established. Owners of sick animals had not been accustomed to send them to a hospital for treatment, and for the first year I found it necessary to buy the PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 711 patients in many instances, and sell them at a good profit, either to the original owner or some one else. Nevertheless, in a couple of years, it was no unusual thing to have thirty or forty patients in at a time. In 1886 the college buildings were erected, but the institution was not opened for teaching purposes till January, 1888. A curri- culum was arranged in accordance with the regulations of the Act, and Mr. E. Rivett, M.R.C.V.S., and Dr. Joyce, having been engaged to assist in teaching, classes were opened, and six students entered. The teaching staff was added to as the necessity arose. Amongst the new additions were Mr. C. Vyner, M.R.C.V.S., Mr. S. S. Cameron, M.R.C.V.S., and Professor McBride, Ph.D., M.R.C.V.S., and Mr. A. Goule, M.R.C.V.S. During the first year, students attended the College of Pharmacy for chemistry and materia medica; but, in consequence of Professor Jackson severing his connexion with that institution and afterwards engaging to teach at the Veterinary College, a libellous article appeared in the Pharmaceutical Journal depreciating the latter institution. This led to an action at law, and the Pharmaceutical Society was mulcted in damages to the extent of £416, and costs. This action was an important event in the history of the College, and was rendered necessary on account of the fact that the Veterinary Board had withdrawn its recognition of the teaching, and refused to appoint examiners to examine the students in consequence of the article referred to. The effect of the verdict on the Veterinary Board was electrical. At its next meeting, a resolution was passed recognising the teaching, and it was decided to appoint an Examin- ing Board. After that things went more smoothly for a time. It would occupy too much time to relate the many ups and down of the old college. Suffice it to say that the Veterinary Board always obtained the best available examiners, often seeking aid from Sydney, and that from the first a high standard of efficiency was insisted upon, with the result that graduates have established a status for the profession that many countries might envy. Another event which occurred in 1891, and caused a consider- able amount of anxiety for a time, was an effort on the part of an association formed by a section of the profession to obtain a site and funds to establish a State Veterinary School. The association so far succeeded as to obtain a site at Spotswood, and negotia- tions were opened with me in order to have the teaching trans- ferred to the proposed State institution. As the site was a most inconvenient and unsuitable one, I strongly opposed it, feeling certain that failure would be sure to follow if such a transference took place. The scheme was abandoned, and it was hoped that a better site would have.been substituted; but nothing further was 712 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. accomplished till the City Council generously granted the site of the present University Veterinary School, in Parkville; and, at the instance of the Hon. Geo. Swinburne, then Minister of Agricul- ture, the Government provided the necessary funds to build and maintain the new institution. To Dr. Cameron is due the credit of inducing the Minister to make the grant. So, after a struggling on for twenty. years, the old college gave place to the new school, and a new régime under the University Council is now in full operation. During the old régime two applications were “made to obtain affiliation with the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, the first by myself, as principal of the College, in 1896, and the second by the Veterinary Board in 1898; and, in both instances, the reply was that the only bar to this recognition was the absence of a matriculation examination, which had not been provided for in the Veterinary Surgeons Act of Victoria. The function of the Veterinary Board has been to administer the Act, and its main duties have been to appoint examiners to examine the students, to register graduates of recognised veterinary schools and colleges, and practitioners who had practised as veterinary surgeons for seven years immediately preceding the pass- ing of the Act, and also to prosecute persons infringing any of the provisions of the Act. The disclosures in reference to the large numbers of diseased animals slaughtered at the various abattoirs led to inspection of the principal slaughterhouses, and more recently the Meat and Dairy Supervision Acts, for which the late Dr. Greswell, Chair- man of the Board of Health, and Dr. Cameron were responsible, has been of the utmost value in securing a wholesome food supply for the people and also for export. The establishment of both Commonwealth and State Veterinary Departments has been the means of getting all the most serious animal diseases under control, of educating the stock-owners to the necessity of keeping their flocks and herds free from disease, and by adopting the system of inspecting and certifying to the soundness of stallions, the soundness and stamina of our horses is being gradually improved. Australian graduated veterinary surgeons now occupy impor- tant Government and other public positions in every State in the Commonwealth as well as in New Zealand, the Straits Settlements, and in London. A large number are doing good work in private practice, and there is a continual demand for good men in both private and public positions. During the Boer war some fifteen or sixteen were on active service for the Imperial Government, and were highly appreciated by the Imperial officers, some being retained after the war was over. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 71 The establishment of a University Veterinary School and Veterinary Research Institute are matters of more recent date. As may be imagined the question of dealing with applications for registration of men alleged to have practised during the pre- scribed period has been a frequent source of trouble, and some- times of expensive litigation. But, on the whole, the Board has carried out its duties fearlessly, both in regard to refusing regis- tration to applicants whom it considered ineligible, and in prose- euting persons for illegally practising, and the members of the proiession, in spite of occasional grumbling about unregistered persons practising, are well protected in Victoria, and _ stock- owners on the other hand need not be imposed upon by unqualified men. It is gratifying to know that the other States are following Victoria’s example, and it is to be hoped that ere long there wil) be uniform legislation or something approaching it throughout the whole Commonwealth. - WHAT HAS THE VETERINARY PROFESSION DONE FOR AUSTRALIA ? Notwithstanding the long-delayed recognition of the services of veterinary surgeons to the stock-owning and general public, it must be admitted that especially during the last twenty-five years our profession has put up a grand record in Australia. The veterinary inspection of all imported stock has prevented the in- troduction of any new diseases. The importance of this inspec- tion is well exemplified in the detection by Mr. Edward Stanley. F.R.C.V.S., of glanders in a troop of circus horses that had been brought over from America. The affected horses were immedi- ately destroyed, and the rest quarantined effectively on an island, and the disease prevented from entering the State. The early diagnosis of pleuro-pneumonia by the late Mr. Henry Wragge and the strong warning given by him against allowing the disease to spread, though his warning was not observed, is worthy of permanent record. The recognition of an outbreak of foot and mouth disease by the late Mr. Graham Mitchell, in 1872, and the immediate destruction of the affected herd effectually arrested further spread- ing of the disease, and the amount thus saved to the country is incalculable. Mr. Mitchell also introduced and extensively prac- tised inoculation for the prevention of pleuro-pneumonia. He also, assisted by the writer, commenced the cultivation of calf lymph for the vaccination of children, which is still carried on at the Royal Park depot. Aiter receiving instruction from Pasteur’s representatives, Messrs. Germont and Loir, who came out to New South Wales to introduce vaccination against anthrax, I commenced the culti- vation of tubercle-free pleuro virus on calves, and continued to 714 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. use it and supply it to stock-owners for several years, with the result that pleuro-pneumonia was practically stamped out of the herds of Victoria, and the possibility of tuberculosis being spread by means of tainted pleuro virus greatly reduced. By obtaining the Veterinary Surgeons Act, and providing for the registration of all qualified veterinary surgeons, stock-owners could protect themselves from the imposition of unqualified prac- titioners, while the establishment of a veterinary college has been the means of saving the lives of thousands of valuable animals and much wealth to the community. The introduction of tuberculin testing for tuberculosis in cattle, and its frequent use by members of the profession in detecting the disease in its most latent forms, has led to an enormous reduction in the prevalence of that disease in cattle, and indirectly of that of many human beings. Inoculation for the prevention of blackleg in calves has been the means of preventing much loss to dairymen from that disease. The general outbreak of swine fever in 1901 was practically stamped out in Victoria in three months, through every qualified veterinary surgeon in the State being appointed an inspector, and acting under my instructions. 2. ANAPLASMS OR JOLLY BODIES? A ConTRIBUTION TO THE KNOWLEDGE oF CERTAIN INTRA- CORPUSCULAR BODIES PRESENT IN THE BLOOD oF MAMMALS. By Sydney Dodd, D.V .Sc., F.R.C.V.S., The University of Sydney. Puate XII. Since Theiler (1) published the results of his research upon cer- tain bodies in the red blood corpuscles of cattle in South Africa, and to which he gave the name of Anaplasm, a great deal of in- terest and some discussion has been aroused as to the significance of morphologically and tinctorially similar bodies sometimes ob- served in the erythrocytes of other species of animals in other parts of the world. Already they have been recorded from man in cases of leukemia, the horse, donkey, sheep, goat, pig, cat, mar- supials, and monotremes, and the Australian dingo (native dog). Tn addition to these, their presence in the blood of lemurs, mouse- deer, orang-utan, and capuchin monkey is detailed in the follow- ing article, with some observations as to their probable origin and significance. The interest in what Balfour calls ‘‘ these enigmatical bodies,’’ is increased owing to the fact that Theiler showed in his experi- ments that the anaplasms of cattle in South Africa have a patho- logical signification, being responsible for certain abnormal condi- tions in their host, and that they could be transmitted from animal to animal both by artificial inoculation, and, naturally, by ticks. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. TL5 Since Theiler’s work, a number of observations have been made, as already stated, on the presence of similar bodies in other species. In some instances, the observers have either named the bodies so found Anaplasms, or have declared their parasitic nature upon little or no satisfactory evidence. The presence of small’rounded chromatin bodies in the red blood corpuscles was, according to Balfour, first described by Jolly in rodents, and they are usually termed Jolly Bodies. The view held by the latter is that they probably result from hydration of the stroma of the corpuscle. Another view is that they are chromatin remnants of the red cell. (I am not aware that any one has advanced the opinion that the chromatin bodies in the erythrocytes of rodents are parasitic.) Up to the present, however, no satisfactory evidence has been brought forward to show whether the chromatin bodies discovered in the blood of animals, other than cattle or rodents, should be classified with the anaplasmata of Theiler, or the bodies of Jolly. Bruce (2) has expressed the opinion that the parasitic nature of the chromatin bodies recorded by him from the blood of calves and goats in Uganda was not proved. Jowett (3) records the presence of anaplasms in the blood of cats, although Morris (4) states that portions of the nuclear matter of the red cells occur normally in the circulating blood of these animals. Balfour (5) considers that certain bodies found by him in the erythrocytes of donkeys in the Sudan were anaplasms, and not Jolly bodies, although the grounds for arriving at such a conclusion do not appear very secure. In an article by Sweet, Gilruth, and Dodd (6) upon the presence of bodies apparently identical with Anaplasma marginale in the blood of various animals, chiefly marsupials and monotremes, the opinion was expressed that they were possibly parasitic, but with no patho- logical significance. The last-named author is, however, of the opinion that the evidence is decidedly against their parasitic nature. As it is desirable that all the evidence possible concerning these bodies shall be collected in order to arrive at some definite con- clusion as to their exact nature, the following observations have been recorded. They have been made upon nearly 300 animals (excluding those of the domestic species) comprising a variety of orders. The great majority of them were obtained from the gardens of the Royal Zoological Society, Sydney. Nearly all of the examinations were made post mortem, but in a number of positive cases, blood was also obtained from the living animal. CHRoMATIN Bopies IN THE ERYTHROCYTES OF THE TRAGULIDZ. The member of the above order in which the bodies were found was the so-called Mouse-deer of Java (Tragulus javanicus). These little animals are very interesting in several respects. They are 716 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. about the size of a whippet dog, and superficially resemble deer. Anatomically, however, they are more related to the pig family than to the deer. Another point of interest is the minute size of their red corpuscles, their average diameter being about 2.5 microns. The above species of Tragullide is very common in Java. Early in 1911, three mouse-deer arrived at the Zoological Gardens, Sydney, from Java. They had been captured only a few weeks previously, and apparently were in good health on arrival. One died on 25th October, about two weeks after admis- sion, the apparent illness being of short duration. No gross lesions were seen on post-mortem examination, except that the tissues generally were oedematous. Trypanosomes (7'r. ingens) and micro-filarie were present in the general blood stream, also an occasional piroplasm of the mutans type. In addition to these organisms, there were present fairly abundantly in the erythrocytes very minute spherical dots taking the chromatin stain. Reference to the figures will enable one to appreciate the size of these bodies in Fig. 4, in comparison with those from other animals. There was nothing in their tinctorial characters or morphology, except size, to distinguish them from the chromatin bodies found in the marsupials, lemurs, &c., or the Jolly bodies in rodents, or from the anaplasms. Some showed a distinct marginal disposition. Others occupied various other positions in the red blood cells. There was very little variation in the size of the dots. Those ob- served were all single, no double ones being demonstrated. The bodies were relatively fairly numerous, one or more occurring in every field of the microscope. The other two mouse-deer died on 29th October, 1911, and 21st April, 1912, respectively. Micro-filarie and trypanosomes were present in their blood, but the chromatin bodies observed in the red blood ‘cells of the first animal were totally absent in the second and third. CHROMATIN BopIES IN LEMURS. Case No. 1.—On Ist May, 1912, a ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), died unexpectedly at the Zoological Gardens, Sydney. No previous illness had been observed by the keepers. The result of the autopsy was as follows:—The abdominal cavity contained a large quantity of blood. The liver was enlarged and in a state of very advanced fatty degeneration. A ragged rupture ex- tended from the lower border of the left lobe for about an inch into the substance of the organ. The spleen was slightly swollen, and the capsule exhibited a peculiar mottling. It was also softer than normal. The heart was dilated and flabby. The lungs were blanched and the kidneys swollen. Microscopical examination of the blood showed the presence of numerous normo- blasts and polychromatophilia, also numerous spherical bodies in sl PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 717 the red cells taking the chromatin stain, and of a fairly uniform size—somewhat about that of a coccus. A few, however, were merely dots, although distinctly taking the chromatin stain. Another noticeable feature was that the bodies were distinctly marginal in their disposition. Case No. 2.—Mongoose lemur (Lemur mongoz). Died at the Zoological Gardens, 9th May, 1912. Had been visibly ill for some days. Autopsy: The liver contained a number of necrotic foci scattered throughout the parenchyma, each about the size of a lentil. The spleen also showed a number of similar areas of about the same size. On section the nodules had a dry, dirty-white appearance. The kidneys were softened and clay coloured. The other organs were normal in appearance. The red blood corpuscles contained a number of chromatin bodies re- sembling in every way those present in case No. 1. There were no other marked lesions. The nodules contained bacteria of the colon type. Whether these were the primary cause of the necrotic foci or whether they were secondary invaders need not be dis- cussed here. Case No. 3.—Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur ca/ta). Died sud- denly 13th May, 1912. Autopsy: The liver showed advanced fatty degeneration with a few petechize scattered over the surface. The kidneys were congested and the heart distended. The red corpuscles contained chromatin bodies as in the two previous cases, but they were not so numerously present. Blood lesions were otherwise absent. Case No. 4.—Ring-tailed lemur. A young animal, born in the Zoological Gardens. Died 14th August, 1912; suddenly. No previous signs of illness having been observed. Autopsy: Liver congested and friable. Kidneys blanched. No other gross lesions. The blood showed numerous normoblasts, moderate poly- chromatophilia and marked anisocytosis. Only one chromatin body could be detected in a smear. Case No. 5.—Ring-tailed lemur. This animal had been ailing for some days, and died 8th June, 1912. Post-mortem examina- tion was not held until forty-eight hours after, but owing to the cold weather decomposition was not too far advanced. No gross lesions could be detected except that the cecum was markedly congested. Scrapings from the mucous membrane revealed numer- ous Balantidium coli in addition to the usual bacterial flora. The blood: Chromatin bodies were very scanty indeed; only © two being found in a smear. The erythrocytes themselves were normal. Naturally, the presence of these intra-corpuscular bodies in greater or fewer numbers, in all of the five dead lemurs ex- amined, aroused a considerable amount of interest. In cases 1 and 2, the pronounced fatty degeneration of the liver in both i 718 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. and the rupture of that organ in one, would be secondary causes of death and not primary. The presence of identical bodies in the red blood cells of two lemurs that had apparently died from bacterial infection, did not lessen the interest as the bacterial in- vasion of the liver might well have been a secondary condition, as might also, in the case of No. 4, the typhlitis, which was probably due to Balantidium coli. In view of the foregoing, it became necessary to ascertain whether the chromatin bodies present in the dead lemurs were also present in the apparently healthy ones. Blood smears were therefore obtained from four different species of lemur then present in the Zoological Gardens. Two animals of each species were examined, making a total of eight, viz.:— Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta). Mongoose lemur (Lemur mongoz). Black lemur (Lemur macaco). Crown lemur (Lemur coronatus). All of these appeared to be quite healthy at the time of taking their blood with the exception of a ring-tailed lemur. No. 1.—This animal died about two weeks after taking the smears. Post-mortem decomposition was too far advanced when the body was received for any useful information to be gained as to the lesions present. Chromatin bodies were, however, scantily present in the red blood corpuscles. The results of the micro- scopical examination of blood films from the above eight animals were as follow :— No. 1.—Ring-tailed lemur. An aged animal. Had been in the gardens for a considerable but undetermined. period. Chromatin bodies very scantily present in the red cells. No special disposition in the corpuscles. Size of the bodies varies. Slight polychromatophilia. This animal was ill at the time of taking the blood, and died subsequently. Vide above. No. 2.—Ring-tailed lemur. Quite healthy in appearance. Chromatin bodies numerous. A few normoblasts present. The bodies are of varying size and disposition, but mainly on or near the margins of the corpuscles. A few dividing forms present. Moderate anisocytosis and polychromatophilia. No. 3.—Mongoose lemur. An old animal; has been in the gardens for several years. Chromatin bodies fairly numerous, principally marginal. A few dividing forms. Size varying. No. 4.—Mongoose lemur. A young animal, not full grown. Was born in the gardens. Chromatin bodies fairly numer- ous. Size varying. No special disposition in the corpuscles. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 719 No. 5.—Crown lemur. An adult animal. Chromatin bodies present, but very scanty. No special disposition. One normoblast seen. No. 6.—Crown lemur. An adult animal. Chromatin bodies present, but scarce. light polychromatophilia. No. 7.—Black lemur. Adult. Chromatin bodies fairly numerous. One or two in every field of the microscope. Size and disposition varies. No. 8.—Black lemur. MHalf-grown animal. Chromatin bodies very scarce. Only one or two found after prolonged search. Red corpuscles normal. CHRoMATIN BopDIES IN THE QUADRUMANA. During the past two years I have examined the blood of twenty-five members of this order, comprising various species. The examination was in every case carried out post-mortem. Death having been due to various causes, most of them ascertained. In only two of the twenty-five animals were the chromatin bodies under discussion discovered, viz.:—(1) A white-fronted Capuchin monkey (Cebus albifrons), and (2) an Orang-utan (Sima satyrus). The details are as follows:—White-fronted Capuchin monkey. Received at the Zoological Gardens, 3rd September, 1912. Died 30th of same month. Post-mortem examination. An abscess cavity about the size of a walnut present in the submaxillary space. This had been treated, but the pus had burrowed into the parotid region. Metastatic. abscesses were present in the lungs, spleen, liver, and kidneys. Blood lesions were marked upon miscroscopic examination. Megalocytes being very numer- ous. Chromatin bodies were plentiful, the size varying con- siderably, up to that of half the nucleus of a normoblast. They were indifferently disposed within the corpuscle, a number being distinctly marginal. No free bodies were seen in the slides ex- amined. All were intra-corpuscular. This fact should be borne in mind as it may probably be suggested that the bodies found in the blood of this animal might really be staphylococci, as these were the cause of the metastatic abscesses, and therefore some of the cocci must be present in the blood stream. This argument is quite a reasonable one, but the bodies described varied in size too greatly, some being too large and others too small for staphy- lococci. Besides, all the bodies I observed were inside the red corpuscles; none were free in the plasma. It must, however, be admitted that the chromatin bodies and staphylococci cannot be distinguished from each other by their staining reactions when the usual chromatin stains are employed, nor by their morphology when both are about the same size. 720 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. (2) Orang-utan.—The case of this animal is of considerable importance, as it appears to afford some direct evidence as to the origin of the intracorpuscular chromatin bodies present in this and other animals. The Orang had been in the Zoological Gardens about thirteen months, and died on 24th November, 1912. It had been ailing some days before death, and post-mortem examination showed the blood to be heavily infected with Hzmoproteus pitheci, this malaria protozoon probably being the primary cause of death. In addition, there were present in the red corpuscles both from the general circulation and the organs, a few chromatin bodies morphologically and tinctorially identical with those already described. In the case of this animal, however, smears were made from the bone marrow of the femur, humerus, and ribs. In the case of all the previous animals I had not troubled to make pre- parations from the marrow, having examined the red cells present in the general circulation and organs only. The marrow of the shafts of the long bones was markedly con- gested, and smears showed chromatin bodies to be relatively numerous. In addition, as of course, would be expected, erythro- blasts were plentiful. In a number of the latter, the nuclei were undergoing fragmentation, and in a single smear there could be observed all gradations in size from the intact nucleus down to small spherical fragments quite indistinguishable from the chromatin bodies present in the general circulation of this and other animals. Moreover, ine some of the red cells, small fregments of the size and shape of the bodies in the general blood stream could be seen just about to become detached from the parent nucleus. In others, the nucleus having split up into rounded lobes, was again further subdividing into smaller fragments. Some of these smaller bodies occupied positions right on the margin of the red corpuscle. Cells containing nothing but small rounded fragments like those in the general circulation were common. Occasionally small dividing forms about the size of a coccus or less could be seen. They resembled those observed in the red corpuscles of some of the lemurs (vide figure No. 6). CoNSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THE NATURE OF THE CHROMATIN BopvIES IN THE VARIOUS ANIMALS ENUMERATED. THe MARSUPIALS. It has already been mentioned that some observers hold that the bodies in the erythrocytes of these animals are possibly para- sitic. There is no evidence at all at present to substantiate this view beyond the fact that they resemble the anaplasms. | On the contrary, the evidence available all goes to show that those bodies are not parasitic, but are purely nuclear remnants. Fur- thermore, that they occur normally in the circulating blood of PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 721 marsupials in general. Practically every marsupial that I have examined, whether dead or alive, some of the latter in quite good health, presented these bodies in their erythrocytes in greater or fewer numbers. They appear to have no influence upon the well- being of their host, although it is quite reasonable to expect that in ill-health their numbers in the circulating blood might be increased. Inoculation of the blood into animals of like species in order to demonstrate whether the bodies are transmissible or not, is therefore quite out of the question. The bodies are also present in animals that have been born in captivity, and even in very immature pouch young also born in captivity. There is considerable variation in the size of the bodies in the marsupials, much greater than is seen in other animals, although this alone is recognised as no evidence of their non-parasitic nature. The marsupials represent a very early type of mammal, and it is possible that in them we have furnished a link in the gap between the vertebrates with nucleated, and those with non- nucleated red corpuscles? In the marsupials, the evidence ap- pears to show that remnants of some of the nuclei of the red cells, instead of disappearing from the general circulation in late fetal life, as in most of the higher mammals, tend to persist in the form of small spherical fragments throughout the existence of the animal. : Tue Lemors. It was partly on account of the presence of chromatin bodies in the erythrocytes of five lemurs dead within a few weeks of each other, that it appeared at first that in these animals at least th bodies might be protozoa, and perhaps primarily responsible for a fatal illness. All these species of lemur are natives of Mada- gascar, and the thought arose that the bodies present in these animals might really be anaplasms; but examination of the blood of the living, and, except in one case, healthy lemurs, caused this tentative opinion to be abandoned. For in all cases of the latter, chromatin bodies were present in the red corpuscles in greater or fewer numbers, in some instances being so scarce as to need prolonged search of the slide. These bodies were also found to be present in animals that had been born in the Zoo- logical gardens, and kept in cages all their lives. Then the ques- . tion arises whether, if these chromatin bodies in the red corpuscles of lemurs are not parasitic, they are to be considered normal to the blood of these animals, just as are probably those of the mar- supials, seeing that they were present in the blood of every lemur examined (twelve in all). The lemuroide are much more advanced in the zoological scale than the marsupials, and, until more animals have been examined, I do not feel justified in drawing the same conclusions as I have 722 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. in the case of the latter. At present, my view is that the presence of these bodies in the lemurs must be looked upon as an abnormal condition, but that nevertheless the bodies are identical with those present in the other species of animal discussed in this paper, and have the same origin. Why they should be so constantly present in the blood of lemurs is not so easy to explain. It may be that the living lemurs were only apparently healthy, and that condi- tions which resulted in the appearance of chromatin bodies in the dead animals, although not actually the cause of death in the latter, were existing in the living lemurs also. On the other hand, if these bodies are normal to the blood of cats, as is held by Morris (loc. cit.), there is reason for admitting that the similar bodies in lemurs may also ultimately be shown to be normal to the blood of the latter. THE TRAGULIDA. Of three mouse-deer examined, one showed chromatin bodies .in the red corpuscles, the other two were negative. The blood of the latter was examined during life as well as post mortem, also with negative results. In connexion with this species of animal, a point of interest, and perhaps of some value, becomes evident. It has already been stated that the red corpuscles of the mouse deer are only about 2.5 microns in diameter, that is, only about a third of the size of those ofthe other species of animal examined. As if to correspond with this, the chromatin bodies found therein were also very small as compared with the average body found in the erythrocytes of the other animals. This can be readily appre- ciated on comparing Fig. No. 4 with Figures 1, 2 and 3. All are ‘drawn to exactly the same scale, with the camera lucida. If these bodies were parasitic, it would be a coincidence to find the smaller parasite choosing for its habitat the animal with the smaller erythrocyte. Would not the true explanation be that, as the nuclei of the erythroblasts of the mouse deer would be of a rela- tively smaller size than those of the other animals in correspon- dence with the size of the cell itself, so the fragments resulting from the disintegration of the nucleus would also be relatively smaller than those present in the larger red cells of other animals? THE QUADRUMANA. There appears no reason for doubting that the chromatin bodies present in the blood both of the Capuchin monkey and the Orang-utan were nuclear remnants. I have already given my opinion as to why they could not be staphylococci in the case of the former, and the evidence in favour of the nuclear remnants appears to be pretty conclusive in the case of the latter, where by examination of the bone marrow, all the steps from the frag- mentation of the nucleus to the presence of only one small body in the erythrocyte could be demonstrated. PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 723 The other two Orangs died soon after arrival in Sydney, after a short acute illness due apparently to errors in diet. Their blood was carefully examined, but no chromatin bodies could be found. The third Orang in which the bodies were found was ill at the same time, but recovered after a radical change in diet. It died six months later. «Post-mortem examination showed that the in- testinal trouble had entirely disappeared. CONCLUSIONS. There are found in the red blood corpuscles of certain mammals small spherical bodies which give the reactions of chromatin. It is a debatable point as to whether these bodies are products of the cell itself, or whether they are of a parasitic nature? In the case of those bodies found in the blood of cattle in South Africa, Theiler, in his articles, shows that they can be transmitted from animal to animal by artificial inoculation, and naturally, by means of ticks. He therefore considered those bodies to be pro- tozoa, and named them anaplasms. Since then, several observers have found similar bodies in the blood of sheep, cats, donkeys, &c., and have grouped them with the anaplasms. The grounds given for so classifying them do not appear to be very strong. The mere presence of spherical chromatin bodies in the erythro- cytes of an animal, although morphologicaliy similar to the ana- plasms of Theiler, by no means of itself justifies a definite con- clusion that they are parasites, and belong to that class of organism. The fact that they are frequently present should, per- haps, indicate the reverse. Neither is the disposition of the bodies within the red corpuscle any proof of their parasitic nature. Furthermore, the fact that dividing bodies may be encountered in the erythrocytes is also insufficient to justify one in placing such bodies with the anaplasms, because it is quite evident from exami- nation of smears of bone marrow that portions of chromatin within the red cell may further break up into smaller pieces in such a way as to look like living bodies in the process of multiplication by fission. On the other hand, what is the evidence in the case of those animals discussed in this paper that the chromatin bodies present in their red cells are not protozoa? There are several points, mostly of a negative character, but those bearing most strongly against the parasitic view are that they can be demonstrated in very young, and, in the case of the marsupials, very immature animals born in captivity, and in which the probability of natural infection is exceedingly remote. Also that by the examination of prepara- tions from bone marrow from animals showing such bodies in their circulating blood, one can observe their process of formation from the breaking up of nuclei of the erythroblasts, or the splitting off 724 PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. . of fragments from them, down to the small spherical bodies ob- served in the general circulation. I have also examined the blood of a number of very young rodents, and find that the chromatin bodies present in their erythrocytes are indistinguishable from those herein discussed. The evidence at present appears to be greatly in favour of the view that the chromatin bodies observed in the erythrocytes of marsupials, lemurs, mouse-deer, capuchin monkey, and orang-utan .cannot be classified with the anaplasms, but should be placed with the bodies of Jolly. One cannot, however, accept the view of this observer as to their origin, viz., that they are due to the hydration of the stroma of the corpuscle. They appear rather to be purely nuclear remnants. One has to admit, however, that at present there is no certain method of distinguish- ing microscopically between the anaplasms and the Jolly bodies when they appear in the circulating blood. The question then to be answered is, if these bodies are non- parasitic, what is the cause of their appearance in the blood of animals to which they are not normal ? The case of the marsupials must be discussed separately, as I have already given my view that the presence of chromatin bodies in the red cells of these animals should be considered normal. With the other animals, the condition appears to assume a pathological aspect. It is known to every one here that the red cells of the mammalian embryo are nucleated, but that the nucleus disappears from the red corpuscle in the general circulation dur- ing late foetal life. Erythroblasts, however, persist in the bone marrow of the adult. In health, nucleated red corpuscles are not seen in the circulating blood, but if any condition exists that causes the number of red cells to fall greatly below that of normal, there is usually a corresponding activity on the part of the erythro- blasts and an attempt to make up the deficiency. As a _ result, some immature nucleated red cells (normoblasts, &c.), are thrown into the circulating blood from the bone marrow. Seeing that this is the case, one could explain the presence of only fragments of the nucleus in the red cells of the circulating blood by con- sidering that some pathological condition exists in which there is a constant, but not great drain upon the red cells, the destruc- tion, however, being well above the normal. The resulting stimu- lation is not great enough for red cells with entire nuclei to be thrown into the general circulation, but yet it is sufficient for some cells that have not had time to discard the last remnant of the nucleus, and consequently such may be demonstrated in the blood. Plate XII. Fig. 3. ‘ 4 | , 2 J i : re < see = . 4 chide Se 4.4 } ; pe , 7 ta e= ea“) ‘ = ae | - ‘ 6 eg Os : » ee, ‘ 4 : rr € cay 7 oP ae ys ny a if { Pe ry oa j € o- aes So yy > = f = é cn rien, ta * 1 - “ ti be ah edo sy ea aide Aa By me eo oe Fy . , Hl ‘’ i Pe pas mea v - vy is i PROCEEDINGS OF SECTION K. 72 I have already explained that in the case of the lemurs, although, provisionally, I prefer to view the presence of the chromatin bodies in their blood as abnormal, yet I am quite pre- pared to find, upon a larger number of such animals being ex- amined, that these bodies may be of normal occurrence just as they are considered to be in the cat. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Theiler, A. Gall Sickness of South Africa. (Anaplasmosis of cattle.) Journal of Comparative Pathology, Vol. 23, part 2. 2. Bruce, D. Report of Sleeping Sickness Commission, No. 10, 1910. 3. Jowett, W. ‘‘ Some Observations on the Subject of Marginal Points.’’ Journal of Comp. Path., Vol. 24, part. 1. 4. Schafer, E. A. Quain’s Elements of Anatomy, Vol. 2, part 1, 1912. 5. Balfour, A. Fourth Report of the Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories, Vol. A. Medical, 1911. 6. Sweet, Gilruth, and Dodd. Parasitology, Vol. 4., No. 1. 7. Spreull, J. ‘‘ Marginal Points, or a New Intracorpuscular Parasite in the Blood of Cattle in South Africa.”’ Journal of Comp. Pathology, Vol. 22, part 4. 8. Sieber, —. ‘‘ Anaplasmosis.’’ Abstract, Journal of Comp. Pathology. 9. Bevan, E. W. ‘“‘Anaplasmosis of Cattle.’ Veterinary Journal, No. 44. July, 1912. Id. ‘‘ Anaplasmosis of Sheep.’’? Veterinary Journal. EXPLANATION OF PratTeE XII. Photographs of drawings of blood smears, &c., showing chro- matin bodies in the red corpuscles, drawn with Abbe’s Camera Lucida. Composite fields. Microscope Tube Length, 146m.m. Compensating Ocular No. 8. Apochromatic Objective, 1.5m.m. Fig. 1. Blood, Vulpine Opossum. Fig. 2. Blood, Mongoose Lemur. Fig. 3. Blood, Ring tailed Lemur. Fig. 4. Blood, Mouse Deer. big. 5. Blood, Capuchin Monkey. Fig. 6. Smear from bone marrow, SCIENTIFIC PERIODICAL LITERATURE COMMITTEE. (See Vol. XIII., p. LIX.) Report (W. S. Dun, Secretary). The names of Dr. Hall, of Melbourne, and Mr. Howchin, of Adelaide, were added to the committee. Communication was established between members of the com- mittee in the different States, and several meetings were held in Sydney. Since the appointment of your committee there has appeared a second edition of a complete ‘‘ Catalogue of the Natural Science and Technical Periodicals in the libraries in Melbourne ’”’ com- piled by Dr. T. S. Hall, one of the members of the committee. So far as Victoria is concerned, therefore, the work contemplated in the appointment of the committee has practically been accom- plished, although it is possible that a short supplement embodying any periodicals in private possession, but not in public libraries, might with advantage be prepared. Your committee also has to report that a card catalogue of periodical literature in Sydney is in course of preparation at the Public Library of New South Wales. This scheme, when com- pleted, will form an important instalment of the work contem- plated by your committee. The libraries in New South Wales, which are so far being ex- ploited for the purposes of a periodical catalogue, are the follow- ing :— Public Library (and Mitchell Library). University. Australian Museum. Botanic Gardens. Linnean Society, New South Wales. Royal Society, New South Wales. Department of Mines. Department of Agriculture. Department of Public Health. Observatory. Technical College. British Medical Association. Technological Museum. SCIENTIFIC PERIODICAL LITERATURE COMMITTEE. 727 It is intended, in addition, to include in the catalogue all other periodicals, whether in public or private possession, which the committee find to be available, and which are not already included in the public libraries mentioned. With this end in view a circular is being issued so as to obtain information of the nature required for this purpose. Your committee recommends, at the suggestion of the South Australian members, that, in compiling a complete list of the scientific serial periodical literature in Adelaide, information should be sought from the following :— The University Library. The Public Library. The Parliamentary Library. The Royal Society. The Geographical Society. The Ornithological Society. The Astronomical Society. The School of Mines Department. The Agricultural Department. The Central Board of Health, and The Supreme Court. Further, that each professor of the University should be asked to indicate any of the periodicals regularly received by him or by other private individuals interested in his subject. Also that the leading booksellers be asked what periodicals are supplied regu- larly to continuous subscribers. With regard to the methods of carrying out the work pro- posed your committee report as follows :— It is proposed in New South Wales to adopt a scheme provid- ing for classification and cataloguing of periodical literature, utilizing primarily the titles of the periodicals. In the case of the publications of societies of different countries and localities, additional geographical entries will be made by way of cross re- ference. In carrying out the cataloguing of titles the significant word in the title should be employed for the alphabetical order, ‘e.g-, Journal Royal Geographical Society should be _ entered primarily as Geographical, Royal Society of London, primarily under London, Royal Society of. In this connexion it may be pointed out that such words as “‘ Royal’’ occurring in a title are practically valueless for indexing purposes. sit ie Publications of State departments should be indexed primarily under the name of the State, but in all such cases cross references entries should be made alphabetically under the name of the sub- ject-matter of the publication. 728 SCIENTIFIC PERIODICAL LITERATURE COMMITTEE. Sample cards illustrating entries on the above principles are forwarded herewith. A specimen blank form of tabular return is also appended. These proposals for procedure in New South Wales have been generally approved by Queensland members of the Committee. South Australian members reserved their opinion concerning the methods of classification and ‘cataloguing until provisional lists have been compiled. Both from Queensland and South Australia the opinion is expressed that some small expenditure of money will be requisite to carry out the work proposed. Your committee as a whole concurs in this opinion, and finally recommends that the committee be reappointed with executive power to carry out the work of compilation, upon which it is their present duty only to report, and that with a view to carrying out the work a money grant of £40 be placed at their disposal from the funds of the asso- ciation. It is also recommended that the name of Mr. W. H. Tffould, Principal Librarian, Sydney, be added to the committee. MUELLER MEMORIAL MEDAL. LIST OF AWARDS. 1904. Howitt, A. W. e 1907. : Hie. J.P: 1909. Davip, T. W. EpGEworTH. 1911. ETHERIDGE, RoBERtT. 1913. Howcain, WALTER. LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE AUSTRALASIAN: ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE FOR THE MELBOURNE MEETING, 1915. Honorary MEMBERS. Date of Election. 1904. Spencer, Prof. W. Baldwin, C.M.G., M.A., F.RS., University, Melbourne. 1909. Liversidge, Prof. Archibald, LL.D., F.R.S., Fieldhead, Coombe Warren, Kingston, Surrey, England. Lire MEMBERS. Chambers, John, Motopeka, Hastings, Napier, N.Z. Enys, J. D., F.G.S., Enys Castle, Penrhyn, Cornwall, England. Paterson, Hugh, 197 Liverpool-street, Sydney. Simpson, A. M., Adelaide, S.A. Taylor, James, B.Sc., B.E., F.C.S., A.R.S.M., Ben-Crai, Dundas, Sydney. Walker, Senator the Hon. J. T., 109 Pitt-street, Sydney. ORDINARY MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. (Associates are indicated by *.) Abbott, W. E., Wingen, N.S W. *a’Beckett, Mrs. T., M.Sc., 14 Landsdowne-road, East St. Kilda, V. Adam, Geo. Rothwell, M.D., 84 Collins-street, Melbourne. Adams, J. H. M., 114 St. James’-road, Waverley, N.S.W. Adamson, L. A., M.A., Wesley College, Prahran, V. Alexander, Wilfred B., B.A., Museum, Perth, W.A. Anderson, A. W., 9 Bridge-street, Sydney. *Anderson, Mrs. A. W., 9 Bridge-street, Sydney. Anderson, C., Australian Museum, Sydney. Anderson, V. G., ‘‘ Merton,’’ Carinda-road, Canterbury, V. Anderson, J. R. V., B.M.E., School of Mines, Bendigo, V. Andrews, H., 206 Flinders-lane, Melbourne. Andrews, E. C., B.A., 9 Grand-parade, Brighton-le Sands, N.S.W. *Andrews, Mrs. E. C., 9 Grand-parade, Brighton-le-Sands, N.S.W. 730 LIST OF MEMBERS. Archer, Atherstone, ‘‘ Leith House,’’ Royal Park, Melbourne. Archibald, Douglas, c/o H. A. Hunt,- Meteorological Bureau, Melbourne. *Archibald, Miss, ‘‘ Glenagie,’’? Moray-street, New Farm, Q. Armitage, R. W., M.Sc., Education Department, Melbourne. Armstrong, E. La T., M.A., Public Library, Melbourne. Audas, J. W., atonal Herbarium, South Yarra, Y. Avery, D., M.Sc., ‘‘ Collins House,’’ 360 Collins-street, Mel- bourne. *Avery, Mrs. D., M.A., ‘‘ Collins House,’’ Collins-street, Mel- bourne. Bage, Dr. Charles, ‘‘ Achernar,’’ Toorak-road, South Yarra, V. Bage, Mrs. E. Bage, ‘* Cranford,’’ Fulton- street, St. Kilda, V. Bage, Miss Freda, M.Sc., ‘‘ Cranford,’’ Fulton- street, St. Kilda, V. Bailey, A. R., Glenferrie-road, Malvern. *Bailey, Mrs. A. R., Glenferrie-road, Malvern. Bainbridge, J. P., University, Melbourne. Baker, R. T., F.L.S., Technological Museum, Sydney. *Baker, Mrs. R. T., Technological Museum, Sydney. *Baker, Miss Sylvia, c/o R. T. Baker, Technological Museum, Sydney. Baker, H. H., 78 Swanston-street, Melbourne. Baldwin, J. M., M.Sc., Observatory, South Yarra, V. exifour, rez, 7B A. M.B., B.S., Hawthorn, V. Balfour- Melville, F. 0. c/o Relpen Grimwade, & Co., West Melbourne. Bancroft, Mrs. Peter, ‘‘ Stretford,’’ Brighton-road, Brisbane, Q. Baracchi, P., F.R.A.S., Ubservatory, Melbourne. Barbour, R. T., ‘‘ St. Senga,’’ 95 Power-street, Hawthorn, V. Barford, F. W., M.A., A.I.A , 94 Grey-street, St. Kilda, V. ee Prof. R. J. A., M.A., Military College, Duntroon, N.S.W. Barnard, F. G. A., 49 High-street, SF Ve Barnes, James, V. S., Minyip, Vv. Barnes, J StU, tones street, Tebaee Vv. Barraclough, Prof. 8. H., B.E., University, Sydney. Barrett, Dr. Edith, 24 Collins-street, Melbourne. Barton, Robert, Irving-road, Toorak, V. Barton, .E. C., M.I.E:E., Institute Buildings, Brunswick-street, Brisbane. Basedow, H., Ph.D., Kent Town, S.A. Perey ante ‘“Medlow,’’ New South MHead-road, Bondi, Bayly, P. G. W., A.S.A.8.M., Mines Department, Melbourne. Beckwith, Wm., R.V.S., ‘‘ The Grange,’’ East Malvern, V. LIST OF MEMBERS. 731 Bee, J., M.A., Presbyterian Ladies’ College, East Melbourne. Beet, Joseph, State school, Coorparo, Q Belfield, A. H., Dumaresq., N.S.W. Bell, H. W., Christian Brothers’ College, Park-street, South Melbourne. Bell, Reid W., C.E., ‘‘ Burnie,’’ Hobart. *Bell, Mrs. R. W., ‘‘ Burnie,’’ Hobart. *Bell, W. F., ‘‘ Burnie,’’ Hobart. *Berridge, Miss C. E., Post Office, Albert Park, V. Black, Miss K., St. James’ Chambers, King St., Sydney. Blackett, W. A. M., A.R.V.I.A., ‘‘Ingleby,’’ South-road, Brighton Beach, V. Boas, J. H., Perth, W.A. Bodycomb, Bedlington J. R., Calignee, Gippsland, V. Booth, W. E., ‘‘ Ambergate,’’ Wallace-avenue, Toorak, V. Booth, John, M.C.E., B.Sc., ‘‘ Gables,’’ Berkley-street, Haw- : thorn, V. *Booth, Mrs. John, ‘‘ Gables,’’ Berkley-street, Hawthorn, V. Booth, Dr. Mary, Trinity College Hostel, Parkville, V. Bordeaux, E. F. J., B. és L., G.M.V.C., Mt. Alexander-road, Moonee Ponds, V. *Bowie, Miss H., c/o Dr. Horne, Clifton Hill, V. Bowley, Alfred, ‘‘ Wiora,’’ Mont Albert-road, Balwyn, V. *Bowley, Mrs. Alfred, ‘‘ Wiora,’’ Mont Albert-road, Balwyn, V. Boyle, H. O., M.R.C.V.S., Lakes’ Creek, Rockhampton, Q. Bradshaw, W. E., Postal Inspection Branch, Ballarat, V. *Bradshaw, Mrs. W. E., Postal Inspection Branch, Ballarat, V. *Brake, James, ‘‘ Elouera,’’ Stanhope-street, Mont Albert, V. Breen, Revd. J., Presbytery, Kangaroo-street, Brisbane. *Breidahl, H. G. D., 36 Rouse-street, Port Melbourne. Brentnall, T. P., Normanby Chambers, 430 Chancery-lane, Mel- bourne. *Brentnall, Miss, Normanby Chambers, 430 Chancery-lane, Mel- bourne. Brittlebank, Charles C., ‘‘ Queensgate,’’ St. George’s-road, Elsternwick, V. *Brock, Miss, c/o Mrs. Charles Stewart, Preston, V. Brown, Revd. G., D.D., Gordon-road, Gordon, N.S.W. Brown, Prof. W. Jethro, LL.D., D.Litt., University, Adelaide. Brown, Ed. Byam, M.Sc., A.C.G.J., University, Melbourne. Bruce, G. 8., Campbelltown, Tasmania. Brydon, Mrs., Central Technical College, Ann-street, Brisbane. *Buchanan, Mrs. T., Pohlman-street, Armadale, V. *Buchanan, Miss G., M.Sc., Pohlman-street, Armadale, V. Biichner, L. W. G., Anatomical Department, University, Mel- - bourne. *Buley, A. A., M.A., ‘‘ The Grange,’’ Malvern East, V. 732 LIST OF MEMBERS. Bull, R. J., M.D., University, Melbourne. Bull, Lionel B., L.V.Sc., Government Laboratory, Hospital, Adelaide. Bundey, E. Milne, 148 Molesworth-street, North Adelaide. Bundock, Mrs., Wentworth Hotel, Sydney. *Bunell, Miss E. H., 24 Collins-street, Melbourne. Burrage, T. A., G.M.V.C., Cotham-road, Kew, V. *Bury, Miss E., ‘‘ Verona,’’ Argyle-street West, St. Kilda, V. Butchers, C. L., 360 Swanston-street, Melbourne. Callow, A. E., 23 Doveton-street, Ballarat, V. Cambage, R. H., F.L.S., Mines Department, Sydney, N.S.W. *Cambage, Miss Mabel, Park-road, Burwood, N.S.W. Cameron, Dr. 8. S., Director of Agriculture, Melbourne. *Cameron, Mrs. 8. S., c/o Dr. S. S. Cameron, Melbourne. Carslaw, Prof. H. 8., M.A., Sc.D., The University, Sydney. Carson, Rev. James, The Manse, Cowper, N.S.W. Carter, H. J., B.A., ‘‘ Glenrock,’’ Darling Point, Sydney. Castella, Francois de, Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. Challinor, R. W., ‘‘ Quidington,’’ Emmerick-street, Leichhardt, N.S.W. Chapman, H. G., M.D., B.S., University, Sydney. *Chapman, Mrs., ‘‘ Ludlow,’’ Adeney Avenue, Kew, V. Chapman, Prof. R. W., M.A., B.C.E., University, Adelaide. Chapman, F., A.L.S., National Museum, Melbourne. Charlton, J. R., M.R.C.V.S., Veterinary Hospital, Christ- church, N.Z. Chater, A. B., F.C.S., Margaret and Short streets, Brisbane. Cheel, Edwin, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Cherry, Prof. Thomas, M.D., University, Melbourne. *Christian, Miss, ‘‘ Myoora,’’ Alma-road, Caulfield, V. Clark, Ed. V., B.Sc., University, Adelaide. 'Cleland, Dr. J. B., 93 Macquarie-street, Sydney. Clements, F. W., 19 Queen-street, Melbourne. Coane, H. E., C.E., 70 Queen-street, Melbourne. Coane, J. M., 70 Queen-street, Melbourne. Coghill, Geo., 79 Swanston-street, Melbourne. Colbourn, H. J., 22 New-street, Hobart. Cole, Dr. Percival, Teachers’ College, Blackfriars, Sydney. Colley, D. J. A., Royal Mint, Sydney. Collison, C. N., 483 Collins-street, Melbourne. Cook, W. E., M. Instit. C.E., Carlow-street, North Sydney. Cooke, W. T., D.Sc., University, Adelaide. Cother, W. J., 857 Mt. Alexander-road, Essendon, V. Courtney, C. F., 57 Swanston-street, Melbourne. Cowley, R. C., Director, Pharmacy College, Brisbane, Q. Crago, Dr. W. H., 16 College-street, Sydney. LIST OF MEMBERS. 733 Craig, A. W., M.A., ‘‘ Naringook,’’ Waterloo-street, Camber- well, *Cranston, Mrs., Hobart. Cronin, J., Botanic Gardens, Melbourne. Crowe, R., Government Cool Stores, Flinders-street, Melbourne. _*Curdie, Miss F. K. M., 62 Avoca-street, South Yarra, Mel- bourne. Curtis, Louis A., ‘‘ Redlands,’’ Union-street, Mossman. Dalby, J., B.A., ‘‘ Niddville,’’ Dutton-terrace, Medindie, S.A. Daley, Chas., Sale, V. Danks, A. T., 391 Bourke-street, Melbourne. David, Prof. T. W. E., C.M.G., F.R.S., University, Sydney. *Davies, Miss Olive B., M.Sc., University, Melbourne. *Davies, Mrs. James, ‘“‘ Treforest,’’ Seymour-road, LElstern- wick, V. Davies, L. B., M.Sc., 9 Johnstone-street, Malvern, V. *Dean, Miss E., ‘‘Te MHongi,’’ Chrystobel-crescent, Haw- thorn, V. Deane, H., M.A., M. Inst. C.E., Commonwealth Railway Offices, William-street, Melbourne. *Deane, Mrs. H., c/o Mr. H. Deane. Dixon, Rev. Horace H., M.A., High School, Southport, Q. Docker, Judge, M.A., ‘‘ Mostyn,’’ Elizabeth Bay, N.S.W. Dodd, S., D.V.Sc., F.R.C.V.S., The University, Sydney. Drew, R. B., B.Sc., c/o Felton, Grimwade, & Co., West Mel- bourne. Duff, F. Gee, 31 Queen-street, Melbourne. Dun, W. S., Mines Department, Sydney. Duncan, Miss Annie B., ‘“‘ Strathisla,’’ 66 Carabella-street, Milson’s Point, N.S.W. Dunn, E. J., F.G.S., Pakington-street, Kew, V. Edquist, A. G., Tate- terrace, Croydon, S.A. *Edie, Miss, c/o tae ie Baker, Technological Museum, Sydney. Edwards, Samuel, 6 Bowen- street, Moonee Ponds, V. Eggleston, F. W., Bank-place, Melbourne. Ellis, Dr. Constance, ‘‘ New Grove,’’ Wattletree-road, Malvern, V. England, Francis G., c/o Cuming, Smith, & Co., 65 William- street, Melbourne. Erson, Dr. E. G. Leger, 157 Collins-street, Melbourne. Ewart, Prof. Alfred J., Ph.D., D.Sc., University of Melbourne. *Ewart, Mrs. A. J., University, Melbourne. Faehse, Miss A. E., Rosenheim, Frewville, S.A. Farrer, Arthur, Town Hall, Ballarat City, V. *Faulds, Miss P. E., c/o A. C. Macdonald, Highfield-road, Kew, Victoria. Fawsitt, Prof. C., D.Sc., University, Sydney. 734 LIST OF MEMBERS. Fawsitt, Mrs., University, Sydney. Fennelly, R., A.M.Inst.C.E., Kilmore, V. Fenner, Charles, B.Sc., School of Mines, Ballarat, V. Fenton, J. J., Fitzgibbon-street, Parkville, V. *Fenton, Mrs. J. J., Fitzgibbon-street, Parkville, V Ferguson, Dr. Eustace, Hospital, Rydalmere, Parramatta,. N.S.W. Ferguson, W. H., Department of Mines, Melbourne. Fielder, Rev. W., ‘‘ Croft,’’ Orrong-road, Armadale, V. Fitzgerald, Dr. Eileen, Education Department, Melbourne. *Fitzgerald, Miss G., ‘‘ Crom,’’ Glenferrie road, Kew, V. Fletcher, Richard J., North Geelong, V. Flynn, Prof. T. T., Hobart, Tasmania. Forbes, Alec., Chemist, Stanly-street, South Brisbane. Forbes, E. J., 13 Castlereagh-street, Sydney. *Forbes, Mrs. E. J., 13 Castlereagh-street, Sydney. Forster, A., 7 Richmond Terrace, Domain, N.S.W. Fowler, T. Walker, M. Inst. C.E., M.C.E., Hobart, T. Fox, Miss Millicent, ‘‘ Holmfirth,”’ King- street, Enfield, N.S.W. Fox, R. Owen, Unley, S.A. Fox, Dr. Edith, Newington Asylum, Newington, N.S.W. Ros M. Philip, Royal Insurance Buildings, 414 Collins-street, Melbourne. *Fox, Mrs. M. Philip, c/o M. P. Fox, Melbourne. Froggatt, We W.;, #.L.S8., Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Mryett, A...G., i: Clareton,’ ’ Spring-street, Melbourne. Purber, 1. F’., Department of Lands, Sydney. Gabriel, J., ‘‘ Cwmdar,’’ Walmer-street, Kew, V. Gase, A. Harold, ‘‘Te Hongi,’’ Chrystobel-crescent, Haw- thorn, V. *Gase, Mrs. A. H., c/o A. H. Gase, Chrystobel- -crescent, Haw- thorn, V. Gates, Wn. F., M.A., ‘‘ Cullymont,’’ Canterbury, V. Gibson, Prof. W. R. Boyce, ‘‘ Lichfield,’’ Wallace-avenue, Toorak, V. *Gibson, Mrs. W. R. Boyce, c/o Prof. W. Boyce Gibson. Gibson, Prof. A. J., University, Brisbane. Gibson, A’. J, Ph: 1. Central Sugar Mills, Adelaide-street, Brisbane. *Gibson, Mrs. A. J., c/o Dr. A. J. Gibson. Citruth, His Excellency J. A., D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., F. R. S75." Darwin, NE: Gill, T., I.S.0., Under-Treasurer, Adelaide, S.A. Glasson, J. O., D.Sc., University, Adelaide. — Gordon, Jas. P., Pharmacy College, Rockhampton, Q. Graham, G. J., ‘‘ Lanark,’’ Redan-street, Mossman, N.S.W. LIST OF MEMBERS. 735 *Graham, Miss Alice, Redan-street, Mossman, N.S.W. *Graham, Miss Frances, Redan-street, Mossman, N.S.W. Grant, Prof. Kerr, M.Sc., University, Adelaide. Grant, David, M.A., M.D., 79 Collins-street, Melbourne. Grant, R., L.V.Sc., 49 Park-street, Brunswick, V. Grasby, W. Catton, Western Mail, Perth. Gray, Oliver, Wedderburn, V. Gray, F. P. J., Bondi-road, Bondi, N.S.W. Gray, William, M.A., Presbyterian Ladies’ College, E. Mel- bourne. Greaves, W. A. B., “‘ Braylesford,’’ Bondi, N.S.W. Green, H., D.Sc., University, Melbourne. Greig, Dr. Jane S., Education Department, Melbourne. Grice, John, ‘‘ Coolullah,’’ Hawksburn, V. Grifin, R., M.R.C.V.S., Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. Griffiths, F. Guy, M.D., 135 Macquarie-street, Sydney. Grimwade, W. Russell, B.Sc., Orrong-road, Toorak, V. *Grimwade, Mrs. W. R., Orrong-road, Toorak, V. Grut, P. de Jersey, 29 Kensington-road, South Yarra, V. Gryst, E. F., Semaphore-road, Exeter, S.A. Gullett, Hon. Henry, M.L.C., ‘‘ Hindwell,’’ Wahroonga, N.S.W. Guthrie, F. B., F.I.C., F.C.S., Department of Agriculture, Sydney. Hackett, Sir J. Winthrop, K.C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., West Aus- tralian Office, Perth. Haig, Henry G., 20 Nicholson-street, Fitzroy, V. Halford, A. C. F., M.D., Clayfield, Brisbane. Hall, T. S., M.A., D.Sc., University, Melbourne. *Hall, Mrs. T. S., University, Melbourne. Halloran, Aubrey, B.A., LL.B., Savings Bank Chambers, Moore-street, Sydney. *Halloran, Miss, c/o A. Halloran. Halley, Dr. Gertrude, Trinity College Hostel, Parkville, V. Halligan, Gerald, Public Works Department, Sydney. Halligan, Mrs. G., c/o G. Halligan. Ham, W. M., Alexandra-avenue, Rose Park, 8.A. Hamilton, A. G., Teachers’ College, Blackfriars, N.S.W. Hamlet, W. M., Department of Public Health, Sydney. Hardy, A. D., F.L.S., F.R.M.S., State Forests Department, Melbourne. *Hardy, Mrs. A. D., c/o A. D. Hardy. Harris, R. Hamlyn, D.Sc., Queensland Museum, Brisbane. Harris, Norman C., Park-street, South Yarra, V. Hart, T. S., M.A., School of Forestry, Creswick, V. Hartnell, W.A., Burke-road, Camberwell, V. 736 LIST OF MEMBERS. *Hartnell, Mrs. W. A., Burke-road, Camberwell, V. Harvey, J. H., A.R.V.I.A., 128 Powlett-street, Hast Melbourne. Harvey, N. K., Agricultural Laboratory, Melbourne. Hector, A. B., c/o Burroughs Wellcome & Co., 481 Kent-street, Sydney. Hedley, Charles, F.L.S., Australian Museum, Sydney. Henderson, James, City Bank, Pitt-street, Sydney. Henderson, Prof. G. E., M.A., University, Adelaide. *Henderson, Dr. Mary Anketell, M.B., B.S., 641 Malvern-road, Toorak, V. Henderson, Anketell M., M.C.E., 641 Malvern-road, Toorak, V. Henry, Max., M.R.C.V.S., B.V.Sc., Department of Agricul- ture, Sydney. Herman, H., B.C.E., Department of Mines, Melbourne. Herman, Mrs. Fanny, ‘‘ Ailsa Craig,’’ Glenara-road, St. Kilda, V. Heron, J. S., ‘‘ St. Elmo,’’ Campbelltown, N.S.W. Heslop, G. Gordon, L.V.Sc., 77. Edinburgh-street, Burnley, V. Higgin, Alfred J., 115 Royal Park, Parkville, V. *Higgin, Miss Mary, c/o A. J. Higgin. *Higgin, Miss Geneta, c/o A. J. Higgin. Higgins, Geo., M.C.E., University, Melbourne. *Higgins, Mrs. G., c/o G. Higgins. *EHuill; Mrs. J. W., Park, Parramatta, N.S. W. *Hooper, Miss F. E., ‘‘ Ruyton,’’ Kew, V. *Hooper, Miss Shadforth, ‘‘ Ruyton,’’ Kew, V. Horne, Geo., M.A., M.D., B.S., Clifton Hill, V. *Horne, Mrs., c/o Dr. Horne. Hosking, Prof. Richard, B.A., Royal Military College, Dun- troon, N.S.W. Howard, G. T., B.A., M.D., B.S., 4 Collins-street, Melbourne. Howchin, Walter, F.G.S., University, Adelaide. Hunt, H. A., Meteorological Bureau, Melbourne. *Hunt, Mrs. H. A., c/o H. A. Hunt. *Hunt, Miss H. A., c/o H. A. Hunt. *Hunt, Miss Mabel, Fairholm-grove S., Camberwell, V. *Hurley, Thomas, Aberdeen-road, Prahran, V. Hynes, Miss, ‘‘ Isis,’’? Soudan-street, Randwick, N.S.W. Jack, Andrew, B.Sc., Agricultural College, Dookie, V. Jackson, S. T., State School, Mount Garratt, Q. Jacob, Henry, Government Survey Office, Adelaide. Jamieson, James, M.D., 12 Lambert-road, Toorak, V. Jensen, H. I., D.Sc., Department of Mines, Darwin, N.T. Johnston, S. J., D.Sc., University, Sydney. Johnston, R. M., I.8.0., Hobart. Johnstone, Robt. N., ‘‘ Arundale,’?’ Commercial-road, Mel- bourne. a wy ae Fe ¢ a : @ | Pe c “eo & @ “¥e ‘ ! : % LIST OF MEMBERS. ee Ok eae \2 “e& , Jones, Sir P. Sydney, M.D., ‘‘ Llandilo,”’ Set N.S.W.. Joshua, E. C., 906 Malvern-road, Armadale, V4: * oe Joshua, A. K., ‘‘ Tiranna,’’ Woorigoleen-road, Técral Vir~ Joshua, Mrs., c/o A. K. Joshua. a Junner, H. R., B.Sc., 31 Alexander-street, Footscray, V. Jutson, J. T., Geological Survey, Perth. s Keck, W. R., 77 Edinburgh-street, Burnley, V. Kendall, W. T., D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., 36 Park-street W., Brunswick, V. *Kendall, Mrs. W. T., 36 Park-street, Brunswick, V. Kendall, E. A., B.V.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Mel- bourne. *Kendall, Mrs. E. A., Wellington-street, Middle Brighton, Ve Kenny, Augustus Leo., M.D., 13 Collins-street, Melbourne. Kenny, James A., St. James’ Church, South Yarra, ve Kenyon, A. S., Inst. of Mining Engineers, 57 Swanston-street, Melbourne. Kenyon, Mrs. A. F., 291 Highett-street, Richmond, V. Kernot, Wilfred N., B.C.E., University, Melbourne. Kerry, William, M.A., 18 Scott-street, St. Kilda, V. Kershaw, James A., F.E.S., National Museum, Melbourne. Kidson, E., M.Sc., c/o Observatory, South Yarra, V. *King, Miss A. P., 18 Murphy-street, South Yarra, V. Kirk, Prof. H. B., M.A., Victoria College, Wellington, N.Z. Knibbs, G. H., C.M.G., 1.8.0., Rialto, Collins-street, Mel- bourne. *Knibbs, Mrs. G. H., c/o G. H. Knibbs, Melbourne. *Knibbs, Miss, c/o G. H. Knibbs, Melbourne. Knox, E. W., Colonial Sugar Co., O’Connell-street, Sydney. Laby, Prof. T. K., B.A., Victoria College, Wellington. Laby, Miss K., 295 Edgecliffe-road, Woollahra, N.S.W. Lambie, James, Glenferrie House, Burwood-road, Hawthorn, V. Lamble, G., M.D., B.S., Queen’s College, Carlton, V. *Lamble, R., Eltham-road, Heidelberg, V. Laurie, Prof. H., LL.D., 49 Brighton-road, St. Kilda, V. Laurence, C. A., ‘‘ Birralee,’’ Albert-road, Strathfield, N.S.W. Lawrence, Herman, M.R.C.P. (Ed.), 82 Collins-street, Mel- bourne. Leach, J. A., D.Sc., Education Department, Melbourne. Leeper, Alex., M.A., LL.D., Trinity College, Parkville, V. Lefroy, Rev. C. E. C., The Rectory, Woodville, S.A. Legge, Colonel W. E., R.E., Cullenswood, Tasmania. Leitch, J., G.M.V.C., Geelong, V. Lenehan, Robt., Stanley-street, South Brisbane Leontine-Marks, Miss, 39 Queen-street, Ashfield, N.S.W. Le Souéf, W. H. D., C.M.Z.S., Parkville. V. *Le Souéf, Miss Hilda, Parkville, V. 6117. 2a 738 LIST OF MEMBERS. *Lewis, Miss Irene G., ‘‘ Alvina,’’ King’s Park, S.A. *Lewis, Miss L., 7 Dandenong-road, Malvern, V. Liet, Madame, ‘‘ Treforest,’? Seymour-road, Elsternwick, V. Lightfoot, Gerald, M.A., Rialto, Collins-street, Melbourne. Lingen, J. T., 167 Phillip-street, Sydney. Little, John, F.R.V.I.A., Collins House, Collins-street, Mel- bourne. Littlejohn, Dr. E. Stanley, ‘‘ Noranside,’’ Croydon, N.S.W. Long, Charles R., M.A., ‘‘Ivanhoe,’’ Lygon-street, North Carlton, V. Longmuir, G. F., Technical College, Bathurst, N.S.W. Looney, Miss E. F., ‘‘ Norwood,’’ St. Vincent’s-street, Albert Park: "Vv: *Looney, Miss N., c/o Miss E. F. Looney. Lord, Henry, Technical College, Sydney. *Lord, Mrs. Henry, c/o H. Lord, Sydney. Loughrey, Bernard, M.A., M.B., B.S., M.C.E., Elgin-street, Hawthorn, V. Love, E. F. J., M.A., D.Sc., University, Melbourne. *Love, Miss F. E., c/o Dr. Love. Lyle, Prof. T. R., M.A., F.R.S., University, Melbourne. *Lyle, Mrs., ‘‘ Lisbuoy,’’ Toorak, V. McAlpine, D., ‘‘ Merchiston,’’ Mathoura-road, Toorak, V. *McAlpine, Miss, c/o D. McAlpine. McCallum, G., M.D., C.M., 247 Ryrie-street, Geelong, V. *McColl, Miss A. G., Post Office, Parkville, V. *McColl, Miss Flora, Post Office, Parkville, V., McDonald, J., M.A., 6 Raglan-street north, Ballarat, V. Macdonald, Alexander Cameron, F.R.G.S., Highfield-grove, Kew, V. *Macdonald, Miss Lillie C., Highfield-grove, Kew, V. Macdonald, B. E., 53 Canterbury-road, Toorak, V. MacDonald, N., B.V.Sc., ‘‘ Bella Vista,’’ Casterton, V. McGarvie-Smith, J., 89 Denison-street, Woollahra, N.S.W. *McInerny, Mrs., ‘‘ Garry Owen,’’ Nicholson-street, North Fitzroy, V. Mackay, Geo. J., 206 Queen-street, Brisbane, *Mackay, Mrs. G. J., 206 Queen-street, Brisbane. Mackie, Prof. A., M.A., University, Sydney. *McKillop, Miss Jean, Brighton, V. McKillop, Miss Mary, Austral College, 162 Ann-street, Brisbane. McMahon, John, Evelina-road, Toorak, V. McNab, L. K., ‘‘ Braeside,’’ Waiora-road, Caulfield, V. Mahony, D. J., M.Sc., ‘‘ Coonac,’’ Clendon-road, Toorak, V. Maiden, J. H., F.L.S., Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Maitland, A. Gibb, F.G.S., Geological Survey Office, Perth, W.A. LIST OF MEMBERS. 739 Marks, E. O., B.A., Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. Masson, Prof. Orme, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., University, Mel- bourne. *Masson, Mrs. Orme, c/o Prof. O. Masson. *Masson, Miss, c/o Prof. O. Masson. *Masson,, Miss E. R., c/o Prof. O. Masson. *Masters, Miss E. J. Highfield-grove, Kew, V. Mathew, Rev. John, M.A., B.D., The Manse, The Grove, Coburg, V. Mattingley, A. H. E., C.M.Z.S., Melbourne, 74 Glenferrie- road, Kew, V. Maudsley, Henry, M.D., 8 Collins-street, Melbourne. Maurice-Carton, F. I., M.A., ‘‘ Fernside,’’ 17 Mitchell-street, St. Kilda, V. Merfield, C. J., Observatory, South Yarra, V. *Merfield, Miss Myra, ‘‘ Coolebah,’’ Elgin-street, Hawthorn, V. Merrin, A. H., M.C.E., Inst. of Mining Engineers, 57 Swan- ston-street, Melbourne. Meyer, Felix, M.D., 59 Collins-street, Melbourne. Michaelis, Miss A., ‘‘ Linden,’’ Acland-street, St. Kilda, V. Miller, E. Morris, M.A., University, Perth. Mingaye, John C. H., Western-road, Parramatta, N.S.W. Mitchell, Miss Susie E., B.A., 159 Sydney-road, Parkville, V. *Mollison, Miss Essie, Royal-crescent, Camberwell, V. Monash, John, B.A., LL.B., M.C.E., Collins House, Collins- street, Melbourne. Montgomery, A. M.A., Mines Department, Perth. *Moore, Miss, Camden Buildings, George-street, Sydney. *Moore, Miss May, c/o Miss Moore. Moore, Mrs. M. H., ‘‘ Langsyde,’’ 4 Queen’s-road, Melbourne. Moors, Prof. E. M., M.A., The University, Sydney. Moors, Mrs. E. M., c/o Prof. Moors, Sydney. Moors, Miss M., c/o Prof. Moors, Sydney. Morgan, W. J., 11 Robb-street, Moonee Ponds, V. Morris, Rev. M., M.Sc., Cotham-road, Kew, V. Morrison, Mrs. Darnly, The Chestnuts, Ipswich, Q. *Morrison, Miss Darnly, The Chestnuts, Ipswich, Q. Morrison, Alec., M.D., 427 Victoria-parade, Melbourne. Morton, C. R., State School, Yeronga, Brisbane. Mosely, Miss Alice, c/o Mrs. Harper, ‘‘ Devona,’’ St. Kilda- road, Melbourne. Mowling, G., 267 Auburn-road south, Auburn, V. Murray-Prior, Mrs., Wentworth Hotel, Church-street, Sydney. Nanson, Prof. E. J., M.A., University, Melbourne. *Nanson, Miss M. J., University, Melbourne. Nicholls, Brooke, D.D.S., 174 Victoria-street, North Melbourne. 740 LIST OF MEMBERS. Norris, W. Perrin, M.D., ‘‘ Whitehall,’’ Bank-place, Melbourne. Norton, Hon. A., M.L.C., ‘‘ Lauriston,’’ Milton, Q. Norton, Mrs. A., c/o Hon. A. Norton. Nott, Mrs., Church of England Girls’ Grammar School, Ander- son-street, South Yarra, V. Oakden, Percy, F.R.V.I.A., Royal Chambers, Collins-street, Melbourne. O’Brien, E., Agricultural High School, Ballarat, V. *O’Keefe, J. R., 5 Leveson-street, North Melbourne. Oliver, Calder E., M.C.E., Metropolitan Boards of Works, Melbourne. Olte, Archibald, ‘‘ Kareema,’’ Charlotte-street, Ashfield, N.S.W. *Onslow, Miss Anita, ‘‘ Althea,’’ Beach-road, Edgecliffe, N.S.W. O’Reilly, T., 26 Leveson-street, North Melbourne. Osborn, Prof. T. G. B., M.Sc., University, Adelaide. *Osborn, Mrs. T. G. B., c/o Prof. Osborn. *Palmer, Miss E., 360 Victoria-street, Darlinghurst, N.S.W. Panton, J. A., C.M.G., F.R.G.S., Alexandra-street, East St. Kaldage Vi. *Panton, Miss, c/o J. A. Panton. Parker, Dr. R. A., c/o Bank of Australasia, Melbourne. Parry, R. E., B.Sc., 95 Drummond-street, Carlton, V. Paterson, Dr. J. W., University, Perth, W. A. Payne, Prof. H., M. Inst. C.E., M.I» Mech. E., University, Melbourne. *Payne, Mrs. H., University, Melbourne. Pescott, Ed. E., F.R.H.S., School of Horticulture, Burnley, V. Petherick, E. A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., 254 Albert-street, East Melbourne. *Petherick, Mrs. E. A., 254 Albert-street, East Melbourne. Petrie, Dr. J. M., University, Sydney. Philpots, G. E. Payne, D.D.S., 110 Collins-street, Melbourne. Piesse, S. L., B.Sc., LL.B., Hobart. Pinschoff, C. L., ‘‘ Studley Hall,’’ Studley Park, Kew, V. Rigot. aaeva, BoB .4 Sid, Bate, MB. Riverview College, Sydney. Piper, W. S., Fink’s Buildings, Elizabeth-street, Melbourne. Pitcher, F., Botanic Gardens, Melbourne. Pittman, Ed. F., A.R.S.M., F.G.S., Department of Mines, Sydney. Place, F. E., B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., Department of Agriculture, Adelaide. Pollock, Prof. J. A., D.Sc., University, Sydney. *Pollock, Mrs., c/o Prof. Pollock. *Pollock, Miss, The Hermitage, Ryde, Sydney. Poole, W., School of Mines, Ballarat. LIST OF MEMBERS. 741 Potts, H. W., Hawkesbury College, Richmond, N.S.W. *Potts, Mrs. H. W., Richmond, N. S.W Price, E. S8., Blackburn, ye Priestley, Prof. H's.; M.A., River Terrace, Kangaroo Point, Q *Priestley, Mrs. H. J., Kangaroo Point, Q. Pritchard, G. B., D.Sc., F.G.8., Kooyong Koot-road, Huw- thorn, V. *Pritchard, Mrs. G. B., Hawthorn, V. Purdy, J.S., M.D., D.P.H., Board of Health, Sydney. Pye, H., Dookie Agricultural College, Dookie, V. *Raff, Miss E., University, Melbourne. *Raff, Miss J. W., M.Sc., University, Melbourne. Read, Miss E. J., ‘‘ Stratford,’’ Trafalgar-street, Lindfield, N.S.W. Reakes, C. J., D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., Department of Agri- culture, Wellington, N.Z. *Rees, Miss B., University, Melbourne, V. Reid, Miss B., Whitehorse-road, Balwyn, V. *Reinhardt, Miss Mabel, Bayswater- road, Darlinghurst, N.S.W. Rennie, Prof. E. H., M.A., D.Se., University, Adelaide. Richards, E. S., M. ele. 42. Morcalit street, Parkville, V. Richards, H. C., M. Sc., University, Brisbane. *Richards, Mrs. H. Ci ‘University, Brisbane. Richardson, yee PGR ee M.A., B.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. *Richardson, Mrs. A. E. V., Department of Agriculture, Mel- bourne. Riley, E. A., M.A., Narribri, N.S.W. Rivett, A. C. D., B.A., D.Sc., University, Melbourne. *Rivett, Mrs. A. C. D., B.Sc., University, Melbourne. Roach, B. S., Education Department, Melbourne. Robertson, A. J., B.Sc., Geological Survey Department, Perth. Robertson, A. W. De M. D., B.S., 85 Collins-street, Melbourne. PP chertcon. Mrs. A. M., Elizabeth: street, Elsternwick, V. Robertson, J. L., M.A. Moonee Ponds: v. Robertson, W. A. H., B.V.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. Rodway, L., Macquarie-street, Hobart. Roe, E. H., M.A., Director of Education, Brisbane. Rosenblum, E. ie. B. Sc., 159 Victoria- road, Hawthorn, V. Ross, A. Clunies, Grammar School, Townsville: Q. Ross, W. J. Clunies, B.Se., F.G.S., Technical College, Sydney. Rossiter, A. L., M.Sc., ‘ Glenesk,’ ” Glen Huntly-road, Elstern- wick: V. Rollo, Miss J., 65 Tivoli-road, South Yarra, V. 742 LIST OF MEMBERS. Roth, Col. Reuter E., M.D., Bayswater-road, Darlinghurst, N.S.W. *Roth, Miss, Bayswater-road, Darlinghurst, N.S.W. Rothera, A. C. H., M.A., M.R.C.S., University, Melbourne. Rothwell, Miss F., ‘‘ Roydon,’’ 31 Perry-street, Marrickville, N.S.W. *Rowsell, Miss E., ‘‘ Althea,’’ Beach-road, Edgecliffe, N.S.W. Rudd, Arthur W., M.A., The College, Clayfield, Q. Runting, 1s Re a: G.M.V.C., Coburg, V. Rutter, A., Gordon Technical College, Geelong, V. Saunders, ii H., M.B.,,M.R.C.8S.E., Box 142, G.P.O;, Pesth: Schofield, Prof. 1: AS, "A.R.S.M., F.CS., University, Sydney. Schulz, A. J., Ph.D., University, Adelaide. Searle, J., 274 Collins-street, Melbourne. *Seddon, H. R., Veterinary School, Parkville, V. Shann, F., M.A., Prospect Hill-road, Canterbury, V. Sharman, M. 8S., M.A., M.Sc., Training College, Carlton, V. Shearsby, A. J.. F.R.M.S., Yass, N.S.W. Sheehan, J. B., L.V.Sc., Pitt-street, East Brunswick, V. Shephard, J., Clark-street, South Melbourne. *Shephard, Mrs. J., Clark-street, South Melbourne. *Shephard, Miss, Clark-street, South Melbourne. Shillinglaw, H., 360 Swanston-street, Melbourne. Shirley, J., D.Sc., New Farm, Brisbane. Shorter, John, Box 469, G.P.O., Sydney. *Simpson, Miss N., c/o Prof. Masson, University, Melbourne. *Singleton, Miss M. W., Fawkuer-street, St. Kilda, V. Skeats, Prof. E. W., D.Sc., F.G.S., University, Melbourne. *Skeats, Mrs. E. W., University, Melbourne. Slackell, W., South-road, Brighton, V. Smith, H. A., Bureau of Statistics, Sydney. Smith, H. G., Technological Museum, Sydney. Smith, J. A., 15 Collins-place, Melbourne. Smith, R. Greig, D.Sc., Linnean Society, Elizabeth Bay. Sydney. *Smith, Mrs. Greig, c/o Dr. Greig Smith. *Smith, Miss Greig, c/o Dr. Greig Smith. Smith, W. Ramsay, M.B., D.Sc., Board of Health, Adelaide. Smith, W. Beattie, M.D., 4 Collins-street, Melbourne. Sobee, G. W., Mildura, V. Sowden, W. J., Register"Office, Adelaide. Springthorpe, J. W., M.A., M.D., Collins-street, Melbourne. *Springthorpe, Miss, c/o Dr. J. W. Springthorpe. Stanley, E. R., Government Geologist, Port Moresby, Papua. Stratham, E. J., ‘‘ Nerida,’’ Parramatta, N.S.W. Stead, D. G., Department of Fisheries, Sydney. LIST OF MEMBERS. 743 Steane, G. R. Bowen, 115 Westgarth-street, Northcote, V. *Steane, Mrs. G. B., 115 Westgarth-street, Northcote, V. Steele, Prof. D. B., D.Sc., University, Brisbane. *Steele, Mrs. D. B., University, Brisbane. *Stephenson, R., 17 Oxley-road, Hawthorn, V. Stewart, And., 479 Collins-street, Melbourne. *Stewart, Mrs. Charles, Preston, V. Stewart, Prof. Douglas, B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., University, Sydney. Stirling, Prof. E. C., C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S., University, Adelaide. Stokes, E. S., M.B., Ch.M., 341 Pitt-street, Sydney. Stott, Sydney, 426 Collins-street, Melbourne. Stoward, F., D.Sc., Government Botanist, W.A. Sugden, Rev. E. H., M.A., B.Sc., Queen’s College, Carlton, V. *Sugden, Miss Ruth, B.Sc., Queen’s College, Carlton, V. *Sugden, Miss, Queen’s College, Carlton, V. Sulman, J., F.R.I.B.A., ‘‘ Burrangong,’’ McMahon’s Point, Sydney. Summers, H. S., D.Sc., University, Melbourne. *Summers, Mrs. H. S., University, Melbourne. Siissmilch, C. A., 38 Bland-street, Ashfield, N.S.W. Sutton, C. S., M.B., B.S., 685 Rathdown-street, Carlton, V. Sutton, Harvey, M.D., Trinity College, Parkville, V. Sutton, T. Carlton, B.Sc., Trinity College, Parkville, V. *Sutherland, Miss B., B.Sc., Oliva-road, St. Kilda, V. Sweet, G., F.G.S., Wilson-street, Brunswick. *Sweet, Mrs. G., Wilson-street, Brunswick. Sweet, Dr. Georgina, University, Melbourne. Swinburne, Hon. Geo., 99 Queen-street, Melbourne. Symonds, S. D., Kwala Lumpor, Federated Malay States. *Symes, Mrs., ‘‘ Garry Owen,’’ Nicholson-street, North Fitzroy, ae Symans, E. N., Pharmacy College, Rockhampton, Q. *Symans, Mrs. E. N., Pharmacy College, Rockhampton, Q. Talbot, R. J. de C., Department of Agriculture, Melbourne. Tate, F., M.A., I.S.0., Director of Education, Melbourne. Teece, Richard, 87 Pitt-street, Sydney. Thompson, Miss. Thompson, J. Ashburton, M.D., Board of Health, Macquarie. street, Sydney. Thorn, W., Mines Department, Melbourne. Thwaites, A. H., B.Sc., University, Melbourne. Tietkins, W. A., ‘‘ Upna,’’ Eastwood, N.S.W. *Tilden, Prof. J. E., B.Se., Botanical Department, University of Minnesota, U.S.A. 744 LIST OF MEMBERS. Tilly, A. L., 728 Hay-street, Perth. Tivey, J. P., B.A., B.Sc., B.E., University, Brisbane. Tobin, R., Merri-street, Northcote, V. *Todd, Miss R., 36 Park-street west, Brunswick, V. Tovell, Mitchell, ‘‘ Indi,’’ New-street, Brighton, V. Trail, J. C., B.A., B.C.E., Research, V. *Trickett, Miss E. A., 2 Lansdowne-street, East Melbourne. *Tymms, A. O. V., 76 Maribyrnong-road, Moonee Ponds, V. *Vaughan, Miss Emilie W., 37 Walsh-street, South Yarra, V. Vernon, Colonel W. L., Challis House, Martin’s-place, Sydney. Walcott, R. H., F.G.S., National Museum, Swanston-street, Melbourne. Walkom, A. B., University, Sydney. Walton, T. U., B.Se., F.1.C., F.C.8., Colonial Sugar Coy Sydney. Ward, F. C., Secretary for Mines, Adelaide. Ward, J. W., Pharmacy College, Queen-street, Brisbane. *Ward, Mrs. J. W., c/o J. W. Ward. Ward, L. K., B.A., B.E., Government Geologist, Adelaide. Wark, Wm., 9 Macquarie-place, Sydney. Warren, David, State School, Leichardt-street, Brisbane. Warren, C. R., F.R.H.S., 23 Seymour-grove, Camberwell, V. *Wasley, Miss Lily, c/o G. Sweet, Wilson-street, Brunswick, V. Waterhouse, G. A., B.Sc., Royal Mint, Sydney. Waterhouse, L. L., B.E., Launceston, T. Watson, Frank, Higher Elementary School, Ararat. Watt, Prof., M.A., B.Sc., University, Sydney. Wearne, R. H., B.A., Technical College, Ipswich, Q. Weatherburn, C. E., M.A., 193 Sydney-road, Royal Park, V. Weekes, Miss, Millswyn-street, South Yarra, V. Weekes, Miss E., Millswyn-street, South Yarra, V. Weekes, Miss Alice, ‘‘ Rosbirion,’’ North-road, Brighton, V. *Wessburg, Mrs., ‘‘ Thrums,’’ Manly, N.S.W. White, Dr. A. E. R., 85 Spring-street, Melbourne. White, E. J., F.R.A.S., Observatory Quarters, South Yarra, V. White, Miss Helen, M.A., Girls’ Grammar School, Ipswich, Q. White, Dr. Jean, Experimental Station, Dulacca, Q. Whitmore, H., 8 Trafalgar-road, Camberwell, V. Wickens, C. H., A.I.A., Bureau of Statistics, Rialto, Melbourne Wight, G., M.C.E., 396 Flinders-lane, Melbourne. Wilding, R., 421 Collins-street, Melbourne. Wilkinson, Dr. John F., 12 Collins-street, Melbourne. Wilkinson, W. Percy, Department of Trade and Customs, Mel- bourne. Wilkinson, Dr. Wm. Cleland, 75 Cramer-street, Preston, V. *Wilkinson, Miss, c/o Dr. W. Cleland Wilkinson. LIST OF MEMBERS. 745 *Wilkinson, Miss, c/o Dr. W. Cleland Wilkinson. *Wilkinson, Miss Annie J., 23 Lewisham-road, Windsor, V. Williams, Miss, M.A., B.A., ‘‘ Milton,’’ Cotham-road, Kew, V. Willis, C. S., M.D., Department of Public Health, Sydney. Wilson, H. C., Research Farm, Werribee, V. Wilson, J. P., LL.D., 87 Royal-parade, Parkville, V. Wilson, Prof. J. T., M.B., F.R.S., University, Sydney. Wilson, W. D. W., B.Sc., Pyengana, T. Wisewould, Frank, 408 Collins-street, Melbourne. Wood, S. O., M.R.C.V.S., Caulfield, V. Woodward, Bernard H., C.M.Z.S., Museum, Perth. Wright, Robt. A., Brunton Chambers, Collins and Elizabeth- streets, Melbourne. Wright, Miss, B.S.A., Amandara, Glenelg, S.A. *Wright, Mrs. A. M., ‘‘St. Andrews,’’ St. Vineent’s-place, Albert Park, V. Wrigley, L. J.. M.A., Practising School. *Wrigley, Mrs. L. J., c/o L. J. Wrigley. *Young, Miss A. M., Wilson-street, Prospect, S.A. *Young, Miss G., Edment-street, Brunswick, V. Young, J. H., 90 Hutt-street, Adelaide. *Young, Mrs. T., Tyabb, V. Young, Wm., M.R.C.V.S., Wyndham, W.A. ¥ Cena 3 ; \ ‘ 4 ’ 4} if Aborigines of Victoria .. 444 Aborigines of Western Aus- 387 tralia Aborigines, records .. 453 Aborigines, welfare .. 450 Acclimatisation of perch .. 279 Acid catalysis, dynamics .. 115 Adams, C. E. bo bs 18 Adamson, L. A. 623, 638 Agaricinee, sporophore ol Agricultural education eu OL Agriculture ie .. 642 Alabaster, W. H. .. eos Alcohol, pharmaceutical .. 147 Alexander, W. B. .. Orr Alkaline rocks committee .. 250 Alkaloidal metamorphosis.. 127 Almucantar method a» 24 Analytical control, modern.. 142 Anaplasms Peery (a: | Anhydrides, hydration ae (EOD Antarctica, and Australian climate . ey Vaal Antarctic couunittes ae 1 Anthropological specimens... 452 Anthropology Be .. 366 Aptera.. — se Oe Architecture “i .. 548 Armaments, wastefulness of 547 Astronomy ab: 6 Australasian Biiceaces Ben Our Australian climate 55, dhe Australites ae So lel) Autogonous welds o>) bts Avery, D. $i ne 2G Baker, R. T. 294, 330 Balance-sheets oe na) oc-00! Baldwin, J. M. .. a 24 Baracchi, P. be Pe eee: 1 Barford, F. W. a aso Barium cyanate .. Ly 95 Barraclough, S. H. .. 578 PAGE Barrum formation Bed tsi Bates, D. M. ba We cts Beet-sugar engineering Br |i. Biology .. 253 Bismuth with alkalis ug 4a Botanical teaching Bn kl) Bradley, B. : 25 BOSU bread ae i Pr (35) British association $s lv Brown, G. : .. 401 Buchner, L. W. G. .. 446 Bull, R. J. 4 .. 604 Burbidge, P. W. .. ae 48 Butter-making .. 694 Campbell, F. H. 100, 104 Cape Barren islanders .. 446 Capital and wages .. 459 Carbon dioxide in air aes MALOO) Carnegie institution, magne- 20 tic survey by Carslaw, H. S. .. . .6, 640 Cassytha melantha aes Yl, Castella, F. de .. PE 69OF Catalytes, relation to crops 667 Cathode rays and ionization 48 Chapman, F. i seve Ou Chapman, H. G. .. INES Chapman, R. W. .. ae LOOG Cheel, E. Be Hea sod Chemistry : Bea he (3) Chinese art, nrehiteetere a OO Cleland, J. B. ie Sen: Climate of Australia sees batitl Colburn, H. J. Sh .. 666 Coles "PR: “ barnes 3) Committee, alkaline rocks.. 250 Committee, anthropometric.. 605 Committee, Australasian 1 antarctic Committee, Australian longi- 72 tudes 748 INDEX. PAGE. Committee, conservation of 337° water Committee, eclipse . .66, 68 Committee, ecology .. 3842 Committee for biological and 336 hydrographical study of New Zealand coast Committee, glacial pheno- 239 mena Committee, industrial train- 579 ing Committee, Macquarie Island 72 Committee, permo-carbonifer- 236 ous Committee, physical and 71 chemical constants Committee, physiographic 252 features Committee, quaternary 244 climate Committee, scientific litera- 726 ture Committee, sectional 2 OEY) Committee, seismological .. 59 Committee, solar physics .. 59 Committee, structural fea- 236 tures Committee, terrestrial mag- 65 netism Committee, tidal survey .. 70 Committee, ventilation in 622 buildings Committee, welfare of abori- 450 gines Concrete, reinforced oy Byles Conservation of water com- 337 mittee Consumable wealth .. 464 Cooke, W. E. i Ne 59 Coombs, F. A... ange GI Council proceedings Ea eee Council, local ee Ee ix Cowley, R. C. 128, 129, 141 Crowe, R. 313 .. 694 Curlewis, H. B. 65 Currents, Australian ocean. iy siel Cycads, male sporangium .. 321 PAGE. Dale, H. H. sys Soulog David, T. W. E. Aes 5) iribl Delegates, list ae dé xi Despatches, government .. 361 Diphtheria carrier .. 604 Distributive justice and 487 prices Documents, historic Aes (cit Dodd, S. fy 714 Dodwell, G. F. 24, 62, 65 Dohenty,. We UM. ee ICONS, Drew, R. B. Sa We allie} Dyer; “G. S: oe 2 SOS East wind a ein Eclipse committee . .66, 68 Ecology committee oh Onn BG Guts, Aces Cee oe 080: Education oye A 1-033 Eggleston, F. W. .. Bilt 32 4 Electric cooking .. 7.0 ORS Engineering ay .. 548 Ergot te Re lie ¥s Ethnological specieene .. 452 Ethnology, Australian .. 366 Ethyl nitrite, deterioration 129 of solutions Eucalyptus, economics of 294, 330 Eucalyptus, products Le Eucalyptus, kinos .. HEY oth, Hyanss.0.) He BS ee .- 42 Ewart, A. J. me beam y All Fawsitt, C. ae Re 73 Fertilizers 33 .. 642 Fish ponds ae Sauk ets) Flotation processes . 126 Fossils, silurian of wictora 214 Forest conservation 13, pone Fowler, T. W. me .. 043 Fowl, syrinx 3, rey (f=) Gardening at schools Jot HOO Gases, thermal conductivity 47 Gawler, J. S. oe tend OULD Gelechia sperculella inn BOLO Geography te sn, Wa Geology . 148 Germination of Be Sep inane 325 ence of radium / PAGE, Gipson, A. J. 579 Gill, i . Ke A SANTIS ik : x oA Ss ") YON x) Lo LAG G nN i i Xi oo y i \s i. 4 TRS PE ON ren RA Gera ae 7 wN . aN Oe as {3 Peavey rs CNM, 8 oi my Mi a PIE MINS GAD NO ae CPO SA SIGH Ra AS oy) > oS iene Rhoy | a a f Gia : a | Moe Ay aN Lan ey Meechy y NN uh : PAR y Oe SAN my ios Nah } Ra { IS Osh 3) ey i Ne sh .) i“ yes Na bea oA A, j ny oe KG oi HS os ie, ix AN yt NAR a “(e Mi AW’ . ) ERE) ‘ 1 WORN) BA NVR An ay oft sy ey oo 9) *! Me oD TAA yee MKC . tye Di EN i any : a eR NY UNM i SSNS v0 TEN 2 ‘ ANd (J DINGS) Peay y SNC ee ei iy COR CORSRS ENA Can ae ne Es aye aN 0. 5 DW: ny ON We Y Be ( ae Ris en Wey} ‘ti ie co ee a ( ve RON A, “y 7 a NS a - NK vee ‘I va DN ny wer so oo C ue a ; a aa i: OY Tae yiry } a ‘4 Gaidint oe